BERKELEY

GENERAL
LIBRARY

UNIVERSITY OF
CALIFORNIA

LIBRARY

No

THE

ILLUSTRATED

NATURAL HISTORY.

BY THE

REV, J, G, WOOD, M,A,

WITH FOUR HUNDRED AND FIFTY ORIGINAL DESIGNS,
BY WILLIAM HARVEY.

SEVENTH EDITION.

NEW YORK:

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,

FRANKLIN SQUARE.

1872.

BIOLOGY
LIBRARY

BIOLOGY
LIBRARY

PREFACE.

ALTHOUGH works on Natural History would seem sufficiently
numerous to deter any new writer from venturing on the sub-
ject, still there is at present no work of a popular character in
which accuracy of information and systematic arrangement are
united with brevity and simplicity of treatment.

All the best-known popular works on Natural History are
liable to many objections, among which may be named a want
of correct classification, the absence of explanations of the
meanings and derivations of scientific words, the strange in-
accuracy of many of the accompanying illustrations, and of
the accounts of many animals. Nor do the conventional anec-
dotes chronicled in their pages evince the personal experience
of the animal race which is best calculated to prevent romance
and inaccuracy. These deficiencies, it is hoped, will be at all
events partly supplied in the present work.

The present volume, although exceeding the limits originally
contemplated, is but a brief digest of a large mass of materials,
derived either from personal experience, from the most recent
zoological writers, or from the kindness of many friends, who
are familiar with almost every portion of the world, and to
whom my best thanks are due. The original intention was
to carry the work as far as the Zoophytes, but it grew so

iv PREFACE.

rapidly, especially in the first two classes, the Mammals and
Birds, that it was found necessary to conclude at the Insects,
and even then to give but an exceedingly short and meagre
account of them. This was much regretted, as my experience
had lain so much in the practical entomological part of Nat-
ural History, that during the earlier stages of the work I looked
forward with some pleasure to giving a very much fuller ac-
count of the British Insects than will be found in the last few
pages of this volume.

In arrangement, the order of the Catalogue of the British
Museum has been followed, with the view of rendering it a
useful companion to that most valuable collection, especially
for younger visitors. It has therefore been considered advis-
able to commence the volume with a sketch of the theories re-
specting the different races of humanity, and at the same time
to mention a few of the distinctions which so widely separate
man from any other inhabitant of the earth.

As for the Illustrations, they will best speak for themselves.
It will, however, be well to observe that they have all been de-
signed expressly for the present work ; and the abilities of the
artist and engravers, are a guarantee for their accuracy and
perfect execution. For the anatomical and microscopical vig-
nettes, I am myself answerable, as well as for several of the
later drawings, such as the Thorny Woodcock-shell, the Leaf
Insect, the Rove Beetle, together with parts of a few others,
all of which were drawn from actual specimens.

It has been an object in the accounts of each animal, to give
as far as possible neiv anecdotes. In many cases, the anec-
dotes related have never been published before, aiid in many
more, they have been extracted from works which, either
from their scarcity, their cost, or their nature, would be very
unlikely to be placed in the hanSs of general readers.

I dismiss these pages with almost a feeling of regret, that a

PREFACE.

task which has to me been a labor of love, should have come
to an end. Indeed, the only drawback experienced during its
progress was the necessary brevity of it, which constrained me
to omit many creatures, not only beautiful and wonderful in
form, but interesting in habits, and to describe others in a way
so brief, as to render the account little else than a formal an-
nouncement of the name, country, and food, of the anima].
If, however, the perusal of the following pages should induce
any one to look upon the great plan of Creation more as a
whole than merely as an aggregation of separate parts, or to
notice how wonderfully each creature is adapted for its peculiar
station, by Him wrho has appointed to each its proper posi-
tion, and assigned to each its own duties, which could not
be performed so well by any^ other creature, or even by the
same animal in another place, my end will be attained. Per-
haps, also, this volume may cause some who. have hitherto
been troubled with a causeless abhorrence of certain creatures
against which they have nourished early prejudices, to examine
them with a more indulgent — I should perhaps say, a more
reverent eye. I say reverent, because it Jias long given me
deep pain when I have heard others stigmatizing as ugly,
horrid, frightful, those beings whom their Maker saw at the
beginning of the world, and declared very good. A naturalist
will see as much beauty in a toad, spider, or snake, as in any
of those animals which we are accustomed to consider models
of beauty ; and so will those who have before feared or de-
spised them, if they can only persuade themselves to examine
them with an unprejudiced eye In those three creatures
mentioned a few lines above, there is great beauty even on a
superficial examination. The movements of the snake are
most graceful, and the changing colours of its varied scales leave
the imitations of art far behind. The spiders too are beautiful,
even in colour ; some are bright crimson, seme pale pink, some

vi PREFACE.

entirely yellow, some banded with broad streaks of alternately
velvety black and silvery white ; while the eye of the toad is a
living gem of beauty. "When, however, we come to look closer
— to watch their habits — to note their instincts — or, by the
use of the microscope, to lay open to our view some of the
details of their organization — then indeed are we lost in wonder
and amaze at the vastness of creation, which, even in one
little, apparently insignificant animal, presents to our eyes mar-
vels— marvels which increase in number and beauty as our
power for perceiving them increases.

MERTON COLLEGE, OXFORD,
December 10, 1852.

Division!. VERTEBRATA.
Class I. MAMMALIA.
Order I. PRIMATES.

Family I. Hominidae.

Genius I. HOMO. Sapiens, Man.

Fam. II. Simiadse.

TROGLODYTES. Higer, Chimpanscc.
SIMIA. Satyrus, Orang-Outan.
HYLOBATES. Agilis, Agile Gibbon.
PRESBYTES. Larvatus, Kahau.
__ Entellus, Entellus.
CYXOCEPHALUS. Mormon, Mandrill.

Fam. III. Cebidie.

ATELES. Paniscus, Coaita Spider Monkey.
MYCETES. Urslnus, Ursine Hoivlcr.
CALLITHRIX. Torquatns, Collared Tec Tee.
JACCHUB. Vulgaris, Marmoset.

Fam. IV. LemiirTda;.

LEMUR. Macaco, Ruffled Lemur.
LORIS. Gracilis, Slender Lorts.

Fam. V. Vespertilionidsc.
Sub-Fam. a. Phyllostoniina.

VAMPIRUS. Spectrum, Vampire.
Sub-fam. c. Vcspertilionlna.

I'LECOTUS. Aurltus, Long-eared Bat.

Order IT.

Fam. I. Felidfc.

Sub-fam. a. Fcllna.
LEO. Barbarus, Lion.
TIGRIS. Regal is, Tiger.
LEOPARDUS. Varius, Leopard.
-- Uncia, Ounce.
- . - Onca, Jaguar.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

LEOPARDUS. Concolor, Puma.

Pardalis, Ocelot.

FELIS. Domestica, Cat.
CARACAL. Melanotis, Caracal.
LYNCUS. Canadensis, Canada Lynx.
GUEPARDA. Jubata, Chetah.

Sub-fam. b. Hycenlna.

HY^NA. Striata, Striped Hya>na.
Sub-fam. c. Viverrlna.

VIVERRA. Civetta, Civet Cat.

GENETTA. Vulgaris, Genet.

HERPESTES. Ichneumon, Egyptian Ichneumon.
Sub-fam. d. Canlna.

CANIS. Familiaris, Dog.

Lupus, Wolf.

Aureus. Jackal.

VULPES. Vulgaris, fox.

Sub-fam. e. Mustellna.

MARIES. Abietum, Pine Marten.

Zibellina, Sable.

PUTORIUS. Foetidus, Polecat.
MUSTELA. Erminea, Stoat.

Vulgaris, Weasel.

MELLIVORA. Katel, Honey Ratel.
GULO. Luscus, Glutton.
MELES. Vulgaris, Badger.
LUTRA. Vulgaris, Otter.

Fam. II. Ursidse.
Sub-fam. a. Urslna.

URSUS. Arctos, Bear.

Horribilis, Grizzly Bear.

THALARCTOS. Maritimus, Polar Bear.
Sub-fam. c. Procyonlna.

PROCYOX. Lotor, Racoon.
Sub-fam. d. Cercoleptlna.

NASUA. Fusca, Coati-mondi.

CERCOLEPTES. .Caudivolviilus, Kinkajou.
Fam. III. Talpidse.
Sub-fam. a. Talplna.

TALPA. Europaea, Mole.
Sub-fam. d. Erinaclna.

SOREX. Araneus, Shrew.

Fodiens, Water Shrew.

ERIXACEUS. Europaeus, Hedgehog.

Fam. IV. Macropida?.
Sub-fam. b. Hacropina.

MACROPUS. Major, Kangaroo.
Sub-fam. e. Didelphlna.

DiDELPinrs. Virginiana, Opossum.

SYSTEMATIC INDKX.

Fam. V. Phocidii1.
Sub-fam. b. Phoclna.

PIIOCA. Yitullua, Seal.

MORUNGA. Proboscidea, Elephant Seal.
Sub-fam. c. Tricheclna.

TRICHECUS. Kosmarus, Walrus.

Order III. CUTE.

Fain. I. Balserudre.

BAL^ENA. Mysticetus, Whale.
PIIYSETER. Macrocephalus, Cachalot.

Fam. II. Delphinidffi.

DELPHINUS. Delphis, Dolphin.
PIIOCJSNA. Communis, Porpoise.
MOXODON. Monoceros, Narwlial.

Order IV. GLIRES.
Fam. I. MuiidaB.

Sub-fam. a. Murlna.
Mus. Decumanus, Rat.

Musculus, Mouse.

Sub-fam. b. Arvicolina.

CUICETUS. Frumentaiius, Hamster.
ARVICOLA. Ampliibius, Water Rat.
Sub-fam. d. Castorlna.
• CASTOR. Fiber, Beaver.

Fam. II. Hystricidte.
Sub-fam. a. Hystriclna.

HYSTRIX. Cristata, Porcupine.
Sub-fam. c. Dasyproctlna.

DASYPROCTA. Aguti, Agouti.
Sub-fam. d. Hydrochcerlna.

HYDROCII^ERUS. Capybara, Capybara.

Fam. III. Leporidse.

LEPUS. Timidus, Hare.
Cuniciilus, Rabbit.

Fam. IV. Jerboida?.

Sub-fain, a. Chinchilllna.

CHIXCIIILLA. Laniger, Chinchilla.
Sub-fam. c. Diplna.

DIPUS. JSgyptius, Jerboa.
Sub-fam. d. Myoxlna.

MYOXUS. Avellanarius, Dormouse.
Sub-fam* e. Sciurwa.

SCIURUS. Europseus, Squirrel.

PTEROMYS. Alpinus, Hying -Squirrel.

ARCTOMYS. Marmot! H. Marmot.

a*

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Order V. UNGULATA.
Fam. I. Bovidsc.
Sub-fam. a. Bov'ina.

Bos. Taurus, Bull

Zebu.

BUBALUS. Buffelus, Buffalo.

Gaffer, Gape Buffalo.

BISON. Americanus, Bison.

POEPHAGUS. Grunniens, Yak.

OVIBOS. Moschatiis, Musk Ox.

CATOBLEPAS. Gnu, Gnoo.

PORTAX. Picta, Nylghau.

STREPSICEROS. Kudu, Koodoo.

BOSELAPHUS. Oreas, Eland.

ORYX. Leucoryx, Oryx.

GAZELLA. Eu'chore, Springbok.

Ariel, Gazelle.

RUPICAPRA. Tragus, Chamois.

CAPRA. Ibex, Ibex.

• Hircus, ^oa^

Ovis. Aries, Rani.
Sub-fam. b. Camelopard'ma.

CAMELOPARDALIS. Giraffa, Giraffe.
Sub-fam. c. CameUna.

CAMELUS. Arabicus, Camel.

Bactrianus, Bactrian Camel.

LLAMA. Pacos, Llama.

Sub-fam. d. Moschlna.

MOSCHUS. Moschiferus, Musk-deer.
Sub-fam. e. Cervlna.

CERVUS. Capreolus, Roebuck.

Elaphus, Stag.

Gauadensis, Wapiti.

Axis. Maculata, Axis.
DAMA. Vulgaris, Fallow-deer.
RANGIFER. Tarandus, Rein-deer.
ALCES. Palmatus, Elk.

Fam. II. Equidse.

EQUUS. Caballus, Horse.
ASINUS. Vulgaris, Ass.

Dzigguetai, Dzigguetai.

Zebra, Zebra.

Quagga, Quagga.

Fam. III. Elephantldae.

Sub-Fam. a. Elephantlna.

ELEPHAS. Indlcus, Indian Elephant.

Africanus, African Elephant.

Sub-fam. b. Tapirlna.

TAPIRUS. Terrcstris, Tapir.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Sub-fam. c. Sulna.
Sus. Scrofa, Boar.

Babyroussa, Babyroussa.

Sub-fam. d. Rhinocerlna.

RHINOCEROS. Unicornis, Rhinoceros.

Bicornis, Rhinaster.

Sub-fam. c. Hippopotamlna.

HIPPOPOTAMUS. Amphiblus, Hippopotamus.

Fam. IV. Bradypidse.

BRADYPUS. Tridactylus, Sloth.

Fam. Y. Dasypidse.
Sub -fain. a. Martina.

MAXIS. Tetradactyla, Phatagin.

Pentadactyla, Short-tailed Manis.

Sub-fam. b. Dasyplna.

DASYPUS. Sexcinctus, Armadillo.
Sub-fam. c. Myrmecophagina.

MYRMECOPIIAGA. Jubata, Ant-cater.

Didactyla, Little Ant-eater.

Sub-fam. d. Ornithorhynchlna.
ORNITUORIIYNCHUS. Paradoxus, Ornithorhyuchus.

Class II. AVES.
Order I. AGCIP1TRES.

Sub-order I. ACCIPITRES-DIURNI.
Fam. I. Gypaettdoe.

GYPAETUS. Barbatus, Larnmcryeyer.
Fam. II. Sarcorhamphldse.

SARCORHAMPIIOS. Gryphon, Condor.
• Papa, King Vulture.

Fam. III. Vulturidffi.
Sub-fam. a. Vulturlnce.

GYPS. Fulvus, Griffin Vulture.

Fam. IV. Falconidse.
Sub-fam. a. Aquilince.

AQUILA. Chrysiietos, Golden Eagle.

PANDION. Haliaetus, Osprey.

HALIAETUS. Leuc '"ephalus, WJdte-headcd Eagle.
Sub-fam. c. Buteonlnce.

BUTEO. Vulgaris, Buzzard.
Sub-fam. d. Milvlnce.

PERNIS. Apivorus, Honey -Buzzard.

MILVUS. Regalis, Kite.

ELANOIDES. Furcatus, Swallow-tailed Falcon.
Sub-fam. e. Falconlnce.

FALCO. Gyrfalco, Gyrfalcon.

xii SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

FALCO. Peregnnus, Peregrine Falcon.

HYPOTRIORCHIS. Subbuteo, Hobby.

yEsalon, Merlin.

TINXUNCULUS. Alaudarfus, Kestrel.
Sub-fam./. Accipitrlnce.

ASTUR. Palumbarius, Goshawk.

ACCIPITER. Nisus, Spar row- Hawk.
Sub-fam. g. Circlnce.

SERPEXTARIUS. Reptilivorus, Secretary Bird.

CIRCUS. Cyaneus, Hen-Harrier.
Sub-order II. ACCIPITRES-XOCTURXI.
Fam. I. Strigida?.
Sub-fam. a. Surnlnce.

SURNIA. Uliila, Hawk- Owl.

NYCTEA. Nivga, Snowy Owl.

ATHENE. Cunieulana, Burrowing Owl.
Sub-fam. b. Bubonlnw.

EPHIALTES. Scops, Scops Eared-owl.

BUBO. Maximus, Great Eared-owl.
Sub-fam. d. Striglnce.

STRIX. FlammSa, Barn- Owl.

Order II. PASSERES.

Tribe I. FISSIROSTRES.

Sub-Tribe I. FISSIROSTRES-XOCTURN<E.
Fam. I. Caprimulgidae.
Sub-fam. a. Caprimulglnw.

CAPRIMULGUS. Europrous, Goat-sucker.
Sub-Tribe II. FISSIROSTRES-DIURX^:.
Fam. II. Hirundinidse.
Sub fam. a. Cypsdinai.

CYPSELUS. Apus, Swift.
Sub-fam. b. Hirundiiwue.

IIiRuxno. Rustica, Chimney Martin.
COTILE. Riparia, Sand Mar I hi.
CIIELIDOX. Urbica, Martin.
Fam. III. Coracildw.
Sub-fain, a. Coraciiita;.

CORACIAS. Garriila, Roller.
Fam. IV. Trogonidrc.

TROGOX. Kesplendetis, Resplendent Trogon.
Fam. V. Alcedinida?.
Sub-fam. a. Alcedinlna:

ALCEDO. Hispida, King-fisher.
Fam. VI. Meropidte.
Sub-fam. a. Meropmce.

MEROI'S. A piaster, Sec-eater.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX. xiii

Tribe II. TENUIROSTRE3.

Fam. I. Upupidffi.
Sub-fam. a. Upuplnce.
UPUPA. Epops, Hoopoe.

Fam. II. Trochilldse.

TROCHILUS. Colubris, Ruby-throated Hamming-bird.
ORNISMYA. Gouldii, Gould's Humming-bird.
Sappho, Bar-tailed Humming-bird.

Cora, Cora Humming-bird.

Chrysolopha, Double-created Humming-bird.

Fam. III. Certhidse.
Sub-fam. a. Certhlnce.

CERTHIA. Familiaris, Creeper,
Sub-fam. 6. Sittlnce.

SITTA. Europsea, Nuthatch.
Sub-fam. c. Mcnurlnce.

TROGLODYTES. Parvulus, Wren.

Tribe III. DENTIROSTRES.
Fam. I. Luscinidffl.

Sub-fam. a. Lvscin'mce.

CALAMODYTA. Locustella, Grasshopper Warbler.
LUSCINIA. Philomela, Nightingale.
SYLVIA. Undata, Dartford Warbler.

Cinerea, Whitcthroat.

Atricaj^illa, Blackcap Warbhr. '

Rufa, Chiff-chaff.

, REGULUS. Cri status, Golden-crested Wren.
Sub-fam. b. Erythaclnce.

RUTICILLA. Phoenicura, Redstart.

ERYTHACUS. Rubeciila, Redbreast.
Sub-fam. c. Accentorlmc.

ACCENTOR. Modularius, Hedge Accentor.
Sub-fam. d. Parlnce.

PARUS. Major, Great Titmouse.

Coeruleus, Blue Titmouse.

Caudatus, Long-tailed Titmouse.

Sub-fam. e. Mqtacilllnce.

MOTACILLA. Yarrellli, Pied Wagtail.

Flava, Yellow Wagtail.

ANTIJUS. Pratensis, Meadow Pipit.

Fam. II. Turdrdse.

Sub-fam. a. Formicarlnce.

HYDROBATA. Cinclus, Dipper.
Sub-fam. 6. Tar din ce.

TURDIJS. Viscivorus, Misseltoe Thrush.

Pilaris, Fieldfare.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

TURDUS. Musicus, Song-Thrush.

Merula, Blackbird,

ORPHEUS. Polyglottus, Mocking Bird.
Sub-fam. c. Oriollnce.
ORIOLUS. Galbula.
Fam. III. Muscicapidffi.
.Sub-fam. a. Muscicaplncc.

MUSCICAPA. Grisola, Spotted Fly-catcher.
Fam. IV. Ampelidae.
Sub-fam. a. Ampellnce.

AMPELIS. Garrulus, Bohemian Wax-wing.
Fam. V. Lanidae.
Sub-fam. a. Lanlnce.

LANIUS. Excubitor, Great Gray Shrike.
Collurio, Red-backed Shrike.

Tribe IY. CONIROSTRES.

Fam. I. Corvidce.

Sub-fam. a. Garrullnce.

GARRULUS. Glandarius, Jay.
Sub-fam. b, Corvlnce.

NUCIFRAGA. Caryocatactes, Nutcracker.

PICA. Caudata, Magpie.

CORVUS. Corax, Raven.

Frugilegus, Rook.

Monediila, Jackdaw.

Corone, Crow.

Sub-fam. c. Pyrrhocoraclnce.
CORACIA. Graciila, Chough.

Fam. II. Paradiseidse.

PARADISEA. Apoda, Emerald Bird of Paradixe.

Fam. III. Sturnidffi.

Sub-fam. a. Ptilonorhyncince.

PTILONORHYNCUS. Sericeus, Satin Boiocr-Bird.
Sub-fam. d. Icterlnce.

ICTERUS. Baltimorus, Baltimore Oriole.
Sub-fam. g. Sturnince.

STURNUS. Vulgaris, .Starling.

Fam. IV. Fringillidaj.
Sub-fam. d. Fringilllnce,

FRINGILLA. Ccelebs, Chaffinch.

Carduelis, Goldfinch.

Cannabana, Linnet.

Spinus, Siskin.

Chloris, Greenfinch.

PASSER. Domesticus, House Sparrow.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Sub-fam. e. Emberizlnce.

EMBERIZA. Citrinella, Yelloio Bunting.
Sub-fam. /. Alaudlnce.

ALAUDA. Arvensis, /Skylark.
Sub-fam. ff. Pyrrhulince.

PYRRHULA. Eubicilla, Bullfinch.
Sub-fam. h. Loxlnce.

LOXIA. Curvirostra, Crossbill.
Fam. VII. Bucerotida?.

. BUCEROS. Rhinoceros, Rhinoceros Hornbill.

Order III. SCANSORES.
Fam. I. Rhamphastidffl.
Sub-fam. a. Rhamphastlnce.

RHAMPIIASTOS. Toco, Toco Toucan.
Fam. II. Psittacida;.

MACROCERCUS. Ararauna, Blue and Yellow Macaw.
PAL^ORNIS. Torquatus, Ringed Parrakeet.
CACATUA. Sulphurea, Great Sulphur Cockatoo.
Fam. III. Picidse.
Sub-fam. c. Piclnce.

Picus. Major, Great Spotted Woodpecker.

Viridis, Green Woodpecker.

Sub-fam. g. Yunclnce.

YUNX. Torquilla, Wryneck.
Fam. IV. Cuculidffi.
Sub fam. e. Cuculince.

CUCULUS. Canorus, Cuckoo.

Order IV. COLUMB^E.
Fam. I. Columbidse.
Sub-fam. b. Columblnce.

COLUMBA. Palumbus, Ringdove.

ffinas, Stockdove.

TURTUR. Auritus, Turtle-dove.

ECTOPISTES. Migratoria, Passenger Pigeon.

Order V. GALLINuE.
Fam. III. Phasianidse.
Sub-fam. a. Pavonlnce.

PAVO. Cristatus, Peacock.
Sub-fam. 6. Phasianina.

ARGUS. Giganteus, Argus Pheasant.
PHASIANUS. Colchicus, Pheasant.
Sub-fam. c. Gallina.

GALLUS. Domesticus, Domestic Fowl.
Sub-fam. d. Meleagrina.

MELEAGRIS. Gallopavo, Turkey.
NUHIDA. Meleagris, Guinea Fowl.

i SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Fam. IV. Tetraonidre.
Sub-fam. a. Pcrdiclnce..

PERDIX. Cinerea, Partridge.
COTURNIX. Communis, Quail.
Sub-fam. b. Tetraonlnce.

TETRAO. Urogallus, Capercaillie.

Tetrix, Black Grouse.

LAG OPUS. Scoticus, Red Grouse.

Albus, Ptarmigan.

Fam. V. Megapodidffi.

TALEGALLUS. Lathami, JBrwsh 2'urkct/.
MEGAPODIUS. Tumulus, Mound-making Mcgapnde.
Order VI. STRUTHIONES.
Fam. I. Strutliionidse.
Sub-fam. a. Struthionmce.
STRUTHIO. Camelus, Ostric/i.
CASUARIUS. Casoar, Cassoionn/.
DROMAIUS. Nov«B-HollandijB, 'Emu.
Sub-fam. b. Aptcryglnce.

APTERYX. Australis, Aptcri/x.
Sub-fam. c. Didlnce.

DIDUS. Ineptus, Dodo.
Sub-fam. d. Otince.

OTUS. Tarda, Bustard.

Order VII. GRALL^E.
Fam. I. Charadridze.
Sub-fam. c. Charadrlnce.

VAXELLUS. Cristatus, Lapsing.
Fam. II. ArdeuUe.
Sub-fam. b. Grulnce.

GRUS. Cinerea, Crane.
Sub-fam. c. Ardelnce.

ARDEA. Cinerea, Heron.

BOTAURUS. .Stellaris, Bittern.
, PLATALEA. Leucorodia, White Spoonbill.
Sub-fam. d. Oiconlnce.

CICONIA. Albo, Stork.
Sub-fam./. Tantallnce.

IBIS. Religiosa, Sacred Ibis.
Fam. III. Scolopacidje.
Sub-fam. a. Limoslnce.

CRACTICORNIS. Arqujltus, Curlew.
Sub-fam. <•. Rccurvirostrlnce.

RECURVIROSTRA. Avocetta, Avocet.
Sub-fam. d. Scolopaclnce.

SCOLOPAX. Rusticola, Woodcock.

NUMEXIUS. Scolopaclnus, Snipe.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Sub-fam. e. Trinrfince.

PHILOMACHUS. Pugnax, Ruff.
Fam. IV. Palamedeidffi.
Sub-fam. a. Parrlnce.

PARRA. Jacana, Jacana.
Fam. V. Rallidje.
Sub-fam. a. Ralllnce.

ORYGOMETRA. Crex, Corncrake.
Sub-fam. b. Gallinullnce.

GALLINULA. Chloropus, Water Hen.

FULICA. Atra, Coot.

Order VIII. ANSERES.
Fam. I. Anatidse.

Sub-fam. a. Phoenicoptcrlnce.

PIKENICOPTEROS. Rubra, flamingo.
Sub-fam. c. Anserlnce.

BERNICLA. Leucopsis, Bcrnicle Goose.
Sub-fam. d. Gygnlnce.

CYGNUS. Olor, Mute Swan.

CHENOPIS. Atrata, Black Swan.
Sub-fam. e. Anatlnce.

ANAS. Bosch as, Mallard.

QUERQUEDULA. Crecca, Teal.
Sub-fam. /. Fuligullnce.

SOMATERIA. Mollissima, Eider Duck.
Fam. II. Colymbidae.
Sub-fam. b. Podiceplnce.

PODICEPS. Cristatus, Crested Grebe.

Minor, Dabchick.

Fam. III. Alcidffi.
Sub-fam. a. Alclnce.

FRATERCULA. Arctica, Puffin.

ALCA. Impennis, Great Auk.
Sub-fam. c. Sphenisclnce.

SPHENISCUS. Demersus, Cape Penguin.
Sub-fam. d. Urlnce.

URIA. Troile, Guillemot.
Fam. IV. Procellaridffi.
Sub-fam. a. Procellarlnce.

PROCELLARIA. Glacialis, Fulmar Petrel.

THALASSIDROMA. Pelagica, Stormy Petrel.

DIOMEDEA. Exiilans, Albatros.
Fam. V. Laridaj.
Sub-fam. b. Larmce.

LARUS. Marinus, Black-backed Gull.
Sub-fam. c. Sternlnce.

STERNA. Ilirundo, Tern.

cvm SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Fam. VI. Pelecanidse.
Sub-fam. b. Phaetonlnce.

PIIAETON. ^Ethereus, Tropic Bird.
Sub-fam. c. Pelecanmce.

SULA. Bassanea, Gannet.

PHALACROCORAX. Carbo, Cormorant.

PELECANUS. Onocrotalus, White Pelican.

FREGATA. Aquila, Frigate Pelican.

Class m. REPTIL.TA.
Order!. SAURA.
Sub-order I. LEPTOGLOSS.E.
Tribe I. CYCLOSAURA.
Fam. IV. Lacertimche.

ZOOTOCA. Vivipara, Lizard.
Tribe II. GEISSOSAURA.
Fam. XV. Scincida.

ANGUIS. Fragilis, Blindworm.
Sub-order II. PACHYGLOSS.E.
Tribe III. NYCTISAURA.
Fam. XXII. Geckotidaj.
GECKO. Verus, Gecko.

Tribe IV. STROBILOSAURA.
Fam. XXIII. Iguanidre.

IGUANA. Tuberculata, lyuana.
Fam. XXIV. Agamids.

DRACO. Volans, Flying Dragon.

Tribe V. DEIH)ROSAURA.
Fam. XXV. Chameleonldrc.

CHAMELEON. Vulgaris, Chameleon.

Order II. OPHID1A.
Sub-order I. VIPERIXA.
Fam. I. Crotalldce.

UEOPSOPHUS. Durissus, Jtatile-xnaks.
Fam. II. Viperidffi.

CLOTHO. Arietans, Pu/ Adder.
CERASTES. Hasselquistii, Cerastes.
. PELIAS. Berus, Viper.

Sub-order II. COLUBRINA.
Fam. IV. Boida3.

BOA. Constrictor, Boa.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Fam. V. Colubridae.

NAJA. Tripudians, Cobra.
NATRIX. Torquata, Ringed Snake.

Order III. CHELONIA.

Fam. I. Testudiiudse.

TESTUDO. Graeca, Tortoise.

Fam. V. Cheloniadfc.

CHELONIA. Viridis, Turtle.

OrderlV. EMYDOSAURI.

' Fam. I. Crocodilidre.

CROCODILUS. Vulgaris, Crocodile.

Fam. II. Alligatoridre.

ALLIGATOR. Mississipensis, Alligator.

Class IV. AMPHIBIA

Order I. BATRACHIA.

Sub-order I. SALIENTIA.

RANA. TemporarTa, Frog.
BUFO. Vulgaris, Toad.

Sub-order II. GRADIENTIA.
Fam. I. Salamandridae.

TUITOX. Cristatus, Newt.

Order V. MEANT1A.

Fam. I. Proteidse.

PROTEUS. Anguinus, Proteus.

Class V. PISCES.
Sub-class I. PISCES OSSEL

Order! ACANTHOPTERYGIL
Sub-order I. DACTYLOPHORI.
Fam. I. Triglidso.

TRIGLA. Cuciilus, Gurnard.

Sub-order II. HOLODACTYLI.
Fam. I\7". Percida?.

PERCA. Fluviatilis, Perch.

Pam. XIII. Scomberidre.

SCOMBER. Scombrus, Mackarel.
THYNNUS. Thynmis, Tunny.
XIPHIAS. Gladius, Sioord-Jish.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Fam. XIV. Zeida.

ZEUS. Faber, John Dory.
Fam. XVII. Syngnatluda?.

HIPPOCAMPUS. Brevirostris, Sea-horse.
Fam. XXII. Echeneida?.

ECHENEIS. Kemora, Sucking-fish.
Fam. XXIII. Loplmda>.

LOPHIUS. Piseatorius, Anylcr.

Order II. MALACOPTERYG1I.
Sub-order I. ARDOMINALIA.

Fam. I. Cyprimdffl.

CYPRINUS. Carpio, Carp.

Barbus, Barbel.

Auratus, Gold-fish.

ABRAMIS. Brain a, Bream.
GOBIO. Fluviatilis, Gudgeon.
TINCA. Arulgaris, Tench.
LEUCISCUS. Rutilus, Roach.
Leuciscus, Dace.

Cephalus, Chub.

Fam. II. Esocidse.

Esox. Lucius, Pike.

ExoctETUS. Volitans, Flying-fish.
Fam. IV. Salmomdje.

SALMO. Salar, Salmon.

Fario, Trout.

Fam. V. Clupeidffi.

CLUPEA. Pilchardus, Pilchard.

Harengus, Herring.

ENGRAULIS. Encrasicliolus, Anchovy.

Sub-order II. SUB-BRACIIIATA.
Fam. VI. Gadidffi.

MORRIIUA. Callarias, Cod.
Fam. VII. Pleuronectida?.

PSETTA. Maxima, Turbot.

SOLEA. Vulgaris, Sole.

Sub-order III. APODA.

Fam. IX. Mursenirdse.

ANGUILLA. Acutiroslris, Sharp-nosed Eel.

CONGER. Vnlgaris, Conger.
Fam. X. Gymnotidre.

GYMNOTUS. Eleotricus, Electric Ed.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Order III. PLECTOGNATHL

Fam. I. Diodontidse.

ORTHAGORISCUS. Mola, Short Sun-fish.
Sub-class II. PISCES CHONDROPTERYGII.
Sub-order I. ELEUTHEROPOMI.
Fam. I. Acipenserida\

ACIPENSER. Stuno, Sturgeon.

Sub-order II. TREMATOFXKI.
Sub-section I. SQUALL
Fam. I. Sc3'llidsc.

SCYLLIUM. Cnnicul.i, Little Spotted Dog-fish.
Fam. II. Squallda}.

SQUALUS. Carcliarius, White Shark.
SPHYRMAS. Zvgsena, Hammer-headed Shark.

Sub-section II. RAIL
Fam. I. Pristidtc.

I'RISTIS. Antiquorum, Sawfish.
Fam. II. Raidse.

TORPEDO. Scutata, Torpedo.

RALV. Glavata, Thornback Skate.

Sub-order III. CYCLOSTOMI.
Fam. I. PetromyzonTdse.

PETROMYZON. Marinus, Lamprey.
LAMPETRA. Fluviatilis, Lampern.
MYXINE. Glutinosa, Myxinc.

Division II. INVERTEBRATA.
Class VI. MOLLUSCA.
Order CEPHALOPODA.
Fam. Octopida;.

OCTOPUS. Vulgaris, Cuttle-fish,
ARGONAUTA. Argo, Nautilus.

Order GASTEROPODA.
Sub-order PULMOBRANCIIIATA.
Fam. Limacidae.

LIMAX. Ater, Black Slug.

Fam. Helicidaj.

HELIX. Aspersa,' Snail.

Fam. Turbinida?.

SCALAR! A. Pretiosa, Rnjcl Staircase Wentletrap.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Fam. Coniida?.

CONUS. Generalis. Cone.
Fam. Cyprseidae.

ARICIA. Moneta, Money Cowry.
Fam. Buccinidae.

BUGCINTTM. Undatum, Whelk.
Fam. Muricidae.

MUREX. Tribulus, Thorny Woodcock.

Order CYCLOBRANCHIATA.

Fam. Patellidse.

PATELLA. Vulgata, Limpet.

Order CONCHIFERA.

Fam. Pectinida?.

PECTEN. Jacobaeus, Scallop.

OSTREA. Edulis, Oyster.
Fam. Meleagrinidse.

MELEAGRINA. Margaratifera, Pearl Oyster.
Fam. Mytilidae.

MYTILTJS. Edulis, Edible Mussel.

Order CIRRHOPODA.

PENTALASMIS. Anatifera, Bernicle.

Class VII. CRUSTACEA.
Sub-class I. MALACOSTRACA.
Order! DECAPOD A.

Sub-order I. DECAPODA-BRACHYURA.
Fam. I. Canceridze.

CANCER. Pagurus, Crab.

Sub-order II. DECAPODA-ANOMOURA.
Fam. III. Paguridae.

PAGURUS. Bernhardus, Hermit Crab.

Sub-order III. DECAPODA-MACROURA.
Fam. V. Astacidse.

POTAMOBIUS. Astacus, Cray-fish.

ASTACUS. Gammarus, Lobster.
Fam. VI. Crangonidse.

CRANGON. Vulgaris, Shrimp.
Fam. VIII. Pala2tnonidse.

PAL.EMON. Serratus, Prawn.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Class VIII. ARACHNlDA.

Order PULMONAR2A.
Fam. Araneidse.

MYGALE. Aviculaiia, Bird Spider.
Fam. Scorpionidre.

SCORPIO. Europaeus, Scorpion,

Class IX. INSECTA.

. Sub-class I. INSECTA MANDIBULATA.
Order I. COLEOPTERA.
Fam. Cieindelidso.

CICINDELA. Campestris, Tiger-beetle.
Fam. Carabidso.

CARABUS. Cancellatus, Ground-beetle.
Fam. Silphidse.

NECROPHAGUS. Vespillo, Burying-beetle.
Fam. Lucanidae.

LUCANUS. Cervus, Stag-beetle.

GEOTRUPES. Stercoraiius, Dor-beetle.

MELOLONTHA. Vulgaris, Cockchafer.
Fam. Lampyrida;.

LAMPYRIS. Jfoctiluca, Glowworm.
Fam. Ptinidse.

ANOBIUM. Tesselatum, Death-watch.
Fam. Cerambycidae.

CERAMBYX. Moschatus, Musk-beetle.
Fam. Staphylinidsc.

CREOPHILUS. Maxillosus, Rove-beetle.

Order II. DERMAPTERA.

FORFICULA. Auricularia, Earwig.

Order III. ORTHOPTERA.
Fam. Locustidas.

LOCUSTA. Tartarica, Locust.
Fam. Achetida?.

GRYLLOTALPA. Yulgaris, Mole Cricket.

PHYLLIA. Foliata, Leaf Insect.

Order IV. NEUROPTERA.
Fam. Libellulida3.

LIBELLULA. Depressa, Dragon-Jly.
Fam. Myrmeleontdfe.

MYRMELEOX. Fortnicftrum, Ant-lion,

xxiv SYSTEMATIC LNDEX.

Order V. TRICHOPTERA.
Fam. Phrygamdffi.

PURYGANEA. Grandis, Caddis-fly.

Order VI. HYMENOPTERA.
Fam. Ichneumonidae.

PIMPLA. Manifestator, Ichneumon-fly.
Fam. Formicidffi.

FORMICA, liufa, Wood Ant.
Fam. Vespidae.

VESPA. Oabro, Hornet.

Vulgaris, Wasp.

Fam. Apida?.

APIS. Mellif ica, Honey Bee.

Sub-class II. LVSECTA HAUSTKLLATA.
Order I. LEPIDOPTERA.
Faui. Papilionidaj.

PAPILIO. Machaon, Swallow-tailed Butterfly.

ARGYNNIS. Adippe, Silver-spotted Fritillary.

VANESSA. Atalanta, Red Admiral.
Fam. Sphingidae.

ACHEROXTIA. Atropos, Death" s-Jicad Moth.
Fam. ArctiadiB.

ARCTIA. Caja, Tiycr Moth.
Fam. Geometridie.

OURAPTERYX. Sambucarja, Swallow-tailed Moth.
Fam. Alucitidse.

ALUCITA. Ilexadactyla, Many-plumed Moth.

Order II. DIPThRA.
Fam. Culicida;.

CULEX. Pipicns, Gnat.
Fam. (Estndse.

(EsTRus. Bovis, Gad-fly.

Order IV. APHANIPTERA.
Fam. Pulicidce.

PULEX. Irritans, Flea.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Division I VERTEBRATA.— (Lat. possessing vertebra.)

Ciass i MAMMALIA. — (Lat. suckling their young.}

Order I PRIMATES.— (Lat. primus, first.)

Family I Hominidse.— (Lat. homo, a man— mankind.)

Genus I HOMO.

BOSJESMAN AND LION.

Species I. Sapiens (Lat. tvise), Man.

MAN holds the foremost place in the order of creation.
The perfection of his bodily form is as far superior to that of
other beings as his intellect surpasses their instinct, beautiful
and marvellous though it be. Between man and brutes there

2 NATURAL HISTORY.

is an impassable barrier, over which man can never fall, or
beasts hope to climb. Man, when fallen from his high estate,
and deprived of the use of his reason, still holds the supremacy
over the lower animals, and is not subject even to the most
perfect and powerful brutes. There is but one genus of man-
kind, HOMO, and but one species, Sapiens ; that is, the rational
human being. Intellect, or reason, differs from instinct in
its power of accommodation to circumstances ;- whereas in-
stinct ever remains unchanged. The beaver, when confined
in a cage, still builds dams in order to confine the stream that
never visits it ; the captive squirrel, when satiated with food,
still conceals the remnants for a future repast, although it is
regularly supplied with its daily meals ; the magpie approaches
a dead wasp with the same caution as if it were living ; and
the dog flies from a recently flayed tiger skin with no less fear
than if the living tiger stood before him. On the contrary,
the power of man's reason enables him to alter his habits and
actions according to the change of external circumstances.
The same man can inhabit the burning sands of the tropics,
or the everlasting snows of the north pole ; and is able to
defend himself from the scorching heat of the one, or to set
at defiance the piercing cold of the other.

The forms and habits of men are modified according to
the different climates and positions in which they are placed.
These modifications are in some cases so great that many
philosophers, and not a few naturalists, have imagined that
there are several distinct classes of mankind, which derive their
origin from different sources. There is certainly no doubt
that the educated human being who peruses these pages,
seated in a comfortable apartment, surrounded with luxuries
brought from almost every country on the face of the earth,
within sound of church bells, and clothed in garments fitted
to defend him from the heat of summer or the cold of winter,
is far superior to the half-naked Bosjesman, who has no con-
ception of a God, who lives in caves, or scrapes a hole in the
sand, in which he crouches until he has devoured the last
putrid morsel of the prey which he has been fortunate enough
to secure, and which he then abandons to the beasts of the
desert, scarcely less provident than himself. Yet this supe-
riority results entirely from the external circumstances in

NATURAL HISTORY. 3

which each is placed. Let each be transplanted into the
country of the other, and in a few generations we should find
the Bosjesman civilized, and capable of reading how his former
superior, now sunk into the savage state, gains a precarious
subsistence by hunting, and passes his life in caves.

Some theorists have ventured so far as to assert that the
Negro is but an improved monkey, and that his reason
is nothing but a partially civilized instinct. That these
theorists were no anatomists is sufficiently evident, and it
would not be necessary to prove the absurdity of their
assertion, were it not that many have actually been deceived
by their flimsy, though specious arguments. Indeed, at the
present time, when we find one philosopher giving what he
considers satisfactory proofs that salt is the cause of all
earthly misery, and the reason why the sun is at so great a
distance from us ; another reviving the very ancient belief,
that the earth is flat like a plate ; and a third pretending to
read a sealed letter with the point of his toe, or to examine the
interior of a friend some hundred miles distant ; it is difficult
to say to what extent credulity can proceed.

AYe will, however, briefly examine this theory respecting
the humanity of the Negro, partly by anatomy, but mostly
by common sense. That monkey, or rather ape, whose form
most resembles that of man, is the Orang-outan. "We will
compare this animal with the Negro. Will any one venture
to deny that the noble sweep of cranium, and the smooth
globular surface of the human skull, demonstrating the volume
of the brain within, is a proof of far superior intellect than
is indicated by the heavy ridges, the irregular prominences,
and the small capacity of the ape's skull ? The face of the
ape is an instrument for procuring food, and a weapon for
attack and defence, while that of man is an ever-changing
index of the workings of the mind within. We therefore find
that the jaws of the ape are enormously developed, armed
with formidable fangs, and marked with strong bony ridges,
to which the powerful muscles which move the jaws are
attached. On the other hand, as man is enabled to procure
food, and to manufacture weapons by means of his hands,
his jaws and teeth are reduced to the smallest size compatible
with the preservation of life.

4 NATURAL HISTORY.

The habitually erect posture is another characteristic of
mankind. Other animals are not fitted for it ; since, when they
attempt to assume that position, their head is thrust so far
forward that its weight destroys their balance, and the bones
of the leg and the pelvis are so formed as to give them a
tottering gait. When the ape attempts to stand erect, it
balances itself by its immensely long arms, which reach to
the feet, and assists itself along by the hands pressed on the
ground. Perhaps the word "feet" should not have been
used, as the ape has no feet, properly so called, as another
pair of hands supply the place of those members. The
length and position of the fingers on these hinder hands,
prevent the ape from planting more than the heel upon the
ground. It therefore hobbles along with its body bent, and
at best can only contrive to manage an uncertain and
vacillating shuffle ; nor does it ever walk so well or so grace-
fully in the erect posture as many of the performers at Astley's
cb on their hands, which are apparently less fitted for walking
than those of the ape.

The power of the thumb is much greater in man than in
the apes ; it is by means of this instrument that man is able
to handle large or small objects, to wield a sword or a pen,
to cast a spear or thread a needle. There are many other
anatomical differences which need not be described.

The intellectual power in man shows its supremacy over
the instinct of the ape in many ways. We will take as our
example of mankind, the most abject of the human race, the
Bosjesman as represented at the commencement of this
chapter. Surely this is not the act of an ape. No ape or
monkey was ever able to manufacture weapons for itself. It
may, indeed, take up a stick or a stone and defend itself
vigorously, but it could never form a bow and arrow, much
less reflect that the juices of certain plants rubbed on the points
of its weapons would cause inevitable death to any animal
wounded by them. Yet the diminutive Bosjesman, who is
far lower in intellect, and much less civilized than the calum-
niated Negro, boldly attacks, with perfect certainty of success,
an animal before which the most intelligent ape that ever lived
would fly in helpless terror.

Neither can an ape procure fire, nor even renew it. It will

NATURAL HISTORY. 5

sit delighted by a flame which a chance traveller has left,
and spread its hands over the genial blaze ; but when the
glowing ashes fade, it has not sufficient understanding to
supply fresh fuel, but sits and moans over the expiring
embers.

The Bosjesman makes a bow and arrow ; he tips the arrow
with a hard substance to make it penetrate ; he imbues the
point with substances which he has learned are fatal when
mingled with the blood, and then sallies forth in search of
some animal whose skin may serve as a dress, and whose
flesh may furnish him a meal. When by his unerring
weapons he has succeeded in destroying the terrible and
ferocious lion, the swift antelope, or the wary ostrich, he
constructs for himself a hut by the side of his prey, strikes
fire, fetches fuel, and dresses his meat. These are actions which
no beast ever performed, and no ape could ever imitate.

One point of difference between man and brutes has yet to
be mentioned — LANGUAGE. This one word includes almost
every distinction mentioned, as it is by the use of language
that we are enabled to communicate our ideas to each other,
to give the thoughts hidden in our minds an almost visible
shape, to record our experience for the benefit of others ;
in a word, it is by language that we are civilized. The ape
has no language, although there is no apparent anatomical
reason why apes should not speak, and therefore, the Orang-
outan in the gardens of the Zoological Society is no more
refined, not does it make a nearer approach to civilization,
than its ancestors in the time of Adam.

We have now seen that mankind have little in common
with brutes, and that the barrier between the two can be
passed by neither : we will now consider the question of the
unity of mankind.

It has already been stated that man is modified according
to the climate and position in which he is placed. There
are several of these modifications, or varieties as they are
called, but authors do not agree as to their number. Some
describe the human family as divided into five varieties
or races: the Caucasian, the Mongolian, the Ethiopian,
the Malayan, and the American ; each of these being sub-
divided into families, as for instance, the Caucasian race

6 NATURAL HISTORY.

subdivided into the Caucasian, the Celtic, the Germanic, the
Arabian, the Libyan, the Nilotic, and the Indostanic families.
The division generally received is that of Pickering, \vho
enumerates eleven races of men, all of whom he has seen ; the
Arabian, Abyssinian, Mongolian, Hottentot, Malay, Papuan,
Negrillo, Telingan, Ethiopian, Australian, and Negro. He
differs from Prichard in several points, but especially in re-
ferring the population of America to the Mongolian race,
whereas Prichard considers it as entirely separate.

The characteristics and distribution of each race are briefly
these. The Arabian race extends over the whole of Europe,
excepting Lapland, about half of Asi-a, including the greater
part of India, and most of the northern third of Africa. The
complexion is light, the lips are thin, the nose is prominent,
and the beard thick. Number, about 350,000,000. The
Abyssinian race occupies a small tract towards the east of
Africa, including part of Abyssinia, and part of Nubia. The
features are like those of Europeans, the complexion is light,
the hair is crisp, and the beard moderate. Number about
3,000,000. The Mongolian race is remarkable for a feminine
aspect in both sexes, so that a stranger is often perplexed to
distinguish a man from a woman at a short distance ; the
hair is straight, and the beard is wanting. It extends over
the eastern half of Asia, except Corea, over Lapland, and the
whole of America, except the western coast by California,
and the upper part of South America. Number 300,000,000.
The Hottentot race occupies the southern extremity of Africa.
The complexion is not so dark as that of the Negro, the hair
is woolly, and frequently grows in irregular patches, leaving a
bald spot in the centre of each patch. This race includes the
Bechuanas and the Bosjesmans. The complexion of the Bosjes-
rnans, or Bushmen, is very light, and strongly resembles that
of an European, with a few sooty patches irregularly placed.
Number about 500,000. The Malay race is almost amphi-
bious, and is never found inland. It is widely spread, and
inhabits the centre of Madagascar, the whole of the islands in
the Pacific Ocean, except the Fiji, New Hebrides, Solomon's
Isles, Papua, and parts of the Philippines. The parts of
America not populated by the Mongolians, are also inhabited
by this race. The complexion is a dark copper, the hair

NATURAL HISTORY. 7

straight, when cut it stands erect, and the beard is thin.
Number 120,000,000. The Papuan race inhabits about
two-thirds of Papua, and the Fiji Islands, where Pickering
saw the only individuals of this race who came under his
notice. The complexion is dark, the hair bushy, the beard
copious. The most remarkable point in this race is the skin,
which is astonishingly rough and harsh. Number 3,000,000.
The Negrillo race is like the Papuan in colour, but the hair
is more woolly, the stature is small, and the beard absent.
The Negrillos inhabit part of Papua, {Solomon's Isles, the
northern extremities of Luzon and Sumatra, and the New
Hebrides. Number 3,000,000. The Telingan, or Indian
race, inhabits the eastern parts of India, especially about
Calcutta, several isolated spots in other parts of 'India, and
the east coast of Madagascar. The complexion is dark (best
imitated by a mixture of red and bla^k), the skin is soft, the
features are like those of Europeans, hair straight and fine,
and the beard copious. Number 60,000,000. The Ethiopian
race is darker than the Telingan, the hair is crisp and fine,
skin soft, and the features are more like European features
than those of the Negro. This race inhabits the north-eastern
portion of Africa, including Southern Egypt, part of Nubia,
and part of Abyssinia ; a few detached spots toward the
north-west, and a large tract of country by Senegambia.
Number 5,000,000. The Australian race inhabits Australia
alone. The complexion is like that of the Negro, but the
hair is not woolly like that of the Negro. Number 500,000.
The Negro race inhabits the central parts of Africa, from the
north of Ashanti to a little southward of Zanzibar. The
complexion is black, the lips are immensely thick, the nose is
flat, and the hair is close and curly, strongly resembling wool.
Number 55,000,000. The numbers given in this distribution
are of course in many cases only conjectural.

In the distribution of races, it is most interesting to observe
the influence of climate and vegetation on the character of
man. The vast tract of desert extending from the north-west
of Africa, through Arabia, part of India and Tartary, as far
as Mongolia, is inhabited by nomadic, or wandering, tribes,
who depend principally on the milk of their domesticated
animals fox subsistence.

8 NATURAL HISTORY.

The interminable and trackless woods of North America
develop tribes whose faculties are moulded to the exigencies
of their position. To their practised senses the tangled forests
are as clear as the highway ; the moss on the trees, the sun
by day, the stars by night, the rushing of the wind, or the
sounds of animal life, are as broad roads and legible signs to
them, where we should discover no means to escape from the
wilderness of trees. Dependent in a great measure on hunt-
ing for their subsistence, their keen eye marks the slightest
trace of the expected prey ; a drooping leaf, a twisted blade
of grass, a bent twig, a ripple in the stream, are all noticed
and all understood. Ever eagerly bent on the destruction of
inimical tribes, and deeming the number of " scalps" attached
to their dress, each designating a slain enemy, as the best
mark of nobility, they learn to track an enemy by his foot-
steps with unexampled, patience and untiring assiduity. No
bloodhound ever followed his prey with more certainty than
the American Indian when on his " war-path" tracks his re-
tiring enemies, and when near them his approach is silent as
the gliding of the serpent, his blow as deadly as its fangs.

The Malay race, whose lot is thrown amid islands and
coasts, are as crafty and fierce on the waters as the American
Indians in their woods. Accustomed to the water from their
earliest infancy, able to swim before they can walk, making
playthings of waves that would dash an ordinary swimmer to
pieces against the rocks, their existence is almost entirely
passed on the water. As the American Indians are slayers
and robbers by land, so are the Malays murderers and pirates
by sea. They have been known to capture a ship in the
midst of a storm by swimming to it and climbing up the
cable, and many instances of their crafty exploits in ship-
taking are on record. For a full account of their ferocity,
cunning, and endurance, the reader is referred to Sir James
Brook's reports on the Borneo pirates.

The Esquimaux, situated among ice and snow, where mer-
cury freezes in the open air and water becomes ice within a
yard of a blazing fire, pass an apparently inactive life. They
actually form the ice and snow into warm and comfortable
1'ouses ; wrapped up in enormous fur garments that almost
disguise the human form, they defy the intensity of the frost,

NATURAL HISTORY. 9

and place their highest happiness in the chance possession of
a whale, which will furnish them with food, clothing, and
light through their long winter.

All these races, although they differ-in habits and external
appearance, are but varieties of one species. There is not so
marked a distinction between the European and Negro, as
between the light and active racer, and the heavy brewer's
horse ; yet no one attempts to deny that these are one species.
The varieties in man are permanent ; that is, the child of
Negro parents will be a Negro, and the child of Malay parents
will be a Malay, but that is no proof of a distinct species, as
precisely the same argument may be used with regard to the
horse. The mind is the important part of man, not the
body ; and though the outward bodies of men differ, the
mind is the same in all, and in all capable of improvement
arid cultivation.

It were an easy task to prove the unity of mankind by
Scriptural proofs, but I have thought it better to use rational
arguments, as so-called reason was the weapon used to dis-
prove the facts which the Scriptures asserted. Sufficient, I
trust, has been said to show that man " has dominion over
the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over
every living thing that moveth upon the earth ;" and also
that the whole of mankind forms one great family, precisely
according to the Scriptural assertion, that Eve was "the
mother of all living."

The migration of the human race, or their progress frcm
one part of the world to another, is a question of considerable
difficulty. Many parts of the earth, such as islands, could
not be reached without some artificial means to enable men
to cross the water. This implies some degree of civilization,
as boats or rafts are the result of much thought and some
skill. The question is. yet to be answered. Pickering has
published a map containing the probable route of mankind
through the earth. He appears to think that the oft mooted
problem of the population of America is not very difficult of
solution, as the Aleutian Isles form a chain of spots easily
traversed by the skin-covered canoes which are still in use
among those islands.*

* Pickering's Races of Man. Hall's Edition, p. 296.

10 NATURAL HISTORY.

All nations which have preserved traditions of past events
agree in many points in a very remarkable manner. All have
some traditions of a creation, not always of a world, but of
that particular part in which they reside. The Fiji islanders
believe that one of their gods fished up Fiji from the bottom
of the sea, by entangling his fish-hook in a rock, and that the
island would have been higher had not the line broken. The
fish-hook is still preserved as a proof, but they do not state
where the god stood while fishing. A traveller asked one of
the priests why the hook, an ordinary tortoishell one, did not
break ? " Oh ! it was a god's hook and could not break."
But why then did the line break ? Whereupon the man,
according to the prevailing system of argument in those
countries, and perhaps in a few others, threatened to knock
him down if he abused the gods any more. Most nations
have dim notions of a deluge which overwhelmed the whole
world, and from which only a few individuals escaped, by
whom the earth was repeopled. Nearly all believe in a
good and an evil power continually at warfare, and that the
good will finally subdue the evil. Many savage nations, in
consequence, seek to propitiate the evil power with prayers and
offerings, feeling sure that the good one will not injure them.

All nations (except one or two, such as the abject Bosjes-
man, who can form no idea of what he cannot see, and whose
answer when told of a God, is " Let me see him") believe in
a future state. Their belief is invariably modified according
to their habits. Some of the debased dark races believe that
after death .they become whjte men and have plenty of
money ; the Mahometan cons ders his paradise as an abode
of everlasting sensual indulgence ; the savage believes that
when he leaves this world he will pass to boundless hunting-
fields, where shall be no want of game, and where his arrows
shall never miss their aim ; the Christian knows his heaven
to be a place of unspeakable and everlasting happiness, where
the power of sin shall have ceased for ever.

The mind of man is much influenced by outward objects
and the society by which it is surrounded. If a man be con-
fined to one spot, or within certain bounds, his mind becomes
feeble in proportion to the isolation. The rustic, whose ideas
never wander from the farm on which he works, and whose

NATURAL HISTORY. 11

travels are circumscribed by his native village, or, at most,
by a casual visit to the nearest market town, exhibits a mind
which has received a certain set of ideas, false as well as true,
and which refuses alike to admit new notions or to give up
any of the old.

So great is the influence of society on the mind, that an
experienced clergyman, while examining some candidates for
Confirmation, observed that the Oxford children were two
years in advance of those of the same age who had been bred
in the country. So with music, a town child is accustomed
to hear street music, and readily catches the air, while the
country child* whose notions of music are confined to the
dismal hosannas and lugubrious psalmody of the village
church, is usually devoid of musical ear, but is great in imita-
tion of rooks, cows, pigs, and donkeys.

The most perfect case of isolation known, was that of the
celebrated Kaspar Hauser, who had been confined for the
first fourteen or fifteen years of his life in a dark cave, and
was never permitted even to see his keeper. In consequence,
when he at length left his dungeon, his mind was that of an
infant, his body that of a man. It would have been a most
interesting and important experiment to watch the gradual
development of his mind, but, unfortunately for science, an
unknown dagger reached his heart, and this mysterious
victim of a hidden plot perished, leaving the riddle of his
life unsolved and the development of his intellect unfinished.
This furnishes us with another distinction between man and
beasts. When the mind of Hauser was released from its
bands, it at once began to expand, and every day gave it
fresh powers. Not so with the ape, whose brain is rapidly
developed when young, and receives no further increase as it
grows in stature.

SKULL OP MAN.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family II. Simiadce. — (Lat. Simia, an ape — Ape kind.)
TROGLODYTES. — (Gr. Tpu-yfy, a hole ; 6vu, to creep.)

Niger (Lat. black), the Chimpansee.

THE section Q,uadrumana includes the apes, baboons, and
monkeys. The name of Quadrumana is given to these animals
because, in addition to two hands like those of man, their feet
are also formed like hands, and are capable of grasping the
branches among which most monkeys pass their lives.

Apes are placed at the head of the Gluadrumana because
their instinct is mostly superior to that of the baboons and
monkeys, of whom the former are usually sullen and ferocious,
and the latter volatile and mischievous.

The Chimpansee and the Orang-outan have been con-
founded together by the older naturalists, whose error has
been repeated even to the present time. That they are really

NATURAL HISTORY. 13

distinct animals a glance at the skull of each will at once
prove. The Chimpansee is a native of Western Africa, and is
tolerably common on the banks of the Gambia and in Congo.

Large bands of these formidable apes congregate together
and unite in repelling an invader, which they do with such
fury and courage that even the dreaded elephant and lion are
driven from their haunts by their united efforts. They live
principally on the ground, and, as their name imports, spend
much of their time in caves or under rocks. Their height
is from four to five feet, but they are said not to reach this
growth until nine or ten years of age.

Several young chimpansees have been recently imported
into this country, and have shown themselves very docile
and gentle ; but, had they lived, they would probably in a
few years have become fierce and obstinate, as apes almost
invariably are when they reach their full growth.

SKULL OF CIIIMPAXSEE.

THE ORANG-OTJTAN.

The ORANG-OUTAN inhabits Borneo and Sumatra. In Borneo
there . are certainly two species of orarig, called by the natives
the Mias-kassar and the Mias-pappan. Some naturalists sup-
pose that the Surnatran orang is also a distinct species.

Tiiis is the largest of all the apes, as it is said that orangs
have been obtained from Borneo considerably above five feet
in height. The strength of this animal is tremendous ; a
female snapped a strong spear asunder after having received
many severe wounds. Its arms are of extraordinary length,
the hands reaching the ground when it stands erect. This
length of arm is admirably adapted for climbing trees, on
which it principally resides. Mr. Brooke, the Rajah of Sara-
wak, gives the following account of the orangs of Borneo.
\ here appears also to be a third species, the Mias-rombi : —

11 NATURAL HISTORY.

" On the habits of the orangs, as far as I have been able to
observe them, I may remark that they are as dull arid as
slothful as can well be conceived, and on no occasion, when
pursuing them, did they move so fast as to preclude my keep-
ing pace with them easily through a moderately clear forest ;
and even when obstructions below (such as wading up to

SIM I A.

Satyrus (Gr. ^Larvpog, a satyr), the Orang-outan.

the neck) allowed them to get away some distance, they were
sure to stop and allow us to come up. I never observed the
slightest attempt at defence ; and the wood, which sometimes
rattled about our ears, was broken by their weight, and not
thrown, as some persons represent. If pushed to extremity,
however, the pappan could not be otherwise than formidable ;
and one unfortunate man. who with a party was trying to
catch one alive, lost two of his fingers, besides being severely
bitten on the face, whilst the animal finally beat off his pur-

NATURAL HISTORY. 15

suers and escaped. When they wish to catch an adult, they
cut down a circle of trees round the one on which he is seated,
and then fell that also, and close before he can recover him-
self, and endeavour to bind him.

" The rude hut which they are stated to build in the trees
would be more properly called a seat, or nest, for it has no
roof or cover of any sort. The facility with which they form
this seat is curious ; and I had an opportunity of seeing a
wounded female weave the branches together, and seat her-
self in a minute. She afterwards received our fire without
moving, and expired in her lofty abode, whence it cost us
much trouble to dislodge her.

"The pappan is justly named Satyras, from the ugly face
and disgusting callosities. The adult male I killed was seated
lazily on a tree ; and when approached only took the trouble
to interpose the trunk between us, peeping at me, and dodg-
ing as I dodged. I hit him on the wrist, and he was after-
wards dispatched. I send you his proportions, enormous
relative to his height ; and until I came to actual measure-
ment my impression was that he was nearly six feet in
stature.

" The great difference between the kassar and the pappan
in size would prove at once the distinction of the two species ;
the kassar being a small slight animal, by no means for-
midable in his appearance, with hands and feet proportioned
to the body, and they do not approach the gigantic extremi-
ties of the pappan either in size or power ; and, in short, a
moderately strong man would readily overpower one, when he
would not stand a shadow of a chance with the pappan."

When young the Orang-outan is very docile, and has been
taught to make its own bed, and to handle a cup and saucer,
or a spoon, with tolerable propriety. For the former occu-
pation it proved itself particularly apt, as it not only laid its
own bed-clothes smooth and comfortable, but exhibited much
ingenuity in stealing blankets from other beds, which it added
to its own. The young Orang in the collection of the Zoolo-
gical Society evinced extreme horror at the sight of a small
tortoise, and, when the reptile was introduced into its den,
stood aghast in a most ludicrously terrified attitude, with its
eyes intently fixed on the frightful object.

16

NATURAL HISTORY.

HYLOBATES. — (Gr. vhrj, a wood ; paivu, to traverse.)

Agilis (Lat. act'we), the Agile Gibbon, or Oungka

The AGILE GIBBON is a native of Sumatra. It derives its
name of Agile, from the wonderful activity it displays in
launching itself through the air from branch to branch.
One of these creatures that was exhibited in London some
time since, sprang with the greatest ease through distances of
twelve arid eighteen feet ; and when apples or nuts were
thrown to her while in the air, she would catch them with-
out discontinuing her course. She kept up a succession of
springs, hardly touching the branches in her progress, con-
tinually uttering a musical but almost deafening cry. She
was very tame and gentle, and would permit herself to be
touched or caressed. The height of the Gibbon is about three
feet, and the reach of the extended arms about six feet.
The young Gibbon is usually of a paler colour than its parent.
There are several species of Gibbon, amongst which some

NATURAL HISTORY. 17

naturalists include the Siamang, a monkey chiefly celebrated
for the pains it takes to wash the faces of its young, a duty
which it conscientiously performs in spite of the struggles and
screams of its aggrieved offspring.

PRESBYTES. — (Gr. Trpeaj3vrrjc, un old man.)

Vll.^'

Larvatus (Lat. masked) Kahau, or Proboscis Monkey.

The KAHAU is a native of Borneo. It derives its name
from the cry it utters, which is a repetition of the word
" Kahau." It is remarkable for the extraordinary size and
shape of its nose, and the natives relate that while leaping
it holds that organ with its paws, apparently to guard it
against the branches. The length of its head and body is
two feet.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Entellus (Lat. A proper name), the Entcllus Monkey.

The ENTELLUS, or Hoonuman, is a native of India. It is
astonishingly active in the capture of serpents. It steals
upon the snake when asleep, seizes it by the neck, runs to
the nearest stone, and deliberately grinds down the reptile's
head until the poisonous fangs are destroyed, frequently in-
specting its work and grinning at the impotent struggles of
the tortured reptile. When the snake is rendered harmless
the monkey casts it to its young, who, after tossing about and
exulting over their fallen enemy for some time, finally destroy
it. The length of its head arid body is about two foet two
inches.

Seven genera are omitted on account of want of space.

NATURAL HISTORY.
CYNOCEPIIALUS. — (Gr. /cvwv, a dog; /ce^aA?/, a head.)

Mormon (Gr. Mo/y^i', n. bogie), the Mandrill.

"We now arrive at the BABOONS. This tribe is principally
distinguished from the apes by their short and insignificant
looking tails. The baboons are the only mammalia which
exhibit brilliant colours ; on these, however, nature has
bestowed vivid tints hardly to be surpassed even by the
gorgeous plumage of the tropical birds.

The Mandrill, which is the most conspicuous of the baboon
tribe, is a native of Guinea and western Africa. It is chiefly
remarkable' for the vivid colours with which it is adorned.
Its cheeks are of a brilliant blue, its muzzle of a bright
scarlet, and a stripe of crimson runs along the centre of its
nose. These colours are set off by the purple hues of the
hinder quarters. It lives principally in forests filled with
brushwood, from which it makes incursions into the nearest
villages, plundering them with impunity. On this account it
is much dreaded by the natives, who feel themselves incapable
of resisting its attacks. It is excessively ferocious, arid easily
excited to anger ; indeed, Cuvier relates that he has seen
several of these animals expire from the violence of their fury.

20 NATURAL HISTORY.

The greenish brown colour of the hair is caused by alternate
bands of yellow and black, which exist on each hair. The
brilliant colours referred to above belong to the skin, and fade
after death, or when the animal is not in perfect health.

Family IIT. *Cebidre. — (Gr. K#/3of, a monkey. Monkey kind.)
ATELK:. — (Gr. «re/l/)f, imperfect.)

Paniscus (Gr. HavicKO£, dim. of Tray, a little Pan), tlie Coaita
Monkey.

The AMERICAN MONKEYS, or Cebidae, are found exclusively
in South America, and are never seen north of Panama. Their
tails are invariably long, and in some genera, prehensile.

The Coaita is one of the Spider Monkeys, so called from
their long slender limbs, and their method of progressing
among the branches. The tail seems to answer the purpose
of a fifth hand, as it is capable of being used for every pur-
pose to which the hand could be applied ; indeed, the Spider

* Pronounce Kebirfae,

NATURAL HISTORY. 21

Monkeys are said to use this member for hooking out objects
where a hand could not be inserted. The tail is of considerable
use in climbing among the branches of trees ; they coil it
round the boughs to lower or raise themselves, and often will
suspend themselves entirely by it, and then by a powerful
impetus swing off to some distant branch. The habits of all
the Spider Monkeys are very similar. They are extremely
sensitive to cold, and when chilly are in the habit of wrapping
their tail about them, so that this useful organ answers the
purpose of a boa as well as a hand. They will also, when
shot, fasten their tail so firmly on the branches, that they
remain suspended after death. The genus is called Ateles,
or imperfect, because in most of the species the thumb is
wanting. The Coaita inhabits Surinam and Guinea.
Several genera are omitted.

MYCKTES. — (Gr.

r?/^, a howler.)

Urslntis (Lat. Ursa, a bear — Bearlike), the Ursine Howler.

The HOWLING MONKEYS are larger and more clumsy than
the Spider Monkeys, and are chiefly remarkable for the pecu-
liarity from which they derive their name. These animal

22 NATURAL HISTORY.

possess an enlargement in the throat, which renders their cry
exceedingly loud and mournful. They howl in concert, prin-
cipally at the rising and setting of the sun ; one monkey
begins the cry, which is gradually taken up by the rest,
precisely as may be observed in a colony of rooks. They are
iii great request among the natives as articles of food, their
slow habits rendering them an easy prey.

The Ursine Howler, or Araguato, is common in Brazil,
where forty or fifty have been observed on one tree. They
generally travel in files, an old monkey taking the lead, and
the others following in due order. They feed principally on
leaves and fruit ; the tail is prehensile like that of the Spider
Monkeys.

The genus Cebus is omitted.

CALLITHIUX. — (Gr. KaAor, beautiful; Opit;, hair.)

Torquatus (Lat. torquis, a necklace — Collared), the Collared Tee Tec.

The beautiful little animals here represented belong to the
Squirrel Monkeys, so called on account of their large bushy
tails.

The COLLARED TEE TEE, or White-throated Squirrel Monkey,
is found to the east of the Orinoco. It lives on small birds,

NATURAL HISTORY.

insects, and fruits. Its habits are, apparently, mild and in-
offensive, but its acts belie its looks, for when a small bird is
presented to it, it springs upon its prey like a cat and speedily
devours it.

JACCHUS. — (Gr. "la/c^of, Bacchus.)

Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Marmoset.

The MARMOSET is a most interesting little creature. It is
exceedingly sensitive to cold, and when in England is usually
occupied in nestling among the materials for its bed, which it
heaps up in one corner, and out of which it seldom emerges
entirely. It will eat almost any article of food, but is espe-
cially fond of insects, which it dispatches in a very adroit
manner.* Its fondness for insects is carried so far, that it has
been known to pinch out the figures of beetles in an entomo-
logical work, and swallow them.

Several genera are omitted between Callithrix and Jacchus.

* The beautiful little marmoset in the Zoological Gardens ate a great number of
flies which 1 caught and presented to it. Its little eyes sparkled with eagerness each
time that it saw my hand moving towards a fly settled out of its reach.

NATURAL HISTORY.
Family IV. Lemuridse.— (Lat. lemures, ghosts— Ghostlike.)

LEMUR.

Macaco, the Ruffled Lemur.

The LEMURS derive their name from their nocturnal
habits, and their noiseless movements.. The Ruffled Lemur is

LORIS.

Gracflis (Lat. slender}, the Slender Loris.

a native of Madagascar. It lives in the depths of the forests,
and only moves by night, the entire day being spent in sleep.

NATURAL HISTORY. 25

Its food consists of fruits, insects, and small birds, which latter
it takes while they are sleeping. This is the largest of the
Lemurs, being rather larger than a cat.

The SLENDER Louis* is a native of India, Ceylon, &c. It,
like the Lemur, seldom moves by day, but prowls about at
night in search of food. No sooner does it espy a sleeping bird,
than it slowly advances until within reach ; then putting
forward its paw with a motion slow and imperceptible as the
movement of the shadow on the dial, it gradually places its
fingers over the devoted bird ; then, with a movement swifter
than the eye can follow, it seizes its startled prey.

Two genera are omitted between Lemur and Loris, and
several more between Loris and the Vespertilionidse.

Family V ... Vespertilionidaj. — Lat vcspertilio, a bat. Bat kind.)
Sub-family a. Phyllostomina, — (Gr. <pv2,hov, a leaf; aro/ua, a mouth.)
VAMPIRUS (" said by Adeluny to be of Servian origin")

**£-

Spectrum (Lat. a spectre), the Vampire Bat.

"We now arrive at the BATS, or Cheiroptera. This name is
derived from the singular manner in which their fore-paws, or

* See preceding page.
B

26 NATURAL PIISTORY.

hands are developed into wings. If the fingers of a man
were to be drawn out like wire to about four feet in length, a
thin membrane to extend from finger to finger, and another
membrane to fall from the little finger to the ancles, he would
make a very tolerable Bat.

The usual food of Bats is insects, which they mostly capture
on the wing, but some, as the. Vampires, suck blood from
other animals, and a few, as the Kalongo, or Flying Fox, live
upon fruits, and so devour the mangoes, that the natives arc
forced to cover them with bamboo baskets to preserve them
from the ravages of these animals, who would soon strip the
fruit-trees without these precautions. Even the cocoa nut is
not secure from their depredations.

The membrane of the Bat's wing is plentifully supplied
with nerves, and is extremely sensitive, almost appearing to
supply a sense independent of sight. Spallanzani cruelly
deprived several Bats of their eyes, and then let them fly loose
in his room, across which he had stretched strings in various
places. The unfortunate Bats, however, did not strike against
the strings or any other obstacles, but threaded their way
among them with a degree of accuracy perfectly wonderful.
Many Bats possess a similar membrane on the nose, which is
apparently used for the same purpose.

There are five tribes, or sub-families, of Bats, according to
Gray, each tribe including many genera. The British Museum
possesses seventy-seven genera.

The Vampire Bat is a native of South America, where it is
very common, and held in some dread. It lives on the blood
of animals, and sucks usually while its victim sleeps. The
extremities where the blood flows freely, as the toe of a man,
the ears of a horse, or the combs and wattles of fowls, are its
favourite spots. When it has selected a subject, on which it
intends to feed, it watches until the animal is fairly asleep.
It then carefully fans its victim with its wings while it bites
a little hole in the ear or shoulder, and through this small
aperture, into which a pin's head would scarcely pass, it con-
trives to abstract sufficient blood to make a very ample meal.
The wound is so small, and the Bat manages so adroitly, that
the victim does not discover that anything has happened until
the morning, when a pool of lljlood betrays the visit of the

NATURAL HISTORY. 27

Vampire. I)arwin relates, that while travelling in Chili,
" We were bivouacking late one evening near Coquimbo, when
my servant, noticing that one of the horses was very restive,
went to see what was the matter, and fancying he could dis-
tinguish something, suddenly put his hand on the beast's
withers, and secured a Vampire. In the morning, the spot
where the bite had been inflicted was. easily distinguished, from
being slightly swollen and bloody." This Bat is placed among
the Phyllostomina, because the membrane on its nose re-
sembles a leaf. The length of its body is about six inches.

SKULL OF BAT. HAIR OF BAT.«

. THE LONG-EARED BAT.

The LONG-EARED BAT is found in most parts of Europe, and
is common in England. It may be seen any warm evening
flying about in search of insects, and uttering its peculiar
shrill cry. It is very common on Hampstead Heath. The
cars are about an inch and a half in length, and have a fold
in them reaching almost to the lips, from which peculiarity
the genus is called Plecotus. These Bats are very easily
tamed, and will takes flies and other insects from the hand.
One that I had in my own possession used to hang by the
wing-hooks during the whole of the day, and could hardly be
persuaded to move, or even to eat ; but when the evening
came on it became very brisk indeed, and after carefully
combing itself with its hind feet, it would eagerly seize a fly
or beetle and devour it, always rejecting the head, legs, and
wings. It was then very impatient to be released from the
cage, and would show its uneasiness by climbing about the
cage and fluttering its wings. It unfortunately died before
further investigations could be made, but during the short

* Magnified about 200 diameters.

23 NATURAL HISTORY.

time that it survived, it seemed very gentle, and only bit me
once, although I used frequently to handle it.

Sub-family c. Vcspertilionina.
TLECOTUS. — (Gr. IDA-w, I fold; ovg, an ear.)

Aurltus (Lat. auris, an ear — Eared), the Long-cared Bat,

Order II FER^E.—(Lo.i. ferus, wild. Wild beasts.)

Family I. . . . Felidse. — (Lat. felis, a cat. Cat kind.)
Sub-family a. Fdlna.

THE former sections have been characterised by the number
and properties of the hands. In the section that we are about
to consider, the hands have been modified into feet. At the
head of the quadrupeds, or four-footed animals, are placed the
carnivora, or flesh-eaters, and at the head of the carnivora, the
Felidse, or Cat kind are placed, as being the most perfect and
beautiful in that section. The Felidse all take their prey by
creeping as near as they can without observation, and then
springing upon their unfortunate victim, which seldom suc-
ceeds in making its escape, as the powerful claws and teeth of
its enemy usually dash it insensible to the ground. The jaws
and teeth of the Felidse are very different from those of the
animals already described ; their jaws are more powerful, and

NATURAL HISTORY. 29

their teeth longer and sharper. Their claws, too, are neces-
sarily very long and sharp, and to prevent them from being
injured by coming into contact with the ground, they are con-
cealed, when not in use, in a sheath, which effectually guards
them and keeps them sharp. The tongue of the Felidee is very
rough, as may be proved by feeling the tongue of a cat. This
roughness is occasioned by innumerable little hooks which
cover the tongue, and all point backwards. These are used
for the purpose of licking the flesh off the bones of their prey.
The bristles of the mouth, or whiskers, are each connected
with a large nerve, and are exceedingly useful in indicating
an obstacle when the animal prowls by night. Their eyes are
adapted for nocturnal vision by the dilating power of the pupil,
which expands so as to take in every ray of light.

THE LIOK

The LION stands at the head of the wild beasts. His noble
and dignified bearing, the terrific power compressed into his
comparatively small frame, and the deep majesty of his voice,
have gained for him the name of " king of beasts." The Lion
inhabits Africa and certain parts of Asia, such as portions of
Arabia and Persia, and some parts of India. It varies in
appearance according to the locality, but there is little doubt
that there is but one species. We are indebted to Mr. Gumming
for many interesting notices of this noble animal, observed
during his residence in Southern Africa, and from his book
many extracts will be given in the course of this work, as by
his cool and daring courage he has been enabled to watch the
habits and actions of the most ferocious beasts in the depths
of their own haunts.

The Lion is barely four feet high, and eight in length, yet
he can, with little difficulty, dash the giraffe to the earth, or
overcome the powerful buffalo. He has been known to carry
off a heifer in his mouth, and although encumbered with such
a burden, to leap a broad dyke, apparently with the greatest
case. No animal willingly molests the Lion, and there are
but very few which he cannot overcome. The rhinoceros and
elephant are almost the only quadrupeds he dare not meddle

NATURAL HISTORY.

with, but he does not seem to stand in' much fear of them.
Gnoos, zebras, and antelopes, seem to be his favorite prey,
although one of the antelopes, the oryx, or gemsbok, not

LEO. — (Lat. a Lion.)

Barbarus (Lat. fierce), the Lion.

unfrequently avenges its own death by the destruction of its
pursuer, its long straight horns impaling the Lion from side
to side. The two skeletons have been seen lying together.
The roar of the Lion is one of its chief peculiarities ; the best
description of it is in Gumming' s Adventures : —

" One of the most striking things connected with the Lion
is his voice, which is extremely grand and peculiarly striking.
It consists, at times, of a low, deep moaning, repeated five or
six times, ending in faintly audible sighs ; at other times he
startles the forest with loud, deep-toned, solemn roars, repeated
five or six times in quick succession, each increasing in loud-
ness to the third or fourth, when his voice dies away in five
or six low, muffled sounds, very much resembling distant
thunder. At times, and not unfrequently, a troop may be
heard roaring in concert, one assuming the lead, and two,

NATURAL HISTORY. 31

three, or four more regularly taking up their parts like persons
singing a catch."

" As a general rule lions roar during the night, their sigh-
ing moans commencing as the shades of evening envelope
"the forest, and continuing at intervals throughout the night.
In distant and secluded regions, however, I have constantly
heard them roaring loudly as late as nine and ten o'clock on
a bright sunny morning. In hazy and rainy weather they
are to be heard at every hour in the day, but their roar is sub-
dued."

The opinion that lions will not touch a dead animal is
erroneous ; as they were frequently shot by Mr. Cummirig
while devouring gnoos, &c., that had fallen by his rifle.
Those lions who have once tasted human flesh are generally
the most to be dreaded, as they will even venture to spring
in among a company of men, and seize their victim. These
lions are called Man-eaters. During the latter part of Cum-
ming's residence in South Africa a dreadful instance of their
ferocity occurred. — "While the hunting party was encamped
for the night in the territory of the Balakahari, a lion, taking
advantage of the stormy night, suddenly sprang upon two
men, Hendrick, the driver, and Ruyter, the Bosjesmari tracker,
who were wrapped in the same blanket, by the fire. It seized
Hendrick by the neck, and dragged him into the bushes, in
spite of the blows which another man gave it with a burning
brand, leaving Ruyter unhurt except by a few scratches with
its claws. Next morning it was shot by Mr. Gumming, who
placed its skin in his magnificent collection, where Ruyter
points it out with great glee.

The Lioness is much smaller than the Lion, and is destitute
of the magnificent mane which is so great an ornament to her
mate. As a general rule she is more fierce and active than
the male, especially before she has had cubs, or while she is
suckling them. She has usually from two to four cubs at a
time. They are beautiful playful little things, and are slightly
striped. They have no mane until about two years old.^
While her cubs are small the Lioness knows no fear, and will
attack a company of men or a herd of oxen if they come too

* Some years since, one of the keepers at Wombwell's placed a pair of lion cubs
in my arms. They were rather larger than cats, and almost unpleasantly playful.

32 NATURAL HISTORY.

near her den. Her mate also ably seconds her endeavours,
and has been known to keep the hunters at bay until she has
withdrawn her cubs to a place of safety, after which he bounds
off in the direction which she has taken.

The lion when young is easily tamed, and shows a strong
attachment to its keeper. Those who have seen Van Amburgh
will know what influence man may obtain over this powerful
creature. Many anecdotes have been told of the celebrated
lion " Nero," who would suffer even strangers to caress him,
and carry children on his back with the greatest good-nature.

Many naturalists, of whom Buffon is the (Jhief, have fallen
into errors concerning the contradictory dispositions of the
lion and tiger. "The lion unites with a high degree of
fierceness, courage, and strength, the more admirable qualities
of nobleness, clemency, and magnanimity. Walking with a
gentle step, he does not deign to attack man urdess provoked
to the combat. He neither quickens his step nor flies, and
never pursues the inferior animals except when urged by
hunger," while the tiger " presents a compound of meanness
and ferocity ; he seems always thirsty for blood," &c. &c. Now
nothing can be more erroneous than these sentences. The
tiger is as tameable as the lion, the tiger and lion seize their
prey with equal ferocity, and neither will attack a man or any
other animal when satisfied with food.

There is a small hook or claw at the extremity of the lion's
tail, which has been represented as the means by which the
animal lashes itself into fury, using it as a spur. This is im-
possible, as the claw or prickle is very small, not fixed to the
bone as the claws of the feet are, but merely attached to the
skin, and falls off if roughly handled. It is not present in all
lions, as Mr. Wood only discovered it once out of numerous
specimens which he examined.^

* In the Nineveh Sculptures this claw is very strongly marked.

NATURAL HISTORY.
TIGRIS. — (Lat. a Tiger. ,)

Regalis (Lat royal), the Tiger.

This magnificent animal is found only in Asia, Hindostan
being the part most infested by it. In size it is almost equal
to the lion, its height being from three to four feet, and its
length rather more than eight feet. It has no mane, but to
compensate for this deficiency it is decorated with black
stripes, upon a ground of reddish yellow fur, which becomes
almost white on the under parts of the body. The chase of
the TIGER is among the most exciting and favourite sports in
India. A number of hunters assemble, mounted on elephants
trained to the sport, and carry with them a supply of loaded
rifles in their howdahs, or carriages mounted on the elephants'
backs. Thus armed, they proceed to the spot where a tiger
has been seen. The animal is usually found hidden in the long
grass or jungle, which is frequently eight or more feet in
height, and when roused, it endeavours to creep away under
the grass. The movement of the leaves betrays him, and he

34 NATURAL HISTORY.

is checked by a rifle ball aimed at him through the jungle.
Finding that he cannot escape without being seen, he turns
round, and springs at the nearest elephant, endeavouring to
clamber up it, and attack the party in the howdah. This is
the most dangerous part of the proceedings, as many elephants
will turn round and run away, regardless of the efforts of
their drivers to make them face the tiger. Should, however,
the elephant stand firm, a well-directed ball checks the tiger
in his spring, and he then endeavours again to escape, but a
volley of rifle balls from the backs of the other elephants, who
by this time have come up, lays the savage animal prostrate,
and in a very short time his skin decorates the successful
marksman's howdah. These hunts are not carried on without
considerable danger, as in some cases the tiger has succeeded
in reaching the howdah, and more than one hunter has been
known to overbalance himself in his anxiety to get a shot at
his game, and has fallen into the very claws of the enraged
brute. Once a wounded tiger sprang at a badly trained
elephant, who immediately turned round and made off. The
tiger succeeded in reaching the elephant's tail, which it
mangled dreadfully, but could climb no higher, partly ou
account of its wounds, and partly through the exertions of
a native, who kept it back with a spear. The tiger hung in
this way for the greater part of a mile, when another hunter
succeeded in overtaking the terrified elephant, and with a
single ball freed the poor animal from its tormentor.

Tigers are usually taken by the natives in pitfalls, at the
bottom of which is planted a bamboo stake, the top of which
is sharpened into a point. The animal falls on the point and
is impaled.

The general notion that tigers cannot be tamed is erroneous.
They can be tamed as easily as the liori ; but great caution
must be used with all wild animals, as in a moment of irrita-
tion their savage nature breaks out, and the consequences
have more than once proved fatal. The melancholy death of
the " Lion Q.ueen," in "Wombwell's Menagerie, is a recent
example of this propensity.

In the British Museum are three cubs bred between a lion
and a tigress. They are not unlike lion cubs, but the stripes
are much darker, and the colour of the fur is brighter.

NATURAL HISTORY. 33

LEOPARDUS. — (Lat. Ico, a lion ; pardus, a panther.)

Varius (Lat. varied), the Leopard, or Panther.

The LEOPARD is an inhabitant of Africa, India, and the
Indian Islands. A black variety inhabits Java, and is not
uncommon there. Its height is about two feet. This and the
following Felidse are accustomed to live much on trees, and
are on that account called Tree-tigers by the natives. Nothing-
can be more beautiful than the elegant and active manner in
which the leopards sport among the branches of the trees :
at one time they will bound from branch to branch with such
rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow them ; then, as if
tired, they will suddenly stretch themselves along a branch,
so as to be hardly distinguishable from the bark, but start up
again on the slightest provocation, and again resume their
graceful antics. It is easily tamed, and expresses great fond-
ness for its keeper, and will play with him like a cat. A
remarkably beautiful one in Wombwell's Menagerie was ex-
ceedingly fond of playing with the tuft at the extremity of a
lion's tail, and from the familiar manner in which he patted
and bit it, he evidently considered it as manufactured for his
own particular entertainment. The Leopard and Panther are
considered as the same animal, on the authority of Mr. Gray.

NATURAL HISTORY.

LKOPARDUS.

Uncia (Lat. uncia, an ounce), the Ounce.

The OUNCE is a native of India, and has been often con-
founded with the Leopard. Its fur is much more rough than
that of the leopard, and the tail is almost bushy, especially
towards the extremity. Its body is marked with irregular
wavy stripes, and the head is adorned with black spots. The
general colour is a yellowish grey.

It is easy to distinguish the Ounce from the Leopard, by
the indistinct! veness of the markings, and also by the rough-
ness of the fur, which latter distinction, in the opinion of
some naturalists, shows that it lives in mountainous regions.
The habits and history of this animal are but little known.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Onca (Gr. Oy/ca, a proper name), the Jaguar.

The JAGUAR inhabits America. It is larger and more
powerful than the leopard, which it resembles in colour, but
has a black streak across the chest, and a black spot in the
centre of the rosettes. It is fond of climbing trees, and finds
little difficulty in ascending, even when the trunk is smooth
and destitute of branches. It chases monkeys successfully,
and is said to watch for turtles on the beach, and to scoop
out their flesh by turning them on their backs and inserting
its paws between the shells. It often makes fearful havoc
among the sheep-folds, and is said to depart so far from the
usual habits of the Felidse, as to enter the water after fish,
and to capture them in shallow water. There have been
instances of the domestic cat acting in the same manner.

NATURAL HISTORY.

LEOPARDUS.

Concolor (Lat. of the same colour], the Puma.

The PUMA inhabits the whole of America, where it is held
in much dread by the natives. Its colour is an uniform
grey, fading into white on the under parts of its body ; this
similarity of colour is the reason that the name " concolor"
has been given to it. It lives much on trees, and usually lies
along the branches, where its uniform dusky fur renders it so
like the bark that it can scarcely be distinguished from the
branch. This habit it preserves when in captivity, and
many persons pass its den in the Zoological Gardens, fancy-
ing it empty, while the Puma is lying along its shelf un-
observed.

The Americans always speak of this animal as the panther,
or " painter," as it is more familiarly pronounced ; and many
authors still term it the " cougar" a word contracted from
the original elongated unpronounceable Mexican name.

NATURAL HISTORY. 39

Pardalis (Gr. 7rap<5a/Uf, a pard), the Ocelot.

The OCELOT, one of the Tiger-cats, is a native of Mexico
and Peru. Its height is about eighteen inches, and its length
about three feet. It is a most beautiful animal, and is easily
tamed. When in a wild state it lives principally on monkeys,
which it takes by stratagem.

THE CAT.

The domestic CAT was formerly supposed to be the same
animal as the wild Cat, but it is now proved to be a distinct
species, and the difference is seen at once by the form of the
tail. That of the domestic cat is long and taper, while that
of the wild cat is bushy and short. The cat is an animal
which, whether lying curled up on the hearth-rug fast asleep
and immersed in dreams of shadowy fat mice, or leisurely
pacing the room, and complacently muttering its self-satisfied
purr as it brushes softly against the legs of the table or chair,
certainly succeeds in giving a great air of comfort to a room.
On this account it is a general favourite, especially in houses
where there are no children. Pussy, however, is not only
ornamental, but useful also, as she is eager and successful in

40 NATURAL HISTORY.

the pursuit of rats and mice. So strong, indeed, is the passion
for hunting in the breast of the Cat, that she sometimes dis-
dains mice "and such small deer," aud trespasses on warrens
or preserves. A large tabby cat, residing at no great distance
from White Horse Vale, was accustomed to go out poaching
in the preserves of a neighbouring nobleman, and so expert
was she at this illegal sport that she constantly returned
bearing in .her mouth a leveret or a partridge, which she in-
sisted on presenting to her mistress, who in vain endeavoured
to check her marauding propensities. These exploits, how-
ever, brought their own punishment ; for one day, when in the

Domestica (Lat. domestic), the Cat.

act of seizing a leveret, she found herself caught in a vermin
trap, which deprived her of one of her hind legs. This mis'
fortune did not damp her enthusiasm for hunting, as although
the loss of a leg prevented her from chasing hares, &c., she
would still bring in an occasional rat.

This instinctive desire of hunting seems to be implanted in
cats at a very early age. I have seen kittens but just able to
see, bristle up at the touch of a mouse, and growl in a terrific
manner if disturbed. Weissenborn in his Magazine of Natural
History gives the following interesting account of the propen-
sity of the cat to hunt, and of the mice to escape, both being

NATURAL HISTORY. 41

at an age rendering it impossible that any instruction could
have been given them by their parents.

" That instinct is an inherent or innate quality of animals
is clearly proved by experience. The cat possesses the in-
stinct of catching and eating mice, and the mouse that of
shunning the cat as its most dangerous enemy. Once, in
Rome, I happened to open a drawer which I seldom had occa-
sion to use, when I saw a mouse jumping out of it, and found
among the papers a nest with five young mice, naked arid blind,
and of a pale-flesh colour. I placed them on a table, handled
them, &c., and they evinced no symptoms of fright, nor any
inclination to get away, but only appeared eager to approach
each other for the sake of warmth. There happened to be in
the house a very young cat who had never tasted anything
but milk. I placed it near the little mice by way of experi-
ment, but to my astonishment it did not even look at them,
nor perceive them, even when I turned its eyes in the proper
direction, until at last, when I had repeatedly approached its
nose to the mice, it suddenly caught a scent which made it
tremble with desire. The propensity became more and more
violent, and the cat smelled at the mice, touching them with
its nose, when all at once the pale-coloured creatures became
suffused with blood, and began to make great exertions to get
out of the way of imminent danger, whilst the cat as eagerly
followed them."

The Cat displays a great affection for her kittens, and her
pride when they first run about is quite amusing. While I
was an undergraduate at College, a cat belonging to the
baker's department formed a great friendship for me, and
used to come every morning and evening to obtain her share
of breakfast and tea. She continued her attentions for some
time, but one morning she was absent from her accustomed
corner, nor did she return until nearly a week had passed,
when she came again, but always seemed uneasy unless the
door were open. A few days afterwards she came up as usual,
and jumped on my knee, at the same time putting a little
kitten into my hand. She refused to take it back again, so I
restored it to its brothers and sisters myself. A few hours
afterwards, on going into my bedroom, I found another black
kitten fast asleep on the bed.

42 NATURAL HISTORY.

There are several varieties of the domestic cat, among which
the Angora cats, with their beautiful long fur, and the Manx
cats of the Chartreuse breed, which have no tails, are the most
conspicuous.

The CARACAL is found in most parts of Asia and Africa. It
derives its name from the black tips of its ears, which render
it a very conspicuous animal. It is one of the group of the
Lynxes, and is generally supposed to be the animal referred
to by several ancient authors under the name of Lynx. It
lives on the smaller quadrupeds and birds, which it pursues
even to the tops of the trees. There are no records of its
being tamed, as in every instance when confined it snarls at
those who approach its cage. The length of its body is about
two feet, and its height about fourteen inches.
CARACAL. — (Turk, black' ears.)

Melanotis (Gr. /Lt&a?, black ; ov?, an ear), the Caracal.

" 1. Tail of Domestic Cat.

2. Tail of Wild Cat.

NATURAL HISTORY.
Lvxcrs. — (Gr. /ItJjf, a Lynx.)

Canadensis (Lat. of Canada), the Canada Lynx.

The CANADA LYNX is a native of North America, and is re-
markable for its gait. Its method of progression is by bounds
from all four feet at once with the back arched. It feeds
principally on the American hare, as it is not courageous
enough to attack the larger quadrupeds. Its length is about
three feet. The natives sometimes eat its flesh, which is
white and firm, and not unlike that of the American hare
itself. Its skin forms an important article in commerce, and
between seven and nine thousand are imported yearly by the
Hudson's Bay Company, by whom the grey specimen in the
British Museum was presented.

THE CHETAH.

The CHETAH, or HUNTING LEOPARD, as it is sometimes
called, is one of the most elegant and graceful animals known.
It is a native both of Africa and India, but it is only in the
latter country that it is used for hunting game, as the Africans
appear not to possess sufficient ingenuity to train the animal.
The method of employing it is usually as follows : — The
Chetah is either led blind-folded in a chain, or placed
upon a hackery, or native cart, and taken as near as possible

44 NATURAL HISTORY.

to the place where antelopes or deer are feeding. When close
enough, the hunter takes the band from its eyes, and directs
its head towards the game. Directly the Chetah sees the
deer, it creeps off the cart, and makes towards them as rapidly
and silently as it can, carefully availing itself of the accidental
cover of a bush, or stone, precisely as a cat does when stealing
after a bird. When it has succeeded in unobservedly ap-
proaching the unsuspecting herd, it makes two or three
tremendous springs, and fastens on the back of one unfortu-
nate deer, brings it to the ground, and waits until its keeper

Jubata (Lat. crested), tltf Chetah.

comes up, who induces it to leave its prey by a ladle-full of
the blood, which he takes care to have ready. The Chetah
is then hooded and led back to his cart. It is so easily tame-
able and so gentle that it is frequently led about the streets by
a string for sale.

It is rather larger than the leopard, and differs from it in
the length of its paws, its inability to climb trees, and the
crispness of its fur. It is therefore placed in a different genus
from the leopard. It derives its name of "jubata," from a
thin mane running down the neck.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family b. Hyenina.
HTJSNA.— (Gr. "Ycuva.)

Striata (Lat. striped), the Striped Hycena.

The HYENINA, or HYENAS, are remarkable for their pre-
datory, ferocious, and withal, cowardly habits. There are
several Hyaenas, the striped, the spotted, and the villose, but
as the habits of all are very similar, only one will be men-
tioned. The Hyaenas, although very repulsive in appearance,
are yet very useful, as they prowl in search of dead animals,
especially of the larger kinds, and will devour them even
when putrid, so that they act the same part among beasts
that the vultures do among birds, and are equally uninviting
in aspect. They not unfrequently dig up recently interred
corpses, and in Abyssinia, according to Bruce, they even flock
in numbers into the village streets, where they prey on
slaughtered men who are thrown out unburied. One of
these animals attacked Bruce in his* tent, and was only
destroyed after a severe battle. Their jaws and teeth are*
exceedingly powerful, as they can crush the thigh bone of an
ox with apparently little effort. Their skull too is very
strong, and furnished with heavy ridges for the support of
the muscles which move the jaw. The hinder parts of the
Hyaena are very small, and give it a strange shambling

46 NATURAL HISTORY.

appearance when walking. The Hyaena is easily tamed, and
even domesticated, so that the tales of its imtameable dis-
position are entirely erroneous.

The striped Hyaena is found in many parts of Asia and
Africa, where it is both a benefit and a pest, for when dead
animals fail it, the flocks and herds are ravaged, and even
man does not always escape.

Sub-family c. Viverrina. — (Lai. vivcrra, a Ferret)

VIVERRA.

Civetta (Arabic Zibctta, scent), the Civet Cat.

The VIVERRINA, or CIVETS, are active little animals, averag-
ing about two feet in length. The whole group is celebrated
for the perfume which is secreted in a glandular pouch near
the tail, and is of some importance in commerce. If the Civet
is kept alive, the perfume is obtained by enclosing it in a long
narrow box so that it cannot turn round, and then scraping
the secretion from the pouch with a spoon. If the creature is
killed, the entire pouch is usually cut off, and sells for a higher
sum than when the perfume is sold separately.

The Civet is only found in North Africa, especially in
Abyssi iia, where it takes up its abode on uncultivated and
barren hills. It feeds upon birds and the smaller quadrupeds,
which it takes by surprise. As it pursues its prey by night
only, iia eyes are formed for seeing in the dark, and gleam as
do those of a cat.

NATURAL HISTORY.

GENETTA.— (Fr. Gcnettc.)

47

Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Genet.

The GENET slightly resembles the cat, particularly in its
spots, and the power of climbing trees. It inhabits Africa,
and is not unfrequently found in the south of France. At
Constantinople it is domesticated, and keeps the houses free
from rats and mice, which are said to be unable to endure its
scent, but it is much more probable that it frees the houses
from mice by devouring them.

HERPESTES. — (Gr.

rr^^ a creeper.)

Ichneumon (Gr. ix

, a tracker), the Egyptian Ichneumon.

The ICHNEUMONS, or MANGOUSTS, well deserve their name
of Creepers, for with their long bodies and snouts, their short
limbs and slender tails, they insinuate themselves into every
crevice in their way in search of their expected food. Few
animals are more useful than the Ichneumons. Snakes,
lizards, crocodiles' eggs, or even young crocodiles themselves,

48 NATURAL HISTORY.

form their principal food, and their activity is so great that
when these sources fail, they are able to secure birds, and
even the swift and wary lizards, which, when alarmed, dart
off like a streak of green light glancing through the bushes.

The Egyptian Ichneumon, or Pharaoh's Rat, as it is some-
times called, is a native of North Africa, and is often do-
mesticated for the purpose of destroying the various snakes,
and other reptile annoyances, which are such a pest in the
houses of hot countries. It principally seeks its prey by
night, creeping along with such noiseless and snake-like
progress, that not a sound warns the unsuspecting victim of
its danger. Its slender snout enables it to suck out the
contents of eggs with ease, and it destroys serpents by creep-
ing behind them, and then suddenly leaping on their heads,
which it instantly crushes between its sharp teeth. Its length
without the tail is about eighteen inches.

About twelve genera are omitted.

THE DOG.

We now arrive at the DOG FAMILY, which includes the
Dogs, Wolves, Jackals, and Foxes. The first of the Dogs is
the Kolsun, or Dhale, which inhabits Bombay and Nepaul.
It hunts in packs, as most of the dogs do even in a wild
state, and has been known to destroy tigers and chetahs.
Let us pass to a more interesting animal, the Newfoundland
Dog. This magnificent creature was originally brought from
Newfoundland. It is often confounded with the Labrador
Dog, a larger and more powerful animal. Both these dogs
are trained by their native masters to draw sledges and little
carriages, and on that account are highly esteemed. The
Newfoundland dog is well known as a most faithful guardian
of its master's property. It is remarkably fond of the water,
and will fetch out any article which its master indicates, and
lay it at his feet. Many instances are known of this noble
animal saving the lives of people that have fallen into the
water, and must have perished but for its timely aid. There

NATURAL HISTORY.

49

is an anecdote related of one of these dogs leaping over the
parapet of a bridge, and rescuing a baby who had sprung from
its nurse's arms into the river. A gentleman who just came
up, and was caressing the dog after its exploit, discovered, 011
seeing the child, that it was his own. He offered a large sum
for the noble creature, but his master refused to part with him
on any terms.

Sub-family d. Canina. — (Lat. Canis, a Dog.)

Familiaris (Lat. familiar), the Newfoundland Dog.

This is one of the largest of the dogs, as it stands nearly two
feet two inches in height.

The WATER SPANIEL, as its name denotes, delights in
plunging into water, especially if any game is to be found
among the rushes that fringe the rivers. It is a most useful
assistant when shooting wild ducks, or water hens, as, when
wounded, they conceal themselves so effectually, that, without

50 NATURAL HISTORY.

a dog, discovery is almost impossible. It can also dive to some
depth, and bring up in its mouth any small object from the
bottom.

THE WATER SPANIEL.

The KING CHARLES'S DOG is a diminutive breed of spaniels,
first brought into notice by Charles the Second, who delighted in
being accompanied by them in his walks, and was accustomed
to admit them into his bedchamber, and even permitted them
to lie on his bed.

KIN'J ( HARLES'S DOG.

NATURAL HISTORY.

51

THE BLOODHOUND.

There are several varieties of this animal, inhabiting Cuba,
Africa, and England. They all are endowed with a wonder-
fully acute sense of smell, and can trace a man or animal
with almost unerring certainty. The Cuban Bloodhound was
formerly employed by the Spaniards to hunt down the
natives while endeavouring to escape from their invasions.
A few years since, one of these dogs saved the life of its
master, an American hunter, by boldly attacking a puma
which had sprung on him in the darkness, and was lacerating
him in a dreadful manner. The sagacious animal had been
tied up at home, but apparently knowing the dangers of the
forests through which his master was about to pass, he broke
his chain, and arrived barely in time to save the hunter from
a horrible death.

The English Bloodhound is frequently mentioned by the
older historians. Bruce was repeatedly chased by blood-
hounds, and at one time he was so closely pressed that he
barely escaped by leaping into a brook, and wading a con-
siderable distance up the stream, knowing that running
water would not retain the scent. The bloodhounds led his
pursuers as far as the place where he entered the water, but
the stratagem of Bruce baffled them, and the pursuit was

52 NATURAL HISTORY.

abandoned. The voice of these dogs is peculiarly deep, and
may be heard at considerable distance. Not very long since,
a sheepstealer was detected by a bloodhound when every other
means had failed. The dog, on being shown the footsteps of
the thief, at once set off on the track, and dashed into a cottage,
where the unsuspecting robber was busily employed in skinning
the sheep which he had stolen. The height of this splendid
animal is about two feet four inches, and its colour a reddish
tan, becoming almost black along the back.

THE FOXHOUND.

The FOXHOUND and BEAGLE are not very dissimilar in form
or habits. They both follow game by the scent, and are used
in hunting. The Foxhound, as its name implies, is used for
hunting the fox, and enters into the sport with extraordinary
eagerness. These dogs are trained with great care : whole
books have been written on their education, and men are
engaged at high salaries to train them to the sport. England
possesses the finest breed of foxhounds in the world, and
certainly no expense is spared to improve them, as one kennel
is said to have cost nearly twenty thousand pounds. The
height of the foxhound is about twenty-two inches.

NATURAL HISTORY. 53

The BEAGLE is used principally for hare hunting. It is
much smaller than the foxhound, and not nearly so swift,
but its scent is so perfect that it follows every track of the
flying hare, unravels all her windings, and seldom fails to
secure her at last. Sportsmen usually prefer the smallest
beagles obtainable. The most valuable pack of these dogs
known, used to be carried to and from the field in a pair of
panniers slung across a horse's back. Unfortunately, this
pack was so well known, that numerous were the attempts to
gain possession of it. One ill-fated evening, as the dogs were

THE BEAGLE.

returning in their panniers after the day's sport, the keeper was
decoyed away by some stratagem, and when he returned, his
dismay was great to find that the dogs, panniers, and horse were
all missing. No traces of them were discovered, and it was
conjectured that they must have been sold on the Continent.
It is a common custom in the military schools and sometimes
at the universities, to follow the beagle on foot.

NATURAL HISTORY.

THE POINTER.

The POINTER is used by sportsmen to point out the spot
where the game lies. It ranges the fields until it scents the
hare or partridge lying close on the ground. It then remains
still as if carved in stone, every limb fixed, and the tail point-
ing straight behind it. In this attitude it remains until the gun
is discharged, reloaded, and the sportsman has reached the place
where the bird sprung. It then eagerly searches for the game,
and brings the bird in its mouth. There are many anecdotes
of its intelligence, among which the following is not the least
interesting.

In 1829, Mr. J. Webster was out on a shooting party near
Dundee, when a female pointer, having traversed the field
which the sportsmen were then in, proceeded to a wall, and,
just as she made the leap, got the scent of some partridges on
the opposite side of the wall. She hung by her fore-feet until
the sportsmen came up ; in which situation, while they were
at some distance, it appeared to them that she had got her leg
fastened among the stones of the wall, and was unable to ex-
tricate herself. But, on coming up to her, they found that this
singular circumstance proceeded from her caution, lest she
should flush the birds, and thus suspended herself in place of
completing her leap.

NATURAL HISTORY. 55

When badly trained, this dog is apt to make very absurd
mistakes. A young pointer belonging to a friend disappointed
him by most perversely pointing at a pig ; and on another occa-
sion was discovered feasting on a dead sheep instead of attending
to its business.

THE MASTIFF.

The group of the MASTIFF dogs is distinguished by the short-
ness of the nose and the breadth of the head. This group in-
cludes the Mastiff, the bull-dog, and the almost obsolete absurd
little pug-dog. The breadth of their heads is caused by the
large muscles which move the jaw.

The English Mastiff is generally employed as a house-dog,
as its 'powerful frame and deep voice are well fitted to scare
away marauders, or to repel them if they approach too near.
It is by far the most sagacious of the whole group, and ex-
hibits much more attachment to its master than the others.
This animal has been called by several names, of which " Ban-
dog" is the best known. Bewick thinks that the ban-dog is a sep-
arate species, of a lighter make than the ordinary English mastiff.

NATURAL HISTORY.

THE BULL-DOG.

The BULL-DOG is proverbial for courage and endurance. Un-
fortunately its. social qualities are by no means pleasing, as,
although it has some attachment to its master, yet it is not
always safe even for him to disturb it. This dog was exten-
sively used in the cruel sport of bull-baiting, a recreation now
extinct. When opposed to the bull, the dog would fly at
its nose, and there hang in spite of all the infuriated animal's
struggles. So firm is its hold, that the owner of a bull-dog
laid a wager that when his dog had seized a bull he would
cut off all his feet in succession without inducing the poor
beast to loose his hold. The experiment was made, and the
cruel master, who deserved a similar fate himself, won his
wager.

The PUG-DOG looks like a bull-dog in miniature. It was
formerly in great request as a pet, but is now seldom seen.
Its tail is curled over its back so tightly, that it is not very
difficult to believe the story of a pug-dog being lifted off his
hind-legs by the curliness of his taiL

NATURAL HISTORY.

THE ENGLISH TERRIER.

The TERRIERS never grow to any considerable size. There
are several breeds of terriers, among which the English and
Scotch are most conspicuous. These dogs are principally
used for destroying rats or other vermin, and are so courageous
that they do not hesitate to unearth the fox or the badger.
Otters are also hunted by them, but prove by no means an
easy prey, as their snake-like body, sharp teeth, and amphi-
bious habits, render them very difficult to seize, and their
tenacity of life will frequently enable them to escape when
the dog considers them dead. The Scotch terrier is a rough,
wiry little dog, with hair hanging over its eyes, so that those
organs are hardly visible, and when it is in the water its wetted
hair quite obscures its vision. There is a smaller breed of these
dogs called the "Skye Terrier," whose principal beauty seems
to consist in its ugliness.

Terriers are extremely attached to their master, and are
capable of learning many amusing tricks. I had a terrier,
said to be of Irish breed, who had imbibed many of the
eccentricities of the Irish character. He was particularly fond
of terrifying lapdogs, a species of animal which he held in
supreme contempt. On one occasion, he met a very fat
lapdog, the property of an equally fat old lady, waddling
along the street. Ilory looked at it for a short time, and
then gave it a pat which rolled it over on its back. Its

NATURAL HISTORY.

mistress immediately snatched it up, and put it on her muff,
whereupon Rory erected himself on his hind-legs, an art
which he possessed in great perfection, and walked along by
her side, making occasional snatches at the lapdog. The

THE SCOTCH TERRIER.

terrified old lady struck at him with her boa, which Rory
immediately caught in his mouth, and dashed off with it
down the street in an ecstacy of delight, ever and anon
tripping over it and rolling head over heels. He had learned
to shut the door, ring the bell, bring the slippers, or put
the cat down stairs, which he accomplished by pushing her
with his nose down each successive stair. During his residence
at College he was accustomed to sit, dressed in a cap and
gown, at the breakfast table, where his deportment was always
most exemplary, and afforded a good example to many of the
guests.

The SHEPHERD'S DOG is a rough, shaggy animal, with sharp
pointed ears and nose. It is an invaluable assistant to the
shepherd, as it knows all its master's sheep, never suffers
them to stray, and when two flocks have mixed, it will
separate its own charge with the greatest certainty. It
understands every look and gesture of its beloved master,
aud drives the flock to any place which he points out. This
is the dog alluded to by Burns in the following beautiful

NATURAL HISTORY.

j : « Man," said he, " is the god of the dog ; he knows

110 other; he can understand no other. And see how he
worships him ! with what reverence he crouches at his feet !
with what love he fawns upon him ! with what dependence
he looks up to him ! and with what cheerful alacrity he
obeys him ! His whole soul is wrapt up in his god ! all the

THE SHEPHERD'S DOG.

powers and faculties of his nature are devoted to his service !
and these powers and faculties are ennobled by the intercourse.
Divines tell us that it ought just to be so with the Christian ;
but the dog puts the Christian to shame."

The GREYHOUND is the swiftest of all the dogs, and is prin-
cipally used in the pursuit of the hare, which amusement is
termed coursing. It has but little delicacy of scent, and hunts
almost entirely by sight. The hare endeavours to baffle it by
making sharp turns, which the dog cannot do on account of its
superior size, and has therefore to take a circuit, during which
the hare makes off in another direction. At Ashborne, in
Derbyshire, there is a public-house sign representing a black
and white greyhound chasing a hare. One greyhound was a
little in advance of the other, and struck the game so forcibly
with its nose that the hare was thrown over its back into the
jaws of the other greyhound. This animal has been known to

NATURAL HISTORY.

exert rather an unexpected talent, viz., retracing a journey
during which it had been a close prisoner.

" The celebrated greyhound, Black-eyed Susan, was brought
to Edinburgh from Glasgow in the boot of a coach, on the
night of Wednesday, the 13th May, 1835. On the following

THE GREYHOUND.

Sunday evening she made her escape, and in forty-eight hours
reached her kennel, eight miles beyond Glasgow, being fifty-
two miles in all. The road between Glasgow and Edinburgh
she had never travelled on foot, and from the time taken she
cannot have come direct ; but by what route or process this
animal made her point good it is in vain to conjecture."

THE WOLF.

Ferocity, craft, and cowardice, are the well-known traits
of the WOLF. Although one of the dog tribe, it is held in
utter abhorrence by the domesticated dogs. The stronger
pursue and destroy it, the weaker fly from it in terror. In
the earlier part of English history it is frequently mentioned
as a common and dreaded pest. It was finally extirpated in
England about 1350, in Scotland about 1600, and was not
entirely destroyed in Ireland until the beginning of 1700.

NATURAL HISTORY. 61

It is still found in parts of France, Russia, and the whole of
"Western Asia.

These formidable creatures almost invariably hunt in bands,
and display very great cunning in waylaying and pursuing
their prey. Winter is the time of year most dreaded by those
who live in countries where wolves exist, as at that season
hunger renders them exceedingly ferocious and daring. They
will then attack sledges, or carriages, even when guarded by
armed men. They are very wary, and dislike approaching
any thing at all resembling a trap. A traveller, aware of this
habit, saved his life by trailing a cord from his carriage win-
dow. The wolves thought that the cord looked suspicious, and
before they had quite made up their minds about it, the traveller
reached a station where he was in safety.

The bite of the wolf is extremely dangerous, as its jaws are
immensely strong, arid it generally brings away the part it
seizes. When young, the wolf can easily be tamed, and shows
as great attachment to its master as any dog will. It is very
tenacious of life. Parry relates an anecdote of a wolf that was
caught in a trap, and after being pierced with three bullets, and
several thrusts of a sword, sprung at one of the officers, and
actually succeeded in escaping, although its hind-legs were
firmly tied together.

* CANIS.— (Lat. a Dog.)

Lupus (Lat. a Wolf), the Wolf.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Aurgus (Lat. golden), the Jackal.

This animal is found in North Africa, Persia, and India.
It derives its name " aureus" from the yellow tint of its skin.
It, like the wolf, unites in bands to hunt, and the prey which
the pack has taken so much pains to secure is not ^infrequently
confiscated by the lion, who keeps the reluctant hunters at a
distance until he has satisfied his own royal appetite. The
Jackals, however, often retaliate by assisting at the demolition
of the larger prey which the lion destroys. It is very useful in
the East, as it acts as scavenger, and consumes the ofTal which,
in those not very cleanly towns, is cast into the streets, and
would inevitably cause a pestilence, were it not for the assist-
ance of the jackals and other creatures.

It is excessively fond of grapes, and makes dreadful havoc in
the vineyards, so that the fable of the Fox and the Grapes
might be quite as appropriately related of this animal. While
hunting, it utters most piercing shrieks, which have been com-
pared by those who have heard them to the wailing of evil
spirits, an association which the oriental tombs and ruins which
it frequents, recalling to mind the mysterious Arabian Nights,
are most fitted to produce.

There are several kinds of Jackals, one inhabiting Senegal,
and another the Cape of Good Hope. They are rather larger
than the fox, but do not possess nearly so bushy a tail as that
" brush," wherein sportsmen take so much delight.

NATURAL HISTORY. 63

VULPES. — (Lat. a Fox,)

Vul^aris (Lat. common), the Fox.

This terror of hen-roosts and delight of sportsmen is found
in most parts of England, and many other countries. It
varies very much in colour and size, according to the country
where it lives.

The habits of this animal are mostly nocturnal. It lies
by day concealed in its burrow, if it be fortunate enough to
possess one, or in the depths of some thicket, if it is not a
householder. Towards evening it sallies out in search of
food, and woe to the unfortunate hare, rabbit, pheasant, or
fowl that comes in its way ! Reynard does not attempt to
chase the hare, for it is too swift for him, or the rabbit, as it
would immediately dive into its hole ; nor does he run at
the pheasant, which would fly away, and probably only leave
a tail feather in the fox's mouth. He knows his business too
well. He creeps very quietly and slowly to some place where
hares or rabbits are likely to pass, and then springs on them
as they run by him. Sometimes he steals into the hen-roost,
destroys and carries off most of its inmates, some of which he
devours on the spot, others he carries home, and the remainder
he buries for a future repast.

When irritated, the fox gives out a strong disagreeable scent,

64 NATURAL HISTORY.

which lies so long on the ground that it may be perceived for
nearly an hour after the ibx has passed. Partly on this ac-
count, and partly on account of its speed, endurance, and cun-
ning, the chase' of the fox is one of the most admired English
sports. Many tales are related of its cunning when pursued,
such as driving another fox out of its home, and forcing it to
substitute itself as the chase, diving into a heap of manure, so
that the dogs could not perceive its scent, jumping over a wall,
running a little way, coming back again, and lying under the
wall until all the dogs had passed, and then leaping a second
time over the same place where it had passed before, and mak-
ing off on its old track. A fox has been known to leap through
a kitchen window, and hide itself behind the plates on the
dresser, without the observation of the cook, to whose terror
and consternation six or seven dogs have leaped through the
same window, and dragged the fox from his lurking place.

The Arctic Fox changes its fur, and becomes white during
the winter.

Sub-family c. Mustelina. — (Lat. Mustela, a Weasel.)
MARTES. — (Lat. a Marten.)

ALie'tum (Lat. of the Pine-tree), the Pine Marten.

The MUSTELINA, or WEASELS, are easily distinguished by their
long slender bodies, short muzzle, sharp teeth, and predatory

NATURAL HISTORY. 65

habits. They inhabit almost every part of the world, and
procure their food by creeping on the unsuspecting victim,
generally a rabbit, rat, or bird, and then suddenly darting at
it and piercing its neck with their sharp teeth. Almost
all the weasels devour the brain and suck the blood of their
prey, but seldom touch the flesh.

Two kinds of Martens inhabit England, named, from their
favourite haunts, the Pine and the Beech Marten. The Pine
Marten is not uncommon in Derbyshire, where it is much
too fond of chickens and ducklings to be a desirable neighbour.
This animal, as well as the Sable, is much sought after on
account of its skin, which furnishes a beautiful fur, not much
inferior to that of the Sable.

The SABLE, long famous for its costly fur, which is thought
worthy to adorn the coronation robes of a monarch, inhabits
Siberia. The chase, or rather the search, after these animals
is attended with dreadful hardships and great danger. Some-
times a sable will not be seen for days ; sometimes the bait of
the trap is eaten by other animals, such as gluttons, &c. ;
sometimes the hunter's provisions fajl ; he spends days and
nights in the midst of snow, surrounded by interminable pine
forests, and exposed to the piercing blasts of the tempest.
Many hunters lose their lives in these terrible solitudes, over-
whelmed by snow-storms, or famished with hunger.

A species of Sable (Martes leucopus) inhabits North
America. The hair of the sable will turn either way, and in
this respect differs from the fur of other animals. The skins
are very valuable, varying from one to ten pounds in price,
according to the Duality.

Zibelllna, the Sable.

NATURAL HISTORY.

PUTORIUS. — (Lat. from puteo, to stink.)

Fcotidus (Lat. fetid], the Polecat.

The POLECAT, fitchet, fqulmart, or "fommard," as the farm-
ers call it, is very common in most parts of England. It is
dreadfully destructive to the poultry, and destroys both old
and young. William Howitt relates an interesting anecdote of
his dog unearthing a polecat, and afterwards bringing out of
its hole an entire brood of ducklings that had most unaccounta-
bly disappeared from the premises of a farmer. Winter is the
usual time for its appearance in the farmyard, as in the sum-
mer it obtains its food with less risk among the warrens.

The FERRET is supposed to be a domesticated variety of
the polecat, and a mixed breed is generally preferred by
rat-catchers, who use the ferret, first muzzling it carefully,
to drive the rats out of their holes, when they are either
struck down with sticks, or killed by terriers, who keep a
sharp watch for them. The hair, called Fitch, is much used
for making paint brushes.

MUSTELA. — Erminga. — The Stoat,

The STOAT, or ERMINE, is also another common English
animal. It is less than the polecat, but its habits are

NATURAL HISTORY. 67

scarcely less predacious. Hares and rabbits fall easy victims
to their little enemy, who despatches them with a single bite,
penetrating the brain. During the winter, the stoat becomes
partially white, in northern countries wholly so, except the
tip of the tail, which remains black. In this state it is called
the Ermine, and is killed in great numbers for the sake of
• its beautiful and valuable fur.

MUSTELA. — (Lat. a Weasel.)

Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Weasel.

The WEASEL is the least of this tribe. It is excessively
useful to farmers, as it wages unrelenting war on rats and
mice, and in an incredibly short space of time extirpates
them from a barn or a stack. It hunts by scent like dogs, and
tracks the unfortunate rat with the most deadly certainty.
On this account some farmers encourage it on their premises,
but the generality destroy it, and nail its body on the barn
door, forgetting that although it does sometimes abstract a
chicken or an egg, yet it will not touch them as long as it
can find rats or mice. It is a most courageous little animal,
and will even attack men, who have found it by no means a
despicable antagonist, as it invariably dashes at the throat,
where a bite from its long sharp teeth would be very
dangerous.

THE HONEY RATEL.

The RATEL is a native of South Africa, and lives principally
on the combs and honey of the wild bee, although it is very
probable that much of its subsistence is derived from flesh
and roots. It is said to be guided to the bee's nest by a bird

NATURAL HISTORY.

called the Honey-guide, which, as the natives assert, being

very fond of honey and unable to attack the hive by itself,

MELLIVORA.— (Lat. md, honey ; voro, I devour.)

Eatel, the Honey Raid.

seeks for the honey-ratel, and admonishes it by a peculiar
cry that the desired honeycomb is not very far distant.

The WOLVERINE, Glutton, or Carcajou, inhabits North
America. Accounts vary respecting the habits of this animal.
The older naturalists say that it ascends trees, and drops on

GULO. — (Lat. a Glutton.}

Luscus (Lat. blinking), the Wolverine.

the neck of any unfortunate deer which happens to pass
beneath, and that having once secured its prey, it never

NATURAL HISTORY. 69

leaves it until the last morsel is consumed. Be this as it
tnay, the Glutton is known to hunt after its prey, which it
follows for many miles at a slow but persevering pace, and
seldom fails of bringing it down at last. It is especially
hated by the sable hunter, as it will follow him in his rounds,
robbing the traps of the baits as it proceeds, and should a
sable be caught it generally tears it to pieces, or buries it in
the snow. The hunter has some slight revenge in robbing it
of its skin, as the fur is in some request, but the mischief it
does him is not by any means counterbalanced by the value
of its hide.

It is a very determined animal, and when attacked defends
itself vigorously, proving more than a match for a dog. The
length of the glutton, without the tail, is about two feet six
inches.

Several genera are omitted.

Yulgaris (Lat. common), the Bactger,

This harmless and much injured animal (which is often
subjected to such ill treatment that the term " badgering" a
person is used to express irritating him in every possible
way) is found throughout Europe and Asia. It is not now
very common in England, but is frequently found in Scotland,

70 NATURAL HISTORY.

where it is termed the " Brock," a name familiar to us all,
through the means of Dandie Dinmont, who also immortalized •
the pepper and mustard terriers.

The Badger lives at the bottom of deep burrows which it
excavates, and in which it passes ail the day, sleeping on a
very comfortable bed of hay and grass. When the evening
approaches it seeks its food, consisting of roots, fruit, insects,
and sometimes young rabbits. It is also said to attack the
wild bee, and boldly to devour the honey and combs, its thick
hair and skin rendering it utterly regardless of the stings of
the enraged bees, who " might as well sting a barber's
block."

The cruel sport of baiting the badger is still continued.
The poor creature is placed inside a kennel, and dogs set at
it, who are not unfrequently worsted by the badger, as its
bite is terrific, and its skin so tough, and hair so thick, that
the bites of the dog do not take full effect. The pleasure of
this " sport," as in many other diversions of the sporting
world, appears to consist in trying whether the dogs or the
badger will be most mangled in a given time.

Its skin is rather valuable, the hair being extensively em'
ployed in the manufacture of brushes, and its fur being in
some request for holsters. The omnivorous and thrifty
Chinese eat its flesh, as indeed they will that of most animals,
and consider its hams a very great dainty. The length of the
badger is about two feet three inches.

THE OTTER.

The OTTER seems to play the same part in the water as
the polecat and the other weasels on the land. Like the pole-
cat, it is excessively rapacious ; like the polecat, it destroys
many more creatures than it can devour ; and as the polecat
only ea's the brain and sucks the blood, so the other daintily
eats the flakes at the back of the fish's neck, and leaves the
remainder for less fastidious animals. In Scotland, where the
otter abounds, it is not uncommon to find a large fish, such

NATURAL HISTORY. 71

as a salmon, lying on the bank, perfectly fresh and entire,
except a few inches along the back, which the otter has bitten
out.

It is extremely interesting to watch the actions of this
almost amphibious creature. It slides noiselessly into the
water, turns and twists about below the surface with the same
or greater ease than a fish, then, with a graceful sweep of the
body, it glides to the surface and ascends the bank with almost
the same motion. While below the surface it bears a great
resemblance to the seal, the method in which it disposes its
hind-feet greatly assisting the effect. Its rapid and easy
movements in the water are mostly performed by the assistance
of its powerful tapering tail.

Otter hunting is a very favourite sport in Scotland, where
almost every stream is furnished with its otter. At the sight
of the footsteps of the animal the population round is in a
commotion, the dogs are assembled, guns and spears provided,
and the hunters go out in sufficient numbers and with suffi-
cient arms to kill a tiger ; and from all accounts it is quite as
difficult an animal to destroy ; for by diving, and biting, and
hiding among stones, added to its great tenacity of life, it gives
the hunters no little trouble to secure it.

The otter is easily tamed, and its predatory habits turned
to account, as it is sometimes trained to catch fish and bring
them to shore, precisely as the falcon is trained to catch
terrestrial game.

Several genera are omitted.

LUTRA. — (Lat. an Otter.)

Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Otter.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family II. . . Ursidcc. (Lat. ursus, a bear; Bear kind.)
Sub-family a. Urslna.

Arctos (Gr. "Ap/cro^, a bear), the Bear.

The BEARS and their allies are mostly heavy, and walk with
the whole foot placed flat on the ground, unlike the cats, dogs,
&c., who walk with merely their paws or toes. All the bears
are omnivorous, that is, they can eat either animal or vegetable
food, so that a leg of mutton, a pot of honey, a potato, or an
apple, are each equally acceptable.

The Brown Bear inhabits the north of Europe, Switzerland,
and the Pyrenees. It has been extirpated from England for
many centuries, but is recorded to have been found in Scot-
land so late as 1057. The inhabitants of Northern Europe
hunt it with much skill, and take it in traps and pitfalls,
availing themselves of its love for honey. It is said that there
exists a practice of placing the hive in a tree, and planting
long spikes round its foot. A heavy log of wood is then sug-

NATURAL HISTORY. 73

pended by a cord just before the entrance of the hive, and the
trap is complete. The bear scents the honey and comes to
look at the tree. The spikes rather astonish him, but he
sniffs his way through them, and commences the ascent.
When he has reached the hive, he is checked by the log hang-
ing before the entrance : this he finds is movable, and pushes
aside, but it is just so long that a mere push will not entirely
remove it, so he gives it a tremendous pat, and looks in at
the entrance. Just as he has succeeded in putting his nose
to the hive, the log returns and hits him very hard on the
head. This makes him exceedingly angry, and he pokes it
away harder than ever, only to return with a more severe blow
than before. He now has a regular fight with the log, hitting
it first to one side and then to the other, the perverse block
invariably striking his head every time, until at last a severer
blow than usual knocks him fairly off the tree on to the spikes
below.

In the time of Queen Elizabeth the bear used to be baited,
but this cruel sport is now happily extinct.

Two genera are omitted.

THE GRIZZLY BEAR.

The GRIZZLY BEAR is a native of North America. It is
the most ferocious and powerful of its family. The American
Indians fear it so much, that a necklace of its claws, which
may only be worn by the individual who destroyed the bear,
i.s a decoration entitling the wearer to the highest honours.
It is able to overcome and carry off the enormous bison,
and to dig a pit in which to bury it.

THE POLAR BEAR.

The POLAR, or WHITE BEAR, called Nennook by the Esqui-
maux, lives in the Arctic regions, where it feeds on seals, fish,
and even the walrus, but it dares not attack the latter animal
openly. It is a formidable antagonist either by land or water,
as it dives with great ease, and is able to chase the seal amid
D

74 NATURAL HISTORY.

the waves. Nelson nearly lost his life by imprudently
attacking one of these animals with no weapon but a rusty
musket, which could not be induced to fire ; and indeed had
he not been separated from the infuriated bear by a cleft in
the ice, he could hardly have escaped its claws. As the seals
frequently crawl out of the water upon rocks or fragments of
ice, the Polar bear is forced to swim after them, but lest they
should observe him he makes his approaches by a succession
of dives, and contrives that the last dive brings him directly
under the unsuspecting seal, who is immediately grasped and
killed. Richardson states that these bears are often drifted

Ilorribilis (Lat. horrible}, the Grizzly Bear.

from Greenland to Iceland on fields of ice, and that they find
the flocks arid herds so very delicious after a long course of
seal diet, that the inhabitants are forced to rise in a body and
put an end to their depredations.

To give this animal, who is constantly running over fields

NATURAL HISTORY. 75

of ice, a firm footing, the soles of its feet are thiokly covered
with long hair, on the same principle that elderly gentlemen in
the winter are forced to tie list round their shoes.

THALARCTOS. — (Gr. from OaXaoaa, the Sea, and do/crof, a Bear.)

Maritimus (Lat. belonging to the sea), the Polar Bear.

THE RACOON".

The RACOON is an inhabitant of Canada and other paiis of
America. It derives its name, lotor, from the habit it is said to
possess, of washing its food before eating it. It is about the
size of a large fox. Its skin is very valuable, and is much
sought after by American hunters, who pride themselves on
their skill in shooting this active and wary animal. There
is a story related by the Americans, of a hunter who was so
excellent a marksman that when he entered a wood the 'coons
came down of their own accord, knowing that escape was im-
possible ; but we must class this tale with the account of the
man who could grin the bark off gum trees, and the swift

76 NATURAL HISTORY.

Indian, who could run so fast round a tree that he sometimes
saw his own back.

The food of the Racoon is principally small animals and
insects. Oysters are also a very favourite article of its diet.
It bites off the hinge of the oyster, and scrapes out the animal
in fragments with its paws. Like a squirrel when eating a
nut, the racoon usually holds its food between its fore-paws
pressed together, and sits upon its hind-quarters while it
eats. Poultry are very favourite objects of its attack, and it is
said to be as destructive in a farm-yard as any fox, for it only
devours the heads of the murdered fowl. Like the fox, it prowls
by night.

When taken young it is easily tamed, but very frequently
becomes blind soon after its capture. This effect is supposed
to be produced by the sensitive state of its eyes, which are
only intended to be used by night ; but as it is frequently
awakened by daylight during its captivity, it suffers so much
from the unwonted glare, that its eyes gradually lose their sight.

It has been mentioned that the name in general use among
the Americans of the present day is " 'Coon," a word which
strangely contrasts with its ancient Mexican name of Cioatla-
macazque. — Two genera are omitted.

Sub-family c. Proci/onlna.
PROCYON. — (Gi\ n/xwevwv, a constellation.)

Lotor (Lat. a washer), the Racoon.

. NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family d. Cercolcpiixi.
NASUA. — (Lat. from nasus, a no^e.)

Fusca (L&i. fuscus, dusky), the Coati-mondL

The peculiarly long snout of the COATIS distinguishes them
at once from the Racoons, which they resemble in some other
respects. Their snout is very moveable, and is of great use
to them in routing out the worms and insects which they dig
up. The nostrils are placed on a sort of disk at the end of the
snout, and give the whole head a most extraordinary aspect.
The Coatis live upon birds, eggs, insects, and worms, and some-
times they will eat roots. They are nocturnal in their habits,
spending most of the day in sleep, rolled up in a ball. In de-
scending a tree they walk with their heads downwards, like the
cat, which, however, they surpass in activity. These animals
inhabit the warmer parts of America, but do not appear to be
much sought after by hunters. The Brown Coati-mondi is the
species represented ; there is another species, the Red Coati.

THE KIXKAJOU.

The KINKAJOU is also an inhabitant of Southern America.
It is not unlike the Coati in its habits, but is more active, as
it possesses a prehensile tail, which it uses in the same way
that the Spider Monkeys use theirs. The tongue of the
Kinkajou is capable of being inserted into crevices, and draw-

78 NATURAL HISTORY. .

ing out any insects that may be lying concealed beyond the
reach of its paws. The Spanish missionaries give it the name
of Honey Bear, because it is a great devastator of the nests of
the wild bee, using its long tongue to lick the honey out
of the cells. When in captivity it is very tame and gentle,
and will play with an acquaintance as a cat will. It displays
great address in capturing flies and other insects with its
tongue, and it is amusing to watch how its eyes gleam directly
that a fly settles within its reach. During the earlier part of
the day it will not move, but towards dusk it becomes very
brisk and animated, climbing about its cage, and swinging from
the top bars by its tail and hind paws.
A sub-family is omitted.

CERCOLEPTES. — (Gr. Kt/wcof, a tail ; ASTTTUC, thin.)

Caudivolvulus (Lat. twisted tail), the Kinkajou.

Family III Talpidw. — (Lat. Talpa, a mole. Mole-kind.)

Sub-family a. . Talplna.

THE MOLE.

MANY ridiculous stories of the MOLE and its habits may be
found in several authors, among whom ^Esop stands very con-
spicuous. This much maligned animal is said to be deprived
of eyes, to undergo unheard-of tortures in forcing its way
through the earth, and to spend a life of misery in subter-
ranean damp and darkness. So far from being a miserable
animal, the Mole seems to enjoy its life quite as much as any
other creature. It is beautifully fitted for the station which

NATURAL HISTORY. 79

it fills, and would be unhappy if removed from its accustomed
damp and darkness into warmth and light.

The eyes of the mole are very small, in order to prevent
them from being injured by the earth through which the
animal makes its way ; indeed larger eyes would be useless
underground. When, however, the mole requires to use its
eyes it can bring them forward from the mass of fur which
conceals and protects them when not in use. The acute ears
and delicate sense of smell supply the place of eyes. Its fur
is very fine, soft, capable of turning in any direction, and will
not retain a particle of mould. But the most extraordinary
part of the mole is the paw or hand with which it digs. The
two fore paws are composed of five fingers, armed with sharp,
strong nails, in order to scrape up the earth, and to prevent

Europea (Lat. belonging to Europe], the Mole-

the accumulated mould from impeding the mole's progress ;
the hands are turned outwardly, so as to throw the earth out
of its way.

The Mole is a most voracious animal, and is incapable of
sustaining even a slight fast. Its principal food is the earth-
worm, in chase of which it drives its long galleries under-
ground ; but it also will eat insects, bits of meat, aud some-
times birds, which it takes by surprise, and then rapidly tears
to pieces with its powerful claws. This ravenous appetite
causes it to suffer from thirst if a supply of water is not at
hand. For this reason the mole always makes a tunnel
towards a pond or brook, if there is one near. If no water is
near, it digs a number of little wells, which receive the rain
or dew, and enable it to quench its thirst.

10 NATURAL HISTORY.

It is a good swimmer, and can pass from bank to bank, or
from the shore to an island, and when the fields are inun-
dated by floods it can save itself by swimming.

The construction of the mole's habitation is very singular
and interesting. Each mole has its own habitation and
hunting ground, and will not permit strangers to trespass
upon its preserves, which it guards, not by " man-traps and
spring-guns," but by its own claws and teeth.

In order to construct a fortress, the mole selects a secure
place, as the foot of a tree, or the side of a high bank. 11
then throws up a heap of earth, which it presses firmly 1o-
gcther, as within this mound its fortress has to be made. It
commences by running a circular gallery near the summit cf
the mound, and another larger one near the bottom. These
two galleries it connects by five descending passages. In the
very centre of the mound, and at the level of the ground, it
now digs a circular hole, which it connects with the upper
gallery by three ascending passages. Lastly, it makes a
number of passages from the lower gallery, and connects the
circular chamber with the largest of them, or high road, by a
passage that first bends downwards, and then rises into the
high road a little outside the large gallery. In the circular
chamber the mole sleeps, and can escape into the high road
either by the upper gallery or by the road from the bottom
of its dormitory.

Moles vary in colour, the usual tint being a very deep brown,
almost black, but they have been seen of an orange colour,
and a white variety is not uncommon. Those who have
watched its habits state that it alternately works and rests at
intervals of three hours. There are several moles known, — the
Shrew Mole, the Changeable Mole, the Cape Mole and the
tStar-nosed Mole, are the most conspicuous.

M( l.K KILL.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family d. Erinacbia. — (Lat. from Erinaceus, a Hedgehog.)
SOREX. — (Lat. a Rat.*)

Arauuus (Lat. a Shrew), the Shrew Mouse.

This pretty little animal is very like the common mouse, but
is easily distinguished from it by the length of the nose, which
is used for grabbing up the earth in search of earth-worms and
insects. A peculiar scent is diffused from these animals which
prevents the cat from eating them, although she will readily
destroy them.

Many species of shrews are known, inhabiting various coun-
tries. There are, besides the common species, the Oared and
the Water Shrew, all three inhabiting England. The forma-
tion of their hair, as seen under a powerful microscope, is most
singular, and differs from the hair of most other animals by
suddenly diminishing in thickness, and, after an interval, re-
covering its former size.

This js one of the numerous, animals that have suffered by
false reports, and have been treated with great cruelty on ac-
count of those fables. Rustics formerly believed that the poor
little harmless creature paralyzed their cattle by running over
them, and that the only way to cure the diseased animal was
to place a bough of shrew-ash on the injured part. The
shrew-ash was made by boring a hole into an ash-tree, and
then plugging up in the hole a living shrew-mouse. By the
same process of reasoning a shrew cut in half, and placed on a
wound supposed to be caused by its bite, was considered a cer-
tain remedy.

82 NATURAL HISTORY.

The Water Shrew frequents brooks and clear running ditch-
es, in the banks of which it lives. It swims and dives with
great ease, and when under water appears as if it had been

WATER SHREW.

speckled over its entire surface with silver, from the bubbles
of air which adhere to its fur. It eats the grubs of various
aquatic insects, digging them out of the muddy banks with its
snout. It is not very common, but I have seen numbers of
them inhabiting a brook near Little Hinton in Wiltshire, and
often watched their elegant movements and gambols through
the water.

One or two genera are omitted.

ERINACEUS. — (Lat. a Hedgehog.}

Europseus (Lat. belonging to Europe}, the Hedgehog.

The HEDGEHOG is remarkable as being our only English
animal that is guarded with spikes. These spikes are fixed
into the skin in a very beautiful and simple manner. When
the Hedgehog is annoyed it rolls itself up, and the • tightness
of the skin causes all its spikes to stand firm and erect, bidding

NATURAL HISTORY. 83

defiance to an unprotected hand. When rolled up, even the
dog and the fox are baffled by it ; but their ingenuity enables
them to overcome the difficulty by rolling it along until they
push it into a puddle or pool, when the astonished hedgehog
immediately unrolls itself to see what is the matter, and before
it can close itself again is seized by its crafty enemy.

Many more fortunate animals have outlived tne aspersions
cast upon their character by ignorant persons, but the prejudice
against the hedgehog is still in full vigour in the agricultural
districts. Scarcely a farmer or labourer will be persuaded
that the hedgehog does not suck the cows. Now this is an
impossibility for the hedgehog, but I have seen pigs — not
hedgepigs, but real bacon pigs — suck the cows whilst lying
down. Among other creatures accused of this theft, are the
slow-worm, a creature with an extremely small mouth, and
the goatsucker. Really when a man relates that a bird sucks
a cow, it reminds one of the brother philosophers, one of whom
milked a bull while the other held the pail.

The food of the hedgehog consists not of cow's milk, but in-
sects, snails, frogs, mice, and snakes. Dr. Buckland placed
a snake in the same box with a hedgehog. The hedgehog
gave the snake a severe bite, and then rolled itself up, this
process being repeated until the spine of the snake was broken
in several places ; it then began at the tail, and ate the snake
gradually, as one would eat a radish. "White has seen it bore
down and eat the roots of the plantain, leaving the leaves and
stem untouched.

The flesh of the hedgehog is s#id to be good eating, and the
gipsies frequently make it a part of their diet, as do the people
in some parts of the Continent.

During the winter it lives in a torpid state, in a hole well
lined with grass and moss, and when discovered looks like a
round mass of leaves as it rolls itself among the fallen foliage,
which adheres to its spikes. The engraving of the spine, or
quill, of this animal shows the method by which it is retained
in the skin.

SPINE OF HEDGEHOG.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family V. . . .Macropidoe. — (Gr. Ma/cpof , long ; 7rov$, a foot.)
Sub-family b. Macropina.

1*ACROPU3.

Major (Lnt. ledger), the Kangaroo.

In the mole wo saw that the power of the body was placed
chiefly in the fore-legs ; we now come to a family which has
the principal power placed in the hinder part of the body.
In the Kangaroos the hind-legs are very long and immensely
powerful ; the fore-legs are very small, and used more as hands
than for walking ; the tail also is very thick and strong, and
upsists the animal in its leaps.

The Great Kangaroo inhabits New Holland and Van Die-
men's Land. Its singular formation, peculiarly adapted to the
country, calls forth a corresponding degree of ingenuity on the
part of the natives, who live much on its flesh. Its method

NATURAL HISTORY. 85

of progression is "by immense leaps from its long hind legs
assisted by its tail. The length of each leap is about fifteen
feet. Of course this swiftness would soon leave its pursuers
behind, but the Australian is able to break one of its limbs
• or strike it insensible to the ground with his boomerang, the
most wonderful weapon that uncivilized man ever produced.
This extraordinary missile is a flat curved piece of wocd, which
the Australian natives can wield with wonderful skill, making
it describe circles in the air, or rush at an object, and then
return to its owner's feet ; or throw it at the ground and
make it leap over a tree and strike an object at the other side.
Many boomerangs have been made in England from models
brought from Australia, and it is not very difficult to learn
the turn of the wrist necessary to make them describe a circle
and return, but no one except an Australian can perform the
complicated evolutions which the natives force the weapon to
describe.

The Kangaroo, except when feeding, stands upright en his
hind legs, and can then see over the tops of the rank herbage.
Hunting this animal is a very favourite sport with both
colonists and natives. The natives either knock it down with
the boomerang, spear it from behind a bush, cr unite together
and hem in a herd, which soon fall victims to the volleys cf
clubs, spears, and boomerangs which pour in cri all sides.
The colonists either shoot it or hunt it with tlcgs, a herd of
which is trained for that purpose just as wre train fox-hounds.
The "old man," or "boomer," as the Colonists call the Great
Kangaroo, invariably leads the dogs a severe chase, always
attempting to reach water and escape by swimming. It is
a formidable foe to the dogs when it stands at bay, as it seizes
the dog with its fore-legs, and either, holds him under water
until he is drowned, or tears him open with a well directed
kick of its powerful hind feet, which are armed with a very
sharp claw.

The female Kangaroo carries its young about iri a kind of
pouch, from which they emerge when they wish for a little
exercise, and leap back again on the slightest alarm. All the
kangaroos and the opossums have this pouch, from which they
are called " marsupiated" animals, from the Latin word mar-
supium, a purse or pouch.

80 NATURAL HISTORY.

The length of the Great Kangaroo is about five feet without
the tail, the length of which is about three feet.

There are many species of kangaroo, the most extraordinary
being the Tree Kangaroo, which can hop about on trees, and
has curved claws on its fore paws, like those of the sloth, to
enable it to hold on the branches.

Several genera and two sub-families are omitted.

Sub-family e. Didelphina. — (Gr. A?f, double;
DIDELPIIYS.

vc, a pouch.)

Virginiana (Lat. belonging to Virginia), the Opossum.

This animal inhabits North America, and is hunted with
almost as much perseverance as the racoon, not, however, for
the sake of its fur but of its flesh. When it perceives the
hunter, it lies still between the branches, but if disturbed from
its hiding place, it attempts to escape by dropping among the
herbage and creeping silently away.

Its food consists of insects, birds, eggs, &c., and it is very
destructive among the hen-roosts. The OPOSSUM uses its tail
for climbing and swinging from branch to branch as the
spider monkeys use theirs ; but the Opossum uses its tail in
a manner that the monkeys have never yet been observed to

NATURAL HISTORY. 87

do, that is, making it a support for its young, who sit on its
back and twist their tails round their mother's in order to
* prevent them from falling off. Lawson, in a passage quoted
in the Museum of Animated Nature, gives the following quaint
account of this animal : — " If a cat has nine lives this creature
surely has nineteen ; for if you break every bone in their skin
and mash their skull, leaving them for dead, you may come an
hour after, and they will be quite gone away, or, perhaps, you
may meet them creeping away. I have for necessity in the
wilderness eaten of them. Their flesh is very white and well-
tasted ; but their ugly tails put me out of conceit with that
fare."

The length of the Opossum is about twenty-two inches, and
its height about that of an ordinary cat. "When disturbed or
alarmed, it gives out a very unpleasant odour.
Several genera are omitted.

Family V ... Phocidfe. — (Gr. QUKT}, a Seal. Seal kind.)
Sub-family b. Phocina.

Vitullna (Lat. belonging to a calf), the Seal.

The COMMON SEAL inhabits the coast of Europe, and is not
imfrequently found in many parts of the Scottish coasts,
where seal-hunting is a favourite amusement. The young
are taken by stretching nets across the narrow straits which

88 NATURAL HISTORY.

they frequent, but the older arid stronger animals are shot or
knocked down with clubs when they attempt to scramble into
the sea, as a blow on the nose instantly disables them.

The fore-feet of the Seal are used as iins, and the two hinder
feet almost as the tail of a fish, to assist and direct its course.
On land the movements of this animal are very clumsy ; it
shuffles along by means of its fore-feet, or rather paddles, and
drags its hind-feet after it.

This seal, when taken young, is easily tamed. Edmonston
gives an amusing account of a seal named Finna, which he
kept for about six months. " "We had her carried down daily
in a hand-barrow to the sea-side, where an old excavation
admitting the salt-water was abundantly roomy and deep for
her recreation and our observation. After sporting and
diving for som3 time, she would come ashore, and seemed
perfectly to understand the use of the barrow. Often she
tried to waddle from the house to the water, or from the
latter to her apartment ; but finding this fatiguing, and seeing
preparations by her chairmen, she would of her own accord
mount her palanquin, and thus be carried as composedly as
any Hindoo princess." This interesting animal, after, living
in the house lor about six months, at last was decoyed away
by sorn3 wild seals and did not return again. A young seal
was tani3d by the guard of a small island in the Frith of
Forth above Edinburgh. It seemed quite to consider itself
one of the party, would accompany their boat across the
water, and when the vessel was made fast, it used to take its
station inside, and watch until the owners returned. It had
the playful manners of a water-dog, and would snatch a stick
from its master's hand and dash into the sea with it, where it
would toss and tumble about, sometimes approaching close
to the shore, and swimming off again when its master attempted
to grasp the stick, but it invariably brought back whatever it
had taken. It would also bring fish out of the water and give
them to its owners.

The length of the Common Seal is about four or five feet,
and its weight often two hundred and twenty-four pounds.
When surprised basking on the shore, it scrambles off towards
the water ; but if intercepted, dashes at its antagonist, oversets
him if possible, and makes its escape as fast as it can.

NATURAL HISTORY

MOKUNGA.

THE ELEPHANT SEAL.

Proboscidea (Gr. that has a proboscis or trunk.)

The ELEPHANT SEAL inhabits the Atlantic, Pacific, and
Southern Oceans. It is very much larger than .the Common
Seal, being from twenty to thirty feet long. It derives its
name from the long snout, something like the proboscis of
the elephant, or rather the tapir, which it thrusts forward
when angry, and snorts loudly. Only the males have this
proboscis, and they do not attain it until they are three years
old. Although its appearance is very formidable, it does not
attempt to attack men ; but if it cannot frighten them by
opening its mouth and displaying its teeth, it makes off
towards the water, but with great deliberation, as when in gcod
condition it is so- fat that its body trembles like a mass of jelly,
and will furnish seventy gallons of oil. This oil is the prin-
cipal object of the South Pacific seal fisheries ; but the skin
of this seal is also very valuable for its strength, and is used in
making harness. The seal skin is often used as fur.

It is a migratory animal and changes its residence several
times in the year, the first migration taking place in June.

There are many seals known, among which are the Sea
Leopard, a spotted species ; the Harp Seal, so called from the
markings on its back something resembling a lyre ; and the
Sea Lion.

90 NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family c. Trichecina.
TRICHICUS. — (Gr. Qpl^ Hair ; c^w, I have.)

Rosmarus (Lat. Rosemary), the Walrus, or Morse.

The WALRUS inhabits the northern seas, but has been
known to visit our coasts. „ Three instances of this have
happened, one in 1817, one in 1825 at the Orkney Isles, and.
a third in 1839 at the mouth of the Severn. The most
remarkable point in the Walrus is the great length of two of
its upper teeth, which extend downwards for nearly two feet,
and resemble the tusks of the elephant. They furnish very
fine ivory, and are extensively used by dentists in making
artificial teeth, as teeth made from them remain white much
longer than those made from the tusks of elephants. These
tusks are used by the Walrus for climbing the rocks or heaps
of ice, and also for digging up the sea-weeds on which the
animal mostly subsists. It will also eat shrimps and young
seals.

The Walrus is often hunted for the sake of its oil, its flesh,
its skin, and its teeth. It is generally found in troops, and
if one is wounded, its companions rush to its rescue and
attack the enemy with their sharp tusks, which they have
bean known to drive through the bottom of a boat. Their

NATURAL HISTORY. . 91

skin is so strong and slippery that it is veiy difficult to drive
the harpoon through it, and even a sharp weapon frequently
glides off without injuring the animal. The great enemy of
the walrus is the polar bear, who does not always venture on an
open battle, as when a combat takes place, the walrus defends
himself most vigorously with his curved tusks and often
inflicts fearful gashes on the bear, forcing it to abandon the
contest.

The head of this animal is very small in proportion to the.
remainder of its body, and often deceives people as to its,
size, which is difficult to ascertain without examination. The
stuffed specimen in the British Museum, although in bad
preservation, will give a tolerable idea of the animal. The
expression of its countenance is very ferocious, principally on
account of the enormous size of the upper lip and the thick
bristles with which it is covered. The length of the "Walrus
is about fifteen or sixteen feet, and it yields from twenty to
thirty gallons of excellent oil

Order III. . . GETE. — (Gr. KJyrof, a Whale, or sea monster.)
Family I Balamidce.— (Gr. BaAcuw,a Whale. Whale kind.)

THE WHALE.

THE CETACEA, or WHALE tribe, closely resemble the fishes,
and have often been placed among these animals by natu-
ralists. They, however, are distinguished by possessing warm
blood, and in consequence, being forced to rise at intervals in
order to breathe the air, instead of separating from the water,
by means of their gills, sufficient air for supporting life.

The great Greenland Whale is found in the Northern
Oceans, living amid ice and perpetual cold. Many ships are
annually fitted out for the capture of this creature, which,
unhappily for itself, furnishes oil and whalebone. The oil
is obtained from the thick layer of fatty substance called
blubber, which lies immediately under the skin ; and the
whalebone — which, by the way, is not bone at all — is obtained
from the interior of the mouth, where it fringes the jaws and

92 NATURAL liJSTOitY.

acts as a sieve for the Whale to strain his food through. The
throat of the Greenland Whale is very small indeed, and its
food consists of a little creature about an inch and a half
long, called Clio horealis. The Whale, when it wishes to
feed, rushes through the water with its immense jaws wide
open, enclosing a host of little sea animals, and a few hogs-
heads of water. As the Whale only wants the animals, and
not the water, it shuts its mouth, and drives all the water out

Mysticutus (Or. Muarfls, a moustache ; K//TOC, a son monster), the Whalr.

through the fringes of whalebone, leaving the little creatures
in its jaws. The sailors, who always use forcible expressions,
say that a penny loaf would choke a whale.

For the capture of this animal, a number of ships leave
England, France, and other countries, reaching the Polar
Seas about the end of April. When arrived at their destina-
tion, a careful look-out is kept from the mast-head for " fish,"

NATURAL HISTORY. 93

which are usually first observed by the column of steam and
water that the whale sends into the air from its nostrils.
At the welcome sound " There she blows," the whole crew
starts into activity ; the boats, which are always kept hang-
ing over the side of the ship, furnished ready for action,
are instantly manned and lowered into the water, and the
boat springs oil' in chase of the whale. The harpconer, whose
station is in the bow, examines his implements carefully, tries
the edge of the harpoon, and sees that tlie rope is properly
coiled, as an entanglement would probably upset the boat, or
even drag it below water. It will be as well just to notice
the different weapons used in the whale-fishery. The first
and most important is the harpoon, a kind of spear with a
large barbed head, the shape of which is not very unlike the
flukes of an anchor. The edges of the barbs are kept very
sharp, as otherwise the harpoon would not penetrate beyond
the blubber, and the whale would consequently escape. The
head of the harpoon is not made of steel, as most would
imagine, but of soft iron, so soft that it can be scraped to an
edge with a knife. This is fixed to a wooden handle, by
which the harpooner holds it. In some vessels the harpoon
is fired at the whale from a small cannon placed in the bow
of the boat. There are some very ingenious harpoons in the
United Service Museum, one of which, intended to be fired
from a gun, has its barbs joined to the head by a hinge*, arid
held apart with a spring, so that when a whale is struck the
barbs collapse until the force of the blow is expended, when
the spring expands them and holds the whale firmly. The
common harpoon, however, is the weapon usually employed.

To the harpoon is fastened a long and very tough line,
about 4,000 feet in length. This line is coiled up at the
head of the boat, and great care is taken to prevent it from
being entangled. It runs over a kind of pully, as the friction
is so great when the alarmed whale starts off, that the rope
when out of its place has repeatedly set tbe gunwale of the
boat on fire. A bucket of water is -therefore always kept at
hand to throw on the rope. At Deptford, some years back,
might be seen a boat, the head of which had been quite cut
off by the rope. "When a whale is struck it sometimes runs
out with the whole of the line, in which case the line of

94 NATURAL HISTORY.

another boat is fastened to it, and sometimes a whale has
carried off three miles of line with it.

The use of the harpoon is merely to hold the whale ; it
does not enter deep, and causes the animal but little incon-
venience, as a whale has often broken its line and escaped
with the harpoon sticking in its back, and been afterwards
recaptured, apparently none the worse for its adventure. In
order to kill the whale the fishermen have another weapon,
called a " lance." This is a long, slender, steel weapon, with
a very sharp head, without barbs, as the men have to with-
draw the lance as fast as they can after it has pierced a vital
part. With these few and simple weapons the fishers contrive
to secure the monster of the waters — a beautiful instance of
the superiority of reason over brute strength ; for as the expert
angler secures a large and strong fish with a single hair, utterly
inadequate to bear half the weight of the creature it holds, so
the whale-fisher, with a few small weapons, achieves a task
which may be compared to a mouse attacking and killing a
wolf with a reel of thread and a crochet needle.

The boats always approach the whale from behind, lest
the expected prey should see them and escape. When within
a few yards the harpooner throws his weapon at the whale,
so as to pierce through the mass of blubber, and hold fast in
the flesh. The wounded animal instantly dashes off, taking
the line with it. When it has been under water for some
time, it is forced to come to the surface to breathe. The
fishers mark the place where it rises, and thrust their long
lances deep into its body, inflicting mortal wounds. Blood
mixed with water is now discharged from the whale's nostrils
or " blow-holes," a sure sign that it will soon die. Presently
streams of blood are thrown up, colouring the sea and fre-
quently drenching the crews of the boats, and after a few
violent struggles the whale turns over on its side and dies.

The enormous carcass is now joyously towed to the ship,
and preparations • are made for "flensing," or cutting off the
useful parts. Strong ropes are attached to the head and tail,
and me i wearing shoes armed with spikes, to prevent slipping,
commence the process by fastening ropes to its head and tail.
A stron; hook is then fixed into the fat near the neck, called
the "Lent," as it is used for "kenting," or turning the

NATURAL HISTORY. 95

whale over. In this hook is fastened a rope, passing through
a pulley at the mainmast head, and fixed to a windlass on
deck. The blubber is then taken off the upper side by
" blubber spades." The blocks of blubber, called " slips,"
are then hauled up on deck by means of ropes called " speck
tackles," speck being the German word for fat or bacon.
When the blubber is all stripped from the upper side, the
men turn the whale partly round by hauling at the rope
fastened to the " kent." They then cut out the whalebone
with knives made for that purpose. Lastly, the " kent"
itself is stripped off, and the whale left to the sharks and
gulls, who have been helping themselves very liberally while
the flensing was going on. The shovel-nosed shark sometimes
scoops out semicircular pieces as large as a man's head.

When the crew have time, the blubber, which has been
stowed away in a place with a not very polished name, is
" made off," that is, carefully stripped of the pieces of skin
and muscle adhering to it, cut into moderately sized pieces,
and packed in casks until wanted. The oil is extracted by
boiling the blubber in large coppers ; a most unsavoury
occupation, but a very pleasant one to the crew, if they take
that duty upon themselves. The refuse blubber is used as
fuel, so that there is no waste.

It is curious to see how one whale will yield to a single
harpoon loosely fixed, while another will break away and
escape with five or six in his back, and two miles or so of rope
trailing behind it. Some instances have been related of whales
being killed without being struck at all. Scoresby tells us
that after a boat had killed a whale, it sunk as whales
sometimes wrill dp. While they were hauling it up, the line
sometimes pulled, and sometimes came in easily. At last
they drew up a whale with a coil of the rope round it,
which they naturally thought to be the animal struck by
them. After disentangling it they found to their surprise
that the line still descended into the sea, and dragged as if
there was a weight at its end ; and so there was, for they
found their harpooned whale still fixed to the weapon, arid
discovered that the other unfortunate animal had contrived
to entangle itself in the line, and been drowned. " A whale
was struck from one of the boats of the ship Nautilus, in

96 NATURAL HISTORY.

Davis' Straits. It was killed, and as is usual after the
capture, it was disentangled from the line connected with the
first 'fast boat' (the first boat which had struck it), by
dividing it at the splice of the foreganger (the part of the
rope fastened to the harpoon), within eight or nine yards of
the harpoon. The crew of the boat from which the ' fish'
was first struck, in the meantime were employed in heaving
in the lines by means of a winch fixed in the boat for the
purpose. On a sudden, however, to their great astonishment,
the lines were pulled away from them with the same force
and violence as by a whale when first struck. They repeated
their signal indication of a whale being struck ; their ship-
mates flocked towards them, and while every one expressed
a similar degree of astonishment with themselves, they all
agreed that a ' fish' was fast to the line. In a few minutes
they were agreeably confirmed in their opinion by the rising
of a large whale close by them, exhausted with fatigue, and
having every appearance of a ' fast fish.' It permitted
itself to be struck by several harpoons at once, and was
speedily killed. On examining it after death, they found the
line belonging to the boat in its mouth, where it was still
firmly fixed by the compression of its lips. The occasion of
this happy and puzzling incident was therefore solved. The
end of the line, after being cut, was sinking in the water — 1he
' fish' in question, engaged in feeding, was advancing with
its mouth wide open, and accidentally caught the line between
its extended jaws — a sensation so utterly unusual as that pro-
duced by the line, had induced it to shut its mouth and grasp
the rope which was the cause of its alarm so firmly between
its lips as to produce the effect just stated. This circum-
stance took place many years ago, but a similar one occurred
in the year 1814."*

The dangers undergone in this pursuit are very great.
Sometimes the boat is dashed to pieces by a blow from the tail of
the enraged whale ; sometimes the crew are left on the ice for
many hours, wet and frozen ; sometimes the ice-fields strike
together, and crush the ship between them, although tfie
vessel is strengthened in every possible way by cross-beams
and treble sheating ; sometimes a fog comes on and the boat

* Scorrsby's Arctic Rp£ion.«, vol. ii. p. 264.

NATURAL HISTORY. 97

and ship arc separated, neither having any means of knowing
where the other lies, for sound is much impeded by fog, and
even cannon are not heard when fired comparatively close.

The Whale shows great attachment to its young, which is
called the cub, and on the approach of danger, seizes it with
its fin or flipper, and carries it down out of danger. The Whale
has no fins, properly so called, as it is not a fish. Its flippers,
which supply the place of fins, are in fact fore-legs, furnished
with a kind of hand covered with a thick skin. They seem
to be principally employed in balancing the animal. The
hind-legs are concealed under the skin, as are those of the
boa constrictor. The length of this Whale averages sixty feet.
Its tail is placed transversely, and not vertically, as in the
fishes.

FLIPPER OF THE WHALE.

THE CACHALOT.

The chase of the CACHALOT is similar to that of the
Greenland whale, and need not be described. It is attended
with more danger, as the terrific row of teeth with which
the lower jaw of the Cachalot is armed, is not unfrequently
employed in biting the boat. In the Ashmolean Museum at
Oxford is an under jaw-bone of this whale, sixteen and a half
feet in length, containing forty-eight huge teeth. Besides
this method of defence, it has a very unpleasant habit of
E

93 NATURAL HISTORY.

swimming off to a distance, and then rushing at the boat
with its head, thereby knocking it to pieces. One of these
whales actually sank a ship by three or four blows from its
head.

PIIYSETMI. — (Gr. QvcTjTqp, a blow-pipe, or bellows.)

Macrocephalus (Gr. Ma/cpof, large ; /ce^a/l??, a head), the Cachalot, or
Spermaceti Wliale.

Spermaceti is obtained from the head of the Cachalot, and
it is this substance that causes the immense size of the head.
When the whale is killed, a hole is made in the upper part
of the head, and the spermaceti is baled out with buckets.
When just procured it is almost fluid, but is rendered solid
and transparent by being first drained of its oil, then boiled
in water, and lastly set to cool in wide pans, where it soon
assumes the white flaky appearance so well known in this
country. The layer of blubber is thin, but yields a fine and
valuable oil.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Ambergris, so long a riddle to all inquirers, is now found to
be produced in the interior of the Cachalot. This substance is
of the consistency of wax, inflammable, and gives out a kind
of musky odour. It was once in great repute as a medicine,
but is now only used as a perfume.

The Cachalot, although an inhabitant of the arctic seas, has
sometimes been found and captured off our coasts. The length
of this whale is about seventy feet.

JAW OF GREENLAND WHALE.

Family II. Delphimda-,— (Gr. Aetyfr, a Dolphin. Dolphin kind.)
DELPIIINUS. — (Lat. a Dolphin.}

Delphis, the Dolphin.

Those readers who have formed their ideas of Dolphins
from the very graceful and elegant creatures represented
under that name in the pictures of the " old masters" or the
statues of the ancient sculptors, will find that the real animal
differs as much from the ideal, as the red and green lions
wearing golden collars, represented in heraldry, differ from the
lion of Africa. Sad to say, almost the whole history of the
Dolphin is imaginary — very poetical, but very untrue. The

rbil NATURAL HISTORY.

red and blue colours of the heraldic lion are not less fabulous
than the changing tints of the dying dolphin so dear to poetry.
Alas ! our unpoetical Dolphin, when we have harpooned and
brought him on deck, is only black and white, and all the
change that he makes, is that the black becomes brown in
time, and the white grey.

We will leave poetry and its beautiful errors, and pass on to
facts. The Dolphin is, like the whale, a warm-blooded animal,
suckles its young, and is forced to come to the surface in order
to breathe. Its snout is very long, and is apparently used for
capturing such fish, &c. as live in the mud.

The length is from six to ten feet. Several species of Dol-
phin are known, of which the British Museum possesses six.

PHOC.EXA. — (Gr. Quicatva, a Porpoise.)

Commuiiis (Lat. common'), the Porpoise.

These animals may be observed in plenty playing their ab-
surd antics off every coast of England. There are numbers of
them off the Nore, a place which they frequent greatly, as it is
at the mouth of a river, and they find more food there than in
the open sea. They tumble at the surface of the water for
the purpose of breathing.

In the olden times, when glass windows were considered
an effeminate luxury, and rushes supplied the place of carpets,
the flesh of the PORPOISE constituted one of the standard
delicacies of a public feast, but it has long since been deposed
from its rank at the table. Like most of the cetacea, its flesh
has a very strong oily flavour, which, however relished by an

NATURAL HISTORY. 101

Esquimaux, is not agreeable to the palate of an English
epicure of the present day.

The voracity of the Porpoise is very great. It feeds on
various fishes, but its great feasts are held when the periodical
shoals of herrings, pilchards, and other fish arrive on the
coasts. In the pursuit of its prey, it frequently ventures
some distance up a river, and is then often taken in nets by
the fishermen.

The teeth of this animal are very numerous, and interlock
when the jaws are closed, so that the fish when once seized
cannot escape. Its length is about five feet, its colour a rich
black ; becoming white on the under side.

THE NARWHAL.

Although the NARWHAL has not suffered from false reports
so much as many other animals, yet it has unwittingly con-
tributed to propagate a very old error. The spiral tusk of
the Narwhal was accustomed to be sold as the real horn of
the unicorn ; and as an accredited part of that animal, forming
direct proof of its existence, it used to fetch a very high price.
Of course, when the whale fishery was established, the real
owner of the horn was discovered, and the unicorn left still
enveloped in mystery.

The name Monodori is not strictly correct, as the Narwhal
possesses two of these tusks, one on each side of its head.
Only the left tusk projects, the other remaining within the
head. Sometimes a specimen has been found with both tusks
projecting, and some think that when the left tusk has been
broken off by accident, the right one becomes large enough to
supply its place.

The use of these tusks is not known ; some supposing that
they are employed to dig up sea- weeds, &c., on which the
Narwhal feeds, and some imagining that the living prey is
first transfixed and then eaten. Be this as it may, as a
weapon the tusk is not. to be despised, as the strength and
rapidity of the Narwhal are very great. Instances are on
record, of the thick oak timbers of a ship being pierced by the

102

NATURAL HISTORY.

ivory tusk of this creature. The Greenlanders employ this
ivory in the manufacture of spears, arrows, hooks, &c. They
take the Narwhal by a kind of harpoon attached to a line,
with a buoy at its extremity. The use of the buoy is to
harass and retard the Narwhal when struck, and to give
notice when it is about to rise. Immediately that it reaches
the surface, a lance is thrust into it, which generally proves

MONODOX. — (Gr. Mowf, solitary; odovc, or bfiuv, a tooth.)

Monoceros (Gr. Mofoj- — /ctpaf, a horn), the Narwhal.

its death-blow. The adventurous Greenlander find it a most
welcome prey, as he obtains from it oil, food, weapons, arid
ropes.

Although an inhabitant of the northern seas, it has several
times visited our coasts. Its body is from thirty to forty feet
in length, and its tusk from five to nine.

The Manatees and Dugong omitted.

NATURAL HISTORY. 103

Order IV. ... GLIRJES.—(Lat. Gils, a Dormouse.)

Family I Muridse. — (Gr. Mflf, a Mouse. Mouse kind.)

Sub-family a. Murina.

Decmnanus (Lat. tenth or large), the Rat.

WE now arrive at the Rodentia, or gnawing animals, so
called from their habit of gnawing through, or paring away,
the substances on which they feed. For this purpose their
teeth are admirably formed, and by these teeth it is always
easy to ascertain a member of the Rodents. They have none
of those sharp teeth called canine, such as are seen in the lions
and in those animals which seize and destroy living animals,
but in the front of each jaw there are two long flat teeth,
slightly curved, and having a kind of chisel edge for rasping
away wood, or other articles. The constant labour which
these teeth (called incisors, from the Latin v/ord, incido,
I cut) undergo, would rapidly wrear them away. To coun-
teract this loss, the teeth are constantly growing, and being
pushed forward, so that as fast as the upper part is worn
away, the tooth is replenished from below. So constant is this
increase, that when an unfortunate rabbit, or rather rodent,
has lost one of its incisors, the opposite one, meeting nothing to
stop its progress, continually grows, until sometimes the tooth
curls upwards over the lips, and prevents the wretched animal
from eating. An example of this preternatural growth may
be seen in the vignette under the article Rabbit. The sketch
was drawn from a specimen in the Anatomical Museum at
Oxford.

The Rodentia include the mice, beavers, rabbits, squirrels,
and porcupines.

104 NATURAL HISTORY.

The BROWN RAT, sometimes called the Norway Rat, is the
species usually "found in England. It was some years since
imported into this country, and from its superior size, strength,
and ferocity, has so completely established itself, and expelled
the original Black Rat, that it is very difficult indeed to find
a Black Rat in any part of England. Waterton's sympathies
are much excited in favour of the original rat, and his anger
is great against the invader. He says of the Brown Rat : —

" Its rapacity knows no bounds, while its increase is pro-
digious, beyond all belief. But the most singular part of its
history is, that it has nearly worried every individual of the
original rat of Great Britain. So scarce have these last-men-
tioned animals become, that in all my life I have never seen
but one single solitary specimen. It was sent some few years
ago, to Nostell Priory, in a cage, from Bristol, and I received
an invitation from Mr. Arthur Strickland, who was on a visit
there, to go and see it. "Whilst I was looking at the little
native prisoner in its cage, I could not help exclaiming, * Poor
injured Briton ! hard, indeed, has been the fate of thy family !
in another generation, at furthest, it will probably sink down to
the dust for ever. !' " *

The same amusing naturalist, being considerably annoyed by
the depredations on his provisions, and the unceasing clatter
that they kept up behind the panels of his sitting-room, after
trying various plans to extirpate them, at last thought of a
method, rich in the same humour with which most of his
actions are tinged, and as efficacious in its operation as amusing
in its idea : —

" Having caught one of them in a box trap, I dipped its hinder
parts into warm tar, and then turned it loose behind the hollow
plinth. The others, seeing it in this condition, and smelling
the tar all along the run through which it had gone, thought
it most prudent to take themselves off: and thus, for some
months after this experiment, I could sit and read in peace,
free from the hated noise of rats. On moving the plinth at a
subsequent period, we found that they had actually gnawed
away the corner of a peculiarly hard-burnt brick, which had
obstructed their thoroughfare."

* Waterton's Essays, p. 212.

NATURAL HISTORY. 105

Musculus (Lat. a little mouse,} the Mouse.
•

The COMMON MOUSE is so well known, that a description of
its form and size is useless. It almost rivals the rat in its
attacks upon our provisions, and is quite as difficult to extir-
pate. It makes a kind of nest, where it brings up its young.
When a board of long standing is taken up in a room, it is not
uncommon to find under it a mouse's nest, composed of rags,
string, paper, shavings, and everything that the ingenious little
architect can scrape together. It is a rcund mags, looking
something like a rag ball very loosely made. When opened,
seven or eight little mice will probably be found in the interior
— little pink, transparent creatures, three of which could go into
a lady's thimble, sprawling about in a most unmeaning manner,
apparently greatly distressed at the sudden cold caused by the
opening of their nest.

The Mouse is said to be greatly susceptible of music. An
anecdote is related of a gentleman who was playing a violin
seeing a mouse run along on the floor and jump about as if
distracted. He continued the strain, and after some time the
mouse, apparently exhausted with its exertions, dropped dead
on the floor. An instance occurred to myself very recently,
similar in all respects but that of *the death of the little animal,
which only scampered back to its hole when the music ceased.
We afterwards found that it was a partially tamed one which
had escaped.

Every one has heard of the fable of the Lion and the Mouse,
but from the following account from Basil Hall's Fragments,

106 NATURAL HISTORY.

we must conclude that, whatever the lion might have done
under the circumstances, the tiger at all events would not have
availed himself of the proffered assistance. He relates of a tiger
that was kept in a cage at Mysore : —

" But what annoyed him far more than our poking him up
with a stick, or tantalizing him with shins of beef or legs of
mutton, was introducing a mouse into his cage. No fine lady
ever exhibited more terror at the sight of a spider than this
magnificent royal tiger betrayed on seeing a mouse. Our
mischievous plan was to tie the little animal by a string to the
end of a long pole, and thrust it close to the tiger's nose. The
moment he saw it, he leaped to the opposite side ; and when
the mouse was made to run near him, he jammed himself into
a corner, and stood trembling and roaring in such an ecs&sy of
fear that we were always obliged to desist from sheer pity
to the poor brute. Sometimes we insisted on his passing
over the spot where the unconscious little mouse ran back-
wards and forwards. For a long time however we could not
get him to move, till at length, I believe by the help of a
squib, we obliged him to start ; but instead of pacing leisurely
across his den or making a detour to avoid the object of
his alarm, he generally took a kind of flying leap, so high
as nearly to bring his back in contact with the roof of his
cage."*

HAIR OF MOUSE.

A white variety of mouse is tolerably common, and is usually
bred in cages. As it is very tame and beautiful, it is in great
repute as a pet.

The HARVEST MOUSE, the smallest of the British quadrupeds,
discovered and described by White in his " Selborne," is very
much smaller than the ordinary mouse, a halfpenny weighing
down two of them when placed in a pair of scales. Its nest

* Hall's Fragments, part iii. page 96.

NATURAL HISTORY. 107

is raised about a foot and a half from the ground, and sup- '
ported on two or three straws. It is made of grass, about the
size of a cricket-ball, and very compact.

The FIELD MOUSE is as great a pest in the open air as the
Common Mouse within a house. It not only devours the
corn, but strips the bark off. young trees, doing great mischief.
The kestrel or windhover hawk lives almost exclusively on the
Field Mouse, and ought always to be encouraged.

Several genera are omitted.

Sub-family b. Arvicolina.

Frumentarius (Lat. belonging to harvest), the Hamster.

The HAMSTER RAT is a native of parts of Germany. It is
a terrible pest there, as it not only devours the corn, &c. in the
summer, but lays up a large store for the winter. It is a most
furious little animal, and will attack a man or a horse and even
a waggon wheel if it approaches too near the spot which the
Hamster considers its own property. Hats, mice, lizards, birds,
and even its weaker brethren, are eaten by this ravenous little
animal.

It lives in holes underground, and to escape attack has
several passages from its chamber leading in different directions.
The skin is of some value, and the hunter who spears it usually
opens its granary for the sake of its store, which is far from
being inconsiderable, a hundredweight of beans having been
found in one granary.

108 NATURAL HISTORY.

ARVICOLA. — (Lat. Arvum, a field ; colo, I inhabit.)

Amphibius (Gr. 'A/z0t, on both sides ; f3iou, I live), the Water-rat.

The WATER RAT is a native of England, and very common
on the banks of rivers, bfroks, &c. It digs holes in the bank,
and is reported to eat lish, frogs, &c., but this is very doubtful.
They exist in great numbers round Oxford, and I have re-
peatedly watched them feeding. I never saw them eating fish,
nor found fish-bones inside their holes, except when a kingfisher
has taken possession ; but I have frequently seen them gnaw-
ing the green bark from reeds, which they completely strip,
leaving the mark of each tooth as they proceed. I shot one
while feeding, and at first thought that the marks of its teeth
were caused by the shot, for until that time I had supposed that
the Water Eat fed on fish.

Sub-family d. Castorina.
THE BEAVER.

North America is the principal country where the BEAVER
is found, but it is also common on the Euphrates, and along
some of the larger European rivers, as the Rhone and the
Danube. In former years, when the wolf and bear inhabited
England, the Beaver followed its architectural pursuits along
the rivers ; but they have not been seen in this country since
1188.

NATURAL HISTORY. 109

The houses of the Beaver are built of mud, stones, and
sticks. They are placed in a stream, and their entrance is
always below the surface. As a severe frost would freeze up
their doors, it is necessary to make the stream deep enough to
prevent the frost from reaching the entrances. This is done
by building a dam across the river, to keep back the water
until it is sufficiently deep for the beaver's purposes. These
banks are made of branches which the Beaver cuts down with
its strong sharp teeth, and of mud and stones. The Beavers
throw these branches into the water, and sink them to the
bottom by means of stones ; by continually throwing in fresh

CASTOR. — (Gr. Kuorcop, a Beaver.)

Fiber (Lat a Beaver), the Beaver.

supplies a strong embankment is soon made. As many Beav-
ers live together in one society, the formation of a dam docs
not take very long. By their united efforts they rapidly fell
even large trees by gnawing them round the trunk, and al-
ways taking care to make them fall towards the water, so that
they can transport the logs easily. The mud and stones used
in their embankments are not carried on their tails, as some
say, nor do the Beavers use their tails as trowels for laying
on the mud, the fact being that the stones and mud are car-
ried between their chin and fore-paws, and the mistake re-
specting the tail is evidently caused by the slap that Beavers

110 NATURAL HISTORY.

give with that member when they dive. In order that their
pond may not be too deep, they always leave an opening in
the dam to let the water escape when it rises above a certain
height.

They cut most of their wood in the summer, taking care to
choose trees above their houses, so that the stream floats them
down to the place where they wish to use them. They also
lay up stores of food for the winter, by cutting a number of
green branches and sinking them near the door of their habita-
tions, where they are held firm by stones laid on the summit
of the heap.

During the severe winter, their mud-built houses freeze quite
hard, and prevent the wolverine, their greatest enemy except
man, from breaking through and devouring the inmates.

The fur of the Beaver is exceedingly valuable, especially for
the manufacture of hats, and is greatly sought after. The
hunting season is in winter, when the beavers are quietly in
their houses. The hunters, armed with spears, &c. break the
tops of the houses. The alarmed beavers instantly rush out
and pass under the ice to certain hiding-places in the bank.
The hunter then discovers the position of the hole in the bank
by the sound of his spear struck against the ice ; he then
breaks a hole and spears the animal in its place of fancied se-
curity. A substance called Castor was formerly obtained
from the Beaver and much used in medicine, but is now dis-
carded.

When in captivity the Beaver soon becomes tame, and
will industriously build dams across the corner of a room
with brushes, boots, fire-irons, books, or any thing it can find.
When its edifice is finished it sits in the centre apparently sat-
isfied that it has made a beautiful structure to dam up the
river — a proof that the ingenuity of the Beaver is not caused
by reason but by instinct.

The fur of the Beaver, like that of many other animals, con-
sists of a fine wool intermixed with long and stiff hairs. The
hairs are useless, but the peculiar construction of the fur causes
it to penetrate and fix itself into the felt which forms the body
of a hat. The length of the Beaver is about three feet and a
half.

Several genera are omitted.

NATURAL HISTORY. HJ

Family II Hystricidse. — ("Yarpct;, a Porcupine. Porcupine kind.)

Sub-family a. Hystricina.

Cristata (Lat. crested), the Porcupine.

The COMMON PORCUPINE is found in Africa, Tartary, Persia,
India, and some parts of Europe. It lives in holes which it
digs in the ground, and only comes forth at night in order to
feed. It eats vegetable substances only, such as roots, bark,
&c. The array of spines or quills with which this animal is
covered forms its principal means of defence. If it cannot
escape, it suddenly stops, erects all its quills, and runs back-
wards against its adversary, striking the quills against him by
the 'weight of its body. Occasionally a looser quill than
usual remains in the wound or falls on the ground, which
evidently gave rise to the foolish error that the Porcupine
could dart its weapons at its adversary from a distance.
There are two kinds of these quills, — one kind long and
curved, the other short, thick, and pointed. These last
are the weapons of defence, as the former are too slender to
do much service. "When the Porcupine walks, its quills make
a kind of rustling sound, caused principally by those arranged
on the tail, which are large, hollow, and supported on long

112 NATURAL HISTORY.

slender stalks. The American Indians use the quills extracted
from the Canada Porcupine, a species living on trees, for orna-
menting various parts of their dress, especially their mocassins
or skin shoes. In England the quills are much used by anglers
for making fine floats. The length of the Porcupine is ahout
two feet, and its spines or quills are from six to fourteen inches
long.

Sub-family c. Dasyproctina.
DASYPROCTA. — (Gr. Aacrvf, rough ; Trpw/crof, hind-quarters.)

Aguti, the Agouti.

The AGOUTI lives in Brazil, Guiana and Paraguay. It is
about the size of a rabbit, and like that animal is generally
found in company. In Brazil and Guiana, the Agouti is much
sought after for the sake of its flesh, but it appears that in Pa-
raguay the flesh is not eaten. When pursued, it runs for a short
time with much rapidity, but soon endeavours to conceal kself
in a hole or under the roots of a tree, when it will suffer itself
to be captured without any resistance, merely uttering a plaint-
ive cry. It feeds on vegetables, especially yams and tubers, but
in the West India Islands it devours the sugar canes, and is a
great pest to the planters.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family d. Hydrochcerina.
HYDROCILERUS. — (Gr. 'Ydwp, water; #a/p6>, I rejoice.)

Capybara, the Capybara.

The CAPYBARA or CHIGUIRA is the largest of all the Rodentia.
At first sight it looks very like a pig, and its skin is covered
thinly with hairs like bristles, which add to the resemblance.

It inhabits the borders of lakes and rivers in many parts
of Southern America. During the day, it hides among the
thick herbage of the banks, only wandering forth to feed at
night, but when alarmed, it instantly makes for the water,
and escapes by diving. It is hunted for the sake of its flesh,
which is said to be remarkably good. The Jaguar appears to
be of the same opinion, for he is the most terrible enemy of
this creature, destroying immense numbers. The food of the
Capybara consists of grass, vegetables and fruits. Its length is
about three feet six inches.

The GUINEA-PIG or CAVY belongs to the sub-family Caviina.
It was originally brought from South America, and is frequent-
ly domesticated in England. Its beauty is its only recom-
mendation, as it shows little intelligence, and is never used for
food. Children, however, and particularly schoolboys, are fond
of keeping Guinea-pigs, as they are wonderfully prolific, easy to
manage, and do not make much noise. They are popularly
supposed to keep off rats, and are therefore usually patronized
in connexion with rabbit-hutches.

514

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family III. Leporidse. — (Lat. Lepus, a Hare. Hare kind.)

LEPUS.

Timidus (Lat. timid), the Hare.

The HARE is one of our most common quadrupeds. It is
constantly hunted both for the sport and for its flesh. When
hunted with greyhounds, the amusement is called coursing.
Beagles are also used, but they do not catch the Hare by speed,
but by patiently following its track, until the wearied animal is
no longer capable of escaping. It comes under the denomina-
tion of game, and is protected by the Game Laws, as are pheas-
ants and partridges.

It is exceedingly like the rabbit, but its colour is slightly
different, and the black spot on the extremity of its ears is a
simple method of distinguishing it. The Hare does not burrow
like the rabbit, but makes a kind of nest of grass and other
materials. In this nest, called a "form," the Hare lies, and
trusting to its concealment will often remain quiet until the
foot of an intruder almost touches it. Many people can distin-
guish it by the sparkle of its eye.

NATURAL HISTORY. 115

Innumerable foes besides man surround this animal. —
Foxes, ferrets, stoats, and all their tribe are unmerciful ene-
mies, and sometimes a large hawk will destroy a leveret, as
the young Hare is called. Although destitute of all means
of defence, it is often enabled to escape by the quickness of
its hearing and sight, which give it timely warning of the
approach of an enemy, and enable it to escape to a place of
safety.

In cold countries, the Hare changes its fur during winter,
arid becomes white, like the Arctic fox and the ermine. The
Alpine Hare, inhabiting the northern parts of Scotland, is a
good example of this change.

Cuniculus (Lat a little Rabbit}.

The well known RABBIT is rather smaller than the hare,
but closely resembles it in form. It lives in deep holes, which
it digs in the ground. "When a number of these holes or
burrows occur near each other, the place is called a warren.
A loose dry soil, such as the soft red sandstone, is the delight
of these animals, who may be seen frisking about in great
numbers outside their holes, but diving in on the .slightest
alarm. Poachers often take them in great numbers by
spreading nets over the mouth of the holes, and sending a
ferret carefully muzzled down one of the burrows. The
terrified rabbits rush out at the sight of their dreaded enemy,
and are caught in the nets. If the ferret were not muzzled,

116

NATURAL HISTORY.

it would kill the first rabbit it caught, and remain in the hole,

sucking the blood of its victim.

The female Rabbit forms a soft nest at the bottom of her

burrow, composed of fur torn from her body, of hay and dried

leaves. Here the young rabbits are kept until they are

strong enough to shift for themselves and make their own

burrows.

The tame Rabbit is only a variety,
rendered larger by careful feeding and
attendance. There are many breeds
of domestic rabbits, some, as the fancy
or lop-eared rabbits, being often of con-
siderable value, thirty guineas having
been refused for a particularly fine one.
When tame rabbits are suffered to go

free, they speedily return to their wild habits and instincts

Family IV. . . Jerboidrc. — (Jerboa kind,)
Sub-family a. Ckinchiliina.

CHINCHILLA.

Laniger (Lat. wool-bearing), the Chinchilla.

This pretty little animal is an inhabitant of the valleys in
the mountain districts of South America. In such situations
the cold is often very intense ; but the long soft fur of the
CHINCHILLA forms an effectual protection against the frosts.
The fur is extensively used for clothing, and celebrated for its

* From the Anatomical Museum, Oxford.

NATURAL HISTORY. 117

soft and warm texture. Numbers of these animals are
anually destroyed for the sake of their skins. Coquimbo
appears to be the place where they are taken in the greatest
numbers.

The Chinchilla lives in society like the rabbit, and resides
in burrows dug in the ground. Its food is entirely vegetable,
and principally consists of bulbous roots. In captivity it is
quiet and inoffensive, but seems to betray no particular
attachment to its keeper ; neither does it seem playful. Its
tail, covered with long bushy hairs, is usually held turned up
over its back, like that of the squirrel, and probably for the
same reason.

From the various specimens of fur sent to this country it
would appear that there are two species of Chinchilla, but it
is not quite certain. The length of the Chinchilla is about
nine inches, exclusive of its tail, which measures about five.

Sub-family c. Dipina.
Drrus. — (Gr. A^V, double; 7roi>f, a foot.)

^Egyptius (Lat. belonging to Egypt), the Jerboa,

The JERBOAS are celebrated for their powers of leaping.
Their long hind-legs enable them to take enormous springs,

118 NATURAL HISTORY.

during which their tails serve to balance them. Indeed, a
Jerboa, when deprived of its tail, is afraid to leap. At first
sight the Jerboa seems to alight 011 its hind-feet, as well as
spring from them, but the fact is, that it alights on its fore-
feet and draws up the hind legs ready for the next leap
with such rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow the move-
ment.

In the history of the polar bear it was mentioned that its
feet were prevented from slipping on the ice by a coating of
thick hair. The foot of the Jerboa is defended by long
bristly hairs, which not only give the creature a firm hold of
the ground for its spring, but also defend the foot from the
burning soil.

The timidity of the Jerboa is very great, and en the
slightest alarm it instantly rushes to its burrow, but if inter-
cepted, skims away over the plain with such rapidity that it
seems to fly, and when at full speed a swift greyhound can
scarcely overtake it.

Grain and bulbous roots are its chief food ; while eating, it
holds the food with its fore paws, and sits upright on its
haunches, like the squirrels and marmots. The Jerdoa does
not bear confinement well; it always appears uneasy and
distrustful ; it remains hidden during the day, and even when
it emerges from its concealment towards the evening is always
ready to retreat at the least alarm.

There are many jerboas ; the Egyptian Jerboa is rather
small, being about the size of a large rat ; its colour is a
tawny yellow.

THE DORMOUSE.

The DORMOUSE is very common in all the warmer parts
of the Continent, and is often found in England, especially
in the southern and midland counties. It lives in copses
and among brushwood, through which it makes its way with
such rapidity that it is very difficult to capture. During the
winter it lies torpid, but takes care to have a stock of food
laid up, on which it feeds during the few interruptions to its
slumbers. A warm day in winter will usually rouse it, but

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family d. Myoxina.
MYOXUS. — (Gr. Muo£df, or ^uw^of, a Dormouse.)

Avellanarius (Lat. from Avellaris, filbert), the Dormouse.

during the cold weather it lies rolled up, with its tail curled
round it. While in this torpid state, a sudden exposure to
heat kills it, but a gentle warmth, such as holding it in the
hand, rouses it without injury. It lives principally on nuts,
acorns and grain. It brings up its young in a nest composed
of leaves and hay, and seems to be fond of society in its
household labours, as ten or twelve nests have been seen close
to each other.

THE SQUIRREL.

The SQUIRREL is a very common animal in woods, where
numbers may be seen frisking about on the branches, or
running up and down the trunks. If alarmed, it springs up
the tree with extraordinary activity, and hides behind a branch.
By this trick it escapes its enemy the hawk, and by constantly
slipping behind the large branches, frequently tires him out.
The activity and daring of this little animal are extraordinary.
When pursued, it makes the most astonishing leaps from branch
to branch, or from tree to tree, and has apparently some method
of altering its direction while in the air, possibly by means of
its tail acting as a rudder.

120 NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family c. Sciurina.
ScifiRUS. — (Gr. S/au, a shadow; ovpd, a tail.)

Europaeus (Lat. European], the Squirrel.

It is easily domesticated, and is very amusing in its habits
when suffered to go at large in a room or kept in a spacious
cage ; but when confined in a little cramped box, especially in
one of the cruel wheel cages, its energies and playfulness are
quite lost. The colour of the English Squirrel is a deep reddish
brown, and its tail so large and bushy as to shade its whole
body, when carried curled over its back, from whence it derives
its name of Sciurus, or Shadow-tail.

THE FLYING SQUIRREL.

The FLYING SQUIRRELS are well known by their power of
making enormous sweeps through the air. They are enabled
to make these leaps by a fold of skin at each side, which, when
spread by the extended paws, forms a kind of parachute,
that supports them in their .passage through the air. When
they wish to pass from one tree to another, they spring
downwards from a lofty branch, stretch out all their legs, and
sweep to their mark with an upward curve. The species of
Flying Squirrel here represented is a native of the Rocky

NATURAL HISTORY.

PTEROMYS. — (Gr. Ilrepov, a wing; pv^ a mouse.)

121

Alpinus(Lat. Alpine), the Flying Squirrel.

Mountains in America, where it lives among the dense pine
forests that abound there. Its colour is yellowish "brown, and
its length about a foot.

ARCTOMYS. — (Gr. "A/>/cro$-, a bear ; //£f, a mouse.)

Marmotta, the Marmot.

The ALPINE MARMOT is common in the mountainous

districts of Europe. It lives in burrows dug in the ground.

These burrows arc something in the shape of a Y, one of the

forks leading to its habitation, a kind of chamber lined with

F

122 NATURAL HISTORY.

dry grass and mosses, and the other fork serving as a store-
house for food, as a provision against the winter months, when
it retires to its hole, closes the entrance, and becomes torpid
until the commencement of spring. When it first retires for
the winter, it is very fat, and is then killed and eaten in great
numbers. The skin is also of some service.

Many may be seen in England, carried about by the Savoy-
ard boys, who catch them when young, and tame them. "When
domesticated they are mild and inoffensive, but no instruction
entirely overcomes their abhorrence of a dog.

When feeding in its native country, it is very suspicious, and
always stations one marmot as a sentinel, arid on his giving the
alarm, the remainder instantly seek the protection of their holes,
closely followed by the faithful sentinel.

THE OX.

THE Ruminantia, or animals that chew the cud, include the
oxen, sheep and goats, deer, giraffe, and camels. They have a
peculiar construction of stomach, which receives the fresh-
gathered food, retains it for some hours, and then passes it back
into the mouth to be re-ma.sticated.

The Ox is spread widely over the earth, scarcely any
country being without its peculiar breed. In this country,
where it is our most useful domesticated animal, there are
nearly as many breeds as counties, generally distinguished by
the length or shape of their horns. There is the " long-horned
breed" from Lancashire, the " short-horned" from Durham, the
"middle-horned" from Devonshire, and the "polled," or horn-
less, breed. Each of these breeds has its particular value : some
fatten easily, and are kept especially for the butcher ; others
give milk, and are valuable for the dairy. The best dairy cow
is the Alderney, a small, short-horned animal, furnishing ex-
ceedingly rich milk.

In some parts of England, oxen are used to draw waggons,
or to drag the plough. They are not so strong as horses, arid
their movements are much slower.

Formerly, the cruel sport of bull-baiting was much practised

NATURAL HISTORY.

Order V UNGrULATA. — (Lat. possessing hoofs.)

Family I Bovida?. — (Lat. Bos, an ox. Ox kind.)

Sub-family a. . Bovina.

Taurus (Lat, a Bull), the Ox.

in England, and bull-rings, that is, large iron rings firmly fixed
in the ground, may be seen in the market-place of many
towns. The poor bull was fastened to the ring by a strong
rope, and mangled by the repeated attacks of large and fierce
dogs. Sometimes the rope did not prove strong enough to
restrain his frantic struggles, and the tortured animal chased
and scattered the terrified spectators. In Spain, bull-baiting
is a very popular sport. The Spaniards do not confine the
animal with a rope, but turn him loose into a large arena,
where several men, armed with spears and darts, first goad
him into madness, and then slaughter him. The death of
the bull is, however, considered as a compliment due to the
valour and endurance of the animal ; for if a bull is soon
overcome, or refuses to attack his opponents, he is driven out
of the arena amid the hisses of the spectators, and suffered to
prolong an ignominou? existence.

124 NATURAL HISTORY.

Every part of the Ox is of value. We eat his flesh, we wear
shoes soled with his skin, our candles are made from his fat, our
tables are joined with glue made from his hoofs, the mortar
of our walls is mixed with his hairs, his horns are made into
combs, knife handles, drinking cups, &c., his bones are used
instead of ivory, and the fragments ground and scattered over
the fields as manure, and soup is made from his tail.

The young ox is called a calf, and is quite as useful in its
way as the full-grown ox. The flesh is called veal, and by
many preferred to the flesh of the ox or cow, which is called
beef: jelly is made from its feet. The stomach is salted and
dried, and is called rennet. Cheese is made by soaking a piece
of rennet in water, and pouring it into a vessel of milk. The
milk soon forms curd, which is placed in a press, and the watery
substance, called whey, squeezed from it. The curd is coloured
and salted, and is then cheese.

When a number of cows are kept in the same yard, the oldest
cow always takes precedence, and pushes the others with her
horns if they interfere with her. She chooses her own rack,
and if she sees another rack better furnished, she dispossesses
the original proprietor, and with an air of ridiculous complacency
appropriates it to herself. None of the junior cows attempt to
leave the yard or enter it until she has preceded them, and so
jealous is she of her authority, that if any enter before her she
refuses to move until they have been turned out. She then
looks round in a dignified manner, and marches in, followed by
the rest of the troop.

At Chillingham Park there is a breed of wild cattle, appa-
rently the descendants of the original race that overran Eng-
land in former years. They still retain their wild habits, and
when any of them must be killed, thirty or forty men go out
armed with rifles. A keeper mounted on a swift horse sepa-
rates the victim from the herd, and drives it by the concealed
marksmen, who speedily lay it prostrate. The colour of the
Chillingham breed is always white with dark red ears.

NATURAL HISTORY.

125

The ZEBU or BRAHMIN BULL is a native of India. It is
a very conspicuous animal on account of the hump on its
shoulders. There are different breeds of it, some larger than
the English cattle, and some hardly larger than an ordinary
hog. The Hindoos treat it with great reverence, and will not
suffer it to be molested. It is in consequence so tame and
familiar that it will often walk down the streets, examine the
shops, and perhaps help itself to some sweetmeats ; or it will
lie down in the narrow street ; but no one must disturb it,
they must either proceed by another road or wait until the
sacred animal is pleased to rise. "With singular inconsistency
the Hindoo, although he honours the bull with such absurd
reverence, yet has no pity on the ox. While the consecrated
bull wanders with impunity through the streets, walks into
shops, (china shops or otherwise,) and resents with a peevish
push of its horns the slightest affront, the ox is fastened to the
plough, urged on by the goad, and put to every kind of labour.
The Zebu-cow, although not quite so well treated as the bull,
yet enjoys more forbearance than the ox.

126

NATURAL HISTORY.

BUBALUS.— (Gr. Eov(3a?ioe, a Buffalo.)

Buffelus, the Buffalo.

The ASIATIC BUFFALO is a large and powerful animal with
enormous horns. It closely resembles the domestic ox, but
is larger and stronger. Its strength is so great that it is a
formidable enemy even to the tiger. Captain Basil Hall
gives an account of a battle between a buffalo and a tiger.
The tiger, however, seemed to have been alarmed at the very
unusual scene into which he had been transferred ; but the
readiness of the buffalo to attack, proves that it did not fear
the tiger.

" We were promised a grand day's sport one afternoon,
when a buffalo and a tiger were to be pitted against each
other. The buffalo entered the ring composedly enough ;
but after looking about him, turned to one side, and rather
pettishly, as if he had felt a little bilious, overturned a vessel

NATURAL HISTORY. 127

of water placed there expressly for his use. The tiger refused
for a long time to make his appearance, and it was not till
his den was filled with smoke and fire that he sprang out.
The buffalo charged his enemy in a moment, and by one
furious push capsized him right over. To our great dis-
appointment, the tiger pocketed this insult in the shabbiest
manner imaginable, and passing on, leaped furiously at the
ropes, with which his feet became entangled, so that the
buffolo was enabled to punish his antagonist about the rump
most ingloriously. When at length the tiger got loose, he
slunk off to a distant part of the area, lay down, and pre-
tended to be dead. The boys, however, soon put him up
again, and tried to bring him to the scratch with squibs and
crackers ; and a couple of dozen dogs being introduced at the
same moment, they all set at him, but only one ventured to
take any liberty with the enraged animal. This bold cleg
actually caught the tiger by the tail, but a slight pat of the
mighty monster's paw crushed the yelping cur as flat as a
board. The buffalo, who really appeared anxious to have
a fair stand-up fight, now drove the dogs off, and repeatedly
poked the tiger with his nose, and even turned him half over
several times with his horns.

" We had then a fight between two buffaloes, which ran
their heads against each other with a crash that one could
fancy shook the palace to its veiy foundation ; indeed, the
only wonder was how both animals did not fall down dead
with their skulls fractured. But there appears to be a
wonderful degree of thickness or hardness in this part of the
animal."^

The Buffalo has long been domesticated in India, and
from its great strength is exceedingly useful. In its wild
state it is always found in marshy grounds, where the air is
sufficiently pestilential to destroy most animals. . There it
will luxuriate through the hottest part of the day, with its
entire body immersed in the muddy water, only leaving its
muzzle above the surface.

The hide of this animal is particularly thick and strong,
and is in great request for making harness.

* Kail's Fragments, part iii. p. 98.

128

NATURAL HISTORY.

Caffer, the Cape Buffalo.

The CAPE BUFFALO is a native of Southern Africa. It is
exceedingly ferocious and cunning, often lurking among the
trees until an unsuspecting traveller approaches, and then
rushing on him and destroying him. The ferocious creature
is not content with killing his victim, but stands over him
mangling him with its horns, and stamping on him with its
feet. Gumming shot several of these animals, and once or
twice had narrow escapes from them, as they are difficult to
kill. His description of their aspect is very good, and I
cannot do better than give it in his own words.

" Their horns reminded me of the rugged trunk of an oak-
tree. Each horn was upwards of a foot in breadth at the
base, and together they effectually protected the skull with
a massive and impenetrable shield. The horns, descending
and spreading out horizontally, completely overshadow the
animal's eyes, imparting to him a look the most ferocious and
sinister that can be imagined."

NATURAL HISTORY.

Americanus (Lat. American), the Bison.

The BISON inhabits the plains or prairies of North America
in countless multitudes. Its enormous and heavy mane, its
fierce eyes and lowering appearance, give this animal a most
terrific aspect. The American Indians constantly hunt the
Bison, which they call Buffalo. Their weapons are principally
bows and arrows, apparently weak and small, but which,
when wielded by a skilful hand, will strike the huge bison to
the heart. In Catlin's account of his travels among the North
American Indians are many most interesting accounts of
" buffalo hunts." Mounted on a swift horse, and armed with
a spear and bow and arrows, the Indians kill great numbers
of these animals. They ride up close to the bison, and with
the greatest apparent ease bury an arrow up to its feather in
the creature's body. Indeed many instances are known where

i30 NATURAL HISTORY.

the slight Indian bow, drawn without any perceptible effort,
has thrown the arrow completely through the body of the
huge animal. When only wounded it is a most dangerous
antagonist, and rushes on its enemy with the most determined
ferocity. Richardson gives an instance of its fury when
wounded.

" Mr. Finnan M'Donald, one of the Hudson's Bay Com-
pany's clerks, was descending the Saskatchewan in a boat, arid
one evening, having pitched his tent for the night, he went
out in the dusk to look for game. It had bec^ne nearly dark,
when he fired at a bison bull, which was galloping over a small
eminence, and as he was hastening forward to see if his shot
had taken effect, the wounded beast made a rush at him. He
had the presence of mind to seize the animal by the long hair
on its forehead as it struck him on the side with its horn, and
being a remarkably tall and powerful man, a struggle ensued,
which continued until his wrist was severely sprained, and his
arm was rendered powerless ; he then fell, and after receiving
two or three blows became senseless. Shortly afterwards he
was found by his companions lying bathed in blood, being gored
in several places, and the bison was couched beside him, ap-
parently waiting to renew the attack had he shown any signs
of life."

THE YAK.

The YAK inhabits Tartary. Of this animal in a native state
little or nothing is known. The name of " grunniens," or
grunting, is derived from the peculiar sound that it utters.
The tail of the Yak is very long and fine, and is used in India
as a fan or whisk to keep off the mosquitos. The tail is fixed
into an ivory or metal handle, and is then called a chowrie.
Elephants are sometimes taught to carry a chowrie and wave
it about in the air. From the shoulders of the Yak a mass
of long hair falls almost to the ground, something like the
rnane of a Lion. This hair is applied to various purposes by

NATURAL HISTORY.
POEPHAGUS. — (Gr. HOTJ, grass ; (jxl-yu, I eat.)

Grunmens (Lat. yrunlhig), tie Yak.

the Tartars. They weave it into cloth, of which they not
only make articles of dress, but also tents, and even the ropes
which sustain the tents.

THE MUSK OX.

The MUSK Ox is a native of North America, and is not
very unlike the Yak in appearance. It is covered with very
long hair, which reaches almost to the ground. Its flesh is
tolerably good when fat, but at other times it smells strongly
of musk. The horns of this animal are united together at
their base, forming a kind of shield or helmet covering the
forehead. When the hunters wish to shoot the Musk Ox they
conceal themselves, and fire without permitting the oxen to
see them. The poor animals seem to fancy that the report
of the guns is thunder, and: crowd together in a mass, so that
they afford a good mark. If, however, they catch sight of
one of their assailants, they instantly charge at him, and then

NATURAL HISTORY.

OVIBOS. — (Lat. Sheep-Ox.}

Moschatus (Lat. musky), the Musk Ox.

are very dangerous enemies. Both this animal and the Yak
are small, scarcely equalling in size the small Highland cattle,
but the thick hair which covers them makes them look larger
than they really are.

THE GNOO.

The GNOO, or WILDEBEEST, inhabits Southern Africa. At
first sight it is difficult to say whether the horse, buffalo, or
antelope predominates in its form. The horns cover the top
of the forehead, and then sweeping downwards over the face,
turn boldly upwards with a sharp curve. The neck is fur-
nished with a mane like that of the horse, and the legs are
formed like those of the stag, It is a very swift animal, and
when provoked, very dangerous. When it attacks an oppo-
nent it drops on its knees, and then springs forward with such
force that, unless he is extremely wary and active, he cannot
avoid its shock. When first alarmed, its movements are very
grotesque.

NATURAL HISTORY.

133

CATOBLEPAS. — (Gr. KarapMiruv, looking down.)

Gnu, the Gnoo.

" When the hunter approaches the old bulls, they commence
whisking their long white tails in a most eccentric manner ;
then springing suddenly into the air, they begin prancing and
capering, and pursue each other in circles at their utmost
'speed. Suddenly they all pull up together, to overhaul the
intruder, when two of the bulls will often commence fighting
in the most violent manner, dropping on their knees at every
shock ; then quickly wheeling about, they kick up their heels,
whirl their tails with a fantastic flourish, and scour across the
plain enveloped in a cloud of dust." *

The size of the Gnoo is about that of a well-grown ass, that
is, about four feet in height. Its flesh is in great repute both
among the natives and colonists.

* Cumming's South Africa,

NATURAL HISTORY.

TORTAX.— (Gr. IIopTaf, a Calf.)

Picta (Lat. painted], the Nylghau

The NYLGHAU, one of the largest and most magnificent of
the Antelopes, inhabits the forests of India. It is extremely
vicious, and cannot be approached without danger. Its method
•of attack is similar to that of the gnoo, namely, dropping
upon its knees and then springing violently forward. The
tiger is its great enemy> and often destroys it in spite of its
courage. During the day the Nylghau conceals itself in the
forests, and at night leaves its coverts to feed, often doing no
inconsiderable harm to adjacent cultivated lands.

The colour of this creature is a slaty blue ; it has however
several white spots, and from its throat and shoulders hangs
a dense bunch of hair. It is about the same size as the
gnoo, standing about four feet high at the shoulder.

NATURAL HISTORY.

135

STREPSICEROS.— (Gr. Srp^*f, a twisting ; /ttpar, a horn.)

Kudu, the Koodoo.

The KOODOO is a native of South Africa, living along the
wooded borders of rivers. It is chiefly remarkable for its
beautifully shaped horns, which are about four feet in length,
and twisted into a large spiral of about two turns and a half.
A bold- ridge runs along the horns and follows their curvature.
When hard pressed it always takes to the water, and endeav-
ours to escape by its powers of swimming. Although a large
animal, nearly four feet in height, it can leap with wonderful
activity. The weight of the horns is very considerable, and
partly to relieve itself of that weight, and partly to guard them
from entanglement in the bushes among which it lives and on
which it feeds, it carries its head backwards, so that the horns
rest on its shoulders.

NATURAL HISTORY.

BOSELAPHTJS. — (Gr. Ox-stag.)

Oreas (Gr. 'Ope/«V. belonging to the mountains), the Eland.

The best and fullest accounts of the ELAND and the ORYX
are to be found in Harris and Cumming's Adventures in South
Africa. An extract from Gumming will be both interesting
and accurate. Of the Eland, he writes : —

" This magnificent animal is by far the largest of all the
antelope tribe, exceeding a large ox in size. It also attains
an extraordinary condition, being often burthened with* a very
large amount of fat. Its flesh is most excellent, and is justly
esteemed above all others. It has a peculiar sweetness, and
is tender and fit for use the moment the animal is killed.
Like the gemsbok, the Eland is independent of water. It is
generally diffused throughout all the wooded districts of the
interior where I have hunted. Like other varieties of deer
and antelope, the old males may often be found consorting
together apart from the females, and a troop of these, when

NATURAL HISTORY.

in full condition, may be likened to a herd of stall-fed
oxen.

" I have repeatedly seen an eland drop down dead at the end
of a severe chase, owing to his plethoric habit. The skin of the
eland I had just shot emitted, like most other antelopes, the
most delicious perfume of trees and grass."

ORYX. — (Gr. *Opv£, a word from Herodotus, denoting a gazelle.)

Leucoryx (Gr. the white Oryx,) the Oryx.

The ORYX, also a South African animal, is well known
among hunters as the only antelope that revenges itself on
the lion. When the lion springs on it, it lowers its sharp
horns, receiving the lion on their points. It invariably

138 NATURAL HISTORY.

perishes by the shock, but the lion also perishes with it.
Their skeletons have been seen lying together bleached on the
plain.

" The oryx, or gemsbok, to which I was now about to direct
my attention more particularly, is about the most beautiful
and remarkable of all the antelope tribe. It is the animal
which is supposed to have given rise to the fable of the
unicorn, from its long straight horns, when seen in profile, so
exactly covering one another as to give it the appearance of
having but one. It possesses the erect mane, long sweeping
black tail, and general appearance of the horse, with the head
and hoofs of an antelope. It is robust in its form, squarely
and compactly built, and very noble in its bearing. Its
height is about that of an ass, and in colour it slightly
resembles that animal. The beautiful black bands which
eccentrically adorn its head, giving it the appearance of wear-
ing a stall collar, together with the manner in which the rump
and thighs are painted, impart to it a character peculiar to it-
self. The adult male measures 3 feet 10 inches in height at the
shoulder."^

THE SPRINGBOK.

Again an extract from Gumming must supply the place of
description. During his early travels in South Africa, the first
object that met his eyes on waking one morning, was a herd
of SPRINGBOKS, which he thus describes :f

" On the 28th I had the satisfaction of beholding, for the
first time, what I had often heard the Boers allude to, viz. a
' trek-bokken,' or grand migration of springboks. This was,
I think, the most extraordinary and striking scene, as connected
with beasts of the chase, that I have ever beheld. For about
two hours before the day dawned I had been lying awake in
my waggon, listening to the grunting of the bucks within
two hundred yards of me, imagining that some large herd of
springboks was feeding beside my camp ; but on my rising
when it was clear, and looking about me, I beheld the ground

* Cumming's Adventures. t Ibid.

NATURAL HISTORY.

139

Euchore (Gr. Eu, well ; x°P°C> dance), the Springbok.

to the northward of my camp actually covered with a dense
living mass of springboks, marching slowly and steadily along,
extending from an opening in a long range of hills on the
west, through which they continued pouring, like the flood of
some great river, to a ridge about a mile to the north-east, over
which they disappeared. The breadth of the ground they
covered might have been somewhere about half a mile. I
stood upon the fore-chest of my waggon for nearly two hours,
lost in wonder at the novel and wonderful scene which was
passing before me, and had some difficulty in convincing my-
self that it was reality which I beheld, and not the wild and
exaggerated picture of a hunter's dream. During this time
their vast legions continued streaming through the neck in the
hills in one unbroken compact phalanx.

" Vast and surprising as was the herd of springboks which
I had that morning witnessed, it was infinitely surpassed by
what I beheld on the march from my vley to old Sweir's
camp ; for on our clearing the low range of hills through
which the springboks had been pouring, I beheld the bound-

140 NATURAL HISTORY.

less plains, and even the hill sides which stretched away on
every side of me, thickly covered, not with herds, but with
one vast herd of springboks ; as far as the eye could strain the
landscape was alive with them, until they softened down into
a dim red mass of living creatures."

The Springbok is very fearful of man, and if it has to cross
a path over which a man has passed before, it does not walk
over, but takes a tremendous leap, ten or twelve feet high,
and about fifteen long, at the same time curving its back in a
most extraordinary manner. It is from this habit of leaping
that the Dutch Boers who inhabit the Cape have given it the
name of Springbok.

Ariel (Gr. proper name], the Gazelle.

The GAZELLE, so famous in Oriental poetry, inhabits Arabia
and Syria. Its eyes are very large, dark, and lustrous, so that
the Oriental poets love to compare the eyes of a woman to
those of a gazelle, just as Homer constantly applied the

NATURAL HISTORY.

141

epithet ox-eyed (fiotimg) to the more majestic goddesses, such
as Juno and Minerva. It is easily tamed when young, and is
frequently seen domesticated in the courtyards of houses in
Syria. Its swiftness is so great that even a greyhound cannot
overtake it, and the hunters are forced to make use of hawks,
which are trained to strike at the head of the gazelle, and
thus confuse it, and retard its speed, so as to permit the dogs
to come up. In several parts of Syria, the gazelle is taken
by driving a herd into a large enclosure surrounded by a deep
ditch. A few gaps are made, through which the terrified
animals leap, and fall into the ditch, when they are easily
taken. The height of the gazelle is about one foot nine
inches ; its colour a dark yellowish brown, fading into white
on the under parts.

Rune APRA. — (Lat. Rock-yoat. )

Tragus (Gr. T/oayof, a He-goat), the Chamois.

The CHAMOIS is found only in mountainous regions, espe-
cially the Alpine chains of Europe and Western Asia. It
lives on the loftiest ridges, displaying wonderful activity, and
leaping with certainty and security on. places where the eye
can hardly discern room for its feet. The Chamois hunters

142 NATURAL HISTORY.

are exposed to the most frightful dangers, to falls down terrific
precipices, to hunger and cold, and every imaginable hardship
that days spent among Alpine precipices can suggest. Yet a
kind of fascination urges them on, although few Chamois
hunters escape the dangers that surround them. The skin of
the Chamois is used extensively by shoemakers.
Several genera are omitted.

CAPRA. — (Lat a Goat.)

Ibex, the Ibex, or Steinbok.

The IBEX inhabits the Alpine regions of Europe and Western
Asia. It is instantly recognized by its magnificent horns,
which curve with a bold sweep from the head almost to the
haunches. The horns are surrounded at regular intervals
with rings, and are immensely strong, serving, as some say,
to break the fall of the Ibex when it makes a leap from a
height.

When chased it is a dangerous animal, as after it has led

NATURAL HISTORY.

143

its pursuer over dangerous heights and fearful chasms, it will
frequently turn on him, and unless he can shoot it before it
reaches him, will hurl him over the precipice. It is very
wary, and, like many other animals, posts a sentry to keep
watch : when he sees a suspicious object, he gives notice by a
kind of whistle, when the whole of the herd instantly dash off'
to the highest point they can find. The height of the Ibex
is two feet six inches ; the length of its horns often three feet.

Hircus (Lat. a He-goat), the Goat.

The common GOAT is not in much request in England, but
in some other countries, as Syria and Switzerland, herds of
goats are kept for the sake of their milk, and" in fact almost
entirely take the place of the cow. The most celebrated
variety of this animal is the Cashmir goat, which furnishes
the beautifully fine wool from which the costly Cashmir
shawls are made. The shawls bear a high value even in their
own country, but in Europe the price is much increased by the
various taxes which are paid in every stage of the manufacture
— the average number of taxes paid on each shawl being about
thirty, several of which are limited only by the pleasure of the
collector.

141 NATURAL HISTORY.

Ovis. — (Lat. a Sheep.)

Aries (Lat. a Ram}.

There are many kinds of SHEEP, among which the common
sheep, the long-tailed sheep, and the Wallachian sheep are
the most conspicuous. Next to the cow, the sheep is our
most useful animal. England produces better wool than any
country, for although the wool of the Spanish sheep is finer
than ours, it is much less in quantity. The Merino, as this
sheep is called, is annually conducted from one part of the
country to another, and back again. The distance traversed
is upwards of four hundred miles, and the time necessary to
complete the journey about six or seven weeks. The pro-
prietors of the flocks think that these periodical journeys
improve the wool ; but it is in all probability a mistaken
notion, as the stationary flocks of Leon and Estramadura pro-
duce quite as fine a fleece. Of course such a body of sheep —
nearly six millions — do great damage to the lands over which
they pass, and many fall victims to fatigue or are destroyed by
wolves.

The long-tailed sheep inhabit Syria and Egypt. Its tail is
BO large and so loaded with fat, that to prevent it from being

NATURAL HISTORY. 145

injured by dragging on the ground, a board is fastened to the
under side of it, and wheels are often attached to the board.
The peculiar fat of the tail is considered a great delicacy, and
is so soft as to be frequently used as butter. The weight of a
large tail is about seventy pounds.

The Wallachian or Cretan sheep is found in Crete, Wallachia,
Hungary, and Western Asia, Its horns are exceedingly large,
and twisted in a manner resembling the horns of the Koodoo.
It is very strong, and extremely vicious and unruly. In this
and several other sheep the fleece is composed of wool and hair
mixed. The hair of the Wallachian sheep is long and silky
like that of a spaniel, and of great length, falling almost to the
ground.

THE GIRAFFE.

This beautiful and extraordinary animal is found only in
Africa. As the gnoo seems to ccmbinc the properties of the
antelope, horse, and buffalo, so the GIRAFFE appears to bear
the characteristics of the antelope arid the camel. In the
opinion of modern naturalists, it holds a place by itself between
the deer and antelopes ; — it forms, at all events, a group to
which no other animals belong.

The height of the Giraffe varies from thirteen to eighteen
feet. Its beautiful long neck enables it to browse on the leaves
of the trees on which it feeds. It is very dainty while feeding,
and plucks the leaves one by one with its long and flexible
tongue. On its head are two very remarkable projections,
closely resembling horns. These projections are not horns, but
only thickenings of the bone of the skull, covered with skin,
and bearing a tuft of black hair at the extremity of each. The
fore-legs at first sight appear longer than the hind ones, but
this apparent difference is only caused by the great length of
the shoulder-blades, as both pair of legs are of the same length
at their junction with the body. Its eyes are very large and
prominent, so that the animal can see on every side without
turning its head. Just over and between the eyes is a bony
prominence resembling the projecting enlargements of the skull,
called horns. The use of these projections is not very well
G

140

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub -family b. Camel 'opardina.
CAMELOPARDALIS. — (Gr. K«//J7/lor, a camel ; 7ruorJa/hc, a pard.)

GirafFa (Arabic, Zarapha), the Giraffe.

known, as although in play the Giraffe -will swing its head
round and strike with it, yet when it wishes to repel an assail-
ant it has recourse to violent and rapid kieks from its hind-lops.
So light and swift are these kicks that the eye can scarcely
follow them, and so powerful are they that the lion is not mi-
frequently driven off by them. Vaillant relates that a Girafle
which he was hunting, kept off his pack of dogs by its rapid
kicks. Indeed, if it were to venture its head too near the lion,
a blow from his tremendous paw would in all probability lay
the animal prostrate.

The Giraffe has much difficulty in reaching the ground

NATURAL HISTORY. 147

with its mouth, nor does it often attempt to do so, unless it is
bribed with something of which it is very fond, such as a
lump of sugar. It then straddles widely with its fore-legs,
and with some trouble succeeds in reaching the object aimed
at. This attitude was noticed and copied in the Prensestine
pavement.

The appearance of this animal in its native haunts is very
magnificent. "These gigantic and exquisitely beautiful ani-
mals, which are admirably formed by nature to adorn the
forests that clothe the boundless plains of the interior, are
widely distributed throughout the interior of Southern Africa,
but are nowhere to be met with in great numbers. In
countries unmolested by the intrusive foot of man, the Giraffe
is found generally in herds varying from twelve to sixteen ;
but I have not unfrequently met with herds containing thirty
individuals, and on one occasion I counted forty together ;
this, however, was owing to chance, and abcut sixteen may
be reckoned as the average number of a herd. These herds
are composed of Giraffes of various sizes, frcm the young
Giraffe of nine or ten feet in height, to the dark chestnut
coloured old bull of the herd, whose exalted head towers
above his companions, generally attaining to a height of
upwards of eighteen feet. The iemales are of lower stature,
and more delicately formed than the males, their height
averaging from sixteen to seventeen feet. Seme writers have
discovered ugliness and a want of grace in the Giraffe, but I
consider that he is one of the most strikingly beautiful
animals in the creation ; and when a herd of them is seen
scattered through a grove of the picturesque parasol-topped
acacias which adorn their native plains, and on whose upper-
most shoots they are enabled to browse by the colossal height
with which nature has so. admirably endowed them, he must,
indeed, be slow of conception who fails to discover both grace
and dignity in all their movements. There can be no doubt
that every animal is seen to the greatest advantage in the
haunts which nature destined him to adorn, and among the
various living creatures which beautify creation. I have
often traced a remarkable resemblance between the animal
and the general appearance of the locality in which it is
found.

143 NATURAL HISTORY.

"Ill the case of the Giraffe, which is invariably met with
among venerable forests, where innumerable blasted and
weather-beaten trunks and stems occur, I have repeatedly
been in doubt as to the presence of them, until I had recourse
to my spy-glass ; and on referring the case to my savage
attendants I have known even their optics to fail, at one time
mistaking these dilapidated trunks for camelopards, and again
confounding real camelopards with these aged veterans of the
forest."^

The movements of the Giraffe are very peculiar, the limbs
of each side appearing to act together. It is very swift, and
can outrun a horse, especially if it can get among broken ground
and rocks, over which it leaps with a succession of frog-like
hops.

It endures the climate of England very well. In the Zoo-
logical Gardens in London are several Giraffes which were
born and bred in that country. They seem very healthy and
are exceedingly tame, examining the hands of their visitors, and
following them round the enclosure. They eat herbs, such as
grass, hay, carrots, and onions. When cut grass is given to
them, they eat off the upper parts and leave the coarse
stems.

SKULL OF THE GIRAFFE.

THE CAMEL.

There is much confusion about the names of the Camels. —
The BACTRIAN CAMEL is distinguished by bearing two humps
on its back, the ARABIAN CAMEL by bearing only one. The
Arabian camel is sometimes, but erroneously, called the Dro-
medary, as the Dromedary or El-Heirie is a lighter variety of
that animal, and only used when despatch is required.

* Cumming's Adventures.

NATURAL HISTORY.

149

Sub-family c. Camelina.
CAMELUS. — (Gr. Ka/^Xoe, a Camel.)

Arabicus (Lat. Arabic), the Camel.

The Camel forms the principal wealth of the Arab : without
it he could never attempt to penetrate the vast deserts where
it lives, as its remarkable power of drinking enough water at
one draught to serve it for several days enables it to march
from station to station without requiring to drink by the
way. The peculiar structure of its stomach gives it this most
useful power. In its stomach are a great number of deep
cells, into which the water passes, and is then prevented from
escaping by a muscle which closes the mouth of the cells.
When the Camel feels thirsty, it has the power of casting some
of the water contained in these cells into its mouth. The
habits of this animal are very interesting. A recent traveller,
the Rev. J. H. Pollen, most kindly forwarded to me the fol-
lowing interesting and amusing account of the habits of the
Camel : —

150 NATURAL HISTORY.

•

" My principal experience in camels has been during my
travels through the Arabian desert. I followed, after some
interval of time, the route of the Hajji — the Mecca pil-
grimage.

" The temper of the Camel is in general not very amiable.
It is unwilling, jealous, and revengeful to the last degree. Of
this latter quality curious tales are told : one, which was fully
believed by the Arab that narrated it to me, was as follows.
A certain camel driver had bitterly insulted (i. e. thrashed in
some ignominious way,) the animal under his charge. The
camel showed a disposition to resent, but the driver knowing
from the expression of its eye what was passing within, kept
on the alert for several days. One night he had retired lor
safety inside his tent, leaving his striped abbaya or cloak
spread over the wooden saddle of the camel outside the tent.

" During the night he heard the camel approach the object,
and after satisfying himself by smell or otherwise 'that it was
his master's cloak, and believing that the said master wras
asleep beneath it, he lay down and rolled backwards and for-
wards over the cloak, evidently much gratified by the cracking
and smashing of the saddle under his weight, and fully per-
suaded that the bones of his master were broken to pieces.
After a time he rose, contemplated with great contentment
the disordered mass, still covered by the cloak, and retired.

" Next morning, at the usual hour for loading, the master,
who had from the interior of his tent heard this agreeable
process going on, presented himself to the camel. The dis-
appointed animal was in such a rage, said my informant, on
seeing his master safe before him, that he broke his heart, and
died on the spot.

" I had once to cross a very high range of recks, and we
had very great difficulty in getting our camels to face the
steeper part of the ascent, though any horse would have made
very light of it. All the riders had to dismount, and the
laden animals made the bare rocky solitudes ring to the con-
tinual and most savage growls with which they vented their
displeasure. It is well on these occasions to keep out of reach
of their long necks, which they stretch out and bring their
teeth within dangerous proximity to the arm or side of any one
but their master.

NATURAL HISTORY. 151

" While being laden they testify their dislike to any packet
which looks unsatisfactory in point of size or weight as it is
carried past them, although when it is once on their backs
they continue to bear it with the patient expression of coun-
tenance which I fear passes for more than it is worth. All
camels are loaded kneeling, and can go from twenty-four to
sixty hours without rest, or more than a few mouthfuls of
food, which they can crop off a thorny bush as they pass, or
a handful of barley given them by their master. Parts of the
desert are strewn with small dry drab- coloured plants, thorny
and otherwise, which the camels continue to crop as they walk,
jerking the rider not a little.

" They are very sparing of drinking. I have taken camels
for eleven or twelve days without a drop of water. All of
them did not drink even when we came to water, nor did any
drink a large quantity, or seem disturbed by the want of it,
although the sun was very powerful, and we travelled twelve
or thirteen hours daily.

" At first they are difficult to ride. The rider mounts while
the animal is kneeling, and sits like a lady, with the right leg
round the fore pommel of the saddle. In rising, the Camel
suddenly straightens its hind-legs before moving either of the
fore-legs, so that if the rider .-is unpfepared, he will be jerked
over its ears. It moves the legs of each side alternately, occa-
sioning a long undulating motion, which sways the rider to
and fro. from the loins. The motion, however, is soon learned,
and when fatigued, the rider can change sides, or shift his pos-
ture in various ways.

" Sometimes a traveller places his whole family, wife and
children, in one pannier fastened to the saddle, puts himself in
another pannier fastened OIL the opposite side, and then falls in
with a caravan and accompanies it.

" DROMEDARIES — the finer and better bred Camels — have

rrer frames and more endurance, and are principally led by
Bedouins of the desert. They also object either to going
up or down a hill.

" They are fond of kneeling at night just behind the ring of
Arabs who squat round the fire, and they stretch their heads
over their masters' shoulders to snuff up the heat and smoke,
which seems to content them vastly.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Bactrianus (Lat. Badriaii), the Bactrian Camel

" Between Cairo and Suez I saw more than one camel dead
or dying. They seem very tenacious of life, as they remain
unable to rise from a broken limb or other cause for very
many days. I more than once wished to go up and shoot
the poor creatures to put them out of their misery, but the
Arabs have superstitious notions on this point, and would not
suffer it. I did once find a camel that had been stabbed by
its master, and once only. The poor beast had been exhausted,
and the long broad dagger struck into his heart. It must have
been a very short time before I reached the spot, as the blood
was almost fresh.

" The Camels at Grand Cairo are remarkably large and
powerful, and my informant told me that they are very
<proud, and will only eat their food from their master's hand —
preferring to starve rather than receive it from any other
source."

The foot of the Camel is admirably adapted for walking on
the loose sand, being composed of large elastic pads, which

NATURAL HISTORY. 153

spread as the foot is placed on the ground. To guard it when
it kneels down to be loaded, the parts of its body on which
its weight rests are defended by thick callosities. The largest
of these callosities is on the chest, the others are placed on
the joints of the legs.

The Bactrian Camel inhabits Central Asia, Thibet, and
China. It is distinguished from the Arabian camel by pos-
sessing two humps.

LLAMA. — (Peruvian name.)

Pacos (Peruvian], the Llama.

The LLAMAS, of which there are several species, inhabit
America, and are used for the same purposes as the camel.
When wild they are very timid, and fly from a pursuer the
moment that they see him ; but their curiosity is so great that
the hunter often secures them by lying on the ground and
throwing his legs and arms about. The Llamas come to see
what the extraordinary animal can be, and give the hunter
an opportunity of firing several shots, which the astonished
animals consider as part of the performance.

The Llamas, like the camels, have a series of cells in the
stomach for containing water, and can go for several days

154 NATURAL HISTORY.

without requiring to drink. If too heavily laden, or when
they are weary, they lie down, and no threats or punishment
will induce them to rise, so that their masters are forced to
unload them. When offended they have a veiy unpleasant
habit of spitting at the object of their anger. Formerly it
was supposed that their saliva was injurious, aud produced
blisters if it touched the skin.

The fleece of the Llama is very long and fine, more resem-
bling silk than wool. It is very valuable, and is extensively
imported into this country for the purpose of malting cloth and
other fabrics. The fleece of the Alpaca is considered the
best, as it is sometimes twelve inches in length and very fine.

In Chili and Peru the natives domesticate the Llama, which
in a state of captivity frequently becomes white. It is by no
means a large animal, as it measures about four feet six in
height. In general shape it resembles the camel, but has no
hump on its back, and its feet are provided with sharp hoofs
for climbing the rocky hills among which it lives. In Peru,
where it is most commonly found, there are public shambles
established for the sale of its flesh.

Sub-family d. Moschina.
MOSCIIUS. — (Gr. Moff^of, Musk.)

Moscliiferus (Lat. musk-bearing), the Musk-deer.

The MUSK-DEER inhabits many parts of India, and is
famous for the scent which it produces. This scent, called

NATURAL HISTORY.

Musk, is secreted in a kind of pouch, and is so very strong

when recent, that the hunter, after killing the animal, is

forced to bind his mouth and nostrils with linen before he

ventures to open the pouch, as the scent is so intolerably

powerful that it causes violent bleeding at the nose. "When

the merchants traffic for musk, they remain in the open air,

holding a handkerchief over their faces,

and even with these precautions it often

causes headaches. The musk is never

imported pure into this country, being

always adulterated by the merchants.

It is very costly, and forms an important

article of commerce in the East. The SMUSK°DEER.E

Musk-deer is about two feet in height at

the shoulders. The male possesses two extraordinarily long

teeth in the upper jaw, which project from the lips at each side

of the mouth.

Sub-family c. Ocrvina.
CERVUS. — (Lat. a Stay.)

Capreolus (Lat. a Wild Buck], the Roebuck.

The ROEBUCK was formerly common throughout the whole
of England, but is now only found in Scotland, north of the

J5G NATURAL HISTORY.

Forth. It is the least and most beautiful of our British deer.
It is not at all adapted for confinement, as it is never induced
to be familiar with its keeper, and will sometimes attack any
object which it dislikes with its horns and hoofs. It does not
live in herds like the Fallow-deer, but singly, or in pairs, driv-
ing off its young when they are about nine or ten months old.
It is very cunning, and when hunted, sometimes baffles the
dogs by making a few enormous leaps, waiting until the dogs
have passed, and then returning on its previous track. Its
height is about two feet ; its horns are divided into three sma ]
branches, and are seldom more than a foot in length.

Elaplms (Gr. 'E

f, a Stag), the Stag.

The RED-DEER, or STAG, is the largest of our deer. In the
language of hunters, it bears different names according to the
size of its horns, which increase year by year. All the male

NATURAL HISTORY. 157

deer have horns, which they shed every year, and renew again.
The process of renewal is most interesting. A skin, filled with
arteries, covers the projections on which the horns rest. This
skin, called the " velvet," is engaged in continually depositing
bone on the footstalks, which rapidly increase in size. As the
budding horns increase, the velvet increases also, and the course
of the arteries is marked on the horn by long furrows, which
are never obliterated. When the horn has reached its full
growth, it cannot be used, as the velvet is very tender, and
would bleed profusely if wounded. The' velvet cannot be sud-
denly removed, as the blood that formed the arteries would rush
to the brain and destroy the animal. A ring of bone foftns

CanadensU (Lat. belonging to Canada], the Wapiti.

round the root of each horn, leaving passages through which
the arteries pass. By degrees, these passages become narrow,
and finally close entirely, thus gradually shutting off the blood.
The velvet, being deprived of its nourishment,, dies, and is peel-

158 NATURAL HISTORY.

ed off by the deer, by rubbing against a tree, leaving the white
hard horn beneath.

Hunting the Stag is a very favourite amusement in En-
gland, and packs of hounds, called Stag-hounds, are kept ex-
pressly for that purpose.

The WAPITI is one of the largest of the deer tribe, often
growing to the height of our largest oxen. It inhabits Canada
and other parts of North America, and has been confounded with
the Moose. Its horns are very large, measuring nearly six feet
from tip to tip. It is very fierce, and boldly attacks an antagonist.

Axis. — (Lat, the Axis Deer.)

Maculata (Lat. spotted), the Axis.

This beautiful Deer is an inhabitant of India, especially
parts by the Ganges. It has frequently been domesticated in
England, and thrives well even in open parks. The horns are
slender, and are divided into three branches. Its usual colour
is a fawn yellow, spotted regularly with white, and a black
stripe runs down the back.

NATURAL HISTORY.
DAMA. — (L.it. a Deer.)

Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Fallow-deer.

The FALLOW-DEER are usually seen in parks, where they
congregate in large herds, and form a most pleasing addition
to the landscape when they are seen reposing under the trees,
or chasing one another in graceful play. One peculiarly
large buck always takes the lead, and suffers none but a few
favourite does to approach his regal presence. They soon
become familiar with those who treat them with kindness,
and will eat from their hands. At Magdalen College, Oxford,
where there are some of these deer, it used to be a common"
practice to let down a crust of
bread by a string from one of
the windows that overlooked the
park. The deer would speedily
approach, and it was singular to HAIR op DEER-

see how they would take a large crust in their little mouths,
and continue to bite it until they contrived to eat the whole
of it without once letting it drop.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Tarandus, the Reindeer.

The REINDEER is found throughout the Arctic regions of
Europe, Asia, and America. The finest animals are those of
Lapland and Spitzbergen. The Laplander finds his chief
wealth in the possession of the Reindeer, which not only
serves him as a beast of burden, but furnishes him also with
food and clothing. A Laplander in good circumstances pos-
sesses about three or four hundred deer, which enable him to
live in comfort. The subsistence of one who only possesses
one hundred is very precarious, and he who has only fifty,
usually joins his animals with the herd of some richer man,
and takes the menial labours upon himself.

The gadfly (CEstrus Tarandi) annoys the Reindeer so much,
that the Laplander is forced to make periodical migrations
to the mountains in order to escape the dreaded gadfly, and
the equally dreaded mosquitoes, which^are more ferocious in
the cold climates than in the Tropics. The reindeer feeds

NATURAL HISTORY.

principally on a kind of lichen, which it scrapes from beneath
the snow. During the winter, its coat thickens, and assumes
a lighter hue, many deer being almost white. Its hoofs are
divided very high, so that when the animal places its foot on
the ground, the hoof spreads wide, and as it raises the foot, a
snapping noise is heard, caused by the parts of the hoof closing
together° When harnessed to a sledge, it can draw from 250
to 300 pounds' weight at about ten miles an hour.

ALCES. — (Or. ''A

Pnlnultus (Lat. palmed), the Ell:.

The EUROPEAN ELK inhabits the northern parts of Europe.
It was considered at one time to be identical with the Ameri-
can Elk, but naturalists now believe it to be a distinct animal.
Its usual pace is a high awkward trot, but when frightened,
it sometimes gallops. It is very strong, and can destroy a
wolf with a single blo\v of its large and powerful horns. In

•102 NATURAL HISTORY.

Sweden it was formerly used to draw sledges, but on account
of the facility of escape offered to criminals by its great speed,
the use of it was forbidden under high penalties. The skin of
the Elk is so tough that a regiment of soldiers was furnished
with waistcoats made of its hide, which could scarcely be pene-
trated by a ball.

Family II. Equidse. — (Lat. Equus, a Horse. Horse kind.)

EQUUS.

Caballus (Lat. a Saddle-horse.)

We now arrive at the Pachydermata, or thick-skinned ani-
mals, which do not chew the cud. The first on the list is the
HORSE, an animal too well known in all its varieties to need
much description. The ancient war-horse, so magnificently
described in the book of Job, is well represented by that most
wonderful head in the British Museum, a fragment from the
Temple of Minerva at Athens. The ancients never appeared
to ride on the horse to battle, but to fight from small open
chariots, to which two or more horses were harnessed.

NATURAL HISTORY. 1C3

The Arabian Horse is a model of elegance and beauty.
The Arab treats his horse as one of his family : it lives in the
same tent with him, eats from his hand, and sleeps among
his children, who tumble about on it without the least fear.
Few Arabs can be induced to part with a favourite horse.
The Rev. V. Monro relates that an Arab, "the net value of
whose dress and accoutrements might be calculated at some-
thing under seventeen pence halfpenny," refused all oilers
made to purchase a beautiful mare on. which he rode, and
declared that he loved the animal better than his own life.

The plains of La Plata and Paraguay are tenanted by vast
herds of wild horses. These are captured by the lasso, bitted,
mounted, and broken, within an hour, by the daring and
skilful Gauchos.

The ponderous and powerful dray-horse is of the Flanders
breed. These huge animals, as they slowly pace along the
streets, conducted by men who seern to be a Flanders race also,
never fail to attract the attention of admiring foreigners.

Wales and the Shetland Isles produce a breed forming a
great contrast to the Flanders horse. The Sheltie, as it is
called, is very small, its height sometimes being only thirty-
four inches ; but it is very strong and sure-footed, carrying its
rider with perfect safety along the most terrific precipices,
and almost invariably choosing to walk on the very edge.

The Race Horse is supposed to have been originally derived
from the Arabian breed. The Godolphin Arabian, and the
Flying Childers, are two of the most celebrated racers. The
skeleton of Eclipse, another celebrated racer, is now in the
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.

THE ASS.

The humble and hardy Ass is scarcely less serviceable to
man than the more imposing horse. In this country, where
it meets with harsh treatment, is scantily fed, and only used
for laborious tasks, it is dull and obstinate ; but in the East,
where it is employed by the rich nobles and is properly treated,
it is an elegant and spirited animal, with good action and
smooth coat. "White asses are always used in the East for the

NATURAL HISTORY.
Asixus. — (Lat. an Ass.)

Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Ass.

especial service of bearing persons of distinction, a custom of
great antiquity, as appears from Judges v. 10, — "Speak, ye
that ride on white asses."

Dzigguetai, the Dzigguetai.

In Persia and other countries there are herds of wild asses.
They are so fleet that no horses can come up to them, and

NATURAL HISTORY. 165

even with rifles the chase is very uncertain. The Persians es-
teem its flesh very highly, considering it one of their greatest
delicacies. Sir R. Ker Porter gives an amusing account of an
unsuccessful chase after a wild ass, which he could not over-
take, although mounted on a very swift Arabian horse. This
animal, called the Dzigguetai, is also found in India, and is
quite as difficult to secure as its relations in Persia.

There is a mixed breed between the Horse and the Ass, call-
ed the Mule, an animal in no very great request in this coun-
try, but extensively used in the East for riding, and in Spain it
is the established beast of burden. It is very surefooted, and is
on that account employed in the Andes instead of the Llama.

Zebra, the Zebra.

The ZEBRA is found in South Africa. This beautiful ani-
mal lives in troops among the mountains, shunning the pres-
ence of man. It is a very conspicuous animal, and easily dis-
tinguished by the regular stripes of brownish black with which
its whole body is covered even down to the hoofs. It is very
\vilcl and suspicious, carefully placing sentinels to look out fcr

166

NATURAL HISTORY.

danger. Notwithstanding these precautions several zebras havo
been taken alive, and some, in spite of their vicious habits, havo
been trained to draw a carriage. In all probability it might be
domesticated like the ass, as the black cross on the back and
shoulders of the latter animal prove the affinity between them.
The voice of the Zebra is very peculiar, and can hardly be de^
scribed.

Quagga, the Quagga.

The CluAGGA is also a native of South Africa. It bears
some resemblance to the Zebra, but is at once distinguished
from that animal by the paucity and dulness of the stripes,
which do not reach to the hind quarters or legs at all, and
only faintly mark the back, its head and neck bearing the
deepest stripes. It is not formed quite so gracefully as the
zebra, its hind quarters being slightly higher than its shoulders.
The natives occasionally tame it for the purposes of draught,
but it i.i not to be depended on, being vicious and very wild.

NATURAL HISTORY.

1C7

Family III. . Elephantidae.— (Gr. 'Efo>af, an Elephant. Elephant kind.)
Sub-family a. Elephantina.

Indicus (Lat. Indian), the Indian Elephant*

Of this magnificent animal, whose form is familiar to every
eye, two species are known, the Indian and the African. The
anatomy of this huge quadruped is well worthy of consideration.
Its head and tusks are so very heavy that no long neck would
bear them ; the neck is therefore very short. But this short-
ness of neck prevents the ELEPHANT from putting its head to
the ground, or from stooping to the water's edge. This appa-
rent defect is compensated by the wonderful manner in which
its upper lip and nose are elongated and rendered capable of
drawing up water or plucking grass. In the proboscis or trunk
there are about forty thousand muscles, enabling the Elephant
to shorten, lengthen, coil up, or move in any direction this
most extraordinary organ. The trunk is pierc3d throughout
its length by two canals, through which liquids can be drawn

168 NATURAL HISTORY.

by suction. If the Elephant wishes to drink, after drawing the
liquid into its trunk it inserts the end of the proboscis into its
mouth, and discharges the contents down its throat ; but if it
merely wishes to wash itself or play, it blows the contained
liquid from the trunk with great violence. Through the
trunk the curious trumpet-like voice of the Elephant is pro-
duced. At the extremity is a finger-like appendage, with which
it can pick up small objects. In order to sustain the muscles
of the jaw and neck the head must be very large : were it
solid it would be very heavy. The skull is therefore formed
of a number of cells of bone, forming the necessary expanse
without the weight, leaving but a very small cavity for the
brain.

The Indian Elephant is almost invariably taken frcm its
native haunts and then trained. The Indian hunters proceed
into the woods with two trained female elephants. These
advance quietly, and by their blandishments so occupy the
attention of any unfortunate male that they meet, that the
hunters are enabled to tie his legs together and fasten him to
a tree. His treacherous companions now leave him to struggle
in impotent rage, until he is so subdued by hunger and fatigue
that the hunters can drive him home between their two tame
elephants. When once captured he is easily trained. Bribes
of sugar and arrack a kind of spirit, are 'the usual means of
inducing ai^ Elephant to attempt some new art or to labour
with particular assiduity. In its wild state it endeavours to
gratify its taste ibr sweets at the expense of the sugar plant-
ers.

" The Elephant has a natural partiality for sugar, which he
finds abundant means to gratify in the plantations of sugar-
cane. A curious instance is recorded of his liking for sweet-
meats, and of a method adopted in his savage state to gratify
this propensity. It chanced that a Cooley, laden with jaggery,
which is a coarse preparation of sugar, was surprised in a
narrow pass in the kingdom of Candy by a wild elephant.
The poor fellow, intent upon saving his life, threw down the
burthen, which the elephant devoured, and being well pleased
with the repast, determined not to allow any person egress or
ingress who did not provide him with a similar banquet.
The pass formed one of the principal thoroughfares to the

NATURAL HISTORY. 169

capital, and the elephant, taking up a formidable position at
the entrance, obliged every passenger to pay tribute. It soon
became generally known that a donation of jaggery would
ensure a safe conduct through the guarded portal, and no
one presumed to attempt the passage without the expected
offering."

It has before been mentioned that the Indian elephant is
trained for tiger hunting. When the tiger springs, the elephant
always raises his proboscis out of reach of the tiger's claws and
teeth.

In captivity, it is very docile and gentle, but sometimes, when
provoked, will take a very ample revenge. Of this propensity,
many anecdotes are told.

" A very characteristic action of D'Jeck, the famous elephant
of M. Huguet, was lately near costing the life of a young man,
a native of Bruges. The elephant, it is well known, is very
fond of sweetmeats, and this young man amused himself at
Madame D'Jeck's expense, baulking her by offering her some,
which, whenever she reached out her trunk to take, he imme-
diately withdrew. This trick having been noticed by M. Hu-
guet, he observed to the young man how foolish such conduct
was towards an animal at once so susceptible and vindictive.
But not taking warning from this remark, the Belgian again
invited the elephant to approach, and not only again deceived
her, but gave the sweetmeats to Mademoiselle Betsy. Madame
D'Jeck now lost her patience, and, regardless of the presence
of her master and a numerous assemblage of spectators, lifted
her trunk and knocked the young man down, tearing open his
cheek, and rending his clothes to tatters. Happily, M. Huguet
interposed his authority, and the elephant left her hold, but the
imprudent sufferer was long confined to his bed from the effects
of his absurdity."

The tusks and teeth of the elephant furnish exceedingly fine
ivory, which is used for various purposes, such as knife handles,
combs, billiard balls, &c. Sometimes a musket ball has been
found imbedded in the tusk without any aperture or mark to
show how it got there. In these cases, the ball has penetrated
the root of the tusk, and been pushed forward by successive
growths of ivory, as the tusk increased in size. A spear head
has been found in the same position.
H

170 NATURAL HISTORY.

All elephants are fond of the water, and sometimes submerge
themselves so far that nothing but the tip of their proboscis re-
mains above the surface.

The following account of E lephant catching in Nepal was
sent me by a medical gentleman residing at Segouly.

" The whole batch, tame and wild ones, then rushed into a
deep river close by, where it was a splendid sight to see them
swimming, fighting, diving, plunging, kicking and bellowing in
a most frantic manner ; the mahouts (the riders on the tame
ones) sticking to them like monkeys, and dexterously taking the
opportunity of the confusion to secure the dreaded ncose round
their necks.

" One of the wild elephants in the struggle got half drowned,
and then entirely strangled ; she just staggered to the shore,
and then dropped dead without a struggle. It was really
quite piteous to see her poor little young one, about ten days
old ; she kept walking round the body, pushing it, and trying
to coax her dead mother to rise up ; then uttering the most
heart-rending cries, and lying down by her side as it were to
comfort her.

" When the contest was over, and the other elephants, tame
ones, were brought up near the corpse, the poor little thing
with the most indignant, though, of course, unavailing valour,
charged on all sides at any elephant who came near, deter-
mined, evidently, to defend its mother, even though dead, to
the last. The tame ones of course were too sagacious to hurt
it with their tusks, arid looked on with the most curious air of
pity and contempt, as they gradually, despite its violent strug-
gles, pushed it away from its mother to a place where it could
be properly secured and taken care of. Really its moans and
endeavours to remain with its mother were quite afTecting. It
is too young to be weaned with safety, and will probably die ;
at least I am very much afraid so. I shall always feel an in-
terest in the poor little animal in future, should it live. It was
so devotedly and heroically brave ; never attempting to leave
its mother, in order to procure its own escape, which it might
easily have done unseen during the confusion."

On this occasion Jung Bahadoor, the Nepaulese ambassador,
distinguished himself greatly by his dexterity and courage, and
secured several elephants with his own hands.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Africanus (Lat. African), the African Elephant.

This species is distinguished from the Indian Elephant by
the markings of its teeth and some differences in form. Much
interesting information respecting the habits of this animal has
been given by Gumming, from whose work the following extracts
are taken :—

" The AFRICAN ELEPHANT is widely diffused through the vast
forests, and is met with in herds of various numbers. The
male is very much larger than the female ; consequently, much
more difficult to kill. He is provided with two enormous tusks.
These are long, tapering, and beautifully arched ; their length
averages from six to eight feet, and they weigh from sixty to a
hundred pounds each.

" The females, unlike Asiatic elephants in this respect, are
likewise provided with tusks. The price which the largest
ivory fetches in the English market is from 281. to 32/. per

172 NATURAL HISTORY.

himdred-aud-twelve pounds. Old bull elephants are found
singly or in pairs, or consorting together in small herds, vary-
ing from six to twenty individuals. The younger bulls remain
for many years in the company of their mothers, and these
are met together in large herds of from twenty to a hundred
individuals. The food of the Elephant consists of the branches,
leaves, and roots of trees, and also of a variety of bulbs, of
the situation of which he is advised by his exquisite sense of
small. To obtain these he turns up the ground with his tusks,
arid whole acres may be seen thus ploughed up. Elephants
consum.3 an immense quantity of food, and pass the greater
part of the day and night in feeding. Like the whale in the
ocean the Elephant on land is acquainted with, and roams
over, wide and extensive tracts. He is extremely particular
in always frequenting the freshest and most verdant districts
of the forests, and when one district is parched and barren he
will forsake it for years and wander to great distances in quest
of better pasture.

" The Elephant entertains an extraordinary horror of man,
and a child can put a hundred of them to flight by passing at
a quarter of a mile to windward ; and when thus disturbed,
they go a long way before they halt. It is surprising how
soon these sagacious animals are aware of the presence of a
hunter in their domains. "When one troop has been attacked,
all the other elephants frequenting the district are aware of the
fact within two or three days, when they all forsake it, and
migrate to distant parts."

" They choose for their resort the most lonely and secluded
depths of the forest, generally at a very great distance from
the rivers and fountains at which they drink. In dry and
warm weather they visit these waters nightly ; but in cool
and cloudy weather they drink only once every third or fourth
day. About sundown the elephant leaves his distant midday
haunt, and commences his march towards the fountain, which
is probably from twelve to twenty miles distant. This he
generally reaches between the hours of nine and midnight;
when, having slaked his thirst and cooled his body by spout-
ing large volumes of water over his back with his trunk, he
resumes the path to his forest solitudes. Having reached a
secluded spot, I have remarked that full-grown bulls lie down

NATURAL HISTORY. 173

on their broadsides, about the hour of midnight, and sleep for
a few hours. The spot which they usually select is an ant-
hill, and they lie around it with their backs resting against
it ; these hills, formed by the white ants, are from thirty to
forty feet in diameter at their base. The mark of the under
tusk is always deeply imprinted in the ground, proving that
they lie upon their sides.

" The appearance of the wild elephant is inconceivably
majestic and imposing. His gigantic height and colossal
bulk, so greatly surpassing all other quadrupeds, combined
with his sagacious disposition and peculiar habits, impart to
him an interest in the eyes of the hunter which no other
animal can call forth. The pace of the Elephant when undis-
turbed is a bold, free, sweeping step ; and from the peculiar
spongy formation of his foot, his tread is extremely light and
inaudible, and all his movements are attended with a peculiar
gentleness and grace.

" The under skin is of a tough and pliant nature, and is
used by the natives for making water bags, in which they
convey supplies of water from the nearest vley or fountain
(which is often ten miles distant). They remove this inner
skin with caution, taking care not to cut it with the assagai ;
and it is formed into water-bags by gathering the corners
and edges, and transfixing the whole on a pointed wand."

SKULL 015" THE ELEPHANT.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family b. Tapirina.

Terrestris (Lat. belonging to the earth}.

The TAPIR forms one of the links connecting the elephant
with the hog. The snout is lengthened into a kind of
proboscis like that of the elephant, but it is comparatively
short, and has no finger-like appendage at the extremity.
Many of the remaining links are supplied by the various
species of the fossil genus PalsGotherium.

The Common Tapir is spread throughout the warmer
regions of South America. It sleeps during the day, and
wanders about at night in search of its food, which consists of
water melons, gourds, and other vegetables. It is very fond
of the water, and can remain below the surface for a consi-
derable period. It is a very powerful animal, and as it is
furnished with a very thick hide, it plunges through the
brushwood, breaking its way through any obstacles that may
oppose its progress.

Its disposition is gentle, "but when annoyed it sometimes
rushes at its antagonist and defends itself vigorously with

NATURAL HISTORY.

its powerful teeth. The jaguar frequently springs on it, but

is often dislodged by the activity of the tapir, who rushes

through the bushes immediately that

it feels the claws of its enemy, and

endeavours to brush him off against

the thick branches. The height of

the American Tapir is from five to

six feet. The Malay Tapir is some-

what larger, and is known by the

greyish white colour of the loins and

hind quarters, which give the animal an appearance as if a

wrhite horsecloth had been spread over it.

SKULL CP THE TAPIR.

Sub-family c. Suina.
Srs. — (Lat. a Sou'.)

Scrofa (Lat. an old Sow), (he Soar.

The animals composing the HOG tribe are found in almost
every part of the globe. Their feet are cloven and externally
resemble those of the Ruminants, but an examination of the
bones at once points out the difference.

The WILD HOG or BOAR inhabits many parts of Europe,
especially the forests of Germany, where the chase of the
wild boar is a common amusement. It has become extinct
in this country for many years. Its tusks are terrible

170 NATURAL HISTORY.

weapons, and capable of being used with fatal effect. They
curve outwards from the lower jaw, and are sometimes eight
or ten inches in length. In India, where the Boar attains to
a great size, the horses on which the hunters are mounted
often refuse to bring their riders within spear stroke of the
infuriated animal, who has been known to kill a horse and
severely injure the rider with one sweep of its enormous tusks.

The DOMESTIC HOG scarcely needs any description. It is
by no means the unclean and filthy animal that moralists love
to represent it. It certainly is fond of wallowing in the mire, as
are the elephant, tapirs, &c., but no animal seems to enjoy clean
straw more than the Hog. "We shut it up in a dirty narrow
crib, give it any kind of refuse to eat, and then abuse it for
being a dirty animal and an unclean feeder. While, however,
it should be rescued from these unjust imputations, it should
bear the weight of an accusation never before made. I have seen
pigs suck the cows in a farmyard while they were lying down
and chewing the cud, nor did the cows attempt to repel them.

Babvroussa (native word, Hog-deer'), the Babyroussa.

The BABYROUSSA inhabits the Molucca Islands, and Java.
It is remarkable for possessing four tusks, two of which pro-
ceed from the upper jaw, and do not pass out between the lips,
but through an aperture in the skin, halfway between the end
of the snout and eyes.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family d. Rhinocerina.
RHINOCEROS. — (Gr. 'Piv, or fa, a nose ; /cepaf, a horn.)

TJnicornis (Lat. Unus, one; cornu, a horn), the Rhinoceros.

There are, apparently, six species of this formidable animal.
Their chief peculiarity, the so-called horn, is a mass of fibres
matted together, and closely resembling the fibres of whalebone.
Their feet are divided into three toes, incased in hoofs. The
best description of the various species of the AFRICAN RHINOCEROS
is given in Cumming's Adventures.

" Of the Rhinoceros there are four varieties in South Africa,
distinguished by the Bechuanas by the names of the ' borele,'
or black rhinoceros, the ' keitloa,' or two-horned black rhino-
ceros, the 'muchocho,' or common white rhinoceros, and the
'kobaoba,' or long-horned white rhinoceros. Both varieties
of the black rhinoceros are extremely fierce and dangerous,
and rush headlong and unprovoked at any object which at-
tracts their attention. They never attain much fat, and their
flesh is tough, and not much esteemed by the Bechuanas.

NATURAL HISTORY.

EIIINOCEROS.

Bicornis (Lat. bis, twice; cornu, a horn), the Two-Horned Rhinoceros,
or Rhinaster.

Their food consists almost entirely of the thorny branches of
the wait-a-bit thorns. Their horns are much shorter than
those of the other varieties, seldom exceeding eighteen inches
in length. They are finely polished with constant rubbing
against the trees. The skull is remarkably formed, its most
striking feature being the tremendous thick ossification in
which it ends above the nostrils. It is on this mass that the
horn is supported. The horns are not connected with the
skull, being attached merely by the skin, and they may thus
be separated from the head by means of a sharp knife.
They are hard, and perfectly solid throughout, and are a fine
material for various articles, such as drinking cups, mallets
lor rifles, handles for turners' tools, &c. &c. The horn is
capable of a very high polish. The eyes of the rhinoceros
are small and sparkling, and do not readily observe the
hunter, provided he keep to leeward of them. The skin is

NATURAL HISTORY. ITU

extremely thick, and only to be penetrated by bullets hardened
with solder. During the day, the rhinoceros will be (bund
lying asleep, or standing indolently, in some retired part of
the forest, or under the base of the mountains, sheltered from
the power of the sun by some friendly grove of umbrella-topped
mimosas. In the evening, they commence their nightly
ramble, and wander over a great extent of country. They
usually visit the fountains between the hours of nine and
twelve o'clock at night, and it is on these occasions that they
may be most successfully hunted, and with the least dangei.
The black rhinoceros is subject to paroxysms of unprovoked
fury, often ploughing up the ground for several yards with
its horn, and assaulting large bushes in the most violent
manner. On these bushes they work for hours with their
horns, at the same time snorting and blowing loudly ; nor do
they leave them in general until they have broken them into
pieces. All the four varieties delight to roll and wallow in
mud, with which their rugged, hides are generally encrusted.
Both varieties of the black rhinoceros are much smaller and
more active than the white, and are so swift that a horcc
with a rider on its back can rarely overtake them. The two
varieties of the white rhinoceros are so similar in habits, that
the description of one will serve for both, the principal differ-
ence consisting in the length and set of the anterior horn ; that
of the common white rhinoceros averaging from two to three
feet in length, and pointing backwards ; while the horn of the
long-horned white rhinoceros often exceeds four feet in. length,
and inclines forward from the nose

" Both these varieties of rhinoceros attain an enormous size,
being the animals next in magnitude to the elephant. They
feed solely on grass, carry much fat, and their flesh is excellent,
being preferable to beef. They are of a much milder and
more inoffensive disposition than the black rhinoceros, rarely
charging their pursuer. Their speed is very inferior to that of
the other varieties, and a person well-mounted can overtake and
shoot them.'' The description of the famous rhinoceros birds
is very interesting.

" Before I could reach the proper distance to fire, several
' rhinoceros birds,' by which he was attended, warned him of
his impending danger, by sticking their bills into his ear, and

180 NATURAL HISTORY.

uttering their harsh, grating cry. Thus aroused, he suddenly
sprang to his feet, and crashed away through the jungle at a
rapid trot, and I saw no more of him

" These rhinoceros birds are constant attendants upon the
hippopotamus and the four varieties of rhinoceros, their object
being to feed upon the ticks and other parasitic insects that
swarm upon these animals. They are of a greyish colour, and
are nearly as large as a common thrush : their voice is very
similar to that of the mistletoe thrush. Many a time have
these ever-watchful birds disappointed me in my stalk, and
tempted me to invoke an anathema upon their devoted heads.
They are the best friend the rhinoceros has, and rarely fail to
awaken him, even in his soundest nap. ' Chukuroo' perfectly
understands their warning, and, springing to his feet, he gener-
ally first looks about him in every direction, after which he
invariably makes off."

The Indian Rhinoceros is chiefly remarkable for the very
deep foldings of the skin. Goblets, made of its horn, were
formerly in high estimation as preservatives against poison.
The Indian kings were accustomed to have their wine served
up in these goblets, as they imagined that if any poison were
introduced into the cup, the liquid would boil over, and betray
its presence.

The upper lip is used by the rhinoceros as an instrument of
prehension, with which it can grasp the herbage on which it
feeds, or pick up small fruit from the ground. The very tame
rhinoceros in the Zoological Gardens will take a piece of bun
or biscuit from a visitor's hand, by means of its flexible upper
lip.

BKULL OK THE RHINOCEROS.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Bub-family a. Nippopotamina.
HIPPOPOTAMUS. — (Gr. ITTTTO?, a Horse ; Trorauoc. & River. ^

Ampliibius (Gr. 'A/j.^1 /3tocj\ the Hippopotami;,1!.

There is, in all probability, but one species of the HIPPO-
POTAMUS. It inhabits Africa exclusively, and is found in plenty
on the banks of many rivers, where it may be seen gamboling
and snorting at all times of the day.

They are quiet and inoffensive while undisturbed, but if
attacked they unite to repel the invader, and have been known
to tear several planks from the side of a boat, and sink it.
They can remain about five or six minutes under water, and
when they emerge they make a loud and very peculiar snorting
noise, which can be heard at a great distance.

The hide is very thick and strong, and is chiefly used for
whips. The well-known " cow-hides" are made of this mate-
rial. Between the skin and flesh is a layer of fat, which is
salted and eaten by the Dutch colonists of Southern Africa.
When salted it is called Zee-koe speck, or Sea-cow's bacon-
The ilesh is also iti some request,

133 NATURAL HISTORY.

The Hippopotamus feeds entirely on vegetable substances, such
as gra.33 and brushwood. The fine animal now in the posses-
sion of the Zoological Society eats all kinds of vegetables, not
disdaining roots. This animal is peculiarly interesting from
bjing the first Hippopotamus brought to Europe for many
hundred years, and in all probability the first that has ever
reached this country.

In Harris's Sports of South Africa, a very good and accurate
account is given of the habits of the Hippopotamus.

" This animal abounds in the Limpopo, dividing the empire
with its amphibious neighbour the crocodile. Throughout
the night the unwieldly monsters might be heard snorting
and blowing during their aquatic gambols, and we not unfre-
quantly detected them in the act of sallying from their reed-
growa coverts, to graze by the serene light of the moon ;
iiaver, however, venturing to any distance from the river,
the stronghold to which they betake themselves on the small-
est alarm. Occasionally, during the day, they were to be seen
basking on the shore, amid ooze and mud ; but shots were
most constantly to be had at their uncouth heads, when pro-
truded from the water to draw breath ; and, if killed, the
body rose to the surface. Vulnerable only behind the ear, how-
ever, or the eye, which is placed in a prominence, so as to
resemble the garret window of a Dutch house, they require
the perfection of rifle practice, and after a few shots become
exceedingly shy, exhibiting the snout only, and as instantly
withdrawing it. The flesh is delicious, resembling pork in
flavour, and abounding in fat, which in the colony is de-
servedly esteemed the greatest of delicacies. The hide is up-
wards of an inch and a half in thickness, and being scarcely
flexible, may be dragged from the ribs in strips like the planks
from a ship's side."

Gumming relates that the track of the Hippopotamus may
be distinguished from that of any other animal by a line of
unbroken herbage which is left between the marks of the feet
of each side, as the width of the space between the right and
left legs causes the animal to place its feet so considerably
apart, as to make a distinct double track.

This is supposed by many to be the animal called Behemoth
in Scripture.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family IV. Bradypidrc — (Gr. Epa6vg, slow; TTOV?, a foot.)
BRADYPUS.

Tridactylus (Gr. Tpt&krv/lof, three-fingered), the Sloth.

The Edentata include the ant-eaters and the pangolins which
possess no teeth at all, and the sloths, armadillos, &c., whose
teeth are small and of peculiar structure.

The SLOTHS form the first division of the Edentata — the
leaf-eaters.

The Sloth or Ai is another example of the errors into which
even great naturalists are led from hasty observation. The
great Cuvier himself condemns the Sloth as a degraded and
miserable animal, moving with pain, and misshapen in form.
Yet no animal is more fitted for its position than the Sloth.
" The Sloth," says Waterton, " in its wild state spends its
whole life in the trees, and never leaves them but through
force or accident, and what is more extraordinary, not upon
the branches, like the squirrel and monkey, but under them.

184 NATURAL HISTORY.

He moves suspended from the branch, he rests suspended
from the branch, and he sleeps suspended from the branch.
Hence his seemingly bungled composition is at once accounted
for."

To render it fit for this singular mode of life, its long and
powerful arms are furnished with strong curved claws, which
hook round the branches, and keep the animal suspended
without any effort. When on the ground, these claws are
very inconvenient, and it can barely shuffle along ; but when
it is among its native branches, it moves with exceeding rapid-
ity, particularly in a gale of wind, when it passes from branch
to branch and from tree to tree with an activity which its move-
ments on the ground by no means portend.

Family V. . . DASYFUX& — (Gr.
Sub-family a. Manina.

crvf, hairy; TTOVC, a foot. Hairy-footed.)

Tetradactyla (Gr. TerpaSdnTvZoc, four-fingered), the Phatagin, or Long-
tailed Manis.

The MANIOC or PANGOLINS are immediately known by the
peculiar, strong, horny plates with which their bodies are de-
fended, giving them the appearance of an animal enveloped in
a suit of scale armour. When attacked, they roll themselves

NATURAL HISTORY.

1S5

up, wrap their tails round them, and raise the whole array of
sharp-edged scales with which their body is covered, and bid
defiance to almost any enemy except man. They live on ants
arid termites, or white ants, as they are called, which they take
by thrusting their long slender tongue among the ante, which
adhere to it by a gummy saliva. "When the tongue is covered
it is rapidly retracted, and the ants swallowed. To obtain the
ants the Pangolins are furnished with powerful claws to tear
down the dwellings of their prey.

The Long-tailed Manis is widely scattered through Africa,
but is not very common. The length of its body is about two
feet, and that of its tail rather more than three.

Pentadactyla (Gr. HevradaK-vAof, five-fingered), the Short-tailed Manis.

The Short-tailed Manis, or Bajjerkcit, is very common in
India. Its' entire length is about four feet.

THE ARMADILLO.

The ARMADILLOS live exclusively in the warmer parts of
America. They eat carrion, insects, and sometimes fallen
fruit. The armour that covers them, instead of resembling
scale armour like that of the Manis, forcibly reminds the
observer of the modified plate armour worn in the time of
Charles I. They burrow with great rapidity, and can only

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family b. Dasypina.
DASYPUS. — (Gr. kaavq, hairy ; Trovg, a foot.)

Sexciactus (Lat. six-banded), the Armadillo.

be forced from their refuge by smoke or water. The natives
and colonists consider them great delicacies when roasted in
their shells.

The Armadillos are all small except the Gigantic Armadillo,
which is well described in the following extract. " I found
that an Armadillo of gigantic size had caused the commotion.
It was lying a round, misshapen mass, its head partly buried
under its armour, the feet drawn together, and its body pierced
by numerous arrows. It offered not the slightest resistance to
its tormentors, whom I desired to end its sufferings by a heavy
stroke of a club. Two men were required to carry it, and
Mr. Schomburga estimated its weight at from 110 to 120
pounds ; its height was about three feet, its length five and a
half. Its tail was about fourteen or sixteen inches long, and
its root nearly as thick as a man's thigh, tapering very ab-
ruptly. The middle one of the five toes of the fore foot was
seven and a half inches in length. In size it greatly surpasses
the largest Giant Armadillo known (Dasypus giganteus,
Desm.), though Mr. Schomburgh does not mean to assert it is
a different species from the giganteus ; yet its enormous size
will attract the attention of naturalists and geologists to* the
fassil genera."

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family c. Myrmecophaglna.
MYRMECOPIIAGA. — (Gr. Mvp/nrj^, an Ant ; ^ayetv, to eat.)

Jubata (Lat. crested), the Ant-cater.

This curious animal inhabits Guiana, Brazil, and Paraguay.
As its name imports, it lives principally upon ants and
termites, which it procures in precisely the same manner as
was related of the Manis. It short legs and long claws
would lead an observer to suppose that its pace was slow and
constrained. When chased, however, it runs off with a
peculiar trot, and with such rapidity, that it keeps a horse to
its speed to overtake it. Schomburgh relates that a tame
ANT-EATER, in his possession, by no means restricted itself to
ants, but devoured meat, when minced, with much avidity.
The same naturalist also discovered a Julus, or Millipede, in
the stomach of an ant-eater, which he dissected. The ordinary
length of this animal is about three feet seven inches, and its
height about three feet.

188 NATURAL HISTORY.

Didactyla (Gr. AiduK-vZo?, two-fingered), the Little Ant-eater.

The LITTLE ANT-EATER also inhabits Guiana and Brazil.
The principal characteristics of this animal are the shortness
of its muzzle, and the prehensile power of its tail, which it
twists round the branches on which it principally resides. It
often attacks the nests of wasps, pulling them to pieces with
its claws, and devouring the grubs. The length of its body is
ten inches.

THE DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.

Australia, where everything seems to be reversed, where
the thick end of a pear is next the stem, and the stone of a
cherry grows outside, is the residence of this most extraordinary
animal. When it was first introduced into Europe it was
fully believed to be the manufacture of some impostor, who
with much ingenuity had fixed the beak of a duck into the
head of some unknown animal.

It lives by the banks of rivers, in which it burrows like the
water rat. It feeds upon water insects and shell-fish, always
rejecting the crushed shells after swallowing the inhabitant.

NATURAL HISTORY.

189

Sub-family d. Ornithorhynchina.
ORNITHORHYNCUS. — (Gr. Opvie, a bird; fivyx0^ a snout.)

Paradoxus (Lat. puzzling}, the Duck-billed Platypus.

Mr. Bennet attempted to rear some young ORNITHORYNCHI
at Sydney, but they died in a short time. They were very
fond of climbing between a press and the wall, placing their
backs against the press and their feet against the wall. They
used to dress their fur with their beak and feet, just as a duck
prunes its feathers.

The male has a spur on its hind feet.

SKULL, OF THE PLATYPUS.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Class II AVES. — (Lat. Birds.)

Order I ACCIPITRES.—(Lzt. Hawks.)

Sub-order I. ACCLPITRES DIURNI. — (Lat. Haivks of the day.)
Family I. . . Gypaetidsa. — (Gr. Tinp a Vulture ; 'Acrof, an Eagle.
Vulture-eagle kind.)

GYPAETUS.

Barbatus (Lat. bearded), the Bearded Vulture or Lammcrrjcyer.

BIRDS are immediately distinguished from the Mammalia by
their general form, their feathery covering, arid by producing
their young enclosed in eggs.

The different orders of birds are principally known by the
character of the claws and beak, examples of which will be
seen in the progress of the work. Before we pay attention to
any individual species, we will first examine some of the struc-
tures common to all birds.

One of the first great marks of distinction in birds is the
wing. This organ is a modification of the arm or forelimb of
mammalia, clothed with feathers instead of hair.

NATURAL HISTORY.

191

The bones of adult birds are not filled with marrow like
the bones of mammalia, but are hollow and filled with air,
and are therefore rendered very light, a bone of a goose being
barely half the weight of a rabbit's bone of the same size, after
the marrow has been extracted. In this formation, strength
as well as lightness is consulted, as a tubular rod is well
known to be very much stronger than the same quantity of
matter formed into a solid bar. The bones forming the wing
are worthy of notice for the beautiful manner in which they
are jointed together, and arranged so as to give great strength
together with lightness. In the following figure, the limbs of
a man and of a bird are compared, the corresponding divisions
of each being marked by similar letters.

As many important characteristics are drawn from the
plumage, it will be necessary to give a figure, (p. 192,) exhibit-
ing the feathers of the different parts, together with their names :
— A, primaries, or great quill feathers of the wing ; B, seconda-
ries ; c, tertials ; D, lesser coverts ; E, greater coverts ; F, winglet,
or bastard wing ; G, scapularies ; H, upper tail coverts ; i, under
tail coverts ; K, rectrices or tail-feathers.

In the above engraving is also a figure, showing the method
by which birds hold on the perch while sleeping. It will be
seen that the great tendon A, which is connected with all the
toes or claws, passes over the joints in such a manner that
when the leg is bent, the tendon is shortened and * the claws
drawn together, so that the weight of the bird while perched,
pressing on the tendon, holds it firmly on the branch. This

192 NATURAL HISTORY

action of the tendon is easily observed by watching a common
fowl walk. At each step that it makes, on lifting its toot, the
claws are seen to be drawn together. "When an eagle wishes
to drive his claws into its prey, he perches on it, and then sinks
down with the whole weight of his body, by which movement
the tendon is shortened and the claws forcibly pressed to-
gether.

As the wing presents a very broad surface to the air, it is
necessary that very powerful muscles must be used to move it
with sufficient rapidity. The pectoral muscles are therefore
enormously developed, extending almost the whole length of
the body, as every one who has carved a fowl must have seen,
and in order to form an attachment for these immense muscles,
the ridge of the breast-bone is equally enlarged. It is the want
of these enlarged muscles that prevents man from flying, even
when he has attached wings to his arms.

CLAW AND BEAK OF RAPACIOUS BIRD.

NATURAL HISTORY. 193

The LAMMERGEYER (Germ. Lambs' -eagle), or BEARDED VUL-
TURE, inhabits most mountain ranges, arid is very common in
the Alps of Switzerland, and Germany, where from its depre-
dations on the kids and lambs, it has earned its name of Lam-
mergeyer.

Although called the "Bearded" Vulture, it is not strictly a
vulture, as its head and neck are feathered, and it rejects putrid
flesh, unless hard pressed by hunger.

It destroys hares, and young or sickly sheep and goats, nor,
when rendered fierce by hunger, does it fear to attack the
adult chamois, or even man. It is said to destroy the larger
animals by watching until they are near the brink of a preci-
pice, and then suddenly driving them over the rocks by an un-
expected swoop. In this manner the strong and swift chamois
falls a victim to the craft of its winged foe, and instances are
not wanting where the chamois hunter himself has been struck
from a narrow ridge into the valley beneath by a blow from
this ferocious bird.

It is exceedingly bold, and shows but little fear of man. While
Bruce was preparing his dinner on the summit of a mountain,
one of these birds, after scalding its feet in several unavailing
attempts to extract some meat out of the boiling water, actually
seized a piece from a platter, and went off with it.

The name of " Bearded" Vulture is given to it on account
of the long tuft of hairs with which each nostril is clothed.
The length of its body is about four feet, and the expanse of
its wings from nine to ten. The second and third primary
feathers are the longest.

It lays two eggs, — white, marked with brown blotches.

THE CONDOR.

The Sarcorhamphidse are distinguished by a fleshy tuft
growing on their beaks, somewhat resembling the wattles of a
turkey. The genus Sarcorhamphos includes the Condor, the
King Vulture, and the California!! Vulture. These birds are
distinguished by the wattles on their beaks, their naked necks,
and the size of the nostrils. The third primary feather is the
longest.

I

4 NATURAL HISTORY.

Family II. Sarcorhamphidse. — (Gr. 2up£, flesh ; /5u/z<£pf, beak.)

SARCORHAMPHOS.

Gryphon (Gr. Tpvi^, a Griffon), the Condor.

The CONDOR inhabits the Andes of South America, always
choosing its residence on the summit of a solitary rock. It ap-
pears that this bird does not build any nest, but lays its two
white eggs on the bare rock after the manner of many sea
birds. It is a very large bird, but by no means the gigantic
creature some former naturalists relate, with wings twenty
feet in length, and powerful enough to carry off a horse. The
real expanse of wing is about nine or ten feet, and the length
of the bird about four feet. It is, however, exceedingly strong
and very tenacious of life. Two Condors will attack and kill
the llama, or even the puma ; for by their repeated buffeting
and pecking they weary it so completely that it yields to their
perseverance.

NATURAL HISTORY.

S.VKOORHAMPIIOS.

Pupa, the King Vulture.

The KING VULTURE is also a native of South America, seldom
if ever being seen north of Florida. Travellers relate that this
species keeps the other vultures under subjection, and does not
suffer them to approach a dead animal until he has complete-
ly satisfied his own appetite, which is certainly none of the
smallest.

We now arrive at the true VULTURES. These birds are the
representatives of the carrion-devouring animals, such as the
hyenas, wild dogs, &c. They however do not, as the hyenas
and wild dogs, attack living animals. The neck of the Vulture
is almost naked, very slightly sprinkled with down, and from
the formation of the lower part of the neck, the bird is enabled
to draw its head almost under the feathers of its shoulders, so
that a hasty observer would conclude that the creature had no
neck at all.

The marvellous quickness with which the vultures discover
a dead animal has caused many discussions among naturalists
as to the sense employed ; some, as Audubon, declaring entirely

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family III VultuiicUe. — (Lat. Vultur.

Sub-family a. Vulturince.

Vulture kind.)

Fulvus (Lai. tawny], the Griffon Vulture,

for sight, and others, as Waterton, asserting that the scent of
putrid animal matter leads the vultures to their prey. The
experiment of stuffing a deer's hide and placing it exposed in
the open air was by no means conclusive, as the hide, however
dry, must have given out some odour, and the vulture certainly
acted very properly in pulling out the straw and endeavouring
to get at the inside. The probability is that both senses are
used, one aiding the other ; for in another experiment, where
a dead hog was hidden under canes and briars, numbers of
vultures were seen sailing in all directions over the spot,
evidently directed by the scent, but unable to discover by

NATURAL HISTORY. 197

6yes the exact position of the animal. The olfactory nerves cf
the Yulture are beautifully developed, so that "Waterton had
reason for his pathetic remark, — " I never thought I should
have lived to see this bird deprived of its nose."

The GRIFFON VULTURE is found in almost all parts of the
old world. It is one of the largest of its group, measuring
upwards of four feet in length. Like most of the vultures, it
does not appear to move its wings while flying, but soars en
expanded pinions in large circles, apparently gaining the ne-
cessary impetus by the movements of its head and body, just
as an accomplished skater uses but little force in his various
evolutions, an imperceptible inclination of the head or sway
of the body sufficing to keep up the impetus gained at starting,
and to bring him round in any direction he chooses.

Vultures are generally protected by the natives of the
countries where they reside, on account of their great utility
in cleaning away the putrid animal matter, which would other-
wise be exceedingly injurious as well as disagreeable. The
Turkey Buzzard or John Crow ( Cathartes Aura), or Jamaican
vulture, is protected by a fine of five pounds inflicted on any
one who destroys the bird within a certain distance of the
principal towns. Waterton's account of this bird is very in-
teresting, and well worthy of notice. There are many species
of vultures inhabiting different countries, but their habits as
wrell as their forms are so familiar that a detailed description
of each is needless,

EAGLES.

The Falconidce hold the same place among birds as the
FelidsB among terrestrial quadrupeds. The beak of this fam-
ily is strong and curved, and the feet furnished with sharp
talons, just as the Felida3 are armed with long sharp teeth
and powerful claws. The Falconidre differ from the Vulturidso
in having feathered necks, and in killing their prey and de-
vouring it while fresh.

At the head of the Falconidae the EAGLES are placed. In
them the wings are large, powerful, and slightly rounded, the

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family IV. ... Falconidse.

Sub-family a. . Aquilince.

AQUILA. — (Lat. an Eagle.}

Chrysaetos (Gr. XpvaaieToc, Golden Eagle), the Golden Eagle.

fourth primary feather being the longest. The feet of the
genus Aquila are feathered to the toes.

The Golden Eagle is found in most parts of Europe, and is
not uncommon in Great Britain, especially in the mountainous
parts of Scotland and the Hebrides. The flight of this mag-
nificent bird is peculiarly beautiful and imposing, but its gait
when on land is rather awkward, for its long talons encumber
it in the same manner that the sloth is prevented from rapid
locomotion by its curved claws.

Its food is usually sea birds and the smaller quadrupeds,
such as hares, rabbits, &c., but it does not hesitate to carry
off young lambs, or sometimes to destroy a sickly sheep.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Some instances have been related of children that have been
carried' away by this eagle, but they are very doubtful. Eagles
certainly have pounced upon children and carried them a little
way, but there are no authenticated accounts of children hav-
ing been actually taken to the eagle's nest.

It generally hunts in pairs, one eagle watching from some
height while the other courses along the ground and drives
the game from the bushes. The male and female remain
together all the year, and very probably for life. It lays two
eggs of a yellowish white colour with pale brownish spots, on
a nest composed of a great mass of sticks, rushes and grass.
The young are fledged about the end of July. "While the
young are in the nest it is very dangerous to approach the
spot, as the Eagles are then extremely tierce and daring. The
Rev. Mr. Inglis gives an account of an adventure with an
eagle. " The farmer of Glenmark, whose name was Miln,
had been out one day with his gun, and coming upon an
eagle's nest, he made a noise to start her and have a shot.
She was not at home, however, and so $[iln, taking off his
shoes, began to ascend, gun in hand. "When about half way
up, and in a very critical situation, the eagle made her appear-
ance, bringing a plentiful supply to the young which she had
in her nest. Quick as thought she darted upon the intruder,
with a terrific scream. He was clinging to the rock by ono
hand, with scarcely any footing, Making a desperate effort,
however, he reached a ledge, while the eagle was now so close
that he could not shoot at her. A lucky thought struck him :
he took off his bonnet and threw it at the eagle, which imme-
diately flew after it to the foot of the rock. As she was re-
turning to the attack, finding an opportunity of taking a steady
aim, he shot her."

The eye of this bird, and of most of the birds of prey, is pro-
vided with an arrangement for enabling it to see an object near
or at a great distance. The old tale of the eagle delighting to
gaze at the sun is equally poetical and false, the true fact being
that the eye is shaded from the sun by the projecting eyebrow.
As to the nictitating membrane which some assert to be given
to the Eagle in order to enable it to gaze at the sun, all birds
have it, and the owl, who is blinded by ordinary daylight, pos-
sesses it in perfection.

NATURAL HISTORY.

PANDION (Gr. Proper name.)

Haliae'tus (Gr. "A2f, the sen, ueror, an Eagle), the Osprcy.

The feet of the genus Pandion are naked, armed with very
.long curved talons, the outermost of which can be drawn to-
gether, so as to hold their slippery prey. The wings are ample,
and the second and third primary feathers the longest.

The OSPREY, or FISHING HAWK, is spread over the whole
of Europe, part of Asia, and some portions of North America.
As its name imports, its food consists entirely of fish, which
it obtains by dashing into the water, and seizing them with
its curved talons. The Osprey, although it takes the fish, is
not the only bird that has a predilection for that diet, as the
bald-headed eagle frequently waits until the osprey has seized
the prey, and then deprives him of it. Want of room prevents
the insertion of the entire spirited passage from Wilson's Orni-
thology, describing the chase and capture. He relates that
the eagle, after watching the osprey as it dashes into the
water after its finny prey, starts off in pursuit as it emerges,
bearing a fish in its talons. "Each exerts his utmost to
mount above the other, displaying, in these rencontres, the

NATURAL HISTORY: 201

most elegant and sublime aerial evolutions. The unencum-
bered eagle rapidly advances, and is just on the point of reach-
ing his opponent, when, with a sudden scream, probably of
despair and honest execration, the latter drops his fish : the
eagle, poising himself for a moment, as if to take a more cer-
tain aim, descends like a whirlwind, snatches it in his grasp
ere it reaches the water, and bears his ill-gotten booty silently
away to the woods."

When the Osprey plunges after its finny prey, it never
attempts to seize them while leaping out of the water, but
plunges downwards with such force, that it disappears below
the surface, throwing up the foam around it.

Its nest is made of an enormous heap, enough to make a fair
cart-load, of sticks, grass, &c., laid among the branches of a
tree. In this nest it lays its eggs, which are a yellowish white,
sprinkled with brown blotches.

The length of this bird is about two feet, and the expanse
of its wings about five feet and a half. Its feet are a pale
greyish blue colour, which, unfortunately, fades in a stuffed
specimen.

THE WHITE-HEADED EAGLE.

The WHITE-HEADED EAGLE, or BALD EAGLE, as it is called
by Wilson, inhabits most parts of America, and especially
frequents the cataract of Niagara. It is very accommodating
in its appetite, and preys indiscriminately on lambs, pigs, swans,
and the fish which, as related above, it takes away from the
unfortunate osprey. Sometimes it can take fish honourably
for itself in shallow water, by wading as far as it can, and
snatching up the fish with its beak. Audubon gives a splendid
description of the chase of a swan by an eagle, but want of
space again prevents its insertion.

Like the Golden Eagle, this bird lives constantly with its
mate, and hunts in company. It lays from two to four eggs,
of a dull white colour, in a huge nest placed on a tall tree.

The claws of this bird are grooved beneath, and the hind
claw is the longest. The feet are half feathered, and the

NATURAL HISTORY.

IIALIAETUS.

Leucocephalus (Gr. Aev/co/ct'cfra/lof, -white-headed), the White-headed

Eagle. •

fourth primary feather of the wing is the longest. When full
grown, the general colour of the bird is a deep brownish black,
but its head, neck, tail, and upper tail-coverts are white.

THE BUZZARD.

The family of the BUZZARDS are distinguished by their short
beaks, large rounded wings, and squared tails. They all prey
on small animals, reptiles, and various insects.

The Common Buzzard occurs throughout most of Europe
and part of Asia, being frequently found in England. When
searching for food, it rests upon some high branch, keeping a
keen watch on the ground, and waiting patiently until some
small animal, such as a rat, or young rabbit, makes its appear-
ance, when it instantly sweeps down from its elevation, seizes
its prey without settling on the ground, and returns, if not dis-
turbed, to the same spot, very much in the same manner that
the fly-catcher may be observed to act.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family c. Buteonince. — (Lat. JBiitco, a Buzzard.)
BUTEO.

\

Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Buzzard.

It generally builds in high trees, but has been known to
make its nest among rocks. Its eggs are usually three in
number, of a whitish colour, spotted with pale brown, and
almost devoid of the peculiar red tinge that generally charac-
terises the eggs of the diurnal birds of prey. The length of
this bird is from twenty to twenty-two inches : the fourth pri-
mary feather is the longest.

THE HONEY BUZZARD.

The genus Pernis is distinguished by the feathered lorum
or band round the eyes. The HONEY BUZZARD is found in the
warmer parts of Europe, and in Asia, seldom visiting our
shores. Its food does not consist of honey, as its name might
seem to indicate, but of bees, wasps, and their larvee. In the
stomach of one that was shot in Scotland, a great number of

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family d. Milvijia.

PEHNIS.

Apivorus (Lat. Bee-eatwg\ the Honey Buzzard.

bees and grubs were found, but no honey or wax. It does not.
however, refuse small quadrupeds, or sometimes small birds,
if pressed by hunger. It is a bird of passage, leaving Europe
at the commencement of winter. Its nest is built in high
trees, and its eggs are two or three in number, grey, spotted
with red at one end, and surrounded with a red band. Its
length is about two feet, and the expanse of its wings fifty-two
inches. The third primary feather is the longest.

The KITE, GLEDE, or GLED, is not uncommon in England,
and is spread over Europe, Asia, and Northern Africa. It is
especially hated by the farmer for its depredations on his
poultry, and its appearance is the signal for a general outcry
among the terrified poultry, who perceive it long before the
keenest-eyed man can distinguish it from a casual spot in the
distant sky. The sportsman also detests it for the havoc
which it makes among the game, — possibly the kite hates
the sportsman for the same reason.

It builds in tall trees, and lays three eggs, white, spotted
with reddish brown at the larger end. Its length is rather

NATURAL HISTORY.
MILVUS. — (Lat. a Kite.}

205

Regalis (Lat. royal], the Kite.

more than two feet ; the fourth primary feather is the longest,
the first and seventh nearly equal.

The SWALLOW-TAILED FALCON is an inhabitant of North
America, but has been twice taken in England. It feeds on
the wing, like the swallows, pursuing the large moths and
other insects. with an ease and rapidity for which its formation
eminently fits it. These insects are however not the only
food of this bird. Audubon mentions .that " Their principal
food is large grasshoppers, grass caterpillars, small snakes,
lizards, and frogs. They sweep close over the fields, some-
times seeming to secure a snake, and holding it fast by the
neck, carry it off, and devour it in the air." This act is shown
in the figure on p. 206. Its nest is built on the summit of an
aged pine or oak, and its eggs are from four to six in number,
of a greenish white colour, irregularly spotted with brown at
the large end. The length of this bird is two feet. It should

NATURAL HISTORY.

ELANOIDE5.

Furcatus (Lat forked), the Swallow-tailed Falcon.

properly be called the Swallow-tailed Kite, as it belongs to
that family.

FALCONS.

In the genus Falco, the second primary feather is the long-
est, the first and third being of equal length. The GYRFAL-
CON may be considered the type of the British Falconidse. It
is, however, extremely rare in England, those intended for
hawking being principally brought from Iceland. On the
rocky coasts of Norway and Iceland its eggs are laid. These
birds are very courageous in defending their young. A pair
of them attacked Dr. Richardson while he was climbing near
their nest, flying in circles round him and occasionally dashing
at his face with loud screams. The entire length of the Gyr-
falcon is twenty-three inches.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family e. Falconinoc.
FALCO. — (Lat. a Falcon.}

Gyrfalco (Lat.) the Gyrfalcon.

The PEREGRINE FALCON, an inhabitant of most parts of
Europe, Asia, and South America, was, in the palmy days of
hawking, one of the favourite falcons chosen for that sport.
Its strength and swiftness are very great, enabling it to strike
down its prey with great ease ; indeed, it has been known to
disable five partridges in succession. From its successful pur-
suit of ducks the Americans call it the Duck Hawk.

There is a peculiarity in the method of attack which this
bird employs when pursuing small game. Instead of merely
dashing at its prey, and grasping it with its claws, the Pere-
grine Falcon strikes its victim with its breast, and actually
stuns it with the violence of the blow before seizing it with
its claws. The boldness of the Peregrine Falcon is so great
that it was generally employed to take the formidable Heron.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Peregiinus (Lat. wandering], the Peregrine Falcon.
After the Heron had been roused from his contemplations by
some marsh or river, the Falcon, who had previously been
held hooded on its master's hand, was loosed from its bonds
and cast off. A contest then generally took place between
the Heron and the Falcon, each striving to ascend above the
other. In this contest the Falcon was always victorious, and
after it had attained a sufficient altitude, it swept, or "stooped,"
as the phrase was, upon the Heron. When the Falcon had
closed with its prey, they both came to the ground together,
and the sportsman's business was to reach the place of con-
flict as soon as possible, and assist the Falcon in vanquishing
its prey. Sometimes, however, the wary Heron contrived to
receive its enemy on the point of its sharp beak, and transfixed
it by its own impetus.

It changes the colour of "its plumage several times before
it arrives at full maturity, and in the days of falconry was
known by different names, such as " haggard" when wild,
" eyass," " red falcon" when young, " tiercel" or " tassel-gentle"
when a full grown male ; a term forcibly recalling the words
of Juliet, " Oh for a falconer's voice, to lure this tassel- gentle
back again !"

It builds on ledges of rocks, laying four eggs of a reddish
brown colour. Its length is from fifteen to eighteen inches.

NATURAL HISTORY.

HYPOTRIORCIIIS. — (Gr. 'TTrorpcopx^-

Subbuteo (Lat. the Hobby.)

The HOBBY is a summer visitor in England, appearing in
April and leaving in October. It was formerly trained to fly
at larks, quails, and other small birds. When wild it seems
to feed principally on small birds and large beetles, the com-
mon dor-beetle being a very favourite article of food. It
builds its nest at the summit of a high tree, usually appro-
priating the deserted habitation of a crow. The eggs are
four in number, of a dirty white colour, speckled with reddish
brown. The length of the bird is from twelve to fourteen
inches.

The MERLIN, the least of our Falcons, was considered in
olden times as the lady's bird, every rank being obliged to

NATURAL HISTORY.

IIYPOTRIOKCTIIS.

^Esalon (Gr. A.iau?Mv), the Merlin.

content itself with the bird allotted to its peculiar station,
royalty alone having the privilege to bear an eagle into the
field.

The spirited little Merlin seizes with great dexterity small
birds such as buntings, thrushes, and blackbirds, itself really
hardly larger than its prey, its entire length being barely eleven
inches. Even the partridge falls before a trained bird. Its
eggs are four in number, of a reddish mottled brown, laid in a
rude nest among the heather.

The KESTREL, or WINDHOVER as it is often called, frequently
falls a victim to the mistaken zeal of the farmer, who lakes
every opportunity of destroying it, as he confounds it with the
sparrow-hawk. The natural food of the Kestrel is field-mice,
so that the farmer should protect instead of remorselessly
murdering his benefactor. These birds are not uncommon.
Many live close to Oxford and in Bagley Wood, where they
may be seen almost daily. They also live in great numbers

NATURAL HISTORY. 211

TIXXUXCULUS. — (Lat. a Kestrel.)

Aland ari us (Lat. of a Lark), the Kestrel.

among the precipices in Dovedale. Their nest is usually built
in the deserted mansion of a crow or magpie. The eggs are
four in number, of a dark reddish brown. The length is from
thirteen to fifteen inches.

THE GOSHAWK.

The GOSHAWK is found plentifully in most of the wooded
districts of Europe, but is comparatively rare in the British
Isles. It seldom breeds south of Scotland, but its nest is not
unfrequently found in that country, built upon lofty trees,
principally firs, and containing three eggs of a bluish white
colour with reddish brown marks. "When in pursuit of prey,
it strikes its victim to the ground by the force with which it
dashes through the air. Should the terrified quarry hide it-
self, the Goshawk takes up its station on some elevated spot,
and there patiently waits until the game takes wing. Its
principal food consists of hares, squirrels, pheasants, and other

NATURAL HISTORY,

Sub-family/. Accipitrina.
ASTUR. — (Proper name.}

Palumbarius (Lat. of the Dove], the Goshawk.

large birds, which its great strength enables it to destroy. Its
length is about two feet ; the fourth primary feather is the
longest.

The SPARROW-HAWK is common throughout Europe. It
skirns along, a few feet above the ground, and snatches away
its prey, pursuing it with wonderful pertinacity. One of
these birds was known to dash through a window in pursuit
of a small bird. When taken young it is easily tamed, and
will then associate with the most incongruous companions.
A gentleman had a young Sparrow-hawk which used to live
in his dovecote among his pigeons, would accompany them
in their flights, and was uneasy if separated from its strange
friends. The length of this bird is from twelve to fifteen

NATURAL HISTORY. 213

ACCIPITEU. — (Lot)

Is isus (Lat. proper name), the Sparrow-hawk.

inches. The fourth and fifth primary feathers are the longest.
It builds upon lofty trees, laying five eggs, of a whitish colour
blotched with variable reddish brown markings, usually collect-
ed towards the large end.

THE SECRETARY BIRD.

The SECRETARY BIRD derives its name from the tufts of
feathers at the back of its head, which bear a fanciful resem-
blance to pens stuck behind the ear. This extraordinary bird,
whose true position in ornithology has been such a stumbling-
block to naturalists, inhabits South Africa, Senegambia, and
the Philippine Islands. Probably a different species inhabits
each of these countries. It feeds on snakes and other reptiles,
of which it consumes an amazing number, and is on that ac-
caunt protected. When battling with a snake, it covers itself
with one wing as with a shield, and with the other strikes at
the reptile vintil it falls senseless, when a powerful blow from

214

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family g. Circina.
SERPENTARIUS. — (Lat. of a Serpent.)

Reptilivorus (Lat. Reptile-eating), the Secretary Bird.

the beak splits the snake's head asunder, and the vanquished
enemy is speedily swallowed. In the crop of a Secretary bird
that was dissected by Le Vaillant were found eleven large liz-
ards, three serpents, each a yard in length, eleven small tor-
toises, and a great quantity of locusts and other insects. Besides
these, the bird had just killed another serpent, which it would
in all probability have transferred to the same receptacle had
it not been killed. -The Secretary is easily tamed, and is then
exceedingly useful. It builds on high trees, laying three large
eggs, almost white. Its length is about three feet.

NATURAL HISTORY.

215

Cmcus. — (Lat.)

Cyaneus (Lat. azure), the Hen Harrier.

The HARRIERS are remarkable for the peculiar feathered
disk round their eyes, something resembling that of the owl.
The Hen Harrier is a native of England, and lives principally
about forests arid heaths. Its length is about seventeen inches ;
the first primary feather is very short, the third or fourth is
the longest.

OWLS.

A large round head, with enormous eyes looking forward,
is a distinguishing mark of the OWL family. Many species
possess two feather}' tufts placed on the head, greatly re-
sembling horns. The Owls are nocturnal birds, pursuing
their prey by night, and sleeping during the day. In order
to enable them to see their prey, their eyes are enormously
large, and capable of taking in every ray of light. Their
power of vision is also increased by the method in which the
eye is fixed in a kind of bony socket, just like the watch-
maker's glass. The nictitating membrane is very conspicuous
in these birds. The power of hearing is also very delicate,
c-nd greatly assists them. In order to protect them from the
cold, they are furnished with a dense covering of downy

216 NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-order II. . ACCIPITRES NOCTURNI.

Family I. ... Strigidse. — (Lat. Strix, a Screech-owl. Screech-owl

kind.)
Sub-family a . Surnince.

Ultila (Lat. Jiowliiifl), the Hawk-owl.

feathers, which also prevent the movements of the wing from
being heard by the wary mouse ; and so noiseless is their
flight that they seem borne along by the wind like a tuft of
thistle-down.

The HAWK, or CANADA OWL, inhabits the arctic portions of
Asia and America. Its head is not so round, nor is its face so
broad, as those of the other owls, from which it is also distin-
guished by its habit of hunting by day. In face it bears some
resemblance to the harriers. It builds in trees, and lays two
eggs — white, as are those of all owls. The eggs of owls are
easily distinguished from other white eggs by a peculiar rough-
ness of surface, which cannot be mistaken. The length of the
Hawk Owl is from fifteen to eighteen inches.

NATURAL HISTORY.

NYCTEA. — (Gr. NVKTLOC, nightly.)

Nivea (Lat. snowy), the Snowy-owl.

The SNOWY OWL is properly an inhabitant of the north of
Europe, but has more than once been discovered in Great
Britain. It is also found in North America. "Wilson relates
that it is a good fisher, snatching its prey from the water by
a sudden grasp of the foot. It also preys on lemmings, hares,
ptarmigans, &c., chasing and striking at them with its feet.
It makes its nest on the ground, and lays three or four white
eggs, of which more than two are seldom hatched. Its length
is from twenty-two to twenty-seven inches, the expanse of
wing four feet ; the third primary feather is the longest.
K

NATURAL HISTORY.
ATHENE. — (Gr. proper name.)

Cunicularia (Lat. of the Rabbit], the Burrowing Owl.

The BURROWING OWL accompanies the prairie dog, and where-
ever that animal chooses to live, there is the Burrowing Owl.
This singular little bird finds that to take possession of the
ready-made burrows of the prairie dog is much more agreeable
than to dig a hole for itself; so it takes unfurnished lodgings
in a deserted dwelling, undisturbed by anything except a casual
lizard or rattlesnake.

So numerous are these little owls, that they may be seen
in small flocks seated on the tops of the mounds in which the
entrance of the burrows is formed. It is said that the owls,
marmots (or prairie-dogs), lizards, and snakes, all live har-
moniously in one happy family. Such, however, is not really
the case, as the Burrowing Owls prefer holes unoccupied by
any other tenant, and have been s,een with something mos-'
suspiciously like a young snake struggling in their mouths.
The bottom of its hole is generally comfortably filled with
dried hay and roots.

The legs of this bird are longer than those of other owls
It is by no means large, measuring but ten inches in length.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family b. Bubonina.
:'iiiALTEs. — (Gr. proper name.)

Scops (Gr. 2/cwi/', an Owl), the Scops Eared-owl.

The Scors EARED-OWL has been once or twice found in
Yorkshire, but usually resides in the southern parts of the
Continent. It is remarkable for the regularity with which it
utters its monotonous cry, as if a person were constantly re-
peating the letter Q, at regular intervals of two seconds. It
does not seem to prey upon mice and other animals like most
of its relations, but feeds on large insects, such as beetles and
grasshoppers. The size of this owl is very small, as it only
measures seven inches in length ; the third primary feather is
the longest. It lays from two to four white eggs in a simple
nest made in a hollow tree or in a cleft in the rock.

The GREAT EARED-OWL or EAGLE OWL, is the largest of the
family. This powerful bird, not satisfied with the " rats and
mice and such small deer" which content the English owls,
boldly attacks young fawns, hares and rabbits, together with
small birds. It inhabits the north of Europe, but has been

NATURAL HISTORY.
BUBO. — (Lat. an Owl.)

Maxirmis (Lat. greatest), the Great Eared-owl

several times observed in Great Britain. It lays its eggs in
the clefts of rocks or in ruined buildings. The length of this
bird is upwards of two feet.

The BARN OWL affords another instance of mistaken per-
secution. This beautiful and most useful bird, whose carcase
we so often see triumphantly nailed to the barn, actually
feeds upon and destroys in incalculable numbers the rats and
mice which bear it company in its undeserved punishment.
Waterton remarks, " When farmers complain that the Barn
Owl destroys the eggs of their pigeons, they lay the saddle on
the wrong horse. They ought to put it on the rat. Formerly
I could get very few young pigeons till the rats were ex-
cluded from the dovecote. Since that took place, it has pro-
duced a great abundance every year, although the barn owls

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family d. Strigince.
STRIX. — (Lat. a Screech-owl.)

Flammea

tfi), tlic Ba'ni-owL

frequent it, and are encouraged all around it. The barn owl
merely resorts to it for repose and concealment. If it were
really an enemy to the dovecote, we should see the pigeons
in commotion as soon as it begins its evening flight, but the
pigeons heed it not, whereas if the sparrow-hawk or hobby
should make its appearance, the whole community would be
up at once. ... I am amply repaid for the pains I have taken
to protect and encourage the barn owl ; it pays me an hun-
dred fold by the enormous quantity of mice which it destroys
throughout the year."

It also destroys great numbers of beetles and other insects.
It is possible that it may destroy young birds, but not probable,
as feathers and birds' bones are never found among the rejecta-
maiita. It will, however, when domesticated devour a dead
sparrow or linnet when presented to it.

The Barn Owl lays three or four eggs upon a mass of the
pellets which all the owls disgorge. Its length is rather more
than twelve inches ; the second primary feather is the longest.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Order II PASSEfiES.

Tribe I FISSIROSTRES.— Lat.

Sub-tribe I. . FISSIROSTRES NOCTURNE.

Family I. ... Caprimnlgidoe. — (Lat. Goat-sucker kind.)

Sub-family a. Caprimulgince.

CAPRIMULGUS.

Europteus (Lat. European), the Goat-sucker.

The Fissirostres are so called from the peculiar formation of
their mouths, which appear as if they had been slit up from
their ordinary termination to beyond the eyes, much resembling
the mouth of a frog. In the insect-eating Fissirostres this for-
mation is admirably adapted for capturing their active prey,
and in the Kingfishers it is equally adapted for securing the
slippery inhabitants of the waters.

The Caprimulgidse are nocturnal in their habits, chasing
their insect prey by night or at the dusk, when the chaffers
and large moths are on the wing. In order to prevent the
escape of the insect when taken, the mouth is fringed with
long stiff bristles, called " vibrissse." The name of Goat-

NATURAL HISTORY. 223

sucker is derived from a silly notion that they suck goats, a
piece of credulity only equalled by the hedgehog's supposed
crime of sucking cows, and the accusation against the cat of
sucking the breath of children. The genus Caprimulgus is
furnished with a kind of comb on the middle claw of its foot,
but for what purpose is not clearly ascertained.

The Nightjar, or Goat- sucker, sometimes called the Fern Owl,
is spread over Europe, and is tolerably common in England.
It may be seen at the approach of evening, silently wheeling
round the trees, capturing the nocturnal moths and beetles ;
then occasionally settling and uttering its jarring cry. It ar-
rives in this country at the beginning of May, and leaves in De-
cember. It makes no nest, but lays two mottled eggs on the
bare ground. Its length is ten inches. The Whip-poor- Will
and the Chuck- Will's- Widow both belong to this family.

These two birds derive their singular names from their cry,
which is said closely to imitate the words that have been as-
signed to them as their names. Of course the English language
must feel itself highly honoured that an American bird should
prefer the language of the " Britisher" to that of the Delaware
or the Sioux. Both the birds fly by night, or rather in the
dusk of the evening, and like the owl are much distressed by
being forced to face a brilliant light. The Chuck- Will's- Widow
is partially migratory, and dwells in the more southern parts of
America during the winter. Audubon relates that this bird
applies its enormous mouth to rather an unexpected use, viz.,
that of removing its eggs, if it finds that they have been dis-
turbed. Of this curious circumstance he was an eye-witness.
He saw .the bird that first discovered that an intruder had
touched the eggs wait for its mate, and then saw each of them
take an egg in its mouth and convey it off.

MARTINS.

The Hirundinida} are remarkable for their great power of
wing, their wide mouths, and short legs. In the genus Cyp-
selus, the toes are all directed forward, and the tarsus is thickly
feathered. The whole of their plumage is constructed with a
view to rapid and active motion. The feathers of their bodies

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-tribe II. . . FISSIROSTRES DIURN.E.

Family II Hirundinidse. — (Lat. Hirundo, a Swallow. Swal-
low kind.)

Sub-family a. . Oypselince.

CYPSELUS. — (Gr. Kitye/lof, a Martin.)

Apus (Gr. uTroff, without feet), the Swift.

are firm and close, so as not to impede their passage through
the air ; their wing feathers are long, stiff and pointed, and
their tails are long and forked ; all which properties we know
to belong to great speed.

The SWIFT, popularly called " Jack Screamer," is the largest
and swiftest of the British HirundinidsB. It seems to spend
the whole day on the wing, wheeling with wonderful velocity,
and occasionally soaring until it is hardly perceptible, but
screaming so shrilly that the sound is plainly heard. The
number of insects which it destroys is almost incredible ;
they are retained in a kind of pouch under the tongue, and
when taken out, could hardly be pressed into a tea-spoon.

NATURAL HISTORY. 225

These are intended for the young, and the supply is constantly
renewed. It lays from two to four long white eggs, on a nest
' composed of grass, straws, feathers, silk, &c. The colour of this
bird is a dusky black. The length is eight inches, the expanse
of wing eighteen inches, and its weight barely one ounce.

Sub-family b. Hirundininse.
IlmuxDO. — (Lat.)

Rustica (Lat. rustic}, the Chimney Martin.

The CHIMNEY MARTIN or SWALLOW is the most common of
its family, and too well known to need much description.
When skimming over ponds or rivers in search of insects, the
snap with which it closes its bill may easily be heard. It also
dashes up the water with its wings, which action gave rise
to the opinion that Swallows passed the winter under water,
and rose in the spring. It may be easily caught with a rod
and line baited with a fly, after the manner of anglers. It
breeds twice in the year, building a nest of mud against a
wall or other convenient situation, and laying five very pale
pink eggs, spotted with reddish brown, the pink of which
vanishes when the egg is emptied of its contents, as it is
caused by the light passing through the yolk, and has to be
renewed by artificial means if the egg is placed in a collection.
The same is the case with most small light-coloured eggs.
The bird appears regular!^ to return, year by year, to its old
nest. The whole of its upper surface is a deep purplish black,
its forehead and throat chestnut.

NATURAL HISTORY.

COTILE. — (Gr.

, twittering.)

Riparia (Lat. of a bank), the Sand Martin.

The SAND MARTIN is the smallest of our British Swallows,
but makes its appearance before any of its brethren. It
principally builds in cliffs of sandstone, boring holes three
feet or more in depth, and often winding in their course,
most probably to avoid a casual stone or spot too hard for
its bill, which, although small and apparently unfitted for the
task, makes its way through the sandstone with extraordinary
rapidity. Where a convenient sand-cliff exists, hundreds of
these pretty little birds may be seen working away at their
habitations, or dashing about in the air — looking at a distance
like white butterflies, occasionally returning to the rock, often
completely honeycombed by their labours. Near Ashbourn
in Derbyshire there are plenty of these rocks, where the Sand
Martins build in myriads, tolerably safe except from the
school-boy, who will clamber up and down the crumbling
surface, and thrust his arm into the holes, perfectly regard-
less of the danger, and content with grasping a tuft of grass
or a root of blackberry as an anchorage. I have seen the
Sand Martins there engaged in mobbing a sparrow-hawk, who,
after being buffeted about for sometime, retaliated by seizing
a too daring Martin and carrying it off, when the whole scene
was changed — the triumphant jeerings turned into cries of

NATURAL HISTORY. 227

fear, and the place was deserted except by the crafty hawk
and his screaming prey. The eggs are five, pinkish white
with an almost imperceptible dotting of red.

CUELIDOX. — (Gr. XeTutuv, a Swallow.)

Urbica.— (Lat. of the city), the Martin.

The MARTIN or WINDOW SWALLOW reaches this country a
little after the swallow, and almost invariably takes possession
of its old nest, which it repairs about May. It lays five eggs
closely resembling those of the sand martin. About September
immense numbers may be seen perched upon houses and trees
preparatory to their departure. The dome of the RadclifFe
Library at. Oxford is a favourite assembling place for these birds,
where they may be seen lingering for several days after most
of their fellows have vanished. At these times every available
point is covered with them. The dome of St. Paul's is also a
favoured spot.

The ESCULENT SWALLOW, whose nests are considered such
a delicacy among the Chinese, builds its singular habitation in
the sides of almost inaccessible cliffs, so that the business of
procuring them is a most dangergus task. The nature of the
jelly-like transparent material of which the nests are made is
not yet known. The nests are found in Java.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family III. . Coraciidse
Sub-family a Coraciince.

CORACIAS. — (Gr. KopaKiaf, like a Raven.1)

Garrula (Lat. talkative), the Roller.

The ROLLER is plentifully found in most parts of Europe,
but has seldom been seen in England. Its mouth is slightly
furnished with vibrisssB, like those of the nightjar. It is a very
shy bird, frequenting the depths of the forests. It builds its
nest in hollow trees^-some say in banks — and lays from four
to seven white eggs, very like those of the kingfisher. Its legs
are short, and the upper mandible is bent over the lower at the
extremity. The colouring is brilliant, shades of blue and green
prevailing. Its length is about thirteen inches.

TROGOtf.

The magnificent family of the TROGONS stands preeminent
in beauty and brilliancy of plumage, the usual tint being a
metallic golden green, boldly contrasted with scarlet, black,
and brown. The toes are placed two behind and two before,
like those of the woodpeckers.

The Resplendent Trogon is the most gorgeous of all this

NATURAL HISTORY.
Family IV. Trogoiridse.

ResplenJens (Lat. shining), the Resplendent Trogon.

gorgeous family. Its long and gracefully curved tail, nearly
three feet long ; the whole of the upper surface, and the
throat, are a glowing green ; the breast and under parts are
bright crimson ; the middle feathers of the tail black, and the
outer feathers white. This splendid bird is an inhabitant of
Mexico, and was used by the Mexican nobles as an ornament
to their head dress. From the feathers of these and other
Trogons the mosaic pictures of the Mexicans were made. One
of these, moet delicately and beautifully executed, containing
many figures, is now in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. It
is there said to be made of humming-birds' feathers. The sub-
ject is " Christ fainting under the cross." The whole picture
is about the size of the palm of the hand, and the figures are
barely half an inch in height, yet the very expression of the
features is preserved.

230

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family V Alcedinidte. — (Lat. Alctdo, a Kingfisher.)

Sub-family a. . Alcedinince.

Hispida (Lat. rough], the Kingfisher.

The peculiarities of their form immediately distinguish the
KINGFISHERS from other birds. The disproportionate length of
the bill is their chief characteristic.

The Common Kingfisher is found in most parts of England.
Scarcely anything more beautiful can be conceived than the
metallic glitter of its plumage as it glides along the banks of
the river, or darts into the water after its struggling prey.
Its usual method of fishing is by placing itself on a stump or
stone overhanging the water, from which spot it watches for
the unsuspecting fish beneath. After a fish is caught, the bird
kills it by beating it several times against its resting-place,
and then swallows it, head foremost. Sometimes it does not
exercise sufficient caution in its devouring propensities. A
heedless Kingfisher was exhibited at the Ashmolean Society,
which had been found dead with a peculiarly large minnow
firmly fixed in its throat.

It lays its eggs in holes bored in the banks of rivers or
ponds, and appears to build no nest. A pair of kingfishers,
for two successive years inhabited a bank of a very small

NATURAL HISTORY. 231

stream, little more than a drain, at little Hinton, Wiltshire,
where no fish lived, nor were there any to be found within a
considerable distance. The eggs are from four to seven in
number, of a pearly whiteness, and remarkably globular in
shape. In many parts of the country it is fully believed that
if a kingfisher is dried and suspended by the beak, the breast
will always turn in the direction of the wind. This belief has
caused the death of no few kingfishers, whose suspended bodies
may be seen in many a cottage, their brilliant blue and red
plumage rotating in a most impartial manner. The length of
this bird is seven inches.

Family VI. . . Meropidjc.
Sub-family a. . Meropince.
MEUOPS. — (Gr.

Apiaster (Lat. See-eater.)

The BEE-EATER, is common on the Continent, but seldom
visits England. In appearance it is not very unlike the king-
fisher, both in shape and its brilliant colours. It has long
been celebrated for the havoc it causes among the inhabitants
of the hive, although it does not restrict itself to those insects,
but pursues wasps, butterflies, &c., on the wing, with great
activity. Like the kingfisher, it lays its eggs in holes bored in
banks. The eggs are white, and from four to seven in number.
Its length is eleven inches.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Tribe II TENUIROSTRES.— (Lat. Slender-billed.)

Family I. . . . Upupidae. — (Lat. Hoopoe kind.}
Sub-family a. Upupince.

UPUPA.

Epops (Gr. "ETTOI//), the Hoopoe.

The HOOPOE, one of the most elegant birds that visit this
country, is, unfortunately, a very rare guest, and seldom, if ever,
breeds here. Its beautiful crest can be raised or depressed at

Eleasure, but is seldom displayed unless the bird is excited
•om some cause. Its food consists of insects, which it first
batters and moulds into an oblong mass, and then swallows,
with a peculiar jerk of the head. In Yarrell's British Birds,
there is a very interesting account of a tame Hoopoe in the
possession of Mr. Bartlett.

In France Hoopoes are very common, and may be seen ex-
amining old and rotten stumps for the insects that invariably
congregate in such places. There they may be seen in flocks,
but they never seem to come over to England in greater

NATURAL HISTORY. 23 J

numbers than one pair at a time. M. Beckstein gives a curi-
ous account of the attitude assumed by the Hoopoe on per-
ceiving a large bird in the air. " As soon as they perceived a
raven or even a pigeon, they were on their bellies in the
twinkling of an eye, their wings stretched out by the side of
the head, so that the large quill feathers touched : the head
leaning on the back with the bill pointing upwards. In this
curious posture they might be taken for an old rag !" It lays
from four to seven grey eggs in the hollow of a tree. Its
length is one foot.

Family II. Trocliilidse.
TROCHILUS. — (Gr.

Colubris (Lat. like a snake), t/ie Ruby-throated Humming-bird.

These little living gems are exclusively found in the New
World, especially about the tropical parts, becoming gradually
scarcer as we recede from the tropics in either direction. Only
two species are known to exist in the northern parts but in
the central portions and in the islands about Florida they ab-
solutely swarm. They glance about in the sunshine, looking
like streaks of brilliant light, and so rapid is the vibration of
their fine and elastic wings, that when hovering over a flower,

NATURAL HISTORY.

ORNISMYA. — (Gr. "Opvig, a bird ; pvc, a mouse.)

Gouldii (Lat. of Gould), Gould's Humming bird.
Sappho (Gr. proper name), the Bar tailed Humming-bird.

Cora (proper name), the Cora Humming-bird.

Chrysolopha (Gr. Xpvoo? , gold ; 2,60of , a crest), the Double-crested

Humming-bird.

a humming or "buzzing sound is produced, from which pecu-
liarity the name of HUMMTNG-BIRD has been given them in al-
most every language. "Waterton's description of the appear-
ance of the Humming-bird in the sun is very characteristic.

" Though least in size, the glittering mantle of the Hum-
ming-bird entitles it to the first place in the list of the birds
of the New World. It may truly be called the Bird of Para-
dise ; and had it existed in the Old "World, it would have
claimed the title instead of the bird which has now the honour
to bear it. See it darting through the air almost as quick as
thought ! now it is within a yard of your face — in an instant

NATURAL HISTORY. 235

gone — now it flutters from flower to flower to sip the silver
dew — it is now a ruby — now a topaz — now an emerald — now
all burnished gold."

It is a singular fact that a common insect called the Hum-
ming-bird Moth is formed on precisely the same principle,
and flies in just the same manner. This moth is furnished,
like the Humming-bird, with rigid sharp wings ; instead of
the long slender bill and longer tongue of the Humming-bird,
the moth is furnished with an exceedingly long and flexible
proboscis, which it uses in the same manner, i. e. in thrusting
into the interior of flowers while the creature is hovering
above them. The moth also possesses a kind of moveable
tail wherewith to direct its course. The description of a
Humming-bird hovering over a flower will exactly serve for
the moth, save that the moth lacks the brilliant plumage of
the bird. Gardens are a great attraction to this moth, and if
the observer is very quiet, while looking at a flower, he sud-
denly sees an insect apparently suspended over it exploring
the flower with its proboscis. It moves from flower to flower,
always balancing itself over them by its wings. Let the ob-
server move but his hand, and it is gone — has vanished as
mysteriously as it cama.

In. the same way, the Humming-bird hovers over flowers,
not only to extract the honey and dew, but to search for the
little insects that are always to be found in such places.
Speaking of the Ruby-throated Humming-bird, Waterton ob-
serves : —

" It seems to be an erroneous opinion that the Humming-
bird lives entirely on honey-dew. Almost every flower of
the tropical climates contains insects of one kind or other ;
now, the Humming-bird is most busy about the flowers an
hour or two after sunrise, and after a shower of rain, and it
is just at this time that the insects come out to the edge of
the flower in order that the sun's rays may dry the nocturnal
dew and rain which they have received. On opening the
stomach of the Humming-bird, dead insects are almost always
found there."

The tongue is formed much like that of the woodpecker,
being curled round the head, under the skin, and thus capable
of being darted to a considerable distance.

230 NATURAL HISTORY.

There are an immense number of species of these exquisite
birds, varying from the size of a swift to that of a humble bee.
Any description of them is impossible — they must be seen.
Fortunately, the magnificent collection brought to England
by that most indefatigable and enterprising naturalist, Mr.
Gould, places it in the power of every one to view these living
gems in all the attitudes of life, and surrounded with the ap-
propriate vegetation. They need nothing but motion. It
appears that cold is destructive to the Humming-birds. Wilson
says : —

" This little bird is extremely susceptible of cold, and if
long deprived of the animating influence of the sunbeams,
droops, and soon dies. A very beautiful male was brought
me this season, which I put into a wire cage, and placed in a
retired shaded part of the room. After fluttering about ibr
some time, the weather being uncommonly cool, it clung by
the wires, and hung in a seemingly torpid state for a whole
forenoon. No motion whatever of the lungs could be per-
ceived on the closest inspection ; though at other times this
is remarkably observable ; the eyes were shut, and when
touched by the finger it gave no signs of life or motion. I
carried it out to the open air, and placed it directly in the
rays of the sun in a sheltered situation. In a few seconds
respiration became very apparent ; the bird breathed faster
and faster, opened its eyes, and began to look about with as
much seeming vivacity as ever. After it had completely re-
covered I restored it to liberty ; and it flew off to the withered
top of a pear-tree, where it sat for some time, dressing its
disordered plumage, and then shot off like a meteor."*

Fear will also produce the same effect, as they have re-
peatedly died when caught in a common gauze net, which
does not injure even the delicate scales of the butterfly's wing.
They are very quarrelsome little creatures, and frequently
fight with expanded crests and ruffled feathers until they fall
exhausted to the ground.

The nests are very neat and beautiful, and, as may be
imagined from the diminutive size of the little architect, exceed-
ingly small. They are composed of down, cotton, &c., and are

* Wilson's Ornithology, vol. ii. p. 30.

NATURAL HISTORY. 237

sometimes covered on the outside with mosses and lichens.
Waterton relates a curious formation of the nest of one par-
ticular species, whose habitations are built at the extremity of
thin branches.

" Instinct teaches one species, which builds its nest on the
slender branches which hang over the rivers, to make a rim
round the mouth of the nest, turned inwards, so as to prevent
the eggs from rolling out. . . The trees on the river's bank are
particularly exposed to violent gusts of wind, and when I have
been sitting in the canoe and looking on, I have seen the
slender branch of the tree which held the Humming-bird's nest
so violently shaken, that the bottom of the inside of the nest has
appeared, and had there been nothing at the rim to stop the
eggs, they must inevitably have been jerked out into the water."

Family III. . . Certhidje.— (Gr. KepOiof. €reeper kind.)
Sub-family a. Certhince.

Familiar-is (Lat. familiar), the Creeper.

The CREEPERS are remarkable for their long slender bills
and claws, adapted for climbing trees, and capturing insects.
The common Creeper may often be seen in this country, run-
ning spirally up the trunks of trees, and probing the baric
with its bill, and so firrnlv do the claws hold, that when shot

NATURAL HISTORY.

it does not always fall, but remains clinging to the tree. The
nest of- this elegant little bird is made in a decayed tree. The
eggs are from seven to nine in number, grey with dusky spots.

Sub-family b. . Sittince.

SlTTA. (Gr. 1,'tTTJ].)

Europsea (Lat. European), the Nuthatch.

The term NUTHATCH well explains the habits of this inter-
esting little bird. As may be imagined from its name, nut?
form a considerable portion of its food, but it also feeds largely
on insects, pecked from the bark of trees. "While searching after
insects, it displays an activity even surpassing the creeper, as it
runs up and down the trunk, mostly descending with its head
downwards, a feat beyond the capacity of either creeper or
woodpecker. In order to break the shell of nuts, it contrives to
fix the nut in some crevice, and then grasping with its power-
ful feet, it swings its beak against the nut with the whole force
of its body, and soon splits the nut in pieces. In spots frequent-
ed by this bird, heaps of nut-shells may be seen, as it usually
resorts to a place where it has found a convenient resting-place
for the nut, just as heaps of snail-shells may be often found by
stones v/hich the thrush has found fitted for breaking them.

NATURAL HISTORY. 233

It has hitherto been found impossible to keep the Nuthatch
in captivity. Its restless spirit and obstinate perseverance in
pecking at its prison speedily kill it ; and although several
have been placed in confinement, none have been recorded to
survive beyond the third day. The Rev. Mr. Bree relates
that the bill of a Nuthatch which he had taken in a common
brick trap was worn away to barely two-thirds of its usual
length by the unremitting attempts of the bird to escape from
its prison.

The nest of this bird is usually made in a hole in a decayed
tree, and as is usual with nests made in holes, it is a very
rough fabrication, composed of a few dried leaves. The bird
is also remarkable from its habit of plastering up the hole
with mud when it is too large to suit it. The eggs are from
five to seven in number, of a whitish colour, spotted with red-
dish brown.

Sub-family c. Mcnurincc.
TROGLODYTES. — (Gr. TpwyAodurjf, a creeper into caves.)

Farviilus (Lat. very small), the Wren.

The WREN shares with the robin some immunity from
juvenile sportsmen. Although it may be fearlessly hopping
about in. the hedge, jerking its funny little tail, and playing
its antics just at the muzzle of the gun, few boys will fire at

240 NATURAL HISTORY.

it — a privilege for which it is difficult to give a reason, except,
perhaps, the very incomprehensible assertion that " The robin
and the wren are God Almighty's cock and hen ;" although
why these two birds, both proverbially quarrelsome and pug-
nacious, should be selected, to the exclusion of others, is diffi-
cult to say. Perhaps the robin enjoys his immunity from the
" Babes in the Wood," and the wren makes a convenient rhyme.
Be this as it may, it is to be wished that a similar rhyme ex-
isted, including the owl and the kestrel.

A singular anecdote is related of this bird.

"In the end of June, 1835, a person was shooting in the
neighbourhood of Bandrakehead, in the parish of Colton, West-
moreland : he killed a brace of blue titmice (Parus cceruleus),
which some time before had been observed to be constructing a
nest, in the end of a house belonging to a Mr. Innes of the same
place. In the course of the day, it was ascertained that the
titmice had completed the time of incubation, and that their
death had consequently left their offspring in a state of utter
destitution. This, however, was not long permitted to continue,
for the chirping of the young birds attracted the attention, and
excited the compassion of a wren ; which, since that period,
adopted the nestlings, and was daily engaged in rearing and
feeding them, with the affectionate kindness and unremitting
assiduity of a parent bird."

The nest of the Wren is built in any convenient cranny ; an
ivy-covered tree, the' thatch of a barn, or a warm scarecrow,
are all used by this fearless little bird. The nest is usually of
an oven-like shape, always covered on the outside with some
material resembling the colour of the objects round it, such as
green moss if built among ivy, or brown lichen if built on a
rock or in the fork of a withered branch. The eggs are six or
eight in number — white, speckled with reddish brown.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Tribe III ..... DENTIROSTRES.— (Lat. tooth-billed.')

Family I ..... Luscinidae. — (Lat. Luscinia, a Nightingale. Nightin-

gale kind.)
Sub-family a. . Luscininw.

CALAMODYTA. — (Gr.

ur^f, a diver in reeds.)

Locustella, the Grasshopper Warbler.

WHILE walking along the hedges during the spring, an inces-
sant cry, closely resembling that of the grasshopper, and easily
to be taken for it, is heard proceeding from the hedge. This
cry proceeds from a little bird, called on that account the GRASS-
HOPPER WARBLER. The little creature keeps so close that it
is very difficult to catch even a casual glance at it, as it flits
along the bottom of the hedge.

The nest is carefully concealed, and very difficult to find.
It is composed of dried grass, and is usually hidden by the tufts
of herbage among which it is built. The eggs are from five to
seven in number ; white, speckled with red. The length of
the bird is five inches and a half;- the third primary feather is
the longest.

L

NATURAL HISTORY.

Philomela (Gr. "fctAo/oyfat, proper name), the Nightingale.

" Tiuu tiuu tiuu tiuu— Spe tiu zqua—
Tio tio tio tio tio tio tio tix — Qutio qutio qulio qutio —
Zquo zquo zquo zquo — Tzii tzii tzu tzu tzu tzu tzii tzii tzii tzi —
Quorror tiu zqua pipiquisi — Zozozozozozozozozozozozo zirrhading ! &c. &c."

So does a well-known naturalist endeavour to express the
wild and spiritual melody of this most exquisite of British song-
birds, the NIGHTINGALE. And in truth it is perhaps as good a
description as can be given without the aid of music. Even its
own marvellous notes sound comparatively weak unless backed
by the accompaniments of night and tranquillity ; for the in-
imitable song of this Mendelssohn among birds loses great part
of its beauty when uttered by day, deadened and confused with
other sounds.

In some counties of England it is never found, but in many
its nightly strains are frequently heard. The fields and College
gardens of Oxford are full of Nightingales, whose songs add
greatly to the effect of the scene. "Well may Isaak Walton say
in his delightfully quaint language :

" But the Nightingale, another of my airy creatures,
breathes such sweet, loud music out of her instrumental
throat, that it might make mankind to think that miracles
are not ceased. He that at midnight when the very labourer
sleeps securely, should hear, as I have very often, the clear
airs, the sweet descents, the natural rising and falling, the

NATURAL HISTORY. C-13

doubling and redoubling of her voice, might well bo lifted
above earth, arid say, ' Lord, ivJmt music hast t)wu provided
for the saints in Heaven, ivhen thou affordest bad men such
music on earth /' "

It must be borne in mind, that not only in this bird, but in
other singing birds, the male is the vocalist, so that Milton's
address to the " sweet songstress" is unfortunately not quite
so correct as poetical ; a misfortune of frequent occurrence.

SYLVIA. — (Proper name.)

i W.

Undata (Lat. wavy), the Dartford Warbler.

The WARBLEIIS are spread over almost the entire globe,
and many gladden this country with their pleasant songs.
The Dartford Warbler derives its name from the place where
it was first noticed as a British bird. It is extremely small,
hardly larger than a wren, but the length of its tail increases
its apparent size. Furze-bushes form its usual residence.
There it may be seen hovering over the tops of the bushes,
uttering its curious quavering song, at the same time erecting
the feathers of its head, and puffing up its throat. It lays its
eggs in a nest carefully concealed in the centre of a furze- bush.
The eggs are of a greenish white, speckled with brown spots.
Its length is five inches.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Cineren (Lat. ashy), the Whitethrodt.

The pretty little WHITE-THROAT is one of the migratory
birds, remaining with us during the summer. Few copses
are without the singular and pleasing song of the "Whitethroat.
It derives its name from the white colour of its throat and
abdomen, which renders it a conspicuous bird. Its curious
habit of flying upwards from its perch, and again descending
on the same spot, immediately points it out.

It builds a small nest, mostly among brambles or on a
stump densely covered with weeds. The eggs are five in
number — a greyish white thickly spotted with brown. The
length of the bird is not quite six inches.

The BLACKCAP, almost a rival to the nightingale, is at once
recognised by the black colour of the crown of the head.
Only the males, however, are thus decorated, the crown of
the head of the female being dark brown. Its sweet notes
are poured forth from the concealment of some thicket or
tuft of trees, where it trusts to the density of the foliage to
elude discovery. Like the mocking-bird of America, it can
imitate the songs of other birds with such perfect inflection
that it is almost impossible to detect the imposture.

Among bushes and brambles it builds its nest, which is
made of dried grass, moss, and hairs. The eggs are five in

NATURAL HISTORY.

SYLVIA.

245

Atricapilla (Lat. llackhaircd), the Blackcap Warbler.

number — reddish brown, marked with dark spots. The length
of the bird is nearly six inches ; the third primary feather is
the longest.

The CHIFF-CHAFF, so called from its peculiar cry, is almost
the first of the Warblers that visits us in the spring, and one
of the last to leave us in the autumn, sometimes remaining
here until the middle of October. This little bird is found

Rufa (Lut. rutldj), the Cldff-chaff.

in most of the southern counties of England, and in Wales,
but has not been noticed north of Northumberland. On its

240 NATURAL HISTORY.

first arrival it feeds on the leaf-rolling caterpillars that infest
the leaves and early buds of trees, thereby doing great service
to the gardener, who especially detests all " blight," as he calls
these insidious little devourers.

The nest of the Chiff-chaff, like that of the wren, is oval or
rounded, and entered by a hole at the side. It is placed near
the ground in a bush, or sometimes resting on the hedge-bank.
Its eggs are six in number, speckled with purplish red on a
white ground. The length of the bird is not quite five inches ;
the third and fourth primary feathers are the longest.

REGTJLUS. — (Lat.)

Cristatus {Lat. crested), the Golden-crested Wren.

The GOLDEN-CRESTED UEGULTJS, as it ought properly to be
called, is one of the smallest of British birds. Fir plantations
are its favourite resort, and there it may be seen hopping about
the branches, running round them, head downwards, in search
of the insects hidden beneath the bark. Its name is derived
from the orange-coloured tuft of feathers on the crown of its
head, for which reason it is often called the Kinglet. Its
note is weak, but very pleasing, and much resembles that of
the common wren. The female is very bold while sitting,
and will permit close observation without quitting the nest.

•NATURAL HISTORY. 247

The nest itself is an object of great beauty. It is usually
placed on the under side of a fir branch, sheltered by the over-
hanging foliage, and sometimes further protected by a large
bunch of cones forming a kind of roof over it. The eggs are
from six to ten in number, very small, and of a reddish white
colour. The length of the bird is three inches and a half.
The fourth or fifth primary feather is the longest.

Sub-family b. Erythatince.
RUTICILLA. — (Lat. sparkling. )

Phcenicura (Gr. $aivu, I display ; ovpu, a tail), the Redstart.

The REDSTART derives its name from the bright reddish
chestnut colour of the upper tail coverts and tail feathers, which
appear very conspicuous as the bird flits from one tree to an-
other, or dashes off when startled. It inhabits the skirts of
forests, copses, gardens, and especially frequents old ivied walls,
where numbers of the nests may be found. * The song of this
bird is not very powerful, but the notes are peculiarly sweet.
While singing it often changes its situation, occasionally sing-
ing as it flies.

The nest is placed usually in a hole in a wall, or in a hollow

* In 1847, 1 found a Redstart's nest built in a hole of a wall, forming one side of a
narrow passage in Merton College, Oxford. The eggs were nearly hatched, and the
birds did not seem to be disturbed by the constant passing of servants with their
paraphernalia of brooms, pails, &c.

NATURAL HISTORY.*

tree. The eggs are five in number, of a greenish blue colour,
closely resembling those of the Hedge Accentor. The length of
the bird is rather more than five inches. The fourth primary
feather is the longest.

ERYTHACUS.* — (Gr. '

Rubecula (Lat. a Redbrea&t), the Redbreast.

The REDBREAST, or ROBIN REDBREAST, as it is affectionate-
ly termed, has, by its fearless conduct, earned itself golden
opinions from" all kinds of men. Every nation seems to pro-
tect it. Even the American Redbreast lives unharmed, pos-
sibly on account of its connexion with its English relation,
whose oft-told charity towards the Babes in the Wood has
turned aside from its posterity even the unsparing hand of the
sporting schoolboy.

In the winter, when the berries are gone, insects dead, and
the worms hidden under the hard frozen soil, then the Robin
flies for refuge to the habitations of man for shelter arid food.
It is very amusing to see the half trusting, half fearful look
with which it hops to the window-sill for the first time.
After a while, it becomes bold, and taps at the window, if the
expected crumbs are not thrown out. Before very long, it
ventures to enter the room, hops about on the table, and

* This word ought to be spelt ERITHACUS, but in the Brit. Mus. Catalogue it is
spelt aj ii'oo\ o.

NATURAL HISTORY. 249

quite seems to consider as a right what was first merely a fa-
vour.* When once established, it is very jealous, and will not
suffer a friend to be partaker of the same comforts, but attacks
him with the greatest fury ; so the unfortunate second comer
has to wait shivering outside the window, with his feathers
puffed up, and his little bright eye glancing from the depths of
the plumage.

The nest of this bird is built in a crevice of an old ivied wall,
in a bank, sheltered by the roots of trees, or in a mass of ivy
clinging to an old tree. The eggs are five in number, of a pale
grey colour, profusely marked with reddish spots.

Sub-family c. Accentorince.
ACCENTOR. — (Lat. a Singer.)

Modularius (Lat. warbling), the Hedge Accentor.

The HEDGE ACCENTOR, or HEDGE SPARROW, is one of our
commonest English birds. It closely resembles the common
sparrow in appearance. The nest is built in holes, and con-
tains five blue eggs.

* About the year 1843, a Robin used to frequent our house. He was so tame as to
answer to his name " Bob," and continued his attachment even through the summer.
When the rabbits were fed, Bob always came to assist, and usually contrived to
perch on the edge of the pan from which the rabbit was eating. Both parties seem-
ed perfectly satisfied, and Bunny and Bob always continued very good friends.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family d. Parince.
PARTIS.

Major (Lat. greater), the Cheat Titmouse.

The birds of the family of the TITS are remarkable for their
active habits among the branches of trees. There are few who
have not seen these beautiful and interesting little birds twist-
ing round the branches, perfectly unconcerned at the presence
of the spectator, sometimes hanging, head downwards, some-
times chasing an unlucky beetle along the bark, and invariably
catching it, in spite of its swift limbs and active wings ; some-
times twisting off a bud, and pulling it to pieces with marvel-
lous rapidity, in order to secure the lurking caterpillar within ;
sometimes pecking away at a piece of loose bark, and extract-
ing an unwilling spider by one of its legs, left incautiously pro-
jecting from its lurking-place. Pity it is that their funny little
sharp beaks should ever be put to worse uses ; but they lie
under a grave imputation of using these very beaks in the
slaughter of the defenceless young of other birds.

The GREAT TITMOUSE is common in England, frequenting
gardens, orchards, copses, &c. During the spring it is very
active in the capture of insects, but in autumn and winter it
is forced to content itself with grains and seeds of various
descriptions. Gilbert White, in his " Selbourne," mentions
that he has seen the Great Tit " while it hung with its back

NATURAL HISTORY. 251

downwards, to my no small delight and admiration, draw
straws lengthwise from the eaves of thatched houses, in order
to pull out the flies that were concealed among them, and
tha.t in such numbers that they quite defaced the thatch, and
gave it a ragged appearance."

The nest of this bird is built in a hole of a wall, or a
decayed tree, and in it are placed six or eight eggs, of a white
colour, spotted with reddish browii. The length of the bird
is about six inches.

Coeruleus (Lat. blue], the Blue Titmouse.

The little BLUE TITMOUSE is so well known as hardly to
require any description. It is most amusingly courageous,
and from the strenuous resistance it offers to its capturer, has
acquired from rustic boys the name of " Billy-biter." The
angry hiss of the female has frequently caused an intruding
hand to be rapidly withdrawn, for the sound is so exceedingly
like the hiss of an irritated snake, and the little beak is so
sharp, that few have the courage to proceed with their
investigations. A pair of these birds built their nest in the
coping of the Great Western Railway, at the Shrivenham
station, not two feet from the fiery and noisy engines, which
were constantly passing. The men respected the courage of
the little birds, and this whole brood was hatched, and suffered
to fly at liberty.

The utter contempt which this bird entertains for fire-
arms often leads to its destruction, for when the disappointed

252 NATURAL HISTORY.

schoolboy has been wasting his powder and shot in attempting
to hit larks arid such large game, he consoles himself by
shooting the unfortunate titmouse, who will allow him to
come so close that few vestiges of it remain except a tuft
of blue feathers.

The eggs of the Blue Titmouse are from six to eight in
number, white, marked with reddish brown spots. Its length
is about four inches and a half.

Caudatus (Lat. tailed), the Long-tailed Titmouse.

The LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE is another well-known species
of this amusing family. Unlike the other Tits, it does not
frequent human habitations during the winter, but may be
seen in great numbers twisting and creeping about the branches
of hedge-rows and field trees. In the summer they are quito
as bold as their relations, and especially favour apple-trees, for
the sake of the diseased buds, which they pick off and devour,
thereby drawing upon themselves the vengeance of the gar-
dener, who prepares his gun, fires at the supposed depredators,
and possibly succeeds in killing them ; but he has also suc-
ceeded in doing more damage to the healthy buds by his spare
shot, than a score of tits would injure during the entire
season.

NATURAL HISTORY. 253

The beautiful and elaborate nest which this bird constructs
is one of its chief peculiarities. It is oval in shape, and
entirely closed, except one small hole at the side, just large
enough to admit the bird. The exterior of the nest is usually
covered with lichens, and it is lined with a thick layer of soft
feathers. In this warm and elegant habitation from ten to
fourteen eggs are laid. They are small and very delicately
spotted. The entire length of the bird is about five inches
and a half.

Sub-family c, Motacillince.
MOTACILLA. — (Lat. a Wagtail.)

Yarrellii (Lat. of Yarrell), the Pied Wagtail.

The WAGTAILS, so named, from the almost incessant vibra-
tion of their tails, are exclusively confined to the Old World.
The PIED WAGTAIL is the most common of its race. We often
see it pass rapidly, with its peculiar dipping flight ; it settles
on the ground and wags its tail ; it runs a few paces, and
wags its tail again ; pecks at an insect, and its tail again
vibrates, &c. It does not hop, like the warblers, finches,
&c., but runs with great rapidity, and altogether looks very
like a diminutive magpie. Sand banks by the sides of rivers
are the usual resort of these birds, where they may almost
always be seen, running about by the^water's edge, sometimes

254 NATURAL HISTORY.

snatching at an incautious may-fly, sometimes wading into
the water after a caddis-worm or a stray grub, — nor is it quite
safe for a minnow to come too near the surface — and then
flying off to another spot to repeat the same manoauvres. This
bird also greatly frequents pastures, and may be seen running
about among the cows in the most nonchalant manner ima-
ginable, catching the flies that torment those animals in the
summer, or flying off to its unfinished nest with a beak full
of hairs. Their nests are built near the water, in crevices
among stones, or in the hole of a wall. Frequently when
stones are piled by a wet quarry, several nests may be found
in one heap of stones. The eggs are four or five in number,
of a dusky white colour, spotted with ashy brown. The length
of the bird is seven inches and a half.

Flava (Lat. yellow), Yellow Wagtail.

The YELLOW WAGTAIL is very similar in habits to the more
common Pied Wagtail, but the yellow tints of some of its
feathers, somewhat resembling those of the Yellow Hammer, at
once distinguish it.

NATURAL HISTORY.

AXTIIUS. — (Lat. a Titlark.}

Pratensis (Lat. of a Meadow), the Meadow Pipit.

The MEADOW PIPIT, more commonly called the Titlark,
resembles the true Larks in the long hind claw and peculiar
plumage, but is pointed out as distinct, from the different
colour of the bill. Like the skylark, it sings while in the
air, but sometimes also pours forth its musical strains while
settled upon the ground. It feeds principally on slugs, worms,
and insects, which it chases with much activity, after the
manner of the wagtails, even vibrating its tail like them.
Hilly grounds, commons, and meadows are its chief resort in
summer, but during September and October flocks of these
birds may be seen congregated in turnip fields, and in the
winter they seek the protection of the warm hedge-rows.

The nest of the Titlark is made on the ground, concealed
by a tuft of grass. There are usually five or six eggs, light
brown in colour, spotted with a darker tint. The length of
the bird is six inches.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family II. . . Turdidse. — (Lat. Turdus, a Thrush. Thrush kind.)
Sub-family a. Formicarince.

HYDROBATA. — (Gr. Tdwp, water; (3aivu, I go.)

Cinclus (Gr.

/lof), the Dipper.

The WATER OUZEL, or DIPPER, is one of the most interesting
of our native birds. It is found principally in hilly places
where there are clear and rapid streams, such as in Derbyshire
and Yorkshire. There it may be seen to go through its far-
famed movements under the water, which have given rise to
so much controversy. It dives for considerable distances with
apparent ease, and has a habit of dipping and rising repeatedly,
from which practice its name has been derived.

The nest is usually built by the water side, and is most
carefully concealed. In general appearance it is not unlike
that of the wren, being made of intertwined mosses, with an
entrance at the side. It lays five largish eggs, of a pure white.
The length of this bird is about seven inches.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family b. Turdince.
TURDUS.

Viscivorus (Lat. Viscus, a Misseltoe; voro, I devour), the Misseltoe
Thrush.

The MISSELTOE THRUSH, or STORMCOCK, according to
"Waterton, " surpasses all other thrushes in size, and is deci-
dedly the largest songster of the European birds. He remains
with us the whole of the year, and he is one of three birds
which charm us with their melody during the dreary months
of winter, when the throstle and lark are silent, and all the
migratory birds have left us, to sojourn in warmer climates.
He appears to be gregarious in the months of August and
September." "This bird, though usually known by the name
of the Misseltoe Thrush in many parts of England, is invari-
ably called the Stormcock by all the lower orders in our
neighbourhood : not that it delights in storms more than in
fine weather ; but that nature has taught it to pour forth its
melody at a time of the year when the bleak winds of winter
roar through the leafless trees."

It is very fond of the berries of the misseltoe, but when
they fail it turns its attention to those of the mountain ash,
which are almost certain, to attract this beautiful and powerful

258 NATURAL HISTORY.

songster. In the summer it devours all kinds of garden-fruits,
especially cherries and raspberries.

During the breeding season it is very pugnacious, attacking
and driving away not only small birds, but the crow, the
magpie, or even a prowling cat. The nest is very large,
always built in a tree, and containing about five reddish
spotted eggs. The length of the bird is eleven inches.

Pilaris (Lat. like a ball), the Fieldfare.

The FIELDFARE is properly a native of the cold regions of
Europe, and only visits this country during the cold winter
months. From its excellence as an adjunct to the table, it is
perseveringly sought after, but is so shy, that unless the bird
is very busy satisfying its hunger, there is some difficulty in
approaching within gun-range.

It builds in fir or pine-trees, and lays several bluish-green
eggs, spotted with brown. Its length is about ten inches.

The SONG-THRUSH, THROSTLE or MAVIS, is deservedly con-
sidered one of our best singing birds. Its powerful and rich
notes may be heard even during the month of January, when
most of the other singing birds are either silent, or have •
departed. Its nest is built almost before any other bird has

NATURAL HISTORY. 259

Musicus (Lat. musical), the Song-Thrush,

commenced, and may often be seen conspicuously placed in a
bush, sometime before the leaves have begun to sprout. Jn
order to defend the callow young from the cold winds of the
season when they are hatched, the nest is more substantial
than birds are accustomed to build, being thickly plastered
within with a coating of mud, effectually keeping out the
chilling blasts. Were it only for its singing powers, the
Thrush would deserve protection ; but the services it renders
to the gardener in devouring insects, snails, &c., entitle it to
a double share of regard.

It is very amusing to watch the thrush listening for the
sound of the earth-worm working his way through the ground,
or the gnawing teeth of the cockchaffer grub. The grub he
unearths and devours without further ceremony, but he knows
that if he is not cautious, the earth-worm will withdraw itself
out of his reach. He therefore gives several hops near the
worm, which, fancying that it hears its enemy the mole pur-
suing it, comes to the surface, and is instantly seized in triumph
by the crafty thrush.

It clears the shells from snails by beating them against a
stone, and when it has found a convenient place for that pur-

200 NATURAL HISTORY.

pose, it invariably returns to it with its prey, so that heaps of
broken snail-shells may often* be found where the thrushes have
been at work.

The eggs of the Thrush are five in number, of a bluish-
green colour, spotted with a deep reddish-brown. Sometimes
the spots are altogether absent.

Merula (Lat. a Blackbird], the Blackbird.

The BLACKBIRD is another delightful songster, whose jetty
hue and orange-tawny bill are too well known to need 'de-
scription. It is a very shy bird, arid if disturbed in a hedge,
has a habit of darting through it, and then escaping on the
other -side, uttering a sharp cry of alarm. The habits of this
bird are not unlike those of the thrush, especially in its zeal
for unearthing the cockchaffer-grubs, and possibly for eating
cherries when they are ripe.

Its nest is built usually at the foot of a hedge, frequently
in the very centre of a holly bush, safe from most enemies, but
weasels, &c.

NATURAL HISTORY. 261

A beautiful King Charles' dog of my acquaintance was
accustomed to search for thrush's and blackbird's nests, and
bite out the bottom of them, so that the eggs rolled quietly
into his mouth, he having discovered that when he tried to
take them from the mouth of the nest, he invariably broke
them. The eggs are five in number, of a bluish-green colour,
profusely spotted with brown.

ORPHEUS. — (Gr. proper name of a famous musician.)

Polyglottus (Gr. IToAwf, many

a, a tongue), the Mocking-Bird.

The MOCKING-BIRD or POLYGLOT THRUSH is a native of
most parts of America. This wonderful bird stands pre-
eminent in powers of song. Not only are its natural notes
bold and spirited, but it has the faculty of imitating with
deceptive fidelity every sound it hears. To its flexible organs,
the harsh setting of a saw, the song of a nightingale, the
creaking of a wheel, the whistled tune of a passer-by, the full
and mellow notes of the thrush, the barking of a dog, the
crowing of a cock, and the savage scream of the bald eagle,
are each equally easy of execution, and follow one another

262 NATURAL HISTORY.

with such marvellous rapidity that few can believe that the
insignificant brown bird before them is the sole author of
these varied sounds. The Virginian nightingale and the
canary hear their exquisite modulations performed with such
superior execution, that the vanquished songsters are silent
from mere mortification, while the triumphant Mocking-bird
only redoubles his efforts. Wilson, whose animated description
of this bird has never been surpassed, says : — " His expanded
wings and tail glistening with white, and the buoyant gaiety
of his action arresting the eye, as his song does most irre-
sistibly the ear, he sweeps round with enthusiastic ecstasy,
and mounts and descends as his song swells or dies away.
He often deceives the sportsman, and sends him in search of
birds that are not perhaps within miles of him, but whose
notes he exactly imitates : even birds themselves are frequently
imposed upon by this admirable mimic, and are decoyed by
the fancied calls of their mates, or dive with precipitation into
the depth of thickets at the scream of what they suppose to
be the sparrow-hawk."

While its eggs are hatching it is an exceedingly courageous
bird, attacking without discrimination man, dogs, or any animal
who may approach too near the nest. But the black snake
is the special object of its vengeance. The snake, who has
perhaps just arrived at the vicinity of the nest, and is con-
templating a pleasant breakfast on the young or eggs, is
violently attacked by the enraged Mocking-bird, who, by
repeated blows on the head, generally destroys its enemy, and
then mounting upon a bush, pours forth a triumphant song
of victory.

The nest is made generally in a bush or apple-tree, frequent-
ly close to houses, as the bird is protected by the inhabitants.
The Mocking-bird is often kept tame, in which case, so far
from its imitative powers showing any decrease, the variety
of domestic sounds heard about the house, is often very
perplexing.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family c. Oriolince.

ORIOLUS.

263

Galbula (Lat), the Golden Oriole.

The genus Oriolus has the beak notched and rather bent at
the tip. The GOLDEN ORIOLE is only an occasional visitor to
this country, and has never as yet been seen in Scotland. It
is a very shy bird, frequenting the skirts of woods, especially
copses that border on larger woods. In the fruit season it
leaves the woods for the orchards, and makes no small havoc
among the fruit, particularly the figs, grapes, and cherries.

The nest is made of wood and fine hay ; it is generally
placed on the fork of a bough. The eggs are five in number,
of a purplish white spotted with reddish marks. The length
of the bird is rather more than ten inches.

THE SPOTTED FLYCATCHER.

The SPOTTED FLYCATCHER may be considered as the type of
the entire family. It may be constantly seen in gardens and
orchards, going through the evolutions that have given it the
names of Flycatcher, Post-bird, Beam-bird, &c. It takes its

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family III. . . Muscicapidsc. — (Gr. Musca, a Fly ; capio, I take. Fly-
catcher kind.)
Sub-family a, Muscicapince.

MUSCICAPA.

Grisola, the Spotted Fit/catcher.

station on some elevated spot, such as the overhanging bough
of a tree, a post, or a rail, and from thence watches for a
passing insect, on seeing which, it darts from its post, secures
the insect in the air, and returns to the same spot by a short
circular flight. It is not a timid bird, and will permit an
observer to stand quite close to it provided that he does not
disturb it.1* It is only a summer visitor to England, arriving
in May and departing about the beginning of October. The
note of this bird is a weak chirp, and even that is not often
heard.

The nest is built usually in holes of trees or walls, or
sometimes between a branch of a wall-fruit tree and the wall
itself. The eggs are five in number, spotted with reddish
brown on a grey ground. The length of the bird is about
five inches.

* I saw one of these birds engaged in the pursuit of flies in a garden atHeadington.
Tt perched on a balustrade close to a window from which several persons were
watching it, and continued its evolutions perfectly undisturbed by their proximity.

NATURAL HISTORY.

265

Family IV. ... Ampelidse.

Sub-family a. . . Ampelince.

AMPELIS. — (Gr. 'A/^TreAif.)

Garrulus (Lat. chattering), the Bohemian Waxwing.

The BOHEMIAN WAXWING or WAXEN CHATTERER is only
occasionally seen in England during severe frosts,* at which
time flocks of them sometimes arrive. It is very common in
Norway and Russia, and is plentiful in North America. The
name of Waxwing is given to it from the singular appendages
to the secondary quill feathers, bearing much resemblance to
a drop of red sealing-wax pressed on the wing.

Berries of all kinds, especially those of the dog-rose and the
hawthorn, form the principal food of this bird, but it is related
that when in captivity it rejects scarcely any vegetable sub-
stance, losing at the same time all its vivacity and social
habits. The note of the Waxwing is not unlike that of the
thrush, but it is very weak and more uncertain than the notes
of that beautiful songster. While singing it agitates the

* A specimen was shot in Oxford in 1846.
M

NATURAL HISTORY.

crest on its head, but shows scarcely any of that swelling in
the throat so perceptible in the canary and other singing
birds.

The length of the bird is rather more than eight inches.

Family V. . . . Laiuda;. — (Lat. Lanius, a Butcher. Butcher-bird

kind.)
Sub-family a. . Lanince.

LAXIUS. — (Lat. a Butcher.}

Excubitor (Lat. a Sentinel), the Great Grey Shrike.

The SHRIKES or BUTCHER BIRDS well deserve their name,
as they live upon insects and small birds, which they kill and
afterwards transfix with a thorn preparatory to devouring
them. They take their prey much after the same manner
as the flycatchers, by darting on it from some place of con-
cealment.

The GREAT GREY SHRIKE is supposed to be only an occa-
sional visitor to this country. It feeds upon mice, birds,
Frogs, and other small animals. After pouncing upon its

NATURAL HISTORY. 267

prey, the Shrike, by a few blows on the head from its powerful
bill destroys it. The unfortunate animal is then carried to
the nearest hedge, impaled with a thorn, and the Shrike
devours it at his leisure. Large insects are treated in the
same manner. The name Excubitor or Sentinel is given it
from its habit of watching for birds of prey, and chattering
loudly directly it perceives them ; thereby proving that, like
most other tyrants, he has a great objection to suffering any
injury himself. The bird catchers on the Continent take ad-
vantage of this peculiarity, to assist them in the capture of
the peregrine falcon. The fowler places a small net on the
ground, with a pigeon fastened to it by way of bait. A
string is attached to the net, and brought within a turf hut
where the fowler sits. Close to the hut a shrike is tied to
the ground, and two pieces of turf are set up as a shelter for
the bird from the weather, and as a refuge from the hawk.
The fowler remains within his hut busied with some sedentary
occupation, knowing wrell that his vigilant watchman will not
fail to give him notice of the approach of a hawk. Directly
a hawk appears in the distance, the shrike becomes agitated ;
as it draws nearer, he begins to scream with fright ; and just
as the hawk pounces on the pigeon, he runs under his turf,
which is the signal to the fowler within the hut to pull the
string, thereby enclosing the hawk within the folds of the net.
The nest is built on trees, and contains about six eggs,
greyish- white, spotted with dark ash on the larger end ; the
length of the bird is from nine to ten inches.

THE RED-BACKED SHRIKE.

The RED-BACKED SHRIKE is much more common than the
last-mentioned bird, and may be seen in and about hedges, in
the spring, when it is occupied in building its nest. It is
rather a noisy bird, and the nest is so large as to be easily dis-
covered. It feeds principally on insects, such as bees, beetles,
&c., which may frequently be found impaled on thorns.*1

* The insect most commonly found by myself, in this position, was the Staphylinus
erythropterus, but 1 have also found ground beetles and humble bees impaled.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Collurio (Gr. KoMivpiuv), the Red-backed Shrike.

These impaled insects form a very good indication as to the
locality of the nests, and are probably placed there for food ;
certainly not, as some authors have stated, for the purpose
of decoying other birds to the spot in order to murder and
devour them. The nest and eggs much resemble those of the
Great Shrike, but are smaller. The length of the bird is seven
inches and a half.

THE JAY.

The CORVID^E are peculiarly remarkable for a kind of pre-
ternatural air of sagacity with which they set about any self-
imposed task, especially if that task be a mischievous one.
The ravens and magpies are most conspicuous in these quali-
ties.

The JAY, so well known for the beautiful blue markings on
its wings, is rather a shy bird, preferring to reside in the
thickest woods, and seldom coming into the open country.
It is easily tamed when young, and is very amusing when
domesticated.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Tribe IV CONIROSTRES.— (Lat. Cone-shape beaked.)

Family I Corvidsa. — (Lat. Corvus, Crow. Crow kind.)

Sub-family a. Garrulince.

Tr
Fa

Sub-family <

GAKRVLUS. — (Lat. talkative.')

Glar.daiius (Lat. of the Acorn'}, the Jay.

This bird possesses, like several others of the same family,
considerable talents for mimicry. It has been known to imi-
tate the sound of a saw, the bleat of a lamb, or even the neigh-
ing of a horse, with the most perfect accuracy. Nor do its pow-
ers cease here, for although its natural voice is harsh and grat-
ing", yet it can imitate the sweet notes of singing birds, such as
the Greenfinch, with wonderful fidelity. It has also frequently
been taught to articulate words.

The name of Glandarius has been given to the Jay, because
it feeds on vegetable productions, such as acorns, &c., more
than the true Crows. It is also partial to fruits, especially ripe
cherries, and is consequently persecuted by the gardener. It is
also said to devour eggs and young birds.

Its nest is built about twenty feet from the ground, the upper
part of a thick bush being preferred. The eggs are five or six
in number, of a yellowish white, thickly speckled with brown.
The length of the bird is nearly fourteen inches.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family b. Corvincc.
NUCIFRAGA. — (Lat. NKX, a nut ; franga, I break.)

Caiyocatactes (Gr. KapvoKaTuftrrjc, properly, the Nuthatch), the
Nutcracker Croiv.

The NUTCRACKER CROW, whose true position in the scale
of creation has so long bewildered naturalists, is about the
size of a jackdaw, but its form is more slender, and the tail is
longer. It is seldom found in this country, but is very com-
mon in more northern districts. In its habits it displays a
singular mixture of the woodpecker and the nuthatch, and
exhibits so few of the well-known habits of the Crows, that
observers might well be perplexed where to place it. It is
now supposed to be one of the connecting links between the
crows and the woodpeckers. It runs about the branches of
trees, using its tail for a support, and pecks away the bark in
order to reach the insects beneath, just as the woodpeckers do.
It also pecks open the fir-cones, in search of the hidden seed,
and breaks nuts by repeated strokes of its bill, like the nuthatch.
It is usually seen in flocks, but is not so wary as the crows. Its
eggs are laid at the bottom of a hole in some tree. They are of
a greyish yellow colour, diversified with a few dark grey spots.

•NATURAL HISTORY.

Pic\\. — (Lat. a Magpie.)

Caudata (long-tailed), the Magpie.

The MAGPIE, who seems to rival the Parrot in the proud
title of the Monkey of the Birds (the Eaven being the orni-
thological Baboon) is a well-known inhabitant of this country.
Its thieving and hiding propensities have been frequently told ;
but I must still venture to give a few anecdotes of a tame
magpie that resided in Wiltshire. This bird found a malicious
enjoyment in pecking the unprotected ankles of little boys not
yet arrived at manly habiliments, and was such a terror to the
female servants that they were forced to pass his lurking-place
armed with a broom. One of the servants having neglected
this precaution was actually found sitting down on the stones
to protect her ankles, the magpie triumphantly pacing round
her, until aid was brought, and the bird driven away. But
to little boys and girls the magpie showed no mercy, springing
out of its hiding-place, and chasing them completely along
the garden wralk.

It had also a great penchant for tearing and biting to pieces
any papers that came in its way, probably because it had
perceived that people valued them. One Sunday morning,

272 NATURAL HISTORY.

after the family had returned from church, the rector found
his study strewed with pamphlets, torn newspapers, &c., so
that until the delinquent was discovered, he really thought
that thieves had been in the house. A magpie never seems
to be happy unless it possesses a hiding-place, nor did this
one form an exception to the general rule, as it had pecked a
hole in the thatch of a barn, wherein to dispose its ill-gotten
goods, and displayed great uneasiness if anybody approached it.

Another magpie gained entrance into the chapel of Wadham
College, Oxford, and remained quiet enough until the service
had begun, when it gravely walked up the centre, bowing arid
saying, " Pretty Mag ! Pretty Mag !" much to the discomposure
of the junior members. A curious story is told respecting the
power of the Magpie to count numbers.

" George Le Roy states that a magpie having stolen some
game, it was resolved to shoot it. A man hid himself in a
hut near its nest for this purpose. The bird flew away when
he entered, nor would return. The next day two men entered
and one came out. Mag was not to be cheated ; she waited
till the second left also. Three went in and two came out,
with the same result. Four then entered, and three came
away. The bird went back and was shot. — So magpies, says
George Le Roy, can count three but not four."

The nest of the Magpie is built on a high tree, and curiously
defended with thorns, having only a small hole just large
enough to admit the owners, so that the liberal use of a pocket
knife is frequently requisite in order to obtain the eggs. The
n.3.3 1 is covered with a dome of thorns, respecting which a
curiously quaint fable is told.

" The birds," says the historian, " not knowing how to build
nests, went in a body to request the Magpie to teach them. He
willingly undertook the office. 'First,' he said, 'you must
look out for a good, strong, forked branch, and begin by laying
two sticks crosswise.' ' That's just what I did,' said the rook.
' Next, you must raise the sides a little, and then put in some
hay, which you must work well into the sticks.' — ' The very
thing I have been doing,' said the crow. ' Now, for fear the
eggs should be broken or thrown out, you must raise the
s'"los about as high as your head when you sit in the bottom
of ilie n3.st, and put in some soft wool.' ' Why,' said the

NATURAL HISTORY. 273

thrush, ' I did as far as that before I came here.' ' Oh ! then,
replied the magpie, ' as I see that you all know how to
make nests, there is no occasion for me to teach you.' And
that is the reason why the other birds are only able to build
half nests."

The interior of the nest is defended by a coating of mud,
Avorked smooth. The eggs -are five in number, of a greenish
white, covered with brown markings. The length of the bird
is about eighteen inches.

CORVUS. — (Lat. a Crow.)

Corax (Gr. Kopa£, a Raven), the Raven.

The RAVEN is very common on the continent, and most
parts of Asia and America, but is now seldom seen in this
country except, in a domesticated state. It is more frequently
found in the Hebrides than in any other part of Great Britain.
I:i those islands it lives principally on carrion of various

271 NATURAL HISTORY.

kinds, such as dead sheep or lambs, whose death the Raven is
accused with some justice of hastening, and on fishes or ceta-
ceous animals which have been cast on shore by the waves.
In these cases the Raven conducts itself much in the manner of
the vulture. It commences by taking out the eye and tongue,
and then proceeds to tear open the abdomen, operations for
which its sharp and powerful bill, seems quite as well fitted as
the hooked beak of the rapacious birds. It is a very crafty
bird, and can with difficulty be approached, but by laying
a dead carcase near its haunts, and being carefully concealed,
it may be seen cautiously approaching ; first perching on an
eminence, it looks carefully round ; then, advancing with a
sidelong step, it examines its expected prey. When fully
satisfied, it pecks out the eyes and proceeds to satiate itself
. with food. The Raven seems to fear no storms, and to be
deterred by no inclemency of weather from seeking its prey.
Although formerly so plentiful in England that innumerable
omens were drawn from its croaking, flight, &c., it has almost
become extinct, much to the discomfiture of cmen seekers.
No incantation and no dance of witches seemed to be considered
complete, without a black cat, a toad or two, a bat and a
raven. Certainly the extraordinaiy gravity which marks the
demeanour of the Raven has something almost preternatural
in it. The manner in which he sets about a piece of mischief,
as if he considered it a moral duty, is most absurd, and the
pertinacity with which he prosecutes a great work, such as the
feat of Charles Dickens's raven, who "new pointed the greater
part of the garden wall, by digging out the mortar, and tore
up and swallowed in splinters the greater part of a wooden
staircase of six steps and a landing," is perfectly astounding. *

It has a great capacity for imitating sounds, and can be
taught to pronounce whole sentences, or sings songs with won-
derful accuracy.

In the northern parts of Scotland it makes its nest on high
rocks, but not unfrequently * builds on the summit of a tall
tree. The nest is a large irregular structure of heath, grass,

* A raven in our possession used to watch the gardener taking particular pains to
prop up and secure a valuable plant. His labour was always in vain, for the raven,
with a sidelong step and an unconcerned air, as if he were thinking of anything but
the plant, would sidle by it, when one wrench of his iron bill laid the unfortunate
plant on the earth, and the raven moved ofTwith a most provoking air of innocence.

NATURAL HISTORY.

wool and feathers, and sea-weed if it builds near the sea-shore.
It lays from four to seven eggs, of a pale green colour, spotted
with greenish brown. The length of the bird is two feet two
inches, and the expanse of wing four feet eight inches.

Frugilegus (Lat. Corn- gatherer], the Rook.

The ROOK inhabits almost every part of Europe, and is very
common in England, where it lives in a kind of semi-domesti-
cation, usually inhabiting a grove of trees near a house, or in
a park, where it is protected by the owner, although he makes
it pay for this accommodation by shooting the young once every
year. Apparently in consequence of this annual persecution,
the Rook has an intense horror of guns, perceiving them at a
great distance. While feeding in flocks in the fields, or
following the ploughman in his course, and devouring the
worms and grubs turned up by the share, the Rook has
always a sentinel planted in a neighbouring tree, who instantly
gives the alarm at the sight of a gun, or of a suspicious-looking
object.

The good which the- Rook dees by devouring the grubs of

276 NATURAL HISTORY.

the cockchaffer, and the tipulas or daddy-long-legs, tolh of
which are exceedingly injurious to the crops, more than com-
pensates for the damage it sometimes causes, by pulling up
young corn, or newly set potato cuttings ; in the latter case
more, I believe, to get at the wireworms, which crowd to the
slices of potato, than to eat the vegetable itself. In the fruit
season, the Rook, like most other birds, likes to have his
share of the cherries, pears, and walnuts, but may be easily
kept away by the occasional sight of a gun.

Towards evening the Hocks may be seen flying in long
lines to their resting-place — " The blackening train of crows
to their repose." They then perform sundry evolutions in
the air, and finally settle to rest.

Round the base of the Rook's beak is a whitish looking
skin, denuded of feathers, the reason or cause of which is not
very obvious. A white variety of the Rook is sometimes
seen. The gamekeeper at Ashdown had a very fine while
Rook, which he kept tame in his garden.

The eggs of this bird are five in number, similar to those of
the raven in colour, but much smaller. The length of the
bird is nineteen inches.

The JACKDAW is another wrell-known bird. It does rot
build in the branches of trees like the Rook, to which it is very
similar in many respects, but prefers holes in decayed trees
or old buildings, particularly frequenting church lowers and
steeples. The Jackdaw feeds upon almost any substance that
it can find. It kills mice with a single blow of its beak, and
then devours them piecemeal. Grasshoppers, beetles, &c. are
also killed by a squeeze across the thorax, and the head, wings,
and legs, are twisted ofF before the bird begins to eat Ihem.
It treats bees, wasps, and other stinged insects with much more
caution. The feathers upon the crown of its head are of a
greyish white colour, a peculiarity instantly distinguishing
it from the rook. It is frequently kept tame, and is very
amusing in captivity.* The eggs are of a lighter colour than

* A tame Jackdaw in the possession of one of my scholars used to travel backwards
and forwards from the school to his own home. When in the train, his terror at the
sight of the trees whizzing past him, was most ludicrous. He uttered a sharp cry of
fear, twisted round in his basket, and thrust his beak through the interstices on the
opposite side. After he had recovered from his fright, he was usually very talhath e.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Moncdula (Lat, a Jackdaw), the Jackdaw.

those of the rook, smaller and more sparingly spotted. The
length is fourteen inches.

The CROW, or CARRION Crow, as it is erroneously called,
seldom feeds on carrion, for poor indeed would be his meals
were he dependent on dead sheep or horses for a livelihood.
Possibly the namo was given as a distinction between it and
the rook. Watertori states that the flesh of the Carrion Crow
is just as good as that of the rook, and relates how he once
served up a pie of these birds to some friends, who thought
them pigeons. It will also eat cherries and walnuts like the
rook, and when the supply of insects has failed, it will then turn
its attention to the duck-pond and farm-yard, and carry oil a
young duckling or chicken.

" Sometimes he approaches the farm-house by stealth, in the
search of young chickens, which he is in the habit of snatching
off, when he can elude the vigilance of the mother hen, who
often proves too formidable for him. A few days ago, a crow
Avas observed eagerly attempting to seize some young chickens
in an orchard, near the room where I write, but these cluster-

NATURAL HISTORY.

Coro'ne (Gr. Kopuvq), the Crow.

ing round the hen, she resolutely defended them, and drove the
crow into an apple-tree, \vhither she pursued him with such
spirit and intrepidity, that he was glad to make a speedy re-
treat and abandon his design."*'

It also carries off eggs, by pouncing upon them, and driving
its bill through the shell. It will be seen, from the following
anecdote, that mice and rats are not unaccustomed food.

In a field near a gentleman's house about a mile from
Caernarvon there are some outbuildings much infested with
rats. Four or five traps are set on the premises every night,
and it is the business of a servant-man to go to the spot
between five and six in the morning. He is always punctually
met by a company of crows that station themselves at a little
distance, and most narrowly watch all his proceedings. TvTo
sooner does he remove his captives from the traps and throw
them into the field, than the carnival begins. The crows
seize upon their booty, scientifically perforate the integuments,
and scoop out and devour every particle of flesh, even in the
head. In a very short time the skins are turned inside out,

NATURAL HISTORY.

and a few clean picked bones are the only memorials of the
banquet.

The nests of this bird are placed on the summit of some tall
tree, and contain about five eggs, closely resembling those of the
rook. The length of the bird is eighteen inches.

Sub-family e. Pyrrliocoracince.
CORACIA. — (Or. Kopaniag, like a Raven.)

Graciila (Lut. a Chough), the Chough.

The CHOUGH is rather larger than the jackdaw, and is
principally distinguished by the red hue of its bill and legs.
It inhabits the counties of the western coast of England, and
is, perhaps, more common in Cornwall than in any other county.
When tame, it shows a very inquisitive disposition, examining
every novelty with the greatest attention.

It builds its nest in the cavities of high cliffs, and lays four
or five eggs of a yellowish white colour, spotted with light brown.
The length of the bird is seventeen inches.

280

NATURAL HISTORY.
Family II. Paradiseidrc.

PARADISEA. — (Gr. Hapudacog, a pleasure-ground.)

Apoda (Gr. 'A-nov?, without feet), (lie Emerald Bird of Paradise.

"Which, like a bird of Paradise,
Or herald's martlet, has no legs.1'

This most gorgeous and elegant bird was once the subject
of much discussion between naturalists. The natives of New
Guinea were accustomed to dry them, having first cut off their
legs, and then to offer them for sale. In this footless state they
reached Europe, where it was immediately stated that the bird
lived always in the air, buoyed up by the lightness of its feathery
covering ; that the shoulders were used as its nest ; that the
only rest it took was by suspending itself from a branch by the
filamentary feathers of the tail ; that its food was the morning
dew ; together with many other conjectures not less ingenious
than amusing.

NATURAL HISTORY. 281

This bird appears about the size of a jay. Its body, breast,
and lower parts are of a deep rich brown ; the front set close
with black feathers shot with green ; the throat is of a rich
golden green ; the head yellow ; the sides of the tail are
clothed with a splendid plume of long downy feathers of a
soft yellow colour. By these are placed two long filamentous
shafts, which extend nearly two feet in length.

Of these beautiful feathers the bird is so proud that it will
not suffer the least speck of dirt to remain upon them, and it
is0 constantly examining its plumage to see that there are no
spots on it. When in its wild state it always flies and sits
with its face to the wind, lest its elegant filmy plumes should
be disarranged.

So far from living exclusively on dew, it eats no small
amount of insects, such as grasshoppers, which it will not
touch if dead, and commences its repast by stripping off the
legs and wings.' "When in confinement, it also eats boiled
rice, plantains, &c., but in the wild state it seems to feed
mostly on the seeds of the teak-tree, and a kind of fig.

There are several species of Paradise Birds known, but the
one given in the engraving is the most common, and is the
one of which the above-mentioned fables were told.

THE SATIN BOWER-BIRD.

It is a singular thing to find a bird building a kind of
playground, without reference to its nest, but merely for
amusement. The BOWER-BIRD has this curious habit. It
builds a kind of bower of thin twigs, interwoven so as to
meet above, forming a kind of tunnel. The entrance of this
bower is decorated with any brilliant article that the bird can
find, such as shells, bones, and feathers of several parrots,
some feathers being stuck in among the twigs, and others
strewn at the entrance. Mr. Gould, who first brought this
curious bird before the public, says, " The propensity of these
birds to pick up and fly off with any attractive object, is so
well known to the natives (of Australia), that they always
search the runs for any small missing article, as the bowl

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family III. . . Sturnidro. — (Lat, Sturnus, a Starling. Starling kind.)
Sub-family a. . PtilonorJn/iichmfe.

PTILOXOEIIYNCUS. — (Gr. Hrifov, a feather;

a beak.)

Sericeus (Lat. silky), the Satin Bower-Bird.

of a pipe, &c. that may have been accidentally dropped in the
brush. I, myself, found at the entrance of one of these
a small neatly worked stone tomahawk, of an inch and a half
in length, together with some slips of blue cotton rags, which
the birds had doubtless picked up at a deserted encampment
of the natives. For what purpose these curious bowers are
made, is not yet, perhaps, fully understood : they are certainly
not used as a nest, but as a place of resort for many individuals
of both sexes, which, when there assembled, run through and
around the bower in a sportive and playful manner, and that
so frequently, that it is seldom entirely deserted."

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family <L Icterincc.
ICTERUS. — (Gr. *I/crfpof.)

Baltimorus, the Baltimore Oriole.

The STARLINGS comprise many genera, among which the
PENSILE ORIOLES of America are the most interesting. These
birds build, or rather weave, a fabric not unlike loose cloth,
composed of hemp or flax. This nest is of the singular form
represented in the engraving, and the entrance is at the side.
In all probability this singular formation is for the purpose of
keeping out the Black Snake, who is constantly on the look-
cut for young birds. The parent Orioles often attack the
snake, and compel him to retreat.

The plumage of the male when full grown is very brilliant.
The head, throat, and back are black, the under parts are
orange, the breast vermilion. A band of orange passes over
the shoulders, and the tail is orange and black. The length

234 NATURAL HISTORY.

of the bird is almost eight inches. This is not the only bird
that constructs pensile nests ; the Weaver Birds also form
these nests, but of a different form. They look like great
pistols hung up by the butt, the entrance being at the muzzle,
and the nest in the butt.

Sub-family g. Sturnince.
STCRXUS.

Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Starling.

The COMMON STARLING is a bird well known both for its
beauty and the singular method of flight. When a flock of
Starlings begin to settle for the night, they wheel round the
place selected with great accuracy. Suddenly, as if by word
of command, the whole flock turn their sides to the spectator,
and with a great whirring of wings, the whole front and shape
of the flock is altered. No body of soldiers could be better
wheeled or countermarched than are these flocks of Starlings,
except, perhaps, an unfortunate few, who are usually thrown
out at each change, and whom we must charitably suppose
recruits.

The Starling lives principally among old buildings, and is
very fond of gaining admittance into dovecotes, where it is a
harmless visitor, and may be suffered to remain without detri-
ment to the pigeons or their eggs. Its nest is made usually
in a hole in a wall, sometimes in a decayed tree, and contains
five eggs of a very delicate uniformly pale blue.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family IV. . Fringillidae. — (Lat. Fringilla, a Finch. Finch kincL)
Sub- family d. Frinrjillince.

Coelebs (Lat. Bachelor], tlie Chaffinch.

We now arrive at the Finches ; a very large and interesting
family. None of the species are large, and most of them are
excellent songsters. Their beaks are all conical, and fitted
for the destruction of corn, peas, &c.

The CHAFFINCH or PIEFINCH, as it is often called, is so
well known as to need no description. It is chiefly re-
markable for the beautiful nest which it constructs. The
forks of a thorn or wild crab-tree are favourable places for the
nest, which is composed of mosses, hair, wool and feathers,
covered on the exterior with lichens and mosses, so exactly
resembling the bough on which the nest is placed, that the
eye is often deceived by its appearance. In the nest four or
five very pretty, eggs are laid : these are of a reddish-brown
colour, sparely marked with deep brown spots, especially
towards the larger end.

NATURAL HISTORY.

FRINGILLA.

Carduelis (Lat. a Linnet], the Goldfinch.

The GOLDFINCH or THISTLEFINCH, so called on account of
its fondness for the down of the thistle, is one of our most
beautiful birds. Where thistles abound, small flocks of gold-
finches may be seen flying from hedge to hedge, and occa-
sionally pecking the white tops of the thistles. The tufted
seed of the dandelion, groundsel, and other plants is also eaten
by the Goldfinch.

In captivity it is very tame, and can be trained to per--
form a multitude of tricks, the most common of which are,
drawing its own food and water with a chain and bucket,
or firing a gun when commanded. The nest is very beau-
tiful, being mostly made of wool and down from various
plants, and is usually placed on the extremity of a spray.
The eggs are small, of a whitish tint, spotted with, orange
brown.

The COMMON LINNET frequents commons and neglected
pastures. Its song is very sweet, and many bird-fanciers sup-
pose that the mixed breed of a canary and a linnet has a sweeter
song than either bird.

Its nest is usually built in the centre of a large and denso

NATURAL HISTORY

287

FRINOILLA.

Cannabina (Lat. fond of hemp), the Linnet.

bush. The eggs are five in number, greyish-white speckled
with red.

FRIXGILLA.

Spinns (Lat. a Sloe-tree), the Siskin.

The SISKIN is hardly to be considered more than an occa-
sional visitor in England, but in Scotland it sometimes breeds,
as may be seen from the following extract :

288 NATURAL HISTORY.

" The Siskin is a common bird in all the high parts of
Aberdeenshire, which abound in fir-woods. They build
generally near the extremities of the branches of tall fir-trees,
or near the summit of the tree. Sometimes the nest is found
in plantations of young fir- wood. In one instance I met with
a nest not three feet from the ground. I visited it every day
until four or five eggs were deposited. During incubation the
female showed no fear at my approach. On bringing my hand
close to the nest, she showed some inclination to pugnacity,
tried to frighten me away with her open bill, following my
hand round and round when I attempted to touch her.
At last she would only look anxiously round to my finger,
without making any attack on me. The nest was formed of
small twigs of birch or heath outside, and neatly lined with
hair."

Its eggs are a bluish-white spotted with purplish-red.

FRINGILLA.

Chloris (Gr. X/lwpof, green), the Greenfinch

The GREENFINCH or GREEN LINNET is larger that the Com-
mon Linnet. It frequents gardens, shrubberies and cultivated
lands, and feeds on insects or seeds. The notes of this bird are
not peculiarly melodious, nor has it many qualifications to
entitle it to notice.

NATURAL HISTORY.

PASSER. — (Lat. a Sparrow.)

Domesticus (Lat. domestic), the House Sparrow.

The courageous, impudent, quarrelsome SPARROW is so
well known as to need no description. "When pressed by cold
in the winter, there are few who have not seen this little
bird come to the window, expecting his donation of crumbs.
It is very fond of grain of various kinds, and does some
damage to the former, but the destruction of caterpillars by
the bird more than compensates for the loss of the grain.
The little impertinent bird has no scruple in perching on the
pig's trough, and partaking of his dinner, or in mixing with
fowl and taking its share of their provisions, and on a newly
thatched house it absolutely revels. Dozens of sparrows may
be seen pecking and pulling at the straws in high enjoyment.
I was once watching a flock of sparrows on a newly thatched
barn, hopping, pecking and scrambling in perfect happiness,
when suddenly a sharp twitter was heard, and the whole body
hastily adjourned to a tree close by, making a prodigious
chattering. Presently I saw appear, over the ridge of the
house, the head of a cat, who had walked up the thatcher's
N

NATURAL HISTORY.

ladder, hoping to secure a few sparrows in the midst of
their meal. The nest of the House Sparrow is usually built
in holes of roofs. The eggs are speckled black and white, and
very variable.

Sub-family e. Embcrizina:.

EMGEUIZA.

Citrinella (Lat. yellowish), the Yclloio Bunting.

The YELLOW HAMMER or YELLOW BUNTING is a very deli-
cately marked little bird, very common in our hedges, where
it flits before the traveller, always keeping about twenty yards
in front. It makes its nest on the ground, and lays five eggs
curiously scribbled over with dark chocolate lines, just as if a
child had been trying to write Arabic on the eggs.

The ORTOLAN, a little bird in very great repute for the table,
is also an Emberiza. This bird is regula.rly fed like poultry,
in the South of Europe, and soon becomes exceedingly fat,
when a guinea is frequently the price of it.

THE SKYLARK.

The LARKS tire known by their very long hind toe. The
Skylark, which pours forth its animated song while suspendeC
high in the air, is an inhabitant of most parts of Europe, Asia
and North Africa, but is not found in America. A very into

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family/. . . Alaudince.
ALAUDA. — (Lat. a Lark.)

Arvensis (Lat. belonging to the fields), the Skylark.

resting story is told of a Skylark that was taken out to America
by a poor emigrant, and which nsed to collect crowds of
delighted listeners round its cage. An English settler who
happened to be passing by while the bird was singing, was
so affected by the reminiscences which its song called up, that
he offered his horse and cart for the bird, on the spot. The
owner, however, would take no price for it, although most
extravagant offers were made, and kept it till his death. The
bird afterwards passed into other hands, but refused to sing
until its cage was hung up in the open air. After its death,
its skin was sent back to its native land, and is now stuffed,
seated in il£ old cage, with a suitable inscription attached.

The nest is made on the ground, frequently in the print of
a horse's foot, and contains five eggs of a greenish- white,
thickly spotted with brown. There are generally two broods
in the year, one in May, and the other in July or August.
Immense numbers of these birds are caught annually and
sent to the London markets. Dunstable is the most cele-
brated place for them. It does not at all agree with the sense
of justice, that these beautiful birds, who charm us with their
voices, should be killed to increase the pleasures of the table.

NATURAL HISTORY.

The WOODLARK is another of our British Larks, but differs
in some respects from the skylark. It is smaller, and can
perch on trees, a power denied to the skylark. It also sings
on the wing, but sometimes prefers to pour forth its notes
while perched on the branch of a tree.

Its nest, like that of the skylark, is also placed on the
ground ; the eggs are darker than those of the skylark.

Sub-family cj. PyrrJiullncc.
PYRRIIVLA.— (Gr. llvp/foiftaf.)

Eubicilla (Lat. reddish}, the Bullfinch.

•

The BULLFINCH is a singular instance of the power of art
on the song of birds. The natural note of the Bullfinch is
low, and can only be heard at a short distance, but when
well trained the bird whistles, or " pipes," as it is called, any
melody which has been taught it, in a fine flute-like tone.
A good piping Bullfinch sells at a very high price. The
method of teaching, is to confine the birds in a dark room,
and before their food is given to play the air that they have to
learn, on an instrument called a bird-organ. The birds soon

NATURAL HISTORY. 293

begin to imitate the notes, and by degrees the whole tune is
learned. Some trainers substitute a small clarionet for the
bird-organ.

When in captivity the Bullfinch is very sociable, and soon
learns to know his owners, and to come to them if called.

The nest of this bird is made in thick bushes, or fir-trees.
The eggs are of a pale greenish white, spotted with orange
brown. The name of Bullfinch is given to it, on account of
the large proportionate size of its head and neck. When in
captivity its plumage sometimes turns black, the result of
feeding it too profusely with hempseed.

Sub-family h. Loxince,
LOXIA. — (Gr. Ao£of, crosswise.)

Curvirostra (Lat. Curved-bill), the Cross-bill.

The genus LOXIA is instantly known by the crossed points
of the beak, and the horny scoop at the tip of the tongue.
The Crossbill uses these tools to open the fir-cones, on the
seeds of which it feeds. The bird inserts both its mandibles
under the scales of the cone, then by separating them the
scale is raised up, while the seed is scooped out by the horny

294 NATURAL HISTORY.

tip of the tongue. This singular structure of the beak enables
the bird to divide an apple in halves, so as to get at the pips.
Although the crossed mandibles appear rather a barrier to
picking up small objects, yet the Crossbill can pick up and
husk the smallest seeds, or shell almonds, which latter ieat is
accomplished by picking a hole in it and then wrenching it
open, just as an idle schoolboy opens a nut with his penknife
when he ought to be using that instrument in the more
legitimate operation of mending his pen. Mr. Yarrcll gives
an amusing account of a pair of Crossbills, who amused them-
selves by twisting out the wires of their cage. They actually
succeeded in pulling out a flat-headed nail used to confine the
network, but the bird lost the point of his bill in his efforts.
They were at last banished on account of their unceasing
destruction of cages.

The nest is built on the branches of a fir-tree. The eggs
are bluish white spotted with red. In taking leave of the
finches, it may be mentioned that the Canary belongs to that
family, but has not been described, as being essentially a cage
bird, and perfectly familiar to every one.

A lady opening her window, saw a bullfinch sitting on the
sill. To her surprise the bird did not fly away, but suffered
itself to be taken and carried into the room. When placed
on the table it still sat quiet, but looked as if it were suffering
from illness. On examination, a seed was found to be fixed
in the bird's throat. This was quickly removed with a needle,
and the bird became quite lively. It however soon met
with a tragical end, for while a cage was being prepared for
its reception, it escaped from the hands of its benefactress,
flew against a window pane, and instantly fell dead on the
floor.*

THE RHINOCEROS HORNBILL.

This singular and almost startling family comprises but
few species, which are all natives of India and Africa. The
enormous bill, with its incomprehensible appendage, although
of course heavy, is really much lighter than it looks, being
composed of a kind of light honeycombed structure. The

* This anecdote was related to me by an eye-witness of the scene.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family VIL Bucerotidse.
BUCEUOS. — (Boikepwf, ox-horned.)

Rhinoceros, the Rhinoceros Horribill.

upper protuberance is hollow, and the only conjecture formed
of its use, is that it serves as a sounding board to increase the
reverberations of the air, while the bird is uttering its peculiar
roaring cry.

In spite of the apparently unwieldy bill the bird is very active,
and hops about the branches of trees with much ease. The
appendage to the upper mandible is small when the bird is
young, and only attains its enormous size when the HORNBILL
has reached its full growth. The bill of the hoopoes presents
a somewhat analogous peculiarity, as when the bird is young
the bill is short and pointed, and increases with the size of the
bird. From this circumstance, together with some other resem-

29G NATURAL HISTORY.

blances, some imagine that there is an affinity between the
hornbills and hoopoes.

The Hornbills seem to be omnivorous, fruits, eggs, birds,
reptiles &c., forming their food. The African Hornbills are
extremely fond of nutmegs, and are on that account said to be
peculiarly delicate eating, though reminding one of the Barme-
cide's memorable lamb fed on pistachio nuts.

The Rhinoceros Hornbill is a native of India, and the Indian
islands. The length of its bill is usually about ten inches.

Order III SCANSORJES.— (Lai.scando,lclimb. Climbing birds.)

Family I .... Ramphastidse.
Sub-family a. Ramphastidince.

RAMPHASTOS. — (Gr. *Pap<jnjaTijf, properly, a Pike.)

Toco, the Toco Toucan.

The SCANSORES, or CLIMBING BIRDS, now engage our
attention. According to Mr. Gray, under this order aro

NATURAL HISTORY. 297

placed the Toucans, the Parrots, the Woodpeckers, and the
Cuckoos. The feet of these birds have two toes in front and
two behind.

The TOUCANS are all natives of tropical America. Their
enormous bill is rendered light in the same way as that of
the hornbills, by being chiefly composed of a honeycomb
structure. It seems to be very sensitive, and well supplied
with nerves, as the bird not only appears to enjoy holding
meat or fruits with the tip of its bill, but has been seen to
scratch that organ with its foot, plainly proving that there
must be sensation. It seems to be omnivorous, but is par-
ticularly fond of mice, and small birds, which it kills by a
powerful squeeze, then strips and finally pulls to pieces and
devours, having previously reduced it to a shapeless mass by
repeated lateral wrenches with its enormous and saw-like
bill: Waterton in his Wanderings describes the usual haunts
of the Toucan.

" Heedless and bankrupt in all curiosity must he be who
can journey on without stopping to take a view of the
towering mora. Its topmost branch, when naked with age or
dead by accident, is the favourite resort of the toucan. Many
a time has this singular bird felt the shot faintly strike him
from the gun of the fowler beneath, and owed his life to the
distance betwixt them." In the same interesting and amusing
work, he remarks a strange habit of the Toucan, called the
Houtou by the natives.

" This bird (the Houtou) seems to suppose that its beauty
can be increased by trimming the tail, which undergoes the
same operation as our hair in a barber's shop, only with this
difference, that it uses its own beak, which is serrated, in lieu
of a pair of scissors. As soon as his tail is full grown he begins
about an inch from the extremity of the two longest feathers
in it, and cuts away the web on both sides of the shaft,
making a gap about an inch long : both male and female
adorn their tails in this manner, which gives them a re-
markable appearance amongst all other birds."

When sleeping, the Toucan takes great care of his bill,
packing it away and covering it carefully with the feathers of
its back, and altogether presents the appearance of a large
round ball of feathers. The body is about eighteen inches

NATURAL HISTORY.

in length. These birds, together with the hoopoes and
hornbills, have a habit of throwing their food down their
throats with a peculiar jerk of the bill.

Family II. Psittacidse.
MACROCERCUS. — (Gr. Ma/c(o6f, great ; /cep/cof, tail.)

Ararauna, the Blue and Yellow Macaw.

Many naturalists imagine, and with some reason, that the
Psittacidse ought to be formed into an order by themselves.
In this family the construction of the bill is very remarkable.
As the curved tip of the bill would prevent the bird from
opening it wide enough to admit its food, the upper mandible
is united to the skull by a kind of hinge joint, of equal
strength and flexibility. "When climbing among the branches

NATURAL HISTORY. 299

of trees or about their cages, the Parrots invariably make great
use of their hooked bills in assisting themselves both in ascending
and descending. The crossbills have been observed to climb
much in the same way.

The Parrots are said to be very long lived, some have
certainly been known to live upwards of eighty years in
captivity, and may be imagined to exceed that period in a wild
state.

The MACAWS are natives of South America. The blue and
yellow Macaw inhabits Brazil, Guiana and Surinam, living
principally on the banks of rivers. Of one of the Macaws, the
Carolina Parrot, or Parrakeet as Wilson calls it, the following
anecdote is told by that enterprising naturalist : —

" Having shot down a number, some of which were only
wounded, the whole flock swept repeatedly round their
prostrate companions, and again settled on a low tree, within
twenty yards of the spot where I stood. At each successive
discharge, though showers of them fell, yet the affection
of the survivors seemed rather to increase, for after a few
circuits round the place they again alighted near me, looking
down on their slaughtered companions with such manifest
smyptoms of sympathy and concern, as entirely disarmed
me."

Wilson also makes mention of a singular idea, that the brains
and intestines of the Carolina Parrot (which lives on cockle-
burs) are poisonous to cats. Why the brains should be so is
rather incomprehensible, although we can easily understand
that the Parrot might take some substance into its stomach
injurious to cats. Wilson tried the experiment after being
repeatedly disappointed of a patient, but comes to no conclusion
on the subject.

" Having shut up a cat and her two kittens, the latter only
a few days old, in a room with the head, neck, and whole intes-
tines of the parrakeet, I found on the next morning the whole
eaten except a small part of the bill. The cat exhibited no
symptom of sickness, and at this moment, three days after the
experiment had been made, she and her kittens are in their
usual health. Still however the effect might have been different,
had the daily food of the bird been cockle-burs instead of Indian

330 NATURAL HISTORY.

PAL^EORNIS. — (Gr. HaAfuof, old ; dpvif, a bird.)

Torquatus (Lat. collared), the Ringed Parrakeet.

The RINGED PARRAKEET is frequently seen domesticated in
this country, where its pleasing manners and gentle disposition
render it a great favourite. It seems to be exceedingly fond of
ripe walnuts, divided in halves, and while it is picking out the
kernel continually utters a short clucking sound indicative of
pleasure.

It soon learns to repeat words and short sentences, and to
speak with tolerable distinctness. Sometimes when excited it
utters most ear-piercing screams,* and always appears to prac-
tise any new accomplishment when it thinks that .no one is
within hearing. The colour of the bird is green, and a rose
coloured band round its neck gives it the name of the Rose-
ringed Parrakeet. The bill is red.

* A Ringed Parrakeet belonging to one of my scholars was accustomed to live in
the schoolroom. At first it used to become angry that it was not noticed during
school hours, and to utter a succession of screams, but after being shut up in a dark
closet several times, it learned to behave very demurely, giving an example worthy
of imitation to several of its human playfellows.

NATURAL HISTORY.

301

CACATUA

Sulphurea (Lat, Sulphury), the Great Sulphur Cockatoo.

The COCKATOOS are remarkable for the powdery surface of
their wings, and the crest on the head, which can be raised or
depressed at pleasure. The Sulphur-crested Cockatoo is an
inhabitant of New Guinea. Its colour is white, and the crest
is of a sulphur yellow. Its white plumage glancing among
the dense dark foliage of its native forests, imparts a wonder-
ful beauty to the scene, and as Sir Thomas Mitchell remarks,
" amidst the umbrageous foliage, forming dense masses of
shade, the white cockatoos sported like spirits of light." This
Cockatoo is easily tamed, and is of a very affectionate dispo-
sition. When in captivity it has been known to live to the
age of 120 years. Its nest is built in hollow trees and the
crevices of rocks. The eggs are white. The length of the
bird is about eighteen inches.

302 NATURAL HISTORY.

Family III. . PiciJse. — (Lat. Picus, a "Woodpecker. Woodpecker kind.)
Sub-family c. Picince.

Major (Lat. greater], ihc Great Spotted Woodpecker.

The WOODPECKERS, whoso name indicates their habits, are
widely spread, being found in all quarters of the globe except
Australia. They subsist on insects and grubs, which they dig
out of trees, or discover under the bark. For this purpose
their whole structure is admirably adapted. The bill is long,
sharp, and powerful, and the formation of the feet and legs is
such that the bird is able to grasp the tree firmly with the
feet, while swinging with the force of his whole body against
it. Another most singular point in the Woodpeckers is
the method by which they are enabled to thrust the tongue
deep into the crevices, and bring out any insects that may
happen to be there. The tongue is connected with two
elastic ligaments which are inserted near the juncture of the

NATURAL HISTORY. 3t3

upper mandible with the skull. From thence they sweep
round the back of the head, and passing under the lower
mandible, enable the tongue to be thrust out a considerable dis-
tance. The tip of the tongue is sharp, and barbed with several
filaments, and more firmly to secure the prey, a kind of gummy
secretion causes those insects to adhere, that would be too
small to be impaled.

It appears to be an erroneous opinion that these birds in-
jure trees. Their only object in pecking away the wood and
bark, is to get at the insects which they know are hidden
within. Now insects seldom or never bore into healthy wood,
but a decayed branch or stump is always full of them, as is
well known to the entomologist. So the winged entomologist,
when he perceives a decayed branch, or finds an unsound'spot in
the trunk, immediately sets to work industriously, and is re-
warded by finding plenty of insects, which he draws out and
demolishes, with more benefit to himself and possibly more
good to others than many human entomologists can boast.

Although the Woodpecker does not scoop away sound trees,
yet it is because it has no motive for doing so — not that the
power is wanting. Wilson had an Ivory-billed Woodpecker in
his possession, which pecked away lath and plaster in its
efforts to escape, and utterly ruined a mahogany table to which
it was fastened.

The GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER is an inhabitant of Eng-
land, but is seldom seen. Large woods are its favourite haunts.
Like all its tribe, it feeds on the insects which it procures from
decayed trees, and also on berries and fruits. Its eggs are laid
in a deep hole excavated in a tree. For this purpose the
Woodpecker usually chooses a place where a branch has broken
off, or more commonly the part of the trunk where a certain
fungus has grown, causing the tree to decay in that spot, al-
though apparently healthy.

SKULL OP THE WOODPECKER.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Viridis (Lat. green}, the Green Woodpecker.

The GREEN WOODPECKER is by far the most common in
this country, and may be often seen in woods,* tapping the
trees with wonderful rapidity, the blows following each other
something like the sound of a watchman's rattle. It generally
runs up the trunk of the tree in a spiral direction, occasionally
striking off large pieces of dry bark. When it descends it still
keeps its head uppermost.

THE WRYNECK

The WRYNECK is tolerably common in the southern counties
of England, but is scarcely ever seen in the north and west.
It principally feeds on ants, which it picks up with great

* I have more than once seen the Green Woodpecker busily employed among the
irees of the Christ Church Walks, Oxford, and very frequently in Bagley Wood. I
IKIVC never seen it on the ground, and but once on the smaller branches of the trees.

NATURAL HISTORY. 305

Sub-family g. Yuncince.
YUNX.— (Gr. 1

Torquilla (Lat. twisting), the Wryneck.

rapidity "by means of its long tongue, covered with a glutinous
secretion like that of the woodpecker. The -rapidity with
which the ants are taken is so great, that " an ant's egg,
which is of a light colour, and more conspicuous than the
tongue, has somewhat the appearance of moving to the mouth
by attraction, as a needle does to the magnet." The name
Wryneck is given it from its habit of rapidly twisting its head
and neck, and hissing like a serpent, if disturbed upon its eggs.
The young also hiss if they are molested.

Its eggs are laid on the bare wood in the holes of trees.
Like most eggs that are laid in holes, they are of a pure white.
The length of the bird is seven inches.

THE CUCKOO.

The CUCKOO, spring's harbinger, has, at all ages, obtained
for itself a name at once pleasing and disreputable ; pleasing,
because its well-known notes are a sign that the cold winter
is gone ; and disreputable, because it usurps the nests of other

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family IV . . Cuculidae.— (Lat. Cuculus, a Cuckoo. Cuckoo kind.)
Sub-family c. Cuculincc.

Canorus (Lat. musical), the Cuckoo.

birds, of which the Hedge Sparrow is the usual victim. In
its nest the cuckoo deposits one of its own eggs, which are
remarkably small in proportion to the size of the bird. The
unsuspecting hedge sparrow hatches the intruder together
with her own young. The Cuckoo rapidly increases in size,
and monopolizes no small portion of the entire nest, besides
taking the lion's share of the provisions. The mother, how-
ever, never seems to perceive the difference, but feeds and
tends the interloper with quite as much care as her own
young.*

The Cuckoo feeds principally on the hairy caterpillars,

* Dr. Jenner states that the young Cuckoo ejects the former and rightful occupants
of the nest by managing to get the egg or young bird upon its back, clambering up to
tin: edge of the nest, and then throwing it over by a sharp jerk.

At some times of the year. Cuckoos are comparatively tame. I have repeatedly
(lerjoyed them by imitating their cry, until they came near enough for me to see the
movement of the beak. Once a Cuckoo came voluntarily, and settled on a hurdle
clojo by, uttered his peculiar cry several times, and then leisurely flew off.

. NATURAL HISTORY. 307

especially those of the Tiger Moth (Arctia caja), the hairs of
which form a kind of lining to its stomach. A tame Cuckoo,
that lived for more than a year in captivity, seemed to consider
a young mouse an especial treat. The mouse was first beaten
against the ground or a hard stone, until it was reduced to a
soft mass, after which process it was swallowed. The length
of the bird is about fourteen inches.

OrclerlV... COLUMBJE.

Family I. . . Columbidae. — (Lat. Columba, a Dove. Dove kind.)

Sub-family b. Columbines.

Palumbus (Lat. a Pigeon), the Ringdove.

THIS family is supposed to be more widely distributed than
any other. The three pigeons engraved are the only species
that live wild in this country.

308 NATURAL HISTORY. .

The RINGDOVE, or CUSHAT, is the largest of our native
pigeons. A black ringlet round the neck, edged with white,
gives it the name of Ringdove. It is very common in
England, and its nests are usually found to consist of a few
sticks, thrown loosely together on a spray of fir or holly. The
structure of this platform, for nest it can hardly be called, is so
loose, that the white eggs can generally be seen through the
interstices.

COLUMBA.

' (En as (Gr. Qlvus), the Stockdove.

The STOCKDOVE builds its nest in the stocks of trees, (from
whence its name,) and has been known to lay its eggs in
deserted warrens, without making any nest at all. In former
times, when forests of beech-trees used to cover the country,
enormous flocks of these birds frequented them, in order to
feed on the beech-mast. Now they are not so common,
although still in considerable numbers.

NATURAL HISTORY. 309

TURTUR (Lat. a Turtle-dove).

Auiitus (Lat. eared,} the Turtle-dove.

The TURTLE-DOVE, a bird much revered by poets for its
constancy, is only a spring visitor to our shores, arriving
towards May, and leaving us about September. The nest is
a mere platform of twigs, on which the eggs are laid. The
constancy and affection of this bird for its mate has been
deservedly celebrated in all ages, though it is not easy to
understand why other birds, such as the Raven, whose con-
stancy is quite as remarkable, should be deprived of the meed
of praise due to them.

THE PASSENGER PIGEON.

This extraordinary bird, whose powers of flight are almost
incredible, is a native of America, and overspreads the country
in countless myriads during the breeding season. It is well
that their power of wing is so great, for were the enormous
flocks to be confined to one place, they would devour the
whole of the grain. PIGEONS have been killed in New York
with Carolina rice still in their crops. As their digestion is
remarkably rapid, these birds must have flown between three
and four hundred miles in six hours, giving an average speed
of a mile per minute.

At the breeding season the overwhelming multitudes of

NATURAL HISTORY.

ECTOPISTES. — (Gr. 'EnroiriZu, to migrate.)

Migratoria (Lat. migratory), the Passenger Pigeon.

Pigeons that settle on one spot are almost incredible. Wilson,
who was present at one of these breeding places, gives the fol-
lowing account : —

" Not far from Shelby ville, in the state of Kentucky, about
five years ago, there was one of these breeding places, which
stretched through the woods in nearly a north and south direc-
tion, was several miles in breadth, and was said to be upwards
of forty miles in extent ! In this tract almost every tree was
furnished with nests, wherever the branches could accommodate
them. The pigeons made their first appearance there about
the 10th of April, and left it altogether, with their young, before
the 25th of May.

" As soon as the young were fully grown, and before they
left the nests, numerous parties of the inhabitants, from all
parts of the adjacent country, came with waggons, axes, beds,

NATURAL HISTORY. 311

cooking utensils, many of them accompanied by the greater
part of their families, and encamped for several days at this
immense nursery. Several of them informed me that the
noise in the woods was so great as to terrify their horses, and
that it was difficult for one person to hear another speak,
without bawling in his ear. The ground was strewed with
broken limbs of trees, eggs, and young squab pigeons, which
had been precipitated from above, and on which herds of hogs
.were fattening. Hawks, buzzards, and eagles, were sailing
about in great numbers, and seizing the squabs from their
nests at pleasure ; while from twenty feet upwards to the
tops of the trees, the view through the woods presented per-
petual tumult of crowding and fluttering multitudes of pigeons,
their wings roaring like thunder, mingled with the frequent
crash of falling timber, — for now the axe men were at work
cutting down those trees that seemed to be most crowded with
nests, and contrived to fell them in such a manner, that in
their descent they might bring down several others, by which
means the falling of one large tree sometimes produced two
hundred squabs, little inferior in size to the old ones, and
almost one mass of fat.

" All accounts agree in stating that each nest contains only
one young squab. These are so extremely fat, that the
Indians and many of the whites are accustomed to melt
down the fat for domestic purposes, as a substitute for butter
and lard."

A few observations on the mode of flight of these birds
must not be omitted. " A column, eight or ten miles in
length, would appear from Kentucky, high in air, steering
across to Indiana. The leaders of this great body would
sometimes gradually vary their course, until it formed a large
bend of more than a mile in diameter, those behind tracing
the exact route of their predecessors. This would continue
sometimes long after both extremities were beyond the reach
of sight, so that the whole, with its glittering undulations,
marked a space on the face of the heavens, resembling the
windings of a vast and majestic river. . . . Sometimes a hawk
would make a sweep on a particular part of the column, from
a great height, when, almost as quick as lightning, that part
shot downwards out of the common track, but soon rising

312 NATURAL HISTORY.

again, continued advancing at the same height as before ;
this inflection was continued by those behind, who, on ar-
riving at this point, dived down almost perpendicularly to a
great depth, and rising, followed the exact path of those that
went before."

DOMESTIC PIGEONS.

The above group comprises the most conspicuous varieties
of the Domestic Pigeon. All these birds, except the Carrier,
the Pouter, and the Tumbler, are very similar in their habits,
and need no description.

The TUMBLER is a very little pigeon, and derives its name
from its singular habit of falling backwards when on the wing.
Pigeon fanciers assert that a flight of twelve Tumblers may be
covered with a handkerchief.

The POUTER is a large pigeon. It stands particularly erect,
and seems exceedingly vain of the swollen crop which gives it
the name of Pouter. The bird is enabled to inflate its crop
with air, until the head is almost hidden behind it. This
inflation sometimes causes the bird to lose its balance, and

NATURAL HISTORY. 313

fall down chimneys, on which it is fond of standing, thereby
illustrating the proverb that " Pride will have a fall."

The CARRIER PIGEON is the bird that was so largely em-
ployed to take messages, before the invention of the Electric
Telegraph rendered even the speed of the wind too slow for
the present day. The most valuable carriers were trained to
carry to and from their residence. A letter wras written on a
small piece of paper, and fastened under the wing of the pigeon,
or to its feet. The feet were then bathed in vinegar to keep
them cool, lest the bird should stop on the way to bathe.
When the Pigeon was set free, it rose high in the air, made
one or two circular nights, and then darted off like an arrow
in the proper direction. One of these birds has been known to
fly nearly one hundred and fifty miles in one hour.

THE PEACOCK.

THIS magnificent bird is not a native of this country, but
has been domesticated in England for many years. Some
suppose that it was at first brought from India by Alexander,
and by him introduced into Europe. The magnificent plumes
that adorn the Peacock are not the tail, as many suppose, but
the tail-coverts. The tail feathers themselves are short and
rigid, and serve to keep the train expanded, as may be seen
when the bird walks about in all the majesty of. his expanded
plumage.

Although pea-fowl seek their food on the ground, they
invariably roost on some elevated situation, such as a high
branch or the roof of a barn or haystack. When the bird is
perched on the roof, its train lies along the thatch, and is quite
invisible in the dusk.

We have almost dismissed pea-fowl from, our entertainments
in these days, but in the times of chivalry, a roasted peacock,
still clothed in its plumage, and with its train displayed,
formed one of the chief ornaments of the regal board. The
nest of this bird is made of sticks and leaves rudely thrown
together, and contains from twelve to fifteen eggs. The
young do not attain their full plumage until the third year,
and only the males possess the vivid tints and lengthened
O

til NATURAL HISTORY.

Order V GALLIN^E

Family III. . Phasianidse. — (Gr. Qaaiavoc, a Pheasant, i. c. a bird from

the river Phasis in Colchis. Pheasant-kind.)
Sub-family a. Pavoninoc.

PAVO (Lat. a Peacock}.

Cristatus (Lat, crested), the Peacock.

train, the female being a comparatively ordinary bird. A
white variety of the Peacock is not uncommon. In this ca?e.
the eyes of the train feathers are slightly marked with a kind
of neutral tint.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family b, Phasianince.
ARGUS. — (Gr. proper name.)

Giganteus (Lat. gigantic), the Argus Pheasant.

The ARGUS PHEASANT is found in Sumatra and the south-
eastern parts of Asia. The magnificently marked secondary
quill feathers render it a most conspicuous bird. The primary
feathers are comparatively short. No living specimen has
yet been brought to Europe, as it is said to pine in captivity.
In its native haunts it is very shy, avoiding the proximity of
human abodes, and living in the solitary depths of woods.*'

* The bird derives its name from the shepherd Argus, who had a hundred eyes,
and was set by Juno to watch lo.

NATURAL HISTORY.

PHASIANUS.

Colclucus (Lat. Colchian), the Pheasant.

fhe COMMON PHEASANT was originally brought from Georgia,
aad has completely naturalised itself in this country. It is a
hardy bird, and bears the cold months very well. Although it
can be tamed and will come to be fed with the poultry, yet an
innate timidity prevents it from being thoroughly domesticated.
Young pheasants that have been hatched under a hen, scamper
off in terror if an unexpected intruder makes his appearance
among them, although the remainder of the poultry remain
perfectly unconcerned.

This bird loves to perch at night on trees, especially on the
spreading branches of the larch. Poachers are so well aware
of this habit that they always visit the larches first, while on
their marauding excursions. A few spruce-firs surrounded
by dense and tall holly hedges form an excellent place of refuge
for the birds, who can bid the poacher defiance from their
stronghold. A few dozen wooden pheasants nailed on the
branches of the unguarded trees, are admirably adapted for

NATURAL HISTORY. 317

trying the patience and wasting the ammunition of the noctur-
nal plunderer.

A white variety of the Pheasant sometimes occurs, but seems
never to be propagated. The nest of the bird is made on the
ground, and contains from ten to eighteen eggs of an uniform
dun colour.

Sub-family c. Gallincc.
GALLUS. — (Lat. a Cock.}

Domesticus (Lat. domestic), the Domestic Fowl.

The DOMESTIC FOWLS are too well known to need much
description. There are many varieties, the most conspicuous
of which are the Cochin-China, Crested, and Bantam. The
Game Fowl was formerly in great request for the cruel sport
of cock-fighting, an amusement which, although happily now
almost extinct, was in great vogue but a few years since.
The Java Fowl, of which the enormous Cochin-China bird is
a variety, is supposed to be the origin of the Barn-door fowl.*

* A young hen of the Cochin-China breed, when introduced among the other
poultry of a farmyard, was shamefully persecuted by its companions. It was very

318 NATURAL HISTORY.

The cock has been long celebrated for his warlike propensities,
and his habit of .greeting the approach of morn by his " shrill
clarion."

The Bantam is a very little bird indeed, but exceedingly
courageous, and does not hesitate to attack a turkey or such
large bird with most amusing pompousness of manner. Some
Bantams have their legs thickly leathered down to the very
toes. The hackles or long neck feathers of this and the
preceding bird are much used by anglers for making artificial
iiics.

The celebrated Jungle Fowl of India belongs to this race,
and is by many supposed to be the origin of our domestic
game fowl. The Chinese, who are greatly addicted to the
sport of cock-fighting, prefer this bird for their cruel' amuse-
ment.

The Dorking Fowl is a large and delicate species. The
chief peculiarity in this bird is the double hind toe, so that it
has five toes instead of four.

THE TURKEY.

The TURKEY is an inhabitant of America, and appears to
have been imported into Europe about the year 1600. Its
habits in a state of domestication need no description, but
when wild in its native woods are rather interesting. It
is partly migratory in its habits, moving from the parts
about Ohio, Kentucky and Indiana, towards the Ohio and
Mississippi. The march is usually performed on foot in large
flocks, the birds seldom using their wings except when at-
tacked, or in order to cross a river. The powerful birds can
easily cross a river of a mile in breadth, but the weaker
frequently fall into the water, and then paddle to shore with
some rapidity. This migration is performed about the end
of October. Bonaparte, in his splendid work on the American

absurd to see the poor creature pecking up a stray crumb or two outside the general
circle, and flying in terror before a little game hen, if it ventured to approach too
close. The principal advantage of this bird seems to be that the chickens, from their
superior size, are ready for the market at an earlier age than those of the ordinary

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family d. Meleagrince.
MELEAGKIS. — (Gr. Mefaaypic, a Guinea-fowl.)

Gallopavo (Lat. the Turkey).

Ornithology, gives an account of the ingenious way in which
the turkeys escape the insiduous attacks of their enemies.

" These birds are guardians of each other, and the first who
sees a hawk or eagle gives a note of alarm, on which all within
hearing lie close to the ground. As they usually roost in
flocks, perched on the naked branches of trees, they* are easily
discovered by the large owls, and when attacked by these
prowling birds, often escape by a somewhat remarkable
manoeuvre. The owl sails round the spot to select his prey,
but notwithstanding the almost inaudible action of his
pinions, the quick ear of one of the slumberers perceives the
danger, which is immediately announced to the whole party
by a chuck : thus alarmed, they rise on their legs, and watch
the motions of the owl, who, darting like an arrow, would
inevitably secure the individual at which he aimed, did not

320 NATURAL HISTORY.

the latter suddenly drop his head, squat, and spread his tail
over his back ; the owl then glances over without inflicting
any injury, at the very instant that the turkey suffers him-
self to fall headlong towards the earth, when he is secure from
his dreaded enemy."

NUMIDA. — (Lat.)

Meleagris, the Guinea-fowl^

The GUINEA-FOWL or PINTADO was originally brought from
Africa, and was anciently confounded with the turkey. From
its peculiar cry it has gained the name of " Come-back." In
its wild state it is gregarious, assembling in large flocks in
some marshy situation. At night the birds roost on the trees
in company, like the turkey. It is of a restless, wandering
disposition, which does not leave it in captivity, the bird fre-
quently wandering for several miles from its home. Like the
turkey, the Pintado lays its eggs in the closest concealment it
can find. The eggs are rather smaller than those of the hen,
the shell is very thick, and the colour is a yellowish red pro-
fusely spotted with dark brown.

This is the bird that was called Meleagris by the ancients.
The sisters of Meleager were said to have been metamorphosed
in*to birds, whose feathers were sprinkled with the tears shed
for his death.

NATURAL HISTORY. 321

Family IV. . . Tetraonidas.
Sub-family a. . Pcrdicince.

PERDIX — (Gr. Iltpdi^, a, Partridge.)

Cinerea (Lat. ashy), the Partridge.

The PARTRIDGE, an inhabitant of England, is well known
as one of the birds included in the designation of " game."
It lays from fifteen to twenty eggs in a rude nest placed on
the ground, and displays great attachment to them, and no
small ingenuity in decoying an intruder away. Mr. Jesse
mentions that a gentleman who was overlooking his plough-
man, saw a partridge run from her nest, almost crushed by
the horses' hoofs. Being certain that the next furrow must
bury the eggs and nest, he watched for the return of the
plough, when to his great astonishment the nest, previously
containing twenty-one eggs, was vacant. After a search, he
found the bird sitting upon the eggs under a hedge, nearly
forty yards from the nest, to which place she and her mate
had removed the whole number in less than twenty minutes.
In some parts of England the Partridge is very plentiful —

322 NATURAL HISTORY.

one sportsman having shot in two days one hundred and sixty-
eight brace on one manor.

The length of the bird is twelve inches and a half ; the
wing is short and rounded, causing the peculiar whirring
sound when in motion ; the third and fourth primary feathers
are the longest.

COTURNIX. — (Lat.)

Commuois (Lat. common], the Quail,

The Q,UAIL is a tolerably common little bird, visiting England
in the summer. Countless flocks of them are spread over
the whole of Southern Europe, and multitudes are taken and
sent to the London markets ; thirty-six thousand having been
purchased during one season by the London poulterers.

Temminck states that hundreds of thousands arrive in
Naples and Provence, and are so fatigued that for several
days they suffer themselves to be taken by hand. We are
here reminded of the flight of Quails with which the Israelites
were fed, the sacred narrative even preserving the nocturnal
flight of these birds. " And it came to pass that at even
the Quails came up and covered the camp." Probably the
instinct to fly by night is implanted in them for the purpose
of avoiding the birds of prey that would attack them by day.
The female lays from seven to twelve eggs in a rude nest on
the ground.

The length of the bird is seven inches ; the second primary
feather is the longest.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family 6. Tetraonince.
TETRAO. — (Lat. a Bustard.)

Urogallus, the Capcrcaillie.

The CAPERCAILLIE or COCK OF THE WOOD is common in
most parts of northern Europe, arid was once to be found in
Scotland and Ireland. The male is a large "bird, almost
equalling a Turkey in size, but the female is considerably
smaller. In the early spring, before the snow has left the
ground, this singular bird commences his celebrated " play."
This play is confined to the males, and intended to give
notice of their presence to the females who are in the neigh-
bourhood. " During the play," says Lloyd, " the neck of the
Capercaillie is stretched out, his tail is raised and spread like
a fan, his wings droop, his feathers are ruffled up, and in short
he much resembles in appearance an angry turkey-cock. He
begins his play with a call something resembling pcllcr, pcllcr,
pellcr ; these sounds he repeats at some little intervals, but

324 NATURAL HISTORY.

as he proceeds, they increase in rapidity, until at last, and
after perhaps the lapse of a minute or so, he makes a sort of
gulp in his throat, and finishes with sucking in, as it were, his
breath.

" During the continuance of this latter process, which only
lasts a few seconds, the head of the Capercaillie is thrown up,
his eyes are partially closed, and his whole appearance would
denote that he is worked up into an agony of passion. At this
time, his faculties are much absorbed, and it is not difficult to
approach him."

The nest is made on the ground, and contains from six to
twelve eggs.

Tetrix, the Black Grouse.

The BLACK GROUSE or BLACK COCK is still found on the
moors of Scotland and some parts of England, and with the
red grouse tempts innumerable sportsmen annually to spend
their leisure months on the moors.

NATURAL HISTORY.

LAGOPUS. — (Gr. Aa/c^, a Hare ; nov? , a foot ; the Ptarmigan.)

Scoticus (Lat Scotch), the Red Grouse.

The RED GROUSE has never been found wild on the Conti-
nent, but seems to confine itself exclusively to the heaths of
Scotland, Wales and Ireland. In these places it is very
numerous, associating in flocks or " packs," and together
with the black grouse is eagerly pursued by sportsmen, who
are frequently baffled by the shy and wary habits of the birds.
The nest of the Red Grouse is formed of heath and grass
carelessly heaped together on the ground under the shelter
of some low shrub. The young are fully fledged by August.

THE PTARMIGAN.

The legs and feet of the PTARMIGANS are thickly covered
with hair-like feathers reaching as far as the claws. Their
plumage bears a singular analogy to. the fur of the ermine
and some other quadrupeds, as it changes in winter from a
rich almost tortoiseshell colour to a pure white. The
common Ptarmigan inhabits the northern parts of Europe
arid America, and is also found in the north of Scotland,
principally among the mountains. The colour of the bird
is so similar to that of the mossy and lichen-covered rocks

NATURAL HISTORY.

Albus (Lat. white), the Ptarmigan.

among which, it dwells, that a whole covey easily eludes an
unpractised eye.

Enormous numbers of Ptarmigans are annually imported
from the north of Europe, especially Norway and Sweden, to
the London market. One poulterer has purchased fifteen
thousand of these birds, and twenty-four thousand have been
exported in one ship from one place.

Like that of the grouse, the Ptarmigan's nest is a loosely
constructed heap of twigs and grass, and contains from ten^
to fourteen eggs of a reddish white spotted with brown.

THE BRUSH TURKEY.

The MEGAPODID^, deriving their name from the enormous
size of their feet, are inhabitants of Australia and the Papuan
Islands. In the habits of these birds there is a peculiarity
hardly less singular than surprising. Instead of hatching
their eggs by the warmth of the body, as most birds do, not
excepting the ostrich, the Megapodes bury their eggs in a
decaying heap of grass and leaves, trusting to the heat fur-
nished by the fermentation to hatch the eggs.

Ts7ATURAL HISTORY.

Family V. Megapodidfe. — (Or. Meyaf , great ; irovg, a foot. The
great-footed kind.)

TALEGALLUS.

Lathami (Lat. of Latham), the Brush Turkey.

• The BRUSH TURKEY is principally found in the thick
brushwood of New South Wales. Mr. Gould, who first
brought it before the public, gives this curious account of
their nests : — " The mode in which the materials composing
these mounds are accumulated is equally singular, the bird
never using its bill, but always grasping a quantity in its
foot, throwing it backwards to one common centre, and thus
clearing the surface of the ground for a considerable distance
so completely that scarcely a leaf or a blade of grass is left.
The heap being accumulated, and time allowed for a sufficient
heat to be engendered, the eggs are deposited, not side by side
us is ordinarily the case, but planted at the distance of nine
or twelve inches from each other, and buried at nearly an
arm's depth, perfectly upright, with the large end upwards.

328 NATURAL HISTORY.

They are covered up as they are laid, and allowed to remain
until hatched. I am credibly informed, both by natives and
settlers living near their haunts, that it is not an unusual event
to obtain nearly a bushel of eggs at one time from a single
heap ; and as they are delicious eating they are eagerly sought
after."

When the Brush Turkey is disturbed, it either runs through
the tangled underwood with singular rapidity, or springs upon
a low branch of some tree, and reaches the summit by a suc-
cession of leaps from branch to branch. This latter peculiarity
renders it an easy prey to the sportsman.

MEGAPODIUS.

Tumulus (Lat. a Mound), the Mound-making Megapodc.

The MOUND-MAKING MEGAPODE inhabits the dense thickets
bordering on the sea-shore, and is never found far inland.
Like the Brush Turkey it deposits many eggs in one mound,
but instead of placing them at intervals in the mound, the bird
makes deep holes from five to six feet, at the bottom of which
the eggs are deposited. The natives obtain the eggs by
scratching up the earth with their fingers, until they have
traced the hole to the bottom ; a very laborious task, as the
holes seldom run straight, and often turn off at right angles

NATURAL HISTORY.

to avoid a stone or root. The mounds are enormously large.
Mr. Gilbert was told by the residents that they were the
tombs of the aborigines, nor was it until after some time that
their real nature was made known. The height of one mound
was fifteen feet, and its circumference at the base sixty feet.

THE OSTRICH.

The STRUTHIONID^E include the Ostrich, Emu, Cassowary,
and Apteryx. The birds of this family are all remarkable for
the shortness of their wings, which are weak and unable to raise
them from the ground, but appear to assist them in running.
On this account Cuvier called the family Brevipennes, i. e. short-
winged birds.

The OSTRICH is the largest bird as yet known to exist, its
height being from six to eight feet. It is an inhabitant of Africa,
and from thence the elegant plumes are brought. These plumes
are mostly obtained from the wings of the bird, and not from
the tail, as is generally imagined.

An immense number of eggs are laid by the Ostriches in one
spot, several birds belonging to each nest. The eggs are very
large and strong, and are in general use by the Bosjesmans for
holding water. By means of these eggs, which they bury at
intervals m the sand, after filling them with water, they are
enabled to make inroads across the desert and retreat with
security, as none can follow them for want of water. Each
egg holds rather more than five pints. An excellent omelet is
made by the natives, by burying the fresh egg in hot ashes, and
stirring round the contents with a stick through a hole in the
upper end, until thoroughly cooked.

The principal strength of the Ostrich tribe lies in the legs.
These limbs are so powerful that a swift horse has great diffi-
culty in overtaking the bird. As the Ostrich mostly runs in
large curves, the hunters cut across and intercept the bird,
which would in all probability escape if followed in its exact
course.

The Ostrich is easily tamed, as those who have been
pursued by the magnificent birds in the Zoological Gardens

NATURAL HISTORY.

Order VI. STRUTHIONE8.

Family I. Strutliiomdse.— (Gr. 2 rpovflof, an ostrich. Ostrich kind.)

Sub-family a. . Strutldonince.

Camelus (Gr. Ka^/lof, a Camel), the Ostrich.

can testify. These frequently astonish the visitor by suddenly
snatching out of his hand a bun or cake which he had in-
tended for his own special benefit, their long necks enabling
them to reach to a surprising distance. Many of my readers

NATURAL HISTORY. 331

have doubtless seen the tame ostriches at the Hippodrome, who
ran races bearing riders on their backs, and really seemed to
enjoy the sport as much as any of the spectators. The inter-
esting narrative of Captain Gumming contains some useful re-
marks on the habits of the Ostrich, arid the method in which it
is destroyed by the Bosjesmans.

" While encamped at this vley we fell in with several nests
of ostriches ; and here I first ascertained a singular propensity
peculiar to these birds. If a person discovers the nest, and
does not at once remove the eggs, on returning he will most
probably find them all smashed. This the old birds almost
invariably do, even when the intruder has not handled the
eggs, or so much as ridden within five yards of them. The
nest is merely a hollow scooped in the sandy soil, generally
amongst heath or other low bushes ; its diameter is about seven
feet ; it is believed that two hens often lay in one nest. The
hatching of the eggs is not left, as is generally believed, to
the heat of the sun, but, on the contrary, the cock relieves
the hen in the incubation. These eggs form a considerable
item in the Bushmen's cuisine, and the shells arc converted
into water flasks, cups, and dishes. I have often seen Bush-
girls and Bakalahari women, who belong to the wandering
Bechuana tribes of the Kalahari desert, come down to the
fountains from their remote habitations, sometimes situated
at an amazing distance, each carrying on her back a kaross
or a net-work containing from twelve to fifteen ostrich egg-
shells, which had been emptied by a small aperture at one
end.; these they fill with water and cork up the hole with
grass.

" A favourite method adopted by the wild Bushman for
approaching the Ostrich and other varieties of game, is to
clothe himself in the skin of one of these birds, in which,
taking care of the wind, he stalks about the plain, cunningly
imitating the gait and motions of the Ostrich, until within
range, when, with a well-directed poisoned arrow from his
tiny bow, he can generally seal the fate of any of the ordinary
varieties of game. These insignificant-looking arrows are
about two feet six inches in length ; they consist of a slender
reed, with a sharp bone head, thoroughly poisoned with a
composition, of which the principal ingredients are obtained

332 NATURAL HISTORY.

sometimes from a succulent herb, having thick leaves, yielding
a poisonous milky juice, and sometimes from the jaws of
snakes. The bow barely exceeds three feet in length ; its
string is of twisted sinews. When a Bushman finds an. os-
trich's nest he ensconces himself in it, and there awaits the
return of the old birds, by which means he generally secures
the pair. It is by means of these little arrows that the major-
ity of the fine plumes are obtained which grace the heads of the
fair throughout the civilized world."

The food of the Ostrich is vegetable, and it swallows many
stones, &c. to assist it in grinding its food. When in confine-
ment it picks up anything, glass, nails, &c., from the effects of
which it sometimes dies.^

Capt. Gumming remarks a fact not generally known, viz. the
care that the Ostrich takes of its young. It has generally been
supposed that after the eggs are laid, the female leaves them
to be hatched in the sun, and takes no more care for them.
The following anecdote would do honour to the far-famed Lap-
wing. " I fell in with a troop of about twelve young ostrich-
es, which were not much larger than Guinea-fowls. I was
amused to see the mother endeavour to lead us away, exactly
like a wild duck, spreading out and drooping her wings, and
throwing herself down on the ground before us as if wounded,
while the cock bird cunningly led the brood away in an oppo-
site direction."

The Rhea, or American Ostrich, is abundant on the banks
of the river La Plata, and is chased by the Gauchos, who pur-
sue it on horseback, and kill it by throwing the celebrated
" bolas." These curious weapons are made of a long leathern
thong, having a heavy stone or leaden ball attached to each end.
The Gaucho can throw it so as either to stun his prey with a
blow from the ball, or strangle it by causing the thong to twist
round its neck.

It is known that the Rhea can swim well, and frequently
crosses rivers several hundred feet in width, a power which the
ostrich and the cassowary are not ascertained to possess. There
are two species of this bird, one, the Darwin's Rhea, has been
but lately introduced to science.

* I have been present at the dissection of an ostrich, when an astonishing amount
of pebbles and other hard materials was taken from its stomach, among which were
a tolerably large piece of deal, and a considerable portion of a brickbat.

NATURAL HISTORY.

CASUAKIUS.

Casoar, the Cassoioary.

The CASSOWARY is a native of the eastern parts of Asia.
Like the ostrich, it cannot fly, but runs with great swiftness,
and if attacked by dogs kicks with extreme force and rapidity.
The feathers of this bird are remarkable for being composed
of two long, thread-like feathers, sprouting from the same root.
The wing feathers are round, black, and strong, and resemble
the quills of the porcupine. At the end of the last joint of the
wing is a sort of claw or spur.

The food of the bird consists of vegetable substances, and it
will frequently swallow a tolerably large apple entire, trusting
to the pebbles, &c. in its stomach to bruise it.

NATURAL HISTORY.
DKOMAIUS. — (Gr. Apo//aZof, running swiftly.)

N"ov8c-IIollandia3 (Lat. of New Holland], the Emu.

The EMU is a native of New Holland, and nearly equals
the ostrich in bulk, its height being between five and six
feet. Its feathers lie loosely on the body, and its wings are
small and hardly to be distinguished. The skin of the Ernu
furnishes a bright and clear oil, on which account it is eagerly
sought after. Mr. Bennet gives the following account of the
habits of this bird.

" In its manners the Emu bears a close resemblance to the
ostrich. . . Its food appears to be wholly vegetable, consisting
chiefly of fruits, roots, and herbage, and it is consequently,
notwithstanding its great strength, perfectly inoffensive. The
length of its legs and the muscularity of its thighs enable it
to run Avith great swiftness ; and as it is exceedingly shy, it is

NATURAL HISTORY. 335

not easily overtaken or brought within gunshot. Captain
Currie states that it affords excellent coursing, equalling if not
surpassing the same sport with the hare in England ; but Mr.
Cunningham says that dogs will seldom attack it, both on ac-
count of some peculiar odour in its flesh which they dislike,
and because the injuries inflicted upon them by striking out
with its feet are frequently very severe. The settlers even as-
sert that the Emu will break the small bone of a man's leg by
this sort of kick ; to avoid which, the well- trained -dogs run up
abreast, and make a sudden spring at their neck, whereby they
are quickly dispatched."

" Its flesh has been compared to coarse beef, which it re-
sembles both in appearance and taste. There is but little
fit for culinary use upon any part of the Emu except the hind
quarters."

The voice of the Emu is a kind of low booming sound. The
eggs are six or seven in number, of a dark green colour, and
are much esteemed by the natives as food. When the natives
take an Emu, they break its wings, a curious custom of no per-
ceptible utility. Young men and boys are not permitted to
eat the flesh of this bird.

THE APTERYX.

This extraordinary bird, whose name is derived from the ap-
parent absence of wings, those members being merely rudi-
mentary, inhabits Australia and the islands of New Zealand.
It conceals itself among the densest fern, and when hunted by
dogs, it hastens to seek a refuge among rocks and in the cham-
bers which it excavates in the earth. In these chambers its
nest is made and the eggs laid. The natives hunt it with
great eagerness, as the skin is used for the dresses of chiefs,
who are so tenacious of them that they can hardly be per-
suaded to part with a single skin. The feathers are employed
to make artificial flics. When attacked it defends itself by
rapid and vigorous strokes with its powerful feet.

Dr. Shaw first brought this bird before the notice of the
public, but for many years naturalists considered it an extinct

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family b. Apterygince.
APTERYX. — (Gr. a, priv. ; 7rreot>£, a wing; wingless.)

Australia (Lat. Australian,) the Aptcryx.

species. Latterly the question has been set at rest, not only
by the researches of Gould and other naturalists, but by the
arrival in this country of several skins * and one living speci-
men, now in the Zoological Gardens. This bird has a singular
habit of resting with the tip of its bill placed on the ground.
The nostrils of the APTERYX are placed almost at the very ex-
tremity of the bill. The aborigines of New Zealand give it the
name of Kiwi Kiwi. The food of the bird consists of snails,
insects, and worms, which latter creatures it obtains by striking
the ground with its feet, and seizing them on their appearance
at the surface.

* A small but well preserved skin is mounted in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.
The rudimentary wings are very well shown. A skeleton is in the museum of the
College of Surgeons.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family c. IMdince.
DIDUS.

Ineptus (Lat. stupid), the Dodo.

This singular bird, which is supposed to be extinct, was
discovered at the Mauritius by the earlier voyagers. For
many years their accounts of the Dodars were supposed to be
mere flights of fancy. Lately, however, the discovery of
several relics of this bird in various countries has set the
question at rest. Not so the question of the proper position
of the bird. Some think it belongs to the pigeons, and some
to the ostriches. In the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford are
a head and foot of the Dodo, sole remnants of a perfect speci-
men known to have existed in 1700 ; and in the same place,
in the year 1847, during the meeting of the British Association,
were gathered together the whole of the existing remains from
every country.

In the travels of Sir T. Hubert, in the year 1627, are
several accounts. From the work of this traveller, whose

3JS NATURAL HISTORY.

amusement it was to re- write his travels, each time completely
changing the -language but retaining the matter, an extract is
taken.

" The DODO, a bird the Dutch call Walghvogel, or Dod
Eersen ; her body is round and fat, which occasions the slow
pace, or that her corpulencie, and so great as few of them
weigh less than fifty pound : meat it is with some, but better
to the eye than stomach, such as only a strong appetite can
vanquish. . . It is of a melancholy visage, as sensible of nature's
injury in framing so massie a body to be directed by com-
plemental wings, such, indeed, as are unable to
hoise her from the ground, serving only to rank
her among birds. Her traine, three small plumes,
short and improportionable, her legs suiting to
her body, her pounces sharpe, her appetite strong
and greedy. Stones and iron are digested, which
description will better be conceived in her repre-
sentation." The " representation " here alluded to
TBH*E DODO, is that of a globular-shaped bird, perfectly naked,
with the exception of three separate feathers on the
tail, and a few feathers on the wing. - The expression of lugu-
brious wisdom on the countenance is irresistibly ludicrous.

It is still within the range of possibility that this bird
should again be discovered, as at present but little of Mada-
gascar has been searched, and in that island, if any where, it
will be found.

Another bird, the gigantic Dinornis, has been extirpated
from the face of the earth by man. This enormous bird,
whose leg is rather larger than that of a fossil elk, and whose
head could not have been less than ten feet and a half from
the ground, was at one time an inhabitant of New Zealand, but
has been extirpated for many years, a fate likely to befal the
defenceless Apteryx. In the Anatomical Museum at Oxford
is a cast of the leg of the Dinornis, standing side by side with
that of an ostrich. The leg of the ostrich is quite insignificant
by the side of the enormous cast.

NATURAL HISTORY.
Sub-family d. Otina.—(Gi\ 'Orif, a Bustard.)

OTUS.

339

Tarda (Lat. slow), the Great Bustard.

The GREAT BUSTARD, our English representative of the Otidse,
is now scarcely ever seen in this country, although formerly it
was tolerably common. It runs with great swiftness, and will
never rise on the wing until forced, so that instances have been
known of bustards being captured by greyhounds. It is ex-
ceedingly wary, and can hardly be approached within gun-shot,
except by adopting some disguise, as a labourer with the gun
in his wheelbarrow, or by driving a cart or a carriage by the
spot where it is feeding.

The male Bustard possesses a membranous pouch on the
fore part of the neck, capable of holding six or seven pints of
water. There is an opening to this pouch under the tongue,
and its use is possibly, like that of the pelican, to carry water
for the use of the young, but this is not ascertained. The

340 NATURAL HISTORY.

Idhgth of the bird is rather more than three feet. Its nest is
a loose heap of straws on the ground, and contains two pale
brown eggs, spotted with brown, rather larger than those of the
turkey.

Order VII. . GRA LLJE.— (Lat. Stilted Birds.)
Family I. . . Charadridec.
Sub family c. Charadrince.

VANELLUS.

Cristatus (Lat. crested), the Lapwing or Peewit.

The PLOVERS are known by their long legs, short toes, and
long and powerful wings. Many are inhabitants of England,
of which the Lapwing and Golden Plover are the most
common.

The LAPWING, or PEEWIT, is very common in most parts of
England, and is well known for its plaintive cry, and the
stratagems it employs to decoy intruders away from its nest,
or rather eggs, for nest it has none. Frequently, however,
the attempts of the bird only draw the attention of the passer-
by to the necessary vicinity of the eggs. These eggs are dark
brown, blotched with black, and are hardly to be distinguished
from the soil where they are laid. If an intruder approach
them, the bird glides before him, and nutters along, drooping
her wings, as if wounded, invariably endeavouring to lead
him away from her nest. "When it has succeeded in
decoying away the intruder, it suddenly mounts in the air,
uttering its cry of pee-weet, leaving its pursuer to gaze with

NATURAL HISTORY. 341

astonishment at the escaping bird. When flying, the black and
white colours of its plumage make it very conspicuous. On the
head of the bird is a kind of crest.

Family II. ... Ardeidce.— (Lat. Ardea, a Heron. Heron-kind.)
Sub-famil y b. . . Gruince.

GRUS. — (Lat. a Crane.)

Cinerea (Lat. ashy), the Crane.

The COMMON CRANE is now but rarely seen on our shores,
although formerly as common as was the bustard. It flies at
so great a height, that although its hoarse cry is audible, the
bird itself is far out of the reach of sight. It generally feeds on
snails, frogs, and worms, but is not by any means averse to new-
ly sown grain. The nest is made among reeds and rushes, and
contains two bluish green eggs, marked with brown. The
length of the bird is nearly four feet.

NATURAL HISTORY.
Sub-family c. . Ardeinw.

ARDEA.

Cinerea, the Heron.

The HERON, or HERNE, is a bird renowned in the noble
science of falconry, and respecting which much curious know-
ledge is to be gained from the work of Dame Juliana Berners,
a book of most amusingly quaint language. The Common
Heron generally breeds in numbers, like the rook ; indeed,
these two birds frequently inhabit contiguous trees, but never
interfere with each other. In the dawn of the early morning,
or while the moon casts an uncertain light, the Heron may be
seen standing in the shallow water, stiff and motionless, and
by the faint light may be mistaken for a stump of a tree.
But his eye is keenly directed on the water, and no sooner
does a fish approach, than a dart of his unerring bill secures
it, and the Heron soars exultingly to his nest, bearing his

NATURAL HISTORY. 343

prey with him. The fixed patience that the Heron displays
has caused it to be chosen as the emblem of Solitude.

The plumes of the Heron were formerly considered as
ornaments only to be worn by the noble. It is not an
uncommon sight to see this splendid bird slowly winnowing
his way through the air, when suddenly a magpie, or a crow,
gives the alarm, and the poor bird is instantly beset by its
annoying enemies, especially the crows, who resent the Heron's
approach to their own residence, and frequently drive him away.

The nest of the Heron is a flat mass of sticks, laid on the
highest branches of a tree, and contains five bluish green
eggs. The length of the bird is about three feet.

An old name of this bird was the Herne, or Hernshaw,
from which was derived the saying, " He does not know
a Hawk from a Hernshaw." The last word has been cor-
rupted into " handsaw," and of course renders the proverb
most unmeaning.

THE BITTERK

The beautiful BITTERN has been almost banished from this
country, although formerly common. It frequents morasses,
and dense beds of reeds, where it lies concealed until the
evening, when it leaves its rushy bed and soars to a vast
height, continually uttering its sepulchral booming cry. This
singular sound is not unlike the deep bellowing of a bull, and
is most startling in its efTect. It was one of the birds chiefly
sought after in falconry, as the stout defence it makes against
its enemies, by darting its sharp and powerful beak at them,
and beating violently with its feet, renders it by no means an
easy prey. For this reason the falconer's first care, on reach-
ing the Bittern when brought to the ground by his falcon,
was to secure its head, and by fixing its bill deep in the earth,
to save his eyes from the rapid and well-aimed blows of the
wounded bird. The falcon also was in danger of being trans-
fixed by the sharp beak of his victim.

The plumage of this beautiful bird is a rich reddish-yellow
ground, boldly variegated with various black marks, which are
most conspicuous in the loose, long feathers that decorate

NATURAL HISTORY.

BOTAURUS.

Stellaris (Lat. starry), the Bittern.

its neck. In size, it is a little less than the heron. It feeds
principally on small reptiles, field mice, and fish. Its nest
is built on some slight elevation in a morass, and contains five
bluish green eggs.

THE WHITE SPOONBILL.

The COMMON SPOONBILL is found in Europe, Asia, and
Africa, and frequents Holland, together with the stork. The
strange shape of the tip of its beak has gained it the name
of Spoonbill. It has rarely been taken in this country. It
feeds on worms, snails, and water plants, searching for the
latter by agitating the water with its broad beak.

The nest of the White Spoonbill is sometimes placed in

NATURAL HISTORY. 345

PLATALEA. (Lat. )

Leucorodia (Gr. Aeu/copodov, a white rose), the White Spoonbill.

trees, and sometimes amid rushes. It contains three whitish
eggs, slightly spotted with red. The length of the bird is not
quite three feet.

THE STORK.

The STORK is extensively found throughout Europe, Asia,
and Africa. In Holland storks are very abundant, and are
encouraged by the Dutch to build in their towns. Among
the ruins of Persepolis they are very common, scarcely one
pillar being without a stork's nest at the summit. In
Holland a kind of false chimney is built by the inhabitants
for these birds to make their nests in. When the Stork
cannot find a building on which to make its nest, it chooses
the flat spreading branches of a cedar or pine, and there

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family d. , . . Ciconince,
CICONIA. — (Lat. a Stork.)

Alba (Lat. white), the Stork.

collects a large mass of sticks and twigs, on which it lays
from three to five whitish eggs. When disturbed, the birds
make a great clattering with their bills. The draining of our
morasses seems to have driven the Stork completely out of
this country, where it was formerly tolerably common. The
food of this bird consists of rats, mice, frogs, &c., and it is for
the benefits it confers upon man by devouring these vermin
that it is so carefully protected and encouraged, especially in
the East, where the inhabitants do not trouble themselves by
removing carrion or offal, but leave that office to the vultures,
hyenas, and others scavengers of nature. The height of the
Stork is nearly four feet.

The Adjutant of India, which is so useful in devouring offal
and vermin, is one of the Stork tribe. In the crop of one of
these birds was found a land tortoise, ten inches long, and
" a large black male cat, entire."

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family/. . Tantalince.
IBIS.— (Gr. 'I/3<f.)

Religiosa (Lat. sacred], the Sacred Ibis.

The SACRED IBIS inhabits Egypt, but does not seem to breed
there. This is the bird so frequently depicted in the hiero-
glyphics as playing a conspicuous part in religious ceremonies.
Their mummies are constantly found in the tombs, and in one
of these mummies Cuvier discovered remnants of skin, and scales
of snakes. The Sacred Ibis is about the size of an ordinary
fowl.

343 NATURAL HISTORY.

Family III ... Scolopacidse. — (Gr. Z/coAo7ra£, a Woodcock. Wood-
cock-kind.)
Sub-family a. . Limosince.

CKACTICORNIS. — (Gr. Kpa/cn/cof, clamorous; 6pvi£, a bird.)

Arquatus (Lat arched), the Curlew.

The CURLEW or WHAUP is often found in the northern parts
of England and Scotland, and is spread over the whole of the
Old "World, from South Africa to the polar regions. In winter
it collects in large flocks at the muddy shores of the sea, where
its long curved bill can easily penetrate in search of food. It
is an exceedingly shy bird, and difficult to approach within
gunshot.

Its nest is composed of grass and rushes, collected under the
shelter of a tuft of heath or grass, and contains four greenish
olive eggs blotched with brown. The length of the bird slightly
exceeds two feet.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family c. Recurvirostrince.

RECURVIROSTRA. — (Lat. with bill curved upwards.)

Avocetta, the Avocct.

The bill in the genus Recurvirostra is exactly the reverse
of that in the genus Numenius, the curve being upwards in-
stead of downwards. The common AVOCET is spread through-
out the warmer regions of Europe, and is also found in some
parts of Africa. It is very common in Holland, and is frequent-
ly seen on the eastern coasts of England, but seldom visits
Scotland. It frequents marshes and the mouths of rivers,
where it finds in the mud myriads of the small worms and
insects on which it feeds, and which it obtains by scooping
them up from the mud with its curious curved bill. It is a
good swimmer, but seldom has recourse to that art except
when it wades unexpectedly out of its depth.

The eggs of the Avocet are laid on the ground, in a de-
pression sheltered by a tuft of herbage. Their colour is a
bluish green, spotted with black. The birds when disturbed
at their nests feign lameness, like the lapwing, in order to
draw the intruder to a distance. The length of the bird is
eighteen inches.

The curious Stilt Plover belongs to the Avocets.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family d. Scolopacince.

Rusticola (Lat. fond of the country), the Woodcock.

The WOODCOCK is a native of the northern parts of Europe
and Asia, and is common in this country, but rarely has been
known to breed here. *It generally reaches England at the
beginning of October, and leaves us in March or April, at
which time its flesh loses the delicacy that characterises it,
and becomes coarse and valueless. The Woodcock frequents
dense thickets during the day, but at night it leaves these re-
treats, and visits the swamps and flooded meadows, where it
finds a sufficiency of worms and insects.

The nest of this bird is a loose mass of grass and leaves,
gathered together in some sheltered depression. The eggs are
four in number, of a yellowish brown, blotched with dark
brown and grey.

NATURAL HISTORY. 351

NUMENIUS. — (Gr. Novfjiqvios.)

Scolopacinus (Lat. like a Woodcock), the Snipe.

The SNIPE is too well known to need description. In its
habits it much resembles the woodcock, excepting that it
breeds plentifully in several counties of England, Scotland, and
and Ireland. Its flight is very singular, rendering it a difficult
mark. The Jack Snipe confines itself to one spot, and cannot
be induced to leave it even when fired upon. Its flight is fully
as perplexing as that of the common Snipe. Stanley, in his
History of Birds, mentions " a gentleman, a very bad shot, who
having at length succeeded in killing a Jack Snipe, deeply
lamented the loss of a bird which, as he was always sure of
finding it in the same place, had afforded him constant amuse-
ment during a whole winter."

THE RUFF.

The RUFF is celebrated for its pugnacious habits and the
singular change of its plumage at certain seasons of the year.
Towards the breeding season a beautiful frill of long feathers
forms round the neck. It is a singular fact, that in hardly
any two of these birds is the frill of the same colour ; an(i
more remarkable, that the frill of the same bird is of different
colours at different seasons. At the same time that the frill

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family e. Tringince.

PHILOJIACHUS. — (Gr. 4>^/lo//a^of, a lover of battles.)

Pugnax (Lat. quarrelsome), the Ruff.

forms, the male birds choose each for themselves a small spot,
on which no other bird is permitted to intrude without a severe
battle taking place. The femaies, called Reeves, now arrive,
and their approach is the signal for a general melee ; and the
ground is soon denuded of grass by the constant battles.

The nest of the Reeve is merely a slight depression in a tuft
of grass. The eggs are four in number, of a greenish white
blotched with reddish brown.

Great numbers of these birds are annually sent to the London
markets. Various precautions are taken to prevent their de-
structive quarrels from taking place, as captivity in no way
diminishes their pugnacity.

THE JACANAS.

The JACANAS are found in Asia, Africa, and America. Their
light bodies and widely extended claws enable them to walk
on the leaves of aquatic plants with equal ease and safety.
As their weight is just sufficient to sink the leaf a little below
the surface, they have all the appearance of walking on the

NATURAL HISTORY. 353

Family IV. . . Palamedeidas. — (Gr. ITaAa/^, the palm of the hand.)
Sub-family a. Parrince.

PARKA. — (Lat.)

Jaeana, the Jacana.

water itself. The common Jacana inhabits the hotter parts
of South America, and is abundant in Brazil and Guiana. It
possesses large and sharp spurs on the wing.

THE CORNCRAKE.

The CORNCRAKE or LANDRAIL is very common in England.
It reaches us at the beginning of April, and leaves us at the
end of October, after hatching its eggs. During the early part
of the summer months its harsh cry may be heard in almost
every field, but the bird is very seldom seen, as it threads its
way among the long grass with marvellous rapidity. Its cry

354 NATURAL HISTORY.

Family V. . . Rallidse.

Sub-family a. . Rcdlince.

ORTYGOMETRA. — (Gr. 'OpTvyo/Lujrpa, migrating with the Quails; the
Landrail.)

Crex (Gr. Kpe£, a Crake ; derived from its cry), Corncrake or Landrail.

can be so exactly imitated by drawing a quill sharply across
the teeth of a comb, that the bird may be decoyed by the
sound until quite close to the operator, The Corncrake is so
averse to rising on the wing, that a dog is frequently employed
to hunt it. The young when taken feign death with admirable
accuracy, nor do they move until they imagine that the in-
truder is safely out of the way.

The nest of the Corncrake is by no means uncommon. It
is formed of hay, collected and worked into some depression
in the ground, and contains from eight to twelve eggs of a
greyish yellow, covered with dark brown spots. The length
of the bird is about nine inches.

THE WATER-HEK

The WATER-HEN, or MOOR-HEN, is very common along the
reedy banks of rivers and ponds. It is very widely distributed,
being found in almost all parts of the old world. It swims

NATURAL HISTORY. 355

Sub-family b. Gallimdince.
G ALLIN UL A. — (Lat, )

Ckloropus (Gr. X/lwp6f , green ; Trove, a foot), the Water-hen.

very gracefully, constantly nodding its head, and dives with
great skill and rapidity, particularly when alarmed, in which
case it generally dives under some floating herbage, and re-
mains there with merely its beak above the water until the
danger is passed. On account of this habit it is almost useless
to shoot this bird unless accompanied by a dog, for if it is not
shot dead it instantly dives, and nothing but a dog can dis-
cover its retreat. It runs on land with considerable activity,
constantly flirting up its tail so as to show the white feathers
beneath, and when alarmed, instantly makes for the water.

The nest of the Water-hen is built among sedges and reeds
at the water side, and contains from five to eight or nine eggs
of a cream yellow, spotted with dark brown, When the Water-
hen leaves her nest, she covers the eggs with dried grass and
reeds, so as completely to conceal them, apparently lest the
rats should discover them. The young when hatched look
like round tufts of black down. They swim and dive well, fol-
lowing their parent with great address. The pike is their chief
enemy, and destroys numbers by darting at them from under
the cover of water-lilies or other plants.

NATURAL HISTORY.

FULICA.— (Lat.)

Atra (Lat. black), the Coot.

The COOT much resembles the water-hen in its habits. It
is usually found in large sheets of water, particularly if shel-
tered by trees. The nest is a huge mass of flags, reeds, and
grass, usually at the water's edge, but sometimes actually in
the water.* In the nest are from seven to ten greenish white
eggs, spotted with brown.

THE FLAMINGO.

The FLAMINGO is an inhabitant of the warmer parts of
Europe, and is common in Asia and the coasts of Africa. The
singularly shaped beak of this splendid bird is peculiarly
adapted to its long and flexible neck. When the bird wishes
to feed, it merely stoops its head to the water ; the upper
mandible is then lowest, and is well fitted to receive the
nutritive substances which are entangled in a filter placed on
the edges of the beak, much resembling the analogous apparatus
of the whale.

The Flamingo frequents marshes, lakes, and mouths of
rivers, bidding defiance to the pestilent exhalations that drive

* In 1849 I took five Coots' eggs from a nest situated at the Reservoir near Swin-
don. The nest was nearly fifty yards from the bank, and was made on a very small
sunken hillock, in three feet water.

NATURAL HISTORY.

357

Order VIII. . . ANSJ?JiES.—(Lat. Geese.)

Family I ..... Anatidse.— (Lat. Anas, a Duck. Duck-kind.)

Sub-family a. . Phcenicopterince.

PH<ENICOPTEROS. — (Gr.

g, red-winged; the Flamingo.)

Rubra (Lat. red), the flamingo.

man far from their haunts. The colour of their plumage is
a deep brilliant scarlet, except the quill feathers, which are
black. "When a flock of these birds stands ranged in a line,
according to their custom, they present the appearance of a
small and well-drilled body of soldiers, but are far more

358 NATURAL HISTORY.

dangerous to approach than the most formidable army, for
the miasma of the marshes has a more deadly aim than the
rifle, and its breath is more certainly fatal than the bullet.

The nest of the Flamingo is a curious conical structure of
mud, with a cavity at the summit, in which are placed two or
three whitish eggs. When the female bird sits on the nest,
her feet rest on the ground, or hang into the water. The
height of the bird is between five and six feet.

Sub-family c. Anscrincc.

BERNICLA.

Leucopsis (Gr. Aeu/cof, white ; OH/;, a face), the Berntcle Goose.

The BERNICLE GOOSE inhabits the northern parts of Europe
and America, but during the winter it resorts to our shores
in great numbers. It is an extremely shy bird, and cannot
be approached without the greatest caution and skill. Of the
origin of this bird most absurd tales have been told. All
agreed that it was produced from a tree, but the latest and
most approved account was that of Gerard, who in 1636
wrote as follows :— " But what our eyes have seen, and hands
have touched, we shall declare. There is a small island in
Lancashire called the Pile of Foulders, wherein are found the

NATURAL HISTORY. 359

broken pieces of old and bruised ships, some whereof have
been cast thither by shipwracke, and also the trunks and
bodies with the branches of old and rotten trees, cast up there
likewise ; wherein is found a certain spume or froth, that in
time breedeth into certaine shels, in shape like those of the
muskle, but sharper pointed, and of a whitish colour ; one end
whereof is fastened into the inside of the shell, even as the
fish of oisters and muskles, the other end is made fast unto
the belly of a rude masse or lumpe, which in time commeth
to the shape and form of a bird : when it is perfectly formed
the shell gapeth open, and the first thing that appeareth is the
foresaid lace or string ; next come the legs of the bird hanging
out, and as it groweth greater it openeth the shell by degrees;
till at length it is all come forth and hangeth only by the
bill : in short space after it commeth to full maturitie, and
falleth into the sea, where it gathereth feathers, and groweth
to a fowle."

Of the TAME GOOSE, Anser ferus, nothing need be said,
except that enormous flocks are bred in Lincolnshire, con-
taining from two to ten thousand birds each. The birds are
periodically subjected to the operation of plucking out the
quill-feathers, in order to supply the vast demand for pens, &c.

THE SWAN.

The MUTE or TAME SWAN, a well-known ornament to our
lakes and rivers, is not an inhabitant of England, but was in-
troduced from Eastern Europe and Asia, several hundred years
back. All are familiar with the graceful deportment of this
bird while sailing on the surface of the water. Unfortunately
its progress on land by no means corresponds with its aquatic
grace, being confined to an awkward waddle.

The female Swan makes its nest of a great mass of dry reeds
placed among osiers or rushes near the water, and lays six or
eight large white eggs. During the time of incubation, and
while the young are still small, the parent birds defend them
with great assiduity and courage.

Several large Swanneries are still in existence. The Crown,

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family d. Cygnince.
CYGNUS. — (Lat. a Swan.)

Olor (Lat. a Swan), the Mute Swan.

and the Dyers' and Vintners' Companies own the greater part of
the swans on the Thames, and their swans are annually mark-
ed on the bills by men termed Swan-uppers, or hoppers. The
mark of the Vintners' Company is a notch or nick at each side
of the bill, from which arose the term, " swans with two nicks,"
corrupted into " necks."

The WHISTLING SWAN, or HOOPER ( Cygnus ferus), resides
during summer within the Arctic circle, but in winter visits
the northern parts of Europe, including England. It migrates
in flocks of various numbers, arranged in the form of a wedge.
The down of this bird is very valuable, and is sought after by
the Icelanders, who choose the time when the birds have shed
their quill-feathers and are unable to fly, to chase them with

NATURAL HISTORY.

361

dogs. The "Whistling Swan wants the. grace that character-
izes the Tame Swan ; its neck is carried upright, without the
elegant arch of its domesticated relative. It is not quite so
large as the Tame Swan ; the expanse of its wings is about
eight feet.

CHENOPIS. — (Gr. XTJV, a Goose ; ty, a face.)

Atrata (Lat. blackened), the Black Sicn».

" Like a Black Swan," was formerly a well known proverb,
analogous to the Horse Marines of the present day : unfortu-
nately for the proverb, a swan has been discovered in Australia,
the whole of whose plumage is a jetty black, with the excep-
tion of the quill feathers, which are white. It has been domes-
ticated in this country, and may be seen in St. James' Park,
eagerly seeking after the crumbs offered by juvenile hands. It
is rather smaller than the Whistling Swan.
Q

?JATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family c. Anatincc.

Boschas (Gr. Boonac, a Mallard, from (36aKij, pasture*), the Mallard.

The MALLARD or WILD DUCK is the origin of our domestic
bird, and is widely spread over the northern parts of Europe,
Asia, and America. In the winter it migrates in countless
flocks, many reaching this country. In Lincolnshire incredi-
ble numbers of these birds are taken in a very ingenious trap,
called a decoy. It is a perfect edifice of poles and nets, and
is built in the form of a tube, very wide at the mouth, and
very narrow at the extremity. The ducks are induced to
enter the " pipe" by the antics of a dog, and by some hemp-
seed previously strewn on the water. They are then driven
onwards to the smaller end, where they are caught and killed.

Wilson, in his American Ornithology, gives the following
account of the method of catching wild ducks practised in
America.

" In some ponds frequented by these birds, five or six
wooden figures, cut and painted so as to represent ducks, and
sunk by pieces of lead nailed on their bottoms so as to float
at the usual depth on the surface, are anchored in a favourable
position for being raked from a concealment of brush, &c. on

* The keeper of a decoy in Lincolnshire mentioned that " the Mallard, Pintail, and
Teal frequent rich flooded lands, swittering with their nebs (beaks) in the soil, and
sucking out all its strength ; but the Wigeon is an amazing fowl to graze, and a
strange eater of grass." — RICHARDSON.

NATURAL HISTORY. 363

shore. The appearance of these usually attracts passing flocks,
which alight, and are shot down. Sometimes eight or ten of
these painted wooden ducks are fixed on a frame in various
swimming postures, and secured to the bow of the gunner's
skiff, projecting before it in such a way thai; the weight of the
frame sinks the figures to their proper depth ; the skiff is
then dressed with sedge or coarse grass, in an artful manner,
as low as the water's edge ; and under cover of this, which
appears like a party of ducks swimming by a small island, the
gunner floats down sometimes to the very skirt of a whole
congregated multitude, and pours in a destructive and re-
peated fire of shot among them. In winter, when detached
pieces of ice are occasionally floating in the river, some of the
gunners on the Delaware paint their whole skiff or canoe
white, and laying themselves flat at the bottom, with their
hand over the side silently managing a small paddle, direct it
imperceptibly into or near a flock before the ducks have dis-
tinguished it from a floating mass of ice, and generally do
great execution among them. A whole flock has sometimes
been thus surprised asleep with their heads under their
wings."*

The Tame Duck is so well known as to need no description.
The manner in which it fights the cock is highly amusing,
and but little known. It frequently happens while the fowls
are being fed, that the duck runs among them, and by his
larger beak, gobbles up an undue share of the provisions.
This the cock resents by giving him a peck. The duck takes
no notice, but gets behind the cock, deals him a hard peck,
and looks innocent. The cock jumps round, but sees nothing.
Presently another hard peck comes, and he is very ' angry.
A third peck — but this time the cock sees his enemy, and
rushes at him furiously. Down flops the duck on the ground,
and lets the cock pass over him. After running over him
once or twice, and then jumping on him, the cock is persuaded
that his enemy is quite dead, and walks off on the tips of his
toes. Presently the duck first opens one eye and then the other,
gets up and quietly pecks the cock again. The same ma-
noeuvres are repeated, until at last the duck wins, like Fabius,
by delay, and drives his antagonist fairly off the field.

* Wilson's Ornithology, vol. viii. p. 114.

NATURAL HISTORY.

QUERQUEDULA. — (Lat.)

Crecca, the Teal

The TEAL is the smallest of our ducks. It frequently
breeds in England, mostly choosing the northern lakes for that
purpose. Its flight is exceedingly rapid, soon carrying it out
of the reach of gun-shot. It chooses night for its feeding-
time, and during the day conceals itself under the herbs that
fringe the banks of the water where it has chosen its habita-
tion. Its nest is also carefully placed among dense herbage,
and contains from eight to twelve whitish eggs.

The delicacy of its flesh is well known, and it therefore
figures on most well-furnished tables.

THE EIDER DUCK.

The EIDER DUCK furnishes the celebrated down in such
request for pillows and beds. It is a singular fact, that the
down must be plucked from the bird when living, as it seems
to lose its peculiar elasticity and softness when taken from
the bird after its death. The down is plucked by the bird
itself from its breast, for the purpose of lining its nest, which

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family/. Fuligulincc.
SOMATERIA. — (Gr. I,u(za, the body ; retpu, to wear away.)

Mollis.-ima (Lat. very soft), tl<e Eider Duck.

is then robbed until the Eider is reduced to laying its eggs
on the down fiorn the male bird. It is common in the north
of Europe, Iceland, and the Hebrides.

THE CRESTED GREBE.

The COLYMBID.E are remarkable for their powers of diving.
The legs are placed very far behind, and the toes are so
arranged as to fold up when returning from the stroker.

The foot of the GREBES is not webbed like that of most
water birds, but each toe is separate and flattened so as to
serve as a separate paddle, the Grebes dive so instantane-
ously that it is difficult to shoot them, as they dive at the
flash, and do not reappear for nearly two hundred yards, and
then they merely raise their head above water for a second,
and again disappear.

All the Grebes feed upon fishes and the various water
insects, but their stomachs are almost invariably found to

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family II. ... ColymMdoe. — (Gr. K6^vfj,j3og, a Diver.)
Sub-family b . Podicepince.

rODICEPS.

Cristatus (Lat. crested], the Crested Grebe.

contain a mass of their own feathers. This circumstance pre-
sents a singular analogy to those masses of compacted hair which
are often found in the stomachs of cows. In all probability
the reason for their presence is the same, that the feathers and
hairs are accidentally conveyed to the stomach after the crea-
ture has been making its toilet.

The CRESTED GREBE is found in some of the fens of the
Midland counties of England, and also inhabits parts of Scot-
land. This bird, together with the other Grebes, builds its nest
of a-mass of roots and reeds, among sedges. The female, like
the water hen, covers up her eggs when she leaves her nest,
which, unlike the nests of most of the aquatic birds, floats on
the water.

NATURAL HISTORY.

3C7

Minor (Lat. lesser), the Little Grebe or DabchicL

The DABCHICK or LITTLE GREBE is very common in most
parts of England, and is spread over Europe and Asia. It i?
easily alarmed, and instantly dives, after which it is of little use
to look for the bird. Even in a small pond where tame DaL-
chicks are kept, if they are startled at anything, they all disc] •
pear as if by magic, and reappear in the same mysterious mai -
ner. Even when confined in the limited space of a small pond,
the sharpest eye cannot detect them as they hide under floating
herbage, or are sheltered by an overhanging bank.

It is easily domesticated, and is often seen placed as an or-
nament in lakes, or even in ponds, where it swims about very
merrily, and seems to enjoy playing a game at hide-and-seek
with any observer who is attempting to watch its movements.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family III. . . Alcidae.
Sub-family a. Alcina.

FRATERCULA. — (Lat. )

Arctica (Lat. Arctic), the Puffin.

The PUFFIN is common at the Needles and the western
islands of England. It forms deep burrows in the soil, in
which one egg is deposited, or usurps the burrow of a rabbit.
The hole is generally from three to four feet in depth, when
the Puffin is forced to labour for itself; it usually takes a
winding course ; and the inhabitant is secured from surprise
by forming two entrances, in order that if one entrance is at-
tacked, it may escape by the other. The egg is always depos-
ited at the furthest extremity of the hole, and is not easy to be
obtained, on account of the vigorous resistance made by the
parent bird. It is an excellent diver, plunging fearlessly from
a lofty cliff into the sea, and speedily returning with its beak
full of fish, which are secured by their heads, and lie in a row
along the bill of the Puffin, forming a kind of piscatorial fringe.
Its enormous and sharp-edged bill renders it a .formidable
antagonist to intruders. The length of the bird is thirteen

NATURAL HISTORY.

36D

Impennis (Lat. wingless), the Great Auk.

The ALCHXE or AUKS are never seen inland, but exclusively
inhabit the sea-shores. In this family the wings are small,
and in some genera useless for flight. The feet are placed so
far back that the birds, when sitting, assume an erect attitude.

The GREAT AUK is an inhabitant of the Arctic circle, but
is sometimes seen in the northern islands of Scotland. The
wings of this bird are incapable of raising it into the air, but
serve admirably as paddles when diving. It breeds princi-
pally on the shores of Iceland and Spitzbergen, laying one
large egg on a cleft of a high rock. The eggs are extremely
scarce, and fetch a very high price among collectors, a circum-
stance which has caused some most ingenious impositions.
The length of the bird is nearly three feet.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-fam ily c. Sphcniscince.
SPHENISCUS. — (Gr. -wedge-shaped.)

Demersus (Lat. submerged), the Cape Penguin.

The CAPE PENGUIN is very common at the Cape of Good
Hope and the Falkland Islands. From the extraordinary
sound it produces while on shore, it is called the Jackass
Penguin. Darwin gives the following interesting account of
this bird : — " In diving, its little plumeless wings are used as
fins, but on the land, as front legs. When crawling (it may
be said on four legs) through the tussocks, or on the side of
a grassy cliff, it moved so very quickly that it might readily
have been mistaken for a quadruped. When at sea and
fishing, it comes to the surface, for the purpose of breathing,
with such a spring, and dives again so instantaneously, that
I defy any one at first sight to be sure that it is not a fish
leaping for sport."

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family d. Urince.
URIA. — (Gr. Ovpia.)

Troil<§, the Guillemot.

The COMMON GUILLEMOT makes its appearance on our coasts
in the beginning of spring, and inhabits the cliffs overhanging
the sea. Each female deposits one egg on a naked ledge of
rock, and sits upon it with great perseverance, even suffering
itself to be taken by hand. The egg is usually a pale green,
streaked and blotched with brown, but is very variable both
in colour and markings. The length of the bird is fifteen
inches.

THE FULMAR PETREL.

The FULMAR PETREL is an inhabitant of the Arctic circle, but
breeds abundantly in St. Kilda and the Orkneys. The inhabit-
ants of those islands consider the Fulmar as one of their princi-
pal means of subsistence. It lays one white egg, large and brit-
tle, which is imbued with the peculiar oily odour that charac-
terises the bird. The food of the Fulmar consists of the flesh

372

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family IV. . Procellarida?.
Sub-family a. Procellarince.
PROCELLARIA. — (Lat. stormy.)

Glacialis (Lat. icy), the Fulmar Petrel.

and blubber of dead whales and other cetacea, and also of mol-
lusks and Crustacea. The length of the bird is sixteen inches.

THALASSIDROMA. — (Gr. Qdhacaa, the sea ; dpo^uoj-, a race.)

Pelagica (Lat. belon

;), the Stormy Petrel.

The STORMY PETREL is, under the name of Mother Carey's
ohicken, the terror of the sailor, who always considers the

NATURAL HISTORY. 373

bird as the precursor of a storm. It is the smallest of the
web-footed birds. Few storms are violent enough to keep
this curious little bird from wandering over the waves in
search of the food that the disturbed water casts to the sur-
face. Like the Fulmar, the Stormy Petrel is so exceedingly
oily in texture, that the inhabitants of the Feroe Islands draw
a wick through its body and use it as a lamp. "Wilson gives
the following account of its habits while following a ship under
sail : —

" It is indeed an interesting sight to observe these little birds
in a gale, coursing over the waves, down the declivities, up the
ascents of the foaming surf that threatens to bend over their
heads ; sweeping along the hollow troughs of the sea, as in a
sheltered valley, and again mounting with the rising billow,
and just above its surface, occasionally dropping its feet, which,
striking the water, throws it up again with additional force ;
sometimes leaping with both legs parallel, on the surface of the
roughest waves for several yards at a time. Meanwhile it
continues coursing from side to side of the ship's wake, making
excursions far and wide, to the right and to the left, now a
great way ahead, and now shooting astern for several hundred
yards, returning again to the ship as if she were all the time
stationary, though perhaps running at the rate of ten knots
an hour ! But the most singular peculiarity of this bird is
its faculty of standing and even running on the surface of the
water, which it performs with apparent facility. When any
greasy matter is thrown overboard, these birds instantly collect
round it, and facing to windward, with their long wings ex-
panded and their webbed feet patting the water, the lightness
of their bodies and the action of the wind on their wings en-
able them to do this with ease. In calm weather they per-
form the same mano3uvre by keeping their wings just so much
in action as to prevent their feet from sinking below the sur-
face. According to Buffon, it is from this singular habit that .
the whole genus have obtained the name Petrel, from the
apostle Peter, who, as Scripture informs us, also walked on the
water,"-*

* Wilson's Ornithology, vol. vii. p. 92.

NATURAL HISTORY.

DIOMED£A. — (Proper name.)

Exulans (Lat. banished), the Wandering Albatros.

The WANDERING ALBATROS, the largest of the genus, is a
well-known bird in the southern seas, following ships for many
miles in hopes of obtaining the refuse thrown overboard. So
voracious is the Albatros, that it will swallow entire a fish of
four or five pounds weight. The flight of this bird is peculiar-
ly majestic. Its extreme length of wing prevents it from rising
at once from the ground, but when once launched into the air,
it seems to float and direct its course without effort. Gould in
describing the flight of this bird says : —

" The powers of flight of the Wandering Albatros are much
greater than those of any other bird that has come under my
observation. Although during calm or moderate weather it
sometimes rests on the surface of the water, it is almost
constantly on. the wing, and is equally at ease while passing
over the glassy surface during the stillest calm, or- sweeping
with arrow-like swiftness before the most furious gale ; and
the way in which it just tops the raging billows, and sweeps
.between the gulfy waves, has a hundred times called forth
my wonder and admiration. Although a vessel running

NATURAL HISTORY. 375

before the wind frequently sails more than 200 miles in the
twenty-four hours, and that for days together, still the Albatros
has not the slightest difficulty in keeping up with the ship, but
also performs circles of many miles in extent, returning again
to hunt up the wake of the vessel for any substances thrown
overboard."

The voracity of the Albatros renders it an easy prey. A
hook is baited with a piece of blubber, fastened firmly to a
string, and suffered to tow astern. The bird immediately
sweeps down to seize its prey, and is arrested by the hook, by
means of which it is drawn into the ship. The best descrip-
tion of the nidification of the wandering Albatros is that given
by Mr. Earl, quoted by Gould.

Mr. Earl after climbing a fearfully dangerous precipice in the
Island of Tristan d'Acunha arrived at a large plain of dark
grey lava, on the summit of which the nests of the Albatros
were made. " A death-like stillness prevailed in these high
regions, and to my ear our voices had a strange unnatural echo,
arid I fancied our forms appeared gigantic, whilst the air was
piercing cold. The prospect was altogether sublime, and filled
the mind with awe. The huge Albatros here appeared to
dread no interloper or enemy ; for their young were on the
ground completely uncovered, arid the old ones were stalking
around them. They lay but one egg, on the ground, where they
make a kind of nest by scraping the earth around it ; the young
is entirely white, and covered with a woolly down, which is
very beautiful. As we approached, they snapped their beaks
with a very quick motion, making a great noise ; this and the
throwing up the contents of the stomach are the only means of
offence and defence they seem to possess. I again visited the
mountain about five months afterwards, when I found the young
albatroses still sitting on their nests, and they had never moved
away from them." The expanse of wing in the Wandering
Albatros is from eleven to fourteen feet.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family V. ... Land 03.
Sub-family b. Larlnce.
LARUS. — (Lat. a Gull.}

Marimis (Lat. belonging to the sea), the Slack-backed Gull.

The BLACK-BACKED GULL is a common bird on our coasts.
During the winter it seeks the warmer coasts of southern
Europe. It breeds in great numbers on the shores of the
Bristol Channel, the Orkneys, and other coasts of Great
Britain. Its nest is composed of grass, rushes, and other
materials, and contains three or four eggs, of an olive green
marked with very dark brown. Neither the gulls nor the
terns dive, but snatch up their prey when at or near the
surface.

THE COMMON" TERK

The TERNS or SEA-SWALLOWS are possessed of great power
and endurance of flight, their long forked tails and pointed
wings indicating strength and swiftness.

The Common Tern is found in plenty along the southern
shores of Europe, in many parts of Asia and Africa. It is
frequently seen on the southern shores of England, and has

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family c. Sternincs.
STERNA.

Hirundo (Lat. a Swallow), the Common Tern.

been found in North America. It preys on fish, which it
snatches from the surface with unerring aim, as it skims over
the waves with astonishing velocity.

The nest of this bird is made on the sand above high- water
mark, and contains two or three eggs, on which the female
usually sits by night. The length of the common Tern is
about fourteen inches.

The Noddy, so frequently celebrated by travellers who have
passed the equator, is a species of Tern.

THE TROPIC BIRD.

The TROPIC BIRD, as its name imports, is seldom seen many
degrees beyond the tropics, although a storm occasionally drives
it from its accustomed habitat.

Its rapid flight seems to be accomplished almost without
the aid of wings. It preys extensively on the flying-fish,
who frequently escapes his airy foe but to fall into the jaws
of some rapacious rover of the deep. It has been known to

178 NATURAL HISTORY.

Family VI ... Pelecamdse. — Gr. IleAe/cav, a Pelican. Pelican kind.)

Sub-family b. . Pkaetonince.

PHAETON. — (Gr. $a(0u ; proper name.)

jEthereus (Lat. belonging to the sky), the Tropic Bird.

continue on the wing for whole days and nights, but some-
times rests on the back of a turtle sleeping at the surface of
the water. The length of the Tropic Bird is about eighteen
inches.

THE SOLAN GOOSE.

The GANNET, or SOLAN GOOSE, is common on some of our
shores, especially at the Bass Rock at the entrance of the
Frith of Forth. This rock is literally covered with Gannets,
and is rented at a high price from the proprietor, who makes
over to the tenant the vast flocks of birds that take up their
residence on the rock. Great numbers of Gannets breed at
St. Kilda, and many are sent to Edinburgh and other
markets.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-family c. Pdecanince.
SULA

Bassanea (Lat. the Gannet, or Solan Goose.)

The Gannet feeds almost entirely on herrings, which it
seizes by plunging with extraordinary force from a considerable
height. This method of procuring food has led to an ingeni-
ous device for capturing the bird. A herring is fastened to
a board, and suffered to float on the surface of the water.
The Gannet, seeing the fish apparently sporting on the sur-
face, plunges at it with such force that it is instantly killed
by the blow. A Gannet was once taken when the board was
sunk to the depth of six feet, yet even at that depth the bird's
neck was dislocated, and its bill firmly stuck into the wood.
The length of the Gannet is about two feet eight inches.

The Booby is a species of Gannet. Sailors have given it
this rather inelegant name on account of the stupidity it dis-
plays in suffering itself to be knocked down with a stick, or
even taken up by hand.

NATURAL HISTORY.
PUALACROCORAX:. (Gr. $a/la/cjo6f, bald ; Kopa^, a Raven.)

Carbo (Lat. a Coal), the Cormorant.

The CORMORANT is found in abundance on our coasts, and
is widely spread over many parts of the world. It is exceed-
ingly voracious, and devours an almost incredible amount of
fish. It is an excellent diver, and chases the fish actually
under the water, seldom, if ever, returning without having
secured its prey. Like the otter, when engaged in chase, it
occasionally rises to take breath, and then resumes the
pursuit with renewed vigour. Waterton gives the following
amusing description of the proceedings of a Cormorant : —
" First raising his body nearly perpendicular, down he plunges
into the deep, and after staying there a considerable time
he is sure to bring up a fish, which he invariably swallows head
foremost. Sometimes half an hour elapses before he can
manage to accommodate a large eel quietly in his stomach.
You see him straining violently with repeated efforts to gulp
it, and when you fancy that the slippery mouthful is success-

NATURAL HISTORY. 381

fully disposed of, all of a sudden the eel retrogrades upwards
from its dismal sepulchre, struggling violently to escape.
The cormorant swallows it again, arid up again it comes, and
shows its tail a foot or more out of its destroyer's mouth. At
length, worn out with perpetual writhings and slidings, the
eel is gulped down into the 'cormorant's stomach for the last
time, there to meet its dreaded and inevitable fate. This
gormandising exhibition was witnessed here by several in-
dividuals, both ladies and gentlemen, on Nov. 26, 1832,
through an excellent eight-and-twenty guinea telescope, the
cormorant being at that time not more than a hundred yards
distant from the observers. I was of the party."

The Cormorant is easily tamed, and its fishing propensities
can be turned to good account. The Chinese, at the present
day, employ a kind of cormorant for that purpose, having
previously placed a ring round the bird's neck, to prevent it
from swallowing the fish. The eggs of this bird arc usually
laid on the rock, but sometimes in the branches of trees. A thick
coat of chalk envelopes the eggs, and can be easily scraped off
with a knife. The length of the bird is about three feet.

THE WHITE PELICAN.

The WHITE PELICAN inhabits Africa, India, and great part
of the south-eastern portions of Europe. It is a very con-
spicuous bird, its singular membranous pouch offering a dis-
tinction perfectly unmistakeable. The pouch, when distend-
ed, holds two gallons of water, but the bird has the power
of contracting it so that it is scarcely to be discerned. The
pouch also serves as a net, in which to scoop up the fish
on which the Pelican feeds.* Another most important use of
the pouch is to convey food to the young. The parent Peli-
can presses the pouch against its breast, in order to enable
the young to obtain the fish, which action, in all probability,
gave rise to the fable of the Pelican feeding its young with
its own blood. The red tip of the bill probably aided the
deception.

* The beautiful Pelicans in the Zoological Gardens exhibit this pouch and its
uses admirably.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Onocrotalus (Gr. 'Oo/cporaAof), the White Pelican.

Although a web-footed bird, the Pelican, like the cormorant,
can perch on trees, although it prefers sitting on rocks. The
colour of this bird is a pure white, with a very slight tinge of
rose colour, and the pouch is yellow. The length of the bird
is nearly six feet.

THE FRIGATE PELICAN.

The FRIGATE PELICAN, or MAN-OF-WAR BIRD, is usually
found between the tropics. Although when stripped of its
feathers it is hardly longer than a pigeon, yet no man can
touch at the same time the tips of its extended wings. The
long wing bones are exceedingly light, and the whole ap-
paratus of air-cells is extremely developed, so that its real
weight is very trifling. It flies at a great height above

NATURAL HISTORY. 383

Aqufla (Lat. an Eagle), the Frigate Pelican.

the water, and from that elevation pounces down on fish,
especially the poor persecuted flying-fish. According to
some authors, the name of Man-of-War Bird was given to it
because its appearance was said to foretel the coming of a
ship ; probably because the Frigate Pelican and ships are
equally averse to storms, and both like to come into harbour if
the weather threatens. Under the throat of the Frigate Pelican
is a large pouch, of a deep red colour, which can be distended
with air at the pleasure of the bird. The pouch is larger and
of a more brilliant red in the male than in his consort, and the
general plumage of the female is not so bright as that of the
male.

Although its swiftness of wing and general activity enable
it to snatch a fish from the surface of the water, or to pounce
upon the flying-fish before it can again seek the protection '
of its native element, yet it too often uses its powers in
robbing other birds of their lawful prey. It is enabled in
some mysterious way to find its way home by night, even
though it may be four or five hundred miles from land.
The length of the male bird is three feet, and the expanse cf
wing eight feet. »

381 NATURAL HISTORY.

Class III. . . REPTIUA. — (Lat. Creeping things.}

Order I 3A URA.— (Gr. Soupa, a Lizard.)

Sub-order I. LEPTOGLOSS^E. — (Gr. AeTrrof, slender; -ylitiaaa, the tongue.)
Tribe I. ... CYCLOSAURA. — (Gr. Ku/cAof, a circle ; aavpa.)
Family IV. Lacertinidas. — (Lat. Lacerta, a Lizard. Lizard-kind.)

ZOOTOCA. — Gr. Zwof, living; TIKTU, to bring forth.)

Vivipara (Lat. viviparous), the Common Lizard.

We now arrive at the singular Class of REPTILES. The
animals of this class vary exceedingly in their forms, sizes, and
habits, but the peculiar formation of the circulatory system,
together with many other anatomical distinctions, plainly mark
them out as a distinct class.

The LIZARDS are usually active, bright-eyed little creatures,
delighting to bask in the sun, near some safe retreat, to which
they dart with astonishing celerity upon the slightest alarm.
Two species of Lizards inhabit this country, the Common
Lizard, and the Sand Lizard. The latter animal is consider-
ably larger than the common Lizard, as it sometimes measures
a foot in length. It frequents sandy heaths, and in the sand
its eggs are deposited, fourteen or fifteen in number. The
eggs are hatched by the heat of the sun, and the young im-
mediately lead an independent life. During the winter this
as well as the Common Lizard hybernates into a burrow usually

NATURAL HISTORY. 38»

made under the roots of a tree, nor does it again make its ap-
pearance until the spring.

The Common Lizard is only six inches in length. It is
more active than the Sand Lizard, disappearing like magic on.
being alarmed. When seized its tail frequently snaps off like
glass. Both British Lizards feed on insects.

Tribe II GEISSOSAURA. — (Gr. Teiaoov, a cornice ; aavpa.)

Family XV. Scincidaj. — (Gr. 2/ay/cof, a kind of Lizard. )

ANGUI*. — (Lat. a Snake.)

Fragilis (Lat. fragile), the Blind-worm or Slow-worm.

The BLIND-WORM is not a snake, as generally supposed, but
a lizard of the Skink family. It is perfectly harmless, its
small mouth and very minute teeth precluding all attempts to
injure, even if it had* the will. When alarmed it snaps asun-
der at the slightest blow, like the tail of the Common Lizard,
and from that peculiarity has derived its name of " fragilis." It
feeds almost entirely on small slugs, its jaws not being capable
of admitting any larger prey. It is very common in most
parts of England, and may be seen basking in the sun in
hedgerows or under old walls. Iti eyes are very small, but
brilliant.

R

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-order II. . PACHTGLOSS^E. — (Gr. Ha^vg, thick ; y/Maoa, the tongue.)

Tribe III NYCTISAURA.— (Gr. Nt>^, night; oavpa, a Lizard.)

Family XXII. Geckotidse.— (Geckos.)

Verus (Lat. true), the Gecko.

The GECKOS are nocturnal lizards, remaining hidden in
crevices during the day, but wandering forth at night in search
of their insect prey. They run about on the smooth walls and
ceilings with the greatest ease, as their feet are furnished with
an apparatus exactly resembling a boy's sucker, by means of
which they are able to adhere to the wall or even to the roof.
They labour in their country under precisely the same imputa-
tions that the toad does in England, namely, of being venomous
creatures, producing horrible diseases when touched, together
with many similar tales. Geckos are spread over every quarter
of the globe, but are most numerous in Southern Asia. The
species represented is common in India.

NATURAL HISTORY. 387

Tribe IV STROBILOSAURA.— (Gr Srpo^Aof, anything twist-
ed, a Fir-cone.)
Family XXIII. IguanTdse. — (Iguanas.)

Tuberculata (Lat. covered with pimples), tlic Iguana.

The IGUANA family is a very large one, containing 150
species. The Common Iguana is a native of Brazil, Cayenne,
Jamaica, &c. In spite of its repulsive appearance, it is with
many people a favourite article of food, and is said some-
what to resemble chicken. It is very fierce when attacked,
and snaps at its enemies in a most determined manner, often
scaring away an intruder by the ferocity of its aspect. It is
generally taken by throwing a noose over its head, and dragging
it from the branches by main force. It is then immediately
killed, as its sharp notched teeth inflict a very disagreeable
wound. Sometimes it is hunted with dogs trained to the
sport. It attains a considerable size, frequently reaching the
length of six feet. It feeds usually on vegetable substances,
such as leaves, fruit, and fungi ; but iguanas have been seen
in the island of Isabella, that fed on eggs, insects, and even
the intestines of fowls. An enormous fossil iguana has been
discovered by Dr. Mantell, whose length must have been nearly
seventy feet.

NATURAL HISTORY.
Family XXIV. Agauudfc.
DRACO. — (Lat. a Dragon.)

Yolans (Lat. flying), the Flywy Dragon.

The terrible name of FLYING DRAGON belongs to a harm-
less little lizard, bearing small resemblance to the terrific ani-
mal so graphically depicted by Retsch. This curious little
lizard lives on trees, and feeds on insects instead of devouring
pilgrims bound to the Gnadenbilde. The peculiar structure of
its body bears a singular resemblance to that of the flying
squirrel. The first six false ribs are greatly elongated, and
support a wing-like expansion of skin, which when stretched
serves to bear them up as they skim through the air from one
tree to another. While running about on the branches, the
so-called wings are folded to the side, but when it wishes to
throw itself from the tree, the ribs are raised, and the wings
expanded. It is common in Java, India, and Borneo.

THE CHAMELEON.

The COMMON CHAMELEON is plentifully found in northern
Africa, the south of Spain, and Sicily. It lives on trees, but
exhibits none of the activity usually found in arboreal reptiles.
On the contrary, its movements are absurdly grave and sol-
emn. The whole activity of the animal seems to be centered
in its tongue, by means of which organ it secures flies and

NATURAL HISTORY.

Tribe Y DENDROSAURA. — (Gr. Aevdpav, a tree ; cavpa.)

Family XXV. Chameleomda?. — (Gr. Xa/aaiMuv, a Chameleon. Cha-
meleon kind.)

CHAMELEON.

Vulgilm (Lat. common), the Chameleon.

other insects with such marvellous rapidity, that the ancients
may be well pardoned for their assertion that the air formed
the only food of the Chameleon.

Highly exaggerated descriptions have been given of the
changes of colour in this animal. The changes are by no
means so complete, nor are the colours so bright, as generally
supposed.

u And then its hue,

Who ever saw so fine a blue ?"

The poetic moralist further recounts its changes to green,
black, and ivkitc. The umpire referred to in the poem is re-
corded to assert,

" If you don't find him black, I'll eat him ;"

but every one who has watched a Chameleon for any time, will
be equally ready to eat him the moment that he turns white.

The power of the Chameleon to move its eyes in different
directions, gives it a most singular aspect. Its enormously long
tongue can be withdrawn into the mouth when not in use, but
when the creature sees a fly within reach, the tongue is instant-
ly darted forth, and by means of a gummy secretion at the tip
secures the fly. The whole movement is so quick as almost to
elude the eye.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Order II OPHIDIA.—(G;\\ "Ofa, a Serpent.)

Sub-order I. VIPERINA. — (Lat. Tipera, a Yiper.)
Family I. . . Crotalidse. — (Gr. KporaAov, a Rattle.)

UROPSOPIIUS. — (Gr. Ovpd, the tail ; ifjutyoc, a noise.)

Durissus (Lat. durus, harsh), the Rattle-snake.

THE peculiar gliding movements of the Snakes render them
excellent types of the Reptiles, a word derived from the Latin
repo, I creep. The extraordinary flexibility of their bodies is
caused by the structure of their vertebrae, each one of which fits
into the one behind it by a ball-and-socket joint, thus allowing
freedom of motion in every direction.

The RATTLE-SNAKE is a native of America. Its name is de-
rived from the loose bony structure at the extremity of its tail,
called the rattle, and which by the sound of its movements gives
timely intimation of the vicinity of this terrible reptile. Fortu-
nately, its disposition is exceedingly sluggish, and it invariably
sounds its rattle when irritated or disturbed. Its bite is inevi-
tably mortal, and death always ensues within a few hours after
its bite.

The deadly weapons with which the venomous serpents
are armed, are two long curved fangs belonging to the upper
jaw, and moving on a hinge by which they lie flat in the

NATURAL HISTORY. 391

mouth, when not wanted. An aperture exists in the point
of the fang, by which a poisonous fluid, secreted in a gland at
the base of the tooth, is poured into the wound, and, mixing
with the blood, rapidly carries its deadly influence throughout
the entire system. A short time since an American physician
was exhibiting a caged rattle-snake to his friends. He ap-
proached his hand too near the irritated reptile, who instanta-
neously inflicted a wound, and although every precaution wa?:
taken, the bite proved fatal in a few hours.

Waterton gives some useful hints respecting snakes, especial-
ly those of the venomous kind : —

" When a man is ranging a forest, and sees a serpent gliding
towards him (which is a very rare occurrence), he has only to
tack off in a side direction, and he may be perfectly assured
that it will not follow him. Should the man, however, stand
still, and should the snake be one of those overgrown monsters
capable of making a meal of a man, — in these cases the snake
would pursue its course ; and when it got sufficiently near to
the place where the man was standing, would raise the fore-
part of its body in a retiring attitude, and then dart at him
and seize him. A man may pass within a yard of rattle-snakes
with safety, provided he goes quietly ; but should he irritate a
rattle-snake, or tread incautiously upon it, he would infallibly
receive a wound from its fang, though, by the bye, with the
point of that fang curved downwards, not upwards."*

The same author was nearly falling a victim to a rattle-
snake. He saw what he thought wras a green locust struggling
in the grass. On stooping down to examine it, he was consid-
erably alarmed at discovering it to be the tail of a rattle-snake.

The length of this snake has seldom been known to exceed
seven feet.

* This latter passage refers to a plate in Audubon's Ornithology, where a rattle-
snake is represented attacking a mocking-bird's nest, and threatening the birds with
two i'angs curved upwards — a mistake which Waterton never loses sight of.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family II. Yiperidae.
CLOTIJO.* — (Gr. proper name.)

Arietans (Lat. butting like a Ram], the Puff Adder.

The PUFF ADDER is an inhabitant of Southern Africa. It is
a short thick flattish snake, of a most sinister and malignant
aspect. The following alarming adventure occurred to Mr.
Cole, a resident in the Cape.

" I was going quietly to bed one evening, wearied by a long
day's hunting, when, close to my feet and by my bedside,
some glittering substance caught rny eye. I stooped to pick
it up ; but, ere my hand had quite reached it, the truth flash-
ed across me — it was a snake ! Had I followed my first nat-
ural impulse, I should have sprung away, but not being able
clearly to see in what position the reptile was lying, or which
way his head was pointed, I controlled myself, and remained
rooted breathless to the spot. Straining my eyes, but moving
not an inch, I at length clearly distinguished a huge puff
adder, the most deadly snake in the colony, whose bite would
have sent me to the other world in an hour or two. I watch-
ed him in silent horror ; his head was from me, so much the
worse ; for this snake, unlike any other, always rises and

* This is the name of one of the three Fates, viz. Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos
All ihroo iuMies are used as genera of venomous serpents.

NATURAL HISTORY. 393

strikes back. He did not move, he was asleep. Not daring
to shuffle my feet, lest he should awake and spring upon me,
I took a jump backwards, that would have done honour to a
gymnastic master, and thus darted outside the door of the
room ; with a thick stick I then returned and settled his wor-
ship."

The same author remarks in his " Five Years' Residence in
South Africa," that its (the puff adder's) bite will kill occa-
sionally within an hour.

" One of my friends lost a favourite and valuable horse by
its bite in less than two hours after the attack. It is a slug-
gish reptile, and therefore more dangerous, for instead of rush-
ing away like its fellows, at the sound of approaching footsteps,
it half raises its head and hisses. Often have I come to a sud-
den pull up on foot or on horseback, on hearing their dreaded
warning."

CKRASTJ:S. — (Gr.

, horned.)

Hasselquistii (Lat. of Hasselquist), the Cerastes.

The CERASTES is a well-known snake in Egypt, and derives
its name from the horny scale over each eyebrow. Bruce
mentions that the Cerastes can spring several feet in any

394 NATURAL HISTORY.

direction ; but his description of the stratagems employed by
it, "to surprise any one who is too far from it," is probably
more fanciful than correct, as snakes do not attack unless
suddenly surprised or irritated. The size of the .Cerastes is by
no means great, as its average length is only eighteen inches.
The snake charmers of Egypt employ these reptiles precisely
as their brethren of India employ the Cobra de Capello.

PELIAC. — (Gr. proper name.)

Bern s, the Viper.

The COMMON VIPER, or ADDER, is the only venomous
reptile inhabiting England, nor is its bite nearly so dangerous
in its consequences as has been reported. Seldom has the
bite of the Viper proved mortal, and in all probability, had
proper precaution:; been taken, no case would have been
fatal. Viper catchers employ olive oil as a remedy against
the bite, and, from all accounts, it appears to be a certain
preservative against all evil effects.

It is asserted that when danger threatens, the female viper
opens her mouth and permits her brood to hide themselves,
but it is by no means an ascertained fact.

NATURAL HISTORY. 305

Frogs, lizards, mice, and other small animals, form the food
of this reptile, but sometimes it falls a victim to its own vorac-
ity. In the Magazine of Natural History, a viper is mentioned
which had swallowed a lizard nearly as large as itself, and one
of whose legs was protruding from its side.

In former times, preparations from vipers, and especially
viper-broth, were in great request as medicines.

Sub-order II. . COLUBHIXA. — (Lai.. Coluber, a Snake.)
Family IV. . . BokLe.

Constrictor (Lat. a binder), the Boa.

The enormous BOA-CONSTRICTOR inhabits tropical America.
It is not venomous, but is not the less dangerous, as the
tremendous power of its muscles enables it to crush its
prey in the coils of its huge body. In order to procure its
food, the Boa-constrictor lies in wait by the side of some

396 NATURAL HISTORY.

river or pool, where animals of all kinds are likely to come to
quench their thirst. It patiently waits until some animal
draws within reach, when, with one spring, the Boa fixes its
teeth in the creature's head, coils its body round its victim,
and crushes it to death. After the unfortunate animal has
been reduced almost to a shapeless mass by the pressure of the
snake, its destroyer makes preparations for swallowing it en-
tire, a task which it accomplishes, although the slaughtered
animal is usually very much larger than the dimensions of the
serpent. At last, the snake succeeds in swallowing its prey,
and then lies torpid for nearly a month, until its enormous
meal is digested, when it again sallies forth in search cf
another.

Even the buffalo has been known to fall a victim to this fear-
ful serpent, whose length frequently exceeds twenty-five feet.

THE COBRA DE CAPELLO.

The COBRA DE CAPELLO is a native of India. It must not
be confounded with several other hooded snakes, such as the
Haje of Egypt, the snake so frequently depicted en the hiero-
glyphical monuments.

The serpent charmers invariably use this formidable reptile
for their performances. The exhibitors possess several Cobras
shut up in baskets, and when commencing their performances,
the lid of the basket is opened, and the snake creeps out.
Its course is arrested by the sound of the rude file that
the charmer always carries, and it immediately expands its
beautiful though threatening hood, erects its neck, and com-
mences a series of undulatory movements, which are continued
until the sound of the fife ceases, when the snake instantly
drops, and is replaced in its basket by its master. The
charmers appear to be able to discover snakes, and to induce
them to leave their retreats. Indeed it is rather a singular
fact, that those travellers who most strongly insist that the
snakes thus caught are tame and divested of their fangs,
appear to forget that even in that case the creatures must
have been previously caught in order to deprive them of

NATURAL HISTORY.
Family V. Colubridax

397

Tripuduins (Lat. dancing), the Cobra de Capcllo.

their weapons. The length of this snake is about five or six
feet.*

The Egyptian Asp, or Haje, is supposed to be the asp by
whose bite Cleopatra died, arid is in all probability the deal'
adder alluded to in the Scriptures, " which stoppeth her ears,
and refuseth to hear the voice of the charmer, charm he never
so wisely."

* A Cobra in the Zoological Gardens was a long time in learning caution. It was
accustomed to lie coiled up at the bottom of the cage until a spectator came close,
when it invariably darted at him, of course striking its nose against the glass with
no small violence. On my first visit to the Reptile House afler its arrival, it mada
its customary attack, and after the space of a week, it again struck at me. On a
visit, several months afterwards, it laid very quietly at the bottom of its cage, and
contented itself with a hiss.

1 NATURAL HISTORY.
ATXIX.— (Ln*. a Water Snake.)

Torqr.ata (Lat. collared}, the Ringed Snake.

The COMMON RINGED or GRASS SNAKE is a harmless inhab-
itant of this country, and may be frequently seen or heard
gliding along the hedge-banks in search of food. It is easily
tamed, and soon learns to know its master. It lives principally
on frogs, mice, young birds, newts, &C.* It is an excellent
swimmer, and from the peculiar structure of its lungs can
remain under water for some time. It seems very fond of the
water, and is most commonly found on marshy land, or in
hedges planted over a wet ditch. The viper, on the contrary,
prefers dry sandy situations.

Like all other serpents, the Ringed Snake sheds its skin
several times during the year. The entire skin comes off,

* Several snakes kept tame at a village in Wiltshire were fed with frogs and small
newts, which latter animals the snake was induced to swallow, by the simple process
of opening the snake's mouth and pushing the newt down its throat. This process,
although apparently rather rude, seemed to cause the snakes no inconvenience.

NATURAL HISTORY.

even the covering of the eyes. A rent opens in the neck, and
the snake, by entangling itself in the thick grass or bushes,
actually creeps out of its skin, turning it inside out in the
effort.

Order III. . CIIELOXIA.—(G\\ Xehuvrj, a Tortoise.)
Family I. . Testiidinidro. — (Lat. Tcctudo, a Tortoise.

Grffica (Lat. Greek}, the Tortoise.

The whole of this order is characterized by the complete
suit of bony armour with which the animals are protected.
The so-called " shell" is in fact a development of various bones,
and not a mere horny appendage, like the coverings of the
armadillo and manis. The upper shield is called the " cara-
pace," and is united to the under shield, or " plastron," by
certain bones, leaving orifices for the protrusion of the head
arid limbs. Most species are able to withdraw their head and
lirnbs completely within the shell, and in some few the orifices
are closed by a kind of hinge joint. The tortoiseshell of com-
merce is a series of horny plates that cover the exterior of the

400 NATURAL HISTORY.

shield, and is in great request on account of the beautiful wavy
markings that are so familiar to our eyes.

The Tortoises and Turtles possess no teeth, but the sides of
their jaws are very hard and sharp, enabling them to crop
vegetable substances, or to inflict a severe bite.

The family is divided into Land Tortoises, Marsh Tortoises,
River Tortoises, and Marine Tortoises, or Turtles.

The COMMON LAND TORTOISE is found in abundance in the
south of Europe. It is often kept in captivity in this country,
and is very long lived, individuals being known to have ex-
ceeded two hundred years. Its movements are very slow, but
it can excavate a burrow with unexpected rapidity. Secure
in an impenetrable covering, it bids defiance to any ordinary
enemy, except, as Sidney Smith wittily observes, "man and the
boa-constrictor. Man, however, takes him home and roasts
him, and the boa-constrictor swallows him whole, shell and
all, and consumes him slowly in the interior, as the Court cf
Chancery docs a great estate."

THE COMMON GREEN TURTLE.

The feet of the MARINE TORTOISES, or TURTLES, are modi-
fied into fins or nippers, just as are the feet of the seals, and
consequently, although the Turtles are active in the water,
on land their walk is nothing but an awkward shuffle. The
flippers, however, are admirable instruments for scooping out
the sand, in which the eggs are laid, and afterwards covered
over. Nearly two hundred eggs are laid in one nest. The
eggs are held in great estimation, but the albumen, or " white,"
does not become hard by boiling.

The COMMON GREEN TURTLE, whose flesh is considered
such a luxury, is common in Jamaica, and most of the islands
of the East and West Indies. The Turtles are captured
by turning them on their backs, for the carapace is so flat,
and their legs are so short, that they are forced to lie help-
less until their captors have leisure to drag them away.

NATURAL HISTORY.

401

Family Y. Cheloniadro.

CJIELONIA.

Yiridis (Lat. (jrccn\ the Turtle.

The Green Turtle has been known to reach the weight of five
or six hundred pounds. The tortoiseshell of commerce is almost
entirely obtained from the Hawksbill Turtle.

THE CROCODILE.

These animals are separated from the Lizards on account
of the peculiar horny covering with which they are pro-
tected.

The CROCODILE is an inhabitant of the Old World, the
ALLIGATOR of the New, and the two animals are best dis-
tinguished by the construction of the jaws. In the Crocodiles
the lower canine teeth fit into a notch in the edge of the upper
jaw, and there is in consequence a contraction of the muzzle
just behind the nostrils. The lower canine teeth of the Alli-
gators fit into a pit in the edge of the upper jaw, and in con-

402 NATURAL HISTORY.

Order IV. . EMYDOSA URL—(Gr. 'Epvs, the Water-Tortoise ; aavpa.)
Family I. . Crocodilidoe. — (Gr. KpoKodfdos. Crocodile kind.)*

Vulgui'is (Lat. common], the Crocodile.

sequence no contraction is needed. At the back of the throat
is a valve completely shutting out water, but leaving the pas-
sage to the nostrils free, so that the Crocodile can keep his
mouth open when beneath the surface, without swallowing the
Avater, or can hold his prey to drown under the water while he
himself breathes at ease with his nostrils at the surface. There
is no true tongue.

The Common Crocodile inhabits many African rivers, and
is, probably, the reptile infesting the Ganges. The Nile, how-
ever, is the best known haunt of this terrible creature.

The Crocodile feeds 011 fish, floating carrion, and dogs or
other animals, which it is enabled to surprise as they come to
drink at the water's edge, but man frequently falls a victim

* The word Crocodile literally signifies, " one afraid of saffron."

NATURAL HISTORY. 403

to its voracity. In revenge for this treatment all nations per-
secuted with this pest have devised various methods of killing
it. The Negroes of some parts of Africa are sufficiently bold
and skilful to attack the Crocodile in his own element. They
fearlessly plunge into the water, and diving beneath the
Crocodile plunge the dagger with which they are armed into
the creature's belly, which is not protected by the coat of
mail that guards the other parts of its body. The usual plan
is to lie in wait near the spot where the Crocodile is accus-
tomed to repose. This is usually a sandy bank, and the
hunter digs a hole in the sand, and armed with a sharp
harpoon patiently awaits the coming of his expected prey.
The Crocodile comes to its accustomed spot, and is soon
asleep, when it is suddenly roused by the harpoon, which
penetrates completely through its scaly covering. The hunter
immediately retreats to a canoe, and hauls at the line attached
to the harpoon until the Crocodile is at the surface, when a
second harpoon is darted. The struggling animal is soon
wearied out, dragged to shore, and dispatched by dividing the
spinal chord. In order to prevent the infuriated reptile from
biting the cord asunder, it is composed of about thirty small
lines, not twisted, but only bound together at intervals of two
feet.

When on land it is not difficult to escape the Crocodile, as
certain projections on the vertebrae of the neck prevent it from
turning its head to any extent.

The eggs of this creature are very small, hardly exceeding
those of a goose ; numbers are annually destroyed by birds of
prey and quadrupeds, especially the Ichneumon.

THE ALLIGATOR.

The ALLIGATOR, or CAYMAN, is an inhabitant of the New
World, and is unpleasantly common in the rivers of North
America. It pursues fish with exceeding dexterity, by driving
a shoal of them into a creek, and then plunging amid the
terrified mass, and devouring its victims at its pleasure. It
also catches pigs, dogs, and other animals that venture too
close to the river. In that case, as the animal is tco large to

404 NATURAL HISTORY.

Family II. Alligatoriche. — (Lat. a binder. Alligator-kind.)

Mississipensis (Lat. of the Misnis.tipi), the Alligator.

be swallowed entire, the Alligator conceals it in some hole in
the bank until it begins to putrefy, when it is dragged out,
and devoured under the concealment of the rank herbage
fringing the river.

The usual method of taking this creature is by baiting a
most formidable four-pointed hook, and suffering it to float
in the river. When an alligator has swallowed it, he is
hauled on shore by the rope, and slaughtered. "Waterton
gives a very amusing account of catching a cayman. Tho
reptile had swallowed the hook, and was being towed ashore.
Waterton was waiting for him, armed with the mast of the boat
to force it down the throat of the cayman should he prove
restive. " By this time the cayman was within two yards of
me : I saw he was in a state of fear and perturbation. I in'
stantly dropped the mast, sprang up. and jumped on his back

NATURAL HISTORY. 403

turning half round as I vaulted, so that I gained my seat with
my face in a right position. I immediately seized his fore legs,
and by main force twisted them on his back ; thus they served
me for a bridle.

" He now seemed to have recovered from his surprise, and
probably fancying himself in hostile company, he began to
plunge furiously, and lashed the sand with his long and pow-
erful tail. I was out of reach of the strokes of it, by being near
his head. He continued to plunge and strike, and made my
seat very uncomfortable."

In Audubon's American Ornithology is an account of a
wounded ibis chased by the alligators. A white ibis had been
shot, and had fallen into the water with a broken wing.
" The exertions which it made to reach the shore seemed to
awake the half torpid alligators that lay in the deep mud at
tiie bottom of the pool. One showed his head above the
water, then a second and third. All gave chase to the
wounded bird, which, on seeing its dreaded and deadly fees,
made double speed towards the veiy spot where we stood. I
was surprised to see how much faster the bird swam than the
reptiles, who, with jaws widely opened, urged their heavy
bodies through the water. The ibis was now within a few
yards of us. It was the alligator's last chance. Springing
forwards, as it were, he raised his body almost out of the
water ; his jaws nearly touched the terrified bird, when, by
pulling three triggers at once, we lodged the" contents of our
guns in the throat of the monster. Threshing furiously with
his tail, and rolling his body in agony, the alligator at last
sunk to the mud ; and the ibis, as if in gratitude, walked to
our very feet, and then lying down, surrendered himself to us."

Like the Crocodile, the Alligator lays its eggs in the sandy
bank of the river. Fortunately, but few of the young ever
reach maturity, as their ranks are thinned by various birds
and beasts of prey before the eggs are hatched, and by the at-
tacks of large fishes, and even their own species, when they
have reached the water.

406

NATURAL HISTORY.

Class IV. . . AMPHIBIA. — (Gr. 'Afjupipioc, leading a double life, i.e. on

land and on water.)

Order I. . . BATRACHIA.—(&Y. Ba'rpo^of, a Frog.)
Sub-order I. SALIENTIA. — (Lat. Leaping animals.)

RAXA.— (Lat, a Frog.)

Temporaria (Lat. temporary), the Common Frog.

The appearance and habits of the FROG and the TOAD are
so familiar as to require but little description. A short ac-
count, however, is necessary, of the peculiarities common to
both Frogs and Toads.

In the early stage of their existence, these animals are
termed tadpoles. They at first appear to be nothing but head
and tail, but after several days have passed, four legs are ob-
served to become developed. These rapidly increase, and the
little creature closely resembles a small eft. In due time,
however, the tail is lost, and the creature becomes a perfect
frog. Another important change also takes place. In its tad-
pole state the creature was essentially a water animal, but after
its change has taken place it is not able to exist under water
for any great length of time, and is forced to come to the sur-
face to breathe.

The tongue of the Frog is curiously fixed almost at the

NATURAL HISTORY. 407

entrance of the mouth, and when at rest points backwards
down the throat. When, however, the Frog comes within reach
of a slug or insect, the tongue is darted out with exceeding
rapidity, the slug secured, carried to the back of the throat, and
swallowed.

Both frogs and toads hybernate, the former congregating
in multitudes in the mud at the bottoms of ponds and marshes,
while the latter choose a hole in the ground, frequently at the
roots of a tree, and pass the winter in solitary dignity.^

The skin of these animals has the property of imbibing
water, so that if an apparently emaciated irog is placed in a
damp place, it will soon look quite plump.

The Common Frog is a \vell known frequenter of marshy
places and the banks of rivers. It is an admirable swimmer,
and from the peculiar construction of its lungs can remain for
some time under water, but is forced periodically to come to
the surface for the purpose of breathing.

The Bull-Frog is an inhabitant of North America. It is very
voracious, feeding upon fishes, mollusks, and even young fowl.
Its powers of leaping are so great that an Indian was not able
to overtake an irritated bull-frog after it had sprung three hops
in advance. It is very large, measuring about seven inches in
length.

The Tree Frogs are very peculiar animals. The construc-
tion of their feet, something resembling that of the geckos, en-
ables them to traverse the branches, and even to hang on the
under surface of a pendant leaf, which it so resembles in colour
that the unwary insect passes by and is instantly seized by the
watchful frog. The Green. Tree Frog is the most common,
and is plentifully found in southern Europe and northern Africa.
There are several specimens in the Zoological Gardens, which
present a most absurd appearance as they stick against the pane
of glass forming the front of their cage.

* In February, 1852, two frogs were dug out of the play-ground of Magdalen School,
Oxford. They were about a foot from the surface of the ground, and their habitation
was quite smooth. Both were sitting with their mouths pointed upwards, but I could
not ascertain if there had been auy communication with the open air.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Common Toad.

The COMMON TOAD has had its full share of marvellous tales.
Its poisonous properties are celebrated in many an ancient
chronicle, as are also the virtues of the jewel contained in its
head.

Its skin certainly does secrete an acrid humour, which at all
events defends it from dogs, who can never be induced to bite
a toad a second time ; but of course such absurd notions as the
romantic story of the death of a young lady and her lover, who
each ate a leaf of a shrub at the root of which a toad had made
its habitation, need no refutation.

The Toad is easily tamed. A correspondent from the coun-
try has kindly sent an account of a tame toad, that had lived
in the family for several years, and which was accustomed to
sup on a lump of sugar.

The well-known instances of imprisoned toads who must
have spent many years in their narrow habitations, are
apparently explained by the supposition that some aperture
or fissure existed, through which air and minute insects
could pass, sufficient for their nourishment while in a semi-
torpid condition. Certainly those experimented on by Dr.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Buckland in 1825, and from whom all air was cut off, died be-
fore a year's imprisonment. The Toad casts its skin at certain
times, but we never find the slough as we do that of the snake,
as the toad invariably swallows its former covering.

Sub-order II. GRADIENTIA. — (Lat. walking animals.)

Family I. ... SalamandridcE. — (Gr. SaXd/Liavdpa, a Salamander.)

TRITON. — (Gr. Tpiruv, a Sea-god.)

Cri status (Lat. crested), the Common Newt.

The NEWTS are separated from the lizards on account of their
changes while young. Like the frogs, they are first tadpoles,
and do not assume their perfect shape until six weeks after
their exclusion from the eggs.

The Common Newt is a beautiful inhabitant of the ponds,
ditches, and still waters. It feeds principally on tadpoles and
worms, which it eats with a peculiar rapid snap.^ It is con-

* I have frequently seen it attack the smaller newt with greaf perseverance, but I
was never fortunate enough to see it kill its prey.

I kept some newts for some time in a large glass vessel, and noticed that when a

new inhabitant was added, it always cast its skin within two or three days. The

skiti came off in pieces, the covering of the feet slipping off like a glove, but I could

never see how the creature contrived to pull it off.

S

410 NATURAL HISTORY.

stantly in the habit of rising to the surface of the water in order
to breathe.

Many country people have great horror of these beautiful
and harmless little animals. In a little village in Wiltshire
there is a current anecdote of a girl who was bitten in the arm
by an effet, who spit fire into the wound. The girl consequently
lost her arm. Some of these newts or efts were placed in a
trough where the cows were accustomed to drink. After a few
days a calf died, and nothing would convince the rustics that
the efFets were not the cause of the untimely decease of the
calf, although it had never come near the trough, but was safely
fastened in the cow-house. The male Newt is distinguished by
a beautiful crimson-tipped wavy crest of loose skin, that extends
along the whole course of the back and tail,* and which, to-
gether with the rich orange-coloured belly, makes it a most beau-
tiful creature. The female has a singular habit of laying her
eggs upon long leaves of water-plants, and actually tying them
in the leaf by a regular knot.

Order V. . . MEANT! A.— (Lat. gliding animals.)
Family I. . . Proteidse.

.PROTEUS. — (Proper name.)

Angumus (Lat. like a Snake), the Proteus.

The PROTEUS is an extraordinary animal, which has been
found in dark subterranean lakes, many hundred feet below

* This crest is represented in the engraving, but it does not remain erect while the
eft is on the land, but falls over the back and can hardly be discerned. In the water,
it is erect, and constantly undulating.

* NATURAL HISTORY. 411

the surface of the earth, where no ray of light can possibly enter.
The eyes of this singular creature are mere points covered with
skin, and useless for vision ; indeed when in captivity it always
chooses the darkest parts of the vessel in which it is confined.

The Proteus breathes in two ways — by lungs and by gills,
the latter organs appearing in the form of two tufts, one on
each side of the neck, just above the fore limbs. The circula-
tion of the blood in these branchial tufts can easily be seen
with a microscope of moderate power. These tufts are of a
rather deeper pink tinge than the remainder of the body, which
is of a very pale flesh-colour. Exposure to light darkens the
tints both of gills and body. It bears some resemblance to the
young of the newts, which are furnished with branchial tufts,
which they lose upon attaining maturity, and were therefore
for some time thought to be the young of some unknown reptile.
It has, however, been proved to be a perfect animal, and has
been found of all sizes.

It is easily kept in water and requires no feeding, but the
water must be frequently changed to keep it in health. The
blood disks of this animal are exceedingly large ; so large, in-
deed, as almost to be distinguished by the naked eye. When
in captivity, its movements are slow and eel-like, nor does it
seem to make much use of its almost rudimentary limbs.

It has usually been found on the soft mud of a small lake in
the grotto of Maddalena. It is not always present, and has
been conjectured to be the inhabitant of some unknown sub-
terranean body of water, and to have been forced through the
crevices of the rocks. Besides the grotto of Maddalena at
Adelsburg, they have also been found at Sittich, thirty miles
distant, thrown up from a subterranean cavity.

412

NATURAL HISTORY.

Class V PISCES.— (Lat. Fishes.)

Sub-class I PISCES OSSEL— (Lat. bony fishes.)

Order I.... ACANTHOPTERYGIL— ( Gr. "AKavOog, a thorn;

Trrepvyiov, a fin.)

Sub-order I. DACTYLOPHORL— (Gr. Aa/cri^o?, a finger; <j)£pu, I bear.)
Family!.. . Triglidce.— (Gr. Tpiyfa, a Mullet.)

Cuculus (Lat. a Cuckoo), the Gurnard.

As the FISHES live exclusively in the water, it is necessary
that their organs of respiration should be differently formed
from those of the animals breathing atmospheric air. Instead
of the purification of the blood being accomplished by the
contact of atmospheric air in the apparatus called lungs, that
office is performed by the water, which passes into the mouth
of the fish, and from thence out at the gill-covers, on its
way being strained through the singular structure called the
" gills." These gills are able to extract from the water suffi-
cient oxygen to purify the blood of the fish. If the oxygen
has already been extracted, the fish instantly dies. The same
effect is produced if the fish be so held as to prevent the

NATURAL HISTORY. 413

water from flowing in the proper direction, so that it is per-
fectly possible to drown a fish ; although L'Estrange may doubt
the fact : —

"And like those sages that would drown a fish,
1 am condemn'd to suffer— what I wish."

Most anglers are perfectly aware of the power obtained by keep-
ing the head of a hooked fish doivn the stream.

The elongated form of fishes, and their smooth covering, af-
fording but little resistance to the water, beautifully show their
perfect adaptation for the element in which they reside.

Their rapid movements through the water are principally
performed by means of a lateral vibration of the tail, just as a
boat is sculled along by a single oar at the stern, or by a con-
stant vibration of the rudder.^ The fins serve principally as
balancers.

Most fish possess a singular organ called the " swimming-
bladder." This is a membranous pouch, varying exceedingly
in size and shape, situated close under the spine, and filled by
some means with gas, mostly found to be nitrogen, but in deep-
sea-fishes, an excess of oxygen is discovered to exist. The fish
seems to be able to rise or sink by means of compressing or
expanding this pouch, without being forced to make use of its
tail or fins.

The smooth scaly covering with which most fish are fur-
nished, is admirably fitted both for defence against the water,
and for enabling the fish to glide easily through places where
a rough covering would have held it prisoner. Many valuable
characteristics are derived from the shape of the scales in dif-
ferent fish. There are four principal varieties, called, 1. Pla-
coid, or flat scales; 2. Ganoid, or polished scales; 3. Ctenoid,
or toothed scales ; and 4. Cycloid, or circular scales. f

The Acanthopterygii are so called from their spinous fin rays.
Those of the Perch are excellent examples.

The RED GURNARD, or CUCKOO GURNARD, as it is. sometimes
called from the sound it utters when taken out of the water,
is very common on the English coast. It is rather a small

* The dead and mangled carcase of a flensed whale has been frequently known to
swim for a considerable distance by the mere force of the muscular movements of the
tail after death.

t These names are derived from, 1 . TrAuKoff, flat ; 2. •yav6u, I polish ; 3. KTCIS , KTF. v6f,
acornb ; 4. KikAoi, a circle. The scales of the 1. Dogfish ; 2. Sturgeon ; 3. Perch ; and
4. Carp, are excellent instances of the four kinds of scales.

414 NATURAL HISTORY.

fish, rarely exceeding fourteen inches in length. The colours
of its body when living are very beautiful, the upper part being
bright red, and the under parts silvery white.

There are nine species of Gurnard known to frequent the
coasts of England, some, as .the Sapphirine and the Mailed
Gurnards, being most extraordinary in form.

The Flying Gurnard is common in the Indian seas. Its
pectoral fins are so much enlarged, that when it springs out of
the water, when pursued by the dolphin or bonito, the wide
quivering fins are able to sustain it in the air for a limited
period.

This fish has often been confounded by voyagers with the
true Flying-fish (Exocastus), which belongs to an entirely dif-
ferent order.

Sub-order II. HOLODACTYLI. — (Gr. "CMof, entire, du/crv3.of, a finger.)
Family IV. . . Percidae.— (Gr. HepKrj, a Perch.)

Fruviatflis (Lat. of the river), the Perch.

The COMMON PERCH is well known to anglers both as a
" bold biting fish," and as a fish that does not yield up its life
without endangering the person of its captor ; for the formida-
ble row of spinous rays belonging to the first dorsal fin have
wounded the hands of many an incautious angler.

It is extremely voracious, so much so that after all the

NATURAL HISTORY. 415

legitimate bait has been exhausted, it is a common practice
for the fisherman to place on his hook the eyes of the perch
already taken, which are as eagerly bitten at, as the worms
were formerly. An anecdote is related of a gentleman who
struck at a perch, but unfortunately missed it, the hook tearing
out the eye of the poor creature. He adjusted the eye on the
hook, and replaced the line in the water, where it had hardly
been a few minutes before the float was violently jerked under
the surface. The angler of course struck, and found he had
captured a fine perch. This when landed was discovered to be
the very fish which had just been mutilated, and which had
actually lost its life by devouring its own eye. It is quaintly
observed in Izaak Walton, that " if there be twenty or forty in
a hole, they may be at one standing all caught one after anoth-
er, they being like the wicked of the world, not afraid though
their fellows and companions perish in their sight."

The Perch seldom exceeds two pounds and a half in weight,
and a Perch weighing a pound and a half is considered a very
fine fish.

Family XIII. Scomberidse. — (Gr. Zicopppof, a generic name for the
Tunny.)

Scombrus (Latinized form of 2/co^/3pof), the MacTcarel.

The elegant shape and resplendent colours of the MACKAREL
point it out as one of the most beautiful fishes known. Nor is
it only valuable for its beauty, as it is highly prized as an arti-
cle of food in most parts of the world.

416 NATURAL HISTORY.

Vast shoals of Mackarel visit our coasts, and myriads are
taken by fishermen both by nets and with lines. The line of
nets frequently exceeds a mile in extent, and of course the num-
ber of fish contained in this enormous net must be beyond all
calculation. On several occasions, the meshes of the net were
completely choked up by fish hanging by their gills, and the net
acted like a dredge, sweeping up myriads more fish in a solid
mass. In 1808, the whole net and its cargo sunk, and were
lost to the too successful fishermen.

The profits of the fishery vary exceedingly ; sometimes the
boats will hardly take a single mackarel, and at other times,
or even in different spots, the draught of fish will nearly fill the
boat. In 1834, one boat sold in one night nearly one hundred
pounds' worth of mackarel.

The fish require to be used soon after they are taken out of
the water, as the flesh is very tender, and easily injured by ex-
posure to the air, or by carriage to any great distance.

When the fishermen employ the line for the capture of the
mackarel, the hook is baited with a strip cut from. a dead mack-
arel, and is suffered to trail overboard. The fish bite eagerly
at this cannibal kind of bait, and are frequently taken by bait-
ing the hook with a strip of scarlet leather or cloth.

THYNNUS. — (Gr. Qvvvo?, a Timny.)

Thynnus, the Tunny.

The TUNNY is a tolerably large fish, averaging four feet in
length, and is very common in the Mediterranean. Large
fisheries are established during May and June, at which

NATURAL HISTORY. 417

season immense shoals of these fish rove along the coast.
The most approved method of fishing is by the "madrague"
or " tonnaro" A large number of long and deep nets are
placed along the shore, one edge being fixed to the bottom of
the sea by anchors and weights, and the other edge kept
at the surface of the water by corks. A wall is thus formed,
stretching along the coast for nearly a mile in length. The
tunnies swimming along the coast pass into this net, and con-
tinue their course until they are stopped by other nets placed
across the principal net, and dividing it into chambers. From
chamber to chamber the unfortunate fishes are driven through
openings permitting their entrance, but preventing egress, until
they arrive at the last chamber, called significantly the " cham-
ber of death." A strong net, placed horizontally, enables the
fishermen to draw the tunnies to the surface, when a shower
of blows from poles and similar weapons soon destroys the en-
tire shoal.

This fish is not unfrequently found on the English coast.

XIPHIAS. — (Gr.

shaped like a sword ; the Sword-fish.)

Gladius (Lat. a Sword), the Sword-fish.

The well-known SWORD-FISH inhabits every part of the
Mediterranean Sea, and has several times been seen near the
shores of England and Scotland.

The "sword" for which this fish is so famous, is an elon-
gation of the upper jaw, of great strength, and capable of
doing considerable injury to any object against which it

418 NATURAL HISTORY.

directs its attacks. In the British Museum is a portion of the
bottom of a ship, pierced completely through by the " sword "
of one of these fish. Its unfortunate owner must have instant-
ly perished by the shock, for the sword was imbedded almost
to its base, and broken short off. In one instance, a Sword-
fish attacked a whaling-ship, and drove its weapon " through
the copper sheathing, an inch-board sheathing, a three-inch
plank of hard wrood, the solid white oak timber of the ship
twelve inches thick, through another two-and-a-half inch hard
oak ceiling plank, and lastly, perforated the head of an oil
cask, where it still remained immovably fixed, so that not a
single drop of oil escaped."

In the Mediterranean, the fishermen eagerly chase the
Sword-fish. The harpoon and line are used much in the
same manner as in the whale fishery. The Sicilian fishermen
have a strange superstition that if the Sword-fish were to
hear a word of Italian, it would instantly dive and escape
them. They therefore restrict their vocal sounds to an un-
intelligible chant. It is said that the whale is an object of
particular enmity to the Sword-fish, and that ships are struck
by it, being mistaken for whales.

The length of this fish is usually from twelve to fifteen
feet. It is said to feed principally on tunnies, pursuing the
shoals, and transfixing the fish with its sword.

THE JOHN DORY.

.The JOHN DORY, rendered illustrious by Gluin the comedian,
who was not less known for his comic powers than for his love
of good living, is found plentifully off the coasts of Cornwall
and Devonshire. The derivation of its name is not quite cer-
tain, but in all probability it is derived from the French, doree,
or golden, in allusion to its peculiar golden yellow colour.

Traditions vary as to the spots so conspicuous on its side.
Some strenuously assert that this was the fish caught by St.
Peter when he took the tribute-money out of its mouth, and
upon whose sides the marks of his finger and thumb were
left. The Haddock, however, vies with the Dory for this

NATURAL HISTORY.
Family XIV. Zeidae.— (Gr. Zetfc Jupiter.)

ZEUS.

Faber (Lat. a. Workman ; sometimes used for tlte fixli), the John Dory.

honour. Other traditions are quite as vigorous in their asser-
tion, that St. Christopher produced these marks while crossing
an arm of the sea, bearing the Saviour in his arms.

Family XVIT. SyngnatliTJca.— (Gr. Svv, together; yvdOoq, the jaw.)
HIPPOOAMITS. — (Or. 'I7r7ro/ca//7ror, a Sea-horse.)

Brevirostris (Lat. short-beaked), the Sea-horse.

The singular fish called the SEA-HORSE has often been found
off the southern coasts of England. The habits of this fish

420 NATURAL HISTORY.

are very singular and interesting. A pair were kept alive for
some time in a glass vessel, and exhibited considerable activity
and intelligence. They swam about with an undulating kind
of movement, and frequently twined their tails round the
weeds placed in their prison. Their eyes moved independent-
ly of each other, as those of the chameleon, arid the change-
able tints of the head closely resemble that animal.

More than once, these curious fish have been seen curled up
in oyster shells.

The singular creatures called Pipe-fish also belong to the
Syngnathidse.

Family XXII. Eclieneidse. — (Gr. 'Exevrjtc ; from ty^, I hold ; vav$, a
ship.)

ECHENEIS.

Remora (Lat. properly a delay), the Sucking-fish.

The REMORA, or SUCKING-FISH, is remarkable for the pecu-
liar apparatus situated on the upper part of its head. By this
it can adhere to any object so firmly that it is a difficult mat-
ter to make it loose its hold. It is often found adhering to
large fish or to the bottoms of ships, probably in both instances
for the sake of the fragments of food rejected by the one, or
thrown overboard from the other.

The older writers on Natural History fully believed that one
Remora had the power of arresting the swiftest ship in its
course, and fixing it firmly in the same spot in spite of spread
canvass and swift gales. As the Remora is about the same
size as a herring, our ancestors naturally considered this a very
curious circumstance, and wrote no few poems on the subject
The following true account of this fish is extracted from Mac-
gillivray's Voyage of the Rattle-snake : —

NATURAL HISTORY. 421

" Small fish appeared to abound at this anchorage (the
Calvados group of islands). I had never hefore seen the
Sucking-fish (Echeneis remora) so plentiful as at that place ;
they caused much annoyance to our fishermen by carrying
off baits and hooks, and appeared always on the alert, darting
out in a body of twenty or more from under the ship's bottom
when any ofTal was thrown overboard. Being quite a nui-
sance, and useless as food, Jack often treated them as he would
a shark, by sprit-sail yarding, or some less refined mode of
torture. One day, some of us while walking the poop had
our attention directed to a sucking-fish about two and a half
feet in length, which had been made fast by the tail to a billet
of wood by a fathom or so of spun yarn, and so turned adrift.
An immense striped shark, apparently about fourteen feet
in length, which had been cruising .about the ship all the
morning, sailed slowly up, and turning slightly on one side,
attempted to seize the apparently helpless fish, but the sucker
with great dexterity made himself fast in a moment to the
shark's back. Off darted the monster at full speed, the sucker
holding fast as a limpet to a rock, and the billet towing astern.
He then rolled over and over, tumbling about ; when, wearied
with his efforts, he lay quiet for a little. Seeing the float, the
Shark got it into his mouth, and disengaging the sucker by a
tug on the line, made a bolt at the fish ; but his puny antago-
nist was again too quick, and, fixing himself close behind the
dorsal fin, defied the efforts of the shark to disengage him, al-
though he rolled over and over, lashing the water with his tail
until it foamed all around. What the final result was, we
could not clearly make out."

THE ANGLER.

The ANGLER, or FISHING FROG, as it is more generally
called, is not uncommon in all the European seas. The pe^-
culiar formation of its pectoral fins enables it to crawl for seme
distance on land.

On its head are two elongated bony appendages, curiously
articulated to the skull, and capable of movement in any
direction. The Angler couches close to the bottom of the

NATURAL HISTORY.
Family XXIII. Lopliiidoe. — (Gr. Ao0of, a crest.)

Piscatonus (Lat. fishing}, the Angler.

sea, and by the movement of its pectoral fins stirs up the sand
and mud, and agitates the bony appendages amid the turbid
cloud produced. The small fishes, observing the muddy water,
and taking the filaments for worms, approach to seize them,
and are instantly engulphed in the capacious jaws of the crafty
Angler.

The" voracity of the Angler is so great, that when caught in
a net together with other fish, it generally devours some of its
fellow-prisoners — a useless act, for the fishermen mostly open
its stomach and recapture the flounders and other fish found in
its interior.

THE CARP.

The Malacopterygian fishes have their fin membranes sup-
ported by flexible rays. The Abdominal Malacopterygii have
their ventral fins situated on the belly, without any connexion
with the bones of the shoulder.

The COMMON CARP is a well-known inhabitant of our ponds,
lakes, and sluggish rivers. It is a very shy and wary fish

NATURAL HISTORY.

Order II. . . . MALACOPTERYGIL—(G\\ MaAaxof, soft; n

a fin.)

Sub-order I. ABDOMINALIA. — (Lat. belonging to the abdomen.)
Family I. ... Cyprimdse. — (Gr. KvTrplvoc, a Carp.)

Carpio (Lat), the Carp.

rejecting one day a bait which had been freely taken the day
previous.*

It lives to a great age, and when very old its scales turn grey
just as human hairs do. In several places in France numbers
of Carp were kept until they attained an enormous size. These
great sluggish fish were accustomed to come to the water's
edge in order to be fed at the call of their keeper. Feeding the
Carp was almost a here.ditary amusement of the latter kings of
France.

Very few fish are so tenacious of life as the Carp. It is the
custom in Holland to keep these fish in nets filled with wet
moss. They are fed with bread and milk, and are preserved
in health by frequent immersion in water, in order to keep the
moss thoroughly wet.

Two or three pounds is the average weight of a good Carp,
but individuals have been known weighing upwards of eigh-

* In 1847, while fishing in a small pond near Oxford, I took in one hour six or
seven carp, weighing from half a pound to nearly three pounds each. A few days
afterwards, although the weather was equally propitious, the carp were not, and the
whole day was spent without even a bite.

NATURAL HISTORY.

teen pounds. It is enormously prolific, as the roe of one
female weighing nine pounds was found to contain six hundred
thousand eggs. Of course comparatively few of these eggs
arrive at maturity, by far the greater number being eaten by
other fish.

Barbus (Lai. JBarba, a beard), the Barbel.
Auratus (Lat. gilded), the Gold-fish.

The GOLD-FISH or GOLDEN CARP, is another species of the
genus Cyprinus. It was originally brought from China, about
two hundred years since, when it was considered a great curi-
osity ; now, however, it is quite common, and is found to live
in ponds even when the surface of the water is thickly covered
with ice.. The ponds in Christ Church College, and the Bo-
tanic Gardens, Oxford, are thickly populated with these beau-
tiful fish, which increase with the most marvellous rapidity.
The pond in the centre of the Clarendon Printing Office was
stocked with these fish, and as the spare water from the steam-
engine used in the works passed into the pond, they throve
amazingly. One unfortunate morning, the surface of the pond
was covered with Golden Carp, all floating dead. Some verdi-
gris had formed in some part of the engine, had been washed
into the pond, and had poisoned all its finny inhabitants.

NATURAL HISTORY. 425

*The BARBEL is found in most of the European rivers. Its
flesh is coarse and unsavoury, but it is eagerly sought after by
anglers, as the spirit and vigour displayed by it when hooked
afford fine sport. It is peculiarly clever at breaking the line,
a feat sometimes accomplished by a violent blow of the tail,
and sometimes by contriving to twist the line round a root or
post, arid giving a sudden jerk.

It feeds principally on larvae and molluscs, inhabiting the
banks, and obtains them by rooting in the sand with its snout.
The barbels, or beards, hanging from the upper jaw, doubtless
assist in these investigations. It frequently grows to a very
great size, weighing from fifteen to eighteen pounds, and mea-
suring upwards of three feet in length. Many are captured
by nets during the summer, at which season they frequent the
weedy parts of the river in shoals ; but in winter they retire to
the shelter afforded by banks and old woodwork. Several
good swimmers have been known to dive after the Barbel, as
they lay pressed against the banks, and to bring up one each
time, not unfrequently appearing with two, one in each hand.

THE GUDGEON AND BREAM.

The ease with which the GUDGEON is taken has passed into
a proverb. This pretty little fish is usually found in shallow
parts of rivers, where the bottom is gravelly. If the gravel is
stirred up, the Gudgeons immediately flock to the place, and a
worm suspended amid the turbid water is eagerly snapped at
by them. The fishermen usually take them in nets, and keep
them alive in well-boats. They are largely purchased as baits
for trolling.

The flesh' of the Gudgeon is particularly delicate, and al-
though its length rarely exceeds seven inches, yet from the
ease with which numbers can be obtained, it forms by no
means a dish to be despised.

The BREAM is very common on the Continent, but in En-
gland is only found in certain rivers and lakes, such as the

426 NATURAL HISTORY.

GOBIO. — (Lat. a Gudgeon.}

ABRAMIS. — (Gr. 'Appa(j.ig, a Bream.)

Fluviatilis (Lat. of the river), the Gudgeon.

Brama (Lat.), the Bream.

Medway and Trent, and the lakes of Cumberland and West-
moreland. It is also found in the lakes of Ireland.

The breadth of the Bream is greater in proportion to its
length than that of most fishes. It affords excellent sport to
the angler, biting readily and resisting vigorously when hooked.
The most approved method of catching these fish is by prepar-
ing the spot with ground bait for a day or two previous ; the
Bream then assemble in numbers and bite freely at a bait. In
Ireland the Bream taken were accustomed to be given to the
poor, who split and salted them for winter provision.

Its length rarely exceeds ten or twelve inches, nor is it of
any value for the table.

THE TENCH.

The habits of the TENCH are not unlike those of the carp,
excepting that it seems even more sluggish than that fish.
tt especially delights in muddy banks of ponds, where the

NATURAL HISTORY. 427

TINCA.— (Lat. a Tench.)

Yulgaris (Lat. common), the Tench.

weeds grow thickly. Roget gives an account of a Tench that
had been taken out of a pond almost filled up with stones and
rubbish, and which had actually grown into the shape of the
hole where it had been confined, evidently for many years.
The weight of that fish was eleven pounds nine ounces. Four
hundred tench and as many perch were also taken out of
the same pond. This fish is even more tenacious of life than
the carp.

THE ROACH AND DACE.

The ROACH is very common in most rivers in England, and
is generally spread over the temperate parts of Europe. It
is by no means a large fish, rarely exceeding two pounds in
weight, and but seldom attaining that size. These fish usually
live in small shoals, and pass from one part of the river to
another.

The Roach is not unlike the Dace, but may be easily dis-
tinguished by its bright red ventral fins, those of the dace being
silvery white. It is rather a favourite with anglers, as it bites
or rather nibbles at the bait in such a dainty and delicate man-
ner, that the disappointed fisherman not unfrequently finds
the bait gone without the movement of his float betraying the

NATURAL HISTORY.

LEUCISCUS. — (Gr.AevKtaKoe; from TIEVKOC, white.)

Rutflus (Lat. shining red), the Roach.
Leuciscus, the Dace.

theft. A quick eye and a dexterous hand are required for this
sport. The float is so balanced as barely to appear above the
surface of the water, for, unlike the perch, that dashes at the
bait and boldly jerks the float at once under water, the Roach
does little more than swim under the bait as far as it can, and
then just gives a gentle nibble, repeating the process until the
bait has entirely left the hook.

The habits of the DACE are so similar to those of the Roach
as to need but little description. It is usually found wher-
ever the roach resides, and, like that fish, swims in shoals.
It makes an excellent bait for trolling, as the silvery white-
ness of its scales renders it a conspicuous object, and serves
to attract the pike. It seldom exceeds nine or ten inches in
length.

The BLEAK and the MINNOW both belong to the genus Leu-
ciscus. The former fish is remarkable for the use made of its
scales, which when washed in water deposit a powder much
used in the manufacture of artificial pearls.

NATURAL HISTORY.

429

LEUCISCUS.

Cephalus (Gr.

f, a large-headed fish), the Chub.

The CHUB is also common in most of our rivers. It affords
good sport to the angler, both with a fly and with a bait.

The usual bait employed is a cockchaffer, which, when fas-
tened to the hook and artistically made to dance on the surface
of the water, is a temptation that few Chub can resist. This
method of fishing is termed " dibbing," and the peculiar move-
ment is communicated to the bait by tapping the butt end of
the rod, while the cockchaffer or moth just rests on the surface
of the water.

Its flesh is very coarse, and requires so.me skill on the part
of the cook to make it fit for the table. Ite weight rarely ex-
ceeds five pounds, but it is very powerful, and requires a strong
line and skilful management on the part of the angler.*

* A well-known piscator at Oxford, while fishing with a fly from a small skiff,
succeeded in hooking a Chub, apparently weighing about four pounds, which actually
towed him up and down stream for some time, until the line, not calculated for Chub,
snapped, and the fish of course escaped.

NATURAL HISTORY.
Family II. Esocidae.— (Lat. Esox, a Pike.)

ESOX.

Lucius (Lat. a Pike), the Pike.

This fierce and voracious fish is now common in most rivers
and lakes in England, although it was formerly so rare as to
be rated at ten times the value of turbot.

It affords much sport to anglers, who generally employ a
method of fishing called "trolling." A gudgeon, roach, or
large minnow is SQ fixed to a number of formidable hooks,
that when drawn through the water, it spins rapidly round,
and attracts the notice of the watchful PIKE, who dashes at
the glittering bait with a violence that jars the rod down to
the very butt. Off swims the pike to his place of concealment,
leisurely turns the head of the bait downwards, and swallows
it. Now, to swallow the fish is easy enough, but the array of
barbed hooks proves an effectual obstacle to the endeavours of
the Pike to get rid of the unwelcome morsel as soon as the an-
gler jerks the line, and gives the Pike to understand that hooks
have points. The deluded Pike now endeavours to break the
line, but a good fisherman foils all his efforts, and at last lands
him, wearied and bleeding, but ferocious to the last.

NATURAL HISTORY. 431

The method of fishing for Pike called " trimming" is hardly
worth mention. A line baited with living fish is fastened to a
float, and suffered to lie on the surface of the water. The Pike,
seeing the bait swimming about, dashes at it and hooks itself
in the efibrt.

This fish varies in size from two or three pounds' weight to
twenty or thirty, but a Pike weighing fifteen pounds is con-
sidered a very fine fish. Above that weight they are almost
useless for the table. A Pike weighing less than two pounds
is called a jack.^

The appetite of this fish is almost insatiable. Mr. Jesse .
threw to one Pike of five pounds' weight, four roach, each
about four inches in length, which it devoured instantly, and
swallowed a fifth within a quarter of an hour. Moor-hens,
ducks, and even swans have been known to fall a prey to this
voracious fish, its long teeth effectually keeping them prisoners
under water until drowned.

THE FLYING-FISH.

This fish, so celebrated in most books of voyages, is found
in the warmer latitudes, but has several times been seen off
our coasts. The so-called " flight" is very similar to that of
the flying squirrels and dragons, the fish merely springing
out of the water with a violent impetus, and sustaining itself
in the air by means of its enormous pectoral fins. It is not
able to alter its course while in the air, nor to rise a second
time without repeating ite course through the water. The
reader will notice the remarkable fact, that individuals of three
wingless classes, the Mammalia, the Reptiles, and the Fishes,
have each the power of sustaining themselves in the air.

The "flight" of this fish seldom exceeds two hundred yards.
The unfortunate creatures are pursued in the water by " Dora-
dos," erroneously called dolphins, and other fishes of prey. To
escape their finny tyrants, they spring into the air, and for a
while escape. But the gulls and albatroses are on the watch,

* In the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford is a Pike weighing thirty pounds, that was
taken in the lake at Blenheim Park.

432 NATURAL HISTORY

Exocomrs. — (Gr. 'E£oko/rof, sleeping out [of the sea].)*

Volitans (Lat. flying}, the Flying-fish.

and pounce on the FLYING -FISH from above, so that the perse-
cuted creatures are tolerably sure to fall a prey to one or the
other of their foes.

The usual height of flight is about two or three feet above
the surface of the water, but it has frequently been known to
exceed fourteen feet, and in one instance a Flying-fish came
skimming into the ports of a large man-of-war, nearly twenty
feet above the water.

The size of the fish is about the same as that of a herring.
Sailors are always glad to capture it, as its flesh proves an
agreeable change from the eternal salt junk, by which the power
of the sailor's teeth is woefully tried.

The food of this fish is molluscs and small fishes.

THE SALMON.

The SALMON is a migratory fish, annually leaving the sea,
its proper residence, and proceeding for many miles up rivers
for t^e purpose of depositing its spawn. This duty having

* The ancients believed that this and other fishes slept on the beach.

NATURAL HISTORY. 433

Family IV. Salmonidce.
SALMO. — (Lat. a Salmon.)

Salar.

been accomplished, it returns to the sea in the spring. The
perseverance of this fish in working its way up the stream is
perfectly wonderful. No stream is rapid enough to daunt it,
nor is it even checked by falls. These it surmounts by spring-
ing out of the water, fairly passing over the fall. Heights of
fouteeen or fifteen feet are constantly leaped by this powerful
fish, and when it has arrived at the higher and shallower parts
of the river, it scoops furrows in the gravelly bottom, and there
deposits its spawn. The young, called "fry," are hatched
about March, and immediately commence their retreat to the
sea. By the end of May the young salmon, now called " smolts,"
have almost entirely deserted the rivers, and in June not one is
to be found in fresh water. Small Salmon weighing less than
two pounds are termed " salmon peel," all above that weight
are called " grilse."

The havoc wrought among Salmon by foes of every descrip-
tion is so enormous, that notwithstanding the great fecundity
of the fish, it is a matter of surprise that so many escape des-
truction ; for although the fish are preserved from their human
foes by many stringent regulations, yet other foes, such as otters,
who devour the large fish, and other fish who devour the spawn,
have but little respect for laws and regulations.
T

434 NATURAL HISTORY.

While in the rivers, multitudes of Salmon are annually
caught, usually by stake nets, which are capable of confining
an immense number of fish at one time. Salmon spearing
is a favourite amusement. This animated and exciting sport
is usually carried on by torch-light. The torches, when held
close to the surface of the water, illumine the depths of the
river, and render every fish within its influence perfectly
visible. The watchful spearman, guided by slight indications
bearing no meaning to an unpracticed eye, darts his unerr-
ing spear, and brings up in triumph the glittering captive,
writhing in vain among the barbed points. In the northern
rivers this destructive pursuit is carried on to a great extent,
more than a hundred salmon being frequently taken in an even-
ing. Anglers also find considerable sport in using the fly for
this beautiful and active fish, whose strength makes it no mean
antagonist.

Fario (Lat. the Trout.)

The COMMON TROUT is found in many rivers in this coun-
try, always preferring rapid, shallow, and sparkling streams,

NATURAL HISTORY. 435

especially if there should be little fails at intervals. The Der-
went and the Dove are particularly famous for their trout.
The latter river is quite the beau ideal of a trout stream. It
never seems to know its own mind for half a mile together.
Sometimes it is rapid, frisking over stones and round trees, and
throwing up the sparkling foam in all direetions. Presently it
has changed into a silent, slow, melancholy river, with dark
pools of unknown depth, shaded by overhanging trees, and
suggestive of murders successfully concealed. Everywhere
are the trout. Lying quietly under the shelter of some large
stone, while the water is leaping round them, are the moder-
ate sized trout, darting off like meteors to snatch at a passing
fly, and as quickly returning to their concealment. In the
deeper pools are the large fish, who, too sagacious to be de-
ceived by the artfully made fly of the professed angler, yet
often fall victims to the less scientific but more successful
ploughboy.*

The usual method of fishing for trout is with a fly, but
trolling with a minnow is often successfully used, nor does the
trout reject a well-selected and properly arranged worm.

The brilliant speckled tints of this beautiful fish vary much
according to the locality and the time of year. In May the
fish assume their brightest colours and their most delicate
flavour. The size of the fish also varies exceedingly, being
from half a pound in weight and about eight inches in length,
to ten or fifteen pounds weight.

The Smelt belongs to this family, and in its progress to the
sea is destroyed in great quantities in mill-ponds, &c.

* Several of my schoolboy years were spent near the banks of the Dove, which
river, of course, formed one of our favourite haunts. We were accustomed to take
the large trout by the rather unsportsmanlike, but very amusing method of "tickling."
It was excessively amusing to watch the angry countenances of London anglers,
who came to the Dove bedizened with all the appurtenances of rods, lines, baskets,
&c., and who, after whipping the water most perseveringly for the whole morning
without a single bite, while resting their tired arms, saw the country boys seated on
the bank, armed with a long stick and a line barely two feet long, adding every
minute to the heap of glittering fishes at their side,

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family V. Clupeldse. — (Lat. Clupca, a Herring.)
CLUPEA.

Pilchardus (Lat. the Pilchard}.

The value of the HERRING family to man is almost incalcu-
lable The PILCHARD and the Herring are very similar in ap-
pearance, but may be easily known by the position of the
dorsal fin, which in the Pilchard is so exactly in the centre
of the body, that if the fish is held by it, the body exactly
balances ; while in the herring, the dorsal fin is placed rather
backwards, so that when suspended, the fish hangs with its
head downwards.

Unlike the herring, which visits every part of our coasts,
the Pilchard is only found on the shores of Devonshire and
Cornwall. Here, however, the enormous shoals that annually
make their appearance, fully compensate for the limited space
occupied by them. Occasionally a few shoals are seen on the
southern coast of Ireland. The coasts of France and Spain
are tolerably frequent resorts of this fish.

The fish are usually taken in an enormous building of nets,
called "scan nets." The nets used in the scan fishery are two,
a large net called the " stop scan," about a quarter of a mile in
length, and a hundred feet in depth ; and a smaller net, called
the " tuck scan," about a furlong in length, and a hundred and
twenty feet in depth, the average value of the two nets being
5001.

When the fishermen see a shoal of pilchards approaching,

NATURAL HISTORY. 437

they immediately set out in two fishing boats, one of which
carries the tuck sean and the other the stop sean. Guided
by signs from the master-seamen,, they silently surround the
shoal with the nets, the larger of which is ulseTl to enclose
a large number of fish, and the smaller to pass within the
other °net to bring the mass of fish into a small compass, and
finally to prevent them from escaping until the fishermen have
leisure to remove them to the boats.

When landed, the pilchards are taken to the store houses,
salted, and after remaining in heaps for five or six days, are
pressed into casks by powerful levers. During the pressure,
which lasts about a fortnight, fresh layers of fish being added
as the former are pressed close, an abundance of excellent oil
escapes from holes made in the cask for the purpose. The
entire refuse of the fish, consisting of the superabundant salt, the
scales and other rejected portions, is sold to the farmers as a
valuable manure. The refuse of each pilchard is calculated to
manure one square foot of land.

Harengus (Lat. the Herring).

The HERRING makes its annual appearance in the northern
parts of Scotland about June. This most valuable fish arrives
in enormous shoals, five or six miles in length and three or
four in breadth. Their advent is heralded by various sea
birds, such as the gannets and gulls, which constantly hover

438 NATURAL HISTORY.

over the shoals and commit unceasing devastation among them.
Yet in spite of the myriads destroyed by birds and fishes, in
spite of the^shoals captured by man, in spite of the vast quan-
tity of spawn devoured by other fishes, their numbers seem
quite undiminished, and each year they are led by the instinct
inculcated in them by Providence, to visit the shore in incal-
culable numbers, not only to yield to man an unfailing supply,
but to make the necessary provision for the increase of their
number.

The fishery is conducted by boats and nets, the whole
fitting up of each boat costing little less than 1000Z. To
add to the expense, the whole apparatus must be renewed
every four or five years, as independently of the injuries inflict-
ed by the sea and the weight of fish, the dog-fish, which
unremittingly follows the shoals of herrings, is often entangled
in the nets together with its intended victims, and by its
sharp teeth and vigorous struggles makes sad ravages among
the nets.

"When taken out of the water, the herring dies almost
immediately, as do all fish that live near the surface of the
water. Those on the contrary, as the carp, tench, eels and
the flat fish, who reside at the bottom, are able to sustain
life for a much longer period when taken out of their native
element. It is therefore necessary that the herrings should
be cured as soon as possible. The " "White Herring" are
cured in the boats, but the " Red Herrings" are taken on
shore and suspended in the smoke of a wood fire for twenty-
four hours in addition to the salting that both they and the
White Herring undergo.

The well-known SPRAT (Clupea Sprattus) also belongs to
the genus Clupea, and, like the herring, visits our shores in
large shoals. The Sprat fishery commences in the beginning
of November. Not only are enormous quantities of this small
but useful fish used as food, and sent into all parts of this
country, but they are very largely used as manure ; fish, ac-
cording to the researches of Sir H. Davy, being a most power-
ful manure, retaining its fertilising influence for a long time.
Many thousand tons' weight of sprats are annually used for this
purpose.

The White-bait belongs to the same family.

NATURAL HISTORY. 439

ENGUAULIS. — (Gr. 'E

Encrasicholus (Gr. 'EyKpaaixol.oc, mixed with bitter; the Anchovy, horn
its taste), the Anchovy.

The little ANCHOVY is a fish of no small importance, being
very largely used in various sauces, besides the numbers that
are preserved in pickle. It is common in the Mediterranean,
and is also found on our coasts. The upper jaw of this fish
is longer than the lower one ; the entire length of the fish is
usually from four to five inches, but it has been seen measuring
upwards of seven inches.

THE COD.

In this Sub-order the bones of the ventral fins are placed
under, and support the bones of the shoulder.

The well-known COD-FISH is principally found on the coasts
of Newfoundland, but is taken in great numbers on our own
shores. The hook is generally employed for the capture of this
fine fish. An immense number of hooks, each baited with a
whelk or limpet and attached to short lines, are fastened at
intervals along a rope, which is stretched, or shot, as it is termed,
across the tide, in order to prevent the hooks from getting en-
tangled. Such is the voracity of the fish, that nearly five hun-
dred fish have been taken by one man in the course of ten
hours. The intense col'd renders the Cod fishery a service of
great hardship.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-order II. SUB-BRACHIATA. — (Lat. sub, tinder ; brachium, an arm.)
Family VI. . . Gadidse.— (Gr. Tudoc.)

Moniuit'A.

Callarias (Gr.

e), the Cod.

"When taken, the fish are placed in a well boat, through
which the salt water has a free passage, so that the cod-fish are
brought to Billingsgate still living. Several successful experi-
ments have been made to preserve this fish in salt water ponds,
in which it appears to thrive well. The fecundity of this fish is
almost incredible, the roe of one fish having been ascertained to
contain nine million eggs. The Whiting belongs to this family.

In the Flat-fish we see a most extraordinary instance of
adaptation of structure to peculiar circumstances. We have
all seen Flat-fish, and all know that the upper side is dark,
and the under side nearly white. The word " side" is used
advisedly, as these curious fish actually lie on their sides at

NATURAL HISTORY. • 441

the bottom of the water while undisturbed, or merely feeding.
"When, however, they are alarmed, they rapidly assume the
vertical position, and dart off with great speed. The dark
upper surface serves to protect them from becoming too visi-
ble to enemies above. The two eyes are also placed on the
upper side of the head for obvious reasons. In fact, the whole
fish appears as if it had been laid on its side, and rolled flat,
the head also being twisted round, and the lower eye removed
to the upper surface.

Family VII. Pleuronectidffi. — (Gr. TW.evpov, a rib or side; VTJKTOV,
power of swimming.)

PSETTJR— (Gr. -%7/TTa, a Turbot.)

Maxima (Lat. greatest], the Turbot.

The TURBOT is found on the coasts of most parts of England,
but is mostly confined to the southern coasts of Ireland.

The fishery is conducted both by nets and lines. The net,
called the haul-net, drags from the bottom not only turbots but
other flat fish, such as soles and plaice. The line, used when
the bottom of the sea is too deep or rocky for the net, is armed
with many hooks, baited with smelts and other small fish.
The lampern, or river lamprey, was formerly in very great

442 NATURAL HISTORY.

use as a bait, as its brilliant silvery appearance, and its great
tenacity of life, rendered it peculiarly lit ibr the capture of the
voracious but dainty turbot, who, rejecting all stale or dis-
coloured baits, eagerly devours them if bright coloured and
moving. The fishermen state that the turbot will not touch
a bait that has been bitten by any other fish. On the English
coasts one turbot-line frequently extends ibr three miles in
length, and is furnished with 2500 hooks, which are attached
to the main line by small horse-hair lines, each twenty-seven
inches in length. This enormous line is " shot" across the
current at the turn of the tide. Each boat possesses a double
set of lines, so that one line is " shot" and another " hauled"
every turn of the tide.

The little star-like bones imbedded in the upper part of the
skin of this fish are very curious. The dark side of the turbot
is the left, on which the eyes are also placed. Reversed
turbots, and even turbots dark on both sides, are not at all
uncommon.

SOLE A.— (Lat. the Sole of a «

Yulgaris (Lat. common], tlte Sole.

The COMMON SOLE is too well known to need much descrip-
tion. This fish is the reverse of the turbot, having the eyes
and colour on the right side ; although, as in the turbot,
varieties are not rare. It is in sear on during most parts of

NATURAL HISTORY. . 44 :i

the year, except a few weeks in March or April. Although it
is a marine fish, it seems to thrive well in river-water, or even
in a pond. Mr. Arnold kept several in a pond in Guernsey,
where the soles became twice as thick in proportion to their
length as those living in the sea.

Sub-order III. APODA. — (Gr. 'A, privation; TTOV^, a foot.)
Family IX. . . Murrendue. — (Or. Mvpatva, a Sea-eel.)

AXCUILLA. — (Lat. a little Ed.}

Acutirostris (Lat. sharp-beaked), i

scd EeL

The AroDA, or footless fish, so called from the absence of
ventral fins, comprise the Eels.

These fish assume a form very similar to the serpents. Al-
though on a hasty examination they seem to be devoid of scales,
yet when the skin is dried, very minute scales may be seen
through the semi-transparent outer skin, and may be easily de-
tached by carefully separating the two skins.

Eels inhabit muddy ponds and rivers, and are common in
many canals. They are susceptible of cold, and constantly de-
scend the rivers to deposit their spawn in the sea, after which,
the young, when hatched, work their way up the rivers, there-
by precisely reversing the habits of the salmon. They are ca-
pable of living out of water for a long time, and often make
voluntary land excursions, either for the purpose of avoiding an
insurmountable fall, or in search of frogs or worms, on which

444 f . NATURAL HISTORY.

they feed. In the winter, while they are lying torpid in the
rnud, multitudes are taken by spears — many-pronged instru-
ments, whose prongs are feathered with recurved barbs, which,
when pushed into the mud, entangle the eels, and effectually
prevent their escape.

There are supposed to be four species of English eel ; name-
ly, the Sharp-nosed, the Broad-nosed, the Snig, and the Grig.

CONGER.— (Lat. frvtn Gr. Toyypof, a Conger Eel.)

Vulgaris (Lat. co^nntwi), the Conger.

The CONGER EEL is found in all the. rocky parts of the
British coasts, and is exceedingly common on the coasts of
Cornwall.

It is usually caught with a hook, the best bait of which is a
sand-launce, a little fish belonging to the same family as the
eels, and which buries itself five or six inches deep in the sand
when the tide ebbs, arid releases itself on the next flood tide.
The fishermen rake it out of the sand with iron hooks. A
pilchard is a common bait for the Conger.

The size of this fish is sometimes very great. Yarrell men-
tions, in his " British Fishes," that " specimens weighing eighty-
six pounds, one hundred and four pounds, and even one hundred
and thirty pounds, have been recorded, some of them measuring
more than ten feet long and eighteen inches in circumference.
They possess great strength, and often form very formidable an-
tagonists if assailed among rocks, or when drawn into a boat
with a line."

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family X. Gymnotidse. — (Gr. TVULVO<;, naked;
GYMNOTUS.

wrof, the back.)

Electriciu (Lat. electric], the Electric Eel

This curious fish, which exhibits the singular phenomenon
of voluntary electric power residing in a living animal, is an
inhabitant of the fresh- water rivers and ponds of Surinam, and
other parts of South America, where it was first discovered in
the year 1677.

This power of emitting an electric shock, is apparently
given it in order to enable the creature to kill its prey. Those
who have seen the ELECTRIC EEL in the Polytechnic while
being fed, will have little doubt of this. The fish given to it
are, directly it becomes aware of their presence, instantly struck
dead, and then devoured.^

Captain Stedman, in his account of Surinam, gives an ac-
count of the electric eel, which he, of course, had many oppor-
tunities of seeing. He attempted, for a trifling wager, to lift
up a gymnotus in his hands, but according to his own words : —

" I tried about twenty different times to grasp it with my
hand, but all without effect, receiving just as many electrical
shocks, which I felt even to the top of my shoulder. It has
been said that this animal must be touched with both hands
before it gives the shock, but this I must take the liberty of

* This specimen is unfortunately blind, but it has learned to turn in the direction
of a paddling in the water, made by the individual who feeds it. The fish is scarcely
in the water before a shock from the Gymnotus kills it. The usual length of mo
Gymnotus is about three feet.

446 NATURAL HISTORY.

contradicting, having experienced the contrary effect." The
eel mentioned was a small one, only two feet long ; but one
that had arrived at its full growth would have given a very
much stronger shock. An English sailor was fairly knocked
down by a shock from one of these eels, nor did he recover his
senses for some time. It is said that the shock can pass up a
stick, and strike the person holding it. Mr. Bryant and a
companion were both struck while pouring off the water frcm
a tub in which an electric eel had been placed.

Hurnboldt, in his " Views of Nature," gives a very animated
description of the method employed by the Indians to take
these formidable creatures — a method equally ingenious and
cruel. Knowing from experience that the powers of the
gymnotus are not adequate to a constant volley of shocks,
they contrive that the shocks shall be expended on the horses
instead of themselves.

Having found a pool containing electric eels, they force a
troop of wild horses to enter the pool. The disturbed eels
immediately attack the intruders, and destroy many of them
by repeated shocks ; but by constantly forcing fresh supplies
of horses to invade the pool, the powers of the gymnoti be-
come exhausted, and they are then dragged out with impunity.

THE SHORT SUN-FISH.

This order derives its name from the curious structure of the
jaws, which are fixed together in a very peculiar manner.

The SHORT SuN-Fisii has been frequently taken in almost
all parts of our coasts. It is of a most singular shape, looking
as if three-fourths of a very large fish had been cut off, leaving
only the head and shoulders, something like a marine Baron
Munchausen's horse.

It attains to a very large size, and has been known to weigh
three hundred pounds, its length being only four feet five
inches.

. It lives mostly at the bottom of the sea, but frequently
rises to the surface, and lies, perhaps, asleep, floating with the

NATURAL HISTORY. 447

Order III. PLECTOGNATHL—(G<Y. Ittexrof, plaited; yvuQos, the

jaw.)

Family I. Diodontidae. — (Gr. A/? , double ; odovc, a tooth.)
ORTHAGORISCUS. — (Gr. 'OpGayopiaicoc, a Sucking-pig.)

Mola (Lat. a MUl-ntons), the Short Sun-fish.

tide. Sailors in this case are fond of trying their skill with a
harpoon. When struck, it uses very powerful but exceedingly
awkward efforts to escape. The sailors, of course, eat it, as
they do almost anything.

THE STURGEON.

The remaining fishes belong to the Cartilaginous sub-class ;
that is, their skeletons are composed of cartilage, and not of true
bone.

The first sub-order possess free gill-covers like those of all the

448 NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-class II PISCES CHONDROPTERYG1L— (Gr. XoixJpof, carti-
lage; KTEpv-yiov, a fin.)

Sub-order I. ELEUTHEROPOMI. — (Gr. 'J&evOcpos, free; irtifia, a lid or
cover.)

Family I. ... AcipenserMas. — (Lat. Acipcnsa, a Sturgeon.)
ACIPENSER.

Sturio, the Sturgeon.

preceding fish ; but the remainder breathe by means either cf
slits, as in the sharks, or holes, as in the lampreys.

The STURGEONS are remarkable for the rows of bony plater,
extending along the body. It is exceedingly common in the
northern parts of Europe, where regular fisheries are organized
for its capture. Almost every part of it is used. Isinglass is
obtained by drying and shredding the air-bladder ; caviare is
made of the roe of the female, and the flesh is extensively pre-
served both by pickling and salting, besides the large quantities
that are consumed fresh. The flavour of its flesh is said not to
be unlike veal.

It has occasionally been taken on our coasts, usually by
entangling itself in the nets, and although it then does some
injury to the nets by its violent struggles to release itself, it
is otherwise perfectly harmless. Yarrel mentions that a
sturgeon measuring eight feet six inches in length, and weigh-
ing two hundred and three pounds, was taken in a stake net
near Findhon in 1833. A specimen was once caught in the
Esk, weighing four hundred and sixty pounds. The female

NATURAL HISTORY.

always deposits her eggs in fresh water, and the young, when
hatched, descend to the sea, and are supposed not to return
again until, in their turn, they seek the fresh water in order to
deposit their spawn.

Sub-order II. TREMATOPXEI. — (Gr. Tpv/^ua, a hole pierced through any-
thing; TTJ^'W, I breathe.)
Family I Scyllidre.— (Gr. S/eiiAto, a Dog-fish.)

SCYLLIUM.

'" Canicula (Lat. a little Dog), the Little Spotted Dog-fish.

The SHARKS and RAYS have no gill-covers, but the water
passes through five elongated apertures on each side of the head.

The Sharks are proverbially ferocious and dangerous crea-
tures, and are the pest of those seas which they infest. Their
mouths are furnished with several rows of sharp jagged teeth,
which can be raised or depressed at pleasure, and which can
cut through a limb or even the body of a man with the greatest
ease. The mouth of these fishes is placed beneath the head,
so that a shark cannot seize a prey at the surface of the water
without turning on its side, which evolution often gives time
for its expected prey to escape.

The LITTLE SPOTTED DOG-FISH is the most common of the
Sharks that visit our shores. It is principally known on
account of the havoc it makes among the fish during the
seasons of the various fisheries, for which reason it is most
especially detested by the unfortunate fishermen, who not un-
frequently, together with their expected spoil, draw up a

450 NATURAL HISTORY.

few dog-fish in their nets. The dog-fish, on finding themselves
entangled, immediately commence tearing the nets to pieces
with their sharp and powerful teeth.

The empty eggs of this fish are often found washed up on
the sea-shore, and called by the name of " mermaids' purses."
They are oblong, and famished at each corner with a long
semitransparent convoluted tendril, the use of which is appa-
rently to entangle and fix the egg among the sea-weed, and
thus prevent it from being washed on shore until the young is
hatched.

A considerable quantity of oil can be obtained from the brain
of the dog-fish, and the skin, in common with that of other
cartilaginous fishes, is made into shagreen.

Family II. SqualiJaj.
SQUALUS. — (Lat. a Shark.}

Cnrcharias (Gr. a Shark ; from Kap^apof, jagged ; in allusion -to its
teeth), the White Shark.

The WBLITE SHARK is a well-known scourge of the Mediter-
ranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. This is the creature so
detested by sailors, who, when they have caught a " shirk,"
subject it to every possible indignity.

This voracious creature has been known to swallow an entire
man, and as it is in the habit of lurking about ships for the
sake of the scraps thrown overboard, and almost invariably
swallows whatever is cast over the side, the contents of its
stomach are often of a most heterogeneous description. The
sailors always amuse themselves by seeing what the shark

NATURAL HISTORY. 451

had " stowed away," and the substances thus brought to light
have been most curious. The entire contents of a lady's
work-basket, down to the scissors, were found in the interior
of one shark, and another had actually swallowed an entire
bull's hide — a circumstance which led the operating sailor to
remark that the shark had swallowed a bull, but could not
" disgest" the hide.

The amphibious South Sea Islanders stand in great dread
of the Shark, and with good reason, for not a year elapses
without several falling victims to the rapacity of this terrific
animal. Nearly thirty of the natives of the Society Islands
were destroyed at one time by the sharks. A storm had so
injured the canoe in which they were passing from one island
to another, that they were forced to take refuge on a raft
hastily formed of the fragments of their canoe. Their weight
sunk the raft a foot or two below the surface of the water,
and, dreadful to say, the sharks surrounded them and dragged
them off the raft one by one, until the lightened . raft rose
above the water and preserved the few survivors.

SPHYRXIAS. — (Gr. from "Ztyvpa, a Hammer.)

Zygasna (Gr. Zuycuva), the Hammer-headed Shark.

The HAMMER-HEADED SHARK inhabits the same latitudes.
This curiously constructed fish closely resembles the white
shark in all respects but the head, which is widened out at
each side, exactly like a double.-headed hammer or mallet.

NATURAL HISTORY.

The eyes, being placed at each extremity of the head, must of
course possess a very extended power of vision.

The THRESHER, a fish which has a curious hahit of springing
out of the water and inflicting a violent blow with its tail on
any object that annoys it, belongs to the Shark tribe.

Family IV. Pristidae. — (Gr. UplaTig, the Sawfish.)
riusTis.

Antiqiiorum (Lat. of the Ancients), the Sawfish.

The SAWFISH is found in the greatest perfection in the tro-
pical seas, although it also inhabits the Mediterranean. The
weapon from which the fish derives its name, is a flat, long
prolongation of the head, on each edge of which are set hard
tooth-like projections, curiously inserted into the bone.

This fish has been known to employ its saw in the attack
of the whale, burying the apparently inappropriate weapon
to the very root in the body of the whale ; nor are instances
wanting where the saw has been found firmly imbedded in
the hull of a ship.

The strength of the Sawfish is very great. Captain Wilson
gives an account of the capture of a Sawfish, measuring
twenty-two feet in length, and weighing nearly five tons.
After the fish had been entangled in a net for several hours,
making violent efforts to escape, Captain Wilson got a rope
firmly fixed round its saw, and set thirty men to haul at the
rope. The whole thirty could not move it one inch, nor was

NATURAL HISTORY. 453

it until one hundred men had been pulling at the rope for
nearly the whole of the day, that they succeeded in dragging
it on shore. Even then it made such violent strokes with its
saw, that they were forced to fasten strong guy ropes to prevent
it from cutting them to pieces. It was finally disabled by a
Spaniard, who cut through the joint of the tail.

Family Y. Raids;.— (Lat. Raia, a Skate or Ray.)
TORPEDO. — (Lat. Cramp or numbness.)

Scutata (Lat. shielded), the Torpedo.

The TORPEDO may fairly be considered a British fish. It
affords a second instance of the electric power residing in a
fish. The organs that produce the electric shock are shown
externally by two elevations extending from the eyes about
half down the body.*

Although it has once or twice been caught on our coasts,
it is usually found in the Mediterranean, where its powers are
well known, and held in some awe. The shock that the

* Those who would wish to examine the structure of this most singular organ,
p.r? referred to the Museum of the College of Surgeons, where is a series of beautiful
\vax models, admirably illustrating the entire structures.

454 NATURAL HISTORY.

Torpedo gives, of course, varies according to the size of the fish
arid its state of health, but a tolerably large fish in good health,
can, for the time, disable a strong man. From the effects of
its shock, it is in some parts called the Cramp-fish.

Colonel Montagu notices a Torpedo caught on a turbot line,
at Tucky. It weighed about one hundred pounds, and com-
pletely puzzled the fisherman, who found it hanging dead on
the hooks, and had never seen such a creature before. Colonel
Montagu quaintly remarks, that had it not been dead, the fisher-
man would certainly have had a shock that would have made
him remember the species again.

Clavata (Lat. from Claum, a nail), the T/tornback Skate.

The RAYS are at first sight not unlike the turbot and sole,
but a closer examination will show that the Rays really swim
with their backs upwards, whereas the turbot swims on its side.
The m >vement of the Ray is very curious, and is admirably
expressed by the word " sluddering" — used by an old fisherman.

The SKATE is caught in abundance on our shores, and m
England is much used as an article of food, although in Scotland
it is usjJ principally for bait.

NATURAL HISTORY. 455

The THORNBACK SKATE derives its name from the spiny
armature of the tail, with which the fish defends itself most
vigourously by bending itself almost into a semicircle and lash-
ing about with its tail. The female of the Thornback Skate is
termed a Maid. It often attains to a large size, the largest
known being twelve feet in length, and nearly ten in width.

The jaws of the Rays are exceedingly powerful, and enable
them to crush with perfect ease the various shell-fish on which
they feed.

The STING RAY is another species, which is armed with a
serrated bone in its tail, with which it can inflict painful and
even dangerous wounds.

Sub-order III. CYCLOSTOJVII. — (Gr. KvK^oh a Circle ; crt/m, tlio mouth.)
Family I Petromyzonidie. — (Gr. Uerpog, a Stone; /i.v&, I suck.)

PETKOMYZOX.

Marinas (Lat. Marine), £7te Lamprey.

These curious fishes, in many respects the lowest in organiza-
tion of the vertebrate animals, are chiefly remarkable for the sin-
gular construction of the mouth, which, formed like that of the
leech, enables it to hold firmly to any object by suction. The
breathing apparatus appears externally to consist of fourteen
small apertures, seven on each side of the neck. Their progress
through the water is accomplished by a rapid undulating move-
ment.

450 NATURAL HISTORY.

The MARINE LAMPREY is found in the Mediterranean, and
in most of the northern European rivers. It has also been
discovered in America. A few are caught in the Thames
almost every year, but the- Severn is its usual haunt. Like
many other fishes, it travels for many miles up rivers for the
purpose of depositing its spawn, at which time it is considered
to be in the highest perfection.

The spawn is deposited in furrows, some excavated by the
parent Lampreys, who, by the help of their sucker-like mouths,
rapidly remove even large stones.

.LAMPETUA.

Fluviatilis (Lat. of the river), the Lampern.

The LAMPERN, or RIVER LAMPREY, is plentifully found in
many rivers of England.^ It was formerly held in great repute
as bait for turbot, cod, and other fish, but in consequence of the
diminished supply other substances have been employed. Its
length is usually from twelve to fifteen inches. In some coun-
ties it is called Seven-eyes, in allusion to the breathing apertures
in the neck.

* It is extremely common at Ashbourne in Derbyshire, inhabiting the Dove and its
tributary brooks. Strange to say, the inhabitants of Ashbourne held it in some ab-
horrence, and there was only One individual possessing sufficient strength of mind to
cat them. He found them a most agreeable addition to his ordinary diet. The Lam-
perns, or Lampreens as they were called, used to lie in masses of eighteen or twenty
together in a hole, and if disturbed, set off down the stream with some speed.

NATURAL HISTORY.

45 r

Family II. Myximdse.
MYXINE (Gr. Mv&voc, from fj,v^a, slime.)

Glutinosa (Lat. glutinous), the Mijxlne or Glutinous Hag-fish.

The MYXINE, which, although a decided fish, was classed
by Linnseus among the worms, occurs frequently on the eastern
coast of this country. The fishermen find it within the bodies
of fish attached to the lines. The Scarborough fishermen call
such fish " robbed," as the Myxine, in the course of a single
tide, will devour the whole fish, except the skin and bones.
It is usually found in the body of the cod.

It is quite blind, but is supposed to derive considerable aid
from the eight barbules ranged round its mouth. Six indi-
viduals have been found in the body of a single haddock.

Along the under surface of the body are two rows of pores,
from which the Myxine is enabled to throw out a most copious
gelatinous secretion, apparently for the purpose of escape from
its enemies. The length of the Myxine is from twelve to
fifteen inches.

U

458 NATURAL HISTORY.

Division II. INVERTEBRATA. (Lat, without vertebra.)

Class VI. . . MOLLUSCA. — (Lat. from mollis, soft ; properly, a soft

nut.)

Order. . . . CEPHALOPODA.— (Gr. Ke^a^, the head ; 7rcwf,afoot.)
Family . . . Octopidae.— (Gr. 'O«rw, eight; Trot'f, a foot.)

Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Cuttle-fish.

The Mollusca have neither spine nor bones, the nervous sys-
tem consisting of a number of nervous knobs called*' ganglia,"
which give off filamentous nerves in different directions.

Few Molluscs possess eyes, but in one or two, as the snails
and slugs, those organs are to be found, and in the higher
Molluscs, such as the Cuttle-fish, we see not only large and
brilliant eyes, but also organs of hearing.

The Cephalopoda, so called by the organs of movement sur-
rounding the head, are divided into naked and testaceous* or
covered with a shell.

The COMMON CUTTLE-FISH is an example of a naked cephal-
opodous mollusc. This repulsive looking creature is common on
our shores, and is, in spite of its unpleasant appearance, often

* Derived from Lat. testa, a shell.

NATURAL HISTORY. 459

used for food. Its eight long and flexible arms are covered
with suckers of various sizes, enabling their owner not only to
fix itself firmly to the rocks on which it dwells, but to seize
and retain with the greatest tenacity any unfortunate fish or
shell that may happen to come within its reach. Its powerful
parrot-like beak enables it not only to devour fishes, but even
to crush the shells and Crustacea that are entangled in its
deadly embraces. In England the Cuttle does not grow to
any great size, but in the Indian Seas it is absolutely danger-
ous, and the crews of boats are forced to be armed with a
hatchet, to cut off the arms of the cuttle-fish.

There are few who have not heard of the colour called
" sepia." This is, or ought to be, prepared from a black pig-
ment, secreted by the Cuttle-fish, and used in order to escape
its foes, by blackening the water with the ink, and hurrying
off under shelter of the dense cloud of its own creating. Dr.
Buckland actually drew a portrait of a fossil Cuttle-fish with
some of its own ink that still remained in its body.

The substance sold in the shops as cuttle-fish bone is a
chalky substance secreted from the mouth of the fish, and com-
posed of an infinite number of plates, joined by myriads of
little pillars.^

The entire body is soft, and encased in a coarse, leather-like
skin, unprotected by any shell.

THE NAUTILUS.

The ARGONAUT, or NAUTILUS, is an example of the testaceous
Molluscs. This curious creature, about which so many mar-
vellous and poetical tales have been told, is very abundant in
the Mediterranean.

It has been clearly proved that the Nautilus does not urge
itself along the surface of the water by the expanded arms
used as sails. These arms are in fact used to cover the shell,
%

* At a meeting of the Ashmolean Society at Oxford, Dr. Buckland, while exhib-
iting some relics of a huge fossil Saurian, said, " I know where that fellow lived, I
know where he died, and moreover, I know what he had for dinner on the day that
he died. He had a cuttle-fislufor dinner, and here is its bony ring, which I found in
the Saurian's stomach."

NATURAL HISTORY.

ARGONAUTA. — (Lnt. a sailor in the ship Argo.)

Argo (Lat.), the Argonaut or Paper Nautilus.

and it is from these that the beautiful shell is secreted. The
Argonaut propels itself through the water "by violently ejecting
water from the tube with which it, as well as the cuttle-fish,
is furnished for that purpose. The colours of the living animal
of the Nautilus are exceedingly beautiful.

The arms of this creature are furnished with suckers. Its
shell, when the creature is living, is flexible and semi-trans-
parent.

The fossil Ammonites belong to the testaceous Cephalopoda.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Order GASTEROPODA.— <Gr. Taarqp, the belly; TTOVC, a foot.)

Sub-order.PuLMOBRANCHiATA. — (Pulmo the lungs; Iranchice, gills.)
Family. ... Liraacidae. — (Gr. Ae£//af, a Slug.)
LIMAX.

Ater (Lat. black), the Black Slug.

Shells are secreted from a part of the inhabitant called the
" mantle," and of course, as the .shell is always added round
the rim, as may be seen by taking a small snail in the spring1,
it naturally follows, that as the animal becomes larger, so the
mantle becomes larger, and secretes a larger ring of shell.

Many shells, as that of the oyster, are deposited in layers, a
fine membrane interposing between each layer : they are there-
fore called membranous shells. Most membranous shells are
lined with a brilliant enamelled substance, called "nacre:"
" mother of pearl" is the nacre of the pearl oyster. That of
the fresh-water mussel is a beautiful azure.

The other structure of shells is called " porcellaneous," be-
cause they look like porcelain or china. The common cowrie
is a well-known instance of a porcellaneous shell. Some shells
are so transparent as to resemble glass, and are therefore called
" vitreous."*

Shells are divided into Univalve, or one-valved shells, such
as the snail ; and Bivalve, or two-valved shells, such as the

* Derived from Lat. vitrum, glass

462 NATURAL HISTORY.

oyster. Those of the univalve molluscs are capable of protect-
ing themselves when withdrawn inside the shell by a horny
plate called the " operculum,"* which completely closes up the
aperture, and which may be seen in the periwinkle. The clos-
ing membrane found in the common snail, if taken in the win-
ter, is called the epiphragma,f and is supposed to be hardened
mucus.

The Gasteropoda move by means of a fleshy disc or foot on
the under surface of the body, and by the alternate expansive
and contractive movements of this foot, the creature is enabled
to crawl. The Gasteropoda inhabit both land and water, un-
like the bivalves, which are exclusively inhabitants of the latter
clement.

If the shell of a Gasteropodous mollusc be broken, it has the
power of repairing the injury by secreting fresh layers of shell
from the mantle within.

The SLUGS are well-known invaders of our gardens, and,
together with the snail, the caterpillar, and the mysterious
" blight," are objects of the gardener's most intense hatred.
The Black Slug is usually found by hedge-banks, and in grassy
meadows. It seldom ventures out by day, especially if the day
be bright, but at night, when the dew is on the ground, it
may be seen trailing its dark length through the herbage, or
eagerly devouring the leaves. J The small Grey Slug (Limax
cinerea) is more common in gardens than the Black Slug.

THE COMMON SNAIL.

Several species of SNAILS inhabit this country, among
which the Edible Snail (Helix pomatia), the Belted Snail
(Helix nemoralis), and the common Garden Snail (Helix
aspersa), are the most conspicuous. The Edible Snail was
imported into England by the Romans, who prized them
highly, and fattened them in a building erected for that
express purpose, as indeed they are now in some parts of the

* Lat. a cover or lid. t Gr. 'Ejri0/>ay//a, a cover.

t While employed at night in decoying moths, by means of a fragrant compound
of sugar, beer, and rum, spread on the trunks of trees, I used constantly to find my
bait attacked by huge slugs of all kinds, descending and ascending towards the sweet
but dangerous banquet.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family, Helicidse. — (Gr. "EAt^, twisted.)
HELIX.

Aspcrsa (Lat. sprinkled], the Common Snail.

Continent. This snail grows to a large size, nearly attaining
the magnitude of an ordinary closed fist.

The eyes of the Snail are placed at the extremity of the ten-
tacula, or " horns" as they are usually called.

The common garden snail is so well known that no descrip-
tion of it is needed. It lays eggs very large in comparison with
the size of the parent ; they are about the size of small peas,
round, soft, and semi-transparent. They are deposited about
two inches below the surface of the earth.

This creature is very tenacious of life. A living snail was
exhibited at the Ashmolean Society at Oxford, which had made
a long sea voyage, packed up in cotton wool. An immersion
in water soon brought the inhabitant to view, and when it was
exhibited it was crawling about a box in perfect health.

THE ROYAL STAIRCASE WENTLETRAP.

The ROYAL STAIRCASE WENTLETRAP affords us an excellent
and most beautiful example of the Turbinida3. It is a native
of the Chinese and Indian seas, and was formerly so scarce that
a specimen two inches in length would sell for a hundred

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family, Turbinidae. — (Lat. Turbo, a Whorl.)
SCALARIA. — (Lat. Scala, a Ladder, or stairs.)

Family. Coniidse. — (Gr.

f, a Cone.)

Pretiosa (Lat. valuable), the Royal Staircase Wentletrap.

Generalis (Lat general), the Gone.

pounds. Even now, a very fine specimen cannot be obtained
under six or seven pounds. For this reason, the specific name
" pretiosa" was affixed to it by Lamarck.

As an example of the large family of Cones, we will take
the common Cone, whose beautiful marbled colour and elegant
shape render it a most attractive shell.

THE MONEY COWRY, AtfD THE WHELK.

The Cowries are not less celebrated for the elegance of their
form and the beauty of their markings, than for the curious
circumstance that one species is used as current coin in
Guinea and Bengal, thus being employed for the same purpose
by two entirely distinct races of men, situated in different
quarters of the globe. Their value is of course small in
proportion to gold or silver. At the present time a rupee in

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family, Cyprseidse. — (Gr. from Kinrpoc, Cyprus.)
ARICIA.

Family, Buccinida?. — (Lat. Buccinum, a Trumpet.)
BUCCINUM.

Moneta (Lat. the stamp on, money), the Money Cowry.

Undatum (Lat. wavy), the Whcllc.

Bengal is worth 3200 Cowries, the value of the rupee being
2s. 3d. of our money.

The BUCCINID.E are so named from their fancied resem-
blance to a trumpet. The common Whelk is everywhere
abundant on our coasts, and is taken in such profusion that it
is largely exported for food, and may be seen on the street
stalls of the metropolis exposed for sale, like the oyster and
periwinkle.

The proboscis of this creature is of a most singular structure,
and by means of the numerous teeth with which it is armed,
it is able rapidly to bore its way through shells, and then to
feed upon the unfortunate inmate. The hermit crab often
takes possession of the empty shells of the Whelk.

The famous Tyrian purple was obtained from one of the
Buccinidae, Purpura imbricata.

406 NATURAL HISTORY.

Family, Muricidse. — (Lat. Murex, the purple shell-fish.)

Tribulus (Lat. a Thistle), the Thorny Woodcock.

The beautiful THORNY WOODCOCK, sometimes called by the
name of Terms' comb, is an excellent example of the MuricidsB.
This elegant shell is an inhabitant of the Indian Ocean.

Order. . . CYCLOBRANCHIATA.—(Gr. Kv/cAof, a circle ;

gills.)
Family , . Patellidse. — (Lat. Patella, a Porringer.)

Vulgata (Lat. made common), the Limpet.

The LIMPETS are spread over eveiy latitude, except the
Arctic regions. The common Limpet is to be found on every
rock and large stone at the sea-side. The variety of its
attachment to the rocks is very curious, and well repays a

NATURAL HISTORY. 4C?

careful examination. Every one who has seen a living limpet
knows how firmly it fixes itself to the rock. This is done by
the inhabitant creating a vacuum on the under surface of its
body, which causes the pressure of the atmosphere to keep it
so tightly fixed to the rocks, that a blade of a strong knife is
required to detach it. Frequently the margin of the shell
adapts itself to the shape of the substance to which it adheres,
proving that it must remain fixed in the same spot for a long
time, and rendering it difficult to imagine from whence it can
obtain sufficient nourishment to support life.

Sometimes a large shell may be picked up covered with
limpets, that adhere firmly to it in spite of the rolling of the
waves, and the tossings about to which it must necessarily bo
subjected.

Order.. CONCHIF%RA.—(Gr. Ko-yxv, a Mussel-shell; 0£/xj, I bear.)
Family . Pectinidoe. — (Lat. Pecten a Scallop.)
PECTEX.

Jacobaeus (Lat. from a proper name), the Scallop.

We now arrive at the BIVALVE MOLLUSCS. It has been
already stated that the Bivalves arc all aquatic. These crea-
tures are enabled to keep their shells firmly closed by means
of a powerful muscle. Those who have attempted for the first
time to open an oyster, must be convinced of the strength of
this muscle. The two shells are united by a powerful and

4G8 NATURAL HISTORY.

extremely elastic hinge, which after the death of the animal
opens the shells widely.

The Bivalves do not enjoy such powers of locomotion as the
Univalves, yet some, as the fresh-water mussel, can urge them-
selves along by means of a fleshy organ called the foot ; and so
powerful in some is this organ, that by means of it the animal
can not only burrow in the sand, but actually leap out of a
boat. The rapid opening and shutting of the valves is used by
some, as the scallop, as a means of progression. It is believed
that the Bivalves have no visual organs.

The common SCALLOP is found along our southern coasts,
and in the seas of Europe.* This shell was formerly used as
the badge of a pilgrim to the Holy Land.

" His pilgrim's staff he bore,

And fix'd the Scallop in his hat before."

OSTREA. — (Gi1. "Oar^sov, an Oyster.)

Edulis (Lat. edible], the Oyster,

The COMMON OYSTER has been for many ages considered as
delicacy for the table. In the times of the ancient Romans,

* It is a singular fact, that in the stomach of the common Scallop is found an
earthy deposit, which, when boiled in nitric acid in order to dissolve the animal and
other portions, exhibits under a powerful microscope animalcules precisely similar
to those which, in a fossil state, form the earth on which the town of Richmond in
America is built.

NATURAL HISTORY. 419

we find that our " Native Oysters" were exported to Rome, and
there placed in the Lucrine Lake, where they were fattened.

On our coasts the oysters breed in large beds, to which vast
quantities of young oysters are conveyed by the fishermen, and
suffered to increase without molestation. Newly-formed beds
are untouched for two or three years. During the months of
May, June, and July,* the oysters breed, and are considered
unfit for food. At this time the young, called " spat," are
deposited in enormous numbers. They instantly adhere to the
substance among which they fall ; and this, whatever it be, is
called " cultch," and is protected by severe penalties. About
May the fishermen separate the spawn from the cultch, which
is then thrown back into its former place. After May it is
felony to disturb the cultch, as were it removed, mussels and
cockles would rapidly take the place of the oysters.

The oysters are taken in the proper season by the " dredge,"
a kind of small net fastened round an iron frame- work, which
scoops up the oysters and many other marine animals.

The part of the Oyster called the " beard," is in reality the
respiratory apparatus.

THE PEARL OYSTER.

The Pearl Oyster is the animal from which those highly-
valued ornaments, pearls, are extracted. The pearl is nothing
more than " nacre," deposited in the shape of globular drops
instead of being spread over the inner surface of the shell, in
which case it is known as Mother-of-pearl.

These valuable shells are found both in the Old and New
World. Ceylon is very famous for its pearl fisheries. The
fishermen are trained to remain a long time under water, and
assisted in their descent to the bottom of the sea by a heavy
weight tied to their feet. They rapidly gather all the Pearl
Oysters in their way into a basket, and when in want of air,
give a signal to their friends above, who draw them to the
surface by a rope. The Oysters are then left to putrefy for
some weeks, when they are carefully washed, and the pearls
extracted.

* Most people are acquainted with the proverb, that oysters are in season d!:r;r:;'
the months in which is the letter R.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family, Meleagrimdse. — (Gr. Me/t

MELEAGRIXA.

Margaritifera (Lat. Margarita, a pearl ; fero, I bear), the Pearl Oyster.

The Chinese have a method of forcing oysters, or rather
mussels, to form pearls, by artfully placing beads in their shells,
round which a layer of nacre is deposited, and the beads then
perfectly resemble real pearls.

THE MUSSEL.

The SEA MUSSELS are usually fixed where the tide leaves
them alternately wet and dry, and it is worthy of notice that
those " shell-fish" which are exposed to variations of this kind
are enabled to close their shells so firmly as to prevent any
evaporation. One species is extensively used as an article of
food.

NATURAL HISTORY.
Family, Mytilidse. — (Gr. Mtm/lof, a Mussel.)

Edulis (Lat. edible), the Edible Mussel

The river mussels occasionally produce pearls of some value.
The nacre of these mussels is of a beautiful azure blue.

Order, CIRRHOPODA.—(G\\ Hevrt, five; lAaopa, a plate.)

PENTALASMIS.

Anatifera (Lat. Goose-bearing'), the Bernicle.

At first sight, the Bernicle bears a close resemblance to a
mussel-shell fixed to a long stem. On a closer examination,
however, the difference is at once apparent. The shell is in
fact composed of five pieces, and through the aperture of the

472 NATURAL HISTORY.

shell are thrust two rows of arms, or " cirrhi," as they are more
properly called. These cirrhi serve to entangle the small crus-
tacea or molluscs which pass near their sphere of action, and
which are then carried to the mouth and speedily devoured.

The Bernicle is always found adhering to some larger object,
usually floating wood, and is very common on the hulls of ships.
Although the perfect animal is permanently fixed, it has been
discovered that the young are free and capable of locomotion ;
nor is it until a week or two has passed, that they finally settle
themselves.

The name Anatifera or Goose-bearing, has been given to
this animal on account of the ancient story of the production
of the Bernicle-goose. This fable has already been related
under the article, Bernicle-goose.

NATURAL HISTORY. 473

Class VII. . • CRUSTACEA.— (Lat. Crusta, a crust or shell.)
Sub-class I. . MALACOSTRACA. — ( Gr. MaAa/cof , soft ; uarpaKov, &
shell.)*

Order I DEC APOD A.— (G?. At'/ca, ten ; irov?, a foot.)

Sub-order I. DECAPOD A-BRACHYUKA. — (Gr. Bpa^vf, short ; ovpd, a tail.)
Family I. . . Canceridse. — (Lat. Cancer, a Crab.)

Pagurus, the Crab.

The CRUSTACEA are almost all aquatic animals. They have
no internal skeleton, but their body is covered with a strong
crust, which serves for protection as well as for strength.
Their whole framework consists of a series of rings fitted to,
and working in each other ; some forming limbs, and others
developing into the frame work supporting the different organs.
From this reason, they and the remaining animals, as far as
the star-fishes, who have no limbs, are called " articulated"
animals.

* So called because their shell is soft compared with that of the univalve or bivalve
molluscs.

474 NATURAL HISTORY.

Their method of growth is very curious. Other animals as
they increase in size experience no particular inconvenience
Not so the Crustacea. Their bodies are closely enveloped in a
strong, unyielding mail, which cannot grow with them. Their
armour is therefore cast off every year, and a fresh coat formed
to suit their increased dimensions. Not only is the armour
cast off, but even the covering of the eyes, the tendons of the
claws, and the lining membrane of the stomach, ivith its
U'cth.

They all also possess the curious power of reproducing a lost
or injured limb. In the former case, a fresh limb supplies the
place of that lost ; and in the latter case, the animal itself
shakes off the injured joint, and a new one soon takes its place.
Lobsters, when alarmed, frequently throw off their claws.

The Decapods, as their name imports, are the fortunate
possessors of ten legs, five at each side. They also possess
three pairs of jaws, besides the teeth in the stomach. They
breathe by means of branchiae or gills, fixed at each side of
the throat, or chest, often erroneously called the head.*

The COMMON CRAB belongs to the short-tailed Decapods.
It is abundently taken on our coasts by fishermen, who employ
for its capture a wicker basket called a " creel" or crab-pot.
The crab-pots are made each with an aperture which permits
the animal to enter, but forbids its egress — just like a common
wire mouse-trap. A piece of a fish is fastened at the bottom
of the creel, and the whole apparatus let down to the bottom
of the sea, guarded by a -line connected with a float, by means
of which the fishermen draw it up and then remove its con-
tents. Each float has a peculiar mark, by which the fisher-
man knows his own. When taken, the crabs are kept alive
in well-boats, until wanted.

* These animals have no distinct head ; that and the thorax being merged into
what naturalists call ^cci.halo-tliorax," or head-thorax,

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-order II. DECAPODA-AXOMOURA. — (Gr. "Avo/zof, unaccustomed; ovpd,

a tail.)
Family III. . Paguridse. — (Gr. Ujj-ywpi, to fix; ovpd a tail.)

Bernliardus (Lat. proper name), the Hermit Crab.

The HERMIT CRAB is not so well protected as most of his
relations, for his tail has no shelly armour. He is therefore
forced to protect his undefended tail by putting it into an
empty shell, usually that of a whelk, and then walks about,
dragging his curious house after him. Sometimes, two hermit
crabs wish to obtain possession of the same shell, and then
there is a battle royal. When the crab grows larger, he only
has to change his old shell for a new one, and it is very amus-
ing to see them slipping their tails, first into one shell, and
then into another, until they have pleased themselves with a
good fit.

The Land Crabs make annual excursions to the sea in large
armies. They go straight forward, and nothing except a house
or such insurmountable barrier can stop them. Those of
Jamaica are particularly celebrated.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-order III. DECAPODA-MACROURA. — (Gr. Ma/cpof, large ; ovpu, a tail.)
Family V. . . Astacidse. — (Gr. 'AaraKog, a Lobster.)

POTAMOBIUS. — (Gr. IIora//of, a river; /3a>w, to live.)

Astacus, the Crayfish.

The long-tailed crustaceans include the Lobster, Shrimp, &c.

The RIVER CRAY-FISH is common in most of our rivers and
brooks. It resides in holes in the bank, sometimes excavated
by itself, but more often the deserted 'habitations of water-rats.
Irr rocky situations it lives under and among the stones. The
excellence and delicacy of its flesh causes it to be much sought
after. The usual method of catching these animals is by low-
ering a net to the bottom of the water, baited with a piece of
meat. The cray-fish soon discover this and come in numbers
to the bait, when the net is suddenly hauled up, and most of
the cray-fish secured. Some, however, escape by darting off
backwards, a movement produced by the violent bending of
their tails. It is a favourite amusment with boys to search
for them in their holes, and drag them from their conceal-
ment.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Gammarns, the Lobster.

The common LOBSTER is found in great abundance on our
coasts, usually in the clear rocky waters. The fishermen
take great numbers of lobsters in baskets made on the same
principle as those used for the capture of the crab. The
powerful tail of the lobsters enables them to spring through
a great distance if alarmed, and they have been seen to pass
nearly thirty feet. They direct their course with wonderful
accuracy, and can throw themselves through apertures hardly
larger than the size of their bodies : of course they spring tail
foremost.

The grasp of the lobster's claw is so tight that to break
off the claws is often the only method of disengaging its
hold.

Although enormous quantities are destroyed every year they
are so prolific that the supply never fails.

The so-called lady's-fingers of the Lobster are its breathing
apparatus.

478

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family VI. Crangomdce. — (Gr. Kpayyuv, a Shrimp.)

CEAXGON.
Family VIII. Pakemonidse. — (Gr. TLahaijuuv, a proper name.)

Vulgaris (Lat. common\ the Shrimp.

Serratus (Lat. toothed, jagged), the Prawn.

These two animals are so familiar to every one as to need
but little description. Both are taken in nets swept along the
sandy bottom of the sea. The chief distinction in the appear-
ance of these two creatures is the serrated or toothed ridge
which runs along the back of the head or rather carapace.
When in their natural state, they are of a brown colour, and
only assume the pinkish hue when boiled. Spirits of wine has
the same eflect.

The Fresh-Water Shrimp (Gammarus Pulex), and the
Water-Flea (Daphnia Pulcx), both so common in our rivers
and ponds, are placed among the Crustacea).

NATURAL HISTORY.

Class VIIL ARACHNfDA. — (Gr. 'Apdfrvj/f, a Spider.)

Order PULMONARfA.*—(Lfit. Pulmo, the Lungs.)

Family. . . Araneidse. — Lat. Aranca, a Spider.)

MYGALE. — (Gr. Mvyd^jj, the Shrew-mouse.)

Avicularia (Lat. Aviciilus, a little Bird), the Bird Spider.

The Class ARACHNIDA, or the Spiders, are by many supposed
to be insects. Such, however, is not the case. The Arachnida
possess eight legs, while the true Insects only have six ; they
undergo no transformations, they possess no wings or antenna?
(the place of the latter organs being supplied either by two
jointed claws, as in the Scorpions, or by two fangs, as in the
Spiders) ; and their eyes are simple instead of compound.

Could people divest themselves of the horror felt at the sight
of these creatures, especially of the larger sort, they would bo
well repaid by the interesting instinct displayed by all the
Spiders, who do not differ from each other more in form than in

* So called, because the animals belonging to this class breathe by means of air-
sacs, called by Latreille, Pneumobranchiae, or lung-gills. The Trachearia, on the
contrary, breathe by means of tracheae, or air-tubes branching through, the \vholo
system, like the insects,

480 NATURAL HISTORY-

habits. Those of our own country afford an ample field, which
has been as yet but imperfectly trodden. There are the Gossa-
mer Spiders, who float high into the air, borne upon an almost
invisible thread ; the Water Spiders, who form an air-tight
dwelling under the wave ; the Hunting Spiders, that creep
stealthily upon their prey, and then spring on it like lightning ;
the beautiful Garden Spiders, who weave from their self-af-
forded stores their geometrical nets ; the Pirate Spiders, who
skim over the surface of the waters, and snatch up the drown-
ing and helpless fly ; together with many others, whose form
and habits must be familiar to any observer of Nature.

On account of the limited space that can be given to each
Class, a short account of some of the principal species of this
class is all that can be given.

The enormous Spider represented above is a native of
Surinam, and was brought into notice by that indefatigable
naturalist, Madame Merian. Her account of it is very short.
She relates that it carries about with it a habitation, re-
sembling the cocoon of some of the moths, and that it is
armed with sharp fangs and inflicts dangerous wounds, at
the same time injecting into the wound a poisonous liquid.
She also tells us that it feeds principally upon ants, but that
in their absence it drags little birds out of their nests, and
then, as she pathetically observes, " sucks all the blood out cf
their poor little bodies."* Here, however, it is generally sup-
posed that Madame Merian has been imposed upon, as is
evidently the case in another portion of her work, where she
has drawn a curious insect, compounded of the head of a
lantern-fly, and the body of a cicada, She seems to have
had her doubts on the subject; for she says, " The Indians told
me."f

The common Garden, or Geometrical Spider, as it is called
from the mathematical regularity of its net, is an excellent
example of the Spiders. The net is formed from a gummy
substance secreted in an apparatus called the spinneret,
through the holes of which the gummy secretion is drawn
and becomes hard when exposed to the air. Each thread

* " Formicarum defectu, ipsas e nidis tollunt aviculas, omnemque corpusculia
cruorem exsugunt."— Merian. Met. Insect. Sur. p. 18.
t " Persuasum mini ab Indis est " — Id. p. 49.

NATURAL HISTORY. 48\

is composed of many thousand lines. When the web is com-
pleted, the Spider generally hides itself under a leaf or other
convenient lurking-place, and from thence pounces upon any
unwary fly that has entangled itself in the slender meshes.
Should the fly be a large one, the Spider rapidly encircles it
with fresh threads until it has bound its wings and legs to the
body, and then breaking off the few threads that held it to the
net, bears it off triumphantly to its hiding-place. Frequently
the Geometrical Spider sits in the centre of the web, appar-
ently enjoying the air, and if disturbed shakes the net so vio-
lently that its shape is completely obscured by the rapidity of
the vibrations.

The House Spider makes a thicker and irregular web, and
hides itself at the bottom of a silken tunnel communicating
with the web.*

Several endeavours have been made to procure silk from
spiders, but although sufficient has been obtained to weave
gloves from, yet spiders are so pugnacious that they cannot be
kept together. The eggs of the Spiders are enclosed in a silken
bag, and when hatched, the young keep closely together, and
when dispersed by an alarm, soon reassemble.

The Tarantula, whose bite was fabled to procure convulsions
which could only be appeased by music, is a spider of consider-
able size, inhabiting the south of Europe. It lives in holes
about four inches deep in the ground.

THE SCORPION.

These formidable creatures inhabit most of the hotter parts
of the globe. They are quite as pugnacious as the spiders, and
if several are placed in one box, they will fight until few sur-
vive, who immediately devour their fallen foes.

The maxillae of the SCORPION are developed into large claws,
like those of the lobster. With these, the Scorpion seizes its
prey, and while holding it pierces it with its sting, which is
situated at the extremity of its tail. The tail is composed of
six joints, rendering it very flexible.

* An acquaintance of mine had so far tamed a huge house spider, that it would
come and take a fly out of his hand. He states, that as it sat at the bottom of its den,
its eyes gleamed like diamonds.

X

482

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family, Scorpiomdse. — (Lai. Scorpio, a Scorpion.)

Europseus (Lat. European), the Scorpion.

The sting of this creature is exceedingly painful, and with
some persons dangerous ; indeed, the sting of the large black
Scorpion of Ceylon is said to cause death.

Order, TR A CHE ARIA.— (From. Trachea, a word used to represent
tubes through which insects and other animals breathe ; —
the windpipe.)

Family, Acaridse. — (Gr. "A/capt, a Mite.)

These creatures are mostly minute, requiring the aid of a
microscope fully to develop their form ; but some are considera-
bly larger, and their organs can be distinguished with the naked
eye. In this order are included the common cheese mite, the
harvest-bug, the water mites, &c.

NATURAL HISTORY. 483

Class IX. . . INSECTA. — (Lat. Jnsccarc, to cut into.)

Sub-class I. INSECTA MANDIBULATA.— (Lat mandare, to chew.)

Order!. . . COLEOPT£RA.—(Gr. KoAeo'f, a sheath; -nripov, a

wing.)
Family I. . . Cicindelida;. (Lat. a Gloivworm.)

CICTNDELA.

Campestris (Lat. of the fields), tlie Tiger-beetle.

The body of an insect is divided or cut into three parts,
called the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. The body is
defended by a horny integument, divided into rings and con-
nected by a softer membrane. The legs are six in number.
Many insects possess wings, and in all the rudiments of those
organs are perceptible. The eyes are compound, that is, a
number of eyes are massed together at each side of the head ;
and so numerous are they, that in the compound eyes of the
ant are 50 lenses, in the house-fly, 8,000, in the butterfly,
17,000, and in the hawk-moth, 20,000.

The insects pass through three transformations before they
attain their perfect form. The first state is called the larva,*
because the future insect is masked under that form; the
second is called the pupa$ on account of the shape often as-
sumed ; and the third is called the imago,$ as being the image
of the perfect creature. Insects breathe by means of air-tubes,
called tracheae, which penetrate to every part of the body,
even to the extremities of the limbs, antennae and wings.
The air gains access to the tubes by means of small apertures

From Lat. Larva, a mask.

From Lat. Imago, an image or effigy.

t From Lat. Pupa> a doll.

484 NATURAL HISTORY.

called spiracles. The tubes are prevented from collapsing by a
delicate thread wound spirally between the two membranes
of which the tubes are composed. This wonderful and beau-
tiful arrangement not only prevents the tubes from collapsing,
but keeps them flexible. There are, according to Stephens,
whose arrangement is the one usually followed, fourteen orders
of insects. Examples will be given of each, and their names
explained. The most perfect insects are placed first.

There are two great divisions of insects, namely, those which
bite and eat solid food with jaws, as the beetles, locusts, bees,
&c., and those which suck liquid food through a proboscis, as
the butterflies, flies, &c. The first order of insects derives its
name from the sheath or covering with which the wings are
defended.* This is a very extensive order, as, exclusive of
exotic and other foreign beetles, there have been discovered
no less than three thousand ; five hundred inhabit England
The first in order of the British insects, are the TIGER-BEE-
TLES, so called from their activity and voracity. The most
common of these is the ordinary Green Tiger-beetle, that
may be seen any hot summer's day, glancing in the sun on
sandy banks. The exceeding beauty of this insect is beyond
all description. The upper surface of the body is a deep, dead
green, changing under the microscope to a glossy gold, shot
with red and green, the surface of the abdomen covered by
the wings, and the entire under-surface of the body, brilliant
emerald green, and when the insect is on the wing it sparkles
in the sun like a flying gem. Nor is this the last of its at-
tractions, for when handled it gives forth a scent closely re-
sembling that of die verbena. It is indeed as beautiful among
insects as the tiger is among beasts, and is, perhaps, the more
ferocious of the two. It runs and flies with great activity, and
takes to the wing as easily as a bee or fly, and is in conse-
quence rather difficult to capture without a net. Its jaws are
long, sharp, curved like a sickle, and armed with several teeth.
Its eyes are large and prominent, enabling it to see on all bides.
Its length is rather more than half an inch.

* This, as well as the general covering of insects, is composed principally of a
substance called by chemists, chitme.

NATURAL HISTORY.

485

Family, Carabidse. — (Gr. Kapa/3of a Beetle.)
CAEABUS.

Cancellatus (Lat. chequered], tJie Ground-beetle,

The GROUND-BEETLE is one of our largest and most beautiful
beetles. Its general colour is a coppery green, and its wing-
cases are ornamented with several rows of oblong raised spots.
Its length is about an inch.

Family, Silphidse. — (Gr. "Zil.Qij, a Bury ing-beetle.)
NECROPHAGUS. — (Gr. Ne/cpo^, a dead bod}- ; <£aye«>, to eat)

Vespillo (Lat. a bearer of the dead,) the Bury ing-beetle.

This curious beetle derives its name from its habit of bury-
ing any small dead animal left on the surface* of the ground.
"With such rapidity does it work, that two beetles have been
known to cover up a sparrow within a few hours ; and so un-

486 NATURAL HISTORY.

wearied are they, that if several Burying-beetles are placed in
a vessel filled with earth, and kept constantly supplied with
dead frogs, mice, &c., they will continue to bury them as long
as the supply is kept up. The object of this remarkable in-
stinct, so beneficial in its effects, is to furnish food for the young
who are hatched from eggs laid in the body of the animal dur-
ing its burial. In this way innumerable carcasses which would
pollute the atmosphere are removed, and made beneficial to
the soil.

Family, Lucamdse. — (Lat. Lucanus, the Stag-beetle.)

I/UNCANUS.
Family, Geotrupidre.— (Gr. !>/, the Earth ; rpv^uu, to bore.)

GEOTRUPES.

Family, Melolontlrfcte.— (Gr. MjyAoAwfljy, a Coekchaffer.)

MELOLONTHA.

Cervus (Lat a Stag), the Stag-beetle.
Stercorarius (Lat. Dung), the Dor-beetle.
Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Cockcliaffer.

The LAMELLICORN BEETLES are exceeedingly useful to man-
kind. Many of them act as scavengers and farmers, for they

NATURAL HISTORY. 487

not only remove putrefying substances from the surface of the
ground, but bury them beneath.

The STAG-BEETLE is the largest of British insects. Although
so formidably armed, it is quite harmless, and only uses its enor-
mous jaws to break the tender bark of trees, in order that the
sap, on which it feeds, may exude. The mouth of this beetle
is very small, and is furnished with a brush, with which it licks
up the food. Several of these beetles lived for some time on
moist sugar. During the winter, it hides in the earth, making
for itself a kind of cave, very smooth inside.^ This beetle is
common in the New Forest.

The DOR-BEETLE is a very common English insect. At the
approach of evening, it may be seen whirling round in the air
with a dull humming sound. The country children call it the
Watchman, comparing it to a watchman going his rounds in
the evening. It usually lays its eggs on a rounded mass of cow-
dung, and then buries the whole mass in the ground. When
caught, it pretends to be dead.f

The COCKCHAFFER needs not much description. Its larva
works great mischief during the spring, as it feeds on the roots
of plants, and cuts them off with its sharp sickle-like jaws.
Where many of these " grubs" have been, the grass curls up,
and dries like hay. One farmer actually collected eighty bush-
els of the grubs of the Cockchaffer on his farm. Fortunately
the thrushes, blackbirds, rooks, and many other birds are invete-
rate destroyers of the grubs, and devour myriads of them. It
is for this purpose that these birds pull up the grass, and not to
spoil or devour the herbage, as is generally supposed.

The huge Hercules and Atlas Beetles, and larger still, the
Goliath Beetle, belong to the Lamellicorns.

* In the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, is an excellent specimen of the winter hab-
itation of this beetle, with the beetle itself enclosed.

t The Dor-beetle is very tenacious of life. I have now in my cabinet a specimen
of this insect, which 1 took on the wing. It had lost several legs, one wing-cover or
elytron, the whole of the contents of the abdomen, and part of the thorax. I suppose
that a bird must have been eating it, and have been disturbed, for when thrushes,
blackbirds, jackdaws, &c. eat large beetles, they begin by picking off the wings, limbs,
&c. I also took, in May 1852, a cockchaffer walking along very unconcernedly, who
had lost both his wings and elytra, and all the contents of the abdomen.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family, Lampyridse. — (Gr. AU/J.TTCJ, to shine; ovpd, a tail.)
LAMPYRIS.

Noctiluca (Lut. night-shining}, the Glowworm.

The GLOWWORM may be seen in the warm summer even-
ings, shedding its pale green light on grassy banks. The female
insect gives out a much stronger light than the male, and
there is some light visible even in the larva. The light of this
insect proceeds from the abdomen. The light given out by
the firefly, another kind of beetle inhabiting South America,
proceeds from three yellow tubercles placed on the throat.
The grub or larva of the Glowworm is of a singular form, and
is furnished with a brush at the extremity of the tail, with
which it cleanses its body from dust or the slime of the snails
on which it frequently feeds.

THE DEATH-WATCH.

The formerly terrible DEATH-WATCH, is now generally
known to be merely a small beetle. Indeed it is nothing
more than the creature that perforates the round holes in old
" worm-eaten" furniture and wood-work. The " ticking"
is produced by striking the head against the wood. If there
is a Death-Watch in the room, it is easy to incite it to begin
to tick, by striking with the head of a pin on the panelling.
There are several insects that produce this sound, the Anobium
striatum, tesselatum, and pertinax. The last named is so

NATURAL HISTORY.
Family, Ptinidse.

Tesselatum (Lat. tesselated), the Death- Watch.

called from the pertinacity with which it simulates death if
alarmed, preferring to suffer the severest treatment rather than
give signs of life.

Family, Cerambycldse. — (Gr. Kepu/npv!;, the Musk-beetle.)

CERAMBYX.

Moschatns (Lat. musky], the Music-beetle.

The beautiful Beetles of which the common MUSK-BEEKTLE
is an excellent example vary considerably in size ; some
being several inches in length, while some are hardly one-

490 NATURAL HISTORY.

quarter of an inch long. The extreme length of their antennae
is the most conspicious property, and from that peculiarity they
are at once recognized.*

The Musk -beetle is a large insect, common in most parts of
England. It is extremely common at Oxford, and is found in
old willow-trees, with which Oxford is surrounded. Its pecu-
liar scent, something resembling that of roses, often betrays its
presence, when its green colour would have kept it concealed.
When touched, it emits a curious sound, not unlike that of a bat,
but more resembling the faint scratching of a perpendicularly-
held slate pencil. Its larva bores deep holes in the trees, which
are often quite honeycombed by them.

THE ROVE BEETLE.

The ROVE-BEETLES form an exceedingly extensive section.
Some are so small as to require the assistance of the microscope
to discover their shape, and others, as those represented on the
next page, are more than an inch in length. The small species
are usually on the wing, and it is very amusing to see them
alight, and with their flexible tails tuck their long and beauti-
fully shaped wings under the elytra, run about for a moment,
and then again take to flight. These are the creatures that
cause so much annoyance by flying into one's mouth or eye in
the warm months.

The GREAT ROVE-BEETLE is commonly found upon decaying
animal substances. It is most formidably armed with two large,
curved, sharp mandibles, the bite of which is tolerably severe ;
and more than once, when the creature has been recently feed-
ing upon putrid substances, dangerous results have followed.

I much regret that want of space has withheld me from
giving accounts of many most interesting beetles, particularly
£ome of the Carabidae, the Silphida?, PtinidsB, and the Water-

* A small moth, Adela dc Geerella, possesses the same peculiarity. The length of
the moth is about a quarter of an inch, and the length of the antenna; more than an
inch and a half. The antennae wave about with every breath of air, as if the insect
had become entangled in a spider's web, and escaped with some of the loose threads
floating about it.

NATURAL HISTORY. 491

Family, Staphylimdse. — (Gr. 2ra0u/lh>of, the Rove-beetle.)
CREOPHILUS. — (Gr. Kpedf, flesh ; <j>iheiv, to love.)

Maxillosus (Lat. large-jawed), the Rove-beetle.

beetles. These last inhabit the water, and swim with re-
markable activity. They occasionally come to the surface for
a fresh supply of air, which they carry down between the ely-
tra and the upper surface of the abdomen. They fly very
well, but the construction of their limbs prevents them from
walking. They cannot be kept in a limited space, as they
are very fierce and voracious, and in one case when a male
and female were placed in a jar filled with water, only one
day elapsed before the male was found dead and half devoured
by his disconsolate widow.

The EARWIG is placed in an order by itself, called Der-
maptera from the soft elytra. The wings are large and ex-
ceedingly beautiful, and the method of folding by which they
are packed under the very small elytra is very curious. The
use of the forceps seems principally for the purpose of folding
the wings and placing them in their proper position under
the elytra. Ten species of earwigs inhabit England. The
eggs of the earwigs are hatched, and the young protected by
the parent.

432 NATURAL HISTORY.

Order III. ORTHOPTERA.—(GY. "Opflof, straight; KTepov, a wing.)
Family . . . Locustidaj. — (Lat. Locusta, a Locust.)

Tartarica (Lat. of Tartary), the Locust.

These pests of the warmer countries of the earth belong to
the order called Orthoptera, because the wings are not folded
transversely.

They fly in countless myriads, and where they descend,
they devour every particle of green herbage — the trees are strip-
ped of their leaves, the grass and corn is eaten to the very
ground ; for their jaws are so strong as to inflict a severe
wound when the insect is incautiously handled. Nor does the
mischief end with their life, for their -dead bodies often accumu-
late in such numbers that the air is even dangerously infected.
They infest Africa and central Asia, but they annually make
incursions to Europe, where the damage they occasion is much
less reparable than in their native lands, for there the power of
vegetation is so great that a few days repair the injuries caused
by them, but in Europe a whole year is required for that pur-
pose. The following account of these creatures is extracted
from Mr. Curnming's South Africa : —

NATURAL HISTORY. 493

" On the following day I had the pleasure of beholding the
first flight of locusts that I had seen since my arrival in the
colony. We were standing in the middle of a plain of unlim-
ited length, and about five miles across, when I observed them
advancing. On they came like a snow-storm, flying slow and
steady, about a hundred yards from the ground. I stood look-
ing at them until the air 'was darkened with their masses,
while the plain on which we stood became densely covered with
them. Far as my eye could reach, east, west, north, and south,
they stretched in one unbroken cloud ; and more than an hour
elapsed before their devastating legions had s^wept by. . . .

" Locusts afford fattening and wholesome food to man, birds,
and all sorts of beasts ; cows and horses, lions, jackals, hyaenas,
antelopes, elephants, &c. devour them. We met a party of
Batlapis carrying heavy burdens of them on their backs. Our
hungry dogs made a fine feast on them. The cold frosty night
had rendered them unable to take wing until the sun should
restore their powers. As it was difficult to obtain sufficient
food for my dogs, I and Isaac took a large blanket, which we
spread under a bush, whose branches were bent to the ground
with the mass of locusts which covered it, and having shaken
the branches, in an instant I had more locusts than I could
carry on my back ; these we roasted for ourselves and cur
dogs."

Our common grasshoppers belong to this order, but require
no description.

The Cockroach (Blatta orientalis), erroneously called by
housewives, the " Black-beetle" (it not being a beetle at all, and
its colour being a reddish brown), belongs to the family Blattida).
It was originally brought from abroad, arid has completely
domesticated itself, just as the brown rat has done, so that few
houses are free from it.

THE MOLE-CRICKET.

The curious insect called the MOLE-CRICKET is not un-
common in England. It inhabits sandy banks, digging deej
holes, and forming chambers, in which the eggs are laid

494 NATURAL HISTORY.

Family, Achetidse. — (Gr. 'A^traf, a Cliirper, i.e. the Grasshopper.)
GRYLLOTALPA. — (Lat. Gryllus, a Cricket; talpa, a Mole.)

Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Mole-Cricket.

The fore legs closely resemble those of the mole, and are used
for the same purpose. From its not unmusical cry it is called
in some parts of England the Churr-worm, and near Oxford the
rustics call it " Croaker."

PHYLLIA.*— (Gr. QvMov, a Leaf.)

Foliata (Lat. like a leaf), the Leaf Insect

The LEAF INSECT is an inhabitant of South America. Not
only does it resemble a leaf in shape, but even in colour, arid

* I have preferred to place these two insects in close proximity, as they both af-
ford a curious instance of resemblance to another part of creation.

NATURAL HISTORY. 495

its legs may be easily mistaken for dry twigs. Even the rami-
fied veinings of the leaf are preserved on its wings. It is singu-
lar that while some insects closely resemble vegetables, some
vegetables, as the Orchidacese, should as closely resemble insects.
Nearly connected with this insect, is the Praying Mantis, so
called from the curious manner in which it holds its fore legs.
It is very voracious and exceedingly quarrelsome, fighting with
the fore legs, which it uses like a sword. In China, the inhab-
itants keep them in cages, arid set them to fight as in other
countries certain barbarians keep cocks for the same purpose.

Order IV. NEUROPTERA. — (Gr. Neiipov, a nerve ; KTtpov, a wing.)
Family. . . LibelluliJte. — (Lat. Libellula, a Dragon-fly.)

LIOELLULA.

Depressa (Lat. flattened), the Dragon-fly.

Well do the DRAGON-FLIES deserve their name. Fierce,
voracious, active, and powerful, they are a scourge to the in-
sects. Few but the Coleoptera can escape them. They are on
the wing nearly the whole day, seizing and devouring flies, spi-
ders, and various insects ; nor can even the broad- winged but-
terfly escape them : so voracious are they, that when held in

496 NATURAL HISTORY.

the hand they will devour flies, &c., if held within their reach,
and they have even been known, when their bodies have been
severed in two, to eat flies, although they had no stomach to
put them in.* A very great variety of these beautiful insects
inhabit England. Some, the Agrionidae, whose head resembles
that of the hammer-headed shark, are of every vivid colour im-
aginable, floating in the air like beams of azure, emerald, and
rosy light, while others have their wings marked with large in-
digo-coloured spots. The larva of the Dragon-fly inhabits the
water, and is quite as voracious as in its perfect state. Affixed
to its head, a curious set of organs, called the mask, which it
can extend, seize its prey, and hold it to its mouth.

Family, Myrmeleonidee. — (Gr. Mvp/j,7j^, an Ant; Atwi', a Lion.)

MYRMELEON.f

Formicarum (Lat. of ants), the Ant-lion.

This insect in its perfect form, although very elegant,
exhibits no peculiarity, but in its larva state its habits are so
extraordinary as to have excited general attention, As it is
slow and awkward in its movements, it has recourse to
stratagem for capturing the agile insects on which it feeds.
Choosing a light sandy soil, it digs for itself a conical pit, at
the bottom of which it conceals itself, leaving only its jaws

* I once caught a dragon fly in my net, and while holding it by the wings I pre-
sented to it no less than thirty-seven large flies in rapid succession, all of which it
devoured, together with four long-legged spiders. It would probably have eaten as
many more had 1 not been tired of catching flies for it.

\ The winged Ant-Lion is reduced one-half in size.

NATURAL HISTORY. 497

exposed. When an unwary insect approaches too near the
edge of the pit, the sand gives way, and down rolls the insect
into the very teeth of the concealed ANT-LION, who instantly
pierces its prey with its calliper-shaped fangs, and sucks out
its juices through the jaws, which are hollow. Should, how-
ever, the Ant-lion miss its prey, and the insect endeavour
to escape, its captor instantly makes such a turmoil by
tossing up the sand with its closed jaws, and covering each
side of the pit with the moving grains, that the insect is
tolerably certain to be brought down to the bottom, and is
seized by the Ant-lion, who immediately drags it below the
sand. When the insect is very strong and struggles hard to
escape, the Ant-lion shakes it about as a dog does a rat, and
beats it against the ground until it is disabled.

The TERMITES, or WHITE ANTS as they are very erroneously
called, belong to this order. These insects live in large soci-
eties, and build edifices, sometimes of enormous size, and al-
most as hard as stone. Twelve feet in height is quite common,
so that were we to compare our works with theirs, St. Peter's
in Rome, and St. Paul's in London, fall infinitely short of the
ediiices constructed by these little creatures. The common
Termes bcllicosus, or warlike Termite, inhabits Africa. Not
only does it build these houses, but runs galleries underground,
as, curiously enough, although blind, it always works either at
night or in darkness. In each house or community, there are
five different kinds of Termites : — 1. the single male, or king,
whose life is very short ; 2. the single female or queen : these
are the perfect insects, and have had wings, but have lost them
soon after their admission into their cell ; they also have eyes ;
3. the soldiers or fighting men : these possess large jaws, do no
work, but repel adversaries and watch as sentinels ; 4. the
pupso, who resemble the workers, except that they possess the
rudiments of wings ; and 5. the larva?, or workers. These do
all the ivork, i. e. they collect food, attend to the queen, arid
watch over the eggs and young, and build and repair their cas-
tle. These are more numerous than all the other kinds.

On the approach of the rainy season, the pupae obtain wings
and issue forth in swarms. Few, however, survive. Myriads
are devoured by birds, reptiles, arid even by man ; and many
are carried out to sea, and perish there. Those that do escape

498 NATURAL HISTORY.

are speedily found by the labourers, who enclose a pair in a clay
cell from which they never emerge. The male soon dies,
but the female, after rapidly increasing to nearly three inches
in length and one in breadth, continues to lay eggs unceas-
ingly for a very long time. This cell becomes the nucleus
of the hive, and round it all the other cells and galleries are
built.

These insects are terribly destructive, as they eat through
wooden beams, furniture, &c., leaving only a thin shell, which
is broken down with the least extra weight, and many are
the occasions when an unsuspecting individual, on seating
himself 011 an apparently sound sofa or chair, finds himself,
like Belzoni in the Pyramid, reposing among a heap of dust
and splinters.

Mr. Gumming describes the habitations of the White Ant in
these terms : —

" Throughout the greater part of the plains frequented by
blesboks, numbers of the sunbaked hills or mounds of clay
formed by the white ants occur. The average height of the
ant-hills in these districts is from two to three feet. They
are generally distant from another from one to three hundred
yards, being more or less thickly placed in different parts.
These ant-hills are of the greatest service to the hunter, en-
abling him with facility to conceal himself on the otherwise
open plain."

THE CADDIS-FLY.

This fly is well known to every angler both in its larva
and in its perfect state. The larva is a soft white worm,
of which fishes are exceedingly fond, and it therefore requires
some means of defence. It accordingly actually makes for
itself a movable house of sand, small stones, straws, bits of
shells, or even small living shells, in which it lives in perfect
security, and crawls about in search of food, dragging its
house after it. When it is about to become a pupa, it spins
a strong silk grating over the entrance of its case, so that
the water necessary for its respiration can pass through, but

NATURAL HISTORY. 499

Order V. TRICHOPTl!;RA.—(Gr. 6pt£, hair ; Trrtpov, a wing.)
Family. . Phryganidae. — (Gr. Qovyavov, a dry stick : alluding to their
habitations.)

rilRYGANEA.

Grandis (Lat. large), the Caddis-fly.*

at the same time all enemies are kept out. When the time
for its change has arrived, the pupa bites through the grating,
rises to the surface, and crawls out of the reach of the water,
which would soon be fatal to it. The skin then splits down
the back, and the perfect insect emerges.

The order is called Trichoptera, because the wings, instead
of being covered with scales as are those of butterflies, are
clothed with hairs. — There are many species of Caddis-flies.

THE ICHNEUMON FLY.

WE have now reached a most important and interesting
order. In it are contained the bees, wasps, ants, &c. This
is the only order where the insects possess stings. The wings
are four in number, with certain veinings upon them, the shape
and number of which in many cases distinguishes the species.

* In this cut the cases of the Caddis-worm are of the natural size, but the insect
in the centre is reduced one half.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Order VI. HYMENOPT^RA.—(Gr. 'T^v, a Membrane ; nrt-pov, a

wing.)

Family . . . Ichneumonidae. — (Gr. 'Ixvevfiuv , a Hunter.)
PIMPLA.— (Gr. Uiftfrlijpi, to fill.)

Manifestator (Lat. a pointer out, the Ichneumon- fly.

The ICHNEUMONS form a very large section. They are
most useful to mankind, as one ichneumon will destroy more
caterpillars than a man could kill in his lifetime. They do
not, as most other insects, deposit their eggs upon vegetable
or dead animal substances, but they actually bore holes in
other insects while they are still in the larva state, and
leave the eggs to hatch in their living receptacle. The most
common ichneumon is a very small insect, not so large as
an ordinary gnat. This little creature may be seen searching
for caterpillars. It generally selects the common cabbage
caterpillar, and sitting upon it, pierces with its sting, or
ovipositor as it is called, the skin of the caterpillar, and
deposits an egg. After repeating this operation many times
it flies off and the caterpillar proceeds as before in the great
business of its life, that is, eating, and continues in apparently
perfect health until the time for its change into the chrysalis
state occurs. The good condition of it, however, is merely
deception, for the offspring of the little ichneumon have all
this while been silently increasing in size, and feeding on the
fat, &c. of the caterpillar, but cautiously avoiding any vital
part, so that the plump appearance of the caterpillar is merely

NATURAL HISTORY. 501

produced by the young ichneumons lying snugly under the skin.
Just as the caterpillar commences its change out come all the
ichneumons, looking like little white maggots, and immediately
each spins for itself a yellow oval case, frequently enveloping
the form of the now emaciated caterpillar. In a few days a
little lid on the top of each case is pushed open, and the perfect
flies issue forth, and immediately commence their own work of
destruction. =*

Family, Formieidse. — (Lat, Formica, an Ant.)
FORMICA.

Rtifa (Lat. red), the Wood Ant.

The remaining Hymenoptera are furnished with true stings,
that is, with stings to which is attached a poison apparatus,
like that belonging to the teeth of venomous snakes.

The WOOD ANT is the largest of our British species. It is
found principally in woods, and builds a large nest, which looks
like a hillock of sand and earth, intermixed with bits of stick,
leaves, &c. The interior of this hill is chambered out into a va-
riety of apartments, and is traversed by passages. The so-called
ants' eggs are not eggs at all, but the pupa cases of the insect,
and if opened, the perfect insect is seen curled up inside. In
the autumn, the ants burst forth by thousands, and may be seen
hovering in clouds above the nest. Their beautiful wings do

* I examined numbers of caterpillars in the course of dissection, and seldom found
them free from ichneumons I took out of one small goat caterpillar 137 of these in-
sidious destroyers. 1 found them useful auxiliaries in dissection, as they had usual-
ly consumed all the fat, leaving the important organs ready cleared.

502 NATURAL HISTORY.

not last long, for when a female ant escapes, and founds an in-
fant colony, her wings are soon lost. Few do escape, as the birds
find these living clouds a most agreeable and plentiful repast.

Ants do. not, as has been so frequently said, lay up stores of
corn for the winter, for they are in a state of torpidity, during
the cold months, and require no food. Moreover, an ant would
find as much difficulty in eating or digesting a grain of corn as
we should in devouring a truss of straw.

In. each nest are three kinds of ants, — males, females, and
neuters, or workers.

Family, Vcspidso. — (Lat. Vcspa, a Wasp.)

VE3PA.

Crabro (Lat. a Hornet], the Hornet.
Vulgaris (Lat. common), the Wasp.

Let us honour the "Wasps as the first paper-makers, for of
that material is the nest composed. The paper is rough and
coarse, certainly, but it is still paper. The "Wasp, in order to
make this paper, rasps off fibres of decayed wood, which it
afterwards mashes with its teeth into a pulp, and then spreads
the pulp in layers, when it hardens and forms coarse paper.

The dreaded HORNET is usually found in woods, where it

NATURAL HISTORY. 503

builds its nest in the hollows of trees. A deserted hut is a
favourite spot, and when occupied by a full nest of hornets, is
not particularly safe to enter,^ as the sting of this insect is"
peculiarly severe. It feeds upon other insects, and even attacks
and devours the formidable wasp.

The COMMON WASP builds its nest in the ground, usually
in banks. The comb is laid horizontally, and not vertically
like those of the bee. As the cells are made of paper, they
will not hold honey, nor does the wasp endeavour to collect
honey, although it is very fond of it, and never loses an op-
portunity of robbing a bee-hive, although its natural food is
Hies or other animal substances. Nor does it despise sugar,
as every grocer's window testifies. Very few wasps survive
the winter, and those who do, immediately set about forming
a new nest. Only a few cells are made at first, but the number
rapidly increases, until the nest is furnished with about sixteen
thousand cells.

Some wasps build nests upon the branches of trees, and others
suspend them from the branches.

THE BEE.

This useful little creature is so well known that a lengthened
description of it would be useless. A merely general sketch
will be quite sufficient.

The cells of the bee are, as is well known, made of wax.
This wax is secreted in the form of scales under six little flaps
situated on the under side of the insect. It is then pulled out
by the bee, and moulded with other scales until a tenacious
piece of wax is formed. The yellow substance on the legs of
the bees is the pollen of flowers. This is kneaded up by the
bees, and is called bee-bread.

The cells are six-sided, a form which gives the greatest
space and strength with the least amount of material, but the

504

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family, Apidas. — (Lat. Apis, a Bee.)

Mellifica (Lat. Mel, honey; faccre, to make), the Honey Bcc.*

method employed by the bees to give the cells that shape is
not known. The cells in which the drone or male bees are
hatched, are much larger than those of the ordinary or worker
bee. The edges of the cells are strengthened with a substance
called propolis, which is a gummy material procured from
the buds of various trees. This propolis is also used to stop
up crevices and to mix with wax when the comb has to be
strengthened.

The royal cells are much larger than any others, and are of
an oval shape. "When a worker larva is placed in a royal
cell, and fed in a royal manner, it imbibes the principles of
royalty, and becomes a queen accordingly. This practice is
adopted if the queen bee should die, and there be no other
queen to take her place.

The Q,ueen Bee is lady paramount in her own hive, and suf-
fers no other queen to divide rule with her. Should a strange
queen gain admittance, there is a battle at once, which ceases
not until one has been destroyed.

* In the cut, the upper figure is the Queen Bee ; that on the left the Worker ; and
that on the right the Drone.

NATUKAL HISTORY. ^05

At the swarming time, the eld queen is sadly put out by
the encroachments of various young queens, who each -wish for
the throne, and at last is so agitated that she rushes out of
the hive, attended by a large body of subjects, and thus the
first swarm is formed. In seven or eight days, the queen
next in age also departs, taking with her another supply of
subjects. When all the swarms have left the original hive,
the remaining queens fight until one gains the throne.

The old method of destroying bees for the sake of the
honey was not only cruel but wasteful, as by burning some
dry " puff-ball " the bees are stupefied, and shortly return to
consciousness. The employment of a " cap" on the hive is
an excellent plan, as the bees deposit honey alone in these
caps, without any admixture of grubs or bee-bread. Extra
hives at the side, with a communication from the original hive,
arc also useful.

The queen bee lays about eighteen thousand eggs. Of
these about eight hundred are males or drones, and four or five
queens, the remainder being workers.

THE SWALLOW-TAILED BUTTERFLY.

We now arrive at the Haustellate Insects, so called, because
they suck liquid food through an apparatus resembling the
proboscis of an elephant. The first order of haustellate insects
is the LEPIDOPTERA, containing the butterflies and moths.
The butterflies always fly by day, from which circumstance
they are sometimes called Diurnal Lepidoptera. Most of the
moths fly by night, and are called Nocturnal Lepidoptera.
This is not a rule, however, as many moths fly by day.

Butterflies are usually lighter in the body than moths, from
which insects they are easily distinguished by the shape of
the antennae, which in the butterflies are slender, and termi-
nate in a small knob, but in the moths terminate in a point,
and are often beautifully fringed.

The name Lepidoptera is given to these insects because
their wings are covered with myriads of minute scales, by
which the beautiful colouring of the wings is produced.
Y

506 .NATURAL HISTORY.

Sub-class II. INSECTA HAUSTELLATA.— (Lat. kaurire, to suck up.)

Order I LEP1DOPTERA.— (Gr. AeTrfo a Scale ; 7rre'pov,awing.)

Family Papilionidse.— (Lat. Papilio, a Butterfly.)

PAPILIO.

Machaon (Gr. a proper name), the SiuaHow-tailcd Butterfly.*

These scales vary in size and shape, according to the species,
or ^the part of the wing from which they are taken. Under
the microscope they are most exquisite objects, and well repay
a long and careful examination.

The Lepidoptera pass through three distinct changes before
assuming their perfect form. They first exist in the larva
state, in which state they are called caterpillars. They then
pass to the pupa state, when they are known by the name of
44 aurelias" f or " chrysalides, "J both words being derived
from words signifying gold, from the golden lustre of the
pupa of certain butterflies. When they have remained in
the pupa state during a time, varying from a few days to two
years, they burst their shells and issue forth in their full and
perfect beauty. This transformation has for many ages been
used as an illustration of the resurrection after death.

The beautiful insect represented above is not very un-

* This figure is about one-third smaller than the insect. t Lat. Aurum, gold.
t Xpiffoj, gold.

NATURAL HISTORY. 507

common in some parts of England, especially in the fenny
parts of Cambridgeshire.*

It flies with exceeding rapidity, nearly in a straight line, and
is very difficult to capture.

The colour of the wings is black, variegated most beauti-
fully with yellow markings, and near the extremity of each
hinder wing is a circular red spot, surmounted by a crescent
of blue, and the whole surrounded by a black ring.

VANESSA. — (Lat. a proper name.)

Adippe (proper name), the Silver-spotted Fritillary.
Atalanta (proper name), the Red Admiral.

The FRITILLARIES are well deserving of notice for the
delicacy of their colouring, and the beauty of their markings.
The Silver-spotted Fritillary is remarkable for the peculiar ap-
pearance presented by the under surface of the wings, which
look as if they had been studded with pieces of burnished silver
leaf. It is found mostly on thistles in woods, and is very com-

* 1 once saw it in the water meadows near Oxford.

303 NATURAL HISTORY.

mon in Bagley Wood near Oxford, about the end cf June, or
during July.

The RED ADMIRAL is one of the most gorgeous of our
butterflies. The colour of the wings is a deep black, relieved
by a broad band of scarlet across each, and a series of semicir-
cular blue marks edge each wing. It is usually found in woods
and lanes, were there are nettles, as the larva feeds upon that
plant. It appears about the middle of August.

Family, Sphingidse.
ACHERONTIA. — (Gr. 'Ajfpmmof, belonging to Acheron.)

i!il I
Atropos (Gr. proper name ; one of the fates), the Death's-head Moth.

This family is called Sphingidae on account of the sphynx-
like attitude that the caterpillars of some species assume.
The larva of the Puss-moth (Cerura vinula), is particularly
celebrated for this position. It holds the plants on which
it feeds with its hinder feet, and raises the fore part of its
body, just as the sphynx is represented. When in this
position, it seems so remarkably self-satisfied, that the gar-

NATURAL HISTORY. 509

dener of Rosel, a famous naturalist, was quite disconcerted, af-
firming that he never saw insects hold their heads so high.

The DEATH'S-HEAD MOTH is the largest of the British Lcpi-
doptera, as it not unfrequently measures nearly six inches across
the wings. Its rather ominous name is derived from the singu-
lar marking in the thorax, which does not require much imga-
ination to represent a skull and cross-bones.

Some naturalists have asserted that this moth makes its way
into bee-hives, and robs the inhabitants of their honey, disarm-
ing their resentment by a curious squeaking noise which it has
the power of producing.

The uneducated rustics have a great horror of this insect, and
consider its appearance as a most disastrous omen. In a small
village removed from the influence of railways, on one Sunday
morning, as the inhabitants were going through the churchyard,
a Death's-head Moth appeared on the path. Every one recoil-
ed in dismay, and no one dared approach the dreaded object.
Sundry heads were shaken at the evil omen, and various pro-
phetic remarks made. At last, the blacksmith summoned up
courage, and with a great jump, came down on the unfortunate
moth, and happily destroyed it* The people were in blissful
ignorance that as there were several fields near planted with
potatoes, on which vegetable the caterpillar generally feeds,
there were probably a few hundred of Death's-head Moths in
the vicinity.

In common with many other nocturnal insects, the eyes of
the Death's-head Moth shine at night like two stars, which adds
considerably to the terror inspired by its appearance.

* I have this specimen now in my possession ; it is of course mashed quite flat.
It is a very singular fact, that those who. living so much in the open fields, would
be supposed to have a correct knowledge of natural phenomena, are really profoundly
ignorant of facts that pass daily before their eyes. 1 have already mentioned the pop-
ular superstitions regarding efts.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Family, Arctiidse. — (Gr. "Ap/crof, a Bear; in allusion to the popular
name of the larva.)

AKCTIA.

Caja (Lat. proper name), the Tiger moth

This common but beautiful rnoth is found in the beginning
of autumn. It runs on the ground with such swiftness as to be
often mistaken for a mouse. * The larva is popularly called
" the woolly bear." It is rather large, and is surrounded with
tufts of long elastic hairs of a reddish brown colour, which serve
as a defence against many enemies. "When disturbed, it rolls
itself round, just as a hedgehog does, and if on a branch, suffers
itself to fall to the ground, when the long hairy covering de-
fends it from being injured by the fall. When the caterpillar is
about to change into a pupa, it spins a kind of hammock, and
lies there until it comes forth as a moth.

* T hnvc more than once seen a kitten chasing a tiper-moth among the flowers in
a garden, evi.Iently deceived by Us resemblance to a mouse.

NATURAL HISTORY.

The colour and markings of this moth vary considerably.
The usual tints are, the thorax brown, the body red striped
with black. The two anterior wings are cream colour, mark-
ed with bold patches of a deep brown : the posterior wings are
bright red, spotted with bluish black.

Family, Geometridse. — (Gr. Teo/uerpw, a Land-measurer.)

OURAPTERYX. — (Gr. Ovpu, & Tail ; vrrepov, a wing.)

Family, Alueitidre.

Sambucarfa (Lat. Sambucus, the Elder-tree), the Swallow-tailed Moth.
Hexadactyla (Gr. "££, six ; (5u/cri»Aof , a finger), the Many-plumed Moth.

The larvse of the Geometridse move in a very singular
manner. "When preparing to make a step, they hold firmly
by their hinder legs to the substance on which they are
moving, and then stretch out their body to the fullest extent,
as if measuring their distance. After these preliminaries,
they take a firm hold with the fore feet, and draw the hinder

512 NATURAL HISTORY.

feet up to them, forming their body into an arch or loop.
When at rest, the caterpillars often deceive an observer by
their close resemblance to twigs, as they stretch themselves out
motionless from the branch.

The family is very large, and contains many interesting
species, but want of space compels me to omit all but the
insect represented above, the SWALLOW-TAILED MOTH. The
caterpillar oi this moth feeds principally on the elder, willow,
and lime, and the moth appears in June and July. It is one
of the largest of the British Geometridaj, as the spread of the
wing considerably exceeds two inches. Its colour is a pale
yellow, and the lines across the wings are deep yellow. It
derives its name from the shape of the hinder wings.

The MANY-PLUMED MOTH is found towards the close of
autumn, usually running about windows. It is very small,
measuring barely half an inch across the wings. The structure
of the wings is very curious, each of the two anterior wings
being divided into eight beautiful feather-like rays, and each
of the posterior into four rays. Nearly allied to this are the
common Feather Moths, the most common of which is the
White-plumed Moth, whose wings measure nearly an inch
across, and are divided into five feathered rays.

NATURAL HISTORY. 513

Order II. DIPTERA. — (Gr. A/f, twice; Trrepov, a wing.)
Family, Culicidae. — (Lat. Culex, a Gnat.)
CULEX.

Family, CEstridse. — (Gr. Olorpos, the Gad-fly.)
CESTRUS.

Pipiens (Lat. humming), the Gnat.

Bovis (Lat, of the Ox), the Gad-fly.

The insects of this order possess but two wings, the place
of the others being supplied by two little organs something
like drum-sticks, called "balancers." Without these the in-
sect seems to be unable to direct its flight.

All are familiar with the COMMON GNAT. This pretty tor-
mentor passes its larval existence in the water, in which state
thousands may be seen 'in any uncovered water-butt, wriggling
about with the most untiring energy, or reposing head down-
wards, only leaving the end of the tail at the surface. The
reason for this is very curious. This larva breathes through
its tail, and is moreover enabled by means of a fringe of hairs
to carry air down with it.

It is a singular circumstance, that although the larva lives
in the water, yet were either the eggs or the perfect insect to
be submerged, they would be destroyed. The instinct of the
Gnat in order to fulfil all three conditions is very beautiful.
Whe.n the Gnat wishes to deposit its eggs, it rests on a leaf
or twig on the surface of the water ; it then takes each egg
separately, and fastens them side by side in such a manner
that they actually form a little boat, which will neither fill

514 NATURAL HISTORY.

with water nor upset, however the water may be agitated. In
a few days the eggs are hatched, when a little lid opens in
the under end of each egg, and down tumbles the larva into
the water.

After remaining in the water for some days it assumes the
pupa form. In this state it floats at the surface with the
back of the thorax uppermost. Soon this splits, and the in-
sect emerges, standing on its own cast skin, which forms a
raft for it until its wings are fully dry, when it takes to flight,
leaving behind it the empty shell floating on the water. This
change may be witnessed any warm day in summer.

The GADFLY has from the most ancient times been known
as the terror of the herd. At the sound of its approach the
cattle are driven almost mad with terror. The young gad-
flies are nourished under the skin, where they remain until
they are fit to pass into the pupa state, when they bury
themselves in the ground, and alter a few days spent under
the earth, issue forth in their periect state.

Order IV. APHANIPTERA.—(Gr:Kiavfc, invisible; irrtpov, a wing.)
Family . . Pulicidse.— (Lat. Pulex, a Flea.)
PULEX.

Irritans (Lat. irritating}, the Flea.

The strength and agility of this curious but annoying .little
insect is perfectly wonderful. Many of my readers have doubt-
less seen the exhibition of the Industrious Fleas, who drew
little carriages, and carried comparatively heavy weights with

NATURAL HISTORY. 515

the greatest ease, The apparatus with which it extracts the
blood of its victims is very curious, and forms a beautiful object
under a microscope of low power. Its leap is tremendous in
proportion to its size. This property it enjoys in common with
many other insects, among which the Common Grasshopper,
the Frog-hopper, and the Halticas, or Turnip-flies are conspicu-
ous. In all these insects the hinder pair of legs are very long
and powerful.

I am here most reluctantly compelled to close this little work.
Most willingly would I have entered into a sketch of the re-
maining classes. These, however, are so numerous, and their
habits are so different from those of the creatures whom we
have already examined, that even a very slight description
would consume too much space and time.

Here, then, I take my leave of the reader, with a sincere
hope that the perusal of this little wrork will not only have
proved interesting, but will also have given him some insight
into the beautiful order of the animated world.

INDEX.

ABDOMINALIA, 423.

Americanus, 129.

Argus, 315.

Abietum, 64.

Ampehdae, 265.

Argus Pheasant, 315.

Abramis, 426.

Ampelinae, 265.

Argynnis, 507.

Acanthopterygii, 412.

Ampelis, 265.

Aricia, 465.

Acaridae, 482.

Amphibius, 108.

Ariel, 140.

Acarus, 482.

Anas, 362.

Aries, 144.

Accentor, 249.

Anatidae, 362.

Arietans, 392.

Hedge, 249.

Anatifera, 471.

Armadillo, 186.

AccentorinaB, 249.

Anatinae, 362.

Arquatus, 348.

Accipiter, 213.

Anchovy, 439.

Arvensis, 291.

Accipitres, 190.

Angler, 422.

Arvicola, 108.

Accipitres Diurni, 190.

Anguilla, 443.

Arvicolina, 107.

Accipitres Nocturni, 216.

Anguinus, 410.

Asinus, 164.

Accipitrinae, 212.

Anguis, 385.

Aspersa, 463.

Acherontia, 508.

Anobium, 489.

Ass, 164.

Achetidae, 494.

Anseres, 357.

Astacidae, 476.

Acipenser, 448.

Anserinae, 358.

Astacus, 476, 477.

Acipenseridae, 448.

Ant, Wood, 501.

Astur, 212.

Acutirostris, 443.

Ant-Eater, 187.

Atalanta, 507.

Adder, Puff, 392.

Ant-Lion, 498.

Ateles, 20.

Adippe, 507.

Anthus, 255.

Athene, 218.

Admiral, Red, 507.

Antiquorum, 452.

Atra, 356.

jEgyptius, 117.

Ape, 12.

Atrata, 361.

.ffisalon, 210.

Aphaniptera, 514.

Atricapilla, 245.

JEthereus, 378.

Apiaster, 231.

Atropos, 508.

Africanus, 171.

Apidae, 504.

Auk, Great, 369.

Agamidae, 388.

Apis, 504.

Auratus, 424.

Agile Gibbon, 16.

Apivorus, 204.

Aureus, 62.

Agilis, 16.

Apoda, 280.

Auritus, 28.

Agouti, 112.

Apteryginse, 336.

Australis, 336.

Aguti, 112.

Apteryx, 336.

Avellanarius, 119.

Alauda, 291.

Apus, 224.

Avicularia, 479.

Alaudarius, 211.

Aquila, 198, 383.

Avis, 190.

Alaudinse, 291.

Arabicus, 149.

Avocet, 349.

Alba, 346.

Arachnida, 479.

Avocetta, 349.

Albatros, Wandering, 374.

Araneidae, 479.

Axis, 158.

Albus, 326.

Araneus, 81.

Alca, 369.

Ararauna, 298.

Babyroussa, 176.

Alcedinidae, 230.

Arctia, 510.

Bactrian Camel, 152.

Alcedininae, 230.

Arctica, 368.

Bactrianus, 152.

Alcedo, 230.

Arctiida;, 510.

Badger, 69.

Alces, 161.

Arctomys, 121.

Balaena, 92.

Alcidae, 368.

Arctos, 72.

Balaenidae, 91.

Alcina, 368.

Ardea, 342.

Baltimore Oriole, 283.

Alligator, 404.

Ardeidse, 341.

Baltimorus, 283.

Alligatoridae, 404.

Ardeinae, 342.

Barbarus, 30.

Alpinus, 121.

Argo, 460.

Barbatus, 190.

Alucita, 511.

Argonaut, 460.

Barbel, 424.

Alucitida;, 511

Argonauta, 460.

Barbus, 424.

INDEX.

Barn-owl, 220.

BucerotidtB, 295.

Cat, 40.

Bar-tailed Humming-bird,

Bufo, 408.

Civet, 46.

234.

Buffalo, 126.

Caudata, 271.

Bat, Long-eared, 28.

Cape, 128.

Caudatus, 252.

Vampire, 25.
Batrachia, 406.

Buffelus, 126.
Bulldog, 56.

Caudivolvulus, 78.
Cavy, 113.

Beagle, 53.

Bullfinch, 292.

Cebidae, 20.

Bear, 72.

Bull-frog, 407.

Cephalopoda, 458.

Grizzly, 73.

Burrowing-owl, 218.

Cephalus. 429.

Polar, 75.

Burying-beetle, 485.

Cerambycidae, 489.

Bearded Vulture, 190.

Bustard, Great, 339.

Cerambyx, 489.

Beaver, 109.

Buteo, 203.

Cerastes, 393.

Bee-eater, 231.

Buteoninze, 203.

Certhida3, 237.

Beetle, Burying, 485.

Butterfly, Atalanta, 507.

Certhinae, 237.

Cockchaffer, 486.
Dor 186

Fritillary, 507.

Cercoleptes, 78.
Cervina 155.

Ground, 485.

Buzzard, 203.

Cervus/155,486.

Stag, 486.

Cete, 91.

Tiger, 483.

Caballus, 162.

Chaffinch, 285.

Bernhardus, 475.

Cacatua, 301.

Chameleon, 389.

Bernicla, 358.

Cachalot, 98.

Chameleonida?, 389.

Bernicle, 471.

Caddis-fly, 499.

Chamois, 141.

Bernicle Goose, 358.

Caffer, 128.

Charadridae, 340.

Berus, 394.

Caja, 510.

Charadrinee, 340.

Bicornis, 178.

Calamodyta, 241.

Chelidon, 227.

Bird Spider, 479.

Callarias, 440.

Chelonia, 399,401.

Bison, 129.

Callithrix, 22.

Cheloniadee, 401.

Bittern, 344.

Camel, 149.

Chenopis, 361.

Blackbird, 260.

Camelina, 149.

Chetah, 44.

Black Grouse, 324.

Camelopardalis, 146.

Chicken, Mother Cary',j, 372.

Black Swan, 361.

Camelopardina, 146.

Chiff-chaff, 245.

Black-cap Warbler, 245.

Camelus, 149, 330.

Chimney Martin, 225.

Black-backed Gull, 376.

Campestris, 483.

Chimpansee, 12.

Blatta, 493.

Canada Lynx, 43.

Chinchilla, 116.

Blattidae, 493.

Canadensis, 43.

Chinchillina, 116.

Blindworm, 385.

Cancellatus, 485.

Chloris, 288.

Bloodhound, 51.

Cancer, 473.

Chloropus. 355.

Blue and Yellow Macaw,

Cancerida, 473.

Chough, 278.

298.

Canicula, 449.

Chrysaetos, 198.

Blue Titmouse, 251.

Canis, 48.

Chrysolopha, 234.

Boa, 395.

Canina, 49.

Chub, 429.

Boar, 175.

Cannabina, 287.

Cicindela, 483.

Bohemian Waxwing, 265.
Boidae, 395.

Canorus, 306.
Cape Buffalo, 128.

Cicindelidae, 483.
Ciconia, 346.

Booby, 379.

Cape Penguin, 370.

Ciconinae, 346.

Bos, 123.

Capercaillie, 323.

Cinclus, 256.

Boschas, 362.

Capybara, 113.

Circus, 215.

Boselaphus, 136.

Capra, 142.

Citrinella, 290.

Botaurus, 344.

Capreolis, 155.

Civet Cat, 46.

Bovidse, 123.

Caprimulgida;, 222.

Civetta, 46.

Bovina, 123.

Caprimulginas, 222.

Clavata, 453.

Bovis, 513.
Bower-bird, Satin, 282.

Caprimulgus, 222.
Carabidae, 485.

Clotho, 392.
Clupea, 434, 436, 437.

Bradypidse, 183.

Carabus, 485.

Clupeidae, 434, 436.

Bradypus, 183.

Caracal, 42.

Coaita, Spider Monkey, 20.

Brama, 426.

Carbo, 380.

Coati Mondi, 77.

Bream, 426.
Brevirostris, 419,

Carcharias, 450.
Carduelis, 286.

Cobra de Capello, 397.
Cockatoo, Great Sulphur,

Brush Turkey, 327.

Carp, 423.

301.

Bubalus, 176.

Carpio, 423.

Cockchaffer, 486.

Bubo, 220.

Carrier Pigeon, 313.

Cockroach, 493.

Bubonia, 219.

Caryocatactes, 270.

Cod, 440.

Buccinidae, 465.

Casoar, 333.

Ccelebs, 285.

Buccinum, 465.

Cassowary, 333.

Creruleus, 251.

Buccros, 295.

Casuarius, 333.

Coleoptera, 483.

INDEX.

Collared Tee Tee, 22.

Cyclostomi, 455.

Draco, 388.

Collurio, 268.
Colubridse, 397.

Cygninae, 360.
Cygnus, 360.

Dragon, Flying, 388.
Dragon-fly, 495.

Colubrina, 395.

Cynocephalus, 19.

Dromaius, 334.

Colubris, 233.

Cypraeidse, 465.

Duck, Wild, 362.

Colymbidae, 366.

Cyprinidae, 423.

Duck-billed, Platypus, 189.

Concolor, 38.

Cyprinus, 423, 424.

Durissus, 390.

Condor, 194.

Cypselinae, 224.

Dzigguetai, 164.

Cone, 464.

Cypselus, 224.

Conger, 444.

Eagle, Golden, 198.

Coniidae, 464.

Dabchick, 367.

Whiteheaded, 262.

Conirostres, 469.

Dace, 428.

Eared-owl, Great, 220.

Constrictor, 395.

Dactylophori, 412.

Earwig, 491.

Conus, 464.

Dama, 159.

Echeneidae, 420.

Coot, 356.

Dartford Warbler, 243.

Echeneis, 420.

Cora Humming Bird, 234.

Daspidae, 184.

Ectopistes, 310.

Coracia, 279.

Dasypina, 186.

Edible Mussel, 471.

Coracias, 228.

Dasyprocta, 112.

Edulis, 471, 468.

Coraciidas, 228.

Dasyproctina, 112.

Eel, Sharp-nosed, 443.

Coraciinae, 228.

Dasypus, 186.

Electric, 445.

Corax, 273.

Death's-head Moth, 508.

Eider Duck, 365.

Cormorant, 380.

Death-Watch, 4t'J.

Eland, 136.

Corncrake, 354.

Decapoda, 473.

Elanoides, 206.

Corone 278.

Elaphus 156.

Corvidie, 269.

p h ' •1"^'

AT^<l™',.!.'?1',i-A '

JMectricus, 440.

Corvus, 273. '

Decumanus, 103.

' Seal, 89.

Cotile, 226.

Deer, Fallow, 159.

Elephantidae, 167.

Coturnix, 322.

Musk, 154,

Elephantine, 167.

Cowry, 465.

Rein, 160.

Elephas, 167.

Crab, 473.

Delphinidse, 99.

Elk, 161.

Hermit, 475.

Delphinus, 99.

Emberiza, 290.

Crabro, 502.

Demersus, 370.

Emberizinae, 290.

Cracticornis, 348.

Dendrosaura, 389.

Emerald Bird of Paradise,

Crane, 541.

Dentirostres, 241.

280.

Crangon, 478.

Depressa, 495.

Emu, 334.

Crangonidae, 478.

Dermaptera, 491.

Emydosauri, 402.

Cray-fish, 476.

Didactyla, 188.

Encrasicholus, 439.

Crecca, 364.

Didelphina, 86.

Engraulis, 439.

Creeper, 237.

Didelphys, 86.

Entellus, 18.

Creophilus, 491.

Didinae, 337.

Ephialtes, 219.

Crex, 354.

Didus, 337.

Epops, 232.

Cricket-Mole, 494.

Diodontidae, 447.

Equidaj, 162.

Cricetus, 107.

Diomedea, 374.

Equus, 162.

Cristata, 110.

Dipina, 117.

Erinaceus, 82.

Cristatus,246, 340,306,409.
Crocodile, 402.

Dipper, 256.
Diptera, 513.

Erinacina, 81.
Erithactis, 248.

Crocodilidae, 402.

Dipus, 117.

Erminea, 66.

Crocodilus, 402.

Dodo, 337.

Erythacinse, 247.

Cross-bill, 293.

Dog, Bull, 56.

Esculent Swallow, 227.

Crotalidae, 390.

• Newfoundland, 49.

Esocidac, 430.

Crow, 278.

King Charles's, 50.

Esox, 430.

Nutcracker, 270.

Shepherd's, 59.

Euchore, 139.

Crustacea, 473.

Dog-fish, Spotted, 449.

Europea, 79.

Cuckoo, 306.

Dolphin, 99.

Europaeus, 82.

Cuculidae, 306.

Domestic Fowl, 317.

Excubitor, 26ft£

Cuculinae, 306

Domestica, 40.

Exocretus, 432.

Cuculus, 306, 412.

Domesticus, 289.

Exulans, 374.

Culex, 513.

Dor Beetle, 486.

Culicidae, 513.

Dormouse, 119.

Faber, 417.

Cunicularia, 218.

Dory, John, 419.

Falco, 207.

Cunlculus, 115.

Double-crested Humming-

Falcon, Peregrine, 2C8.

Curlew, 348.

Bird, 234.

Swallow-tailed, 2C6.

Curvirostra, 293.

Dove, Ring, 307.

Falconidae, 198.

Cyaneus, 215.

Turtle, 309.

Falconinae, 207.

INDEX.

Fallow-deer, 159.

Gazelle, 140.

Gudgeon, 426.

Familiaris, 49.

Gecko, 386.

Guillemot, 371.

Fario, 434.

Geckotidae, 386.

Guinea Pig, 113.

Felidae, 28.

Geissosaura, 385.

Gull, Black-backed, 376.

Felina, 28.

Generalis, 464.

Gulo, 68.

Felis, 40.

Genet, 47.

Gurnard, 412.

Ferae, 28.

Genetta, 47.

Gymnotidae, 445.

Fiber, 109.

Geometridae, 511.

Gymnotus, 445.

Fieldfare, 258.

Geotfupes, 486.

Gypaetidae, 190.

Fishing-frog, 422.

Geotrupidae, 486.

Gypaetus, 190.

Fissirostres, 222.

Gibbon, Agile, 16.

Gyrfalco, 207.

Fissirostres Diurnae, 224.

Giganteus, 315.
Giraffa 146.

Gyrfalcon, 207.

Flamingo, 356.

Giraffe,' 146!

Hag-fish, Glutinous, 457.

Flaminea, 221.

Glacialis, 372.

Haliaetus, 200.

Flava, 254.

Gladius, 417.

Hammer-headed Shark,

Flea, 514.

Glandarius, 269.

451.

Fly-catcher, Spotted, 264.

Glires, 103.

Hamster, 107.

Flying Squirrel, 121.

Glow-worm, 488.

Hare, 114.

Flying Dragon, 388.

Glutinosa, 457.

Harengus, 437.

Flying-fish, 432.
Foliata, 494.

Gnat, 513.
Gnoo, 133.

Harrier, Hen, 215.
Hasselquistii, 393.

Formica, 501.

Gnu, 133.

Hawk-owl, 216.

Formicarum, 496.

Goat, 143.

Sparrow, 213.

Formicarinae, 256.

Goat-sucker, 222.

Hedge Accentor, 249.

Formicidae, 501.

Gobio, 426.

Hedgehog, 82.

Fowl, domestic, 317.

Goldfinch, 286.

Ilelicidce, 463.

Fox, 63.

Gold-fish, 424.

Helix, 463.

Foxhound, 52.

Golden-crested Wren, 246.

Hen Harrier, 215.

Fragilis, 385.

Golden Eagle, 199.

Hermit Crab, 475.

Fratercula, 368.

Golden Oriole, 263.

Heron, 342.

FregaU, 383.

Goose, Bernicle, 358.

Herpestes, 47.

Frigate Pelican, 383.

Solan, 379.

Herring, 436.

Fringilla, 285.

Goshawk, 212.

Hexadactylae, 511.

Fringillidae, 285.

Gouldii, 234.

Hippocampus, 419.

Fritillary, Silver-spotted,

Gould's Humming-bird, 234

. Hippopotamina, 181.

507.

Gracilis, 24.

Hippopotamus, 181.

Frog, 406.

Gracula, 279.

Hircus, 143.

Bull, 407.

Gradientia, 409.

Hirundinidse, 224.

Fishing, 422.

Graeca, 399.

Hirundo, 225, 377.

Tree, 407.

Grallae, 340.

Hispida, 230.

Frugilegus, 275.

Grandis, 499.

Hobby, 209.

Frumentarius, 107.
Fulica, 356.

Grasshopper Warbler, 241 .
Great Auk, 369.

Holodactyli, 414.
Hominidae, 1.

Fuligulinae, 363.

Great Bustard, 339.

Homo, 1.

Fulmar Petrel, 372.

Great-eared Owl, 220.

Honey Bee, 504.

Fulvus, 196.

Great Grey Shrike, 266.

Hoopoe, 232.

Furcatus, 206.

Great Titmouse, 250.

Hornet, 502.

Fusca, 77.

Great Spotted Woodpeck-
er, 302.

Horribilis, 74.
Horse, 162.

Gadfly, 513.

Gadida; 440.

oreoe, Orested,^ JDU.

« a' cn

Galbula' 263.

Greenfinch, 288. '

Howler, Ursine,' 21.

Gallinae, 314.
Gallinula, 355.

Green Woodpecker, 304.
Greyhound, 60.

Humming-bird, Bar-tailed,
234.

Gallinulinae, 355.

Griffon Vulture, 195.

Cora, 234.

Gallopavo, 319.

Grisola, 264.

Double-crested, 234.

Gallus, 317.
Gammarus, 477.

Ground Beetle, 485.

Gould's 234.

Gannet, 379.
Garrula, 228.

»use, ^i*|a,^ «5*^

Hunting Leopard, 44.
Hydrobata, 256.

Gruinae, 241.

Garrulinae, 269.

Grunniens, 131.

Hydrochaerina, 113.

Garrulus, 265.

Grus, 341.

Hydrochaorus, 113.

Gasteropoda, 461.

Gryllotalpa, 491.

Hyaena, 45.

Gazella, 139.

Gryphon, 196.

Hyenina, 45.-

INDEX.

Hylobates, 16.

Lathami, 327.

Malacostraca, 473.

Hymenoptera, 500.

Leaf Insect, 494.

Mallard, 362.

Hypotriorchis, 209.

Lemur, 24.

Mammalia, 1.

Hystricidae, 111.

Lemuridae, 24.

Man, 1.

Hystricina, 111.

Leo, 30.

Mandril, 19.

Hystrix, 111.

Leopard, 35.

Manifestata, 500.

Ibex, 142.

Leopardus, 35.

Manis, 184. '

Ibis, Sacred, 347.

Lepidoptera, 500.

Many-plumed Moth, 511.

Ichneumon, 47.

Leporidae, 114.

Margaritifera, 470.

Ichneumon-fly, 500.

Leptoglossaei, 384.

Marinus, 376.

Ichneumonidae, 500.

Lepus, 114.

Maritimus, 73.

Icterinae, 283.

Leuciscus, 428.

Martin, 227.

Icterus, 283.

Leucocephalus, 202.

Chimney, 225.

Iguana, 387

Leucopsis, 358.

Sand, 226.

Iguanidse, 387.

Leucorodia, 345.

Marmoset, 23.

Impennis, 369.
Indicus, 167.

Leucoryx, 137.
Libellula, 495.

Marmot, 121.
Marmotta, 121.

Ineptus, 337.

Libellulidae, 495.

Marten, Pine, 64.

Insecta, 483.

Limacidae, 461.

Martes, 64.

Insecta Haustellata, 506.

Limax, 461.

Mastiff, 65.

Insecta Mandibulata, 483.

Limosinae, 343.

Maxillosus, 491.

Irritans, 514.

Limpet, 466.

Maxima, 411.

Linnet, 287.

Maximus, 220.

Jacana, 353.

Lion, 30.

Meadow Pipit, 255.

Jacchus, 23.

Lizard, 384.

Mcantia, 410.

Jackal, 62.

Llama, 153.

Megapode, Mound-making,

Jackdaw, 277.

Lobster, 477.

328!

.Tacobaeus, 467.

Locust, 492.

Megapodidse, 327.

Jaguar, 37.

Locusta, 492.

Megapodius, 328.

Jay, 216.

Locustella, 241.

Melanotis, 42.

Jerboa, 117.

Locustidae, 492.

Meleagrina, 470.

Jerboidae, 116.

Long-eared Bat, 28.

Meleagrinse, 319.

John Dory, 419.
Jubata, 44.

Long-tailed Titmouse, 252.
Lophiidae, 422.

Meleagrinidse, 319.
Meleagris, 319, 320.

Lophius, 422.

Meles, 69.

Kahau, 17.

Loris, 24.

Mellifica, 504.

Kangaroo, 84.

Lotor, 76.

Mellivora. 68.

Kestrel, 211.

Loxia, 293.

Melolontha, 486.

Kingfisher, 230.

Loxina, 293.

Melolonthidse, 486.

King Vulture, 195.

Lucanidae, 486.

Menurinae, 239.

Kinkajou, 78.

Lucanus, 486.

Merlin, 210.

Kite, 205.

Lucius, 430.

Meropidaa, 231.

Koodoo, 135.

Lupus, 61.

Meropinae, 231.

Kudu, 135.

Luscinidae, 241.

Merops, 231.

Luscininae, 241.

Merula, 260.

Lacertinida?, 384.

Luscinia, 242.

Migratoria, 310.

Lagopus, 325.

Luscus, 68.

Milvina, 204.

Lammergeyer, 190.
Lampcrn, 456.

Lutra, 71.
Lynx, 43.

Milvus, 205.
Minor, 367.

Lampetra, 456.

Misseltoe Thrush, 257.

Lamprey, 455.

Macaco, 24.

Mississipensis, 404.

Lampyris, 488.

Macaw, Blue and Yellow,

Mocking Bird, 261.

Lampyridae, 488

298.

Modularius, 249.

Landrail, 354.

Machaon, 506.

Mola, 447.

Lanidae, 2C6.

Mackarel, 415.

Mole, 79.

Laniger, 116.

Macrocephalus, 98.

Mole Cricket, 494.

Laninae, 266.

Macrocercus, 298.

Mollissima, 365.

Lanius, 266.

Macropidae, 84.

Mollusca, 458.

Lapwing, 340.

Macropina, 84.

Monedula, 277.

Laridffi, 376.

Macropus, 84.

Moneta, 465.

Larina?, 376.

Maculata, 158.

Money Cowry, 465.

Lark, Sky, 291.

Magpie, 271.

Monkey, Entellus, 18.

Larus, 376.

Major, 84.

Proboscis, 17.

cpidcr °0

Larvatus, 17.

alacop erygu,

521

Monoceros, 102.

Numenius, 351.

Paniscus, 20.

Monodon, 102.

Numida, 320.

Panther, 35.

Mormon, 19.

Nut-Cracker Crow, 270.

Papa, 195.

Morrhua, 440.

Nuthatch, 238.

Papilio, 5C6.

Morse, 90.

Nyctea, 217.

Papilionidae, 506.

Morunga, 89.

Nyctisaura, 386.

Paradise, Emerald Bird of,

Moschatus, 132, 489.

Nylghau, 134.

280.

Moschiferus, 154.

Paradisea, 280.

Moschina, 154.

Ocelot, 39.

Paradiseidae, 280.

Moschus, 154.

Octopidas, 458.

Paradoxus, 189.

Motacilla, 253.

Octopus, 458.

Pardalis, 39.

Motacillinae, 253.

(Enas, 308.

Parra, 353.

Moth, Death's-head, 508.

CEstridae, 513.

Parrakeet, Ringed, 300.

Many -plumed, 511.

CEstrus, 513.

Parrinse, 353.

Swallow-tailed, 511.

Olor, 360.

Partridge, 321.

Tiger, 510.

Onca, 37.

Parvulus, 239.

Mound-making Megapode,

Onocrotalus, 382.

Passenger Pigeon, 310.

328.

Ophidia, 390.

Passer, 289.

Mouse, 105.

Opossum, 86.

Passeres, 222.

Muraenidae, 443.

Orang Outan, 13.

Patella, 4C6.

Murex, 466.

Oreas, 136.

Patellida;, 466.

Muricidse, 46C.

Oriole, Baltimore, 283.

Pavo, 314.

MuridiE, 103.

Onolinffi, S63.

Pavoninse, 314.

Murina, 103.

Oriolus, 263.

Peacock, 314.

Mus, 103.

Ornismya, 234.

Pearl Oyster, 470.

Muscicapa, 264.

Ornithorhynchina, 189.

Pecten, 467.

Muscicapidae, 264.

Ornithorhynchus, 189.

Pectinida. 468.

Muscicapinse, 264.

Orpheus, 261.

Peewit, 340.

Muscicus, 259.

Orthagoriscus, 447.

Pelagica, 372.

Musculus, 105.

Orthoptera, 402.

Pelias, 394.

Musk Beetle, 489.

Ortygometra, 354.

Pelecanidae, 378.

Musk Deer, 154.

Oryx, 137.

Pelecaninac, 378.

Musk Ox, 132.

Osprey, 200.

Pelecanus, 382.

Mussel, Edible, 471.

Ostrea, 468.
Ostrich 330.

Pelican, Frigate, 383.
White 38°

Mustelina, 64.

Otinae, 339. '

Penguin, Cape, 270.

Mute Swan, 360.

Otter, 71.

Pentadactyla, 185.

Mycetes, 21.

Otus, 339.

Pentalasmis, 471.

Mygale, 479.

Ounce, 36.

Perca, 414.

Myoxina, 119.

Ourapteryx, 511.

Perch, 414.

Myoxus, 119.

Ovibos, 132.

Percidse, 414.

Myrmecophaga, 187.

Ovis, 144.

Perdicinae, 321.

Myrmecophagina, 187.

Owl, Barn, 221.

Perdix, 321.

Myrmeleon, 496.
Myrmeleonidse, 496.

Burrowing, 218.
Great-eared, 220.

Peregrine, Falcon, 2C8.
Peregrinus, 308.

Mysticetus, 92.

Hawk, 216.

Pernis, 204.

Mytilidse, 470.

Scops-eared, 219.

Petrel, Fulmar, 272.

Mvtilus, 470.

Snowy, 217.

Stormy, 272.

Myxine, 457.

Ox, 123.

Petromyzon, 455.

Musk, 132.

Petromyzonidffi, 455.

Naja, 397.

Oyster, 408.

Phaeton, 378.

Narwhal, 102.

Oyster, Pearl, 470.

Phaetoninaj, 378.

Nasua, 77.

Phalacrocorax, 380.

Natrix, 398.

Pachygloss33, 386.

Phatagin, 184.

Nautilus, Paper, 460.

Pacos, 153.

Phasianidse, 314.

Necrophagus, 485.

Paguridae, 475.

Phasianinae, 315.

Neuroptera, 495.
Newt, Common, 4C9.

Pagurus, 473, 475.
Palamedeidae, 353.

Phasianus, 315.
Pheasant, 316.

Niger, 12.

Palscmonidae. 478.

Philomachus, 352.

Nightingale, 242.

Palaemon, 478.

Philomela, 242.

Nisus, 213.

PalJEornis, 300.

Phcenicopterinse, 357.

Nivea, 217.

Palmatus, 161.

Phrenicopteros, 357.

Noctiluca, 488.

Palumbarius, 212.

Pho3nicura, 247.

Novas Hollandiae, 334.

Palumbus, 307.

Phoca, 87.

Nucifraga, 270.

Pandion, 200.

Phocaena, ICO.

INDEX.

Phocidse, 87.

Puffin, 368

Rubra, 356.

Phocina, 87.

Pugnax, 352.

Ruby-throated Humming-

Phryganea, 499

Pulmobranchiata, 461.

Bird, 233.

Phryganidae, 499.

Pulmonaria, 479.

Rufa, 245, 501.

Phyllostomina, 25.

Puma, 38.

Ruff, 352.

Phyllia, 494.

Putarius, 66.

Rupicapra, 141.

Physeter, 98.

Pyrrhocoracinae, 279.

Rustica, 225.

Pica, 271.

Pyrrhula, 292.

Rusticola, 350.

Picidae, 302.

Pyrrhulinae, 292.

Ruticilla, 247.

Picina;, 302.

Rutilus, 428.

Pieta, 134.

Quagga, 166.

Picus, 304.

Quail! 322.

Sable, 65

Pied Wagtail, 253.

Quenjuedula, 364.

Sacred Ibis, 347.

Pike, 430.

SalamandridiE, 409.

Pigeon, Domestic, 312.

Rabbit, 115.

Salientia, 406.

Salmo, 433, 434.

Pilaris, 258.

Raia, 454.

Salmon, 433.

Pilchard, 436.

Raidae, 453.

Salmonidae, 433.

Pilchardus, 436.

RallidJB, 354.

Sambucaria, 511.

Pimpla, 500.

Rallinae, 354.

Sand Martin, 225.

Pine Marten, 64.

Ram, 144.

Sapiens, 1.

Pipiens. 513.

Ramphaslidae, 296.

Sappho, 234.

Pipit, Meadow, 255.

Ramphastidinae, 296.

Sarcorhamphidae, 194.

Piscatorms, 422.

Ramphastos, 296.

Sarcorhamphos, 194.

Pisces Chondropterygii,

Rana, 406.

Satin Bovver-Bird, 282.

448.

Rangifer, 160.

Satyrus, 14.

Ossei,412.

Rat, 103.

Saura, 384.

Platalea, 345,

Water, 108.

Saw-fish, 452.

Plectognathi, 447.

Ratel, Honey, 68.

Scalaria, 464.

Pleuronectidse, 441.

Rattle-snake, 390.

Scallop, 467.

Podicepinae, 366.

Raven, 273.

Scansores, 296.

Podiceps, 366, 367.

Recurvirostra, 349.

Scincidae, 385.

Poephagus, 131.

Recurvirostrmae, 349.

Sciurinae, 120.

Pointer, 54.

Red-Admiral, 507.

Sciurus, 120.

Polecat, 66.

Red-backed Shrike, 268.

Scolopacidae, 348.

Polyglottus, 261.

Redbreast, 248.

Scolopacinae, 350.

Porcupine, 111.

Redstart, 247.

Scolopacinus, 351.

Portax, 134.

Regalis, 33

Scolopax, 350.

Potamobius, 476.

Regulus, 246.

Scomber, 415.

Pouter, 312.

Reindeer, 160.

Scomberidae, 415.

Pratensis, 255.

Religiosa, 347.

Scombrus, 415.

Prawn, 478.

Rernora, 420.

Scops-eared Owl, 219.

Presbytes, 17.

Reptiha, 384.

Scorpio, 482.

Pretiosa, 464.

Reptilivorus, 214.

Scorpion, 482.

Primates, 1.
Pristidae, 452.

Resplendens, 229.
Resplendent Trogon, 229.

Scorpionidae, 482.
Scoticus, 325.

Pristis, 452.

Rhinaster, 178.

Scrota, 175.

Proboscidea, 89.

Rhinocerina, 177.

Scutata, 453.

Procellaria, 372.

Rhinoceros, 177.

Scyllidae, 449.

Procellarinaei 372!

178.

Sea-horse, 419.

Hornbill "95

Seal 87.

Procyoninae, 76.

Ring-dove, 307.

' Elephant, 89.

Proteidae, 410.

Ringed Parakeet, 300.

Secretary Bird, 214.

Proteus, 410.

Snake, 398.

Sericeus, 282.

Psetta, 441.

Riparia, 226.

Serpentarius, 214.

Psittacidae, 298.

Roach, 428.

Serratus, 478.

Ptarmigan, 326.

Roebuck, 155.

Sexcinctus, 186.

Pteromys, 121.

Roller, 228.

Shark, White, 450.

Ptilonorhynchinae, 282.

Rook, 275.

Hammer-headed,

Ptilonorhynchus, 282.
Ptionida;, 452.

Rosmarus, 90.
Rove-beetle, 491.

451.
Sharp-nosed Eel, 443.

Pulex, 515.

Ruffled Lemur, 24.

Short Sun-fish, 447.

Pulicidae, 515.

Rubicilla, 292.

Shrew, Mouse, 81.

Puff Adder. 392.

Rubicula, 248.

Water, €2.

INDEX.

Shrike, Great Grey, 206.

Sturio, 448.

Timidus, 114.

Red-backed, 268.

Sturnidae, 282.

Tinea, 427.

Shrimp, 478.

Sturninae, 284.

Tinnunculus, 211.

Silphidae, 485.

Sturnus, 284.

Titmouse, Blue, 251.
C rcat "50

Silver-spotted Fritillary,

QSS aC oil^'

507.
Simla, 14.

Sucking-fish, 420.

Toad, 408.

Simiadae, 12.

Suina, 175.

Toco, 296.

Siskin, 287.

Sula, 379.

Toucan, 296.

Sitta, 238.

Sulphurea, 301.

Torpedo, 452.

Sittinae, 238.

Sun-fish, 447.

Torquata, 398.

Skylark, 291.

Surnia, 216.

Torquatus, 22.

Slender Loris, 24.

Surninae, 216.

Torquilla, 305.

Sloth, 183.

Sus, 175.

Tortoise, 399.

Slowworm, 385.

Swallow, Esculent, 227.

Toucan, Toco, 296.

Slug, 463.

Swallow-tailed Butterlly,

Trachearia, 482.

Snail, 463.

506.
Moth 511

Tragus, 141.

Snowy-owl, 217.

Swan, 360.

Trematopnea, 449.

Solan Goose, 379.

Black, 361.

Tribulus, 466.

Sole, 442.

Swift, 224.

Trichecina, 90.

Solea, 442.

Sword-fish, 417.

Trichecus, 90.

Somateria, 364.

Sylvia, 243.

Trichoptera, 499.

Song-Thrush, 259.

Syngnathidae, 419.

Tridactylus, 183.

Sorex, 81.

Trigla, 412.

Spaniel, Water, 50.

Talegallus, 327.

Triglidae, 412.

Sparrow, 289.

Talpa, 78.

Tringinae, 352.

Sparrow-hawk, 213.
Spectrum, 25.

Talpidae, 78.
Talpina, 78.

Tripudians, 397.
Triton, 409.

Spermaceti Whale, 98.

Tantalinae, 347.

Trochilida?, 233.

Spheniscinae, 370.

Tapir, 174.

Trochilus, 233.

Spheniscus, 370.

Tapirina, 174.

Troglodytes, 12.

Sphingidae, 508.

Tapirus, 174.

Trogon, 229.

Sphyrnias, 451.

Tarandus, 100

Trogonidae, 229.

Spider Bird, 479.

Tarantula, 481.

Troile, 371.

Spinus, 287.

Tarda, 339.

Tropic Bird, 378.

Spoonbill, White, 345.

Tartarica, 492.

Trout, 434

Spotted Flycatcher, 264.

Taurus, 123.

Tubcrculata, 387.

Springbok, 139.

Teal, 364.

Tumbler Pigeon, 312.

Squalus, 450.

Tee-Tee, Collared, 22.

Tumulus, 328.

Squirrel, 120.
Flyin^ 1°1

Temporaria, 406.
Tench 427.

Tunny, 416.
Turbinidse, 464.

Stag, 156.

Tenuirostres, 232.

Turbot, 441.

Beetle, 486.

Tern, Common, 377.

Turdidae, 256.

Staphylinidae, 491.

Terrestris, 174.

Turdinaa, 257.

Starling, 284.

Terrier, English, 57.

Turdus, 257.

Steinbok, 142.

Scotch, 58.

Turkey, 319.

Brush 3°7

Stercorarius, 486.

Testudo, 399.

Turtle, 401.

Sterna, 378.

Testurdinidae, 399.

Turtle-dove. 309.

Sterninae, 378.

Tetradactyla, 184.

Turtur, 309.

Stoat, 66.

Tetrao, 323, 324.

Two-horned Rhinoceros,

Stockdove, 308.

Tetraonida?, 321.

178.

Stork, 346.

Tetraoninae, 323.

Stormy Petrel. 372.

Tetrix, 324.

Ulula, 216.

Strepsiceros, 135.

Thalarctcas, 75.

Uncia, 36.

Striata, 45.

Thalassidroma, 372.

Vndata, 243.

Strigidae, 216.
Strigmas, 221.

Thrush, Misseltoe, 257.
Son" 259

Undatum, 465.
lln^ulata, 123.

Strix, 221.

Thynnus, 416.

TJmcornis, 177.

Strobilosaura, 387.

Tiger, 33.

IJpupidse, 232.

Struthio, 330.

Cat, 39.

Tlpupinae, 232.

Struthionidaj, 330.

Moth, 510.
Beetle 1C3

Urbica, 227.
Uria. 371

Sturgeon, 448.

Tigris, 33.

Urinas, 371.

INDEX.

UregalluB, 323.
Uropsophus, 390.
Ursida, 72.
Ursina, 72.
Ursine Howler, 21.
Ursinus, 21.

Vampire Bat, 25.
Vampirus, 25.
'anellus, 340.
Tanessa, 507.
rarius, 35.
rertebrata, 1.
rerus, 386.
Vespa, 502.
Vespertilionidae, 25.
Vespertilionina, 28.
Vespidae, 502.
Vespillo, 485.
Viper, 394.
Viperina, 390.
Viperida;, 392.
Virginiana, 86.
Viridis, 304, 401.
Viscivorus, 257.
Vitulma, 87.
Viverra, 46.
Viverrinae, 46.

Vivipara, 384.
Volans, 388.
Volitans, 432.
Vulpes, 63.

Wagtail, 253.
Walrus, or Morse, 90.
Wandering Albatros, 374.
Wapiti, 157.
Warbler, Blackcap, 245.
Dartford, 243.

Whitethroat, 244.
Wolf, 61.
Wolverine, 68.
Wood Ant, 501.
Woodcock, 350.
Woodcock, Thorny, 466.
Woodpecker, Green, 304

Wren, 239.
Golden Crested, 246.
Wryneck, 305.

Xiphias, 417.

Yak, 131.
Yarrellii, 254.
Yellow Bunting, 290.

Wasp, 502.
Water-IIen, 355.
Water Shrew, 82.
Water Rat, 108.
Waxwing, Bohemian, 265.
Weasel, 67.
Wentletrap, Royal Stair-
case, 464.
Whale, 91.
Spermaceti, 98.
Whelk, 465.
Whistling Swan, 360.
White Pelican, 382.
White Shark, 450.
White Spoonbill, 345.
White-headed Eagle, 202.

Yuncin.-B. 305.
Yunx, 305.

Zebra, 165.
Zebu, 125.
Zeidae, 419.
Zeus, 419.
Zibellma, 65.
Zootoca, 384.
Zygaena, 451.

U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES