^ /^7 GROUP OF BIRDS. illustratp:d NATURAL HISTORY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM BEING % Sssl^inatic aiU foiiular Qescriittiou OF THE HABITS, STRUCTURE, AND CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS FROM THE HIGHEST TO THE LOWEST FORMS, WITH TIIEIP RELATIONS TO AGRICULTURE, COMMERCK, MANUFACTURES, AND THE ARTS. S. G'. GOODRICH WITH 140 0 ENGRAVINGS, VOL II. JJ r to - II a r li : D E rt B Y & J A c K s o :n. 1859. Ah' / J, £ Entered ocrording to Act of Congress, in lh>- year 1S5°, By S. G. Goodrich, In lb.; Clirk's Office of the District Court if the United Stales for the Southern District of New Yurk. - ^ I' - y^-tvk - *• - '- G04324 ELECTUOTYPED AND PRINTED Bv C. A. ALVORD. No. 15 V:tiidewator Sirpet. New Y.ir): CONTENTS OF VOLUME 11. PAGE Class II. AVES 1 Order 1. EAPTORES 15 The Falconidie 16 Tho Vulturidte . '', . . . . 50 The Strigidic or Owls 64 Order 2. PASSEEES .... 79 FiSSIROSTRES 80 The Caprimulgidse or Goat-Suckers . 80 The Iliruudinidoe or Swallows . . .87 The CoracinEe or Rollers ... 92 The Trogons or Couroucous . . .94 The Buccos, Barbets or PuEf-Birds . 95 The Galbulides or Jacainars . . .96 The Halcyonidte or Kingfishers . . 96 The MeropidiB or Bee-Eaters . . .99 Texuirostres .... 99 The Rifle-Birds 99 The Epimachinre or Plumed Birds . . 100 The Upupidre or Hoopoes ... . 100 The Cserebinas or Gnitguita . . "". 101 The Promeropidus or Sun-Birds . . 101 The TrochylidiBor IIumining-Birds . 102 The Meliphagidao or IIonej'-Eaters . . 107 The Furnarinas or Oven-Birds . . 108 The Certhinaj or Creepers .... 109 The Sittino3 or Nuthatches . . . 110 The Troglodytince or Wrens . . .111 Dextirostres .... 113 The Laniid:e or Shrikes . . . .113 The Ampelida3 or Chatterers . The Piprinre or Manakius The Dicrurinre or Drongo Shrikes The Campephaginse or Caterpillar-Eaters, The Gymnoderinic or Fruit-Crows The Ampeliuic or True Chatterers . The Cotingas The Muscicapidaj or Fly-Catchers The Vireos or Greenlets The True Fly-Catchers The Tityrin;c or Bccards The Tyrannina; or Tyrant Fly-Catcliers, The Alectrurince or Cock-Tails The Turdid;e or Thrushes The Bulbuls The Orioles Tlie Timaliuffi or Babblers . The Turdinse or True Thrushes . The Forniicarin;c or Ant-Thrushes The Sylvidie or Warblers The MotacillioDe or Wagtails The Pipits or Titlarks The Mniotiltinte or Bush-Creepors . Tlie Parinte or Titmice The Erythacime or Robins . The Sylvinaj or True AVarblcrs . The Sylvicolidic or American Warblers, ( COXIROSTRES .... The Fringillidas or Finches The Ploceiiue or "V^^eaver-Birds . The Grosbeaks .... VAC, K 116 116 118 119 119 120 121 121 121 122 124 125 125 126 126 126 127 127 134 135 135 136 137 137 141 145 152 155 155 156 159 IV CONTENTS OF VOLUME II PAOB Tho Timagriniu or TunugxTs . . IGl Tho Sparrows 162 Tho LiimoU 1G5 Tlio True Finchoa . . 1 GG Tlio EniberiziniD or BuiitiiijrH .170 Tho Alaudiiiii' or l.:iiks . l~- Tho ryrrhulina- or Lfull-Fiiiohes . 17G Tlio rhylotoiniiKu or rhuit-Cutlers 178 The Sturiiiilip or Starliiiifs. 179 Tlio I'liloiiorliyuoliiiiio or Bowor-iiinls. 179 Tho Crackles 180 Tlio BuiihaiiiniL' or Ox-Peckers . 181 Tho Sturniuiu or True Starlings .181 Tho IcterinuB or Troopials . . ISi Tho Corvidic or Crows . .192 Tho Strcperinie or ripiiig Crows . 192 Tho Garrulinie or Jay.s .... 192 Tho Call;patin;B or Tree-Crows . . 195 Tlio Corvinre or True Crows . . .195 The ParadiseiUie or Birds of Paradise, 205 The Buceridaj or Ilornbills . . . 205 The >[usophaorid(\»lyi>tniid;i' . Tlio Haliotida- or Kar-Sholls Tho Fissurellida- . Tlie PatoUida' or Limpets . Tlio Cliilonid.v Tho Dentaliidic or Tooth-Shells Tho ()i>isthol>ranohiata Tho Doridiu or Sea-Lemons The Triton iida- The .Eolididic . . . . The Plourobranchida^ . The Aplvsiadio . . . . The Bursatellida' . Tho Bullidie or Bubble-Shells . Orders. HETEROPODA The Sagillidaj . . . . The Firolidae The Atlantida:' . . . . Class III. PTEROPODA Order 1. THECOSOMATA . Order 2. GYMNOSOMATA Class IV. PALI^IOBRAiVCHIATA, 519 Class V. I.A?IEI.I.IBRA^CmATA, 519 Order 1. SIPHONATA .... 520 The Veueracea 520 The Mactridai or Beach-Clams . . 521 The Myadaj or Long-Clams . . .521 The Cardiacea or Cockles ... 522 The Chamacea or Giant-Clams . .522 Order 2. ASIPHONATA .... 523 The Unionacea or Fresh-Water Clams . 523 The Mytilacea or Mussels . . . 524 The Arcacca ... . 524 The Aviculacea or Pearl-O.vsters . 524 The Pectinidaj or Scallops . . . 526 The Ostracea or Oysters . , . 527 Class VI. TUWICATA . .530 Order 1. BIPHOEA 530 Order 2. ASCIDLE 530 Class VIII. BRYOZOA 531 Order 1. LOPHOPODA . . . .532 Order 2. INFIINDIBUIATA ... 532 OF VOLUME II. PAOF. PAOB r.i t Division III. ARTICULATA . . . 533 514 514 514 Class I. ISrSECTA 533 514 514 Order L COLEOPTEKA . 541 515 The Pentamera .... 542 515 The Geodcphaga or Ground-Beetles 542 515 Tho Hydradelphaga . 545 516 The Brach elytra . . . . 545 516 The Philhydrida .... . 545 516 The Necrophaga 546 516 The Helocera .... 547 516 The Lamellicornia . 547 516 The Sternoxia . . . - 549 517 The Malacodermata . 550 517 The Ileteromera .... 551 517 The Trachelia .... . 551 The Atracbelia .... 552 517 The Tetramera .... . 552 518 The Rhynchophora . 552 518 The Xylophaga .... . 553 518 The Longicornia 554 The Phytophaga .... . 555 518 The Trimera . ._ . . 555 The Coccinellidse .... . 555 518 Order 2. STREPSIPTEKA 556 519 Order 3. HYMENOPTEEA . , . 556 The Petiolata 557 The Anthophila or Bees . . . 557 The Diploptera or Wasps and Hornets . 563 The Fossoria 564 The Heterogyna or Ants . . . 566 The Entomophaga .... 567 The Gallicola or Gall Insects . . 568 The Securifera 569 Order 4. LEPIDOPTEEA . . . .570 The Rhopaloccra or Butterflies . . 572 The Heterocera or Moths . . . 574 The Sphingina 574 The Psychidffi 575 The Bombycina . . . . 575 The Noctuina 579 The Geometrina or Measuring-Worms 579 The Pyralidina 580 The Tortricina 580 The Tineina 580 Order 5. DIPTEKA 580 The Culicidaj or Gnats . . . .580 The Tipulidaj 581 The CEstrida; or Bot and Horse Flies . 581 The Muscidaj or Flies . . . 582 The HippoboscidiE or Forest-Flies . 583 Order 6. APHANIPTEKA ... 583 Order 7. NETIROPTERA . . .583 The Phryganeidaj .... 583 CONTENTS OF VOLUME II Vll PAGR The Panorpidae or Scorpion-Flies . . 584 The MyrmeleoiitidtE or Ant-Lions . 584 ' The Libellulida; or Dragon-Flies . . 585 The Ephemeridce or Day-Flies . . 586 The Psocidce 58*7 The Termitidffi or "White Ants . . 581 Order 8. ORTHOPTERA . .588 Tlie Forficulina or Earwig, &c. . . 588 The Blattina or Cockroaches . . . 588 The Mantina or Praying-Beetles . 589 The Piiasmina . . . .590 The Achetina or Crickets . . . 590 Tiie G-rylliiia or Grasshoppers . .591 The Locustina or Locusts . . . 592 Order 9, PHYSOPODA . . .593 Order 10. RHYNCHOTA .... 593 The Heteroptera 5 93 The Homoptera 594 The Coccina or Cochineal, &c. . . 594 The PhytoplUhiria or Plaut-Lice, Hop- Flies, &c. . . . . 595 The Cicadaria or Tree-Hoppers, Harvest- Flies, &c 595 Order 11. THYSANURA . . 596 Order 12. MALLOPHAGA . . . .597 Order 13. ANOPLURA .... 597 Class II. ]«YRIAPO»A . 598 Order 1. CHILOGNATHA ... 599 Order 2. CHILOPODA . , . . ' . 599 Class III. ARACHi^IDA 600 Order 1. DIMEROSOMATA . . .600 The AraneidLD or Spiders . . . 602 The Lycosidfe or Tarantula, &c. . . 602 The Mygalidse or Spider-Crab, &c. . 603 Order 2. PCJIMEROSOMATA . .603 Orders ADELARTHROSOMATA . 604 Order 4. MONOMEROSOMATA . .604 Order 5. PODOSOMATA .... 604 PAOE The Anoniura 607 The Paguridio or Hermit-Crab, &c. . 607 The Brachyura 608 The Maiadffi or Sea-Spiders . . . 608 The Cancerida3 or Crabs . . . 608 The Portunidte or Paddling-Crabs . 609 The Ocypodidaj or Land-Crabs . . 609 Order 2. STOMAPODA . . .610 Order 3. ISOPODA 611 Order 4. AMPHIPODA . . . .612 Order 5. L.ffiMODIPODA .... 612 Order 6. XYPHOSURA . . . .612 Order 7. PHYLLOPODA . . . . 613 Order 8. OSTRACODA 613 Order 9. COPEPODA . . . . 613 Order 10. PARASITA 613 Order 11. CIRRHOPODA .... 614 Class Y. KOTIFERA 614 Order 1, NATANTIA .... 615 Order 2. SESSILLA. 615 Class VI. AMWEI.IDA 615 Order 1 ERRANTIA 616 Order 2. TUBICOLA , . . . 616 Order 3. SCOLECINA 618 Order 4. SUCTORIA . . 619 Class VII. NEinATELMIA . 620 Order 1. NEMATOIDEA .... 620 Order 2. GORDIACEA 620 Order 3. ACANTHOCEPHALA ... 620 Class IV. CRUSTACEA 605 Order 1. DECAPODA .... 605 The Macrura 606 The Crangonidte or Shrimps and Prawns 606 Tlie Astacidie or Lobster, Cray-Fisli, &c. 606 The Palinuridse or Spiny Lobster, &c. 607 Class VIII. PEATYEEMIA . 620 Order 1. PLANARIDA ... 621 Order 2. TREMATODA . . . .621 Order 3. CESTOIDEA . . . . 621 VI 11 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 11. Division IV. KADIATA • • • <'ia«.<. I. i:< iii\oi>i:k.iiata Order 1. HOLOTHURIDA . Order 2 ECHINIDA . . . . Order 3. STELLERIDA Tlie Eunalidic Tho Opliiuridic .... Tlio AsteridiE Order 4. CRINOIDEA .... The luicriuidiL' , . . . . The Coiuatulidaj .... PAOK G22 Tlu- Fungidae The Zoanthidic . Tho Acliiiiadii; 623 Tlio Lueernaridai 624 Order 2. ASTEEOIDA Tho Tuliiporidic 624 The Alcyonidse The Gorgonidas 626 The Pennatulidic 626 627 627 628 628 G30 Order 3. HYDROIDA The Hydraidiu The Sertularidse The Tubularidse Aquaria PAOB 638 03 8 C38 639 639 639 640 640 641 641 641 642 642 643 Class II. SIPHONOPHORA Order 1. PHYSOGRADA Order 2. CHONDROGRADA . Class III. CTENOPHORA Class IV. DISCOPHORA . Order 1. STEGANOPHTHALMATA . Order 2. GYMNOPHTHALMATA . Class V. POLrYPI . Order 1. HELIANTHOIDA . Tlie MadreporidiB The Cyathophyllidse The Astrteidse .... 630 630 631 631 632 634 635 635 637 637 637 637 Division Y. PROTOZOA . Class I. IWFUSORIA Order 1. STOMATODA The Monadidie . The VorticeUidae . Order 2. ASTOMATA The AstasidsB The PeridinidaB The Opalinidaj Class II. PORIFERA Class III. RHIZOPODA Order 1. POLYTHALAMIA . Order 2. MONOSOMATA . 645 646 646 646 647 647 648 648 648 648 650 651 651 DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. Group of Birds Frontispiece. Humniing-Birds To face page 104 Blue Jays " " 194 The Concave Hornbill " " 206 Parrots and Cockatoos ^ " 214 Doves and Pigeons " " 226 The Emeu " " 262 The Sacred Ibis " " 284 The Jabiru an 1 Fliimingo " " 2S6 Group of Waterfowl "• " 306 The Great Auk, Kazor-Bills and Puffin.s •' . " 830 The Gaviul " " S70 The Flying Dracon "■ " SSO The Hooded Serpent •' " 394 The Black Snake and the Brow n Thrushes " " 400 "Op all the animals by which we are surrounded in the ample field of nature," says an eminent writer, "there are none more remarkable in their appearance and habits than the Feathered In- habitants of the Air. They play around us like fairy spirits, elude approach in an element which defies pursuit, soar out of our sight in the yielding sky, journey over our heads in marshaled ranks, dart like meteors in the sunshine of summer, or, seeking the solitary recesses of the forest or the Avaters, they glide before us like beings of fancy. They diversiiy the still landscape with the most lively motion and beautiful association; they come and go with the change of the sea- sons, and as their actions are directed by an uncontrollable instinct of provident nature, they may be considered as concomitant with the beautv of the surrounding scene. With what grateftil sensations do we hail these faithful messengers of spring and summer after the lapse of the dreary Vol. II.— 1 2 VERTEBliATA. o ;—• — D wintiT, which coinjx>llecl them to forsake us for more favored climes! Their songs, now heard from till' Irafv jxroves ami shadowy forests, inspire delight or recollections of the pleasing past in every breast. How volatile, how playfully capricious, liow musical and happy, are these roving sylphs of nature, to whom the earth, the air, and the waters, are almost alike habitable. Their A lives are spent in boundless action, and nature, with an omniscient benev- olence, has assisted and formed them for this wonderful display of perpetual life and vigor in an element almost their own."* A careful examination of the struc- ture of birds will show us that while the vertebrate form is preserved in the skeleton, there is a wonderful adapta- tion of all the parts to the life these animals are to lead. The prodigious strength necessary to the wings is se- cured by powerful muscles attached to the stenimn or breast-bone. As they are to sustain themselves in tlie air, the requisite lightness is obtained by makinof the bones hollow and the cov- ering of feathers. In order to facili- tate respiration, which would otherwise be obstructed in the rapidity of their flight, the air is not confined to the lungs, as in other animals, but passes through into various membraneous cells exterior to the heart, and in some cases is extended even down the wings. Birds, as well as quadrupeds, may be generally divided into two great classes, accordinsj to their food, some being Carnivorous, as eagles, owls, and vultures, and others being Granivorous, as quails, grouse, pheasants, and do- mestic fowls; many, also, hold a mid- dle place, and may be called Omniv- orous. Taken together, the food of birds is extremely varied, including fish and flesh, amphibia, reptiles, in- sects, fruits, grains, seeds, roots, and herbs. In the structure of the digest- ive organs, they exhibit a great uni- formity. The oesophagus, which is often very muscular, is usually dilated into a large sac, called the Crojy, at its entrance into the breast ; this is abundantly supplied with glands, and acts as a sort of first stomach, in which the food receives a certain amount of preparation before being sub- mitted to the action of the proper digestive organs. A little below the crop the narrow a?sopha- gus is again slightly dilated, forming what is called the venirkulus succentitriafus, the walls of which are thick, and contain a great number of glands, which secrete the gastric juice. Below SKELETON OP SPAEROW-nA'WK. A, Cranium or Sknll. B, Cervical vertebrae. C, The dotted lines indicate the extent of the anchylosed vertebrae of the baefc. D, The caudal vertebrae ; the letter is placed on the j)lowshare or rump-bone. E, Ribs. F, Sternum, or breast-bone. G, Furcula, or merry-thought. H H Clavicular, or coracoid-bone, ) ^^^^ the sidesman. H*, Scapula, or shoulder-blade, ) = I, Humerus, or bone of the arm. K, IHna, i Bones of the fore-arm : on the ulna is the place of insertion of the L, Radius, f secondary quills. M, Metacarpal bones, part of the hand which carries the primary quills. N, Phalanges of the fingers. O, Ilium, I P, Pubis, V Bones of tie pelvis. Q, Ischium. ) K. Femur, or thigh-bone. o o. Patella, or knee-pan. S, Tibia and fibula, or leg-bones consolidated. T T, Os calcis, or heel-bone. V V, Metatarsal, or shank-bones. W W, Toes. ♦ See " Manual of the Ornithology of the United States and Canada," by Thomas Nuttall, Cambridge, Massa- chusetts. 1834. CLASS II. AVES. 3 this, tlie intestinal canal is enlarged into a third stomach, the gizzard, in which the process of diges- tion is carried still further. In the granivorous birds, the walls of this cavity are very thick and muscular, and clothed internally with a strong, horny epithelium, serving for the trituration of the food ; but in the predaceous species the gizzard is thin and membraneous. The intestine is rather short, but usually exhibits several convolutions ; the large intestine is always furnished with two ccEca. It opens by a semicircular orifice into the cloaca, which also receives the orifices of the urinary and generative organs. The liver is of large size, and usually furnished with a gall- bladder. The pancreas is lodged in a sort of loop formed by the small intestine immediately after quitting the gizzard. There are also large salivary glands in the neighborhood of the mouth, which pour their secretion into that cavity. The organs of circulation and respiration in birds are adapted to their peculiar mode of life : they are not, however, separated from the abdominal cavity by a diaphragm, as in the mammalia. The heart consists of four distinctly separated cavities— two auricles and two ventricles — so that the venous and arterial blood can never mix in that organ, and the whole of the blood returned from the dift'erent pails of the body passes through the lungs before being again driven into the systemic arteries. The blood is received from the veins of the body in the right auricle, from which it passes through a valvular opening into the right ventricle, and is thence driven into the lungs. From these organs it returns through the pulmonary veins into the left auricle, and passes thence into the ventricle of the same side, by the contraction of which it is driven into the aorta. This soon divides into two branches, which by their further subdivision give rise to the arteries of the body. The jaws or mandibles are sheathed in a horny case, usually of a conical form, on the sides of which are the nostrils. In most birds the sides of this sheath or bill are smooth and sharp, but in some they are denticulated along the margins. The two anterior members of the body are extended into winffs. The beak is used instead of hands, and such is the flexibilitv of the verte- bral column, that the bird is able to touch with its beak every part of its body. This curious and important result is obtained chiefly by the lengthened vertebrae of the neck, which in the swan consists of twenty-three bones, in the stork of nineteen, the ostrich eighteen, the domestic cock thirteen, the raven twelve. The vertebrae of the back are seven to eleven ; the ribs never exceed ten on each side. The clothing of the skin of birds, consists oi feathers^ which in their nature and development re- semble hair, but are of a far more complicated structure. A perfect feather consists of the shaft or central stem, which is tubular at the base, where it is inserted into the skin, and the harbs or fibers, which form the webs on each side of the shaft. The two principal modifications of feathers are quills and plumes, the former confined to the wings and tail, the latter constituting the gen- eral clothing of the body. Besides the common feathers, the skin of many birds, and especially of the aquatic species, in which the accessory plumules rarely exist, is covered with a thick coat- ing of down, which consists of a multitude of small feathers of peculiar construction ; each of these down feathers is composed of a very small, soft tube imbedded in the skin, from the interior of which there rises a ''mall tuft of soft filaments, without any central shaft. These filaments are very slender, and b',ar on each side a series of still more delicate filaments, which may be regarded as analogous to +ue barbules of the ordinary feathers. This downy coat fulfills the same ofllice as the soft, woolly fur of many quadrupeds, the ordinary feathers being analogous to the long, smooth hair by which the fur of those animals is concealed. The skin also bears a good many hair-like appendages, which are usually scattered sparingly over its surface ; they rise from a bulb which is imbedded in the skin, and usually indicate their relation to the ordinary feathers by the presence of a few minute barbs toward the apex. Once or twice in the course of the year the whole plumage of the bird is renewed, the casting of the old feathers being called moulting. In many cases the new clothing is very diff"erent from that which it replaces, and in birds inhabiting temperate and cold climates we can frequently dis- tinguish a summer and winter dress. This circumstance has given rise to the formation of a con- siderable number of false species, as the appearance of the birds in these dift'erent states is often very dissimilar, and it is only by an accurate study of the living animals, which is of course almost VEKTEBKATA, THE IMPERIAL EAGLE : ILLUSTRATION OP TOE PLUMAGE OF BIRDS. impossible witli many exotic birds, that such mistakes as these can be prevented or rectified. Another fertile source of similar errors is to be found in the difference which very commonly ex- ists between the two sexes, a difference which is often so great that, without particular informa- tion derived from the observation of the birds in their native haunts, it would be impossible to refer the males and females to their proper partners ; and the difficulty is still further increased by the fact that the young of all birds in their first plumage differ more or less from their parents, CLASS II. AVES and frequently only acquire their mature dress after the lapse of three or four years, the plumage undergoing a certain change at each moult. These circumstances undoubtedly throw great diffi- culties in the way of the student of ornithology, and it is perhaps not nuich to be wondered at, if we have sometimes half a dozen different names for different states of the same species ; but it must also be confessed, that in this, as in other departments of natural history, the desire to de- scribe new species has often led to an unjustifiable multiplication of errors of this description. In a zoological point of view the greatest importance attaches to the feathers of the wings and tail, to which different names have been given. The quills are inserted into all the bones of the wing, but the longest are those attached to the bones of the hand, and to these the name of pri- maries is given. The feathers supported by the fore-arm are denominated secondaries, and those attached to the humerus tertiaries. The thumb also bears a few quills, which form what is called the alula, or bastard wing. These, and some other feathers to which particular names have been given, are shown in the annexed engrav- ing. The base of the quills is covered by a se- ries of large feathers called the ^ving coverts, which are also distinguished into ^^r/raary and secondary. The feathers of the tail are fur- nished with numerous muscles, by Avhich they can be spread out and folded up like a fan. Their bases are also covered both above and beneath by smaller feathers, which arc called the tail coverts. It is impossible to conceive any covering more beautifully adapted to the peculiar wants of these creatures than that with which they are endowed by nature. All the feathers being di- rected backward, the most rapid motion through the air only tends to press them more closely to the body, and the warm air, confined among the inner downy fibers, is thus effectually pre- vented from escaping. In the aquatic birds the feathers are constantly lubricated by an oily se- cretion, which completely excludes the water. In the wings the quill-feathers exhibit in the highest degree a union of the two qualities of lightness and strength, while by their arrange- ment they can be folded togethe" into a very small compass. In their reproduction birds are strictly oviparous. The eggs are always inclosed in a hard shell, consisting of calcareous matter, and, unlike the animals of some of the succeeding classes, birds, instead of abandoning the hatching of their eggs and the development of their offspring to chance, almost invariably devote their whole attention, during the breeding season, to this im- portant object, sitting constantly upon the eggs to communicate to them the degree of warmth necessary for the evolution of the embryo, and attending to the wants of their newly-hatched young, until the latter are in a condition to shift for themselves. Most birds live in pairs during the breeding season, which usually occurs only once in the year; in many cases the conjugal union is for life. Both sexes generally take an equal part in the care of the young. They usually form a nest of some description for the reception of the eggs ; this is composed of the most diverse materials, such as sticks, moss, wool, vegetable fibers, &c. ; in many instances the work of these little architects must excite the admiration of every observer. The nests of different individuals of the same species arc generally not only of the same form, but even composed nearly of the same materials, so that a person, accustomed to the inspection of A, ear coverts ; B. bastard wing; C D E, wing coverts ; F, prima- ries; G, scapulars; H, secondaries; L, tail coverts; K, under tail coverts, not shown. 6 VJiliTEBRATA. THE GOLDEN ORIOLE : ILLUSTKATIOX OF PAIRING AND NEST-BLILDING. birds' nests, can generally tell at a glance the species to which a particular nest belongs. The number of eggs laid is also very uniform in each species. In the structure and development of the egg, we find a great uniformity throughout this class, the development of the embryo taking place here in precisely the same manner as in the reptiles. But notwithstanding this general uniformity in the processes of reproduction, there is a remark- able difference in the condition of the young birds at the moment of hatching, and this has given rise to the division of the class into two great sections. In some, which usually reside upon the ground, where they form their nests and hatch their young, the latter are able to run about from the moment of their breaking the egg-shell, and the only care of the parents is devoted to pro- tecting their offspring from danger, and leading them into those places where they are likely to meet with food. The others, which in fact constitute the majority of the class, pass more of theu- time in the air, and generally repose upon the trees, or in other elevated situations, where they also build their nests, and the young birds for some time after they are hatched, remain in the nest in a comparatively helpless state, their parents bringing them food, and attending upon them most assiduously until their feathers are sufficiently grown to enable them to support them- selves upon the wing. A chicken or a partridge, a day after it is hatched, will run about and pick up seeds, separating them from the gravel among which they lie, while the young of the tree-birds remain often a month in the nest, receiving without discrimination what is given by their parents. This difference between the young of the two classes will be more apparent by a glance at the engravings pages 7 and 8 . The first represents a young curlew, a day or two old, going forth with all his faculties awake, and almost ready to make his way in the world ; the other CLASS II AVES. THE YOUNG CUELEW. presents a barn-owl, which has reached the comparative old age of a month, and yet — though it may possess something of the serious and knowing aspect of the Bird of Wisdom — seems still sadly puzzled to know which foot he ought to put first. The longevity of birds is various, and, differing from the case of men and quadrupeds, seems to bear little proportion to the age at which they acquire maturity. A few months, or even a few weeks, are sufficient to bring them to their perfection of stature, instincts, and powers. . Land animals generally live five or six times as long as the period of their growth, that is, the time re- quired for reaching their maturity ; while birds live ten times as long as the period of their growth. Domestic fowls, pigeons, and canaries live to the age of twenty years ; parrots thirty, geese fifty, pelicans eighty; swans, ravens, and eagles exceed a century. The velocity with which birds are able to ^.avel in their aeriai element has no parallel among terrestrial animals. The swiftest horse m'.y run a mile in something less than two minutes, but this speed can only be sustained for a vf /y brief period, while birds in their migrations move at the rate of a mile a minute for several successive hours. Many of them, no doubt, actually travel six to eight hundred miles a day, and are thus able to go from the arctic to the torrid zones in three or four days. A falcon, sent to the Duke of Lerraa from Teneriffe to Andalusia, returned in sixteen hours, a distance of seven hundred and eighty miles. The gulls of Barbadoes go to the distance of two hundred miles in search of their food, making a daily flight of four hundred miles. The migrations of birds are among the most curious and wonderful phenomena connected with their natural history. In some cases these are of comparatively small extent, being prompted only by the necessity of obtaining a supply of food ; but many species, known as Birds of Pas- sage, perform long journeys twice in the year, visiting temperate or even cold climates during the summer, and quitting them on the approach of winter for more genial climes. The great object of this movement in the economy of nature is to rear their young in the solitude or security of the colder zones, away from the destructive animals— serpents, monkeys, cats, and other preda- ceous beasts— which infest the tropics. As these birds have neither reason nor experience, they are endowed with instincts which guide them in their wanderings, often extending across seas VEUTEBRATA TOUNG BAEX-owL. (See page 6.) and rivers and continents for thousands of miles. The various modes in which these migra- tions are performed by different species are exceedingly curious. Some of them, as owls, butcher- birds, kingfishers, thrushes, fly-catchers, night-hawks, whippoorwills, (ire, fly only at night, and others, as crows, wrens, pies, creepers, cross-bills, larks, bluebirds, swallows, y whitli it can coimimnicato its desires not only to those of its own, but of otlior species. These notes, if connected in a melodious succession, are called a song ; if un- connected, a call. In some cases the call is the same, however difl'erent the emotions which it is intended to express; in others, it is very various. For instance, the chaffincirs call, when on the wiuEf, is Kifdk ! cijak ! its expression of joy is Fink ! fink ! — if angry, the same syllahle is repeated more quiekly — and Trivf ! trirf ! is the sign of tenderness or melancholy. The raven's call — G raab ! (fraab ! — is, on the contrary, the same under all circumstances, and the only indication of a change of emotion is the degree of rapidity with which it is uttered. "What is called the Song of l>irds is, in all cases, expressive either of love or happiness. Thus, tJie nightingale sings only during the pairing season and the period of incubation, and is si'ent as soon as compelled to feed its young; while, on the contrary, the starhng, the bullfinch, and the canary, sing througliout the year, except when dejected by moulting. It seems, in general, to be a prerogative of the males, by which they citlier invite or seek to retain the affections of the fe- males. There are indeed a few species, as in the European redbreast and lark, and in the canary, (fee, the females of which, especially if kept by themselves, manifest a capability of uttering a few notes like those of the male ; but in general they only listen to the song of the males, in order to show tlieir preference for the most fc.ccomplished singer. In a cage of canaries, the liveliest female always pairs with the best singer, and a female chaffinch, when wild, will choose out of a hundred males, the mate whose song is mosi pleasing to her." Some birds sing throughout the day ; some are heard early in the morning; others in the even- ing, and a few seem to prefer the silence of the night. Some prefer to sing in company; others are mute except when alone. The nightingale, for instance, is silent in the daytime, and sings only in the evening, or at night. It seems, indeed, as if the queen of European song birds was conscious of the superiority of her powers, and disdained to raise her voice amid the various noises of tlie day and the cry and twitter of other birds, but reserved it for a period when it could be better heard and more fully appreciated by men. It is remarkable, that all birds which, un- like the redbreast, siskin, or bullfinch, do not sing throughout the year, appear to forget their song during the process of moulting, and have to learn it again every spring. " The melody of birds," says Broderip, " finds its way to the heart of every one ; but the cause that prompts the outpourings, that make copse, rock, and river ring again on a fine spring morn- ing, is more a matter of doubt with ornithologists than the uninitiated in zoological mysteries might suppose. Much has been written on this subject, and upon a consideration of the different opinions, aided by our own observations, we are inclined to think that love and rivalry are the two great stimulants, though we do not mean to deny that a bird may sing from mere gayety of heart, arising irom finding itself in the haunts dear to it, and in the midst of plenty of the food it likes. " In England, the season of reproduction is undoubtedly that wherein ' The isle is full of pleasant noises, Sounds, and sweet airs, that give delight ;' and about ten weeks have been mentioned as the period during which most of our wild birds are in song. That there are exceptions to this rule there is no doubt. We have heard a wild thrush, one of the sweetest singers of his tribe, sing far into September, but we watched narrowly and never could find that he had a mate. Then, again, we have the autumnal, and even the winter notes of the robin, long after the breeding season; and caged birds, if well fed and kept, will sing the greater part of the year." No naturalist appears to have paid greater attention to this part of our subject than Colonel Montague, and his remarks thereupon are exceedingly interesting. "There is no doubt," he says, " that birds in confinement will learn the song of those they are kept with ; but then it is constantly blended with that peculiar to the species. In the spring, the very great exertions of the male birds in their vociferous notes are certainly the calls to love, and the peculiar note of each is an unerring mark for each to discover its own species. If a confined bird had learned the song of another, without retaining any part of its natural notes, and was set at liberty, it is probable it would never find a mate of its own species ; and even supposing it did, there is no CLASS II. AVES. 11 reason for believing the young of that bird would be destitute of its native notes ; for if nestling birds have no innate notes peculiar to their species, and their song is only learned from the parent bird, how are we to account for the invariable note each species possesses, when it happens that two different species are bred up in the same bush, or in the contiguous one, or when hatched or fostered by a different species ? The males of song birds do not in general search for the female, but, on the contrary, their business in the spring is to perch on some conspicuous spot, breathing out their full and amorous notes, which, by instinct, the female knows, and repairs thither to choose her mate. This is particularly verified with respect to summer birds of passage. The nightingale, and most of its genus, although timid and shy to a degree, mount aloft, and inces- santly pour forth their strains, each seemingly vying in its lone, love-labored song, before the female arrives. No sooner does the female make her appearance than dreadful battles ensue — their notes are changed ; their song is sometimes hurried through without the usual grace and elegance, and at other times modulated into a soothing melody. The first w^e conceive to be a provocation to battle at the appearance of another male ; the last, an amorous cadence, or court- ing address. This variety of song only lasts till the female is fixed in her choice, which is in gen- eral a few days after her arrival, and if the season is favorable, she soon begins the task allotted to her sex. "The male no longer exposes himself as before, nor are his songs heard so frequently, or so loud ; but while she is searching for a secure place in which to build her nest, he is no less assid- uous in attending her with ridiculous gestures, accompanied with peculiarly soft notes. When incubation takes place, the song of the male is again heard, but not so frequently as at first ; he never rambles from hearing, and seldom from her sight, and if she leaves the nest, he accompa- nies her with soft notes of love. "The continuation of song in caged birds by no means proves it is not occasioned by a stimu- lus to love ; indeed, it is probable that redundancy of animal spirits from plenty of food and arti- ficial heat may produce the same residt, whereas wild birds have it abated by a commerce with the other sex ; but even in their natural state birds may be forced to continue their song much longer than usual. A male redstart made his appearance near my house early in spring, and soon commenced his love-tuned song. In two days after, a female arrived, which for several days the male was continually chasing, emitting soft, interrupted notes, accompanied by a chattering noise. This sort of courting lasted for several days. Soon after, the female took possession of a hole in a wall close to my house, where she prepared a nest and deposited six eggs. The male kept at a distance from the nest ; sometimes sang, but not so loud nor so frequently as at first, and never when he approached the nest. When the eggs had been sat on a few days I caught the female. The male did not miss his mate immediately, but on the next day he resumed his vociferous calls, and his song became incessant for a week, when I discovered a second female; — his note immediately changed, and all his actions as before described, returned. This experiment has been repeated on the nightingale with the same result ; and a golden-crested wren, who never found another mate, continued his song from the month of May till the latter end of August. On the contrary, another of the same species, who took possession of a fir-tree in my garden, ceased its notes as soon as the young were hatched." In some comments upon the above, Rennie expresses an opinion that birds sing most frequently from joy and buoyancy of spirits, and not unfrequently in triumphant defiance of rivalry or attack. He says: "I have a redbreast who will sing out whenever I snap my fingers at him, and the sedge-bird sings when a stone is thrown into the bush where he may be." According to Syme, the song of birds may be divided into six distinct utterances: first, there is the call-note of the mate in spring; second, the loud, clear, and fierce notes of defiance; third, the soft, tender, full, melodious love-warble ; fourth, the notes of fear when danger approaches the nest ; fifth, the note of alarm, or war-cry, when a bird of prey appears ; sixth, the note the parent birds utter to their brood, and the chirp or note of the young. This latter he again di- vides into two — that which the young birds utter while in the nest and that after they have left it. And to these several utterances he adds the soft, murmuring kind of note which the male emits while he is feeding the female on the nest, and also that uttered by her while receiving the food. 12 VERTEliliATA. liarriiiixton n-inarks tliat " sonio passacjos in the song of a few kinds of birds correspond with the intervals of our lunsioal soak", hut tiiat much the greater part of such a song is not capable of musical nt)tatioii, because — first, the rapidity is often too great, and it is also so uncertain where tlicv niav stop, that it is impossible to reduce the passages to form a musical bar in any time what-^oever; secondly, on account of the pitch of most birds being considerably higher than the most shrill notes of instruments of the greatest compass; and lastly, because the intervals used by birds are commonlv so minute that we cannot judge at all of them from the more gross intervals into whidi our musical octave is divided." We shall not follow this accomplished naturalist through the whole of his interesting observations upon this subject. The table which follows will serve to show his estimate of the comparative merits of some of the leading feathered vocalists. barrington's table of musical birds. Designed to exhibit the comparatirc merit of British Song Birds. Twenty is supposed to be the point of absolute perfection. ■s en o o 'A a s ^ n r'^ o a -^ ft, bo o Mel ft, O Xightingalo Bliickcap, or Mock-Nightiugale Skvlark . . . '^ Wo()arin«; lark will seem indeed to pour forth at heaven's gate, a morning hymn of praise, and the jiightini;ali' to ehant amid the leafy woodlands a vesper song of thankfulness: the full chorus of feathered minstrelsy will be to him like an angel choir, scattering melody on all around, whirh sinks into the soul like summer rain into the earth, gladdening and refreshing it." AVe have thus far bi'cn speaking of the native melody of birds. ]>ut many species are endowed by nature not only with wonderful powers of voice, but with accuracy of car and powers of memory which enable them to catch and repeat artificial songs. It might be added that many of tiiem are capable of being taught to peribrm various tricks. Not only the parrot, but many other species, can be so instructed as to imitate the human voice, and articulate words. There is, in truth, no end to the curiosities presented by a careful study of the feathered tribes. Their industry and ingenuity in building their nests, is a theme of admiring wonder alike to the natu- ralist and the common observer. The forecast of some birds in regard to the coming weather, often seems like prophecy, and they actually perform what the charlatan almanac-maker only pretends to do. The stratagems employed by birds to escape danger, to elude pursuit, and to de- fend their young, and especially the display of art in the construction of their nests with a view to concealment, are in the highest degree curious and entertaining. Indeed, in whatever way we may view the feathered tribes which surround us, they are a constant source of amusement and instruction. Without them, the w^orld would be divested of one of its greatest and most abiding charms. Not only do they enliven the landscape by their beautiful forms, and varied colors, and graceful motions — not only do they fill the air and enliven the heart by their songs; but some of the more graceful and gifted species often become inmates of our houses, and thus preserve for us, amid the rigors of the winter, glimpses of the departed spring and summer. They thus offer a ceaseless and boundless contribution to the pleasures of the world at large ; especially do they furnish an inexhaustible field of delightful inquiry to the scientific student of nature. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 15 THE GOLDEN EAGLE. ORDER 1. RAPTORES. The word Raptores, from the Latin, signifying robbers, but partially characterizes this order, for many of the species are not only robbers, but assassins and butchers. Among the birds of smaller size and gentler aspect, which we call Passeres, we shall find instances of species which are exceedingly predaceous in their disposition, devouring not only insects and worms, which in fact constitute a considerable portion of the food of most of them, but also tyrannizing over the smaller birds and other vertebrated animals, in a style which would justify us in applying to them the denomination of birds of prey. It is, however, in the present order that we find the powers of destruction developed to the fullest extent ; indeed, the whole structure of the Raptorial birds is evidently adapted to the incessant warfare which they wage upon their neighbors. Nevertheless, some of these birds are of a more peaceful nature, and feed exclusively upon the bodies of animals which they find already dead, although in all their characteristics they are unmistakable members of this order, r 10 VERTEBRATA. Amonirst their distinctive features the most important are those furnished by the bill and feet The fonner of these organs is always rather short and strong, with the upper mandible longer than the lower one, strongly hooked at tlie tip, or curved throughout its wliole length, very sliarj) at the point, and sometimes armed with teeth on the margins. The base of the bill is coveretl by a cere, in which the nostrils are pierced. The feet are usually short and powerful, composed of four toes, armed with long, curved, and acute claws. With the latter these birds seize their prey in a deadly grasp, and with them they hold the victim whilst the powerful bill is cncfaixed in tearinc: off portions of its liesh. At the same time, the wintrs are always of large size, and often of extraordinary length, giving the birds an astonishing rapidity of flight. The tail is long and broad, usually composed of twelve feathers ; it is sometimes rounded and sometimes forked at the end. The tarsi are rarely furnished with scutella as in the Passerine birds, but, like the toes, they are generally covered with a reticulated skin, although in some cases a few scutella are found upon the front of the tarsi and the upper part of the toes. The latter arc arranged three in front and one behind, and the anterior toes are usually united at the base by a short membrane, except in the owls, in which the outer toe is capable of being turned backward and the inner one alone is united to the middle toe by a membrane. In some instances the feet are feathered down to the toes. The raptorial birds are very generally distributed over the globe. They vary greath^ in size, but the majority feed upon the flesh of animals which they capture for themselves; some of the smaller species, however, condescend to prey upon insects. They are divided into three ex- tensive families, the Falcons, the Vultures, and the Owls. THE FALCON"rD^. In this family, which not only includes Falcons proper, but Haivks and Eagles, the destruct- ive power is most perfectly developed; and we find in the birds composing it natural instruments for striking, trussing, and dissecting their prey, combined with a power of flight and strength of limbs equivalent to the necessities of the case, whether the prey be aerial — that is, in the act of flight — or on the ground. These natural weapons are rendered still more formidable by the organiza- tion of the whole animal, which is calculated to give them the greatest possible effect. The nails, or claws, to be available, must be sharp ; and, in order that they may be kept in this state and fit for duty, there is a provision to enable the bird to prevent them from coming in contact with the ground or other foreign hard bodies ; for the claws are retractile, not indeed in the same manner as those of the cats, which have the power of with- drawing or sheathing theirs within the inteofu- ments, but by a conformation which gives the bird of prey the power of elevating its claws at pleas- ure. The claws of falcons when sitting on stones or large branches of trees have often a cramped appearance ; but this arises in most instances from the care of the bird so to arrange its talons that their points may not be blunted against the perch. HEAD AND FOOT OF PEREGEiNE FALCON. jt Is ouc of thc remarkable chara^cteristics of this family, in common with other Raptores, that the females are considerably larger than the males. All the Falconidse have wings of large size, and are remarkably powerful fliers. Tliey pursue CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES, IT Tnc ICELAND FALCON. their prey almost entirely on the wing. Their food consists of quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and in- sects, which they seize by suddenly pouncing upon them in the air or on the ground; many of the species also feed upon fishes, in pursuit of which they dash down with great force into the water. Their victims are seized by the powerful curved and acute claws, the deadly gripe of which generally destroys life immediately, but the bill is rarely used except to tear the flesh of the prey after it has been secured in the talons. When the animal killed is of small com- parative size, the birds generally carry it off to some quiet spot where they may feed upon it with- out fear of interruption ; but when it is too large to be thus disposed of, they gorge themselves with its flesh on the spot where it fell. In either case, however, they usually devour as much of their victim as will completely fill the crop or dilated portion of the oesophagus, and then always retire to some sequestered retreat, where they remain quiet imtil the food' is digested. They generally remove a good portion of the hair or feathers from their prey before commenc- ing their attack upon its flesh; but, notwithstanding, usually swallow some of these indigestible Vol. II— 3. 18 VERTEBRATA. \ THE WniTE FALCOX. articles, together with a part of the bones ; all these parts are left behind in the stomach, and are vomited forth in the form of roundish pellets. This habit is common to many other birds, especially shrikes, swallows, and others which feed on hard-winged insects. The strong feet of the falcons enable them to perch with great ease and security, and, when thus roosting, they sit with the body nearly erect, and the head and neck drawn back in an attitude of considerable elegance ; but on the ground the length and curvature of their claws render them rather awkward; they incline the head and body forward, and are obliged to move by clumsy leaps, with the assistance of their wings. The Falconidaj are generally solitary birds ; their cry is loud and shrill, sometimes becoming a scream or yelp, and is usually a sign of anger or triumph. Their nests are rude, flat, and often of large size ; they are composed of sticks, twigs, and similar materials, lined wnth hair, wool, or feathers, in the part destined for the reception of the eggs. These vary in number from two to six or eight; they are usually of a white color, and more or less spotted Avith dark tints. Genus FALCON : Falco. — This includes several species, and among them the celebrated birds used in the falconry of the Middle Ages, and called Noble Falcons, in distinction from the other species rtot employed in this pastime, and called Ignoble Falcons. The "White Falcon, F. candicans^ is of a pure white, with heart-shaped spots, and faint transverse bands of a grayish-browMi color on the upper parts. The male* is eighteen inches long, from the point of the beak to the tip of the tail. It lives on birds of considerable size, prin- cipally those of the gallinaceous kinds. It inhabits the high polar regions of both hemispheres, and was the proper Jer Falcon or Gyi- Falcon of the days of falconry; this and the Iceland falcon were most esteemed by falconers on account of their capacity for education. It was formerly obtained from Northern Europe, but it is now known to be found in Greenland and the Polar Regions of North America ; and under the supposition that it was a distinct species, it has been called the American Gyrfalcon and the F. Groenlandlcus. The Iceland FatuCO^, F. Islandicus, is larger than the preceding; it is brown above, barred * In speaking of the length of a bird we measure from the point of the beak to the tip of the tail ; if we mention the length without naming the gender, we mean the largest, which, in the Raptores, is the female ; in most others the male. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 19 THE PEREGRINE OR WANDERING FALCON. and spotted with white ; oeneath it is white, with heart-shaped spots, and bands alternately light and dark on the tail. It is a native of Iceland, as its name indicates, but it sometimes migrates to the south, though it is said never beyond 60° north latitude. It builds its nests on the loftiest peaks of the mountains ; its eggs, to the number of three or four, are of a light yellowish red, with close ocher-colored spots. Audubon describes two birds, a male and female, which he con- siders of this species, shot by one of his party on the coast of Labrador, in 1833 ; a sketch of their figures which he has given is presented at page 17. The Jerfalcon, jP. Gyrfalcon of Graelin, is eighteen inches long, of a brownish-blue above and white-spotted beneath. Its proper locality is Norway, but it is sometimes seen in Germany and France. The falconers used to obtain it from the remote, wild rocks of Scandinavia, where it bred. It was less esteemed, however, than the two preceding kinds. The Peregrine or Wandering Falcon, the Faucon Pelerin of the French, the Wander Falke of the Gc\va?kns, F.peregrinus^'is, eighteen inches long, of a brownish ash-color above; be- neath, white with longitudinal stripes. It builds on high rocks, generally near the sea-coast, and lays two to four whitish eggs, mottled with brown. It flight is rapid, and it descends on its prey with almost inconceivable velocity. It feeds chiefly on gallinaceous birds, penguins, and watei-fowl. It is found throughout Europe. The three first of the preceding species — that is, the White Falcon^ the Iceland Falcon, and the Jerfalcon — though they appear to have been distinguished by falconers in former times, have been regarded as one by many naturalists, but M. Schlegel has shown that they are really distinct. The changes of plumage have led to confusion, so that one of them has fi-equently been mistaken for the other. In their general qualities all the preceding species resemble each other. All are exceedingly powerful birds, and of almost incredible swiftness of flight. They were all used in falconry ; the Peregrine Falcon^ however, having been much more abundant than the other species, and also of a more docile temper, was most frequently employed. The White ■20 VERTEJiUATA. 6L " z;:^^^:m§^ifm^m0^^- ■ A HAWKIXG PARTY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. Falcon, on account of its greater strength and courage, was flown at birds of large size, as cranes, storks, herons, and wild geese The Iceland Falcon had the most bold and rapid flight; it mounted higher and its gyrations were wider than those of the other species ; its stoop upon the quarry is described by the old writers on falconry as in the highest degree grand, impetuous, and imposing. "In the language of falconry," says Yarrell, "the female Peregrine was exclusively called the Falcon, and, on account of her greater size, power, and courage, was usually flown at herons and ducks ; the male I'eregrine, being smaller, sometimes one-third less than the female, was called the Tercel, Tiercel, and Tiercelet, and was more frequently flown at partridges, and sometimes at magpies. Young Peregrines of the year, on account of the red tinge of their plumage, were (.J^]1^.J — the fenuile a Red Falcon and the male a Red Tiercel — to distinguish them from the older birds, which were called Haggarts or Intenncived Bawks." The Lanner, F. lanarius, is found in Dalmatia, Hungary, and Greece. It is colored above like the Pcrofrrine Falcon ; below it is white, with dark longitudinal spots. It is a rare species. For- merly the King of France, Louis XVI., had Lanners sent annually from Malta ; but they were brou'dit from the more eastern countries. It exceeds the Peregrine Falcon in size, being inter- mediate between that and the Jerfalcon, and was anciently much esteemed for flying at the kite, with which the Peregrine is hardly able to contend. The name of Lanner was confined to the female ; the male was called a Lannerct, on account of its smaller size. Like the other species it builds its nest on high and almost inaccessible rocks. The Sacred Falcon,* F. sacer, considerably larger than the preceding, was also used in fal- conry. The plumage above is an ashy-brown ; below, white, with light reddish spots. It is a rare species, found in Southeastern Europe. Falconry appears to have been first practiced in the East, and it is still in vogue in Persia and some other Asiatic countries. Though now forgotten in Europe, it was the fashionable sport of the Middle Ages, a fevorite with nobles, kings, and fair ladies. So elegant and showy a pastime, and one in the excitements of which the gentler sex could share with the rougher, failed not to become very prevalent, especially in France. In a very old French poem on forest sports, * All the preceding species belong to Cuvier's genus of Ukrofalco, a term abridged into Gyrfalcon, and signifying Sacred Falcon ; it is used in allusion to the reverence of the ancient Egyptians for certain birds of prey. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 21 FALCON ATTACKING A GAZELLE. falconry is compared with hunting, and the preference given to the former, because "queens, duchesses, and countesses are allowed by their husbands to carry the falcon on their wrists with - out offending propriety, and they can enjoy all the sport of this kind of hunting, while, in hunting with hounds, they are only allowed to follow by the wide I'oads or over open fields, in order to see the dogs pass. "The knight, on such occasions, was anxious to pay his court to the ladies by his attentions to the falcons. He was obliged to be careful to fly the bird at the proper moment, to follow it im- mediately, never to lose sight of it, to encourage it by calls, to take the prey from it, caress it, put on the hood, and place the impetuous bird gracefully on the wrist of his mistress." The training of a bird for this sport was a very critical process ; there were persons very learned in it, and who even wrote treatises on falconry, which were deemed a fit and necessary study for an accomplished gentleman. The birds destined to this sort of training for the chase, were taken from the nest when quite young, and for months were nourished with the flesh of pigeons, and also of wild birds, given to them raw. Much time and pains were then spent in teaching them to sit on the hand, by practicing them in perching upon posts, movable bare, &c. To tame them ii.to obedience to the will of the master, the}' were deprived of sleep and food, were beaten, and otherwise tyrannized over, till the creatures found that absolute submission to the word of command was by far the least of two evils. The same persevering government inured them to wear a leather hood over their heads. To practice them in their art, and without the risk of their flying away, they were attached to a string some two hundred feet long till they were so far disciplined as to be trusted with liberty, and yet relinquish it on the instant at a given signal. When brought out for use into the open country their heads were hooded, and they were allowed to see nothing but their game ; as soon as the game was put up by the dogs, or indi- cated by them, the powerful bird was tossed from the wrist, and darted straight toward it ; if a quadruped, it pounced upon its head, or seated itself there, and pecked the eyes of the victim, till, bewildered and terrified, it fell an easy prey. If a bird were the quarry or object of chase, the scene became very animated and exciting. Picturesquely scattered over the fields could be seen stately dames, with their proud and beautiful faces eagerly upturned, beaming piquantly, perhaps with a little of the ferocity of the age; gay squires on their daintily caparisoned steeds, cheering the falcon to exert his utmost swiftness and prowess ; noble personages relaxing from their dig- nity to watch maneuvers that must often remind them, in miniature, of their own pursuits — all these on high-mettled but well-managed steeds, while around, the crowd of low degree filled the welkin with their boisterous clamor. •>•>. VERTEBUATA. THE MERLIN. (See page 26.) The expense of the hawking establishmeut -was sometimes enormous. Under Francis I. of France, the " flower of chivalry" — whose ambition it was to be the arbiter of elegance, the mirror of his age, first in every manly sport, courtly pastime, or gay adventure — incredible sums were devoted to this one amusement. His training establishments were in charge of a Grand Falconer, whose salary was four thousand livres, and who had subordinate to him fifteen noblemen and fifty falconers, with the care of three hundred falcons. The yearly cost of the whole was fifty thou- sand livres. Uawking was introduced into England as far back as the tenth century, and appears to have flourished from the time of the Heptarchy to that of Charles 11. Soon after the Norman con- quest it seems to have been at its height. At that time there was a nice adaptation of the dif- ferent kinds of falcons to the diff'erent ranks. Thus, one species of hawks was for kings, and could not be used by any person of inferior dignity; another was for princes of the blood, and others for the dukes and great lords, and so on down to the knave or servant. In all there were fifteen grades. The great conquerors of Asia were even more magnificent in the expenses of falconry. The Emperor of China is attended, in his sporting progresses into Tartary, by his Grand Falconer, with one thousand subordinates, and every bird has a silver plate fastened to its foot with the name of the falconer who has charge of it, so that if lost it may be returned to the proper person ; but if he cannot be found it must be handed to a special officer, called the Guardian of Lost Birds, who keeps it till it is demanded by the falconer to whom it belonged. The Grand Falconer, the more easily to be found among the army of hunters, erects a conspicuous standard. The American Peregrine Falcon, F. anatum, so closely resembles the European Peregrine Falcon that it was long considered to be identical with that species. It is generally known by the various names of Hen-Hawk, Chicken-Hawk, Big-footed Hawk, and Duck-Hawk, in this coun- try. It is brown above, with transverse bands of deeper tint ; the throat is white ; the breast white, tinged with rose-color, and marked with narrow black longitudinal lines ; the lower parts CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES, 23 THE KESTREL. (See page 26.) are banded across, on an ash-colored ground. The length is about twenty inches. It builds in remote forests or on rocky peats, and lays two to four eggs. It feeds on grouse, pheasants, partridges, pigeons, ducks, and geese. It is common in all the United States, especially along the sea-coast. Audubon speaks of it in Louisiana, and Richardson in the region of Melville Island. Wilson gives us a lively description of the manner in which this fine and powerful bird darts down upon the ducks along the shores of New Jersey and Pennsylvania, carrying terror and dismay among the myriad flocks that gather at particular seasons in that quarter. In the breeding time it retires to the gloomy cedar swamps, on the tall trees of which it constructs its nests and rears its young, secure from all molestation. In these wilds, which present obstacles almost insuperable to the foot of man, the screams of this bird, occasionally mingled with the hoarse tones of the heron and the hooting of the Great Horned Owl, echoing through the dreary soli- tude, arouse in the mind all the frightful imagery of desolation. The Western Peregrine Falcon, F. niffriceps, found in lower California and Chili, greatly resembles the preceding, but is smaller. The American Lanner Falcon, F. jyolyagrus, is brown above and white below ; the length is twenty inches ; found in California, on the Piatt River, and near Puget's Sound. The Hobby or Hobby-Falcon — the Hobereau of the French — F. subhuteo, formerly used in hawking at larks and quails, is eleven inches long, of a bluish ash-color above, white below, tinged with red. It builds in lofty trees, or in the orevices of high rocks, laying three or four reddish- white eggs. It is found in Southern Europe and Northern Africa, and feeds largely upon larks, which it captures by soaring above and then pouncing down upon them. It also devours other small birds, and fi-equently condescends to sup on frogs, beetles, and crickets. Swallows have such fear of this hawk that when pursued by it they sometimes fall insensible to the ground from mere frij^ht. 24 VERTEBRATA. 'riif KonKz, Inohian, or RED-LEOOEn Falcon, F. veHpertinus, is ten and a half inches long, of II Muish-LTrav aliovc ant! rt'd hciioath. Unlike otlu r falcons, all of which live solitary or in pairs, this .speciis often ront^rei^ates in lK)eks. It bulMs in tall trees, lays three or four eggs, and is found all over Europe, hut is most abundant at the north. The Hknoai, Falcon or Mahtin Falcon, F. coerulescens, is the smallest species of falcon that is known ; it is of a hluish-hlack above and red beneath. The tail is crossed by four white lines, it is found in hniia and Sumatra. The C'liicijiKKUA Falcon, /'. Chicqucrra, is ashy-gray above and white beneath, striped with light grav. It is found in Java, in India and South Africa. The Ki Kois-nACKED Kestrel or Mountain Falcon, F.rupicoius, resembles the kestrel, and is found at the Cape of Good Hope. The ( 'rested Falcon, F. frontalis, is of a steel-gray above; below it is of the same color, with cross-bands of a darker tint. It is remarkable for its crest, which rises and falls according to the passions which agitate it. It lives upon the borders of the sea, in which it fishes for crabs and sliell-tish. It builds its nest on the rocks, and lays four or five eggs of a reddish-white color. It is found in Southern Africa. The r>LACK-TiiKHiED Falcon, F. tibialis, is an African species of the size of a pigeon, of a gniyish-brown above and a light red below. The Red-thioiied Falcon, F. femoralis — the Lead-colored Merlin of Azara — is a South Amer- ican species, of a blackish lead-color above and lead-colored below. It builds on isolated trees, and lays four or five eggs. The Little Falcon or American Sparrow-Hawk — the *S7. Domingo Merlin of Buffon — F. sparverins, is spread over the greater part of both North and South America, and is familiarly known in the Uni- ted States, It is reddish-bay above, transversely streaked with black ; the lower parts yellowish-white, marked with longitudinal lines of brown. It flies rather irregularly, occasionally suspending itself in the air, hovering over a particular spot for a minute or two, and then shooting oflF in another direction. It perches on the top of a dead tree or pole in the middle of a field or meadow, and, as it alights, shuts its long wings so suddenly that they seem instantly to disappear ; it sits here in an al- most perpendicular position, sometimes for an hour at a time, frequently jerking its tail, and reconnoitering the ground below, in every direction, for mice, lizards, &c. It approaches the farm-house, particularly in the morn- ing, skulking about the barn-yard for mice or young chickens. It frequently plunges into a thicket after small birds, as if by random, but always with a par- ticular, and generally a fatal aim. It is particularly fond of watching along hedge-rows and in orchards, where various kinds of small birds usually resort. When grasshoppers are plenty they form a considerable part of its food. The male is ten inches long. This species lives on grasshoppers, snakes, mice, lizards, and small birds. The blue jays have a particular antipathy to this bird, and frequently insult it by following and im- itating its notes so exactly as to deceive even those well acquainted with both. In return for all this abuse, the hawk contents himself with now and then feasting on the plumpest of his persecutors, who are, therefore, in perpetual dread of him; and yet, through some strange infatuation, or from fear that, if they lose HEAD AND FOOT OP AMERICAN SPARROW-HAWK. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 25 ^^ SPARROW-HAWKS. sight of him, he may attack them unawares, the sparrow-hawk no sooner appears than the alarm is given, and the whole posse of jays follow. The American Pigeon-Hawk, F. columbarius, is migratory in its habits, returning to the Southern States about November, and in summer extending its excursions as far north as Hud- son's Bay. It is eleven inches long, the upper parts being of a dark brown ; the lower parts brownish-white, streaked with dark brown ; the legs are yellow ; the claws black. Small birds and mice are its principal food. When, toward autumn, the reed-birds, grackles, and red-winged blackbirds congregate in large flights, it is often observed hovering in their rear, or on their flanks, picking up the weak, the wounded, or stragglers, and frequently making a sudden and fatal sweep into the very midst of their multitudes. The flocks of robins and pigeons are honored Vol. II.— 4 o^; VEliTEBUATA. with tilt' samo nttrntions from this marauder, whose daily excursions are entirely regulated by the movi'iiuiit.s ot' the llocks on whose wnt'orf unatc meinl>ers it fattens. The bird which Audu- Inm oallfd the Little Corporal, in lioiior of Napoleon, was an old male of this species. The Mkklin — Emcrillon of the French — F. jEsalon, is a small species of liawk, nine or ten inches long, of an ashv-bhie above, below white striped with brown. It builds on lofty trees, and lays five or six eoUonotus, and B. busarellus. The American Buzzard, or Red-tailed Haw^k, B. borealis, is twentv-two inches long, makes its nest in high trees, lays four eggs of a dark white, blotched with brown ; upper parts dark umber brown ; lower parts fawn-color. It inhabits the whole United States, and remains through the winter in Pennsylvania. It feeds on birds and small quadrupeds, and frequently carries off hens and chickens from the poultry-yard. The Western Buzzard, B. Sivalnsoni, or B. monfanus, resembles the preceding, but is rather larger, and has wider wings; length twenty-three to twenty-six inches; found in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, Wisconsin, Missouri, &c. The Red-shouldered Hawk, or Winter Falcon, B. lineatus, is smaller than the preceding ; the upper parts are brown, under parts rufous ; tail brownish-black, with transverse bands of white ; length twenty-two to twenty-four inches ; found in California, Wisconsin, and South Carolina. Other American species are as follows: the B. Bairclii, found in Wisconsin; the Broad- winged Hawk, or Broad-winged Buzzard, B. Pennsylimnicus, Falco latissimus of Wilson — a handsome species, found sparsely in the Middle States, and more abundantly in Wisconsin ; Harlan's 32 VERTEBRATA. THE RED-SHOULDEHED HAWK. Buzzard, or Black Warrior, B. Harlani, found in Louisiana, ]\lexico, and Central America \ and the Caxad.v Buzzard, B. insignatus of Cassin, a small species recently brought to notice. Genus ARCIIIBUTEO : Archihuteo ; that is. Buzzard, par excellence. Of this there are sev- eral species, all similar to those of the preceding genus, but distinguished by a tarsus densely feathered to the base of the toes, yet more or less naked on the liind part. The RouGii-LEGGED Falcon, or Black IIawk, A. Sancti Johannis — Falco nir/er of Wilson, St. Johuh Ea(jle of the British Museum Catalogue — is an abundant species in the Atlantic States, and is found in all the northern parts of North America. Its length is about twenty-two inches ; its colors are very variable. The RouGii-LEGGED BuzzARD, A. lagopus, is similar to the preceding. Above it is light uraber-brown, beneath yellowish-white ; length twenty-one to twenty-three inches ; found in Europe, and probably in the United States, though the bird met with here and regarded of this species, may be the young of the A. Sancti Johannis. The Western Rough-legged Buzzard, or Cacique-Buzzard, A. ferrugineus, is twenty-three to twenty-five inches long, and is an extremely handsome species ; found in California. The White-breasted Buzzard, A. strophiatus, is a European species. Genus BERNIS : Pernis ; this includes the Honet-Buzzard — the Bondrec of the French, Wcspen-Buzard of the Germans — P. apivorus ; the length is two feet, the upper parts ashy-brown. beneath, white spotted. It feeds on mice, moles, hamsters, birds, reptiles, wasps, and other insects, also on the larvae of bees, whence it gets its popular name. This species is found sparsely in the central portions of Europe. The Crested IIoney-Buzzard, P. cristata, is found in the Indian Archipelago. Genus CIRCUS : Circus, includes at least a dozen species, mostly foreign, which bear the general name of Harriers. The Hen Harrier of Europe — the St. Martin's Bird of the French — C. cyaneus, is fourteen inches long; general color ashy-gray, but variable; builds its nests in forests in marshy regions ; lives on frogs, lizards, rats, partridges, and young aquatic CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 83 THE AMERICAN MARSH HAWK ATTACKING A FLOCK OF QDAILS. birds ; also on lioTise pigeons and ponltry. It lays six whitish eggs ; inhabits all Europe. The Marsh Harrier, C. riifus^ or C. ceruginosus^ inhabits Europe and the North of Africa. Mon- tagu's Buzzard, C. Montagui, is also a European species. The Ranivorous Falcon, C. raii- ivnrus, is found in North Africa. Other species are Quoi's Buzzard, C. cinercus ; the Black AND White Indian Falcon, C. melanoleucus ; the Long-legged Falcon, C. aculi ; the Black Hen Harrier, C. ater ; the Ash-colored Falcon, C. cineresccns ; the Pale-chested Harrier, C. Swainsonii ; Jardine's Hen Harrier, C. Jardinii ; the Salvador Falcon, C. macropterus ; and the Allied Moor Buzzard, C. assimilis. The American Harrier, or Marsh Hawk, C. Iludsonius, resembles the C. cyaneus of Europe? l)ut it is larger, and its colors are different. It is nineteen to twenty-one inches long ; is of a pale gray color, beneath white, with small reddish spots. It is found in all North America. Germs HERPETOTHERES : Herpetothcres. — This term signifies re/)<<7e-c/iaser, and describes the habits of the only species, in respect to food ; this is the Laughing Falcon of Guiana and the neighboring country, H. cachinnans — the Macagua of Azara. It is brown and white above, and ten inches in length. Its aspect is somewhat owlish. It lives in the borders of forests along rivers and marshes, where it builds its nest of enormous dimensions. When it sees a man ap- proaching its domains, it cries out ma-ca-gua, with a sort of laughing accent. Genus ASTUR : Astur. — This includes several species, distributed in various countries,, and generally called Goshawks. They are distinguished by a slender form, the bill short, curved, and festooned; wings moderate; tail long and broad. The Common Goshawk of Europe — Ati- tour of the French ; Sparviere Terziiolo of the Italians ; Grosser Gepfeilter-Falck of the Germans — yA. palurnbarius^ is twenty-three to twenty-four inches long, the males usually one-fourth less; Vol. II.— 5 a4 VEKTHi;UATA. ■^ >1-^ THE GOSHAWK. color above dark grayish-brown ; beneath ashy white. Its food consists of hares, rabbits, pigeons, pheasants, grouse, partridges, &c. It flies low, makes its nest in a high tree in the edges of forests, and lays three or fonr eggs in May. It was formerly trained to falconry. The Falcon (fentil of the writers on falconry, was probably the young of this species. It is common in all Northern Europe. Other foreign species are as follows: the Pied Goshawk, A. indanolcucus ; the Radiated Falcon, A. radiatus ; the One-banded Hawk, A. unicinctiis ; the New Holland White Eagle, A. JVovce Hollandicc ; the Three-streak Hawk, A. trivirgatus; the Plumbeous Falcon, A. niti- dus ; the Gray-bellied Falcon, A. poUogaster ; the Spotted Falcon, A. leucorrJious ; and the Great-billed Falcon, A. magnirostris. The American Goshawk — the Black-cap Hawk of Wilson — A. africapillus, which has been erroneously regarded as identical with the common goshawk of Europe, greatly resembles that bird, however, but it is of a lighter color, and the bands are narrower and more numerous. It is sparsely distributed in Northern and Eastern North America. Genus ACCIPITER : Accipiter. — This term, from the Latin, signifying Hawk, was used by Linnjpus as the title of the order which we call Raptorcs ; as the name of a genus, we here apply it to the species of small hawks of which the European Sparrow-IIawk — the Epervkr of the French — A. nisus, is the type. This bird, which is to be distinguished from the American Spar- roxo-IIaivk, noticed under the genus Falcon, resembles that bird, being about twelve inches in length ; ilark brown above, reddish below, with numerous cross-bands of dark brown. It haunts wooded districts, and devours large mnnbers of small birds and small quadrupeds ; it is also a great depredator among the chickens of the poultry-yard. It was formerly used in falconry, especially for the hunting of land-rails. It frequently makes use of old nests, especially those of the crow, where it lays four or five eggs of a pale bluish-white, blotched and spotted with dark brown. It is common in Europe and Asia. Other foreign species are the Dwarf Falcon, A. mimillus, ash-colored above, and wliite banded with brown below ; not larger than our robin, but exceedingly courageous, and contending suc- cessfully against crows and shrikes — found in Africa: the Tiny Falcon, A. tinus ; the Streaked Hawk, A. virgatus ; the Red-thighed Sparrow-Hawk, A. erythronemia ; the Speckled Spar- CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 35 \ THE EUROPEAN SPAHROW-nAWK. row-IIawk, ^4. tachiro ; the Red-bellied Hawk, A. ru/iventrifi; t\mlioor>ET> JIxwk, A. ^jHeatus ; the Madagascar Hawk, A. Madar/ascariensis ; the New Holland Sparrow-IIawk, yl. cirro- cephalus ; and the Australian Goshawk, A, approximanr . The American species are as follows : the American Brown Hawk, or Sharp-shinned Hawk, or Chicken-Hawk, A. fitscus, twelve to fourteen inches long; very common thronghont North America: Cooper's Hawk, ^d. Coo/)fi?-//, eighteen to twenty inches long; dark ashy-brown above, but subject to great varieties of color ; found all over the United States : and the Mexican Black- capped Hawk, A. Mexlcanus, fifteen to seventeen inches long ; dark brownish-black above, be- neath light rufous ; common in Mexico. Genus POLIORNIS : Foliornis. — Under this genus the British Museuni Catalogue presents the following species: the Teesa Hawk, P. Teesa ; the Pale Hawk, P. liventer ; the Gray- cheeked Hawk, P. Tndlcus ; and the Dark-cheeked Hawk, P. pyrrlwyenys. Gcmis GERANOSPIZA : Oeranospiza^ according to the same authority, includes the Slender Hawk, G. gracilis. Genus MICRASTUR : Micrastur, also, according to the preceding authority, includes the Pied Sparrow-Hawk, M. brachypterus ; the Yellow-necked Hawk, M. xanthothorax ; and the (JoNCENTRicAL Sparrow-Hawk, M. concentricus. Genus MICRONISUS : Micronisus, according to the same authority, includes the Soolo Falcon, M. Soloensis ; France's Sparrow-Hawk, M. Francesii ; Brown's Hawk, M. hadius; the Short-toed Sparrow-Hawk, jIT. sphenurus ; the Red-legged Falcon, M. Gahar ; the Sin- c.LE-STREAKED Hawk, M. monogrammicus. Genus MELIERAX : Mclierax. — This includes the Chanting Hawk, M. musicus, found in Africa; it, is ash-colored above and white, rayed with brown, beneath; lives on rabbits, rats, inoles, mice, quails, and partridges, and makes its nests on trees. The sexes pair for life ; during incubation the male turns musician, and sings by day and night. Each strain occupies about a minute, when he pauses for a time and then begins again. He is so absorbed while singing that he may be approached, though at other times exceedingly shy. Levaillant having killed a male bird, the female searched for him on all sides, uttering piteous cries ; in another case, having killed a female, the husband mounted to the tops of the trees and poured out a mingled strain of lamen- tation and defiance. Genus CYMINDIS : Cymindis. — This includes two species, the Cayenne Falcon, C. Cayen- nensis, and the Crook-billed Falcon, C. uncinatus, both of South America, and both resem- bling the buzzards. Genus CIRCAETUS : Circaetus. — This includes several species intermediate between the buz- zards and eagles. The Jean-le-Blanc Eagle, C. Gallicus, is common over all Europe ; its wings 'M\ VERTEBKATA. I THE UAUPy EAGLE. resemble those of the eagle ; the bill, however, is more sharply Iiooked, and the talons are shorter. It is brown above and white beneath, spotted with pale brown. It feeds on lizards, frogs, and serpents, but also carries off hens, ducks, and young turkeys. Buffon raised one of this species, which was rather amiable in its manners, but would never drink when under observation, though it drank freely when it had cautiously looked about, and became satisfied that it was alone. The reason of this seemed to be that in drinking it plunged its head entirely in the water, and there- fore took care not to be surprised, by first assuring itself that no enemy was near. The Crowned Eagle, C. coronatus, is of Brazil, and is said to be the only bird that ventures to feed on skunks. It devours the armadillos, breaking their shells by carrying them high in air and letting them fall upon the earth. In default of fresh meat — flesh or fowl — it dines heartily on carrion. Other species are the Black-breasted Eagle, C. thoracicus ; the Banded Falcon, C.fasciola- lus; the Bacha Eagle, C. Bacha; the Spotted Bacha, C. holospilus ; and the Cheela Eagle, ('. Cheela. Genus MORPHNUS : Morphmis, includes several species, called Eaole-IIawks, mostly Amer- ican. Harris's Buzzard, M. unicinctus, is twenty-two to twenty-four inches long ; the legs are long, the wings short, the tail long, the feet robust ; the shoulders and thighs are red ; the tail white at its base and tipped with white ; the other upper parts deep umber brown ; beneath, light brown. It is slow and heavy in its flight, and sluggish in its habits. It is rare in the Mid- (l!it(>rv attacks ami defonsive niaiicuvors of tlic eagle and the fish-hawk, are matters of daily observation aloni; the wlujle of our sea-hoanl, from Georgia to New England, and fre- quently excite great interest in the spectators. Sympathy, however, on this, as on most other occjisions , are certainly detestable. As for the feelings of the poor fish, they seem alto- gether out of the question. " When driven, as he sometimes is, by the combined courage and perseverance of the fish-hawks, fn>Mi th< ir neighborhood, and forced to hunt for liimself, he retires more inland, in search of young pigs, of which he destroys great numbers. In the lower parts of Virginia and Nortli Caro- lina, where the inhalutants raise vast herds of these animals, complaints of this kind are very general against him. He also de troys young lambs in the early part of spring; and will some- times attack old sickly sheep, aiming furiously at their eyes." Mr. J. L. Gardiner, addressing Wilson, writes thus : — "The bald eagles remain on Long Island during the whole winter. They can be most easily discovered on evenings, by their loud snoring while asleep on high oak-trees ; and, when awake, their hearing seems to be nearly as good as their sitjht. I think I mentioned to you, that I had myself seen one flying with a lamb ten days old, and which it dropped on the ground from about ten or twelve feet high. The struggling of the lamb, more than its weight, prevented its carrying it away. My running, hallooing, and being very nigh, might prevent its completing its design. It had broken the back in the act of seizing it ; and I was under the necessity of killing it outright to prevent its misery. The lamb's dam seemed astonished to see its innocent offspring borne off into the air by a bird. " I was lately told by a man of truth, that he saw an eagle rob a hawk of its fish, and the hawk seemed so enraged as to fly down at the eagle, while the eagle very dehberately, in the air, threw himself partly over on his back, and, while he grasped with one foot the fish, extended the other to threaten or seize the hawk. I have known several hawks unite to attack the eagle; but never knew a sinsfle one to do it. The eao-le seems to regard the hawks as the hawks do the O O CI' kingbirds — only as teasing, troublesome fellows." "The intrepidity of character, mentioned above," continues Wilson, "may be further ilhistrated by the following fact, which occurred a few years ago, near Great Egg Harbor, New Jersey : — A woman, who happened to be weeding in the garden, had set her child down near, to amuse itself while she was at work : when a sudden and extraordinary rushing sound, and a scream from her child, alarmed her, and, starting \ip, she beheld the infant thrown down, and dragged some few feet, and a large bald eagle bearing ofl" a fragment of its frock, which being the only part seized, and giving way, pro^^dentially saved the life of the infant. " The appetite of the bald eagle, though habituated to long fasting, is of the most voracious, and often the most indelicate kind. Fish, when he can obtain them, are preferred to all other fare. Young lambs and pigs are dainty morsels, and made free with on all favorable occasions. Ducks, geese, gulls, and other sea-fowl, are also seized with avidity. The most putrid carrion, when nothing better can be had, is acceptable ; and the collected groups of gormandizing vultures, on the approach of this dignified personage, instantly disj^erse, and make way for their master, waiting his departure in sullen silence, and at a respectful distance, on the adja- cent trees. "In one of those partial migrations of tree-squirrels that sometimes take place in our western forests, many thousands of them were drowned in attempting to cross the Ohio ; and at a certain place, not far from ^Yheeling, a prodigious number of their dead bodies were floated to the shore by an eddy. Here the vultures assembled in great force, and had regaled themselves for some time, when a bald eagle made his appearance, and took sole possession of the premises, keeping the whole vultures at their proper distance for several days. He has also been seen navigating the same river on a floating carrion, though scarcely raised above the surface of the water, and tugging at the carcass, regardless of snags, sawyers, planters, or shallows. He sometimes carries his tyranny to great extremes against the vultures. In hard times, when feed happens to be scarce, should he accidentally meet with one of these which has its craw crammed with carrion, he CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 45 attacks it fiercely in the air; the cowardly vulture instantly disgorges, and the delicious contents are snatched up by the eagle before they reach the ground. " The flight of the bald eagle, ■when taken into consideration with the ardor and energy of his character, is noble and interesting. Sometimes the human eye can just discern him, like a minute speck, moving in slow curvatures along the face of the heavens, as if reconnoitering the earth at that immense distance. Sometimes he glides along in a direct horizontal line, at a vast height, with expanded and unmoving wings, till he gradually disappears in the distant blue ether. Seen gliding in easy circles over the high shores and mountainous clitFs that tower above the Hudson and Susquehanna, he attracts the eye of the intelligent voyager, and adds great interest to the scenery. At the great Cataract of Niagara, already mentioned, there rises from the gulf into wliich the Fall of the Horse-Shoe descends, a stupendous column of smoke, or spray, reaching to the heavens, and moving off in large black clouds, according to the direction of the Avind, form- ing a very striking and majestic appearance. The eagles are here seen sailing about, sometimes losing themselves in this thick column, and again reappearing in another place, with such ease and elegance of motion, as renders the whole trub^ sublime. " High o'er the watery nproar, silent seen, Sailing sedate in majesty serene, Now midst the pillared spray sublimely lost, And now, emerging, down the rapids tossed, Glides the Bald Eagle, gazing, calm and slow, O'er all the horrors of the scene below ; Intent alone to sate himself with blood. From the torn victims of the raging flood." Audubon describes a bald eagle pursuing a swan, as follows : — " The next moment, however, the wild trumpet-like sound of a yet distant but approaching swan is heard : a shriek from the female eagle comes across the stream ; for she is fully as alert as her mate. The snow-white bird is now in sight : her long neck is stretched forward ; her eye is on the watch, vigilant as that of her enemy; her large wings seem with difficulty to support the weight of her body, although they flap incessantly. So irksome do her exertions seem, that her very legs are spread beneath her tail, to aid her in her flight. She approaches; the eagle has marked her for his prey. As the swan is passing the dreaded pair, the male bird starts from his perch, in full pre- paration for the chase, with an awful scream. " Now is the time to witness a display of the eagle's powers. He glides through the air like a falling star, and, like a flash of lightning, comes upon the timorous quarry, which now, in agony and despair, seeks, by various maneuvers, to elude the grasp of his cruel talons. It mounts, doubles, and willingly would plunge into the stream, were it not prevented by the eagle, wliich, long possessed of the knowledge that, by such a stratagem, the swan might escape him, forces it to remain in the air, by attempting to strike it with his talons from beneath. The hope of escape is soon given up by the swan. It has already become much weakened, and its strength fails at the sight of the courage and swiftness o'." its antagonist. Its last gasp is about to escape, when the ferocious eagle strikes with his talcns the under side of its wing, and, with unresisted power? forces the bird to fall in a slanting direction upon the nearest shore." And, again, when two of these eaglco are hunting, in concert, some bird which has alighted on the water, this writer says : "At other times, when these eagles, sailing in search of prey, discover a goose, a duck, or a swan, that has alighted on the water, they accomplish its destruction in a manner that is worthy of our attention. Well aware that the water-fowl have it in their power to dive at their approach, and thereby elude their attempts upon them, they ascend in the air, in opposite directions, over the lake or river on wliich the object which they are desirous of possessing has been observed. Both reach a certain height, immediately after which, one of them glides with great swiftness toward the prey ; the latter, meantime, aware of the eagle's intention, dives the moment before he reaches the spot. The pursuer then rises in the air, and is met by its mate, which glides toward the water bird, that has just emerged to breathe, and forces it to plunge again beneath 4G VERTEBUATA. THE YOUNG BALD EAOLE. the surface, to escape the talons of this second assailant. The first eagle is now poising itself in. the place wliere its mate formerly was, and rushes anew, to force the quarry to make another plunge. By thus alternately gliding, in rapid and often-repeated rushes, over the ill-fated bird, they soon fatigue it, when it stretches out its neck, swims deeply, and makes for the shore in the hope of concealing itself among the rank weeds. But this is of no avail ; for the eagles follow it in all its motions; and the moment it approaches the margin, one of them darts upon it." It cannot be very gratifying to us Americans, after reading these pages, to reflect that this bird is inscribed on our national banner : we have only the poor satisfaction to know that Franklin early uttered his protest against it. His w-ords were as follows : — " For my part, I wish the bald eagle had not been chosen as the representative of our country. lie is a bird of bad moral character ; he does not get his living honestly. You may have seen him perched on some dead tree, where, too lazy to fish for himself, he watches the labors of the fishing-hawk ; and when that diligent bird has at length taken a fish, and is bearing it to his nest for the support of his mate and young ones, the bald eagle pursues him and takes it from him. With all this injustice, he is never in GLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 47 good case, but, like those among men wlio live by sharping and robbing, he is generally poor, and often very lousy. Besides, he is a i-ank coward : the little kingbird, not bigger than a spar- row, attacks him boldly, and drives him out of the district. He is therefore by no means a proper emblem for the brave and honest Cincinnati of America, who have driven all the King- birds from our countiy ; though exactly fit for that order of knights which the French call Chev- aliers (T Industrie r We can, indeed, account for the taste which led to this choice, for the de- scendants of those who cherish the lion as their emblem, might naturally select the eagle as theirs. This, however, is only an explanation, not an excuse. Perhaps our legislators who chose the eagle were rather puzzled, for we are told that among the various devices suggested at the time of the discussion upon the subject in Congress, were the shad, the hog, and the turkey. It ap- pears, therefore, that all things considered, in taking the eagle, which is only detestable, we escaped something ridiculous, and therefore, as the world goes, may thank heaven that it is no worse. The Washington Sea Eagle ; Falco Washingtonii. — This bird is about forty inches in length, and was discovered by Audubon in Kentucky, in 1814, and is described by him as disdaining the piratical habits of the bald eagle, and as flying closer to the earth, and in wider circles. Cassin says, on this subject, that he considers Audubon's description as referring to the young bird, and the adult as yet unknown. He adds, " No specimen precisely corresponding with Mr. Audubon's bird, has been obtained since its discovery, and it has latterly been looked upon by naturalists, especially in Europe, as an unusually large specimen of the young wliite-headed eagle." The engraving of a bird of this kind, on the preceding page, suggests the probable accuracy of this opinion. The Great Sea-Eagle, or Gray Eagle, or Cinereous Eagle, H. alhir.illa — the Orfraie of Buffon ; the Falco ossifrar/us of Gmelin — is common in Europe and the high northern parts of North America. Its color is an ashy-gray, lighter on the head and neck; the tail a pure white ; the bill a pale yellow ; the iris a brilliant yellow. Its flight is less elevated than most other eagles ; it feeds on fish, sea-birds, seals, and also on quadrupeds, and hunts by night as well as by day, both on sea and land. It robs other fishing-birds inferior to itself of their prey. Such is its voracity that it sometimes buries its talons in a seal bigger than itself, and, unable to withdraw them, is plunged in the sea and drowned. The Greenlanders eat its flesh, and make amulets of its bills and claws. This species is not found in the United States, and appears only to exist on this continent very sparsely in the arctic regions. The Black and White Eagle, U. ar/uia, is a South American species, thought by the inhabit- ants to be a hygrometer ; Avhen it is seen to circle high in the air, and heard to utter a scream, it "is regarded as monitory and a sure presage of a storm. The PiscivoRors Eagle, IT. vocifer, and Blagrus Eagle, JI. hlar/riis, are African species, liv- ing along the borders of the sea, and feeding chiefly on fish ; the Garuda Eagle or Pondicherry Eagle, II. Garuda, or JI. Ponticerianus, or If. Indus, is found in India. The latter, called Little Fast India Fagle by Bufton, is consecrated to Vishnu by the Brahmins. Genus CUNCUMA : Cuncuma .—'Y\\\%, according to the Catalogue of the British Museum, em- braces Mace's Eagle, C. Macci ; the White-bellied Eagle, C. leucogastcr ; the Black and White Eagle, C. melanoleucus. These species resemble those of the preceding genus. Genus HALIASTUR : Haliastur. — According to the British Museum Catalogue, the following belong to this genus : the White-headed Rufous Eagle, H. leucosternus, and the Whistling Hawk, II. sphcma-us. Genus HELOTARSXJS : Hclotarsus, includes the Buffoon Eagle or Short-tailed Eagle, H. ecaudatus, a small species of South Africa; the plumage is black tinged with red; the tail is of a bright red; the bill black; in flying it has the appearance of a bird with the tail cut off". Lcvaillant gave it its name from its habit of tumbling like a buffoon in the air. Genus GAMPSONYX : Gampsonyx. — Under this the British Museum Catalogue arranges the Falcon-like Hav^k, G. Swainsoni. Genus ROSTRUAIMUS : Iiosfrha7mis.—Th\s includes a single species, the Fish-hook Eagle, R. hamafus, so named from the shape of the upper mandible, which bends down in the form of a fish-hook. Its plumage is black, and its length seventeen inches. It is found in South America. Genus GYPOHIERAX : Gypohierox. — This term, signifying Vulture-Hawk, is descriptive 48 VEUTEBliATA. THE VLLTURE HAWK. of the only species belonging to tlic genus — G. angolensis of Gray ; the Vultur angolensis of La- tham. It is of the size of the goose, the general plumage being white ; the middle part of the wings and back black ; the bill and tarsi white ; the lower part of the neck enlarged into a sack. It is found in Western Africa, and especially at Angola, and may be properly designated the An- gola Vulture- Hawk. Genus CARACARA : Caracara. — Under this title we shall include several species, arranged by some naturalists in several different genera, and all partaking somewhat of the vulturine char- acter. They have the general aspect of the hawks or eagles, and carry otf their prey in their talons in the manner of those birds, but their habits resemble those of the vultures. Hence they are regarded as a distinct tribe by Le Maout and some others. The prominent species is the Cara- cara Eagle — the Pohjborus Braziliensis of Vieillot; the Falco Braziliensis of Latham ; Poh/bo- I'us vulgaris of Audubon ; P. tharus of Molina. The length of this bird is twenty-four to twenty- six inches ; the wings and tail are long ; there is a bare place on the breast as in the turkey- buzzard ; the back and wings are brown, edged with umber-color ; tail grayish-white, banded with brown ; neck light brownish-yellow ; the fore parts of the body, above and below, banded with brown and white ; the hind part, abdomen, and sides, dark brown. This is the most com- mon of the Falconida3 found in Brazil and the vicinity ; it extends northward to Mexico, and is sometimes met with in the Southern and Southwestern States. Its name of Caracara is derived from its love-cry, which it utters while turning its head upon its back; it is omnivorous, though it prefers small reptiles, and often walks in the water, seizing upon frogs, young alligators, and the like; it then drags them to the shore and devours them. It is a lazy bird, and therefore, in the vicinity of human settlements, feeds upon the oftal it can pick up ; it often follows travelers, and though carefully keeping itself concealed in the forests, still waits and watches over their encamp- ments at night, and upon their departure, descends and feasts on the relics of food they may have left. It is usually seen in flocks during the day, but at night they divide in pairs and resume their conjugal avocations. It is very quarrelsome with its kindred, two of them often fighting furiously for the same piece of food; they also rob other birds, and especially gulls, of their prey; but they are still cowardly, and submit to be sadly harassed by birds so insignificant as fly-catchers. CLASS TI. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES, 49 THE CARACARA EAGLE. The Chimango Caracara, Poliborus Chimango^ inhabits the same country as the preceding, but is much more rare ; it is also smaller, being thirteen to fifteen inches long. The Chimachima Caracara, P. Chimachima, is fifteen inches long, and is of a dirty yellow above ; lives wholly on dead animal matter, and is found only in tropical America. Other species are the Long-winged Caracara, C megalopterus, and the Southern Caracara, C, australis. Genus IBYCTER : Ihycter. — This term signifies trumpeter, in allusion to the deafening cry of the only species, the Red-throated Falcon or White-bellied Ibycter, /. Icucogaster ; the Falco aquilinus of Gmelin : it is sixteen inches long, and is called Captain of the Big-bills by the na- tives, because some of its habits resemble tiiose of the toucans. It is of a blue-black above, the belly and rump of a pure white. It is found in flocks in the forests of Guiana and Brazil. Genus DAPTRIUS : Daptritis, includes a single species, the Black Caracara, D. ater, or Falco aterinus of Temminck. Its length is fourteen or fifteen inches, and it is a native of Guiana and Brazil. This species is included in the genus Ibycter in the Catalogue of the British Museum, under the name of /. ater. Vol. II.— 7 50 VEUTEBRATA, THK LAMMEKGEYBK. THE VULTUPJD^. In noticing the numerous family of FalconidiE, we began with the True Falcons, and thence pro- ceeded through the various species of Hawks, Goshawks, Kites, Buzzards, Harriers, and Eagles, until we met with several genera, which, alike by their conformation and habits, combined some- thing of the vigor and daring of the Falcons with the more cowardly and gluttonous qualities of the Vultures. These latter were a natural introduction to the study of the true Vultures ; here, however, at the threshold, we are met with one conspicuous instance in which the prominent CLASS 11. AVE S: O RDER 1 . RAPTOR ES. 51 characteristics of the Eagles and Vultures are combined in an intense degree, so that the species referred to has been bandied by naturalists back and forth between the Eagles and Vultures till its true position became a matter of general doubt. At last it has been established among the Vultures, under the generic title of GYPAETOS : GyjKietos, signifying Vulttire-Eayle ; its specific name is Lammerrieycr or Lamb-killer among the Swiss ; the Bearded- Vulture of Eng- lish authors; the Weissk'dpfige Oeier Adler of the Germans — O. harbatus. This is the largest of European birds, being four to four and a half feet long; the spread of its wings about nine feet, sometimes much more. The French expedition to Egypt killed one which measured fourteen feet. It is in fact but little smaller than the condor, and is regarded as having given rise to the fabulous Roc of the Arabian tales. The head and upper part of the neck are a dirty white ; back and wing-coverts deep gray-brown ; lower parts orange-red. The plumage varies greatly with the age. It builds its nest on inaccessible rocks, and lays two whitish eggs, spotted with brown. Unlike the typical vultures, which are distinguished by their bare necks, indicative of their propensity for feeding on carrion, the lammergeyer has the neck thickly covered with feathers, resembling those of the true eagles, with which it also accords in its bold and predatory habits, pouncing with impetuosity on animals exceeding itself in size; hence the young chamois, the wild goat, the mountain hare, and various species of birds, find in it a formidable and ferocious enemy. Having seized its prey, the lammergeyer devours it upon the spot, the straight form of its talons disabling it from carrying it to a distance. It refuses flesh in a state of putrefac- tion, unless sharply pressed by hunger. It inhabits the highest mountains of Europe, Asia, and Africa, the chain of the Pyrenees, and the Swiss Alps, Sardinia, Greece, and the Tyrol, the chain of the Caucasus, the Himalaya Mountains, the Siberian and Persian Mountains. It is also found in the lofty mountains of Central Africa, and toward the borders of the Red Sea, princi- pally in the most inaccessible parts of those mountains, and where there is plenty of the larger sort of game. It is especially dreaded in Switzerland, where it is said sometimes to carry off chil- dren ; but this is not proved. It is asserted with more probability that it sometimes descends upon lambs, calves, goats, and chamois, which it finds on the precipices, and striking them with its breast, dashes them down the rocks, where it afterward devours them. Genus VULTURE : Valtur. — Of these disgusting but useful and necessary birds, there are several genera and many species. The general characteristics are — eyes flush with the head, and not buried under the brow as in the eagles; the tarsi are not covered by protecting plates, but reticulated, covered with small scales let into a sort of network, as they generally are in the wad- ing birds; the beak is long, nearly straight in the greater part of the length of its cutting edges, and hooked only in a portion toward the tip ; a greater or smaller portion of the head, and even of the neck, is bare of feathers, and if not absolutely naked skin, covered only with thin, short, and soft down. The power of their talons is by no means in proportion to the size of the birds, and they are not much used as weapons ; the bill is the member upon which they chiefly depend, and it has more the character of a cutting than of a killing instrument ; their wings are so very long that they are obliged to carry them partially expanded when they walk; they are cowardly birds, and feed chiefly upon carrion, and rarely upon living prey ; they often, however, have ter- rific battles with each other over the carcasses on which they feed, two of them struggling, scream- ing, and fighting for the same mass of putrid flesh. After they have gorged themselves with food, their craw forms a large protuberance beneath the furcal bone, a flow of fetid humor distils from the nostrils, and they are often in such a state of stupidity and inaction that they are incap- able of escape or defense, and one may catch them or knock them down with a stick. Their ofllice in nature is a foul one, and when they have performed it they are foul and offensive birds, but not upon that account the less in character. They are the scavengers of hot climates, and are designed to remove the dead animal matter, wdiich would otherwise breed infection and scat- ter pestilence over the land. Hence these birds are protected in many of the cities of tropical countries. They have amazing keenness of sight, by which they are able to discern a dead ani- mal while flying over it a thousand or two thousand feet in the air. It is probable that they are a.ssisted by their sense of smell in finding their food, but the sight is their chief dependence. 52 VERTEBRATA. GROOP OP VULTURES. The Griffon Vulture, or Tawny Vulture, is the Common Vulture of Europe, V. fuivus : tlie head and neck are covered with close-set, short, white, downy feathers ; the h^wer part of the neck is surrounded with a ruft" of long, slender, white feathers, sometimes with a slight yellow tinge ; on the middle of the breast is a space furnished with white down. The whole of the body, the wings, and the origin of the tail, yellow-brown or Isabella color ; quills and tail-feathers hlaidcisli-brown ; total length exceeding four feet. The female is larger than the male. The nest of this species is generally formed upon the most elevated rocks, but it often builds on the highest forest trees, and in Sardinia on the loftiest oaks, where the nest of brushwood and roots is more than three feet in diameter. The eggs, which are generally two in number, are of a dull greenish or grayish-white, slightly marked witb pale reddish spots, and with a rough sur- face. Like all the other true vultures, it feeds principally npon dead carcasses, to which it is fre- quently attracted in very considerable numbers. AYhen it has once made a lodgment upon its prey, it rarely quits the banquet while a morsel of flesh remains, so that it is not nncommon to see it perched upon a putrefying corpse for several successive days. It never attempts to carry off a portion even to satisfy its young, but feeds them by disgorging the half-digested morsel from its maw. Sometimes, but very rarely, it makes its prey of living victims, and even then of such only as are incapable of offering the smallest resistance ; for in a contest for superiority it has not that advantage which is possessed by the falcon tribes, of lacerating its enemy wntli its talons, and must therefore rely upon its beak alone. It is only, howev^er, when no other mode of satiating its appetite presents itself, that it has recourse to the destruction of other animals for its subsist- ence. After feeding, it is seen fixed for hours in one unvaried posture, patiently waiting until the work of digestion is completed and the stimulus of hunger is renewed, to enable and to urge it to mount again into the upper regions of the air, and fly about in quest of its necessary food. If violently disturbed after a full meal, it is incapable of flight until it has disgorged the contents of its stomach ; lightened of which, and freed from their debilitating effects, it is immediately in a condition to soar to such a pitch as, in spite of its magnitude, to become invisible to human sight. In captivity it seems to have no other desire than that of obtaining its regular supply of food. So long as that is afforded, it manifests a perfect indifference to the circumstances in which it is placed. The Brown Vulture, F. cinereus, the Vautour Arrian and Vautour JVoir of the French ; Cin- ereous or Ash Vulture, and Bengal Vulture of Latham ; the Graucr Geier of the Germans, is a CLASS II. AV£S: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 53 r--- — / ^^'' ' " — ' / |.r-''"'"l.\l '' • r^i;#- THE BROWN VULTURE. native of Europe, and is found in lofty mountains, especially in the vast forests of Hungary, the Tyrol, and the Pyrenees ; the south of Spain and Italy ; accidentally in Dalmatia ; more fre- quently in Sardinia ; in Sicily ; rarely in Italy and in Germany. Its food consists of dead ani- mals and carrion, but never of living animals, of which it shows fear. It forms the genus Gyps of Savigny. Mr. Gould notices a deviation in this species from the true or more typical vultures, manifested in the partially bare neck, open ears, curved claws, and powerful beak. The Sociable Vulture, or Eared Vulture, V. auricularis, the Oricou of Levaillant and the French ; the Ghaip of the Namaqua Hottentots, has the head and greater portion of the neck red and naked, with the exception of a few hardly discernible hairs ; beak horn-colored, tinged with yellow at its base ; iris chestnut. The folds of red naked skin originate behind the ears, surround the upper part of them, and then descend several inches, being irregular in their outline and nearly an inch broad at their widest part. The throat is covered with hairs inclining to black. This gigantic species, a fit machine for assisting in the clearing of the soil of Africa from the putrid bodies of elephants, hippopotami, rhinoceroses and giraffes, haunts the caverns of rocks, and is altogether a mountain bird. There its night is passed, and there among the lofty crags it retires to repose when it has sated its appetite. Levaillant saw large flocks of them perched at sunrise on the precipitous entrances to their abodes, and sometimes the extent of the rocky region was marked by a continued chain of these birds. Their tails are worn down by friction against their craggy haunts and by the soil of the plains, in consequence of the labo- rious efforts which they make to raise themselves into the air ; when once on the wing, however. r>i VERTEBIIATA, I THE SOCIABLE VULTUKE. their flight is grand and powerful. They rise liigher and higher, till their enormous bulk is lost to human ken ; but though beyond the sphere of man's vision, the telescopic eye of the bird is at work. The moment any animal sinks to the earth in death, the imperceptible vulture detects it. Docs the hunter bring down some large quadruped bcj'ond his powers to remove, and leave it to obtain assistance — on his return, however speedy, he finds it surrounded by a band of the vul- tures, wliere not one was to be seen a quarter of an hour before. This species is a native of South Africa, and has been taken in the neighborhood of Athens. THF EGYPTIAN VULTURE. Other species of this genus are the Pondicherry Vulture, V. Ponticerianus ; the Indian Vulture, V. Indicus ; Kolbe's Vulture, V. Kolbii, found in Africa ; the Calotte Vulture, CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RATTORES. 65 THE KING VULTURE. V. occipitalis, found in Africa ; the Monk Vulture, V. monachus, the V. chincou of Temminck, found in Africa and Asia; the Chaugoun Vulture, V. Indicus of Latham, found in the environs of Calcutta and Pondicherry. Genus NEOPHRON : Neophron. — This includes the Egyptian Vulture, N. percnopterus — the Vautour Ourigourap of Levaillant; the Rhachamah, or Pharaoh's Hen, of Bruce and others; the Maltese Vulture of Latham. The head and only the front of the neck are covered with a 56 VERT Eli RATA. iiaki'tl skill of a livui yi-Uowish (•()l()r; the whole jihmiairo is pure white, except the great quill- feathers, which are lijack; feathers of the oe(;ij)ut long and loose; cere orange, iris yellow, iiiau- iliMes l.laekish; feet livid yellow, claws black, tail very iiuich graduated; length two feet and a few inches. It.s plumage varies nnich, according to age. It does not congregate, except when an all-attractive carcass calls them together, hut goes in pairs, the male and female seldom parting et»mpany In the tlistricts whicli the species iidiahits, every group of the natives has a pair of these vultures attached to it. The birds roost on the trees in the vicinity, or on the fences wdiich bound the inclosures formed for the cattle. They are to a certain degree domiciled and are harm- less The people do them n» injury ; on the contrary, tiny are glad to see and encourage them, because they clean the i>remises of all the offal and tilth they can find. In default of other food thev eat frogs, lizards, and snakes. They are most common in Africa, but are also often seen in Southern Europe and in Asia. The Monk Nkophkox, 3". monachus, is a species of Western Africa. Genus SARC0R.\MPI1US : sarcommphus. — Of this there is a single species, the King Vul- ture, or King of the Vultures — the iribubicha of Azara, and the Cozcaquauhtli or Queen of the VulfiireSy of the Mexicans — S. papa. The naked skin of the head and neck is brilliantly colored ; beak reddish, with a shade of black ; cere bright orange — prolonged between the nos- trils into a comb about an inch and a half long — loose in texture, and falling on either side of the bill when the head is erect ; back of the head covered with short down inclining to black. On each side beliind the eye several broad and deep wrinkles of the skin, whence rises a thick and prominent fold extending obliquely downward along the neck, reddish-brown mixed with blue, and marked with many lines of small black hairs. From the bright-red upper part of the neck the color gradually lessens in intensity, fading into orange and yellow toward the lower part. Round the bottom of the neck is a broad ruff of soft, downy, deep ashy-gray feathers. It is found in all the tropical parts of America, and is fi-equently met with as far north as Florida. It frequents the plains and wooded hills, feeding on dead carcasses, sometimes making a meal of what the jaguar has left. It often sits aloft on the branch of a dead tree, watching for hours the herds of cattle, and, when opportunity offers, pouncing down on a new-born calf, ere yet it is able to stand M. D'Orbigny saw a poor cow standing with her calf between her legs, and by her horns and her bellowings keeping off a flock of vultures that sought to devour the helpless young animal. The name of King of the Vultures is bestowed partly on account of the red fleshy wattle, which appears like a diadem on his head, and partly also on account of the tyranny which he exercises over the smaller kinds of vultures, which stand aloof, not daring to approach, while he is making his gluttonous repast. The Sacred Vulture, S. sacer ; described as found in Florida by Bartram many years ago, has not since been identified. The crown of the head is red ; the skin of the neck is bar- and annulated nearly to the breast. The plumage is white or cream-colored, except the quill-feathers of the wings, which are dark brown ; the tail is white, tipped with brown. It has been con- jectured that this bird may have belonged to some one of the species we have described. Genus CONDOR : Gryphus. — This includes a single species, the Condor — the Great Vulture of the Andes ; G. typus of Isidore Geoftroy. It is the largest known bird of prey, being about four feet long, with nine feet average expanse of wing, sometimes, however, extending to fourteen; still it is but little larger than the lammergeyer, but there is something in its majestic flight, its ponderous aspect, and the sublime scenery among which it is observed, that makes it appear alto- gether more gigantic than any other bird. Even to Humboldt, when traveling among the tower- ing Andes — seeing it perched on the steepling cliffs, or nestling upon the mountain heights at the verge of perpetual snow — it had the appearance of a winged giant, and it was not until he had made repeated measurements that the illusion vanished. The real facts in the case are, however, sufficiently startling. "These birds," says Nuttall, "are known to soar to an elevation almost six times greater than that at which the clouds are ordina- rily suspended over our heads. At the immense height of nearly six perpendicular miles, the condor is seen majestically sailing in the ethereal space, watchfully surveying the vast expanse in quest of his accustomed prey. Elevated farther above our planet than any other animal, impelled CLASS II. AVES: OliDEli 1. RAPTORES. 57 THE CUNDOR. by hunger alone, he descends into the nearest plains which border the Andes; but his stay in this region is only for a few hours, as he prefers the desolate and lofty mountains and this rarefied aerial space, in which human life would soon become extinct. The rocky eyries of the Peruvian Andes, whose plain is elevated about fifteen thousand feet above the level of the sea, have hence obtained the vernacular name of Condor JVesfs. Here, perched in dreary solitude on the crests of scattered rocks, these dark, gigantic birds are seen silently reposing like melancholy specters, rousing only from their slumbers at the calls of hunger. Their peculiar residence is the great chain of the high Andes, where they associate, three or four together, upon the points of cliff's, without either fearing or injuring man, so that they may be approached within four yards with- out showing alarm, or making on their part any attempt at attack or defense. Hardly an instance is really known of their even assaulting an infant, though some credulous naturalists, with the exaggerating privilege of travelers, have given accounts of their killing young persons of even ten or twelve years of age. Their ability for such rapine is not to be doubted, but their natural cow- ardice forbids the attempt. A pair of condors will sometimes unite and attack the deer, the puma, the vicuna, and the lama, and bring them down by a long and harassing pursuit. They will also sometimes chase the wild heifer, occasionally wounding it with their bill and claws, until the unfortunate animal, stifled and overcome with fatigue, extends its tongue, which these mon- sters instantly seize and devour as a precious morsel. They also tear out the eyes of their vic- tim, which soon falls prostrate to the earth and expires. The condors then gorge themselves, and afterward rest in stupidity and almost gluttonous inebriation, perched upon the highest neighboring rocks. The formidable hunter, now loaded with his meal, may be driven about without his at- tempting to fly, and in this state the Indians sometimes pursue them with the lasso and easily take them captive. Thus restrained, the condor makes extraordinary efforts to rise in the air, but fatigued by the attempt, he begins to disgorge himself freely, an eff'ort he appears to assist by lengthening and shortening his neck, and by bringing forward the sheath of his back." Vol. II.— 8 5S VERTEIUiATA, THB TURKEY BUZZARD. THE DLACK VULTURE. These birds will approach dwellings when allured by the scent of food, and a dead animal will draw down a crowd of these gluttons where none were before visible ; they tear and eat with the greatest voracity, pushing with their feet and clapping their wing.s, and seeming to be in an ecstasy of mingled rage and delight. The spectacle of the feeding of the condors in the Garden CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 59 of Plants, at Paris, wliich the writer of this has often witnessed — on wliich occasion these crea- tures, usually dozing on their perch, are suddenly roused to demoniac frenzy, and scream and fiirhtand gorge themselves with a voracity that seems like madness — is horrible beyond description. The condor has its chosen home in the most elevated peaks of the Andes ; but it is also set ii in the Cordilleras of Central America and Mexico, and it is said also in the southern part of the Rocky Mountain range. It makes no nest, but deposits its eggs upon the naked rock ; these are wholly white, and three or four inches in length. It is said that the female remains with her brood for a year ; the young have no feathers ; the body, for several months, is covered only with .. very fine down or whitish frizzled hair, which resembles that of young owls. This down dis- fiijures the young bird so much that in this state it appears almost as large as an adult. Genus CATIIARTES : Cathartes. — This genus includes several species, all American, three of them found within the boundaries of the United States. That which is most familiarly known is tlie Tl'rkey-Buzzaru or Turkey-Vulture, C. aura — the Vultur aura of Wilson — which ex- tends from the southern boundary of New York to the West Indies and South America, being abundant in the warm regions and rare in the northern portions of its range. In the Middle States it is partially migratory, the greater part retiring to the south on the approach of cold weather. But numbers remain all the winter in Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey, particu- larly in the vicinity of the large rivers and the ocean, which afford a supply of food at all seasons. In New Jersey it hatches in May, the deep recesses of the solitary swamps of that state affording situations well suited to the puipose. The female is at no pains to form a nest with materials; but, having chosen a suitable place, which is either a truncated hollow tree, an excavated stump, or log, slie lays on the rotten wood from two to four eggs, of a dull, dirty white, or pale cream color, splashed all over with chocolate, mingled with blackish touches, the blotches largest and thickest toward the great end ; the form something like the egg of a goose, but blunter at the small end ; length two inches and three-quarters. The male watches often while the female is silting, and, if not disturbed, they will occupy the same breeding-place for several years. The young are clothed with a whitish down similar to that which covers young goslings. If any per- son approach the nest, and attempt to handle them, they will immediately vomit such offensive matter as to compel the intruder to a precipitate retreat. This species are gregarious, peaceable, and harmless, never offering any violence to a live animal, or depriving the husbandman of his stock. Hence, though i'". consequence of their filthy habits they are not beloved, they are respected and tolerated for their usefulness where they are most needed. They generally roost at night in flocks on the limbs of large trees, and they may be seen on a summer morning spreading out their wings to the rising sun, and remaining in that posture for a considerable time. These birds, unless when rising from the earth, seldom flap their wings, but sweep along in ogees, and dipping and rising lines, and move with great rapidity. They are often seen in com- panies, soaring at an immense height, particularly previous to a thunder-storm. Their wings are not spread horizontally, but form a slight angle with the body upward, the tips having an upward curve. Their sight is astonishingly acute, and they never fail to discover carrion, even when at the distance of several miles from it. When once they have found a carcass, if not molested they will not leave the place until the whole is devoured. At such times they eat so immoderately that frequently they are incapable of rising, and may be caught without much difficulty ; but few that are acquainted with them will have the temerity to undertake the task. A man in the state of Delaware, a few years since, observing some turkey-buzzards regaling themselves upon the car- cass of a horse which was in a highly putrid state, conceived the design of making a captive of one, to take home for the amusement of his children. He cautiously approached, and, springing upon the unsuspicious group, grasped a fine, plump fellow in his arms, and was bearing off his prize in triumph, when lo ! the indignant vulture disgorged such a torrent of filth in the face of our hero, that it produced all the effects of the most powerful emetic, and forever cured him of his inclination for turkey-buzzards. "The vulture," adds Wilson, from whom we have chiefly taken the preceding account, "is in- cluded in the catalogue of those fowls declared unclean and an abomination by the Levitical law, and which the Israelites were interdicted eating. We presume that this prohibition was relig CO VERTEBRATA, TURKEY BCZZARDS. iously observed, so far, at least, as it related to the vulture, from whose flesh there arises such an unsavory odor that we question if all the sweetening processes ever invented could render it palat- able to Jew, Pagan, or Christian." The turkey-buzzard is two feet long, with six feet expanse of wing ; the head and neck, for an inch and a half below the ears, are covered with a reddish, caranculated skin ; above the color is black, glossed with green and bronze, with purplish reflections ; beneath it is sooty black. The Black Vulture, or Carrion Crow — the Urubu, of South America, Vultur atratm of Wilson — is included in the genus Coragyps^ meaning Crow-Vulture, of Le Maout. It is of the size of a small turkey, the body being of a shining black ; the skin of the head and neck black and wrinkled. This species is even more abundant than the preceding, extending in its range from North Carolina to Cape Horn. In the towns and villages of the Southern States, particu- larly Charleston and Savannah, they may be seen, either sauntering about the streets, sunning themselves on the roofs of the houses and fences, or, if the weather be cold, cowering around the tops of the chimneys, to enjoy the benefit of the heat, which to them is a peculiar gratification. They are protected by law, or usage ; and may be said to be completely domesticated, being as common as the domestic poultry, and equally familiar. The inhabitants are disgusted with their filthy, voracious habits ; but they have a respect paid to them, as scavengers whose labors are subservient to the public good. " It sometimes happens," says AVilson, " that, after having gorged themselves, these birds vomit down the chimneys, which must be intolerably disgusting, and must provoke the ill-will of those whose hospitality is thus requited." These birds are indolent, and may be observed in companies, loitering for hours together in one place. They do not associate with the turkey-buzzards, and are much darker in their plumage than the latter. Their mode of flight also varies from that of the turkey-buzzard : the black vul- ture flaps its wings five or six times rapidly, then sails with them extended nearly horizontally ; the turkey-buzzard seldom flaps its wings, and, when sailing, they form an angle with the body CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 61 THE BLACK VULTURE. upward. The latter, though found in the vicinity of towns, rarely venture within them, and then always appearing cautious of the near approach of any one. It is not so impatient of cold as the former, and is likewise less lazy. The black vulture, on the ground, hops along very awk- wardly ; the turkey-buzzard, though seemingly inactive, moves with an even gait. The latter, unless pressed by hunger, will not eat of a carcass until it becomes putrid ; the former is not so fastidious, but devours animal food without distinction. It is said they sometimes attack young pigs, and eat off their ears and tails, and we have even heard stories of their assaulting feeble calves, and picking out their eyes. In one of Wilson's journals we have the following : — ^'■February 21, 1809. — Went out to Ilampstead this forenoon. A horse had dropped down in the street, in convulsions ; and dying, it was dragged out to Hampstead, and skinned. The ground, for a hundred yards around it, was black with carrion crows ; many sat on the tops of sheds, fences, and houses within sight ; sixty or eighty on the opposite side of a small run. I counted, at one time, two hundred and thirty-seven, but I believe there were more, besides several in the air over ray head, and at a distance. I ventured cautiously within thirty yards of the carcass, where three or four dogs, and twenty or thirty vultures, were busily tearing and devouring. Seeing them take no notice, I ventured nearer, till I was within ten yards, and sat down on the bank.. Still they paid little attention to me. The dogs, being sometimes accidentally flapped with the- wings of the vultures, would growl and snap at them, which would occasion them to spring up for a moment, but tliey immediately gathered in again. I remarked the vultures frequently at- tack each other, fighting with their claws or heels, striking like a cock, with open wings, and fixing their claws in each other's head. The females, and, I believe, the males likewise, made a hissing sound, with open mouth, exactly resembling that produced by thrusting a red-hot poker mto water ; and frequently a snufiling, like a dog clearing his nostrils, as I suppose they were ti2 V EliTEBUATA. THE CALIFORNIA VULTURE. theirs. On observing that they did not heed me, I stole so close that my feet were within one yard of the horse's legs, and again sat down. They all slid aloof a few feet; but, seeing me quiet, they soon returned as before. They kept up the hissing occasionally. Some of them, havino- their whole heads and legs covered with blood, presented a most savage aspect. Still as the dogs advanced, I would order them away, wliich seemed to gratify the vultures ; and one would pursue another to within a foot or two of the spot where I was sitting. Sometimes I ob- served them stretching their necks along the ground, as if to press the food downward." The California Vulture, C. Californianus^ is a very large species, measuring three and a half feet ; the head and neck are of an orange-color and bare, with a few short feathers on the vertex; a ruff of lono- lanceolate feathers begins at the neck and continues to the breast: the whole plumage is black, with some feathers tipped with brown ; the tail is slightly rounded. It is found only on the western side of the Kocky Mountains, where it lives chiefly in the vicinity of rivers, feeding on fish. Other species of this genus are Burrough's Vulture, C. Burrovianus, the smallest of known vultures ; its plumage is black, and its length twenty-two inches ; it is found in Mexico, and no doubt further south. Probably it exists in California. Genus GYPOGERANUS : Gijpogeranus ; this includes a single species, G. serpentarius, which can hardly be classed with either the falcons, eagles, or vultures. It is called the Serpent Eater because it feeds on serpents, and Secretary Vulture because it has a tuft of quills or feathers on the head, reminding one of the quills which clerks or secretaries carry behind their ears. It lives much on the ground, and measures three feet in length ; in appearance it is something like CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 6? THE SKCRETARY VCLTURE. two very dissimilar birds, the eagle and the crane. The color is bluish-gray, with a reddish- brown tinge on the wings. It is found in Southern Africa, and builds on high trees, and lives in pairs, never collecting in flocks. It runs with considerable swiftness, and attacks even large serpents with great courage and dexterity. The following interesting account is furnished by Sparman : " In descending from a mountain into a very deep bog, I perceived, nearly perpendicularly be- low me, a bird which raised and lowered itself very rapidly, with very extraordinary motions. Although I well knew the secretary, and had killed many of these birds at Natal, it was impos- sible for me to recognize it in the vertical situation in which I found myself, and I only suspected that it was one from its bearing. Having found means, by favor of some rocks, to approach suf- ficiently near, noiselessly and without being discovered, I found that this bird ^vas a secretary combating a serpent. The fight was very sharp on both sides, and the skill equal on the part of each of the combatants. But the serpent, which perceived the inequality of its strength, em- ployed that adroit cunning which is attributed to it, in order to save itself by flight and regain its hole ; while the bird, divining its intention, stopped it at once, and throwing itself before the serpent by one spring, cut off" its retreat. Wherever the reptile essayed to escape there it always found its enemy. Then, uniting skill with courage, it erected itself fiercely, to intimidate the bird, and presented, with a frightful hiss, a menacing gape, inflamed eyes, and a head swollen with rage and poison. Sometimes this oflFensive resistance suspended hostilities for an instant; bat the bird soon returned to the charge ; and covering its body with one of its wings as with a shield, struck its enemy with the other, with the bony protuberance of which I have already spoken, and which, like small clubs, overpowered it the more surely, inasmuch as it presented itself to the blows. In eff"ect, I saw it reel and fall extended : then the conqueror threw himself upon it to finish his work; and with one blow of the bill split its skull. At this moment, having no further observa- tions to make, I killed it. i found in its crop, on dissecting it, eleven rather large lizards, three serpents as long as one's arm, eleven small tortoises very entire, many of which were about two inches in diameter, and, finally, a quantity of locusts and insects. The lizards, the serpents, and the tortoises had all received the stroke of the bill on the head." This bird is capable of being tamed, and attempts have been made to introduce it into Mar- tinique, for the purpose of destroying venomous serpents. Other species of this genus have been named as the G. Capensis, G. Gambiensis, and G. Phil- lippensis, but none of these are established. G4 VEUTEBRATA. r THE GREAT AMEKICAN HORNED OWLS. THE STRIGIDiE OE OWLS. The two preceding families of Falcons and Vultures are generally active during tlie day, and hence are called Diurnal Birds of Prey. We now come to the Owls, which reverse this system, and, sleeping by day and entering upon the duties and pleasures of life by night, are called Nocturnal Birds of Prey. In all ages and countries they seem to have made a powerful impression on the human imagination, usually of a gloomy and territic nature. Seldom seen except as dim and CLASS II. AYES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. .65 flitting specters in the twilight, or in the deeper shadows of night, and then, uttering strange and melancholy cries from the depths of gloomy forests, or ghastly ruins, or perched on the black, crumbling towers of some ghost-haunted castle, accursed in popular imagination — they very natu- rally became associated with the loathed and dreaded powers of darkness. Their strange forms, their large heads, staring eyes, and uncouth gestures, served to deepen these sinister impressions, so that they came to be regarded as birds of ill omen, and even as messengers of coming doom. Shakspeare says : " Out, ye owls ! nothing but songs of death !" and thus expresses the common sentiment of the time. Spencer says, in a similar vein : " The rueful stritch still waiteth on the beere, The whistler shrill that whoso heares doth die." And again : " The ill-faced oule, Death's dreaded messenger." And an old dramatist says : " When screech-owls croak upon the chimney -tops, It's certain then you of a corse shall hear." Pliny had said, ages before, to use the quaint translation of Philemon Holland, " The scritch- owle betokeneth alwais some heavie newes, and is most execrable and accursed and unseemly in the presages of publick affaires. He koepeth ever in deserts, and loveth not onely such unpeopled places, but also that are horrible and hard of accesse. In summer he is the verie monster of the night, neither crying nor singing out cleere, but uttering a certain heavie grone of dolefuU moning. And therefore if he be scene to flie either within cities, or otherwise abroad in any place, it is not for good, but prognosticateth some fearful misfortune. Ilowbeit, I myself know that he hath sitten upon many houses of privat men, and yet no deadly accident followed thereupon. He never flieth directly at ease, as he would himselfe, but evermore sidelong and byas, as if he were carried away with the wind or somewhat else." Hood, in his poem of the " Haunted House," has grouped the owl with other objects of general horror and aversion, in a manner forcibly to illustrate the popular superstitions to which we allude : " On every side the aspect was the same — All ruined, desolate, forlorn, and savage; No hand or foot within the precinct came To rectify or ravage. "For over all there hung a cloud of fear ; A sense of mystery the spirit daunted, And said, as plain as whisper in the ear, ' The house is haunted !' " The centipede along the threshold crept ; The cobweb hung across in mazy tangle, And in its winding-sheet the maggot slept At every nook and angle. " The startled bats flew out — bird after bird ; The screech-owl overhead began to flutter, And seemed to mocTc the cry that she had heard Some dying victhn utter. " The wood-louse drooped and rolled into a ball, Touched by some impulse occult or mechanic ; And nameless beetles ran along the wall In universal panic. " The subtle spider, that from overhead Hung like a spy on human guilt and error, Suddenly turned, and up its slender thread Ran with a nimble terror. " Huge drops rolled down the wails as if they wept, And where the cricket used to chirp so shrilly, The toad was squatting, and the lizard crept Ou that damp hearth and chilly." YoL. II— 9. (j(i VERTEBRATA. A clovor writer in " ilousuhuld Words" luimuruiisly traces this coniinoii prejudice in various l)inj;iiai;es as follows : "Our polite French ally makes up his mouth and says Hibou, with a strong and spiteful accent- uation of the last syllable, which is tln' ohtioxioiis root of the name in nearly all languages; or ho speaks throuirh his nose, as none but a Frenchman can speak, and stigmatizes the poor thing as a Clnit-Jlmuit or hootiug-cat, a designation at once illogical and illiberal. The soft-voiced Italian chokes with the malicious epithet Gnfo; the grave Spaniard, taking a cigarito from his lips, sonorously exclaims Buho ; the Lower Austrian imitates the Castilian as well as he can, and cries Biilm ; while the (Jerman, with wondering eyes and unmeaning face, delivers himself of Eulc — which he pronounces very like oibj — as if he had hit upon something superlatively characteristic and transcendental. Vulgarity marks the treatment which the owl experiences in \ England. Madfic-hoiolct is, perhaps, the least uiigcntlemanlike of the names we give ; but a nnm- , bcr of oft'ensivc adjectives are freely applied to designate a bird quite as estimable as many that [ enjoy a much better character. In the Highlands of Scotland the owl is served out, so to speak, | in barbarous Celtic, as a Corrasgrcacha;/, or a Caillcach-oidhche^ words which I defy the least j hannonious bird of night itself to pronounce; and the Welsh leave you to choose between I Dylluan Wen and Adcryn-y-Corph, both of which, you may he sure, mean something disagree- I ahle. The Red Indians of North America, who know no better, call their owl Cohadecootch and '< Wapohoo, and the native Australians, wlio ought to be the last people to sneer at others, deri- - sively say Buck-buck when they speak of the Bird of Wisdom. The Japanese have a canine no- ' tion of our friend — perhaps they believe them to be feathered dogs — and whisper Howo-waiwo when he sails across their path. The Arabs, with their deep, gutteral voices, 9,a.j Khufj ; but what word the Persians use I decline to mention. This enumeration might be greatly extended. Enough, probably, has been instanced to show that the owl is not in the slightest degree indebted to mankind for the ordinary politeness that is due to every stranger." Such are the popular impressions which have been entertained for ages in respect to the owl — the oftspring of ignorance and that tendency of mankind to fill every space which has not been made familiar by experience, with spirits of darkness. It is the mission of science to dissipate these foul inventions ; it is especially the purpose of such a humblfe work as this to remove the injurious and mischievous fictions which ignorance, the fruitful mother of prejudice and supersti- tion, has woven around many of the objects which God has created and placed in communication, more or less intimate, with mankind. The owl, truly and properly viewed, is calculated to excite not merely curiosity, but gratified wonder : it is so constituted and so adapted to the purposes of its creation as to be the theme of unbounded admiration among naturalists ; it is also, in fact, so far from being an enemy of man, that it is in reality one of his best friends ; for, living upon vermin that devour our substance, it is the protector of our granaries and larders. Instead of being a gloomy and loathsome monster, it is in fact a cheerful bird, singing, dancing, and rollick- ing in its daylight of darkness ; it is a good liver, and on proper occasions, a merry-maker, rois- terer, and Robin Goodfellow — nay, even a buffoon, as our pages hereafter will show. In its moral qualities it is most exemplary. It not only enjoys all the pleasures of making love, of courtship and flirtation, of nest-building, hatching, and raising the young, of hushing the little dears to slumber by gossip and song — which we, who have not an ear for such music, call hooting and screeching — but its parental devotion, in prosperity and adversity, is really worthy of admiration. Connubial faith and felicity are marked features in the owl's domestic life ; its providence is pro- verbial. It is profoundly weather-wise, and by its whoopings, to those who are versed in these things, aTinouncea the coming storm. These facts should not be reflected upon in vain. A bird that for six thousand years has been held to be accursed, in tlie light of modern science is proved to be a good and genial and worthy member of God's creation. Let us be careful how we venture to aflirm that any thing God has made, is accursed ! To understand the owl, we must regard him from his own point of view. TTe is made for the night, as we are for the day. Daylight is darkness to him ; sunset is his sunrise. During the day he is blind, and nothing can exceed the awkwardness and stupidity of his appearance at such a time. But when evening approaches, his whole being is transformed. He then glides forth CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 67 upon the air, moving as if by volition, bending, winding, and circling hither and thither, noise- less as a shadow, and with the utmost grace and facility. His large eyes — before so vacant — are now full of expression, and like those of a cat, penetrate the darkest caverns, glance into the crannies of rocks and walls, and sweep the whole view with a keen, rapid, and sagacious scrutiny. He is not solitary, for his kindred are with him, and he enjoys all the pleasures of society. He sino-s, and there are those around who delight in his performance. In short, it was the will of the Creator that even the night should not be wholly barren of life and enjoyment, and so He made the Owl, and various other creatures, to fill this vacuum, and no reflecting mind can fail to remark with wonder and admiration, how perfectly these creatures are adapted to their condition. The form and structure of the owl are so peculiar as to arrest the attention of every beholder. The large, cat-like head and face, some- times set off by tufts of feathers which have the appearance of ears, constitute their most character- istic features. The large eyes, directed in front, inclosed by feathers in the form of .1 shell, give added effect to the staring expression of the countenance. Their plumage is soft and downy, the edges be- HEAD oi' THE EAGLK OWL. lug rccurvcd SO as to render their flight noiseless ; the eyes are fixed in their sockets, so that the bird, in following an object with its sight, is obliged to turn its head, whence the old joke, that a man by going round and round be- neath a tree on which an owl is sitting, will cause it to twist its head off. Though the appearance of the bird is plump, its body is in fact little more than skin and bones. The hearing is said to be more acute than that of any other member of the feathered tribes. The wings are short, the bill hooked, the feet similar to those of other predacious birds. The eggs are generally two, sometimes three or four. They feed for the most part on mice, moles, birds, and insects. Most of those found in the United States are in some degree migratory. These are the general characteristics ; but among the numerous species there are striking peculiarities. The owls — of which one hundred and forty species have been described, forty of them belong- ing to our hemisphere — are divided into several families by some naturalists ; we shall, however, follow those who divide them only into genera and species, first noticing those which are called Day Oivls, and then those which are more strictly Night Owls. Genus SURNIA : this includes those species which resemble in their form, aspect and habits the falconidse, and hence are called Hawk-Owls. Their characteristics are : the head deprived of ears or tuft ; the concha small, and without operculum ; the bill short ; the legs feathered to the feet ; the wings obtuse ; the tail long and tapering. The species are partially diurnal. The Hawk Owl, Day Owl, or Canada Owl, S. funerea, the S. caparacoch of Clicnu, the Long-tailed Siberian Owl of Buflfon, Paypaiv Theecawsew of the Cree Indiana, the Ood-no- FOOT OF THE EAGLE OWL. 68 VERTEBRATA. TUE CANADA OWL. Hceoot of the Esquimaux, is brown and white-spotted above, of various forms ; white spots on the borders of the wings, on a brown ground ; lower parts white transversely striped with brown; length fifteen to eighteen inches. It is common to both continents, being most abundant at the north, but is often seen as far south as Pennsylvania. AVilson thus describes it : " This is an inhabitant of both continents, a kind of equivocal species, or rather a connecting link between the hawk and the owl tribes, resembling the latter in the feet, and in the radiating feathers round the eye and bill ; but approaching nearer to the former in the smallness of its head, narrowness of its face, and in its length of tail. In short, it seems just such a figure as one would expect to see generated between a hawk and an owl of the same size, were it possible for them to produce; and yet is as distinct, independent, and original a species as any other. It has also another strong trait of the hawk tribe— in flying and preying by day, contrary to the general habit of owls. It is characterized as a bold and active species, following the fowler, and carrying off his game as soon as it is shot. It is said to prey on partridges and other birds ; and is very common at Hudson's Bay, where it is called by the Indians Coparacoch. We are also informed that this same species inhabits Denmark and Sweden, is frequent in all Siberia, and on the west side of the Uralian chain as far as Casan and the Volga ; but not in Russia. It w^as also seen by navigators near Sandwich Sound, in latitude 61° north. It is worthy of remark, that, in all owls that fly by night, the exterior edges and sides of the wing-quills are slightly recurved, and end in fine hairs or points ; by which means tlie bird is enabled to pass through the air with the greatest silence— a provision necessary for enabling it the better to surprise its prey. In the hawk-owl now before us, which flies by day, and to whom this contrivance would be of no consequence, it is accordingly omitted, or at least is scarcely observable. So judicious, so wise, and perfectly applicable, are all the dispositions of the Creator." CLASS II. AVES: ORDEK 1. RAPTORES. 69 THE WHITE OWL. The White Owl, Snowy Owl, or Ermine Owl, S. harfanr/, or S. nyctea of Latham, is the Wa- pohoo of the Cree Indians and the Oohpeerfuak of the Esquimaux. The head is small in proportion ; bill black, entirely hidden by the hairy feathers at its base; plumage snow-white, but more or less variegated with transverse brown spots or stripes ; the younger the bird is, the larger and more numerous are these stripes; very old individuals are pure white, without any brown spots; iris fine orange yellow ; feet very well covered, so as to look almost woolly to the claws ; tail rounded, not much exceeding in length the extremity of the wings ; length twenty-four or twenty-five inches ; female considerably larger than the male ; young at the time of departure from the nest covered with brown down ; the first feathers briijht down. It is found in the Arctic regions of the Old and New World, Iceland, Sweden, Norway, Lapland, and the north of Europe gener- ally. The author just quoted says : " This great northern hunter inhabits the coldest and most dreary regions of the northern hem- isphere on both continents. The forlorn mountains of Greenland, covered with eternal ice and snows, where, for nearly half the year the silence of death and desolation might almost be ex- pected to reign, furnish food and shelter to this hardy adventurer, whence he is only driven by the extreme severity of weather toward the sea-shore. He is found in Lapland, Norway, and the country near Hudson's Bay, during the whole year ; is said to be common in Siberia, and numer- ous in Kamtschatka. He is often seen in Canada and the northern districts of the United States, and sometimes extends his visits to the borders of Florida. Nature, ever provident, has so effect- ually secured this bird from the attacks of cold, that not even a point is left exposed. The bill is almost completely hid among a mass of feathers that cover the face ; the legs are clothed with such an exuberance of long, thick, hair-like plumage, as to appear nearly as large as those of a middle-sized dog, nothing being visible but the claws, which are large, black, much hooked, and extremely sharp. The whole plumage below the surface is of the most exquisitely soft, warm, and clastic kind, and so closely matted together as to make it a difiicult matter to penetrate to the skin. 7C VERTEBRATA. ATHENE COXNETIE>'S, AUSTRALIA. ATHENE MACULATA, AUSTRALIA. "The usual food of this species consists of hares, grouse, rabbits, ducks, mice, and even carrion. Unlike most of his tribe, he hunts by day as well as by twilight, and is particularly fond of fre- quenting the shores and banks of shallow rivers, over the surface of which he slowly sails, or sits on a rock a little raised above the water, Avatching for fish. These he seizes with a sudden and instantaneous stroke of the foot, seldom missing his aim. In the more southern and thickly-set- tled parts he is seldom seen, and when he appears, his size, color, and singular aspect attract gen- eral notice." Genus ATHENE : Athene — Chevkhe of Le Maout. — The term Athene, being one of the names of Minerva, the Greek goddess of wisdom, is adopted because the owl, from his meditative air and mysterious habits, was popularly supposed to penetrate the future and be possessed of super- human knowledge, whence he was sacred to Minerva, and was called the Bird of Wisdom. The birds of this genus are without ear-tufts; the facial disk is incomplete; the bill is short; the tail short and square. The name of Bird-Owls is sometimes applied to the species : these are very numerous, probably forty in number, distributed in all parts of the world. The Little Owl of Europe — the Petite Chouette of the French, A. noctua of C. Bonaparte — is a small species of the size of a thrush ; its plumage is diversified with black and white ; it avoids woods, and inhabits old walls and ruinous edifices. It is not wholly nocturnal, but hunts even before and after the twilight. It feeds on small birds, mice, moles, and insects. Its cry is poupou, poupou^ and sometimes aime, heme, edme. It makes its nest in old walls, in the roofs of houses, and the crevices of rocks. "When taken young it can be easily domesticated, and becomes a very amusing pet. M. Gerard gives a highly interesting account of one that slept with a young cat and went about the fields hunting Avith it. It was also very loving and familiar with a tame crow. It hunted insects by itself in the garden, and destroyed a prodigious number. The Acadian Owl or Sparrow-Owl — called Saw-whet in Massachusetts — A. passerina, is one of the least of its genus, but, like many other little folks, makes up in neatness of general form and appearance for deficiency of size, and is, perhaps, the most shapely of all our owls. Nor are the colors and markings of its plumage inferior in simplicity and eS"ect to most others. It also possesses an eye fully equal in spirit and brilliancy to the best of them. It is a general and con- stant inhabitant of the Middle and Northern States, but is most numerous in the neighbor- hood of the sea-shore, and among woods and swamps of pine-trees. It rarelv rambles much during the day ; but if disturbed, flies a short way, and again takes shelter from the light ; at the CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 71 approach of twilight it is all life and activity, being a noted and dexterous mouse-catcher. It is found as far north as Nova Scotia, and even Hudson's Bay *, is frequent in Russia, and is more or less common throughout Northern and Middle Europe. In this country it builds its nest gener- ally in pines, half way up the tree, and lays two eggs, which, like those of the rest of its genus, are white. The melancholy and gloomy umbrage of those solitary evergreens forms its favorite haunts, where it sits dozing and slumbering all day, lulled by the roar of the neighboring ocean. It is seven inches and a half long, and eighteen inches in spread of wing ; the upper parts are a plain brown-olive ; the lower parts streaked with yellow and reddish-bay. The Earth Owl — the Urucu.ru of Azara — A. cunicularia, is brown above and white beneath ; the feet are garnished with tubercles ; the length is nine inches ; it inhabits the hot as well as I the temperate parts of South America down to latitude 42° south. It resembles the Burrowing Owl of the United States, and appears to have been confounded with it. It takes possession of the vacant burrows of armadillos, vischacas, and foxes, sometimes even driving out the lawful proprietors by entering the premises, and by its intolerable odor forcing them to quit. These ; birds live in pairs, and when disturbed utter a prolonged cry of tchii^ tchii, tchii. They live on I mice, Guinea pigs, reptiles, and insects. j The Sociable BuRROwiNa Owl, A. socialls — A. hypngcea of C. Bonaparte — is nine or ten inches long, and has a moderate-sized head; the entire upper parts are a light yellowish-brown, every feather more or less spotted with white ; under parts white, with transverse bands of red- dish-brown. This curious species lives in large communities in various localities east and west of the Rocky Mountains, in the United States, particularly in Oregon, California, and on the Platte River, in Nebraska, Arkansas, Texas, and New Mexico. The most remarkable feature in its his- tory is its association with the prairie marmots, of which we have given an account at page 362. Among the other species of this abundant genus are the Bramaii Owl, A. Brama, found in India; the Chestnut-colored Owl, A. castanoptera, oi Java,; the Naked-footed Athene, ^4. nudipes, of the island of Porto Rico ; the Collared Owl, A. tor qua ta, and the Caboure Owl, A, pumila, both of South America. There are several Australian species. Genus BUBO : Bubo. — This includes the largest and most remarkable species of owls, as well in Europe as America, and which stand at the head of several genera of what are called Horned Owls, the latter name derived from the ear-tufts, which are prominent, and have a resemblance to the ears of a cat. The genera! form of the present genus is robust, head large, eyes large, wings long and wide, tail moderate, claws strong and curved. The Eagle-Owl or Great-eared Owl — the Hihou Grand Due of the French — B. maximus, is a transatlantic species, being common in Lapland, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, and rare in England, France, and Italy. It is also met with in Northern Asia, and as far south as Smyrna. The head is ornamented with two tufts of feathers, black in the center and red at the edges ; the body above is of a yellowish-red, varied with gray and black ; below it is of a light red, Avith brown spots ; the length of the body is two feet. It lives on hares, rabbits, moles, mice, rats, partridges, and reptiles. Its loud hoot, huchou, houhoti, bouhou, pouhou, in the silence of night, is very startling. It makes its nest in the crevices of rocks and remote ruinous buildings, where it lays two eggs of pure white. Like all the owls, this species is an object of antipathy to other species of birds, many of which harass it by their bills and their clamor, if it is so imprudent as to wander forth in the daytime. As an illustration of the attachment of these owls to their young, the following anecdote is re- lated by a Swedish gentleman, who resided several years on a farm near a steep mountain, in the summit of which two eagle-owls had built their nest: "One day, in the month of July, a young bird, having quitted the nest, was caught by the servants. The bird was, considering the season of the year, well feathered ; but the down appeared here and there between these feathers, which had not yet attained their full growth. After it was caught it was shut up in a large hen-coop, when, to his surprise, on the following morning, a fine young partridge was found lying dead be- fore the door of the coop. It was immediately concluded that this provision had been brought there by the old owls, which had no doubt been making search during the night for their lost young one. And such was indeed the fact, for night after night, for fourteen days, was this same 72 VERTEP.RATA. THE EAGLE OWL. mark of affection repeated. The game which the old ones carried to it consisted chiefly of young partridges newly killed, but sometimes a little spoiled. On one occasion a moor-fowl was brought so fresh that it was actually warm under the wings, and at another time a putrid lamb was deposited." The Great Horned Owl, or Cat-Owl, B. Virginianus, (see engraving, page 64,) is two feet long ; the horns three inches, consisting of thirteen or fourteen feathers ; the eyes golden yellow ; upper parts dusky, finely penciled on a tawny and whitish ground ; beneath, elegantly marked with transverse bands of brown on a bright tawny ground, mixed with white. It is found in almost every part of the United States, but is becoming scarce in thickly-settled regions. "His favorite residence,'" says Wilson, "is in the dark solitudes of deep swamps, covered with a growth of gigantic timber ; and here, as soon as evening draws on, and mankind retire to rest, he sends forth such sounds as seem scarcely to belong to this world, startling the solitary pilgrim as he slumbers by his forest fire, " Making night hideous." Along the mountainous shores of the Ohio, and amid the deep forests of Indiana, alone and re- posing in the woods, this ghostly watchman h^s frequently warned me of the approach of morn- ing, and amused me with his singular exclamations, sometimes sweeping down and around my fire, uttering a loud and sudden Waugh 0! Waugh 0 ! sufficient to have alarmed a whole gar- rison. He has other nocturnal solos, no less melodious, one of which very strikingly resembles the half-suppressed screams of a person suff"ocating or throttled, and cannot fail of being exceed- ingly entertaining to a lonely, benighted traveler, in the midst of an Indian wilderness! " This species inhabits the country round Hudson's Bay, and extends even to the arctic regions, where it is often found white. It has also been seen white in the United States ; but this has doubtless been owing to disease or natural defect, and not to climate. It preys on young rabbits, squirrels, rats, mice, partridges, and small birds of various kinds. It has been often known to prowl about the farm-house, and carry off chickens from roost. A very large one, wing-broken CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES. 73 while on a foraging excursion of this kind, was kept about the house for several days, and at length disappeared, no one knew how. Almost every day after this, hens and chickens also dis- appeared, one by one, in an unaccountable manner, till, in eight or ten days, very few were left remaining. The fox, the mink, and the weasel, were alternately the reputed authors of this mis- chief, until one morning, the old lady herself, rising before day to bake, in passing toward the oven, surprised her late prisoner, the owl, regaling himself on the body of a newly-killed hen ! The thief instantly made for his hole under the house, from whence the enraged matron soon dis- lodged him with the brush-handle, and without mercy dispatched him. In this snug retreat were found the greater part of the feathers, and many large fragments, of her whole family of chickens. "There is something in the cnaractcr of the owl so recluse, solitary, and mysterious; some- thing so discordant in the tones of its voice, heard only amid the silence and gloom of night, and in the most lonely and sequestered situations, as to have strongly impressed the minds of man- kind in general with sensations of awe and abhorrence of the whole tribe. The poets have in- dulged freely in this general prejudice, and in their descriptions and delineations of midnight storms, and gloomy scenes of nature, the owl is generally introduced to heighten the horror of the picture. Ignorance and superstition, in all ages and in all countries, listen to the voice of the owl, and even contemplate its physiognomy with feelings of disgust, and a kind of fearful awe. The priests or conjurers, among some of our Indian nations, have taken advantage of the rever- ential horror for this bird, and have adopted the Great Horned Owl^ the subject of the present ac- count, as the symbol or emblem of their office. " Nothing is a more effectual cure for superstition than a knowledge of the general laws and productions of nature ; nor more forcibly leads our reflections to the first, great, self-existent Cause of all, to whom our reverential awe is then humbly devoted, and not to any of his dependent crea- tures. With all the gloomy habits and ungracious tones of the owl, there is nothing in this bird supernatural or mysterious, or more than that of a simple bird of prey, formed for feeding by night and reposing by day." Mr. Cassin regards the following as varieties of the preceding, or very closely allied species : B. Atlanticus, B. Paclficus^ B. Arctkus, B. Mac/ellanicus. The Eastern IIorned Owl, B. Orientalis, is found in Java -and Sumatra. Genus SCOPS : Scojjs. — The birds of this genus are marked with horns or ears, and resemble the preceding, but are much smaller ; the European Scops-eared Owl, S. Europoeus — Petit- Due of the French — is of the size of a thrush, its colors being ash and fawn, beautifully mottled with black, gray, and white. It is common in Central and Southern Europe, and feeds on insects and small quadrupeds. It is capable of domestication, and becomes very familiar. It is migra- tory, arriving in Europe in the spring and departing in September ; it spends the winter in Africa and Asia. The ScREECH-OwL, Red Owl, Mottled Owl, S.. asio, is one of the most common species in the United States, and inhabits the whole of North America; its head is proportionally large; the ear-tufts prominent ; the plumage above ashy-brown, the feathers lined with dark brown ; under parts ash-white, lined with brownish-black ; the length nine or ten inches. The solemn stare of this bird contrasts ludicrously with its small size. Wilson says: "This nocturnal wan- derer is well known by its common name, the Little Screech- Owl^ and noted for its melancholy, quivering kind of wailing in the evenings, particularly toward the latter part of summer and au- tumn, near the farm-house. On clear moonlight nights, they answer each other from various parts of the fields or orchard ; roost during the day in thick evergreens, such as cedar, pine, or juniper trees, and are rarely seen abroad in sunshine. In May they construct their nest in the hollow of a tree, often in the orchard in an old apple-tree ; the nest is composed of some hay and a few feathers ; the eggs are four, pure white, and nearly round. The young are at first covered with a whitish down. " I kept one of this species for several weeks in the room beside me. It was caught in a barn, where it had taken up its lodging, probably for the greater convenience of mousing ; and, being unhurt, I had an opportunity of remarking its manners. At first it struck itself so forcibly against Vol. 11—10. 7, VERTEBKATA. IHK SCOPS-EAEED OWL. the window as frequently to deprive it, seemingly, of all sensation for several minutes ; this was done so repeatedly that I began to fear that either the glass or the owl's skull must give way. In a few days, however, it either began to comprehend something of tlie matter, or to take dis- gust at the glass, for it never repeated its attempts, and soon became quite tame and familiar. Those who have seen this bird only in the day can form but an imperfect idea of its activity, and even sprightliness, in its proper season of exercise. Throughout the day it was all stillness and gravity — its eyelids half shut, its neck contracted, and its head shrunk, seemingly, into its body ; but scarcely was the sun set, and twilight began to approach, when its eyes became full and spark- ling, like two living globes of fire ; it crouched on its perch, reconnoitered every object around with looks of eager fierceness ; alighted and fed ; stood on the meat with clenched talons, while it tore it in morsels with its bill ; flew round the room with the silence of thought, and percliing, moaned out its melancholy notes, with many lively gesticulations, not at all accordant with the pitiful tone of its ditty, which reminded one of the shivering meanings of a half-frozen puppy. This species is found generally over the United States, and is not migratory." The Western Mottled Owl, S. McCallii^ according to Cassin is a newly observed species, seven and a half inches long, found in Texas and Northern Mexico. It resembles the preceding, but is smaller. Genus ASCALAPHIA : Ascalaphia. — This includes the Great Short-eared Owl of Europe, Strix Ascalaphus of Vieillot ; its length is fourteen inches ; its plumage of a whitish-red of va- rious shades, with tints and rays of a brownish-black ; on the wings and beneath the body it is marked with large zigzag bands and blotches of the same colors, finely baiTed on the general ground. Its range is from Italy to Egypt, being common in the latter country. Its generic as well as specific name is derived from the mythological story of the unhappy youth who saw Pros- erpine eat some portion of a pomegranate, and testifying to the fact, doomed her to a perpetual exile in the infernal regions ; in return, the vengeful queen transformed him into an owl. Genus CICCABA : Ciccaha. — This includes the Huhul, C. huhula of Wagler, and Strix lineaia of Shaw, a beautiful species, found in Guiana, where it is called the Dai/ Oivl. Genus PIIODILUS : Phodilus. — This term signifies Afraid of the liffht, and characterizes the typical species, the Kalong Owl, F. hadius — Strix badia of Ilorsfield, found in Java. Genus EPHIALTES : Ephialtes, includes the White-cheeked Owl, E. leucotis of C. Bona- parte, found in Senegal. Genus NYCTAETUS : Nyctaetus, includes the Milk Owl, N. lacteus,oi the size of the eagle- owl, and found in Senegal. Genus KETUPU : Ketupa. — This term means Night-Eagle, and is applied to the species, Blo- Ketupu, its popular name in Java, where it is found. It is the K. Javanensis of Lesson, and Strix ketupa of Horsfield. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. RAPTORES, 75 THE GREAT SHORT-EARED OWL. 9enus SYRNIUM : Symium. — This term means Birds of Night, and the genus includes sev- eral species, called Chats-Huant or Hooting-Cats by the French. The HuLOTTE or Wood-Owl, S. aluco, is somewhat larger than the common European owl, but has similar manners and habits. It is found in the great forests of Europe, where it feeds on squirrels, bats, mice, &c. The Barred Owl, Canada Owl, or Clouded Owl, S. nebulosum, is very common in the United States, especially about the region of Pennsylvania. It is sixteen or seventeen inches long, of a pale brown above, marked with transverse spots of white ; head large, and mottled with brown and white ; the under parts streaked with brown on a yellowish ground. It feeds on mice and small quadrupeds, though it occasionally catches a fowl or a young rabbit. It is frequently seen flying by day, and is then harassed by various kinds of birds. Its hoot of Waugh! Waughl at night, in the thick forests, is doleful in the extreme. The OuRAL Owl, *S'. Uralense, is a large species, twenty-one inches long, and inhabits the north of Europe and Asia. The Great Gray Owl, or Cinereous Owl, S. cinereum, is a large species, found in the northern parts of both continents ; its upper parts are smoky brown, nearly every feather more or less mottled with ashy-white; under parts smoky brown, also mottled with ashy-white. The length is twenty-six inches. It is the largest species of owl known in the United States. It is found rarely in New England, breeds in Canada, Wisconsin, and Oregon, and is met with all across the continent farther north. The Pagoda Owl, S.'pagodarum, is an East India species, seventeen inches long, vulgarly called Oame-Kolan. Genus NYCTALE : Nyctale. — This, whose name signifies Lovers of darkness, includes a single American species, Tengmalm's Owl, N. Tengmalmi, ten and a half inches long, and found in the northern parts of our continent. The WnfTE-FRONTED Owl or Kibtland's Owl, N. albifrons, resembles the Acadian Owl, and has been regarded by some as identical with it. It is eight inches long, and is found in Canada. 70 VERTEBRATA. Gciiits OTUS : Oliis. — This includes several species, marked by movable ear-tufts. The Long EAHKi) Owl ok EvHovK—Hihon of the Krcii.li ; liihou Moyen Due of Temminck— is fourteen or tiftoeti iiirlics li.tiLT, and feeds on small quadrupeds, as rats, moles, mice, and small birds. Its gen- eral ci)lor above is lii,dit brown, marked with streaks of blackish-brown; beneath, mixed grayish white and pale brown, streakele have large conveniences formed for the martins, with many apartments, which are usually fully tenanted, and occupied regularly every spring ; and, in such places, particular individuals have been noted to return to the same box for successive years. The Purple Mailin, like his half-cousin, the kingbird, is the terror of crows, hawks, and eagles. These he attacks whenever they make their appearance, and with such vigor and rapidity that they instantly liave recourse to flight. So well known is this to the lesser birds and the domestic poultry, that, as soon as they hear the martin's voice engaged in fight, all is alarm and consterna- tion. To observe with what spirit and audacity this bird dives and sweeps upon and around the hawk or the eagle is astonishing. There are several species of this genus belonging to South America, one of which, the West- ern Martin, H. ckalyhea^ is sometimes seen within the southern boundaries of the United States. Genus CYPSELUS : Cypselus. — This includes several species, called Swifts, of which the American Chimney-Swallow or American Swift, C. acutus — the Acanthylis Pelasgia of Lin- naeus— is a well-known species. It is four to six inches long ; the whole body deep brown, with a greenish luster on the head and neck; the wings very long, extending beyond the tail. The flight of this bird, like that of the other species of the genus, is bold, vigorous, and rapid, the wing-s being bent downward, and kept in constant motion. This laborious flight is kept up, with little interruption, from dawn to twilight, that is, for fourteen hours. The great peculiarity of the species is, that it builds its nest and rears its young, often hundreds together, in chimneys, not of deserted but inhabited houses, though they avoid those in which a fire is kept. The nest is of a singular construction, being formed of very small twigs, fastened together with a strong, adhesive glue or gum, which is secreted by two glands, one on each side of the hind part of the head, and mixes with the saliva. With this glue, which becomes hard as the twigs themselves, the whole nest is thickly besmeared. The nest is small and shallow, and attached by one side or edge to the wall, and is totally destitute of the soft lining with which the others are so plentifully supplied. The eggs are generally four, and white. There are two broods in the sea- I son. The young are fed at intervals during the greater part of the night. The noise which the j old ones make, in passing up and down the funnel, has some resemblance to distant thunder. When heavy and long-continued rains occur, the nest, losing its hold, is precipitated to the bot- tom. In 1857, during a long season of wet, cold weather in June, four hundred and eighty of | CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 91 THE COMMOy EUROPEAN SWIFT. old, v/erc precipitated down a single chimney in Woodbury, Connecticut. )ut often th(3 young scramble up along the vent, to which they cling like 'these birds, young an< In this case all died, [squirrels, the muscularity of their feet, and the sharpness of their claws being remarkable. j The Common Swift of Europe, C. a^nis, resembles the preceding in form and manner of flight, j but it builds in cavities under the eaves of houses, in holes about steeples, old towers, and walls. j The Alpine Swift, C. Alpinus, surpasses other species in speed, and feeds on insects very high in the air. It is found in summer in the high mountains of Southern Europe, and has been occa- i sionally found in Great Britain. Its length is eight inches and a half. i 6^e«?«s COLLOCALIA : Collocalia. — This includes the Esculent Swallow, C. esctde7ita, the \ fabricator of the celebrated birds' nests which enjoy such a high repute among the Chinese for their excellence as an article of food. These are composed of a mucilaginous substance, usually more or less mixed with fragments of grass, hair, and similar materials ; they are attached to the surface of rocks in caverns, and the birds always build in great numbers together in the same cave. It was formerly supposed that the mucilaginous matter employed in the construction of the nests was obtained from sea-weeds eaten by the birds, but it is now ascertained beyond doubt that the substance in question is secreted by greatly developed salivary glands. These birds are found in great abundance in all parts of the Eastern Archipelago, and also on the continent of India; the nests are collected in great quantities, and constitute an important article of commerce with China. Almost all our knowledge of the mode in which the harvest of nests is managed is derived from the island of Java, which produces about two hundred and fifty-six hundred weight annually. The nests are collected in Java at three different periods, namely, in March, Septem- ber, and December. The interval of six months, from March to September, gives the birds time to rear two broods, and the quantity of nests is consequently greater than at the other two periods of collecting, but the produce is generally of inferior quality; the lesser intervals between the collection in September and that in December, and again between the latter and that in March, scarcely allows the birds to get their progeny out of the nests, and many young ones are accord- ingly destroyed at these periods, but tlie nests are of superior quality, and very white. The prices paid for these nests in the Canton market vary greatly, according to the quality : those of the best and purest sort fetch the enormous price of three thousand five hundred Spanish dollars the pecul, or about twenty-five dollars a pound ; the second quality brings two thousand eight hun- dred Spanish dollars per pecul, and the third not more than one thousand six hundred dollars. In some parts of China, however, as much as forty dollars has been paid for a catty of bird's nests, or rather more than one pound and a quarter. These expensive articles are principally employed in making soup, but they are also made use of in various ways, and are regarded as a great deli- cacy by the Chinese epicures. 92 VERTEBRATA. THE COMMON ROLLER. THE RED-TAILED JACAMAR. — (ScC p. 96.) THE CORACIN^ OR ROLLERS. This family comprises not only the Rollers proper, but three other sub-families, which we shall notice under four generic heads. Oemis ROLLER : Coracias. — This includes several species, which subsist on fruits and insects. One species, the Common Roller of Europe, C. garrula^ is thirteen inches long, light brown above and bluish-green below ; the tail-feathers are a greenish-blue. It is a handsome bird, noisy and restless, very shy, and living in the depths of the forests. In Germany it is called Birk- hdher or Birch-Jay. It breeds in the holes of trees, and sometimes in holes which it excavates in the banks of rivers. THE GREEN TODT. Gemis TODUS : Todus.— Of this there are three or four species ; the best known is the Green Tody, T. vlridis. It is a very common bird in some of the West Indian Islands. It is about the size of a wren ; all the upper parts are of a vivid grass-green color, the neck and throat red, the breast whitish, and the belly yellowish. It is a bold and familiar bird, paying little attention to the presence of man, and exhibiting great confidence when in captivity, seeking its insect prey CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 93 in the room with the greatest freedom. Its holes for nestling are dug in banks to the depth sometimes of eight inches or a foot. Genus MOTMOT : Prionites or Momotus. — Of this there are several species in tropical Amer- ica; they are heavy in form and slow in movement, living retired in the depth of the forests, where they remain perched on trees near old buildings, the head drawn back between the shoul- ders, and every now and then emitting a sort of hoarse croak. In the mornins: and evenino- however, they show a greater degree of activity in pursuit of the insects which constitute their principal sustenance ; these they take by pouncing upon them after a short flight. They do not confine themselves to such small game, but seem able to prey upon lizards and small snakes, and even occasionally upon small birds. They are said to take these larger objects in the bill, throw them up into the air, and swallow them as they fall. Fruits also form a portion of their food. They are remarkable for a curious sort of mutilation which they are supposed to practice on themselves. The two middle featliers of the tail are considerably elongated, and in most speci- mens, the barbs are wanting on a portion of the stem a little before the tip, so that a portion of the shaft is left quite bare at this point. There seems to be no other way of accounting for this than by supposing that the birds, probably from some mistaken notion of elegance, deliberately pick oft" the barbs of this part of the feathers. The best known species is the Brazilian Motmot, M. Brasiliensis, which is about the size of a thrush, and of a deep, rich, green color, with the forehead bluish, the back of the head violet, and the crown black. Other species are the IIoutou Motmot, F. momotay and the Tutu Motmot, P. hitu. THE JAVA EUIIYLAME. Genus EURYLAIMUS : Eurylaimus. — Of this there are several species, noted for their large bill ; they are nearly allied to the todies, their principal diff"erence consisting in the structure of the feet, the outer toe only being united to the middle one. The nostrils also are placed near the base of the bill. They are generally of small size, but adorned with beautiful and brilliant colors, and live in the most retired parts of the countries occupied by thom, principally in marshy places and along the margins of lakes and rivers. They inhabit Java, Sumatra, and New Guinea. They are usually seen in small flocks, and feed for the most part on insects and worms, although the stomachs of some of the species have been found to contain nothing but vegetable substances. Their nests, v/hich are composed of small twigs, are suspended from the extremities of the branches of trees, usually those overhanging the water, and the number of eggs is said to be only two. The Java Eurylame, E. Javanicus^ has the head and neck of a bright venous red ; the back and wings black, flamed with golden yellow ; the under parts venous red. There are beside several genera of allied birds, inhabiting the same regions, as the Cym- birrhynchus, Erolla, and Corydon, 94 VERTEBRATA. THE TROOONS OR COUROUCOUS. These splendid birds are found in the tropical regions of both hemispheres, but most of the species inhabit South America. They frequent the thickest parts of the forests, where they feed principally upon insects, which they capture on the wing and sometimes pick from the bark of trees. Some of the species, liowevci-, derive their chief nourishment from fruits and berries. Tlicv lay their eggs in the holes of rotten trees, upon the debris usually found in such situations, and, like the woodpeckers, frequently enlarge tlie holes by means of their strong bills. Their crv is peculiar and melancholy, resembling the word counmcotr, which has hence been applied to them as a vei-nacular name. Their bills have tufts of bristles at the base ; their plumage is adorned with bright colors, and often most bril- liantly metallic, and the beauty of their appear- ance is frequently grciitly enhanced by the ele- gance of their long tails. They vary consider- ably in size, some of the smallest being little larger than a sparrow, while the largest are of the size of a pigeon. The ancient Mexicans made exquisite feather pictures of the plumes of these birds, and Montezuma was so delighted with them that he kept an extensive aviary of them. The Resplendent Trogon, T. resplendens, has the plumage of a beautiful bronzed golden green color; the two middle feathers of the tail, which are much longer than the body and very broad, give it a peculiarly graceful appearance. It is a native of Guatemala, and is called by the inhabitants. Que sal : its gorgeous plumes are much sought after by the natives of that country as ornaments; formerly they were only allowed to be worn by persons of the highest rank. They are exceedingly difficult to pro- cure, from their usually frequenting the highest trees of the forest, and when the collector has succeeded in shooting them, they generally lose a portion of their light plumage in their fall, while the extraordinary tenderness of their skins renders the operation of skinning them a most difficult matter. Nearly foi'ty species of Trogon are known, three-fourths of which belong to tropical Amer- ica ; one species to Africa, and the rest to Asia and the Asiatic islands. The habits of some of these are as remarkable as their plumage ; we are told that the young of the T. Narina, of South America, immediately follow their parents on the wing, after being hatched. One species, T. Mexicanus, is found on the Rio Grande. RESPLENDENT TROGON — MALE AND FEMALE. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERKS. 95 TiUi BUCCO VERSICOLOR. THE RED-THROATED TAMATIA. THE BUCCOS, BARBETS, OR PUFF-BIRDS. In this group the bill is very stout and conical, and inflated at the base, which is furnished ■.vith several tufts of strong bristles; the tip of the upper mandible is curved or hooked ; the nos- trils are concealed by the plumes and bristles of the forehead ; the toes are arranged in pairs, in the same way as in the scansorial birds, with which they were formerly placed. The name of Fuf-Birdsis applied to them from the manner in which their plumage is puffed out, a character which gives them a dull, heavy appearance. This aspect is in accordance with their mode of life, as they are solitary and melancholy birds, inhabiting the recesses of the forests of tropical Amer- ica, where they perch upon the branches of trees to look out for the insects which constitute their food. They are said to perch in the same spot for montlis together. They also occasionally creep upon the bark of trees in search of insects, supporting themselves with the tail-feathers when in this position, like the woodpeckers. They nestle in holes of trees. There are several genera and many species. The Genus BUCCO : Biicco, includes tlie Buff-faced Barbet, B. chri/sopoffon, which is of gi'ay plumage, lives in small flocks, and is found in Africa and Asia ; also, the B. versicolor, found in Sumatra. The Genus BARBICAN : Laimodon ; this name indicates the resemblance in the species both to the Barbets and the Toucans: the Barbary Barbican, L. duhius — Pogonkis major of Cuvier — IS black above and red beneath ; the flanks yellow. It is an exceedingly brilliant bird. Genus BARBACOU : Monasa. — The species of this are of solitary and sedentary habits, and resemble the cuckoos. The White-faced Barbacou of Brazil, M. per sonata, is one of the best known species. It is of the size of a thrush. The Genus TAMATIA : Tamatia, includes the Pied Barbet, T. macrorhynchos. Swainson says: "There is something very grotesque in the appearance of all the puff-birds, and their habits in a state of nature are no less singular. They fi-equent open, cultivated spots near habitations, always perching on the withered branches of a low tree, where they will sit nearly motionless for hours, unless indeed they descry some luckless insect passing near them, at which they immedi- ately dart, returning again to the identical twig they had just left, and which they will sometimes 9G VERTEBRATA. froqiioiit tor nioiitlis. At smli tiiius the disproportionate size of the head is rendered more con- spii'iious by the bird raising its feathers so as to appear not unlike a putf-ball; hence the general name thev have received from the English residents in I'.razil, of -which country all the spe- cies, 1 believe, are natives. AVhen frightened, this form is suddenly changed by the feathers lying quite fl:it. Tliev are very confiding, and -will often take their station within a few yards of the window. Tiie two sexes are generally near each other, and often on the same tree." The length of this species is about eight inches ; plumage black and white, the belly being tinged with buflF. The Ked-throated Tamatia, T. maculata, is of a reddish-brown, and is found in Guiana. TIIE GALBCLIUES OR JACAMARS. This group includes several geneva and several species : they are very liandsome birds, adorned with bright colors, green being predominant. They are peculiar to tropical South America and the "West Indies, where they generally lead a solitary life in the forests, perched upon trees watch- ing for insects, on which they prey. The Gcmis JACAMAR : Galbula, includes the Common Jacamar, G. viridis ; it is of a bril- liant o-ol den-green, eight inches long, and is found in Cayenne. The Red-tailed JacAxMar, G. rufi- couda, inhabits the island of Trinidad. It is of a golden-green color above; the throat white ; the breast red ; the tail golden-green and red. (See p. 9'2.) TUE EUROPEAN KINGFISHER. THE KINGFISHERS OR HALCrONID^. In this family, which, according to some authors, includes the barbets and jacamars, the bill is long, straight, angular, and pointed; there are various species, feeding principally on fish, which' they catch by darting suddenly down upon them firom some perch on which they sit watching for their prey ; they also eat small Crustacea, reptiles, and insects. They make their nests in holes , and in cavities along the banks of rivers and lakes. Genus ALCEDO : Alcedo. — This term is the Latin for kingfisher, and the genus includes the Common Kingfisher of Europe, A. ispida — the Martin Pkheur of the French; Martino Fesca-, tore of the Italians; and Gemeine Eisvogel of the Germans: probably the Halcyon of the Greeks., Its length is about seven inches ; the upper part of the head, the wing-coverts, and a stripe on each side of the neck, are green, covered with light-blue spots ; the upper pai't of the back is dark green, the lower part and rump bright blue ; the throat, and a streak on each side of the ■ neck, are yellowish-white, and the lower parts pale chestnut. The quill-feathers of the wings- are greenish -black, and those of the tail deep blue. All these colors have the metallic brilliancy of the tropical birds. It is found throughout Middle Europe, living in the milder parts, and even in England, all the year. Its flight is rapid and darting, like an arrow. It is a solitary bird, in- CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 97 BELTED KINGFISHERS. habiting the banks of small streams, and perching upon the branches of trees overhanging the water, to watch for its finny prey, stictle-backs and minnows forming the greater part of its ordi- nary meal. For the purpose of breeding it takes possession of a hole in the bank formed by some burrowing animal, and adapts it to its use ; here it appears to resort to disgorge the bones of the fishes which it has swallowed, for the floor of the holes frequented by it is always found covered with these remains, and it is upon them that the female lays her eggs. These are usually from five to seven in number, and of a delicate pinkish-white color. Among the ancients the most ex- traordinary ideas were entertained with regard to the nests of the kingfisher, and these crept into the writings of the older English poets. It was believed that the bird made a floating nest on the sea, and that during the period that she was engaged in hatching her eggs, the water always remained so smooth and calm that the mariner might venture on his voyage without danger of being exposed to any of the perils of the deep; in fact, some of the ancient writers attributed to this little bird the power of allaying the violence of the waves. The period of incubation was accordingly known as the '■'•Halcyon days!!'' and the same term is still often employed metaphori- cally to express any period of uninterrupted happiness. Some of the modern superstitions con- nected with the kingfisher are scarcely less curious : it has been supposed that if the body of the bird is suspended by the bill its breast will always indicate the north ; that when suspended and accurately balanced, its bill will always point in the direction of the wind, although the bird may be kept in-doors ; and that the possession of its head and feathers furnishes a protection against witch- craft, a security for fair weather at sea, and a certain means of securing the afi"ections of a coy or disdainful sweetheart. These superstitions still hold their ground in some parts of Great Britain. Genus CERYLE : Ceryle. — This includes various species in difibrent parts of the world, and Vol. II. — 13 08 VERTEBRATA. among thom tho J5kltki) Kingfisher, C. ale yon : this is a gcncival inhabitant of the United States, auii, with a single exception, is the only species known to this country. It is twelve inches long, of robust form, the upper parts and a belt across the breast light ashy-blue, beneath white. < >ii the head the feathers are often lifted into a cr«st. Wilson, in his happy vein, says: "Like the lovelorn swains of whom the poets tell us, he delights in running streams and felling waters; not, however, merely that they may soothe his ear, but for a gratification somewhat more substantial. Amid the roar of the cataract, or over the foam of a torrent, he sits perched upon an overhanging bough, glancing his piercing eye in every direction below for his scaly prey, which, with a sudden, circular plunge, he sweeps from their native element, and swallows in an instant, llis voice, which is not unlike the twirling of a watchman's rattle, is naturally loud, harsh, and sudden, but is softened by the sound of the brawling streams and cascades among which he generally rambles. He courses along the windings of the brook or river, at a small height above the surface, sometimes suspending himself by the rapid action of liis wings, like cer- tain species of hawks, ready to pounce on the fry below ; now and then settling on an old, dead overhanging limb to reconuoiter. Mill-dams are particularly visited by this feathered, fisher, and the sound of his pipe is as well known to the miller as the rattling of his own hopper. Rapid streams, with high perpendicular banks, particularly if they be of a hard clayey or sandy nature, are also favorite places of resort for this bird ; not only because in such places the small fish are more exposed to view, but because those steep and dry banks are the chosen situations for his nest. Into these he digs with bill and claws horizontally, sometimes to the extent of four or five feet, at the distance of a foot or two from the surface. The fcAv materials he takes in are not always placed at the extremity of the hole, that he and his mate may have room to turn with convenience. The eggs are five, pure white, and the first brood usually comes out about the be- ginning of June, and sometimes sooner, according to the part of the country where they reside. They are very tenacious of their haunts, breeding for several successive years in the same hole, and do not readily forsake it, even though it be visited." The Texan Green Kingfisher, C. Americana., is only about seven inches long, and is well known in South America ; it has been seen in Texas on the Rio Grande. Several other species of the genus are known in Mexico and South America, 'mkl^^i^: THE BLACK-BANDED DACELO. Genus DACELO : Bacclo. — This includes several species, found in various parts of the world, and called Martin Chasseur by the French ; they are noted for a large, heavy bill, and for feed- ing on earth-worms, larvae, and insects, instead of fish. Their haunts are marsliy and humid spots in forests. The Black-danded Dacelo, D. atricapilla, is a large species, found at the Cape of Good Hope. The Great Brown Kingfisher or Gigantic Dacelo, D. ff iff antea, \s eighteen inches long; CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 99 its color olive-brown above and -white beneath ; it is called the Laughing Jackass by the colo- nists of the Cape, on account of its loud, uncouth song. The whole number of known species of kingfishers is about ninety; the preceding descriptions of some of the most remarkable will give a general idea of the whole. While some of these birds are as large as a crow, there are others of the genera Ispidina and Ceyx which are not larger than a chippiiig-bird, yet dive and catch fish, proportioned to their size, like their larger relations. THE MEROPID^ OR BEE-EATERS. These birds are confined to the eastern hemi- sphere, in the tropical parts of which they are most abundant. They have a long, curved bill, and are generally adorned with brilliant colors, among which green is most common. They live on in- sects, which they capture in the air, and are espe- cially fond of wasps and bees, whence their Eng- lish name of Bee-Eaters, and their French name of Guepier. Genus MEROPS : Mero2)s. — This includes the Common Bee-Eater of Europe, which is ten inches long, of a very slender form, and long, slender bill: , it is brownish-red above, the lower parts different j-^fe shades of green. It migrates in large numbers from Africa to the south of Europe, usually in flocks of twenty to thirty. They are of gregarious habits, often being seen soaring about in company like swallows. Their nests consist of holes about six inches deep, which they excavate in the clayey banks of rivers and lakes; the eggs are from five to seven. They frequently utter a warbling note. In their manner of flying and seizing their prey they resemble the fly-catchers. This is the only species known to Europe; others are found in Africa and Asia: the Nama- QUA Bee-Eater, Rhinopomastes Ci/a7iomclas, is of an azure-blue above and black beneath ; found m Western Africa. There are still other genera and other speciea THE NAMAQUA BEE-EATER. TENUIROSTRES. In the birds of this group the bill is always slender, although very Tariable in its length and form, being sometimes perfectly straight and sometimes much curved. The tip of the upper man- dible is usually entire and acute. The toes are elongated, especially the hinder one, and the outer toe is usually more or less united to the middle one at the base. Their food consists princi- pally of insects, which they generally capture on plants and trees, rarely on the wing or on the ground. The majority are destitute of the peculiar arrangement of the lower larynx, by which the beautiful songs of the Dentirostral birds are produced. This group includes several remark- able and interesting families, as follows: the Rijle-Birds, the Plumed Birds or Ejyimachince, the Hoopoes, Guitguits, Sun-Birds, Humming-Birds, Honey-Eaters, Ovtn-Birds, Creepers, Nut- hatches, and Wrens. THE RIFLE-BIRDS. These are exceedingly beautiful and brilliant birds, found only in Australia. Genus PTILORIS : Ptiloris. — (Jf this two species are known ; the common species, the Para- dise Rifle-Bird, P. paradiseus, is the most gorgeous in its plumage of the Australian birds. It is of a rich velvet-black, with the head and neck of a most brilliant bluish-green. The feathers of the lower surface are bordered with rich olive-green, and the two central tail-feathers are me- 100 VEUTEBliATA. talUc-jjroon. The foiiialo is s upon the trunks of trees in the same manner as tlie Creep- ers, which it resembles in its general habits. Little is known of the mode of life of the other species. THE PLUMED BIRDS OR EPlMACHIXyE. These liave usually been associated with the birds of ]^aradisc, which they rival in the splendor of their plumage. Some of them are furnished with long, dazzling plumes, similar to those which distinguish these brilliant birds. The species are very few, and almost confined to New Guinea and the adjacent islands; one species is found in New Zealand, and two in Aus- + T* Q 1 1 Q Genus EPIMACHUS : Epimachus of Cuvier, corresponding to the Promerops of Brisson, and the Rhinojjomastes of Smith. This includes the E. albus, which is of a fine metallic violet-black color, with a broad collar of feathers margined with emerald- green at the base of the neck. Long float- ing plumes spring from the back and rump; they are of a white color, and very long, with long, silky, distant barbs, and twelve of the lower plumes are terminated by long filiform continuations of the shafts, which are curved and blackish toward the extrem- ity ; these formerly obtained for this species the name of the Twelve-threaded Bird of Paradise. The Grand Promerops, E. maf/mcs, is found in New Guinea, along the coasts ; the genei'al color is blackish-brown ; tail three feet long, thrice as long as the body ; feathers of the sides elongated, raised, curled, glittering on their edges with steel-blue, azure, and emerald-green, like precious | stones ; the head and the belly lustrous also with steel-blue. In truth, language fails to convey any just idea of the magnificence of this species. THE HOOPOES OR UPUPID^. These, of which there are only a few species, all belong to the eastern hemisphere ; they have the bill slender, slightly curved throughout, the tip acute ; the toes long and strong, the outer one united to the middle toe at the base ; the claws are curved and powerful. The crown of the head is ornamented by a crest of feathers, which the bird raises and lowers at pleasure. The Genus UPUPA: Upupa, includes the Common Hoopoe, U. epops: it is widely dispersed over Africa, Asia, and Europe, being migratory in the latter country. It is twelve inches long, and of an exceedingly elegant appearance ; the head and neck are of a pale red color ; the fore part of the back light purplish-red ; behind this it is of a reddish-white color, barred with black ; the wings are black, with several irregular white bars, and the tail is black, with a single white bar THE GRAND PROMEROPS. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 101 THE HOOPOE. The crest is very elegant, being composed of long feathers, each of which is tipped with black. It is found from Sweden to Spain, and is common in England and France. It builds in the holes of trees, forming the nest of a few stalks of grass and feathers; the eggs are usually from five to six in number, and of a pale lavender-gray color. These birds inhabit the neighborhood of woods, generally in marshy places, and seek their food — which consists of insects and worms — principally upon the ground, where they walk and run with great ease. They also frequently visit trees in search of their prey. They are fond of picking about in the filth around houses and stables, and are sometimes descriptively called Dung-Birds in England. In captivity they are easily tamed, and being highly intelligent, are very amusing. They have also very comical gestures, such as an almost constant nodding of the head, as if walking with a cane ; at the same time they raise and lower their crest, and move their tail sideways and up and down. They will follow their keepers, and utter cries of joy at their approach. Their note resembles the word hoop pronounced softly and rapidly. The French call this bird Huppe, in allusion to its crest. Other species are the U. Capensis, or Fre(jilu2ius Capensis, and the Falculia palUata. THE GUITGUITS OR C^REBIX^. These have a straight or slightly curved bill, and are found in tropical South America and the West Indian Islands. They are small, slender birds, and feed principally on the small insects which they find in flowers; they are also said to feed on honey. Their plumage is exceedingly beautiful in color, but lacks the metallic brilliancy of that of the humming-birds and sun-birds. Their nests are of various forms, and built in difi'erent situations. Some species suspend them from the extremities of twigs, and these pendulous dwellings are sometimes furnished with a long funnel, through which the bird enters them ; other species make the nest in a bush or tree, and in this case it is usually divided into two compartments, of which the outer serves as a vestibule, while the eggs are laid in the inner one, and are thus protected from the attacks of their enemies. The Azure Guitguit, Ccereba cyanea, is of a velvet black and blue color ; the head golden. It is found in Guiana and Brazil. THE SUN-BIRDS OR PROMEROPIDiE. These, which are called Cinnyridce by some naturalists, and are closely allied to the Upupidce, embrace two sub-families, one found in the eastern, the other in the western hemisphere. The former constitute the true Sun-Birds, which in India and the eastern archipelago seem to supply the place of the humming-birds of America ; they even rival those living gems in the brilliancy of their colors, and their habits are very similar. In the morning and evening they are constantly seen in great numbers in the neighborhood of flowers, into which they thrust their slender bills It II' VERTEBRATA. THP SOUI-MANGA AND ITS NEST. in soarcli of the uiinutc insects always found in such situations ; they will also pick small spiders from their webs, and insects from the crevices of the walls and trees. They are said also to sub- sist partly on the juices of flowers, whence the name of Sucriers or Sugar-Birds, applied to them by French authors. Some of them also feed upon fruits. Like the humming-birds, they are ex- ceedino-ly quarrelsome, fighting violently for the possession of a flower, the vanquished bird re- treating from the spot with shrill cries, while the conqueror takes up his position upon a flower or stem, and swinging his little body to and fro, pours out a note of triumph. The song is said to be very agreeable. An interesting species is the Soui-Manga, S. ctjnniris, its metallic colors shining with the most intense brilliancy. It makes its nest with great art on trees and shrubs. The nests of two oth^r species, jVectarinia Lotenia and N. Asiatka, as described by Mr. Layard, are elegant domed struc- tures, generally suspended from the extremity of a twig of some low bush, and artfully covered with cobweb. In this, Mr. Layard says, he has often seen the spider still weaving her toils, thus rendering the deception still more eff"ective; and it would seem that the birds were aware of it, and left their helper undisturbed. The entrance to the nest is usually turned toward the inte- rior of the bush, and is sheltered from the sun and rain by a sort of portico, which often projects more than an inch from the walls. In this snug tenement the little sun-birds lay from two to four eggs, which are of a whitish color, closely covered with minute, dusky spots, so that their general color appears gray. THE TROCHILID^ OR HUMMING-BIRDS. These birds, peculiar to the American continent, have excited the liveliest interest in every observer. There are more than three hundred distinct species, varying considerably in size : the Ruby-throated Humming-Bird, which is most commonly known in the United States, is three inches and a half long, and is about the medium size ; the Giant Humming-Bird of Brazil is of the di- mensions of the purple martin or chimney-swallow ; several species are not larger than beetles. They vary also in form, some being robust and some slender ; some having bills of enormous CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. TASSERES. 103 VAEIOUS SPECIES OF HUMMING-BIRDS. length, "which, however, they use with admirable dexterity ; others have tails three times the length of tlieir bodies, and the tails of others suddenly expand at the end like a paddle or a spoon. They all live on small insects, which they catch in flowers, and on the honey of flowers, which also constitutes their only drink. The tongue is the chief weapon for capturing their prey and sucking up their nectar, and consists of a long double tube, formed like a double-barreled gun ; at the tip it is flattened, and sometimes barbed. It is darted out with great dexterity, and is thus a very efficient instrument. The metallic brilliancy of these birds has caused them often to be called "flying gems." Their plumage indeed defies description. The changeableness of the colors with the movements of these birds, is truly wonderful. Several of the species have an emerald-colored cravat ; this is noticed to give out all the hues of green, and then the brightest and most golden tints, down to intense vel- vet-black. So the cravat of our Ruby-Throat gives out pencils of light, passing from reddish - orange to a crimson-black. These dazzling changes are infinitely diversified. A large space on the throat, the top of the head, and the under parts of the body, are usually the most bril- Hantly colored ; the upper parts are plain. All these birds are not equally brilliant ; some, in- deed, are covered over with the most gorgeous colors; others are more modestly attired; in general the females have more somber plumage than the males. The ancient Mexicans appear to have appreciated the beauty of the humming-birds as Avell as that of the trogons. The radi- ant mantles worn by the natives in the time of Montezuma glittered with the spoils of these diminutive birds ; these were also ingeniously employed by the native artists in executing the embroidered pictures which so much excited the admiration of Cortez. The nests of these tiny birds are usually made of cotton, thistle-down, delicate fibers, fungus- like substances, and other soft materials; these are woven into a compact yet flexible cup-shaped cradle, which is placed on some branch of a tree, seldom more than fifteen feet from the ground. The exterior is covered with lichens, the right side always out, and in such a manner as to make the whole structure appear like a natural excrescence. The eggs are white, and almost invari- ably two in number. The region which may be considered as the central home of the humming-birds is that portion l()4 VERTEBRATA. of till' loiiiiiii'iil of America wlii.h lies l.ftweon tlie iiortliern boundary of Mexico and the south- .Tii limit of linizil and rem. They are particularly al.im.l.int in Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies. Their apjiearanee in these tropical countries is thus described by Edwards in his " Voyage up the Amazon :" " Wherever a ereejiini; vine opens its frajjrant clusters, or wherever a tree or flower blooms, may these little birds be seen. In the garden or in the woods, over the water, everywhere, they are darting about, of all sizes, from one that might easily be mistaken for a different variety of bird, to the tinv Hermit, whose body is not half the size of the bees buzzing about the same sweets. Sometimes they are seen chasing eacli other in sport with a rapidity of fliglit and intri- eaev of path the eve is puzzled to follow. Again, circling round and round, they rise liigh in mid-air, then dart off like light to some distant attraction. I'erclied upon a little limb, they smooth their plumes, and seem to delight in their dazzling hues; then darting off leisurely, they skim along, stopping capriciously to kiss the coquetting flowerets. Often two meet in mid-air and tiLrht furiously, tlicir crests and the feathers on their throats erected and blazing, and altogether pictures of the most violent rage. Several times we saw them battling with large, black bees, who frequent the same flowers, and may be supposed to interfere, often provokiugly. Like light- nin"- our little lieroes would come down, but the coat of shining mail would ward off their furious strokes. Again and again would they renew the attack, until their anger had expended itself by its own furv, or until the apathetic bee, once roused, had put forth powers that drove the invader from the field." Genus TROCHILUS : TrocMlus, includes the Ruby-tiiroated Humming-Bird, T. cobibris, common in summer from Hudson's Bay to Mexico, and breeding throughout this wide space. Wilson's description of it is substantially as follows: "It is three inches and a half in length and four and a quarter in extent ; the whole back, upper part of the neck, sides under the wings, tail-coverts, and two middle feathers of the tail, arc of a rich golden-green ; the tail is forked, and, as well as the wings, of a deep brownish-purple ; the bill and eyes are black ; the legs and feet, both of which are extremely small, are also black; the bill is straight and very slender. The sides of the belly and belly itself are dusky white, mixed with green ; but what constitutes the chief ornament of this little bird is the splendor of the feathers of his throat, which, when placed in a proper position, glow with all the brilliancy of the ruby. These feathers are of singular strength and texture, lying close together like scales, and vary, when moved before the eye, from a deep black to a fiery crimson and burning orange. The female is destitute of this ornament, but differs little in other appearance from the male. In May it begins to build its nest. This is generally fixed on the upper side of a horizontal branch, not among the twigs, but on the body of the branch itself. In the woods it very often chooses a white-oak sapling to build on, and in the orchard or garden selects a pear-tree for that purpose. The bi'anch is seldom more than ten feet from the ground. The nest is about an inch in diameter, and as much in depth. A very complete one is now lying before me, and the materials of which it is composed are as follows : — the outward coat is formed of small pieces of a species of bluish-gray lichen that vegetates on old trees and fences, thickly glued on with the saliva of the bird, giving firmness and consistency to the whole, as well as keeping out moisture. Within this are thick, matted layers of the fine wings of certain flying seeds, closely laid together; and lastly, the downy substance from the great mul- lein, and from the stalks of the common fern, lines the whole. The base of the nest is continued round the stem of the branch, to which it closely adheres; and, when viewed from below, appears a mere mossy knot or accidental protuberance. The eggs are two, pure white, and of equal thick- ness at both ends. "The humming-bird is extremely fond of tubular flowers, and I have often stopped, with pleas- ure, to observe his maneuvers among the blossoms of the trumpet-flower. When arrived before a thicket of these that are full blown, he poises or suspends himself on wing, for the space of two or three seconds, so steadily, that his wings become invisible, or only like a mist ; and you can plainly distinguish the pupil of his eye looking round with great quickness and circumspection ; the glossy golden-green of his back, and the fire of his throat, dazzling in the sun, form altogether a most interesting appearance. When he alights, which is frequently, he always prefers the small, HUMMING-BIRDS. CLASS 11. AVES: ORDER 2. PAS SERES. 105 TUE TOPAZ HUMMIXG-BIRD. dead tAvigs of a tree or bush, where he drosses and arranges liis phimage with great dexterity. His only note is a single chirp, not louder than that of a small cricket or grasshopper, generally uttered while passing from flower to flower, or when engaged in fight with his fellows ; for, when two males meet at the same bush or flower, a battle instantly takes place, and the combatants ascend in the air, chirping, darting, and circling around each other, till the eye is no longer able to fol- low them. The conqueror, however, generally returns to the place to reap the fruits of his vic- tory. I have seen him attack, and for a few moments tease the king-bird, and have also seen him, in his turn, assaulted by a humble-bee, which he soon put to flight. "The humming-bird is one of those few birds that are universally beloved ; and amid the sweet, dewy serenity of a summer's morning, his appearance among the arbors of honeysuckles and beds of flowers is truly interesting — " When the morning dawns, and the blest sun again Lifts his red glories from the eastern main, Then through our woodbines, wet with glittering dews, The flower-fed hummiug-bird his round pursues ; Sips, with inserted tube, the honey'd blooms. And chirps his gratitude as round he roams ; While richest roses, though in crimson drest, Shrink from the splendor of his gorgeous breast. What heavenly tints in mingling radiance fly ! Each rapid movement gives a different dye ; Like scales of burnish'd gold they dazzling show, Now sink to shade — now like a furnace glow." Vol. II.— 14 io(; VERTEBRATA, THE SUPERCILIOIS HUMMING-BIRD AND NEST. The Other species known in the United States are the Mango IIumming-Bird, T. mango, larger than the Ruby-Throat, and common in the West Indies; occasionally seen in Florida: the Anna HuMMiNG-BiRD, T. Anna, a Mexican species, sometimes seen in California ; the Noktiiern Hum- MiNG-BiRD, T. rufus, which extends its range along the Pacific to a high northern latitude ; and the Purple-throated Humming-Bird, T. Alexandri, found in Mexico and California, and figured by Cassin in his "Birds of America." It would be in vain to attempt a lengthened description of even the more celebrated species of this multitudinous family ; we can only mention a few of them. The Topaz Humming-Bird, T. pella — the type of the beautiful genus TojMza of Gray — has the plumage red and ruby, with a topaz cravat; it inhabits Guiana. The Supercilious Humming-Bird, T. superciliosus, is green above and gray beneath ; the tail is brown, varied with white. It is reraai-kable for its large nest, ingeniously woven of the fibers of plants. It is found in Brazil. The Mellisuga minima, found in South America and the West Indies, is only an inch and a quarter in length ! The Double-crested Humming-Bird, T. cornutus, is described as having two flattened fan- shaped crests, glistening with hues of polished gold and red copper, changing into the gcmmy tints of the emerald and the ruby, now fire-colored, anon the purest green, and presently the brightest yellow. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 107 The male of the Long-tailed Emerald Humming-Bird, T. jJolytmus, is furnished with a most elegant forked tail, the two outer feathers being greatly prolonged and very slender. The whole length of the bird is a little more than ten inches, but about seven inches and a half of this is made up by tlie elongated feathers just mentioned. The head and the back of the neck of this little gem are deep velvet-like black ; the whole of the back, with the wing and tail-coverts, golden- green ; the wings and tail are purplish or bluish-black. The entire lower surface of the body are of a most gorgeous emerald-green color, except the neighborhood of the vent and lower tail-cov- erts, which are black. The bill is bright red, tipped with black, and the feathers of the back of the head are elongated, forming a sort of crest, which can be erected to a certain extent. Mr. Gosse gives the following account of its appearance in a state of nature, in his interesting work entitled "A Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica": "While I was up in a calabash-tree, the beautiful long-tailed humming-bird came shooting by, with its two long velvet-black feathers, fluttering like streamers behind it, and began to suck at the blossoms of the tree in which I was. Quite regard- less of my presence, consciously secure in its power of wing, the lovely little gem hovered around the trunk, and threaded the branches, now probing here, now there, its cloudy wings on each side vibrating with a noise like that of a spinning-wheel, and its emerald breast for a moment flashing brilliantly in the sun's ray ; then apparently black, all the light being absorbed; then, as it slightly turned, becoming a dark olive ; then in an instant, blazing forth again with emerald effulgence. Several times it came close to me, as I sat motionless with delight, and holding my breath for fear of alarming it and driving it away ; it seemed almost worth a voyage across the sea to behold so radiant a creature in all the wildiiess of its native freedom." THE HONEY-EATERS AND HONEY-CREEPEES. These birds are mostly small in size, and are chiefly confined to Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, and the adjacent islands. The bill is rather long, curved, acute, and slightly notched at the tip; the tail is long and broad. They feed on the pollen and nectar of flowers, and the insects which they find in and around them. Their tongue is long and protrusile, with a tuft of fibers at the end which aids them in obtaining their food. A few of the larger species feed on fruits. Their nests are made on bushes, sometimes suspended from the ends of twigs ; the eggs are usually two in number. This family is called Melijihagidfe by naturalists. There are numerous genera and species. The Poe-Bird or Tui, Prosthemadera Novm Ze- landiie, is about the size of a thrush, of a fine glossy-black color, with two small tufts of white feathers hanging down upon the sides of the neck. These tufts have been compared to a pair of clerical bands, and, taken in conjunction with the black plumage of the rest of the body, have obtained for it the name of the Parson-B/rd. It is a fine songster, and imitates every sound that reaches its ear, even learning to speak with great ease and fluency. It is exceedingly lively and restless, and feeds principally upon flies and small insects, which it is very expert in catching. It also eats worms and fruits. Its flesh is said to be delicious. Another species peculiar to New Zealand is the Pogonornis cinctd, which is remarkable foi- the great length of the tufts of feathers over the ears ; these are erected when the bird is alarmed, and give it a very singular appearance. A remarkable Australian species is the Friar-Bird, Tropidorhi/nchus corniculatus, which has the head and neck bare of feathers, and a curious tubercle at the base of the bill. Its voice is loud and very singular, some of its notes having a certain degree of resemblance to particular words, and several of its colonial names, such as Poor Soldier, PhnUco^ and Four-o''dock^ have been derived from these notes. Its name of Friar-Bird alludes to its bare head, and the same character has obtained for it the denominations of the Monk and the Leather-head. The Wattled Honey-Eater has a long wattle hanging down from each ear ; its note is described as very harsh and disagreeable, resembling the noise made by a person vomiting ; the native name, Goo-g war-ruck, is said to be an imitation of it. This is the Philcdon Goruck of Cuvicr. Another group, that of the M>jzomelinai or Honey-Creepers, is distinguished from the preceding l>y having tiie third and fourth quills longest. In their habits and mode of life they resemble the true honey-eaters. 1U8 VERTEBRATA. * I t "^■^r"*.;; "/ ,^:^--- / '\m - THE HOENEEO OVEX-BIUD. TEE FURNARIN-E OR OVEN-BIRDS. This group of small birds is very generally distributed over the continent of South America, and some species occur in the West Indian Islands. Their food consists principally of insects, which they take both upon trees and bushes, and on the ground, where they run and walk with great ease. They also occasionally feed on seeds. The species of the genus Cinclodes, inhabiting the Avest coast of South America, frequent the sea-shore, where they feed partly on small crabs and moUusca. Mr. Darwin says they are sometimes seen on the floating leaves of the Fnctis f/i- ffanieus, at some distance from the shore. A species of this genus, found in the Malouine Islands, described by Lesson under the name of Furnarius ful/;/inosus, is said to be so tame that it may be almost touched by the hand ; and Pernetty, a French voyager, states that it will almost come and perch upon the finger. He adds, that in less than half an hour he killed ten of them with a little stick, and almost without changing his position. This species is five and a half inches long, and of a brown color, with yellow and brown stripes on the neck. The HoRNERO Oven-Bird of Buenos Ayres, F, rufus of Vieillot, Merojjs rufus of Gmelin, which is typical of the true Oven-Birds, is six to seven inches long, of a bright russet color, and builds a very remarkable nest. This is constructed of clay, straw, and dried herbage of different kinds, in the form of an oven, about ten or twelve inches in diameter, and with walls about an inch thick. The entrance is placed on one side, and the interior is divided into two chambers by a partition, the eggs being laid in the inner one. This curious nest is usually placed in a very exposed situation, as, for instance, on the branch of a tree or the top of a paling. In the construction of it, both the male and female labor in concert, each bringing a pellet of earth of the size of a walnut, and depositing it in its place. Such is the energy of these little architects, that the nest is often built in two days. This bird is said to be an object of veneration with the inhabitants of La Plata. The Brown Ovex-Bird resembles the preceding. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. THE CEETHIN^ OR CREEPERS. 109 Beside the true Creepers, some naturalists have included various other analogous gen- era, such as the Soui-Manga^ Guitguit, Di- cceu7n, Nectarinia^ Melithre])tus, Furnarius, &c., under the name of Certhiadce ; we shall notice under the term Certhince only the true Creepers. Genus CERTHIA : CertMa.—Th.\fi includes the Common Creeper or Tree Climber — Grimpercaii of the French ; Kleinste Baum- Hdcker of the Germans ; Piccio Rampkhino of the Italians — C.familiaris: this has a bill slender, and curved; length six and a half \ inches ; head and neck above, streaked with black and yellowish-brown ; a white line above \i each eye; back and rump tawny; coverts dusky brown and yellowish-white ; breast and ^-^ y belly silver-white. It is a most restless and ,v I active little bird, ever on the alert, and climbing up and about the trunks and branches of trees, intent on picking up its insect food. But even where it is common it is not easily seen, for its activity in shifting its position makes it very dif- ficult to follow it with the eye. At one instant it is before the spectator, and the next is hid- den from his view by the intervening trunk or branch, to the opposite side of which it has passed in a moment. The toes are so con- trived that the bird at will can remove their position ; the tail feathers at the ends are bare, and operate as a support ; these are beautiful adaptations to the peculiar motions of the bird. Its note is monotonous, and often repeated. It builds its nest in a hole of a decayed tree ; this is formed of dry grass, lined with small feathers, in which six or eight eggs are deposited. While the female sits she is regularly fed by the male bird. It is found throughout the continent of Europe, migrating in October to the southern parts, but is permanent in Great Britain. The American Brown Creeper, C. Americana^ is five and a half inches long; upper part of the head deep brown ; back brown ; both streaked with white. This has been supposed to be the same as the European creeper, but it is now held to be distinct. Wilson thus describes it: "In winter it associates with the small spotted woodpecker, nuthatch, titmouse, &c., and often follows in their rear, gleaning up those insects wliich their more powerful bills had alarmed and exposed; for its own slender, incurvated bill seems unequal to the task of penetrating into even the decayed wood ; though it may into holes, and behind scales of the bark. Of the titmouse, there are, generally present, the individuals of a whole family, and seldom more than one or two of the others. As the party advances through the woods from tree to tree, our little gleaner seems to observe a good deal of regularity in his proceedings; he alights on the body near the root of the tree, and directs his course, with great nimbleness, upward to the higher branches, sometimes spirally, often in a direct line, moving rapidly and uniformly along, with his tail bent to the tree, and not in the hopping manner of the woodpecker, whom he far surpasses in dexterity of climbing, running along the lower side of the horizontal branches with surprising ease. If any person be near when he alights, he is sure to keep the opposite side of the tree, moving round as he moves, so as to prevent him from getting more than a transient glimpse of him. The best THE COMMON CREEPER OF EUUOPE. 110 VEUTEBKATA. mcthuil «'(' (•utwittiiig liim, if you arc alono, is, as soon as lie alights and disappears bchiiiJ the truiili, to take your stand bchiiul an adjoining one, and keep a sharp look-out twenty or thirty feet up the body of the tree ho is upon, for he generally mounts very regularly to a considerable height, examining the whole way as he advances. In a minute or two, hearing all still, he will make his appearance on one side or other of the tree, and give you an opportunity of observing him. These birds are distribiited over the whole United States, but are most numerous in the Western and Northern States ; their haunts are in the depths of the forests, and in tracts of large timbered woods, where they usually breed, visiting the thicker settled parts of the country in fall and winter." The C. albifrons is found in Texas; it is five and a quarter inches long, dark brown spotted. The "Wall-Creeper of Europe, Tichodroma muraria, seeks its insect food on rocks and in walls; it is chiefly found in the mountainous parts of Southern Europe; it is permanent though rare at Rome, beinfr sometimes seen on the exterior walls of St. Peter's. The Tree-Creepers, DendrocolajJtince, found in the vast forests of South America, resemble the species we have described ; the form of the bill, however, is variable, in some cases being very lono- and bent downward. The Sijnallaxince are an allied group, but which not only devour in- sects upon the trees, but worms and snails on the ground. They are remarkable for the large size of their nests, those of one species measuring three or four feet in length. THE COMMON' ECROPEAX XCTHATCU. THE SITTINiE OE NUTHATCHES. ' !, Genus SITTA : Sitta. — This includes several species. The Common European Nuthatch — |j the Pic Macon of the French, and Blauspecht of the Germans — S. Europwa, is a small bird, five inches long, blue-gray above, below rufous-brown. It runs with fjicility up ar i down the branches and trunks of trees, its head often down, but having no assistance in this from its tail-feathers. It , sleeps with the head down, and generally alights in that position. It is almost constantly in mo- j tion, its food consisting of berries, insects, larvae, and nuts. It derives its name from the hatches or hammerings which it makes on nuts, either for obtaining insects or the kernels. Its call in j the spring is a clear, shrill whistle. The nest is made with a few dry leaves in the hole of a tree. ' If the hole is too large the bird reduces it by plastering up a part with mud. The eggs are five to seven in number. This bird is common throughout Europe. Other foreign species are the *S'. rupestris, S. Si/riaca, S. Uralensis, and S. Asiatica; there are also closely allied species in the Indian Archipelago and Australia. The White-breasted Nuthatch, S. CaroUnensis, is five inches long; the head and back of the neck are glossy black ; the back bluish-black ; beneath white. It is found from Mexico to Maine, and is one of the birds that enliven our forests after the cold season has commenced and other birds have departed. It feeds on spiders, insects, larv«, (fee. Other American species are the Red-bellied Nuthatch, S. Canadensis ; the Brown-headed Nuthatch, S.pusilla; and the California Nuthatch, S. pigmcea. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. Ill THE GREAT CAROLINA WREN. THE COMMON KUROPBAN WREN. THE TKOGLODYTIN^ OR WRENS. This family includes a number of small, lively, familiar birds, some of tliem living around the habitations of man, and feeding upon insects and seeds. Genus TROGLODYTES : Troglodytes. — Tliis includes several species: the Common Wren of Europe — Roytelet of the French; Fiorracino of the Italians; Cutty, Katy, or Kitty-Wren of the i English — T. Ua7-o]xrus, is an active, lively little bird, and appears, in Europe, to share with the robin in the affections of the country people. It frequents hedges, gardens, and bushy places, flitting fro:n busli to bush with a direct flight, and feeding principally upon insects of various kinds, and also occasionally upon seeds and fruits. In spring and summer the male has a very sweet song, which is exceedingly loud and rich, especially when we consider the smallness of the pipe pro- ducing it. These birds are very familiar, and seek to be near the habitations of man, although they do not exhibit the same degree of confidence as the robin, but generally conceal tliemselves very quickly when approached too closely. Nevertheless, in the winter, when cold weather ren- ders it somewhat diflScult to keep up the vital heat in such a diminutive body, these birds often roost in cow-houses, for the sake of the warmth generated by the cattle. Most of them, however, shelter themselves in holes at this season, roosting in considerable numbers together, so as to keep up the heat by close packing. For the same purpose they often frequent their nests of the pre- ceding summer; and it has even been said by some authors that the male occupies himself while the female is sitting, with preparing several nests, to aff"ord shelter to the brood in the coming winter. The wrens pair about the middle of the spring, and early in April commence the construction of their nests. These are placed in very various situations, but principally in holes and crevices in walls, banks and trees, and also in thatched roofs, amongst climbing plants, or even on the branch of a tree. They are made of various materials and lined with feathers : the number of eggs is seven to twelve. It is calculated that these birds bring food to their young ones two hun- dred and seventy-eight times in a day, with an insect each time. They produce two broods in a season. This species is common throughout Europe, and permanent in France and England and the contiguous countries. The American House-Wren, T. cedon, or T. fidims, is migratory in the United States, arriving from the South early in May. It is brown, banded with dusky ; its length is about four inches ; it builds its nest sometimes in the wooden cornice under the eaves, or in a hollow ll-_' VERTEBRATA. clu'riv-troc; or fiviiiitMitly in small Uoxi's, fixi-d on the top of a pole in or near the garden, to which latter he is extremely partial, for the great number of caterpillars and other larvae with wliieh it constantly supplies him. If all these conveniences are wanting, he will put up with an old hat nailed on the weather-boards, with a small hole for entrance ; and, if even this be denied him, he will find some liolc, corner, or crevice about the house, barn, or stable, rather than aban- don the dwellings of num. Wilson tells us that in the month of June a mower hung up his coat under n shed, near a barn ; two or three days elapsed before he had occasion to put it on again; thrusting his arm up the sleeve, he found it completely filled with some rubbish, as he expressed it, and, on extracting the whole mass, found it to be the nest of a wren completely finished, and lined with a lar ini.l.lle one :it th.- I..im-. '11.. v arc found in both liemisphcrcs, but are raost abuiiilant in Australia an.I l'ul\ ii.sia. They arc small l.inls, inhabit woods and forests, and feed on fruits M'ods, buds, and insects. One of the Australian species, KopmUaria Amtralls, is called the Vki.i.ow llonix bv the colonists; another species found in Van Uieinen's Land— the Parda- lotiis pitncliitii.o, called the J >iAM(>M)-r.iKu, on account of the spots on its head— excavates a hori- zontal i>a.ssaiic two feet \oiur in the trunk of a tree, at the end of which it builds its nest. This bird frciuents the fr,im-trees, and freely approaches the habitations of man. Several species of the genus ZrW>/Ar/x are found in India; they feed on insects, and for the purpose of seizing these, are often occupied in carefully examining the opening buds of the trees, whence they are called Bud Jlnnhrs. THE CKES7ED DROXGO. THE DICRURINJ3 OR DRONGO SHRIKES. These approach the true shrikes; they are found only in the eastern hemisphere, and are partic- ularly abundant in the East Indies and the islands of the Asiatic Archipelago. Many of them are exceedingly beautiful birds ; their average size is about that of a thrush, and they appear to migrate from one part of the country to another with the monsoons. The commonest of the Indian species, tlie Dio-urns macrocercus, has received the name of King Crow, from its habit of perse- cuting the crows, which it follows with the greatest perseverance and clamor, jwuncing down upon them every now and then, but apparently seldom striking them. The principal food of this and most of the species consists of insects, especially grasshoppers, for which they w^atch from some elevated perch, and on perceiving one, immediately dart down upon it. For this purpose they not unfrcquently estal)lish tliemselves on the backs of cattle, sheep and goats, wdiilst these animals are grazing. They fly with great rapidity, and often capture insects on the wing. Some of the species appear only to have a harsh, screaming note, but others are said to be charming songsters; and one species, the Dicrurus Paradiseus, has received the Hindoo name of '■'■Huzar J)ztista7i" or ''Bird of a thousand tales,^^ from a belief that it is able to imitate the song of all other birds. The Dicrurina) live in the jungles, and build their nests, which are composed of grass, twigs, moss, and lichen, in the forks of trees. Their architectural powers appear to be very variable, as the nests of some of the species are described as carelessly put together, while others are said to be very neat. The eggs are from three to five in number, of a white or whitish color, usually spotted with reddish-brown. The Crested Drongo, Lanhis forficatus of Gmelin, is an African species, black, with a gi'cen rc- tlection, of the size of a thrush ; they unite in flocks of twenty or thirty, and in attacking the bees present a very animated appearance, their cry of pia, f/riach, ffriah, being constantly repeated. CLASS II. AVES: OKDER 2. PASSERES, 11 ^^ THE CAMPEPHAGINiE OR CATERPILLAR-EATERS. These birds, like the Dicrurinae, are ahuost exclusively confined to the warmer parts of the Old World — Africa, and India — only the single genus Ptilonogonus being found in America. They have the bill short, the claws much curved, and live principally in woods and forests; but some of the species are also found about hedges and gardens. They are seen either singly or in small flocks, hopping about upon the trees, and prying inquisitively into every part of the foliage in search of their food, which consists ahnost entirely of soft insects, and especially of caterpillars. They also pick up ants and beetles, and in pursuit of these are not unfrequently seen upon the ground ; fruits and berries are said also to form part of the diet of some of the species. The nests are built high up in trees; they are of small size, and composed of lichens, roots, and thin stalks. The eggs arc few in number, sometimes only two, of a pale color, with brown streaks. THE UMBRELLA-BIRD. THE BLOODY PAVAO. THE GYMNODERINyE OR FRUIT-CROWS. Another and an interesting group is that of the G>jmnoderinm or Fruit-Crows, consisting of some remarkable birds, which have been arranged by difi'erent authors among the chatterers and the crows. They have a stout, straight, depressed bill, with the ridge of the upper mandible curved, and its tip notched ; the wings are long and pointed ; the tail of moderate length, and rounded ; the claws long, curved, and acute. They are peculiar to South America, and are of considerable size, some of the larger species being equal, in this respect, to our common crows. They feed principally upon fruits, and occasionally on insects. Some of the species have the face or part of the neck bare of feathers, and hence are called Bald-Hcads : one species, the Gymnocephalus calvtis, is called the Capuchin Bald-Head. Another species, the Bloody Pa vac, Coracina scufata, is fifteen inches long, and is entirely black, with a blood-red cuirass of feathers on the neck and breast, appearing like a bloody wound ; it has a cry of bou, bon, bov, which in the deep forests of Brazil sounds like the horn of a herdsman calling his flock. Another species is the renowned Umbrella-Bird, Ceijhalopterus ornahis, of a beautiful glossy black color, giving out bluish reflections; it has a superb tuft of blue, hair-like, curved feathers on the top of the head, and also a plume of blue feathers de2:»ending from a fleshy process on the neck. This bird is of the size of a crow, feeds principally on fruits, and has a loud, deep note, whence it is called by the natives Ueramimbe or Piper-Bird. It is found in the regions of the Rio Negro. Another celebrated species is the Arapunga, or Campenero, or Bell-Bird, Araimnga alba, found in the wild forests of Guiana ; it is about twelve inches in length, and of a pure white color. It is dis- 120 VERTEBRATA. ,;„.uisluMl bv H sin-ular fk-shy cylin-lriral anHinlago, often funnshcl ^v.th a few small feathers, l? h" riso. from tlio btso of the bill. Us voice is peculiar, rcseniblnig the deep tolling ot a bell. \ ' ' ,lin ' to WutertoM, it may be heard at a distance of nearly three miles during the heat of th ^'v when most of the feathered inhabitants of those tropical forests are hushed in silence. THE -^V^^JS-WING. THE CHATTERERS. The Ampelince or True Chatterers have the gape wide, the bill broad at the base, depressed near the tip, and distinctly notched ; they are found in both hemispheres. Genns liOMBYClLLA : Bomhjcilla—AmpcUs of some authors.— Of this there arc several species. The European Wax-Wing— Jase^: Vii-cn. — This includes several species, often called Greenlets. The Red-eyed Fly-Catchkk or W'liir-ToM-KEi.i.v, V.olivaceus, isa very numerous and familiar species, even ven- turin«>' into parks, gardens, and vards of cities, where it rears its young and sings its song. Wilson sjivs: "In Jamaica, where this bird is resident, it is called, as Sloane informs us, Whip-tom-kelly, from an imagined resemblance of its notes to these words. And, indeed, on attentively listening for some time to this bird in his full ardor of song, it requires but little of imagination to fancy that you hear it pronounce these words, 'Tom kelly, v,liip-tom-kelIy!' very distinctly." But Mr. Gosse, who has furnished us with several excellent works on Natural History, and lieard this bird often in .lamaii-a, states that its notes bear a very close resemblance to the syllables " John-to-whit," pronounced with an emphasis on the last syllable; an evidence of a fact we have before noticed, that two persons, in attempting to write down the notes of birds, rarely give precisely the same syllables. The other noted species of Yireo are as follows : the White-eyed Fly-Catcher, V. Nove- horacnms, a small species, but a loud singer, noted, as Wilson says, for introducing fi'agments of newspaper into the construction of its nest, whence some of liis friends proposed to call the bird the Politician: the Yellow-throated Greenlet, V. Jlavifrons, five and a half inches long, and of a greenish-olive color : the Solitary Greexlet, V. solitarius, four and a half inches long, dusky-olive color : the Warbling Fly-Catcher, V. ffihnis, a pleasing singer : all the preceding common in the United States : the V. altiloguus, occasionally visiting Florida, and having some curious notes : the Black-headed Fly-Catcher, V. atriccipillus, recently discovered in Texas, seven and a half inches long, above dark olive-green, below white. To these may be added the V. Bartraini, found in New Jersey and Kentucky: the V. longirostris of the Antilles: the V. belli of the upper Missouri. THE TRUE FLY-CATCHERS. In these the form of the bill closely resembles that of the Vireos ; but this organ is rather longer, and has the ridge slightly flattened at first, but curved toward the tip. The gape is fur- nished with bristles ; the wings are long and pointed, and the toes are short, the outer lateral toe being longer than the inner one. These birds, which exhibit the characteristic habits of the family in their greatest perfection, are pretty generally distributed over both hemispheres, but more especially in the tropical re- gions. The species which occur in the temperate and colder regions, generally are summer birds of passage. Gcmts MUSCICAPA : Muscicajw. — This includes the Spotted Fly-Catcher, M. f/riarola, the most familiar and abundant European species, six inches long, of a brownish tint above, with a few dark spots on the head, and dull white beneath ; it is common during the summer in Eng- land, France, and generally over Europe. In England its nest is usually placed in a hole in a wall, in a faggot stack, or an out-building, but the branches of trees trained against a wall are sometimes selected for its reception. A pair have also been known to build on the head of a garden-rake, which had been accidentally left standing near a cottage ; another pair built in a bird-cage ; but the most curious instances of caprice in this matter are those of two pairs of these birds which selected street lamp-posts for the purpose of nidification. Among other foreign species are the Pied Fly-Catcher, M. atricajnlla, common in the south of Europe : called Bcc-finue or Fig-Pecker by the French, because it catches insects on the fig-trees, and, it is said, eats tlie figs when ripe ; the Collared Fly-Catcher, M. albicollis, subject to very great changes of plumage ; and the M. scita, an extremely small species of Southern Africa. The Crested Gobe Moiiche of Bufi'on— .¥^. coronata of Latham— is a handsome South American species, which is noted for catching butterflies which flutter around the cotton-plants. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PAS SERES. 123 There are several species of Fly-Catcli- ers familiarly known in the United States ; the Phoebe-Bird or Pewee Fly-Catcher, M. nunciola or M. fusca^ visits us in summer from the south, its favorite haunts being by streams of water, under or near bridges, in caves, f-?f'?7- titee, x>6-ioee, for a whole morning ; dart- ing after insects and returning to the same twig ; frequently flirting his tail, like the wagtail, though not so rapidly. He is six and a half inches long, of a dusky olive above, lower parts a delicate yellow. On the top of the head the feathers form a loose crest, which is connnon to many of the family. Other species are the Wood Pewee, M. raimx or M. virens^ greatly resembling the preceding : the Short-legged Pewee Fly-Catcher, M. 2'>hoehe, a rare species, found in Labrador and the Fur Couiitries : the Green- crested Fly-Catcher, M. querula, or M. acadica, a small species, keeping to the woods, and little known : the Yellows-bellied Fly-Catcher, M. flavivcnfris, found on Long Island : the Arkansas Fly-Catcher, M. vcrticalis — the chlouni-ish-pil of the Chinnooks — resembling the king- bird in its habits, greenish-brown above and yellow beneath, with a bright red crest ; found on the west of the Rocky Mountains : Cooper's Fly-Catcher, M. Cooperi, resembling the Pewees, and found in the Atlantic States from Texas to Maine : the Rocky Mountain Fly-Catcher, M. nigricans, seven inches long, dark sooty brown above and greenish-white below ; found in Califor- nia and Mexico : Traill's Fly-Catcher, M. TrallU, resembling the wood pewee, found on the Arkansas : the Least Pewee, M. imsilla, five inches long, found in Labrador and the fur coun- tries: the Small-headed Fly-Catcher, M. minuta, found in the Southwestern States; and the American Redstart, M. rutkilla, a very lively and handsome species, six and a half inches long, variegated with red, brown and yellow ; found throughout the United States. THE PHOEBE BIRD. ^ss— -^==i-- TBTE KING OP THE FLY-CATCHERS. The Savannah Fly-Catcher, M. Savana, is fourteen and a half inches long, including the tail. 124 VERTEBKATA. whirhisdooply f<>rkf(;{)NVS : J'tifot/onijs. — This includes Townsend's 1'tilogonys, P. Townsendi, combining somewliat the qualities of the Fly-Catchers and Thrushes; it is eight inches long, of a dull brownish-grav color, and is found on tlie Columbia River: also the Black Fly-Catciier, P. iiitciis^ fii;ured bv Cassin, seven and a lialf inches long, of a glossy black color, with greenish re- llectit>ns; found in California, Mexico, Arc: the Pipiky Fly-Catcher, P. dominicensis, cio-ht inches long, and resembling the kingbird; found in Florida. Ocuus CULICIVORA : CuUcivora. — This includes the Blue-gray Fly-Catcher or Gnat- Catciieu, C. canilea, about five ii.ches long, and found abundantly in Texas. Gniits FLUVICOLA : Flancola. — This includes several South American species, as the F. co- inata, F. iiiart exhibit several peculiarities of structure. The two external fea- thers liave the barbs much broader on one side than on the other, and the two central feathers, which are the most eIon<;at('d, frc(piently have the barbs decomposed, and the termination of the shaft naked. They are small binls, the Tri-colored Alectrluus, A. tricolor, being only six inches long. THE TUKDIDJE OU THRUSHES. This familv, the numerous species of which feed on insects, worms, and fruits, and usually move on the ground bv hopping with both feet at once, includes several interesting and well-known LCroups, as the Jiiiibiils, Orioles, Babblers, True Thrushes, Ant-Thrushes, Warblers, Titlarks, Bush- Creepers, Titmice, Robins, Nightingales, Tailor-Birds, «fec. THE BULBULS. These birds belong chietly to India, though a few are found in Africa; their sprightliness ren- ders them general favorites ; several species are greatly admired as songsters ; they inhabit woods, jungles, and gardens, and feed on fruits and seeds, and. occasionally on insects. One species, the Pycnonotus jocosus, is easily tamed and taught to sit on its master's Land. Great numbers may be seen in the bazaars of India. Another species, the Pgoionrtvs licemorrhous, is kept for fighting. The under tail-coverts are red, and it is said the combatants endeavor to seize and pull out these feathers. The eggs are three to four in number, of a whitish color, with dark blotches. THE ORIOLES. These live in woods and shrubby places, usually in pairs, suspending their nests at the extremi- ties of the branches of trees. The males are generally beautiful birds, a golden-yellow being the predominant color in their plumage. Their food consists of insects and fruits. They are, for the most part, inhabitants of tropical countries ; but a single species, the Golden Oriole, Oriolus Galbula, (see page G,) migrates into Europe, in the southern parts of which it is abundant. It is of a bright yellow color, with the wings and tail black ; the female is greenish-yellow above, and whitish beneath, with the wings and tail brown. It is about the size of our common robin. Its voice is loud, and has been compared to the sound of a flute ; Bechstein says it resem- bles the word ^.jm^/o. The names given to the bird in different European languages are sup- posed to be, to a certain extent, imitations of its note. The Spaniards call it Turiol, the French Loriot, the English Oriole ; and two of the German names are Pirol and Billoiv. The note of some of the Indian species is described as very similar to that attributed by Bech- stein to the European bird. A nearly allied species, the Mango-Bird or Golden Oriole of India, Oriolus Kundoo, is said to have a loud, mellow, plaintive cry, resembling ^ce-Ao, and Mr- Pearson says of the Black-headed Oriole, 0. melanocejjhalus, which is common in Bengal, that it has a monotonous, low note, resembling "one lengthened, full-toned note on the flute," which is so constantly repeated during the spring that it is a positive nuisance. Most of the other species of the group resemble the golden oriole, both in character and habits; but one species, the Regent-Bird or King Honey-Eater, Sericulus chrysocephalus, of Australia, is remarkable for having the tip of the tongue terminated by a pencil of fine filaments like that of the honey-eaters, among which this bird has indeed been placed by some authors. The male is one of the most beautiful of Australian birds ; its plumage, which is very glossy and satin-like, is variegated with two colors, deep black and brilliant yellow, the latter tinged with orange in some places. The female is dingy in its appearance. The Regent-Birds are found in the warmer parts of the Australian continent, where they inhabit the recesses of the forests, and appear to be exceedingly shy, feeding upon fruits and seeds. Our beautiful birds, the Baltimore and Orchard Orioles, belong to the Ictcrincc, and will be noticed under that head. CLxiSS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 127 THE BABBLERS. This group, called Thnalince, are small, noisy, gregarious birds, belonging to Asia and the Asi- atic Islands and Australia ; they live exclusively in the forests, feeding on insects ; some of the species on fruit. Many of them have a sweet song, and some are excellent imitatoi-s of other birds. Some are noted for a singular cry, which resembles a loud human laugh, and this peculi- arity has obtained for tw'o or three of the species the names oi iha Laughing Crow and Laughing Thrush from the Europeans in India. The cry of the Laughing Thrush, Pteroojclus cachinnans, is said by Dr. Jerdon to be a peculiar "sort of cracked Punch and Judy laugh," which is no sooner commenced by one than several others take up the chorus. The Garrulax leucolophiis, or Laughing Crow, is also said to produce a sound closely resembling the human laugh. Some of these birds, as, for instance, the Black-faced Thrush, Garrulax chinensis, are tamed, and are amusing pets. The Malacocircus Malcomi of India is noted for its courage, and the Spotted Ground-Thrush of Australia, Cinclosoma puuctatum — called Oround-Hawk at Ilobart Town — is greatly esteemed for its flesh. THE TURBINE OR TRUE THRUSHES. Of these the species are numerous in all parts of the globe ; they generally frequent fields and pastures in search of food, but retire to the woods and thickets for security when roosting, and during the breeding season. Their nests are usually very neatly made, composed of grasses, twigs, and moss, frequently lined with a thin layer of mud, within which is another layer of soft vegetable substances for the reception of the eggs. The latter are usually five or six in number, variable in color, but commonly freckled with dark spots. The food of the thrushes consists both of animal and vegetable matters, such as insects and their larvre, worms, snails, fruits and seeds. THE BLACKBIRD. Genus TURDUS: Turdus. — This includes numerous migratory species, visiting temperate countries either from the south in summer or from the north in winter, and popularly known for their song and their pleasing habits. Many of them, which arc not found in America, are still ren- dered interesting and familiar to American readers from the constant allusions to them in English literature. One of the best known is the Blackbird, T. merula — the Merle JVoir of the French ; Mulo of the Italians; and Schumrz Brossel of the Germans; it is about ten inches long, which is nearly the size of tlie Purple Grakle, which we call Blackbird in this country. Its color is black, the bill yellow ; but albinos, entirely white, are sometimes known. It breeds early in the spring, usually forming its nest in a thick bush ; the eggs are four or five in number. It frequents hedges, thickets, plantations, and gardens; is shy, restless, and vigilant, and if disturbed takes wing with a cry of alarm. It feeds on larvae, snails, worms, insects, and fruits. The song is loud and IL'S VERTEBRATA. THE SONG THKUSH. vigorous, and oft repeated; it also imitates the notes of otlier birds, sometimes crowing like the cock, or taking up parts of the song of the nightingale. It is often kept in cages, but is most ad- mired when at liberty in the open air. The Song Thrush or Throstle, T. musicus — the Mavis of the Scotch, and often alluded to in Scottish vei-se ; the Gr'>vc of the French; Tordo of the Italians; and Sine/ Drossel of the Ger- mans— is found in every part of Europe, haunting the gardens and the woods and meadows, es- pecially near streams, and everywhere admired for its charming song. It feeds on worms, insects, snails, and fruits. The nest is made of green moss externally, mixed with fine root-fibers; it is lined within with cow-dung and decayed wood, the lining forming a cement so perfectly spread that it will hold water ; eggs are four or five, of a light blue, the larger end haNnng a few small black specks or spots; the first hatch generally comes forth in April; there are generally two broods in the year; both the cock and the hen sit, but the former less than the latter ; the male often feedinsf his mate on the nest. A hollv, a thick bush, a dense and somewhat hish shrub, or a fir, is usually selected; but the bird has been known to breed in an open shed. It is frequently kej^t in cages, and is taught to perform various simple airs. THE RED-WING THRrSH. The Ring Ousel, T. torqnatus, resembles the preceding, though it is a trifle larger; the color is black, with a crescent-shaped mark of pure white across the chest. It is a good singer, builds on or near the ground, lays four or five eggs, and sometimes flies in small flocks. It is a winter visitor from the north to the south of Europe. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 129 The Red-Wing Thrush, T. iUaciis, migrates from the north to the south of Europe in winter, spending the latter season in England, France, and other parts where the climate is mild. Its favorite resorts are parks, and pleasure grounds ornamented with clumps of trees. They usually feed on worms, snails, and other soft-bodied animals, and therefore, when the ground happens to be covered with snow for a length of time, many of these birds perish. In summer this thrusli migrates far north, to Norway, Lapland, and even the Faroe Isles and Iceland, where it breeds. Its song is pleasing, and it is sometimes called the Norway Nightingale. The upper parts of this bird are olive-brown : the under parts dull white, streaked with brown. From the preceding en- graving, it will be seen that this bird, in its form and markings, bears a striking resemblance to our robin in its first autumn plumage. The Missel Thrush, T. viscivorus — Merle Draine of the French — is also called in various parts of Great Britain Gray Thrush^ Holm-Thrush, Screech-Thrush, Storrncock, and Shrite. The male and female exhibit little ditFer(.^nce : the top of the head and almost all the upper surface of the body are nearly uniform clove-brown; wings and wing-coverts umber-brown; all the under sur- face of the body white, tinged with yellow, and covered with numerous black spots, the whole length about eleven inches. This is one of the largest of the species, and although not very common anywhere, it is verj' generally diffused; it is rather a shy bird, frequenting small woods and the high trees in hedges bounding large meadows. It remains in Middle and Southern Europe all the year. The name Stormcock is given to it from its habit of singing during storm and rain. It begins to build in April, and fixes its nest in the fork of a tree ; the eggs are four or five in number, of a greenish-white color, spotted with red-brown. It feeds on worms, slugs, f doiil.t and lainiliarity in its full, ex- prcssivo cyo, and soon makes itself at home. It is probably tlie most universal feathered favorite in the countries it inhabits. Of-nus ACCKNTOR: Accevtnr. — This includes the Hedge-Accentor, Hedoe-AVarblek, or IIeuge-Sparrow, a. modularis — called Traine-buisson in France — an abundant European species, which, like the robin, lives in the vicinity of man, making its spe- cial haunts in hedgerows and gardens. Its song is short but sweet; the length five and a half inches ; the upper parts brown, beneath steely-gray; it lays six eggs, oc- cupies the forests in summer, and seeks cultivated districts and hunuui habitations in winter. The Alpine Accentor, A, Alpinus, is a larger species, living in the high Alps. Genus SAXICOLA : Saxicola, in- cludes several species, all of which are migratory. The Stonechat, «S^. rubicola — the Traquet Patre of the French — is somewhat smaller than the robin, aud frequents heaths covered with furze and brushwood. In pursuit of its insect food, it frequently is seen creeping from one stone to another, while it utters a chattering sound ; hence its popular English names of Stonechat and Stoneclink. It builds rather a large nest, and lays five or six eggs. It is common in summer throughout Southern and Middle Europe, and is also found in Northern Asia. The AVhinciiat, S. ruhct ra—iha Traquet Tarier of the French— is five inches long, with a mixture of pale and dark brown above ; under ..••• ••.. .__ parts fawn-color. In general, this bird is migratory, but a few remain in England throughout the year. Its fliffht is undulatino", and it flits from bush to bush, perching on one of the topmost twigs. Furze commons are its favorite haunts ; hence it is often called Furzechat, and as the furze is called tvJi'm, it thus also obtains its common title. Worms, insects, small shell-molluscs, and slugs, form its prin- cipal food, but it also eats berries. The nest is formed of dry grass-stalks and a little moss, the lining being finer bents or stalks; it is usually placed on the ground. The song is very pleasing, and resembles that of the goldfinch; and the bird will sing not only during the day, but in the evening, and sometimes at night. This species become, like the wheat-ear, very fat in August, and, though smaller, are equally delicate for the table. The Wheat-Ear or Fallowchat, S. oenanthc — the Traquet Motteux of the French — is a mi- gratory species, arriving in Europe toward the middle of May, and leaving toward the close of TUE WniNCHAT. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 143 THE WHEAT-EAR. September. It is six and a half inches long; the npper parts fine light gray ; beneath pale buiFy- white. It frequently makes its nest in old walls, or in the recesses of rocks. This consists of dry grass, shreds, feathers, and rubbish. The eggs are five or six in number, and of a delicate pale blue. The male has a gentle and pleasing song. Immense numbers of this bird are taken by the shepherds on the downs along the southern coast of England toward the close of summer. One person has been known to capture eighty-four dozen in a day ! The mode in which they are taken is singular from its simplicity. A chamber is formed by cutting out an oblong piece of turf, which is then laid over the hole formed in the opposite direction, so as to be supported by its ends, and two passages are also cut in the turf leading into the chamber. Through these the birds run for shelter at the least alarm ; but in the middle of the chamber a small, upright stick is placed, supporting two running loops of horse-hair, so arranged that it is almost impossible for a bird to pass through the chamber without getting his neck into one of the nooses. Tliis species is found in Greenland, and probably in North America, being called the American Stone-Chat, aS^. ocnanthoides, by Cassin. Genus PHG^NICURA : Phamicura. — This includes the Redstart. P. raticUla, a summer visitor to Europe, five and a half inches long, lead-gray above, beneath pale chestnut. It is a sweet and indefatigable singer, and may be heard as late as ten o'clock at night, and as early as three in the morning. The skirts of woods, lanes and meadow hedgerows, orchards, gardens, the old ivied wall of a ruin, are all favorite liaunts. The male shows himself, as if proud of his pretty plumage, while he is uttering his soft, sweet song, vibrating his tail the while, on some low brancli of a tree, or weather-beaten stone, nor does his music cease as he flies to another station to con- tinue his strain. A crevice in a wall, a hollow tree, a nook in a building, or sometimes a hole in the ground, receives the nest, the outside of which is rough and rich with moss, and lined witli hair and feathers. Four, six, and even eight greenish-blue eggs are deposited, and the first brood, for there are generally two in a season, are frequently fledged by the second week in June. The 144 VEKTEBRATA. food consists of worms and insects, fruit and berries. Tn confinement this bird becomes exceedingly tamo, and if broiiu'lit up from the nest, is the most sensible and attached of all the small birds. THE BLACK REDSTART. The Black Redstart, P. tithys, is five and three-quarter inches long, and resembles the preceding. The Blue-throated Warbler, P. ASweaca, migrates to Europe from the south in the breeding season. Genus KITTACINCLA : Kittacincla, includes the Indian Nightingale, K. macronra — called Shama by the Bengalese. This bird inhabits the recesses of the forests, and is thought to equal the European nightingale in musical gifts. It sings during the night, when other birds are silent; many thousands of them are kept in cages by the natives of Calcutta, and in order to make them sing they are covered over with folds of cloth. In this condition the Mahometan ladies carry them about in their drives, the birds all the time filling the air with their delicious melodies. The Dayal, Copsychus saularis — called Magpie-Rohin by the English residents in Ceylon — seems to take the place of the English robin in their affections, though it is rather noted for its pugnacious disposition. Another species, the Indian Robin, Thamnohia fuUcata, is a great favor- ite both with the natives and the colonists. THE BLUEBIRD. Genus SIALIA : Sialia. — This includes the American Bluebird, S>. sialis which 's, six and three-quarter inches long; the wings full and broad; the whole upper parts of a sky blue; the breast chestnut ; the belly white. It is a summer bird in the United States, coming with the CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 145 earliest spring, and retiring to the soutli in the autumn. Its food consists of insects and spiders in summer, and berries in winter; its nest is usually made in the hollow limb of a tree, the rail of a fence, or a box about the house or garden, kindly provided by the farmer ; the eggs are five to six, of a pale blue color. Nothing can exceed the loving gentleness of these birds in their- intercourse with each other. Wilson says: "The usual spring and summer song of the bluebird is a soft, agreeable, and oft-repeated warble, uttered with open, quivering wings, and is extremely pleasing. In his motions and general character he has great resemblance to the robin redbreast of Britain, and had he the brown-olive of that bird, instead of his own blue, could scarcely be distinguished from him. Like him, he is known to almost every child; and shows as much con- fidence in man by associating with him in summer as the other by his familiarity in winter. He is also of a mild and peaceful disposition, seldom fighting or quarreling with other birds. His society is courted by the inhabitants of the country, and few farmers neglect to provide for him, in some suitable place, a snug little summer-house, ready fitted and rent free. For this he more than sufficiently repays them by the cheerfulness of his song, and the multitude of injurious in- sects which he daily destroys. Toward fall, that is, in the month of October, his song changes to a single plaintive note, as he passes over the yellow, many-colored woods; and its melancholy air recalls to our minds the approaching decay of the face of nature. Even after the trees are stripped of their leaves, he still lingers over his native fields, as if loath to leave them. About the middle or end of November few or none of them are seen; but, with every return of mild and open weather, we hear his plaintive note amid the fields, or in tlie air, seeming to deplore the devastations of winter. Indeed, he appears scarcely ever totally to forsake us, but to follow fair weather through all its journeyings till the return of spring." The Western Bluebird, >S'. occidcnfalis, is seven inches long ; upper parts light blue, chest- nut-red, and grayish-white; has a sweet and varied song; found west of the Rocky Mountains. The Arctic Bluebird, S. Arctica, is seven and a quarter inches long; azure blue above; whitish-gray beneath; found on the Columbia River. Tnu NIGIITIXGALE. THE SYLVIN.E OR TRUE WARBLERS. This sub-family presents several genera and numerous species in both hemispheres. They are small, lively, active birds, generally living among trees and bushes, feeding chiefly on insects, but sometimes also on fruit and seeds. Their nests are usually cup-shaped, and neatly constructed; the eggs vary from five to eight; two broods are usually produced in a season. They arc migra- tory, and. generally gifted with the power of song; indeed, we find several of the species pre-emi- nent in this respect Vol. II.— 19 It,; VEliTEBRATA. (fniHs SVL\IA : Si/lrla. — Tliis iiiclii\' tlu- ( icrniaiis— the inost .•clcliratcl of featlicml songsters. It is a .small Mill, ahoiit tli.- .size of a bluobinl ; six inches long, and weighs half an ounce, yet its voice in the night can he h.^ard a mile, as far as the loudest voice of man. Its color is a rich brown above, with a reddish tinge on the rump and tail; throat and middle part of the belly grayish- white; the sexes alike. It spends the winter in llie warm parts of Asia and Africa, and migrates into Europe, even a^ far iMuth as Sweden, in Api'il and .May. The males proceed first, and on arriving in the regions they intend to occui)y, pour out their sweetest and most seductive songs to attract the females. The pairing being arranged, they proceed to their household cares. .Vlthough they shun observation, yet their haunts are in gardens and thickets near the abodes of man. They are abundant in the pleasui-e-grounds around London, and in the parks and gardens in the vicinitv of Paris. Morenee, in ihe vocal season, that is, in May and June, rings with them. Nevertheless, thev hide themselves in tlieir coverts, placing their nests sometimes in the fork of a tree, often on a wall, and still more frequently on the ground. AVithered leaves, particularly those of the oak, very loosely conjoined with dried bents and rushes, and lined internally with fine root-fibers, form the structure. The eggs, of an olive-brown, are four or five in number. After till' young are hatched, generally in June, the melodious song of the male ceases, and is succeeded by a low croak, varied occasionally with a snapping noise; the first is considered to be meant for a warning, and the last a defiance. The food consists of insects, such as flies and spiders, moths and earwigs. The soiKT of the Nio-htino-ale has lono; been the standing theme on which poets have exhausted their eulogiums. Bufton's description has ever been regarded as a most felicitous, though per- haps extravagant eulogium. Bcchstein says in a more sober tone : "The nightingale expresses its various emotions and desires in difterent notes. The least significant of them seems to be the simple whistle, Witt/ but if the guttural syllable Xrr/ be added, as Witt Krr! it is the call by which the male and female mutually invite one another. The expression of displeasure or fear is the syllabic Witt^ repeated several times, and, at last, followed by Krr! That of pleasure and content, either with its food or mate, is a sharp Tack! like the sound produced by striking the tongue smartly against the roof of the mouth. In anger, jealousy, or surprise, the nightingale, like the black-cap and others of its species, utters a shrill cry, resembling the call of the jay, or the mew of a cat. This may also be heard in the aviary, when a bird, by the use of it, endeavors to interrupt and confuse a rival in the midst of his song. And, lastly, in the pairing season, when the male and female entice and pursue one another through the trees, they utter a soft twittering note. "Such are the tunes wdiich both sexes are able to produce; while the song, the variety and beauty of which has raised the nightingale to a pre-eminence over all other singing birds, is the prerogative of the male alone. The bystander is astonished to hear a song, which is so sonorous as to make his ears tingle, proceed from so small a bird, and liis astonishment is not lessened when he discovers that the muscles of the larynx arc stronger in the nightingale than in any other singing bird. But it is not so much the strength, as the delightful variety and ravishing harmony of the nightingale's song, which render it the favorite of every one who has not alto- gether lost the sense of the beautiful. Sometimes it dwells for a mimite or more on a passage of detached mournful notes, which begin softly, advance by degrees to a forte, and end in a dying fall. At other times it utters a rapid succession of sharp, sonorous notes, and ends this, and the many other phrases of which its song consists, with the single notes of an ascending chord. There are, of course, various degrees of proficiency in the nightingale, as in other birds ; but in the song of a good performer have been enumerated, without reckoning smaller distinctions, no less than twenty-four separate phrases, capable of being expressed in articulate syllables and words.* "It is a pity that the period during which the nightingale sings is so short, as even in a wild state it sings only for three months, and not with equal vigor during the whole of that shoi-t time, * See p. 13 ; where the result of an attempt to put the Nightingale's song into words is given. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 147 It is heard most frequently from the time of its arrival till the young birds break the shell ; after that period it sings less, and with less energy, as its principal attention is necessarily directed to the feeding of its brood. About midsummer its song ceases altogether, and one hears in the woods only the twittering of the young birds, in their attempts to acquire the paternal song. In confinement, birds which have been taken when old begin to sing as early as November, and do not become entirely silent till Easter. The young birds, however, which have been reared from the nest, will sometimes, if placed under good instruction, sing for seven months in the year. If not hung where they can hear a good singer, they never acquire their natural song perfectly, but intermix witli it notes of other birds ; while, on the other hand, if possessed of a good voice and memory, they sometimes improve upon the instructions of their teacher. This, however, is a rare occurrence, as out of twenty J'oung birds reared in the aviary, it is doubtful if even one prove a thorouc'hly good singer. The best are those which are caught in August, just before their mi- gration, and which, in the following spring, are put under the tuition of an accomplished singer." The Great Nightingale, *S^. i:)hilomela of Bechstein, is six inches and a half long, dark brown above, and light below ; its song is less varied and less agreeable than the preceding ; found in the eastern countries of Europe, and in Asia, along the borders of the Mediterranean. The Wood-Warbler, B. sylvicola: this is five and a quarter inches long; olive-green, tinged with sulphur-yellow, above ; beneath white ; common in Middle and Southern Europe. The Willow-AVarbler, *S^. trochylus, is five inches long; dull olive-green above; beneath yel- lowish-white ; common throughout Europe. This is the Willow Wren or Sylvia trochylus of Nuttall ; the Reyulus trochylus of Dc Kay : said to be found also in the Southern States. The Melodious Willow-Warbler, S. hippolais^ is five and a half inches long; green, tinged with ash-brown above; beneath sulphur-yellow; distinguished for its pleasing and varied song; found throughout Europe. The Chiff-Chaff, S. rufa, is four and three-quarter inches long ; ash-brown above ; dull brown- ish-white beneath ; found throughout Europe. The Rayed Warbler, S. nisoria of Bechstein — Fativctte Epcrvier of the French — is six and a half inches long; inhabits the north of Europe ; the S. 2>rovincialis is four and half inches long; is permanent in Southern Europe, and is accidentally found in France ; ;S^. Cetti — Rossignol des Marais of the French — five inches long; found in Europe on the borders of the Mediterranean ; the S.Jluviatilis, five and a half inches long; found on the borders of the Danube. r- TUE GKASSHOPPEE-WARBLEK. Genus SALIC ARIA : Salicaria.— This includes several species of Warbler, among wdiich we may name the Grasshopper-Warbler, ;S'. locusfdla, deriving its name from its incessant cricket- like note ; five and a half inches long ; greenish-brown above ; pale brown, spotted, beneath ; found throughout Europe; the Thrush-like Warbler, S. furdoides, eight inches long; light brown above ; white beneath ; found in Middle and Southern Europe ; the Sedge-Warbler, S. U8 VEKTE13RATA. phraijmiti.i, four mid tlirco-qiiartcr inches long; rcdUisIi-hrown above; buff below ; noted for singing Jit night, and imitating the notes of other birds; Savi's Warulek, aS'. lancinoidcs^Uva and a halt' inches long; reddish-brown above; pale brown beneath; a rare species in Southern P2u- ropo. The Kkki)-\Vau»lkr, S. arundiiiacca, five and a half inches long; pale brown above; pale fj^Pf^; •=» l^^iff below ; has a pleasing and /J'w^^; ijdf-. vai-ied song, sometimes repeated ^' ■• ^■"'•- - ;it night, and is noted for mak- ing its nest upon several branch- es of reeds rising out of the water, this being formed by winding long grass horizontally round and round, with a mix- ture of wool and small reed- branches, the whole being: lined with fine grass and long hairs ; found in Middle and Southern Europe; the Eufous Sedge- Warbler, S. ffalactofcs, is seven inches long ; fawn-color above ; delicate fawn beneath ; found in Southern Europe. THE UEED-WARBLER. ^^^^^^ CURRUCA '. CuTTUCa. — This includes the Black-Cap Warbler, C. atrknpilla, five and three-quarter inches lonir; the head black ; body ash-brown above ; white beneath ; inferior only to the nightingale in the quality of its song ; found throughout Europe : the Garden-Warbler or Greater Prettychaps, C.horlcnsis, six inches long; brown above ; brownish-white beneath ; and noted for its wild and rapid but mellow song; found through- out Europe : the Common White- TiiROAT, C. cinerea, five and a half inches long; reddish-brown above; beneath pale brownish-white, tinged with rose ; a numerous and common species throughout Europe : the Less- er White-Throat, C. sijlviella, five and a quarter inches long ; smoke- gray above ; beneath white, tinged with red; found throughout Europe : the Orpheus Warbler, C. Oiyhca, six and a half inches long; ashy-gray above ; beneath white, tinged with gray. Genus MELIZOPIIILUS : MeUzo- philus. — This includes the Dartford Warbler, Furzelino, or Furze- Wren, J/. Darffordicnsis, named from being found near Dartford, in England; five inches long; found in THE GOLDEN-CRESTED REGULTIS. Southern Europe ; a permanent resident in England, France, &c CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 149 Genus REGULUS : Regulus. — This includes the Golden-crested Regulus or Kinglet R. cristatus—Roitelet laippe of the French — an exceedingly minute species, three and a half inches long ; yellowish olivc-green above, and yellowish-gray beneath, the crown of the head being adorned with a yellowish crest, bordered on each side with black. It lives in the woods, and may often be seen associating with tits and creepers. Its nest is a cup-shaped structure of moss, fre- quently lined with feathers ; found throughout Europe : the Fire-crested Wren, R. ignkapillus, is somewhat smaller even than the preceding, its colors being somewhat more brilliant; also com- mon in Europe: the Dalmatian Regulus, i?. worfes^ws, is four inches long; greenish-yellow above, beneath pale yellow ; found in Southern Europe. The American Golden-crested Wren or Kinglet, R. satrapa^ is four inches long ; olive-color above ; grayish-white tinged with yellowish-brown beneath ; found from Mexico to Labrador ; breeds in the latter region ; migrates into the United States in September, where it spends the winter. These birds associate in groups, each composed of a family, and are seen feeding in com- pany with titmice, nut-hatches, and brown creepers. They are extremely lively and playful, often seizing their insect prey on the wing, as well as upon the leaves and bark of the trees. The Ruby- crowned Kinglet, i?. calendula, h four and a quarter inches long; dull olive above; under parts grayish-white ; found in the same regions as the preceding. Cuvier's Kinglet, R. Cuvierii, is four and a quarter inches long ; grayish-olive above ; grayish-white beneath ; found in Pennsylvania. THE TAILOU-BIIU). Genus ORTllOTOMUS : Orthotomus.—Th\s. includes the Txilok-Bird—S i/lvia sutoria of Latham ; 0. Bennetii of Sykes — an East Indian species, nearly five inches long, of an olive-green 150 VERTEBRATA. abovi- aiul whito iK-iu-atli ; lop of the heiul bright red. This bird more than an}' otlier ap- proaches liuiiian art in building its nest; it usually picks up the dead leaf of a tree and regu- larly sews it to a living leaf by the edges, thus forming a sort of pendulous pouch, which is of course supported by the foot-sUilk of the leaf which is still attaehelectes.—1V\% includes a species of which we know but little, except their nests, but these are cu- rious enough. They are most ingeniously woven of grass, in the shape of a chemist's retort, and are suspended from the branch of a tree over a lake, pool, or river, with the mouth down and nearly touching the water. The object of this arrangement is to protect the eggs and young from the monkeys and serpents which abound in these regions. Gemis PLOCEUS : Ploceus. — This includes the Republican Weavers or Sociable Weav- THB WIDOW-BIRD. CLASS 11. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. I57 ERS, P. Ab7/ssinicus— the Loxia soda of Latham ; PhilctcErus lepidus of Smith— wliich unite in several hundreds and l.uiid a kind of roof or thatch, beneath which they construct their nest. Sometimes a structure of this sort reaches the enormous extent of ten feet square. Each nest is entered from the under side, and is distinct from every otlier. Paterson, who had an opportunity KESTS OP SOCIABLE WEAVERS. NESTS OF THE GENUS EUPLECTES. of examining some of these bird-towns, thus describes the operations of the winged citizens: " riie industry of these birds seems ahnost equal to that of the bee. Throughout the day they appear busily employed in carrying a fine species of gi'ass, which is the principal material they employ for the purpose of erecting this extraordinary work, as well as for additions and repairs- 1 hough my short stay in the country was not sufficient to satisfy me by ocular proof that they aaded to their nests as they annually increased in their numbers, still, from the many trees whicli 1 nave seen borne down by the weight, and others that I have seen with their boughs completely covered over, it would appear that this is really the case. When the tree that is the support of this aerial city is obliged to give way to the increase of weight, it is obvious that they arc no longer protected, and are under the necessity of building in other trees. One of these deserted nests I had the curiosity to break down, to inform myself of the internal structure of it, and lound it equally ingenious with that of the external. There are many entrances, each of which torms a regular street, with nests on both sides, at about two inches' distance from each other. The grass with which they build is called the Boshman's grass, and I believe the seed of it to be their principal food, though, on examining their nests, I found the wings and legs of different insects. From every appearance, the nest which I dissected had been inhabited for many years, and some parts were much more complete than others. This, therefore, I conceive to amount nearly to a 158 VERTEBRATA. proof tliat tlio animals addod to it at different times, as they found it necessary, from the increase of their family, or rather of the nation and com- munity." Dr. Smith states that the banks of the Orange River appear to constitute the southern limit of the range of this species, Avhich "was only ob- tained in great abundance in the districts around Latakoo, far from water. " The most striking pe- /j/ ^(/f\l J^ culiarity," he adds, "observed in this species is the extraordinary manner in which a number of individuals associate, and build their nests f]v^Jv[ under a common roof. AMien a nestling place 'Vlil'^'lv^®^''^1v^^ ^^ ^*^'^" selected, and the operation of building ^l''/'/vlt!i' '■'^'fm, '^^ the nests is to be commenced ab initio, the com- iWm ^^^m\ ^'ii^^ty immediately proceed conjointly to con- •, ■- MmX (■'• n\^ struct the ffeneral coverins; -which interests them ■" (4-'^'^//llM'^' ^^'i ^^^^^ being accomplished, each pair begin ^'1 ~//ySlW''>^ to form their own nest, which, like the roof, thev 'yi/^J s(m\'\^ construct of coarse grass ; these are placed side t* VK^^'SIn ^l ^y ^^^^ against the under surface of the general •\vV;\^] "■'A^^ y covering, and by the time they are all completed, /i'4 {/^{^^TOS a ^^^ lower surface of the mass exhibits an appear- •U V.' ^'A'*''?' \ '^ ance of an even horizontal surface, freely per- forated by small circular openings. They never \ use the same nests a second time, though they, continue for many years attached to the same roof. With the return of the breeding season, fresh nests are formed upon the lower surface of tliose of the preceding year, Avhich then form an addi- tion to the general covering. In this manner they proceed year after year, adding to the mass, till at last the w^eight often becomes such as to cause the destruction of its support ; upon Avhich a new building is selected. They appear to pre- fer constructing these nests upon large and lofty trees, but where such do not occur, they will even condescend to form them upon the leaves oil the arborescent aloe, as occasionally happens to-^ ward the Orange River. The commencement of the roof is firmly interwoven with the branches of the trees to which it is intended to be sus- pended ; and often a great part of a principal branch is actually included within its substance. These birds are of a reddish-brown, and of the size of a bull-finch. Each female lays from three to four eggs, which are of a bluish-white color, and freely mottled toward the large end with small brown dots. When once this species has attained maturity, it never afterward exhibits any change in respect to colors. The male has no summer tints which he throws aside in winter, as is the case in Ewplectes. Seeds, and occasionally small insects, constitute the food." The P . Jlaviceps, inhabiting the southeast coast of Africa, forms kidney-shaped nests, attached to 1/ NESTS OK THE BENGAL WEAVER-BIRD. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES 159 the branches of trees over the water; these are so closely ^voveu as completely to exclude the weather; the P. C«^ens/s builds similar nests, sometimes five or six being suspended from a single branch. There are still other African species, noted for the peculiar forms of their nests and the ingenuity displayed in erecting them. The Textor enjthrorhynchus is a South African species, of the size of a sparrow, which chieflv subsists on parasitic insects which it picks out of the backs of buffaloes. It is said also to give no- tice to the wild buffaloes of the approach of danger by suddenly flying up in the air. The Buphaya Africana and B. erythrorhynchus feed in a similar manner from the back of the rhinoceros. The Bengal Weaver-Bird, Loxia Bengalensis, is five inches long, brown above and yellow- ish-wliite beneath, and builds its nest in the shape of a purse, suspending it over the water to the outer branch of a tree, the entrance being from below. The next year the bird builds a new nest, suspending it from the bottom of this, and the next year another, and so on, so that five or six nests are sometimes seen strung together. THE GREEN GKOsBcAi. THE GROSBEAKS. These birds have the bill very large, broad, and thick, aiid the mandibles nearly equal ; they generally inhabit the woods of mountainous countries, and are shy and wild in their nature. They feed on seeds and fruits, and are fond of the kernels of stone-fruit, which their powerful bills enable them to break with facility. Genus COCCOTHRAUSTES : .Coccofhraustes. — This comprises the Common Grosbeak of Europe, or Haw-Finch, C. vulgaris — Finson Gros-Bec of the French. This bird is seven inches long; is of different shades of brown and gray, variegated with black and white; its eggs are oHve-green, five to six in number. It feeds on pollen-stalks, laurel-berries, &c.; found in most parts of Europe ; permanent in Italy. The Green Finch or Green Grosbeak — Gros-Bcc Verdier of the French — C. chloris, is six inches long ; upper parts of an olive-yellow ; pale yellow beneath ; frequents gardens, orchards, small woods, and cultivated lands ; has a harsh, monotonous cry, makes its nest on low bushes or hedges, lays from four to six white eggs, and is common throughout Eui-ope. It feeds on seeds, ' and sometimes on insects. Under the genus Loxia Bechstein includes the following : the Paradise Grosbeak. L. ery- 160 VERTEBRATA. 'S:mM THE HAW-FT!fCH. throcepkaln, six invhes long; found in Angola: the Dominican Grosbeak, Z. Bominicana, size of the English lark ; found in Brazil : the Grena- dier Grosbeak, L. orix, size of a sparrow ; found at the Cape of Good Hope : the Gape Grosbeak, Z. Capensis, six inches long ; found at the Cape : the Caffrarian Grosbeak, Z. Cnffra^ size of a bull-finch, with a tail twice as long as the body ; found in Caffraria : Azure-blue Grosbeak, Z. cya- nea, size of the preceding ; found in Angola : Yel- low-bellied Grosbeak, L.flaviventris^ five inches long ; found at the Cape : the Gowry Grosbeak. Z. punctularla, four and a quarter inches Ion- : found in Java : the Banded Grosbeak, L.fasciata, size of the preceding; found in Africa : the Brown- cheeked Grosbeak, Z. canora^ four inches lonjj; found in Mexico : the Malacca Grosbeak, Z. Mn- lacca, four and a half inches long : the Blac i - clouded Grosbeak, Z. nubilosa, size of a hou- - sparrow; found in Africa : the Red-billed Gro - beak, Z. sanr/uinirostris, found in Africa. The Cardinal Grosbeak, C. cardinalis — Pity- lus cardinalis of De Kay — is an American bird, noted for its beautiful sorg, and sometimes called the Virginia Xightinrjale. Its length is eight inches ; the whole upper parts dusky red, except the sides of the neck and head, which, with the The chin, front, and lores are black, the head being ornamented with a high, pointed crest. It passes under the various names of Redhird. Crested Redhird, and Mexican Tanager. It is frequently kept in cages ; is a permanent resident from Maryland to Mexico, and oc- casionally seen as far north as Massachusetts. The C vespertina^ yellow above, white I' - neath, is eight inches long, and found in Texas and the Western States. The Texas Cardinal-Bird — Cardinalis sinuatus of Cassin — is a new and beautiful species. Genus COCCOBORUS: Coccohorus — This includes the Blue Grosbeak, C. cceru- letis, six and a half inches long ; blue abovey yellowish-brown beneath; a shy and beauti- ful bird ; found from Texas to Xew York. The Rose-breasted Grosbeak, C. Ludo- vicianus, is seven and a half inches long ; black and rose-color; found as above. The C.melanocephalus, is eight and a half | inches long, head black, body orange-yellow; found in the Rocky Mountains and Texas. Genus GEOSPIZA: Geospiza.— These \ birds belong to the Gallipagf) Islands, and { are remarkable for the manner of seeking whole lower parts, are a clear vermillion. ^''lS^.ri THE CAEDnTAL GROSBEAK. their food upon the ground. They dig up roots and seeds from the depth of six inches in the CLASS II. AYES: ORDER -. RASSERES. 161 THE CHEWIXK. soil ; in tbo dry season they eat a portion of a species of cactus. Two or three other similar genera are found in these islands — all resembling the grosbeaks. Genus PIPILO : Pipilo. — This includes the Chewixk, or GRorxT)-RoBix, or GRor^^)-Fr^^cH, P. cnjthrophthaJma — the Toichfc Buntina of Pennant — seven and a half inches long; above black; wings with one or two white bars; breast white; abdomen pale red; sides reddish- brown. It is a common, humble, and unsuspicious bird, li\-ing in thickets along the borders of woods, where it may often be seen scratching up the withered leaves for worms and their larv^. as well as seeds and gravel, frequently crying at the same time iaio-tree, tatc-iree, tair-ireet. It tiies with a jerking motion, and a frequent flirt of the tail. It conceals its nest on the ground, lays four or five eggs, and is a general inhabitant of Canada and the United States, migrating to the north in the spring and retiring in the autumn. The Casox-Fixch. P.fusca^ is nine inches long ; olive-brown above ; middle of the abdomen white ; other lower parts cinereous ; makes its nest in the thick branches of a cedar or dwarf oak; haunts shady gorges in mountainous districts; spends much of its time on the ground; its note a simple chirp ; found in California and New Mexico. The P. airtica builds its nest on the crrouud ; found in Utah. The P. Aberti is found in the same reiriou. '"^^ THE TAXAGRIX-E OR TAXAGERS. This is a very extensive sub-family of splendidly colored birds, peculiar to America, and mostly con- fined to the southern portion of it. Of about two hundred and twenty species, one hundred and ninety- three belong to South America, the remainder to Mexico and Central America ; three or four are well- known summer visitors to the United States. They have a curved bill, slightly arched at the tip ; their wino^ and flight are short ; they usually collect m troops; feed on insects and fruits; and build their nests on the bninches of trees. Most of them have a pleasing song, and some are remarkable for their vocal powers. Genus EITHOXIA: Euphotua.—Thh com- nrirird is a inoihl of more pliant materials, which we can mould at pleasure. This last, therefore, contributes in a much greater degree to the comforts of society ; it sings at all sca.sons; it cheers us in the dullest weather; and even adds to our happiness — for it amuses the youiiir, and delights the recluse; it charms the todiousness of the cloister, and exhilarates the soul t)f the iiuK^cciit am! the captive." "'J'lie breedintr and rearing of these charming birds," saA's Bolton, "forms an amusement of the most jdeasing kind, and affords a variety of scenes highly interesting to innocent minds. In this country, no less than in the old German Fatherland, and amid the green valleys of the Tyrol, many enthusiastic canary fanciers may be met with. There are societies in London — and some of them have existed for more than a century — for promoting the breed of canaries, and amateurs distinguish upward of thirty varieties : these varieties are separated into two great divi- sions— the Plain and the Variegated ; the former being called Gay Birds or Gay Sjxi uyles, aud the latter Fancy Birds or Mealy Birds ; those latter are esteemed the strongest, and have the boldest song. Jonks or Jonquils is also a term applied to those of a pure yellow. There is also a variety called the Lizard, the plumage of which is of a greenish-bronze throughout, excepting the u|>]H'r part of the head, which is covered by a patch of clear yellow, and this variety is looked upon as the nearest of kin to the original stock." The American Goldfinch, C. trisfis, is four and a half inches long; general color yellow; wings and tail black, varied with white ; feeds on the seeds of the sunflower, lettuce, thistle, itc; the nest is made on trees or tall bushes; eggs four to five, pure white, with reddish-brown spots at the smaller end. It is found fi'om the tropics to the Fur Countries, and is a familiar bird at all seasons in the United States, and is often seen about the gardens. It has the various pop- ular names of Yellow-Bird^ Thistle-Bird, Lettuce-Bird, Salad-Bird, &c. Many are taken in trap-cages; their song is feeble, but plaintive and pleasing; in confinement they become familiar, and hence they are favorite cage birds. The Pine-Finch, C. pinus, four and a half inches long; varied with olive-brown and black; beneath lighter shade ; feeds on the seeds of the pine, birch, thistles, &c. ; found from Florida to Maine ; permanent in the Middle States. Other species are the C. Magellanic us, io\\m\,\\\o\\g\\ rarely, in Ohio; C. jjsaltria, ioimd in Louisiana and Arkansas; C. Mexicanus, io\\\\*\ in California; C. Stanleyi, also found in Cali- fornia. The CiTRiL-FiNCH — Fringilla citrinella of Linnfeus — is five inches long, its plumage greenish- gray, tinged with ashy-gray, and blackish ; found in Southern Europe, where it is a cage bird. The Serin-Finch — Loxia serinus or Fringilla serinus of Linna?us ; Serin Vert of the French — has often been confounded with the preceding; it is four and a half inches long; general color greenish-yellow ; noted as a lively and indefatigable singer. It is migratory, and spends the summer in Middle Europe ; some remain through the cold season. The Glossy Pinch — F. nitens of Linna?us — is four inches and a half long ; plumage blue-black, or coal-black, with a gloss of steel ; found in Cayenne. The Brazilian Finch — F. granatina of Linna?us — is four inches long; brown above, the rump blue ; beneath chestnut-color ; found in Brazil. The Blue-bellied Finch — F. Bengalensis of Linnaeus — is four and a half inches long ; ashy- brown above; blue beneath ; found in Guiana. Other foreign species are the Liver-colored Finch, F. hejmtica, of Western Africa ; the Green Goldfinch, F. melba, of Brazil ; and the Angola Finch, F. Angolensis, of Angola. Genus ERYTHROSPIZA : Erythrospiza. — This includes the Purple Finch — the American Linnet of Nuttall — E. purpurea ; it is six inches long ; in full plumage, the male is rich crimson above, deepest on the head and neck; the back streaked with dusky; beneath white. This is a winter bird of passage, coming to us from the north in September and October, and in very severe seasons proceeding, in considerable numbers, as far as the Southern States, and even to CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 1G9 THE PtTKPLE FINCH. Mexico. Audubon often saw small floclcs of them in Louisiana, from April to November. In May, it moves to the northern regions of the continent, though some linger by the way, and are often seen in New England and Northern New York throughout the summer, building their nests and carrying on their household affairs. This species has a habit of erecting the feathers of its crown like a crest; hence it is sometimes called the Crested Piuyle Finch. It feeds on the buds and berries of evergreens during winter and on insects in summer. The American House-Finch, Carjiodacus famiUaris of Cassin, is six inches long ; above brownish red ; beneath white and brown ; resembles the preceding ; common in New Mexico ; abundant and familiar in California, where it is called Buriones. Its song is exceedingly tender and melodious. Other species are the F. frontalis, six and a quarter inches long ; found in the Rocky Moun- tains, and £J. tephrocotis, six inches long; found in the Northern Regions. Genus AMMODROMUS : Ammodromus. — This includes the Swamp-Finch or Red Grass- Bird, A. palustris, five and a half inches long; bay above, beneath bluish-ash; it makes its nest on the ground; feeds on grass-seeds and aquatic insects; found from Texas to Labrador. The f^EA-sinE FitJCii, A. inaritimus, is eight inches long; olive-brown above; gray beneath ; feeds on marine Crustacea and sea-shore insects. Found in maritime parts of New England and the Middle States. The Quail-Head, A. caudacutus, is five inches long ; olive above ; soiled white beneath ; the head, when the bird is seen on the ground, resembles that of the quail ; it is found in salt marshes, where it breeds, as also the preceding. The Western Swamp-Sparrow, or Brown-headed Finch, A. ruficejis, k six inches long; chestnut-brown above, beneath pale-ashy; found in California. Other species are A. Macgillivrayi, five and a half inches long; found in Texas : A. Bachmani, six inches long; found in the Carolinas : and A. Lecontii, five inches long; found in Missouri: A. Lincolnii, five and three-quarters inches long, found from New York to Labrador. Vol. IL— 2 2 170 \' E 11 T E B li A T A , The Long-tailed Swamp-Sparrow, J. rontratus of Cassin, is six inches long; dull brown above, beneath dull white; found in California. Genus Sl'lZA : Spiza. — This includes the Indigo-Bird, S. cyanca, five and a half inches long; blue, with greenish tints; one of onr most beautiful i^uniiner visitors; feeds on caterpillars, worms, gr:isshoj>pers, and seeds; the nest is usually on a low bush ; the eggs four to five, white. It breeds in the United States; returns to Mexico and South America in winter. Other species are the Tainted Bunting, S. ciri><, five inches long; colors purplish-blue and yel- lowish-green ; found in the Southern States, and the Lazuli Finch, S. amcena, five and a half inches lono-; blue above and white beneath ; found on the Columbia River. THE EMBERIZIN^ OR BUNTINGS. These have a conical, acute bill ; wings of moderate size ; the hind toe larger than the inner one and the claws slender. They are generally distributed in both hemispheres ; feed more on the ground than the Fringilliiur?, and build their nests in low bushes or tufts of grass. Like the finches, they collect in large flocks in the winter, and frequent the open fields. Their food con- sists of seeds and insects. # THE OETOLAX OE GEEEX-HEADED BrXTIN'G. Genus EMBERIZA : Emleriza. — This includes the Ortolax or Green-headed Bunting — Bruant Ortolan of the French — E. hortulana^ six and a quarter inches long; reddish-brown above; beneath reddish-bufF; frequents light sandy soils; builds on the ground, and lays five to six eggs. It is migratory, and breeds in the north of Europe ; in moving southward, about Au- gust, great numbers are taken in England, France, Germany, VEKTKBRATA. winter. Tin- (lav-C'oloked Hintino, E. pallidn^ is five iiiclit-s lout;; light ycllovvish-browii above; beneath grayish-white; loiiinl on the Rocky Mountains. The Yellow-winged Bun- ting— the Ydloio-iv'tnged Sparroir of Wilson — E. jyasserimi, five inches long; light grayish- brown above ; beneath yellowish-gray ; migratory ; found from Texas to New England. Hen- SLow's HrNTiNc!, Ji'. -^('H,v/(*»'/, is five inches long; pale brown above; yellowish-gray beneath ; found throughout the United States; winters in the Southern States. The Field-Bunting — the Field- SiKtrrow of V\'\\?,o\\ — E. jxisilld^ h ^\\ inches long; above chestnut and blackish-brown; beneath grayish-white ; abundant in siuniner from Texas to Maine. The Tree-Sparrow or Ca- nada ]>UNTiNG, E. Canadensis, is six and a quarter inches long; above brown, bay, and yellow; beneath cream color. This is a northern bird, but migrates to the south in winter; it breeds as far south as Maine. It frequents trees, where it hops and dances and sings, and sweetly too, often mixing with the White-throated Finch. In severe weather it is often seen in the elm-trees of Boston ; its migrations are not farther south than Pennsylvania. This bird, which passes for a sparrow, is one of the commonest of its genus in New Englantl. The Black-tiiroated Finch, E. bilincata of Cassin, is five inches long; ashy-brown, with olive, above; under parts white, tinged with ashy and olive; found in Texas and New Mexico. tri";??/* PLECTROPHANES: Plectrophanes. — These birds are sometimes Q.^Wedi Lark- Bunt- ings : the most noted species is the Lapland Snow-Bunting — Lapland Song-Sjiarrow of Nut- tall ; Lapland Lark-Bunting of Selby — P. Lapponicus, six and a half inches long ; summer plum- age, head, chin, and breast black; beneath white : the winter plumage is, upper part of the head black, edged with rufous ; neck black, the feathers tipped with white. This is an arctic bird, common to Europe and America; in the depth of winter it moves southward as far as England on the other side of the Atlantic, and as far as Pennsylvania on this. It is often seen in very se- vere seasons in New England, feeding upon the seeds on exposed pieces of ground, that have been swept clear of snow by the wind. It is found usually in small numbers, sometimes mixed with the roving snow-birds; at other times it visits us in large flocks. It feeds on seeds, berries, grass, leaves, buds, and insects; the nest is placed on the ground; the eggs arc five to seven. Some- times immense flocks of these birds are seen in Central Europe in the fall and winter, mino-led with larks. The White Snow-Bird — sometimes called the Wliife Bird — P. nivalis, is seven and a half inches long; the colors vary in different species; the common colors are brown, striped with black, above ;beneath white. It is to be distinguished from the Common Snow-Bird — Struthus hyemaUs — though like that it is most abundant in the northern regions of both continents. It usually appears in New England and the Middle States after a severe snow-storm. It has been known in a few cases to breed in Maine and Massachusetts. Its nest is placed on the ground ; the eggs four to five ; the food grass-seeds, insects, and minute sliells. Other species are the P. pictus, length six inches; found in the northern regions of North America ; P. ornatus, found on the prairies of the Platte River ; McCowx's Bunting, P. Mc- Coionii, six inches long; found in Texas, New Mexico and California; and P. Stnithii, six inches long; found in Illinois. THE ALAUDIN^E OR LARKS. This group includes several interesting birds, mostly of the eastern hemisphere. They are pe- culiarly birds of the fields, meadows, and open places, and are distinguished by their vigilance and their musical powers. They build on the ground, usually produce two broods in a season, are generally birds of passage, and in Europe immense numbers are caught for the table in their migrations. Gemis ALAUDA: Alauda. — This includes the Sky-Lark or Field-Lark — Alouette of the French ; Lodola of the Italians ; Feld-Lerche of the Germans — the most celebrated song-bird of England, and after the nightingale, the most celebrated of Europe, generally. It is seven inches long, the tail being three inches; it is in size about equal to the boblink. The forehead and poll are rusty-yellow, spotted with blackish-brown ; when the bird is excited the feathers of the crown erect themselves into a crest. The back is brown, blackish-brown, and gray ; the lower parts dingy white. The female, as in most of the passerine birds, is a trifle smaller than the male. CLASS II. AYES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 178 SKr-LAIiKS. Black and white varieties are sometimes seen. The nest is placed on the ground, and often under the shelter of a tuft of grass ; the eggs are four or five, and whitish-gray. The poet says : " The daisied lea he loves, vrherb tufts of grass Luxuriant crown the ridge; there, with his mate, He founds his lowly house, of withered bents And coarsest spear-grass ; next, the inner work With finer and still finer fibers lays, Rounding its corners with his speckled breast." This species feeds on insects, larva?, ants' eggs, and various kinds of small seeds. Its flesh ranks among the greatest of delicacies ; traps and nets of many kinds are employed for its capture. It is sedentary in Middle and Southern Europe, and begins its song early in the spring, and contin- es it till late in the autumn, generally singing while rising or falling perpendicularly in the air, although its joyous itotes are occasionally poured forth while sitting on the ground. So powerful is the voice lodged in this little body, that its sound may be heard long after the song- ster is quite out of sight ; and even then a practiced ear can distinguish those peculiarities in the song which mark whether the bird is still rising, or stationary, or gradually descending. The Lark sings for about eight months in the year, and as liis notes are remarkable for their power and vivacity, he is a great favorite as a cage-bird. In the summer liis lay commences before three o'clock in the morning, and continues till after sunset. He is also very long-lived ; Yar- rell mentions an instance of one of these birds living in a cage for nineteen years and a ludf. Mudie notices a correspondence between the movements of the lark, when it clind)s np to the sky by its winding flight, and its notes, as follows : " When the volutions of the spiral are narrow, 174 VEliTEBRATA. aiul till' binl i-lianj,'cs its attitude rapidly in proportion to the whole .juaiitity of flight, the song i.s partially suppressed, and it swells as the spiral widens, and sinks as it contracts; so that, thougli the notes may he the same, it is only wiun the l.uk sings poised at the same height that it sings in a niiiforMi kev. It gives a swelling song as it ascenils, and a sinking one as it comes down; and even if it take hut one wheel in the air, as tliat wheel always includes an ascent or a descent, it varies the piteh of the song. "The song of the lark, besides being a most accessible and delightful subject for common ob- servation, is a very curious one for the physiologist. Every one in the least conversant with the structure of birds must be aware that, with them, the organs of intonation and modulation are inward, deriving little assistance from the tongue, and none, or next to none, from the mandibles of the bill. The windpipe is the musical organ, and is often very curiously formed. Birds re- quire that organ less for breathing than other animals having a windpipe and lungs, because of the air-cells and breathing-tubes with which all parts of their bodies — even their bones — are fur- nished. But those diffused breathing-organs must act with least freedom when the bird is mak- ing the greatest efforts in motion — that is, when ascending or descending; and in proportion as they cease to act, the trachea is th.e more required for the purposes of breathing. The sky-lark thus converts the atmosphere into a musical instrument of many stops, and so produces an exceed- ingly wild and varied song — a song which is perhaps not equal, either in power or compass, in the single stave, to that of many of the warblers, but one which is more varied in the whole suc- cession. All birds that sing ascending or descending have similar power, but the sky-lark has it in a degree superior to every other." Main savs : " No bird sings with more method : there is an overture performed, vivace cres- cendo, w^hile the singer ascends ; when at the full height, the song becomes moderato, and dis- tinctly divided into short passages, each repeated three or four times over, like a fantasia, in the same key and tune. If there be any wind, he rises perpendicularly by bounds, and afterward poises himself with breast opposed to it. If calm, he ascends in spiral circles; in horizontal cir- cles during the principal part of his song, and zigzagly downward during the performance of the finale. Sometimes, after descending about half way, he ceases to sing, and drops with the ve- locity of an arrow to the ground. Those acquainted with the song of the sky-lark can tell, with- out looking at them, whether the birds be ascending or stationary in the air, or on their descent, so different is the style of the song in each case. In the first, there is an expression of ardent impatience; in the second, an andante composure, in which rests of a bar at a time frequently occur ; and in the last, a graduated sinking of the strains, often touching the subdominant before the final close. The time and number of the notes often correspond with the vibration of the wino-s; and thouo-h thev sometimes sing while on the ground, as they are seen to do in cages, their whole frame seems to be agitated by their musical efforts." The strong attachment of this species to their young has been the subject of remark by many naturalists : Mr. Blyth records that "some mowers actually shaved oft" the upper part of a nest of the sky-lark without injuring the female which was sitting on her young; still she did not fly away, and the mowers levelled the grass all around her without her taking further notice of their proceedings. A young friend of mine, son of the owner of the crop, witnessed this, and about an hour afterward went to see if she was safe, when, to his great surprise, he found that she had act- ually constructed a dome of dry grass over the nest during the interval, leaving an aperture on one side for ingress and egress, thus endeavoring to secure a continuance of the shelter previously supplied by the long grass." To no bird, perhaps not even the nightingale, have the English poets paid such frequent hom- age as to the skv-lark; from Chaucer downward, there is scarcely one of them who has not repaid the ecstatic music of that "bard of the blushing dawn" — the "herald of the morn," as Shakspeare hath it — with a strain as full of gladness and melody ; and not from the poets only has it received these tributes of admiration : grave divines, such as Jeremy Taylor and Bishop Hall, have made it the theme of their high discourse ; the former says that " it did rise and sing as if it had learned music and motion from an angel." Wordsworth's lines, though often quoted, are so descriptive, and yet so poetical, that we cannot omit them : CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. " Ethereal minstrel ! pilgrim of the sky ! Dost thou despise the earth, where cares abound? Or, while thy wings aspire, are heart and eye Both with thy nest, upon the dewy ground ? Thy nest, which thou canst drop into at will, Those quivering wings composed, that music still. " To the last point of vision, raid beyond, .Mount, daring warbler! That love-prompted strain — 'Twixt thee and thine a never-failing bond — Thrills not the less the bosom of the plain ! Yet might'st thou seem, proud privilege, to sing All independent of the leafv snrinsr. " Leave to the nightingale the shady wood — A privacy of glorious light is thine. Whence thou dost pour upon the world a flood Of harmony with rajjture more divine. Type of the wise, who soar — but never roam, True to the kindred points of heaven and homo." 175 THE CUESTLD LARK. The Crested Lark — Alouctle Cochcvis of the Frencli — A. crisfafa, is six and three-quarter inches long; brown above and pale yellow beneath. The crest of a few elongated feathers point- ing backward, is reddish-brown. It visits Northern Europe in summer, is sedentary in Southern Europe, and is common in Northern Africa. It feeds on worms and grain, ami may be often seen on the roads near Paris picking among the manure, and flying at the approach of a traveler. The Wood-Lark — Alouette lulu of the French — A. arborea, has a slight crest, is over six inches long, wood-brown above, pale yellowish-brown beneath. Its song is greatly admired, and is often poured forth at evening, as if iu rivalry of the nightingale. " What time the timorous hare trips forth to feed. When the scared owl skims round the grassy mead, Then high in air, and poised upon its wings, Unseen the soft-enamored wood-lark sings." Blyth says: "In hot summer nights wood-larks soar to a prodigious height, and hang singing in the air." Bechstein says: "The wood-lark not only excels all other larks in the beauty of its song, but, in my opinion, surpasses in this respect all German birds whatever, except the chaffinch and the nightingale. Its tones are flute-like, and the varying phrases of its song have all a mel- ancholy and tender expression. It sings either perched on the top of a tree, or flies upward almost beyond the reach of sight, and remains poised on its outstretched wings, often warbling for an hour together. In confinement it always sings on its perch." 17G VERTEBRATA. ..r^ ^. ^\t. THE SHORE-LARK. The Short-toed Lark, A. brachi/dactyla,\s, a small species, five inches long, of a sandy-brown above, beneath whitish ; common in Southern Europe. The Shore-Lark, A. alpestris, is six inches long, and found in the north of Europe and Asia. Specimens have been occasionally met with as far south as France and Ens:] and. The HoRXED Lark, A. cornuta, is an American bird, until lately confounded with the prece- ding; it is seven inches long; the male has an erectile crest; color, dusky brown above; breast reddish-brown; the nest placed on the ground; the eggs olive-white. This is a beautiful spe- cies, and one of our winter birds of passage, arriving from the north in the fall, usually staying with us the whole winter, frequenting sandy plains and open downs, and is numerous in the Southern States, as far as Georgia, during that season. They fly high, in loose, scattered flocks, and at these times have a single cry, like the sky-lark. They are very numerous in many tracts of New Jersey, and are frequently brought to Philadelphia market. They are then generally very iat, and are considered excellent eating. Their food seems principally to consist of small, round, compressed black seeds, buckwheat, oats, &c., with a large proportion of gravel. They are said to have a pleasing song. Other American species are the Brown Lark, A. rufa, six inches long; brown-olive above; brownish-ochre beneath ; habits similar to the preceding ; the A. minor^ found in Texas ; and the A. Spraguei., found on the upper Missouri. THE BnLL-FINCH. THE PYRRHULIN^ OR BULL-FINCHES. These birds greatly resemble the grosbeaks in some respects, and especially i-n the size and CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 177 form of the heads and bills ; they occur in both hemispheres, principally in temperate countries, and feed upon seeds, the hardest sliells of which are seldom able to resist the force of their firm, strong bills. Genus PYRRHULA : Pyrrhula. — The Common Bull-Finch of Eiu-ope — BouvrcuU of the French; Gimjxl of the Germans— P. Vulgaris is seven inches long; the top of the head \and the under part of the chin a velvety black ; the throat, back, and shoulders gray; the rump white ; the breast crimson ; the lower parts white. There are white., blacky and sijeckled varieties ; hybrids with canaries are often produced. It is a robust and clumsy-lookino- bird ; conceals its nest in furze or hedges; lays from two to six bluish-white eggs; feeds on seeds of ash, maple, beech, and furze ; also on the seeds of weeds and gi-asses, and on the buds of trees, thus often doing great damage. On account of this habit it is called Pick-a-bud in England, where it is also called Coal-hood, Red-hoop, Tony-hoop, Alp, Pope, Nojje, (t:c. In confinement it is a docile bird, and though its natural note is harsh as the creaking of a door or wheelbarrow it may be trained to whistle many airs in a soft, pure, and flute-like tone. It is very common in England, and we see it often referred to in English books • it is found throughout Europe at all seasons. TIIU PINE-GROSBEAK. The Pine Pull-Finch or Pine GrosbejMv — the BouvrcuU Duc-hcc of the French ; P. enu- cleator of Yarrell ; the Corythus cnucleator of Audubon and De Kay — is eight and a half inches long; general colors bright carmine, with a vermilion tinge; that of the female yellowish-brown above; beneath ash-gray. It is found in the northern parts of both continents. It resembles the bull-finches in its form, and the cross-bills in some of its habits. It feeds on the seeds and buds of various kinds of trees ; builds a nest of sticks on the branch of a tree, lining it with feathers; the eggs are four or five. It breeds in this country from Maine northward; in severe seasons it comes southward in small flocks, sometimes abundantly as far as Massachusetts, and more rarely as far as Pennsylvania. The appearance of a flock of these birds, the males witli their splendid red attire, and the females with their more sober but still beautiful plumage, is quite striking. They are excellent food. The male has a pleasing song, and in confinement will often sing at night. G^fnws LOXIA : Loxia. — To this belong the Common European Cross-Bill — Bee croise of the French — L. c^irvirostro, which has a strong bill, the mandibles of which are crescent-shaped, arid cross each other at the points. It inhabits the northern regions of Europe, and lives princi- pally in the forests of fir ; it feeds on pine-cones, and also on the seeds and mits of other trees,, its bill enabling it to break the shells of these with facility. It is nearly seven inches longi, and is subject to great changes of color, the males of a year old being red, and those that are older of a greenish-yellow, spotted with white, and having a grayish tinge over the whole plum-^ge. These birds move southward ia winter, and are periodically seen in considerable flocks in Eng'and. Vol. it.— 23 17C VERTEBRATA •H^*- %^.^ IHE PARROT CROSS-BILL. The American Cross-Bill, L. Americana, resembles the preceding, and has generally been oonsiderod identical with it; there is no doubt, however, that it is distinct. It is seven inches long ; the male is red, passing into whitish beneath. It feeds on the seeds and buds of trees, and is a northern bird, but breeds in a few instances as far south as Pennsylvania. Other species are as follows : the Parrot Cross-Bill, L. ])i(i/opsiitacus, seven inches and a half long; general color tile-red, with dusky streaks below. It is somewhat larger than the com- mon cross-bill, but resembles it in its habits. It is occasionally seen in England and France. The European White-winged Cross-Bill, L. hifanciata, is six and a quarter inches long ; brick- red, orange, and grayish-brown above; reddish-orange beneath; a rare species. The American White-winged Cross-Bill, L. leucoptera, is generally of a crimson-red, with wings and tail black, the former having two white bands; length six inches. It is a northern species, rarely moving farther south than Northern New York. This has been long deemed iden- tical with the preceding, but it is no doubt a distinct species. THE PIIYTOTOMIN^ OR PLANT-CUTTERS. These birds are distinguished by having the margins of their mandibles finely serrated ; the bill is short, conical, and stout, as in the bull- finches. They are found only in the temperate regions of South America; the typical species, Phytotoma rara, is a native of Chili. They fre- quent the wooded parts of the country, and feed upon buds, fruits, and herbage, which they cut away with their bills, and thus often do great damacfG when thev visit the cultivated grounds. The amount of the injury is greatly increased by the circumstance that the birds mischievously cut off quantities of buds, fruits, &c., for the mere pleasure of throwing them down ; and for this 't;i^- '' reason the peasants wage a constant war with them, which, according to Molina, at the time he wrote, was rapidly diminishing their numbers. They also occasionally feed on insects. Their cry, consisting of ra>-a, rara, rara, is said to be excecd- inajly disagreeable, resembling the noise made by THE oTUiAK PLANT-CUTTER, P. rava. gratlug the teeth of two saws together. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 179 THE EUROPEAN STARLING OR STARE. THE STURE^ID^. This family includes several remarkable groups, as the Bower-Birds^ Grackles, Beef-Eaters^ Tree-Starlingsy Pastors, Meadow-Larks, Crow-Blackhird, Baltimore aud Orchard Orioles, Co7c- Blackbird, Bed-Winr/ Starling, &c. In their general characteristics we may include an elon- gated and compressed bill, wings long and more or less pointed, the toes long and strong, especial- ly the hind one ; they feed on insects, worms, fruits, and seeds ; they are generally gregarious ; are docile and tractable in captivity, and exhibit some of the peculiar sagacity of the crows. THE PTILONORHYNCHIN^, OR BOWER-BIRDS, OR GLOSSI STARLINGS. These birds are peculiar to the eastern hemisphere. The majority, including the Choucaries and Pirolles, are found in India, Australia, and the intervening islands, but Africa also possesses a few species belonging to the genus Jidda. They inhabit the hot regions of that continent, where they fly in large flocks, feeding principally on fruits, and often attacking the gardens and vineyards, to which they do great damage. They also devour insects and worms, and arc sometimes seen perched on the backs of cattle, searching for the parasitic insects among the hair. They are generally showy birds, with a metallic luster upon their plumage, are rather larger, than the common starling, and have a much longer tail. They nestle in rocks and holes of trees, and lay five or six eggs. The Bower-Birds of Australia belong to the genera P tilonorhynchus and Chlamydera. These are remarkable for the habit of making a sort of bower, which has nothing to do with their nidi- fication, but merely serves as a sort of playing-ground, in and around which they assemble for amusement! They inhabit the forests, and the bower is placed under the slielter of some large tree. Mr. Gould describes the construction and use of that of the S.\tin Bower-Bird, P. holosericeus — Ifitta holoscriceus of Timminck, the ICitte Veloutc of the French — in the following words : "The base consists of an extensive and rather convex platform of sticks firmly interwoven. 15)0 VERT E B II ATA. on the center of which the bower itself is built; this, like the platform on which it is placed and with whi<-h it is interwoven, is formed of sticks and twiijs, but of a more slender and Hexible dc- si-ription, the tips of the twigs being so arranged as to curve inward and nearly meet at the top; in the interior of the bower the materials are so placed that the forks of the twigs are always pre- sented outward, bv whicli arrangement not the slightest obstruction is offered to the passage of the binls. For what purpose these curious bowers are made is not yet, perhaps, fully understood ; thcv arc ccrtainlv not used as a nest, but as a place of resort for many individuals of both sexes, which, wlion there assembled, run through and around the bower in a sportive and playful man- ner, and that so freqjiently that it is seldom entirely deserted." A still more extraordinary structure of the same description is formed by the Spotted Bowek- BiRD, Chhimijdera inaculata, an inhabitant of the interior of Australia; it is tlms described by Mr. Gould. The bowers "are considerably longer and more avenue-like than those of the satin bower-bird, being in many instances three feet in length. They are outwardly built of twigs, and beautifully lined with tall grasses, so disposed that their heads nearly meet; the decorations are very profuse, and consist of bivalve shells, crania of small mammalia, and other bones. Evident and beautiful instances of design are manifest throughout the bower and decorations formed by this species, particularly in the manner in which the stones are placed within the bower, appar- ently to keep the grasses with which it is lined fixed firmly in their places ; these stones diverge from the mouth of the run on each side, so as to form little paths, while the immense collection of decorative materials, bones, shells, (fcc., are placed in a heap before the entrance of the avenue, this arranofement beinjT the same at both ends." Mr. Gould adds, in evidence of the labor that must be bestowed by the birds upon the construction of these apparently useless assembly rooms, that he frequently found them at a distance from any river, so that the shells and small stones employed in their fabrication must have been transported from a considerable distance. It ap- pears also that the birds collect no other bones than those which have been bleached in the sun ; and as it is certain that as they feed almost entirely upon fruits and seeds, these remains of other animals cannot be regarded as relics of their victims. THK MINO-BIED. THE GRACKLES* The birds of this group are found in India and the Indian Isles, where they inhabit the jungles. Genus GRACULA : Gracula.—To this belongs the Mixo-Bird, G. religiosa — Uulabcs Java- nus of Yiellot; Malnatus Sumatranus of Lesson, and ^T//?io;- Grackle of Bechstein; this is twelve inches long ; the color is a deep velvety-black ; a white space in the middle of the wing ; bill and feet yellow ; behind the eye spring fleshy caruncles of a brisxht orange-color, and extend beyond * The genus G-rackle, as now restricted by most naturalists, includes only the present group, this name included many others. Cuvier's genus of CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 181 the occiput. It is found in Java, Sumatra, and the great Eastern Islands. Insects and fruits form its food ; it is easily tamed, and learns to whistle and talk with facility. It is fond of cherries and grapes. If a cherry be brought and shown to it, and not given to it immediately, it will crv like a child. It will also sing and chatter like a parrot. With the natives it is a special favorite; it is sent to China in great numbers ; it is also sometimes brought to I^uropc and America, and is kept as a pet in cages. Marsden says that it has the faculty of imitating Imman speech in greater perfection than any other of the feathered tribe: Bontius tells the following story: there was, when he was in Batavia, an old Javanese woman, the servant of a Chinese gardener, who kept one of these birds, which was very loquacious. Bontius was very anxious to buy it, but this the old woman would not listen to. He then begged that she would at least lend it to him that its picture might be taken, a request which was at last granted with no very good grace, the ancient Mohammedan dame being under great apprehension that Bontius would offer the abomination pork to her beloved bird. This he promised not to do, and had the loan of the Mino, which kept continually saying, " Orang JSfamrani Catjor Macan BabiT This, being interpreted, means, "Christian Dog, Eater of Pork;" and Bontius came to the conclusion that the unwillingness of the old woman arose not only from the fear of her bird being desecrated by an offer of swine's flesh, but also from the apprehension that he or his servants, irritated by its contumelies, would wring its neck. M. Lesson gives an account of one he saw at Java which knew whole phrases of the Malay language. The Javanese call this bird Mco and Mancho ; another species Eulabes IndiciiSy is said to exist, of the size of the European blackbird. THE BUPHAGINiE OR OX-PECKERS. This group includes only a few species of birds, inhabiting the warmer parts of Africa, and be- longing to the genus BUPHAGO. The best known is that of the Common Ox-Pecker or Beef- Eater, so called from its habit of perching on the backs of cattle, and extracting the larvaj of the bot-flies, by which those quadrupeds are commonly infested. The French call it Pique Boeuf ; the scientific name is B. Africana. Singular as the diet we have mentioned may seem, it is said to constitute the principal nourishment of these birds, and the bill is certainly peculiarly adapted for gently squeezing the parasites out of the tumors caused by their presence. The cattle are said to allow the birds to perch upon them without any signs of unwillingness, which is indeed the case in respect to several other species which devour the insects found there. The Com- mon Ox-Pecker is a small bird, about eight or nitie inches in length ; its plumage is reddish-brown above and yellowish-white beneath ; the legs are brown and the bill yellowish, with the tips of both mandibles red. It is generally seen associated in small flocks of seven or eight individuals, and is exceedingly shy. THE STURNINiE OR TRUE STARLINGS. The True Starlings are for the most part inhabitants of the eastern hemisphere, only the genus Sturnella belonging to America. In these the bill is usually elongated, rather slender, and taper- ing, the wings and tail rather short, the toes long and stout, and furnished with acute claws. Geiius STURNUS : Sturrius. — This includes the Common Stare or Starling of Europe, S. vulgaris — Etonrneau of the French — a well-known, handsome, sprightly bird, often tamed, and as it can be taught to whistle tunes and articulate a few words, it is a fiivorite pet. It nestles in holes of rocks and buildings, and in hollow trees; the nest is composed of twigs, straws, grass, and roots; the eggs are four, of a pale blue tint. It is eight and a half inches long, of a black color, with violet and green reflections, and spotted with buff. After breeding time, the starlings assemble, often in immense flocks, and roost among the reeds in fenny districts, sometimes crushing them down by their weight, like grass after a storm. They are common in Europe, and we often see them mentioned as familiar birds in English books. They are stationary, except that in severe winters they move for a short distance southward. They have particular haunts, where they as- semble in vast multitudes. From October to March, many thousands of them roost in a mass of thorn-trees in the Zoological Gardens of Dublin. Genus PASTOR : Pastor. — This includes the Rose-colored Pastor— J/ar/m Bosclin of the French— P. roscus, resembling the starlings, and, like them, found living in the vicinity of cattle and 182 VERTEBRATA, r;,Ti r.i THE ROSE-COLORED PASTOR. sheep, and frequently mounts on their backs to find the insects imbedded in their hair and wool. It is a great destroyer of locusts, and on that account is held almost sacred in some parts; found in Asia, Africa, and Southern Europe. The Pastor tristis is a closely allied species, found in the Philippine Islands, and having been transported thence to the Mauritius by the colonists, has de- stroyed nearly all the insects of the island. Genus PHILESTURNUS : Philesturnus. — This includes the Carunculated Philesturnus, P. carunculatus, a New Zealand species, brown above and dirty white below. It is very bold, and a great babbler. THE MEADOW-LARK. Gemis STURNELLA : Stnrnella. — This includes one of our handsomest and most familiar birds, the Meadow-Lark — in Virginia the Old Field-Lark — S. Ludoviciana, ten and a half inches long; body above varied with chestnut, deep brown, and black; neck and breast of a bright yel- low, with a large cravat of black. It is migratory, coming to us in summer, and breeding in the meadows as far north as 56°. Its nest is carefully concealed beneath a tuft of grass, being arclie(} over level with the ground. The eggs are from four to five, and white, spotted. It lives or; seeds and insects. It is a shy, suspicious bird, and being very alert and swift of flight is shot with some difficulty. It is tough, but is esteemed for the table. It has none of the docility of the European starling, but has a tender and plaintive song during the breeding season, usually uttered at morning and evening from the top of some tall tree. The *S^. ncglecta inhabits Western America. Genus QUISCALUS: Quiscalus. — This includes the Common Crow-Blackbird, Q. versicolor CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 1&3 TUE CKOW-BLACKBIRL). h-racula quisccda of ^YiLson — twelve to thirteen inches long; glossy black, with metallic, vio> let, steel-blue, and green reflections upon the head, nock, and breast; green and blue reflections upon the wings and tail. It has a long, straight bill, with the nostrils placed in triangular grooves on each side of the base. The wings are pointed, and the hind toe is long, and armed with a strong curved claw. From the interior of the upper mandible a sharp, bony process descends into the mouth, resembling the broken blade of a peidcnife. This is supposed to assist in breaking up the food. The tail is long and graduated, with the sides curved upward, whence the name of Boat-Tails has been given to this species. They range from the Gulf of Mexico to fifty degrees north. In the Southern States they are constant residents; in the Middle and Eastern States they are migratory. They appear in loose flocks in April, and, alighting upon the tall trees in the villages, utter a cheerful salutation, as if rejoiced to return to their native haunts. They breed m the orcliards and culti\ated grounds, making large nests of grass and mud upon trees, and lay- ing five or six dull green eggs, blotched with olive. They feed on grubs, caterpillars, moths, beetles, and grain of various kinds. They are great depredators upon the fields of Indian corn in all their stages, tearing up the planted seed as soon as the infant blade makes its appearance, and devouring the milky kernels upon the ears when they have thus far adx-anced toward maturity. Scarecrows 184 VEKTEBIIATA, of fvorv iiii.iixiiiabK' form arc spread over the lields of Iiidiuu corn as soon as planted, partly in- tended for the crows, Imt more especially for these greedy and impudent marauders. When the breediuif season is over they ir.ither in immense flocks, usually roosting in the thickets of the swamps; at this time tillini; the whole air with their notes. In October they take their depart- ure. Their flesh is dark and rank, and unfit for the table. They have some rather pleasing notes, which they will practice in confinement. They may be tamed, and taught to articulate a few words. Of late they appear to be much less abundant than formerly. They have almost deserted some districts where they abounded not many years ago. THE RUSTY CROW-BLACKBIHD. The Rusty Crow-Blackbird, Q. ferrugineus^ is nine and a half inches long; of a rusty black color above, ash beneath ; resembles the preceding, and is distributed through the same re2;ions, but is less common. Other species are the Great Crow-Blackbird, Q. major^ sixteen inches long; glossv black; tail eight inches long and wedge-shaped ; found in the Southern States ; and the Q. Brewer i^ ten inches long ; glossy black, with purple reflections ; found on the upper Missouri. THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE. THE ICTERIN^E OR TROOPIALS. Genus ICTERUS: Icterus — nearly corresponding to the Xanthornus of Cuvier. — This in- cludes several remarkable species, which may be considered American Starlings, though they bear various other names. Some of them are gregarious in their habits, whence they have been CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 185 called Troujnalcs by the French and TroopiaU by the English. The most interesting species is the ]'>ALTiMORE Oriole — ranged by Le Maoiit under the generic name of Carouge — /. Balti- more, fixmiliar in all the orcliards of the United States. It is seven to eight inches long, of a golden-yellow color, with the head, neck, wings, and tail black; the female yellowish-olive; the food consists of flies, beetles, and caterpillars, and in the destruction of these it is very useful. It has various names, all of which are descriptive, as Golden Oriole] Hang-Bird, Fiery Hang-Bird, Golden Robin, and Baltimore Oriole, this latter title, it is said, having been bestowed because its black and yellow colors resemble the livery of Lord Baltimore, which was familiar to the colo- nists of Maryland in the early days of the settlement, that noble family having founded the colony. These birds appear among us from their for southern home in May ; their arrival is hailed by young and old as the harbinger of spring and summer. Full of life and activitv, these fairy sylphs are now seen glancing through the boughs of the loftiest trees, appearing and van- ishing like living gems. The same curious fact exists in respect to them as in respect to many other birds : in the long migration from the south — often several thousand miles — the sexea have been separate ; the males arrive several days before the females, not in flocks, but singly. At this time they fill the air with their notes, which, however, are shrill and plaintive, as if their joy was incomplete. Soon their partners arrive, and after many battles between the lovers, the pair- ing is completed, and amid frolic and song the nest is begun. This is usually the period when the apple-orchards are in bloom, and nothing can afford a picture of more enchanting and vivid beauty than these brilliant birds, in the midst of perfume and showering blossoms, sporting, sing- ing, and rollicking — nay, sipping the honey and feasting on the insects, as if these bowers were all their own. At this time the notes of the male are often a low whistle, or now and then a full trumpet tone, one following the other in slow or rapid succession ; even the female sings, though with less melody. Many of the notes of both are colloquial, and it is not difficult for a listener to fancy that he liears questions and answers between the lively couple, with occasional side ob- servations in various keys, indicative of approbation or reproach, admiration or contempt. If a dog or cat chances to approach the neighborhood of the nest, a volley of abuse, in a sharp, rapid tone, is sure to be poured out upon the intruder. The ingenuity of the Golden Robin in building its nest has always excited admiration. Nuttall says: " This is a pendulous, cylindric pouch, of five to seven inches in depth, usually suspended from near the extremities of the high drooping branches of trees, such as the elm, the pear, or apple-tx'ce, wild ehei'ry, weeping-willow, tulip-tree or button-wood. It is begun by firmly fastening natural strings of the flax, of the silk- weed or swamp-holyhock, or stout artificial threads, round two or more forked twigs, correspond- ing to the intended width and depth of the nest. With the same materials, willow-down, or any accidental ravelings, strings, thread, sewing-silk, tow, or wool that may be lying near the neigh- boring houses, or round the grafts of trees, they interweave and fabricate a sort of coarse cloth into the form intended, toward tlie bottom of wdiich they place the real nest, made chiefly of lint, wiry grass, horse and cow-hair, lining the interior with a mixture of slender strips of smooth vine- bark, and rarely, with a few feathers, the wdiole being of a considerable thickness, and more or less attached to the external pouch. Over the top, the leaves, as they grow out, form a verdant and agreeable canopy, defendinsr the young from the sun and rain. There is sometimes a coi> siderable difference in the manufacture of these nests, as well as the materials which enter into their composition. Both sexes seem to be equally adepts at this kind of labor, and 1 have seen the female alone perform the whole without any assistance, and the male also complete this labo- rious task nearly without the aid of his consort, who, however, is in general the principal worker. I have observed a nest made almost wholly of tow, vdiich was laid out for the convenience of a male bird, who, with this aid, completed his labor in a \ery short time, and frequently sung in a very ludi- crous manner while his mouth was loaded with a mass larger than his head. So eager are they to obtain fibrous materials, that they will readily tiy at, and even untie, hard knots made of tow." The eggs of this bird are four to five, white, with a bluish tint, and faint brown lines and spots at the larger end. It raises two broods in a season. It is easily tamed, and is docile and playful in confinement. It has a turn for mimicry, and often adopts for its song the notes of other birds. Vol. II. — 24 186 VEllTEliliATA. C**:5 Tlif ( MtiiiAuu-* >iii()i,K, y. spjiishcs and KratiiMcs till she finds the nest that suits her; she then slyly and quickly deposits her eu<;, and iMiniediateiy proceeds back to the flock. The strange agg is often a subject of wonder or surprise to the lawfid proprietor of the nest; sometimes it causes a desertion of the j)reniises; more commonly, however, it is duly hatched, and the young one carefully reared. Sometimes the athletic parasite stifles the legitin)ate oft'spring, in which case the lifeless remains are removed bv the parents, who yet — unconscious of the cause of the mischief — continue to feed and cherish it as their own child. AVlien fully fledged, the young bird departs and skulks about for a time, when at last, guided by instinct, he joins the flock of his kith and kin. They are now- seen m small parties around the cattle m the cow-pen or the pastures, feeding on the seeds and worms which they pick up among the fodder or the excrements of these domestic animals. They seem to liave an aflinity with the red-winged blackbirds, and often large flocks of the two kinds may be seen together, sometimes feeding in the fields of corn and rice, and sometimes wheeling and windinjx in blackenincj masses tlirouo;li the air. The cow-blackbird has no sonc, and nos- sesses few attractive qualities ; in confinement it utters a low, guttural splutter, intended for music, at the same time strutting before the spectator with the aff"ected airs of a turkey-cock. THE BOBLINK. Genus DOLYCHOXIX : Dolychonix. — This includes the D. orizivorns, one of our most curi- ous, eccentric, and amusing birds, the harlequin of the meadows, known at the north by the names of Boblixk, or Bob-o'-lixk, or Bob-o'-lixcolx, to which may be added the various titles of Bced-BIrd, Rice-Bird, Rice-Buntincj, May-Bird, Mcadoio-Bird, American Ortolan, Butter- Bird, and Skunk-Blackhi)-d. It is six and a half inches long; color black; head and rump white, tinged with yellow. This is the full spring costume of the male ; the female is brownish black and yellow above, dull yellow beneath. This is nearly the appearance of the young birds, and also of the male in autumn. These birds migrate northward in spring, proceeding by night, and retire in October, flying by day. They feed on crickets, grasshoppers, beetles, spiders, and seeds of various kinds, particularly those of grasses. Their range is from Mexico to Canada. The eggs, four or five in number, are bluish-white, spotted, and placed in a nest on the ground, usu- ally in the meadows. The "song of the male," says Wilson, "while the female is sitting, is sin- gular and very agreeable. Mounting and hovering on wing, at a small height above the field, he chants out such a jingling medley of short, variable notes, uttered with such seeming confu- sion and rapidity, and continued for a considerable time, that it appears as if half a dozen birds CLASS II. AVES: OllDEll 2. PASSERES. 189 of difffjrent kinds were all singing together. Some idea may be formed of this song by strikin!ain, houiclv fare, and is off on a gastronomieal tour in quest of foreign liixui'ies. We next hear of him, with myriads of his kind, banqueting among the reeds of the Delaware, and grown corpulent with good feeding. lie has changed liis name in traveling: Boblincon no more, he is the Rccd-Bird now, the much sought for titbit of Pennsylvania epicures; the rival in un- link v fame of the ortolan! Wherever lie goes, pop! pop! pop! every rusty firelock in the coun- try is blazing awav. He sees his companions falling by thousands around him. "])oes he take warning and reform ? Alas, not he! Incorrigible epicure! again he wings liis flight. The rice-swamps of the South invite him. He gorges liimself among them almost to bursting ; he can scarcely fly for corpulency. He has once more changed his name, and is now the famous Rice-Bird of the Carolinas. "Last stage of his career: behold him spitted with dozens of liis corpulent companions, and served up a vaunted dish on the table of some Southern gastronome. "Such is the story of the boblink: once spiritual, musical, admired, the joy of the meadows, and the favorite bird of spring; finally, a gross little sensualist, who expiates his sensuality in the larder. His story contains a moral worthy the attention of all little birds and little boys, warning them to keep to those refined and intellectual pursuits which raised him to so high a pitch of popularity during the early part of his career ; but to eschew all tendency to that gross and dis- sipated indulgence which brought this mistaken little bird to an untimely end." Bryant speaks in a gayer humor : " Merrily swinging on briar and weed, Near to the nest of his little dame, Over the mountain, river, and mead, Kobert of Lincoln is telling his name: Bob-o'-Iink, bob-o'-link, Spink, spank, spink ; Snug and safe is that nest of ours, Hidden among the summer flowers, Chee, chee, chee. " Robert of Lincoln is gaily drest, Wearing a bright blue wedding-coat, White on his shoulders and white his crest, Hear him call, in his merry note : Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, Spink, spank, spink; Look what a nice new coat is mine, Sure there was never a bird so fine, Chee, chee, chee. " Robert of Lincoln's Quaker wife. Pretty and quiet, with plain brown wings, Passing at home a patient life, Breeds in the grass while her husband sings: Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, Spink, spank, spink; Brood, kind creature, and never fear Thieves or robbers while I am here, Chee, chee, chee. " Modest and shy as a nun is she, One weak chirp is hor only note; Braggart and prince of braggarts is he, Pouring boasts from his little throat : Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, Spink, spank, spink ; Never was I afraid of man. Catch me, cowardly knaves, if you can, Chee, chee, chee. " Six white eggs on a bed of hay, Flecked with purple, a pretty sight: There as the mother sits all day, Robert is singing with all his might: Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, Spink, spank, spink ; Nice good wife that never goes out. Keeping home while I frolic about, Chee, chee, chee. "Soon as the little ones chip the shell, Six wide mouths are open for food ; Robert of Lincoln bestirs him well, Gathering seeds for the hungry brood : Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, Spink, spank, spink. This new life is likely to be Hard for a gay young fellow like me, Chee, chee, chee. "Robert of Lincoln at length is made Sober with work and silent with care ; Off is his holiday garment laid. Half-forgotten that merry air: Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, Spink, spank, spink ; Nobody knows but my wife and I Where our nest and our nestlings lie, Chee, chee, chee. " Summer wanes — the children are grown, Leisure and frolic no more he knows; Robert of Lincoln's a hum-drum crone, Off he flies, and we sing as he goes: Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, Spink, spank, spink ; When you can j)ipe that merry old strain, Robert of Lincoln, come again, Chee, chee, chee." CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 191 Such is the Bobolink of our meadows, and such has he been from "creation's dawn" — a gay, rollicking fellow^, satisfied with himself, and therefore content with the world around him. Wc, in our conceit, imagine that he lives in our fields because he loves us, and that he sings because his song pleases us ; but the fact is, that he prefers our meadows only because they aff"ord him food and shelter. lie is not indebted to man for his existence, nor dependent upon man for his happiness. No doubt that he and his kindred migrated to these temperate zones, and built their nests and poured out their ditties, just as they do now, in the dim ages of the past, long, long before civilized man had settled or even discovered America. The morning and the evening hymn of these birds filled the air when only the stolid Indian Avas their listener, or even before, just as at the present day. The other familiar birds — robins, sparrows, bluebirds, orioles, fly-catchers, swallows — which nestle around our houses, arc attracted to these places, not by any sympathy with man, but by the fruits he produces, and the worms and insects that flourish in the rich soil which he creates; perchance in some cases by the protection which the presence of man aflfords to them and their offspring, from hawks, owls, eagles, and other enemies. Birds are quick observers; if by chance one of them finds a feast in a field, in his visits to it he is noticed, and thus becomes a telegraph to others. In the spring of 1858 I had a rich garden-lot plowed up and laid down to grass, sowing it first w'ith oats and then with grass-seed. In a week it was the general resort of birds of many kinds — robins, orioles, cat-birds, blackbirds, sparrows, linnets, and finches. The circumstances permitted me to observe their proceedings, and I readily per- ceived that the orioles, seeing the robins attracted to this spot, followed them ; the cat-birds fol- lowed the orioles, the blackbirds followed the cat-birds, and so on. A group of school-boys are not sooner informed of a deposit of nuts, than are the birds, of a harvest of seeds or insects. Thus it is that cultivated districts become the chief resort of many species, especially during the breed- ing season. By the facilities of support thus aff"orded, many kinds of birds may be, and doubtless are, increased in numbers; many, certainly, are thus drawn around the abodes of man. But by far the larger ])art of the birds throughout the world are never seen by man. Not a twentieth part of the world's surface is occupied even by the thousand millions of human inhabitants. The morning — that daily miracle of the universe — that diurnal creation of a world of light out of the chaos of darkness — rises upon the surface of the boundless sea, the lone mountain, the remote wilderness, scattering on every side its light, and everywhere waking its anthem of life, though man is not there to witness it, or to participate in it. The depths of the ocean are illumined with gems and coral, and fishes of purple and gold, yet from these boundless realms man is forever banished. Tlie gorgeous trogons of Central America, the superb macaws of Brazil, the glittering touracos of Africa, the satin bower-birds of Australia — the myriads of feathered tribes, cither glorious in the splendor of their plumage or the melody of their songs — have enlivened their native haunts for thousands of years without the presence of man ; nay, the very instincts of many of these birds, endowed with surpassing beauty, lead them to hide their splendors in the remote, undiscovered re- cesses of the wildei'uess. Here, in these hermit retreats, they flourish, singing, sporting, and spreading their golden feathers to the sun, so long as man is not there ; when he approaches, they dwindle away and perish ; for man, in respect to many of the feathered tribes, is not their friend, but their enemy and destroyer. In the Astor Library is a magnificent work by Gould on the birds of Australia — seven volumes, folio — and all these diversified tribes — some of them of a splendor of plu- mage that defies description — have remained till the present century unknown to civilized man. Nay, whole races of birds, with all their shining feathers and delicious melody, have lived, flour- ished, and passed away, ages before man was an inhabitant of the cai'tli. It is manifest that man, in a physical sense, is not necessary to the great movement of life and light, of majesty and do- minion, in the universe. He is only a humble incident in creation ; the birds sing and the trees wave, equally unconscious of his presence and his absence. They were not made for him, nor he for them ; all are subservient to the Creator. How strange, how mysterious, how humiliating is the state of man, self-banished, by atheistic doubt or infidelity, from the great Author of Life and Light, since he, and he alone, of all created things, can know his isolation and appreciate his con- dition ; how glorious his hopes and expectations, when viewed in that Mirror of Faith which carries him beyond this transient being — this alliance with birds and beasts — into everlasting communion with his Maker ! l!)l VERTEBRATA. \ \ TI1>' FJLUTE-PLATIXG CASSICAN. THE HOODED-CKOW OF EUROPE. THE COrvYID^ OR CROWS. This family includes not only the typical crows, but a number of other groups, as the Piping- Crows, the Jays^ the Tree-Crows, the Magpies, Choughs, Jackdaws, and Paradise Birds. These are all omnivorous, feeding on fruits and animal substances of various kinds. THE STREPERINJE OR PIPING-CROWS. These birds — the Cassicans of some authors ; the Baritas of Cuvier — belong to Australia and the adjacent islands : they are distinguished from the other Corvidae by the form of the nostrils, each of which consists of a long, narrow slit in the substance of the bill, and is usually completely exposed. The bill itself is long and compressed, broad at the base, where the ridge projects upon the forehead, and the tip is more or less notched. They are restless, noisy, and omnivorous like other crows, but, unlike them, they have some musical notes. One species, the Flute-playing Cassican, Gymnorhina tibicen, is of a grayish-brown color, and is very voracious, even devouring small birds. The Wakening Cassican, Coracias strepcra of Latham, is found in Norfolk Island; it never sleeps at night, but keeps the country round awake by its sonorous cries. THE GARRULIN^ OR JAYS. Genus GARIIULUS : Garrulus. — This includes the Common Jay of Europe — the Gaza Verla of the Italians, the Geai of the French, and Hoh-Hdher of the Germans — G. glandarius. It is a very beautiful bird, sixteen inches long, of a light reddish-brown color, with the primary wing-coverts bright blue, elegantly banded with black. The feathers of the fore part of the head arc whitish, spotted with black, and elongated so as to form a crest, which the bird can erect at pleasure ; the quill-feathers of the wings and tail, and a streak on each side of the chin, are black. It is common throughout Europe ; inhabits thick woods, and is shy in its habits. It feeds to a great extent upon vegetable matters, such as acorns and beech-mast, and in summer often visits gardens, tempted by the cultivated fruits. It also feeds on insects and worms. Its nest is formed in tall bushes, or in the lower branches of trees ; but always well concealed among CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 193 THE EUROPEAN JAY. THE EUROPEAN NUT-CRACKEE. (See p. 195.) the leaves. It is cup-shaped, formed of small sticks, and lined with finer materials, such as small roots and Q;rass ; the eggs are five or six in number. It is of a lively disposition, and has a trick of concealing objects and laying up stores like the magpie. It is capable of some education, and has great powers of imitation. In a state of nature it has been known to mimic the voices of other animals so exactly that it was difficult to believe that the creatures personated were reallv absent. Montagu says, that in the spring the Jay will sometimes utter a sort of song, which he describes as soft and pleasing, but into which it introduces at intervals the bleating of a lamb, the mewing of a cat, the note of a kite or buzzard, the hooting of an owl, and even the neighing of a horse and similar sounds. In confinement, of course, a wider field is opened for the bird's talents for mimicry ; and it usually takes advantage of its position to pick up and repeat every sound with which it is familiar. Thus Bewick mentions a Jay that imitated "the sound of a saw so exactly that, though it was on a Sunday, we could hardly be persuaded that there was not a car- penter at work in the house." Mr. Yarrell also refers to one of these birds, in the possession of a surgeon in Berkshire, which, before it was twelve months old, imitated the ordinary household sounds with astonishing accuracy. He would give what might be called a Poultry-yard Enter- tainment^ imitating the calling of the fowls to feed, and all the noises of the fowls themselves in perfection ; but the crowing of the cock was not managed so well. The barking and noises of the house-dog were imitated in a style that could not be distinguished from the original. Among several other foreign species of Jay are the G. infaustus, somewhat smaller than the preceding, found in Northern Europe ; and the G. lanccolatus and G. hispccularis, both of India. In America the jays are more numerous than in the other hemisphere, though they chiefly bc- i long to the warmer regions of this continent. The prevailing hues are different shades of blue, I variegated with white, black, or yellow. They generally possess the characteristics of cunning j and the turn for mimicry belonging to the European jay. The prominent species in the United States is the Blue Jay, G. cristatun. This is eleven inches long; light purplish-blue above; be- neath white, with a faint bluish tinge. It is migratory in New England, but becomes sedentary in the Middle States; found from Texas to Canada. Wilson says: "This elegant bird is distin- guished as a kind of beau among the feathered tenants of our woods, by the brilliancy of his Vol. II.— 25 194 VERTEBRATA. dress; and, liko most otlirr coxcombs, iii;ikcs liiiiist'lf still more conspicuous by liis loquacity, and the oddiK'ss of liis tones and gestures, lie is an almost universal inhabitant of the woods, fre- quenting the thickest settlements as well as tlu' deepest recesses of the forest, where his squalling voice often alarms the deer, to the disappointment and mortification of the hunter; one of whom informed n)e, that he made it a point, in summer, to kill every jay he could meet with. In the charming season of spring, when every thicket pours forth hannony, the part performed by the jav ahvavs catches the ear. He appears to be among his fellow-musicians what the trumpeter is in a band, some of his notes having no distant resemblance to the tones of that instrument. These he has tli(> faculty of changing through a great variety of modulations, according to the partii'ular humor he happens to be in. When disposed for ridicule, there is scarce a bird whose pecidiarities of song he cannot tune his notes to. \\'lien engaged in the blandishments of love, tliey resemble the soft cliatterings of a duck, and, while he nestles among the thick branches of the cedar, ar(> scarce heard at a few paces' distance ; but he no sooner discovers your approach than he sets up a sudden and vehement outcry, flying oft", and screaming Avith all his might, as if he called the whole feathered tribes of the neighborhood to witness some outrageous usage he had received. When he hops undisturbed among the liigh branches of the oak and hickory, they become soft and musical; and his calls of the female, a stranger would readily mistake for the re- peated screakings of an ungreased wheelbarrow. All these he accompanies with various nods, jerks, and other gesticulations, for which the whole tribe of jays are remarkable. •'This bird builds a large nest, frequently in the cedar, sometimes on an apple-tree, lines it with dry fibrous roots, and lays five eggs, of a dull olive, spotted with brown. The male is particularly careful of not being heard near the place, making his visits as silently and secretly as possible. His favorite food consists of chestnuts, acorns, and Indian corn. He occasionally feeds on bugs and caterpillars, and sometimes pays a plundering visit to the orchard, cherry-rows, and potato- patch ; and has been known, in times of scarcity, to venture into the barn, through openings be- tween the weather-boards. In these cases he is extremely active and silent, and, if surprised in the fact, makes his escape with precipitation, but without noise, as if conscious of his criminality. " Of all birds, he is the most bitter enemy of the owl. No sooner has he discovered the retreat j of one of these, than he summons the whole feathered fraternity to his assistance, who surround, the glimmering solitaire, and attack him from all sides, raising such a shout as may be heard, ini a still day, more than half a mile off. When, in my hunting excursions, I have passed near this! scene of tumult, I have imagined to myself that I heard the insulting party venting their respect- ive charges with all the virulency of a Billingsgate mob ; the owl, meanwhile, returning everyj compliment with a broad, goggling stare. The war becomes louder and louder, and the owl a^ length, forced to betake himself to flight, is followed by his whole train of persecutors, until driver beyond the boundaries of their jurisdiction. "But the blue jay himself is not guiltless of similar depredations with the owl, and becomes inj his turn the very tyrant he detested, when he sneaks through the woods, as he frequently does,! and among the thickets and hedge-rows, plundering every nest he can find of its eggs, tearing upl| the callow young by piecemeal, and spreading alarm and sorrow around him. The cries of the! J distressed parents soon bring together a number of interested spectators — for birds in such cir-| : cumstances seem truly to sympathize with each other — and he is sometimes attacked with suchj ^ spirit as to be under the necessity of making a speedy retreat. i " He is not only bold and vociferous, but possesses a considerable talent for mimicry, and seems to enjoy great satisfaction in mocking and teasing other birds, particularly the sparrow-hawk, im-| itating his cry wherever he sees him, and squealing out as if caught; this soon brings a number of his own tribe around him, who all join in the frolic, darting about the hawk, and feigning the- cries of a bird sorely wounded, and already under the clutches of its devourer; while others lie; concealed in bushes, ready to second their associates in the attack. But this ludicrous farce often! terminates tragically. The hawk, singling out one of the most insolent and provoking, sweep?, upon him in an unguarded moment, and off"crs him up a sacrifice to his hunger and resentment). In an instant the tune is changed ; all their buffoonery vanishes, and loud and incessant screamd proclaim their disaster. BLUE JAYS. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 195 " Wherever the jay has had the advantage of education from man, he has not only shown him- self an apt scholar, but his suavity of manners seems equalled only by his art and contrivances though it must be confessed, that his itch for thieving keeps pace with all his other acquirements. Dr. Mease informs me, that a blue jay, which was brought up in the family of a gentleman, had all the tricks and loquacity of a parrot; pilfered every thing he could conveniently carry off, and hid them in holes and crevices; answered to his name with great sociability when called on • could articulate a number of words pretty distinctly ; and, when lie heard an uncommon noise, or loud talking, seemed impatient to contribute his share to the general festivity, by a display of all the oratorical powers he was possessed of. "Mr. Bartram relates an instance of the jay's sagacity worthy of remark. 'Havino- caught a jay in the winter season,' says he, 'I turned him loose in the green-house, and fed him with corn, the heart of which they are very fond of. This grain being ripe and hard, the bird at first found a difficulty in breaking it, as it would start from his bill when he struck it. After looking about, and, as if considering for a moment, lie picked up his grain, carried and placed it close up in a corner on the shelf, between the wall and a plant-box, where, being confined on three sides, he soon effected his purpose, and continued afterward to make use of this same practical expedient.' 'The jay,' continues this judicious observer, 'is one of the most useful agents in the economy of nature for disseminating forest trees and other ruciferous and hard-seeded vegetables on which they feed. Their chief employment, during the autumnal season, is foraging to supply their win- ter stores. In performing this necessary duty, they drop abundance of seed in their flight over fields, hedges, and by fences, where tliey alight to deposit them in the post-holes, &c. It is re- markable what numbers of young trees rise up in fields and pastures after a wet winter and spring. These birds alone are capable, in a few years' time, to replant all the cleared lands.'" The Canada Jay, G. Canadensis, is ten inches long; head black; back leaden-gray ; beneath light leaden-brown. It is a northern bird, but found occasionally in the winter as far south as New York, where it is called the Carrion- Bird. The G. Stelleri is generally of a blue color, head and neck blackish ; tail long; whole length twelve inches; found in Mexico. The G. Floridensis is eleven to twelve inches long; back light yellowish-brown ; head, wings, and tail blue; beneath I gray ; found in Florida and the Western States. The G. ultramarinus is twelve inches long , j blue and brownish-olive ; found in California. The jNIexican Jay, Cyanocorax luxuosus, beau- ! tifully figured by Cassin, has the head blue and black, and the body a parrot-like green ; it is 1 above twelve inches long, and found in Texas and Mexico. Prince Maximilian's Jay, Gymno- kitta cyanoccj)hala, also figured by Cassin, is ten inches long; color ashy-blue; found in New Mexico and Nebraska. There are several other species in North America. Among the South American species are the Great Crested Jay, Cyanocorax pileatus, C. vio- laceus, C. azuretis, Cyanocitta ornata, &c. Genus NUCIFRAGA : Nacifraga. — To this belongs the Nut-Cracker, N. caryocatactes — the Casse noix of the French : size of the European jay ; color umber-brown, dappled with white spots; nestles in hollow trees ; the eggs five or six ; feeds on insects, the seeds of pine, and berries ; sometimes on young birds and eggs; it cracks nuts in the same manner as the nut-hatch ; found in Central Europe ; rare in England. There are varieties of pure white and yellowish-white. THE CALLiEATIN^ OR TREE-CROWS. In these birds the upper mandible is not toothed at the tip ; the bill is short, with the ridge much elevated at the base, and considerably curved ; the wings are short and rounded, the tail long, the tarsi covered with transverse scales, and the two lateral toes are unequal. The species are peculiar to the eastern hemisphere, of which they generally inhabit the warmer regions. The typical species, Calloias cinerca, sometimes called the New Zealand Crow, in its habits resem- bles the ordinary crows, feeding on fruits, insects, and occasionally on small birds; its general color is a greenish-black, and on each side of the head there is a small wattle of a bright blue tint. THE CORVIX^ OR TRUE CROWS. These, like the preceding, are destitute of the teeth at the tip of the upper mandible, the ridge 1!)(J VERTEBIIATA. THE GKEAT CRESTED JAY. (See p. 195.) of which is more or less curved ; the wings are long, and very slightly rounded, the tail variable ill form, the tarsi long, and covered with transverse scales, and the two lateral toes are equal. Some of this species are undoubtedly the most intelligent of the feathered races. Genus CORVUS : Corvus. — At the head of this stands the Raven, C. corax, among the most remarkable of the feathered races. It is two feet long ; its color black, tinged with violet. Like all the corvine birds, it has a high, round, knife-shaped beak, provider. Kicliardson says that "it frequents the Barren Grounds of the most intense winter cold, its movements being directed in a great measure by those of the herds of reindeer, musk-oxen, and bisons, which it follows, ready to assist in devouring such as are killed by beasts of prey or by accident. No sooner has a hunter slaughtered an animal than these birds are seen coming from various quarters to feast on the ofial ; and considerable numbers constantly attend the fishing sta lions, where they show equal boldness and rapacity." The raven is rarely seen in the Eastern States, but is common in the West, and especially in the vicinity of Niagara, and thence north- ward to the Fur Countries. TUE CARIUON-CUOW OF EUKOPE. The Carrion-Crow of Europe, C. Coronc — CorncUle Noire of the French — in England passes under the various names of Flcsh-Croio, Gor-Crow, Black Crow, Corhj-Crow, and Hoody. It is eighteen inches long, its plumage black and highly glossed, with purple reflections above and green beneath. It is naturally intelligent, and living in the vicinity of man becomes exceedingly wary ; it readily distinguishes between a man Avith a gnu in his hand, and from whom it flies in fear and terror, and a man on horseback, whom it permits to approach more nearly without signs of alarm. It inhabits at all seasons Germany, France, Spain, Great Britain, and Italy. Temminck says it is a native of Japan. It lives in pairs all the year, and seldom more than two are found together, unless at a feast of carrion. Its partiality to animal food, even though it be in a putrid state, has given it several of its popular names. It attacks lambs and small quadrupeds, as well as young birds; it also eats shell-fish on the sea-shore. In default of meat it eats grain, potatoes, and has been known to feed on green walnuts. It is an early breeder, and commences building its nest in February. The female lays four or five eggs of a pale bluish-green, spotted and speckled with two shades of ash-color and clove-brown. Its voice is harsh, but in captivity it becomes tame and familiar, and shows a great deal of amusing cun- ning. The following ballad is descriptive of some of the more remarkable characteristics of this bird : " The Carrion Crow is a sexton bold, He raketh the dead from out the mould ; He delveth the ground like a miser old, Stealthily hiding his store of gold. Caw t caw! CLASS II. AYES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 199 " The Carrion-Crow hath a coat of black, Silky and sleek like a priest's, on his back ; Like a lawyer he grubbcth — no matter what way — The fouler the ofi'al the richer his prey. Uaw ! caw ! the Carrion- Crow ! Di)oot. The coast again clear, lie returns once more in silence, to fuii.sh the repast he had bosxun. Sonietinies he approaches the farm-house by stealth, in search of young chickens, which he is in the habit of snatching otf, when he can elude the vigilance of the mother hen, who often proves too forniiclal>le for him. "So univei-sal is lln' hatred to crows, that few states, either here or in Europe, have neglected to oft'er rewards for their destruction. Tn the United States they liave been repeatedly ranked in our laws with the wolves, the panthers, foxes, and squirrels, and a proportionable premium otlered for their heads, to be paid by any justice of the peace to whom they arc delivered. On all these accounts, various modes have been invented for capturing them. They have been taken in clap-ni'ts, commonly used for taking pigeons, two or three live crows being previously procured as decoys, or, as they are called, stool-crows. Corn has been steeped in a strong decoction of hellebore, which, when eaten by them, produces a giddiness, and finally, it is said, death. Pieces of paper formed into the shape of a hollow cone, besmeared within with bird-lime, and a grain or two of corn dropped on the bottom, have also been adopted. Numbers of these being placed on the ground, where corn has been j)laiitcd, the crows attempting to reach the grains are instantly hoodwinked, fly directly upward to a great height, but generally descend near the spot whence they rose, and are easily taken. The reeds of their roosting places are sometimes set on fire during a dark night, and the gunners having previously posted themselves around, the crows rise in great uproar, and amid the general consternation, by the light of the burnings, hundreds of thera are shot down. "Crows have been employed to catch crows by the following stratagem : a live crow is pinned by the wings down to the ground on his back by means of two sharp, forked sticks. Thus situ- ated, his cries arc loud and incessant, particularly if any other crows are within view. These, sweeping down about him, arc instantly grappled by the prostrate prisoner, by the same instinct- ive impulse that urges a drowning person to grasp at every thing within his reach. Having dis- engaged the game from his clutches, the trap is again ready for another experiment ; and by pin- ning down each captive successively, as soon as taken, in a short time you will probably have a large flock screaming above you, in concert with the outrageous prisoners below.* Many farm- ers, however, are content with hanging up the skins or dead carcasses of crows in their corn-fields, in terrorem ; others depend altogether on the gun, keeping one of their people supplied with am- munition, and constantly on the look-out. In hard winters the crows suffer severely, so that they have been observed to fall down in the fields, and the roads, exhausted with cold and hunger. In one of these winters, and during a long-continued, deep snow, more than six hundred crows were shot on the carcass of a dead horse, which was placed at a proper distance from the stable, from a hole of which the discharges were made. The premiums awarded for these, with the price paid for the quills, produced nearly as much as the original value of the horse, besides, as the man himself assured mc, saving feathers sufficient for filling a bed. "The crow is easily raised and domesticated, and it is only when thus rendered unsuspicious of, and placed on terms of familiarity with man, that the true traits of his genius and native dis- position fully develop themselves. In this state he soon learns to distinguish all the members of the family ; flies toward the gate screaming at the approach of a stranger ; learns to open the door by alighting on the latch ; attends regularly at the stated hours of dinner and breakfast, which he appears punctually to recollect; is extremely noisy and loquacious ; imitates the sounds of various words pretty distinctly ; is a great thief and hoarder of curiosities, hiding in holes, cor- ners, and crevices every loose article he can carry otf, particularly small pieces of metal, corn, bread, and food of all kinds; is fond of the society of his master, and will know him even after a long absence, of which the following is a remarkable instance, and may be relied on as a fact : a very worthy gentleman, who resided on the Delaware, a few miles below Easton, had raised a * In New England scare-crows in the form of ragged, beggarly men are generally adopted to save the recently planted corn from the crows and blackbirds, many of these specimens of art displaying considerable humor; some- times a windmill with a clapper is set in the field ; shingles and pieces of tin suspended by a twine, and whirling in the wind, are common. But the cheapest and best defence of the corn-field is no doubt a scries of lines of twine strung across the field. A kind of twino for this express purpose is manufactured and sold in the country stores. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 201 crow, with whose tricks and society he used frequently to amuse himself. This crow lived long in the family, hut at length disappeared, having, as was then supposed, been shot hy some vao-rant gunner, or destroyed by accident. About eleven months after this, as the gentleman one morn- ing, in company with several others, was standing on the river-shore, a number of crows happen- ing to pass by, one of them left the flock, and flying directly toward the company, alighted on the o-entleman's shoulder, and began to gabble away with great volubility, as one long absent friend naturally enough does on meeting with another. On recovering from his surprise, the gentleman instantly recognized his old acquaintance, and endeavored, by several civil but sly maneuvers, to lay hold of him ; but the crow, not altogether relishing quite so much familiarity, having now had a taste of the sweets of liberty, cautiously eluded all his attempts, and suddenly glancing his eye on his distant companions, mounted in the air after them, soon overtook and mingled with them, and was never afterward seen to return." The Fish-Crow, C. ossifrayus, is sixteen inches long, black, builds on tall trees; eggs four or five. It haunts the borders of rivers and sea-coasts, and feeds on dead as well as living fish, water- lizards, &c. ; it is found often in flocks along the sea-shore from Georgia to New Jersey, and breeds in the latter state. It is less suspicious than other crows, and sometimes becomes familiar near the farms, hopping up on the backs of cattle to feed on the parasitic insects. It attends on the fisheries of New Jersey and the shad-fisheries of the Delaware to devour the oftal. It is often confounded with the common crow, but may be distinguished on examination, as it is some- what smaller, and has the chin naked. Other American species of crow are the White-xecked Crow, C. cryptoleucus^ of the country of the Rio Grande and Gila; and the Nouthwesterx Fish- Crow, C. caurinus^ of Washington Territory. The Hooded Crow, C. comix — Corbeau manteU of the French, and called in England by the various names of the Royston-Crow^ Gray-hacked Crow, Dun Crmi\ Btintiny-Croio, and Hoody- Crow — resembles the preceding in character and habits, though it is said to be more mischievous. It is twenty inches long ; the general color shiny black ; nape of the neck, back, rump, and under surface of the body a smoke-gray. Its voice is more shrill than that of the common crow, but it lives on the same food, except when near the sea it devours sand-worms, shell-fish, and other ma- rine productions. It is exceedingly intelligent, and when it wishes to break a cockle or mussel shell, it will soar into the air and drop it on a rock, and thus get at the flesh. Many other curi- ous instances of the sagacity of this bird are related. It is found all over Europe, and in some places is very numerous. Sometimes common crows are seen mingled with them ; indeed, these two species are said occasionally to breed together, but whether the hybrid product is prolific is not determined. THE ROOK. The Rook, C.frugilegus, is nineteen inches long, and greatly resembles the common crow, the whole plumage being black, glossed with purple ; "white, pied, and cream-colored varieties some- Vol. II. — 26 202 VEKTEBRATA. times otHiir. It feeds on insects and worms, and is supposed to be very beneficial to the farmers by the iinmeiisc number of noxious creatures which it thus destroys. It constructs its nests in h'i<>-li trees, and often hundreds, and indeed thousands, build in the same wood, constituting what is called a Jiookcnj. This is usually placed near human liabitations, and indeed these birds often breed iu trees in laro-e cities. A few years since a pair of them built between the wings of the drati-on on 13ow Church, London; others have built in Manchester, Newcastle, &c. They are diffused over a great part of Europe, aiid arc very abundant in England and Ireland ; we often see them referred to in English books. Their intelligence is remarkable ; when tamed they be- come attached to their keeper, and perform many amusing tricks. THE JACKDAW. The Jackdaw, C. monedula — the Choucas of Temrainck ; Corneille des Clochers of the French — is fourteen inches long ; color black ; smoke-gray on the neck ; eggs four to six ; the nests are made in church-towers, belfries, steeples, and hollow trees and rabbit-burrows; many of them build in the higher parts of Windsor Castle, and in the churches of large towns in England ; flocks are constantly seen in Paris, frequenting the trees in the garden of the Tuileries, and nest- ling in the churches and public buildings. They are a sociable, cheerful, and active race, flying about from place to place, and filling the air with their cries, which resemble the notes of young crows. They eat indiscriminately insects, seeds, grain, eggs, carrion, fish, shell-fish, and soft gar- den vegetables. They are said to pair for life. They are cunning birds, have a turn for imita- tion, and in confinement learn to speak some words. They are distributed throughout Europe and Northern Asia, and are not migratory. i Genus FREGILUS : Frcgilus. — This includes the Chough or Red-legged Crow, F. graculus ' of Cuvier, sixteen inches long; color black, glossed with blue; feeds on insects, berries and grain; builds its nest of sticks, lined wnth wool, in the cavities of cliff's, old castles, and church-towers near the sea. It inhabits the high rocky regions of Middle Europe and Asia, frequents the cliffs ' of Great Britain along the British Channel, and being common in the mountains of Cornwall, is j often called the Cornish Chough. It is intelligent, and Avhcn domesticated is an exceedingly { amusmo- creature. Genus PYRRHOCORAX : Pyrrhocorax. — This includes the Alpixe Chough, Chocard of , the French, P. Alpinus, fifteen inches long ; black, with green reflections ; lives in troops in the ? mountains of Central Europe in summer, and descends to the valleys in winter ; habits like the preceding. Genus PICA : Pica. — This includes the Magpie — Gazza of the Italians, Pie of the French, and Mster of the Germans — P. caudata, eighteen inches long; the head, neck, back, and upper, tail coverts jet black; throat grayish-white; scapulars pure Avhite ; wing-coverts and tertials of a? CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 2. PASSERES. 203 THE CHOUGH. (See p. 202.) fine shiny blue ; it builds its nest in a high tree or a lofty hedge, formed on the outside of sharp, thorny sticks, within of fibrous roots and dry grass ; the top is covered, with an entrance at the side ; the eggs are six or seven. It is a beautiful bird, but its character is bad. Its habits are sus- -^ -■ '<*^ THE MAGPIE. picious, and though seeking the habitations of man, it is always prompted by self-interest. " It is, says Montagu, " a great enemy to the husbandman and the preserver of game, but has cunning 20 4 VEUTEliJlATA, enouLjli to pvadc their wrath. No animal food comes amiss to its carnivorous appetite ; young poultry, offrr», young lambs, and even weakly sheep it will attempt to destroy, by first plucking out their eves; the voung of hares, rabbits, and feathered game share the same fate; fish, carrion, in- sects, fruit, and lastly grain, when nothing else can be got. It is an artful, noisy bird, proclaiming aloud anv apparent danger, and thereby giving notice to its associates. Neither the fox nor other wild animal can appear without being ob- served and hauntenc or (irouml-Cttckuos inhabit tropical America, live much on the ground or in low bushes, and feed on insects, worms, and seeds. One species, the SauroUura vctala, inhabits the West Indies, and is fifteen inches long. The Chaparral-Cock, Prairie-Cock, or Paisano, Geococcyx 3fexicanus, figured by Cassin, is about twenty inches long, the tail being eleven inches; the head has an erectile crest; found in California, Xcw Mexico, Texas, and Mexico. The genus CEXTllOPUS includes several species of what arc called Lark-hcded Cuckoos, frova their having the claw of the hind toe elongated, as in the larks; they are also called Pheas- ant-Cuckoos, from the great length of their tails. These are found in Africa, India, and the Asi- atic Islands; they seek their food on the ground, and sometimes devour small reptiles. The Indicatorince or Honey-Guides are a group of small birds of this family, inhabiting the forests of Africa, India, and Borneo. They are fond of honey, and Avhen they discover a hive of wild bees stored with this, they flatter around it, and thus direct the honey-seekers to it. It was formerly said that it would guide them through the woods to the honey, but this is no doubt a fiction. The common species of Southern Africa, Indicator major and mi)ior, construct bottle- shaped, pendent nests, with the opening downward. THE GREAT BLACK WOODPECKER. THE GREEN WOODPECKER. THE PICED^ OR WOODPECKERS. These are strong and vigorous birds, possessing a long, sharp bill, with which they bore into the bark of trees and the decayed parts of the limbs and trunks, in search of insects, as well as carve out holes for their nests. They live in forests, and run up and down the trees, often ascend- | ing in spiral lines, and continually tapping the surface, to discover the hiding-place of insects and J CLASS II. AYES: ORDER 3. SCANSORES. 211 larvae. When they find such a spot they dig into it with great energy, and seize the concealed prize. In climbing they are assisted by the stitF points of their tail-feathers. Their tongue is extensile, and thus facilitates the capture of their insect prey. They feed also on fruits and seeds. Genus PICUS : Picus. — This includes the Great Black Woodpeckkr — Pic JVoir of the French — F. mai-tius, sixteen inches long; the body black above, somewhat duller beneath; a bright blood-red spot on the head. Its flight is short, usually limited to a transit from tree to tree ; its nest is made in a hollow tree ; the eggs arc two or three, and ivory-white. On the wing it resembles a crow ; its note is loud and harsh. It inhabits Northern Europe, being rare in the south. The Green Woodpecker, P. viridis — Pic Vert of the French; Pico Verde of the Italians; Grun-Specht of the Germans — is called in England by the various names of Woodspite, Pain- Bird, Pain-Fowl, High-Hoe, Heivhole, Awl-Bird, Pick-a-Tree, Yappingale, Yaffil, Yaffle, Yaffler, Woodwall, Whet-He, and Popinjay. It is thirteen inches long ; the neck, back, wings, wing- coverts, and scapulars deep green, tinged with yellow ; rump sulphur-yellow ; under surface ash- green. It is a brilliant and beautiful bird ; nestles and roosts in holes in trees, which it some- times enlarges, or even wholly excavates, using its beak as chisel and hammer ; the eggs are five to seven, laid on loose fragments of wood ; its common note is a loud, harsh sound, which Buff"on thought a doleful cry of misery, while others compare it to a vociferous laugh. It is said to be most merry before an impending shower, and heuce is called Rain-Bird. It is found throughout Europe. .^l i Wi THE GKEAT SPOTTED WOODPKCKEE. Tilli MIDDLE SPOTTED WOODPKCIiER. The Great Spotted Woodpecker, P. major, is nine and a half inches long; found through out Europe. The Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, P. minor— Petit Pic of the French, and Gras. Specht of the Germans— is five and three-quarter inches long ; variously colored with white and black ; lives in woods, orchards, and nursery-grounds ; is distributed over Europe, and is common in England. The Middle Spotted Woodpecker, P. medius, is a lustrous black above ; beneath crimson, and a red spot on the head ; found in Southern Europe. The White-backed Wood- pecker, P. leuconotus, is ten inches long, and inhabits the north of Europe and Siberia. The Gray Woodpecker, P. canus, feeds on ants, and inhabits Northern Europe. The Tiiree-toed 212 VERTEBRATA. V-i*'.. Woodpecker, P. tridactylus or P. arcticus, is iiiiK! inclies loiiij;, .'iiid inliabits the north of Europe, as well as North America, being sometimes found as far south as Pennsylvania. Among the Asiatic species are the P. Short/', P. squamatns, and P. occijnlaliSy all found in the Himalaya Mountains. The P. ''•\ Caffer is found in Southern Africa. There are about thirty species of wood- pecker known in the United States, which lave been divided by naturalists into several genera. Dr. De Kay, however, includes them in one — that of Picus. The most commonly known is the Red-headed Woodpecker, P. crythrocephalus, Mclanerpes crythrocfphalus of Linna3us, eight to nine inches long; head, neck, and throat crimson ; back, wings, and tail black ; secondaries, rump, and all beneath nearly white. It is chiefly a simimer bird, though a few remain through the year; it feeds on juicy fruits, cherries, apples, pears, Indian corn in the milk, and insects which infest decayed trees. It makes its nest in THE LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKER. holcs lu dry trccs, which it excavates with its bill ; the eggs are about six, and white, with reddish spots at the end ; there are two broods in a RED-HEADED WOODPECKERS. season. This bird generally lives in the forests, but it often visits the orchards, and in cherry time CLASS II. AYES: ORDER 3. SCANSORES. 213 is a constant visitor to the cherry-trees. For some unknown cause it is less al.undant than for- merly in the Eastern and Middle States. THE GOLDEN-WINGED WOODPECKER. The Golden-winged Woodpecker, P. auratus — the Cohptcs auratus of Swainson, is a splen- did bird, twelve inches long; upper parts brown, spotted with black; a red spot on the head; under side of the wings salmon color; of the tail saffron; belly white, spotted with black; food, wood-lice, ants, larvae, cherries, grapes, berries, corn in the milk, &c. They build their nests in holes in the trees, which they dig out with astonishing celerity; they have been known to exca- vate a winding passage through solid oak fifteen inches deep. When at work the strokes of their bill resound through the woods like the hammer of a carpenter. The eggs are about six, and pure white. When the brood take wing, they are exceedingly playful and noisy as they range trom tree to tree in the forests or orchards. This, bird goes by the various names of Picjeon- Woodjjccker, Wahe-up, H'ujh-Hole, Flicker, and Ytickcr ; in Xew York it is called Clcqw^nwd by the French in Louisiana, Pique-bois jaunc. Found in Eastern North America. Another and similar species is the Red-siiafted Flicker, Colaptes 3fexicanus, found in Western North America. The Crested Woodpecker, P. pileatus — Hylatomus 2)ilcatus of Linnasus — is eighteen inches long, and is sometimes called Log- Cock and Wood-Cock in New York; ranges from Mexico to 60 north. The Ivorv-billed Woodpecker, P. principalis — Campephilus principalis of Linnaeus — is a powerful and splendid species, twenty inches long; found in the Carolinas and southward. Other species are as follows, according to the Museum Catalogue of the Smithsonian Institution : the Imperial Woodpecker, Campephilus imp)eriaUs ;, chiefly in Central America and South- western Mexico. The Hairy Woodpecker, P. villosus, Northern and Western Regions : three varieties of this — major, medius, minor. Harris's Woodpecker, P. Jlarrisii, from Pacific to eastern slope of Rocky Mountains. Downy Woodpecker, P. pubcscens ; Eastern United States, toward the Rocky Mountains. Gairdner's Woodpecker, P. Gairdneri ; from Pacific to eastern base of Rocky Mountains. Nuttall's Woodpecker, P. NutialU ; coast of California. P. scalaris ; Rocky Mountains, south of 35°, to Yucatan. Red-cockaded Woodpecker, P. hore- alis ; Southern States. White-headed Woodpecker, P. albolarvatus ; Oregon and California.. Black-backed Three-toed AYoodpecker, Picoides Arcticus ; northern portions of United. States, to the Arctic Regions. Banded Three-toed Woodpecker, P. hirsutus ; Arctic Regions of North America. Striped Three-toed AYoodpecker, P. dorsalis ; Rocky Mountains. Yel- !U VEIITEBRATA. LOW-HELLIF.D WoonrECKEu, Sjtlnjrnpicns rarius ; Atlantic Ocean to Hooky Mountains, and in Grcenhuiil. JIkd-tuhoatki) Wuunri:cKEii, )S'. nuchaUs ; liocky ^Mountains. IIed-gkeasted Woodpecker, S. ruber ; I'acific slope of the United States. Williamson's AYoodpecker, S. WiUiamsouii ; Rocky Mountains. Hed-ijellikd Woodpecker, Ccntitrvs CaroUnus ; Northern America, from Atlantic to llocky Mountains. Yellow-bellied Woodpecker, C. Jlavivcntris ; Rio (Jrandc Uoit of describing circles and other aerial evolutions, previous to their alighting upon the trees which contain their food. Thus Audubon, in his account of the Carolina Parrot, says: "Their flight is rapid, straight, and con- tinued through the forests, or over fields and rivers, and is accompanied by inclinations of the body, which enable the observer to sec alternately their upper and under parts. They deviate from a direct course only when impediments occur, such as trunks of trees or houses, in which case they glance aside in a very graceful manner, as much as may be necessary. A general cry is kept up by the party, and it is seldom that one of these birds is on the wing for ever so short a space without uttering its cry. On reaching a spot which aflfords a supply of food, instead of alighting at once, as many birds do, the Parrakeets take a good survey of the neighborhood, pass- ing over it in circles of great extent, first above the trees, and then gradually lowering, until they almost touch the ground, when, suddenly reascending, they all settle in the tree that bears the fruit of which they are in quest, or on one close to the field in which they expect to regale them- selves." Many of the species are gregarious, and except during the breeding season, are always seenin large and numerous bodies; others, as the Black Cockatoo, arc met with in pairs or families. The places selected for hatching their eggs and rearing their young are the hollows of decayed trees ; they make little or no nest, but deposit their eggs, which, according to the species, vary lM«I VERTEBRATA. J'rom two lo live or six in miiiil)or, upon tlie bare rotten wood. In these hollows, it is said, they also iVeqiUMitlv roost iliirini; the night, ami such, we learn, is the practice of the Carolina parrot just mentioned, tor the same author observes: "Their roosting place is in hollow trees, and the holes excavated by the larger species of Woodpeckers, as far as these can be filled by them. At dusk, a'floek of I'arrakeets may be seen alighting against the trunk of a sycamore or any other tree wheri" a considerable excavation exists within it. Immediately below the entrance, the birds all cling to the bark, and crawl into the hole to pass the night. When such a hole does not prove sufficient to liold the whole flock, those arouml the entrance hook themselves on by the tip of the upper mandible, and thus remain for the night. I have," adds the narrator, "frequently seen them in such positiojis by means of a glass, and am satisfied that the bill is the only sup- port in such cases," The natural notes of this tribe of birds consist entirely of hoarse or shrill and piercing screams, with little or no modulation, and frequently reiterated during flight, as well as when otherwise engaged in feeding, bathing, or preserving their plumage. The power of imitating the human voice, and learning to articulate a variety of words and sentences, is not possessed bv all the spe- cies, but is principally, though not wholly, confined to the even-tailed Parrots, in which the tongue is large, broad, and fleshy at the tip. In disposition, with the exception of one or two forms, they are quiet and docile, and easily reconciled to confinement, even when taken at an adult age. Their flesh is said to be tender and well flavored, particularly that of the younger birds, an(l is frequently used as food by the inhabitants in the countries which they inhabit. The general characters of the family are : bill convex, large, de- fleeted, thick, and strong; the upper m a n d i b 1 e, over- hanging the un- der, hooked at the tip, and furnished with a small cere at the base ; the under mandible tliick, ascending, and forming, when closed, an angle with the upper ; tongue thick, fleshy, and soft ; nostrils round, placed in the cere at the base of the bill ; feet scansorial, the external toes longer than the inner. The upper jnandible is movable, and in order to w^ork their powerful bills, the muscles connected with them are more numerous than in anv other birds. Thev are monogomons, live on fruits of various kinds, use their bills in climbing, and their feet like hands in grasping. Some of the species live to the age of more than a hundred years. In regard to their internal structure, we may observe, that the intestinal canal is of great length, and destitute of coeca. The loquacity of Parrots, and their extraordinary powers of imitation and mimicry, together with the splendor of their plumage, have rendered them at all times favorite domestic birds, and numerous anecdotes are related in proof of their sagacitv and vocal abilitv. These birds are divided by many naturalists into numerous genera, but we shall follow Bech- stein, and include them in one, that of PSITTACUS. We shall present them, however in five divisions — the Macrocercinoe or Macaws, found in South America : the Psittacince or Par- rots— properly so called— the short and even-tailed species, found distributed througliout all divisions of the globe within the tropics, and including the Psittacara of South America : the HEAD OF MACAW. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 3. SCAxNSORES. 217 Lorianm or Lories, found in Africa and Asia, and including some of the most intelligent of tl.e family : the Plyctolophinw or Cockatoos, natives of Asia, the Asiatic Islands, and Australia • -md the ParrakeeU, all small birds, some long-tailed and some short-tailed, and natives of various countries* THE MACROCERCIN^ OR MACAWS. The Red and Blue Macaw, Psitta- cus macao — Ara rouge of the French — is one of the largest of the Parrot tribe, being two feet and eight inches long ; the head, neck, breast, belly, shanks, upper part of the back, and superior wing-coverts, a beautiful scarlet; the lower part of the back and rump light blue ; other parts variegated with blue, yellow, green, and light brown. It is a native of Brazil and Guiana, and is generally to be met with in pairs in swampy forests. Its beautiful plumage is its chief recommendation for the house, but it may be taught to utter a few words, to know its name, and to come at its master's call. It is, how- ever, awkward in its movements, and vicious in some of its habits. The Blue and Yellow Macaw, P. Araraxma —Ara bleu of BufFon — is the same length as the preceding, and is riclily colored with green, blue, and yellow ; found in Brazil, Guiana, and some of the West Indies. Its qualifi- cations as a cage-bird are similar to the pi-eceding. The Great Green Macaw, P. mili- tarls of Linnaeus, is two feet four inches long; general color grass-green; the rump blue ; very docile and talkative, obedient, faithful, and good-tempered ; a scarce species, found in South America. THE PSITTACIN.E OR TRUE PARROTS. The Blue-headed Vakkot, P. cyanocephalus, eleven inches long; finely colored with blue, yellow, green, and violet ; found in the East Indies ; is very beautiful, but cannot be taught to speak. The Amboina Parrot, P. Amhoincnsis — called by the French U Aurore — is sixteen inches long; the head, nape of the neck, and all the lower parts of the body vermilion ; upper part of the body fine green ; a native of Amboina; it is wild, shy, whistles shrilly, but does not learn to talk. The Purple Parrot, P. Pennanti, Platycercus Pennanti of Gray — called Palm-Bird by deal- ers— size of a sparrow-hawk ; prevailing color red, though the ground color is black ; tail dark blue; scarce; very beautiful, but timid, and difficult to teach; native of Australia. The Whiskered Parrot, P. bimaculatus, fourteen inches long ; ground color grass green ; beneath dark rose ; docile, talkative, and affectionate ; native of Australia, The Common Gray Parrot or Asii-colored Parrot, P. crythacus; nine inches long ; pre- vailing color ash-gray ; tail scarlet, and short; found in Guinea and vicinity. It is one of the most common and docile species ; it easily learns to speak and whistle, is fond of imitating tlie voices of children, and prefers to be taught by them. It has a great turn for imitation ; one of Vol. II. — 28 EED AND BLUE MACAW. 218 VERTEBRATA. this species was tanijlit to speak by fv sailor, in tlie course of a voyage from Guinea, and acquired so exactly his liarsli voice uiitl coiio;h as to be frc(|nently mistaken for him. It was afterward in- structed by a young man, and altiiougli it then heard no voice but that of its teacher, the former lessons were never forgotten ; and it often amused the bystanders by suddenly passing from a soft ■ iiid agreeable voice to its old hoarse sea-tone. This bird has not only the power of mimicking the human voice, but by its attention and manifest effort, shows also a desire of imitation. It continualiv repeats the syllables which it lias heard, and, in order not to be misled in memory, endeavors to cry down all sounds which may disturb it. Its lessons make so deep an impression that it often dreams aloud. When young, its memory is so good as to retain whole vers(;s and sentences. Rhodiginus mentions a Gray Parrot which could repeat the Apostles' Creed without a slip, and was on that account bought by a cardinal for one hundred crowns. The Common' Amazox Parrot, P. cestivus, size of a pigeon ; colors various, yellow and blue generally prevailing, with green, red, violet, blue, and black ; sociable and faithful, but learns to speak with difficulty; native of Mexico and south to Brazil. The Yellow-headed Amazon Parrot, P. ochrocephalus^ fourteen inches long; prevailing color vellowish-green, with red, green, and black; very beautiful, but unable to talk, and only utters a harsh scream ; native of South America. The Blue-faced Parrot, P, auinmnalis^ size of the preceding; colors green and red ; learns but little, and continually cries /7irr, girr ; native of Guiana. The Blue-necked Parrot, P. inestruus, size of the ash-gray parrot; head, neck, and part of the breast indigo-blue; back, belly, wings, and thighs green; the feathers on the belly tipped with blue; beautiful, tamo, and gentle, but does not speak; native of Guiana. The White-fronted Parrot, P. leucocephalus^ size of a house-pigeon ; prevailing color green, with scarlet, red, brown, and blue ; tame and talkative, and a great imitator of the voices of dogs, cats, and sheep. The Pavocan Parrot, P. Guianensis — Psittacara or Conurns Guianensis, and an example of whnt are called tbe Parrakset Macaws of South America — is twelve inches long; colors green and yellow ; learns to speak more easily and perfectly than any other of the long-tailed parrots. Levaillant saw one that would lie on his back, fold his feet iu the attitude of prayer, and repeat the whole of the Lord's Prayer in Dutch. The Gray-breasted Parrot, P. murinus or Conurus murimts, is of a silyer-jiray color ; eleven and a half inches long; is a quiet and gentle species, and learns a few words ; found in South America. The Illinois Vakkot, P. po-tinax or Conurus 2}C)-ttnax, one of the most common species in the hands of the bird-sellers; nine and a half inches long; prevailing color green ; yellowish-gray on the lower part of the body; forehead, cheeks, and throat orange ; belly spotted with orange; native of Brazil and Guiana, where it is seen in flocks of five hundred, one always appointed as a sentinel while they are feeding. It is a beautiful bird, and is very aff'ectionate, but its cry is harsh, and its talking capacity very limited. The Yellow Parrot, P. solstifialis or Conurus solstifialis, same size as the preceding; prevailing color orange, with ash, green, olive, and orange ; found iu Angola ; learns to speak easily and well. The Carolina Parrot, P. CaroUnensis — Conurus CaroUnensis of De Kay and others — is a native of Guiana, but is found as far north as Virginia, and in the west as far as Illinois. They are exceedingly sociable in their habits, always flying in large flocks, and roosting in companies of thirty or forty together in the inside of a hollow tree. They are greatly attached to each other, nestling close together, and scratching one another's heads in a most afi'ectionate manner. They manifest this attachment in an equally striking manner when any of their companions fall into misfortune. In illustration of this we may quote the following passage from "Wilson's Amer- ican Ornithology. "At Big Bone Lick, thirty miles above the mouth of Kentucky River, I saw them in great numbers. They came screaming through the woods in the morning, about an hour after sunrise, to drink the salt water, of which they, as well as the pigeons, are re- markably fond. When they alighted on the ground, it appeared at a distance as if covered with a carpet of the richest green, orange, and yellow ; they afterward settled in one body on a neigh- boring tree, which stood detached from any other, covering almost every twig of it, and the sun. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 3. SCANSORES. 219 THE CAROLINA PARROT. PARRAKEET MACAW. shining strongly on their gay and glossy plumage, produced a very beautiful and splendid appear- 1 ance. Here I had an opportunity of observing some very particular traits of their character ; ! having shot down a number, some of which were only woundtd, the whole flock swept repeatedly around their prostrate companions, and again settled on a low tree, within twenty yards of the spot where I stood. At each successive dis- charge, though showers of them fell, yet the aflfection of the survivors seemed rather to increase ; for after a few circuits around the place, they again alighted near me, looking down on their slaughtered companions with such manifest symptoms of sympathy and concern as entirely disarmed me." This is the only species of parrot native of the United States ; in captivity it is docile and sociable, and soon becomes very familiar. Like the other members of the group, it deposits its eggs in hollow trees, but is said to carry its sociable habits even into the business of incubation, several couples usu- ally breeding in the same cavity. The Long-billed Parkot, Nestor pro- ductus of Gould, the genus forming a con- necting link between the parrots and cocka- toos, isfifteenincheslong; general colordecp _. red, with yellow, olive, and brown ; its voice harsh, like the barking ofadog; feeds on fruits and leaves; native of Australia and Norfolk Island. THE LONG-BILLED PARROT. 220 VERTEBRATA. THE LORIANiE OR LORIES. Tlio Ckuam Loiiv, P. ;/J^ ORDER 5. RASORES. This order includes the numerous species of Gallinaceous Birds, or those whicli agree more or less in structure with our common fowl, and the name Rasores, or Scrapers, alludes to the habit of scratching in the ground in search of food, which is common with domestic poultry. They are generally marked by a small head, stout legs, the plumage firm, the males usually adorned with magnificent colors, and the tails often developed in a manner to render the appearance ex- tremely elegant. The wings are usually short and weak, and the flight of the birds neither pow- erful nor prolonged. The stomach or gizzard is exceedingly muscular and strong, and lined with hard tendinous plates, by the action of which, assisted in most cases by stones, or other hard sub- stances which the birds swallow, the comminution of the food is effected. The intestine is long, and furnished with very large coeca ; the latter organs, in fact, are larger in these than in any other birds. The species are found in all parts of the world, from the tropics to the frozen regions of the north ; but the finest and most typical kinds arc inhabitants of the temperate and warmer parts of Asia. They feed principally on seeds, fruits, and herbage, but also, to a considerable ex- tent, on insects, worms, and other small animals. Their general habitation is on the ground, where they run with great celerity, but many of them roost on trees. They are mostly polyga- mous in their habits, the males being usually surrounded by a considerable troop of females ; and to these, with few a exceptions, the whole business of incubation is generally left. The nest is always placed on the ground in some sheltered situation, and very little art is exhibited in its con- struction ; indeed, an elaborate nest is the less necessary, as the young are able to run about and feed almost as soon as they have left the egg ; and at night, or on the approach of danger, they collect beneath the wings of their mother. Most of these species — including Grouse, Partridges, Quails, Turkeys, Pheasants, the Common Fowls, Peacocks, Mound Birds, Curassows, j>ly of tlicso birds every nioriiiiig, without leaving the path. If the weather bo foijgy or lowering, they are sure to ba seen in sueh situations. They generally move along with great statcliness, their broas twenty, whitish, and spotted with brown like those of the domestic bird. The lU'st consists of a few dried leaves placed on the ground, sometimes on a dry ridge, sometimes in the fallen top of a dead leafy tree, under a thicket of sumach or briers, or by the side of a log. The females are particularly attentive to their young. The habits of the domestic turkey are well known ; the common effect of domestication in changing the colors of birds, as well as other animals, is conspicuous in this species, there being various mixtures of buff, black, and white. The flesh of this species ranks among the best of do- mestic fowls, and immense numbers of them are produced, especially in the United States, TUE HONDUKAS TURKEY. The noNDURAS or Ocellated Turkey, M. Mexicana^ is a beautiful species, nearly as large as the preceding, recently discovered in Central America ; the plumage is of a lustrous coppery- green, each tail-feather being furnished with a blue eye-spot, surrounded by a black ring. Speci- mens have recently been presented to the London Zoological Gardens, CLASS 11. AVES: ORDER 5 R AS ORES. 249 J^^x^ GUINEA-FOWL. Genus NUMIDA : Numida. — Tliis includes the Guinea-Fowl or Pintado, jSF. meleagris, now common in our poultry-yards ; it is indigenous to the tropical parts of Africa ; it is somewhat larger than the common fowl, of a bluish gray color, and covered with small, round, white spots. It is a restless, noisy bird, frequently uttering a harsh, ringing cry of ca-mac, ca-mac. It is said this cry will frighten crows away from the vicinity where these birds are kept. Their flesh is excellent, and the eggs, which they produce abundantly, arc much valued. In a wild state they live in flocks, in woods, preferring marshy places, and feed on insects, worms, and seeds ; they roost on trees; the nest is made on the ground, and usually contains as many as twenty eggs. They have been propagated in the Island of Jamaica to such an extent as to have become wild, and are shot like other game. They do much damage to the crops, and are therefore destroyed by va- rious means, one of which is to get them tipsy bv strewing corn steeped in rum, and mixed with the intoxicating juice of the cassava, upon the ground; this the birds devour, and are soon found in a helpless state of inebriety. The Crested Pintado, iV. cristafa, is smaller than the preceding; color bluish-black, spotted with gray ; found in Western Africa, Another species is called iV. maculipenni>i. THE PHASIANINiE OR TRUE PHEA8ANTS. These are among the most brilliant and beautiful of the feathered tribes ; there are several species, all originally confined to Asia, but many of them now domesticated in Europe. Genus PHASIANUS : Phasianus. — The best known species is the Common Pheasant of Europe. This is a native of Avestern Asia, and is supposed to have been originally introduced into Europe from the banks of the Fhasis, a river of the ancient kingdom of Colchis, situated at the eastern extremity of the Black Sea, and from this locality its scientific name is derived. It is now, however, very generally distributed over the whole of the southern parts of Europe. It is abundant in the parks of England, where it is carefully protected by game laws, and is only al- lowed to be shot at particular seasons, and by persons duly authorized by the proprietors. Groups of these superb birds are seen in the English preserves, almost as common as domestic fowls. The cock pheasant, including his long and beautiful tail, is thirty-four inches long ; the general color above is chestnut-brown, shaded with red ; the head and neck steel blue, reflecting brown, green, and purple, in diff'erent lights ; the breast and belly are golden red. No description, how- ever, can give any idea of the eff"ect of the rich colors, beautifully distributed, in spots, lines, and patches of various graceful forms. Vol. II.— 32' 250 VERTEBRATA. ^-^^'^^ The dosrrintion of tho habits of the cominoii |>hcasaiit will serve, with, little variation, for the •whole group. Its favorite haunts are woods and thickets, always in tlie ncicrlihorhood of water, and it fre- quently takes to niaishy islands, over- grown with rushes or osiers. In the summer the pheasants roost on the ground, but during the latter part of the autumn and winter they pass the night upon trees. They feed upon grain and seeds of various kinds, inter- mixed with fruits, blackberries, sloes, haws, acorns, green herbage, roots, and insects. In their movements thev closely resemble the common fowl, walkinjT and runnincr in the same man- ncr, and with great swiftness — in fact, rarely taking wing unless pressed with f' 'WJ '.i^^r- ~ ' ■ •^s-=i''^*$?'^^^^^' ■ Vi'^ immediate danfjer. They are polvjra- ■ "^ -^#*a?ts "«-- -V . ~%- n' , : . •/ £;-■ v?i mous, and the males and females only associate during the breeding season, which is in the spring. At this time tlie males, which have kept together during the winter, separate, each taking up a particular station, where he col- lects a number of females round him, by strutting about, clapping his wings, and crowing. The females deposit from ten to fourteen eggs among long grass or bushes, the nest consisting merely of a small hollow lined with dried leaves; they are then deserted by the male, and the whole labor of incubation and bringing up the young brood is left entirely to them. In THE COMMON PHEASANT OF EUROPE. r/^^.?^ THE RIXG-XECKED PHEASANT. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 5. RASORES. 251 captivity the pheasant will breed \\itli the common fowl and guinea-fowl, and in a wild state hybrids of these with the black grouse have been met with. The Ring-necked Pheasant, P. torquatus, is a Chinese species, twenty-nine inches long, and marked by a white band around the neck. The Golden Pheasant, P. 2nctus, and the Silver Pheasant, P. nycthemerus, are exceedingly brilliant and beautiful ; they are found wild in China, and are common in European countries in a domestic state. THE ARGUS PHEASANl Genus ARGUS : Argus. — To this belongs the Argus Pheasant, A. giganteus^ surpassing m size and splendor all the other species. It is more than five feet long, and is remarkable for the length of the secondary quill feathers of the wings, which often exceed two feet in length ; being adorned with a series of ocellated spots along their whole length, they give the bird an indescrib- able magnificence when the wings are expanded. It is a native of Sumatra and India. Among the other species of these elegant birds are the Impeyan Pheasant, Lophophorus Im- IKyawas — size of a hen turkey, and found in Nepaul — and Hastings' Tragopan, Tragopan Hast- ingsii, from the northern range of the Himalaya Mountains. The latter is distinguished by a crest, and two fleshy horns rising from the back of the head ; a mass of fleshy wattles cover the under part of the neck. The habits of these birds resemble those of other pheasants. Genus GALLUS : Gallus. — This includes the Common Fowl, Gallus domesticus, the most valu- aole of all birds to man. This has been under his protection from time iuunemorial ; and the 252 VERTEBRATA, HASTINGS' TRAGOPAN, OR HORNED PHEASANT. THE IMPEYAN PHEASANT. earliest historical records — the curious paintings of the Eg3^ptians — show that this and most of our ordinary domestic animals Avere as completely domesticated at that early period as iu our own day. THE KULM COCK. The original stock of tlie Domestic Fowl has been sought among the various species of Wild CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 5. RASORES. 253 COCHIN CHINA FOWL. Jungle Fowls in India, Java, Sumatra, &c. The Kulm Cock, G. girjanteiis, also called the Gi- gantic Cock^ is twenty-six inches high; it is found domesticated in the Deccan, and is supposed to have been brought from Java oi- Sumatra. The Bankiva Cock, G. Bankiva, is smaller, and has the form of the Bantam ; it is found frequenting the borders of forests in Java. The Jungle Cock of English sportsmen in India, G. Sonneratii, is abundant in the woods of the Western Ghaut Mountains and some other parts of India; there are several varieties or species. This is a remarkably fine and spirited race. Other wild species are the Fork-tailed Fowl of Java, G. furcatus ; and the Bronzed Cock, from the interior of Sumatra, G. ceneus. Which of these remarkable birds may claim to be the original father of the Domestic Fowl of the civilized world, it is impossible to determine. It is suggested, by good authority, that, probably, the Bankiva Cock is the original stock, but that this has been modified by multiplied mixtures with other species through a period of many thousand years. One thing is certain — the domestic fowl, like the domestic pigeon, has within it a principle of variation, which has resulted in an almost indefinite number of permanent varieties, which reproduce and propagate themselves. " The courage of the Domestic Cock is proverbial, and has become emblematic ; his gallantry is admirable, his sense of discipline and subordination most exemplary. See how a good game- cock of two or three years' experience will, in five minutes, restore order in an uproarious poultry- yard. He does not use hard means of coercion when mild will suit the purpose. A look, a ges- ture, a deep chuckling growl, gives the hint that turbulence is no longer to be permitted ; and if these are not effectual, severer punishment is fearlessly administered. Nor is he aggressive to birds of other species. He allows the turkey to strut before his numerous dames, and the guinea-fowl to court his single mate uninterrupted ; but if the one presumes upon his superior weight, and the other on his cowardly tiltings from behind, he soon makes them smart for their rash presumption. His politeness to females is as marked as were Lord Chesterfield's attentions to old ladies, and much more unaff"ected. Nor does he merely act the agreeable dangler ; when occasion requires, he is also their brave defender, if he is good for any thing," The good qualities of the hen are even more conspicuous ; her diligence m laying Jier eggs, her 254 VERTEBllATA. :iiliniral>lc i>:itifii«-(' in liatcliin-jj tliciii, lior iiidiistrious viive and assiduous labor in feeding lu r ehii'kens, and lier cuuram' and energy in defending them, have always excited admiration. Of tli(' domestic Fowl there are nunurous varieties, each of which possesses some remarkable eharaeteristies. The importance of j)oultry as a source of national wealth* has attracted great atten- tion of lale years, ami consecpientlv the various breeds of fowls have been the theme of careful in- vestigation. The following are {he most noted varieties: The pure Siianoiiai Fowl : this is an enormously large bird. The cock stands twenty-eight inches hii;h ; w ei<;hs from ten to twelve pounds ; is hardy, productive, and of a docile temper, and its llesli is tender and j dcy. There are many varieties and several inferior kinds. The C\>i'iiiN China Fowl resembles the preceding, but is somewhat smaller; its qualities are similar. The Malay Fowi, stands twenty-six inches high, and weighs from ten to twelve pounds. The eggs are large anii ; ninl tlic stiTiiiim is roducod to a simple convex shield, without any trace of the keel, which in otiiiT hirds t;ives uttachinent to the powerful pectoral tnuscles. To compensate for this defifiencv, however, the (jreat size and muscularity of the legs render the pace of these birds in ruiuiin<; exceedintjlv swift. These curious adaptations afford striking illustrations of the devising Wisni and Sa<;acity, as well as the care and attention, which presided over the Creation of ani- nijils — lookiuiX into every detail of structure, and providing for each condition and every want and neoessitv, of every species — the smallest as well as the greatest. The pelvis in these birds is of large siz(\ and the two sides of the arch unite at the pubis, which is not the case in any other species. The anterior toes arc strong, either two or three in number, and terminated by strong nails. The hiniiaiiv with the Kioriihi species. It is oeeasionally seen in tlie Middle and Southern States. The Flokida (iALLiNtLE, G. t/uhutu, closcly reseuibles the European species, already described, as Well as the .lavatiese species, O. ardosiaca. It is fourteen inches long, and is common in the West Indies aiul Florida; accidental in the Middle and Northern States in summer. Gtnus Fl'LR'A : FuHca. — This includes several species, called Coots, which rescmLle the gal- linules, but they are more exclusively adapted to an aquatic life ; they live in salt as well as fresh water, and arc seldom seen on the land. They are nocturnal in their habits, the old birds being rardv seen by day ; they walk awkwardly on the land, and take wing with difliculty ; sometimes they dive into the mud rather than rise from the water. The Common- Coot of Euroi)e, F. ntra, is sixteen inches long ; whole plumage sooty-black, tinged with slate-color, though white varieties are sometimes seen. It is widely distributed over Ivirojie and Asia ; stationary in EnglaTid. The Cinereous Coot, F. Americana, is similar to the preceding, and was formerly supposed to be the same species ; it is found in all the temperate parts of North America, and breeds over an extent of fifty degrees of latitude. The nest is secreted among the rank herbage on the sur- face of the water, and contains about eight eggs. The food consists of insects and mollusca, with abundance of gravel. During the winter it migrates southward, but only so far as may be necessary to obtain food ; during this season they accumulate in the inundated, marshy districts of Florida in immense numbers, where they are very noisy, chattering by night and day. Genus IIALLUS : Rallus. — To this belong the True Rails. The Common Water-Rail of Europe, R. aquaticus, is eleven and a half inches long, olive-brown above, dull gray V \ J Ij below ; it is found in marshy \^\ )|\,>Ah' districts, and delights to dwell Ml among the rank vegetation -- of shallov/ pools and water- courses. If surprised, it flies a short distance with its legs hanging down. It feeds on worms, snails, slugs, and veg- etable matter. The nest is made of sedge and common grass, on the ground ; the eggs arc six to eight, and spotless white. It is common through- out the southern parts of Eu- rope and some portions of Asia, where it is stationary ; a few are seen in Northern Europe in summer. There are several American species of this genus. The Virginia Rail or Mud-IIen, R. Vir- j f/inianus, resembles the European water-rail ; it is nine and a half inches long ; black, sprinkled i with brown, above ; rufous beneath ; feeds on worms, aquatic insects, fish, small mollusca, and ' seeds ; lives along fresh-water streams and in morasses, and is occasionally seen on the sea-coast. It is migratory, and has a sharp cry, frequently uttered at night during the breeding season. The nest, situated in the wettest part of a marsh and fixed upon a tussock of grass, contains six to ten ^ggs, of a dirty white. It is found in the entire temperate portion of North America. i The Clapper Rail or Salt-Water Marsii-Hen, R. crepitans, is fourteen inches long ; above { black, spotted with olive ; beneath rufous ; resembles the preceding, but is larger. In the course of its spring migrations northward, in the hours of twilight, it is often heard on its way uttering Its loud, harsh cry. This becomes almost incessant after it has settled in its marshy tenement, I and is particularly vehement before a storm. "^^^^^ ri/fi^y^'M^ I COMMO.V EUUOPEAX WATEU-RAIL. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. 269 THE COMMON AMERICAN CAROLINA RAIL. The Fresh-Water Marsii-IIen, R. clegans, is a large atiJ beautiful species, nineteen inches long ; upper parts streaked with brownish-black and light olive-brown ; beneath bright orange and greenish-brown. It frequents fresh-water marshes and ponds in the interior, as well as along the coast, from Texas to New Jer- 7/ >^xs— ^y--^.' -:s==s=£;^ ^^7' '^'^^^7 fi^>""dant in the South- fe^|K-^-Cs^.;lV^^^^^^^£=^ western States. It feeds on seeds, -% ^%^A^^/|-?k£^=f-^^^--%- insects, tadpoles, leeches, and small crawfish ; the nost is made on the ground, being raised six or eight inches by a mass of withered leaves / and grass ; eggs eight to ten. .^^ Genus PORZ AN A : Porzana. — . :5> This includes the Common Rail of ^ the United States, known by the va- rious names of Carolina Ra'il^ Soree Rail, English Rail — P. Carolina — Ortygometra Carolina of De Kay and Audubon, Rallus Carolinus of Bonaparte ; it is nine and a half inches long, brown-olive above, beneath varied with white, black, and ash. It breeds in the vast reedy swamps and lagoons throughout the temperate portions of the United States. Its flesh is greatly prized, and it is much sought for by the sportsmen of the Middle and Southern States, where it appears in large numbers in autumn, being particularly abundant along the shores of the Atlantic rivers, near their mouths. Other species are the Little Black Rail, P. Jamaicensis, found in the Middle and Southern States along the Atlantic shores, and the Yellow Rail, P. JVoveboracensis, found in Eastern North America. Genus CREX : CVe.r.— This in- cludes several species of Rail, called Crakes in England. The promi- nent species is the Corn-Crake, Corn-Drake, or Land-Rail of the English, the Roi des Cailles of the French, Re di Quaglie of the Italians, and Wachtel-Konig of the Germans ; C. pratcnsis. It is seven inches long, mottled above with dark brown, ash and reddish, breast olive, abdomen white. It is very shy, lives in grassy mead- ows, fields of young corn, and osier-beds; feeds on worms, snails, insects, larva}, seeds, and grain ; makes its nest on the ground, and lays from ten to twelve eggs. It is not easily flushed, but runs rapidly before a dog. The young are covered with a blackish down, and are almost immediately able to follow the mother upon being hatched. This species^ in- habits Europe generally; it is found in Greenland, and is accidental on the coasts of the United States. Other species are the Spotted Crake, C. porzana ; Little Crake, C. pusilla ; Baillon s Crake, C. Baillonii ; all found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. LAND-RAIL. 270 VEUTEBRATA. ' ) ^ '^^ • ■,. .^ S. TUB OCYDKOMUS AUSTRALIS Genus OCYDROMITS : Ocydromus. — This includes the 0. Austrahs — Rallus trogodytes of Gmcliu — seventeen inches long; color brown; it flies badly, but runs with great swiftness; never j takes to the water, scratches the earth like a hen, and feeds on worms and grubs. Found in New Zealand. THE NOTORNIS MANTELLI. Genus NOTORXIS : N'otomis. — To this belongs the Notomis MantclU, a species of peculiar j CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. GRALLATORES. 271 interest ; found in New Zealand, that strange land which is said to have but two indigenous quad- rupeds— a rat and a badger — but which produces several very original and remarkable birds. We have already spoken of the Diornis giganteus of this island, nearly twice as large as the ostrich. The bones of this, as well as of some smaller species, had been found, but they were sup- posed to be extinct. In 1849, however, a party of seal-hunters, who were pursuing their avo- cations in Dusky Bay, having observed the trail of a bird in the snow with which the ground was then covered, determined to give chase. Proceeding in the direction of the footsteps, they at at last caught sight of the object of their pursuit. Their dogs gave chase, and finally, after a lontr hunt, the bird was captured alive, in the gully of a sound behind Resolution Island. It ran with great speed, uttered loud cries, and violently attacked the dogs. But, notwithstanding the lon (HtKKN San 1)1-1 1'KK, T. or/o-optis^ is nine and a half inches long; dusky-green above; be- neath white, streaked with dusky lines; found in Europe, Africa, and Asia. The Wood Sand- iMi'KK, T. (/lareohi, and Summer Snii'e, or Common Sandpiper, T. hi/poleucos, belong to the eastern hemisphere. The Si'OTTED Sandpiper, T. mnndarius — Trhu/oides macularms of Gray, S2)ottcd Sand-Lark of l)e Kav, and l>opnlarIy known by the names oi Pcct-ivccf, Tcclcr, Tiltiip, Tipctail, and IlmniUty — is .seven to eight inches long; glossy olive-brown, varied with blackish-white above; white- spotted beneath ; frequents small streams and the borders of lakes, and feeds on insects and worms. Its cvy is 2)cct-tocel, 2>('<^'f-^i'f'f j it has a constant tilting motion of the body, wliich has given it a long list of titles. It is familiarly known throughout the United States ; ranges from Mexico to Labrador; accidental in Europe. The Green-Shank Tatler, T. f/lotds — Florida Grccnshank of the Smithsonian Catalogue — is twelve inches long; green and brown above ; beneath white ; common in Europe and iVsia ; and is found occasionally on our coasts from New York to Florida. The Tell-Tale Tatler or Godwit, T. melanolcucos — Gambetta melanolcuca of Bonaparte, and called in this country the Stone-Sn'ipe^ Varied Tatler^ Big Yclloio-Leg, and Winter Yellow- Leg — is thirteen and a half inches long; blackish-brown above; lower parts soiled and spotted white ; found from Mexico to Canada. The Willet, T. semipalmatus — Ereunetes petrificatus of Illiger, and sometimes called Semi- palmafed Snipe, and Stone-Curlew — is fourteen inches long, but varies much in size ; marked with black, rufous, and grayish above ; beneath gray, and tinted with brown ; found in South America and temperate parts of North America. ■\ .■ ^>-'-3 ■-^■.■1 A': \-'- 0-- ;«' THE AVOCET. The Solitary Tatler, T. cUoropygius, or Rhyaeophilus 5oZ«7a?-2MS— sometimes called Solitary Sandpiper and also Jack-Snijx', Wood-Tatler, and Green-Bump Tatler— k eight and a half inches long; deep brown above ; beneath light gray ; found in Mexico and temperate parts of North CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. GRALLATORES. 281 America. The Wandering Tatlek — Heteroscelus brevipes of Baird — is found along the Pacific coast and Northeastern Asia. 6^e«ws RECURVIROSTRxV : Recurvirostra. This inckides the ^I'oce^s or ^wose^s. The Avo- CET of Europe, R.avocetta — sometimes called Scooper and Cobbler'' s-awl-Duch in England — is a very curious bird, with a long bill, turned upward, and appearing like a thin piece of whalebone ; legs long and semipalmatcd, furnishing a support in walking over the mud ; length eighteen inches; color white, with black on the wings and neck; food, worms, aqnatic insects, and thin-skinned Crustacea, which the bird seizes with admirable dexterity in the mud with its slender, sensitive bill. The nest is made in a depression in a drj- part of the marshes ; eggs two. It has an incessant crv of twit., twit. It is migratory, and distributed in Europe, Africa, and Asia; breeds in Great Britain. There are two or three other foreign species. The American Avocet, R. Americana — called Blue- Stocking in Xew Jersey — is eighteen inches long; color white; tail tinged with pale ash ; back and wings black ; bill four inches long, and unlike the preceding, turns up along nearly its whole length, and at the tip turns down, and ends in a fine point; ranges from the tropics to 08° north; breeds in New Jersey ; migrates north in May and south in October. Genus HIMANTOPUS : Himantopus. — This includes the Stilts, remarkable for the length of their legs. The I^uropean or Black-winged Stilt, H. melan- opterus — Echasse of the French — is about fourteen inches long ; the legs extremely long and slender ; it runs easily on the land, and flies with great swiftness. It frequents the borders of the sea, and feeds on worms and small mollusca, and makes its nest in marshes, laying four bluish -green eggs ; found, though not abundantly, in Eastern Europe ; migrates to Asia and Af- rica in winter. The White-head- ed Stilt of Australia is described by Gould as associating in flocks of six to twenty, and running along the streams, and often knee-deep in water, with admirable ease and grace. The American Stilt, H. nigri- collis, is thirteen and a half inches long ; general color dark sooty brown ; ranges from Mexico to Massachusetts, and is a winter res- ident from Carolina southwardly. De Kay says : "It is known under the various names of Tilt, Stilt, Longshanks, and Lawyer. The origin of this last popular name, which is most in use, I have not been able to discover. There appears to be nothing unusual in the length of its bill.'" Genus MICROPALAMA : Micropalama. — This includes the Long-legged or Stilt Sand- piper, j\f. himantopus ; nine inches long, and found throughout North America. Genus LIMOSA: Zmosf/.— This includes the Goclwits, noted for long bills slightly turned upward, and long legs. The Black-tailed Godwit, L. melanura, is sixteen inches long; dark brown above ; beneath white, barred with rufous brown ; found throughout Europe in spring and summer; frequent on the fens of Lincolnshire, England, Avhere the bird-catchers occasionally ftit them on bread and milk for market. The Bar-tailed Godwit, L. riifa, is a European species, chiefly distinguished from the preceding by having shorter legs. Vol. II. — 36 - sweeping the ground as a shield to defend the more tender parts ; the auricles erected, and the tail CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 1. GRALLATORES. 283 partly spread — upon the whole assuming a most ferocious aspect. When either could obtain a firm hold of the bill, a leap succeeded, accompanied by a stroke of the wing ; but they rarely in- jured each other." These birds, with the females, called Reeves^ are taken alive in the fenny dis- tricts of England, and fattened upon bread and milk or boiled wheat, before being sent to market, where they fetch from thirty shillings to two guineas, or more, per dozen. They are also imported into London from Holland. They are migratory, and the range is extensive over Europe and Asia. A specimen of this is said to have been found on Long Island. THE AEDEID^ OR HERONS. This family includes several groups of remarkable birds, generally of stately forms, stalking majestically along, or standing sedately still, watching for their prey. Their legs are long and slender ; the bill long and strong ; the wings large and powerful. They frequent the margins of water, feeding upon small aquatic animals of various kinds. They are generally migratory, some of them performing very long journeys. Genus PLATALEA : Platalea. — This includes the Siioonhills^ distinguished by the very singular form of their bills, which are flattened, gradually nan-owed from the base to a little beyond the middle, and expanded at the extremity into a flat oval disc. The toes are connected by membranes at the base. The Common White Spoonbill — P. leucorodia of Europe, Cucchi- aorone of the Italians, Spatule of the French, Lbffel Gans of the Germans — is about thirty or thirty- THE ROSEATE SPOONBILL. j two inches in length, and is generally distributed over the continent of Europe, but is a rare bird I in England. It is found in Africa, as far south as the Cape of Good Hope, and in India. It is j migratory in its habits, retreating to the South of Europe and North Africa during the winter, ] and advancing far to the north during the summer to breed. One of its favorite summer resi- dences, however, is Holland, where it occurs in great numbers. Its food consists of small fishes, moUusca, worms, and insects. The Roseate Spoonbill, P. ajaja, is two feet six inches long ; plumage of a beautiful rose- color ; the wings carmine. It is common in the West Indies, Guiana, Mexico, and the southern parts of the United States. It lives along the sea-coasts and the mouths of rivers, where it is seen 284 VEllTEBKATA. iimviiii; aliotit in quest of slicll-lisli, iiiarino miimals small snails, and fish. Tn pursuit of these it sometimes swims anil dives. This sjx-cies, as well as the others, live in euiiiniunities during the hreediriix season, and often feed l>y twilight. Gruun 1 IMS : Ihis. — ( H' tiiis there arc several species. The Glossy Inis, I.falcinellus — /. Ordii of Bonaparte — is two feet long; of a dark green above, and a fine reddish-brown beneath; the whole plumage being silky and glossed with purplish bronze. It frequents the borders of rivers, laki's, i^-e., and feeds on worms and mollusea. It is common in Southern Europe, and parts of Afriea and .\sia. It is supposed to be the Black Ibis of the ancients. This species is occasionally found in tiie I'liitcd States. Some authors, liowever, believe the ibis met with on this Continent to be distinct tiom tlie European one, though closely resembling it. 'i'lie Sacked I his, /. ?T/?y/oA'a, is twenty-three inches long; plumage white ; the wings tipped with black; found throughout Africa, an/cte)-ia. — This inchides the Jabirus, which are little inferior in size to the Adjutants, and which they resemble in their mode of life. One species, w^hich has the head and neck bare, is found in South America ; those of the old world have those parts of the body clothed with feathers. Genus ANASTOMUS : Anastomus, — This includes the Open-Bills, of which there are several species, and which are about the size of the common Stork : they inhabit the warmer regions of Asia and Africa. A species found at the Cape, the A. lameUicier, which is of a brown tint, with a purplish metallic gloss, is remarkable for having the tips of the stalks of nearly all the feathers terminated by a shining black horny disc of an oblong form. THE ARDEIN^ OR TRUE HERONS. These resemble the Storks, but are smaller, and some arc of diminutive size. Thoy are solitary in their habits, frequenting the margins of lakes and rivers, or marshy places in which there are numerous pools of water, wading into the shallows in search of their prey, which consists princi- pally of fish, and often standing motionless for a long time, watching until some fish passes within their reach, when they suddenly dart out the neck with great rapidity, seize their prey with their strong bills, and generally swallow it at once. Occasionally, cither bv design or accident, they transfix the fish with one of the mandibles ; and Mr. Yarrell has given an account of a case in which a heron struck its beak through the head of an eel, piercing both eyes, when the eel, find- ing itself unable to escape, coiled itself round the neck of the heron so tightly as to prevent the bird from breathing, and they were both found dead in this situation ! They walk gravely, and with a certain amount of elegance, and possess great power of flight, although they rarely fly very fast. At the breeding season they usually quit their customary solitude, and collect into com- munities of variable number. Their nests are broad and flat, formed of sticks, twigs, and similar materials, and placed sometimes on the ground and sometimes on trees. At this period they also frequently leave the sequestered spots in which they pass the greater part of their time, and ap- proach nearer to the habitations of man, often building their nests in the large trees surrounding some old mansion. Most of these birds are migratory. Their flesh was formerly much esteemed, and pursuing them with falcons was one of the highest sports of the middle ages. The heron was then called Heronshow, and not to know the haicl- from the heronshoiv was deemed an evi- dence of great stupidity. Hence we have the vulgar proverb, not to knoio a haivk from a handsaw. Genus ARDEA: Ardea. — This includes the common European species, the Gray or Crested Heron, A. cinerca, upward of three feet in length, of a bluish-grav tint above, white beneath, and _r^"^^^ .W.V P F L A II 1 N G 0 CLASS II. AVES: ORDEn 1. GRALLATORES. 287 THE GRAY HERON OF EUROPE. furnished with a black crest attached to the back of the head. This bird is very common through- out Europe in summer, and a few remain during the winter in Middle and Southern Europe ; the greater part, however, spend this season in the warmer parts of Africa and Asia. It frequents the lakes, rivers, and inland morasses during the breeding-time, and usually betakes itself to the estu- aries and sea-coasts in the winter. It is generally an indolent bird, commonly capturing its prey by standing in the water until some fish passes close enough to it to be seized by darting out the head. It also feeds upon frogs, newts, Crustacea, and insects, and occasionally upon small birds and quadrupeds. It always swallows its prey en- tire. It often feeds at night, as is also the case with many of the family. Other foreign species are the Purple Heron, A.2nir2nirca, twenty-nine inches long ; slate-gray above ; dark maroon and slate-gray beneath ; found in the warmer parts of Europe, x\sia, and Africa : the Great White IIeron, A. alba, three feet long; plumage white; common in Southern Europe, and rare at the north ; found in parts of Asia : the Egret Heron or Little Egret, A. (/arzetta, plumage white ; common in Southern Europe and in parts of Asia : the BuFF-BAPKED IIeron, A. russuta, two feet long ; plumage white, except the head and upper part of the neck, which are buff; occasional in Eu- rope ; common in India : the Squacco Heron, THE PURPLE HERON. A. comata, nineteen inches long ; reddish-brown, buff, and white above ; beneath white. The Great Blue Heron, A. kerodias, is four feet long; general color bluish-ash. "It 28S VERTEBRATA. THE GREAT WHITE HEKOX OF AMERICA. (SeC p. 290.) is," says Wilson, " a constant inhabitant of the Atlantic coast, from New York to Florida ; m deep snows and severe weather, seekinpj the open springs of the cedar and cypress swamps, and the muddy inlets occasionally covered by the tides. On the higher inland parts of the coun- try, beyond the mountains, they are less numerous, and one which was shot in the upper parts of New Hampshire was described to me as a great curiosity. Many of their breeding places occur in both Carolinas, chiefly in the vicinity of the sea. In the lower parts of New Jersey they have also their favorite places for building and rearing their young. These are generally in the gloomy solitudes of the tallest cedar swamps, where, if unmolested, they continue annually to breed for many years. These swamps are from half a mile to a mile in breadth, and sometimes five or six in length, and appear as if they occupied the former channel of some choked up river, stream, lake, or arm of the sea. The appearance they present to a stranger is singular — a front of tall and perfectly straight trunks, rising to the height of fifty or sixty feet, without a limb, and crowded in every direction, their tops so closely woven together as to shut out the day, spreading the gloom of a perpetual twilight below. On a nearer approach, they are found to rise out of the water, which, from the impregnation of the fallen leaves and roots of the cedars, is of the color of brandy. Amid this bottom of congregated springs the ruins of the former forest lie piled in every state of confusion. The roots, prostrate logs, and, in many places, the water, are covered with green, mantling moss, while an undergrowth of laurel, fifteen or twenty feet high, intersects every opening so completely as to render a passage through, laborious and harassing beyond de- scription ; at every step you either sink to the knees, clamber over fallen timber, squeeze yourself through between the stubborn laurels, or plunge to the middle in ponds made by the uprooting of large trees, which the green moss concealed from observation. In calm weather the silence of death reigns in these dreary regions ; a few interrupted ravs of light shoot across the gloom '- CLASS II. AVES: ORDEli 7. GRALLATORES 289 THE EUROPEAN NIGHT HERON. and unless for the occasional hollow screams of the herons, and the melancholy chirping of one or two species of small birds, all is silence, solitude, and desolation. "When a breeze rises, at first it sighs mournfully through the tops; but as the gale increases, the tall, mast-like cedars wave like fishing-poles, and rubbing against each other, produce a variety of singular noises, that, with the help of a little imagination, resemble shrieks, groans, growling of bears, wolves, and such like comfortable music. On the tops of the tallest of these cedars the herons construct their nests, ten or fifteen pair sometimes occupying a particular part of the swamp. The nests are large, formed of sticks and lined with smaller twigs; each occupies the top of a single tree. The eggs are generally four, larger than those of a hen, and of a light greenish-blue, without any spots. The young are produced about the middle of May, and remain on the trees until they are full as heavy as the old ones, being extremely fat, before they are able to fly. They breed but once in the season. If disturbed in their breeding place, the old birds fly occasionally over the spot, sometimes honking like a goose, sometimes uttering a coarse, hollow, gi-uuting noise, like that of a hog, but much louder. "The principal food of the great heron is fish, for which he watches with the most unwearied patience, and seizes them with surprising dexterity. At the edge of the river, pond, or sea-shore, he stands fixed and motionless, sometimes for hours together. But his stroke is quick as thought, and sure as fate, to the first luckless fish that approaches within his reach ; those he sometimes beats to death, and always swallows head foremost, such being their uniform position in the stom- ach. He is also an excellent mouser, and of great service to our meadows in destroying the short-tailed or meadow-mouse, so injurious to the banks. He also feeds eagerly on grasshoppers, various winged insects, particularly dragon-flies, which he is very expert at striking, and also eats the seeds of that species of nymphai usually called spatter docTcs^ so abundant along our fresh-water ponds and rivei's." The Black-crowned Night-Heron, A. discors — Nyctiardea Gardeni of Baird — is twenty-five inches long ; general color white ; has a light crest ; derives its name from its nocturnal habits, being usually seen flying at night or in the evening, and utters a sonorous cry of quaw or qumvk, whence it is often called the Qumck or Qua Bird. It is very similar to the Night-Heron of Europe, Nycticorax Gardeni of Yarrell. Vol. II.— 37 1"J0 V KRTI-:r. RATA. THE COMMON BITTERN OP EtTROPE. Other American species are the American Great White Heron — A. leiice of De Kay, Ar- dca cgrctta of Wilson, Auduhonia occidentaUs of Bonaparte — forty inches long; snowy white, fre- quently with a tinge of yellow ; closely resembles the Great White Heron of Europe, and was formerly supposed to be of the same species ; found from New Jersey south to the West Indies : the White-crested Heron or Snowy Heron, A. candidissima — Garzetta candidissima of Bo- naparte— twenty-two inches long; snowy white ; found on the coast of the Middle and Gulf States,and across to California: the Blue Heron, ^.ccerz(/ca — i^^or /(/a ca.'TO7ra of Baird — twenty- two inches long ; color slate-blue ; found from New Jersey south to the West Indies : the Lou- isiana Heron, A. Ludoviciana — Demiegretta Ludoviciana of Baird — rare in the Middle and com- mon in tlie Southern States : and the Yellow-crowned Night-Heron, A. violacea — Nycthero- dius violaccus of Baird — found in the Gulf States and South America. There are several smaller species of heron, usually called Bitterns, and ranged by some natu- ralists under the generic name of Botaurus, of which the following are the principal. The Common Bittern of Europe, A. stellaris — Botauriis stellaris of Gould — is twenty-eight to thirty inches long ; upper parts brownish-buff, irregularly marked with black and reddish- brown spots ; under surface buff, with streaks of brown. It feeds at night on frogs, lizards, small birds, and fishes ; during the day it usually conceals itself among flags, rushes, or other rank veg- etation. It has a peculiar booming cry, which, in connection with its nocturnal habits and char- acter, makes a gloomy impression on the mind. Goldsmith says : " Those who have walked in a summer's evening by the sedgy sides of unfrequented rivers, must remember a variety of notes from different water-fowl ; the loud scream of the wild goose, the croaking of the mallard, the whining of the lapwing, and the tremulous neighing of the jack-snipe. But of all these sounds there is none so dismally hollow as the booming of the Bittern. It is impossible for words to give those who have not heard this evening call, an adequate idea of its solemnity. It is like the inter- rupted bellowing of a bull, but hoUower and louder, and is heard at a mile's distance, as if issuing CLASS II. AYES: ORDEK 7. GKALLATORES. THE AMERICAN BITTERN. from some formidable being tliat resided at the bottom of the waters. This is the bittern, whose windpipe is fitted to produce the sound for which it is remarkable, the lower part of it, dividing into the lungs, being supplied with a thin, loose membrane, that can be filled with a large body of air and exploded at pleasure. These bellowings are chiefly heard from the beginning of spring to the end of autumn, and arc the usual calls during the pairing season." It is found in Southern Europe and in parts of Asia and Africa. The Little Bittern, B. mrmitus, is thirteen inches long; it is a native of Southern Europe, the southwestern parts of x\sia, and the greater part of Africa. The American Bittern, A. minor or B. lent'tginosus^ is twenty-six inches long, of a rusty yellow color, mottled with brown. In its habits it resembles the European bittern, having a sim- ilar booming cry. It is familiarly known by the names of Poke, Indian Hen, Indian Pullet, Look-up, Stake-Driver, and by the French in Louisiana, Garde-solcil. It ranges throughout nearly the entire continent of North America ; accidental in Europe. Other American species are the Green Heron, A. virescens or Butoridcs virescens, which is seventeen inches long ; it has a slight crest ; glossy green above, chin and throat whitish, spot- ted with brown. It lives in marshy situations, feeding on small reptiles and fishes. It has re- ceived the vulgar names of Poke, Chalk-Line, Fly-up-the- Creek, and, to speak the truth, the questionable epithet of Schytepoke is very commonly applied to it. It is found throughout the United States. The Least Bittern, A. or Ardetta exilis, is ten inches long; chestnut above and white be- neath ; found throughout the United States. There are still other species on the remote western frontiers of North America. THE BOAT-BILLS, &c. Genus CANCROMA : Cancroma. — This includes the Boat-Bill or Crested Savacou, C. cocJdearia, which is about the size of a domestic hen. Its beak resembles a boat reversed, having a strong ridge or keel down the middle of the upper mandible, and the sides spread out and bowed. In the male, the upper part of the neck and breast are dirty white ; the back and lower part of the belly rusty-reddish. The legs and feet are brown. From the head depends a long crest of feathers, falling backward. The female has the top of the head black, without the elon- 21>L' VERTEBUATA. THE BOAT-BILL. gated crest ; the back and the belly rusty-reddish ; the -wings gray ; the forehead and rest of the plumage white; the bill, legs, and feet brown. This species inhabit Cayenne, Guiana, and Brazil, and chiefly frequent such parts as are near the water. Here they perch on the trees which hang over the streams, and like the kingfisher, drop down on the fish that swim beneath. They also feed on reptiles and crabs, whence the French name of Crahier or Crah-Eater. Night is the season of their activity. Their sight is acute, and their stroke surprisingly rapid. Their body is light, their wings ample, and their flight lofty. Genus BALdlNICEPS : Bala'niccps. — Of this we know but a single species, B. rex, an ex- traordinary bird, found along the borders of the White Nile, in Eastern Africa. Its height is three feet nine inches ; its color is of an ashy-gray above, and light gray beneath. Its habits are little known, but it is believed to live in marshes and to feed on moUusca and reptiles. THE CIIAKADEIIDiE OR PLOYEES. Of these birds there are several genera and numerous species, widely distributed throughout the world. They are in general gregarious, feeding in flocks. They are less strictly aquatic in their habits than the preceding families, some of them, indeed, frequenting the margins of rivers, lakes, and ponds, or the sea-shores, while others are found upon moors and pastures, and even in plowed fields. Most of them perform considerable migrations, visiting the high northern latitudes during the summer for the purpose of breeding. They generallv lay their eggs in a mere cavity in the sand or gravel, and the young run about soon after they are hatched. Several species are well known in this country, and are among our most interesting game birds. OYSTER-CATCHERS AXD TURNSTONES. Ge7)ns H^EMATOPUS : Hcematopus. — This includes the Oyster-Catchers. In the European Oyster-Catcher, H. ostraler/us, the hind toe is wanting ; the bill is much longer than the head, I CLASS II AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES. 293 THE BALCEXICEPS. slightly bent upward, pentagonal at tlie base, and compressed into a thin plate toward the apex, wiiich is abruptly truncated. It is a handsome bird, about eighteen inches in length ; its plum- age is variegated with black and white, whence the name of Sea-Pie^ which is occasionally ap- plied to it in England. It is commonly found on the sea-coasts, where it wades about seeking its food, consisting principally of mollusca and young crabs. It is said to detach limpets from the rocks with great facility, and its bill, from its peculiar form, appears particularly adapted for open- ing large bivalves, such as the oyster, and from this, no doubt, its common English name is derived. It appears, however, that it generally contents itself with the smaller bivalves, which it is able to swallow whole, together with worms and marine insects. The Finns hold this bird in detestation, for they say it gives notice to the seals when the hunters are approaching. It is distributed throughout Europe in summer, but is stationary in England, Southern Europe, and North Africa. It pairs in spring and unites in flocks in winter. The American Oyster-Catcher, H. palliatus, is seventeen inches long; above black and ash- color; beneath white; feeds on oysters and marine bivalves; breeds from Texas to Labrador; common on our Atlantic coasts; sometimes called Flood Gull ; flesh tough and unsavory. Bachman's Oyster-Catcher, H. nir/er, is found on the Northwestern coast of North America, There is, perhaps, another species in the same regions — H. ater of Baird, H. Tovmsendi of Audubon. Genus STREPSILAS : Strepsilas. — This includes the Turnstones, which receive their name from their habit of turning over the stones with their bills, as they walk along the sea-shores, to find insects and small Crustacea, on which they feed. The Common Turnstone of Europe,, 294 VETITEBRATA, ^;^t£- TIIR TORXSTONE. THE EUKOPEiVX OYSTLU CATCUER. 5. intenirc.t, is nine inches long; black, red, gray, and white above; breast black; beneath white. Tt is a handsome bird, and dis- tribnted over nearly all parts of the world. It visits Southern Europe in August, and retires to the north in May. In our Middle States it arrives from the south iu April and proceeds north in May. It returns in September, and soon proceeds south ; a few winter in the Southern States. "With our coast gunners it is known by the names of ^mn^i>/?-c/,^ca?7- Bird, Beach-Bird, and Horse- foot Snipe, the latter given to it because it feeds on the eggs of the horsefoot, Limuhis poly- phemus. The Black Turn- stone, S. melanocejyhalus, is found in Western North Amer- ica. THE TRUE PLOVERS. Genus CHARADRIUS: Charadrius. — This includes the Golden Plover of Europe, C. 2}IiH'iaIis, which, like the rest of the family, is a bird of powerful fiight,and is consequently widely distributed. It is eleven inches long; o-reenish-black above, the feathers tinged with golden yel- low ; the under surface black ; subject, however, to very dis- tinct changes of plumage. They breed at tlie North of Europe, and proceed in large flocks to the South in autumn. Many of THE GOLDEX PLOVER. CLASS II. AVES: ORDEli 7. GRALLATORES. 295 them remain through the winter in the southern parts of England, France, and Italy. They fre- quent moors, heaths, downs, and wide, open fields. Many also arc seen along the sea-shores. The American Golden Plover, C. Virr/inicus, is ten and a half inches long, mottled above with black and greenish-yellow ; beneath marked with large patches of black. On this conti- nent it ranges from 23° to 70° north, and is popularly known to sportsmen by the names o^ Frost- Bird and Green-Back. Nuttall says: "They arrive on the coast of the Middle and Northern States in spring and early autumn. Near to Nantasket and Chelsea Beach, they are seen, on their return from their inclement natal regions in the north, by the close of August, and the young remain in the vicinity till the middle of October, or later, according to the state of the weather. They live principally upon land-insects, or the larvaj and worms they meet with in the saline marshes, and appear very fond of grasshoppers. About the time of their departure they are, early in a morning, seen sometimes assembled by thousands, but they all begin to disperse as the sun rises, and at length disappear high in the air for the season. They usually associate, however, in sn}all flocks and families, and when alarmed while on the wing, or giving their call to those who are feeding around them, they have a wild, shrill, and whistling note, and are at most times timid, watchful, and difficult to approach. Though they continue associated in numbers for common safety during the day, they disperse in the evening, and repose apart from each other. At day-break, however, the feeling of solitude again returns, and the early sentinel no sooner gives the shrill and well-known call, than they all assemble in their usual company. At this time they are often caught in great numbers by the fowler, with the assistance of a clap-net, stretched before dawn in front of the place they have selected to pass the night. The fowlers, now sur- rounding the spot, prostrate themselves on the ground when the call is heard, and as soon as the birds are collected together, they rise up fi'om ambush, and by shouts, and the throwing up of sticks in the air, succeed so far in intimidating the plovers that they lower their flight, and thus striking against the net. it falls upon them. In this and most other countries, their flesh in the autumn, and particularly that of the young birds, is esteemed a delicacy, and is often exposed for sale in the markets of our principal towns." This species has been supposed identical with the European Plover, but it is now generally regarded as distinct ; it is supposed, however, to be iden- tical with the Asiatic Plover, known in India, the Asiatic Islands, and New Holland. The Dotterel, C. morinellus, is nine and a lialf inches long, varied above with brown, ash, buff", and white ; breast fawn, belly black. Its migrations resemble those of the C. j^luvialis. They are regarded as silly birds, and hence a foolish person is in England called a dotterel. They are greatly esteemed for the table, and many are taken in nets. Drayton alludes to its habits, and to the popular idea that it imitates the actions of the fowler, as follows : " The Dotterel, which we think a very dainty dish, Whose killing makes such sport as no man more can wish. For as you creep, or cower, or lie, or stoop, or go. So, mocking you with ease, the apish bird doth do ; And acting every thing, doth never mark the net, Till he be in the snare which men for him have set." Other foreign species of Plover are as follows : the Ringed Plover, C. hiaticula, eight inches, long ; distributed throughout Europe, and for a long time erroneously considered as identical with our Riny-Neck : the Kentish Plover, C. Cantianus, seven inches long; common in Middle and Southern Europe : and the Little Ringed Plover, C. minor, resembling the C. hiaticula ; found throughout Europe. The American Ring Plover, C. semipalmatus — Aegialitis semipalmatus of Bonaparte — is seven inches long; brownish-ash above, beneath white ; frontlet and ring over the breast, black ; breeds as far north as Labrador, and is common on our shores from August to October, after which it migrates southward. Some, however, are stationary in the Southern States. It is often called Riny-Plover, and, as we have stated, has been supposed identical with the European Ringed- Plover. The Piping-Plover, C. melodus — A. melodus o^ Ord — is si.x and a half inches long; found along the eastern coast of the United States, and is known among our fowlers by the names of Jieach-Bird and Beach-Flea. It appears among us in April and disappears in October. iii»<; VKIITEDIIATA. '^:. 'J^- Wilson's Tlovkii, C ]Viliio7iius or J. If 7/so«/ms, seven inches long; breeds from Connecticut to Texas. 'I'lic KiLDKEK-rLOVKK, C. vocifvnis or .1. vociferus of Linnfciis, is brownish-olive above; runip oranire ; beneath \vliitt>. It takes its name from its cry, kildccr, kildeer, constantly repeated; breeds from Texas to Massachusetts; in summer is seen on gravelly plains in the in- terior' ill winter it lives along tlie sea-shore; feeds on worms, nocturnal insects, and grasshop- ]»ers. It-s llesh is little esteemed. The Mountain Ploveu, A. montanus, is found in Western Nortli America. Ocntts SC^UATvVlvOLA : Squatarola. — This includes the Gray Plover, S. cinerca — S. Helve- tica of LinnfPus — twelve inches long ; found throughout North America, and the sea-coasts of most northern and temperate regions. It is called Whistling- Plover^ Bull-Head and Black- hcUied Plover by sportsmen. Genus APHRIZA : Aphriza. — This includes the Sl'kf-Bird, A. virgata, of the Pacific coasts of North and South America, and the Sandwich Islands. Germs CALIDRIS : Cali- dris. — This includes the Sand- ERLiNG or Sanderling Plover, C. arenaria ; eight inches long, and regarded by some natural- ists as rather a Sandpiper than a Plover. It is usually found along the sea-shore, often running up- on the edge of the surf and feeding on small marine worms, small fishes, and crustaca. It is ash- gi-ay above, beneath white, and is found throughout the temperate regions of Eu- rope and North America ; also in South America. Genus VANELLUS : Vanellns.—Th\fi includes the Lapwing or Peewit, V.cris- tatus — Pixhuit of the French — twelve inches long ; above varied with green, black, and reddish-chestnut; breast black; belly white ; a numei'ous species distri- buted throughout Europe and parts of Africa and Asia. The name of Peewit is given to this species from its cry ; the slow flapping of its long wings is the ori- gin of its other designation. Genus CEDICNEMUS: (Edicnemus.— This includes the Great Plover, CE. crepitans — also called Thick-Knee^ Stone Curlew, - wedge their way. Intelligent of seasons, and set forth Their aery caravan, high over seas Plying, and over lands with mutual wing, Easing their flight ; so steers the prudent Crane Her annual voyage, borne on winds the air Flotes, as they pass, fann'd with unnumber'd plumes.' Genus GRUS : Grus. — The Common Crane of Europe, G. cinerea, is four feet long ; bluish- ash above ; beneath ash-gray. It migrates to the north of Europe and Siberia in spring, remains there and breeds in summer, and in the autumn returns to Africa and Southern Asia lor the winter. It feeds on worms, insects, reptiles, mollusca, and sometimes on grain. Its nest is usually made among reeds and tall herbage, in the marshes which it frequents; it, however, occasionally builds: on ruined edifices. In its migrations it flies, like wild geese and swans, in the form of a wedge, frequently uttering a loud cry. The American Crane, G. Americana, is four feet six inches long ; crested ; color bluish-ash ; feeds on crabs, shell-fish, eels, and various kinds of fruit. It is stationary from the Carolinas soutbwanl ; in summer it migrates as far north as New Jersey. It is often called ^Vlioo^nnff Crane on account of its wild, sonorous cry, which has been compared to the whoop of savages when rush- ing to battle. Nuttall says: "In February, and in the early part of the following month, I heard their clamorous cries nearly every morning around the enswamped ponds of West Florida, and throughout Georgia, so that many individuals probably pass either the winter or the whole year, in the southern extremity of the Union. It is impossible to describe the clamor of one of these roosting flocks, wdiich they begin usually to utter about sunrise. Like the howling monkeys of South America, a single individual seemed at first as if haranjTuinof, or callinaf out to the assembled company, and after uttering a round number of discordant, sonorous, and braying tones, the address seemed as if received with becoming applause, and was seconded with trumpeting hurrahs." The Saxd-IIill Crane, G. Canadensis, is forty-eight inches long ; color yellowish-gray ; found from Mexico to the Arctic Sea. It is called the Brown Crane and also the Canada Crane. Cassin mentions a species in New Mexico, G.fraterculus. Genus ANTHROPOIDES : Anthropoidcs. — This includes the Numidian Crane, A. virgo — called Demoiselle by the French — three feet long ; general color slaty-gray ; migratory ; food, grain, seeds, small fishes, mollusca, and insects. Africa appears to be its Lome, but it is found in parts of Asia, and is occasionally seen in Southern Europe. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 7. GRALLATORES, 301 2^ ^i^.er'-ri-i- — -^ — / . / / THE BALEARIC CRANE. Genus BALEARICA : Balearka. — This includes the Crowned Crane, B. jMvonina — Ardca pavonina of Linnaeus ; also called the Balearic Crane, from the notion that it was the bird to which the ancients gave that name. It >• V %ffil>, stands four feet high ; its color is a bluish- slate ; it has a loud, hoarse, triunpet-like note, is easily reconciled to captivity, and readily mingles with common poultry ; found iu Northern and West- ern Africa. Genus PSOPHIA : Psophm.— To this belongs the Trumpeter, called Agami by the natives of tropical Amer- ica, in the forests of which it is found in flocks ; it is twenty-two inches long, and has a loud, hollow cry of too, too, too, too, the sound being made without opening the bill. Genus CARIAMA : Cariama. — To this belongs the Cariama, C. cristatus, found in the lofty plains of Brazil and Paraguay. It is thirty inches long ; earthy-brown above, Avhitish below ; it >, runs with great swiftness, and is exceed- \} ingly shy and watchful. It feeds on lizards, insects, and molluscous animals. It is easily domesticated, and will live sociably with the other tenants of the poultry-yard. Genus A R A M U S : Aramus. — To this belongs the Crying-Bird, A. sco- lopaceus, two feet long, of a reddish-brown color; common in tropical America ; found occasion- THE CARIAMA. 302 VKUTEBUATA. ally ill Klori.la. It is si)metimcs called Courlan and also Aramus. It feeds on frogs and insects, lives alone or in cuples, perches on elevated trees, :ii.d lias a piercing cry of curau, carau, carau, whirli niav I'c heard for half a mile. Gl'LLS, ETC. GUILLEMOT. SNAKE-BIRD. CORMORANT. CRESTED PENGUIN. FRIGATE-BIRU. ORDER 8 NATATORES. The most striking cliaracter of the JVafaiores, or Swimming-Birds, is derived from the structnre of the feet, which are always palmate, that is, furnished with webs between the toes. There are always three toes directed forward, and these are usually united by a membrane to their extremi- ties ; but in some cases the membrane is deeply cleft, and the toes are occasionally quite free, and furnished with a distinct web on each side. The fourth toe is generally but little developed, and often entirely wanting; when present it is usually directed backward, and the membrane is some- times continued to it along the side of the foot. These webbed feet are the principal agents by which the birds propel themselves through the water, upon the surface of which most of them pass a great portion of their time ; and by the same means many species dive to a considerable distance below the surface in search of their food, which consists almost entirely of fish, mollusca, and other small aquatic animals. The feet are generally placed very far back, a position which is exceedingly favorable to their action in swimming and diving, but which renders their progress sion on the land somewhat awkward. In some instances the feet are situated quite at the hinder extremity of the body, which then assumes an upright position when on land. The body is generally stout and heavy, and covered with a very thick, close, downy plumage, which the bird keeps constantly anointed with the greasy secretion of the caudal gland, so that it is completely waterproof. The wings exhibit a very great variety in their development. In the Penguins they are reduced to a rudimentary condition, destitute of quills, and covered witb a scaly skin, forming flat, fin-like organs; while in some other species the wings are of vast size and power, and the birds pass a great part of their lives in the air. Between these two extremes we meet with every intermediate degree of development. Those species which are endowed with the greatest power of flight are usually incapable of diving, although they frequently take their prey by plunging suddenly into the water, from the air. The form of the bill is also very variable : in some it is broad and flat, in others deep and com- GLASS II. AYES: OKDEIl 8. NATATOEES. 303 HAUNTS OF SEA-FOWL — THE GREAT NOUTUERN DIVEK, GUILLEMOTS, PUFFINS, ETC. pressed, and in others long and slender. The mandibles are sometimes sharp and smooth, some- times furnished with denticulations or lamellce at the margins. The texture of the bill also va- ries ; but these differences will be referred to in characterizing the families. Most of these birds live in societies, winch are often exceedingly numerous, inhabiting high northern and southern latitudes. Many of them prefer rocky coasts, in the clefts and crannies of Vvhich they lay their eggs, often on the bare rock, but generally selecting the most inaccessible 3Q4 VERTEBRATA. sitimtioiis. The nest is always of a very rude description ; but some species have the instinct to atUich their nosts to miiiatic j)lants in such a manner that, although it is securely anchored to one spot, it is capal.le of rising or falling, in accordance with any change that may take place in the level of the wati-r. 'I'll.- immense nund)er of birds that live on the water, and are hence called Water-fowl, absolutely balHes hum.iii eompreliension. Not only the rivers and lakes— especially those remote from the abodes of man— teem with them, but the boundless shores of the ocean are peopled with multi- tutles which no man can nund)er. On inimerous islands they have heaped up mountains of <;uam\* which are now taken from their native beds and distributed over Europe and America, As alVurding a vivid idea of the immense collections of sea-fowl on the rocky borders of the ocean, we copy the following descriptionf of Ailsa Craig, an island on the west of Scotland : " It was a naked rock, rising nine liundrcd and eighty feet abruptly out of the sea. A little level space projected on one side, with a small house on it. We could not conjecture the use of a liabitation there. The captain of the steamer said it was the Govcrnor''s house. We asked him what a governor could do there. 'Take care of the birds,' he replied; 'and he pays the Marquis of Ailsa, the proprietor, who takes his title from the Craig, fifty pounds rent for the priv- ile"-c of takino- them.' ' What sort of birds ?' we asked liim. ' Sea-fowd of all sorts,' he said. 'Thev inhabit the Craig, and ye'll may be see numbers of them. They arc quite numerous. The marquis has threatened prosecution if people fire upon the Craig from the vessels. They have been in the habit of firing to alarm the birds, to see them fly.' He had been himself governor of the Craig, he said, some years before, and bad great sport and some danger in killing the birds. His way of killing them was with a club, and he told us how many thousand — we dare not say how manv — he had killed in a single day of a famous kind of goose. He had let himself down to a quarter of the cliffs where they haunted, to get the young and eggs, and the old ones attacked him, and he fought them with his club till he was covered with blood — theirs and his own. He had a good mind, he said, to give them one gun, just to let us see them fly, as we were strangers. As he had been the marquis's governor, he said, he would venture that he would overlook it in him. He ordered his boy to bring the musket. The boy returned and said it -was left behind at Glasgow. 'Load up the swivel, then,' said the captain; 'it will be all the better. It w^ill make quite a flight, ye'll find. Load her up pretty well.' "The steamer meanwhile kept nearing the giant Craig, which was a bare rock from summit to the sea, and all of a dull, chalky whiteness, occasioned as the captain said, by the excrement of the birds. We saw caves in the sides of the mountain, and down by the water ; the retreats, our informant told us, in former times, of the smugglers, who used to frequent the Craig, and carry on an extensive trade from these places of concealment. We had got so near as to see the white birds flitting across the black entrances of the caverns, like bees about the hive. With the spy- glass we could see them distinctly, and in very considerable numbers, and at length approached so that we could see them on the ledges all over the sides of the mountain. We had passed the skirt of the Craig, and were within a half mile, or less, of its base. With the glass we could now see the entire mountain side peopled with the sea-fowl, and could hear their whimpering, house- hold cry, as they moved about, or nestled in domestic snugness on the ten thousand ledges. The air, too, about the precipices seemed to be alive with them. Still we had not the slightest con- ception of their frightful multitude. AVe got about against the center of the mountain, when the swivel was fired. The shot went point-blank against it, and struck the tremendous precipice as * The beds of Guaso, found in various places, consisting of the excrement, bones, and feathers of sea-fowl, afford evidence of the enormous quantities of birds collected in these haunts. On the Lohos or Chinclm Islands, in the Pacific, fourteen miles west of Peru, the beds are more than a hundred feet thick, and although numerous vessels are constantly employed in transporting it to Europe and America, to be used for manure, it is supposed that the deposit will last for a hundred years. The fertilizing properties of this were known to the ancient Peruvians, and it was extensively used by them in their agriculture. It was long neglected by the Spanish Peruvians, but their attention has been lately turned to it, and now it is one of the chief sources of revenue to the state. It is estimated that the whole value of the deposit is five hundred millions of dollars! No doubt the accumulation has been going on for thousands of years ; but still, its almost incalculable magnitude shows that myriads of birds must have contributed to such a result. t Bv Nathaniel P. Rodgers. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 8. NATATORES. 305 from top to bottom, with a reverberation like the discharge of a hundred cannon. And what a sight followed ! They rose up from tliat mountain — the countless myriads and millions of sea- birds — in a universal, overwhelming cloud that covered the whole heavens, and their cry was like the cry of an alarmed nation. Up they went — millions upon millions — ascending like the smoke of a furnace — countless as the sands on the sea-shore — awful, dreadful for multitude, as if the whole mountain were dissolving into life and light, and with an unearthly kind of lament, took up their line of march in every direction off to sea! The sight startled the people on board the steamer, who had often witnessed it before, and for some minutes there ensued a general silence. For our own part, we were quite amazed and overawed at the spectacle. We had seen nothing like it ever before. We had seen White Mountain Notches and Niagara Falls, in our own land, and the vastness of the wide and deep ocean, which was then separating us from it. We had seen something of art's magnificence in the old world, 'its cloud-capt towers, its gorgeous palaces and solemn temples ;' but we had never witnessed sublimity to be compared to that rising of sea- birds from Ailsa Craig. They were of countless varieties, in kind and size, from the largest goose to the smallest marsh-bird — and of every conceivable variety of dismal note. Off they moved, in wild and alarmed rout, like a people going into exile — filling the air, far and wide, with their re- proachful lament at the wanton cruelty that had broken them up and driven them into captivity. We really felt remorse at it, and the thought might have occurred to us, how easy it would have been for them, if they had known that the little smoking speck that was laboring along the sea- surface beneath them, had been the cause of their banishment, to have settled down upon it and ino-ulfed it out of sio-ht forever. "We felt astonished that we had never before heard of this wonderful haunt of sea-fowl, and that no one had ever tvrittcn a book upon if. It struck us as really one of ' the wonders of the world.' And not us alone ; others, not at all given to the marvelous, declared that it surpassed every thing they had ever before witnessed. We supposed the mountain must have been quite deserted, from the myriads that had flown away ; but lifting the glass to it, as we were leaving its border, we were appalled to find it still alive with the myriads left behind. They kept leaving and leaving, until our steamer had got far on beyond the Craig, and till we could no longer dis- cern their departure with the telescope ; and it was miles off into the dusky Irish Sea, before we saw the ebbing of their miglity movement, and that they were beginning to return. We felt re- lieved to sec them going back. It liad scarcely occurred tons, in our surprise, that they were not leaving their native cliffs forever. Slowly and sadly they seemed to return, while the eye sought in vain to ken the outskirts of their mighty caravan. And Ailsa Craig had sunk far into our rear, and quite sensibly diminished in the distance, before the rearmost of the feathered host had disappeared from our sight." And this is but one of hundreds, nay, of thousands, of rocky recesses along the interminable boundaries of the ocean, filled with myriads of sea-fowl. Numerous islands among the Hebrides; others to the north — the Shetlands and Orkneys ; the high beetling cliffs of North America, from Nova Scotia to Greenland ; the southern coasts of Africa ; the bleak dizzy craigs around Cape Horn ; the lofty cliffs that hang frowning over the sea on either side of Behring's Straits — breast- ing the shock of the Pacific that has sundered, and still sunders the two continents ; these, and a multitude of other wild rocky ledges, are, like Ailsa rock, the abodes of millions upon millions of sea-fowl : geese of many kinds, ducks, guillemots, grebes, divers, puffins, sheer-waters, terns, gulls, petrels, cormorants, frigate-birds and pelicans. And beside all this, there is no part of the ocean, however distant from the land, where some species are not found ; in many places, espe- cially in high northern latitudes, the face of the waters is covered with them. What is loneliness and desolation to man, is peace and abundance to them. Often in crossing the cold and tumultu- ous waters that roll to the north and east of the Grand Banks, have we seen whole troops of sea- fowl, tossing on the sea, yet screaming with delight, and seeming to overflow with enjoyment.* * Nor are the swimming birds the only ones that traverse the great waters. A graphic writer has furnished us with a sketch of the Visitants of Ships at Sea, which is too amusing and too instructive to be omitted. We therefore give it in a note : " All persons who have made long voyages, especially in luud-locked seas and on board of sailing-vessels, must Vol. II.— 39 30C VEKTEBRATA. Tlu> i.atat»>rial l.inls aiv .livi.K-tal»Io substances. The niicrations of these, as well as many other birds, have alike exciteil the adujiration of the i)hiiosoplier and the poet. Bryant expresses the thoughts they sug- gest in the following beautiful stanzits : '• WhitluT. 'midst fallini; ili'w, Wliilo nlow till- li.iivens with tlio last stops of day, Fur, tliioiiuli ih.ir losv do]>tlis, dost thou pursue Thy solitary way? " Vainly the fowler's eye Miiihf mark thy distant llij,'ht to do thee wrong, As, darkly painted on the crimson sky, Thy lijture floats along. " Seokcst thon the plashy brink Of weedy lake, or niarire of river wide, Or where the rockiuir billows rise and sink On the chafed ocean-side '? " There is a Power whose care Teaches thy way along the pathless coast, The desert and illimitable air — Lone wandering, but not lost. " All day thy wings have fanned. At that far height, the cold, thin atmosphere, Yet stoop not, weary, to the welcome land, Though the dark night is near. " And soon that toil shall end. Soon shall thou find a summer-home, and rest And scream among thy fellows ; reeds shall bend Soon o'er thy sheltered nest. " Thou'rt gone — the abyss of heaven Hath swallowed up thy form ; yet on my heart Deeply hath sunk the lesson thou hast given. And shall not soon depart. " He who, from zone to zone, Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight. In the long way that I must tread alone, Will lead my steps aright." never have reason to alight for rest on ships. After having passed the winter amid the warm marshes of the White Nile, or those of the Tigris and Euphrates, they traverse the scented valleys of Syria, and move in spring along the picturesque shores of Asia Minor. A learned traveler has an extremely interesting passage on their migration north- ward. A company of crsuies, returning from their winter-quarters, flew in orderly array over Smyrna, ou the 'jth of March, northward. Another soon followed, and then many ; some by day, when they were seen changing their figure and leader ; some by moonlight, when they were heard, high in air, repeating their noisy signals. The same writer, sail- ing in autumn southward from the Hellespont, again saw his old friends ou their way to their winter-quarters. Being near Tenedos, he says he was amused by vast caravans or companies of cranes passing high in the air from Thrace, to winter, as he supposed, in Egypt. He admired the number and array of their squadrons, their extent, orderly appearance, and apparently good discipline. "Other migratorv birds of strong wing scorn the aid of man in their flight, and dart from one continent to another, depending exclusively on the force of their own pinions. Thus the pelicans, though birds of great weight, ascend into the atmosphere, and forming themselves into one compact wedge, cleave the air like an arrow, and traverse the whole Mediterranean at one flight. They present a sight of rare beauty when preparing for their departure. Difter- ing in this from many other birds, they commence their journey in the morning, collecting in myriads on the marshes of the Nile, and soaring aloft with a scream, they form a vast canopy overhead, while the sun, playing on their white feathers, delicately tipped with pink, reminds the traveler of the snows of the higher Alps, which are often rendered rosy by the touch of dawn. " These jiowerful birds, as we have said, need no other resting-places in their migrations than such as have been supplied them by nature. It is otherwise with the smaller winged tribes. These, when caught by the foremast blast of high winds, in their attempt to cross the sea, invariably take refuge in ships. A Swedish naturalist, entering the Mediterranean early in the morning, observed that the mot/ THE CEUEOPSIS GOOSE. Genus CEREOPSIS : Cereopsis. — This includes a very curious bird, the Cereopsis Goose, C. Novce Hollandice, about the size of a common goose, of a dusky gray color, most of the wing- coverts and secondary quill-feathers marked with round dusky spots. It has the air and manners of the goose family ; is found in considerable numbers on the sea-shore of Lucky Bay and Goose Island, at the southeastern point of Australia. It weighs from seven to ten pounds ; the flesh is excellent. It has frequently bred in the Zoological Gardens of London. The Swan Goose, Anseranas mclanolema, found in Australia, has semipalmated feet, a knob on the head, long legs, and a form somewhat resembling the swan. It was formerly found in im- mense flocks in certain districts, and afforded a considerable part of the food of the natives, who struck it down with their spears. At present, it is cliiefly confined to the northern parts of the island. Specimens have been in the London Zoological Gardens. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 8. NATATORES. 315 HuTCiiixs's Goose, A. Hutchinsi — called Mud Goose on Long Island — is twenty-five inches long; breeds along the Arctic Sea, and is common upon our coasts. Some have supposed it a hybrid between the Brant and Wild Goose. Mr. Linsley, in his Catalogue of the Birds of Con- necticut, states that it is not unfrequently taken there in spring, and is called the Southern Goose, because it does not winter there. The following are in the catalogue of the Smithsonian Institution : White-headed Goose, A. ccerulesccns ; found in North America: A. frontalis, interior of North America: White-cheeked Goose, Bernicla leucopareia, west coast of North America : Black Brant, B. nigricans. Pacific coast of North America; rare on the Atlantic coast: Painted Goose, Chloephaya canagica, Aleutian Islands. MALLARDS. THE TRUE DUCKS. These closely resemble the preceding group in their general conformation, and in the form of the bill. They all frequent fresh water, where they feed upon the worms, mollusca, and larvae which they pick out of the mud. A considerable portion of their food, liowever, consists of vege- table matter, such as grass, roots, seeds, /pcata, — called also Broad-Bill and Spoon-Bill — is seventeen inches long, and greatly prized for its flesh ; it is also a very beautiful species. It occasionally visits the sea-coast, but is more commonly met with on lakes and rivers, particularly along their muddy shores, where it spends a great part of its time in searching for worms, *tc. The female makes her nest on the ground, with withered grass, usually in the midst of tufts of rushes, and lays , from ten to twelve eggs. The young are said to be at first very unshapely, having most enor- mous bills. The shoveler is found in Europe and America. The Gadwall or Gray Duck, A. strepera, is nineteen inches long, and is common to Europe and America; very abundant in some countries; common in India. Its flesh is excellent. Wilson says " it is a very quick diver, so as to make it difficult to be shot ; it flies also with great rapidity, and ntters a note not unlike that of the mallard, but louder; is fond of salines and ponds overgrown with reeds and rushes; feeds during the day, as well as in the morning and evening." THE GADWALL. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 8. NATATORES. 317 THE PINTAIL DUCK. The Pintail Duck, A. acuta, is, including the tail, twenty-six to twenty-eight inches long; com- mon in Europe and America. The European Widgeon, ji. Penelo2)e, is eigliteen inches long ; common in Europe, and acci- dental on the Atlantic coast of the United States. The American Widgeon or Baldpate, a. Americana — Ma- reca Americana of Gmelin — is nineteen inches long ; conmion in North America ; accidental in Europe. The Black Duck, A. obscura, is twenty-two inches long ; abun- dant in the United States ; not yet found in Europe. The Garganey or Summer Teal, A. qnerquedula, is sixteen inches long ; common in South- ern Europe and India. The English Teal, A. crecca — JSfettion cnrca of Linnaeus — is fourteen and a half inches long ; common in Europe ; accidental on the eastern coast of the Unit- ed States. The Blue-winged Teal, A. discors, is fifteen inches long ; found on the eastern coast of the United States ; not yet noticed in Europe, nor on the Pacific. The Red-breasted Teal — Querquedula cyanoptera of Baird — is found on the western coast of North and South America. The Summer Duck or W^ood Duck, ^-i. s/;o?isa, nineteen inches long, is a very beautiful species ; found throughout North Amer- ica, Mexico, and the West In- dies. Wilson says : " During the whole of our winters they are oc- occasionally seen in the States south of the Potomac. On the 10th of January, I met with two on a creek near Petersburgh, in Virginia. In the more northern districts, however, they are mi- gratory. In Pennsylvania, the female usually begins to lay late in April or early in May. In- stances have been known where the nest was constructed of a few sticks laid in a fork of the THE AMEKICAN WIDGEON. THE GARGANEY. 318 VEUTEL5IIATA. SUMMER OR WOOD DUCKS. branches; usuallj', liowever, tlic inside of a hollow tree is selected for this purpose. On the 18th of May I visited a tree containing the nest of a Summer Duck, on the banks of Tnckahoc River, New Jersey. It "was an old, grotesqne white oak, whose top had been torn off by a storm. It stood on the declivity of the bank, about twenty yards from the water. In this hollow and broken top, and about sixteen feet down, on the soft, decayed wood, lay thirteen eggs, snugly covered with down, doubtless taken from the breast of the bird. "This tree had been occupied, probably by the same pair, for four successive years, in breeding time ; the person who gave me the information, and whose liouse was within twenty or thirty yards of the tree, said that he had seen the female, the spring preceding, carry down thirteen young, one by one, in less than ten minutes. She caught them in her bill by the wing or back of the neck, and landed them safely at the foot of the tree, whence she afterward led them to the water. The male usually perched on an adjoining limb, and kept watch while the female was laying, and also often while she was sitting. A tame goose had chosen a hollow space at the root of the same tree, to lay and hatch her young in. I CLASS II. xVVES: ORDER 8. NATATORES. 319 ENGLISH TEAL. (See p. 317.) "The Summer Duck seldom flies in flocks of more than three or four individuals together, and most commonly in puirs, or singly. The common note of the drake is peet, ijeet ; but when, standing sentinel, he sees danger, he makes a noise not unlike the crowing of a young cock — oe eelc! oe eeh ! Thtir food consists principally of acorns, seeds of the wild oats, and insects. Their flesh is inferior to that of the hlue-winged teal. Among other gaudy feathers with which the Indians ornament the calumet or pipe of peace, the skin of the head and neck of the summer duck is frequently seen covering the stem. This beautiful bird has often been tamed, and soon becomes so familiar as to permit one to stroke its back with the hand. I have seen individuals so tamed in various parts of the Union." It is called Wood-Duck from breeding in hollow trees, aiid Summer Duck from remaining with us during the summer. It rarely visits the sea-shore or salt marshes, its favorite haunts being the solitary, deep, and muddy creeks, ponds, and mill-dams of the interior. The Mandarin Duck, Fan-tail Duck, or Chinese Teal, A. fjalcriculaia^ is remarkable for the brilliancy of its plumage, a fine green crest on the head, a fan-shaped tuft of feathers on the back, and still more for its conjugal fidelity. It is said never to mate a second time. In regard to this Mr. Davis furnishes the following particulars: "From an aviary containing a pair of these birds at Macao, the drake happened one night to be stolen. The duck was perfectly incon- solable, like Calypso after the departure of Ulysses. She retired into a corner, neglected her food and person, refused all society, and rejected with disdain the proffer of a second love. In a few days the purloined duck was recovered and brought back. The mutual demonstrations of joy were excessive ; and what is more singular, the true husband, as if informed by his partner of what had happened in his absence, pounced upon the would-be lover, tore out his eyes, and in- jured him so much that he soon after died of his wounds." This species is domesticated in China and Japan. The preceding are generally included under the genus Anas : the following, though distributed in various genera, have nevertheless the general characteristics of the true ducks. Genus TADOR'N A: Tadorna. — This includes the European /S/if^mte. The Ruddy Shel- drake, T. rutila., is twenty-six inches long, and distributed throughout Europe and Asia. Its voice when flying is like a clarionet ; sometimes it cries like a peacock, and sometimes it clucks like a hen. The Tartars say its flesh is poisonous ; Baron de Tott says he tasted of it and found it 320 VERTEJlllATA. TUB MANDARIN DUCK. "exceedingly good for nothing." The Common European Sheldrake, or BuRROW-DtJCK, T. rulpanser, is twenty-four inches long, and sometimes breeds in rabbit-burrows. It is found in all parts of Europe. In the Orkneys it is called Sly Goose, on account of its tricks. When a person comes near its nest it pretends to have a wing broken, and wad- dles away in a doleful manner, the wing trailing on the ground ; when the stranger has pursued it in vain for some time, it sud- denly takes flight, and loaves tl e outwitted Orcadian gapirg with wonder. The Eider Duck, Somateria mollissima, is twenty-five inches long, and is remarkable for its soft down. It is found through- out the north of Europe and of North America,and usually builds its nests on the rocky precipices which overhang the ocean. The down so much valued is plucked off the breast by the female to line her nest. Xuttall says : "As soon as the young are hatched they are led to the water by their attentive parent, and there remain, excepting in the night and in tempestuous weather. Their greatest enemy, besides man, is the Saddle-Back Gull ; the yoimg, however, elude his pursuit by diving, at which both old and young are very expert. The down, though so valuable, is neglected in Labrador. It is so light and elastic, that two or three pounds of it, pressed into a ball that may be held in the THE COMMON SHELDRAKE OF EUROPE. I CLASS II. AVES: GILDER 8. NATATOIIES. 321 EIDEB DUCKS. hand, will swell out to such an extent as to fill and distend tlie foot-covering cf a large bed. The best kind, termed live-down, is that which the Eider plucks to line the nest; the down taken from the dead bird is greatly inferior, and it is rare that so valuable a bird is now killed for the purpose. To augment tlie quan- tity of down from the same bird, the eggs, which are very palat- able, are taken and eaten, and the female again strips herself to cover the second and smaller hatch. If the nest be a second time plundered, as the female can furnish no additional lining, the male now lends his aid, and strips the coveted down from his breast, which is well known by its paler color. The last laying, of only two or three eggs, is al- ways left to kindle their hopes of progeny, for if this be taken they will abandon the place ; but thus indulged, they continue to return the following year, ac- companied by their young. The most southern breeding place of this species in Europe is the Fern Isles, on the coast of Northum- berland; and voyagers who have ventured to the dreary extremity of Arctic Europe, hear, in sum- mer, from the caverns and rocks of the final cape, the deep moan of the complaining Eider. The eggs are commonly five or six, but it is not unusual to find upward of ten in the same nest, which is thus occupied peaceably by two females. In Norway and Iceland the Eider districts are considered as valuable property, carefully preserved, and transmitted by inheritance. There are spots that con- tain many hundreds of these nests, and the Icelanders are at the utmost pains to invite the Eiders, each into his own estate; and when they perceive that they begin to frequent some of the islets which maintain herds, they soon remove the cattle and dogs to the main-land, to procure the Eiders an undisturbed retreat ; and to accommodate them, sometimes cut out holes in rows on the smooth sloping banks, of wliich, to save themselves trouble, they willingly take possession and form their nests. These people have even made many small islands for this purpose, by disjoining promon- tories from the continent. It is in these retreats of peace and solitude that the Eiders love to settle ; thouo-li they are not averse to nestle near habitations, if they experience no molestation. *A person,' says Ilorrebow, 'as I myself have witnessed, may walk among these birds while they are sitting and not scare them ; he may even take the eggs, and yet they Avill renew their laying as often as three times.' According to the relation of Sir George Mackenzie, on the 8th of June, at Yidoe, the Eider-Ducks, at all other times of the year perfectly wild, had now assembled in great numbers to nestle. The boat by which they approached the shore passed through multi- tudes of these beautiful birds, which scarcely gave themselves the trouble to go out of the way. Between the landing place and the governor's house the ground was strewed with them, and it required some caution to avoid treading on the nests. The drakes were walking about, uttering a sound very like the cooing of doves, and were even more familiar than the common domestic ducks. All round the house, on the garden wall, on the roofs, and even in the inside of the houses, and in the chapel, were numbers of ducks sitting on their nests. Such as had not been long on the nest generally left it on being approached ; but those that had more than one or two eggs sat perfectly quiet, suffering us to touch them, and sometimes making a gentle use of their bills to remove our hands. When a drake happens to be near his mate, he is extremely agitated Vol. it.— 41 O w w VEliTEBltATA. when any one approaches lu-r. lie passes and repasses between her and the object of his suspi- .■i.,n raisin.' his hea-l an-l eooi.ifr. C)Me female, dming the whole time of laying, generally gives l,.,l,-';i pounTl o( neat down, and double that ciuantity before cleansing." ' The King Duck, S. specta- ^- .m y THE KING DUCK. h'llis^ is a trifle smaller than the preceding ; it so much resem- bles it in liabits that it is some- times called the King Elder ; found in the Arctic regions of Europe, Asia, and N. America. Steller's Western Duck, S. oc//s/jar, nineteen inches long, inhabits the western parts of North America, Europe, and Asia, and it has been accidental- ly met with in England. The Spectacled Eider, Latii- 'pronetta Fiacheri, is found on the coast of Russian America. The Velvet Scoter, Oidemia fused — De Kay's Whitc-ivingid Coot — 22 inches long; is com- mon in Europe and X. America. The Common Scoter of Eu- rope, O. ft^^ra, is nineteen inches lonir; common in the South of Europe. The Surf Scoter or Coot, 0. pers2ncillata, twenty-one inches long; is common in North America; accidental in Europe. The Common American Sco- ter, 0. Americana, sometimes iiii\\(i(\ Broad-hilled Coo(,\s abun- dant along the sea-coast of X. America. The Huron Scoter, 0. bi- macidata, is found in tall and winter on Lake Iluron and the adjacent waters. The Long-billed Scoter, Pelionetta Troivbridgii, is found in winter along the southern coast of California. The Red-crested Whistling Duck, Fuligula rufina, is twenty two inches long; found through- out Europe and Asia. The Pochard or Dun-Bird, F. ferinn, nineteen and a half inches long, resembling the Can- vas-Back of the United States, is found in parts of Europe ; in England it is called Red-headed Poker and Red-eyed Poker. The Red-Head, F. erijthroceptiala, is eighteen inches long; found in Nortli America. It was formerly considered as identical with the preceding. It closely resembles the Canvas-Back. THE VELVET SCOTER. CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 8. NATATORES. 323 :S41^ The Ferruginous Duck or Wiiite-Eye, F. nyroca, is sixteen inches long ; common ia Europe. The Scaup Duck, F. viarila — called Broad-Bill, Blue-Bill, Black-Head, and Raft-Duck in this country — is nineteen inches long ; common in Europe and America. The American Scaup Duck, F. mai-iloides — the Creek Broad-Bill of DeKay — is com- mon in North America; acci- dental in Europe. (See p. 324.) The Bastard Broad-Bill, F. riijitorques — the Ring-Neck Duck of Audubon — IG inches long, is found from Massachu- setts to Mexico. The Canvas-Back, F. valisne- ria — Aythya vulisneria of Bona- parte— is 20 inches long ; gen- eral color above grayish-white, with numerous minute undulat- ing bars of black ; rump black- ish ; head and neck chestnut red ; neck and breast brownish- black ; beneath white. It is al- together an American bird ; stands unrivaled for the table ; breeds in high northern lati- tudes ; appears on our coasts from the North about the mid- dle of October. Wilson says : "A few descend to the Hudson and Delaware, but the great body resort to the numerous rivers belonging to and in the neighborhood of Chesapeake Bay, particularly the Susque- hannahi the Patapsco, Poto- mac, and James Rivers, which appear to be their general winter rendezvous. Beyond this, to the south, I can find no certain ac- counts of them. At the Sus- quehannah, they are called Can- vas-Backs ; on the Potomac, White-Backs ; and on James River, Sheldrakes. They are seldom found at a great distance up any of these rivers, or even in THE RED-CRESTED WHISTLING DUCK. THE POCHARD. (See p. 3^2.) the salt-water bay ; but in that particular part of tide-water where a certain grass-like plant grows, on the roots of which they feed. This plant, which is said to be a species of valisneria, grows on fresh- water shoals of from seven to nine feet, in long, narrow, grass-like blades, of four or five feet m lengtli ; the root is white, and has some resemblance to small celery. This grass is in many places so thick that a boat can with difficulty be rowed through it, it so impedes the oars. The shores are lined with large quantities of it, torn up by the ducks, and drifted up by the winds, lying, like hay, in wind- rows. Wherever this plant grows in abundance, the Canvas-Backs may be expected, either to 324 VEIITEBIIATA. pav occasional visits or to luako it llnir regular residence during the winter. It occurs in some paits of tlic Hudson; in tiie Delaware near Gloucester, a few miles below Philadelphia; and in most of the rivers that fall into the Chesapeake, to each of which particular places these ducks resort ; while in waters unprovided with this nutritive plant, they are altogether unknown. "On the first arrival of these birds in the Susqneliannah, near IIavre-de-( Jrace, they are gen- erally lean; but su«li is the abundance of their favorite food that, toward the beginning of No- vember, they are in i)retty good order. They arc excellent divers, and swim with great speed and agility. They sometimes as- semble in such multitudes as to cover several acres of the river, and when they rise suddenly, produce a noise resembling thunder. They float about these shoals, diving and tearing up the grass by the roots, which is the only part they cat. They are extremely shy, and can rarely be approached, unless by stratagem. When wounded in the wing they dive to such pro- digious distances, and with such rapidity, continuing it so perse- verinoflv, and with such cunning and active vigor, as ahiiost al- ways to render the pursuit hope- less. From the great demand for these ducks, and the high price they uniformly bring in market, various modes are practiced to get within gunshot of them. The most successful way is said to be decoying them to the shore by means of a dog, while the gunner lies closely con- cealed in a proper situation. The dog, if properly trained, plays backward and forward along the margin of the water; and the ducks, observing his maneuvers, enticed perhaps by curiosity, grad- ually approach the shore, until they are sometimes within twenty or thirty yards of the spot where the gunner lies concealed, and from which he rakes them, first on the water, and then as they rise. This method is called tolling them in. If the ducks seem difficult to decoy, any glar- ing object, such as a red handkerchief, is fixed round the dog's middle, or to his tail ; and this rarely fails to attract them. Sometimes, by moonlight, the sportsman directs his skiff" toward a flock whose position he had previously ascertained, keeping within the projecting shadow of some wood, bank, or headland, and paddles along so silently and imperceptibly as often to approach within fifteen or twenty yards of a flock of many thousands, among whom he generally makes great slaughter. " Many other stratagems are practiced, and, indeed, every plan that the ingenuity of the expe- rienced sportsman can suggest, to approach within gunshot of these birds ; but of all the modes pursued, none intimidate them so much as shooting them by night ; and they soon abandon the place where they have been thus repeatedly shot at. During the day they are dispersed about ; but toward evening collect in large flocks, and come into the mouths of creeks, where they often ride as at anchor, with their head under their wing, asleep, there being always sentinels awake ready to raise an alarm on the least appearance of danger. Even when feeding and diving in small parties, the whole never go down at one time, but some arc still left alone on the look-out. " When the winter sets in severely, and the river is frozen, the Canvas-Backs retreat to its confluence with the bay, occasionally frequenting air-holes in the ice, which are sometimes made for the purpose, immediately above their favorite grass, to entice them within gunshot of the hut or bush, which is usually fixed at a proper distance, and where the gunner lies concealed, ready THE AMERICAN SCAUP DCCK. (See p. 323.) CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 8. NATATORES. 325 to take advantage of tlioir distress. A Mr. Hill, who lives near James River, at a place called Herring Creek, informs me that, one severe winter, he and another person broke a hole in the ice, about twenty by forty feet, iimnediately over a shoal of grass, and took their stand on the shore in a lint of brush, each having three guns well loaded with large shot. The ducks, which were flying np and down the river in great extremity, soon crowded to this place, so that the whole open space was not only covered with them, but vast numbers stood on the ice around it. They had three rounds, firing both at once, and picked up eighty-eight Canvas-Backs, and might liave collected more, had they been able to get to the extremity of the ice after the wounded ones. "The Canvas-Back, in the rich, juicy tenderness of its flesh, and its delicacy of flavor, stands nnrivaled by the whole of its tribe, in this or perhaps any other quarter of the world. Those killed in the waters of the Chesapeake are generally esteemed superior to all others, doubtless from the great abundance of their favorite food which these produce. At our public dinners, hotels, and particular entertainments, the Canvas-Backs are universal favorites. They not only grace but dignif)'- the table, and their very name conveys to the imagination of the eager epicure the most comfortable and exhilarating ideas. Hence, on such occasions, it has not been uncommon to pav from one to three dollars a pair for these ducks ; and, indeed, at such times, if they can, they must be had, whatever may be the price. " The Canvas-Back will feed readily on grain, especially wheat, and may be decoyed to par- ticular places by baiting them with that grain for several successive days. Some few years since a vessel loaded with wheat was wrecked near the entrance of Great Egg Harbor, in the autumn, and went to pieces. The wheat floated out in vast quantities, and the whole surface of the bay was in a few days covered with ducks .of a kind altogether unknown to the people of that quarter. The gunners of the neighborhood collected in boats, in every direction, shooting them ; and so suc- cessful were they, that, as Mr. Beasley informs ixie, two hundred and forty were killed in one day." The Tufted Duck, F. cris- tafa, is 17 inches long; widely distributed in Europe and Asia. The Long-tailed Duck or Old-wife, F. r/lacialis, length seventeen inches, not including the long tail-feathers ; is com- inon in Europe and North Amer- ica. In the Southern States it is called South Southerhj, on ac- count of its cry. The Golden-Eye, F. clangula, Buccphala Amvricana of Baird — called Raitle-Wimjs by the boat-shooters in England — is nineteen inches long; builds in hollow trees near the water, twelve to twenty feet from the ground. Soon after the young are hatched, the female carries them one by one under her bill, pressed to her neck, to the water. This species belongs to both Europe and America. Barrow's Golden-Eye, Biicej^hala Islandka, is found in Iceland and on the St. Law- rence. The Harlequin Duck, F. hisfrionica, is a very beautiful but small species, fourteen inches long; fond of the eddying waters of cascades; common in North America; rare in Europe. The Pied Duck, F. Lahmdora, eighteen inches long, is common on the northeast coast of North America. It is the Camptolmmts Labradorius of Gray ; called Skunk-Head and Sand- Shoal Duck on the coast of New Jersey. The Buffle-Head, F. albeola, is thirteen inches long ; builds in hollows of trees; comm THE LOXG-TAILED DUCK. ion in tl le United States; accidental in Europe. VEKTEBllATA. This is the Spirit-Duck of Nuttall ; and is so called by the Indians, on account of its ex- pcrtness in diving; for the same reason the whites call it Little Dip2)cr. It is also named But- ter-Box and Butter-Ball. The Ruddy Duck, F. ruhida, >■ M- THE HARLEliUIN DUCK. (See p. 325. is fifteen inches long ; abund- ant througliout the interior of North America; more rare on the coast ; is known by the names of Salt-water Teal^ Dun- Bird, Dun-Diver, and Looby. In addition to these, the Smith- sonian Catalogue has the fol- lowing : Little Black-Head, F. affinis ; Ring-Neck Duck, F. coUaris ; Black-masked Duck, Frismatura Dominica, &c. ; all known in American waters. Genus MERGUS : Mergus. — This includes the Mergansers, which are noted for a thin, roundish bill, with a hooked nail at the point. They inhabit cold, northern regions ; arc very act- ive on the water, swimming and diving with the utmost facility, and fecdinof voraciously on fishes and aquatic insects. The nest is composed of roots, grass, ;^:T-^ THE SCLAVONIAN GREBE. America. It is the Buff-breasted Sheldrake of De Kay, and is sometimes called Saw-Bill and Dun-Diver on our coast. ^^g THE COLYMBIDiE. This family comprises the Grebes and Divers. Genus PODICEPS: Podi- ceps. — This includes the Grebes, lively and active swimmers which haunt the sea as well as fresh waters, and are very expert div- ers, whence they are popularly called Dippers in this country. They feed on fishes, frogs, Crus- tacea, and insects. There are several species very widely dis- tributed. The Great Crested Grebe, P. cristatus, twenty-one inches long, is found in Europe and North America : in this country it is usually met with in secluded ponds and lakes in the interior. ^? The Red-necked Grebe, P. i^ rubricollis, is sixteen and a half :^2 inches long; found in Europe '0r and North America ; a rare spe- cies, however. The SCLAVONIAN or ITORNED Grebe, P. cornutus, is fourteen inches long ; common to both Europe and America. In this country it is known by the vari- ous expressive titles of Dipper, Water- Witch, and Hell-Diver. The Eared Grebe, P. auritus, is twelve inches long, and is found in Europe and parts of North America. The Little Grebe, Dobchick,, or Dabciiick, P. minor, is nine and a half inches long ; common in Europe. The Pied Dabchick or Dip- per, P. Carolincnsis, is thirteen' and a half inches long, and is peculiar to North America. Genus COLYMBUS : Colym- bus. — This includes several re- markable species, called Divers,, 328 VERTEJ5K ATA. livintr ohii-dy ut sea, aii-l .liviuL; with irrcat cast-, and remaining for a longtime under water. During the breeding season they frequent ishmds and interior lakes and pools of fresh water, where they make their nests among reeds and flags some thirty or forty yards from the water's edge. The eggs arc- two to three. Their wings arc short, but their flight is strong and rapid. They prefer, liow- cver, to dive rather than take wing. Their legs are placed so far behind that they cannot walk upon them ; still they shove themselves along on the ground by jerks, rubbing the breast on the ground. They make a reg- ular path from the water to their nests. The Great Northern Diver or Loon, C. f/lacialis, thirty-two inches long ; ranges from 28^^ to V0° north latitude, and is com- mon to both Europe and Am- erica. (See p. 303.) The Black-throated Diver, C. arcticus, is twenty-nine inches long; found in Europe and Am- erica. The Red-throated Diver, C. sf/?/e?i?r/o?2«7/s, twenty-four inches long, is common in Europe and America. This is called Scape- Orace on our coast. Genus URIA: ?7r/a.— This includes the Guillemots, resem- bling the divers : they are oce- anic birds, and swnm and dive well, and thus are able to secure the small fishes and Crustacea on which they feed. The Common Guillemot, U. iroUc — the Willock or Tlnker- shcre of Eno-land — is ei^'hteen inches long; lays a single egg, those of different birds differing in color; found in the northern regions of Europe and America. Accordins: to Yarrell this is the Foolish Guillemot of Pennant and others, so called because it allows itself to be taken by the THE RED-THROATED DIVEE. THE BLACK GUILLEMOT. Iiand in the breeding season; it is the Murre of De Kay and Nuttall. CLASS TT. AVES ORDER 8. NATATORES. 320 r 'Mr ^% -^^« ^^-^-^^mrn^-. GEEBEs. (See p. S2T.J The Black Guillemot, f/". [irylle, is thirteen inches long ; found in the arctic regions of En- rope and America; is occasionally met Avith on our coast. The Thick-billed or Brunnich's Guillemot, U. Brunnichii, eighteen inches long ; found in northern regions of Europe and America. This is according to Yarrell; the Smithsonian Cata- logue makes two distinct species, the Thirk-hllled and BrunnicWs, and calls the latter the Murre. The Ringed or Bridled Guillemot, U. lacrymans^ is eighteen inches long; found in Europe. THE ALCAD^. These consist of the Auks and Puffins of the Arctic Seas, and the Penguins of the Antarctic Seas : they have the feet placed very far back, close to the hinder extremity of the body, which adapts them admirably for swimming. They do not support themselves when on laud merely upon the toes, as is the case with most other birds, but npon the whole lower surface of the tarsus, which is usually furnished with a sort of sole to adapt it for this purpose. The wings are very small, sometimes, as in the Penguins and the Great Auk, rudimentaiy, and covered only with a scaly skin; in other cases they are covered with feathers and furnished with quills, so that the birds are capable of rising into the air, although their flight is by no means powerful. The beak is com- pressed and short, sometimes hooked at the tip, and the plumage is exceedingly thick and close. Genus FRATERCULA : Fratcrcula. — This includes the Arctic Puffin, i^^. a;-c^eca — Moine and Perroqaet du Xord of the French — twelve inches long; it flies with facility, is migratory, feeds on young fish, marine Crustacea, and insects ; lays one egg in a crevice in the rocks, or in a burrow three feet deep, which it digs in the earth ; found along the rocky coasts -of Europe and America. This is the Sea-Parrot and Coulter-Neb of English authors, and the Mormon arcticus of Tlliger. Other species are the Common Puffin, Mormon (jlaeialis of Leach ; the Horned Puffin, M. corniculatus of Naumann, and the Tufted Puffin, M. cirrhatus of P>onapartc. Genus ALCA : Alca. — This includes the Great Auk, A. impennis, thirty-two inclies long; it feeds on fish ; builds in the crevices of rocks ; lays one egg the size of a swan's. The wings are little more than fins, and do not enable the bird to fly, but they are very eflicient as oars in swimming. It is found along the shores of the Arctic Seas ; occasionally on the coasts of England. Vol. IL— 42. 330 VKUTKlillATA. Tho Common Aik or llAzou-r.ii.L— llie Murre of the English Cyclopedia of Natural History — A. tarda, \ii fifteen inches long; lays one egg the size of that of a turkey. Its wings arc tolerably well developed, and are uscl for llight, as well as for pro- gression when the hird is under water. It swarms in the high regions of the At- lantic and I'acific, and is common along the rocky coasts of Great Britain. Hay says: "It lays, sits, and brings up its young on the ledges of the craggy cliffs and steep rocks by the sea-shores, that arc broken and divided into many, as it were, stairs or shelves, together with the coulter-nebs and guillemots. The Manks - men are wont to compare these rocks, with the birds sitting upon them in breed- ing time, to an apothecary's shop — the ledu'cs of the rocks rcsemblingthe shelves, and the birds the pots. About the Isle of Man are very high cliffs broken in this manner into many ledges, one above an- other, from top to bottom. They are wont to let down men by ropes from the tops of the cliffs to take away the eggs and young ones. They take also the birds themselves when they are sitting upon their eggs, with snares fastened to the ends of long poles, and put about the necks of the birds. They build no nests, but lay their eggs upon the bare rocks." The gathering of the eggs of sea-fowl, as well as the birds themselves for their feathers, along the steepling rocks of the Hebrides, the Shctlands, and the Orkneys, and other places around the British Islands, in which the adventurous fowlers are swung over the cliffs, five hundred or a thou- sand feet above the waves, has often been described as one of the most perilous of human pursuits. Nuttall, speaking of the multitudes of auks on the Isle of Wight, says: "The eggs being es- teemed a delicacy, particularly for salads, the fishermen and other indigent and adventurous inhabitants traverse the precipices in search of them. Some of these stupendous cliffs are six hundred feet above the yawning deep which lashes and frets them into gloomy caverns. Seaward they present rugged and deeply indented cliffs, on whose rude shelvings and ledges the birds ar- range themselves by thousands, and Avitliout further preparation lay their eggs, which lie as it were strewed without precaution by liundrcds in a row, no way attached or defended by the rocks, so that in a gale of wind wliolc ranks of them are swept into the sea. To these otherwise inaccessible deposits, the dauntless fowlers ascend, and passing intrepidly from rock to rock, col- lect the eggs, and descend with the same indifference. In most places, however, the attempt is made from above. The adventurer is let down from the slope contiguous to the brink of the cliff by a rope, sustained by a single assistant, who, lowering his companion, depends on his per- sonal strength alone to support him, which, if failing, the fowler is dashed to pieces, or drowned in the sea which roars and heaves below." A similar scene near the coast of Dover is tbus graphically described by Shakspeare : THE ARCTIC PLFKIX. -How fearful And dizzy 'tis to cast one's ejes so low ! The crows and choughs that wing the midway air Show scarce so gross as beetles ! Half way down Hangs one that gathers samphire, dreadful trade ! Methinks he seems no bigger than his head ; The fishermen that walk upon the beach Appear like mice; and yon tall anchoring bark Diminished to her cock ; her cock a buoy Almost too small for sight. The murmuring surge, That on tlie unnumber'd idle pebbles chafes, Cannot be heard so high. I'll look no more, Lest my brain turn, and the deficient sight Topple down headlong." The Little Auk, A. alle of Linna3us, Merguhis melanoleucos of Hay, is ten inches long, and in- G R i: A T AUK, R A Z 0 U - B I L L S , A X D PUFFINS. CLASS IL AYES: ORDER 8. NATATORES, 331 liabits the northern seas. It has the various popuhir names ot' Dove Kic, Sca-Uorc, Sea-Pigeon, Greenland Dove, Pigeon-Diver, and Ice-Bird. The Perroquet Auk, A. j^siitacula, is eleven inclies loDg, and abounds along the ooast of Kamtschatka. It is said that they are so little suspicious, that the natives place a dress with large sleeves near their holes, into which the birds run, mistaking them for their burrows, and are thus entrapped. This and the preceding fly, dive, and swim with facility. The Penguins — Manchots of the French — resemble the auks, but the feathers of their wings are rudimentary, and covered with skin, so that they are like fins. These are very useful in swim- ming, but do not enable the birds to fly. There are several species, abounding in the Antarctic Seas, where they pass the greater poi'tion of their time in the water, and appear rarely to stay any time on land, except during the breeding season. In the water they are exceedingly active, swimming and diving with the greatest fecility, and making use of their little naked wings as fins, when engaged in the latter operation. When in motion on land, however, they employ these in place of an anterior pair of legs ; and by their assistance contrive to scuttle along so rapidly that when they are in motion among the tussocks of grass, they might readily be mistaken for quad- rupeds. They do not appear to have very acute sensations; Sparman tells us that he stumbled over a sleeping one and kicked it several yards without disturbing its rest. Forster says that he left several of them apparently lifeless while he went in pursuit of others, but they afterward got up and marched off with their usual gravity. They hatch their eggs by holding them between their thighs, and when threatened with danger, move away, still retaining them in this position. During the period of incubation the male fishes for the female, and after the young are hatched both parents are engaged for a time in procuring their food. Genus E^UDYPTES : Eudypte.s. — This includes the Crested Penguin, E. chnjsocome — the Manchot Sauteur oi^nfion — size of a duck; it has a tuft of sulphur-colored feathers on the sides of its head. It leaps four or five feet out of water and then falls upon its prey. This is the Gorfou Sauteur of Le Maout; found in the Antarctic Seas. Genus APTENODYTES : Aptenodytcs, includes the Jackass Penguin, A. demersa, ,, . ,,^ of which Mr. Darwin gives the following '/ '•■;i5l;lM pleasant account, the scene of the adventure ' ''■'"' ' beingtheFalklandlslands, where these birds abound: "One day, having placed myself between one of these penguins and the water, I was much amused by watching its habits. It was a brave bird, and, till reach- ing the sea, it regularly fought and drove me backward. Nothing less than heavy blows would have stopped liim ; every incli ^^^^^4 gained he firmly kept, standing close before me, erect and determined. When thus op- posed, he continually rolled his head from side to side, in a very odd manner, as if the power of vision only lay in the anterior and basal part of each eye. This bird is com- monly called the Jackass Penguin, from its babity while on shore, of throwing its head backward, and making a loud, strange noise, very like the braying of that animal ; but while at sea and undisturbed, its note is very deep and solemn, and is often heard in the night-time. In diving, its little plumeless wings arc used as fins ; but on the land as front-legs. When crawling — it may be said on four legs — through the tus- THE JACKASS PENGUIN. 332 VERTEBRATA. siH-ks, or on I'.n- >iIiinu", it comes to the surface, for the purpose of lireathiiiir, with such a spring, and dives again so instantaneously, tliat 1 defy any one at first BJglit t«) l>e sun- tliat it is not a fish leai)ing for sport." The following interesting aeconnt, pi'oliaMy referring to this species, is furnished hy Captain Fit/rov. He is speaking of Noir Island: "Multitudes of Penguins were swarming together in some parts of the island, among the hushes and tussocks near the shore, having gone there for the purpose of moulting and rearing their young. Tliey were veiy valiant in self-defense, anil ran open-mouthed, hy dozens, at any one who invaded their territory, little knowing how soon a stick would scatter them on the ground. The yourg were good eating, but the others proved to be black and tough when eo(d\.' his ln-ail, rather low ; ami mlds that they arc also seen flying in large flocks like tliose l.inls. llasseUjiiist saw it at Duniietta in Egypt. He also adds, in his chapter on the arrival there of migrating birds, that it comes to Egypt in tlio middle of September. " In Hying," savs lie, "they form an acute angle, like the common wild geese when they migrate. In the snnnner tliev iidiabit the l>lack Sea ami coasts of Greece ; and in their migration remain for a few davs near Smvriia and other parts of the coasts of Natolia, bat never stray far from the con- tinent ; t!uv tlv V. r\ hiijh. Some of them remain at Damietta, and in the islands of the Delta in the MediterraJiean, bnt the greater part go to Egypt." They appear in some of tlie Egyptian drawings on the ancii-nt monuments. The Amkiucax I'klican, P. cri/l/irorfi>/nchus, held by many to be identical witli the preced- ing, and greatly resembling it, is fonnd in various parts of America, in Florida, Louisiana, Missis- sippi, Missouri. I'tah, California, the West Indies, the isthmus of I'anania, «fcc. In the Fur Coun- tries it is met with up to latitude 01° north, but is seldom found within two hundred miles of the .sea-co.ist. They deposit their eggs usually on small rocky islands in lakes and rivers, or on the banks of cascades wliere they can scarcely be approached, but still are by no means shy. They live to- gether generally in Hocks of from six to fourteen, and fly low and heavily, sometimes abreast, at others in an oblique line ; and they are often seen to pass close over a building, or within a few yards of a party of men, without exhibiting any signs of fear. For the purpose of surprising their prey, they haunt eddies near water-falls, and devour great quantities of carp and other fish. They can oidy swallow, apparently, ■when opening the moutli sideways and somewhat upward like the shark. AVhen surfeited with food, they doze on the water, or on some sand-shoal projecting into or surrounded by it, wdiere they remain a great part of their time in gluttonous inactivity digest- ing their overgorging meal. At such times they may be easily captured, as they have then great difficulty in starting into flight, particularly if the pouch is loaded with fish. They sometimes, though rarely, perch on trees. The Brown Pelican, P./usais, is smaller than the preceding, being about four feet long, and confined exclusively to the Avarmer parts of the coast of America, being common in the Southern States, Mexico, and the "West Indies, and the northern parts of the continent of South America. Its habits are similar to tliose of the preceding. There are some other species, all resembling those we have described, in their habits. CORMORANTS, GANNETS, FRIGATE BIRDS, TROPIC BIRDS, ETC. The Cormorants are large, greedy, and powerful water birds, widely distributed over the globe. They are usually found at sea, yet frequently in the neighborhood of fresh waters, and feed upon mollusca and fishes, especially eels, which they pursue under water with the greatest activity. They fly well, and often perch and make their nests on trees ; but the nest is also frequently con- structed on the ground or in the holes of rocks, according to the situations inhabited by the birds. When fishing, they often rise to the surface with the fish across the bill, throw it up into the air, and catch it again with the head foremost, so as to swallow it with greater facility. According to Mr. "Waterton, the struggle between a cormorant and a large eel often lasts a considerable time before the bird can dispose comfortably of its prey. After the eel has been got down for the first time, it frequently struggles violently to release itself from its disagreeable quarters, and continues to wriggle up backward until a considerable portion of its tail is visible at the cormorant's mouth ; and this process may be repeated two or three times before the victim becomes so exhausted as to submit quietly to its fate. In some cases, however, it appears that when the cormorant finds his prey is so large as to threaten to be troubicsome, he takes the precaution to disable it, by tak- ing it to the shore and beating it about with his bill. Gouts rilALACROCORAX: Phalacrocorax. — To this belongs the Common or Black Cormo- rant, P. carbo — Graculus carho of Gray — size of a goose ; three feet long. The nests arc made of sticks, sea-weed, grass, and other coarse materials, sometimes on the banks of rivers, and sometimes on trees. It is common on the shores of Greenland, where the natives make use of its tough skin for garments, and of its pouch as floats for their fishing tackle. It is also found along the coasts of Europe, Asia, and those of America from Baffin's Bay to the Carolinas. It is a most dextrous CLASS II. AYES: ORDER 8. XATATORES. 33( lUB bLACK CORMOKAXT. and voracious fislier. In some countries, as in China, and formerly in England, the skill of the cormorant in fishing was turned to profit; for by buckling a ring about the lower part of the neck, to prevent deglutition, and accustoming it to return with its acquisitions in the bill to its master, it was made a useful and domestic fisher. On the rivers of China, cormorants, though of a different but very similar species, P. Sinenis, thus arranged, are perched on the prows of boats, and at a signal made by striking the water with an oar, they instantly plunge, and soon emerge with a fish, which is taken from them ; and this toil continued till its master is satisfied, he looses the collar, and finishes the day by allowing it to fish for itself. But it is only hunger which gives activity to the cormorant ; when glutted with its meal, which is soon acquired, it relaxes into its native indolence, and dozes away the greatest part of its time in gluttonous inebriety, perched in solitude on naked and insulated or inaccessible rocks, to which it prudently retires for greater safety from the intrusion of enemies. Another common species is the Shag or Green Cormorant, F. graculus ; it is twenty-seven inches long ; chiefly frequents the sea, and has been caught in a crab-pot one hundred and twenty feet below the surface of the water. Its habits and distribution are similar to those of the Black Cormorant. The following species are noted in the Catalogue of the Smithsonian Institution : Pallas's Cormorant, Graculus perspicillatus : Double-crested Cormorant, G. dilophus : Florida Cor- morant, G. Floridanus : Mexican Cormorant, G, Mexicanus : Brandt's Cormorant, G. pen- icillatus; Violet-Green Cormorant, G. violaceus : the Tufted Cormorant, G. Cincinnatus ; all found on some parts of the coasts of North America. Gemis SULA: Sula. — This includes the Gaimeis, which resemble the cormorants in their form and their voracity. The Common Gannet, S. alba — called the Channel-Goose and also Soland or Solan-Goose, a corruption of Solent — the name of the narrow sea between the Isle of "Wight and the main-land of England, where this species is common — rarely swims much, and is quite in- capable of diving. These birds take the fishes of which their prey consists, by flying over the sur- VoL. II.— 43. 338 VERTEBRATA, THE SOLAND GOOSE. face of the sea, and plunging suddenly down upon any that come -within sight. They are constant attendants upon the shoals of herrings and pilchards, and, by their movements, often give the fisher- men notice of the approach of these fishes, and of the direction in which they are proceeding. They form a nest with grass and sea-weeds upon the rocks, and lay a single egg. The young birds are taken in considerable numbers in England and Scotland, and sold for food. The average num- ber taken annually from the Bass Rock — at the mouth of the Frith of Forth, in the northeast of Scotland — is from fifteen to sixteen hundred, and these are sold at from eighteen to forty cents each. The general color is white; the young birds are covered with a beautiful white down, which is said to be quite equal to swans' down for the manufacture of tippets, etc. The adult Gannets attain a length of more than three feet, but they are not used for food, and their capture is under- taken solely for the sake of the feathers. They are frequently caught by laying a herring upon a board, and dragging this along behind a boat ; the Gannets, seeing the fish, plunge down upon it, and either break their necks by the shock, or strike their bills fairly through the board. This species is also found on the Atlantic coast of North America. It is sometimes called the Boohy, from the ease with which it maj' be approached, and even captured, when sitting. The French call it Fou and Boubie. Another species called the Booby Gannet, S. fiber, is found in the South Atlantic and along the Gulf coast of the United States. Gemis TACIIYPETES : Tachi/jictes. — Among the most remarkable birds of this family is the Frigate-Bird, Man-of- War-Bird, or Frigate-Pelican, T. aqitilus, noted for its extraordinary , powers of flight. The tail is long and forked ; the feet small, the webs deeply notched ; the whole i length three feet; the eggs one or two. The wings are narrow and of immense length, having an expanse of from ten to twelve feet. These birds not only shoot through the air with great i velocity, but fly to an immense distance from the land. They are very abundant on the coasts of tropical America, where they may be seen sailing along at a considerable height above the surface of the waves, and occasionally darting down with the rapidity of lightning upon any fish that CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 8. NATATORES. 339 comes in sight ; it also attacks the boobies and other marine birds with such violence that they are c;lad to yield their prey to their active assailant, and make their escape. THE MAN-OF-WAR BIRD. " The Frigate-Pelicans," says Nuttall, " associate in small or large flocks ; keep much on the wing, encountering stonns with impunity, and soaring at times above the clouds. They fly with great rapidity, and are seen far out at sea, though never resting on the surface, as they appear unable either to dive or swim. On land they are seen perched on trees, or on high rocks ; and when on the ground appear unable to rise, and are easily caught. They pursue the flymg-fish, and seize it as it rises from the waves to escape from its pursuers in the deep. Tyrants of the ocean, they even seize upon the Pelican, and habitually harass the Gulls and Boobies, compelling them often to drop their finny prey, or even to disgorge that which they have swallowed, and are so eager and alert in the pursuit, as to seize the fish before it arrives at the waves. Their sight, like that of the Eagle, is keen and accurate, and they are often seen to pounce upon their quarry from the sky with an unerring aim. They sometimes skim the surface of the waves, or lie suspended with their wings still elevated above the back. " The Frigate Pelican, or Man-of-War Bird, is chiefly seen on the tropical seas, and generally on the wing. They are abundant in the Island of Ascension, India, Ceylon and China. In the South Sea they are seen about the Marquesas, Easter Isles and New Caledonia, also at Otaheite. Darapier saw them in great plenty in the island of Aves in the West Indies, and they are com- mon off the coast of East Florida, particularly around the reefs or keys, often assembled in flocks of from fifty to a thousand. They are also not uncommon, during summer, along the coasts of the Union as far as South Carolina, and breed in various places, retiring to warmer latitudes on the approach of cool weather. "The Frigate-Bird is often seen smoothly gliding through the air, with the motions of a kite, from one to two hundred leagues from the land, sustaining these vast flights with the greatest apparent ease, sometimes soaring so high as to be scarcely visible. " They breed abundantly in the Bahamas, and are said to make their nests on trees, if near ; at other times thev lav on the rocks ; the eggs, one or two, are of a flesh color, marked with uo VERTEBRATA. crimson spots. Tlu- }'>uni( Mnls, covered with !i grayish-white down, are assiduously attended l>V the parents, wlio are thi-n tame, and easily approached. When alarmed, like Gulls, they iis reinlily cast up the contents of their pouch, as those birds do of the stomach." 6'fHua I'LOTUS : Plolas. — This includes the Z>arS. Wilsoni ; from Texas to Labrador : Forster's Tern, S. Forsteri ; from Louisiana to Labrador: and the Slender-Billed Tern, S. Fikci ; coast of California. This list by no means includes all the American species of this extensive race of birds. TUE GUEATEU SHEAEWATEB. Genus PUFFINUS : Pxiffinus. — This includes several species popularly called Shearwaters. These birds have forked tails, long wings, and immense powers of flight. They skim along the surface of the ocean, frequently dipping the elongated lower mandible in the water, thus scooping up the small fishes and Crustacea on which they feed. They also insert their beaks into the bivalve mollusca, which chance to be open, and then beat them on the sands or rocks till they are killed, and are thus devoured at leisure. They lay their eggs in hollows in the sand, and when the young are hatched attend to them with great devotion. The Greater Shearwater, P. major, is eighteen inches long; color blackish-brown above; beneath grayish-brown. Yarrell regards it as the Wandering Shearwater of Audubon and Nuttall. It is found, though rarely, in Europe ; breeds abundantly on the coast of Newfoundland. The 344 VEKTEiniATA. Masks SnKAiiwATEu, /'. An;/lnrum,k fourteen inches long; found in the Atlantic, on the coasts of Europe and North Amn, in the i)]oiititude of their vanity, have pronounced it to be 'a laine and defective weapon.' Such ignorant presumption, or rather impiety, ought to hide its head in the dust, on a calm display of the peculiar construction of this singular bird, and the wisdom bv which it is so admirably adapted to the purposes or mode of existence for which it was intentled. The Shearwater is formed for skimming, while on the wing, the surface of the sea for its food, whicli consists of small fish, shrimps, young fry, ifcc, whose usual haunts are near the shore and toward the surfjice. That the lower mandible, when dipped into and cleaving the water, mitrht not retard the bird's way, it is thinned and sharpened like the blade of a knife ; the upper mandible, being at such times elevated above water, is curtailed in its length, as being less nccessarv, but tapering gradually to a point, that, on shutting, it may offer less opposition. To prevent inconvenience from the rushing of the Avater, the mouth is confined to the mere opening of the gullet, which, indeed, prevents mastication taking place ; but the stomach, or gizzard, to which this business is solely allotted, is of uncommon hardness, strength, and muscularity, far sur- passing, in these respects, any other water-bird with which I am acquainted. To all these is added a vast expansion of wing, to enable the bird to sail with sufficient celerity, while dipping in the water. The general proportion of the length of our swiftest hawks and swallows to their breadth, is as one to two ; but in the present case, as there is not only the resistance of the air, but also that of the water, to overcome, a still greater volume of wing is given, the Shearwater measuring nineteen inches in length, and upward of forty-four in extent. In short, whoever has attentively examined this curious apparatus, and observed the possessor, with his ample wings, long, bending neck, and lower mandible, occasionally dipped into and plowing the surface, and the facility with which he procures his food, cannot but consider it a mere playful amusement, when compared with the dashing immersions of the tern, the gull, or the fish-hawk, who, to the su- perficial observer, appear so superiorly accommodated. " The Shearwater is most frequently seen skimming close along shore about the first of the flood, at which time the young frv, shrimp, ar may be heard at the distance of two or three miles. "It is an interesting spectacle to beliold this species when about recommencing their migra- tions. If the weather be calm, they will rise up in the air, spirally, chattering all the while to each otlier in the most spriglitly manner, their notes at such times resembling the singing of a hen, but far louder, changing often into a hau', ha, ha, ha, haw/ the last syllable lengthened out like the excessive laugh of a negro. \Vhen mounting and mingling together, like motes in the sunbeams, their black heads and wing-tips, and snow-white plumage, give them a very beautiful appearance. After gaining an immense height, they all move off, with one consent, in a direct line toward the point of their destination. "This bird breeds in the marshes. The eggs arc three in number, of a dun clay color, thinly marked with small, irregular touches of a pale purple, and pale brown ; some are of a deeper dun, with larger marks, and less tapering than others ; the egg measures two inches and a quarter by one inch and a half." Other species are as follows: Sabine's Gull, L. Sablni: Bonaparte's Gull, L. Bonapartii: the Maskkd Gull, L. cajns- tratus: the American Gull, L. zonorrhynchus and canus: the Kittiwake Gull, L. tri- dactylus : the Ivory Gull, L. eburneus : the Iceland Gull, L. Islandicus: the Herring Gull, L.argentatus : the Cuneate-tailed Gull, L. Hossii ; and the Glaucous GuLh, L.fflaucus : all found in Europe and North America. The LesserBlack-backed Gull, L.fuscus, and the Lit- tle Gull, L. minutus, belong to Europe. Besides the preceding, the Smithsonian Catalogue has the following: the Glaucous-winged Gull, L. glaucescens: the White-winged Gull, L. Iciicopterus : the Gray-winged Gull, L. chalcopterus : the Western Gull, L. occidentalis : the California Gull, L. Californicus : the Ring-billed Gull, L. Dela- ware nsis : and Suckley's Gull, L. SiicMcyi: all found in American waters. Genus LESTRIS : Lestris. — This includes several species of gulls, to which the name of Squu is given. The Common Skua, L, cataractcs, is twenty-four inches long; dark brown above; clove-brown beneath. It is an active, vigorous, and daring bird, and is constantly occupied in harassing the true gulls, which are of a more listless and timid nature. When it sees one of them has captured a fish, it makes a fierce attack, and obliges it, through fear, to disgorge its prey, upon which the skua darts upon it and seizes it before it roaches the water. This bird does not asso- ciate in groups, but lives in pairs; it breeds on the rocks, and lays three eggs. It is found through- out the seas of Northern Europe. Other species are the Pomerine Skua, L. pomar'mus : Richardson's Skua, L. Richardsonii : Buffon's Skua, L. Buffonii : all found in Europe and America. The following allied species are given in the Smithsonian Catalogue : the White-headed Gull, THE MASKED GULL. A I. B A T R O S P F. S . CLASS II. AVES: ORDER S. NATATORES. 347 THE COMMON SKUA. Blasipus Heermanni : Franklin's Rosy Gull, Chroicocephalus FranMlmi : the Hooded Gull, C. cucullatus : the North Pacific Kittiwake, Ulssa septentrional is : the Short-billed Kittiwake, R. hrevirostris : the Yellow-billed Gull, R. nivea. : the Short-legged Gull, PagophUa hrachy- tarsi : and the Swallow-tailed Gull, Creagrus furcatus : all found in American waters. There are still many other species. THE PETRELS. This family includes the Albatrosses, Fulmars, and True Petrels, all of which resemble the Gulls, but spend their lives in skimming over the waves, seeming to take delight in rough weather, whence sailors often regard their presence as the harbinger of storms. Genus DIOMEDEA: Diomedea, includes several species. The Common or Wandering Al- batross, D. cxulans, is among the largest of sea-birds, being three feet long, and having twelve to sixteen feet expanse of wing. The plumage is white, except that the head is gray, and there are several transverse black bands on the back. It feeds on fish and other animal substances. So voracious is it, that it is often taken by a baited hook, thrown out from a ship. Its weight is twenty-five to thirty pounds, yet it sustains itself in the air for many hours together. AVhen the flying-fish are driven to take wing by the pursuit of the dolphins, many of them are instantly pur- sued and seized by this swift and greedy bird. So watchful is it for food, that when once a sailor fell overboard near the island of St. Paul's, in the Indian Ocean, several albatrosses immediately attacked him. His hat was found pierced by their bills, and it was supposed that they entered his skull and killed him. This species is very widely distributed, being found in the seas of Southern Africa, Behring's Straits, and other places. It is often met with far out at sea, and the sailors have many superstitions concerning it. The poet has said : ' How oft, thou wanderer of the stormy deep, Is the poor sea-boy wakened from bis dream Of home and home's delights, when, half asleep, High in the shrouds, he hears thy startling scream. 348 VERTEBRATA. "Safe in the storm, unhurt by wave or wind, Or thr()un;h the fearful tempest dost thou soar, Tlie lleotest vessels Icavinj; fur behind, Unchecked umidst the elemental roar. " Alas! how sure the hand that guides thy wing, How safe the rudder, instinct, shapes thy course; Ah! how unlike things made by hands of clay — Thy piercing eyes, thy pinions' matchless force." Tlioufh the fjcncral history of this species is serious, one thing may be mentioned wliich is other- wise. Thi'ir mode of selecting their mates, and also their courtship, is described as very ludi- crous. The cou|)le approacli one another with great apparent ceremony, bringing their beaks repeatedlv together, swinging their heads, and contemplating each other with very deliberate at- tention. Sometimes this will continue for two hours together. Other species arc the Short-tailed Albatross, D. hrocUyura, found in the Northern Paci- fic, and on the western coast of North America, figured by Cassin : the Sooty Albatross, D. fuliffinosa, and the Yellow-nosed Albatross, D. chlororhyncha. THE FULMAR PETREL. The Petrels consist of several genera. The genus PROCELLARIA : Procellaria, includes the Fulmars, which are active and greedy birds, of large size, distributed throughout the northern portions of the Atlantic. They exist in almost incredible numbers on the rocky precipices of St. Kilda, where they form one of the principal means of support to the inhabitants. The col- lecting of the eggs, and the capturing of the birds in these wild and giddy heights, demand a de- gree of courage and daring perhaps beyond any other human pursuit. A person is very often swung over a precipice by a rope, and is let down two or three hundred feet, while the ocean roars and tumbles a thousand feet beneath him. The eggs and feathers of these birds are not the ouly objects of pursuit. When a Fulmar is seized, it instantly vomits a quantity of clear umber- colored oil, which, although its odor is exceedingly disagreeable, is a valuable article of commerce. Fulmer oil is, in fact, one of the most important productions of this island. Mr. J. Wilson, who visited the site of these scenes, gives the following vivid description : "While bearing toward the appointed place of rendezvous in the cutter, we enjoyed some splendid tacking off and on the CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 8. NATATORES. 349 island, beholding from various points its vast and wave-worn caverns filled witli tlie murmurinor sea — its deep, dark, rocky battlements — and, over all, tlie cloud-capped summits of the hoary Connagher, the highest mountain of St. Kilda. As we approached a stupendous precipice we could see the people perched like jackdaws along its edge, and that we might be as near as pos- sible to the scene of action, we got into the small boat, and rowed — minister and all — toward the mural shore. It was almost fearful to behold it hanging in such huge and ponderous masses overhead — ' Cliffs of darkness, caves of wonder, Echoing the Atlantic's thunder !' "We then stood still upon our oars, and the minister rose and waved his hat. Suddenly we could hear in the air above us a faint huzzaing sound, and at the same instant three or four men, from different parts of the cliff, threw themselves into the air, and darted some distance down- ward, just as spiders drop from the top of a Avail. They then swung and capered along the face of the precipice, bounding off at intervals by striking their feet against it, and springing from side to side with as much fearless ease and agility as if they were so many schoolboys exercising in a swing a few feet over a soft and balmy clover-field. Now they were, probably, not less than seven hundred feet above the sea, and the cliff was not only perpendicular in its upper portion, but as it descended it curved backward, as it were, forming a huge, rugged, hollow portion, eaten into by the angry lashing of the almost ceaseless waves. In this manner, shouting and dancing, they descended a long way tOAvard us, though still suspended at a vast height in the air, for it would probably have taken all their cordage joined together to have reached the sea. A great mass of the central portion of the precipice was smoother than the wall of a well-built house, and it was this portion especially which was not only perpendicular, but had its basement arched inward into an enormous wave-worn grotto, so that any one falling from the summit would drop at once sheer into the sea." The great dependence of the bird-catchers of St. Kilda is upon ropes of two sorts : one made of hides, the other of hair of cows' tails, all of the same thickness. The former are the most an- cient, and still continue in the greatest esteem, as being stronger and less liable to wear away or be cut by rubbing against the sharp edges of rocks. These ropes are of various lengths, from ninety to a hundred and twenty, and nearly two hundred feet in length, and about three inches in circumference. Those of hide are made of cows' and sheep's hides mixed together. The hide of the sheep, after being cut into narrow slips, is platted over with a broader slip of cow's hide. Two of these are then twisted together ; so that the rope, when untwisted, is found to consist of two parts, and each of these contains a length of sheep-skin covered with cow's hide. For the best, they will ask ifcout thirteen-pence a fathom, at which price they sell them to each other. So valuable are these ropes, that one of them forms the marriage portion of a St. Kilda girl, and, to this secluded people, to whom moneyed wealth is little known, is an article on which often life itself, and all its comforts, more or less depends, far beyond gold and jewels. In general, the daring performances of these people, however frightful to those who are unused to them, pass without accident ; there are instances, however, in which the danger is vividly pre- sented. A lady who lived about two miles from the South Stack, on the rocky coast of Rhos- colin, sent a boy in search of samphire, with a trusty servant to hold the rope at the top. AVhile the boy was dangling midway between sky and water, the servant, who was unused to his situa- tion, whether owing to a sudden dizziness from looking downward on the boy's motions, or mis- givings as to bis own powers of holding him up, felt a cold, sickly shivering creep over him, ac- companied with a certainty that he was about to faint ; the inevitable consequence of which, he had sense enough left to know, would be the certain death of the boy, and, in all probability, of himself, as in the act of fainting it was most likely he would fall forward, and follow the rope and boy down the precipice. In this dilemma, he uttered a loud, despairing scream, which was for- tunately heard by a woman working in an adjoining field, who, running up, was just in time to catch the rope as the fainting man fell senseless at her feet. We shall add a few more incidents, equally hazardous, and one fatal. Many bird-catchers go on these expeditions without any companion to hold the rope or assist them. It was on such a son- 350 VERTEBRATA. THE CAPE FULMAR. tary excursion that a man, having fastened his rope to a stake on the top, let himself down far below, and, in his ardor for collecting birds and eggs, followed the course of a ledge, beneath a mass of overhanging rock ; unfortunately, he had omitted to take the usual precaution of tying the rope round his body, but held it carelessly in his hand, when, in a luckless moment, as he was busily engaged in pillaging a nest, it slipped from his grasp, and, after swinging backward and forward three or four times, without coming within reach, at last became stationary over the ledge of the projecting rock, leaving the bird-catcher apparently without a chance of escape ; for to ascend the precipice without a rope was impossible, and none were near to hear his cries or afford him help. What was to be done ? Death stared him in the face. After a few minutes' pause he made up his mind. By a desperate leap he might regain the rope ; but if he failed, and, at the distance at which it hung, the chances were against him, his fate was certain, amid the pointed crags ready to receive him, over Avhich the waves were dashing far, far below. Col- lecting, therefore, all his strength, with outstretched arms he sprang from the rock, and lived to tell the tale — for the rope was caught ! The next occurred at St. Kilda, where, among other modes of catching the sea-fowl, that of setting gins or nooses is adopted. They are fixed in various places frequented by the birds. In one of these, set upon a ledge a hundred and twenty feet above the sea, a bird-catcher entangled his foot, and not being at the moment aware of it, was, on moving onward, tripped up, and pre- cipitated over the rock, Avliere he hung suspended, lie too, as in the preceding case, had no companion, and to add to his misfortune, darkness was at hand, leaving little prospect of his being discovered before morning. In vain he exerted himself to bend upward, so as to reach the noose or grapple the rock. After a few fruitless efforts, his strength was exhausted, and in this dreadful situation, expecting, moreover, that the noose might give way every instant, did he pass a long night. At early dawn, by good fortune, his shouts were heard by a neighbor, who rescued him from his perilous suspension. The last we shall relate terminated in a more awful manner. A fiither and two sons were out together, and, having firmly attached their rope at the summit of a precipice, descended, on their usual occupation. Having collected as many birds and eggs as they could carry, they were all three ascending by the rope — the eldest of the sons first, his brother a fathom or two below him, and the father following last. They had made considerable progress, when the elder son, looking upward, perceived the strands of the rope grinding against a sharp edge of rock, and gradually giving w^ay. He immediately reported the alarming fact. " Will it hold together till we can gain the summit ?" asked the father. " It will not hold another minute," was the reply ; " our triple weight is loosening it rapidly !" " WiU it hold one ?" said the father. " It is as much as it can do," replied the son; "even that is doubtful." "There is then a chance, at CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 8. NATATORES. 351 THE STORMY PETREL. least, of one of us being saved ; draw your knife, and cut away below !" was the cool and intrepid order of the parent; "Exert yourself; you may yet escape, and live to comfort your mother!" There was no time for discussion or further hesitation. The son looked up once more, but the edge of rock was cutting its way, and the rope had nearly severed. The knife was drawn, the rope was divided, and his father and brother were launched into eternity ! The Fulmar Petkel, P. glacialis, is nineteen inches long, pearl-grav above and white be- neath. It is seen in all parts of the North Atlantic, and is a constant attendant on the whale fisheries ; nothing cjin exceed the voracity with which these creatures devour the portion of fat which falls to their share on the cutting up of a whale. The Giant Fulmar, P, gigantea, is the largest known species, being somewhat larger than a goose, and is called the Bone-Breaker. Its plumage is blackish-gray ; it feeds on insects, mol- lusca, fish, and the flesh of dead cetacea that it meets with floating on the sea. Found from Cape Horn to the Cape of Good Hope. The Cape Petrel or Fulmar, P. Capensis, is of the size of a small duck ; its general plumage above is black, with masses of white ; beneath it is white. This bird is called Damier and Pintado by the French. It inhabits the southern seas. Other species are the Slender-billed Fulmar, P. tenuirostris, and the Tropical Fulmar, P. meridionalis, the first found on the Pacific coast, and the latter on the Atlantic coast of North America. The Pacific Fulmar, P. Pacijica, is found on the Pacific coasts of North America. Genus TIIALASSIDROMA : Thalassidroma. — This includes the True Petrels, which are much smaller than the Fulmars, some of a light swallow-like form and appearance. The Stormy- Petrel, T. pelagica, is the smallest of web-footed birds. The length is about six inches ; the plumage almost entirely black. It inhabits nearly the whole Atlantic, and is always seen by vessels crossing this ocean, sometimes following in their wake for days together, picking up pieces of meat and fat that are thrown overboard. Often half a dozen birds Avill descend on a single fragment and struggle for the possession of it. In a storm, they are seen whirling amid 352 VERTEBRATA. tlio nii,'inL,' I'last, now stoopiiitj to tlio angry waves, and now shooting upward toward the clouds, as if enjoying a frolic. At night, they usually repose hy sitting on the water. They breed on the rockv coasts, especially oftiie islanil> <>f Europe ami America; the eggs are two, of a soiled white. When engaged in incubation, tliey nmy be taken oiY tlieir nests with the hand. The .•ippcaniMcc of these birds at sea Inis been supposed to portend stormy weather, and they are tlicrcl'orc not welcome visitors to sailors, who call them DctnVti Birds, Witches, and Mother Careys Chickens. The last title is said to have been originally bestowed upon them by Captain Carteret's sailors, probably from some celebrated ideal hag of that name. I'heir habit of paddling along the surface of the water obtained for tluin the name of Petrel, fiom the Apostle IVter, who walked upon the water. (.>ther species arc the Fokk-tailed Petrel, T. Lcachii, found on our coast from Massachusetts to Baffin's Bay : "Wilson's Stormy Petrel, T. Wilsonii, found along the Atlantic coast of North America: Hornby's Petrel, T. Ho nib i/i, and the Black Stormy Petrel, T. melania, both found on the northwest coast of North America. The Black-and-White Stormy Petrel, Fregetia Latrreucii, is found on the coast of Florida. The habits of all are similar to those of the Stormy Petrel we have described. It is probably to the birds of this species — the fearless riders of the storm and the tempest — that the poet Brainard refers in the following powerful lines : the sea-bird's song. "On the deep is the mariner's danger, On the deep is the mariner's death ; Who, to fear of the tempest a stranger. Sees the last bubble burst of his breath? 'Tis the sea-bird, sea-bird, sea-bird, Lone looker on despair ; The sea-bird, sea-bird, sea-bird. The only witness there ! " Who watches their course, who so mildly Careen to the kiss of the breeze ? Who lists to their shrieks, who so wildly Are clasped in the arms of the seas? 'Tis the sea-bird, &c. " Who hovers on high o'er the lover, And her who has clung to his neck? Whose wing is the wing that can cover With its shadow the foundering wreck? 'Tis the sea-bird, <&c. " My eye in the light of the billow. My wing in the wake of the wave ; I shall take to my breast for a pillow The shroud of the fair and the brave ! I'm the sea-bird, kc. " My foot on the iceberg has lighted When hoarse the wild winds veer about ; My eye, when the bark is benighted, Sees the lamp of the light-house go out! I'm the sea-bird, sea-bird, sea-bird, Lone looker on despair; The sea-bird, sea-bird, sea-bird, The only witness there !" Fossil Birds. — In a former part of our work we have spoken of the remains of the gigantic Moa or Diornis, found in New Zealand, which, with other facts, has led to the opinion that this great island, together with Norfolk Island, Chatham Island, and others in that quarter, are but the mountain tops of a continent, now sunk beneath the ocean, but formerly peopled with birds of strange forms, of which we now only find the bones, or a few scattered and nearly extinct species. Probably there were also other animals there as peculiar as these birds. We have CLASS II. AVES: ORDER 8. NATATORES. 353 noticed the remains of the gigantic Eplornis of Madagascar, as well as those of other species of birds found on the island of Rodriguez. But all these arc supposed to be of comparatively recent origin. The bones of birds of liigh geological antiquity have not been found in great numbers, probably because they are hollow and easily destroyed, and because, also, by their means of flight, birds have generally been able to escape those great convulsions of nature, such as floods, landslides, &c., which have nigulfed tlie larger animals, wlioso bones are so alnmdant in the ancient deposits of soils and rocks. Their forms are also so light, that, aided by their feathers, they would naturally float on the surface of the waters, and thus decay and disappear. Nevertheless, in the tertiary deposits of India, Fi-ance, and England, the bones of several genera of birds have been discovered. In the basin of Paris they have been met with in connection with the bones of the Palctothereum, (tc. ; in the chalk- clilfs near Maidstone, England, the remains of a gigantic species of Albatross have been found, to which Mr. Owen has given the name of Chnollor- nis Diomcdeus. But although the bones of birds are thus deficient in the more ancient strata, their tracks have been discovered in various places in difierent countries, and under circimistances which prove that they must have been made thousands, perhaps millions of years ago. The most remark- able of these, or those which have been most thoroughly explored, are in the valley of Connecti- cut River. Professor Hitchcock, of Amherst Col- lege, Massachusetts, first drew attention to these curious relics, and he has, in various publications, given the result of his researches in this rich geo- logical field. In 1858, in obedience to a public act, he made an elal)orate report on the subject to the legislature of Massachusetts, which he entitles " Ichniology of New England." He here gives a great variety of details, and abundant plates, illus- trative of the remains of which ho treats, a copy FooT-PEiNT OF BRoxTozouM uiGA.NTEUM— THE ORIGINAL ^f ^^^^ ^^f whlch wc hcrc iuscrt. Thc gcucral re- EIGHTEEN INCHES LONG. 1^ i? j.1 1 1 i i i- 11 suit ot these researches he states as lollows : "liCt us now take a synoptical view of the species of animals that once lived in the Connecti- cut valley, as made known by their tracks. As already stated again and again in describing them, I expect that future discoveries will strike out some of these species ; but my prediction is that they will bring a still larger number of new ones to light. Number of localities of tracks in the valley thus far discovered 38 Length of the sandstone-belt containing tracks, 90 miles Width " " " " 2orS " Whole number of species in the valley described above 119 Number of bipeds 31 Number of quadrupeds 55 With more than four feet IS Without proper feet 12 With au uncertain number 3 Marsupialoid animals 5 Thick-tued birds U Narrow-toed birds 17 Oruithoid lizards or batrachiaus 10 Lizards l'' Batrachians — the frog and salamander family 11 Chelonians— the tortoise family 8 Fishes ^ Crustaceans, myriapods, and insects 18 Annelids— the naked worms 8 Of uncertain place " What an amazing revelation is this ! Animals totally unlike any that now exist in these local- ities, and whose likeness is only found in living species amid the eccentricities of Australia, once lived and flourished here ! They were not only of strange forms— strange to these regions —but some of them strano;e to the world, and in some instances of enormous size. One of the Vol. II. — 45. 1 VEUTEDKATA. birds, calK'tl lirnnfosnumpif/antciini, of tlic cissowary kind, had a foot eighteen inelies long, and must have weii^lied from four hnne things are written on tlie ancient sandstone roeks, beneath the surfoec of the soil; and st> eertain, so minute is the record, that even the rain-drops that pattered on the sands while these ereaturi's wi-re liviriL;- Iicrc. are imperish.iMy preserved. And these things were written by the tiiii^er of ^ SKELETON OP A TDRTLK. CLASS III. REPTILIA: ORDER 1. CHELONIA, 35: NiiD^, or Sea- Turtles ; the Trionycid^, or Soft Ihrtoises ; the Chelydid^, resembling the pre- ceding; the Emydid^, induding the Terrapins, and generally distributed over the globe; and the Testudinid^, or Land- Tortoises, familiar to all. THE IMBRICATED TURTLE ON LAND. THE CHELONKDJi:. These, which are the true Turtles, are pre-eminently aquatic in their habits ; the limbs are all converted into large, flattened, fin-like organs, the toes being completely concealed by a com- mon skin. The anterior pair of members is always considerably longer than the posterior, and both the anterior and posterior limbs are frequently furnished with one or two nails on the outer margin, which, however, sometimes disappear as the animal increases in age. The bony case of these animals is too small for the reception of the head and limbs, and these parts are, conse- quently, always more or less protruded. The head is flattened above, and the jaws are homy, very sharp, and beak-like. They are all inhabitants of the sea. They are excellent swimmers, and rarely approach the shore except for the purpose. of depositing their eggs, which they do upon sandy coasts. Most of them feed upon sea-weeds ; but a few also devour mollusea and other small marine animals. The flesh of the former affords a wholesome and delicious food, and they are in consequence much sought after, and imported into Europe and America in consider- able quantities, while the carnivorous species are disagreeable, and even unwholesome, or accord- ing to some writers, poisonous, and they are only collected for the sake of the abundant supply of oil which they yield. Genus CHELONIA : Chelonia. — To this belong several species, the best known of which is the Green Turtle, C. midas, found abundantly in the seas of warm climates ; it is also occasion- ally met with as far north as the coasts of Great Britain, in Europe, and of Long Island, in America. Those captured in the waters of the latter are occasionally seen in the markets of New York. In tropical regions it attains a length of five or six feet, and a weight of five to six hundred pounds ; its flesh is exceedingly delicate, and, when not rendered indigestible by the in- genuity of cooks, is a very wholesome food. The eggs of this, and indeed of all the species of turtles, are also eaten, and considered a great delicacy. At the island of Ascension, where these animals appear to abound to a greater extent than in any other ])art of the Avorld, they are generally taken by watching them when they visit the shore to deposit their eggs; they arc then turned over on their backs, and in this helpless position they remain until their captors, having secured :{58 VEUTEBKATA. i,'rj.^^>i THE IMBRICATED TURTLE OVERTURNED. !is many as they require in the same manner, carry them off to their ships. These turtles are often seen in the waters of the West India Islands, in the Gulf of Mexico, on the Atlantic coasts of America and Africix, and in various parts of the Pacific and Indian Oceans ; when not en- l^anrod in fcedinjx, tliey float on the water, sometimes many miles from land; they are then ap- parently ask't'p, and are easily approached and captured. Audubon gives the following interest- ing account of the manner in which the female deposits her eggs, which he ajjpears to have observed along the coast of Florida. '• On first nearing the shore, and mostly on fine moonlight evenings, the turtle raises her head above the water, being still distant thirty or forty yards from the beach, looks around her, and attentively examines the objects on shore. Should she observe nothing likely to disturb her intended operations, she emits a loud, hissing sound, by Avhich such of her many enemies as are unaccustomed to it are startled, and so are apt to remove to another place, although unseen by her. Should she hear any noise, or perceive any indications of danger, she instantly sinks, and goes off to a considerable distance ; but should every thing be quiet, she advances slowly toward the beach, crawls over it, her head raised to the full stretch of her neck, and when she has reached a place fitted for her purpose, she gazes all around in silence. " Finding ' all well,' she proceeds to for;n a hole in the sand, which she effects by remo\4ng it from under her body with her hind flappers, scooping it out with so much dexterity that the sides seldom if ever fall. The sand is raised alternately with each flapper, as with a large ladle, until it has accunndat.nl behind her, when, supporting herself with her head and fore part on the ground fronting her body, she, with a spring from each flapper, sends the sand around her, scat- tering it to the distance of several feet. In this manner the hole is dug to the depth of eighteen inches, or sometimes more than two feet. This labor I have seen performed in the short period of nine minutes. The eggs are then dropped one by one, and disposed in regular layers to the number of a hundred and fifty, or sometimes nearly two hundred The whole time spent in this part of the operation may be about twenty minutes. She now scrapes the loose sand back over the eggs, and so levels and smooths the surface that few persons on seeing the spot could imagine that any thing had been done to it. This accomplished to her mind, she retreats to the water with all possible dispatch, leaving the hatching of the eggs to the heat of the sand. " AA hen a Turtle, or Loggerhead, for example, is in the act of dropping her eggs, she will not move, although one should go up to her, or even seat himself on her back, for it seems at this moment she finds it necessary to proceed at all events, and is unable to intermit her labor. The moment it is finished, however, off she starts ; nor would it then be possible for one, unless he were as strong as Hercules, to tarn her over and secure her. CLASS III. REPTILIA: ORDER 1. CUELOXIA. 350 THE IMBRICATED TURTLE AT SEA. " Each turtle has generally three layings in the season, at intervals of two or three weeks. The eggs are perfectly round, varying from two to three inches in diameter. The external mem- brane is flexible, very white, and contains a considerable quantity of calcareous matter." The IIawk's-Bill Turtle, C. imhricata, receiving its popular name from the curved and pointed form of the upper jaw, rarely exceeds three feet; its flesh is unwholesome, but as it funiislies the w ell-known Tortoise- Shell of commerce, it is much sought after. Although the greater number of the whole order of Chelonia have the back and sternum cov- ered with horny plates or scales, it is almost exclusively those of the present species whicli are applicable to the purposes of art. The thirteen plates with which the whole upper part of the shell is covered, are in feet mucli thicker and stronger, as well as more beautifully cloud- ed, than those of any other species, and as they lie in what is called an inihricatrd form — that is, one over the other like the tiles of a house, so that at least one-third of each envelops the one behind it — they are much larger in comparison with the size of the individual. In tlieir preparation the scales or plates are, in the first place, separated by tlie application of heat ; they are thus sold to the manufac- turers in the rough state, in which they are uneven, fragile, opaque, and dirty, and it is the first object of the artificer to obviate these defects. The uneven surface, the irregular curvature, the unequal thickness of different parts, have all to be corrected, and not only can these objects be readily effected, but tlie sul)stance can be rendered ductile, compressible, capable of receiving any impression, of being carved, moulded, and polished, and even extended, by soldering pieces to- gether by means of their own substance reduced to powder. The whole of these processes are performed by means of heat. The uneven curvature is first of all to be removed, and the plate rendered perfectly flat. This is eff"ected bj- immersing it in hot water, and then allowing it to cool under heavy pressure be- tween smooth blocks of wood or metallic plates. The surface is then rendered smooth and the thickness equal, by scraping and filing away the rough and prominent .parts. In this w'ay, each plate receives an equal and smooth surface. But it is in many cases desirable to employ larger pieces than can be obtained from single plates, and two pieces are then united together in the foUow^ing manner: the edges are beveled off to the space of two or three lines, and the margins, when placed together, overlap each other to that extent. They are then pressed together by a metallic press, and the whole is submitted to the action of boiling Avater ; by this means, the two pieces are so perfectly soldered together as to leave no indication of the line of union. By the application of heat, also, the tortoise-shell may be made to receive any impression, by being pressed between metallic moulds. No portion of this precious substance is lost or useless. The filings and powxler which remain after these and the other processes to which the shell is submitted, are placed with any small fragments in metallic moulds, and by means of pressure, exercised while they are exposed to the heat of boiling water, are formed into plates of any thickness which may be required. This species is found in the tropical seas, and occasionally strays into the ]\Iediterranean ; it is also common in the Gulf of Mexico. Those which produce the finest shell are taken in the waters of the Indian Archipelago. The Loggerhead Turtle, C. caretta^ is tlie largest of the genus, sometimes weighing eleven •MiO VEIiTKIiUATA. TUli LEATHKUY TURTLE. hiiii.lrr.l poiiiuls, tli.'ULcli Iv.iW tliat wcijrlit is tlie more cuiiunon size. In some cases, the in- liiil.itaiits t.f tlio i-uuiitrios where thise animals arc ahmulant, convert their sliclls into boats, ilrinkin^'-tnuJiflis for cattle, coverings for Imts, :uhI Imths for cliilihvn. Tliis species is exceed- iniflv voraicioiis, anut being often met with in woods at a distance from water, tlie name given above has been be- iajP|^ stowed upon it. It is harm- less, but wlien irritated will snap at the offender. Found "''^' from Canada to Pennsylvania. Muhlenberg's Tortoise, E. MiMenhergit., is four inches long; shell dark brown, with irregular lines of dingy yellow ; it is terrestrial, preferring moist places. Found from New York to Penn- sylvania. The Geographic Tortoise, E. geo- graphica^ is ten to eleven inches long ; shell olive-brown, with paler meandering lines ; common in AVestern New York. The Pseudo-geographic Tortoise, E. 2'>seiido-geographica, same size as the preceding, and in color much resembling it, is found in the western lakes. Other species are as follows: the Yellow-bellied Terrapin, E. scrruta., twelve inches long; found from Virginia to Georgia: the Chicken-Tortoise, E. reticulata^ ten inches long; found from North Carolina to Georgia : the Florida Terrapin, ^. i^/o>v'(^a«o, fourteen inches long; ^ound in East Florida: the Mobile Terrapin, E. ifo6?7f??i>/.«?, thirteen inches long; found in Ala- bama: the Oregon Terrapin, ^. 0^•e^o?^e>^A■^>, seven inches long ; prefers running streams ; found in the Oregon River : the Hieroglyphic Tortoise, E. hieroglyphica, twelve inches long ; found in Tennessee : the Cumberland Tortoise, E. Cumberlandensis, five and a half inches long ; also found in Tennessee : the E. concinna, eight and a half inches long ; found in Georgia rivers : the E. Troostii, eight inches long ; found in the Cumberland River. It thus appears that fifteen or twenty species of tliis genus are known and described in the United States, and, according to De Kay, including nearly all the known fresh-water tortoises in America ; it is probable that farther investigation will bring others to light, and doubtless the range of many we have noticed will prove to be more extensive than we have indicated. Genus KINOSTERNON : Kinosternon. — This includes the Mud-Tortoise, K. Pcnnsylvanicum, six inches long ; shell olive-brown ; it has a strong musky odor ; in- habits ditches and mudily ponds, and will often take the hook ; preys on fishes and small aquatic insects ; extensively distributed throughout the United States. The plastron is divided into three sections, the first and the last only being mov- able. C'mMsSTERNOTIIERUS: Ster- nothcrus. — This includes the Musk- Tortoise, S.odoratus; its length is three and a half inches ; color usually obscured by mud, but when it is cleaned it appears to be THE MUD-TOKTOISE. 3G4 VERTEBIIATA. THE Ml'SK-TORTOISE. of an olivi'-Krowii or i valve, the anterior section only heing movable. THE TESTUDINIDyE OR LAND TORTOISES. Ill tlic-e tli(^ (•arai>ace is convex and solid, the ril)S being united together throughout their length; the plastron is also solid, the feet short, stout, and somewhat clubbed, the toes being almost entirely concealed under the skin, and terminated by blunt nails, of which there arc usu- ally five upon each of the anterior, and four upon each of the posterior feet. The head is rather sinall. and covered with shields ; the jaws are horny, and destitute of lips. The head, limbs, and tail can be completely retracted within the cavity of the shell, and in some cases the plas- tron is furnished with nioval)le lobes, by which the aperture can be completely closed. The surface of the carapace is covered with horny shields, which touch each other at the edges, and exhibit concentric lines of growth ; at the hinder part of the carapace, immediately over the tail, the caudal shields whicii in the preceding tamilies are usually separate, are here united into a single broad plate. The Land Tortoises are generally of small size. They are terrestrial in their general habits, although most of them can swim immersed in the water. They retire to holes which they find or dig in the earth, and remain in a torpid state through the winter, even in climates where this season is not severe. They are very slow in their movements, and live entirely upon vegetal de matter. Like the rest of the Chelonian reptiles, they are far more abund- ant in warm than in temperate climates. There is no kind of tortoise in the British Islands or in Ireland. Genus TESTUDO : Testudo. — The Common Land Tortoise of Europe, T. Grceca, is the only species found in that quarter of the world, and there it is not common, except in the southern parts. Its length is eight to eleven inches, and it seldom weighs over three pounds. It lives on roots, fruits, and insects. The flesh is extensively used in Greece. The eggs, about five in number, the size of those of a pigeon, are laid in June. The upper shell is composed of thirty- six parts or plates ; it is convex, and so strong that a cart may pass over it without injuring it. This species is very tenacious of life ; one kept in the garden of Lambeth Palace, near London, lived to the age of one hundred and twenty years, and other cases are recorded of still greater longevity. In winter, even in Avarm climates, it retires to some hole or cavern, where it remains till spring, imbedded in grass, leaves, or moss. It is common around the Mediterranean, as well in Africa as Asia. Forbes, in his Travels in Asia Minor, says : " Among Lycian reptiles, the tortoise is the most conspicuous and abundant. The number of these animals straying about the plains, and browsing on the fresh herbage in spring, astonishes the traveler. In April they commence love-making. Before we were aware of the cause, we were often surprised, when wandering among ruins and waste places, at hearing a noise as if some invisible geologist was busily occupied close by, trimming his specimens. A search in the direction of the noise dis- covered the hammer in the shape of a gentleman tortoise, who, not being gifted with vocal pow- ers, endeavored to express the warmth of his affection to his lady-love by rattling his shell against I her side. The ardor of the tortoise is celebrated by ^Elian. In ditches and stagnant waters the CLASS III. REPTILIA: ORDER 1. CHELONIA. 365 Fresh-Water Tortoise, Emys Caspica, is equally i)lentit'ul. In fine Aveather long rows of them may be seen sunning themselves on the banks ; whence, on being alarmed, they would waddle and plunge with great rapidity into the water, apparently always following a leader, who made the first plunge from one end of the row." The IxDiAN Tortoise, T. Indica, often grows to the length of three feet. It is found extens- ively in the warm parts of Asia and the Asiatic Islands. A specimen in the London Zoological Gardens measured four feet four inches. This had lived seventy-seven years in a garden at Port Louis, in the island of Mauritius. The Testudo jihriiceps, very similar to the preceding, is abundant in the Galapagos Islands. Mr. Darwin says it "is very fond of water, drinking large quantities, and wallowing in the mud. The larger islands alone possess springs, and these are always situated toward the central parts, and at a considerable elevation. The tortoises, therefore, Avhich frequent the lower districts, when thirsty are obliged to travel from a long distance. Hence broad and well-beaten paths radiate in every direction from the wells even down to the sea-coast, and the Spaniards, by fol- lowing them up, first discovered the watering-places. When landed at Chatham Island, I could not imagine what animal traveled so methodically along the well-chosen tracks. Xear the springs it was a curious spectacle to behold many of these great monsters — one set eagerly trav- eling onward with outstretched necks, and another set returning, after having drunk their fill. A\Tien the tortoise arrives at the spring, quite regardless of any spectator it buries its head in the water above its eyes, and greedily sw'allows great mouthfuls, at the rate of about ten in a minute. The inhabitants say each animal stays three or four days in the neighborhood of the water, and then returns to the lower country. For some time after a visit to the springs, the urinary bladder of these animals is distended witli fluid, wliicli is said gradually to decrease in volume, and to become less pure. The inhabitants, when walking in the lower district, and overcome with thirst, often take advantage of this circumstance by killing a tortoise, and if the bladder is full, drinking its contents. In one I saw killed the fluid was quite limpid, and had only a very slightly bitter taste. The inhabitants, how^ever, always drink first the water in the pericardium, which is described as being best." These tortoises are exceedingly numerous in these islands; their flesh is delicate and good. Mr. Darwin says it "is largely employed, both fresh and salted ; and a beautifully clear oil is prepared from the fat. When a tortoise is caught, the man makes a slit in the skin near its tail, so as to see inside its body, whether the fat under the dorsal plate is thick. If it is not, the animal is liberated, and it is said to recover soon from this strange operation." There are several other species of this genus in Asia, Africa, and South America. Genus CISTUDA : Cistuda. — This includes the Box-Tortoises, which are distinguished by a very curious mechanical contriv- ance. The plastron is divided cross- wise into two parts, which are united by a ligament, on which they turn as on a hinge ; they are thus able to shut in the head and the limbs. ; The Common Box-Tortoise, C. ' Carolina, popularly called Land- Turtle and Lock-Tortoise, has a shell nearly hemispherical, six inches long, dark brown, beauti- fully stellated with lines, dashes, and confluent blotches of yellow ; these figures and colors, however, are variable in form and tint. It is very timid and gentle ; feeds on fruit, insects, edible mushrooms, &c. ; common on dry land ; frequently found in moist places ; never takes to the water from choice, and would be drowned if immersed in it for a long time. It is sometimes kept in cellars, from an idea that it drives out the rats ; Dr. De Kay put one in his cellar, and found it soon after devoured by the rats. It goes into winter-quarters as early as September. Found from Canada to Florida. THE AMERICAN BOX-TORTOISE. 3C6 VKltTKJiKATA, Blanuino'8 ToKTOiSK, 0. nhntllnf/H, is larger tliaii llic preceding; the shell seven to eight inches long; ranges through the Northern and Middle States. Fossil Tortoises. — Small as the existing species of Tortoises are, it appears that in former pei'iods of 1 lie eai-th's history, at least one spe- cies of gigantic size helonging to" this family di'aggcd its ponderous bulk over the soil of India; this is the Colossochebjs Atlas, the re- mains of which were discovered in the Sewalic Hills of North India by Falconer and Cautloy. Those gentlemen think it possible that this gigantic reptile, which measured about eighteen feet in length, existed down to the human era, and that it may thus have given rise to the extraordinary tra.litions of the IIiiid.)os, which attribute the most important parts in the creation of the worLl to gigantic tortoises. BLANDING S BOX-TORTOISE. ORDER 2. LORICATA. The term Loricafa, derived from the Latin, signifies animals covered with a corselet or coat of mail, and is descriptive of the Crocodiles and their allied species. These are marked by a dermal skeleton, composed above of numerous large, square, bony plates, set in the leathery coriuin or hide ; the lower parts arc covered with wrinkled skin ; they have an elongated head ; the mouth long, and opening as though both jaws moved, which, however, is not the case ; the upper one only is movable with the entire head. The teeth, which are confined to the jaws, are very formidable. These animals are all oviparous ; the eggs, being encased with a hard covering, are laid by the females in warm, sandy places, where they are hatched by the sun, the parents , sometimes taking no further care of their progeny. They are exceedingly voracious, and abound in the fresh waters of warm climates. Some species hide their prey under water for several days, until it begins to putrefy, when they devour it. Genus CROCODILE : Crocodihcs. — Of this there are several species in Africa, Asia, and America, but none in Europe or Australia. The most celebrated is the Egyptian or Common Crocodile, C. vidr/aris, twenty to thirty feet long; the teeth are nmnerous, large, conical, and disposed in a single row on each side of the upper and lower jaws ; the body is depressed, and covered above with solid, carinated, bony shields ; the tail is long and flattened at the sides ; gape extending beyond the skull ; each fore-foot armed with five claws and the hinder ones j with four. Except the elephant, the rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus, the bulk of the croco- dile perhaps exceeds that of every terrestrial animal ; no fishes frequenting fresh water equal it, ami but a few species of those belonging to the seas. The largest are not less than thirty feet in length, and one of only half that size is five feet in circumference; the body stands low on the ground, and the animal universally presents a dull and sluggish aspect. Nevertheless, its motions in pursuit of prey are not slow ; and the difficulty which it finds in turning aff"ords the surest means of escape on land ; its agility in water is infinitelv greater. These facts are better illus- trated when the animal is roused to action. Its natural abode is in the water, for scarcely one- fourth of its existence is passed on the earth. The muddy edges and thick reeds of slow and tranquil streams are its favorite haunts ; and it sometimes descends rivers to within the flowing of the tide. On leaving them, it advances always with a slow pace, nearly in a straight line, its belly frequently dragging on the ground, and its head commonly elevated. However, it is sel- dom seen standing, and its chief enjoyment seems to be in lying in a state of absolute quiescence. When in pursuit of prey, it swims gently and silently, just on a level with the water, until it approaches the place where some terrestrial animal comes to quench its thirst. Then curving CLASS III. REPTILIA: ORDEll 2. LORICATA. 367 HEAD OF CROCODILE. its tail, it strikes the animal a violent blow, wlilcli is invariably in tbe direction of the water, and at the same time toward its own mouth. Should the animal surprised be of large size, such as an ox or a horse, the crocodile adopts anotlier maneuver, in seizing it by the nostrils, and forcibly dragging it under the water to be drowned. When a tortoise is seized, the crocodile raises its head above water, and with the inconceivable strength of its jaws, crushes the shell in pieces. Men, and particularly negroes, are said to be its favorite prey, and it is greedy after the flesh of dogs ; and hence, the negroes that hunt the crocodile are accustomed to beat the dogs on purpose that their howling may attract it from its haunts. The prey, being drowned, is conveyed to some sub-aquatic hole or receptacle, and left to putrefy before it is devoured ; but the crocodile cannot feed in the water ; it would then, as is usually credited, experience the same fate as its victim ; therefore, except small fishes, the prey is always carried to the land. Its structure, also, is such, that it must rise to the sur- face once in an hour, or an hour and a half, for breathing. Nothing that it once seizes can escape ; it never quits its hold ; even strong levers forced between the jaws for that purpose have proved ineffectual ; and, shaking its prey to pieces, it swallows it without mastication. Much 308 VERTE1311ATA _ V/ •^^ / . A'/ ^^.v^' »JN'-'-.£CVnsS.'- CROCODILE AND TIGER. has been said of the stratagems employed by the crocodile to seize its prey: that it lies like a log on the banks of rivers, or floats inactive on the surface, and then springs forward whenever tho victim comes within its reach. This may be partly true, though it appears under many ex- aggerations; for it is well authenticated that it remains motionless until considerable objects are quite close, and evidently within its reach ; then it leaps upon them. The agility of the croco- dile is not so great, even when in pursuit of prey, that a man may not escape at tolerable speed, more especially by frequent deviations from the straight path. The blow with the tail, suddenly given, is principally to be dreaded, and the irascibiUty of the animal when attacked, or the female at the head of her young. Crocodiles are oviparous, and the eggs are but small in proportion to their size, not being quite so large as those of a goose. They are, as is the case with the eggs of reptiles generally, equally thick at both ends ; they are covered with an envelope w^hich hardens in the air, but it contains very little carbonate of lime. The males are more numerous than the females, and fierce battles ensue between them in pairing time. These battles of gallantry are generally decided in the water, and they are accompanied by the most dismal bellowing that can possibly be imagined ; this noise is said to resemble both that of the bull and the bittern, but to be much louder, and more hoarse and husky than either. The female digs a cavity in the earth, in which she places her eggs in a circular form, in suc- cessive layers, and with portions of earth between, the whole being afterward covered up. The nest is generally placed in a dry hillock, and the earth is gathered up, so that on the average the eggs are about ten inches below the surface. This being done, the mother abandons them to be hatched by the heat of the sun ; yet instinct prompts her frequently to revisit the spot as the term of exclusion approaches. She then testifies uncommon agitation, roaming about the place and uttering a peculiar growling, as if to awaken her hideous offspring to animation. The pe- riod of maturity being at length attained, the nascent crocodiles answer to her solicitude by a kind of yelping like puppies. A hollow murmur in return denotes her satisfaction, and she liastens to scrape up the earth with such anxiety that several of the young are generally crushed under her unwieldy body. Having T\ithdrawn them from their nest, the mother leads them straightway to the neighbor- ing water ; but now her utmost vigilance is required for their preservation, for, unlike the instinct CLASS III. REPTILIA: ORDER 2. LORICATA. 369 with which she is animated, the male, silently approaching, will frequently devour them before slie is aware of their danger, lie perpetually seeks their destruction ; and the watch of the female over her young is protracted for three months from their first appearance. An opinion is preva- lent that the crocodile continues growing during its whole existence, that it lives to a great age, and that the utmost limits of its size are scarcely known. This species is very voracious and powerful, and has frequently made fatal attacks upon human beings. It was held sacred by the Egyptians of the Lower Nile, but was eaten by those at Ele- phantine. Thirty-six of these were introduced at the amphitheater of Rome by Augustus. Some have supposed it to be the Leviathan of Scripture. Many were kept tame by the ancient Egyptians, and were ornamented with gold rings and precious stones, set in their ears ; their feet were garnished with bracelets, and they were thus presented to the veneration of the people. These reptiles were fed on cake and roast meat, and mulled wine was poured down their throats. Herodotus says that a species of plover was wont to enter the mouth of the crocodile to feed on the parasitic worms in its tongue, and that the monster tolerated this, in view of the relief it o-ave. Modern observation has confirmed this curious account. This species has mostly disap- peared from the Lower Nile, and is only common in that river to the south of Middle Egypt. It is, however, abundant in many of the great rivers of Africa. There are several species of Crocodile in Africa and Asia, generally resembling the preceding : the St. Domingo Crocodile, C. acutus, has the muzzle longer in proportion and more pointed than that we have described, but more enlarged at the base. The scaly plates on the back are ranged in four lines. This species is common in the rivers and marshes of Ilayti, and most of the other laro-e AVest India Islands. It has been confounded with the crocodile of the Nile, and also with the alligators of the American continent; its manners are similar to those of the latter, but there are considerable differences in its external structure. Another species, the Aque Palin, C, rhombifer, is found in Cuba. Genus G A VIAL: Ga vial is. — Of this there are several varieties, found in Asia. The Gangetic Gavial or Nakoo, G. Gan- getica, has the jaws produced to an enormous length, forming a long, slender snout, at the ex- tremity of wdiich there is a large cartilaginous protuberance, ia. which the nostrils are situated. The teeth are very numerous, and nearly equal in size throughout the whole of the jaws. The hind-feet are palmated to the extremities of the toes. This species is found abundantly in the fresh Avaters of India, where it sometimes attains a length of tliirty feet. It is not dangerous to man nor the larger quadrupeds. It was known to the ancients, ^Elian mentioning the existence of a crocodile in the Ganges which had a horn at the extremity of its nose. Though, as we have stated, there are several marked varieties, there appears to be but one species. Genus ALLIGATOR : Jllif/ator. — This includes several species, all belonging to the American continent, and called Alligators in the United States, Caimans and Jacares in South America. Tliey resemble the true crocodiles, but there are structural differences which are thus stated by Cuvier : " Tlie alligators have the head less oblong than the crocodiles ; its length is to its breadth, measured at the articulation of the jaws, as three to two ; the teeth are unequal in length and size ; there are at least nineteen, sometimes even as many as twenty-two, on each side in the lower jaw, and nineteen or twenty in the upper. The front teeth of the under jaw pierce through the upper at a certain age, and the fourth from the frout, which are the longest of all, enter into Vol. II.— 47. THE CROCODILE. 370 VEKTEBllATA. ,-om>sp.>ii.liiir pectinated on the sides; the toes are not eoiiipieU'ly wel.l.ed, the eonneeting nienihrane only extending to their middle ; and finally, the pust-orliital Ik.I.s of tlie eranimn, so conspicnons in the trne crocodiles, are very minute in the ailiuators, or even entirely xsaiitinu'." The eroeodiles, properly so called, on the contrary, have tlie li.ad at least twice as long as il is broad; lilteen teeth on each side of the lower jaw, an.l nineteen on each side of the u|)prr. Tlie incisor or front teeth, as in the ahigators, pierce tl>roU!,di tlic upper jaw at a certain agi', hut the loiirth or largest of the lower jaw, instead of l.cin>>-"receive a notch on each side of it; an«l linallv the hindl'cct ai-c hoi'(lciTy a denticulated fringe, and the toes are completely united l>v'a swimming memhraiie. Notwithstanding these differences of conformation, the man- ners of tiie crocixliles and alligators are very simihii-, the former, however, attaining a greater size tlv.in the latter. THE ALLIGATOR. The Mississippi Alligator, A. Mississij^piensiis, sometimes called Plke-hcadcd Alligator, inliabits the rivers and lagoons of the Gulf States. It grows to the length of fourteen or j&fteen feet, the j head being one-seventh of the entire Icngtli, and half as broad at the articulation of the jaws as it is long. It appears to be more fierce and voracious than the South American species, often attacks I men and quadrupeds while bathing or crossing the rivers, and is said to prefer the flesh of ' the negro to all other food. During the heat of the day, these animals either lie stretched and languid on the banks, or in the mud on the shores of the rivers and lagoons, and as the other natives of such localities — the winged ones which sport in the sun excepted — are generally at rest at these times, the consequence is, that, during the day, they capture but few animals, ex- j cepting such as wander near them. When evening comes, however, they begin to move, and ' the roaring of the larger ones is terrific. It is described as a compound of the sounds of the bull and the bittern, but far louder than either ; and it grates and shivers on the ear as if the ground were shaking. Whether it produces any effect upon the prey of tlie alligators, in making that j prey disclose itself by its efforts to escape, is not known ; and, indeed, harsh and terrific as it is, THE G A VI AL. CLASS III HEPTILIA: ORDER 2. LORICATA. 371 TUB CAIMAN, it seems not only to he the common noise of the reptiles, but also their love song, which they emit frequently and freely in the pairing season. The history of the pairing is not very com- plete, but tlierc are some reasons for concluding that they are polygamous. The males engage in fierce though uncouth battles at that season, and not, as has been observed, at any other ; and the fair inference is that these are battles of gallantry. They usually take place in the water, though in the shallows rather than the depths ; and, at first at least, they are bouts of cudgel-play, rather than battles with the teeth. When it comes to the latter, they are desperate, and the death of one, sonaetimes of both, is inevitable. It is said that the alligator can give no second bite, and as little is it disposed to leave the first one till the object Avhich it seizes is fairly under water. The jaws close in the same manner as those of the biting turtles, and they can with difficulty be Avrenched asunder, even by a lever of considerable length. On some occasions the alligators beset the mouth of some retired creek, into which they have prcAaously driven the fish, bellowing so loud that they may be heard at the distance of a mile. To catch the fish they dive under the shoal, and having secured one, rise to the surface, toss it into the air to get rid of the water which they necessarily take in along with it, and catch it again in its descent. When, however, they succeed in capturing a land animal which is too large to be swallowed at a single mouthful, they conceal the body beneath the bank till it begins to putrefy, for as their teeth are not formed for cutting or masticating, they are unable to tear the tough flesh in its fresh state; it is then dragged on shore and devoure<^at leisure. When about to lay, the female digs a deep hole in the sand, and deposits her eggs in layers, separated from one another by intervening strata of leaves and dry grass. It ^voidd appear that she lays only one batch of eggs during the same season, though in the hottest parts of South America, according to Laborde, the caiman of Surinam and Cayenne lays at two or even three different periods of the year ; but as each batch is said to consist of only twenty or twenty -five eggs, it is probable that the whole does not exceed tlie number usually assigned to the common alligator. The female of this latter species, it is said, never loses sight of her nest till the young are hatched, and for months afterward affords them the most unremitting care and protection. This species is frequently found up the IMississippi, even beyond the Red River. In general, it buries itself under the mud, at the bottom of the swamps and marshes which it inhabits, as soon as the cold weather fairly sets in, and continues in a lethargic sleep till the return of spring. During the very severe frosts, sensation is so completely suspended that the body of the animal may be cut into slices without dispelling his lethargy; yet it is never actually frozen, and the partial return of a few hours' bright sunshine is at all times sufficient to restore suspended ani- 372 V Ell T Eli RATA. ination. It is partirularly in tlic rivers, liijToons, and swamps of Florida, Georgia, and Louisiana that till' allitiutor reaehes its greatest dimensions. IJartram found immense numbers of alligators and tisli in a mineral spring near the Muscpiito lliver, in Florida, though tlie water, at its exit from the earth, w .i-^ marlv at the hoiliiig point, and strongly iiuprcgnated with copper and vitriol. (?«•/*«.< CALM .\.N : ('niiiuiii. — This includes two or three species, the most noted of which is the Common Caiman or Alligator of Siiunam and (It iana, C. 2}aipcbrosns. It does not attain »o great a size as ihc prtceiiing, nor is it so fierce and ^ oracious. It will not attack a man on the land, nor in the water so long as he moves his legs and arms. The female deposits lier eggs in a sinirje hivcr, covers them slightly with sand, and then leaves them, taking no notice even of tile j)roLrcnv. C>ther species arc tlu^ Trkioxal ("aiman, C. t >-i[/onat us, und the Swollen-LLeaded Caiman, C. f/il)f>ic)/is, \»>\\i found in tiiipiial America. ^CHM.v JACALH: Jiiairr. — This also inchnlcs sev^eral species, also called Jacare and Yacare, hy dit^'ereiit authors. They aj)pear to be extensively spread over tropical America, but are nmst common in the rivers of Brazil. These are never known to attack men or dogs in pass- ing the rivers, unless it should happen to be near the place where they have deposited their egijfs ; and even then, they do not prey upon the bod\', but content themselves with the fish and water-fowl which they find so plentiful in their own element. During the night they are exceed- ingly active, and always keep in the water, showing only their heads above the surface, but toward the middle of the day they come ashore to enjoy the heat of the sun; they then sleep jirofuundly, but always retreat to the water on being disturbed. The eggs are about the size of those of a goose; they arc white, and much sought after by the Indians, who eat them and also the flesh of the animal, though it has a strong musky smell, and scarcely any juice. The female deposits her eggs in the sand in a single layer, and covers them with straw or leaves ; few of them, however, escape the quick eye of the vulture, and even many of the young fall a prey to the full-grown males, which at the period of their first appearance, in the hottest part of sum- mer, arc particularly fierce and ravenous, the marshes which they inhabit being then dried up, and their food difficult to obtain. The species of Jacare or Yacare are the Broad-headed Yacare, J. Jtssipes ; the Yacare, /. sclerojys ; the Black Yacare, J. nigra ; the Spotted Yacare, J. punctulatus ; and Natterer's Yacare, t/. r'ff/^//)-o?is. THE NIMBLE LIZARD. ORDER 3. SAURIA. As a general rule the animals of this order have four well-developed legs, and come under the popular designation of Lizards; but there is a considerable number grouped with these which k CLASS III. REPTILIA: ORDER 3. SAURIA. 373 do not possess these organs, and might, perhaps, with equal propriety, be classed with the Ophidia. Tlie proniinent charactoristics of the true Sauria are, that the bones of the upper jaw and the face are firmly attached to the skull, so that they are incapable of any independent mo- tion, and the lower jaw moves only from a single point ; both jaws are armed with teeth, gener- ally confined to the jaws ; in some the tongue is long, slender, horny, bifid, and inclosed in a sheath, from which it can be protruded at pleasure ; in others it is thick, fleshy, and attached to the back of the mouth. The development of the extremities is variable, some being as destitvite of external limbs as the snakes ; others have them well developed. The immense number and great variety of these animals render their classification a matter of some difficulty ; we shall not attempt to follow the details of any of the various systems. In our descriptions of species we can give but comparatively few examples; these, however, will convey an adequate idea of the whole. We shall present them under the following heads: the Typhlopidw, Amjyhisbcemdce, Gt/mnophtkahnidce, Sciiicidce, Chalcidce, Lacertidoe, Ameividce, Va- ranidce, Geckotidce, Iguanidce, Agamidoi, and Chameleontida;. THE TYPHLOPID^. These creatures derive their name from Typhlos and ojys, words signifying '■'■having a blind appear- ance,''^ and this truly characterizes the family. They are small snake or worm-like animals, nearly cylindrical in form, and quite destitute of limbs; the head is covered with shields, and the tail is short and rounded off at the end ; the tongue is long and forked. The eye is reduced to a point, and is scarcely visible through the skin. One species, the Ti/phlojjs braminus, has the head of the size of the body, and is compared by Cuvier to a small piece of fine pack-thread. Another, the T. Philippinus, is eight inches long, of a blackish color, and is entirely blind. These creatures are found in the hot parts of both continents. They live in holes in the ground and under stones, and sometimes bury themselves three feet deep during the rainy season. THE AMPHISByENID^. The term Ampjhisbcena signifies an " animal that can walk in both directions^'' and is applied to this iamily because they proceed either backward or forward, as occasion may require. This habit has given rise to the idea that they have two heads, and consequently they have been called Double-headed serpents. Many superstitions in regard to them were formerly current ; one species which was blind was said to be fed by ants, and was called K'lng of the Ants, and their flesh, dried and powdered, was esteemed a cure for broken or dislocated bones. These creatures have a vei-miform appearance ; the skin is annulated and divided into square shields by transverse and longitudinal furrows. The head is of the same size as the neck, and the tail is rounded off". The tongue is thick, short, and not sheathed; the eyes are small, destitute of eyelids, and sometimes hidden under the skin; the majority are quite destitute of limbs ; they live in the ground, and feed upon insects. The only known species are found in the hot parts of South America. Genus AMPHISB^ENiV : AmpMsbcena. — This includes the Brown Amphisb^na, A.fuli- ginosa, eighteen to twenty-four inches long, of a brown color, the body surrounded by over two hundred rings ; the eyes covered by a membrane, though the animal is not blind. It lives on worms and insects, particularly ants, in the hills of which it usually conceals itself. It has no fangs, and THE BROWN AMPHISB^NA. 374 VERT EB 11 AT A. -^^^v, i» porfcrtlv liariivU-S'*. Foiiml in Brazil and Surinam. The White Ampiiisb.ena, A. alba, resem- bles the preceilinj,', .•iii|»«ars to be entirrly blind. Gruns CHIKOTKS: Chimlcs. — This presents only a single species, C. lumbricoides, eisrht incht'H li>n<;. and •"'und in Mexifo. Ti r K (t y m^' unrniALMiD^. This term, sii^nitVini; naked ci/ci, refers 1<> the fact that the eyes of the family are without eye- lids; the bodv is extremely elongated, and snake-like ; the skin is covered with regular scales ; the mouth wide ; the legs variously developed, some species having four, some two, and some none. The Oyninophthalini have four weak legs; the Pyf/ojii Lave two scale-like legs set far back, and the Aprasiie are entirely destitute of these extremities. These animals are chiefly found iu Aus- tralia, but one or two are found in Eastern I-^UDpe, and one in the West Indies. THE SCINCID^. The animals t)f this family, of which the Skhik — a species of small lizard — is the type, arc fur- nisht'd with well-formed eyes and distinct eyelids; the limbs are variously developed, some having legs and feet, and others being entirely footless, like snakes and worms. Genus AX(JU1S : Amjuis. — This includes the Slow-Worm, A. fra;/ilis, common in all Europe, H . , ., sometimes called Blind Wonn v\ ! i/i^r0^ ■_ in England, and Long Cripple in Cornwall; the French call it Orvet. It appears like a small snake, but its internal structure is that of the lizards. It is twelve to fifteen inches long; feeds on small slugs and earth- worms, even those six or seven inches long. In winter it buries itself imder leaves or loose soil, and remains torpid till spring. It is harmless and timid, and so brittle that if taken by the tail this extremity sepai-ates, and the creature escapes. This brittle- ness is possessed by many lizards. The Glass-Snake, A. ventralis of Linnaeus, Ophisaurus ventralis of Daudin, is included in this genus by many naturalists. It has, in fact, the head of a lizard, with a serpentine body. Its color is yellowish-green above, marked with black spots ; its length about eitrhteen inches ; the skin smooth and shiny. The great peculiarity of this species is, that when struck with a stick it breaks into several pieces, like a fragment of glass. It is perfectly harmless, and is found in the woods of the Southern States. Genus SCIXCUS : Scincus, includes the Skixk, S. officinalis, nine inches long ; it has four legs, and runs with great agility, burying itself quickly in the sand when pursued. The ancients attri- buted extraordinary medicinal virtues to this animal, which was salted, dried, and sold in the apothecaries' shops. Found in EgA'pt, Arabia, and Nubia. The Blce-tailed Skink, S.fasciatus — sometimes called the Striped Lizard — ^is six to eight THE SLOW-WOUM AND ITS TOCXQ. CLASS III. REPTILIA: ORDER 3. SAURIA. 375 THE GLASS-SNAKE. inclics lonQf ; color bluish-black ; feeds on insects ; is often found under tlic bark of trees, and is perfectly harmless. It is met with from Massachusetts to New York. . Genus CELESTUS : Celestus, includes the Galliwasp, C. occiduus, of the West Indies, a small, harmless lizard, though an object of dread to the inhabitants. Genus PLESTIODOX : Plestiodon. — To this belongs the P. crythrocephalus^ which lives in holes of trees, often at a height of thirty or forty feet from the ground, where it frequently takes possession of the deserted nest of a woodpecker. When disturbed, the lizard puts out his head, which is very large and of a bright red color, in a most thi-eatening manner ; and when cap- tured, its powerful jaws and strong teeth enable it to inflict a severe wound, although it is not venomous, as commonly supposed. Found in the Southern United States. There are sev- eral other species in the Middle, Western, and Southern States. Genus TROPIDOLEPIS : Tropidolejy'is. — This includes the Brown Swift, T. iindulatus, five to eight inches long; brown above, beneath green. It is very agile, perfectly harmless, lives in woods, and feeds on insects. It is sometimes called the Pine-Lizard^ and also the Brown Scorpion. Found in the Southern States. THE CIIALCID^. This family derives its name from a Greek town, Chalkis. The same variety of limbs belong to it as to the preceding. Instead of the imbricated, bony scales of the skiuks, however, these have the common reptilian scales, arranged in regular transverse rows. The eyelids are always present, the ears exposed, the tongue short, fleshy, and notched at the tip. Species are found in Asia, Africa, Europe, and South Amei'ica. Genus PSEUDOPXJS : Pseiulojyus. — This includes the Scheltopusik, P. Pallasii, which has two rudimentary hind-legs ; found in Southeastern Europe. Genus CHAM^ESAURA : Chamcesaura. — To this belongs the Anguine Lizard, C, anrjuina — Lacerta anguina of Linnreus, and made the type of a distinct family by Dr. J. E. Gray. The body is covered with elongated, keeled scales, in longitudinal series. The feet are four in num- ber, exceedingly small, with a single toe to each. It is found at the Cape of Good Hope. THE LACEKTID^. These have the body clothed with scales, and the head with large, regular plates ; the head is distinctly separated from the neck, which is never furnished with a pouch under the throat, or with any other appendages ; the eyes are provided with a pair of movable eyelids, and also 37< THE ANGUINE LIZARD. usually with a niotitatino- membrane. The body is eloiifyated, and generally of a somewhat ovliudrit-al form, torraiuated posteriorly ^vith a very long, tapering tail, which is often much longer than the bodv. The feet are well developed, and generally furnished with five distinct toes of unequal length. The teeth are a little curved, and inserted in a slight furrow of the jaw ; they are hollow at the base, and are not very firmly attached to the bone. These Lizards, which must be regarded as the types of the Sauria, are confined to the countries of the eastern hemi- sphere, over the whole of which they are pretty generally distributed. They feed on insects and worms. Genus LACERTA : Lacerta. — To this belongs the Nimble Lizard, L. agilis — the Sand-Liz- ard of England, Lezard of the French : it is seven inches long ; color brown, though there are green varieties. It inhabits sandy heaths, runs with agility, is very timid, but will attempt to bite when captured. The female lays twelve to fourteen eggs, which she covers with sand, and leaves them to be hatched by the heat. Found in France, England, and the middle countries of Europe ; is rare in Denmark and Sweden. Genus ZOOTOCA: Zootoca, in- cludes the Common European Liz- ard, Z. vivipara, six inches long; greenish-brown above ; orange be- neath, spotted with black. The fe- male of this species, instead of de- positing her eggs in the sand and leaving them to be hatched by the heat of the sun, produces them alive, five or six in number, perfectly formed, and capable of at once run- ning about. She however bestows upon them a mother's care for a brief period. This is a graceful and gentle species, and is cap- able of being tamed. It seems to be confined to Middle Europe ; it is found in England, Scot- THE SAND LIZARD. CLASS III. REPTILIA: ORDER 3. SAURIA. 37r land, and even in Ireland, an evidence that St. Patrick, who has the credit of having destroyed the reptiles in the favored Emerald Isle, must have confined his operations to the venomous species. The OcELLATED LizARD, L. occllata, is a very beautiful species, a foot in length, of a fine o-reen color, reticulated and spotted with black, and adorned with blue spots on the side of the bodv. It is abundant iu Italy, Spain, the south of France, and Africa. THE AMEIYID^. These, which are American animals, seem to take the place of the Lacertida? upon this conti- nent. They resemble them in their general characteristics, but differ in having solid teeth, firmly attached to the jaws. They live on the ground in woods and hedges, and feed principally upon insects, though they sometimes devour small vertebrate animals. Genus TEIUS ; Teius. — This includes the Teguexin or Variegated Lizard, found in Brazil and Guiana. It sometimes measures six feet in length, and is very voracious, preying upon mice, frogs, and other small animals; it is said occasionally to visit the poultiy-yards, and to feed on the chickens and eo-o-s. Its flesh is white, and not unlike that of a fowl in flavor. AMien pursued it does not allow itself to be taken without a struggle ; it runs with great swiftness, and strikes such violent blows at the dogs with its tail, that they do not readily venture to attack it. When brought to bay, it fights boldly, and inflicts severe bites upon any thing that comes within its reach. It is fond of honey, and attacks the bee-hives with blows of its tail, each time, after having given a stroke, running away to escape the stings. In this way it wearies out the bees, who finally quit their home and leave the honey to their enemj , Germs AMEIVA : Ameiva. — These are elegant and inofi'ensive little lizards, abounding in the West Indies ; one species is found in the United States, from Carolina to Florida : this is the Six-lined Lizard, A. sexlineata, dark brown above, with six yellow longitudinal lines ; length twelve inches. A species called A. tessellata is said to be found iu Arkansas. THE VARIEGATED LIZAliD. THE VAEANID^. Tliese, which are called the Broad-backed Lizards, and derive their name from the genus Varanus, comprise the largest species of known lizards ; they resemble the preceding families in the form of their bodies, and in the constant development of the limbs, but difter from them in having the head and belly covered with scales resembling those of the rest of the body, instead of the shield-like plates which form the clothing of those parts in the Lacertida) and Ameivida^. The head is elongated, and the tongue, which is very long and distinctly bifid, like that of a snake, is received at the base in a membraneous sheath. The tail is very long, usually compressed and keeled, and the feet large, and furnished with long toes terminated by strong claws. They run swiftly, with a serpentine motion ; and feed on locusts, crickets, and beetles, and some of the larger species on the eggs of birds and crocodiles, chameleons, fish, and tortoises. Genus MONITOR : Monitor, includes several species. The Egyptian Monitor, M. Nilofmis, attains the length of five or six feet ; it lives in the neighborhood of water, and is said to devour the eggs of crocodiles ; common in Egypt, where the people hold it to be a dwindled crocodile. It is figured on the ancient monuments. Genus HELODERMA: Heloderma.— To this belongs the Caltetepon, H. horridum, which is distinguished by furrowed fangs in the anterior portion of its jaws. It is aquatic in its habits, Vol. II.— 48. 878 VERT Eli 11 AT A. iiiid is fomiil ill .Mi'.\i««>, win to it is coiisidcreil venomous, tliouirli this is an error. It is the only animal of tiiis family foiiiul in AnuTica. Dr. <;ray arranges it ia a separate family, to which he jrivrs the nauH- t^f J/ilddninii/u: Tli.Ti' arc t.llicr spi-ric's of \'aranidio in Europe, Asiji, Afrlia. ami Australia, which frequent ilrv ami sjimlv places. The Psammosaurus scincus is found in the deserts of Egypt, and is sup- pi)sed to be the skiiik of the ancient-s. THE WALL GECKO. THE GECKOTID^. These, as well as the succeeding famihes are called Thicfc-longued Lizards. Of the present group there are a great many species, distributed in various parts of the world. They have the eyes large and the legs short and terminated by five nearly equal toes ; these are destitute of claws, but they are furnished beneath with a peculiar apparatus for clinging, very similar in its action to that by which many insects are enabled to walk upon polished perpendicular sur- faces. The lower part of each toe is dilated, forming a sort of disc, the inferior surface of which is composed of numerous transverse, notched laminaj, between which a sticky fluid exudes. By means of this apparatus the Geckos are enabled to run up a perpendicular w-all with great facility, and even to cross a ceiling with their backs downward, a power which, no doubt, assists them greatly in the capture of the flies and other insects which constitute their principal food. They are nocturnal animals, and very active, moving about with great rapidity, but without the least sound. They are very abundant in warm climates, especially in Southern Asia. They are gener- ally of a repulsive appearance, and this is no doubt the reason why many of the species are con- sidered venomous, though erroneously so, by the inhabitants of the countries where they are found. Genus PLATYDACTYLUS : F fat >/dact7/lus.— This includes the Wall Gecko, P. muraUs— one of the species known in the south of Europe, and inhabiting all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. It is about six inches long, and receives its specific name from living in the walls of old buildings. The term Gecko is said to be derived from the note of one of the species. Genus THECADACTYLUS : Tkecadactijlus.— This includes the Croakixg Lizard of the West Indies, T. loevis, which frequents the sugar-boiling houses, reposing during the day upon the raftei-s. It is generally considered venomous, but this is undoubtedly a result of its repulsive appearance. CLASS III. IIEPTILIA: ORDE]i 3. SAURIA. 379 THE IGUANIDJE. These constitute anotlicr exceedingly numerous family. They are frequently of considerable size ; the head is unusually broad aiul flattened, and often furnished with comb- like ridges or membraneous lobes, and similar appendages are usually continuc(l along the back. The throat, also, is al- most always furnished with membraneous expansions of some kind ; these some- times constitute large frills on the sides of the neck. The eyes are always fur- nished with lids, which can be completely closed ; the ears are freely exposed, and the tongue is short and thick, and free only at the tip. ]\Iany of the species are of the most brilliant green color, but they suddenly change this gay painting on being alarmed, and become of more sobi'r coloring; some of them, under these circumstances become completely black. Genus IGUANA : If/uana. — This includes the Common Iguana, /. tuhcrculata, which may be regarded as the type of the family ; it is a large lizard, which attains a length of four or five feet, and is common in all the tropical parts of America. It is of a greenish color, mottled with a brighter green, and banded with brown on the tail ; along the back runs a comb-like crest, and the throat is furnished with a large membraneous expansion, which is also denticulated in front. This reptile is much sought after in the countries where it abounds, its flesh being regarded as a great delicacy, although it is said not to be particularly wholesome. It passes a great part of its existence in trees, and is commonly taken Avhen resting on a branch, by slipping a noose over its head, its captor Avhistling to it while engaged in the operation. Its teeth have the crowns compressed and serrated, and it lives principally upon fruits and seeds. It is said to take the water freely, and to swim with facility. Oenus BASILISCUS : Basiliscus. — The Basilisk, B. Amcricavus, although perfectly harm- less, is certainly one of the most hideous of reptiles in its appearance. It is found in South America, and occasionally attains a length of upward of three feet. Instead of the comb-like dorsal ridge of the Iguana, it is furnished with a broad membrane running down the back, and a second, still broader, on the upper surface of the tail, and these are supported by a series of bones, consisting of the elongated spinous processes of the dorsal and caudal vertebrte, and having the appearance of long perpendicular fins. THE COMMON IGUANA. THE AGAMID^. These seem to take the place of the Iguanas in the Old World. They are principally inhabitants of the warmer regions of Asia and Australia, and the intervening islands ; a few are found in the south of Australia, Van Diemen's Land, and New Zealand, and a few others in Africa, from Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope. One remarkable genus is f^. .^ottjqfiEfijHML^ ^^ merly collected and used as a cosmetic. Cuvier "^^■k J^^WS^fe^^ mSC' ^^^*^^ ^^^^ ^^ Mahometans destroy this animal wher- "^^fc. jajMBHilp^^ ]^f ^^^^ they see it, because, as they say, it insults them ^^^^^gT|^p,'^-:^^^^^^y by bowing its head in imitation of their motions when ^(^T>^^>' - ; 'rl^^^^^^F engaged in prayer. Another singular species, from Australia, has been described by Dr. Gray under the name of Moloch horridus. The whole surface of this lizard is covered with irregular plates and strong acute spines, and the upper surface of the head bears two very large spines. Altogether it is a most hideous- looking creature. Genus rilRYXOSOMA: Fhrynosoma.— This in- cludes Douglass's Phrynosoma, P. Douglassii, found at Salt Lake Valley, by Captain Stansbury, from whose work we copy the annexed engraving. It is three and a half inches long, and olive-green above. The head is covered with sharp spines or roundish knobs ; the body is scattered over with irregular spine-like scales. It is sluggish in its habits, and has some resem- blance to a toad, whence this, with other species — of which there are five or six, in California, Utah, and the Southwestern States — are called Horned Douglass's phetxosoma. Toads. THE CHAMELEOKTIDiE. Genus CHAMELEON : Chama'lco.— This is the only genus of the family, but it contains about eighteen known species, all inhabitants of the Old World, and which are, perhaps, the most singu- lar in the whole order of lizards. They are all small animals, with a curious pyramidal, and unusually angular head, distinctly separated from the neck, a short, thick body, which gradually tapers from the region of the shoulders to the point of insertion of the hind-legs, and a short pre- hensile tail. The mouth is very large ; the teeth are firmly attached to the jaws ; the ears are entirely concealed under the skin, and the eyes, which are very large and prominent, are closely covered by a circular lid, which is only perforated by a small round opening immediately in front of the pupil. The legs are rather long and slender ; the feet are composed of five toes, which, however, are dinded into two opposite bundles, and. the toes of each bundle are so united THE F L Y I X G DRAGON. CLASS III. REPTILIA; ORDEK 3. SAURIA. 381 THE COMMON CHAMELEON OF EUKUPE. togetlier by skin, tliat eacli foot may be described as forming a hand composed of a single finger and thumb. By m6ans of these grasping organs, aided by their prehensile tails, the chameleons climb about upon shrubs and trees in search of the insects which constitute their sole nourish- ment, but they exhibit none of that agility which renders many of the other small lizards such interesting objects. All their motions, in fact, are very slow, and give the spectator the idea of the most painful caution ; they are very sluggish, and sit for a long time motionless upon a branch, only occasionally giving a scarcely perceptible sign of life, by moving one of the eyes, each of these standing out and being capable of independent motion. The eyes, one often look- ing one way and the other in a different direction, have a most extraordinary appearance. At fii'st sight it would appear that a sluggish creature like this would have but little chance of capturing a sufficient number of flies and other insects, the active denizens of the air, which constitute its only diet, to satisfy the necessities of its appetite ; but on examination we find that the structure of the tongue of the chameleon is admirably adapted to assist in procuring food. This tongue is composed of a hollow tube, capable of extending itself with the rapidity of lightning to an enonnous comparative length ; it is terminated by a fleshy knob, which has a cup-like cavity in its anterior surface, and this is always imbued with a viscid secretion. When the chameleon has marked an insect for its prey, it rolls about its strange looking eyeballs, and immediately darts the tongue at it with the most astonishing rapidity, and rarely misses its aim, although the tongue is often protruded to more than twice the length of the whole body of the creature. The fly, or other insect, is of course drawn back with the tongue into the mouth. The difficulty of observing processes which are effected so instantaneously, coupled with the fact that the chameleon can support a very prolonged abstinence without injury, led the ancients to the opinion that this animal was nourished by air alone ; and this, which has frequently furnished the poet with similes, is still, to a certain extent, a matter of popular belief. Another curious subject connected with the chameleon, and which has also been much exag- gerated, is its power of changing its color. The variation in this respect appears to be that the animal, under certain circumstances, passes gradually from its natural pale gray color through pale green to yellow and dingy red ; and if the exciting cause of the change be continued, it will finally become dusky violet, or nearly black. The cause of this phenomenon is described as follows : beneath the transparent epidermis there is a great quantity of minute, soft granules, 382 VERTEBRATA. THE IGUAXODOX. which bear the different colors ; these are more or less extended, according to the quantity of blood that roaches them, and the change of color is thus effected. There can be little doubt that this is a provision to enable this sluggish animal to approach its prev. "The more we search into the habits and peculiarities of animals," says an eloquent writer, "the more arc we led to admire the wisdom and goodness of the Creator. Throughout the animal creation, the adaptation of the color of the creature to its mode of living and place of concealment, is highly remarkable, considered in reference to its preservation. If we look around, we shall discover that the colors of the smaller animals, and a nmltitude of insects, con- tribute materially to their safety. Caterpillars which feed on leaves are generally either green, or have a large proportion of tliat hue in the colors of their coats. So long as it remains still, how diffirnlt it is to distinguish the grasshopper from the leaf or spray on which it rests! The butterflies that flit among the flowers are decked in varied hues like them. The little birds that haunt the hedge-row side have feathers on their backs which harmonize with the color of the leaves, and feathers on their breasts which borrow the white hue of heaven ; these render them less visible to the hawk above, or to the prowling cat beneath. The wanderer in the fields almost treads upon the skylark before it rises, warbling merrily to Heaven's gate. The partridge can hardly be distinguished from the stubble amongst which it makes its nest ; and it is considered an accomplishment for the sportsman to be able to find the hare sitting. In northern countries, the winter dress of the hare and the ptarmigan is white like the snow. " If we turn to the waters, we shall find that it is nearly the same Avith its inhabitants. Frogs vary their color according to the nature of the mud or sand at the bottom of the ponds or streams they frequent ; nay, the tree-frog, Hyla viridis, takes its name from the color which is so difficult to see among the leaves, where it adheres by the cupping-glass-like process at the end of its toes. The fish, especially those which inhabit fresh-water streams, are distinguished by the same pecu- liarities. Their backs are comparatively dark, like the water above them, and it requires some practice to discover them as they glide along the bottom of the clear brook in thick dusky shoals. Tliey come like shadows and so depart, under the gaze of the spectator. It is diflicult to dis- tinguish the pike — "the ravenous luce," as old Izaak Walton calls it — with its dark-green mottled back and sides, from the similarly-tinted leaves amid which that fresh-water shark lies on the CLASS 111. KEPTILIA: OKDER, 3. SAURIA. 383 THE nTL^OSAURUS. watcli, as motionless and still as the leaves theuiselves ; and it is even difficult for any eye but that of the practiced angler to discover what shadowy form it is that ripples the whimpled water as the bold old trout sails leisurely up the stream, with his back-fin just peeping above the sur- face, on the look-out for a May-fly for his luxmnous repast." The Common Chameleon of Europe, C. Africaniis — Cameleon of the French — is sixteen to eighteen inches long, the tail being nearly as long as the body. It occurs in all the northern parts of Africa, and also in India ; it has become naturalized in some parts of the south of Europe. Other species arc as follows: the Rhinoceros Chameleon, C. rhinoceratus^ ioMAvX in Mada- gascar: the Flap-necked Chameleon, C. dile'pis, found in Senegal and the vicinity : the Pearled Chameleon, C pumHu!^, found at the Cape of Good Hope: the Three-horned Chameleon, C. Owenii, found in Fernando Po. Most of the other species belong to Africa. Fossil Lizards. — In former parts of this work we have mentioned some of the gigantic fossil lizards whose vestiges have been discovered by the geologists. Among these we have described the Iguanodon (page 8, vol. I.), supposed in its structure and habits to have borne some resemblance to the existing iguanas, which we have described. But a few more particulars may be proper in connection with the order to which this extraordinary animal belonged. For our knowledge of this ]\Ionster of the Past, we are chiefly indebted to the energy, patience, and acuteness of Dr. Mantell, of London. Parts of several skeletons have been obtained, i>ut none of them entire ; one, however, is so for complete as to make it certain that this species was of the most gigantic dimensions, some supposing it to have been a hundred feet in length. In the latest edition of Dr. Mantell's " Wonders of Geology," he speaks on thio subject as follows : "The length of the Iguanodon has been variously estimated, the diff'erence in the computation depending chiefly on the extent assigned to the tail, which in the Iguana and many other lizards is much longer than the body. If the tail of the fossil reptile was slender, and of the same rela- tive proportions as in the Iguana, the longest individual would be fifty or sixty feet long; but it is more pi'obable, from the shortness of the bodies of the caudal vertebra3, that the tail was com- paratively short and flattened at the sides, as in some living reptiles, for example, the Doryphorus. \\\ that case the length of a full-grown Iguanodon would but little exceed thirty feet."* * Mr. W. Hawkins has prepared restorations of many of the gigantic fossil animals, representing them as they are supposed to have appeared, and these are exhibited at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, near London. In this he was assisted by Dr. Owen, who ranks as the first living Comparative Anatomist. Dr. Jlantcll regarded th''^! restora- tions as cxecnted with great skill and science, and worthy of every confidence. Several of them we have copied here and elsewhere in the present work. 3S4 VERTEBUATA. ^^^ THE MEGALOSAUEUS AND PTERODACTTLES. Tlie HylcBOsaurus was another enormous reptile, wliose remains were found in the wealden* of Tilirate Forest. This animal appears to have combined some of the features both of the croco- dile and of the lizard. It was covered with thick scales, and along the back was a row of long conical bones or spines, resembling the crests we have described as belonging to the Iguanas and Agaraas. This animal is supposed to have been a terrestrial, herbivorous reptile, between twenty and thirty feet in length. Altogether it must have been of the most extraordinary rep- tilian organization. The Mer/alosaurus was another gigantic lizard, whose remains have been found in the same localities as the preceding. From the teeth, of which numerous specimens have been discovered, and which had a conical, saber-hke form, it is inferred that the animal was carnivorous. It was probably twenty-five to thirty feet long. The Plesiosatirus we have already described (page 8, vol.1.); of the Ichthyosmirus there were many species. "Tliese," savs Mantell, "had the beak of a porpoise, the teeth of a crocodile, the head and sternum of a lizard, the paddles of a cetacea, and the vertebra? of a fish." Some of the species were of the size of young whales. The bones forming the sternum or chest resemble those of the omithorhynchus ; the paddles are four, and are like those of the turtles. In some species the bones of the fore-paddles are one hundred in number. The general form was like that <")f the grampus. Tlie skin was destitute of scales. It was evidently carnivorous and aquatic. * WeaMen. is a term used by English geologists in application to the Vipperrnost series of the strata included in what is called the Oolitic system, that is, the rocks of the secondary formation, of which the Bath stone and Portland stone of England are examples. The term u-eaMeii was adopted from the fact that the formation was first observed in the weolds, that is, woods, of Sussex and Kent, in England. The Tilgate Forests are a part of this region. The whole consists of limestone, conglomerate, sandstone, and clay, abounding in the remains of fresh-water and land animals. These are supposed to have been deposited in an estuary or arm of the sea, which once covered this part of England. CLASS III. IIEPTILIA: ORDEll 4. OPiilL>IA. 385 1. ICHTHYOSAURUS. 2. TELEOSAURUS. 8, 4, AND 5. PLESIOSAURUS. Tlie Teleosaurus appears to have been a gigantic land animal, resembling the gavials, but with more massive jaws and a stouter form. Its remains are numerous, especially in the wealden of Tilgate Forest ; it therefore existed at a period when the fishes were abundant, but the mammals few in number. Its habits appear to have been more strictly marine than those of the gavials, and its powers of swimming and overtaking its prey were greater. It was covered over with imbricated scales, and was perhaps about fifteen feet in length. There were many species, one of which had a skull four and a half feet long, and one hundred and eighty teeth ! ORDER 4. OPHIDIA. We now come to an order of reptiles which appear from the earliest ages to have excited a mingled fear and reverence in mankind. In some cases the serpent has been worshiped ; in others it has been the symbol of eternity ; everywhere it seems to inspire a species of horror in the beholder. In Genesis it is said that "the serpent was more subtle than all the beasts of the field," and therefore the Devil, in seeking to overturn the designs of the Almighty in the creation of man, took upon himself its image. The Brazen Serpent set up in the wilderness by Moses, being looked upon, cured the people which had been bitten by the "fiery serpents" as they journeyed in the wild and rocky regions of Mount Hor; this image is also deemed an cmbK'- matic foreshadowing of the Saviour. Serpent-worship appears to have existed alike among civil- ized and barbarous nations ; among the ancient Egyptians it was the object of peculiar reverence, and Avith the Mexicans it was the very basis of their hideous and bloody religion. Strange ideas respecting this creature are even current in the proverbial language of our day : " wise as a ser- pent," and "a snake in the grass," though of somewhat contradictory significations, ai'c still com- mon expressions. When we come to consider these creatures, we shall not, perhaps, be surprised that they have ever made a strong impression upon mankind. The great nursery of this reptile race is found in tropical regions. Tangled forests, impene- trable jungles, morasses teeming with luxuriant vegetation, and mouldering ruins overgrown witli Vol. IL— 49. 3SG VEllTEBRATA. lirusliw.M.d and crcfpiii-,' jihiiits, aiv tlu-ir favorite places of abode. Tliere they not only exist, l)Ut^\varl^• there the must j,'i_ifantic of their tribes rears its resplendent form ; and there thou- sands of cvorv si/e and hue justonish <>?• .ilaini the passer-by. Some species, slender as whipcord, and of jxreat len;.'tii, twine around the twigs and boughs of trees and shrubs, their tints amalgam- ating witli the eoior of the foliage that eonceals thoni, while rapidly and silently they glide even to the tops of the loftiest trees, in chase of insects and of the eggs and young of birds. Others mav be beheM by the traveler darting along the ground, crossing his path, and plunging into the midst of tiie JMiiLile ere his eve can catch their tints, while a loud and angry hiss sufficiently intimates lliat it is perilous to follow. Many are endowed with the most deadly poisons, while others are t)f gigantic size and strength. In the Dutch colonies of the East Indies, Andre Cleyer is sai.l to have purchased of the lumters of the country an enormous serpent, in the body of which he found a deer of middle age, absolutely entire. In another individual of the same spe- cies, also examined by this traveler, he found a wild goat, with its horns; and a third had evi- dently swallowed a porcupine with its quills, lie also adds that a woman became tlie prey of a reptile of the same genus in the island of Amboyna, and that this kind is sometimes kept for the purpose of attacking buffaloes in the kiudom of Arracan, on the frontiers of Bengal. We need hardly be astonished at this, when I'rince Maurice, of Nassau Siegen, one of the governors of Brazil in the seventeenth century, assures us that he himself was an eye-witness of stags and other bulky animals, and even of a Dutch woman being devoured in this manner. Instances of this kiixl have, indeed, become common in more modern times. The animals of this order, familiarly called Serpents and Snakes, are characterized by an elongated body, clothed in scales and destitute of limbs, but furnished with a tail. They have hooked, conical teeth, and cold blood like other reptiles ; the skin is covered with scales and plates, and this is covered with an epidermis which is frequently cast. They possess the power of fasting a great length of time; they feed on living prey, and always swallow it whole, which they are en- abled to accomplish by their faculty of dilating their jaws and bodies to an enormous size. This power is carried to such an extent that the largest species can swallow a bullock whole, though twice as thick as its body, and suffering no other inconvenience than that of lying in a state of torpor while digestion is proceeding. Serpents generally roll themselves up when in a state of repose, with the head in the center, and when disturbed, raise the head before they uncoil the body. They also frequently raise themselves upright, supporting themselves on the tail. They have great freedom of motion, the scales on the belly enabling them to lay hold of fixed objects, and by the alternate elongation of the body, they glide along, often with great celerity. Their usual modes of progression are by a vertical motion, as represented in the preceding engraving, and more a frequently by a lateral movement, which enables them to glide rapidly among grass and bushes, as ex- j hibited in the following figure. They are not only able to run on the land, but they swim freely in \ water, and many species, as we have said, climb trees with facility. Few animals have such variety of ; IIL CLASS III. REPTILIA ORDER 4. OPHIDIA. 38'J i^ifeMuSfei ^!i|^fc^ locomotion: they can creep, glide, grasp, suspend themselves, erect themselves, leap, dart, bound, swim, and dive. They are mostly oviparous, their eggs being soft, of a yellowish-white color, covered with a leathery skin, and from twenty to thirty in number at each laying. Their senses are not very acute ; the eyes are small, and without lids ; the tongue is free, forked, and capable of considerable elongation and rapid motion. They are divided by Dr. Gray into two sub-orders, the Viperina, or Venomous Serpents, and the Colubrina, or Colubrine Snakes, which are for the most part harmless, though some of them are otherwise. These animals are exceedingly numerous, no less than one hundred and fifty species being in the Catalogue of the British Museum. We shall only attempt to describe a few of the most remarkable kinds. THE VIPERmA. The Viperina, so far as known, are all ovo-viviparous ; they are also distinguished by the pecu- liar arrangement of the teeth in the upper jaw. The true maxillary bones are reduced to a very small size, capable of a great amount of motion, and bear a single pair of long curved fangs, which can be laid flat in the mouth during repose, or erected when in action by the agency of pecu- liar muscles. These are the only teeth supported by the maxillary bones ; they are perforated throughout by a slender canal, which communicates with a large gland situated in the head, be- hind and under the eyes. This secretes the venomous fluid,which passes through a duct to the base of the tooth, and thence through, the canal in its interior, until it is injected into the wound made by the bite of the serpent. Its propulsion is effected partly by the contraction of the proper walls of the gland, and partly by the pressure of the muscles of the jaws, which act upon it during their contraction. The poison which is thus injected into the wound mixes with the blood, and is then carried into the circulation, where it speedily produces an injurious effect, giving rise to an altered condition of the blood, which, if the poison be present in sufficient quantity, quickly renders it incapable of supporting life. In fact, a bite from one of the large poisonous snakes of tropical climates is generally fatal, even to man, if the animal be in a vigorous condition, and provided with a good supply of poison ; but a bite from a similar snake, after it has nearly exhausted its venom by previous attacks, may give rise to little or no inconvenience. It is remarkable, also, that the effect of the poison of these creatures is very different upon different animals ; the cold- blooded species in general appear to be almost indifferent to its effects, while most warm-blooded animals soon expire when a sufficient quantity is injected into their veins. Various means of preventing the injurious effects of the bite of these reptiles have been proposed, and the natives of most countries in which they abound have their favorite antidotes for the wounds inflicted by them. The only means, however, upon which it appears that much reliance can be placed, are SECTION OP THE HKAD OP A SERPENT. a, poison fangs; b, poison glands; c, conductor for the poison ; d d, muscles of the jaws; e, tendon of the muscles; s, salivary glands. 388 VEUTEBRATA. lli..>i- .lim-lo.l to prevent iiii? the poison from ffcttinu int.. tlir circuhition, and of these the prin- cipal .-onsist in su.-kin,u thi«"woun(i— citlur witli a riii.i.ing-fi;la.ss or with tlio ni.-ulh, which may lu' .l..no without till- h-JLst .hmjjiT, tlie poison hfinji (juite innocuous when t;iken internally— cnt- li«H ..ut tlic wounded i>art, <.r hurninjr it witli a hot iron or witli caustic applications. All tliesc rcmdics must, howcwr, W adoptcl innncdiatcly after the wound has heen received; if any time be allowcl to elai>se the most distrcssiiiir symptoms make their appearance, and if these can be roIii>vo«l I'V tlio administration of medicines, which, however, appiars somewhat doubtful, the patient j,'enerally suth-rs f.>r a lon;^ period tVom the cft'ects of the bite. Thi- N'iperina' are divided into two families, the Crotalidcc, of which the rattlesnakes are the typos, and the ]'lp^„^ ^ serpent fountl in the European Alp >s. THE ASP. THE HOODED SNAKES. The Hooded Snakes, of wliicli there are several species, are ar- rancred with the Culubrina by some naturalists, hut as their venom is of the most deadly nature, we shall follow Cuvicr and place them with the Vipcrina. In these the skin ahmit the neck is loose, and the ribs of that part of the body are capable of being extended and raised, so as to dilate the skin into a sort of disk, which, from its resemblance to a hood, has given them their popular name. Genus XAIA : JVaia. — This includes the Naia Haje of Africa, probably the Asp or Aspic of Cleopatra ; its color is black- ish-brown, with a shining, slaty hue around the head. Its bite is very deadly, and poison is distilled from its fangs when it is irritated. One species, the Spitting-Snake, has the power of ejecting its venom to the distance of a few feet. The jugglers of Grand Cairo have the art of taming the Ilaje, and teaching it to dance for the amusement of the people, first, no doubt, de- priving it of its fangs. The habit this serpent has of erecting itself when approached, led the ancient Egyptians to regard it as the guardian of the places it inhabited. Hence they made it the emblem of the divinity which they supposed to protect the ^yorld, and accordingly sculp- tured it in their temples, on each side of a globe. It is a curious fact that the jugglers of Egypt, at the present day, are accustomed to throw this serpent into a state of catalepsy by pressing the nape with the fingers. In this case it becomes stiff and immovable, like a rod. Probably the magicians of Egypt, in the contest yviih Moses before Pharaoh, according to Exodus vii. 9-12, only performed this trick. Other African species of Naia are the i\^ Hamachatcs and 2^. rhomheata, both resembling the preceding, and found at the Cape of Good Hope. The Cobra di Capello, that is Adder of the Hood, is a name given by the Portuguese to a species common in India and Ceylon, iT. tripudians. It resembles the Haje, but is found from five to ten feet long. It is marked on the back of the neck with a figure resembling a pair of spec- tacles, whence it is called the Spectacle- Snake, and Serpent a lunettes by the French. It is an active and deadly species, but the jugglers of India teach it to dance and keep time to music ; they also handle it, probably having first extracted its fangs. The Hindoos liave many super- stitions respecting this serpent, and even believe that the Deity sometimes assumes its form. In some of the temples it is an object of worship, being carefully fed with milk and sugar by the priests. ^^ hen thus treated it becomes quite tame. It seems to have a love of music, and will often come out of its hole to listen to a tune on the pipe or flageolet, played by the snake-charm- ers. These persons are often employed by the people of India to rid their houses of these ser- pents, which is done by enticing them out of their holes by their music, and killing them as soon as they appear. In a wild state, this species is an object of general dread. The mungoos, or moongus, a species of ichneumon, is its deadly enemy, and often destroys it. The following account, recently ftirnished by a British ofiicer in Hindostan, gives a thrilling picture of an in- cident of this nature : " A short time anterior to the recent mutiny in India, I commanded a little detachment of CLASS III. EEPTILIA: OllDER 4. OPHIDIA. 393 \ THE NAIA HAJE. native infantry at Condapilly, in the Northern Cicars. From having once been a town of con- siderable importance, it has dwindled to a very inferior rank, and the hill-fort, at one period of considerable strength, now presents nothing but a meager skeleton of its past celebrity. Tower- ing high above the little esplanade on which the humble range of barracks which sheltered the detachment was raised, the mountain was accessible at only one point, where a winding track — the remains of a flight of stone steps now in complete dilapidation — formed a steep ladder, up which I have often toiled at early dawn, eager to watch the rising sun from the topmost pin- nacle— a sight that amply repaid me for the fatigue of half an hour's climbing. There, crumb- VoL. IT.— 50 394 VEllTEBRATA. lini' pieceimal l>i-iH'atli tlif foot ><( time, lay mouklerinf; an ancient building of Moorish archi- tecture, 8tili suggest inir, by its extensive ruins and palatial structure, recolleetions of the Mahoni- etun prowess which, so far back a-s 1711, had wrested the province of Condapilly from the liands of the Hindoos, " .\ long but sleepless night in sultry March had fevered my blood, as one morning, ere yet a single individual was stirring about our (juartcrs, 1 strolled toward the mountain gorge, and had stund>le«l almost to the top of the steep acclivity before the faint flush of dawn had roused the sentinel, whose call awoke the solitary pair of musicians of our party, a drummer and fifer, to sound the rerrille. In ten minutes more I stood panting on the summit of the rock, gazing thii-stilv on the scene beneath me, where Asiatic beauty winded slowly before me, like a glori- ous ri\cr, whose changeable ^\at(•l■s the eye tired not of drinking. I had no fear of thief or Thug, for a late excursion in the district behind me had assured me of safety; but nevertheless I started violently when, from the branches of a stately peepul tree that grew close by, a dark fiirurc, that seemed of human proportions, leaped with a jibbcring cry upon the ground. " 1 had no i^rcat reason to be alarmed, for I saw^ not a man, but a monkey — one of those long- legged, brown monkeys, with white-streaked faces, that abound among these heights, and which, probably little less startled than myself, receded as I advanced, jibbering its dissatisfaction at my intrusion. At the foot of the peepul tree, throwing up its rich white petals, that shed around a sweet but sickening odor, grew a magnificent plant of the datura; and as I stooped to pluck it, a rustle in the underwood beyond, follow^ed by an acute, sharp scream, wliich I ascribed to my friend the monkev, arrested my hand. I had judged correctly ; but I had underrated the num- ber of mv early companions. AVith a spring that brought it almost to my feet, making me in my turn retreat, the monkey lay moaning, and, as I thought, violently convulsed among the grass; nor did I at the moment perceive, Avhat indeed I discovered with a degree of horror, that around its body Avas twisted a gorgeously -spotted snake — the cobra di capello! I wish I could describe the maddened contortions of the monkey, as, writhing beneath the straining coils of the reptile, it rolled on the grass in vain efforts to rid itself of its deadly assailant. The piteous gaze of its eves, as they wistfully looked up into my face, was eloquent with a summons for help which I was by no means inclined to resist. Whether the snake had bitten it or not I could not guess, for it seemed to me as if it were merely playing with the animal — that fatal game which the cat plays with the mouse ! But I shouted, and threw a stone, and then seizing a withered branch that lay on the ground, I advanced to the charge. The monkey, which at another time would have tied at my approach, now remained perfectly motionless, as if it awaited certain succor. But the serpent, aroused to the cognizance of an assailant by a smart blow on the head, instantly inflating its horrid crest into that hood-like form which renders it so appall- ingly hideous, gave vent to a loud hiss that seemed brimful of passion. ''Again and again I struck at it; nor was it without a cold thrill through my veins that I saw it disengage itself from the monkey ; but fur from attempting to make its escape, as I conjectured it would do, it turned itself, half erect, toward me, and with a fluttering hobble — like the hopi of a bird whose wings have been broken — it leaped, with forked tongue protruded, right in myl very path 1 There was no time for thought ! My stick was neither strong nor long, I could see the venomous eyes burn like fire, and the colors of its swelling neck glow more deeply, as it prepared to spring again ; and I was fairly on the point of making my retreat, by plunging, atj all hazards, down the rock behind me, when a shrill, chirruping cry, somewhat like that of al guinea-pig, was heard, and suddenly an elegant little creature, which at the moment I was well] nigh ready to spiritualize into a good genius, sprang upon the serpent with a bound of lightsomej ferocity, w Inch reminded me of the swoop of a kite upon a water-rat. " It was a mungoos ! And now% indeed, a combat took place which fixed me to the spot with! mute admiration ; but not very long. Once or twice it seemed to me that the mungoos was! bitten, but it might not have been so, for the velocity of their movements, as, clinging together, , the snake and its foe rolled over and over among the long grass, prevented minute observation. , It is asserted that, when bitten by a snake, the ichneumon retires for a moment to eat of some! unknown plant, capable of rendering null the viperine venom ; but on this occasion nothing THE ]I O O D E D S E I? I> E X T . CLASS III. REPTILIA: ORDER 4. OPIIIDIA. 395 of the sort occurred. The mungoos left not the conflict for a breathing-space ; and at the end of about ten minutes, the cobra di capello lay dead, torn and mangled piecemeal by the little animal, which frisked and danced about, with a purring sound, iu a perfect frenzy of enjoyment. " As I held out my hand, actually believing, in the enthusiasm of the moment, that it would approach to receive my caresses, the mungoos, giving a bright, quick look at me, stamped its tiny feet briskly on the relics of the serpent, as if in scorn of its victim, and disappeared among the brushwood. I had forgotten the poor monkey. I found it stretched out, stiff and stark, among the datura flowers. The mungoos had come too late !" There appear to be several other species of this venomous genus in India and the contiguous islands, as the JV. Bungarus of Java and Sumatra ; the N. Bungaroidcs^ a somewhat smaller spe- cies, found in the same countries ; the N. jwrphyrica and N. curta, natives of Australia, &c. Genus HAMADRYAS : Hamadryas. — To this belong several species of hooded serpents, re- sembling the cobra di capello, one of which is the Sunkr Choar or Great Hooded Tree-Snake of India, //. ophiophagus ; their poison is, however, less active, though generally fatal. They are said to feed on other serpents ; it is probable that the accounts given of very large cobras, meas- uring from ten to fifteen feet, refer to species of hamadryas. There are several other genera of Viperida^ according to Dr. Gray, as Daboia, Uchis^ and Sepedon. Some belong to Asia, but the greater part to Africa. THE COLUBRmA. Nature seems to have delighted in the form of the serpent, for it is not only multiplied exceed- ingly throughout the warm parts of the earth, but these animals are greatly diversified in their endowments. Some are of enormous size and power, others are not larger than a withe ; the most vivid colors, green, red, and yellow, are bestowed on some, while others are of somber black or brown ; many have poisonous fangs, and inflict death by their bite ; others, and nuich the larger number, are harmless. The Colubrina, especially, are numerous, and, comprising ser- pents of very different attributes, have been very differently arranged by naturalists. Not attempting to follow any of these systems, we shall only present brief descriptions of some of the most interesting groups belonging to this division. THE BICOLOUED SKA-S.NAKK. THE HYDRIDiE, OR SEA-SNAKES. Tliese are confined to the seas of Asia, and the Asiatic and Polynesian Islands, seldom even ascending the mouths of rivers. It is said, indeed, that they cannot live in fresh water, but this is probably a mistake, as they are air-breathing animals, and visit the shore, where, in fact, they deposit their eggs. They are often seen at sea asleep, and are then easily captured. They VERTEBRATA. are i«xooodiii','lv vt-nomous, ami arr iiuk'Ii .In ay the fishermen, in wliose nets they arc not unfre.jiHMitly caiiLcht. They rarely exceed lour leet in lenjrth. Uauts ri'li.A.MIS: /'ilniiils. — This iiiclinles the ]>icoloued Sea-Snake, P. hicolor, found nU>n-' the islands of tlie I'a.'ifie. Oe.an, especially in the vicinity of Tahiti, where its flesh is eaten l>v the natives. Anotlier species, the J\ onia/a, is found in the region of Borneo. The IIankki) Ska-Snakk, C/icrsi/drus f/rcmidatus, inhabits the bottoms of saline creeks ami ditches ill Java; it is exceedingly venomous. Then' are several other ixenera, according to Dr. Gray, as the Lnpemis, Aluria, Microcephalophis, Kiihinlriud, J/i/(iroj)liis, ('hituliu, Krrilia, A'c., Couiid along the coasts of Asiji, and of the Asiatic Islands. TIIH FRESH-WATER SNAKES. The.sc are more numcrotis tliaii lli<' preceding group, the species being distributed over all the tropical re«;ions of the earth ; they are especially abundant in India, China, the Asiatic Isles, the West Indies, and South America. Several species arc common in the United States. Gvntis C'KKl USUI'S: Cerberus. — This includes the Karoo Bokadam of India, C. cinereus; it is three and a half to four feet long, its body covered with im- bricated scales ; color dark gray above ; dark yellow beneath. It has no poisonous organs ; found in India. There are other species of Bokadam in Borneo, the Philippine Isles, and Aus- tralia. Genus TROPIDONOTUS : Tropidonotus. — The animals of this genus possess the power of elevating the ribs, and thus flat- ten the body ; they are consequently able to swim well ; some, in fact, live mostly in the water ; others, though living on the land, are more or less aquatic. The species best known in this country is the Common Water-Snake, T. sipedon, from two and a half to four feet long ; body robust, color variable, but usually dark brown above, sides mahogany color, beneath white, varied with reddish. It generally lives in water, and is often seen along the borders of rivers and lakes, sometimes coiled upon a stick on the margin. It is of a sullen, threatening aspect, but is entirely harmless. It feeds on frogs and fishes, and is often called the Water-Adder. It is found in the Middle and Eastern States and in Ohio ; probably its range is still more extensive. The Tropidonotus fasciatus resembles the preceding; it lives most of its time in the water, or about the banks of ponds and rivers, feeding upon frogs and other small reptiles. It swims with great rapidity, and hundreds of them may be seen darting through the water in all dii-ections, constantly protruding their tongues as if to feel the objects before them. It is a bold species, and is often seen in summer on the lower branches of trees overhanging the water ; found in the Southern States. The Copper-Belly, T. erythrorjaster, is four feet long, brownish red above, and bright copper color below ; habits like the preceding ; found in the Carolinas. The T. taxispilotus is a large water-snake, found in South Carolina and Georgia. The T. niger is a rare species, found in New England. The T. rigklus is found from Pennsylvania to Mississippi. The Common Striped-Snake, T. slrtalis of Holbrook, T. tcenia of De Kay, is two to four feet long, color greenish-brown, with three light-colored stripes along the body, the colors varying in shade ; the tail is short and rapidly slopes to a point. It is one of our most common species, and is found from Canada to the Southern States ; vast numbers are devoured by hawks and owls. It is abundant in Ohio, where it is eaten by hogs, and also, it is said, by fowls, ducks, and turkeys. It feeds on frogs, toads, and the smaller quadrupeds ; it is timid, and seeks retreat THE KAROO BOKADAM. CLASS III. REPTILIA: ORDER 4. OPHIDIA. 39T from man; wlieii irritatcil, it brandishes its tongue in a threatening manner. It is not venomous, but if taken in the liaiitl it will sometimes bite, inflictino; a troublesome thouijh not dantrerous wouiiil. It takes to the water readily in pui'suit of its prey, and chiefly affects lnw marshy places, though it is sometimes found in elevated districts. It is often met with in great numbers, and sometimes in company with i-attlesnakcs under peat moss, at a sufficient depth to protect it from the frost. It passes under the various names of Green Garter-Snake^ Stone Garter^ Swamp Garter, Water Garter, and Strijted Adder. There are some other species of this genus in tlie United States, as the Yellow-Bellied Snake, T. leberis, two to three feet long; found in the Middle States; and the Small Brown Snake, T. De Ka>ji, about fifteen inches long, of a reddish-brown color, and living in or near water ; found in Massachusetts and Louisiana. THE TREE-SNAKES. There are many serpents of very slender form, which, while living more or less on the land, frequently ascend trees, especially in pur- suit of their prey. They are generally nimble, hannless, and beautiful species. " The whole of the serpents compos- ing these genera live," says Mr. Bell, " in woods, entwining themselves among the branches of trees, and gliding with great rapidity and elegance from one to another. These habits, combined with the graceful slenderness of their form, the beautiful metallic reflection from the surfiice in some species, and the bright and change- able hues in others, place them among the most interesting of the serpent tribe. Their food consists of large insects, young birds, and so forth, which the extraordi- nary size of the head, the width of the gape, and the great dilatability of the neck and body, enable them to swallow, notwithstanding the small size of these parts in a state of rest. In a specimen in my possession, the length of which is four feet nine inches, the diameter of the neck is hardly two lines. When the skin is distended either by food or during inspira- tion, the scales are separated from each other, and the skin, which is of a difterent color, becomes ^■isible in the interstices, producing a curious I'eticulated appear- ance. Notwithstanding the poisonous m.ark was affixed by Linnfcus to the only species of Dryinus known to him, Coluber mycterizans, it is well ascertained that they are all of them perfectly harmless ; and it is asserted of that species that the children are in the habit of taming and playing with them, twin- ing them round their necks and arms, and that the snakes appear pleased at being thus caressed." Genus DRYINUS; Dryinus.—To this belongs the Golden Tree Snake, D. aicratus, four to five feet long ; color yellowish-gray, gleaming Avith a pale golden hue, and dotted with whitish and black ; native of Mexico. There are several other American species. THE GOLDEN TREE SNAKE. 398 VERTEBRATA. THK PDRPLE LEPTOPHIS. Genus LEPTOPHIS : Leptnphis. — Of this there are several species, noted for a slender body and a lonij, slender tail. The Ribbon-Snake, L. saiirita, is two feet long; color brown; body marked with three yellowish stripes. It is exceedingly nimble, climbs trees, feeds on toads, frogs, and insects, and is found in the New England, Middle, and Western States. There are several varieties. The Green Snake, L. cestivus, three feet long ; bright golden-green above, and yellowish-white beneath ; it is easily tamed, so as to eat from the hand ; found in some of the Middle and South- ern States. The Purple Leptophis, L. pm-purascens, is of a violet color, passing into green, with a golden luster. Found in India. One or two similar species are met with in Australia. Genus DIPSAS : Dipsas. — This includes several species, also noted for the slenderness of their THE DIPSAS CTANODON. form; the head, however, is very large in proportion to the body. The Dipsas cyanodon, which may serve as an example of the genus, is harmless, arboreal in its habits, and found in India. Genus DENDROPHIS: Dendrophis.—T^hh includes the D. akcefulla, four to five feet CLASS III. REPTILIA: ORDER 4. OPlIIDIA. 399 THE HERPETON TENTACULATUS. long, with an elongated snout, and a head much larger than the body ; found both in India and Africa. Genus HERPETON : Herpeton. — This includes a very curious species, H. tentaculatus, the muzzle of which is furnished with two soft prominences, covered with scales, the use of wliieh is not ascertained. The tail s long and pointed; little is known of the habits of this species. PINE-SNAKE, COACH-WHIP SNAKE, &c. Genus PITUOPHIS : Pituophis.— This includes the Pine or Bull-Snake, F. me- lanoleucus, seven to eight feet long ; body milky white, clouded with black oblong blotches ; abdomen pale cream-color ; feeds on rabbits, squirrels, and birds ; common from Maryland to Florida. It is the largest species in the United States, except the Gopher-Snake. Genus PSAMMOPHIS: FsammopMs. — To this belongs the Coach- Whip Snake, F. Jlagelliformis, five to seven feet long ; glossy black above, bluish-slate beneath. It is remarkable for the swiftness of its motions ; feeds on young birds, and de- rives its name from the formation of the tail, which resembles whip-cord ; found in South Caro- lina, Georgia, and Florida. Genus CORONELLA : Coronella. — This includes several species. The Chain-Snake, C. getula, is three and a half to four feet long ; the ground color rich raven-black, beautifully marked with twenty-two white transverse bars. It lives in moist places, and feeds on moles, small birds, and lizards ; common in the Carolinas. The Coronella Sayi, color bluish-black, tinged with violet above, has each plate and scale marked with a milk-white spot ; length four feet ; is found along the valley of the Mississippi. The C. rhombo-maculata, of a chestnut-brown above, salmon-color beneath, is thirty inches long, and found in Georgia and Alabama. The C. doliafa is a very small but brilliantly colored species, fifteen inches long; scarlet, marked with black rings, above ; beneath white ; found in Carolina and Georgia. Genus HELICOPS : Melicoj^s. — This includes two species, the H. erythrogrammus and H. abacurus, both beautiful species, and found in the Southern States. Genus BRACIIYORRHOS : Brachyorrhos. — This includes the B. amcenus, ten to twelve inches long; light chestnut-brown above, salmon-color below; found in the Atlantic States from New Hampshire to Florida ; also in Mississippi and Louisiana. Genus RHINOSTOMA : Rhinostoma. — This includes the Scarlet Snake, R. coccinea, eighteen inches long ; body bright vermilion, marked with black bands ; found in the Atlantic Southern States. Genus HETERODON : Heierodon. — The animals of this genus have the power of fiattening the head and body even more than those of the genus Tropidinotus, and in which respect they approach the Cobra di capello. To this belongs the Hog-Nose Snake, H. simus, fourteen to fifteen inches long; the nostrils lateral, and near the snout ; color light gray, with a triple series of dusky or black spots, varying in form and size ; found about the sea islands of Georgia and South Carolina. The Black Viper, II. niger, has nostrils like the preceding; eighteen inches long; color black above ; beneath bluish-slate color ; lives in pine-barrens, and is harmless, but its hiss is said to be frightful ; is found in the Southern States. ■iuo VEKTEBRATA. Tlu" J/, phti/rhliios, also .-ailed J/»;/-Snakc, is thirty in.-lics lonjr ; color iron-gray or brownish- , v.Hmw; lives ill moist plai-es, aii THE COMMON RING-SNAKE OF EUKOPE. COLUBERS. Genus COLUBER : Coluber. — This includes a great number of non-venomous species. The Common S^fAKE of Europe, C. natrix, sometimes called Rinyed Snake — the Couleuvre of the French — frequents woods, bogs, and other sheltered situations in tlie vicinity of water. It is a hand- some species, three feet long, the female, as in all ophidians, being longer than the male ; above it is of a pale olive-color, spotted with black on the sides ; beneath whitish. It preys on insects, »vorms, small birds, mice, and frogs, the latter constituting its chief sustenance. In pursuit of these it often takes to the water. It deposits its eggs in warm, moist situations, where they are often found attached together in the form of a necklace. When excited it emits an intolerable odor. This, as well as other serpents, changes its skin once, and sometimes three or four times, a year. It is easily tamed, and can be taught to eat from the hand of one Avlio takes care of it. It is common in most parts of Europe. There are several other species of Coluber in Europe : the largest is the C. elaphis, found in Italy, the south of France, &c. ; it is six feet long, and is supposed by Cuvier to be the Boa of Pliny. The Black Snake, C. constrictor, is one of the most remarkable of our American non-venom- ous serpents, and is common from Canada to Mexico. It is of rather a slender form, shining black above, and slate-color beneath ; medium length four feet, sometimes as much as six feet. It feeds on frogs, toads, birds, and small quadrupeds. It is a bold, active, wild, and untamable animal. It climbs trees with facility in search of eggs and young birds. Audubon gives a description of a scene of this kind which he witnessed, in which a black snake attacked a nest of the brown thrush, but was vigorously repulsed by the parents, assisted by some of their feathered kindred. Its haunts are in dry, bushy woods ; it generally retreats from man, but sometimes will make THE BLACK SNAKE AND BROWN THRUSHES, CLASS III. REPTILIA: ORDER 4. OPIIIDIA. 401 a stand, and with gleaming eyes brandish its tongue, seeming, like a forked flame, to threaten the intruder. If a person, under such circumstances, takes to flight, the serpent will often o-ive chase, and sometimes, it is said, has coiled itself around the legs of the fugitive, and brought him to the ground. It is said, also, to kill its prey by coiling around it and crushing it to death, as is done by the boa-constrictor ; this does not appear to be correct, but as the snake has been found coiled around the feet and bodies of children, many fearful stories of its attempts to strangle them have been told. There is a popular idea that there is a variety of great swiftness, which fre- quently gives chase to man, to which the name Racer has been given. This is no doubt a mistake. The power of fascinating birds has been attributed to the black snake, but without foundation. The following vivid account of a deadly battle between two serpents, one of this kind and the other a common water-snake, is furnished by an English emigrant, who had settled in the West : " As I was one day sitting, solitary and pensive, in this primitive arbor, my attention was en- gaged by a strange sort of rustling noise at some paces distant. 1 looked all around without dis- tinguishing any thing, until I climbed up one of my great hemp-stalks, when, to my astonishment, I beheld two snakes of a considerable length, the one pursuing the other with great celerity through a hemp-stubble field. The aggressor was of the black kind, six feet long ; the fugitive was a water-snake, nearly of equal dimensions. They soon met, and, in the fury of their first encounter, appeared in an instant firmly twisted together ; and while their united tails beat the ground, they mutually tried, with open jaws, to lacerate each other. What a fell aspect did they present ! Their heads were compressed to a very small size ; their eyes flashed fire ; but, after this conflict had lasted about five minutes, the second found means to disenofao-e itself from the first, and hurried toward the ditch. Its antagonist instantly assumed a new posture, and, half creeping, half erect, with a majestic mien, overtook and attacked the other again, which placed itself in a similar attitude, and prepared to resist. The scene was uncommon and beauti- ful ; for, thus opposed, they fought with their jaws, biting each other with the utmost rage ; but notwithstanding this appearance of mutual courage and fury, the water-snake still seemed desirous of retreating toward the ditch, its natural element. This was no sooner perceived by the keen- eyed black one, than, twisting its tail twice round a stalk of hemp, and seizing its adversary by the throat, not by means of its jaws, but by twisting its own neck twice round that of the water- snake, he pulled it back from the ditch. To prevent a defeat, the latter took hold likewise of a stalk on the bank, and, by the acquisition of that point of resistance, became a match for his fierce antagonist. Strange was this to behold : two great snakes strongly adhering to the ground, mutually fastened together by means of the writhings which lashed them to each other, and stretched at their full length ; they pulled, but pulled in vain ; and in the moments of greatest exertion, that part of their bodies which was entwined seemed extremely small, while the rest appeared inflated, and now and then convulsed with strong undulations, rapidly following each other. Their eyes appeared on fire, and ready to start out of their heads. At one time the con- flict seemed decided: the water-snake bent itself into great folds, and by that operation rendered the other more than commonly outstretched ; the next minute the new struggles of the black one gained an unexpected superiority ; it acquired two great folds likewise, which necessarily extended the body of its adversary, in proportion as it had contracted its own. These eft'orts were alternate ; victory seemed doubtful, inclining sometimes to one side, sometimes to the other, until at last the stalk to which the black snake was fastened suddenly gave way, and, in conse- quence of this accident, they both plunged into the ditch. The water did not extinguish their vindictive rage, for by their agitations I could still trace, though I could not distinguish their attacks. They soon reappeared on the surface, twisted together as in their first onset ; but the black snake seemed to retain its wonted superiority ; for its head was exactly fixed above that of the other, which it incessantly pressed down under the water, until its opponent was stifled and sank. The victor no sooner perceived its enemy incapable of further resistance, than, aban- doning it to the current, it returned to the shore and disappeared." The Coluber ohsoletus is five feet long ; the anterior half of the body black above, with a line of red spots ; the posterior part lead-color ; beneath white, tinged with yellowish-red. Common in the vicinity of Council Bluff. Vol. II.— 51. 402 VERTEBRATA, TIjo Cobn-Snake, C. f/iiltntus, in four feet loiii;; liijlit lirown, with a reddish tinge, above; aloni; thi« hack u row of squarish brick-colored spots ; beneath silver-wliite, with irregular black .s(|uari-s. It conceals itst-if andeiaek and white; the abdomen is silver-white. It is a very handsome species, of a t^entie disposition ; feeils on tield-micc and insects. It approaches the habitations of man without fear, ami is hence sometimes called the House-Snake. It frequents dairies and cellars where milk is kept, and lience derives its common popular name. It is found in New England imtl the Middle States, and the "Western States north of latitude 37°, The lNni(;o or GoriiEK Snake, C. Couperi, is from eight to twelve feet long; color bluish-black above; slate-color beneath; an active and powerful species, perfectly harmless, but sometimes assuming a bold and threatening demeanor. It is often found occupying a hole with a species of tortoise called Gopher, whence one of its popular names. Common in the dry pine-hills south of the Alatamaha. It is the largest known species in the United States. The (.Jrass or Green Snake, C. vcnia/is, is a small species, twenty inches long, bright green above and yellowish-white beneath. It lives in meadows of high grass, feeds on crickets and grasshoppers, is perfectly harmless, and may be handled with impunity. It is common in the Southern New England and the Northern Middle States. The King-Snake, C. pitncfafi/.'^, is twelve or fourteen inches long; color grayish-black above; reddish-yellow beneath ; found in the Atlantic States from Maine to Florida. The Pilot Black Snake, C. Aller/kaniensis, six feet long, resembles the common black snake, and is said even to exceed that agile species in swiftness. Dr. De Kay thinks this has given rise to the current idea already alluded to, of a variety of the common black snake, on which the appel- lation of Barer has been bestowed. This species is found along the Alleghany Mountains as far south as Virginia. The Chicken-Snake, C. quarivittatus, is four and a half to five feet long ; of a greenish-clay color above, with four longitudinal brown bands ; beneath yellowish. It frequents the vicinity of houses, and is charged with devouring chickens. Found from North Carolina to Florida. TUE PYTHON. THE BOID^. We now come to the large serpents of tropical countries, which, on account of their enor- mous size and strength, are almost as much to be dreaded as the venomous species. We have CLASS in. REPTILIA: ORDER 4. OPHIDIA. 403 already alluded to the disposition of mankind to bestow idolatrous worship on serpents. That such creatures, endowed with powers which in a semi-civilized state of society must operate pow- erfully on the mind ; moving with freedom alike on the land, in the water, or among the trees ; at once wily, daring, and irresistible in their attack, graceful in their movements and splendid in their coloring — that they should be both dreaded and admired, and become the objects of super- stitious reverence, is scarcely to be wondered at. The ancient Mexicans regarded the Boa as sacred ; they viewed its actions with religious horror ; they crouched beneath the fiery glance of its eyes ; they trembled as they listened to its long-drawn hiss, and from various signs and move- ments predicted the fate of tribes or individuals, or drew conclusions of guilt or innocence. The supreme idol was represented encircled and guarded by sculptured serpents, before which were offered human sacrifices : " On a blue throne, with four huge silver snakes, As if the keepers of the sanctuary, Circled, with stretching neck and fangs display' d, Mexitli sate ; another graven snake Belted with scales of gold his monster bulk." Often, however, the divinity was represented in the form of a huge serpent with a human victim in his coils, or half-ingulfed in his horrid jaws ; and the priests had tame boas of great size, with which they were familiar, and which they suflfered to twine around them, thereby inspiring the people with wonder, fear, and servile obedience. Soiithey, in his poem of Madoc, has vividly depicted such an exhibition and its effects. Neolin, the priest of the snake-god, is a prisoner in the hands of Madoc and his party, when " Forth from the dark recesses of the cave Astounded at the powerful reptile's bulk. The serpent came : the Hoamen at the sight And that strange sight. His girth was as of man, Shouted ; and they who held the priest, appall'd, But easily could he have overtopp'd Relaxed their hold. On came the mighty snake, Goliath's helmed head ; or that huge king And twined in many a wreath round Neolin, Of Basan, hugest of the Anakim. Darting aright, aleft, his sinuous neck. What then was human strength if once involv'd With searching eye and lifted jaw, and tongue Within those dreadful coils! The multitude Quivering ; and hiss as of a heavy shower Fell prone and worshipp'd." Upon the summer woods. The Britons stood Tlie manner in which these huge serpents attack their prey, doubtless contributed to the awful impressions of their powers. Mr. Broderick thus describes the killing and devouring of a rabbit by a boa in the Tower Menagerie of London, and it may be remarked that this illustrates the mode of proceeding with all these larger serpents : " A large buck rabbit was introduced into the cage. The snake was down and motionless in a moment. There he lay like a log, without one symptom of life, save that which glared in the small bright eye twinkling in his depressed head. The rabbit appeared to take no notice of him, but presently began to walk about the cage. The snake suddenly, but almost impercep- tibly, turned his head according to the rabbit's movements, as if to keep the object within the range of his eye. At length the rabbit, totally unconscious of his situation, approached the am- bushed head. The snake dashed at him like lightning. There was a blow — a scream — and instantly the victim was locked in the coils of the serpent. This was done almost too rapidly for the eye to follow : at one instant the snake was motionless ; in the next he was one congeries of coils round his prey. lie had seized the rabbit by the neck just under the ear, and was evi- dently exerting the strongest pressure round the thorax of the quadruped ; thereby preventing the expansion of the chest, and at the same time depriving the anterior extremities of motion. The rabbit never cried after the first seizure ; he lay with his hind-legs stretched out, still breath- ing with difficulty, as could be seen by the motion of his flanks. Presently he made one des- perate struggle with his hind-legs ; but the snake cautiously applied another coil with such dex- terity as completely to manacle the lower extremities, and in about eight minutes the rabbit was quite dead. The snake then gradually and carefully uncoiled himself, and finding that his victim moved not, opened his mouth, let go his hold, and placed his head opposite to the fore part of the rabbit. The boa generally, I have observed, begins with the head ; but in this instance the •It 14 VEUTEBRATA. THB PYTHONESS OP THE GARDEN OP PLANTS, COILING AROUND HER EGGS. serpent, having boLTini with the fore-legs, was longer in gorging his prey than usual, and in con- sequence of the difficulty presented by the awkward position of the rabbit, the dilatation and secretion of lubricating matter were excessive. The serpent first got the fore-legs into his mouth ; he then coiled himself round the rabbit, and appeared to draw out the dead body through his folds ; he then began to dilate his jaws, and holding the rabbit firmly in a coil as a point of resistance, appeared to exercise at intervals the whole of his anterior muscles in pro- truding his stretched jaws and lubricated mouth and throat, at first against, and soon after grad- ually upon and over his prey. Tlie curious mechanism in the jaws of serpents which enables them to swallow bodies so disproportioned to their apparent bulk, is too well known to need description ; but it nuiy be as well to state that the symphysis of the under jaw was separated in this case, and in others which I have had an opportunity of observing. "When the prey was completely ingulfed, the serpent lay for a few moments with his dislocated jaws still dropping with the mucus which had lubricated the parts, and at this time he looked quite sufficiently dis- gusting. He then stretched out his neck, and at the same moment the muscles seemed to push the prey further downward. After a few eftorts to replace the parts, the jaws appeared much the same as they did previous to the monstrous repast." Of the actual size of the larger serpents we have various accounts. Livy, the ancient historian of Rome, tells us of a serpent one hundred and twenty feet long, which was met with by the Roman army under Regulus, on the banks of the river Bagrada, in Africa, near Utica, and which devoured many of the soldiers. It was finally slain by military engines, which hurled heavy stones upon it. Its carcass was so enormous, that when it decayed, it tainted the whole atmo- sphere, and compelled the army to remove its encampment to a distance. The story is told with so much particularity that we cannot reject it. Another account is furnished of a ser- pent sixty-two feet in length which not many years since attacked a sailor in a boat on the coast of the Bay of Bengal, and was killed by the crew. At the present time, it appears that ser- pents of from twenty to thirty feet are not uncommon in the tropical portions of Asia, Africa, and South America. Genus PYTHON : Python. — This includes the largest known serpents, which are found only in India and the islands of the Indian Archipelago. They frequently ascend trees, and lie upon the branches in a position which enables them readily to drop upon any unfortunate animals that may pass their station; and both these and the boas are said often to cling by the tail to some tree growing in the water, where they float upon the surface nearly at full length, lying in wait for creatures that may come to the water to drink. They prey upon animals of such bulk as would CLASS III. REPTILIA: ORDER 4. OPIIIDIA. 405 R»-;:r.::^viiK BOA CONSTEICTORS ATTACKING A DEEE. seem to render their swallowing tliem a matter of impossibility ; yet, according to some writers, they can destroy and gorge a hufFalo ; but specimens capable of such feats of voracity appear to be rarely met with, although there is no doubt that a good-sized Python will easily SAvallow a goat or calf. The victim is destroyed by powerful compression, effected by the snake coiling its body round it, and then gradually tightening the folds. In this manner the body of the animal is reduced to a state fit for being swallowed, and this operation usually takes a considerable time. After being thus gorged with its meal, the serpent retires to some sheltered retreat, where it lies in a torpid state for some Aveeks ; nor does it resume its activity till the digestion of its enor- mous repast is complete, and hunger returns to rouse it again to action. There appear to be two species of Python, in both of which the female places her eggs in a group, and encircles and covers them with her body, an instance of which took place in the Garden of Plants of Paris a few years since, where a pair of these animals were kept. The Ular Sawad, p. reticulaius, is distinguished by the four front upper labial plates being pitted ; the frontal plate simple ; the head has a narrow longitudinal brown stripe. It is one of the most brihiant species of the whole family, its entire body being covered with a gay lacing of gold and black. It is a native of Hindostan, Ceylon, and Borneo. Several stuifed specimens are in the British Museum, and a living one in the gardens of the Zoological Society. It is said to increase till it is more than thirty feet in length, and stout in proportion. The powers of such a gigantic reptile must be enormous, and it is stated that this serpent is able to manage a buffalo. Nor are there wanting horrible instances of man himself having fallen a prey to these monsters, in modern times. We are told that a Malay proa was anchored for the night under the island of Celebes. One of the crew had gone on shore to search for betel-nut, and is supposed to have fallen asleep upon the beach from weariness, on his return. In the dead of the night his com- panions on board were roused by dreadful screams ; they immediately went ashore, but they came too late; the cries had ceased, and the wretched man had breathed his last in the folds of an enormous serpent, which they killed. They cut off the head of the snake, and carried it, together with the lifeless body of their comrade, to the vessel. The right wrist of the corpse bore the marks of the serpent's teeth, and the disfigured body showed that the man had been crushed by the constriction of the reptile round the head, neck, breast, and thigh. The serpent which attacked the sailor in a boat on the Bay of Bengal, of which we have just spoken, was of this species. The Rock-Snake, P. molurus, is generally known by the name of tlie Boa Constrictor, though it is strictly a python. It grows to a great size, and resembles the preceding in its habit-s. Specimens of this have frequently been seen in the menageries. It is a native of Hindostan and other parts of Asia, and also of Java. 406 VERTEBRATA. Oetius II()KTrLIA: JIurtulia. — Of this is the Natal Rock-Snake, //. A^a^a^ensis, which lit tains an eiiorinous Hizo. 'I'ho (ItiNKA Rock-Snakk, J/. Srlxc, n'soiii])les the precodiiii; ; it is found in Western Africa, and is the Ftli.ih Sir/>eni worsliiped by the natives of Guinea. Tlic Royal Rock-Snake, H. rri/ia, is an inhabitant of ( Jaml>ia anil the contiguous country. Gams Kl'l( 'liATICS : Epicrutcs. — This includes several species, known under the general name of AfMiiui. The Tamaciilla IIiilia or Auoma, E. cenchria, appears to be the serpent worshiped bv the ancii-nt Mexicans. It is of gigantic size, and has its haunts in marshy places in the tropical parts of Soutii America; it susj»cnds itself l>y the tail to some branch of a tree overhanging the water, allowing the head and body to float upon the surface. In this situation it waits patiently till sonic animal comes near, when it darts upon it, crushes it in its folds, and devours it at leisure. The Hkown AnoMA, E. maurus^ resembles the preceding, and is a native of Venezuela. 6Vh»/s Xll'll(>S(.)MA : Xiphosoma. — This includes a single species, the Bojobi or Green Boa. This is a large and formidable serpent, whose bite produces lock-jaw, and is therefore often fatal. It is a native of tropical America. Oi'iuts BOA: Bwi. — Of this there are four species, all of which have been described as the Boa Constrictor. The true Boa Constrictor, B. constrictor, appears to be confined to Guiana and Brazil. Some authors consider it as the sacred serpent of the Mexicans. It is a gigantic species, and frequently devours deer, goats, and other quadrupeds of large size. Genus EUNECTES: Euncctcs. — This includes the Anaconda, E. murinus, though it is proper to observe that the term Anaconda, like that of Boa Constrictor, has been popularly ap- plied to all the more powerful serpents. This species is brownish, Avith a double series of black- ish-brown blotches down the back ; the lateral spots are annular and oscellated. When young it feeds on mice ; at maturity it devours goats, sheep, &c. Its provincial name signifies Deer- Swallower. It is found in Venezuela, where it is called Culehra de Agua. There are still many other genera and species belonging to the great family of Boidse. UIXDOO JUGGLER. CLASS IV. BATRACIIIA, 407 SKELETON or A FKOG. Class IV. BATRACIIIA. In descending from the higher to the lower forms of life, we now come to a class which, while still preserving the vertebrate organization, has certain curious modifications of structure, show- ing an approach to the fishes, and in some cases blending the fish and the quadruped, and even presenting the same species as a fish, having a tail and breathing by means of gills in infancy, and afterward rising at maturity to the dignity of four legs, and breathing the vital air by means of lungs. Though many or most of these animals live in the slime of ponds, rivers, and ditches, and are little esteemed by mankind, they present innumerable instances of admirable contrivance in adapting them to their situations, and these are, perhaps, the more striking as they are fre- quent deviations from the systems which nature has followed in the higher forms of existence and those with which we arc most familiar. The Batrachia are divided into five very distinct orders : the Anura, of which the Frog is the type, and in which the tail is wanting in the fully developed animal ; the Urodela, including the Salamanders and Tritons, breathing by lungs alone, and retaining the tail in the perfect state ; the Amphipneusta, including the Sirens, having two or four legs, and permanent gills ; the Apoda, with a vermiform body and no legs ; and the Lepidota, having a fish-like, scaly body, four simple limbs, and permanent gills. Though diff'ering in many important respects, all these animals agree in having a large mouth, the tongue usually of large size, the intestinal canal short, the liver large ; they all possess lungs, but during their young or larval condition they are furnished with branchiae, in some cases these being persistent through life. The heart is composed of three chambers — a single muscular ventricle, and two membraneous auricles ; but in some species the partition be- tween the latter is imperfect. The arterial bulb is surrounded by a distinct muscular coat, as we shall see in the Ganoid and Selachian fishes ; and from the continuation of this, the arteries running to the branchiae and lungs are given off". The Batrachia are all strictly oviparous animals, although in some species the eggs are retained in or upon the body of the parent until the young have attained a certain degree of development. As a general rule, the ova arc impregnated by the male at the moment of their leaving the abdo- men of the female ; the eggs are united by a glutinous matter into masses or long chains, whi(;h may be constantly seen floating in the waters frequented by these animals. They are essentially inhabitants of the warm parts of the earth, and abound particularly in tropical countries. 408 VERTEliKATA. OUDI-K 1. ANURA. Thi- animjils of this onlor, the name of whicli siixnifics tailless, have a short, squat body, four legs, tlio hinder ones the K)nj,'est, a lari;c mouth ; the skin naked and extremely dilatable, in some cases furnished with glands whi.-h secrete an acrid liquid; the eyes large and prominent; the iipper jaw usually armed with small hooked teeth ; the tongue, though sometimes wanting, generally of large size; the spinal column short, consisting, as a general rule, of eight verte- brie. flie habits arc various, many living habitually in the water, while others only visit that clement for depositing their ova, which give origin to tadpoles, the development of which we shall hereafter notice. AVe shall describe these animals under three heads : Ranid^, or Frogs, BuFONiD-«, or Toads, an'.,nder, M. Alleffhaniensis. It is one to two feet long, dark slate color, feeds on worms, crawfish, fishes, and aquatic reptiles. It is very vora- cious, and nothing it can master is spared. It is dreaded by the fisherman, and is believed to be poisonous ; the popular notions of it are expressed in the various names of Mud Devil, Ground Puppy, and Young Alligator. It in- habits the Ohio and its tributaries, and also the Alleghany river. THE ALLEGHANY HELL-BENDER. ORDER 3. AMPHIPNEUSTA. In this the animals have a naked skin, an elongated body produced into a permanent tail, and the limbs more or less developed. They have also permanent branchial organs, which project from the sides of the neck. They are divided into two families, the Sirenid.e and Proteid^. THE SIEENID^. These have only two legs ; the body is long and somewhat cylindrical. Genus SIREN : Siren. — To this belongs the S. lacertina of South Carolina and Florida ; _ __ two feet lona:, black above and dusky beneath. '''•*^ "^^ ^^ -"^-^^ '**^ It is of an eel-like form, lives in the muddy water of the I'ice swamps, and feeds on worms and insects. There are several smaller spe- cies in the same regions. THE PEOTEIDJE. These have a compressed tail, large branchiae and four legs. Genus HYPOCIITHON : Hypochtlion.— To this belongs the Proteus of Europe, H. anquinus. a foot long, and of the size of a man's finger; it is generally flesh-color, but sometimes white ; the eyes are small and hidden beneath the skin, the legs four, small and weak. It swims easily, with a leech-like undulation of the body. It is found in the muddy waters of certain caves in Carinthia, Austria, several hundred feet below the surface. The eyes are useless for vision ; when in captivity this creature avoids the light and seeks dark places. Genus MENOBRANCHUS : Menobranchus.— To this belongs the Banded Proteus, M. lateralis, one to two feet long, body cylindrical and smooth, color brownish, spotted with black; Vol. II.— 53. THE SIREN LACERTINA. 418 VERTEBRATA. ci.imii.'ii ill tin- ». ^tcni waters of \e\v York, aii.l in tlioso of Oliio. It is popularly called tlic Big Water Lizard. Genus SIREDON : Sin-don.— To this bc'loii^'s the AxoLOTL of Mexico, S. jjinciforuw, ten to fifteen inches long, of a hrownish or fjrayish color, spotted with Mack. On cacji side of the neck tliere is a large aper- ture, "within ■which there are branchial arches: there are also projecting branched gills attached to the oper- cula or flaps, which close these ori- fices. It is common in the Lake of Mexico, and also in the lakes of the neighboring mountains. It is cook- ed like eels, and is regarded as a great luxury. It was so plentiful at the time of Cortez' invasion that he is said to have fed liis army up- on it. THE AXOLOTL. ORDER 4. APODA. The term xVpoda signifi!es without feet. The animals belonging to this order, in the form of the bodv, closely resemble large earth-worms ; they are totally destitute of limbs, and covered with a soft, viscous skin, which" is annulated and wrinkled, and contains numerous miiuite horny scales, exactly resembling those of fishes. They form a single family, the Coeciliidce, that is, Blind- worms, so called in consequence of the minute size and occasional absence of the eyes. They live in the tropical regions of both hemispheres, where they burrow in marshy ground, like earth- worms, in pursuit of the larvtie of insects, upon which they feed. The species generally measure from one to two feet in length ; but Cuvier states that he possessed the skeleton of a Cojcilia which was more than six feet in length, and contained two hundred and twenty-five vertebrae. THE LEPIDOSIREN PARADOXA, ORDER 5. LEPIDOTA. The name of this order signifies small-footed ; the animals belonging to it have a fish-like form, covered with scales laid over each other, like those of fishes ; the legs are simple styliform organs. The organization is, however, rather that of the Batrachia than that oi the fishes. Three species are known ; they are found in the fresh waters of the hot regions of South America and Africa. The South American species, Lepidosiren paradoxa, is between two and three feet in length ; another species, the L. annectens, about a foot long, is found in the river Gambia. During the dry season these creatures buiy themselves in the mud ; and one of them is said to make itself a sort of nest in which to pass the period of torpidity. In these burrows they await the return of the wet season, which recalls them to their aquatic life. The Gambiau species is said to pass nine months of the year in its torpid state. CLASS V. PISCES, 419 We have now eome to tlie fifth and last Class of the Yertebrata We have seen how this form of structure has been variously adapted to many kinds of animals that live upon the land, and those which spend a great part of their time in the air ; we have also noticed the curious modifications suited to animals that live in the water yet breathe the vital air, as well as those which are amphibious and partake somewhat of the two modes of respiration, by branchiae and lungs. But we now approach a class of innumerable species, to which the oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers are a perpetual home — those wliich live in the water and perish as speedily when taken from it, as the air-breathing animals would on being immersed in it ; those, in fact, which breathe exclusively by means of water instead of air. A Fish may be defined as a Vertebrate animal breathing through the medium of Avater, by means of branchia?, or gills, having one auricle and one ventricle to the heart, cold red blood, and extremities formed for swimming. In considering fishes, perhaps the most important thing which oft'ers itself to our attention is the breathing apparatus, called the branchice. They arc situated on each side of the neck, and consist of numerous laminaj fixed on arches. These lamina} are covered with innumerable blood-vessels, and are so constructed as to present a con- siderable surface to the water, so that the blood may receive a sufficient portion of the oxygen contained in that element. As the water in contact with the gills becomes deteriorated, it is necessary that a constant current be caused to flow over them. In most fishes this is effected 420 VERTEBKATA. l.y thfir takii.i,' til.- w.it.r in at tin- mouth au-l .xixlliMj,' it from under the gill-covers. The l>i».oA\\ whence it returns tu the heart by means of the veins. As till- breathini; apparatus in the fish is suited to jupiatic habits, so likewise is every part of its strurture. Thr bo.lv is tr.'ii. -rally .)f an elon_t,'atc, oval, compressed form, covered with scales din-.-t.-.l ba.-kwar.l, an'Tfurnishcl with fins, thus being beautifully adapted for swimming. Many Hshcs, moreover. iia\.- an s arc formed int.> fins, the f.)re-legs coustituting what arc termed the pectoral fins, and the posterior extremities the ventral \ besides these fin.s, ordinary fishes are furnished with one or two dorsal /ins, an anal fin, and a caudal ^fin, or tail. SKELETON OF THE PERCH. All these fins arc not always present, nor when present are they always in the same relative positions ; both the absence of certain fins, and the peculiar position of these organs, affoi'd characters in the classification of fishes. The fins consist of a thin elastic membrane supported by rays. The rays arc of two kinds : those which consist of a single bony piece, usually hard and pointed, are termed spinous rays ; and when they are formed of numerous portions of bone uiuted by articulations, and frequently divided longitudinally into several filaments, they are called flexible rays. The principal organ of motion is the tail ; the dorsal and ventral fins apparently sei've to balance the fish, and the pectorals to arrest its progress when re<]uircd. The bones of fishes are of a less dense and compact nature than in the higher order of animals ; in some, indeed, they are wholly cartilaginous. The skeleton may in general be divided into four chief parts — the Vertebral Column, the Head, the Respiratory Apparatus, and the Limbs. The Vertebral Column consists of vertebrjc which are concave at each end and pierced in the middle ; and when joined together the hollow space between each two is occupied by a gelatinous sub- stance, which passes from one space to the next through the hole in each bone. This hole is usually very small, but in some it is so large that the bones of the vertebrae are mere rings. To the vertebrae are attached the Ribs ; in fact the ribs are the main support of all the other bones. The Head varies more in form than in any other class of vertebrate animals. The same bones as those found in other oviparous animals are almost always traceable. The gills are fur- nished with an Operculum or Gill-cover, on each side, the function of which is to close the aperture in case of need, and thus protect those delicate and important organs. There are several bones adapted to this particular organization. The teeth in fishes are entirely osseous, and are usually of a simple spine-like form. The CLASS V. PISCES. 421 Scales are composed of two substances, one resembling horn in its texture, and the other of a harder and bone-like nature ; they are generally attached to the skin by the anterior edge, and con- sist of numerous concentric lamina?, secreted by the skin, tlie smallest of Avhieh are first formed. Certain scales, forming a continuous series, in a slightly-waved line from the head to the tail of the fish, are pierced in or near their center, and furnished with a tube through which a slimy matter is poured, which serves to lubricate the body of the animal. This series of tubes forms a line visible on the sides of the body, and which is termed the lateral line. The structure, form, and position of the scales of fishes are very variable, and have furnished M. Agassiz, in his celebrated Mecherches sur Ics Poissons Fossiles, with characters for a new classification of these animals. As regards the senses, the organs of which are as usual placed upon the head, those of Taste and Touch appear to be but slightly developed in fishes. AVhen we find the tongue thickly covered with teeth, as is often the case, and used as an organ of prehension, and when we con- sider the rapid manner in which the food is swallo-wed, it would certainly appear that their sense of taste is very slight. The sense of touch is probably most developed in the cirrhi attached to the mouth of those which possess them. The long filaments with which the fins of some fishes are fur- nished also perhaps serve, through the sense of touch, to indicate the vicinity of weeds, or other objects in the water. The Eyes are differently situated in the various species of fishes, in accord- ance with their habits; for the most part they are placed laterally, and in some, those that live at the bottom of the water, we find them directed upward. In some of the species of sharks they are situated at the end of an elongated lateral process on each side of the head. The Sight in fishes is acute ; the range of vision, however, is probably somewhat limited. The eyes, which are furnished with a spherical lens, are generally large, but in some species they are very small, while others are destitute of them. Although fishes appear not to possess certain portions of the auditory apparatus observed in animals of a higher grade, they nevertheless have the sense of Hearing in some degree. There are reasons for the belief that the sense of Smell in fishes is tolerably acute ; their olfactory nerves are of large size, and disposed over a consider- able extent of surface. By far the greater number of fishes are of carnivorous and predacious habits, attacking and destroying indiscriminately all the weaker inhabitants of the water, such as insects, worms, Crus- tacea, and mollusca, and devouring with avidity the smaller individuals of their own class. As there is no instinct to restrain the community of fishes, so there is no moral law to regulate it. Appetite and might are the only measures of conduct alike with the shark and the minnow. There are a few, however, which feed upon vegetable substances, and we find the stomach modi- fied accordingly, as in other animals. The Sexes of fishes, if we except the sharks and rays, offer no very decided external characters by which they may be distinguished ; as in the higher animals, however, observes Mr. Yarrell, " the respiratory organs occupy more space in the males than in the females ; and, on the other hand, the abdomen is larger in the females than in the males ; the males may therefore be known from the females by their somewhat sharper or more pointed head, the greater length of the gill-cover, and the body from the dorsal fin downward being not so deep compared with the whole length of the fish." The reproductive organs of fishes are in the generality of the species of a more simple nature than is observed in the higher orders of the Vertebrata, consisting, toward the season of producing their young, of two elongated oval lobes of roe, one on each side of the body, placed between the ribs and the intestinal canal ; the lobes in the female, called hard roc, contain a very large num- ber of roundish grains, called ova or eggs, which are inclosed in a delicate membraneous tunic or bag, reaching to the side of the anal aperture, where an elongated fissure permits egress at the proper time. In the males the lobes of roe are smaller than in the females, and have the ap- pearance of two elongated masses of fot, which are called soft roe or milt ; they remain firm, how- ever, till the actual season of spawning, when they become by degrees more and more fluid, and the whole is ultimately voided by small portions at a time, under slight abdominal pressure. The artificial breeding of fishes, now extensively practiced in Europe and America, is founded upon 422 VKKTEBKATA. tliU j'foiioiuv of the ii.-itinf ot" tlifsi- aiiiinuls, the cjrors of the female being taken to any desired lo«-ality and j»la<-i-d in the water, ami strown with tlic milt of the males. At the season for deposit in;; the spawn, wiiicli varies with almost every genus, some species repair to the gravellv shallows of rivers, and others to the sandy bays of the sea. This move- ment is railed l.y (ishennen "t/olnf/ to hi/f" or '^ roadiixj ;"' other species resort to bunches of weeds. The objeet of that remarkable instinct in fishes which induces many species, as the her- rinirs, pilchards, mackerel, A'c., to perform Ioiil; miniations, is doubtless to secure proper places in which to deposit tlu'ir spawn. The shad thus ascends our rivers in the spring, and the salmon in lik»' manner not only i)asses up the streams, but often, with an astonishing perseverance and vi'^or, shoots up cascades and waterfalls which might be supposed to present insuperable obstacles. In many instances, when ready to deposit her spawn, a female is accompanied by two males, one on each side — a provision of nature which seems intended to secure the impregnation of the lariTcst (piantitv of ova; and beside, the range of the influence of the male fluid is enormously in- creased by ditl'usion in water. The adhesive nature of the surface of each egg supplies the means of attachment to any of the various substances near wliidi it may happen to be left; tlie time required for the appearance of the young fish is very variable, depending upon the species, and the season ami its temperature. The young fisli is first apparent as a line wound round the central vitelline portion of the a^^'^, and ultimately escapes by rupturing the external capsule with its tail. The spawiung appears to take place only once a year. Many fishes, liowever, are what is called ovo-viviparous ; that is to say, the ova are retained within the oviduct until the complete evolution of the embryo. Tlie mode in which the impregnation of the ova is eft'ected in those cases is not exactly known. Fishes ap- I pear always to select shallow water ?j for the deposition of their ova ; but beyond this they do not genei'allv exhibit any care for their offspring. A few, however, form a sort of nest ' for the protection of their eggs and , young ; and in some instances, the I I male remains as a guard over the fiy until they have acquired suffi- -\ cient strength and agility to ven- ?! turc forth into the world. The little sticklebacks, common in h ponds, furnish an interesting ex- I ample of the exercise of this in- stinct. Similar instances of care for the 2)kice where the ova are de- : posited are furnished by the Eu- ii ropean river bull-head and the S^- 2: lump-sucker. Instances of attach- j-j ment between the parent fishes are 2;J also known among a few species. j The nundjer of fishes in the va- rious waters of the earth surpasses all human conception. Every pond, stream, river, and lake, as well as the ocean, covering three-fourtlis of the surface of our globe, swarms with these creatures. Such are the provisions of nature to maintain and multiply fishes, that streains which are dried up during the hot season are soon after supplied with abund- ance of these creatures, ow-ing, no doubt, to the hatching of eggs wdiich have been deposited in :\ NEST OP STICKLEBACKS. CLASS V. PISCES. 423 the sand, aiul arc vivified when the water returns. Excluding tlie infusoria, fishes arc of every size, from the shark to the minnow. Some of them move in shoals, which stretch out for miles, and surpass in numbers all human calculation. Not even the myriad insects of the earth and the air, upon the grasses, amid the flowers, on the leaves of the forests, at all approach in num- bers the varied inhabitants of the sea. Every part of their element is occupied, some habitually living on the surface, some in middle-water, and some on the bottom, a hundred fathoms deep, these kinds being technically called Surface, Mid-water, and Ground- Swimmers. We have no measures, no examples, upon the land, of such teeming animal life as is found in the sea. Shoals of fishes are often met with, so crowding the waters as to cause obstruction to boats. Eight millions of pilchards have been drawn ashore at a single draught !* AVho will attempt to calculate the numbers of these creatures, living story above story for five hundred feet, and extending over a surface of one hundred and fifty millions of square miles ? There are species suited to every temperature: the golden carp thrives at 80° of Farenheit; some species exist in hot springs at 120°, and Humboldt saw fishes thrown up alive and in apparent health from volcanos along with water and vapor, at 210° — two degrees only below the boiling point! On the other hand, perch and eels are often traijsported in a frozen state, and on being thawed, are instantly restored to life and activity. A gold-fish, frozen solid iu a marble basin, and ap- pearing crystalized with ice, if gently thawed out, resumes his pleasures and duties as if nothing had happened. Fislies not oidy aftbrd the chief resource for food to innumerable species of birds, Tiud even of quadrupeds, but they are of vital importance to man. In his savage state they often become his principal means of subsistence, and to civilized society the fisheries rise to the importance of national interests, protected by fleets, regulated by legislation, and made the subject of solemn international compacts. Fishes contribute not only to the solid necessities of man, but even to his luxuries and his amusements. They have their place in religion, and reconcile the members of " The Church" to its Friday's fasts and the long penance of Lent. On the other side of the Avater, the epicure gloats over his turbot, his sole, and his John Doree, and on this, over the sheep's-head, the tautog, and the attihawmeg. Fishes have their literature : Izaak Walton is as much a classic as Will Shakspeare, and Frank Forester as Ben Franklin. Despite Dr. John- son's definition of an angler, "a pole and line, with a fool at one end and a worm at the other,'' there are tens of thousands who find a calm delight in strolling with hook and line, along the nooks and crannies of the sea, or the winding, singing, and sauntering brooks of the land ; nay, the pensive fisher may often be moved to ecstasy when his skill is called into exercise by some crafty trout or dashing salmon. The professed sea-fisher of our country, who sets his sharp canvas in the teeth of the gale, and stretches away for the cloudy and tempestuous regions of the Grand Banks, or hugs more closely the capes of Cod and Montaug, casting his line into the inky waters, and drawing thence, as providence may decree, cod, haddock, and halibut — as well as the race of fishermen upon the coasts of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and still further north along the borders of Denmark and Norway — looking like amphibia, and braving the storm and the * The following table, made from very careful calculations, shows the relative fertility of several species of ovip- arous fishes, and also the amazing fecundity of them all: Fish. Weight. Weight roe. No. of Eggs. Date. Carp Codfish Flounder Herring Mackerel .... Perch Pike oz. drs. 25 5 0 0 24 4 5 10 18 0 8 9 56 4 10 61 2 0 14 8 40 0 2.571 12.540 2.200 .480 1.223 .765 5.100 .361 .149 5.422 263,109 3,686,760 1,357,400 36,860 545,631 28,323 49,304 81,586 33,278 100,362 389,252 April 4. Dec. 23. March 14. Oct. 25. June 18. April 5. " 25. May 2. March 21. June 13. May 28. Roach Smelt Sole Tench 424 V E U T E r. K A T A. ti'miK->t,niiil with tlioir divdixi's aiioth sides of the Atlantic. Ge7ius PRISTIS : Fristis.— To this belongs the Saw-Fish, P.an- tiquorum, fifteen feet long, having a body like the shark, but the snout being extended like the blade of a sword, with strong and trenchant teeth on both sides. This powerful weapon is sometimes five or six feet long, and with it these fishes often attack whales and inflict dreadful wounds. THE RAIID^. These animals are of a flat or depressed figure, the great breadth of the body being produced by the singular expansion of the pectoral fins. There is no distinct head ; the tail is long and slender, and furnished with two dorsal or upper fins, and sometimes with the vestige of a caudal fin. The mouth and branchial orifices are on the under surface. The texture of the skin varies; CLASS V. PISCES: ORDER 1. SELACHIA. 429 in some it is rasp-like, in others studded with tubercles or spines, with which latter the tail is always armed. These fishes, some of which attain to enormous dimensions, are admirably adapted by their form for existing at the bottom of the water on beds of sand or mud. AVhen disturbed they slide along in an undulatory manner, and with a slight motion of the pectoral fins. They defend themselves by lashing violently with the tail- They are very voracious, feeding on fishes and Crustacea, and upon shelleil or naked mollusks. Their teeth are flattened and lozenge-shaped, forming a serried phalanx of points directed backward. So powerful are the jaws that they are capable of crush- ing the shell of a crab with the greatest ease. The females exceed the males in size, as in the sharks : their eggs are corneous, and closely resemble those of the dog-fish. There are many species distributed over nearly all seas. Genus TORPEDO : Torpedo. — To this belongs the Electric Ray, T. vulgaris., called Cranip- Fish in England ; it is of considerable size, weighing from one to two hundred pounds. It is remarkable for an electrical battery situated between the pectorals and head and gills ; this is indicated by two elevations extending along the back, and consists of numerous cells formed like honeycomb, this being, as is the similar provision of the Gymnotus or Electric Eel, amply supplied with nerves. On being touched the animal imparts a severe electric shock, sufficient to stun its prey. It is found in the European waters, and probably also on this side of the Atlantic. There are about twenty species of this curious family in different parts of the Avorld, and all sup- posed to possess electrical powers. It is said that one species is found on our coasts. THE ELECTBIC RAY. THE BORDERED RAY. THE SKATE. Genus RAIA : Raia. — This incudes the True Rays, of which there arc several species which feed on fishes, mollusca, and Crustacea. The Bordered Ray, R. marginata, is two to three feet long, including the tail. The flesh is tolerably good; common on European coasts. Other species are the Homelyn or Spotted Ray, R. maculata ; Small-eyed Ray, R. microcellata ; 430 VEKTEBRATA. TOE THORNBACK. THE STING RAY. Starry Ray, R. radiata ; the Sharp-nosed Ray, R. oxyrhyiichus ; the Shagreen Ray, R. chaffrinea ; all found in the European waters. The Thornback, R. clavata, is noted for the excellent quality of its flesh, and is common on the European coasts. The prevailing color of the upper part, which is rough with small points, is dark brown, the under part Avhite, as is the case with most species of Ray. It is two to three feet long. The Skate, R. bails, is often called True Skate, to distinguish it from the Thornback and Homelyn, which are also called skate ; is not so common as these, but is superior to either for the table ; color above grayish brown ; under surface sooty white. The females of this as well some other Rays are called Maid in England. It is very voracious, and grows to a large size. Found in the European and American waters. There are several species of Ray found on our American coasts. The Smooth Skate, R. Icevis, five to six feet long, perhaps the same as R. batis of Europe, is caught on our coasts and sold in our markets. The Clear-nosed Ray, R. dinjyJiaucs, is two to three feet long, and is caught to- gether with codfish. Its flesh is not m\ich esteemed, but is eaten by some persons; common in our markets in March. The Prickly Ray, R. Americana, is two to three feet long, and resembles the R. batis already described. The Spotted or Ocellated Ray, R. ocellata, grows to the length of two or three feet ; it is common on our coasts, and is often caught with the hook. The Hedge-Hog Ray, R. erinaceus, is two to three feet long, and found on the coast of New Jersey. Genus 'PASTl'S AC A: Pastinaca.— This includes the Whip Sting Ray, P.hastata; has a long tail, armed with two or more spines. Found on our coasts. The Broad Sting Ray, P. maclura, is six to eight feet long, and ten to fifteen feet wide, with one or two spines on the tail, near the base. Found on the coast of Rhode Island. 6^e?(«s TRYGOX: Tn/r/on. — This includes the Sting Ray, T. pastinaca, \\h.\ch. is found on sandy ground in shallow water and not far from the land. Its tail is armed with a sharp spine five inches long, serrated on both edges, with which it lacerates its enemies. Its flesh is rank and disagreeable ; widely distributed in the European seas. There are several other species. Genus MYLIOBATIS : Myliobatis. — This includes the "Whip Ray, ^f. aquila, the Aiple de Mer of Cuvier. It derives its name from its long, slender, flexible tail ; and is called Eagle Ray from CLASS Y. PISCES: ORDER 2. GANOIDEA. 431 the wing-like form of the pectoral tins. It is three to five feet long; has a stino- measurino- three or four inches, and is found in the European seas ; common in the Mediterranean. Genus CEPHALOPTERA : Cephuloptera. — To this belongs the Sea Devil, or Ocean Vam- pire, C. vampirus, sixteen to eighteen feet long, and eighteen feet wide, and occasionally weio-hs three or four tons. It seizes the cables of small vessels, and sometimes drags them along with great swiftness for several miles. Found on our southern coasts. ORDER 2. GANOIDEA. The term Ganoidea is derived from the Greek r/anos, splendor, and v/as applied by Agassiz to a large number of fishes, mostly fossil, distinguished by the angular form of the scales, these beinf little value for food. Another family is that of the J'ohjpteriihc ; one sjierios, the Pohjpterus bichir, haunts the muddv bottom of tin- Nile ; it is eii,diteen inches lono;, and has sixteen dorsal fins. It is esteemed an fxi'i'llent li>h. Another species, P. Sencfjalus, found in the Senegal, has twelve dorsal fins. Of the Lej)t(losteid(r,\\n- only existing family is that of the Boni/ Pikes,t'onni\ in the rivers and lakes of the United States. They are of a long pike-like form, the jaws produced into a long narrow sn'>iif, presenting a reseniManee to that of the gavial. Their flesh is generally good. (niiun LHl'lI X )STI']rS : Z,<7.(/f/(>i7<'M,v, includes the Buffalo Ray-Pike, L. bison, two to three feet huig; found in Lake Erie and other lakes in that region. The Flat-nosed Ray-Fish, L. plati/r/ii/nchas, is about two feet long, and is found in Florida. There are several other species. ORDER 3. TELEO^EA. This extensive and important order derives its name from two Greek words, teleos, complete, and osteon, bone, and corresponds nearly with Cuvier's great section of Osseous Irishes. The skull is alwiiys of a very complicated structure, and composed of numerous bones ; the gills are supported upon free bony arches, and the water passes away from them by a single opening, protected by a bony operculum or gill-cover. The mouth is ah^^ays formed by a pair of rcfular jaws, and usually armed with teeth. Many are covered with naked skins, but the luajority have horny scales of various forms. We shall notice them under six divisions, as follows : the Plec- tognatha, Lopkobranchia, Acanthoptera, Phai-ynffognatha, Anacanthina, and Physostomata. THE PLECTOGNATHA. This term is compounded of two Greek words, plektos, united, and gnathos, a jaw, and alludes to the principal cluiracteristic of the group, the firm attachment of the bones of the upper jaw and palate to the cranium. The division includes many species, some of which are of very extraor- dinary appearance. Among them are the Trunk-Fishes, of which there are several species, cov- ered with an inflexible bony armor. TUE TUL'.NK FISH. THE SEA-PORCUPINE. The Dromedary Trunk-Fish, Lactophrys camelinus, three and a half inclies long, and Yale's Trunk-Fisii, Z. Valei, fourteen inches long, are found on our coasts. The Six-horned Trunk- Fish, Ostracion sex-cornutus, is found in the Gulf of Mexico. To this group also belong the Balistes, of which there are several species, having a thick, leathery skin, often beset witli spines. They chiefly inhabit warm climates, but one species,^ the Dusky Balistes, B.fuliginosus, twelve inches long, is found on our coast. There are also several species of this family, belonging to the genus Monocanthus, and called File-Fishes, com- mon in our seas. They are of various sizes, from four inches to two feet. One of them, the LoNG-FiNNED FiLE-FisH, J/, broccus, eight iuchcs long, is called the Fool-Fish, on account of its absurd manner of swimming, with a wriggling motion, its body being sunk and its mouth on a level with the surface of the water. It is common in New York harbor, and is often taken in nets set for other fishes. CLASS Y. PISCES: ORDER 3. TELEOSTEA. 433 The fishes of the genera Diodon and Teiraodon, popularly called Sca-Porcujmics, have a large air-bladder, which they inflate by swallowing air, till they appear almost like balls. They are also covered with spines which they erect at will. Several species of Diodon., called Bal- loon-Fish, are common in our waters. They are of very small size. Those of the genus Teira- odon are called Puffers: several species are met with in the American seas. The Common Puffer, T. turgidus, which has the various designations of Blower, Toad-Fisli, and /Swell-Fitsh, is six to twelve inches long ; is abundant on our shores, and is frequently taken by anglers seekino- for tautog. When taken out of the water it will puff itself up like a distended bladder ; the boys, in a spirit of cruel sport, sometimes throw a large stone upon it in this state, when it bursts with a loud explosion. Several known along the pennant's globe-fisu. other species are American coast. Pennant's Globe-Fish, T. Pennantii, is found in Europe ; it occasionally hap- pens that this, as well as other species, when they have pufted themselves up, lose their balance in the water, and float about, belly upward, in a most help- less condition. The sharp spines on their stomachs, however, protect them from their enemies. Pennant's Globe- fish is about eighteen inches long; a smaller kind, found in the Nile, T. line- atus, is said to have electrical properties, and occasionally being driven on shore, it dies and becomes dried, and is used for balls by the children A very small species of globe-fish is found on our coast. The largest species of this family is that of the Sun-Fisii or Short Sun-Fish, Orthagoriscus mola, which is almost of a circular foi-m, with long dorsal and anal fins, projecting like handles from its hinder parts. It at- tains a great size, sometimes as much as four or five hundred pounds' weight, and measures four or five feet in length. It has a silvery appearance, and at night is highly phosphorescent, whence it is called Sun-Fish, and in some places Moon-Fish. Its flesh is not good, but it yields consider- able oil. It is found on the coasts of Eu- rope and America. It is here often called Head-Fish. THE LOPIIOBEANCHIA. To this division, so called on account of the tufted gills of the species, belongs a single family, of very curious formation, bearing the name of Sea-Horse, one species of which is found in Europe — the Short-nosed Sea- HoRSE, HijJjwcamjms hrevirostris. These animals have a head of the shape of a horse, and a long tail without any fin, but which is used by the fish to lay hold of sea-weed and other objects. They are common in the tropics, and are often brought home by sailors. Vol. II. — 55. THE SHORT SUN-FISH. 434: TIh'V arc nsnallv of small size VERTEBRATA. I lib .st.\ aoiiSE. / THK PIPE-FISH. Mr. "\'arroll describes two specimens of the Short-nosed Sea-Horsc takon in England; they were about five inches lona;, and bcinu; put into a t^lass vessel swam about, their heads in a vertical j)(>siti<)ii, and their tails readily grasping the sea- weed put into the vase. ANlini the two approached each other, tliev ufteii twiiu'd their tails together. These little fishes arc very amusing in an aquarium. To the same family as the preceding belong the Pipe- Fishes^ which have a long, eel-like body, with the jaws united and forming a tube nearly cylindrical. The eggs of the female are cast by her into a sort of false belly be- longing to the male, and situated near the tail; here they are hatched, and here they occasionally take refuge like young opossums ! So apt are they to take to this retreat, that if the parent be caught and the young fry be shaken out of the pouch, they will innnediately return if the tail of the parent be held in the water. There are several species : the Great PiPE-FiSH, Syngnathus acus, which is found on the European coasts, is twelve to eighteen inches long. It lives on water insects, worms, and small moUusca, and swims horizontally or perpendicularly, in every atti- tude of contortion. THE ACANTHOPTERA. This sub-order includes those of the Acanthopterygii or Spiny-finned Fishes of Cuvier, which have the inferior pharyngeal bones distinctly separated. The rays of the first dorsal fin are always spinous, and the first rays of the other fins, excepting the caudal, are often of the same structure. The number of fishes belonging to this division is very great ; we shall notice them under the following heads: Aulostomida:, Trir/iUdoe or Cataj)hracta, Percidce, Scicenidce, Sparidce, Chcctodontidce, Teutkidce, Scomber idee, Xiphiidce, Coryphcenidce, Notacanthidce, Cepolid(x, Mugi- lidce. Anabatidce, Gobiidoe, Blenmidce, and Lojohiidce. THE AULOSTOMID^E. The fishes of this family, whose scientific name means pipe-mouthed, have the bones of the face drawn out into a long tube, at the extrem- ity of which is the opening of the mouth; hence they are called Sea-Snipes, Trumpet- Fishes, Bellows-Fishes, &c. There are several species, mostly inhabitants of the seas of warm climates. The Common Trumpet or Bellows-Fish, Centriscus sco- lopax, like the rest of the family, feeds on minute animals found among sea-weed; its flesh is good; length five inches and upward; common on the coasts of Europe. The Tobacco- pipe-Fish, Fistularia serrata, and New York Trumpet-Fish, F. iabacaria, are American species. THE TRIGILIDJ3 OR CATAPIIRACTA. These fishes arc noted for having the cheeks covered with bony plates, and the head is usually more or less armed with spines, or furnished with membraneous appendages, which often give them a singular appearance. The fins are usually greatly developed. Genus DACTYLOPTERA : Dactyloptcra. — In the species of this genus, the pectoral fins attain such a length as to enable the fish to support itself in the air for a short time. There are THE TRUMPET-FISU. CLASS V. PISCES: ORDER 3. TELEOSTEA. 435 THE FLYING GURNARD. THE RED GURNAUD. two species : tlic Common Flying Gurnard or Sea-Swallow, D. volitans, is from six to fifteen inches long, and is found in the Mediterranean, and also in the European and American seas. The D. oricntalis is found in the Indian seas. These are called Fbjing-Fish, and perform nearly the same feats in the air as the true ilyinir-lish, be- longing to the genus Exoccetus, wliirh we shall hereafter describe. Genus TRIGLA : Trifila. — To this belongs the Red or Cuckoo Gurnard, T. cuculus, twelve to sixteen inches long ; it feeds on crnstaceous animals ; spawns in May or June ; is esteemed for food ; taken in deep water with a trawl- net ; affords excellent amusement in fish- ing with hand-lines ; common in Euro- pean and American waters. The Sapphirine Gurnard, T. hirundo, is two feet long, and is common in the Mediterranean and other European wa- ters ; its flesh is good, though rather dry ; it is caught with long lines, called bulters. In England it has the popular name of Tuh-Flah or Red Tub. Other species of Gurnard are the Piper, l". bjra: Gray Gurnard, T. gurnardus, and Block's Gurnard, T. Blochii: all found in European waters : the Streaked or Banded Gurnard, T. Ihuaia — Prio- notus Ibteatus of De Kay — called Sea- Robin, Gru7iter, ^^^^^^ -^34^^^^ grunting noise. It was greatly es- teemed by the epicures of ancient Rome. When caught by the fish- ermen, its struggles are so vio- lent as sometimes to knock a man down. The bones of the ear arc very large, and were formerly sup- posed to be capable of curing the colic in persons to whom they were presented. Hence they were called Colic-Stones, and were even set in gold and worn as amulets. TUB MAIGRE, 440 VERTEBRATA. Genus LEI08T0MUS: Leiostomus. — Tliis includes the Sea-Chub or Lafayette, Z. obUquus, six to oii;ht iiiclu's loiiij; tlfliciotis for tlio tivblo; coiiiinon on our southern coast. (t'lints OToIjITIH'S: OtolilhuH. — Tliis iiichules the Weak Fish or Squeteaugue, O.regalis, one to two feet loni;, sometimes \veii;liin this helongs the Lake Siieep's-IIead, C. oscula, twelve to oiijhtecn inches loni; ; is indiH'ercnt food; found in Lake Erie. The BuANOKn (\)rvina, C. occlldld, one to three feet long, is a hcautifid species, and highly relished; found on our Atlantic coiust. At the South it is called Bass, at New Orleans, iJerf f'isfi . The Malasiieoany, C. Richardsonii, is one to two feet long: common in Lake Huron, where it is greatly prized for food, and where it is called Black Sheep's-IIkad. Gniiis rMl'dilXA: Umhrina. — This includes the Bearded Umhkina, U. vvlt/aris, two to three feet long, and sometimes weighing forty pounds; the flesh is white and good : common on the coasts of France, Spain, and Italy. The King-Fish, U. nebulosa, sometimes called the Ber- miiiia W/iitino, is twelve to eighteen inches long; found along our coasts; abundant at the south. Genus POGOXLVS : Por/onias. — To this belongs the Big Drum, P. chromis, two to four feet long, and sometimes weighing a hundred and twenty-five pounds ; the young are delicate food, the old are coarse ; found on the coast from New York to Florida. There are several other American genera of the family Scicenidce. THE SPARID^. This family includes several valuable species, European and American, all living in the sea. Genus CURYSOPIIRYS : Chrysophnjs. — This includes the Gilt-IIead, C. aurata, twelve inches long; abundant in the Mediter- ranean, and found on the coasts of Africa and Europe, from France to the Cape of Good Hope. It frequents deep water on bold rocky coasts, and is occasioually taken both by nets and lines. The Aculeated Gilt-Head, C.aculeata, is twelve to twenty-four inches long; found on our coast. Genus PAGRUS: Pagrus.—To this belong the Braize or Becker, P. vul- garis, very voracious ; found in the Euro- pean seas; and the Big Porgee, P. argyrops, eight to twelve inches long; of excellent flavor, and common from Cape Cod to Charleston. ,///. G^mws PAGELLUS : Pagellus. — This includes the Sea-Bream, P. centrodontus. — This feeds on fish as Avell as sea-weed ; it is not much es- teemed for eating; common in the European seas. Genus CANTHARUS: Cantha- rus. — This includes the Black- Bream, C. griseus, twelve to fifteen inches long, feeding like the pre- ceding: found in the European seas. Genus SARGUS : ^ary«s.— This includes the Sheep's Head, S. ovis, one to three feet long, of a dull silvery color on the sides, with brassy tints on the back ; derives its name from the resemblance of the mouth and teeth to those of a sheep. It is THE GILT-HEAD. THE BRAIZE. CLASS V. PISCES: ORDER 3. TELEOSTEA. 441 taken with hook and line in deep water on our coasts ; is sliy and wary, and battles bravely when cauirht. It is sometimes taken i^^ THE SEA-BREAM. THE BLACK BREAM. with the line in the shallow bays of Long Island. Its flesh is in the very first rank with epicures. Its range is from Cape Cod to the Mississippi. The Sand I'orgee, S. arenosus, six inches long, is palatable food ; caught in seines on the south side of Lono- Island Sound. The Rhomboidal Porgee, S. rhorn- boides, is three to five inches long, and is common on our southern coast. THE CH^TODONTID^. This is a very numerous family, the species being generally of small size ; the form is exceedingly compressed, the body wide and short, resembling that of the flat- fishes, though they swim upright in the water ; the eyes are placed on each side of the head, and both sides of the body are similarly colored. The mouth is usually small and furnished with bristle-like teeth. They are generally delicate and well flavored, and are noted for the brilliancy of their coloring. Genus BRAMA : Brarna. — This includes the Ray's Bream, B. Rait, from one foot to two feet six inches long ; common in the Mediterranean, and occasionally found in the British seas. Its flesh is highly esteemed. It is the only European species. Genus CH^TODON : Choetodon. — This includes the Wandering Ch^todon, C.vagahundus^ twelve inches long, body of a pale yellow color, with numerous oblique, brownish-purple lines. Inhabits the coasts of Ceylon. Genus Chelmon : Chelnion. — To this belongs the Fly-Shooter, C. ros- iratus, inhabiting the fresh waters of India and the Asiatic Islands. It feeds upon insects, and is remarkable for its mode of procuring them. When it observes a fly, or any other insect on a weed, or hovering over the water, it ejects a little drop through its tu- bular snout Avith such precision as frequently to disable the little animal, so that it falls into the water and is devoured. In countries where this fish abounds, it is frequently kept in vessels of water, and affords much entertainment by the dexterity dis- played in shooting at the flies, which are placed on the vessel for the purpose ; it generally approaches to within five or six inches before the drop of water is ejected. A Javanese species, the Toxotes jaculator, exhibits the same Vol. II. — 56 THE WANDERING CH^TODON. 442 VEUTEHKATA. curitms instinct. w TUB FLY-SUOOTBR. It has a wide nioutli, witli tin- Iowht jaw considerably projecting; it throws a hirgc jet of water with such force and pre- cision as ahiiost invariably to bring down a lly at the distance of two or three feet. The ffe»«sEPIlIPPUS: Ephipjms.— Includes the Banded-Ephippcs, E.faber, five to eighteen inches long. It ap- pears occasionally in great numbers on our coasts duriuir summer. The fishermen call it Three-tailed Sheejf s-Head and Three- tailed Porgee. In South Carolina it is called Am/el-Fish. Its range extends from New York to Rio Janeiro. The Moox-FisH, E. gigas, is fifteen inches long, and has the same geograph- ical distribution as the preceding. The body is of an oblong oval ; the scales large, the teeth conical, bristly, and in numerous series. The color is dark bluish brown, with metallic reflections ; the sides of the bead are tinged with lustrous green. Genus PIMELEPTERUS: Pimelepterus. — To this belongs the Razor-Fish, P. Boscii, six inches long ; the form of the body is oval ; the color brownish, with faint longitudinal lines ; found on our northern coasts. THE TEUTHID^. This includes a small number of fishes, all inhabitants of hot climates, remarkable for having the sides of the tail armed either with sharp prickles or a large curved spine. They are also noted as being herbivorous fishes, and feeding on sea-weed. The species with spinous tails, if incautiously handled, inflict severe wounds on their captors. The Surgeon, Acanthurus chirur- gus, a West Indian species, received its popular name from its dangerous qualities in this respect. THE SCOMBERID^, This great family includes two divisions, all of which live in the sea, and are of predaceous ^_ habits. In the first division the body is short, broad, and compressed, presenting a resemblance to the Chcetodontidce. In the other the form is more attenuated. Of the first the Blepharis may be taken as a type ; of the last, the Mack- erel. Genus BLEPHARIS: Blepharis.— Tins in- cludes the IIair-finned Blepharis, B. crinitus. five to six inches long ; bluish-white above, shiny beneath ; found, though rarely, on the American coast. Genus ZEUS: Zeus. — This includes the John DoREE, Z. fuher ; average weight five pounds ; found on the P^uropean coasts, and celebrated for the delicacy of its. flesh. This fish, having a golden spot on each side of it, contends with the haddock for the honor of bearing the marks of St. Peter's fingers, each being supposed to have been that out of whose mouth the apostle took the tribute-money, leaving on its sides in proof of the identity, the marks of his finger and thumb. There is another origin assigned to the golden spots ; an old legend says that St. Christopher, in wading through an arm of the sea, bearing our Saviour, caught a Doree, and THE BLEPHARIS. CLASS V. PISCES: ORDER 3. TELEOSTEA. 443 left these impressions on its sides, as a perpetual ineinorial of the fact. Probably the name of this tish is derived from tiie French, who call it Jaune Dorec, referring to its pecu- liar golden-yellow color. Genus CAPROS: CV'-os.— This in- cludes the BoAR-Fisn, C. apcr, six to eight inches long ; found in the European seas. Genus LAMPRIS : Lampris. — This includes the Opah, L. guttatus, a beauti- THE JOHN DOREE. 7 f^il ressing the thick part of their bodies tludugh the obstacle. In the morning the nets are hauled in, and the fish dc- tachi'd from them, and in this manner vast quantities are taken. The mackerel is also captured by surrounding the shoals with a large deep net or seine, which is afterward closed at the bottom, or hauled to the shore ; and a considerable number are taken with the hook and line. It is a voracious fish, feeding principally on small fish and the fry of larirer species. The American Spring Mackerel, »S^. vernalis of Mitchill, is probably the same species as the preceding. The number of this taken in our waters is immense ; on the coasts of Massachusetts two hun- dred vessels are sometimes engaged in the mackerel fisheries, and two hundred and fifty thou- sand barrels are taken. The Fall Mackerel, S. grex, is sometimes very abundant in our seas; some authors regard it as the young of the preceding. The Spanish-Mackerel, S. colias, is greatly esteemed for the table ; it is smaller than the spring mackerel; common in Europe ; the same, or a i very similar species, is found, though not abundantly, on our coasts. , Genus THYNXUS: TJujnnus.— This includes the Common Tunny of Europe, T. vulgaris, a large species, four to twenty feet long, and some- times weighing a thousand pounds. It is found in the European seas, but is most common in the Mediter- ranean, where it is caught in large numbers. The nets used are very large and strong, and one of them costs six thousand dollars. This fish has been celebrated for the table since It is frequently taken on our coasts, and is not uncommon in the markets of our principal northern cities. The BoNiTO, or Striped-bellied Tunny, T. pelamt/s, resembles the preceding in form, but is seldom more than thirty inches long. It is extensively distributed, being most common in the tropical seas, but is still mot with on the coasts of Europe and Xorth America. It is said to rival the dorado in its perpetual chase of the flyinof-fish. There are one or two other species allied to the Tunny, which are also sometimes called Bonito. CLASS V. PISCES: ORDER 3. TELEOSTEA. 445 Genus NAITCRATES : Naucrates. — This includes the Pilot-Fish, N. ductor, noted for its habit of accompanying ships for weeks «j§§vifi^^^^^^^!^^^^7™»s5», together; the ancients even asserted that it pointed out the proper course to the mariner when lie was at a loss how to proceed, leaving him when he had arrived in sight of the desired haven. It appears probable, however, that the Pilot-Fish only attends the voyajrer for THE PILOT-FISH. l /» l . p p the sake of the numerous pieces of food whicli arc constantly being thrown overboard ; and a community of feeling in this respect may perhaps account for the frequent association of the Pilot-Fish and the Shark. It is, however, a general opinion among navigators that the Pilot-Fish really attends upon the Shark as a guide ; and an instance has been related in which two of them led a shark to a baited hook that had been thrown out for him. Another observer, however, states that he saw a shark, which was inclined to swallow a bait put out for him, prevented from doing so by one after another of four Pilot- Fishes which accompanied him ; and that when at length the shark had swallowed the tempting morsel and was being hauled out of the water, one of his diminutive friends clung to his side for some little time. Colonel Hamilton Smith also states that he had witnessed a similar circum- stance. The Pilot-Fish attains a length of about a foot. It is somewhat of the mackerel form, of a silvery-gray color, bluish on the back, and adorned with five dark blue bands, which go round the whole body. Its flesh is said to be very good. It is extensively distributed through- out the Atlantic, and is said to be occasionally seen on our coasts. The New York Pilot-Fish, iV. JVoveboracensis, resembles the preceding, and may be of the same species. THE XIPHIIDJE. This family includes several species called Sword-Fishes. Genus XIPIIIAS: Xiphias.— ThismcladGsthc Common 8vf orb-Fish, X. r/ladius ; it is twelve to twenty feet long, and has the upper jaw prolonged into a long, bony, spear-like weapon. It is most predaceous in its habits, employing its spear for the destruction of the larger fishes. It is even said to attack whales. Its activity and strength are very great ; and it has been known to strike at ships passing through the water, and to bury its weapon in their timbers. Cuvier states that a parasitic crustacean buries itself in the flesh of the sword-fish, and torments it to such a degree that it will sometimes rush upon the shore; the same cause of irritation may perhaps have something to do with its suicidal attacks upon such a very unequal antagonist as a ship. This species is found in European and North American waters ; the seas of tropical climates contain several others. Their fiesh is said to be exceedingly good, especially when young. THE CORYPH^NID^. This includes, among other species, the Dorado, CortjphcBna hippurus, sometimes called Dolphin, noted for its beautiful metallic tints, the swiftness of its course, and for the per- petual war of destruction which it wages against the flying-fish. It is about five feet long, the back bluish, the body yellow, the whole spotted with darker hues. When in the water it pre- sents a splendid golden luster, which rapidly vanishes when taken out of its natural element. This fish is common in the tropical seas of the Atlantic. The Bottle-headed Dolphin, C. glohiceps, resembles the preceding, and has been taken on our coasts. THE NOTACANTHID^. This family includes several species of fishes which have an elongated, eel -like form, the liinder extremity being usually surrounded by the same continuous fin that is characteristic of the eels. The whole surface is covered with small cycloid scales. Most of the species inhabit the tropical regions, some living in salt and some in fresh water. One species, the JVotacanthus nasus, is found in the Arctic Ocean. 4-K> VEIiTEI'. U ATA. HAWKKX S GYMXETRnS. TUB DEAL-FISH. This faiiiilv iMcludi-s several species of an climiratccl, eornpresscd form, and called Ribbon-Fishes. Genus GYM'S ETllVS: Gymnetrus. '^^'^-^''*****'^^^^^^~ — This includes Bank's Gymnetrus, G. JjCDiksii, ten to twelve feet long, and less than three inches thick. It is of a beautiful silvery color, with a few blackish streaks and spots. It is found in the European seas. IIavvken's Gymnetrus, G. Hawk- enii, eight to ten feet long, depth ten inches, thickness less than three inches ; color dusky green ; found in the European seas. The Deal-Fish, G. Arcticus, is four to six feet long, breadth eight inches, thickness one inch ; found in the North Atlantic, and has been taken on the British coasts. It is called Vaagmaer in Iceland. The ScABBARD-FiSH, Lepidopus ar- gyreus, is four to six feet long, and swims with great swiftness : the skin is smooth, except a few scales in place of the \ entral fins ; the flesh is said to be good. The Silvery Hairtail, Trichiurus lep- turus, is two to four feet long, of a shiny sil- very color; called Ribbon-Fish on our coa.st and Szvord-Fish in Jamaica. Extensively distributed along the Atlantic shores. Ge7ius CEPOLA: Cepola.— To this be- longs the Red Band-Fish or Red Snake- Fish, C. rubeycens, one to two feet long, color orange-red ; moving in the waters it appears like a red ribbon. This, as w ell as other spe- cies of this family, is often found cast on the shores by storms. THE MUGILID^. This family includes a few species having a spindle-shaped body, which is covered with large scales ; they generally inhabit salt water, keeping about the mouths of rivers, asccndinff and descendino- with the ebb and flow of the tide. Genus MUGIL: Munil. — This includes the European Gray Mullet, M. capita, which is to be distinguished from the other mullets of the genus Mitllus. It is a small fish, common in Europe, and greatly esteemed for its delicacy. It is very active, and frequently es- capes from the fishermen by leaping over their nets. There are several other European species. THE SCABBARD-FISH. THE Rt;D BAND-FISH. THE GRAT UnLLET. CLASS V. PISCES: ORDER 3. TELEOSTEA. 447 THE SAND-SMELT. Among the American species are the Striped Mullet, M. linra/u.% six to eight inches long; found on oiir coast, ami esteemed excellent food; the White Mullet, Af. a/bnla, nine inches long; a plump, firm fish ; appears in our markets in July and August, and is in high repute with the epicures : the Rock-Mullet, M. petrosus, six to seven inches long; ranges on the coast from New York to Brazil : and the Spotted Mullet, M. Plumieri, which resembles the preceding. Genus ATHERINxV : Athcrina. — This includes the Sand-Smelt or Atherine, A. presbyter, five or six inches long ; it is esteemed for the table, and resembles the common smelt in flavor; found in the European waters. The Dotted Silverside, A. notata, three to four inches long, is much es- teemed for food, and is found on our coasts from Massachusetts to Cape Cod. The Green or Slender Silverside, A. menidia, is four to five inches long, and found' on the coasts of New York. Genus ANABAS : Anabas. — To this belongs the Climbing-Perch, A. scandens, found in India. In this the pharyngial bones are formed to retain a supply of water in cells, so that the fish is able to quit the ponds and streams in which it usually resides, for five or six days, and to wander to a considerable distance over the land. Sometimes it will even ascend the trunks of trees for a short distance, from which circumstance it derives its common name. This and some other species of the family are frequently exhibited by the jugglers of India and China, where they are common. The flesh of all these species is extremely good, and one of the size of a tur- bot, is said to equal that celebrated fish in delicacy of flavor. THE GOBIID^. These fishes, noted for the absence of the air-bladder, are for the most part small, keeping close to the shore, usually among rocks, and often attach themselves by means of their disc-like ventral fins to the lower surface of rocks and other objects. Some kinds are abundant in tidal waters. The male of one species, found in the Mediterra- nean, makes a nest, and watches over and defends the spawn with care and courage. Genus GOBIUS : Gobius.— This in- cludes the Black Goby or Rock-Fish of Europe, G. niger ; it is five to six inches long, and found on the rocky coasts of Europe. It is not esteemed for food. Other species are the Spotted Goby, G. viinutus, called Polcivig in England, and the Double- Spotted Goby, G. bipunctatus, both European species. The Variegated Goby, G. alepidotus, two or three inches long, is found on our coasts. Genus CYCLOPTERUS : Cgclop- tcrus. — To this belongs the Lump- Fisii, C. lumpns : also called Lump- Sucker and Sea-Oivl in England, an : Kcheiicis. — This ineludeslhe Remora or Sucking-Fish, E. rcmora : it is about a foot lon^, and is provided with a j)owerfnl sucker on the top of its head, by which it attaches itself to rocks, ships, and even large fishes. In ancient times it was believed that the Rcmora had the power of arresting the largest ship in her course, and among other tales of the kind, we arc told that in the famous battle of Actiuiii, Antony's ship was held motionless by one of these fishes, notwithstanding the utmost exertions of several luuulred sailors to row it forward. Found in European and North xVniciican waters ; most common in the Mediterranean. TIr' White-tailed Remora, E. alhicauda, is sixteen inches long, and is frequently found attached to sharks, whence it is called the Shark- Sucker. It is occasionally taken on the shores of Long Island. The Indian Remora, E. naucrates, is two to three feet long ; found on the North American coasts. Genus LIPARIS: Z?>om.— To this belongs the Sea-Snail or Unctuous Sucker, L. vulgaris, four inches long; found in the European seas. Montagu's Sucking-Fish, L. Montar/ui, is three inches long; found on the British coasts. Genus CALLIONYMUS : Callionymus. — This includes the Gemmeous Dragonet, C. lyra, ten to fourteen inches long; it has a smooth skin, brilliantly striped and spotted with blue on a yel- ^?^.v low ground. It occasionally -c^ takes a bait, but is more fre- ^: quently caught in nets. Its flesh is good. It is found on the European coasts; in England it is called the Yellow Sculpin,and in Scotland the Gotodie. The THE GEMMEOUS DRAGONET. o^, -r\ /l J boRDiD Dragonet, C. dracun- culuSy is nine to ten inches long. Found in European waters. THE SEA-SNAIL. THE BLENNIID^. Genus ANARRHICAS : Anarrhicas. — To this belongs the Sea-Wolf, A. lupus, three to seven feet long, agreeing with the ffobics in the absence of the air-bladder ; the dor- sal fin is very long, the pectoral fin large ; the mouth large and armed with enormous acute fangs. It feeds on molluscous animals, and easily crushes their shells with its powerful teeth. It is sometimes taken in nets, but makes a desperate resistance. Its flesh is good, and being abundant in Iceland, it is of great importance to the inhabitants ; the flesh is salted by them ; the liver is used instead of soap, and the skin is made into shagreen for bags and pouches. In England, as well as in this country, it is called Sea-Cat and Wolf-Fish; common on the European and American coasts. THE SEA-WOLF. CLASS Y. PISCES: ORDER 3. TELEOSTEA, 449 THE SHANN1-. Genus BLENNIUS : Blennius.—ThU includes several species, some of which produce living young, which are able to take care of '^^^y^/^''///',-/^.y . themselves from their birth. They 4^"^- li^'^' along the rocky shores of tlie sea, and arc often found in rock-pools left by the retiring tide. The Shanny, B. pholh, is a very curious species, five inches long, remark- able for creeping out of the water with their pectoral fins and hiding them- selves in holes among the rocks, where they remain till the return of the tide ; it is said they can live out of water for thirty hours; they immediately die, however, on being put into fresh water. Found on the Bi'itish coast. The OcELLATED Blenny Or BuT- TERFLY-FisiT, B. occllaris, is three to four inches long, the color pale-brown, lives among weeds, and feeds on Crusta- cea ; common in the Mediterranean. C)ther European species are tho ^1^ Gattoruginous Blenny, B. gattoru- ^^^^■^>■^A' THE OCELLATED BLENNY. ^«P MONTAGUS BLEXXV. g'lne ; the Crested Blenny, ^.2^a/??r«- cornis^ and Montagu's Blenny, B. Monlacjui. Two or three species are found on our coasts. Genus MURENOIDES: Murenoi- des. — To this belongs the Spotted Gunnel or Butter-Fish, M. guttata, so called on account of the mucous secretion with which its sides are covered ; it is ten inches long, and has a long, sword-shaped body ; it is found in pools left by the tide, and occasionally under stones or sea-weed; common in Europe. The American Butter-Fish, Gunndlus mucronatus, resembles THE SPOTTED GUNNEL. the prcccding. THE LOPHIID^, Most of these fishes have a large head and a short, stout body, terminated by a slender tail. They are covered with a naked skin, usually roughened with warts and tubercles, and can sustain a considerable absence from water. Genus LOITIIUS: Lophius. — To this belongs the Fishing- Frog, L. piscatorius, three to fivo feet long. It has an enormous mouth, armed with numerous pointed teeth. It is exceedingly voracious, and has been known to seize a cod just as it was being drawn out of water by a hook, and only let go its hold on receiving a severe blow upon the head. It also has a method of catch- VoL. II.— 57 THE FISHING-FROO. 450 YERTEBRATA. ^^ inji tisli wliifh ^ll..^vs imuli ciniiiiiijr : it I'u's close to the ground, muddles the water so as to coiii-enl itsi-lf, ami thru vil>i;»tfs the hoiiy lilanient which stands erect on its head. The fishes sec the shininir tip. and thinking it something good to eat, advance upon it, and arc seized hv the artful fisherman lieneatii. On account of this stratagem this fish is called the Amilcr. It's monstro)is ajipearance has also given it the titles of Sea-Devil^ J3i'llows-Fi.sh, Goosc-Finh, Monk-Fish, \c. It is not eaten, but when it iKippens to be captured by fishermen it is preserved for the various fishes usually found in its ca- pacious stomach. It is found in European and American waters. Genus CIIIRONEC- TES: Chironectcs.—Ho tliis belong nearly thirty species of small fishes, of which the Gibbous Mouse-Fish, C. ffibbus, is an American ex- am}>lc. It is two inches long ; color pale brown ; common on the Ameri- can coast. The C. his- trlo is a larger species, found in Brazil. On the northern coasts of Australia, there are fishes of this genus, so abundant and so lively in jumping out of the water, that they have been mistaken for flocks of birds. Genus BATRACIIUS: Batrachus. — This includes the Common Toad-Fish, B. iau, six to twelve inches long; has an enormous head; usually lies half buried in the mud, where it either silentlv sucks in small marine animals, or seizes upon such as may incautiously come within its reach; common on our coasts from Maine to Mexico. Its flesh is little prized, but if skillfully cooked is very good. Another species in our waters is the TVo-spined Toad- Fish, B. celatus. Genus M ALTERA: Malthcea.— This includes the Short-nosed Mal- THEA, M. nasuta, six to seven inches long. The body is compressed in front, and tapering and compressed from behind the pectorals. The head is prominent and apparently elevated above the jaws. The surface is cov- ered with scaly discs ; eyes lateral, large, and circular ; mouth protractile, with minute card-like teeth on the THE CHIRONECTES HISTRIO. £|#^:.>'^fifc^-'-^'^^ ~"=**^^^^ Launce, a. lancea, is five or six THE SAND-EEL. iuclicslong. Thcsc arc ttot greatly esteemed for food. The American Sand-Eel, A. Americanus, is six to twelve inches long; the Banded Sand- Launce, a. vittatus, is four to six inches long. Both are found on our coasts. THE OPHIDIID^. This group has the body slender and elongated, it being sometimes naked and sometimes covered with minute scales imbedded in the skin. They are small fishes inhabiting the sea. The Beardless Ophidicm, 0. /, ^-s-Ej. J m6er6c, is three or four inches THE OPUIDIUM. long, color purplish-brown ; found on the European coasts. The New York Ophidium, 0. mar- ginatum, is nine inches long ; color above ash-gray. It is occasionally taken on our coasts, where it is called Little Cusk by the fishermen. THE GADID^. This name is derived from the Latin gadus, a codfish, this being the type of the family. There ..<:ax ^sr.'N, are several genera, embracing, it is said, more than sixty species. In general the body is of an elongated spindle- like form, produced behind into a long tail ; the skin is usually furnished with very small soft scales, which are entirely inclosed in separate sacs ; the median fins are of very large size, and usually divided into several portions ; the mouth is wide, furnished with numerous small teeth, and the margin of the upper jaw is entirely formed by the intermaxillary bones. The lower jaw is frequently furnished with a single cirrus, or beard, beneath its extremity, and the nose sometimes bears one or two pairs of similar appendages ; the ventral fins, also, are sometimes reduced to a single ray, so as to acquire the appearance, as they no doubt perform the office, of cirri ; and these in some species are of considerable length, and give off a branch from about the middle, which is sometimes longer than the main stalk. THE COMMON COD. 454 VEUTEBUATA. TIjo (iiKliilii- nro active and cxci-fdiiiuly voracious fishes, feeding indiscriminately upon almost all the smaller n.|iiatic animals. Varrcll states, that "thirty-five crabs, none less than the size of u half-crown piece, have been taken from the stomach of one cod." They are nearly all marine* their tlesh is exceedin*^lf THE LING. iiii-Iii's lonjr, an.l th.> youni; n'sciiil.lc tin- wliitinir. C'uiniiioii on the European coasts. Hand-line lisliiiis; fi»r |M.llju-ks is oalliMl " M'/i(//my." (iriiiis Mi:iII.I'<'irS: Mrrlnriits. — To this l.(l(.iii;-s the IIake, M. cah/aris, two to three feet loni^; it is a roving fish, found on all the l">uropean coasts, and on tlu; northern shore of the Mediterranean ; it is exceed- ingly voracious, and fourteen pilchards have been found in the stomach of one of ordinary size. They have the trick of the vulture ii\ vomiting up their food when they are attacked and wish to es- .•;»ii,>. It is a coarse fish, and little valued, though considerable (piantitics are salted and dried and sent to .Spain. The A.MKUICAN II.VKK, ^f. (tlhidiis, is one to two feet long, and is sometimes taken on our co:u>ts. Smith says it is taken otf Cape Cod and sold under the name of Stock-Fish\ the same author says that wlien prepared for market they arc called Poor-Johns. Genus LOTA: Lola. — To this belongs the Ling, L. molva, a valuable fish, taken in large quantities on the British coasts, '^^-^ and salted and dried, chiefly for exportation. The air-bladders, populai'ly called sounds, are pre- pared separately, and with those of the codfish are pickled and sold. The roes, which are of hirge size, are preserved in brine and used to attract fish. The oil of the liver of this fish is used hv the poor of Great Britain for lamps; this and cod-liver oil were formerly in great request as remedies for rheumatism ; they were taken in small beer in doses of an ounce to an ounce and a half This practice has passed away, but cod-liver oil has lately been largely used as a cure for consumption. The Burbot or Eelpout. L. vnlr/aris, lives in slow-running rivers, is one to two feet long, conceals itself under stones like an eel, and feeds on aquatic insects and young fish. It w^eighs from one to eight pounds ; the flesh is white, soft, and of good fla- vour; common in Europe. There are several species on our coast, as the Plain Burbot, L. inornata, one to two feet long ; the Spotted Burbot, L. maculosa, eighteen inches long; the Compressed Burbot, Z. compressa, six to eight inches long. Genus BROSMIUS : Brosmhis.— This includes the Torsk or Tusk, B. vulgaris, one to thr(!e feet long; is eaten but not much relished. Found in Europe. The tish called Cusk on our coasts closely resembles it. Genus PHYCIS: P/^yc/,-*, includes the Great Forked-Beard or Forked-Hake, P. /wrca^MS, one to two feet long, with a long barbule hanging from each cliin. Found around Great Britain, where it is called Hake's-Bame by the fishermen. The Lesser Forked-Beard, Raniceps trifur- catiis, is also a European species. The American CoDhiso, P. Americanus — P.furcatus of Storer — is one to three feet long ; sold in our markets under the name of Hake and Codling. The Spotted Codling, P. punctatus, ten inches long, is a rare species ; found from the St. Lawrence to New York. TUE nCRBOT. ^mWM-Wn-^ THE TORSK. CLASS V. PISCES: ORDER 3. TELEOSTEA. 457 Genus MOTELLA : Motella. — To this belongs the Three-bearded Rockling, M. vuhjaria. It is twelve to fifteen iiielus long, frequents rocky ground, feeds on aquatic insects, takes bait, but is not used for food, as the flesh smells unpleasantly in a short period after it is out of the water. Found in Europe. The Five-bearded Rockling, M. quinquecirrata, is also a European species. The Mackerel Midge, M.f/lauca^ is a beautiful little fish, an inch and a quarter long; it dies instantly on being taken out of the water. From its minute size and the multitudes in wdiicli it ap- peared, it was formerly thought to be produced by spontaneous generation from the froth of the sea, or the putri- faction of marine substances. The Silvery-Gade, M. argenteola, is two inches long. This and the pre- ceding species are common in Europe. THE GREAT FOKKED-BEARD. THE THREE-BEARDED ROCKLING. THE PLEURONECTIDiE. This term, derived from the Greek, pleuron, side, and neko, to swim, means fishes that swim on the side, and is applied to those which are usually called Flat-fish. They are very peculiar in their appearance and form. They have a broad, flat body, margined almost throughout by long ,^.,-:^'.-^ dorsal and anal fins ; the head is ^^!^ singularly twisted, so that the eyes are both brought to one side of the body, and this, which is al- ways uppermost, is usually of a dark color, and frequently spotted, whilst the opposite is always white. These surfaces arc often regarded as the back and belly of the fish, but incor- rectly; the gill openings and the paired fins being situated on both surfaces, the pectorals a little behind the apertures of the gills, and the ventrals in front of those on the throat. The abdominal cavity is very small, and the anus opens under the throat, so that the wdiole body is nothing but an exceedingly com- pressed, disc-like tail. The mouth is small, and armed with small teeth, and in most species the skin is covered with ctenoid scales. The Flat-fishes swim with the dark side uppermost, and with a sort of undulating motion of the whole body ; they generally keep close to the bottom, where they feed upon small fishes, mol- lusca, worms, Crustacea, tfcc. Some species attain a large size; the Halibut is said sometimes to weigh as much as five hundred pounds ; a specimen, measuring seven feet six inches in length, three feet six inches in breadth, and weighing three hundred and twenty pounds, was taken in April, 1828, off the Isle of Man, and sent to the Edinburgh market. The Turbot does not appear Vol. II. — 58. THE TURCOT. 458 VERTEBKATA. to rra»'h tpiito siicli fjipintic (liincnsions; Varrill mentions one that weighed one hundred and niuotv pouiids, and nu'iisurt'd six fcft across. One is spoken of in tlie history of Rome as having been taken in the time of the Kinperor Doiiiitian, of such huge size tliat tlie senate were con- vi>ked to deciik- upon the proper mode of hriiiging it to tlie table. Juvenal says, " No vessel tliey find fit to hold such a fish, And the senate's convoked to decree a new dish." These fisii are causxht cither l>y means of hooks and lines or by the trawl-net; the former nu>tlu)d is employed during the wanner months of the year. The species most esteemed in Eng- land arc the Tnrhot and the Sole, which are not found in American waters; but several others, altliouiih inferior in the quality of their flesh, are of great importance, as they are caught in such numbers that they can be sold at a very cheap rate. Of these the best known are the Plaice, the Brill, and tlio Flounder. All the ricaronect'ulce are inhabitants of the sea, although they sometimes ascend the brackish waters of tidal rivers ; and the Flounder even appears capable of thriving in perfectly fresh water. They are rather voracious fishes; and, in spite of their singular form, are often very active in their habits. C'c^rt.s- RIlOMBrS: Rhombus — Pleuronectes of De Kay. To this belongs the Tcrbot, i?. inaximus, connnon in Ev.ropean waters, and regarded in England as one of the richest and best of fishes; it feeds on small fish, Crustacea, and shell-fish; seeks sandy ground, and is a great wanderer, usually in companies; the common size is five to ten pounds. The English and Dutch fisheries for turbots are very extensive ; the season begins in April or May and ceases in August. Tn the early part of the season the trawl-net is used, which brings up not only turbots, but soles, plaice, thornbacks, esidi's the preceding, there arc several otlier species of Herring, some of which are common on our coa.st. Among them is the Brit, C. minima, one to four inches long, at some seasons jq>pcarini,' in incredible numbers on the coast of Massachusetts, The riLcuAKD, C. pilchardtis, is eight to eleven inches long; it resembles the herring, but is smaller, and at the same time thicker. It is common on the European coasts, and is taken in immense numbers by the British. Though less valued than the i-^ herring, they are still always in request, especially for shipment to Spain and the Mediterranean. They are taken more or less at all seasons, but the proper fishing-season begins in August and continues till November. They are caught by drift-nets and seines, and chiefly at night. The skill and enterprise displayed by the fishermen in this, as well, indeed, as in all other large fisheries, may well excite admiration. No less than ten thousand persons are engaged in the pilchard fisheries of Great Britain ; the cost of the boats, drift-nets, seines, &c., is two millions of dollars ; a seine and its outfit cost two thousand dollars. Ten thousand hogsheads, containing twentv-five millions of pilchards, have been landed at one port in a single day ! Sixty millions is supposed to be abojit the average number annually taken in Great Britain. The Sprat, C. sprattus, is six inches long, >■■ ya--- .vi.w->-,'.'.',-v,m>:i.'.--^-»' '^«^g^ ''i'"! inferior to the herring in flavor; still im- mense numbers of it are taken along the Eu- ropean coasts. The fishing for them contin- ues through the winter months, and four hun- dred British boats are engaged in it. Sometimes the sprats are so abundant as to be used for manuring land, and they have often been sold as low as sixpence a bushel. The Whitebait, C. alha, is a small fish abundant in the River Thames, and greatly valued by the epicures of London. It is a common practice among the citizens of that metropolis, com- TUE riLCUARD. THE SPRAT. * The following statistics in relation to our American fisheries are extracted from the United States census for 1850 : C.ipital Annual employed. product. Connecticut §;1,9SH,S00 §1,7S4,4S3 Maine 406,910 5G9,876 Massachusetts 5,.582,650 6,606,849 New York 482,100 484,345 North Carolina 235,115 250,025 The interests of the other states in fisheries are comparatively trifling. The whole investment of the United States in fisheries is set down at §8,966,044 ; the annual product, §10,000,182. The number of " white fish," that is, menhaden, ic, ic, taken by Connecticut in a year is 36,946,000; of shad, 243,448 barrels ; and of other fish, 825 bar- rels ; 70,057 barrels whale oil, 3,240 barrels of sperm oil, and 271 tons of bone. Maine takes in a year, 173,094 quintals codfish; 29,685 boxes herring; 12,651 barrels mackerel; and 2,156 barrels of oil. Massachusetts takes 215,270 quin- tals codfish ; 236,463 barrels mackerel ; 1,250 barrels herring ; 187,157 barrels oil and bone. New York takes 25,285,000 fish of various kinds. The whole number of vessels engaged in the fisheries is 547. Z' CLASS V. PISCES: ORDER 3. TELEOSTEA. 463 THE WHITEBAIT. THK ANCHOVY. mended, indeed, by the example of the Lord Mayor, cabinet ministers, and pliilosopliers of the Royal Society, to go down to Greenwich or Blackwall, to enjoy the luxury of a meal of " Whitebait." The Sardine, C. sardina, seems to take the place of the herring in the Mediterranean, though it is less than half its size. It is highly prized for its flavor, and the fisheries there are extensive, though they have fallen otf of late years. This fish is also abundant on the coast of Brittany, in France. Genus ENGRAULIS : Engraulis, includes the Anchovy, E. encraslcolus, a small silvery fish, four or five inches long ; it is taken in vast numbers in the Mediterranean, where it is used for preparing a well-known sauce, which is sent all over the world. Genus ALOSA: Alosa. — This includes the Allice Shad, A. communis, two feet long, of good flavor, and bearing a close resemblance, as well in appearance as in habits, to our shad. It is somewhat rare in England, but is seen in the markets of London and also those of Paris, but more commonly in those of the Dutch cities. The TwAiTE Shad, A. Jinta, is twelve or thirteen inches long ; the flesli is dry and tasteless ; nevertheless it is somewhat extensively eaten. Both this and the preceding were more abundant in England formerly than they are at the present time. The American Shad, A. prcestabilisj is one of the most abundant of our Amer- ican fishes, and is held by many author- \ J ities, among them Frank Forester, as TUB TWAITE SHAD. " thc Hiost dcHcate of existing fishes," though its numerous sharp bones are an admitted drawback. It is from one to two feet long, appears along our coasts in the spring, and entering the rivers, ascends them for the purpose of depositing its spawn along the banks. At this season they are caught in large numbers by nets. They will also take the hook baited with a gaudy fly, and afford good sport to the fisher. Those of the New England rivers are deemed the best, those of the Connecticut taking the first rank. They are eaten fresh, and are also extensively put doAvn in barrels. When this country was first settled they were more abundant than at present, and afforded the natives a large part of their subsistence. At that period the salmon was very abundant in the Northern rivers, and less esteemed than the shad ; it was therefore customary for the fishermen, who caught both kinds in their seines, to require the people who came down from the country to buy shad, to take a certain portion of salmon. The American Alewive, A. tz/ranrnts, is eight to ten inches long, appears like a small shad, and was formerly held in New England to be the young of that fish. It is taken in considerable numbers with the shad, and has similar habits ; it is put down in barrels, and commands a good price. The Menhaden, A. mnihadcn — also called Mnfiif:, mill is l.roiijjht to New York market in the autumn, where it is called Autumnal Her- ri,,,/, h is soMK-tinies cuuirht in ('..nnoctirut river, where it is called Weeskk. The Spottko Siiadixe, A. saUim,, is six to twelve inches long, and is fuuixl. thonuh not abund- antlv, on the New ^'..rk coast. THE SCOPELID^. TImm- present oonsid.ral.lc resemldance to the salmons, differing, however, in the structure of the upper jaw, of whi.h the biting edge is entirely composed of the intermaxillary bones. The) are sometimes naked and sometimes covered with large brilliant scales. They are principally found in salt water; a few occur in the Mediterranean, but most inhabit the tropical seas. Some, a-s the Sfernopti/jr, present very singular forms. SALMON AND TEODT. THE SALMONID^. The members of this great family furnisb some of the most celebrated fishes, whether regarded as game for the sportraan or food for the epicure. They are generally inhabitants of the fresh waters of the northern parts of the world, a few only, like the salmon, passing a portion of their existence in the sea, and ascending into the rivers in the spawning season. They are exceedingly active and voracious fishes, generally of a slender form and adorned with brilliant colors, or elegantly spotted. They are usually of small or moderate size. Genus SALMO: Salmn, includes the Salmon, the hero of the angler, the idol of the cook, the god of the epicure. There is but one true Salmon, S. salar, him of whom Izaak Walton dis- courscth so learnedly, and on whom he bestoweth the title of "King;" and of whom Frank F'orester writes so eloquently. He is an inhabitant of the sea, and is known as well on the western as the eastern shores of the Atlantic. The salmon is two to four feet long, and weighs ten to twelve pounds, though it has been taken of eighty and even a hundred pounds. The form is long and oval, the scales moderately thin, oval, and rather easily detached ; the teeth numerous, sharp, and incurved ; branchial rays twelve, color above bluish-black, tinged with gray; beneath silvery white. It is altogether a beautiful fish, elegant in form and model, and brilliant in coloring. CLASS y. PISCES: ORDER 3. TELEOSTEA. 4:61 THE SALMON. As we have said, the sea is the home of the salmon, and the North Athmtic liis ordinary ranoje, but in spring he enters the estuaries of our rivers, where he gathers in great niidtitudes, and remains for some weeks, ascending and descending with the ebb and flow of the tide. At this period they are taken in large numbers in our northern streams, especially in the Penob- scot, and even tjxrther east, and being packed in ice are sent to various distant markets. In July and August on this continent, but three months later in Europe, they enter the fresh water, and begin to make their ascent for the purpose of spawning. At this period they are in their highest beauty and perfection. In order to insure the hatching of the spawn of this class of fishes, it is necessary that the water should be aerated, or highly charged with oxygen. A powerful instinct teaches them to ascend up the rivers where the water is broken by currents and rapids, and to which, by mingling with the atmosphere, purity and vitality have been imparted. Thei-e may be, and doubtless are, other objects in the economy of nature to be attained by this wonderful provision. In these remote and solitary places, aAvay from the crowded thoroughfares of crabs, lobsters, clams, oysters, and swimming fishes of every form and hue, all greedy of spoil, their eggs may have some chance of remaining to be hatched. Nay, there is oven a profounder wisdom behind this instinct of the salmon and its kindred, for by means of it the inland country along the borders of the great rivers, and the hills and slopes and even the mountains, threaded by a thousand rills, far up and away from the salt sea, are provided with a never-ceasing supply of the daintiest of food for man, bird, and beast, and that without plowing or planting. To the salmon this instinct is imparted in a degree suited to the energy and daring of its char- acter. In seeking to reach the small streams near the sources of rivers, it dashes up swift cur- rents, shoots over waterfalls, leaps dams, and in fact surmounts barriers which might seem im- passable. In these eftbrts it sometimes makes a clear leap of fourteen feet. If unsuccessful, it tries again and again ; one has been known to repeat its leaps for twenty times, at intervals of about two minutes : instances are on record in which these creatures have been dashed on the rocks and killed by the cataracts while attempting to scale them. When at last arrived at the place of spawning, a pair of these fishes are seen to make a furrow by working up the gravel with their noses, rather against the stream, for a salmon, as well as every other fish, is incapable of working with his head down stream, for the water tlius going to his gills the wrong way, drowns him. When the furrow is made the male and female retire to a little distance, one to the one side and the other to the other side of the furroAv ; they then throw themselves on their sides, again come together, and rubbing against each other, both shed their spawn into the furrow at the same time. This process is not completed at once ; it requires eight to twelve days for them to lay all their spawn. When they have done, they betake them- selves to the streams and descend to the sea, usually remaining several weeks in the brackish waters, as they did before ascending. Such are the general habits of these curious and interesting fishes. Many of them reach the lakes which are the sources of the rivers they ascend, and here some of tlieni remain and breed. They pass up the St. Lawrence into Lake Ontario, and even in some instances into Seneca and Cayuga Lakes. Similar instances occur in other localities, as well in America as Europe. No water is too remote for them if there is a stream which leads to it. At various periods the salmon undergoes considerable changes, and names significant of these conditions are applied. Tlie young of the first year is called Pink, of the second, Smolt, of the second autumn. Pearl or Grisle. After the spawning both male and female are lean, lank, and unfit for food ; at this time the former is called a Kipper, and the latter a Baf/r/it ; both are denominated Kilts. It is as a game fish that the salmon has attained that celebrity which ranks it with the wild Vol. II,— 59 400 VERTEBRATA. l.oar an.l tlu' \"\, as a civatmr al-.v utility, and made siu-cially for sport. It is to all intents iiniiirh the swift water in which lie loves to dwell, displacing its particles with the least resistance; tlie powerful mnsck-s and strong branched rays of his broad and vigorous cau- • laltin servo as a propeller, bv \\lii<'h he can command an immense degree of momentum and velocitv. and ascend tlie sharpest rapins more efficacious instruments to the lion and the tiger for the seizure of their victims than are the fine rows of sharp liookcd teeth with which the whole mouth of the salmon is bristled for the prehension and detention of his slippery and active prey." One of the greatest charms of field-sports consists in breathing the fresh air amid the wilder scenes of nature. In this respect fishing, especially river-fishing, has oven the advantage of shooting and luinting, for it not only leads the sportsman amid the most picturesque scenery, consisting of wood and water in every beautiful and fantastic combination of color, grouping, and movement, but it allows, by its tranquil pauses, the soul to drink deep of the spirit of beauty ever haunting such places. Izaak Walton understood all this, and Herbert graces his vivid de- scriptions of the more active experiences of the fisherman with poetic lights and shadows, indi- cating an appreciation of the emotions to which we allude. We shall take the liberty to quote a passage from his Jasper St. Aubyn, which affords an admirable picture of salmon-fishing as ex- ercised in the highest style of the craft : "All nature was alive and joyous; the air was vocal witli the piping melody of blackbirds and thrushes, caroling in every brake and bosky dingle The shadowy mists of the faint morning twilight had not been dispersed from the lower regions, and were suspended still in the middle air in broad, fleecy masses, though melting rapidly away^ in the increasing warmth and brightness of the day. A still faint blue line hovered over the bed of the long rocky gorge which divided the chasm from the open country, floating about like the steam of a seething cauldron, and rising here and there into tall, smoke-like columns, pi-obably where some steeper culvert of the mountain stream sent its foam skyward "Once at the water's edge, the young man's tackle was speedily made ready% and in a few minutes liis long line went whistling through the air, as he wielded the powerful two-handed rod as easily as if it had been a stripling's reed, and the laige gaudy peacock-fly alighted on the wheeling eddies, at the tail of a long arrowy shoot, as gently as if it had settled from too long a flight. Delicately, deftly, it was made to dance and skim the cleai-, brown surface until it had crossed the pool and neared the hither bank; then again, agreeable to the pliant wrist, it arose on glittering wing, circled half round the angler's head, and was sent fifteen yards along, straight as a wild bee's flight, into a little mimic whirlpool — scarcely larger than the hat of the skilful fisherman — which spun round and round just to leeward of a gray ledge of limestone. " Scarce had it reached its mark before the water broke all around it, and the gay deceit van- ished ; the heavy swirl of the surface as the break was closing, indicated the great size of the fish which had risen. Just as the wave was subsiding, and the forked tail of the monarch of the stream was half seen as he descended, that indescribable but well-known turn of the angler's wrist fixed the barbed hook, and taught the scaly victim the nature of the prey ho had gorged so easily. " With a wild bound he threw himself three feet out of the water, showing his silver sides, with CLASS V. PISCES: ORDER 3. TELEOSTEA. 467 the sea-lice yet clinging to his scales, a fresh sea-run fish of fifteen, ay, eighteen pounds, and perhaps over. " On his broad back he strikes the water, but not as he meant the tightened line ; for, as he leaped, the practiced hand had lowered the rod's tip, so that it fell in a loose bight below him. Again, again, again, and yet a fourth time he bounded into the air with desperate and vigorous soubre- sauts, like an unbroken steed that would dismount his rider, lashing the eddies of the dark stream into bright bubbling streaks, and making the heart of his captor beat high with anticipation of the desperate struggle that should follow, before the monster should lie panting and exhausted on the yellow sand or moist greensward. " Away, with the rush of an eagle through the air, he is gone like an arrow down the rapids ; how the reel rings, and the line whistles from the swift-working wheel ; he is too swift, too head- strong to be checked as yet ; tenfold the strength of that slender tackle might not control him in his first fiery rush. " But Jasper, although young in years was old in the art, and skilful as the craftiest of the gentle craftsmen. He gives him the butt of his rod steadily, trying the strength of his tackle with a delicate, gentle finger, giving him line at every rush, yet firmly, cautiously feeling his mouth all the while, and moderating his speed even while he yields to his fury. " Meanwhile, with the eye of intuition and the nerve of iron, he bounds along the difiicult shore ; he leaps from rock to rock, alighting on their slippery tops with the firm agility of the rope- dancer; he splashes knee-deep through the slippery shallows, keeping his line ever taut, inclining his rod over his shoulder, bearing on his fish ever with a killing pull, steering him clear of every rock or stump against which he would fain smash the tackle, and landing him at length in a fine, roora}^ open pool at the foot of a long stretch of white and foamy rapids, down which he had just piloted him, with the eye of faith and the foot of instinct. " And now the great salmon has turned sulky ; like a piece of lead he has sunk to the bottom of the deep, black pool, and lies on the gravel bottom in the sullenness of despair. "Jasper stooped, gathered up in his left hand a heavy pebble, and pitched it into the pool, as nearly as he could guess to the whereabout of his game — another, and another ! — aha ! that last has roused him ; again he throws himself clear out of water ; and again foiled in his attempt to smash the tackle, dashes away down the stream impetuous. "But his strength is departing; the vigor of his rush is broken. The angler gives him the butt abundantly, strains on him with a heavier pull, yet ever yields a little as he exerts his failing powers; see, his broad silver side has thrice turned up, even to the surface, and though each time he has recovered himself, each time it has been with a heavier and more sickly motion. " Brave fellow ! his last race is run — his last spring sprung ; no more shall he disport himself in the bright reaches of the Tamar ; no more shall the Naiads wreathe his clear silver scales with river greens and flowery rushes. " The cruel gaflf is in his side ; his cold blood stains the eddies for a moment ; he flaps out his death-pang on the hard limestone. " Who-whoop ! a nineteen-pounder !" While, as we have said, there is but one True Salmon., there are several other species analogous to it, especially in the i-ivers that empty into the Arctic seas, and those which flow into the Pacific from the northwest coast. Richardson describes eight or ten such species, as the Qumnat., Queachts^ Quannich, Uketvan, TsujJjiitck, &c., of various sizes and qualities, the first of which, abounding in the Columbia, appears greatly to resemble the Salmo salar. These fishes are a great resource to the Indians, who, it is said, gather them in vast numbers in this region during the fishing season, they and their horses and dogs feeding on them and growing fat to repletion. Similar species of various kinds doubtless exist in the waters of Kamschatka and the rivers of Siberia. The Mackinaw Salmon, aS'. mnethystus — also called the Great Lake Trout, and Namaycush by the Indians — is two to five feet long, and is the largest of the known salmonida?, some- times weighing one hundred and twenty pounds. It is very voracious, and feeds on every fish within its reach. It is speared by the Indians by torch-light ; its flesh is reddish, and is 468 VKliTKBllATA, .•alfii, M.inrtiin.s in a tVo/.-n stiit.-, l.y tli.^ CiMa.liaii voyagers. It is found in the Great Lakes of tin- Nortliw.-st fr-.m llm-..n to (IS n.-rlii, .m.l never visits tlie sea. 'Pile SisKAwiT/., N. Si.skS'. Hoodii, weighs two to eight pounds, THE NORTHERN cuARR. is Tcd flcshed, aud of delicious flavor ; found in the Mingan River, which empties into the estuary of the St. Lawrence, about latitude 50°. Genus OSMERUS : Osjnerus, includes the Smelt, 0. eperlanus, common in Europe, called Spirlhig and Sparling in Scotland; it inhabits the rivers the gi-eater part of the vear, that is, from August to May. It spawns about March or April, and soon after visits the sea for about three months. %0^^ ^^ It is extensively taken in nets, and is in great request on account of its peculiar flavor. It can be ' propagated in fresh water ponds, and do not suffer by the freezing of the water. The average length is seven inches. The American Smelt, 0. viridescens, is greenish above, silvery below ; length six to twelve inches. De Kay says its popular name is derived from its smell, resembling that of cucumbers. It abounds in streams connected wdth the sea, from the Hudson to Labrador. It appears to migrate along the coast, from north to south, in November and December. The New York market is chiefly supplied from the creeks emptying into Long Island Sound, and from the Hack- ensack and Passaic Rivers in New Jersey. Many are also brought from Massachusetts. They are taken with hand-nets, but bite well at the hook. Multitudes are caught in winter, through holes cut in the ice, as well by nets as hooks. Genus TIIYMALLUS : Thymallus, includes the- Grayling, T. vulgaris, found in tlic rivers of Northern Eu- rope having rocky or gravelly bottoms. It resembles the trout in its habits and haunts ; it weighs one to five pounds. Its flesh is highly esteemed. Back's Grayling, T.signifer, is a very fine species, weighing five or six pounds; found in the waters of British America, flowing into the Arctic Ocean. Its specific name, Siyuifer — "the standard-bearer" — refers to the unusual size of the dorsal fin. THE aUAYLING. 470 VERTEBKATA. THE OWrXIAD. (ifftus COKE* JON US: Com/onu*, includes the Gwvniad, C. /era, h lake fish of Northern Europe, ten to twelve inches long; it is gregarious, and approaches the shores in vast shoals in spring and suniinor, a Inindrcd being often taken at a draft. Tlicv are called Fresh-Water Hcrr'nif/^ ami being cheap, are eaten by the poorer classcfi, though they are insijnd. Many arc preserved by saltincj. The Attihawmeo or White Fish. C. albus, resembles the Gwyniad and Vendace of Europe, but greatly sur- passes them, being probably the most delicious of all known purely fresh-water fishes. Richard- son «iys one may live upon it for years without tiring. Its average weight is three or four pounds, but it sometimes reaches twenty poumU. It is found in Chatauque Lake in Western Now Y.irk. in Eric, and Huron, the finest in the latter. Here, indeed, it is chiefly taken, though it exists in the waters i>f the Xorthwestern British territories. It ascends the rivers connected with the lakes to spawn, in October. It feeds on shell-fish, small fishes, and insects, and is occasion- ally taken with the hook. It comes both iresh and salted to the New York market. The Otsego Bass, C. Otsego, is one to two feet long, and is exceedingly beautiful, and of ex- quisite flavor; it is only found in Otsego Lake, and appears to be daily diminishing. The Yendace, C. Willughbii, is a small fish, of delicate flavor, seven inches long, taken with nets in some of the Scot- tish lakes. In flavor it resembles the smelt. It spawns in November, Avhen it congregates in vast shoals, making a noise like that of the herrings as they rise and fiiU to and from the surface. It is be- lieved in Scotland that this fish was introduced there from the Continent, by Queen Mary. THE GALIXIID^. This family, established by Miiller, contains the single genus Gahaxias, placed by Cuvier with the Esocidce: they agree with the salmons in their general structure; the opening of the mouth is small, with middle-sized teeth in both jaws ; there are also a few stray crooked teeth on the tongue. The position of the dorsal and anal fins, and also the digestive organs, are like those of the pikes. THE ESOCID^. In this family, which comprises the Pikes, the biting edge of the upper jaw is formed as in the Sahnonidce, by both the maxillary and intermaxillary bones; the mouth is furnished with a most formidable apparatus of teeth, almost all the bones which assist in the formation of that cavity being thus armed. All the known fishes of this family inhabit fresh water, and only occur in temperate climates. They are of an elongated form, clothed with cycloid scales, and furnished with powerful fins, their whole conformation being eminently adapted for that rapid motion through their native element, without which their voracious propensities would stand but a poor chance of gratification. The only fish now placed in this family are the true Pikes, and a few small fishes forming the genus Umbra, of which one species is found in the rivers of Austria. Genus ESOX : £!sox, includes the Common Pike or Pickerel of Europe, £J. lucius ; it is strong, fierce, and active, swims rapidly, and occasionally darts along with the swiftness of an arrow. The spawn is deposited among weeds in March, or early in April, and at this season the spawning fish will be found in warm creeks or ditches connected with the larger waters which they generally inhabit. It is common in the principal lakes and rivers of Europe, and is THB VENDACE. CLASS V. PISCES: ORDER 3. TELEOSTEA, 471 %ii M THE EUROPEAN PIKE. abundant in the British Islands, though it is hcUeved not to have been indigenous there, but to have been introduced from the Continent some centuries ago. The usual length is from one to two feet, but there seems to be almost no limit to the growth of this fish. Its voracity is proverbial. Mr. Jesse says : " Eight pikes consumed nearly eight hundred gudgeons in three weeks, and the appetite of one of these was insatiable. One morning I threw to him, one after another, five roach, each about four inches in length ; he swallowed four of them, and kept the fifth in his mouth for about a quarter of an hour, when it also disappeared." " Digestion in the pike goes on very rapidly, and they are therefore most expensive fish to maintain. In default of a sufiicient quantity of other fishes to satisfy them, moor-hens, ducks, and indeed any animals of small size, whether alive or dead, are constantly consumed ; their bold- ness and voracity are equally proverbial. Dr. Plot relates that at Lord Gower's canal at Trent- ham, a pike seized the head of a swan as she was feeding under water and gorged so much of it as killed them both ; the servants perceiving the head of the swan under water for a longer time than usual, took the boat, and found the pike and swan both dead. Gesner relates that a pike in the Rlionc seized on the lips of a mule that was brought to drink, and that the beast drew the fish out before it could disengage itself. Walton was assured by his friend M. Segrave, who kept tame otters, that he had known a pike in extreme hunger, fight with one of his otters for a carp that the other had cauiiht, and was then brinfrinsx out of the water; and with the old adage adds, ' It is a hard thing to persuade the belly, because it has no ears.' "A Avoman in Poland had her foot seized by a pike as she was washing clothes in a pool, and the same thing is said to have happened at Killingwortli pond, near Coventry. The late head- keeper of Richmond Park was once washing liis hand over the sides of a boat in the great pond in that park, when a pike made a dart at it, and he had but just time to withdraw it." Mr. Jesse 471' VEKTKIJUATA. mills, "that a pMit Ionian in.w n-si.lin-r in Wcyln-id^'C, in Siirnv, walkini; one day by the side of til.' ri\tT \V<\, ni'ar tliat t..\vn, saw a lari;c pike in a sliallow creek, lie immediately pulled off his coat, tu<-kfd up his shirt-slcevcs, and went into the water to intercept the return of the fish to the river, and to (Mnh-avor to throw it out upon the bank ])y getting his hands under it. hurinir tliis attempt, tlie pikr. linding he couhl not make liis escape, seized one of the arms of the gentleman, anrnn, in Suabia, with a brazen ring attached to it on which were these words, in Greek characters: " 1 am the tisli which was first of all put into this lake liv the hamis of the Governor of the Universe, Frederick the Second, the 5th October, 1230." This tish was therefore two hundred and sixty-seven years old, and was said to have weighed three hundred and fiftv pounds. The skeleton, nineteen feet in length, was long preserved at Maidieim as a jireat curiosity in luitural history. The lakes of Scotland have produced pike of fiftv-tive ])ounds' weight; and some of the Irish lakes are said to have afforded pike of seventy pounds; "but it is observed," says honest Izaak Walton, " that such old or very great pikes iiave in them more of state tlian goodness; the smaller or middle-sized pikes being by the most and choicest palates, observed to be the best meat." The flesh of the pike is of good quality, and those of the Medway, in England, when feeding on tlic smelt, acquire excellent condition, with peculiarly fine flavor. In Lapland, and some other northern countries of Europe, large quantities of pike are caught during the spawning season, being then most easily taken, and are dried for future use. In North America there are several species of this genus, some of them very remarkable. The Common American Pike or Pickerel, E. reficulatus, is from one to three feet long, and is found in most of the lakes, ponds, and rivers of the Middle and Eastern States. It is especially abundant in the numerous bright, limpid lakes of New England, and is there taken in large numbers. In habits it agrees with the European species ; it not only feeds on fish, but on frogs, water-rats, and even young water-fowl. AYhen introduced into a piece of water it soon makes almost every other spe- cies scarce, except the perch, whose bony spines protect it even from this wolf of the waters. It is taken in various ways, though perhaps most commonly with hook and line, having a small floating buoy and living bait. Frank Forester says : " I infinitely prefer trolling with the gorge-hook to fishing either with the common snap or what is here called the sockdollager hook, which last I regard as a great and dangerous humbug!" This fish is taken in considerable numbers in winter, by cutting through the ice. Its weight is two to five pounds; sometimes even, though rarely, twelve pounds. The Long Island or Varied Pickerel, U.fasciatus, is common in the trout-ponds and clear running brooks of Long Island ; it resembles the common pike, but is not more than half its size, rarely exceeding a pound in weight. It is remarkable fjr its very large scales. This fish is found in New Jersey, and generally in the State of New York. The Great Northern Pickerel, U. luciotdcs, is an exceedingly fine species, weighing from four to ten, and even up to seventeen pounds. The back is of a rich blackish-green. It is bold and voracious, and takes any sort of bait in spinning or trolling ; it is captured in winter by baits set through the ice, and is an essential resource to the Indian hunter when the chase fails him. It devours fishes of every variety, even its own species and the thorny perch, rats, reptiles, water- fowl, indeed any living thing that comes within its reach. It is found in the great lakes and rivers, from Lake Superior to the St. Lawrence. The Mascalonge, a term said to be derived from the Canadian French, Masque allonge, and THE PICKEREL. CLASS V. PISCES: ORDER 3. TELEOSTEA. 473 referring to the long mask or snout of the fish, E. cstor, " the finest, largest, and most excellent food of all the pike fjimily," is found only iu the great lakes and waters of the St. Lawrence basin. It is common in Lakes Erie, Ontario, and Huron. Its length is two to four feet, and it soiuotiines weighs sixty pounds. It is bold and voracious even beyond its kindred, and is taken with dead bait played with spinning tackle, and even by a bait of tin or red cloth, made to play quickly through the water. It is also often taken with the seine. There are still many other species of pike in different parts of the world. THE MORMYRID^. These, very few in number, are only found in the Nile and Senegal : they have a small elec- trical organ in the sides of the tail : the flesh is excellent. ImW/i THE CARP. THE CYPRINID.^. This family, which includes the Carps^ also embraces the greater portion of all the fresh-water fishes of temperate climates. They are distinguished by a small mouth and powerful teeth, though not set in the jaws. The body is usually compressed, and always clothed with scales, sometimes of very large, sometimes of very small size ; the head is small ; the dorsal fin single. The fishes of this family are found in great abundance in all the iresh waters of Europe. Many of them are much sought after by anglers, but rather for the sake of sport than for the goodness of their flesh, which is usually watery and insipid. In former times, however, when the trans- portation of marine productions, in a fresh state, to great distances from the coast was attended with greater difiiculties than at the present day, these fish were regarded as of some importance, Vol. II.— 60 474 VEIITEBRATA. THE COMMON CAUP. --t;.-^:5« I'spi'ciallv ns ii i-liangc iVuin llio s^alt-fisli iliot to which many jyood Catholics were condemned diirintr Lent. The C'l/prinida: Iced juincipally upon aquatic phmts and worms; but a few of ' them seem occasionally to prey upon small fishes. Genus CYPRINUS : Cyprinus, in- cludes the Common Carp of Europe, C. carpio : it is ten to forty inches long, and sometimes attains the weight of a hundred pounds ; the general color is rich olive-brown above ; yel- lowish-white beneath. It inhabits most of the fresh waters of Europe, lakes, ponds, and rivers, generally pre- ferring still water. It is kept and cultivated in numerous reservoirs, especially in Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain. It Avas first introduced into the latter country about three centuries ago; it has also been introduced into this country with complete success, though on a limited scale. It is in season for the table from October to April. A carp has been known to live to the age of one hundred and fifty years. The Gold Carp, C. auratus, often called Gold-Fish and SUver-Fish, as it assumes both colors, is originally from China, the most beautiful species being taken from Lake Che-Kyang. Every person of fashion in that country is said to keep them, either in porcelain vessels or in the basins that decorate the courts of Chinese houses. Tlae elegance of their form and colors, and ■ their playful and graceful motions, to- gether Avith their tameness and facility of production, and what is exceedingly rare in fishes, a seeming aff"ection for each other, have made them favorites every- where as ornaments of the parlor and the fountain. Though they can bear high as well as low degrees of heat, still they thrive best in water at a temperature of about eighty degrees. Genus BARBUS : Barhus.—Thii^ includes the Barbel, B. vulgaris, | said to be so called on account of the barbs or wattles about its mouth ; it is common in the Avarm and temperate parts of Europe, being abundant in the Rhine, Elbe, and Weser; also in some of the English rivers. They are shy of observation, but are said, when supposing them- j selves unnoticed, to show considerable ' playfulness. They grow to the size of fifteen pounds, and in some places are caught in large numbers for food. In cold weather they become torpid, and may be taken by the hand. " ' Genus GOBIO: 'GoUo.—Th\& in- cludes the Gudgeon, G. Jiuviatilis : it is common in Europe, and is found in It swims in slioals, feeds on worms, aquatic insects and THE GOLD CARP. THE BARBEL. THE GUDGEON. Streams which flow over gravelly soil. CLASS V. PISCES: OllDER 3. TELEOSTEA. 475 THE TENCH. tlieir larvae, and molluscous animals. It is small, rarely exceeding eiglit inches in length, and affords excellent sport to young anglers. It spawns in May, among stones in shallow water. The Thames fishermen take great numbers in easting nets. The Niagara Gudgeon, G. cataractce, found near the Falls of Niagara, is five inches long. Genus TING A : Tinca^ includes the Tench, T. vulgaris, found in most European lakes and rivers. It is exceedingly tenacious of life ; loves foul and weedy water; thrives even where the mud is of an intolerably fetid odor, and so black as to color the fish with its own inky hue. It is easily ^ propagated, and is esteemed a useful fish, "' the flesh being tolerably good. It spawns ; about the middle of June. 3 6^e/ZMS ABRAMIS : Ahr amis, mdndc?, the Bream, A. brama, an inhabitant of the lakes and rivers of Europe generally. It is very abundant in the larger lakes and quiet rivers of Great Britain and Ire- land. It swims in shoals ; feeds on worms, ■with other soft-bodied animals, and some vegetable substances. Its flesh is insipid, but the breeding of it is encouraged to feed pike and other voracious fishes. In Ireland it grows to the weight of twelve and fourteen pounds; one pound is the conunon weight. The Variegated Bream, A. versicolor, is an American species, of a silvery color, varied with blue, green, and golden. It is five to seven inches long, and common in the rivers and ponds of New York and New England. Its flesh is savory, and it is caught by young fishermen in considerable num- bers. It is often seen in the markets of New York. It is sometimes called Yclloiv-bellied Perch, and also Wind-Fish, as it is seen when a flaw of wind ruffles the surface to dart by hundreds, and often thousands, to the top of the water. The Common Pond-fish, Pomotis vulgaris, abun- dant in all parts of the country, shares with this the title of Bream, and also the popular designation of Pumpkin-seed. Genus LEUCISCUS : Leuciscus, includes the Ide, L. idus, inhabiting large rocky lakes, from whicii it seeks its way into the rivers to spawn in April or May. It fi'cds on worms and herbage, and the flesh is of ffood flavor. It is common in Northern Europe. The Roach, L. rutilus, is abund- ant in the rivers of the temperate parts of Europe. It is gregarious, and feeds like the preceding. It at- tains the weight of one to two pounds. In the proverb, '■'■sound as a roach,^'' the last word is to be pronounced rock. The English also say sound as a trout. The Italians have a similar proverb — healthij as a fish ; and the French say, as hale as a gardon, the latter being their name for the ide. The Dace, L. vulgaris, also called Dare and Dart, feeds on wonns and other soft substances ; THE BREAM. THE IDE. 470 VERTEBRATA. 8|)HW lis 111 .Mint' is six to nine iii'-li /^■- -^ TIIK ROACn. THE CUUB. THE RED-ETK. cs long; is used !is bait for pike in trolling, on account of its silvery brightness. It is com- mon in the deep, clear, (piiet streams of Italy, France, and Germany ; it is also met with in Great Britain. The Graining, L. Lancastriensis, is found in the lakes and rivers of some parts of Europe ; in its habits and food it resembles the trout, and is fished for with artificial flies. The average weight is half a pound. The flesh is excellent. The Chub, L. cephaliin, frequents deep places in the quiet parts of streams, sheltering itself usually under a bush or tree that may screen it from view. It feeds on worms and insects in their various stages. It is commonly caught by dibbing, that is, by a fly or bait drawn along on the surface of the water. It spawns in April or May, Aveighs one to five pounds, and though a coarse fish, is esteemed palatable when broiled with the scales on. The chub is common in the river Thames, at London, and ' is there much angled for, the bait being cockchafers, dibbed along on the surface, which gives them an action as if they had fallen into the water and were struggling to escape. Though a shy fish, it is said the chub cannot resist a cockchafer thus pre- sented to it. The Red-Eye or Rudd, L. cry- (hrophthalmns, is a very common fish in Europe ; it is of brilliant colors, and very tenacious of life ; it feeds on w^orms, molluscous animals, insects, and some vegetable matters. Its weight is one to two pounds. It is tolerable food, and is much used for bait for pike. It breeds freely, with- out any care bestowed upon it, on which account it is cultivated as food for trout, perch, and pike. The AzuRiNE or Blue Roach, L. ceruleus, is a small fish, seldom ex- ceeding a pound in weight ; the flesh is firm, and of good flavor. It is hardy, tenacious of life, and spawns in May ; found in Great Britain, and also in some of the Swiss lakes. CLASS V. PISCES: ORDER 3. TELEOSTEA. ■i t THE BLUE ROACn. THE BLEAK. The Bleak or Blick, Z. alburnus, is a well-known, small species, inhabiting many of the rivers of Europe ; it is tolerable food, and affords amusement to voung fly- fishers. It rises eagerly to almost any fly, and sports incessantly on the surface of the water of a fine day. Mr. Jesse says they appear to be always restless and always happy. Nevertheless, the intes- tines are frequently found to be partly occupied by a species of tape-worm. The inner surface of the scales of this fish, as well as that of the roach, dace, and white- lint, is used as a silvery pigment for giving luster to artificial pearls. Formerly this was in great request, and a quart of these scales was sold for from five to twenty dollars. The following species of Leuciscus are described by Dr. De Kay as found in the rivers and lakes of New York and the vicinity : the Black-nosed Dace, L. atronasus, one to three inches long : the Spawn-Eater, L. Hudsonius, three to six inches long : the Red-Fin, L. cornutus, sometimes called Hed Dace and Rough-Head, three to six inches long : the Roach-Dace, L. pulchellus, a beautiful species, ten to fourteen inches long ; common in New England, where it is called Cousin Trout : the Shining Dace, L. nitidus, two to six inches long ; called White Dace and Shiner at Lake Cham- plain : the Black-headed Dace, L. atromaculatus, six to twelve inches long; sometimes called Lake-Chub and Lake-Dace : the Bay Shiner, L. chrysopterus, four to six inches long: a beau- tiful species, caught in New York Bay: the Silvery Dace, L. arffenieus, six inches long; com- mon in New England: the Banded Dace, L. vittatus, two to four inches long: the Corpo- raalen, L. corpioralis, ten to fifteen inches long; found in the Hudson, Oneida Lake, (fcc. : and the Pigmy Dace, L. jiyginceus, one inch long, (fcc. The Minnow, L. phoxinus, is one of the smallest of European fishes, seldom exceeding three inches in length ; it inhabits rivers, brooks, and canals, is exceedingly prolific, and spawns in June. It is the fish on which a young angler usually takes his first lessons; it is extensively employed as bait for pike, trout, and large perch. The name Minnow, and also that of Minim, which is common, are said to be derived from the Latin, mini- mus, having reference to the extreme mi- nuteness of the fish. Dr. De Kay describes among American Minnows the following : Transparent Minnow, i/y- drargira diaphana, three to five inches long; back brown-olive, sides delicate blue, lower parts white ; found in Saratoga Lake, where it is used for bait: the Barred Minnow, H. multifasciata, three inches long; found in the same locality; possibly the young of the preceding: and the Ciiamplain Minnow, H. atricada, three and a half inches long. Frank Forester says that we have not in this country the Minnow proper of Europe, but many species of the Hydrargira, or American minnow, " Avhich, as live bait for pike, perch, and cat-fish, are not to be equalled. They are generally known as Killy-fi-.ihr The Big Killifish, Fundulus viridescens, abounds in salt-water creeks in the neighborhood of New York ; it is popularly called Minny and Big-kdlie. The Striped Killifish, F.fasciatus, is found in the same localities. Genus STILBE : Stilbe, includes the New York Shiner, S. chrysoleucas, a beautiful little THE MINNOW. 478 VEJiTEBRATA. lis), conunon in every pond and stream throutrhoiit the temperate parts of North America. It is c-umnHmiy Jissoeiated witli the little Pond-Fis.i, or Sin-Fish, Poniotis vuhjaris, already men- tioned, an.rthe Vki.i.ow Perch, /^/awsccns. „ . n ,• T anius COr.ITlS: Cobitls, includes the Loach, C. barbatula, aomeUme^ called Beardie. It feeds on worms and aquatic insects, spawns in March or April, delights in small, shallow, clear streams, and has the habit of lurkina: under stones. It is noted THB LOACH. for having six barbules about the mouth. Yarrell remarks that " fishes thus provided are known to feed at or near the bottom of the water, and it has been stated in this work that those species which reside constantly so near the bottom as to acquire the name of ground-fish, have a low standard of respiration and a high degree of muscular irritability. In the'' animals possessing this duration of the power of muscular contractility, as the eels, flat-fish, and many others, the'i-e is reason to believe there exists also great susceptibility of any change tliat occurs in the electiiral relations of the medium in which they reside ; the restless move- ments of eels and other ground-fish during thunder, receive at least a probable explanation in the l)elief tliat no alteration in the weather takes place without some previous change in the elec- trical state of the atmosphere, which by quality or quantity may afltect the water. " The Chinese, who breed and rear great quantities of gold carp, find that thunder does them harm, and even sometimes kills them. Pennant says that lobsters fear thunder, and are apt to cast their claws after a loud clap. These eftects may be referred to spasmodic action of the muscles, induced by electrical influence. If fishes of opposite habits, such as surface-swimmers and ground-fish, are put together into the same vessel of water, and a slight galvanic discharge be passed through the fluid, the ground-fish, witb the lowest degree of respiration, will be the most agitated." Gemis LABEO : Laheo, includes several American species with fleshy lips, often crenated. They are of little value for the table. The Chub-Sucker, L. eler/ans, is eight inches long; dark bluish | above, beneath whitish, with pink suff"usions along the abdomen ; little esteemed for food, but common in the New York market in autumn. The Brilliant Chub-Sucker, L. oblonffus, is six to twelve inches long; a beautiful species, appearing in our markets in December. It is famil iarly known under the name of Chub. The Long-finned Chub-Suckek, L. cyjorinus^ is twelve to twenty inches long ; resembles the carp of Europe, and is popularly called Carj) ; found in the rivers of "Western New Jersey, and in the Susquehannah. The Gibbous Chub-Sucker, L. pibbosiis, is seven to twelve inches long ; common in the fresh-water streams of New York. The Round-backed Chub-Sucker, L. esopus, is ten to twelve inches long; found in the interior of New York. Genus CATOSTOMUS : Catosfomus, includes only American species, having thick, fleshy lips, which are crenated or plaited ; the lower lip is pendant. The Common Sucker, C. communis, is twelve to fourteen inches long ; the head is smooth and scaleless ; the scales of the body reticu- late ; body dark purplish above, with pink and metallic tints on the sides, frequently with a resplendent golden hue extending over the abdomen ; beneath white. The flesh is insipid, but it is common in the New York markets. The Oneida Sucker, C. OnenZa, is twelve inches long; dark blue above; beneath whitish ; common in Oneida Lake, where it is called Mullet and Sucker. The Horned Sucker, C. tuber- culatus, is seven to ten inches long; common in the New England and Middle States, and is called Barbel, Dace, and Horned Dace. The Pale Sucker, C. pallidas, is nine to ten inches long ; it is a common species, abundant near Peekskill. The Mullet Sucker, C. aureolus, is twelve to eighteen inches long ; is indiff"erent food ; goes by the names of Mullet, Golden Mullet, and Red Horse. De Kay says he has seen them full of worms in August and Sejv tember. Common in Lake Erie. The Black Sucker, C. nigricans, is thirteen to twenty inches long, and is common in Lake Erie, where it has the whimsical name of Shoemaker. It is CLASS V. PISCES: ORDER 3. TELEOSTEA. 479 found in New England. The Large-scaled Sucker, C. inacrolepidotus^ is found in the Dela- ware River. These species are doubtless more widely distributed than we have indicated in the particular descriptions ; there are also several other species. THE P^CILIID^. These fishes so closely resemble the carps that they were formerly included with them as of the same family. They are small, scaly fish, inhabiting the fresh waters of warm climates. The best known species is the Four-eyed Loach, Anableps tetrojjhthalmus^ of Guiana. THE CHARACINID^. These seem to be intermediate between the CyprhiidcB and the Salmonidce. They are found in rivers and lakes of tropical countries, and some attain a large size. A few are very voracious : the Serrasalmones are said to seize upon water-fowl, and even to attack men while bathing. THE SILURID^. This family includes numerous species of fresh-water fishes, often of considerable size, the skins usually naked, or more or less covered with bony plates, especially about the head. They are for the most part confined to the rivers and lakes of warm countries. Genus SILURUS : Sihirus, includes the Sly Silurus or Sheat-Flsh, S. f/lanis, found in the rivers of Central luirope, and in those of Asia and Africa, and also in the lakes of Swit- zerland. It sometimes attains the length of six feet, and the weight of three hundred pounds. It is a slow and sluggish fish, lying in wait for its prey in holes and muddy bottoms. It is very voracious, and has been known to devour children ; the body of a woman has also been found in one of them. Its flesh is M'hite, and relished by many persons. Gemis MALAPTERURUS: Malapterurus, includes the M. electricus, ten to fifteen inches long ; found in the Nile and Senegal Rivers, and has electrical properties, though in no great degree. Genus PIMELODUS : Pimelodus. — This includes several remarkable American species, gen- erally called Cat-Fish. The Great Lake Cat-Fish, P. nigricans, is two to four feet long, and weighs from six to twenty-five pounds ; color deep olive-brown ; prefers muddy bottoms, and is usually taken with the spear. Found in Lake Erie. Its flesh is little valued. The Common Cat-Fisii, P. catus, is six to ten inches long, nearly black above, pearly-gray beneath. It is armed with sharp spines, which frequently inflict a smarting wound on the hand of the incautious angler. This is a common species in all the Atlantic States ; it is frequently called Horn-Pout, Bull-Pout, and Minister. The Great Huron Pimelode, P. p)allidus, often called Channel Cat-Fish, attains a weight of one hundred and fifty pounds. The skin is smooth, thick, and lubricated by a mucous secretion ; the color is dingy greenish-brown. The flesh is rich and gelatinous, and resembles that of an eel. It is a greedy biter, and takes almost any animal bait. Dr. Kirtland has named several other species, found in the waters of Ohio, and there arc still others, some of great size, in the Mississippi and other Southern and Western rivers. It is said there arc thirty species of cat-fish in the interior waters of the LTnited States. THE SLY SILURUS. 480 VERTEBRATA. Geuus (;ALEI('nTIIYS: Gah-lchlfn/s.-'m^ includes the Oceanic Cat-Fish, G. 7narinus, one. to two feet Ion-, tbun.l on o,.r coasts; its ticsli is said to be excellent. TIIK LOIilCARIID^. This fan)ily in.-lu.les several South American species, which have the whole body covered >s ith an arn.oV of bony plates. They are nearly allied to the Silurida;. THE AMBLYOPSIDyE. This fainilv Includes a sincflc species, the Blind Fish, Amblyopsis spelceus, found in a small lake or s'trealn in the £rreat Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. It is three and a half inches long, the eye covered with opaque skin, or entirely wanting. ^ The anus is situated on the throat in front of the pectoral fins. The young are brought forth alive. -^^^^^''^^^^^^-^ ^ THE COMMON EUROPEAN EEL. THE MUR^NID.E. Having described the abdominal species of the Physostomata, we now come to the apodal species. The first family is the Murcenidce, which includes the common Eels. These have an elongated form, and a soft, thick, slimy skin ; the scales are very minute, and imbedded in the thick, fat cuticle so as only to be seen Avhen this is dried. The gill orifices arc small, and car- ried far back, so that the branchias are protected, on which account these animals can live a con- siderable time out of water. They are averse to cold, and are not found in high northern coun- tries. Many species of eels constantly inhabit the sea; others generally live in rivers, lakes, and ponds, and usually make two annual migrations, one in the autumn to the brackish waters of the estuaries of rivers, and one in spring, when they return to the fresh waters. In winter they lie concealed in the mud, but are often taken in this condition by spears. Tlie reproduction CLASS V. PISCES: ORDER 3. TELEOSTEA. 481 THE SHARP-NOSED EEL. of eels has been a matter of dispute: Aristotle believed them to spring from mud; at a later day they were supposed to be bred in turf; another idea was that the hair of the tails of stal- lions, deposited in water, would turn into eels. For a long period they were supposed to be vivipai'DUs, but they are now known to breed by means of eggs produced from roe, like most otlier fishes. Gcinis ANGUILLA : Anguilla, includes the Sharp-nosed Eel of Europe, ^1. acutirostris : it is from one to four feet long, and weighs from one to twenty- five pounds. This species feed on frogs and fish, and are most active at night. They occasion- ally quit the water and glide over the meadows when moist- ened with dew, as well to change their position as to obtain food. The young grow to the length of a foot the first year. This is the common eel of Europe, and is found in most of the rivers of the milder parts ; its abundance in the rivers of England is astonishing : in the Thames eighteen hundred young ones have been calculated to pass by a given point in a minute. The flesh is very savory, and extensively con- sumed. Another European species is the Broad-nosed Eel, A. latirostris, which is nearly as common as the preceding, but seldom weighs over five pounds. The Snig, A. mediorostris^ resembles the common eels, but is less abundant. Found throughout Europe. The Common New York Eel, A. tcmiirostris^ is one to two feet long, and seems to be the American representative of the sharp-nosed eel of Europe. It is greenish-olive above, yellow beneath. It is very savory and abundant, being caught in our bays and creeks at all seasons of the year. In spring it is taken in large willow-baskets, called ccl-jjots, and by torch-light in the evening with spears. In the winter it is speared through holes broken in the ice, being at tliis time in a torpid state. It is very voracious, feeding on water-insects, small insects, and any kind of animal matter. It often moves from one creek to another by crawling over the land. The Silver Ed is thought by De Kay to be only a variety of this; the Common Eel of Massachusetts and New England is also probably of this species. The Beaked Eel, A. rostrata, is eighteen to twenty-four inches long, and found in the waters of Western New York. The Sea-Eel, A. occanica, is from two to fiv^e feet long; has very thick and fleshy lips; re- sembles the conger eel; found on our coast. The Bull-IIead Eel, A. macrocephala, has the head large, the eyes large and prominent; above it is olive-yellow, beneath white ; found in Saratoga Lake. The Boston Eel, A. Bos- toniensis, is two feet long, and found on the northern coast. Genus CONGER : Cowjcr, includes the Conger Eel, C. vulgaris : it varies in length from three to ten feet, and in weight from five to one hundred and thirty pounds. It is a most vo- racious fish, feeding often on the ^m y^""S ^^ ^^^ *^^^'" species; from ■^WJ j^Q stomach of one that weighed twenty-five pounds, Mr. Yarrell took three dabs and a young conger three feet long. The flesh is not in much estimation, Common in the European waters; TUE CONGliU EKL, but being sold cheap, is largely used by the poorer classes, abundant on the British and French coasts. The .'Xmerican Conger Eel, C. occidcntalis, resemblf the blood is eftccted entirely by the eou- tractile force of the arteries ; the blo,.d itself, unlike that of all other vertebrata, is perfectly color- loss. This creature lives in sandy y-rouud at a depth of between ten and twenty fathoms water. It is verv tenacious of life, sid)sisting- f)r liours out of water; it dislikes the light, and bears han.llinii without injurv. It has been frequently taken on the British coasts, and has excited t'roat curiosity by its anomalous sti'iicture. Fossil Kisi'ies! — The remains of extinct fishes are exceedingly abundant in various parts of the world. These, with the existing races, have been grouped by M. Agassiz, in his celebrated work, lirchcrchcs siir Ifs Poinsoiin Fossiles, in four divisions, the P/aco/des^ Ganoides, Cfcvoi- rlrs, and C>/cloid(s, these being severally distinguished by the structure of their scales. The term I'laroidcx, including the sharks, rays, ttc, is derived from the Greek ^jZc/j-, a plate or slab, and is applied to the first of these groups on account of the irregularity which the solid tegu- mentary parts present. The Ganoides, from the Greek r/anos, splendor, and embracing the silur- ida\ sturixeoiis, kc, are distinguished by the angular form of their scales. In the Ctcnoidcti, in- chnling the fiat fishes, percid;c, etc., named from the Greek ctenos, a comb, the scales consist of laminie, whose posterior and free margin is pectinated. In the C9/cloidcs, including the bass, cod, salmon, carp, itc, and named from the Greek c//clo.% a circle, the scales consist of simple iamiiue, with th.e posterior margin smooth. The nmnbcr of species of extinct fishes in the British Islands alone, noted by M. Agassiz, is over five hundred. Some existing species have no representatives in the older strata. The most ancient of the finny races, in a geological sense, arc the I'lacoid fishes. The Artificial Propagation of Fishes. — It has been long known that the eggs of fishes could be taken and transported from one place to another, and there, being placed in water suited to them, would hatch and produce thrifty oflfspring. The Chinese have practiced this for ages, and the ancient Romans conducted it on an extensive scale, in this manner not only stocking natural lakes and streams with various kinds of fish, but also their vast artificial reservoirs. Modern naturalists had gone somewhat farther, ha\ing discovei'cd the mode by which the eggs of fishes are fecundated, that is, by strewing the ova of the female with the milt of the male. No attempt, however, appears to have been made to take practical advantage of this fact, and to render the artificial breeding of fishes a general system of national economy, till within a few years. In 18-30 the attention of the French Government was called to the opera- tions of two illiterate but ingenious fishermen, Messrs. Gehin and Rciny,"^ in the littla village of Brcsse, on the eastern borders of France, among the Vosges Mountains, who, as it appears, of themselves, and without instruction, conceived and put in practical operation the artificiul brjcd- * The history of (lie proceedings of Gchin and Uemy is thus given in Mr. Fry's excellent and interesting work : "As long ago as 1841, they commeuced to observe carefully the habits of tho trout, and in the month of November of that ye:ir, during a full nioun, tliey passed night and day on the bank of a river, never for an instant losing sight of these fish, and watching most intently all their i)re]iaratious for laying and preserving tlieir eggs. " The results of their observations were these : " The trout come together in a fjhoal, and choose a cnrrent with a gravelly bottom as the best i -lace to lay their eggs. They dig in it a round hole, sometimes of tke d-^pth of several inches by three feet in diameter: they place in the middle of (hij .space, parallel vilh the cuiTcnt, a line of stones, the size of which varies with Ibj .si::j of the fish. " The female then passes over f he lino of stone^-, .gliding over, rnljbiiig against or resting upon them. Tlii i .s'.iu does again and again, some tv,-cnty or thirty limes, (ill her eggs are all laid i;i the crevices of the gravel. '• V\ hen t.iefjmak-ha3d)ne this, the male, in the same manner, by passing over and pressing upon th;i gravel, omits the milt, or soft roe, v.-hieh covers and fccandatc.i the egg;; fien v,-i(h tail, fins, licid, and belly ha works r.way till he manages to cover the eggs with gravel. " N'ow a second female commences, and in t'.ie r.amc manner 1 ;ys her eggs in a parallel line with and against the first row. When the fecundation i ; complete, which ii generally ii about fifteen days, according t) the nnmbcr of fish, all unite in heaping up ctone; and gravel in mounds upon the c^'^^, in a manner resembling the great ant-h!!Li tliat may be found near by. " Mr. Gehin believe--, that their mason- -.vor'.c U, in a manner, cemente 1 by a slimy secretion, with which they cover the stones, while incessantly rubbing over and jjressing against them in heaping tliem up ; fjr he foimd it dilficult to destroy the moimds s > formed by scratching apart the material with his fin-rers? " The eggs remain in this way for a month or two, while the proce3.3 of incubation goes on; at the end of a time, CLASS V. PISCES: PISCICULTURE. 485 ing of fishes. The celebrated naturalist Milne Edwards, a member of the French Institute, was appointed by the government to examine the proceedings of these persons, and after an elabor- ate investigation, he made a report fully verifying their success. The attention of M. Coste, Pro- fessor in the College of France, had been drawn to this subject, and investigating it with admi- rable sagacity, he published his views, thus spreading before the world all the facts necessary to the actual and practical culture of fishes. The question of priority of discovery between various parties has given rise to some controversy, the result of which seems to be that Messrs. Gehin and Remy are entitled to the credit of having commenced, as early as 1842, the artificial fecundating of the eggs, and breeding fishes from them, this being the true point of discovery. That this could be done Avas of course known to naturalists so accomplished as Milne Edwards and Pro- fessor Coste,* and when they found it to be not only practicable, but practiced with positive success, they added the lights of science to the discovery, thus establishing and extending its utility. The experiments oi' Professor Coste, especially, were of the greatest practical importance, and the results of his investigations being published, speedily disseminated the knowledge which had been acquired, over the world. In France the government founded an establishment at Ilun- ingen, in the department of the Upper Rhine, which Avent into operation in 1852, and has been entirely successful in. breeding fishes; being a government establishment, it suppbes eggs of the best varieties to every department of France. The actual product of fishes by artificial breed- ing in France at the present time is great, and promises to be of the utmost national importance. In England, Mr. Boccius, a civil engineer, appears to have been employed in the artificial breeding of fishes as early as 1841, that is, a year prior to the first attempts of Gehin and Remy, and being successful, had as early as 1842 hatched in various streams as many as two millions of trout. lu 11353 the breeding of salmon Avas commenced at Stormontfield, near Perth, in Scot- land, and the results Avere truly marvelous. In May, 1854, about two hundred thousand smolts, Avhich liad been hatched in the ponds, Avere put into streams connected with the sea. At this time they Avere about seven inches long, and weighed half an ounce to two ounces. In August they returned, and having been marked, Avere easily recognized. It was found after an absence of two months they had increased to three, five, seven, and even nine pounds in weight ! The foct that trout, salmon, pike, and other fishes may be thus artificially bred, and with enor- mous profit, is Avell established by these and many other experiments in difterent parts of Europe. Experiments have been made in this country, especially by Robert L. Pell, Esq., at Pelham, Ulster County, New York, and by Dr. T. Garlick and Prof. II. A. Ackley, of Cleveland, Ohio, and indeed by many others, verifying the general results Avhich Ave have stated as having been ob- which Mr. Gehin could not precisely determine, the little tish appear about the size of pins, come out of their cells between the interstices of the gravel, and seek in the tranquil waters, near the shore, a place of safety. "Having thus discovered nature's secrets, it remained to discover a mode of rendering them practically useful, and not until after many failures did Gehin and Remy hit upon a sure process, incontestably superior even to that of nature herself. This may be deemed too bold an assertion, but a moment's reflection will prove its truth." * The discovery and practice of the artificial breeding of fishes date back as far as 1763, when the results of thirty years' research on the part of a German named Jacobi, were published in Hanover. In this memoir, it appears that the author proceeded upon an e.xact knowledge of the habits of trout, salmon, &c., and imitating them, he actually hatched and propagated fishes in nearly the same manner as was afterward done by Gehin and Remy, Professor Coste and others. The knowledge of these facts, certainly in the possession of scientific men, still appears to have lain practically dormant for nearly a century ; but in 1837, Mr. Shaw, and soon after Mr. Boccius, commenced making experiments in England, probably instigated by the discoveries of Jacobi. They were entii'ely successful, and the result has been the actual breeding of fishes in Great Britain toavery large extent. The operations of Gehin and Remy began at a later date, that is, in 1S42 ; but they proceeded without instruction from any extraneous source, and though not the first to discover and put in practice this new art, they were real inventors, and in consequence of the enlightened and energetic following up of their system by the French government, have been the means of a rapid dissemination of knowledge on the subject throughout the civilized world. It appears by the late work on Pisciculture, by Eugene Noel, that in the Eiieyclopedie Nouwlle, published in Paris, in lS-i-2, a note was added to the article Onjanogihiie, by Dr. Serres, in which the following passage occurs : " The physiologist can put in a vase, eggs not fecundated, and in another zoosperms ; in pouring the latter upon the former, he creates animals at will." Here seemed a general philosophic statement of the principle of the system of which we are treating. It may be added that, according to the authority of M. Coste, it was by recourse to this method of multiplication that Messrs. Agassiz and Voght procured all the embryos necessary for their studies on the development of the PaUe, a species of salmon in the Swiss lakes, the anatomical history of which these two naturalists published in 1S42. 4SG VERTEBRATA. taiiii'.l ill Europe* TIk' stocking of barren or inipovcrislud rivers, lakes, and ponds by fishes urtitifiallv liatelied. niav be considered as not only a possibility in tliis country, but as a means of easy and certain siippiv, denumding the attention of patriots and statesmen. We cannot here enter into an account of the various methods adopted for the breedino; of tislies, but must refer the reader to the work on this subject by AV. II. Fry, Escj., published by Appleton S: Co., 1854, and the still more recent publication by Dr. Garlick, of Cleveland, Ohio. We may state, however, that the new art of propagation has been successfully applied in Europe to the production of salmon, trout, shad, pike, carp, bream, barbel, tench, and perch, and in this country to several of these species. It is ascertained that all these fishes, filled with roc, and ne:ir their spawnincT-time, may be transported for hundreds of miles; the eggs of the female may he presseil out bv the hand, and the milt, extracted in the same manner, strewn over them ; thus prepared, they may be put in artificial or natural enclosures, with beds of gravel, and left to be iiatched. The particular devices employed are various, but they are all simple. Some of the establishments in Enu;land and France are on a large scale, and the product is truly astonishing.f • In tbc Transactions of the American Institute of the City of New Tork, for 1S57, p. 439, will be found an iuter- estinij and instructive essay, by Mr. Pell, on American fishes and fish-breeding, by which it appears that he has met xvitii the most entire success in the artilicial breeding of various species. The experiments of Dr. Garlick and Pro- fessor Ackley have been chieily made on the fishes of Lake Erie and the vicinity. Their method of proceeding appears to be alike practical and successful. They seem specially to note the following fishes as suitable for artificial prop- ugatiou: the Bl.vck B.vss, Gnjstfs nigricans of Agassiz, or Centrarchus fasciatns of De Kay; the LARGE-MOUTHEr Uas-s, G. mfijastoma ; the TTniTi: B.vss on. VriiiTi: Peucii, Lahrax multilineatus; the Grass Bass, Centrarchushexacanthus : Rock Bass, C. cenem ; and the C.nnmoii Piclercl, Yellow Perch, Su/i-FisTi, and Common Eel. t We find the following ia the papers, April, 13 J9 : " A remarkable account has been lately given by Dr. Cloquet to the Paris Societe d' Acclimation, of the results of an attempt to keep salmon in fresh-water ponds having no communication with the sea. The experiment was made near St. Cloud, where JI. Coste has successfully carried on piscicultural operations on a very extensive scale. The pond chosen for the experiment in question is of small extent, and is supplied by a small stream of fresh water, sufficient to form a cascade. Three years ago the pond was entirely emptied and cleaned out. In April and May. 1S.55, several thousand salmon, only two months old, were- placed in the pond with trout, and, notwithstanding the voracious nature of the latter fish, the salmon have prospered so well that a faw weeks ago, in the presence of the emperor, who takes great interest in the artilicial propagation of fish, no less than four hundred pounds' weight of salmon was caught by one haul of a net. This result is very surprising, but M. Coste states that he was far more astonished to find that the female salmon were full of eggs ! He adds that he saw several eggs so hisjhly developed that they were on the point of being emitted. These results, which bear the stamp of high authenticity, prove that salmon may be produced and reared in fresh-water ponds under similar circumstances to those by which trout are now so successfully multiplied in various waters around Paris." MOLLUSC A. -1S7 COCKLES. IMPERIAL VOLUl'E. CUOWN VOLUTE. PHOLAS. HELMET SHELL. Division II. MOLLUSCA. AVe now take leave of the Vertebrate Division of the Animal Kingdom, and enter upon an- otlier, formed upon altogether a different type. We have just quitted the fishes, properly so called, but we have not yet done with the sea, their home. Notwithstanding the infinite num- ber of swimming fishes, there is still abundant room in the ocean and its accessories — bays, sounds, gults, rivers, and lakes — for another race of beings, infinitely diversified in form, and countless as the leaves of the forest. The Moll/isca, our present theme, bear the general name of Shcll-Jlsh, though they do not em- brace all that is included in that title. Lobsters, crabs, prawns, and many other creatures that live in the sea, belong to another division : we now treat of oysters, clams, cockles, snails, mussels, and a variety of others, which produce the beautiful and diversified shells which ornament the cabinet of the conchologist. Though the study of these might seem little likely to afford amuse- ment, we may remark that it is precisely here in this almost hidden and lost division of the animal kingdom, that we shall meet with some of the most interesting and instructive sni-prises. Every living creature has a history of its own ; each has characteristics by which it may be kncwvn from its relatives ; each has its own territory, its appropriate food, and its duties to perform in 488 MOLLUSC A. the ccononiv of ii.-iiiirc An aivouiit of these is tlieir natural history, and this is likely to prove interi'stin<;, somewhat in proportion to the peculiarities of the creatures themselves, and the tioveltv of the ri'velations whidi their ))o\vers, instincts, and habits unfold. Throuirhout all tiie classes of animals \vc Iiavc described, we have found an internal bony skel- eton, formini; the foundation for the whole structure of the body — limbs, flesh, muscles, and nerves. In the Mollusca the bodies arc soft, and instead of having an internal bony support, thov are mostlv i)n>tecteil by a hard external shell. These soft bodies arc enveloped in a muscular skin, which naturalists call the mantle, and it is this wdiich by slow degrees secretes and supplies the shell. In some species the shell is of one piece, and is called univalve; in others the shell is double, the two parts being united by a hinge; this is called bivalve. The snail is a uiuvalve, the oyster or dam a bivalve. Other shells, on account of their structure, are called mullirah'c. Manv shells, as that of the oyster, are deposited in layers, a fine membrane inter- posing between each layer; they arc ihci'dova qsWqA membraneous shells. Most membraneous shells are lined with a brilliant enameled substance, called nacre; mother of -pearl is the nacre of the ]H>arl oyster. That of the fresh-water mussel is a beautiful azure. The other structure of sliells is called porcellaneous., because they look like porcelain or china. The common cowry is a well-known instance of a porcellaneous shell. Some shells are so transparent as to resemble iiflass, and are therefore called vitreous. Starting with these simple definitions, let us take a general survey of the field of inquiry vi'hich lies before us. AVe begin with the infancy of these animals, and we may remark that at this point in their lives, the various kinds of Mollusca are more alike both in appearance and habits than in after-life; the young fry of the aquatic races are, indeed, almost as diftcrent from their parents as the caterpillar from the butterfly. The analogy, however, is reversed in one respect ; for whei-eas the adult shell-fish are often sedentary, or walk with becoming gravity, the young are all swimmers, and by means of their fins and the ocean-currents, they travel to long distances, and thus difluse their races as far as suitable climate and conditions are found. Myriads of these little voyagers drift from the shores into the open sea and there perish ; their tiny and fraoilc shells become part of a deposit that is forever increasing over the bed of 'the deep sea, at depths too great for any living thing to inhabit. Some of these little creatures shelter themselves beneath the shell of their parent for a time; many can spin silken threads with which they moor themselves, and avoid being drifted away. They all have a protecting shell, and even the young bivalves have eyes at this period of their lives to aid them in choosing an appro- priate locality. After a few days, or even less, of this sportive existence, the sedentary tribes settle down in the place they intend to occupy during the remainder of their lives. The tuni- cary cements itself to rock or sea-weed ; the ship-worm adheres to timber, and the pholas and lithodomus to limestone rocks, in which they soon excavate a chamber which renders their first means of anchorage unnecessary. The mya and razor-fish burrow in sand or mud; the mussel and pinna spin a byssus; the oyster and spondylus attach themselves by spines or leafy expansions of their shell ; the brachiopoda are all fixed by similar means, and even some of the gasteropods become voluntary prisoners, as the hipponyx and vcr- metus. Other tribes retain the power of traveling at will, and shift their quarters periodically, or in search of food ; the river-mussel drags itself slowly along by protruding and contracting its flexible MUSSKL ATTACHED BY A UTSStS TO A ROCK. MOLLUSC A. 489 THE POULPB OK CUTTLE-FISH. foot; the cockle and trigonia have the foot bent, enabhng them to make short leaps; the scallop swims rapidly by opening and shutting its tinted valves. Neatly all the gasteropods creep like the snail, though some are much more active than others ; the pond-snails can glide along the surface of the watei', shell-downward; the nucleobranches and pteropods swim in the open sea. The cuttle-fishes have a strange mode of walking, head-downwaid, on their out- spread arms; they can also swim with their fins, or with their webbed arms, or by expelling the water forcibly from their branchial chamber ; one species of cala- mary can even strike the surface of the sea with its tail, and dart into the air like the flying-fish. By these means the molluscahave spread ^, themselves over every part of the habit- ^ able globe ; every region has its tribe, every situation its appropriate species ; the land-snails frequent moist places, or woods, or sunny banks and rocks, climb trees, or burrow in the ground. The air- breathing limneids live in fresh water, only coming occasionally to the surface ; and the auriculas live on the sea-shore, or in salt marshes. Li the sea each zone of dej)th has its molluscous fauna. The limpet and periwinkle live between tide-marks, where they are left dry twice a day; the trochi and purpurjB are found at low water among the sea-Aveed ; the mussel affects muddy shores ; the cockle rejoices in extensive sandy flats. Most of the finely-colored shells of the tropics are found in shallow water, or among the bi'eakei's. Oyster-banks are usually in three or four fathom water ; scallop-banks at twenty fathoms. Deepest of all the terebratulje are found, com- monly at fifty fathoms, and sometimes at one hundred fathoms, even in polar seas. The fiury- like pteropoda, the oceanic snail, and multitudes of other floating molluscs, pass their lives on the open sea, forever out of sight of land ; while tlie lisiopa and scylhiea follow the gulf-weed in its voyages, and feed upon the green delusive banks. The food of the mollusca is either vegetable, infusorial, or animal. All the land-snails are vegetable-feeders, and their depredations are but too well known to the gardener and farmer ; many a crop lias been wasted by the ravages of the small gray slug. They have their likings, too, for particular plants : most of the pea-ti'ibe and cabbage-tribe are favorites, but they hold white mustard in abhorrence, and fast or shift their quarters wdiile that crop is on the ground. Some, like the cellar-snail, feed on cryptogamic vegetation, or on decaying leaves; and the slugs arc attracted by fungi, or any odorous substances. The round-mouthed sea-snails are nearly all vegetarians, and are consequently limited to the shore and the shallow waters in which sea-weeds grow. Beyond fifteen fathoms, almost the only vegetable production is the nullipore; but here corals and horny zoophvtes take the place of algaj, and afford a more nutritious diet. The whole of the bivalves, and other headless shell-fish, live on infusoria, or on microscopic vegetables, brought to them by the current which their ciliary apparatus perpetually excites ; such, too, must be the sustenance of the magilus, sunk in its coral bed, and of the calyptra^a, fettered to its birth-place by its calcareous foot. The carnivorous tribes prey chiefly on other shell-fish, or on zoophytes, since, with the excep- tion of the cuttle-fishes, their organization scarcely adapts them for pursuing and destroying- other classes of animals. One remarkable exception is formed by the stylina, which lives para- sitically on the star-fish and sea-urchin; and another by the testacelle, which preys on the com- mon earth-worm, following it in its burrow, and wearing a buckler, which protects it in the rear. Most of the siphonated univalves are animal-feeders; the carrion-eating stromb and whelk con- sume the fishes and other creatures whose remains are always plentiful on rough and rocky coasts. Many wage war on their own relatives, and take them by assault ; the bivalve may close, Vol. IL— 62 490 MOLLUSC A. ami the opi'n-iilatt'd norite retire into his home, but the enemy, with rasp-like tongue, armed with silieioiis teeth, tiles a hole throutrh the shell — vain shield where instinct guides the attack! Of the myriads of small shells which the sea heaps up in every sheltered nook, a large proportion will I.e foun«l thus hored by the whelks and purples; in many fossil-shell beds, nearly half the bivalves and sea-snails are perforated — the relics of antediluvian banquets. Tliis is on the sliore, or on the bed of the sea; far away from land the carinaria and firola pursue the floating acalephe ; and the argonaut, with his relative the spirula, both carnivorous, are fonml in the high seas in almost every quarter of the globe. The most active and rapacious of all are the ealamaries and cuttles, who vindicate their high position in the naturalist's system b\ preying even on fishes. As the shell-fish are great eaters, so in their turn they afford food to many other creatures — fullilling the universal law of eating and being eaten. Civihzed man still swallows the oyster, and with .some the snails are still reckoned a dainty dish; mussels, cockles, and periwinkles are in <:reat esteem with children and the other unsophisticated classes of society; and so are scallops and the lialiotis, where they can be obtained. Two kinds of whelk are brought to the liritish markets in great quantities; the arms of the cuttle-fish are eaten by the Neapolitans, and also by the East Indians and Malays. In seasons of scarcity, vast quantities of shell-fish are con- sumed by the poor inhabitants of the European coasts. Still more are regularly collected for bait ; the calamary is much used in the cod-fishery off Newfoundland, and the limpet, whelk, and clam on various coasts. Many wild animals feed on shell-fish; the rat and the raccoon seek for them on the sea-shore when pressed by hunger; the South American otter and the crab-eating opossum constantly resort to salt marshes and the sea, and prey on the moliusca; the great whale lives habitually on the snndl floating pteropods ; sea-fowl search for the littoral species at every ebbing tide ; while, in their own element, the marine kinds are perpetually devoured by fishes. The haddock is a great conchologist, and some good northern sea-shells have been rescued, unbroken, from the ^ stomach of the cod; while even the strong valves of the cyprina are not proof against the teeth of the cat-fish. Many species fall a prey even to animals much their inferiors in sagacity : the star-fish swallows the small bivalve entire, and dissolves the animal out of its shell ; and the bubble-shell, itself predacious, is eaten both by star-fish and sea-anemone. The land-snails aflford food to many birds, especially to the thrush tribe; and to some insects, for the luminous larva of the glow-worm lives on them, and some of the large predacious beetles occasionally kill slugs. The greatest enemies of the Moliusca, however, are those of their own nation ; scarcely one- half the shelly tribes graze peacefully on sea-weed, or subsist on the nutrient particles which the sea itself brings to their mouths ; the rest browse on living zoophytes, or prey upon the vege- table feeders. Yet in no class is the instinct of self-preservation stronger, nor the means of defense more ade- quate ; their shells seem expressly given to compensate for the slowness of their movement and the dimness of their senses. The cuttle-fish escapes from attack by swimming backward and j beclouding the Avater with an inky discharge ; and the sea-hare pours out, when irritated, a ' copious purple fluid, formerly held to be poisonous. Others rely on passive resistance, or in concealment for their safety. It has been frequently remarked that molluscs resemble the hue and appearance of the situation they frequent ; thus, the limpet is commonly overgrown with balaiii and sea-weed, and the ascidian with zoophytes, which form an effectual disguise ; the lima and modiola spin together a screen of grotto-work. One ascidian, .1. cnchlir/cra, coats itself with shell-sand, and the carrier-trochus cements shehs and corals to the margin of its habitation, or so loads it with pebbles, that it looks like a little heap of stones. It must be confessed that the instincts of the shell-fish are of a low order, being almost limited to self-preservation, the escape from danger, and the choice of food. Their history offers few i of those marvels which the entomologist loves to relate. An instance of something like social ' feeling has been observed in a Roman snail, who, after escaping from a garden, returned to it in . quest of his fellow-prisoner ; but the accomplished naturalist who witnessed the circumstance, hesitated to record a thing so unexampled. The limpet, too, if we may trust the observations ' MOLLUSC A. ttOl OSTKEA AND SPONDYLUS, CARINARIA. VITREOUS CARINARIA. of Mr. Robert of Lyme Regis, England, is fond of home, or at least possesses a knowledge of topography, and returns to the same roost after an excursion with each tide. Professor Forbes has immortalized the sagacity of the razor-fish, who submits to be salted in his hole rather than expose himself to be caught, after finding that the enemy is lying in wait for him. We have spoken of shell-fish as articles of food, but they have other uses, even to man ; they are the toys of children, who hear in them the roaring of the sea ; they are the pride of collec- tors, whose wealth is in a cone or wentle-trap ;* and they arc the ornaments of barbarous tribes. The Friendly Islander wears the orange-cowry as a mark of chieftainship, and the New Zealander polishes the elenchus into an ornament more brilliant than the pearl ear-drop of classical or modern times. One of the most beautiful substances in nature is the shcIl-opal, formed of the * Formerly, the study of shells, called Coiicliolngy, was a very fashionable pursuit. At that period enormous prices were paid for some particular shells. A Carinaria shell once brought live hundred dollars; it is now worth twenty cents. In 1701 a wentle-trap sold for two hundred dollars; in 1703, for one hundred dollars; it may now be had for one dollar. The prices of other shells have varied in a similar manner. Conchology, taking cognizance Kiily of the shells, and not of the inhabitants that produced them and lived in them, was not a scientific study any more than that of collecting old Chinaware. It is the substitution of scientific zoology for mere shell-fancying, together with the frequency of rcinnie voyacres, which lias made shells more common, and has wrought such a change in the value of tiiese ai tides. Many of them, however, are intrinsically beautiful, and will always be objects of interest and value. 492 MOLLUSC A. FUSUS LONGISSIMUS. PEARL OXSTEE AXD COEAl,. VOLCTE. THORNY WOODCOCK. remaitis of the ammonite. The forms and colors of shells, as of all other objects, answer some particular purpose, or obey some general law ; but besides this, there is much that seems specially intended for our study, and calculated to call forth enlightened admiration. Thus the tints of many shells are concealed during life by a dull external coat, and the pearly halls of the nautilus are seen by no other eyes than ours. Or, descending to mere utility, how many tracts of coast are destitute of limestone, but abound in shell-banks, which may be burned into lime; or in shell-sand, for the use of formers. Not much is known respecting the individual duration of shell fish, though their length of life must be very variable. Many of the aquatic species are annuals, fulfilling the cycle of their existence in a single year; whole races are entombed in the wintry tide of mud that grows from year to year in the beds of rivers, lakes, and seas; thus, in the Wealden clay of England layer above layer of small river-snails are found, alternately with thin strata of sediment — the index of immeasurably distant years. Dredgers find that while the adults of some shell-fish can be taken at all seasons, others can be obtained late in the autumn or winter only, those caught in spring and summer being young, or half-grown ; and it is a common remark that dead shells, of some species, can be obtained of a much larger size than any that we find alive, because they attain their full growth at a season when our researches are suspended. Some species require part of two years for their full development; the young of the doris and eolis are born in the summer time, in the warm shallows near the shore ; on the approach of winter they retire MOLLUSC A. 493 to deeper water, and in the following spring return to the tidal rocks, attain their full growth earlv in the sunnner, and after spawning-time disappear. The land-snails are mostly biennial; hatched in the summer and autumn, they are half-grown by the winter-time, and acquire their full growth in the following spring or summer. In con- finement, a garden-snail will live for six or eight years; but in their natural state it is probable that a great many die in their second winter, for clusters of empty shells may be found, adhering to one another, under ivied walls, and in other sheltered situations ; the animals having perished in their hybernation. Some of the^piral sea-shells live a great many years, and tell their age in a very plain and interesting manner, by the number of fringes on their whirls ; the contour of the ranella and murex depends on the regular recurrence of these ornaments, which occur after the same intervals in well-fed individuals, as in their less fortunate kindred. The ammonites appear, by their whirls or periodic mouths, to have lived and continued growing for many years. Many of the bivalves, like the mussel and cockle, attain their full growth in a year. The oyster continues enlai'ging his shell by annual shoots, for four or five years, and then ceases to grow outward ; but very aged specimens may be found, especially in a fossil state, with shells an inch or two in thickness. The giant-clam, tridocna, which attains so large a size that poets and sculptors have made it the cradle of the sea-goddess, must enjoy an unusual longevity ; living in the sheltered lagoons of coral islands, and not discursive in its habits, the corals grow up around, until it is often nearly buried by them ; but although there seems to be no certain limit to its life, though it may live a century for all that we know, yet the time will probably come when it will be overgrown by its neighbors, or choked with sediment. The fresh-water inollusca of cold climates bury themselves during winter in the mud of their ponds and rivers ; and the land-snails hide themselves in the ground, or beneath moss and dead leaves. In warm climates they become torpid during the hottest and driest part of the year.* The permanency of the shell-bearing races is effectuallv provided for by their extreme fecund- ity ; and though exposed to a hundred dangers in their early life, enough survive to repeople the land and sea abundantly. The spawn of a single doris may contain six hundred thousand eggs; a river mussel has been estimated to produce three hundred thousand young in one sea- son, and the oyster cannot be nnich less prolific. The land-snails have fewer enemies, and, for- tunately, lay fewer eggs. Finally, the MoUusca exhibit the same instinctive care with insects and the higher animals in placing their eggs in situations where they will be safe from injury, or open to the influences of air and heat, or surrounded by the food which the young will require. The tropical bulimi cement leaves together to protect and conceal their large, bird-like eggs; the slugs bury theirs in the ground; the oceanic-snail attaches them to a floating raft; and the argonaut carries them in her frail boat. The horny capsules of the whelk arc clustered in groups, with spaces pervad- ing the interior for the free passage of sea-water; and tlie nidamental ribbon of the doris and eolis is attached to a rock, or some solid surface from which it will not be detached by the waves. The river-mussel and cyclas carry their parental care still further, and nurse their young in their own mantle, or in a special marsupium, desio-ned, like that of the opossum, to protect them until they are strong enough to shift for themselves. In the Introduction to this work (Vol. I., pp. 21, 22) we have given a brief view of the structure and physiology of the Mollusca; inviting the reader's attention to the facts there given, we now procee " RaiUmenUry Treatise on Recent and Fonsll Shells, by S. P. Woodward," London, IS.Jl, from v/hich we have chiefly derived this general view of the Mollusca. 494 MOLLUSCA. Class I. €I:PHAI^0I*0I>A. This tcrni is dorivctl t'loiii two (iroek words, h'plial<\ a head, and ^ww, a foot, and refers to the fact th.ii thf aiiiiii.ils nl" liiis class ha\c the legs arranged around the head, and may therefore be called hcad-foohd. These legs, it is true, are also arms, and being furnished with rows of suck- ing-cups, enable these animals to maintain a iirni grasp of any object on which they lay hold. They breathe by means u( branchiie connected with a funnel or siphon, through which the water passes off. This arrangcuicnt answers a double purpose, for by expelling the water vigorously through this siphon, ihey propel themselves rapidly along, this being their common mode of swinnuiiig. They thus move backward, their eyes, however, being so situated as to command a view of the objects in their course. Some species possess fins, and some use their arms to aid them in swinuuing. In all the body i.s inclosed in a sac-like mantle, generally of thick, leathery skin, covered, liowever, with a delicate cuticle, which in some species displays the most brilliant colors. They arc all oviparous. This class is divided into two orders, the Dibranchiata and Tetrabrauchiata. ORDER 1. DIBHANCHIATA. This term, derived from the Greek dis, two, and the Latin hranchice, giU^? signifies animals having two gills. The order includes a great number of fossil as well as living species, dis- tinguished for possessing two branchiae, and a strnctui'C of body which enables them not only to swim rapidly through the water, but to creep with the head downward, upon the bottom of the ^^-,^30^3^ sea. The shell is generally 'i^'v^^^^-^^^r^^. internal, and often merely rudimentary ; if external it is not chambered. The arms arc eight or ten in number, and furnished \nX\\ sucking-discs, and the body is often sup- plied with a })air of fins. They are divided into two sections, the Octopoda axid. Dccapoda. THE OCTOPODA. ,,^f®« ^'^^-. These: are furnished with eight arms or legs ; two of which, iu one genus, enable the animals to form shells, to which, however, the body i.^, not attach- ed; others are naked, having a sliglit trace of an internal slu'll. They arc \ for the most part exceed- ingly active and voraci- \ ous, and prey with avidity upon Crustacea and fishes. They arc provided with a sac containing a black and acrid fluid, which they eject into the water so as to obscure it and render it offensive, by means of which they escape from their enemies. AHGOXAUT WITn THE PHELL. CLASS I. CEPHALOPODA: ORDER 1. DIB R A NCII I AT A. 495 Genus ARGONAUTA : Arr/onauta . — This includes the celebrated Paper Nautilus or Ar- gonaut, ^1. ar(jo. Tills is a kind of poulpe or cuttlc-tisli, without any internal skeleton; it has eio'ht arms, provided witli suckers ; two of them are expanded into broad membraneous webs, with whicli the little animal grasps its shell when it is swimming, and by means of which it forms and secretes its shell. Formerly these were supposed to be sails, which it spread to the breeze, and bv means of which it sailed over the sea. This idea, which has often been introduced in the poetry of ancient and modern times, is now known to be erroneous. The shell of the argo- naut is deeply grooved, and is very thin, transparent, and so flexible when wet that the sides may be pressed together. The form is exceedingly beautiful, being somewhat boat-shaped, and the little creature floats in it in such a manner that some authors have supposed the art of navigation was derived from it. When the creature sinks to the bottom it crawls upon its legs, carrying its house on its back, like a snail The Aru'onaut has no muscular attachment to its shell, whence it was formerly supposed that the animal took np its residence in a cast- ofl" tenement, as docs the hermit-crab ; the fact is now well ascertained that its shell is formed by the membranes above men- tioned, which have the power of cecreting the substance of which they are composed. It has been discovered that if the shell be broken, the animal will set to work Avith its two hands or trowels to mend it ; that it will not only close up cracks, but supply parts that arc broken away, with the same material as that which composed the origi- nal fabric. In repairing its shell it will even take advantage of pieces of shell that come in its way, and solder them in to fill up a crevice. It appears that the little animal is extremely sensitive, and some- times in fright it becomes separated from the shell, and consequently dies; it how- ever occasionally (juits its tenement volr.n- tarilv, and asrain resumes it. AVhen in its shell there is a considerable vacuum at the bottom. We are indebted for some careful and curious observations on this interesting species to Madame I'ower, who resided at Messina, and for several years devoted her- self to the study of these animals. In order to determine whether the shells really were produced by these creatures, shs placed twenty-six of them i;i a vessel and broke the shells in diff 'rent ways. She had the satisiaction of seeing them immediately proceed to cover the broken parts with the sails, and by wrinkling them upon the parts, close the fractures. The first day the new substance was thin and delicate as a cobweb, but it thickened and hardened gradually, until in about thirteen days it had become perfectly firm, and shelly as the unwounded part, though somewhat more opaque. The Argonaut is a native of various seas, but it is most common in the Mediterranean, and especially "in the vicinity of Messina; here it is found, even in the port, all the year, but is most abundant in autumn, and in the mudA. This term, derived from the Greek gaster, the belly, and po?/s, foot, signifies helhj -walkers. .__ The organ by which they mo\e, as is shown in the common snail, consists of a broad, muscular, disk-like foot, attached to the ventral surface, upon which the animal creeps very slowly with a gliding motion. The muscu- lar movements may be seen fol- lowing each other in rapid waves, when a snail is climbing a pane of glass. There are numerous species, which greatly vary in foi'm. All, however, have a dis- tinct head ; respiration is effected by branchiae, or a pulmonary sac ; the organs of the senses are ten- tacles of various forms ; the eyes are usually placed at the ends of tentacles situated upon the head. No special organs of taste or smell have been detected, but there is good reason, from the discri- mination these animals show in the selection of their food, for believing that they possess them. The general form of the body is characteristic of the class ; from the preponderance of one side of the body, the whole, during growth, acquires a spiral form; it is only in some naked species that we find the body symmetrical. Most of the Gasteropoda close the aperture of their shell by a horny or calcareous plate, called the operculum. Most of the species are oviparous ; a few are ovo-viviparous. The sexes are generally separate, but many are hermaphrodites. The young are always provided with a shell while in the Qgg. These animals are divided into three orders, the Pulmonifera, Branchifera, and Heteropoda. THE COMMON SNAIL. ORDER 1. PULMONIFERA. This term, from the Latin, pulmo^ a lung, and/ero, to bear, refers to the fact that the animals of this order breathe air by means of lungs, and not water by means of branchiae. It includes several species popularly known under the name of Snails and Slugs. THE HELICID^. Genus HELIX : Helix. — To this belongs the Common Garden-Snail, H. aspera. This is furnished with four tentacula, two of which are smaller than the others ; at the end of these, which the animal pushes out or draws back like telescopes, are blackish knobs, which are the eyes. It lays eggs about the size of peas, which are of a soft transparent substance. By closely examining with a magnifying lens, the young snail may be seen in the egg, with its embryo shell on its back. The snail is extremely tenacious of life, in evidence of which numerous examples have been cited ; among them is the following, which is furnished by Mrs. Loudon : a Mr. S. Simon, a merchant of Dublin, whose father, a Fellow of the Royal Society, and a lover of natural history, left him a small collection of fossils and other curiosities, had, among them, the shells of some snails. About fifteen years after his father's death, he gave to his son, a child of ten years old, some of these snail-shells to play with. The boy placed them in a flower-pot, which Vol. II.— 64 r,0(J MOT. L use A. lie tillfil with watiT, mikI tlif iii'xt diiv put tlicin into a basin. Having occasion to use tliis, Mr, Simon oIisitvchI that tlic animals iiad conic out v J>r. liaird. This individual was fixed to a tablet in the British Mu- seum on the 2r)th of March, 1840, and on March 7th, 1850, it was observed that he must have come out of his shell in the interval, as the paper had ln'cn disci^loivd, apparently in his attempt to get away ; but finding escape impossible, lie had again retired, closing his aperture with the iisual glistening film; this led to liis immersion in tepid water, and marvelous recovery. "He is now," savs our authority, March 13th, 1850, "alive and flourishing, and has sat for his portrait." The reproduction of snails is most curious; at a certain time of the year, according to the ac- count of Mrs. Loudon, they meet in pairs, and stationing themselves an inch or two apart, they launch at each other several little darts, not quite half an inch long. These are of a horny sub- stance, and shari)ly pointed at one end. The animals, during the breeding season, are furnished with a little reservoir for them, situated in the neck, and opening en the right side. After the discharge of the first dart, the wounded snail immediately retaliates on its aggressor by ejecting at it a similar one ; the other renews the battle, and in turn is again Avounded. Thus are the darts of Cupid, metaphorical with all the rest of the creation, completely realized in snails. After the combat they embrace each other, and both lay eggs ! The manner in which a snail increases the size of its shell and mends it in case of fracture, is thus described by Reaumur, and it is the more interesting, as it illustrates the mode of proceeding, in these cases, of many other mollusca: "When a testaceous animal is about to enlarge its shell, the common snail, for instance, and its body has become too large to be covered securely, it projects a portion of its body from the opening ; it then attaches itself to a wall or other solid substance, and the naked part is soon covered with the fluids which are exci'eted from its surface; the pellicle, or covering, which they produce, when the fluid dries, is, at first, thin and elastic, but gradually assumes more consistence, and becomes at last similar to the whole part of the shell. If, in this stage of the process, a bit of the shell is broken oft' and removed without injuring the body of the animal, the skin of the snail is soon covered with a fluid which gradually thickens and becomes solid. In about twenty -four hours after the operation, a fine crust may be observed, which constitutes the first and external layer for repairing the breach that has been made ; at the end of some days this layer becomes solid, and in ten or tweh'e days, under favorable circumstances, the new piece of shell has acquired the same thickness as that which was removed, but it never unites in the same way, being only as it were a plug. If, after the broken piece has been removed, particularly if the fracture is made near the edge of the opening, the animal is not supplied with a sufficient quantity of nourishment, its bulk is gradually diminished, and now finding what is left of the shell equal to completely cover its lessened body, no exertion takes place for the produc- tion of a new portion. It is obvious, snails, &c., cannot enlarge in volume but by the augmen- tation of the whorls, and that each previous turn of the spire remains the same in length; these make a great difterence in the size of the shell, by the last and additional one, each being calculated to contain nearly double that of the preceding one ; but in many shells, both marine and river, the last whorls of the spire, compared with the preceding ones, greatly exceed this proportion. In some, the external opening is twelve times greater, or from eight to twelve ; this depends entirely on the increase of the animal's body, and the duration of that increase." The Edible Snail, H. jJomatia, grows to a large size, nearly that of a man's fist. This was highly prized by the ancient Romans, for the table ; they fattened it with great care in a large building, called a Cochlearia, where thousands of them were kept and fed with meal and new wine, boiled down. Yarro says the shells of some of them would hold ten quarts. In Italy and France, at the present day, millions of these snails are fettened and brought to market, being used especially during lent, as they are not forbidden by " the Church." Another common Eu- ropean species is the Banded Snail, JI. memoralis. Snails are widely distributed over most parts of the world ; sometimes, after a shower, they CLASS II. GASTEROPODA: ORDER 2. BRANCHIFERA. 507 are so abundant in Europe, as to have given rise to the popular idea that it has rained snails. In some intertropical countries there are species with exceedingly beautiful shells. Snails are less numerous in this country than in Europe, though we have in the United States over sixty known species. One of the largest and most common among us is the JI. alholabris ; this deposits its eggs in light mould by the side of rocks and logs ; in twenty or thirty days the young snail issues forth with a shell containing one whorl and a half. In October this species cease to feed, close the aperture by secreting over it a thin membrane, place the operculum uppermost, and remain torpid till spring. Other American species are the H. alternata, abound- ing in ditches and moist places ; H. monodon, usually living in pairs, and found in open fields under stones, or in rotten wood in forests, &c., &c. THE LIMACIDiE. Genus LIMx\X : Limax. — This includes several species, called Slugs ; these resemble snails in the form of the body, in the number and structure of the tentacles, and in their habits; but their shell is very small or rudimentary, and usually concealed in the interior of the mantle. Many of these species are very destructive in the gar- dens and fields, and a multitude of devices have THE BED SLUG. ' been adopted for their destruction. The Red Slug, L. rufus, is a very abundant species, and in Europe a broth made of it is used for diseases of the chest. The Black Slug, L. nigrescens, and Gray Slug, L. griseus, are also common European species. The L. agrestis is an American species one and a half inches long, feeding on succulent leaves, and is often found on the under side of decayed leaves and trunks lying on the ground. Other species are L.flavus, two to two and a half inches long, and L. campestris, an inch long, &c. THE LIMN^IDJ^. These, which are called Pond Snails, inhabit fresh waters in all parts of the world : they feed chiefly on decaying leaves, and deposit their spawn, in the form of oblong, transparent masses, on aquatic plants and stones. There are several minute species in this country. ORDER 2. BRANCHIFERA. This order derives its name from the Latin bmnchice, gills, and fero, to bear, and is divided into two groups or sub-orders, the Prosobra^ichiata, and the Oinsthobranchiata. THE PEOSOBEANCHIATA. This term is compounded of the Greek proso, anterior, and branchice, gills, and includes a great number of species, all, however, possessing shells, usually spiral, within which they can retract themselves at pleasure. On account of the anterior position of the gills, the blood flows back toward the breast, and the auricle of the latter organ is placed in front of the ventricle. This division includes a great number of families, some of which we shall very briefly notice. THE CYPR^EID^, OR COWRIES. In this family the shells are convolute, highly enameled, and many of them are beautifully colored. The animal has a broad foot, truncated in front, and a mantle expanded on each side. There are one hundred and fifty living species ; they are found in all warm seas, except on the east coast of South America ; they generally live in shallow water near the shore, and feed on zoophytes. Genus CYPR^A : Cgprcea, includes the C. annulus,used by the Asiatic Islanders to weight their fishing-nets and for barter. Mr. Layard found species of it in the ruins of Nimroud. The Money Cow^ry, C. moneta, is a native of the Pacific and Eastern seas, and is used as money by the natives on the coast of Western Africa. These are collected in immense quantities by the British and taken to Africa to be disposed of to the negroes. In 1849, 508 MOLLUSC A. threo hun.lri«(l tons of thorn were importi-.l into Liverpool tor tliis purpose. The Map Cowry, C. mappa, found in the Indian Ocean, is iKindsoinely marked. Other species arc the TitiKR Cowry, Mole Cowry, Children's Cowry, Blotched Cowry, &c. Besides the hving ones, there are seventy- eight known species of fossil Cypraeidae. THE CONID^. These have the shell inversely conical; in the animal the head is produced, the tentacles far apart, and eyes on the tentacles. There are two hundred and sixty-nine known species, found in all tropical seas. They inhabit fis- sures and holes of rocks, and the warm and shallow pools inside of coral reefs. They move slowly, and sometimes bite when han- dled. All are predacious. Some of the shells are beautiful, and have been sold for enormous prices. THE MAP COWUT. VOLUTA CNDULATA. BISHOP S MITRE SHELL. THE VOLUTID^. (renys VOLTJTA : Voluta. — This includes numerous living as well as fossil species; among the former are the V. undulata, V. musica^ V. vespertilio^ V. Brasiliana, &c. Many of the Vo- lutidse are very beautifully marked. Genus MITRA : Mitra, includes the Mitre Shells, one of which, the Bishop's Mitre Shell, M. episcopalis, is noted for a very long proboscis, sometimes twice the length of the shell. The latter is turretted, smooth, white, and spotted with light red. It is found in the seas of the East Indies and some of the Polynesian Islands. CLASS II. GASTEROPODA: ORDER 2. BRANCHIFERA. 509 SHELL FROM MALABAR. LARGE MUSSEL. FROM THE MEDITERRANEAN. THORNED MUREX. LARGE HELMET SHELL. FROM MADAGASCAR. THE MURICIDiE. This is a very extensive family, some of the species being furnished -with a long proboscis, with which they bore through the shells of other mollusca, and thus suck out the juices and destroy the animal within. The foot is broad, and adapted to crawling ; the tentacles are short, and sometimes bear the eyes. All are marine and predatory ; the shells are usually ornamented with spines ; some assume very singular forms, and many are of very beautiful colors. The ancients obtained their purple dye from these animals ; heaps of the shells may be still seen on the rocks of the Tyrian shores, and also on the coasts of the Morea, where it appears they were used in the same manner as by the Tyrians. One hundred and eighty living and one hundred and sixty fossil species are known. Genus MUREX : Murex. — This includes the Sting- Winkle or Hedge-Hog Murex, M. erinaceus, com- mon in the English Channel. The shell of the Thorny Woodcock, M. tribulus, sometimes called Vemis^s Comb, is much prized by collectors, if in a perfect state ; it is often very delicate and beautiful. This is a native of the Moluccas and parts of the The M. regius is foun