i-ji;;;;;
t- n-y^
THE «->^^ ^ ^ -r-'-X^,^:
J^ IMPROVEMENT %
^^ \ OF THE
<d
vwwwvx
BF ISAAC WATTS, D.J).
TO WHICH ARE ADDED,
QUESTIONS ADAPTED TO THE WORK;
FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES.
»• Few books have been perused by me with greater pleasure than Dr. Wjitts's Improvement of the Mind ; of which the radical principles may indeed be raund in Locke's Conduct of the Understanding ; but they are so expandeui«nd ramified by Watts, as to confer on him the merit of a wni-k in the highest degree useful and pleasing. Whoever has the care of instnicting others may be charged with denciency in his duty if this book is not r«commeaded." Dr. Johnson's L\fe ofDV' Watts*
SECOND EDITION.
BOSTON:
:|PRINT£D AVD SOLD BY J^MES LORING, 2 dORNHILL. [f ' ■ "•
:i} 1822.
0::^ The following pages contain the whole of the First Part of Dr. Watts's Improvement of the Mind. This is believed to be sufficiently complete in itself without 1 the Second Part, and more particularly suited to the ca- j pacitiey of Young Persons. Both Parts might render the ^ Work too expensive for many scholars, and thus exclude the whole from use. As this First Part was originally published in a separate volume, it is plain that the excel- lent Author did not consider it as having any indispens-^ able connexion with the Second,
«««•«««««• BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the eighteenth of • L. S. » November, A. D. 1819, and in the foity.fifth year of the' *•«•«•**••• Independence of the United States of America, JAMES LORING, of the said District, has deposited in this Office the tJJe ol' a Book, the right whereof he claims as Proprietor, in the worLn fal- lowing, to wit :
The Improvement of the Mind. By ISAAQ WATTS, D.D To which are added, Questiqns adapted to the Work ; for the use of Schools anr Academies.
" Few books have been perused by me with greater pleasure than Dr Watts's Improvement of the Mind ; of which the radical principles may indeed be fx)und in Locke's Conduct of the Understanding ; but they are so expanded and ramified by Watts, as to confer on him the merit of r work in the highest degree useful and pleasing, Whoever has the car of instructing others may be charged|with deficiency in his duty if tli: book is not recommended." .Dr. Johnson's Life of Dr. WatU>
In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entitled *♦ An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Cop- ies, during the times therein mentioned :" and also to an Act, entitled, " An Act supplementary to an Act, entitled, An Act for the Encourage^! nient of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, CharUand Book^, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies, during the times therein mentioned ; and -extending the Benefits thereof to the Arts of Design-. inff» Engraving and Etching Historical, and other Prints."
JNO. W DAVIS 5^ ^^^''* "f ^^^ District
Albert Adsit Oiemons Aug. 24, 1938 \^Gt avaiiabi© for exchange) j
7
PREFACE.
i THE present Treatise, if it may assume the honour of that name, is nkde up of a variety of remarks and directions for the improvement of p^e mind in useful knowledge. It was collected from the observations ■which I had made on my own studies, and on the temper and sentiments, the humour and conduct of other men in their pursuit of learning, or in the affairs of life ; and it has been considerably assisted by occasional col- 'liPtions, in the coune of my reading, from many authors on different suh- lijCts. I confess, in far the greatest part, I stand bound to answer for the M'aknesses or defects that will be found in these papers, not being able to Moint to other writers whence the twentieth part of them are derived. [ The work was composed at different times, and by slow degrees. Now 'find then, indeed, it spread itself into branches and leaves, likea plant in April, and advanced seven or eight pages in a week : and sometimes it lay by without growth, like a vegetable in the winter,and did not increaje half so much in the reyolution of a year.
As these thoughts occurred to me in reading or meditation, or in my notices of the various appearances of things amongst mankind, they were tin-own under those heads which make the present titles of the chapters, and were by degrees reduced to something like a method, such as the sub- ject would admit.
On these accounts, it is not to be expected that the same accurate order should be observed, either in the whole book, or in tlie particular chapter thereof, which is necessary in the system of ^ny science whose scheme is projected at once. A book which has been twenty years a writing may be indulged in some variety of style and manner, though I hope there will not be iound any gi'eat difference of sentiment; for wherein I had im- provetl in latter years, beyond what I had first written, a few dashes and alterations have corrected the mistakes : and if the candour of the reader will but allow what is defective in one place to be supplied by additions li'om another, I hope there will be found a sufficient reconciliation ofwhat night seem, at first, to be scarce consistent.
The language and dress of these sentiments is such fis the present tem- per of mind dictated, whether it were graveor pleasant, severe or smihngo Jf there has been any thing expressed with too much severity, I suspect it will be found to fall upon those sneering or daring writf »s of the age
iv PREFACE.
against religion and against the Christian scheme, vrho seem to have left reason, or decency, or both behind them, in some of their writings.
The same apology of the length of years in composing this book, may serve also to excuse a repetition of the same sentiments which may happen to be found in different places witliout the author's design ; but in other pages it was intended, so that those rules, for the conduct of the under- standing, which are most necessary, should be set in several lighu, that they might, with more frequency, and more force, impress the soul. I shall be sufficiently satisfied with the good humour and lenity of my read- ers, if they will please to regard these papers as parcels of impei-fect sketches, which were designed by a sudden pencil, and in a thousand leis- ure moments, to be, one day, collected into landscapes of some little pros- pects in the regions of leaniing, and in the world of common life, pointing out the fairest and most fruitful spots^s well as the rocks,and wildernesses, and faithless morasses of the counti-y. But I feel age advancing upon jne ; and my health is insufficient to perfect what I had designed, to in- crease and amplify these remarks, to confirm and improve these rules, axcC) to illuminate the several pages with a richer and more beautiful varietyjofi examples. The subject is almost endless ; and new writers in the pie«- ! ent, and in the following ages, may stiil find sufficient foUieSjWeaknes^eS, and dangei-s, among mankind, to be represented in such a manner as to guard youth against them.
These hints, such as they are, I hope may be rendered some way useful to persons in younger years, who will favour them with a perusal, and who would seek the cultivation of their own understandings in the early days of life. Perhaps they may find something here which may wake y latent genius and direct the studies of a willing mind. Perhaps it may point out to a student, now and then, what may employ the most useful labours of his thoughts, and accelerate his diligence in the most momentous inquiries. Perhaps a sprightly youth might here meet with something to guard or warn him against mistakes, and withhold him, at other times, from those pursuits which are like to be fruitless and disappointing. J,
Let it be observed also, that, in our age, several of the ladies pursae science with success ; and others of them ai"e desirous of improving their reason, even in the common affairs of life, as well as the men : yet the characters w^hich are here drawn occasionally are almost universally ap« plied to one sex : but if any of the other shall fiad a character which suits f thera, they may, by a small change of the termination, apply and assume it to themselves, and accept the instruction, the admonition, or the i»p» plause, v.'hich is designed in it.
^•:^<
^///i /~^. f j.^
X THE
/
IMPROVEMENT OF THE MIND,
Directions for the Attainment of useful KiiGivledgd
INI RODUCTION.
NO man is obliged to learn and know every thing;;
Hhis can neither be sought nor required, for it is utier-
*ly impossible ; yet all persons are under some obliga-
i^ tion to improve their own understanding ; otherwise it
■will be a barren desert, or'a forest overgrown with weeds
and brambles. Universal ignorance or infinite errors
-will overspread the mind, which is utterly neglected,
and lies without any cultivation.
Skill in the sciences is indeed the business and pro- fession but of a small part of mankind ; but there are many others placed in such an exalted rank in the world, as allows them much leisure and large oppor- tunities to cultivate their reason, and to beautify and enrich their minds with various- knowledge. Even the lower orders of men have particular callings in life, wherein they ought to acquire a just degree of skill; and this is not to be done well, without thinking and reasoning about them.
The common duties and benefits of society, which, belong to every man living, as we are social creatures, and even our native and necessary relations to a fami- ly, a neighbourhood, or government, oblige all per- sons whatsoever to use their reasoning powers upon a thousand occasions ; every hour of life calls for some regular exercise of our judgment as to times and things, persons and actions ; without a prudent and discreet determination in matters before us, we shall be plung- gedinto perpetual error's in our con(itu(it» Now that B
^ i5TRo»tr€Tioir.
which should always be practised, must at some time be learnt.
Besides, every son and daughter of Adam has a most important concern in the aiFairs of a life to come, and therefore it is a matter of the highest moment for ev- ery one to understand, to judge, and to reas )n right about the things of religion. It is in vain for any to say, we h-J ve no leisure or time for it. The daily inter- ' vals ci time, and vacancies from necessary labour, to- gether with the one day in seven in the Christian world, allows sufficient time for this, if men would but apply themselves to it with half so much zeal and diligence astlieyd'>to the trifles and amusements of this life ; and it would turn to infinitely better account.
Thus it appears to be the necessary duty, and the in- terest of every person living, to improve his under- standing, to inform his judgment, to treasure up useful knowledge, and to acquire the skill of good reasoning, as far as his station, capacity, and circumstances fur- nish him with proper means for it. Our mistakes in ^ judgment may plunge us into much folly and guilt in practice. By acting without thought or reason, we dishonour the God that made us reasonable creatures, we often become injurious to our neighbours, kindred, or friends, and we bring sin and misery upon ourselves : For we are accountable to God, our judge, for every* part of our irreguinr and mistaken conduct, where he hath given us sufficient advantages to guard against those mistakes.
It is the design of Logic to give this improvement to the mind, and to teach us the right use of reason in the acquirement and communication of all useful knowl- edge ; though the greatest part of writ; rs on that sub- jec7t have turned it into a composition of hard words, trifles, and subtleties, for the mere use of the schools, and that only to amuse the minds and the ears of men with empty sounds, which flatter their vanity, and puff up their pride with a pompous and glittering show of false learning ; and thus they have perverted the great and valuable design of that science.
A few modern writers have endeavoured to recover the honour of Logic, since that excellent author of the Art of Thinking led the way. Among the rest, I have presumed to make an attempt of the same kind, in a t^^tise published several years ago, wherein it wa^«
UrTRODC«TION. V
lay constant aim to assist the reasoning powers of ev- ery i'ank. and «,rder of men, as well as to keep in eye to the best interest of the schools, and the candidates of true learning. There 1 have endeavoured to shovr the mistitkes we are exposed to in our conception, judgment, and reasoning ; and pointed to the various springs of them. I have also laid down many general and particular rules how to escape error, and attain truth in matters of the civil and religious life, as well as in the sciences.
But there are several other observations very per- tinent to this purpose, which have not fallen so direct- ly under any of those heads of discourse, or at !east thev would have swelled that treatise to an improper size ; and therefore I have made a distinct coliectitm of them here out of various authors, as well as from my own observation, and set them down under the fol- lowing heads.
The learned world, who have done so much unmer- ited honour to r.h;\t logical treatise, as to receive it into our two flourishing Universities, may possib y aamit this as a second part or supplement to that treatise. And I may venture to persuude myself, that if the common and the busy ranks of mankind, as well as the scholar and the gentleman, would but transcribe such rules into their understanding, and practise them upo all occasio' s, there would be much more truth and knovrtedge found among men ; and it is reasona- ble to h^pe that justice, virtue, and goodness would at- tend as the happy consequents.
CHAPTER I. General Rules for (he hnfirovtment of Knoivledge.*
Rule I. DEEPLY possess your mind with the vast impor- tance of a good judgment, and the rich and inestima-
• Though the mort of these following rules are chiefly addressed t» those whom their foitune or their station requires to addict themselves to tl»e particular improvement of their minds in gj-eeter degrees of knowl- edge ; yet eyerjjf one who has leisure and opportunity to be acquaiutod with such writings as tibne, nuiy find lonsthing among them for their •wniua.
8 GENERAL RULES T©
ble advantage of right reasoning. Review the instan- ces of your own misconduct in life; think seriously With yourselves how many follies and sorrows you had escaped, and how much guilt and misery you had pre- vented, if from your early years you had but taken due pains to judge aright concerning persons, times, and things. This will awaken you v/ith lively vigour to address yourselves to the work of improving your reasoning powers, and seizing every opportunity and advantage for that end.
Rule II. Consider the weakness, frailties, and mistakes of human nature in geiieral, which arise f'om 0he very constitution of a soul united to an animal body» and subjected to many incouveniencies thereby. Con- sider the many additional weaknesses, mistakes, and fraiities,wh-ch are derived from our original apostasy and fail from a state of innocence ; how much our powers of understanding are yet more darkened, enfeebled, and imposed upon by our senses, our fancies, and our un- ruly passions, 8cc. C< nsid^r the depth and difficulty of many truths, and he fluttering appearances of falsehood, whence arises an iniioi'e variety of dangers to wlvich we are exposed m our judgment of tilings. Re'ad with greediness those authors that treat of the doctrine of prejudices, prepossessions, and springs of crr-)^, on puip 'S' t«j make your soul watchful oq all sides, that it suffer itself, as far as possible, to. be imposed upon by none •>£ them. See more qq this sub- ject. Logic, P rr II. Chap. 3, and Part III, Chap. 3.
Rule III A slight view of things so momentous is net sufficient. You should therefore contrive and prac- tise some proper methods to acquaint yourself with y^'ur own ignorance, and fo impress your mind with a deep and painful sense of the low and imperfect degrees of y "ur presetit knowledge, that you may be incited with labour i^nd activity to pursue afrer greater meas- ures. Am:>ng < others, you may find some such methods as these successful.
1. Take a wide survey now and then, of the vast and unlimited regions of learning. Let your medit itions run over the names of all the sciences, with their nu- merous branchings, nnd innumerable particular themes of knowledge ; and then reflect how few of them vou are acquainted with in any tolerable degree. _ The most learned of mortals will never find occaskai to
OBTAIN KNOWLEDGE. 9
act over again, what is fabled of Alexander the Great, that when he had conquered what was called the East- ern World, he wept tor want of more worlds to con- quer. The worlds of science are immense and endless.
2. Think what a numberless variety of questions and dijBiculties there are belonging even to that particular science in which you have made the greatest progress, and how few of them there are in which you have ar* rived at a final and undoubted certainty ; excepting only those questions in the pure and simple mathemat- ics, whose theorems are demonstrable and leave scarce- ly any doubt ; and yet even in the pursuit of some few of these, maiikind have been strangely bewildered.
3. Spend a few thoughts sometimes on the puzzling inquiries concerning vacuums and atoms, the doctrine of infinities, indivisibles, and incommensurables in ge- ometry, wherein there appear some insolvable diffi- culties. Do this on purpose to give you a more sensible impression of the poverty of your understanding, and the imperfection of your knowledge. This will teach you what a vain thing it is to fancy that you know all things ; and will instruct you to think modestly of your present attainments, when every dust of the earth, and every inch of empty space, surmounts your understand- ing and triumphs over your presumption. Arithmo had been bred up to accounts all his life, and thought himself a complete master of numbers. But when he was pushed hard to give the square root of the num- ber 2, he tried at it, and laboured long in millesimal fractions, until he confessed there was no end of the in- quiry ; and yet he learned so much modesty by this perplexing question, that he was afraid to say it was an impossible thing. It is some good degree of im- provement when we are afraid to'be positive.
4. Read the accounts of those vast treasures of knowledge which some of the dead have possessed, and which some of the living do possess. Read and be as- tonished at the almost incredible advances which have been made in science. A.cquaint yourselves with some persons of learning, that by converse among them, and comparing yourselves with them, you may acquire a mean opinion of your own attainments, and may be thereby animated with new zeal, to equal them as far us possible, or to exceed: thus let your diligence be
quickened by a generous and laudable emulation. Jf B2
id GENERAL RULES TO
Vanillus had never met with Scitorio and Polydes, he had never imagined himself a mere novice in Philoso- phy, nor ever iet himself to study in good earnest.
Remember vm, that if upon some few superficial ac- quirements, you valut% exalt, and swell yourself, as though you were a man of learning already, you are thereby buikling a most unpassable barrier against all improvement ; y-u will lie down and indulge idleness, and rest yourself contented iri *.he midst of deep and shameful ignorancv. Midti od t cienciam pervenissent si aeilluc iiervenhae non fiiU assent
Rule IV. Presume not too much upon a bright
fjenius, a ready wit, and good parts,, for these without abour and study will never m ike a m =n of knowledge and wisdom. This has been an unhappy temptation to persons of a vigorous and gay fancy to despise learn- ing and study Tl.ev have been acknowledged to shine in an ass-^nbly, nnd sparkle in a discourse upon common topscs, and thence they took it into their heads to abandon reading and labour, and grow old in igno- i>ance; but when t*iey had lost the vivacities of animal nature ^nd youth, thev became stupid and sottish even to contempt and ridicule. Lucid as and Scintillo are young men of this stamp ; the}' shine in conversation, they spread their native riches before the ignorant ; they pride themselves in their own lively images of fancy, and imagine themselves wise and learned ; but thev had best avoid the presence of the skilful, and the test rf reasoning; and I would advise them once a day to think forward a little, what a contemptible figure thev will make in age.
The witty men sometimes have sense enough to "know their own foible, and thevefcre they cr ftily shun the attacks <-'f argument, or b-jldly pretend to despise and renou*^ce them ; because they are conscious of their ow i ignorance, and inwardly confess their want of acquaint mce with the skill of reasoning.
Rule V. As you are not to fancv yourself a learn- ed man, because you are blessed with a ready wit, so neither must you imagine that large and laborious reading, and a strong memory, can denominate yoij truly wise.
Wh it that excellent critic has determined when he decided the question, whether wit or study makes th^.
OBTAIN KNOWLEDGE. 1 I
best poet, maj' well be applied to every sort of learn-
-Ego vec studium sine divjte venn.
Nee rude quid prosit, video ingenium : alterius sic Altei-a poscit opem res, et conjurat amice.
Hor. de Ait. Poeto
THUS MADE ENGLISH t
Concerning; poets there has been contest, Whether they'i-e made by art or nature best! But if I may presume in this affair, Among: the rest my judgment to declare. No ait without a genius will avail. And parts without the help of art will fail: But both ingredients jointly must unite, Or verse wiU never shine with a transcendent light. ♦ Oldham.
It is meditation and studious thought, it is the exer- cise of your own reason and judgment upon all you read, that gives good sense even to the best genius, and af- fords your understanding the truest improvement. A i)oy of a strong memory may repeat a whole book of Euclid, yet be no Geometrician; for he may not be. able perhaps to demonstrate one single theorem. Me- morino has learnt half the Bible by heart, and is be- come a living conctordauce, and a speaking index to theological folios, and yet he understands little of di- vinity,
A well furnished library and a capacious memory are indeed of singular use towards the improvement of the mind ; but if all your learning be nothing else but a mere amassment of what others have written, without a due penetratif^n into their meanings, and without a judicious choice and determination of your own sentiments, I do not see what title your head has to true learning above your shelves. Though you have read Philosophy and Theology, Morals and Met-? aphysics in abundance, and every other art and sci- ence, yet if your memory is the only faculty employ- ed, with the neglect of your reasoning powers, you can justly claim no higher character than that of a good historian of the sciences.
Here note. Many of the foregoing advices are more peculiarly proper for those who are conceited of their abilities, and are ready to entertain a high opinion of themselves. But a modest, humble youth, of a good genius, should not suffer himself to be discouraged b)*
IZ GENERAL RULES Tt
any of these considerations. They are designed only as a spur to diligence, and a guard against vanity and pride.
Rule VI. Be not so weak as to imagine, that a life of learning is a life of laziness and ease. Dare not give up yourself to any of the learned professions, un- less you are resolved to labour hard at study, and can make it your delight, and the joy of your life, accord- ing to the motto of our late Lord Chancellor King, Labor ipse volufitas.
It is no idle thing to be a scholar indeed. A man much addicted to luxury and pleasure, recreation and pastime, should never pretend to devote himself entire- ' ly to the sciences, unless his soul be so reformed and refined, that he can taste all these entertainments emi- nently in his closet, among his books and papers. So- brino is a temperate man and a philosopher, and he feeds upon partridge and pheasant, venison and ra- gouts, and every delicacy, in a growing understanding, and a serene and healthy goul, though he dines on a dish of sprouts or turnips. Languinos loved his ease, and therefore chose to be brought up a scholar ; he had much indolence in his temper, and as he never cared for study, he falls under universal contempt in his profession, because he has nothing but the gown and the name.
Rule VII. Let the hope of new discoveries, as well as the satisfaction and pleasure of known truths, animate your daily industry. Do not think learning in general is arrived at its perfection, or that the knowledge of any particular subject in any science can- not be improved, merely because it has lain five hun- dred or a thousand years without improvement The present age, by the blessing of God on the mgenuity and diligence of men, has brought to light such truths in natural philosophy, and such discoveries in the heavens and the earth, as seemed to be beyond the reach of man. But may there not be Sir Isaac New- tons m every science ? You should never despair there- fore of finding out that which has never yet been found, unless j^ou see something in the nature of it which renders it unsearchable, and above the reach of our faculties.
Nor should a student in divinity imagine that our age Is arrived at a full understanding of every thing which
OBTAIN K NOW t EDGE. l5
can be known by the Scriptures. Every age since the Reformation hath thrown some further light on difficult textb and paragraphs of the Bible, which have been long obscured by the early rise of antichrist ; and since there are at present many difficulties and dark- nesses banging about certain truths of the Christian Re- ligion, and since st-veral of these relate to important doctrines, such as the Origin of Sin, the Fall of Adam, the Person of Christ, the blessed Trinity, the Decrees of God, Sec. which do still embarrass the minds of hon- est ai^d inquiring readers, and which make work for noisy controversy ; it is certain there are several things in the Bible yet unknown and not sufficiently explain- ed, .nd it is certain that there is some way to solve these difficulties, and to reconcile these seeming contradic- tions. And why n.ay not a sincere searcher of truth in the present age, by labour, diligence, study and P'ayer, with the best use of his reasoning powers, find out the proper solution of those knots and perplexities which have hitherto been unsolved, and which have afforded matter for angry quarrelling ; happy is every maM who shall be favoured of Heaven to give a help- ing hnnd towards the introduction of the blessed age of light and love.
Rule VIII. Do not always hover on the surface of things, nor take up suddenly, with mere appearan- ces ; but penetrate into the depth of matters, as far as your time and circumstances allow, especially in those things which relate to your own protessionw Do not indulge yourselves to judge of things by the first glimpse, or a short and superficial view of them ; for this will fill the mind with errors and prejudices, give it a v/rong turn and ill habit of thinking, and m'ake much work for retraction. Subito js carried away with title pages, so that he ventures to pronounce up- on a large octavo at once, and to recommend it won- derfully, when he has read half the preface. Another volume of controversies of equal size was discarded by him at once., because it pretended to treat of tne Trin- ity, and yet he could neither find the word essence, nor subsistencies in the twelve first pages ; but Subito changes his opinions of men, and books, and things so often, that nobody regards him.
As for those sciences, or those parts of knowledge, which either your profession, your leisure, your incli'
14 OBNERAL RULB8 TO
nation, or your incapacity, forbids you to pursue with much application, or to search far into them, you must be contented with an historical and superficial know- ledge of them, and not pretend to form any judgments of your own, on those subjects which you understand very impt rfectly.
Rule IX. Once a day, especially in the early year* of life nd study, call yourselves to an account what new ideas, what new proposition or truth you have gained, what further connrmation of known truths, and what advances you have made in any part of knowledge ; and let no day, if possible, pass away without some intellectual gain; such a course, well pursued, must certainly advance us in useful know- ledge. It is a wise proverb among the learned, bor- rowed from the lips and practice of a celebr^ited painter, A'ulla, dies nine linea ; let no day pass without one line at least ; and it was a sacred rule among the Pythagoreans, that they should every evening thrice run over the actions and affairs of the day, and exam- ine what their conduct had been, what they had done, or what they had neglected ; and they assured their pupils that by this method they would make a noble progress in the path of virtue.
Nor let soft slumber close your eye«. Before you've recollected thrice The train of actioni through the days Wh«e have mv feet chose out their way? What have I learnt, where'er I've been, From ail I've heard, from all I've seen? What know I more that's worth the knowing? What have X done that's worth the doing? What have I sought that I should shunT ") What duty have I left undone? >
Or into what new follies run ? j
These self inquiiies are the road That leads to virtue, and to God.
I would be glad, among a nation of Christians, to find young nien heartily engaged in the practice of what this heathen writer teaches.
Rule X. Maintain a constant watch at all times against a dogmatical spirit ; fix not your assent to any proposition in a firm and unalterable manner, till you have some firm and unalterable ground for it, and till you have arrived at some clear and sure evidence ; till you have turned the proposition on all sides, and search- ed the matter through and through, so that you cannot
•BTAIK KN0WLEI>€£. 15
be mistaken. And even where you may think you have full gt ounds of assurance, be not too early, nor too fre- qut nt, in expressing this assurance in too peremptory and positive a manner, remembering that human na- ture is iilways liable to mistake in this corrupt and fee- ble stite. A dogmatical spirit has many inconvenien- cies attendmg it : As
1. It stops the ear against all further reasoning upon that subjt ct, and shuts up the mind from all further imp»'ovements of knowledge. If you have resolutely fixed your opinion, though it be upon too slight and in- sufficient grounds, yet you will stand determined to renounce the strongest reason brought for the contrary opinion, and grow obstinate against the force of the clearest argument Positivo is a man of this character, and has often pronounced his assurance of the Carte- sian vortexes ; last year some fui ther tight broke in upon hJs underst^anding, with uncontrollable force, by reading something of mathematidl philosophy; yet having asserted his former opinions in a most confident manner, he is tempted now to wink a little against the truth, or to prevaricate in his discourse upon that sub- ject, lest, by admitting conviction, he should exjDose himself to the necessity of confessing his former folly and mistake ; and he has not humility enough for that.
2. A dogmatical spirit naturally leads us to arro- gance of mind, and gives a man some airs in conver- sation, which are too haughty and assuming. Audens is a man of learning, and very good company, biit his infallible assurance renders his carriage sometimes insupportable.
3. A dogmatical spirit inclines a man to be censori- ous; of his neighbours. Every one of his own opinions appears to him written as it were with sunbeams, and he grows angry that his neighbour does not see it in the same Ight. He is tempted to disdain his correspond- ents, as men of a low and dark understanding, because they will not believe what he does. Furio goes farther in this wild track, and charges those who refuse his notions with wilful obstinacy, and vile hypocrisy; he tells them boldly that they resist the truth, and sin against their consciences.
These are the men, that when they deal in contro- versy deMght in reproaches. They abound in tossing aljout absurdity and stupidity among their brethren.
16 GENERAL RITLES T^
Thev cast the imputation of heresv and nonsense plen- tifu ly uooii their antagonists ; and in matters of sacred itnportance, they deal out dieir anathemas in abun- dance, upon Christians better than themselves; they denounce d urination upon their neighbours, without eitaer justice or mercv ; and when they pronounce sentenct-s of divine wrath against supposed heretics^ they add their own humap. fire and indignation. A dog- m itist m religion is not a great way off from a bigot, and is in high danger o£ gi-owing up to be a bloody pers- cutor.
Rule XI. Though caution and slow assent will guard you -gai :st frequent mistakes and retractions, yet you should get humility and courage enough to re- tract any mistake, i-m^ confess an error; frequent changes are tokens oi levity in our first determin .tions ; yet y .u should nev'er be too proud to change y ur opin- ion, nor frighted at the na ne of a changeling. Learn to scorn those vulgar bugbears which confirm foolish man in his old misiakes, for fe-ir of bring charged with inconstancy. I confess it is better not to judge, than to judge false'y, and it is wiser to withhold our assent till we see complete evidence; but if we have too sudden- ly given our assent, as the wisest man does sometimes, if we have professed what we find afterwards to be false, we should never be ashamed nor afraid to re- nounce a mistake. That is a noble essay which is found among the occasional papers, to encourage the world to practise retractions ; and I would recommend it to the perusal of every scholar and every Christian.
Rule XII. He that would raise his judgment above the vulgar r-mk of mankind, and learn to pass a just sentence on persons and things, must take heed of a fanciful temper of mind, and a humorous conduct in liis affairs. Fancy and humour, early and constantly in- dulged, may expect an old age overrun with follies.
The notion of a humourist is one that is greatlv pleas- ed, or greatly displeased with little things, who sets his heart much upon matters of very small importance ; who has his will determined every day by trifles, his actions seldom directed bv the reason and nature of things, and his passions frequently raised by things of little monient. Where this practice is allowed, it will insensibly warp the judgment to pronounce little things great, and tempt you to lay a great weight upon them.
OBTAIN KNOWLEDGE. 17
Is short, this temper will incline you to pass an unjust value on almost every thin^ that occujs ; and every step you take in this path is just so far out of the way Vo wisdom.
Rule XIII. For the same reason have a care of trifling with things ivj^ortant nnd momf-nt.'us, O' of sporting with things awful and sacred ; tlo not indulge a spirit of ridicule, as some vvitt\' men do on all occi^ sions and subjects. This will s unhappily bias the judgment on the other side, a-id hicline you to p.iss a low esteem on thi-; most valua') e oi)jccts. Whatsoev- er evil habit we indulge in practice, ic will inscsibly obtain a power over our understtandiiig, and betray us int'> many errors Jocauder is re .dy with his jest to answer eves y thing that he hears; he reads bo' ks in the same jovial humour, and has gotten the art of turn- hig every thought and sentence into merriment. How many av^-kward and irregular judgments does this man pass upon solemn subjects, even when he designs to be grave and in earnesr ! His rnii th and raughiag humour is formed into habit and temper, and leads his und^.-r- standing shamefully astr »y. You w;l! see him wan- dering in pursuit of a gay fiving feather, and h is drawn by a kind of ignis fatuus into bogs, ami mire, almost every day of his lif-.
Rule XtV. Ever nifiinlai;! a virtuous and pious frame of spirit ; for an indniy,ence of vicious inclina- tions debases the understanding nd perverts the judg- ment. Whoredom and wine, and new \vine, take a- wav the heart and soul and reason of a man. Sensu- ality ruins the better facultit*s of the inind ; an indul- gence to appetite <nd passion enfeebles the powers of reason, it makes the iudg'rent weak and susceptive of every fnlseho ,d, and esjjecially • f such mistakes as have a tendeiicy towards the gratification of the ani- ipal ; and it warns the s u! aside strangely from that steadfa-t honesty aid integrity thit necessarily belongs to the pur'^uit of truth. It is the virtuous man who is in n fitir way to wisdom. *' Ciod gives to those that are go.'^d in his sight, wisdom, and knowledge, and joy." Eccl. ii 26.
Piety towards God, as well as sobriety and virtue,
are necessary qualitlcations to make a truly wise and
judicious man. He that abandons religion must act m
SQch a contradiction to his own conscience a«d best
C
18 •KITERAL RFLKS Tft
judgment, that he abuses and spoils the faculty itself. It is thus in the nature, of things, and it is thus by the righteous judgment of God ; even the pretended sages among the heathens, who did not like to retain God in their knowiedee, they were given up to a reprobate mind, t'r vow aSoxifiov, an undistinguished or injudicious mind, so that t.ev jude^ed inconsistej^tly, and practised mere absurdities, ra yu>l «»ijx»vt«, Rom. i. 28.
And it is the character of the slaves of antichrist, 2 ' Thess. ii. 10, &c. that those *' who receive not the love of the truth, were exposed to the, power of diabolical sleights and lying wonders." Wher; divine revelation shines and blazes in the f ice of men ^ with glorious ev- idence, and they wink their eyes against it, the God of this world is sii'fft-red to t>!ind them even in the most obvious, common, and sensible things. The great God of heaven, for this CHuse, sends them strong delusions that they should believe a lie; and the nonsense of transubstantiation in the popish world, is a most glaring accomplishment of this prophecy, beyond even what could have been thought of or expected among crea- tures who pretend to reason.
Rule XV. Watch against the pride of your own reason, and a vain conceit of your own intellectual pow- ers, with the neglect of divine aid and blessing. Pre- sume not upon great attainments in krowled^ by your own self-sufficiency ; those who trust to their own un- derstandings entirely, are pronounced f^ols in the word of God ; and it is the wisest of men gives them this character ; " he that trusteth in his own heart is a fool." Prov, xxviii. 26. And the same divine writer advises us " to trust in the Lord with all our hearts, and not to lean to our own understandings, nor to be wise in oui*- own eyes." Chap. iii. 5, 7.
Those who, with a neglect of religion, and depend" cnce on God, apply themselves to search out every ar- ticle in the things of God by the mere dint of their own reason, have been suffered to run into wild excesses- of foolery, and strange extravagance of opinions. Every one who pursues this vain course and will not ask for the conduct of (iod in the study of religion, has just reason to fear he shall be left of God, and given up a prey to a thousand prejudices; that he shall be con- signed over to the follies of his own heart, and pursue , his owt» temporal and eternal raiH. And even in com-
•BTAIN XNOWLEDOE. 19
mon studies, we should, by humility and dependence, engage the God of truth on our side.
KuLE XVI. Offer up therefore your daily requests to God, the Father of lights, that he would bless all your attempts and labours in reading, study, and con- versation. Think with yourself, how easily and how insensibly, by one turn of thought, he can lead you into a large scene of useful ideas ; he can teach you to lay hold on a clue which may guide your thoughts with safety and ease through all the difficulties of an intri- cate subject- Think how easily the Author of your be- ings can direct your motions by his pj ovidence, so that the glance of an eye, or a word striking the ear, or a sudden turn of the fancy, shall conduct you t a train of happy sentiments. By his secret and supreme me- thofl of government, he can draw you to read such a treatise, or converse with such a person, who may give you more light into some deep subject in an hour* than you could obtain by a month of your own soUtary labour.
Think with yourself, with how much ease the God of sp.rits can cast into your minds, some useful sugges- tion, and give a happy turn to your own thoughts, or the thoughts of those with whom you converse, whence you may derive unspeakable light and satisfaction, in a matter that has long puzzled and entangled you; he can shew you a "fialh which ihf vvMure*ti eye hath not *een" and lead you by s me unknown gate or portal, out of a wilderness and labyrinth of difficulties, wherein you have been long wandeiing.
Implore constantly his divine grace to point your in- clination to proper stu'lies, and to fix your heart there. He can keep off lemptations on the right hand, and on the left, both by the roui se of his providence, and by the secret and insensible intimations of his Spirit. He cau guard your understandings from every evil influence of error, and secure you frorn the danger of evil books and men, which mij?ht otherwise have a fatal effect, and lead you into pernicious mistakes.
Nor let this sort of advice ftili under the censure of the godless and prof-me, as a mere piece of bigotry or enthusiasm, derived from faith and the Bible ; for the reasons which I have given to support this pinus prac- tice of invoking the blessing of God on our studies, are derived from the light of nature as well as revelation. He that made our souls, and is the Father of spirits.
20 GENERAL RULES, &;C.
shall he not be supposed to have a most friendly influ- ence towards rhe instruction and government of them? The Author of our rational powers can mv )h'e them in darkness vvhe- iie ple:ses, by a suddt^u distemper: or he cin .iba.idon them to wa-der into dark and fooUsh opinions, when they are niled with a vain conceit of their own iigijt. He expects to be acknowledged in ilie common affairs of (ife, and he does as cctainly expect it ill the superior operations of the mi d, and in the sea: ch of kn wiedge and tru^h. The very Greek hea- tlK-:,-., ')'. the igiit oi reas --n, wi re taught to say, 'Ex Awf a§;^6/z icrQa, and the Latins, '.* ji Jove Frncip.ium Mu a:/' in work.s of le^trning they thought it nect ssa- ry CO be:^in ^vith God. Even the poets cail upon the muse as a goddess to .ss st ihem ;n tiseu- compositions.
The first lines of Honier.in hisliiad, and Odyss >,the first tine of Vi us sens, in his song of Hero and Leantier, the beginning < f Hesiod, in his poem of Weeks and D vys, and several others, furiiish us witn sufficient examples of this kind ; nor d«'ts Ovid leave -ut ibis piece of de- votion as he begins his stories of the Me ta> nor pilosis. Christianity so much the more obUi.es us by the pre- cepts of 8c;ipLurc to invoke the assistance of the true God in a I ou ' . hours of the min .for iht improvement of ourselves and others. Bishop S underson says, that siudy without prayer is athessm. as well as that pra3'er w ihouL study is presumption. _ And we are still more abuu !antly tnco .raeed bv t'?e testimony of those who have acknowledged fr m their own experience, that sincere prayer was no hindrance to their studies ; they have gotten more knowledge sometimes upon their knees, than by their labour in perusing a varietv of au- thors ; and they have b.ft this observat)on for such as follow, Bene orasse est bene studuissey Praying is the best studying
To conclude, let industry and devotion join together, and y u need not doubt the happy success ; Pvov ii. 2. " Incline thine ear unto wisdom, apply thine heart to understanding ; cry after knowledge, and hft up thy voice ; sr;k her as silver, antl search for her as for hidden treasures: Then shalt thou understand the fear of thf Lord," 8cc which is *'the begi'.ning of wis- dom It is *' the Lord who gives wisdom, even to the simple, and out of his moutii cometh knowledge and iinderstandihg.'*
VIVE mSTHODS OV lOf FRO YEMEN X. 21
CHAPTER II.
Observation^ Reading, Instruction by Lectures^ Conversation^ and Study, comfiared.
THERE are five eminent means or methods where- by the mind is improved in the knowledge of things ; and these are observation, reading, instruction by lec- tures, conversation, and meditation, which last, in a most peculiar manner, is called study. Let us survey the general definitions or descriptions of them all.
I. Observation is that notice that we take of all oc- currences in human life, whether they are sensible or intellectual, whether relating to persons or things, to ourselves or others. It is this that furnishes us, even from our infancy, with a rich variety of ideas and pro- positions, words and phrases ; it is by this we know that lire will burn, that the sun gives light, that a horse eats grass, that an acorn produces an oak, that man is a being capable of reasoning and discourse, that our judg- ment is weak, that our mistakes are many, that our sorrows are great, that our bodies die and are carried to the grave, and tliat one generation succeeds another. All those things which we see, which we hear or feel, ■which we perceive by sense or consciousness, or which we know in a direct manner, with scarce any exercise of our reflecting faculties or our reasoning powers, may be included under the general name of observation.
When this observation relates to any thing that im» medi-^tely concerns ourselves, and of which we are conscious, it may be called experience. So I am said to know or experience that I have in myself a power of thinking, fearing, loving, &c. That I have appetites and passions working in me, and many personal oc- currences have attended me in this life.
Observation therefore includes all that Mr. Locke means by sensation and reflection.
When we are searching out the nature or properties of any being by various methods of trial ; or' when we apply some active piwers, or set some causes to work, to observe what effects they would produce, this sort of observation is called experiment. So when I throw a bullet into water, I find it sinks ; and when I throw the same bullet mto quicksilver, I see it swims ; but if C 2
22 THE FIVE METHODS
I beat cut this bullet into a thin hollow shape, like a dish, then it wiP. swim in the water too. So when I strike two flints together, I find they produce iire; when I throw a seed into the earth, it grows up into a plant.
All these belong to the first method of knowledge, which I shall call observation.
II. Reading is that means or method of knowledge, whereby " v.^e acquaint ourselves wi'h what other men have written, or published to the world in their writ- ings." These arts of reading and writing are of in- finite advant -ge; for by them we are made partakers of the sentimtnts, observations, reasonings, and im- provements, of all the learned world, in tht most re- mote nations, and in former ages, almost from the be- ginning of mankind.
ill. Pubiic or private lectures are such ** verbal in- structions as are given by a teacher while th^' learners attend in silence." This is the way of learning r.^Iigion fi-om the pulpit, or of philnsophy or theolo:<y from the professor's chair, or of mathematics by a teacher shew- ing us various theorems or prfiblems, i.e. speculations or practices by demonstration and operation, with all the instruments of art necessary to those operations.
IV. Conversation is another method of improving our minds, wht-rein "by mutual disccurse and inquiry we learn the sentiments of othtn-s, as well as communi- cate our sentiments to others in the same manner.'* Sometimes indeed, though bi'th parties speak by turns, yet the advantage is only on one side; as, when a teacher and a learner meet and discourse together; but frequently the profit is mutual. Under this head of conversation, we may also rank disputes of various kinds.
V. Meditation or study includes all those " exercises of the mind, whereby we render all the former methods useful, for our increase in true knowledge and wis- dom." It is by meditation we come to confirm our memory ofthings that pass through our thoughts in the occurrences of life, in our own experiences, and in the observations we make ; it is by meditation that we draw various iHferences, and establish in our minds general principles of knowledge. It is by meditation that we comjjare the various ideas which we derive from our senses, or fron^ the operations of our souls, and join them in propositions. It is by meditation that we fix
• F IMPROVEMENT COMPARED. 23
in our memory whatsoever we learn, and form our own judgment of the truth or fdlsehood, the strength or weakness of whyt others speak, or write. It is medita- tion or study that draws out long chains of argument, and searches and finds deep and difficult truths, which before lay conceded in darkness.
It would be a needless thing to prove that our own solitary meditati< ns, together with the few obseiva- tions that the m<.st part of mankind are capable of making, are not sufficient, of tliemselves, to lead us in- to the attainment of any considerable proportion of knowledge, at least ir. an age so much improved as ours is, without the assistance of conversation and reading, and other proper instructions that are to be atiainerl in our days. Yet each of these five methods have their peculiar advantages, whereby they asMst each other; and their peculiar defects, which have need to be supplie^d by the other's assistance. Let us trace over some of the particular advantages of each.
I. One method of improving the mind, is observa- tion, and the advantages of it aie these :
1. It is owing to observation that our " mind is fur- nished with the first simple and com.plex ideas." It is this lays the ground-wcirk and foundation of all know- ledge, and makes us capable ot using any of the other mettiods for improving the mind ; for it vve did not at- tain a variety of s-^nsihle and intellectual ideas by the sensations of outward objects, by the consciousness of our own appetites and p;issionsi pleasures and pains, and by inward experience of the acting-, of out own spirits, it would be impossible either f( r men or books to teach us any thing. It is observation that must give us our first ideas of things, as it includes in it sense and consciousness.
2. All our knowledge derived from observation, whether it be of single ideas or of propositions, is know- ledge gotten at first hand. Hereby we see and know things as they are, or as they appf^ar to us ; we take the niipressions of them on our minds from the original objects themselves, which give a clearer and stronger conception of things; these ideas are more lively, and the propositions (at least in many cases) are much more evident. Whereas, what knowledge we derive from lectures, reading and conversation, "is but the Qopy of
24 THE EIVE METHODS
Other men's ideas, that is, the picture of a picture ; and it is one remove further trom the original.
3. Anothc^r advantage oi observation is, that we may gain knowledge ail the day long, and every moment of our Uves, and every moment ot our txistence we may be adding something to our intellectual treasures there- by, except uniy while we are asleep ; and even then the remembrance of our dreansiug will teach us some truths, and lay a foundation for a better acquaintance with human nature, both in the powers and in the frailties of it.
II. The next v/ay of improving the mind is by read- ing, and the advantages of it are such as these :
1. By reading we acquaint ouvseives in a very ex- tensive manner " with the affairs, actions, and thoughts of the living and the dead, in the most remote nations, and most distant ages ;" and that with 4is much ease as though they lived in our own age and nation. By reading of books, we may iearn something from all parts of mankind ; whereas by observation, we learn all from ourselves, and only what comes within our own direct cognizance; by conversation we can only enjoy the as- sistance of a very few persons, viz. those who are near us, and live at the same time when we do, that is, our neighbours and contemporaries ; but our knowledge is much more narrowed still, if we confine ourselves merely to our own solitdry reasonings, without much observation or reading. For then all our improvement must arise only from our own inward powers and meditations.
2. By reading we learn not only the actions and sentiments of different nations and ages, but we transfer to ourselves the knowledge and improvements pf the "most learned men, the wisest and the best of mankind," when or wheresoever they lived : For though many books have been written by weak and injudicious per- sons, yet the most of those books which have obtained great reputation in the world,, are the products of great and wise men in their several ages and nations ; where- as we can obtain the conversation and instruction of those only who are within the reach of our dwellings, or our acquaintance, whether they are wise or unwise ; and sometimes that narrow sphere scarce affords any per- son of great eminence in wisdom or learning, unless our iiistructer happen to have this character. And as for
eii' iMPRovK.MExr compahed. 25
|)iir own study and meditations, even when we arrive at some good degrees ct" learning, our advantage tor fur- ther improvement in knowledge by them is still far more contracted than what we ioay derive from readirig.
3. When we read gocKl authors, we learn "the best, the most laboured, and most refined sentiments even of those v/ise and learned men ;'' for they have studied hard, and have committed to writing their ma- turest thoughts, and the result of their long study and experience; whereas by conversation, and in some lecrures, we obtain, many times, only the present thoughts of our tutors or friends, which (though they may be bright and useful) yet, at first, perhaps, may be sudden "and indigested, and are mere hints which have risen to no maturity.
4. It is another advantage of reading, that Vt^e may ''review what we have read;" we may consult the page agnin and again, and meditate on it at successive seasons in our serenest and retired hours,having the book always at haa'') ; but what we obtain by conversation ant' if) lectures, is oftentimes lost again as soon as the company breaks up, or at least when the day vanishes ; unless we happen to have the talent of a good memory, or quickly retire and note down what remarkahles we have found in those discourses. And for the same reason, and for the want of retiring and writing, many a learned man has lost several useful meditations of his own, md could never recal them again.
III. The advantages of verbal instructions by public or priviite lectures are tiiese :
1. There is something more sprightly, m<n'e de- lightful and entertaining in the living discourse of a wise, learned, and well qualified teacher, than there is in the silent and sedentary practice of reading. The very turn of voice, the good pronunciation, and the po- lite and alluring manner which some teachers have attained, will engage the attention, keep the sf til fixed, and convey and ijuinuate into tiie nnind the ideas of thinJTS in a more lively and forcible way, than the mere reading of bfxks in the silence ami retirement of the closet.
2. A tutor or instructer when he paraphrases and explains other authors, can " mark out ihe precise point of difficulty or controversy," and unfold it. He €an rfiew you which paragraphs are of greater ini-
26 tHE FIVE METHODS
portance, and which are of less moiTient. He can teack- his hearers what authors, nt whftt parts of an author, are best worth reading on any particular subject: and thus save his disciples much time a- d pains, by short- ening the labours of their closet nnd private studies. He can shew you what were the ('octrines of the an- cients in a compendiuir., which perhaps would cost much labour and the perusal of matiy books to attain. He can inform you whi.t new doctrines or sentiments are arising in the world, beftre they c< me to be public ; as well as acquaint you with his ow: {Jiivate thoughts, and his own experiments and ot>se vaiions, which never were, and perhaps never will be published to the world, and yet may be very valuable and useful.
3.' A living instructer can conv?y to our senses those notions with which he would furnish our m»nds, when he teaches us natural philosophy, or most parts of mathematical learning. He can make the experiments before our eyes He can describt figures and diagrams, point to the lines and angles, ^nd make out the de- monstration in a more intelligible manner by sensible means, which cannot so well be done by (Tiere reading, even though we should have the same figures lying in a book before our <fyes. A living teacher, therefore, is a most necessary help in these studies.
I might add also, that ever, where the subject of dis- course is moral, logical, or rhetorical, &c. and which does not directly come ur der the notice of our senses, a tutor may exp'ain his ideas by such familiar exam- ples, an-? plain or simple sinr\ilitudes, as seldom find place in books an< witings.
4. When an instructer in his lectures delivers any matter of difficulty, or expresses himself in such a manner as seen's obscure, so that you do not t?»k*- up his ideas clearly or fully, you have opportunity, at least when the lecture is finished, or at other proper sea- sons, to inquire how such a sentence should be under- stood, or how such a difficuUy may be explained and removed.
If there be permission given to free converse with the tutor, either in the midst of the lecture, or rather at the end of it, concerning any doubts or difficulties that occur to the hearer, this brings it very near to conversation or discourse.
«X IMPROVEMBNT COMPARED. 2*?
IV. Conversation is the next method of improve- ■iient, and is attended vviih the following advantages :
1. When we converse familiarly with a learned friend, we have his own help at h; nd to explain to us every word and sentiment that seems obscure in his discourse, and to inform us of his whole meaning, so that we are in much less danger of mistaking his sense ; whereas in books, whatsoever is really obscure, may also ai)ide always obscure without remedv, since the anthoris not at hand, that we may inquire his sense.
If we mistake the meaning of our friend in conver- sation, we are quickly set right again ; but in reading ■we many times go on in the same mistake, and are rot capable of recovering ourselves from it. Thence it comes to pass that we have so many contests in all figes about the meaning of ancient authors, and espe- cially the sacred writers. Happy should we be, could we but converse with Moses, Isaiah and St. Paul,, and consult th? prophets and apvstles. when we meet Avith a difficult text ! But \^\•^t glorious conversation is re- served for the ages of future blessednes*.
2. When we are di^<coursing upon any theme with a friend, we may propose our doubts and objections a- gainst his sentiments, and have them solved and an- swered at once. The difficulties that arise in our minds may be removed l>y one enlightening word of our correspondent ; whereas in reading, if a difficulty or question arise in our thoughts which the author has not happened to mention, ^e must be content without a present answer or solution of it. Books cannot speak.
3. Not only the doubts which arise in the mind upon any subject of discouise are easily proposed and solved in conversation, but the very difficulties we meet with in books and in our private studies may find a relief by friendly conference. We may pore upon a knotty point in solitary medit3tion many months without a so- lution, because perhaps we havp gotten into a wrong track of thought ; and our la!>our (while we h?e pursu- ing a f;ilse scent) is not only useless and unsuccessful, but it leads us perhaps into a long train of error, for want of being corrected in the first step. But if we note down this difficulty when we read it, we may pro- pose it to an ingenious correspondent when we see him ; we may be relieved m a moment, and find the difficulty vanish ; He beholds the object perhaps in a
28 THE FIVE METHOD^
different view, sets it before us in quite another light, leads us at one? ir^to evidence and truth, and that wkli a delightful surprise.
4. Conversaticn calls out into light what has been lodged in all the recesses and secret chambers of the soul ; by occasional hints and incidents, it brings old useful notions into remembrance; it uiiiblds and dis- plays the hidden Treasures of knowledge, with which reading, obs rvation, snd study, ha^t before furnished the mind. By mutual discourse the soul is awakened and allured to bring forth its hoards of knowledge, and it learns how to render them most useful to mankind. A man of vast readiiig, v/ithout conversation, is like a miser who lives only to himself.
5. In free and frieiidiy conversation, our intellectual powers are more animated, and our spirits act with a superiour vigour in the quest and pursuit of unknown truths. There is a sharpness and sagacity of thought that attends conversation, beyond v/b.at we find whilst shut up reading and musin?; in our retirements. Our souls may be seVene in scLtude, but not spark hng, thougU perhaps we are employed in reading the works of tlie brightest writers. Often has it happened in free dis- Gour-^e, that nev/ thosightsare strangely struck out, and the seeds of truth sparkle and blase through the com-, pany, which in calm and silent reading would never have been excited. By conversation yoix will both give and receive this benefit ; as flints when put into motion and striking against each diher, produce living fire on both sides, which would never have arisen from the same hard materials in a state of rest.
6. Li generous conversation, amojigst ingenious and learned men, we have a great advantage of proposing flur private opinions, and of bringing our own sentiments to the test, and learning in a more compendious and a safer way what the world will ji\dge of them, how man- kind will receive them, what objections may be raised against them, what defects there are in our scheme, and how to correct our own mistakes ; which advantage's are not so easy to be obtained by our own private medi- tatiens ; for the pleasure we take in our own nrtinns, and the passion of self-love, as well as tbe narrowness of our views, tempt us to pass too fav^ur^ble an opinion m our own schemes ; whereas the varitty of genius in
OF IMPROVEMENT COMPAREn. 29
our several associates, will give happy notices how our opinions will stand in view of mankind.
7. It IS also another considerable advantage of con- versation, that It furnishes the student,with the knowk dge of men nnd the aff drs of life, as reading furnishes him with b(K)k learning. A man who dwells all his days a- mong books, may have ama-^sed tcgether a vast heap of notions ; but he may be a mere scholar, which is a contempiil)lesortof character in the world. A hermit, who has been shut up in his cell m acollegOv has contrac- ted a sort of mould and rust upon his soul, and all his airs of behaviour have a certain awkwardness in them ; but these awkward airs are worn away by degrees in com- pany ; the rust and the mould are filed and brushed off by polite conversati' n. The scholar now becomes a citi- zen or a gentlv man, a neighbour and a frieud ; he karf^s how to dress liis sentiments in the fairest colours, as well as to set them in the strongest light. Thus he brings out his notions with honour, he makes some use of them m the world, and improves the theory by the practice.
But before we proceed too far in finishing a bright character, by conversation, we should consider tlhiat something else is necessary besides an acquaintance with men and books ; and therefore I add, ^ V. Mere lectures, reading, and conversation, with-t out thinking, are not sufficient to make a man of knowl- edge, and wisdom. It is our own thought and reflection, study and meditation, must attend all the other n)et])odR of improvement, and perfect them. It carries these advantages with it :
1. Though observation and instruction, reading and conversation, may furnish us with many ideas of men and things, yet it is our own meditation, and the labour of our own thoughts, that must form our judgment of things. Our own thoughts should join or disjoin these, ifleas in a proposition for ourselves ; it is our own mind that must judge for ourselves concern' ng the agreement or disagreemeiit of ideas, and form propositions of truth out of them. Reading and conversation may acquaint us witii many tiuths, and with many arguments to sup- port them ; but it is our own study and reasoning that must determine whether these pi*opositions are true, ard whether these argiinients are just and solid.
It is confessed tliere are a thousand things which our eyes have not seen, and which would never come within I>
30 FIVE METHODS OE IMPROVEMENT.
the reach of our personal and immediate knowledge and observ^ation, because of the distance of times and places ; these must be known by consulting other persons, and that is done either in their writings or in their discours- es. But after all. let this be a fixed posnt with us, that it is our own reflection and judgment must determine how far we should receive that which books or men in- form us of, and how far they are worthy of our assent and credit.
2, It is meditation and study that transfers and con- veys the notions and sentiments of others to ourselves, so as to make them properly our own. It is our own judgment upon them as well as our memory of them, that makes them become our own property. It does as it were concoct our intellect jal food, and turns it into a part of ourselves ; just as a man may call his limbs and his flesh his own, whether he borrowed the materials from the ox or the sheep, from the lark or the lobster ; whether he derived it from corn or milk, the fruits of the trees, or the herbs and roots of the earth ; it is all DOW become one substance wi-h himself, and he wields and manages those muscles and limbs for his own proper purposes, which once were the substance cf other ani- mals or vegetables ; that very substance which last week was grazing in the field, or swimming in the sea, waving in the milk pail, or growing in the garden, is now be- come part of the man.
3. By study and meditation we improve the hints that we have acquired by observation, conversation, and readiiig; we take more time in thinking, and by the la- bour of the mind we penetrate deeper into the themes of knowledge, and carry our thoughts soirsetimes much farther on many subjects, than we ever met with, either in the books of the dead, or discourses of the living> It is our own reasoning that draws out one truth from an- other, and forms a whole scheme or science, from a few hints which we borrowed elsewhere.
By a survey of these things we may justly conclude, that he who spends all his time in hearing lectures, or poring upon books, without observation, meditation, or converse, will have but a mere historical knowledge of learning, and be able only to tell what others have known or said on the subject ; he that lets all his time flow away in conversation, without due observation, reading or study, will gala but a slight and superficial knowledge.
RULES ON OBSERVATIOISr. 31
"^irhicli will be in danger of vanishing with the voice K)f the sp<-;aker ; and he that confines himself mertly to Ills closet, and his own narrow observation of things, and is taught only by his own solitary thoughts, without in- struction by lectures, reading, or free conversation, will be in danger of a narrow spirit, a vain conceit of himself, and an unreasonable contempt of others ; and after all, he will obtain but a very limited and imperfect view and khowledge of things, and he will seldom learn how to make that knowledge useful
These five methods of improvement should be pursu- ed jointly, and go hand in band, where our circumstan- ces are so happy as to find opportunity and conveniency to enjoy them all ; though 1 must give my opinion that two of them, \iz. re9.ding and meditation, should employ much more of our time, than public lectures or conver- sation and discourse. As for observation, we may be always acquiring knowledge that way, whether we are alone or in company.
But it will be for our further improvement, if we go over all these five methods of obtaining knowledge more distinctly and more at large, and see what special ad- vances in useful science we may draw from them alL
CHAR III.
Rules relating to Observation.
THOUGH observation, in the strict sense of the word, and as it is distinguished from meditation and study, is the first means rf improvement, and in its strictest sense does not include in it any reasonings of the mind, upon the things which we observe, or infer- ences drawn from them ; yet the m tions of the mind are so exceedingly swift, that it is hardly possible for a thinking man to gain experiences or observations, with- out making srime secret and short reflections upon them ; and therefore, in giving a few dir*ctions concerning this method of improvement, I shall not so narrowly confine myself to the first mere impression of objects on the mind by observation ; but include also some hints Avhich relate to the first, most ^asy, and obvious reflec* tions or reasonings which arise from them.
B2 B.ULi;S RELATING
|. Let the enlargement ot your knowledge be on§ constant view and design in life ; since there is. no time or place, no transactiosiS, occurrences or engagements in life, which excludi s us from this niethotl of improving tiie mind. V/hen we are alone, even in darkness and silence, we may inverse with our own hearts, observe the workings of our own spirits, and reflect upon the in- ward motions o^jur own passions in some of the latest occurrences in lifp ; we may acquaint ourselves with the powers and properties, the tenderxies and inclinations of both body and spirit, and gain a more intimate knowledge of ourselves. Wfien we are in company, we may discover something more of human nature, of human passions and follies, and of human affairs, vices and virtues, by conversing with mankind and observing their conduct. Nor is there any thing more valuable than the knowledge of ourselves,' imd the knowledge of men, except it be the knowledge of God wno made us, and our relation to him as our Governor.
When we are in the house, or the city, wheresoever we turn our eyes, we see the works of men ; when we are abroad in the country, we behold more of the works of God. The skies and the ground above and beneath us, may entertain our observation with ten thousand varieties.'
Endeavour therefore to derive some instruction, or improvement of the mind from every thing which you see or hear, from every thing which occurs in human life, from every thing within you or without you.
Fetch down some knowledge from the clouds, the stars, the sun, the moon, and the revolutions of all the planets ; dig and draw up some valuable meditations from the depths of the earth, and search them through the vast oceans of water ; extract some intellectual im- jjrovements from the minerals and metals ; from the wonders of nature among the vegetables and herbs, trees and fiowers. Learn some lessons from the birds and the beasts, and the meanest insect. Read the wisdom of God, and his admirable contrivahce in them all.— r Read his almighty pc.wer, his rich and various goodness, in all the works of his hands.
From the day and the r.ight, the houVs and the flying minutes learn a wise improvement of time, and be watch- ful to seize eveiy opportunity to increase in knowledge.
From the vicissitudes and revolutions of nations and
TO OBSERVATION. 33
Camilies, and from the various occurrences of the world, learn the instability of mortal affairs, the uncertainty of life, the certainty of death. From a coffin and a funeral, learn to meditate upon your own departure.
From the vices and fellies of others, observe what is hateful in them ; consider how such a practice looks in another person, and remember that it looks as ill or worse in yourself. From the virtue of others, learn something worthy of your imitation.
From the deformity, the distress, or calamity of others derive lessons of thankfulness to God, and hymns of grateful praise to your Creator, Governor.and Benefac- tor, who has formed you in a better mould, and guarded you from those evils. Learn also the sacred lesson of contentment in your own state, and compassion to your ne^hbour under his miseries.
From your natural powers,sensations,judgment,mem- ory, hands, teet, &c. make this inference, that they were not given you for nothing, but for some useful employ- ment to the honour of your Maker, and for the good of your fellow-creatures, as well as for your own best in- terest and final happiness*
From the sorrows, the pains, the sickness, and suf- ferings that attend you, learn the evil of sin, and the im- perfection of your present state. From your own sins and follies learn the patience of God toward you, and the practice of humility toward God and man.
Thus from every appearance in nature, and from ev- ery occurrence of life, you may derive natural, moral, and religious observations to entertain your minds, as well as rules of conduct in the affairs relating to this life, and that which is to come.
II. In order to furnish the mind with a rich variety of ideas, the laudable curiosity of young people should be indulged and gratified rather than discouraged. It is a very hopeful sign in young persons, to see them curious in observing, and inquisitive in searching into the great- est part of things that occur ; nor should such an enquir- ing temper be frowned into silence, nor be rigorously re- strained, but should rather be satisfied by proper answers given to all those queries.
For this reason also, where time and fortune allow it, young people should be led into company at proper sea- sons, should be carried abroad to see the fields and the ■woods, and the rivers, the buildiJigs, towns, and cities D 3
34 RtrLES RELATING
distant from their own dwelling ; they should be enter- tained with the sight of strange birds, beasts, fishes^ in- sects, vegetables, and productions both of nature and art of every kind, whether tliey are the praiucts of their own or foreign nations ; and in due time, where Provi- dence gives opportunity, they may travel under a wise inspector or tutor into different parts of the world for the same end, that they may bring home treasures of useful knowledge.
III. Among all these observations, write down what is most remarkable and uncommon ; reserve these re- marks in store for proper occasions, and at proper sea- sons t: ke a review of them. Such a practice vvill give you a habit of useful thinking ; this will secure the work- ings of your soul from running to waste, and by this means even your looser moments will turn to happy- account both her e and hereafter. And whatever useful observations have been made, let them be at least some part of the subject of your conversation among your triends at next meeting.
Let the circumstances or situations in life be what or where they will, a man should never neglect this im- provement which may be derived from observation. Let him travel into the East or West-Indies, and fulfil the duties of the miUtary or the mercantile life there; let him rove through the earth or the seas for his own humour as a traveller, or pursue his diversions in what part of the world he pleases as a gentleman ; let pros- perons r adverse fortune call him to the most distant parts of the globe ; still let him carry on his knowledge and the improvement of his sduI by wise observations. In due time, b * this means, he may render himself some waj' useful to the societies of mankind.
The bildmo, in his younger years, visited the for- ests of Norway oi- the account of trade and timber, and besides his proper observations on the growth of trees on thosf northern niouiitains, he h arned there WriS a sort of people cat led Fiiis,in those confines which border upon Sweden, whose i)abitation is in the woods; and he lived af erwards to give a good account of thei'.i, and some of their c; stems, to th* Royal Society , for the. improvement of natural knowledge. PuteoU w;ts taken captive in- to Turkey in his youth, and travelled with hismaste. in their holy pilgrimage to Mecca, wh-reby he became more intelligent m the forms, ceremonies,' and fooleries
TO OBSERVATION, So
of the Mahometan v/orship, than perhaps ever any Brit- on knew l)etore ; and by his manuscripts we are more acquainted in this last century with the Turkish sacreds, than any one had ever informed us.
IV. Let us keep our minds as free as possible from passions and prejudices, for these will give a wrong turn to our obsei-vations both on persons and things. The eyes of a man in the jaundice make yellow observations on every thing ; and the soul tinctured with any pas- sion or prejudice, diffuses a false colour over the real appearances of things, and disguises many of the com- mon occurrences of life; it never beholds things in a true liglit, nor suffers them to appear as they are. When- soever, therefore, you would make proper observations, let self, with all its influences, stand aside as far as pos- sible ; abstract your own interest and your oAvn concern from them, and bid all friendships and enmities stand aloot and keep out of th? way, in the observations that you make relating to persons and things.
If this rule were well obeyed, we should be much bet- ter guarded against those common pieces of misconduct in the observations of men, viz. the false judgments of pride and envy. How ready is envy to mingle with the notices which we take of other persons I How often is mankind prone to put an ill sense upon the actions of their neighbours, to take a survey of them in an evil po- sition, and in an unhappy light ! And by thjs means we form a worse opinion of our neighbours than they de- se ve ; while at the same time pride and self flattery tempt us to m^ke unjust observations on ourselves in our own favour. In all the favourable judgments we pass concerning ourselves, we should allow a little abatement on this account.
V. In making your observations on persons, take care of indulging that busy curiosity which is ever inquiring into private and domestic affairs, with an endless itch of learning the secret history of families. It is but sel- dom that such a prying curiosity attains any valuable end : It often begets suspicions, jealousies, and disturb- ances in households, and it is a frequent temptation to persons to defame \he\v neighbours. Some persons can- not help telling what they know ; a busy body is most liable to become a tattler upon every occasion.
VI. Let your observation, even of persons and their conduct, be chiefly designed hi order to lead you to {j.
36 RULES ON OBSERVATION.
better acquaintance with things, particularly with hu- man nature; and to inform you what to imitate and what to avoid, rather than to furnish out matter for the evil passions of the mind, or the impertinences of dis- course, and reproaches of the tongue.
VII. Though it may be proper sometimes to make your observations concerning persons as well as things, the subject of your discourse in learned or useful con- versations ; yet what remarks you make on particular persons, especially to their disadvantage, should for the most part lie hid in your own breast, till some just and apparent occasion, some necessary call of Providence, leads you to speak to them.
If the character or conduct which you observe be
featly culpable, it should so much the less be published, ou may treasure up such remarks of the follies, inde- cencies, or vices of your neighbours, as may be a constant guard against your practice of the same, without expos- ing the reputation of your neighbour on that account. It is a good old rule, that cur conversation should rather be laid out on things than on persons ; and this rule should generally be observed,unless names be concealed,where- soever the faults or follies of mankind are our present theme.
Our late Archbishop Tillotson has written a small, but excellent disccurse on evil ^peaking, wherein he admi- rably explains, limits, and applies that general apostolic precept, Sfieak evil of no man. Titus iii. 2.
VIII. Be not too hasty to e)'ect general theories from a few particular observations, appearances, or experir ments. This is what the logicians call a false induction.- When general observations are drawn from S(' many particulars as to become certain and indubitable, these are jewels of knowledge, comprehending great treasure in a little room ; but they are therefore to' be made with the gre -ter care and caution, lest errors become large and diffusive, if we should mistake in these general notions.
A hasty determination of some universal principles, without a due survey of all the particular cases »vliich may be included in them, is the way to lay a trap for our own understandings, in their pursuit of any subject, 3nd we shall often be taken captives into mistake and falsehood. Niveo in his youth observed, that on three Pyrigtmas days together there fell a good quantity of
OE BOOKS AND READING. ^7
<$now, and now hath wnt it f'own in his Almfinaclc, as a part of his wise remat ks on the weathei , that it will al- "wavs snow at Christmns, Eui'on, u young lad. tcx.k no- tice ten times, that there w^'.s a sharp frost when the wind was in the north east, theiefore in the middle of'ast July he almost expected it should freeze, b<:cause tlie weathercock showed him a nnrth east wind ; and he was still mote d'sappoint.ed, wh- n he found it a very sul- try season. It is the same hasty jv'dgn.ent th;>t hath thrown scandal .>n a whole natirm for the sake of some culpable characters behinging to several particular na- tives of that country ; where^is all the Frenchmen are not gav and airy ; all the Italians are net jealous and revenejeful ; uor are all the English overrun with the. spleen.
CHAP. IV.
Of Books and R ading.
L THE world is full of books, but there are multi- tudes which ace so ill written, ihey were never worth any man's re;-ding; and there are thousands more "Which mav be good in their kind, vet are worth noth- ing when the month or year or occasion is past for ■which they were written. Others may be valuable in themselves, for some special purpose, or in some pecu- liar science, but are not fit t-. be perused by any but those who i^re engaged in that particular science or business. To wh it use is it tor a divine, or physician, or a tradesnran, to read over the huge voiumes of re-
{)ovts of judged cases in the law ?. Or for a lawyer to earn Hebrew ar*d read the Ral-bins ? It is of vast ad- vantage for improvement of knowledge and saving time, for a young man to have th- njnst proper books for his reading lecommended bv a judicious friend.
II. Books of importance oi any kind, and especially complete treatis s on any subjtct, should be first read in a more general 'ind cursory m-mner, to learn a little what the treatise promises, and what you miy expect from the waiter's manner and skill. A»kI for this end I would advisr- alwavs that the pn-fare be read, and a survty taktn of the Mble of contents, if there be one, before the first survey of the book. By this means you
38 OS BOOSS AND READING.
will not only be better fitted to give the book the first reading, but you will be nnuch assisted in your second perusal of it, which should be done with greater atten- tion and deliberate ,n, and you will learn with n^ore ease and readiness what the author pretends to teach. In your reading, mark what is new or unknown to you be- fore, and review those chapters, pages, or paragraphs, ynless a reader has an uncommon and most retentive memory, I may venture to c-.fl5rm, that there is scree any book or chapter worth reading once that is not worthy of a second perusal : At least to take a careful review of all the lines or paragraphs which you mark- ed, and make a recollection of the sections which you thought truly valuable.
There is another reason also why I would choose to take a superficial and cursoiy survey of a book, before I sit down to read it, and dwell upon it with studious at- tention ; and that is, there may be several difficulties in it which we cannot easily understand and conquer at the first reading, for want of a fuller comprehension of the author's whole scheme. And therefore, ir such treatises, we should not stay till we master every dif- ficulty at the first perusal ; tor perhaps many of these would appear to be solved when we have proceeded further in that book, or would vanish of themselves upon a second reading.
What we cannot reach and penetrate at first, may be noted down as matter of after consideration and in- quiry, if the pages that follov/ do not happen to strike a complete light on those which went before
III. If three or four persons agree to read the samfe book, and each bring his own remarks upon it at some set hours appointed for conversation, aud they com- inunicatc mutually their sentiments on the subject, and debate about it in a friendly manner, this practice will render the reading any author more abundantly bene- ficial to every one of them.
IV, If several persons engaged in the same study, take into their h^^nds distinct treatises on one subject, and appoint a season of communication once a week, they may inform each other in a brief manner concern- ing the sense, sentiments, ,and method of those several authors, and thereby proimote each other's improve- ment, either by recommending the perusal of the same book to their companions, or perhaps by satisfying their
«F BOOK^ AND READING. S9
inquiries concerning it by conversation, without CTcry one's perusing it.
V. Remember that your business in reading or in conversation, especially on subjects of natural, moral, or divine science, is not mereiy to know the opinion of the author or speaker, for this is but the mere knowledge of history ; but your chief business is to consider wheth- er their opinions are right or not, and to improve your own solid knowledge on that subject by meditation on the themes of their writing or discourse. Deal freely with every author you read, and yield up your assent only to evidence and just reasoning on the subject.
Here I would be understood to speak only of human authors, and not of the sacred and inspired writings. In these our business is only to find out the true sense and understand the true meaning of the paragraphand page, and our assent then is bound to follow when we are be- fore satisfied that the writing is divine. Yet I might add also that ^ven this is sufficient evidence to demand our assent.
But in the composures of men, remember you are st man as well as they ; and it is not their reason but your own that is given to guide you when you arrive at years of discretion, of manly age and judgment.
VI. Let this therefore be your practice, especially after you have gone through one course of any science in your academical studies ; if a writer on that subject maintains the same sentiments as you do, yet if he does not explain his ideas or prove the positions well, mark the faults or defects, and endeavour to do it better, either in the margin of your book, or rather in some pa- pers of your own, or at least let it be done in your pri- vate meditations. — As for instance :
Where the author is obscure, enlighten him ; where he is imperfect, supply his deficiencies ; where he is too brief and concise, amplify a little, and set his notions in a fairer view ; where he is redundant, mark those para^ graphs to be retrenched ; when he trifles and grows im- pertinent, abandon those passages or pages ; where he argues, observe whether his reasons be conclusive ; if the conclusion be true, and yet the argument weak, en- deavour to confirm it by better proofs ; where he de- rives or infers any propositions darkly or doubtfully, make the justice of the inference appear, and add fur- ther nifer«nces or corollaries, if such occur to your mind;
40 01* BOOKS AND READING.
where you suppose he is in a mistake, propose your ob- jections and correct his sentiments ; what he writes so well as to approve itself to your judgment, both as just and useful, treasure it up in your memory, and count it a part of your intellectual gains.
N< te. — Many of these same directions which I have now given, may be practised with regard to conversa- tion, as well as reading, in order to render it useful in the most extensive and lasting manner.
VII. Other things also of the like nature may be usefully practised with regard to the authors which you read, viz. If the method of a book be irregular, retjuce it into form by a little analysis of your own, or by hints in the margin; if those "things are heaped together which should be separated, you may wisely distinguish and divide them ; if several things relating to the same subject are scattered up and down separately through the'treatise, you may bring them all to one view by ref- erences ; or if the matter of a book be really valuable and deserving, you may throw it into a better method, reduce it to a more logical scheme, or abridge it into a lesser form ; all these practices will have a tendency to advance vcur skill both in logic and niethod, to im- prove your judgment in general, and to give you a fuller survey of that subject in particular. When you have finished the treavise with all your observations upon it, recollect and determine what real improvements you have made bv readmg that author.
VIII. If a book has no index to it, or good table of contents, it is very useful to make one as yt;u are read- Big it; not with that exactness as to include the sense ot every page and paragraph, which should be done if you designed to print it'; but it is sufficient in your in- dex to take notice only of those parts of the book which are new to you, or v/hich you think well written, and worthy of your remembrance or review.
Shall I be so free as to assure my younger friends, from my own experience, that these methoiis of read- ing will cost some pains in the first years of your study, and especially in the first authors which you peruse in a^iy science, or on any particular subject ; but the pro- fit will richly compensate the pains. And in the fol- lowing years of life, after you have read a few valua- ble books on any special subject in this manner, it will be very easy to yead others of the same kind, because
OF BOOKS ANO READING. 41
you will not usually find very much new matter in thenn which you have not already examined.
IX. If the writer be remarkable for any peculiar ex- cellencies or defects in his style or manner of writing, make just observations upon this also ; and whatsoever ornaments you find there, or whatsoever blemishes oc- cur in the language or manner of the writer, you may make just remarks upon them. And remember, that one book read over in this manner, with all this labori- ous meditation, will tend more to enrich your under- standing, than the skimming over the surface of twenty- authors.
X. By perusing books in the manner I have de- scribed, you will make all your reading subservient, not only to the enlargement of your treasures of knowledge, but also to the improvement of your reasoning powers.
There are many who read with coustancy and dili- gence, and yet make no advances in true knowledges by it. They are delighted with the notions which they read or hear, as they would be with stories that are told ; but they do not weigh them in their minds as in a just balance, in order to determine their truth or false- hood ; they make no observations upon them, or infer-, ences from them. Perhaps their eye slides over thej
{)ages, or the words slide over their ears, and vanish, ike a rhapsody of evening tales, or the shadows of a cloud flying over a green field in a summer's day.
Or if they review them sufficiently, to fix them in their remembrance, it is merely with the design to tell the tale over again, and show what men of learning they are. Thus they dream out their days in a course of reading without real advantage. As a man may be eating all day, and for want of digestion is never nour- ished ; so these endless readers may cram themselves in vain with intellectual food, and without real improve- ment of their minds, for want of digesting it by proper reflections.
XI. Be diligent therefore in observing these direc- tions: Enter into the 'sense and arguments of the au- thors you read, examine all their proofs, and then judge of the truth or falsehood of their opinions ; and thereby you shall not only gain a rich increase of your under- standing, by those truths which tlife author teaches, when you see them well supported, but you shall ac- quire also by degrees, an habit of judging justly, and of
E
42 &E BOOKS JLI7D REABIN^C.
reasoning well, in imitation of the good writer whose i works you peruse. j
This is laborious indeed, and the mind is backward i to undergo the fatigue of weighing every argument and tracing every thing to its original. It is much less la- bour to take all thmgs upon trust; believing is much easier than arguing; But when Studentio had once persuaded his mind to tie itself down to this method which 1 have prescribed, he sensiijly gained an admi- rable facility to read, and judge of what he read, by hisd^Ly practice of it» and the man made large advan- ces in the pursuit of truth ; while Plumbiims and Plu-^ meo made less progress in. knowledge, though they had read over more folios. Plumeo skimmed over the pa-
fes like a swallow over the flowtry meads in May. 'lumbinus read every line and syllable, but did not give himselt the trouble of thinking and judging about them,. They both could boast in company of their great read- ing, for they knew more titles and pages timriStudere- tio, but were far less acquainted with science.
I confess those whose reading is designed only to fit them for much talk and little knowledge, may content themselves to run over their authors in such a sudden and trifling way; they may devour libraries in this manner, ye» be poor reasoners at last^ and have no sol- id wisdom or true learning. The traveller who walks on fair and softly in a course that points right, and ex- amines evei7 turning before he ventures upt-n it, will come sooner and sater to his journey's end, than he who runs tlirough every lane he meets, though he gall jps fuij speed all the day. The man of much reading and a large retentive memory, but without meditation, may- become in the sense of the world a knowing man ; and- if he converse much with the ancients, he may attain! the fame of learning too ; but he spends his days afar off from wisdom and true judgment, and'possesses very little of the substantial' riches of the mind
XII. Never apply yourselves to read any human au- thor with a determination beforehand either for or a- ^aiiist him, or with a settled resolution to believe or disl^elieve, to confirm or to oppose whatsoever he saith ; but always read with a design to lay your mind open to truth, and to embrace it wheresoever you find it, as well as to reject every falsehood, though it appear un- der ever so fair a disguise. How unhappy are those men
Q-E ^OOKS AND REAmNG. 4S
who seldom take an atithor into their hands but they have determined b' f«^re ttiey begin whether they will like or dishke him ! They have got some notion of his name, his charncter, his p^'ty, or his principles, by general conversation, or perhaps by some slight view of a few pages ; and hav ing all their own opinions ad- justed beforehand, they read all th-^t he writes with a prepossession either for or against him. Unhappy those who hunt and purvey for a party, and scrape to- gether out of every author, all those things, and those only, wiiich favour their own tenets, while they despise and neglect all the rest,
XIII. Yet take this cAation. I would not be under- stood herc as though I persuaded a person to live with- out any settled principles at all, by which to judge of men, and books and thit>gs ; or that I would keep a man always doubtisig about his fouiidations. The chief things that I design In this advice are these three :
1 . That after our most necessary and important prin- ciples of science, prudence, and religi'm, are settled up- on good grouiids, with regard to our present conduct and our future hopes, we should read with a just freedom of thought ail th( se books which treat of such subjects as may admit of doubt ami reasonable dispute. Nor should any of our opinions be so resolved upon, especially in younger years, as never to hear or to bear an opposi- tion ti- them.
2. When we peruse tiiose. authors who defend our own settled s<^ntim«nts, we should not take all their ar- guments for just and solid ; but we should make a wise distinctiou between the corn and the chaff, between solid reasoning and the mere superficial colours of it; nor sh( uld we readily jiwallow df^wn all their lesser opinions, because we agi'Cf- with them in the gi^uter.
3. That whei we read thuse i uthors which oppose our most certain and estab'ished pris.ciples, we thould be ready to receive any informations- froni them in other points, and not abandon at oncf every thi.g they say^ though wt are well fixed in our opposition to their main point of argunig.
Fas estf et ab hoste docerL......\irg.
Seize upon, truth where'er 'tis found,
An.on^st your fntiids, amongst your foes. On Chrht/an i.r on Htatheti ground;
Tht flowtr's divine wlitre'er it grows :
Xcglect the prickles, and assume tl>e wsd.
44 OI BOOKS AND READING,
XIV. What I have said hitherto on this subject re- lating to books and reading, must be chiefly understood of that sort of books, and those hours of our reading and study, whereby we design to improve the intellectual powers of the mind with natural, moral, or divine know- ledge. As for those treatises which are written to direct or to enforce and persuade our practice, there is one thing further necessary ; and that is, that when our consci- ences are convinced that these rules of prudence or duty belong to us, and require our conformity to them, we should then call ourselves to account, and inquire se^ riously whether we have put them in practice or not; ■we should dwell upon the arguments, and impress the motives and methods of persuasion upon our own hearts, till we feel the force and power of them inclining us to the practice of the things which are there recommended.
If folly or vice be represented in its open colours, or its secret disguises, let us search our hearts, and review our lives, and inquire how far we are criminal : Nor should we ever think we have done with the treatise till we tieel ourselves in sorrow for our past misconduct, and aspir- ing after a victory over those vices, or till we find a cure of those tollies begun to be wrought upon our souls.
In all our stiidies and pursuits of knowledge, let us remember that virtue and vice, sin and holiness, and the conformation of our hearts and lives to the duties of true religion and moi'ality, are things of far more consequence than all the furniture of our understanding, and the rich^ est treasures of mere speculative knowledge ; and that because they have a more immediate and effectual influ- ence upon our eternal fe'icity or eternal sorrow.
XV. There is yet another sor t of books, of which it is proper I should say something while I am treating oci this subject ; and these are, history, poesy, travels, books of diversion or amusement; among which we may rec- kon also, little common pamphlets, newspapers, or such like ; for many of these I confess once reading may be Sufficient, where there is a tolerable good memory.
Or when several persons are in company, and onp reads to the rest such sort of writings, once hearing may be sufiBcient, provided that every one be so attentive, and so free as to make their occasional remarks on such lines or sentences, such periods or paragraphs, as in their opinion deserve it. Now all those paragraphs or sentiments deserve a remark, which are new and un- common, are noble and excellent for the matter of them,
OF BOOKS ANS^READING. 45
arc strongj and convincmg for the argument contained in them, are beautiful and elegant for the language or the manner, or any way worthy of a second rehearsal; and at the request of any of the company, let those para- graphs be read over again.
Such parts also of these writings as may happen to be remarkably stupid or silly, false or mistaken, should become subjects of an occasional criticism, made by some of the company ; and ttiis may give occasion to the repetition of them for the confirmation of the censure, for amusement or diversion.
Still let it be remembered, that where the historical narration is of considerable moment, where the poesy» oratory, &c. shine with some degrees of perfection and glory, a single reading is neither sufficient to satisfy a mind that has a true taste for this sort of writings, nor can we make the tullest and best improvement of tliem without proper reviews, and that in our retirement as well as in company. Who is there that has any goQt for polite writincjs, that would be sufficiently satisfied with hearing the beautiful pages of Steele or Addison, the admirable descriptions of Virgil or Milton, or some of the finest poems of Pope, Voting, or Dryden, once read over to them, and then lay them by forever ?
XVI. Amongst these writings of the latter kind, we may justly reckon short miscellaneous essays on all man- ner of subjects ; such as the Occasional Papers, the Tat- lers, the Spectators, and some other books that have been compiled out of the weekly or daily products of the press, wherein are cont Aned a great number of brighi thoughts, ingo-nious remarks, and admirable ob- servations, which have had a considerable share in fur- nishiii^ the present age with knowledge and politeness. I wish every paper ^mong these writings could have been recommended both as innocent and useful. 1 wish every unseemly irlea, and wanton expression had been banished from amongst them, and every trifling page had b-'en excluded from the company of the rest when they had been bound up in volumes. But it is not to be expected, in so imperfect a state, that every page or piec of such mixed public papers should be entirely blameless and laudable. Yet in the main it must be con- fessed, there is so much virtue, prudence, ingenuity and goodness in them, especially in eight volumes of Specta- tors, there is such a reverence of things sacred, so many E 2
46. O? BOOKS AND READING.
valuable remarks for our conduct in life, that they are not improper to lie in parlours, or summer houses, or places of usual residence, to entertain our thoughts in any moments of leisure, or vacant hours that occur. There is such a discovery of the follies, iniquities, and , fashionable vices d jnaokiud contained in them, that <; -we may learn much of the humours and madnesses of the age, and the public world, in our own solitary retire- ment, without the danger of frequenting vicious com- pany, or receiving the mortal infection,
XVII. Among other books which are proper and re- quisite, in order to improve our knowledge in general, or our acquaintance with any particular science, it is siecessary that we should be furnished with Vocabula- ries and Dictionaries of several sorts, viz. of common •words, idioms, and phrases, in order to explain their sense ; of technical words or the terms of art, to show their use in arts and sciences ; of names of men, coun- tries, towns, rivers, &c. which are called historical and geographical dictionaries, &c. These are to be consult- ed and used upon eyery occasion ; and never let an un- known word pass in your reading, without seeking for ( its sense and meaning in seme of these writers. ,
If such books are not at hand, you must supply th^ want of them, as well as you can, by consulting such as can inform you ; and it is useful to note down the mat» ters of doubt and inquiry in some pocket book, and take the first opportunity to get them resolved, either by per- sons fv books, when we meet with them.
XVIII. Be not satisfied with a mere knowledge of the best authors that treat of any subject, instead of ac- quainting yourselves thoroughly with the subject itself. There is many a young student that is fond of enlarging his knowledge of boo^s, and he contents himself with the notice he has of their title page, which is the attain- ment of a bookseller rather than a scholar. Such per- sons are under a great temptation to practise these two follies. (1.) To heap up a great number of books, at a greater expense than most of them can bear, and to fur- nish their libraries infinitely better than their understand- ings. And (2.) when they have gotten such rich treas- ures of knowledge upon their shelves, they imagine themselves men of learning, and take a pride in talking of the names of famous authors, and the subjects of which they treat, without any real improvenient of their, c^n minds in true science or wisdom. At best theii^v
jrDGMENT OF BOOKS. ^7
learning reaches no farther than the indexes and tables of contents, while they know rot how to judge or reason concerning the matters contained in those authors.
And indeed how many volumes of learning soever a man possesses, he is still deplorably poor in his under- standing, till he has made those several parts of learning his own property, by reading and reasoning, by judging for himself, and remembering what he has read.
CHAP. V.
Judgment of Books'.
I. IF we -would form a judgment of a book which we have not seen before, the hrst thing that offers is the title page, and we may sometimes guess a little at the import and design di a book thereby ; though it must be confessed that titles are often deceitful, and promise more than the book performs. The author's name, if it be known in the world, may help us to con- jecture at the performance a little more, and lead us to guess in what manner it is done. A perusal of the preface or introduction (which I before recommended) may further assist our judgment ; and if there be an in- dex of the contents, it will give us still some advancing light.
If we have not leisure or inclination to read over the book itself regularly, then by the titles of chapters we may be directed to' peruse several particular chapters or sections, and observe whether there be any thing val- uable or important in them. We shall find hereby, whether the author explains his ideas clearly, whether he reasons strongly, whether he methodizes well, whether his thoughts and sense be manly, and his man- ner polite ; or, on the other hand, whether he be ob- scure, weak, trifling and confused ; or finally, whether the matter may not be solid and substantial, though the style and manner be rude and disagreeable.
II. By having run through several chapters and sections in this manner, we may generally judge wheth- er the treatise be worth a complete perusal or not. But if by such an occasional survey of some chapters, our expectation be utterly discouraged, we may well lay aside that book ; for there is great probability he can
48 jrVSGMEN^T OF BOOKS*
be but an indifferent writer on that subject, if he affords but one prize to divers blanks, and it may be some downright blots too. The piece can hardly be valuable, if, in seven or eight chapters which we peruse, there be but little truth, evidence, force of reasoning, beauty, and ingenuity of thought, &c. mingled with murh er- ror, ignorance, impertinence, dullness, mean and com- mon thoughts, inaccuracy, sophistry, railing, &c. Life is too short and time is too precious, to read every new book quite over, in order to find that it is not worth reading.
III. There are some general mistakes which per- sons are frequently guilty of in passing a judgment on the books which they read.
One is this; when a treatise is written but tolerably well, we are ready to pass a favourable judgment of it, and sometimes to exalt its character far beyond its merit, if it agree with our own principles, and support the opinions of our party. On the other hand, if the author be of differeit sentiments, and espouse contrary principles, we can find neither wit nor reason, good sense nor good language in it. Whereas, alas I if our opinions of things were certain and infallible truth* yet a silly author may draw his pen in the defence of them, and he may attack even gross errors with feeble and ridiculous arguments. Truth in this world is not al- ways attended and supported by the wisest and safest methods ; and error, though it can never be maintain- ed by just reasoning, yet may be artfully covered and defended ; an ingenious writer may put excellent col- ours upon his own mistakes. Some Socinians who deny the atonement of Christ, have written well, and with much appearance of argument for their own unsrriptU' ral sentiments, and some writers for the Trinity and satisfaction of Christ, have exposed themselves and the sacred doctrine, by their feeble and foolish manner of handling it. Books are never to be judged of merely by their subject, or the opinion they represent, but by the justness ot their sertiments, the beauty ot their manner, the force of their expre<<sion ; or the strength of reas>on, and the weight ot just and proper argument which ap- pears in them.
But this folly and weakness of trifling instead of argu- ing does not happen tu fall only tcthe share of Christian writers ; there are some who have taken the pea ix|
JUDGMENT OF BOOKS. « 49
hand to support the deistical or antichristian scheme of our days, who make big pretences to reason upon all occasions, but seem to have left it all behind them when they are jesting with the Bible, and grinning at the books which we call sacred. Some of these performances would scarcely have been thought tolerable if they had not assaulted the Christian fnith, though they are now- grown up to a place amongst the admired pens. I much question whether several of the rhapsodies called the Characteristics, would ever have survived the first edi- tion, if they had not discovered so strong a tinfcture of infidelity, and now and then cast out a profane sneer at our holy religion. I have sometimes indeed been ready to wonder how a book in the main so loosely written, should ever obtain somnny readers among men of sense. Surely they must be conscious in ihe peiusal, that some- times a patrician may write as idle as a man of plebeian rank, and trifle as much as an old schoolman, though it is in another form. I am forced to say, there are few books that ever I read, which made any pretences to a great genius, from which I derived so little valuable knowledge as from these treatises. There is indeed amongst them a Uvely pertness, a parade of literature, and much of what some folks now-a-days call politeness, but it is hard that we should be bound to admire all the reveries of this author, under the penalty of being unfashionable.
IV, Another mistake which some persons fall into is this : When they read a treatise on a subject with which they have but little acquaintance, they find almost eve- ry thing n«w and strange to them, their understandings are greatly entertained and improved by the occurrence of many things which were unknown to them before, they admire the treatise, and commend the author at once ; whereas if they had but attained a good degree of skill in that science, perhaps they would find that the author had written very poorly, that neither his sense nor his method was just and proper, and that he had nothing in him but what was very common or trivial in his discourses on that subject.
Hence it comes to pass that Carlo and Faber, who were both bred up to labour, and unacquainted with the sciences, shall admire one of the weekly papers, or ^ little pamphlet, that talks pertly on some critical or learned th^me^ because the matter is all strange and
30 JtDGMEWT OP BOOKS.
new to them, and they join to extol the writer to the skit* s ; and for the same reason a young academic shall dwell upon a Journal or an Observator that treats of trade and politics in a dictatorial style, and shall be lavish in the praise of the author ; while at the same time p)ersons well skilled in tho<;e different subjects hear the impertinent tattle with a just contempt; for they faiow how weak and awkward many of those little di- minutive discourses are ; and that those very papers of science, politics or trade, wiiich were so much admired by the ignorant, are perhaps but very mean perform- ances ; though it must also be confessed there are some excellent essays in those papers, and that upon science as well as trade.
V. But there is a danger of mistake in our judgment of bo^ks on the other hand also; for when we have made ourselves masters of any particular theme of knowledge, and surveyed it long on all sides, there is perhaps scarcely any writer on that subject who much entertains and pleases us afterwards, because we find little or nothing new in him ; and vet in a true judg- ment perhaps his sentiments are most proper and just, his explication clear, and his reasonings strong, and all the parts of the discourse are well connected and set in a happy light ; but we knew most of those things Ije- fore, and therefore they strike us not, and we are in danger of discommending them.
Thus the learned and the unlearned have their sev- eral distinct dangers and prejudices ready to attend them in their judgment of the writings of men. These which I have mentioned are a specimen of them, and indeed but a mere specimen ; for the prejudices that %varp our judgment aside from truth are almost infinite and endless.
VI. Yet I c^Jinot forbear to point out two or three more of these foUies, that I may attempt something to- wards the correction of them, or at least to guard others against them.
There are some persons of a forward and lively tem- per, and who are fond to intermeddle with all appear- ances of knowledge, will give their judgment on a book as soon as the title of it is mentioned, foV they would not willingly seem ignorant of any thing that others know. And especiall) if they happen to have any superior character or possessions of this world, they fancy tliey
JtrDdMENT 09 BOOKS. i»l
have a right to talk freely upon every thing that stirs or appears, though they have no other pretence to this freedom. Divito is worth forty thousand pounds: Poli- tulus is a fine young gentleman, who sparkles in all the shining things of dress and equipage : Aulinus is a small attendant on a minister of state, and is at court almost every day. These three happened to meet in a visit, where an excelliint book of warm and refintd devotions lay in the windo.v : What dull stuff is here ? says Divi- to"; I never read so much nonsense in one page in my life, nor would I give a shilling for a thousand such trea- tises. Aulinus, though a couriier, and not used to speak roughly, yet would not allow there was a line of good sense in the book, and pronounced him a madman that wrote it in his secret retirement, and declared him a fool that published it after his death. Politulus had more manners than to differ from men of sueh rank and character, and therefore he sneered at the devout ex- pressions as he heard them read, and made the divine treatise a matter of scorn and ridicule ; and yet it was well known that neither this fine gentlenian, nor the courtier, nor the man of wealth, had a grain of devotion in them beyond their horses that waited at the door with their gilded chariots. But this is the way of the world ; blind men will talk of the beauty of colours, and of the harmony or disproportion of figures in painting; the deaf will prate of discords in raui>ic ; and those who have nothing to do with religion will arraign the best treatise on divine subjects, though they do not under* stand the very i. nguage of the scripi:ure,nor the cont- mon terms or phrases used in Christianity.
VII. I might here name another. sort of judges, who will set themselves up to decide in favour of an author, or will pronounce him a mere blunderer, according to the company they have kept, uid the judgment they have heard passed upon a book by othei*s ot their own stamp or size, though they have no knowledge or taste of the subject themselves. These with a fluent and vol- uble tongue become mere echoes of the praises or cen- sures of other men. Sonillus happened to be in the room where the three gentlemen just mentioned gave out their thoughts so fref^ly upon an admirable book of devotion ; and two days afterwards he met with some friends of his where this book w is the subject of conver- sation and praise. Sonillus wondered at their dulness.
52 7DDGMEMT OB BOOKS.
and repeated the jests which he had heard cast upon the weakness of the author. His knowledge of the book and his decision upon it was all from hearsay, for he had never seen it, and if he had read it through he had no manner of right to judge about the things of religion, having no more knowledge or taste of any thing ot in- ward piety, than a hedgehog or a bear has of politeness.
When I hid written these remarks, Probus, who knew all the four gentlemen, wished they might have an opportunity to read their own character as it is repre- sented here. Alas ! Probus, I fear it would do them very little good, though it may guard others against their fol- ly, for there is never a one of them would find their own name in these characters if they read them, though all their acquaintaiice would acknowledge the features im- mediately.and see the persons altno'st alive in the picture.
VIII. There is yet another mischievous principle ■which prevails among some persons in passing a judg- ment on the writings of others, and that is, when from the secret stimulations of vanity, pride or envy, they des- pise a valuable book, and throw contempt upon it by wholesale ; and if you ask them the reason of their se- vere censure, they will tell you perhaps that they have found a mistatae or two in it, or there are a few senti- ments or expressions not suited to their tooth and hu- mour. Bavius cries down an admirable treatise of phi- losophy, and says there is Atheism m it, because there are a few sentences that seem to suppose brutes to be mere machines. Under the same influence, Momus will not allow Paradise Lost to be at eood poem, because he had read some flat and heavy hnes in it, and he thought Milton had too much honour done him. It is a paltry humour that inclines a man to rail at any human performance because it is not absolutely perfect. Hor- ace would give us a better example.
Sunf delicto temen quibus nos ignovbtse velimus., Namneque chorda sonum reddit quern vult manuf et menesi 2fcc semper feriet quodcunqxze ininabitur arc us:
Verwn uH plum nitent in carmine, ntSn ego paucis
Ojff'endar maculis, quas aut incuria Judit,
Ant liumarta parum caxnt natura Hot. de Art. Poet.
THUS mAdE ENGLISH.
Be not too rigidly ccDSoiious :
A string may jar in the best roaster's Land,
And the most skilful archer miss his aim:
So in a poem elegantly writ
I \\i\{ not quarrel wiiii a small mistake,
Su«h as our nature's fiailty n ay excusc........<.iJwi'onjwjc??
JUDGMENT OF BOOKS^ 53
'fhis noble translator of Horace, whom I here cite, has a very honourable opinion ot Homer in the main, yet he allows him to be justly censured for some grosser spots and blemishes in him.
For who without aversion ever look'd On holy lE^ai-bage, though by Homer cook'd, Whose i-aihng nerofcs and whose wounded gods Make some suspect he snores as well as nuds.
Such wise and just distinctjoi^s ughtto ')e made wh«n ■we p.iss a judgment on mortal thuigs, but envy condemn^ by wholesale. Envy is a cursed plaut ; some fibres of it are rooted almost in every man's nature, and it works in a sly and imperceptible manner, and that even i») some persons who in the main are men of wisdom and piety. They know not how to bear the praises that are given to an ingenious author, esp^ cially if he be living and of their profession, and therefore they will, if possible , find some blemish in his writings, that they may nibble and b.irk at it. They will endeavour to diminish the honour of the best treatise that has been wriittn on any subject, and to render it useless by their cerisur^s, rather than suffer their envy to lie asleep, and the little mistakes of that author to" pass unexposed. Perhaps they will commend the work in general with a pretended air of candour, but pass so many sly and invidious remarks upon it afterwards, as shall etJectually destroy all their cold and formal praises.*
IX. When a person feels any thing of this invidious humour working in him, he may b)^ the following consid- eration attempt the correction of it. Let him think with himself how many are the beauties of such an au- tkor whom he censures in comparison of his blemishes, SMd remeniber that it is a much more honourable and goocl-natured thing to find out peculiar beauties than Faults: True and undisguised candour is a much more amiable and divine talent than accusation. Let him re- flect again, what an easy matter it is to find a mistake in all human authors, who are necessarily fallible and imperfect.
1 confess where an author sets up himself to ridicule
• I grant when wisdom itselfcensures a weak and foolish performance, U will pass its severe sentence, and yet with an air of candour, if the au- thor has any thing valual>le in him : But envy will sometimes imitate tlie same favoui-able airs, in order to make its false cavils appear more just and credible, when it has a mind u» snarl at some of the brightest per- formances.of a human writer.
F
64 JUDGMENT OE BOOKS.
divine writers arul things sacred, and yet assumes an air ot" sovereignty aud dictatorship, to exalt and almost deif)^ all the Pagan ancients, and cast his scorn upon all the moderns, especially if they do but savour of miracles and the gospel, it is fit the admirers of this author should know, that iiature and these ancients are n'^t the same, though some writers always unite them. Reason and nature never made these ancient Heathens their stand- ani, either of art or genius, of writing or heroism* Sir Richard Steele, in his little Essay, called the Christia« Hero, has shewn our Saviour and St P-iul in a more glo»- riyus and transcendent light, than a Vir^ii or a Homer could do for their Achilles, Ulysses, or ^neas ; and I am persuaded, if Moses and David hatl not been inspir- ed writers, these very men would have ranked them at least with Herodotus and Hora,ce, if not given them the superior place.
But where an author has many beauties consistent with virtue, piety arid truth, let not little critics exalt themselves, and shower down their ill nature upon hinnj without bounds or measure ; but rather stretch their own powers of soul till they wiite a treatise superior to that which they condemn. This is the noblest and sur- est manner ot suppressing what they censure.
A little wit, or a little learniug, with a good degree of Vanity and ill nature, will teach a man to pour out whole pages of remark and reproach upon one real or fancieji mistake of a great and good author ; r.nd this may be dressed up by the same talents, and-made enteriaining^ enough to the world, who love reproach and scandal ; but it the remarker would but once make this attempt, and try to outshine the author by writing a better b wk on the same subject, he would soon l>e convinced oU^'is own insufficiency ,and perhaps might learn to judge more justly and favourably of the performance of other men. A cobler or a shoemaker may find some little fault with the latchet ot a shoe that an Apelles had painted, and perhaps with justice too; when the whole figure and portraiture is such as none but Apelles could paint. Ev- eiy poor low genius may cavil at what the richest and the noblest hath performed ; but it is a S'gn of envy and malice, added to the littleness and poverty of genius^ when such a cavil becomes a sufficient reason to pro- nounce at once against a bright author, and a whoifr vadtrdble treatise.
JUDGM£IVT OF BOOKS. 55
X. Another, and that a very frequent fault, in pass- ing a judgmt-nt upon books, is this, that persons spread the same praises or the same reproaches over a whole treatise, and all the chapters in it, which are due only to some of them. They jud^e as it were by wholesale, without making a due distinction between the several parts or sections of the performance ; and this is ready to lead those who hear them talk into a dangerous mis- take. Fiorus is a great and just admirer of the late Archbishf'p of Cambray, and mightily commends every thing he h?»s written, and will allow no blemish in him ; whereas the writings of that excellent man are not all of a piece, nor are those very books of his, which have a g''od iiumber of beautiful and valuiible sentiments ir| them, to be recommcridt-d throughout, or all at once without distinction. There is his demonstration of the existence and attributes of God, which has justly gained an universal esteem for bringing down some new and nob'e thoughts of the wisdom of the creation to the un- derstanding of the unlearned, and they are such as well deserve the perusal of ♦^he man of science, perhaps as far as the 50th st ction : but there are many ot the following sections, which are very weakly written, and some of them built upon an enthusiastical and mistaken scheme, a-kin to the peculiar opinions of father Malebranche ; 5uch ns sec. 51, 53. 1 hat we know the finite, only by the ideas of the infinite. Sec. 55, 60. That the superior reason in man is God himself acting in him. Sec. 61,62. That the idea of unity cannot be taken from creatures, but from God only ; and several of his sections, from 65 to 68, upon the doctrine of liberty, seem to be inconsist- ent. Again, towards the end of his book, he spends more time and pains than are needful, in refuting the Epicu- rean fancy ot atoms moving eternally through infinite changes, which might be done effectually in a much shorter and better way.
So in his Posthumous Essays, and his Letters, there are many admirable thoughts in practical and experi- Hiental religi<m, and ver> beautiful and divine sentiments rn devotiort ; but sometimes in large paragraphs, or in ^vhole chapters together, you find him in the clouds of mystic divinity, .T^id he never descends within the reach of common ideas or common sense.
But r -member this also, that there are but few such avithors as this great man, who talks so very weakly
56 JUrWSMENt OP BOOKS.
sometimes, and yet in other places is so much superior to the greatest part of writers.
There are other instances of this kind, where men of good sense in the main, set up forjudges, but they carry too many of their passions about them, and then, like lovers, they are in rapture at the name of their fair idol ; they lavish out all their incense upon that shrine, and cannot bear the vh ought of admitting a blemish in them.
You shall hear Altisono not nnly idmire Casimere /of Poland in his hrics, as the utmost purity and periectioa of Latin poesy, but he wii» allow nothi ig in him to be ex- travagant or faulty, and wiil vindicate every line ; nor can I much wonder at it when I have heard him pro- nounce Lucan the best of the ancient Latins, arid idolize his very weaknesses and mistakes. I will read'ly ac- knowledge the Odes of Casimere to have more spirit and force, more magnificence and fire in them, and in twentv places arise to more dignity and beauty, than I could ever meet with in any of our modern poets ; •fGt I am afraid to say, that " Pala sutilis e liLce" has dignity enough in it for a robe made for the Almighty, Lib. 4. Od. r. I. Sr ; or that the Man of Virtue in Od. 3. 1 44. under the rums of heaven and earth, wili bear up the fragments of the fallen world with a comely wound on his shoulders.
..»....«..........n..?af« ruenti
Stibjiciem sua colla ccelo Mundum decoro vulnere fulciet : Interque cceli fragmina.
Yet I must needs confess also, that it is hardly possi- ble a man should rise to so exalted and sublime a vein of poesy as Casimere, who is not in danger now and then of such extravagancies ; but still they should not he ad- mired or defended, if we pretend to pass a just judgment on the writings of the greatest men.
Milton is a noble genius, and the world ngrees to con- fess it ; his poem of Paradise Lost is a gorious perform- ance, and rivals the most famous pieces of antiquity ; but that reader must be def-plv prejudiced in f wour of the poet, who can imagine him fqual to himself through all that work. Neither the sub'ime sentiments, nor dig- nity of numbers, nor force or f^eauty .')f expression, are equally maintained, ev^en in all tliose pans which re- quire grandeur or beauty, force or harmoiy. I cannot but consent to Mr. Dryden's opinion, though I will not
0» LIVING INSTRBTCnONS, &C. 57
^sc his wordff, that for some scores of hnes together, there is a colfiness and flatness, and almost a perfect absence of thiat spirit of poesy, which breathes and lives ami flames ib other pages
XI. Whe0 you hear any person pretending to give his judgmentW a book, consider with yourself whether he be a capablfe judge, or whether he may not lie under some unhappy bias or prejudice for or against it, or whether he has made a sufficient inquiry to form hi* justest sentiments upon it.
Though he be a man of good sense, yet he is incapa- ble of passing a true judgment of a particular book, it he be not well acquainted with the subject of which it treats, and the manner in which it is written, be it verse or prose ; or if he hath not had an opportunity or leisure to look sufficiently into the writing itself.
Again, though he be ever so capable of judging on all ether accounts, by the knowledge of the subject, and of the book itself, yet you are to consider also whether there be any thing in the author, in his manner, in his language, in his opinions, and his particular party, which may warp the sentiments of him that judgeth, to think well or ill of the treatise, ard to pass too favourable or too severe a sentence concerning it.
If you find that he is either an unfit judge because of his ignoi ance, or because of his prejudices, his judgment of that book should go for nothing. Philographo is a good divine, an useful preacher, and an approved ex- positor of scripture, but he never had a taste for any of the polite learning of the age ; he was fond of every thing that appeared in a devout dress, but all verse was alike to him. He told me last week there was a very fine book of poems published on the three Christian graces. Faith, Hope and Charity, and a most elegant piece of oratory on the four last things, Death, Judgment, Heaven, and Hell. Do you think I shall buy either of those books merely on Philographo*s recommendation ?
CHAP. VI.
Of living Instructions and Lecturesy of Teachers and
Learners,
I. THERE are a few persons of so penetrating a
gi^nius, and so just a judgment, as to be capable (^ leam^
F 2
58 or LIVING INSTRUCTIONS, &C.
ingthe arts and sciences with' ut the assistanceof teachers. There is scarcely any science so safely and so speedily learned, even by the noblest genius and the best books, without a tutor. His assistance is absolutely necessary for most persons, and it is very useful for all beginners. Books are a sort of dumb teachers, they point out the way to learning ; but if we labour under any doubt or mistake, they cannot answer sudden questions, or ex- plain present doubts and difficulties ; this is properly the work of a living instructor.
II. There are very few tutors who are sufficiently furnished with such universal learning, as to sustain all the parts and provinces of instruction. The sciences are numerous, and many of them lie far wide of each other ; and it is best to enjoy the instructions of two or three tutors at least, in order to run through the whole encyclopoedia, or circle of sciences, where it may be ob- tained ; then we may expect that each will teach the few parts of learning which are committed to his care in greater perfection. But where this advantage can- not be had with convenience, one great man must sup- ply the place of two or three common instructors.
III. It is not sufficient that instructors he competent- ly skilled in those sciences which they profess and teach ; but they should have skill also in the art or method of teaching, and patience in the practice of it.
It is a great unhappiness indeed, when persons, by a spirit of party, or faction, or interest, or by purchase, are set up for tutors, who have neither due knowledge of science, nor skill in the way of communication . And„ alas ! there are others, who with all their ignorance and insufficiency, have selt admiration and effrontery enough to set up themselves ; and the poor pupils fare accordr- ingly, and grow lean in their understandings.
And let it be observed also, there are some very learn- ed men, who know much themselves, but have not the talent of communicating their own knowledge ; or else they are lazy, and will take no pains at it. Either they have an obscure and perplexed way of talking, or they show their learning uselessly, and make a long periphra- sis on every word of the book tliey explain, or they can- not condescend to young beginners, or they run present- ly into the elevated parts of the science, because it gives themselves greater pleasure, or they are soon yngry and impatient, and cannot bear with a, few impertinent
•H LIVING 1N81RUCTIOK9, &C. bQ
questions of a young, inquisitive, and sprightly genius ; or else they skim over a science in a very slight and su- perficial survey, and never lead their disciples into the cepthsofit.
IV. A good tutor should have characters and quahfi- cations very diftbrent from all these. He is such an one as both can and will apply himself with diligence and concern, and indefatigable patience to eftect what he undertakes ; to teach his disciples, and see that they learn ; to adapt his way and method as near as may be to the various dispositions, as well as to the capacities of those whom he instructs, and to inquire often into their progress and improvement.
And he should take particular care of his own tem- per and conduct, that there be nothing in him or about him which may be of ill example ; nothing that may savcur of a haughty temper, or a mean and sordid spirit ; nothing that may expose him to the aversion or to the contempt of his scholars, or create a prejudice in their minds against him and his instructions ; but if pos- sible, he should have so much of a natural candour and sweetness mixed with all the improvements of learn- ing, as might convey knowledge into the minds of his disciples with a sort of gentle insinuation and sovereign delight, and may tempt them into the highest improve- ments of their reason by a resistless and insersible force. But I shaW have occasion to say more on this subject when 1 come to speak more directly of the methods of the communication of knowledge.
V. The learner should attend with constancy and care on all the instructiors of his tutor, and if he hap- pens to be at any time unavoidably hindered, he must endeavour to retrieve the loss by double industry for the time to come. He should always recollect and review his lectures, read over some other author or authors up- on the same subject, confer upon it with his instructor or with his associates, and write down the clearest result of his present thoughts, I'easonings, and inquiries, whicH he may have recourse to hereafter, either tore-examine them and to apply them to proper use, or to improve them further to his own advantage.
VI. A student should never satisfy himself with bare attendance on the lectures of his tutor, unless he clearly takes up his sense and meaning, and understands the things which he teaches. A young disciple should b«-
60 OF LIVING INSTIirCTIONS, &C.
have himself so well as to gain the affection and ear of his instructor, that upon every occasion he may with the utmost freedom ask questions, nd talk over his owa sentiments, his doubts and difficulties with him, and in a humble and modest manner, desire the solution of them,
VII. Let the learner endeavour to maintain an hon- ourable opinion of his instructor, and heedfully listen to his instructions, as one willing to be led by a more ex- perienced guide ; and though he is not bound to fall in with every sentiment of his tutor, yet he should so far comply with him as to resolve upon a just consideration of the matter, and try and examine it thoroughly with an honest heart, before he presume to determine against him. And then it should be done with great modesty^^ with a humble jealousy of himself, and apparent unwil- lingness to differ from his tutor if the force of ai'gument and truth did not constrain him.
VIII. It is a frequent and growing tolly in our age, that pert young disciples soon fancy themselves wiser than those who teach them ; at the first view, or upon a very little thought, they can discern the insignificancy, weakness and mistake of what their teacher asserts. The youth of our day, by an early petulancy, and pre - tended liberty of thinking for themselves, dare reject at once, and that with a sort of scorn, all those sentiments and doctrines which their teachers have determined, perhaps after long and repeated consideration, after years of mature study, careful observation, and much prudent experience.
IX. It is true, teachers and masters are not infallible, nor are they always in the right ; and it must be ac- knowledged it is a matter of some difficulty for youneer minds to maintain a just and solemn veneration for the authority and advice of their parents, and the instruc- tion of their tutors, and yet at the same time to secure to themselves a just freedom in theirown thoughts. We ate sometimes too ready to imbibe all their sentiments without examination if we reverence and love them ; or, on the other hand, if we take all freedom to contest tlieir opinions, we are sometimes tempted to cast off that love and reverence to their persons which God and nature dictate. Youth is ever in danger of these two extremes .
X. But I think I may safely conclude thus : Though the authority of a teacher must not absolutely determitv*
QV LEARNING ▲ LANGUAGE, Ql
the judgment of hb I'upi), yet young and raw and unex- perienced learners should pay all proper deference that tan be to the instructions of their parents and teachers, short of absolute submission to their dictates. Yet still •we must maintain this, that they should never receive any opinion into their assent^ whether it be conformable or contrary to the tutor's mind, without sufficient evi- dence of it first given to their own reasoning powers.
CHAP. VII.
Of learning a Language,
THE first thing required in reading an author, or in hearing lectures of a tutor, is, that you well understand the language in which they write or speak. Living languages, w such as the native tongue of any nation in the present age, are more easily learned and taught by a few rules and much familiar converse, joined to the reading some proper authors. The dead languages are such as cease to be spoken fn any nation ; and even these are more easy to be taught, as far as may be, in that method wherein living languages are best learned; i. p. partly by rule, and partly by rote or custom. And It may not be improper in this place to mention a very few directions for that purpose.
I. Begin with the most necessary and most general observations and rules which belong to that language, compiled in the form of a grammar ; and these are but few in most languages. The regular declensions and variations ci rcuns and verbs should be early and thor- oughly learned by heart, together with twenty or thirty of the plainest and most necessary rules of syntax.
But let it be observed.that in almost all languages some of the roost common nouns and verbs have many irreg- tilarities in them ; such are the common auxiliary verbs to be and to have,, to do, and to he done, &c. The com- paratives and superlatives of the v/ords, goodybadygreat^ vtmch, nrr,aUy little^ &c, and these should be learned among the first rules and variations, because they conr tiniialh occur.
But as to other words which are less frequent, let but few of the anomalies or irregularities of the tongue be t&ught aniong the general rules to young beginners.
62 OF LEARNII7G A LANGUAGS.
These will come in aftenvat ds to be learned by advaa- ced scholars, m a way ot notes or. the rules, as in the Latin gr .mmar, called the Oxford grammar, or in Rud- diman's n-'-ies on his rudio^ents, &c. Or they may be learned by examples alrne, when they do occur ; or by a larger and mrre complete system of grammar, which, descends tv the more pa: t»cii!ar forms of speech ; so, the heterochte nouns of the Lai in tonj?ue which are taught in the school bu' k cailed Quce Genus, should not be touched in the first iearninj; of the rudiments o^ that tc^igne.
II As the grammar by which you learn any tongue should be ven" short at fi: st, so it must be written in a tongue with which you are well acquainted, and which is very familiar to you. Therefore 1 much prefer the common English Accidence (as it is called) to any grammar whatsoever, written in Latin for this end. The English Accidence has, doubtless, many faults; but those editions of it which were printed since the year 1728, under the correction of a learned professor, are the best, or the Englis* rudiments of the Latin tongue, by that leamed N rth B'iton, Mi. Ruddiman, which are perhaps the most usefu: books of this kind which I am acquainted with ; especially because 1 would not depart too far trom the ancient and common forms of teaching, which several good grammarians have done, to the grea.t detriment of such lads as have been re* moved to other sch« ols.
The tiresome and unreasonable method of leaming the Latin tongue, bv a gram mar with Latin rules, would appear,even to those masters who teach it so, in its prop- er colours of absurdity and ridicule, if those very mas- ters would attempt to learn theChinese or Arabic tongue, by a grammar written in the Chinrse or Arabic lan- guage. Mr. Clarke of Hull, has said enough in a few pages of the preface tohis new grammar, 1723, to make that practice appear very irrational and improper ; though he has said it in so warm and angi y a manner that it has kindled Mr. Ruddiman to write against him, and to say what c-^n be said to vindicate a practice which I think is utterly indefensible.
HI. At the same time when you begin the rules, begin also the practice. As for instance, when you decline MUSA MusiE, read and coi strue the same day, some easy Latin author by the help of a tutor, or with some
OF LEAB.RINO A LANGUAGE. 63
English translation ; choose such a book whose style is simple, and the subject of discourse very pi lin, obvious and not hard to be understtxxl ; ma.iv little books have been composed vvith this view, as Torderius's Colloquies, some of h.rasmus*s little writi:»i;s, the sayings of V\e wise men of (■rre^ice, ('ato's Moral Distiches, and the rest which are collected at the end of Mr. Ruddiman's En- glish Grammar, or the Latin Testament of Castellio's translation, which U accounted the purest Latin, &c. These are very propc'r nport this occtsion, togetiier with /Esop's and Phtedrus's Fables, and littk storips, and the common and daily afFiirs of domestic lite, writ- ten in the Ln,ti!i tongue. But let the higher poets, and orators, and historians, and other writers, whose lan- guage is more labourfd, and whose sense is more re- mote from common life, be rather kept oat of sight until there be some profici-^ncy made in the language.
It is strange that masters should teach chil(l»'en so early Tully's Epistles, or Orations, or the p'jems of Ovid or Virgil, whose sense is ften diffivult to find, because of the great traoKposition of the words ; and when they have found the grammatical sense, they hj^^e very little use of it, because ':hey have scarcely any notion oi the ideas and designs of the writer, it being so remote from the knowledge of a child; whereas, little com Don stories and coUoq-iies, and the rules of a child's behaviour, and such obvious subjects, will much better assist the memory of the words by their acquaintance witi^ the things.
IV. Here it mav be useful also to appoint the learn- er to get by heart the more conimon and useful words, both nouns and adjectives, pronouns and verbs, out of some well formed and judicious vocabulary. This will furnish him with names for the most familiar ideas.
V. As soon as ever the learner is capable, let the tu- tor converse with him in the tongue which is to be learned, if ft he a living language, or if it be Latin^ which is the living language of tne learned world ; thus he will acquaint hin^self a little with it bv rote, as well as by rule, and ')y living practice as well as by reading the writings of the dead. For if a child of two years old by this method learns to speak his mother tongue, I am sure the same method will greatly assist and facilitate the learning of my other language to those who •■\n\ older.
VI. Let the chief lessons and the chief exercises of
64 OB LEARNING A I^ANGITAGfi.
schools, v.c. where Latin is used (at least for the fir$t year or more) be the nouns, verbs, and general rules of syntax, together with a mere translation out of some Latin author into English ; and let scholars be employ- ed and examined by their teacher, daily, in reducing the words to their original or theme, to the first case of nouns or first tense oi verbs, and giving an account of their formations and changes, their syntax and depend- encies, which is called parsing. This is a most useful exercise to lead boys into a complete and thorough knowledge of what they are doing.
The English translations which the learner has made, should be well corrected by the master, and then they should be translated back again for the next day's exer- cise, by the child, into Latin, while the Latin author is withheld from him ; but he should have the Latin words given him in their first case and tense, and should never be left to seek them hJmscU from a dictionary; and the nearer he translates it to the words of the author whence he derives his English, the more should the child be commended. I'hus will he gain skill in two languages at once. I think Mi% Clarke has done good service to the public by his translations of Latin books for this end.
But let the foolish custom of employing eveiy silly boy to make themes or declamations, and verses upon moral subjects, in a strange tongue, before he understands common sense, even in his own language, be abandoned and cashiered forever.
VII. As the learner improves let him acquaint him- 55etf with the anomalous words, thein-egular declensions of nouns and vei'bs, the more luicoramon connexions o£ words in syntax, and the exceptions to the general rules of grammar; but let them all be reduced, as far as possible, to those several original and general rules which he has learned, as the proper rank ai>d place t<^ iNrhich tliey belong.
VIIL While he is doing this, it may be pwper for hini to converse with authors which are a litUe more diffi- cult, with historians, orators, and poets, &:c» but let his tutor inform him of the Roman or Greek custpms which •ccur therein. I^et the lad theh translate some parts «f them into his mother tongue, or into some other weli known language, and thence back again into the oi-igi- nal la.'ijpiiage of the author. But let the verse be trans- latad into prose, for p'.'csy d<ies t.ot belong to i^ramma^.
OF liEARNlNO A LANGUAGE. 65-
IX. By this time he will be able to acquaint himself with some ot the special emphases of speech, and the peculiar idioms of the tongue. He should be taught also the special beauties and ornaments of the language ; and this may be done partly by the help of authors who have collected t»uch idioms and cast them into an easy method, and partly by the judicious remarks which his instructor may make upon the authors which he reads, wheresoever such peculiarities of speech or special ele- gancies occur.
X. Though the labour of learning all the lessons by Iieart that are borrowed from poetical authors which they construe* is an unjust and unnecessary imposition upon the learner, yet he must take the pains to commit to memory the most necessary, if not all the common rules of grammar, with an example or two under each of them ; and some of the select and most useful periods or sentences in the Latin or Greek author which he reads may be learned by heart, together with some of the choicer lessons out of their poets ; and sometimes whole episodes out of heroic poems, 8cc. as well as whole odes among the lyrics, may deserve this honour.
XI. Let this be always carefully observed, that the learners perfectly understand the sense as well as the language of all those rules, lessons, or paragraphs, which . they attempt to commit to memory. I-*et the teacher possess them of their true meaning, and then the labour will become easy and pleasant; whereas to impose on a child to get by heart a long scroll of unknown phra- ses, or words without any ideas under them, is a piece of useless tyranny, a cruel imposition, and a pi-actice fit- ter for a jackdaw or a parrot, than for any thing that wears the shape of a man.
XIL And here, I think, I have a fair occasion given me to considet that question which has been often dc* bated in conversation, viz. Whether tiie teaching of a school full of boys to learn Latin by the Heathen poets,- as Ovid in his Epistles, and the silly fables of his Meta* morphoses, Horace, Ju- enal, and Martial, in their im- pure Otles, Satires, Epigrams, &c. is so proper and agreeable a pr.ictice in a Christian countiy.
XIII. (1.) I grant the language and style of thcs«? men who wrote in their own native tongue, must be more pure and perfect, in some nice elegancies and pe^ cuiiarities, than modem writers of other nation^ yf\\& G
66 OB LEARNING A LANGTTAQE.
have imitated them ; and it is owned also that the beau- ties of their poesy may much excel ; but in either of these things boys cannot be supposed to be much im- proved or injured by one or the other.
XIV. (2.) It shall be confessed too, that modern poets, in every livi )g language, have brought into their works so many wor(is,epithets,phmses,a'idmetaphors,from the Heathen fables and stories ot their gods and iieroes, that in order t > understand these modern writers, it is nec- essary to unde; stand something of those ancient follies ; but it may he mswereJ, that a gootl dictionary, or such a book as the Pantheon, or history of those Gentile de- ities, may ^ive sufficienr inform ttion of those stories, so far as they are necessary and useful to school boys.
XV. (3.) I will grant yet further, that lads who are designed to make great scholars or divines may, by read- ing these Heathen poets, be taught better to understand the writings of the ancient fathers against the Heathen religion ; and they learn here what ridiculous fooleries the Gentile nations believed as the articles ot their faith ; what wretched and foul idolatries they indulged and practised as duties of religion, for want of the light of divine revelation. But this perhaps msy be learned as well either by thePantheon, or some oth'^r collection, at school ; or after they have left the school, they may read wbat their own inclinations lead them to, and whatsoever of this kind may be really useful for them.
XVI. But the great question is, Whet Ivr all these ad- vantages which have been mentioned will compensate
. for the long months and years that are wasted among their incredilile and trifling romances, their false and shameful stories of the gods and goddesses and their a- mours, and of the lewd heroes and vicious poets of the Heathen world ? Can these idle and ridiculous tales be of any real and solid advantage in human life ^ Do they not ton often defile the mind with vain, mischievous and impure ideas ? Do they not stick long upon the fancy,and leave an unhappy influence upon youth r* Do they not tincture the imagination with folly and vice, very early, and nervert it from all tiiat is good and holy?
XVII. Upon the whole survey of things, it is my opin- 'ion, that for almost all boys who learn this tongue, it
would be much safer to be taught Latin poesy (as soon and as far as thev can need it) from those excellent translations of David*s P»alms, which are given us by
OB LEAKNING A LANGUAGE. 67
Buchanan in the various measures of Horace ; and the lower classes had better read Dr. Johnston's translation of these Psalms, another elegant writer of the Scots na- tion, instead of Ovid*s Epistles ; for he has turned the same Psalms, perhaps with greater elegance, into ele- giac verse, whereof the learned W. Benson, Esq. has lately published a noble edition, and I hear that these Psalms are honoured with an increasing use in the schools of Holland and Scotland. A stanza or a cou^Dlet of these writers, would now and then stick upon the minds of youth, and would furnish them infinitely better with pi- ous and moral thoughts, and do something towards mak- ing them good men and Christians.
XVni. A little book collected from the Psalms of both these translators, Buchanan and Johnston, and a feAv other Christian poets, would be of excellent use for schools to begin their instructions in Latin poesy ; and I am well assured this would be richly sufficient for all those in lower rank, who never design a learned pro- fession, and yet custom has foolishly bound them to leara that language.
But lest it should be thought hard to cast Horace and Virgil, Ovid and Juvenal, entirely out of the schools, I add, if here and there a few lyric odes, or pieces of sat- ires, or some episodes of heroic verse, with here and there an epigram of Martial, all which shall be pure and clear fr .m the stains of vice and impiety, and which may inspire the mind with noble sentiments, fire tfee fancy with bright and warnih.teas, or teach lessons of morality and prudence, were chosen out of those ancient Roman writers for the use of the schools, and were collected and printed in one moderate volume, or two at the most, it would be abundantly sufficient pi'ovision out of the Roman poets for the instruction of boys in all that is necessary in that age of life.
Surely Juvenal himself would not have the face to vin- dicate the masters who teach boys his sixth satire, and many paragraphs of several others, when he himself has charged us,
Nil dictu fcedum, viiuque hocc limtna tangat
Intra qucB puer est. Sat. 14.
Sutfcr no lewdness, nor indecent speech,
Th' apartment of the tender youth to reach.„.Dr|/dirn.
Thus far in answer to the foregoing question. Hut I retire ; for Mr. Clark, of Hull, in his treatise on Edu-
6J8 OF LEARNING A liANGtrACE.
cation, and Mr. Phillips, preceptor to the Duke of Cum- berland, have given more excellent directions for learn- ing Latin.
XIX. When a language is learned, if it be of any use at all, it is a pity it should be forgotten again It is prop- er, therefore, to take all just opportunities to read some- thing frequently in that language, when other necessa- ry and important studies will give you leare. As in learning any tongue, dictionaries which contain words and phrases should be always at hand, so they should be ever kept within reach by persons who would re- member a tongue which they have learned. IS or should we at any time content ourselves with a doubtful guess at the sense or meaning of any words which occur, but consult the dictionary, which may give us certain infor- mation, and thus secure us from mistake. It is mere sloth which makes us content ourselves with uncertain guesses ; and indeed this is neither safe nor useful for persons who would learn any language or science, or have a desire to retain what they have acquired.
XX. When you have learned one or many languages €ver so perfectly, take heed of priding yourself in these acquisitions ; they are but mere treasures of words, or instruments of true and solid knowledge; and whose chief design is to lead us into an acquaintance with things,or to enable us the more easily to convey those ideas or that knowledge to others. An acquaintance with the various tongues is nothing elselput a relief against the mischief which the building i^pBabel introduced ; and wei-e T master of as many languages as were spoken at Babel, I should make but a poor pretence to true learn- ing or knowledge, if I had not clear and distinct ideas, and useful notions in my head, under the words which my tongue could pronounce. Yet so unhappy a thing is human nature,that this sort of knowledge of sounds and syllables, is ready to puff up the mind with vanity, more than the most valuable and solid improvements of it. The pride of a grammarian, or a critic, generally exceeds that of a philosopher.
KNOWING THE SENSE, t&C. 69
CHAP. VIII.
Ofinguinng into the Sense and Meaning of any Wri- ter or Sfieakert and especially the Sense of the Sa- cred Writings.
IT is a great unhappiness that there is such an am- biguity in words and forms of speech, that the same sentence may be drawn into different significations ; whereby it comes to pass» that it is difficult sometimes for the reader exactly to hit upon the ideas which the writer or speaker had in his mind. Some of the best rules to direct us herein are such as these :
I. Be well acquainted with the tongue itself, or lan- guage wherein the author's mind is expressed. Learn not only the true meaning of each word, but the sense which those words obtain when placed in such a par- ticular situation and order. Acquaint yourself with the peculiar power and emphasis of the several modes of speech, and the various idioms of the tongue. The secondary ideas which custom has superadded to ma- ny words, should also be known, as well as the partic- ular and primary meaning of them, if ^ye would un- derstand any writer. See Logic^ Part I. Chap,. 4. § 3.
II. Consider the signification of those words and phrases, more especially in the same nation, or near the same age in which that writer lived, and in what sense they are used by authors of the same nation, opinion, sect, party, &c.
Upon this account we may learn to interpret several phrases of the New Testament out of that version of the Hebrew Bible, into Greek, which is called the Sepr tuag^nt ; for though that version be very imperfect and defective in many things, yet it seems to me evident, that the hftly writers of the New Testament made use of that version many times in their citation of texts out of the Bible.
III. Compare the words and phrases in one place of an author with the same or kindred words artd phrases used in other places of the same author, which are gen- erally called parallel places ; and as one expression explains another which is like it, so sometimes a con- trary expression will explain its contrary. Remember
G 2
70 OF KNOWING THE*SE»SE
always, that a writer best interprets himself; and as we believe the Holy Spirit to be the supreme agent in the writings of the Old Testament and the New, he can best explain himself. Hence the theological rule arises, that scripture is the best interpreter of scrip- ture ; and therefore Concordances, which shew us par- allel places, are of excellent use for interpretation.
IV. Consider the subject of which the author is treat- ing, and by comparing other places where he treats of the same subject, you may learn his sense in the place which you are reading, though some of the terms which he uses in those two place may be very different.
- And on the other hand, if the author use tlie same words where the subject of which he treats is not just the same, you cannot learn his sense by comparing those two places, though the mere words may seem to agree ; for some authors, when they are treating of a quite different subject, may use pv'^rhaps the same words in a veiy different sense, as St. Paul does the words faith, and law, and righteousness.
V. Observe the scope and design of the writer ; in- quire into his aim and end in that book, or section, or paragraph, which will help to explain particular sen- tences ; for we suppose a wise and judicious writer di- rects his expressions generally towards his designed end.
VI. When an author speaks of any subject occasion- ally, let his sense be explained by those places where he treats of it distinct ly and professedly ; where he treats of any subject in mystical or metaphorical terms, explain them by other places where he treats of the same subject in terms that are plain and literal ; where he speaks in an oratorical, affecting, or persuasive way. let this be explained by other places where he treats of the same theme in a doctrinal or instructive way; where the author speaks more strictly, and particular- ly on any theme, it will explain the mere loose and gen- eral expressions ; where he treats more largely, it will explain the shorter hints and brief intimations ; and wheresoever he writes more obscurely, search out some more perspicuous passages in the same writer, by which to determine the sense of that obscure language.
VII. Consider not only the person who is introduced speaking, but the persons to whom the speech is direct- fx\f the circumstances of time and place, the temper
OE WRITERS AND SPSAKERS. 71
and spirit of the speaker, as well as the temper and spirit of the hearers ; in order to interpret sciipture ■well, there needs a good acquaintance -with the Jewish customs, some knowledge of the ancient Roman and Greek times and manners, which sometimes strike a strange and surprising light upon passages which be- fore were veiy obscure.
Vf II. In particular propositions, the sense of an au- thor may be sometimes known by the inferences which he draws from them ; and all those senses may be ex- chxded, which will not allow of that inference.
Note. This rule indeed is not always certain in read- ing and interpreting human authors, because they may mistake in drawing their inferences ; but in explaining scripture it is a sure rule ; for the sacred and inspired writers always make just inferences from their own propositions. Yet even in them we must take heed we do not mistake an allusion for an inference, which i3 many times introduced almost in the same manner.
IX. If it be a matter of controversy, the true sense of the author is sometimes known by the objection's that are brought against it So we may be well assured, the Apostle speaks against our justification in the sight of God by our own works of holiness in the 3d. 4th. and 5th. chapters of the Epistle to the Romans, because of the objection brought against him in the beginning of the 6th chapter, viz. * W/iat shall we say then ? Shall we coniinue in sin, that grace may abound .^* Which objection could never,.have been raised, if he had been proving our justification by our own works of right- eousness.
X In matters of dispute take heed of warping the sense of the writer to your own opinion, by any latent prejudices of self love and party spirit. It is this reign- ng principle of prejudice and party that has given such 1 variety of senses both to the sacred writers and oth- ;rs, which would never have come into the mind oi" :he reader, if he had not laboured under some such ^repossessions.
XI. For the same reason take heed of the prejudices )f passion, malice, envy, pride, or opposition to an mthor, whereby you may be easily tempted to put a alse and invidious sense upon his words. Lay aside herefore a carping spirit, and read even an adversary vith attention and diligence, with an honest design to-
72 OP COWVERSATION AND
find out his true meaning; do not snatch at little lap- ses and appearances of mistake, in opposition to his declared and avowed meaning ; nor impute any seirse or opinion to him which he dei ,ies to be his opinion, un- less it be proved by the most plain and express lan- guage.
Lastly, Remember ^at you treat every author, writ- er, or speaker, just hs you yourself would be willing to be treated bv others, who are se;<rching out the mean- ing, of what you write or speak ; and inaintain upon your spirit an awfnl sense • f the presence of God, who is the judge of hearts, and will punish those who, by a base and dishonest turn of niind, wilfully pervert the meaning of the sacred writers or even of common au- thors, under the infiuenct of culpable prejudices. See More*s LogiCy Part I. Chafi 6^3. " Directions con-r cerning the Definition of Names/^
CHAP. IX.
^ules of Imfirovement by Conversation,,
I. IF we would improve our minds by conversation,, it is a gi e^-t happiness to be acquainted with persons •wiser thf^n ' urselves. It is a piece of useful advice, therefore, to get the favour of their conversation frer quently, as far as circumstances will allow ; and if they happen to he a little reserved, use all obliging methods to draw out of them what may increase your own knowledge.
II. Wha soever company you are in, waste not the time in triflf s and impertinence. If you spend some hours amongst children, talk with them according to their capacity ; mark the young buddings of infant rea'^on ; observe the different motions >ind distiiict ■working? of the animal and the mind, as far as you can discern them ; t ke notice by what degrees the little creature grows up to the use of his reasoning powers, and what early prejudices beset and endanger his un- derstanding. By this means you will learn how to ad^ dre&s yourself to children for their benefit, and per- haps vou may derive some useful philasophemes or theorems for your own entertainment.
III. If you happen to be in company with a merchant
OB FROVITING BY IT. 78
or a sadlor, a farmer or a mechanic, a milk-maid or a spinster, lead them into a discourse of the matters of their own peculiar province or profession ; for eve- ry one knows, or sliould know his own business best. In this sense a common mechanic is wiser than a phi- losopher. By this means you may gain some improve- ment in knowledge from every one you meet.
IV. Confine not yourself always to one sort of com- pany or to persons of the same party or opinion, either m matters of learning, religion, or the civil life, lest, if you should happen to be nursed up or educated in early mistake, you should be confirmed and established ih the same mistake, by conversing only with persons cif the same sentiments. A free and general conversation ■with men of very various countries, and of diftierent parties, opinions and practices, (so far as it may be <Jone safely) is of excellent use to undeceive us in many •wrong judgments which we may have framed, and to lead us into juster thoughts. It is said, when the king of Siam^ near China, first conversed with some Europe- an merchants, who sought the favour of trading on his coast, he inquired of them some of the common ap- pearances of summer and winter in their ccuntrj ; and •when they told him of water growing so hard m their rivers, that men and horses aiKl laden carriages passed over it, and that rain sometimes fell down as white and ;as light as feathers, and sometimes almost as hard as stones, he would not believe a word they said ; for ice, snow, and hail, were names of things utterly unknown to him and to his subjects in that hot clinjate ; he re- nounced all traffic with such shameful liars, and would not Buffer them to trade with his people. J^ee here the natural effects ol gross ignorance.
Conversation with foreigners on various occasions has a happy influence to enlarge our minds, and to set them free from any errors andgioss prejudices we are ready to imbibe concerning them. Domicillus has never tra- velled five miles ft om his mother's chimrcy, nnd he imagines all outlandish men are papishes, and wor- ship noticing but a cross. Tytirus, the shepherd, was bred up all his life in the country .and never saw Rome ; he fancied it to be only a huge village, and was there- fore infinitely surprised to find such palaces, such streets, such glittering treasures and gay magnificence as his first journey to the city shewed him, and with
74 OE CONVERSATION AND
wonder he confesses his folly and mistake. So Virgil Introduces a poor shepherd :
Urbem quam dicvnt Romam^ Melibase, putavi Stultus ego huic noitrce similem, quo scepe solenxuo Pastores evium tencros depellere foetus, &c.
THUS £NGLISn£D:
Fool that was, I thought imperial Rome
Like market towns, where once a week we copie,
And thither drive our tender lambs from home.
Conversation would have given Tytirus a better no- tion of Rome, though he had never' happened to travel thither.
V. In mixed company, among acquaintance and strangers, eRdeavour to learn something from all. Be swift to hear, but be cautious of your tongue, lest you betray your ignorance,?. nd perhaps offend some of those who are present too. The scripture severely censures those who speak evil of the things which they know not. Acquaint yourself therefore sometimes with per-^ sons and parties which are far distant from your com- mon life and customs ; this is a way whereby vou may- form a wiser opinion of men and things. Prove all things, and holdfast that which is ffood, is a divine rule, and it cnmes from tVie Father of iijiht and truth. But young persons should practse it indeed with due limitation, and under the eye of their elders.
VI Be not fright er;ed nor provoked at opinions dif- ferent frnin your^ own. Srme persons are so confident they nre in the right, that they will rot come within the hearing of any notions but their own ; they canton out to themselves a little province in the intellectual world, where thiy fa; cy the light shines, and all the rest is in d^-rkness. They never venture into the ocean of knowledge, nor survey the riches of other minds, which are as so|id, and as useful, and perhaps are finer gold than what they ever possessed. Let not men im- agine there is no ct i tain truth but in the sciences which they study, and amongst that party in which they were born and educated.
VII. Believe that it is possible to learn something from persons much below yourself. We are all short sighted creatures ; our views are also narrow and lim- ited ; we often see but one side of a matter, and do not extend our sight far and wide enough to reach every
OF PROFITING BY IT. 75
thin^ that has a connexion with the thing we talk of ; we see but in part» and know but in part; therefore it is no wonder we form not right conclusions, becaise we do not survey the whole of my subject or argument. Even the prudest admirer of his own p irts mi^^lit find it useful to consult with othe-s, though of inferior ca- pacity and penetr ition. W,. have a different prfispect of tne same thing, if I may so speak, accordnjg to the different position of our understandings towards it ; a weaker man may sometimes light on notions which, have escaped a wiser, and which the wiser man might make a hnppy use of, if he would condescend to take notice of them.
VIII. It is of considerable advantage, when we are pursuing any difficult point of knowledge, to have a so- ciety of mgeniouas correspondents at hand, to whom we may propose it ; for every man has something of a dif- ferent genius and a various turn of mind, whereby the subject proposed will be showti in all its lights, it will be represented in all its forms, and every side of it be turned to view, that a juster judgment may be framed,
IX. To make conversation more valuable, and use- ful, whether it be in a designed or accidental visit, among persons of the same or of different sexes, after the necessary stlutations are finished, and the stream of common talk begins to hesitate, or runs flat and low, let some one person take a b«)k which may be agree- able to the whole company, and by common consent let him read in it ten lines, or a paragraph or two, or a few pages, till some word or sentence gives an occasion for any of the company to offer a thought or two relating to that subject. Interruption of the reader should be no blame, for conversation is the business ; whether it be to confirm what the author says, or to improve it, to enlarge upon or to correct it, to object against it, or to ask any question that is akin to it, and let every one that pleases add his opinion, and promote the conver- sation. When the discourse sinks again or diverts to trifles, let him that reads pursue the page, and read on further,paragraphs or pages,till some occasion be given by a word or sentence for a new discourse to be start- ed, and that with the utmost ease and freedom. Such a . method as this would prevent the hours of a visit from running all to waste ; and by this means, even a- mong scholars, they would seldom find occasion for that
7Q OB CONVERSATION Air9
too just and bitter reflection, * I have lost my time m the company of the learned.'
By such a practice as this, young ladies may very honourably ancl agreeably improve their hours ; while one applies herself to reading, the others employ their attention even among the various artifices of the needle; but let all of them make their occasional remarks or inquirieSr This will guard a great deal of that precious time from modish trifling, impertinence, or scandal, which might otherwise afford matter for painful re- pentance.
Observe thi» rule in general, whensoever it lies in your power to lead the conversation, let it be directed to some profitable point of knowledge or practice, so far as may be done with decency ; and let not the discourse and the hours be suffered toTun loose with- out aim or design; and when a subject is started, pass not hastily to another, before you have brought the present theme of discourse to some tolerable issue, or a joint consent to drop it.
X. Attend with sincere diligence, while any one of the company is declaring his sense of the question pro- posed ; hear the argument with patience, though it differ ever so much from your sentiments, for you your- self are very desirous to be heard with patience by others who differ from you. Let not your thoughts be active and busy all the while to find out something ta contradict, and by what means to oppose the speaker, especially in matters that are not brought to an issue. This is a frequr-nt and unhappy temper and practice. You should rather be intent and solicitous to take up the mind and meaning of the speaker, zealous to seize and approve all that is true in his discourse ; nor yet should you want courage to oppose where it is necessa- ry ; but let your modesty and patience, and a friendly temper, be as conspicuous as your zeal.
XI. When a man speaks with much freedom and ease, and gives his opinion in the plainest language of common sense, do not presently imagine you shall gain nothing by his company. Sometimes you will find a person, who, in his conversation or his writings, deliv- ers his thoughts in so plain, so easy, so familiar and per- spicuous a manner, that you both understand and assent to every thing he saith, as fist as you read or hear it ; hereupon some hearers have been ready to concludr
OP PROFITING BY IT. 77
in haste, *Surely this man s lith none but common things; I knew as much before, or, I could have s >id all this myself.* This is a frequent mistake. Pellucido was a, very great genius ; when he spoke in the senate, he was wont to convL-y his ideas in so simple and happy a man- ner, as to instruct and convince every hearer, and to enforce the conviction through the whole illustrious as- sembly ; and that with so much evidence, that you would have been ready to wonder, that every one who spoke liad not said the same things ; but Pellucido was tlie only man that could do it; the only speaker who had attained this art and honour. Such is the writer cf whom Horace would say,
Ut tibi quivis ;
Speret idem; suiiet inultum, frustraqtie laboret
Ausits idem, De Art. Poet*
Smooth be your style, and j^Iain and natural, To strike the sons of Wapping or Whitehall. While others think this easy to attain, •%
Let them but try, and with tiieir utmost pain, > 'I'hey'll sweat and strive to imitate in vaiu. j
XII. If any thing seem dark in the discourse of your companion, so that you have not a clear Idea of what is spoken, endeavour to obtain a clearer conception of it by a decent manner of inquiry. Do not charge the speaker with obscujity, either inhis"sense or his words, but entreat his favour to relieve your own want of pen- etration, or to add an enlightening word or two, that you may take up his whole meaning.
If difficulties arise in your mind, and constrain your dissent to the things spoken, represent what objections some persons would be ready to make against the sen- timents of the speaker, without tellmg him you oppose. This manner of address carries something more modest and obliging in it, than to appear to raise objections gf your own by way of contradiction to him that spoke.
XIII. When you are forced to differ from him who delivers his sense on any point, yet agree as far as yoii can, and represent how far you agree ; and if there be any room for it, explain the words of the speaker in such a sense to which you can in general assent, and so agree with him ; or at least by a small addition or al- teration of his sentiments shew your own sense of things It is the practice and delight of a candid hearer, ¥j make it appear how unwilling he is to differ from fjj^ that speaksv Let the speaker know that it is nothing.
'?§' OP convIsrsation and
but truth constrains you to oppose hitn» and let tfcat difference be always expressed in few, and civil, antl>: chosen words, such as may give the least offence.
And be careful always to take Solomon's rule witff you, and let your correspondent fairly finish his speech before you reply ; ** for he that answereth a matter be- fore he heareth it, it is folly and shame unto him." Prov. xviii. 13.
A little watchfulness, care, and practice in younger fife, will render all these things more easy, familiar, and natural to you, and will grow into habit.
XrV. As you should carry about with you a con- stant and sincere sense of your own ignorance, so you should not be afraid nor ashamed to confess this igno- rance, by taking all proper opportunities to ask "and inquire for farther information ; whether it be the meaning of a word, the nature of a thing, the reason of a proposition, the custom of a nation, &c. never re- main in ignorance for want of asking* ^Many a person had arrived at some considerable de- ^ee of knowledge, if he had not been full of self conceit, and imagined that he had known enough already, or else was ashamed to let others know that he was un- acquainted with it. God and man are ready to teach the meek, the humble, and the ignorant ; but he that flancies himself to know any particular subject well, or that will not venture to as^k a question about it, such an one will not put himself into the way of improvement by inquiry and diligence. A fool may be '* wiser in his own conceit than ten men who can render a reason,'*" and such an one is very likely to be an everlasalig fool ; ^nd perhaps also it is a silly shame which renders his lolly incuiiable.
Stultomm incurata pudor malus vlcera celae.
Hor.Epiit.AG. Ln>.l
Jif EITGLISK THirS : rf fbols Bave. «lcewj and their pride conceal 'eir, llrey most bave fleers still, for none can heal 'em.
XV. Re not too forward, especially in the younger part of life, to determine any question in company with an infallible and peremptory sentence, nor speak with assuming airs and with a decisive tone of voice. A. yt)ung man in the presence of his elders should rather hear and attend, ^d weigh the arguments which are
Ot F&OriTINO BY IT. 79
brought for the proof or refutation of any doubtful proposition ; and when it is your turn to sjieak, propose your thoughts rather in the wny of inquiry. By ihh means your mind will be kept in a fitter temper to re- ceive truth, and you will be more ready to correct and improve your own sentiments, where you have net been too positive in affirming them. But if y<ju h *v€ magis- terially decided the point, you will find a secret unwil- lingness to retract, though you should feel an inward conviction that you were in tlic wrong.
XVI. It is granted, indeed, that a season "may hap- pen, when some buld pretender to science may assume haughty and positive airs,to assert and vindicate a gr;)Ss and dangerous error, or to renounce and vUify eouie very important truth , and it he hus a p' :pul ^r talent of talkirig, and there be no remonstrance made against him, the company may be tempted too easily to give their assent to the in)|)udence and infallibility of the presumer. They may imagine a proposition so much vilified can never b© true, and that a aoctrine which i« so boldly censured and renoiuiced can never be defend- ed. Weak minds are too ready to persuade themselves, that a man would never t:»lk with so much assurance, unless he were certainly in the right, and could well mamtain and prove what he said. &y this means truth itself is in danger of being betrayed or lost, if there be no opposition made to such a pretending talker.
Now, in such a case, even a wise and a modest man may assume air& too, and repel insolence with its own weapons. There is a time, as Solomon the wisest dt men teaches us, when -a fool should be answered ac- cording to his folly, lest he be wise in his own conceit, and lest others too easily yield up their faitti and reasor> to his imperious dictates. Courage and positivity are never more necessary tbari on such an occasion. But it is good to join some argument with them of real and convincing force, and let'it be strongly pronounced too.'
When such a resistance is made, you shall find some of these bold talkers will draw in their horns, when their fierce and feeble pushes ngainst truth and reason are repelled with pushing and confidence. It is pity indeed that truth should ever need such sort of defen- ces; but we know that a triumphant assurance hath sometimes supported gross falsehoods, and a whole company have been captivated to error, by this raeansj
80 OP CONVERSATION AND
till some man with equal assurance has rescued them. It is a pity that any momentous point of doctrine should happen to fall under such reproaches, and re- quire such a mode of vindication ; though if I happen to hear it, I ought not to turn my back, and to sneak off in silence, and leave the truth to lie baffled, bleeding, and slain. Yet I must confess, I should be glad to have no occasion ever given me to fight with any man at this sort of weapons, even though I should be so hap- py as to silence his insolence, and to obtain an evident victory.
XVII. Be not fond of disputing every thing firo and con, nor indulge yourself to show your talent of attack- ing and defending. A logic which teaches nothing else is little worth. This temper and practice will lead you just so far out of the way of knowledge, and divert your honest inquiry after the truth which is debated or sought. In set disputes, every little straw is often laid hold on to support our own cause ; every thing that can be done in any way to give colour to our argument is ad- vanced, and that perhaps with. vanity and ostentation. This puts the mind out of a proper posture to seek and deceive the truth.
XVIII. Do ! lot bring a warm party spirit into a free conversation, which is designed for mutual improve- ment in the search of truth. Take heed of allowing yourself in those self satisfied assurances which keep the doors of the understanding barred fast agninst the admission of any new sentiments. Let your soul be ever ready to hearken to further discoveries, from a constant and ruling consciousness of our prr sent fallible and imperfect state ; and m.^ke it appear to your friends, that it is no hard task for you to learn and pro- nounce those little words, / was mistaken, how hayd soever it bef-rthe bulk of mankind to pronounce them.
XIX. As you mav sometimes raise inquiries for , your own instruction and improvement, and draw out
the learning, wisdom, and fine sentiments of your friends, who perhaps may he too reserved or modest ; so at other times, if you perceive a person unskilful in the matter of debate, you may, by questions aptly pro- posed in the^ocratic method, lead him into a clearer knowledge of the subject ; then vou become his instrnct- or in such a manner as may not appear to make your- self his superior.
OF PROF£TING BY IT. ^1
XX. Take heed of affecting always to shine in com - pany above the rest, and to display the riches of your own understanding or your oratory, as though you "wouid render yourself admirable to all that are present. This is seldom well taken in polite company ; much less should you use such forms of si^eech as should in- sinuate the Ignorance or dullness of those with whom vou converse.
XXI. Though you should not affect to flourish in a copious harangue and a diffusive style in company, yet neither should you rudely interrupt and reproach him that happens to use it. But when he has done speak-
^ ing,reduce his sentiments into a more contracted form ; not with a show of correcting, but as one who is doubt- ful whether you hit upon his true sentiments or not. Thus matters may be brought more easily from a wild confusion into a single pdnt, questions may be sooner determined, and difficulties more readily removed.
XXII. Be not so ready to charge ignorance, preju-^ dice, and mistake upon others, as you are to suspect yourself of it; and in order to 'show how free you are from prejudices, learn to bear contradiction with pa- tience ; let it be easy to you to hear your own opinion strongly opposed, especially in matters which are doubt- ful and disputable amongst men of sobriety and virtue. Give a patient hearing to arguments on all sides, other- wise you give the company occasion to suspect that it is not the evidence of truth has led you into this opinion, but some lazy anticipation of judgment ; some beloved presumption, some long and rash possession of a party scheme, in which you desire to rest undisturbed. If your assent has been established upon just and sufii- cient grounds, why should you be afraid to let the trutli be put to the trial of argumejitt'
XXIII. Banish utterly out of all convcrsatioo, and especially out of all learned a!:d intellectual conference, every thing that tends to provoke passion, or raise a fire m the blood. Let no sharp language, no noisy ex- cliuiation, no sarcasms or biting jests, be heard among you ; no perverse or invidious consequences be drawji fron> each other's opinions, and imputed to the person ; let there be no wilful i)erversion of anotlier's meaning ; n.0 sudden seizure of a lapsed syllable to play upon it, nor any abused construction of an innocent mistake; suttier not vour tongue to insult a modest opponent JJlijit?
U 2
82 OP CONVERSATION AND
begins to yield ; let there be ho crowing or triumph, even where there is evident victory on your side. AH these things are enemies to friendship, and the ruin of free conversation. The impartial search of truth re- qmres all calmness and serenity, all temper and can- dor ; mutual instructions can never be attained in the midst of passion, pride, and clamor, unless we suppose, in the midst of such a scene, there is a loud and pene- trating lecture read by both sides on the folly and
' shameful infirmities of human nature.
•XXiy. Whensoever therefore any unhappy word shall arise in company that might give you a reasonable disgust, quash the rising resentmer.t, be it ever so just, and command your soul and your tongue into silence, lest you cancel the hopes of all improvement for that hour, and transform the learned conversation into the mean and vulgar form of reproaches and railing. The man who began to break the peace in such a society,
,^ will fall under the shame and conviction of such a si- lent reproof, if he has any thing ingenuous about him. If this should not be sufficient, let a grave admonition, or a soft and gentle turn of wit, with an air of pleas- antry, give the warm disputer an occasion to stop the progress of his indecent fire, if not to retract the inde- cency, and quench the flame.
XXV. Inure yourself to a candid and obliging man- ner in all your conversation, and acquire the art of pleasing address, even when you teach as well as when you learn, and when you oppose as well as when you assert or prove. This degree of politeness is not to be attained without a diligent attention to such kind of di- rections as are here laid down, and a frequent exercise and practice of them.
XXVI. If you would know what sort of companions you should select for the cultivation and advantage of the mind, the general rule is. Choose such as by their brightness of parts, and iheir diligence in study, or by their superior advancement in learning, or peculiar e?ccellency in any art, science, or accomplishment, di- vine or human, may be capable of administering to your improvement ; and be sure to maintain and keep some due regard to their moral character always, lest while you wander in quest of intellectual gain, you fall into the contagion of irreligion and vice. No wise man w^ould venture into a house infected with the plague
OF PROFITING BY IT. 83
in order to see the finest collections of any virtuoso in Europe.
XXVII. Nor is it every sober person of your ac- quaintance, no, nor every man of bright parts, or t ich in learning, that is fit to engage in free conversation for the inquiry after truth. Let a person have ever so il- lustrious talents, yet he is not a proper associate for such a purpose, if he lie under any of the following in- firmities :
(1.) If he be exceedingly reserved, and hath either no inclination to discourse, or no tolerable capacity of speech and language for the communication of his sentiments.
(2.) If he be haughty and proud of his knowledge, imperious in his airs, and is always fond of imposing his sentiments on all the company.
(3.) If he be positive and dogmatical in his own opin- ions, and wUl dispute to the end ; if he will resist the brightest evidence of truth rather than suffer himself to be overcome, or yield to the plainest and strongest reasonings.
(4.) if he be one who always affects to outshine all the company, and delights to hear himself talk and flourish upon a subject, and make long harangues, while the rest must be all silent and attentive.
(5.) If he be a person of a whiffling and unsteady turn of mind, who cannot keep close to a point of con- troversy, but wanders from it perpetually, and is al- ways solicitous to say something, whether it be perti- nent to the question or not.
(6.) If he be fretful and peevish, and given to resent- ment upon all occasions ; if he knows not how to bear contradiction, or is ready to take things in a wrong sense ; if he be swift to feel a supposed offence, or to imagine himself affronted, and then break out into a sudden passion, or retain silent and sullen w rath.
(7.) If he affect wit on all occasions, and is full of his conceits and puns, quirks or quibbles, jests and repar- tees ; these may agreeably entertain and animate an hour of mirth, but they have no place in the search after truth.
8. ) If he carry always about him a sort of craft, and cunning, and disguise, and act rather like a spy than a friend. Have a care of such a one as will make an ill use of freedom in conversation, and immediately charge
S4 OE CONVERSATION AND
heresy upon you, when you happen to diffei'from those sentiments whicii authority or custom has established.
In short, you should avoid the man in such select conversation, who practises any thing that is unbecom- ing the character of a smcere, tree, and open searcher after truth.
Now, though you may pay all tlie relative duties of life to persons of these unhappy qualifications, and treat them with decency and love, so far as religion and hu- manity oblige you, yet take care of entering into a free debate on matters of truth or falsehood in their com- pany, and especially about the principles of religioa. I confess, if a person of such a temper happens to judge and talk well on such a subject, you may hear him with attention, and derive what profit you can from his discourse ; but he is by no means to be chosen for a free conference in matters of learning and knowl- edge.
XXVIII. While I would persuade you to beware of such persons, and abstain from too much freedom of discourse amongst them, it is very natural to infer that you should watch against the working of these evil qualities in your own breast, if you happen to be tainted with any of them yoursel£ Men of learning and inge- nuity will justly avoid your acquaintance, when they find such an unhappy and unsocial temper prevail- ing in you.
XXiX. To conclude : When you retire from com- pany, then converse with yourself in solitude, and in- quire what you have learned for the improvement of your understanding, or for the rectifying your inclina- tions, for the increase of your virtues, or the melioi a- ting your conduct and behaviour in any future parts of life. If you have seen some of your conipany candid, modest and humble in their manner,wise and sagacious, just and pious m their sentiments, polite and graceful, as well as clear and strong in their expression, and universally acceptable and lovely m their behaviour, endeavour to impress the idea of ah these upon your iiicmory, and treasure them up for your imitaiion.
XXX. If the laws of reason, decency, and civility, have not been well observed amongst your associates, take notice of those defects for your own improvement ; and from every occurrence of thi^ kind, remark souie- thijig tu imitate pr to avoid, in elegant, polite and use^
01' PROFITING BY IT. 85
ful conversation. Perhaps you will find that some p r- sons present have really displensed the company, by an excessive and too visible a desire to please ; i.e. l)y giving loose to servile flattery, or promiscuous prai^^e ; while others were as ready to oppose and contradict every thing that was said. Some have deserved just 'censure for a morose and affected tncitumitj^, and others have been anxious and careful lest their silence should be interpreted a want of sense, and ther fore they have ventured to make speeches, though they had nothing to say which was worth hearing. Perhaps you will observe, that one was ingenious in his thoughts, and bright in his language, but he was so top-tull of liimself, that he let it spill on all the company ; that he spoke well indeed, but that he spoke too long, and did not allow equal time or liberty to his associates. You will remark, that another was full charged to let out his words before his friend had done speaking, or im- patient of the least opposition to any thing he said. You will remember that some persons have talked at large, and with great confidence, of things which they un- derstood not ; and others counted every thing tedious and intolerable that was spoken upon subjects out of their sphere, and they would fain confine the confer- ence entirely within the limits of their own narrow knowledge and study. The errors of conversationare almost infinite.
XXXI. By a review of such irregularities as these, you may learn to avoid those follies and pieces of ill conduct which spoil good conversation, or make it less agreeable and less useful ; and by degrees you will acquire that delightful and easy manner of address and behaviour in all useful correspondencies, which may render your company every where desired and beloved ; and at the same time, amongst the best of your companions, you may make the highest improve- ment in your own intellectual acquisitions, that the discourse cf mortal creatures will allow, under all our disadvantages in this sorry state of mortality. But there is a day coming, when we shall be seized away from this lower class in the school of knowledge, where we la. hour under the many dangers and darknesses,the errors and incumbrances of flesh and blood ; and our conver- sation shall be with angels and more illuminated spir- its, in the upper regions of the universe.
•SL6 «F DISJPnXES IJT OENERAr^.
CHAP. X,
Of Dhpiites,
I. Under the general head of conversation for tiic improveifient of ttie mind, we may rank the practice of disputing ; that is,when two or more pei sons appeai* to maintain different sentiments, and defend their own or oppose the other's opinion, in alternate discourse, by some methods of argument.
II. As these disputes often arise in good earnest, where the two contenders do really believe the differ- ent propositions which they support; so sometimes they ar^ appointed as mere trials of skill in academies or schools, by the students ; sometimes they are practised, and that with apparent fervour, in courts of judicature by lawyers, in order to gain the fees_of their different clients, while both sides perhaps are really of the same sentiment with regard to the cause which is tried.
III. In common conversation, disputes are often managed without any forms of regularity or order, and they turn to good or evil purposes, chiefly according to the temper of the disputants. They may sometunes be successful to search out truth, sometimes effectual to maintain truth, and convince the mistaken, but ajt other times a dispute is a mere scene of battle in order to victory and vain triumph.
IV. There are some few general rules which should he observed in all debates whatsoever, if we would find out truth by them, or convince a friend of his errour, even though they be not managed according to any set- tled forms of disputation. And as there are almost as many opinions and judgments of things as there are persons, so when several persons happen to meet and confer together upon any subject, they are ready to declare their different sentiments, and support them by such reasonings as they are capable of. This is calied debating, or dispudng, as is above described.
V. When persons begin a debate, ihey should always take c^ire that they are agreed in some general princi- ples or propositions, which either more nearly or remote- ly affect the question m hand; for otherwise they have no foundation or hope of convincing each other ; they
OP DISPUTES IN GENERA r.. 87
Oiust have some common ground to Stand upon, while they maintain the contest.
When they find they agree in some remote proposi- fions, the n let them search farther, and inquit e how near they approach to each other's sentiments ; and what- soever propositions they agree in, let these lay a foun- dation for the mutual hope of conviction. Hereby ycu will be prevented from running at every turn to some original and remote propositions, and axioms, which practice both entangles and prolongs a dispute. As for instance, if there was a debate proposed between a Protestant and a Papist, whether there be such a place as purgatory ; let them remember that they both agree in this pc int, that Christ has made satisfaction or atone- ment for sin, and upon this ground let them both stand, while thty search opt the controverted doctrine of purgatory, by way of conference or debate.
VI. The question should be cleared from all doubt- ful terms ami needless additions ;»and all things that belong to the question, should be expressed in plain and intelligible language. This is so necessary a thing, that without it^ men will be exposed to such sorts of ridiculous contests as was found one day between- the two unlearned combatants. Sartor and Sutor, who as- saulred and defended the doctrine of transubstantia- tion w th much zeal and violence ; but Latino happen- ing to come into their company, and inquiring the sub- ject of their dispute, asked each of them what he meant bv that long w-rd transubstantiation. Sntor readily infovmed him, that he understood bowing at the name of Jesus; but Sartor asiured him that he meant nothing but bowing at the high altir : • •• ISo won. ;er, then," said Litino, *MhHt you cannot agree, when you neither underst nd on'e another, nor the word about which you contend.*' I tlsink the whole family of the Sartors and Sutors woulV be wiser if the^' avoid- ed '-^uch kind of debates till they understood the terms better. But alas! even their wives carry on such con- ferences; the other diy one was heard in the street explaining to her less learned rieiglibour, the meaning of metaphysical science ; and she assured her, that as physjcs. were medicines for thr body.so metaphysics was physics for the soul ; upon this they went on to dis- pute the point, hovr far the divine excelled the doctor.
89 OB nispuTES iir G&irEitAt.
Auditum adntisti visum teneatis amici? Ridentem dicere verum quid vetat f. Hor.
Can it be faulty to repeat
A tiialogue that waik'd the street ?
Or can my gravest friends forbear
A laugh, when such disputes they hear"?
VII. And not only the sense and meaning of the words used in the question should be settled and adjust- ed between the disputants, but the precise point of in- quiry should be distinctly fixed ; the question in debate should be Umited precisely to its special e:5Ctent, or de- clared to be taken in its more general sense. As for instance, if two men are contending whether civil gov- trnment be of (livine rigut or not ; here it must be ob- served, the question is not whether monarchy in one man, or a republic in multitudes of the people, or an aristocracy hi a few of the chiefs, is appointed of God a? necessary ; but waether civil government in its most general sense, or ii^ any form whatsoever, is derived from the will and appointment of God ? Again, the point of enquiry should be hmited further. Thus, the question is, not whether government comes from the will of God by the light of divine revelation, for that i^ granted ; but whether it be derived from the will of God by the light of reason too. This sort of specifica- tion or limitation of the question, hinders and prevents the disputants from wandering away from the precise point of incjuiry.
It is this trifling humour or dishonest artifice of changing the question and wandering away from the first point of debate, which gives endless length to dis- putes, and causes both the disputants to part without any satisfaction. And one chief occasion of it is this ; when one of the combatants feels his cause run low and fail, and is just ready to be confuted and demolish- ed, he is tempted to s^ep aside to avoid the blow, and betakes him to a different question ; thus, if his adver- sary be not well aware of him, he begins to entrench himself in a new fastness, and holds out the siege with a new artillery of thoughts and words. It is the pride of man which is the spring of this evil, and an unwil- lingness to yield up their own opinions even to be over- come by truth itself.
VIII. Keep this always therefore upon your mind as an everlasting rule of conduct in your debates to find
OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL. 89
out truth, that a resolute design, or even a warm af- fectation of victory, is the bane of all real improvement, and an effectual bar against the admission of the truth which you profess to seek. This works with a secret, but a powerful and mischievous influence in every dis- pute, unless we are much upon our guard. It appears in frequent conversation ; every age, every sex, and each party of mankind, are so fond of being in the right, that they know not how to renounce this unhap- py prejudice, this vain love of victory.
When truth with bright evidence is ready to break in upon a disputar.t, and to overcome his objections and mistakes, how swift and ready is the mind to engage wit and fancy, craft and subtilty, to cloud and perplex and puzzle the truth, if possible ! How eager is he to throw in some impertinent question to divert from the main subject ! How swift to take hold of some occa- sional word, thereby to lead the discourse ojfffrom the point in hand ! So much afraid is human nature of parting with its errors, and being overcome by truth. Just thus a hunted hare calls up all the shifts that na- ture hath taught her, she treads Imck her mazes, cross- es and confounds her frnmer traok. and uses all pos- sible n^ethods to divert the scent , when she is in dan- ger of being seized and taken. Let pass practise what nature teaches: but would one imagine, that any ra- tional being should take such pains to ^void truth, and to escape the improvement of its Uiderstanding.^
IX. When you come to a dispute in order to find ©ut truth, do not presume that vou are certainly pos- sessed of it beforehand. Enter the debate with a sin- cere design of yielding to re;- son, on which side soever it appears. Use no subtle arts to cloud and entangle thie question ; hide not yourself in doubtful words and phrases ; do not affect little shifts and subterfuges to avoid the force of an aigument ; take a generous pleas- urt- to espv the first risi>g beams of truth, though it be on the side of yc'ur opponent ; endeavour to remove the little obscuriti. s that hang about it, and suffer and encourage it to break out into open and convincing light ; that while your opponent perhaps may gain the better of mur rei sonings,yet you yourself may triumph over error, and I am sure that is a much more valua- ble acquisition and victory.
X' Watch narrowly in every dispute, that your op-
90 OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL.
poaent does not lead you unwarily to graut some prija= ciple of the proposition, which will bring with it a fatal consequence, and lead you insensibly into his sentiment, though it be far astray froni the truth ; and by this wrong step you will be, as it were» plunged into dan- gerous errors before yon are aware. Polonides in free conversation, led Incauto to agree with liim in this plain proposition, tliat the blessed God has too much justice in any case to punish* any being who is in itself innocent ; till he not only allowed it with an unthinkiug iilacrity, but asserted it in most uuiversal and unguard- ed termt. A little after, Polonides came in discourse- to commend the virtues, the innocence, and the piety o£ our blessed Saviour ; and thence inferred, it was hn- possible that God should ever punish so holy a person^ who was never guilty of any criine ; then Incauto es- pied the snare, and found himself robbed and defrauded' of the great doctrine of the atonement by the death of Christ, upon which he liad placed his immortal hopes, according to the go?ipeL
This taught hin;i to bethink hi m^lf what a danger- ous concession he had^cnade in so universal a manner, that God would ney# punish any bdn^'j who was inno- cent, and he saw it neetlful to recal his words» or to ex- , plain -them better, by adding this restriction or limita- tion, viz. Unless tliis innocent lx;iag were some way in«r volved in another's sin, or stood as a voluntary si^ret^ for the guilty ; by this limitatioii, he secured the great and blessed doctrine of the sacrifice of Christ for the sins of men, and learnt to be more cautious in his con- cessions for the time to come.
Two months ago, Fatal'io had almost tempted his- friend Fidens to leave off prayer, and to abandon his dependence on the providence of God ia the comm<Mi affairs of Ufej by obtainhig of him a concession of the like kind. Is it not evident to reason, says Fatalio, that God's immense schenae of transactions in the universe, was contrived and determined long before you a:^.d I w^ere bom ? Can you imagine, my dear Fidens, tliat the blessed God changes his original contrivances, and makes new inter rur.>tions in the course of them, so often as you and I want his aid, to prevent the little accidents of life, or to *rvivtvd usfrox them ^ Can you suffer your-
* The word punish Iiere* signifies, to brinr some ratural evil aj)«s ft person on account of moral orrl Jsnc
OF mSPBTKS IN GENERAL. 9}
self tn be persuaded, that the .^rcat Creator of this world t^kes care to support a bridge which was quite rotten, and to make it stand fiiTn a tew minutes longer till you had rode over it ? Or, will he uphold a falling tower, while we two were passing by it, that such worms as you and I are, might escape the ruin ^
But you say, you prayed for his protection in the morning, and he certainly hears prayer. I grant he knows It ; but are y«u so fond and weak, said lie, as to sup|>ose that the universal I^ord of all, had such a re- gard to a word or two of your breath, as to make alter- ations in his own eternal scheme, upon that account ? ^or is there any other way whereby his providence can preserve you in answer to prayer, but by creating such perpetual interruptions and changes in his own conduct according to your daily behaviour ?
I acknowledge, says Fidens, there is no other way to secure the doctrine of divine providence, in all these common aff irs, and therefore I begin to doubt wheth- er God does or ever will exert himself so particularly in our little concerns.
Have a care, good Fidens, that you yield not too far ; take heed lest you have granted too m.uch to Fatalio. Pray let me ask of you, could not the great God, who grasps and surveys all future and distant things in one single view, could not he from the beginning, foresee your morning prayer for his protection, and appoint all second causes to concur for the support of that cra- zy bridge; or to make that old tower stand firm till you had escaped the danger? Or could not he cause all the mediums to work, so as to make it fall before you came near it? Can he not appoint all his own transactions in the universe, and every event in the nat- ural world, in a way of perfect correspondence witli his own foreknowledge ot all events, actions, and ap- pearances of the moral world in every part of it ? Can he not direct every thing in natui'e, which is but his servant, to act in perfect agreement with his eternal prescience of our sins, or of our piety ? And hereby all the glory of Providence, and our necessary depend- ence upon it by faith and prayer, are as well secured, as if he interposed to alter his own scheme every moment.
Let me ask again, did not he in his own coansels, or decrees, appoint thunders, and lightnings, and earth- quakes, to burn up and destroy Scdom aaid Gomorrah^
92 OTP DISPUTES IN GENERAL.
and turn them into a dead s-; a, just at the time when the iniquities of tiiose cities were raised to their supreme height ? Did he rot ordain the fountains of the deep to be broken up, and ov rwhelming rains to fall from Heaven, just when a guilty world deserved to be drowned; while he t ck eyre for the security of righteous Noah, by an ark which wou'd flo-t on that very deluge of wate*'s ? Thus he cnn punish the crim- ina? when he pleases, and reward the devout worshipper in the proper season, by his original and eternal schemei of appointment, as w it as if he interposed every mo- ment anew. Take heed, Fidens, that you be not tempted av/av by such sophisms of Fatalic, to with- hold praver frotn God, and to renounce your faith in his providence.
Rememb r this short and plain caution of the subtle Errors of men : Let a snake but once thrust in his head at some small unguarded fold of your garment, and he will insensibly and unavoidabl. wind his whole body into your bosom, and givt ynu a pernicious wound.
XI. On the other hand, wheii you have found your opponent make any such concession as may turn to your real advantage in maintaining the truth, be wise and watchful to obsLrv«=^ it, and make a happy im- provement of it. Rhapsodus has taken a great deal of pains to d* tract froiVi the honour of Christianity, by sly insinuations, that the sacred writers are perpetual- ly promoting virtue and pi ty by promises and threat- enings ; whereas, neither the fear of future punishment, nor tht hope of future reward, can prissibly be called good affections. or such as are the acknowltedged springs and sources of all actions truly gord. He adds further, that this fear, or this hope, cannot consist in reality with virtue or goodness, if it either stands as essential to any mot al performance, or as a considerable motive to any good action ; and thus he would fain lead Christ- ians to be ashamed of the gospel of Christ, because of its future and eternal promises and threatenings,as being inconsistent with his notion of virtue ; for he supp<.ses, that virtue should be so beloved and practised for the sake of its own beauty and loveliness, that all other motives arising from rewards or punishments, fear or hope, do re.'^lly take away just so much from the very- nature ef virtue, as their influence reaches to ; and no part of those good practices are really valuable, but
OV DISPUTES IN G£K£RAL. 8i3
vvhat arises from the mere love of virtue itself, without any regard to punismeiit or reward.
But observe, in two j)ages afterwards, he grants, that this principle of fear of future punishment, and hope of future reward, how mercenary and servile soever it may be accounted, is yet in many circumstances a great advantage, security, and support to virtue; especially %vherc theie is dai^ger of the violence of rage or lust, or any counter working passion to control and over- -come the good affections of the mind.
Mow, the 1 ule and the ])ractice of Christianity, or the gospel, as it is closely connected with future rewards and punishments, may be well supported by this con- cession. Pray, Rhapsodus, tell me, if every man in this present life, by the violence of some counter work- ing passion, may not have his good aftections to virtue controlled or overcome? May not, therefore, his eter- nal fears aud hopes be a great advantage, s .curity, and suppoitto virtue in so dangerous a staie and situfition, as our journey through this world towards a better ? And this is all that the defence of Christianity necessa* rily requires.
And yet further, let me ask our rh.apsodist, if you have nothing else, sir, but the beauty, and excellency, and loveliness of virtue, to preach and flourish upon, before such sorry and degenerate creatures, as the bulk of mankind are, and you have no future rewards or punishments, with which to address iheir hopes and tears, how many of these vicious wretches will you ever reclaim from all their varieties of profaneness, intem- perance, and madness ? How many have you ever ac- tually reclaimed by this smrcth, soft method, and these fine words? What has all that leasoning and rhetoric done, which have been displayed by your predecessors, the Heathen moralists, upon this excellency and beauty of virtue? What has it been able to do towards the re- forming of a siiiful world? Perhaps now and then, a man of better natural mould, has been a little refined, and perhaps also, there may have been here and there a inan restrained or recovered from injustice and knav- ery, from drunkenness, and lewdnc ss, and vile debauch- eries, by this fair reasoning and philosophy ; but have the passiofss of revenge and envy,of ambition and pride, and the inward secret vices of the mind been mortifi- ed ffieiely by thig philosophical language ? Have any 15
94 OF DISPUTES IN GENERAL.
of these men been made new creatures, men of raal piety and love to God ?
Go dress up all the virtues of human nature, in all the beauties of your oratory, and declaim aloud on the praise of social virtue, and the amiable qualivies of good- ness, till your heart or your lungs ache, among the looser herds of mankind, and you will ever find, as your Heathen fathers have done before, that the wild passions and appetites of men are too violent to l^e re- strained by such mild and silken language. You may as well build up a fence of straw and feathers, to resist a cannon ball, or try to quench a fl »ming grenado with a shell of fair water, as hope to succeed in these at- tempts. But an eternal heaven, and an etern il hell, carry divine force and power with them ; this doctrine from the mouth of Christian prt^achers, has begun the reformation of multitudes ; this gospel has recovered thousands among the nations, from iniquity and death. They have been awakened by these awful scenes to be^in religion, and afterwards, their virtue has improv- ed itself into superior and more refined principles and habits by divine grace, and risen to high and eminerA degrees, though not to a consummate stite. The bless- ed God knows human nature much bettt r than Rhap- sodus doth, and has throughout his word appointed a more proper and more effectual method of address to it, by the passions of hope and fear, by punishments and rewatds.
If you read on four pages further in these writings, you will find the author makes another concession. He allows that the master of a family, using proper re- wards and gentle punishments towards his children, teaches them goodness, and by this help instructs them in a virtue, which afterwards they practise upon otlier grounds, and without thinking of a penalty or a bribe; and this, says he, is what we call ^ lilieral education, and a liberal service.
This new concession of that author may also be very happily improved in favour of Chrislianit)'. What are the best of men in this life ? They are by no meaiis perfect in virtue ; we are all but children here under the great Master of the family, and he is pleased, by hopes and fears, by mercies and corrections, to instruct us in virtue, and to conduct us onward towards the sublimer and more perfect practice o^ it in the future
AF DISPUTES IN OENERAL. 0.5
world, where it shall be performed, as in his own lan- guage, perhaps without thinking of penalties and bribes. And since he hath allowed that this conduct may be called a liberal education and a liberal service, let Christianity then be indulged the title of a liberal edu- cation also, and it is admirably fitted for such frail and sinful creatures, while they are training up towards the sublinier virtues of the heavenly state.
XII. When you are engaged in a dispute with a person of very diflferent principles from yourself, and you cannot find any ready way to prevail with him to embrace the truth by principles which you both freely acknowledge, you may fairly make use of his own prin- ciples to show him his mistake, and thus convince or silence him from his own concessions.
If your opponent should be a Stoic philosopher, or a Jew, you may pursue your argument m defence of some Christian doctrine or duty against such a disputant, by axioms or laws borrowed either from Zeno or Moses, And though you do not enter into the inquiry how ma- ny of the laws of Moses are abrogated, or whether Zeno was right or wrong in his philosophy, yet if from the principles and concessions ot your opponent, you can support your argument for the gospel of Christ, this has been always counted a fair treatment of an adver- sary, and it is called argumentum ad hominem, or ratio ex concessis. St. Paul sometimes makes use of this sort of disputation when he talks with Jews or Heathen philosophers ; and at least he silences if not convinces them, which is sometimes necessary to be done against an obstir.ate and clamorr.us adversary, that just honour might he paid to truths which he knew were divine, and that the only true doctrine of salvation might be confirmed ynd propagated among sinful and dying meiv,
XIII. Yet great care must be taken lest your de- bates break in upon your passions, and awaken them to take part in the controversy. When the opponent pushes hard, and gives just and mortal wounds to our own opinions, rur passions are very apt to feel the strokes, and to rise in resentment and defence. Sf If is so mingled with the sentiments which we have chosen, and has such a tender feeling of all the opposition which is made to them, that personal brawls are very ready to e»me; in as secoijds, to succeed and finish the dispute ot"
96 ' OF mSPliTES IN GENERAL.
opinions. Then noise and clamour and folly appear in all their shapes, and chase reason and truth cut of sight.
How unhappy is the case of frail and wretched man- kind in this dark and dusky state of strong passion and glimmering reason ! How ready are we, when our pas- sions are engaged in the dispute, to consider mdi-e what loads of nonsence and reproach we can ia> upon our opponent, than what reason and truth require in the controversy itself. Dismal are the consequences man- kind are too often involved in by this evil principle ; it is this common and dangerou's jSractice that carries the heart aside from all tliat is fair and honest in our search after truth, or the propagation of it in the world. One would wish from one's very soul, that none of the Christian fathers had been guilty of such follies as these.
But St. Jerome fairly confesses this evil jninciple, in his apology for himself to Pammachius, that he had not so much regarded what was exactly to be spoken in the controversy he had in hand, as what was fit to lay a lead on Jovinian. And indeed, I fear this was the vile custom of many of the writei's, even in the church aftairs of those times. But it will be a double scandal upon us in our more enlightened age, if we will allow ourselves in a conduct so criminal and dishonest. Hap-^ py souls, who keep such a sacred dominion over their inferior and animal powers, and all the influences of pride and secular interest, that tht sensitive tumults, or these vicious influences, never lise to disturb the superior and better operations of the reasoning niind !
XIV. These general directions are necessary, or at least useful, in all debates whatsoever, whether they arise in occasional conversation, or are appointed at any certain time or place ; whether they ai-e managed with or without any formal rules to govern them. But there are three sorts of disputatiot), in v^hich there are some forms and orders observed, and which are dis- tinguished by these three names, viz. Socratic^ Foren- sic, and Academic, i. e. the disputes of the schools.
Concerning each of these it may not be improper to discourse a little, and give a few part;- uiar directions ov remarks about thera,
SOCRATICAL DISPUTATION. 90
CHAP. XL
The Socratical Way of Disfiutation.
I. I'HIS method of dispute derives its name from Soc- rates, by whom it was practised, and by other philoso- |)hers in his age, l(Mig l>cfore Aristotle invented the par- ticular forms of syllogism in mood and figure, which are I'ow used in scliolastic disputations.
II, The Socratical way is managed by questions and answers in such a manner as th>s, viz. If I would lead a person into the belief of a heaven and a hell, or a fu- ture state of rewards and punishments, I might begin in some such manner of inquiry, and suppose the most obvious and easy answers.
Quasi. Does not God govern the world?
jins. Surely he that made it governs it
Quest. Is not God both a good and a righteous gov- ernour ?
jim. Both these characters doubtless belong to him.
Quest' What is the true notion of a good and right- eous goveniour ?
jins» That he punishes the wicked and rewards the good.
Quest. Are the good always rewarded in this life?
Jins. No surely, for many virtuous men are misera- ble here, and greatly afflicted.
Quest. Are the wicked always punished in this life ?
.^ns. No certainly, for many of them live without sorrow, and some of the vilest of men are often raised to great riches and honour.
Quest. Wherein then doth God make it appear that he is good and righteous ?
jins. I own there is but little appearance of it on earth.
Quest. Will there not be a time then when the tables shall be turned, and the scene of things changed, since God governs mankind righteously ?
j^ns. Doubtless, there must be a proper time, where- in God will make that goodness and that righteousne^ to appear.
Quest. If this be not before their death, how can it be done ?
jins. I can think of no other way but by supposing man to have some existence after tliis life.
88 SOCRATICAL DISPUTATION.
Qtiest, Are you not convinced then that there Hiust be . state rf reward and punishment alter death ?
^ns. Yes, surely, I now see plainly that the good- ness and righteousness of God, as governor of the world, necessarily require it.
Ill Now the advantages of this method are very considerable.
(1.) It represents the form of a dialogue cr common conversation,which is a much more easy,more pleasant, and a more sprightly way of instruction, and more fit to excite the attention and sharpen the penetr'-Jtion of the learner, than solitary reading, or silent attention to a lecture. Man being a social cieature, delights more in c inversation, and learns better this way, it it could always be wisely and happily practised.
(2.) This method halh something very obliging in it, and carries a very humble and condescending air, w'len he thnt instructs seems to be the inquirer, and seeks information from him who learns.
(3.) It leads the learner into the knowledge of truth as it were by his own invention, which is a very pleasing thing to human nature; and by questions pertinently and artificially proposed, it does as t ffectually draw him on to discover his own mistakes, which he is much more easily persuaded to relinquish when he seems to have discovered them himself.
(4.) It is managed in a great measure in the form of the most eas> reasoning, always arising from something asserted or known i: the foregoing answer, and so pro- ceeding to inquire something unknown in the following question, which agaiii makt s way for the next answer. Kow such an exeicise is very alluring and entertaining to the understanding, while its own reasoning powers are ail along employed ; and that without labtmr or dif- ficulty, because the querist finds nut and proposes all the interrjfi^diate ideas or middle t rms.
IV. There is a method very nearly akin to this, which has much cbtained of late, viz. writing controversies by questions only, or confinning or refuting any position, or persuading to or dehorting from any practice, by the mere proposal of queries. The answer to them is sup- posed to be so plain and so necessary, that they are not expressed, because the query itself carries a convincing argument in it, and seems to determine what the an- swer must be.
or FORENSIC DISPUTES. 99
V. If Christian catechisms could be framed in tlie manner of a Socratical dispute by question and aris>fcer, it would wonderfully eiklighten the nands of children, and it would improve their intellectual and reasoning powers, at the same time that it leads them iiito the knowledge of religion ; and it is upon one account well suited to the capacity of children ; for the questions may he pretty numerous, and the querist must not proceed teo swiftly to'vards the determination of his point pro- posed, that h:- may with more ease, with brighter evi- dence, and with surer success, draw the leari»er on to assent to those principles, step by step, from whence the final conclusion will naturally arise. The ouly incon- venience would be this, that if children were to reason out all their way, entirely into the knowledge of every part of their religion, it would draw common catechisms i nto tfw large a volume for their leisure, t^ttention, or memory.
Yet those who explain their catechisms to them may, by due application and forethought, instruct them iu this manner.
CHAP. XIT.
Of Forensic Disputes.
I. THE Forum was a public place in Rome where lawyers and orators nia-de iheir speeches before the proper judge in matters of property^ or in criminal ca- ses, to accuse or excuse, to complain or defend ; thence all sorts of disputations in public assemblies or courts of justice, where several persons make their distinct speeches for or against any person or thing whatsoever, but more especially in civil mattets, may come under the name of Forensic Disputes.
II. This is practised not only in the courts of judica- ture, where a single person sits to judge of the truth or goodness of any cause, and to determine according to the weight of reasons on either side ; Hut it is used also in poiitici*! senates or parliaments, ecclesiastical synods, and assemblies of various kinds.
In these assemblies, generally one person is chosen chaiiman or moclerat<ir, not to give a determination to the rontroversy, but chiefly to keep the several speak- ers to the rules of order and decency in their conduct ;
l(jK) OF S'ORfiNSIC DISPUTES.
but the final determination of the question arises from the majoa'itv of opinions or votes in the assembly, accord- ing as they are or ought to be swayed by the superior weight of reason appearing in the several speeches that are made.
III. The method of proceeding is usually in some such form as this. The first person who speaks whea the court is set, opens the case either more briefly or at large, and proposes the case to the judge, or the chair- man, or moderator of the assembly, and gives Ivis own, reasons for his opinion ia the case proposed.
IV. This persOTi is succeeded by one, or perhaps twe or several more, who paraphrase on the «ame subject, and ai gue on the same side of the question ; they confirm Ayhat the first has spoken, and urge new reasons to en- force the same ; then those who are of a different opin- ion stand up and make their several speeches in a suc- cession, opposing the cause which others have maintain- ed, giving their reasons against it, and eiwieavouring to refute the arguments whereby the first speakers have supported it.
V . After this, one and another rises up to make their replies, to vindicate or to condemn, to establish or to confute what has been offered before, on each side of the question ; till at last, according to tl*e rules, orders, or customs of the court or assembly, the controversy is de- cided, either by a single judge, or the suffrage of the assembly.
VI. Where the question or naatter in debate consists of si^eral parts, after it is once opened by the first oi* second speaker, sometimes those who follow take each of them a particular part of the debate, according to their inclination or their prior agreement, and apply themselves to argue upon that single point only, that so the whole complexion of the debate may not be throwa into confusion by the variety of subjects, if every speak- er should handle all the subjects of debate.
VII. Before the final sentence or determination is given, it is usual to have the reasons and arguments which have been offered on both sides, summed up and represented in a more compendious nianner y and tliLs is donf either by the appointed judge of the court, or the chairman, or some noted person iu the assembly, that so judgment may proc<eed upoa the fullest survey of thp
OP ACADEMIC DISPUTATIOI?*, 101
whole subject, that as far as possible in human affairs, nothinja; may be done contrary to truth or justicer
VII i. As this is a practice in which multitudes of gentlemei), besides tho^e of the learned professions, may be engaged, at least in their maturer years of life, so it would be a very proper and usehd thmg to introduce this custom into our academies, viz. to propose cases, and let the students debate them in a Forensic manner in the presence of their tutoi's. There was something of this kind practised L)y the Roman youth in their schools, in order to train them up for orators, both in the forum and in the senate. Perhaps Juvenal gives some hints of it when he says,
.......>.i..~..> ......n ct nos
Con^llum dedimus Syllcc^ privatus ut ultutn Dormiret.^ ^.,.^^, Sat. I .
Where with men-boys I strove to get I'eno'wn, Advising Sylla to a piivate gown, That he might sleep the sounder.
Sometimes these were assigned to the boys as single subjects of a theme or declamation ; so the same \)cet speaks sarcastically to Hannibal,
~ I deniens, et snsvas curre per Alpea,
Ut pueris placeas et declamatio Jias. Sat. 10.
Go climb the rugged Alps, ambitious fool. To pleati.' the boys, and be a theme at school.
See more of this matter in Kennet's antiquities of Rome, in the second Essay on the Roman Etlucatixjn.
CHAP. XIII. Of Academic or Scholastic Disputatiov.
THE common methods in which disputes are man-' aged in schools of learning are these, \ iz.
I. The tutor appoints a question in some of the sci- ences, to be deb tted nmongst his students ; one of them undertakf's tJ! affirm or deny the question, nml todelend his assertion or negation, and to ai^swer all objections against it ; he is called the respondent ; and the rest of the students in the Scime class, or who pursue the same scienre, are the opponent.^., who are appointed to disjjute or raise objections against tlie proposition thus affirmed or denied.
K
102 OF ACADEMIC, OR
. II. Each of the students successively in their turn becomes the respondent or the defender of that propo^ sition, while the rest oppose it also successively in their turns,
III. It is the business of the respondent to write a thesis in Latin, or short discourse on the question pro- posed ; and he either affirms or denies the question ac- coi'ding to the opinion of the tutor, which is supposed to be the truth, and he reads it at the beginning of the dispute.
IV. In his discourse, (which is written with as great accuracy as the youth is capable of) he explains the terms of the question, frees them from all ambiguity, fixes their sense, declares the true intent and meaning of the question itself, separates it from other questions with which it may have been complicated, and distin- guishes it from other questions which may happen to be akin to it, and then pronounces in the negative or af- firmative concerning it.
V. When this is done, then in the second part of his discourse he gives his own strongest arguments to confirm the proposition he has laid down, i. e. to vindicate his own side of the question ; but he does not usually pro- ceed to represent the objections against it, and to solve cr answer them ; for it is the business of the other stu- dents to raise objections in disputing.
VI. Note. In some schools the respondent is admit- ted to talk largely upon the question, with many flour- ishes and Illustrations, to introduce great authorities from ancient and modern writings for the support of it, and to scatter Latin repioaches in abundance on all those who are of a different sentiment. But this is not always permitted, nor should it indeed be ever indulg- ed, kst it teach youth to reproach, instead of reasoning.
VII. When the respondent has read over his thesis in the school, the junior student makes an objection, and draws it up m the regular form of a syllogism ; the re- spondent repeats the objection, and either denies the major or minor proposition directly, or he distinguishes upon some word or phrase in the major or minor, and shows in what sense the proposition may be true, but that sense does not affect the question ; and then de- clares that m the sense which affects the present ques- tion, the proposition is not true, and consequently he de- nies it.
' SCHOLASTIC DIBFOTATION. 103
VIII. Then the opponent proceeds by another syllo- gism to vindicate the proposition that is denied ; again the respondent answers by denying or distiv guishing.
Thus the disputation goes on in a series or succession of syllogisms and answers, till the objector is silencedi and has no more to say.
IX. When he can go no further, the next student lie- gins to propose his objection, and then the third and the fourth, even to the senior, who is the last opponent.
X. During this time, the tutor sits in the chair as . president or moderator, to see that the rules of dispu- tation and decency be observed on both sides ; and to admonish each disputant of any irregularity in their conduct. His work is also to illustrate and explain the answer or distinction of the respondent where it is ob- scure, to strengthen it where it is weak, and to correct it where it is false ; and wh^ the respondent is pinch- ed with a strnog objection, aflci is at a loss for an answer, the moderator assists him, and suggests some answer to the objection of the opponent, in defence of the question, according to his own opinion or sentiment.
XI. In public disputes, where the opponents and re- spondents choose their own side of the question, the moderator's work is not to favour either disputant ; but he only sits as president, to see that the laws of dispu- tation be observed, and a decorum maintained.
XII. Now the laws of disputation jrelate either to the opponent, or to the respondent, or to both.
The laws obliging the opponent are these :
1. That he must directly contradict the proposition of the respondent, and not merely attack any of the ar- guments whereby the respondent has supported that proposition ; for it is one thing to confute a single argu- ment of the respondent, and another to confute the the- sis itself.
2. (Which is akin to the former.) He must contra- dict or oppose the very sense and intention of the prop- osition as the respondent has stated it, and not merely oppose the words of the thesis in any other sense ; for this would be the way to plunge the dispute into ambi- guity and darkness, to talk beside the question, to wran- gle about words, and to attack a proposition different Irom what the respondent has espoused, which is called ignoratio elenchi.
3. He must propose his argumenta in a plain, short,
104 OF ACADEMIC, OR
and syllogrstic fornrj, according to the rules of logic, with- out flying to fallacies or sophisms ; and as far as may- be, he should use categorical syllogisms.
4. Though the respondeit may be attacked either upon a point of his own concessicm, which is called ar- gumcntum ex concessifi, or by reducing him to an ab- surdity, which is called reductio ad ubsurdum^ yet it is the neatest, the most useful, and the best sort of dispu- tation, where the opponent draws his objections from the nature of the question its. If.
5. Where the respondent denies any proposition, the opponent, if he proceed, must directly vindicate and confirm that proposition, i. e. he must make that prop- osition the conclusion of his .next syllogism.
6. \^^li£re tlie respondent limits or distinguishes any propositicm, the opponent must directly prove his own proposition in that sense, And according te that member of the distinction in whiclwhe respondent denied it.
XIII. The laws that oblige the respondent are these :
1. To repeat the argument pf the opponent in the very same words in which it was proposed, before be attempts to answer it.
2. If the syllogism be false in the logical form of it, he must discover the fault according to the rules of logic.
3. If the argument does not directly and effectually oppose his thesis, he must show this mistake, and make it appear that his thesis is safe, even though the argu- ment of the opponent be admitted ; or at least, that the argument does only aim at it collaterally, or at a dis- tancei and not directly overthrow it, or conclude against it.
4. Where the matter of the opponent's objection is faulty in any part of it, the respondent must grant what is true in it, he must deny what is false, he must distin- guish or limit the proposition which is ambiguous or doubtful ; and then, granting the sense in which it is true, he must deny the sense in which it is false.
5. If a hypothetiic proposition be false, the respond- ent must deny the consequence; if a disjunctive, he must de!>y the disjunction ; if a categoric or relative, he must simply deny it.
6. It is sometimes allowed for the respondent to use an indirect answer after he has answered directly ; and he may also show how the opponent's argument may be retorted against himself.
SCHOLASTIC DISPUTATION. 106
XIV. The laws that oblige both disputants are these.
1. Sometimes it is necessai7 there should be a men- tion of certain general principles, in which they both agree, relating to the question, that so they may not dis- pute on those things which either are or ought to have been first granted on both sides.
2. When the state of the controversy is well known, and plainly deteniiined and agreed, it must not be al- tered by either disputant in the course of the disputa- tion ; and the respondent cspfrcially should keep a watchful eye on the opponent, in this matter.
3. Let neither party invade the f)rovince of the other ; especially let the respondent take heed that he does not turn opponent, except in retorting the argument up- on his adversary after a direct response ; and even this is allowed only as an illustration or confirmation of his own response.
4. L^t each wait with patience till the other has done speaking. It is a piece of rudeness to interrupt another in his speech.
Yet though the disputants have not this liberty, the moderator may do it, when either of the disputants break the rules, and he may interpose so far as to keep them in order.
XV. It must be confessed, there are some advanta- ges to be attained by academical disputations. It gives vigour and briskness to the mind thus exercised, and relieves the languor of private study and meditation. It sharpens the wit and all the inventive powers. It makes the thoughts active, and sends them on all sides to find arguments and answers both for opposition and defence. It gives opportunity of viewing thel subject of discourse on all sides, and of learning what inconveniences, difficul- ties, and objections, attend particular opinions. It fur- nishes the soul with various occasions of starting such thoughts as otherwise would never have come into the mind. It makes a student more expert in attacking and refuting an error, as well as in vindicating a truth. It instructs the scholar in the various methods of ward- ing off the force of objections, and of discovering and re- felling the subtle tricks of sophisters. It procures also a freedom and readiness of speech, and raises the mod- est and diffident genius to a due degree of courage.
XVI. But there are some very grievous inconvenien- ces that may sometimes overbalance all these advanta-
K 2
106 OF ACADEMIC, OR
ges. For many young students, by a constant habit of disputing, grow impudent and audacious, proud ani disdainful, talkative and impertinent, and render them- selves intolerable by an obstinate humour of maintaining whatever they have asserted, as well as by a spirit of contradiction, opposing almost every thing that they hear. The disputation itself often awakes the passions (rf ambition, emulation, and anger ; it carries away the mind from that calm and sedate temper which is so necessary to contemplate truth.
XVII. It is evident also, diat by freguent exercises of this sort, wherein opinions true and false are argued, supported, and refuted, on both sides, the mind of man is led by insensible degrees to an uncertain and fluctuat- ing temper, and falls into danger of a skeptical humour, which never comes to an establishment in any doctrines. Many persons by these means become much more ready to oppose whatsoever is offered in searching out truth ; they hardly wait till they have read or heard the senti- ment of any person, before their heads are busily em- ployed to seek out arguments against it. They grow naturally sharp in finding out difficulties ; and by in- dulging this humour, they converse with the dark and doubtful parts of a subject so long, till they almost render themselves incapable of receiving the full evidence ot a proposition and acknowledging the light of truth. It has some tendency to make a youth a carping critic, rather than a judicious man.
XVIII. I would add yet further, that in these dispu- tations the respondent is generally appointed to main- tain the supposed truth, that is, the tutor's opinion. But all the opponents are busy and warmly engaged in find- ing arguments against the truth, Now if a sprightly young genius happens to manage his argument so well as to puzzle and gravel the respondent, and perhaps to perplex the moderator a little too, he is S(X)n tempted to suppose his argument unanswerable, and the truth entirely to lie on his side. The pleasure which he takes in having found a sophism which has great appearance of reason, and which he himself has managed with such success, becomes perhaps a strong prejudice to engage his inward sentiments in favour of his argument, and in opposition to the supposed truth.
XiX. Yet perhaps it may be possible to reduce scho- laiitic disputations imder such a guard as may in some
SCHOLASTIC filBPUTATION, \(i1
i[neasure prevent most of these abuses of them, and the unhappy events that too often attend them ; for it is a pity that an exercise which has some valuable benefits attending it should be utterly thrown away, if it be pos- sible to secure young minds against the abuse of it ; for which purpose, some of these directions may seeni proper : XX. General directions for scholastic disputes.
1. Never dispute upon mere trifles, things that arc utterly useless to be known, under a vain pretence of sharpening the wit ; for the same advantage may be de- rived from solid and useful subjects, and thus two hap- py ends may be attained at once. Or if such disputa- tions are always thought dangerous in important mat- ters, let them be utterly abandoned.
2. Do not make infinite and unsearchable things the matter of dispute, nor suchpropositibns as are made ui> of mere words without ideas, If st it lead young persons into a most unhappy habit of talking without a meaning, and boldly to determine upon things that are hardly within the reach of human capacity.
3. Let not obvious and known truths, or some of the most plain and certain propositions be bandied about in a disputation, for a mere trial of skill; for he that op- poses them in this manner will be in danger of contract- ing a habit of opposing all evidence, will acquire a spirit of contradiction, and pride himself in the power of resist- ing the brightest light, and fighting against the strong- est proofs ; this will insensibly, injure the mind, and tends greatly to an universal skepticism.
Upon the whole, therefore, the most proper subjects of dispute seem to be, those questions which are not of the very highest importance and certainty, nor of the meanest and trifling kind ; but rather the intermediate questions between these two; and there is a large suf- ficiency of them in the sciences. But this I put as a mere proposal, to be determined by the n^ore learned and prudent.
4 It would be well if every dispute could be so order- ed as to be a means of searching out truth, and not to gain a triumph. Then each disputant niigla come to the work without bins and prejudice, with a desire of truth, and not with ambition of glory and victory.
Nor should the aim and design of tlie disjJutkrit be to avoid arttuUy and escape the difficulties which the op-
108 OE ACADEMIC, OR
ponent offers, but to discuss them thoroughly, and solve thfm fairly, f thev are capable of being solved.
Again, Jet the opponent be solicitous not to darken and confound the responses that are given him by fresh subtilties; but let him bethink himself whether^they are not a just answer to the objection, and be honestly ready to perceive and accept them, and yield to them. '
5.' For this end, letbcth the respondent and opponent use the clearest and most distinct and expressive lan- guage in which they can clothe their thoughts. Let them seek and practise brevity and perspicuity on both sides, without long declamations, tedious ciixumlocu- tions, and rhetorical flourishes.
If there happens to be any doubt or obscurity on either side, let neither the one nor the other ever refuse to give a fair explication of the words they use.
6. They should not indulge ridicule, either of persc»s or things, in their disputatious. They should abstain from all banter and jest, laughter and merriment. These are things that break in upon that philosophical gravity, sedateness and serenity of temper, which ought to be observed in every search after truth. However an argument on some subjects may be sometimes clothed with a little pleasantry, yet a jest or witticism should never be used instead of an argument, nor should it ev- er be suffered to pass for a real and solid proof.
But especially if the subject be sacred or divine, and have nothing in it comical or ridiculous, all ludicrous turns, and jocose or coiviical airs, should be entirely ex- cluded, lest young minds become tinctured with a silly ard prtfan^ sort (■{ ridicule, and learn to jest and trifle with the awful solemnities of religion.
7. Nor should sarcasm and reproach, or insolent lan- guage, ever be used among fair disputants. Turn not off' ivoTt} things to speak of persons. Leave all noisy con- tests, all immodest clamours, brawling language, and especially all personal scandal and scurrility to the meanest part of the vulgar world. Let your manner be all candour and gentleness, patient and ready to hear, hunbly zealous to inform and be informed ; you should be free and j)leasant in every answer and behaviour, rather like well bred gentlemen in polite conversation, than like noisy and contentious wranglers.
8. If the opponent sees victory to incline to his side, let him be cuntent to show the force of his argument tq
SCHOLASTIC DISPUTATION. lOd
die intelligent part of the company, with too importu- nate nnd petulent demands of an answer, and without insulting over his antagonist, or putting the mcidesty of t^ respondent to the blush. Nor let the respondent triumph over the opponent when he is silent and replies no more. On which side soever victory declares kself, let neither of them manasre with such unpleasii^ aiid insolent airs, as to awaken those evil passions of pride, anger, shame, or res'^ntment, on either side, wliich alienate the mind from truth, render it obstinate in the defence of an error, and never suffer it to part with any of its old opinions^
In short, when truth evidently appears on either side, let them learn to yield to conviction. W\^n either paiN- ty is at a nonp'us^ let them confess the difficulty, and desire present assistance, or farther time and retirement to consider of the matter, and not rack their present invention to find out little shifts to avoid the fca-ce and evidence of truth.
9. Might it not be a fairer practice, in order to attain the best ends of disputation, and to avoid some of the. ill effects of it, if the opponents were sometimes engag- ed on the side of truth, and produced their arguments in opposition to error? And what if the respondent was appointeil to support the error, and defend it as well as he could, till he was forced to yield, at least to those ar- guments of the opponent which apj>ear to be really just, and strong, and unanswerable?
In this practice the thesis of the respondent should only be a fair stating of the question, with some of the chief objections against the truth proposed ai.d solved.
Perhaps this practice mightnot so easily be perverted and abused to raise a cavilling, disputative, and skeptic- al temper in the minds of youtru
I confess, in this method which I now propose, there would be one amongst the students, viz. the respondent, always engaged in the support of supposed error; but all the rest would be exercising their talents in arguing for the supposed truth ; whereas, in the common meth- ods of disputation in the schools, especially where the students are numerous, each single student is perpetu- ally employed to oppose the truth, and vindicate error, except once in a long time, when it comes to his turn to be respondent.
10. Upon the whole, it seems necessary that these
110 OF STUDY, OR MEDITATION.
methods of disputation should be learned in the schools, in order to teach students better to defend truth, and to re- fute error, both in writing and conversation, where the scholastic forms are utterly neglected. .
But after all, the advantage which youth may gaSb by disputation depends much on the tutor or moderator ; he should manage with such prudence, both in the disputation and at the end of it, as to make all the dis- putants know the very point of controversy wherein it consists ; he should manifest the fallacy of sophistical, objections, and confirm the solid arguments and answers. This might teach students how to make the art of dispu- tation useful for the searching out the truth and the de- fence of it, that it may not be learned and practised on- ly as an art of wrangling, which reigned in the schools several hundred years,and divested the growing reason of youth of its best hopes and improvements.
CHAP. XIV.
Of Study y or Meditation,
I. IT has beeii proved and established in some of the foregoing chapters, that neither our own observa- tions, nor our reading the labours of the learned, nor the attendance on the best lectuves of instruction, nor enjoy- ing the brightest conversation, can ever make a man truly knowing and wise, without the labours of his own reason in surveying, examining, and judging, concerning all subjects, upon the best evidence he can acquire. A good genius, or sagacity of thought, a happy judgment, a capacious memory, and large opportunities of observa- tion and converse, will do much of themselves t( ward the cultivation of the mind, where they are well improv- ed ; but where, to the advantage of learned lectures, living instructions, and well chosen books, diligence and study are superadded, this man has all human aids con- curring to raise him to a superior degree of wisdom and knowledge.
Under the preceding heads of discourse, it has been already decl^iredhow our own meditation and reflection should examine, cultivate, and improve, all other meth- ods and advantages of enrichine: tne understandihg. What remains in this chapter, is to give some further
OF STUDY, OR MBDITATIOW, 111
occasional hints how to employ our own thoughtSj what sort of subjects we should meditate on,and in what man- ner we should regulate our studies, and how we may- improve our judgment, so as in the most effectual and compendious way to attain such knowledge as may be most useful for every man in his circumstances of life, and particularly for those of the learned professions.
II. The first direction for youth is this, learn betimes to distin>;uish between words and things. Get clear and. plain ideas of the things you are set to study. Do not content yourselves with mere words and names, lest your laboured improvements only amass a heap of unin- telligible phrases, and you teed upon husks instead of kernels. This rule is of unknown use in every science.
But the greatest and most common danger, is in the sacred science of theology, where settled terms and phrases have b^en pronounced divine and orthodox, which yet have had no meaning in them. The scholas- tic divinity would furnish us with numerous instances of this folly ;' and yet for many ages, all truth and all her- esy have been determined by such senseless tests, and by words without ideas ; such Shibboleths as these have decided the secular fates of men ; and bishoprics, or burnings mitres, or faggots have been the rewards of different persons, according as they pronounced these consecrated syl.'ables, or not pronounced them. To de- fend them was all piety, and pomp, and triumph ; to despise them, to doubt or deny them, was torture and death. A thousand thank offerings are due to that Prov- idence, which has delivered our age and our nation from these absurd iniquities! O that every specimen and shadow of this madness were banished from ourscliools and churches in every shape !
III. Let not young students apply themselves to search out deep, dark, and abstruse matters, far above their reach, or spend their labour in any peculiar sub- jects, for which they have not the advantages of neces- sary antecedent learning, or books, or observations.. Let them not be too hasty to know things above their present powers, nor plunge their bquiries at once into the depths of knowledge, nor begin to study any science in the mid- dle of it ; this will confound rather than enlighten the understanding ; such practices may happen to discour- 'age and jade the mind by an attempt above its power, it may baviUt the understanding, and create a\x aversion
112 OF STUDY, OR BIEDITATIOK-.
to future diligence, and perhaps by despair may forbid the pursuit of that subject forever afterwards ; as a limb overstrained by lifting a weight above its power, may never recover its former agility and vigour ; or if it does, the man may be frighted from ever exerting its strength again.
IV. Nor yet let any student, on the other hand, fright himself at every turn with insurmountable difficulties, nor imagine that the truth is wrapt op in impenetruble darkness. These are formidable spectres which the understanding raises sometimes to natttr its own lazi- ness. Those things which, in a remote and confused view, seem very obscure and perplexed, may be af>- proached by gentle and regular steps, and may then unfold and explain themselves at large to the eye. The hardest problems in geometry, and the most intricat© schemes or diagrams, may be explicated and under- stood, step by step ; every great mathematician bears a constant witness to this observation.
V. In learning any new thing, there should be as little as pc»sible first proposed to the mind at once, and that being understood and fully mastered, proceed then to the next adjoining part yet unknown. This is a slow, but safe and sure way to arrive at knowledge. If the mind apply itself at first to easier subjects, and things near akin to what is already known, and then advance to the more remote and knotty parts of knowledge by slow degn es, it would be able in this manner to cope with great difficulties, and prevail over them^vith ama- zing and happy success.
Mathon happened to dip into the two last chapters of anew book of geometry and mensurations ; as soon as he saw it, and was frighted with the complicated dia- grams which he found there,ab(iut the frustums of cones and pyramids,&:c. and some deep demonstr, tions among conic sections ; he shut the book again in desijah*, and imagined none but Sir Isaac Newton was ever fit to read it. But his tutor hapj>ily persuaded him to begin the first pages about lines andangles, and he found such suq^rising pleasure in three weeks time ia the victories he daily obtained, that at last he became one of the ciiief geometers of his age.
VI. Engage not the mind in the intense pursuit of too many things at once ; especially such as have no re- lation to Qfie anothor. This will be ready to distract the
OE STUDY, OR MKDITATlOlff. 113
understanding, and hinder it frdhi attaining perfectioa in any one subject of studv^ Such a practice gives a slight srtlHttering of several sciences, without any solid and substantial knowledge of them, and without any- real and ralaable improvement ; and though two or three sorts ot study may be usually carried on at once, to entertain the mind with variety, that it may not be over tired with one sort of thoughts ; yet a multitude of subjects will too much distract the attention, and weakens the application of the mind to any one of them.
Where two or three sciences are pursued at the same time, if one of them be dry, abstracted, and unpleasant, as logic, metaphysics, law, languages, let aaother be more entertaining and agreeable, to secure the mind from wearint- ss, and aversion to study. Delight should be intermingled with labour as far as possible, to allure us to bear the fatigue of dry studies the better. Poetry, practical mathematics, history, &c. are generally es- teemed enteruiining studies, and may be happily used for this purpose. Thus while we relieve a dull at.d heavy hour by some alluring employments of the mind; our very divet sions enrich our understandings, and our pleasure is turned into profit.
VII. In the pursuit of every valuable subject of knowl- edge, keep the end always in your eye, and be not di- verted from it by every petty trifl# you meet with in the way. Some persons hnve such a wandering genius, that they are ready to pursue every incidental theme or oc- casional idea, till they have lost sight of their original subject. These a,re the men who, when they are en- gaged in conversation, prolong their story by dwelling on every incident,and swell their narrative with long pa- rentheses, till they have lost their first design ; like a man who is sent in quest of some great treasure, but he steps aside to gather every flower he finds, or stands still to dig up every shining pebble he meets with in his way, till the treasure is forgotten and never found.
VIII. Exert your care, skill, and diligence, about every subject and every question, in a just proportion to the imjKirtance of it, together with the danger and bad consequences of ignorance and error therein. Many excellent advantages flow from this o.e direction.
1. This rule will teach you to be very careful in gain- ing some general, and fundamental truths in philosophy, in i-eligion, tuid in human life ; because they aralbf ther
114 OF STWDT, OR MEDITATIOW.
highest moment, and conduct our thoughts with into a thousand inferior and particular propositions. Such is that great principle in natural philo§<!Jphy. the doctrine of gravitation, or mutual tendency of all bodies towards each other,* which Sir Isaac Newton has S6 well established, and from which he has drawn the so- lution of a multitiuie of appearances in the heavenly bodies as well as on earth.
Such is that golden principle of morality which our blessed Lord has given us, *' Do that to others which you think just and reasonable that others should do to you ; " which is almost sufficient in itself to solve all cases of eonscience which relate to our neighbour.
Such are those principles in religion, that a rational creature is accountable to his Maker for all his actions ; that the soul of man is immortal; that there is a future state of happiness and of misery depending on our be- haviour in the present life, on which all our religious practices are built or supported.
We should be veiT curious in examining all proposi- tior^s that pretend to this honour of being general prin- ciples ; and we should not without just evidence admit into this rank mere matters of common fame, or com- monly received opinions; no, nor the general determin- ations of the learne(;jp or the established articles of any church or nation, &c. for there are many learned pre- sumjjtions, many synndical and national mistakes, ma- ny established falsehoods, as well as many vulgar er- rors, wherein multitudes of men have followed one another for whole ages almost blindfold. It is of great importance for every man to be careful that these gen- eral principles are just and true ; for one error may lead us into thousands, which will naturally follow, if once a leading falsehood be admitted.
2. This rule will direct us to be more earefiil about practical points than mere speculations, since they are commonly of much greater use and consequence ; there- fore the speculations of algebra, the doctrine of infinities, and the cfuadrature of curves in mathametical learning, together with all the train of theorems in natural phi- losophy^ should by no means intrench upon our studies of morality and virtue. Even in the science of divinity itself, the sublimest speculations of it are not of that worth and valuCj as the role& of duty towards God and to*Wafds Tti&t,
0» STUDY, OR MEDITATION. 1 IS
3. la matters of practice we should be most careful to fix our end right, aud wisely determine the scope at \ whicli we aim ; because that is to direct us in the choice and use of all the medne to attain it. if our cud be wrojig, all our labour ia the means will be vain, or per- haps so much the more perLicious, as they are better suited to attain that mistaken end. If mere sensible pleasure, or human grandeur, or wealth, be our chief eod, we shall choose means contrary to piety and vir- tue, and proceed apace towards real mi«ry.
4. This rule will engage ciu* best povv ers ard deepest attention in the affairs of religion, and thiigs that relate to a future world; for those proposiiion.s which extend only to the interest of the present life, are but of small importance when compared with those that have influ- ence upon our everlasting concernments.
5. Aodeven in the affairs of r*= ligion, it we walk by the conduct of this rule, we shall be ipuch more laborious in our inquiries into the necessary and fundan-entf 1 arti- cles of faith and practice, than the lesser appendices of Christianity. The doctrines of repentance towards God, faith in our Lord Jesus Christ, with love to men, and uni- versal holiness, will employ our best and brightest hours and meditations ; while the mint, anise, and cummin, the gestures, vestures, and fringes uf religion, will be re- garded no further than they have a plain and eviuent connex'on with faith and love, with holiness and peace.
6. This rule will make us solicitous not only to avoid such errors, whose influence will spread wide into the whole scheme of our own knowledge and practice, but such mistakes also whose influence weald be yet more extensive and injurious to others, as well as to ourselves ; perhaps to many persons or many families; to a whole church, a town, a country, or a kingdom. Upon this account, persons who are called to instruct others, who are raised to any eminence either in church or state, ought to be careful in settling their principles in matters relating to the civil, the m^ral, or the religious life, lest a mistake of theirs should diffuse wide mischief, should draw along with it most pernicious consequences, and perhaps extend to following generations.
These are some of the advantageswhich arise from the eighth rule, viz. Pursue every inquiry and study in proportion to its real value and importance.
IX. Have a care lest some belored notion, or some
116 OF STUDY, OR MEDITATION.
dariing science, so far prevail over your mind, as to give a sovereign tincture to ill your other studies, and dis- colour all yrur ideas; like a person in the Jaundice, who spreads a yellow seme with his eyes over all tlie objects whicU he meef s. I have known a man of peculiar skill in \ousic, and much devoted to that science, who found out a great resemblance of the Athanasian doctiine of the Triiiity in every single note, and he thought it car- ried something of argument in it to prove the dnctrine. I have read of another, who accommodated the seven days of the first week of creation to seven notes of music, and thus the whole creation became harmonious.
Under this influence, derived from mathematical stu- dies, some have been tempted to cast all their logical, their metaphysical, and their theological, and moral learning-nnto the method of mathematicians, and bring every thing relating to those abstracted, or those prac- tical scfences, under theorems, problems, postulates, scholiums, corollaries, &c. whereas the matter ought always to direct the method ; for all subjects or matters of thought, cannot be moulded or s\ibdued to one form. Neither the rules for the conduct of the understanding, nor the doctrines nor the duties of religion and virtue, can be exhibited naturally in figures and diagrams. Things are to be considered as they are in themselves ; their natures are infleKible, and their natural relations unalterable ; and therefore, in order to conceive them aright, we must bring our understandings to things,and not pretend to bend and strain things to conjport with our fancies and forms.
X. Suffer not any beloved study to prejudice your tnmd so far in favour of it as to despise all other learn- ing. This is a fault of some little souls, who have got a smattering of astronomy, chemistry, metaphysics, his- tor\ , &c. and for want of a due acquaintance with other sciences, make a so ff . t them all in comparison of their favourite science. Theif ut derstandings are hereby cooped up in narrow bounds, si thnttbey never look a- broad into "rherprovintesof the intellectual world ,wliich are more be .utiful perhaps, and mort fruitful than their own ; if ihey W'uld sean h a little into other sciences, they might not' only find treasures of new knowledge, but might be funsished also with rich hints of thought, and gloj'ious rssistaiices, to cultivate that very province to which they have confined themselves.
oe s;rDD¥, or meditation. IIV
Here I would always give some grains of allowance to th6 sacred science of tlieology, which is incomparably- superior to all the rest, as it teaches us the knowledge of God, and the way to his eternal favour. This is that noble study which is every man's duty, and every one who can be called a rational creature is capable of it. This is that science which would truly enlarge the minds of men, were it studied with that freedom, that unbias- sed love of truth, and that sacred charity which it teach- es ; and if it were not made, contrary to its own nature, the occasion of strife, faction, malignity, a narrow spirit, and unreasonable impositions on the mind and practice. Let this, therefore, stand always chief.
XI. Let every particular study have due and proper time assigned it, and let not a favourite science prevail with you to lay out such hours upon it, as ought to be employed upon the more necessary and more impontanf affairs or studies of your professicn. When you have, according to the best of your discretion, and according; to the circumstances of your lite, fixed proper hours for particular studies, endeavour to keep to those rules ; not indeed with a superstitious preciseness, but with some good degrees of a regular constancy. Order and method in a course of study saves much time, and makes large improvements ; such a fixation of certain hours will have a happy influence to secure you from trilling and wasting away yo'ir minutes in impertinence,
XII. Do not apply yourself to any one study at one time longer than the mind is capable of giving a close attention to it without weariness or wandering. Uo not over- fatigue the spirits at any time, lest the mind be seized with a lassitude, and thereby be tempted to nau- seate and grow tired of a particular subject before you have finished it.
XIII. In the beginning of your application to any new subject be not too uneasy under present difficulties that occur, nor too importunate and impatient for answers and solutions to any questions that arise. Perhaps a little more study, a little further acquaintance with the sub- ject, a little time andexperience, will solve those diSi' culties, untie the knot, and make your doubts vanish ; especially if you are under the instruction of a tutor, he can inform you that your itiquiries are perhaps too early, and that you have not yet learned those principles upQ.n wliich the solution of such a dijficulty depends,
I^ 2
118 OF STUDY, OR MEDITATION,
XIV. Do not expect to art-jve at certainty in every subject which you pursue. There are a hundred things wherein we mortals in this dark and imperfect state must be content with probability, where our best light and reasonmgs will reach no further. We must balance larguments as justly as we can, and where we cannot iind weight enough on either side to determine the scale with sovereign force and assurance, we must content ourselves perhaps with a small preponderation. This will give us a probable opinion, and those probabilities are sufficient ff)r the daily determination of a thousand actions in human life, and many times even in matters of religion.
It is admirably well expressed by a late writer, "^* When there is a great strength of argument set before us, if we will refuse to do what appears most fit for us. Vmtil every little objection be removed, we shall never take one wise resolution as long as we live."
Suppose I bad been honestlv and long searching what religion I should choose, and yet I could not find thai the arguments in defence of Christianity arose to com- plete certainty, but went only so far as to give me a probable evidence of the truth of it ; though niany diffir culties still remained, yet I should think myself obliged to receive and practise that religion ; for the God ot nature and reason has bound us to assent, and act ac- cording to the best evidence we have, even though it be not absolnte and complete; and as he is our supreme Judge, his abounding goodness and equity will approve and acquit the man whose conscience honestly and wilr lingly seeks the best light, and obeys it as far as he can discover it.
But in matters of great importance in religion, let him ^oin all due diligence with earnest and humble prayer for divine aid in his inquiries ; such prayer and such diligence as eternal concerns rt quire, and such as he mriy plead with courage before the Jfdge of all.
XV. Endeavour to apply every speculative study, as tar as possible, to some practical use, that both your- self and others may be the better for it. Inquiries eveii in natural philosopfiy should not \ye mere amusements, and much less in the affairs of religion. Researches into the springs of natural bodies and their moticns should lead men to invent happy methods for the ease and con- venience of human life ; or at least they should be m^
OE STUDY, OR MEDITATION. 119
proved to awaken us to admire the wondrous wisdom and contrivance otGod our Creator ,in all the works of nature.
If we pursue mathematical speculations, they will in- ure us to attend closely to any subject, to seek and gain clear ideas, to distinguish truth from falsehood, to judge justly, and to argue strongly ; and these studies do more directly furnish us with all the various rules of those uselul arts oihfe, vi?. measuring, building, sailing, 8cc,
Even our inquiries and dlsputi'tjons about vacuum or space, and atoms, about incommensurable quantities, and infinite divisibility of matter, and eternal duration, which seem to be purely speculative, will show us some good practical lessons, will lead us to see the weakness of our nature, and should teach us humility in arguing upon diviiie subjects and matters of sacred revelation. This should guard us against rejecting any doctrine which is expressly and evidently revealed, though we cannot fully understand it. It is good sometimes to lose and bewilder ourselves in such studies for this very rea- son, and to attain this practical advantage, this improve- tnent in true modesty of spirit.
XVI. Though we should always be ready to change our sentiments of things upon just conviction of their falsehood yet there is not the same necessity of chang- ing our accustomed m.ethcds of reading, or study and practice, even though we have not been led at first into the happiest method. Our thoughts may be true, though we may have hit upon an improper order of thinking. Truth does not always depend upon the most convenient method. There may be a certain form and order in which we have long accustomed ourselves to range our ideas and notions, which may be best for us now, though it was not originally best in itself. The inconveniences of changing may be much greater than the conveniences we could obtain by a new method.
As for instance ; if a man in his younger days has ranged all his sentiments in theology in the method of Ames's Medulla Theologix, or Bishop Usher's Body of Divinity, it may be much more natural and easy for him tct*fcontinue to dispose all his further acquirements in the same order, though perhaps neither of those trea- tises are in themselves written in the most perfect method. So when we have long fixed our cases of shelves in a library, and ranged our books in any par- ncular order, viz. according to their languages, or ac-*
120 OF rfXING THE ATTENTIOBT,
cording to their subjects, or according to the alphabet- ical names of the authors, &c. we are perfectly well ac- quainted with the order in which they now stand, and we can find any particular book which we seek, or add a new book which we have purchased, with much great- er ease than we can do in finer cases of shelves, where the books ranged in any different manner whatso- ever, any different position of the volumes would be new, and strange, and troublesome to us, and would not countervail the inconveniences of a change.
So if a man of forty years old has been taught to hold his pen awkwardly in his youth, and yet writes suffi- ciently well for all the purposes of his station, it is not worth while to teach him now the most accurate meth- ods of handling that instrument ; for this would create him more trouble without equal advantage, and per- haps he might never attain to write better after he has placed his fingers perfectly right with this new accuracy.
CHAP. XV. Of fixing the Attention,
A STUDENT should labour, by all proper methods, to acquire a steady fixation of thought. Attention is a very necessary thing in order to improve our minds. The evidence of truth does not always appear immedi- ately, nor strike the soul at first sight. It is by long at- tention and inspection that we arrive at evidence, and it is for want of it we judge falsely of many things. We make haste to determine upon a slight and a sudden view, we confirm our guesses which arise from a glance, we pass a judgment while we have but a confused or obscure perception, and thus plunge ourselves into mis- takes. This is like a man, who walking in a mist, or being at a great distance from any visible object, (sup- pose a tree, a man, a horse, or a church,) judges much amiss of the figure and situation and colours of it, and sometimes takes one for the other ; whereas, if he would but withhold his judgment till he came nearer to it, or stay till clearer fight comes, and then would fix his eyes longer upon it, he would secure himself from those mis- takes.
Now, in order to gain a greater fecility of attention, we may observe these rules ;
OF FIXING THE ATTENTION. 121
L Get a good liking to the study of knowledge you would pursue. We may observe, that there is not much difficulty in confining the mind to contemplate what we have a great desire to know ; and especially if they are matters of sense, or ideas which paint themselves upon the tancy. It is but acquiring an hearty good will and i-esolution to search out and survey the various proper- ties and parts of such objects, and our attention will be engaged, if there be any deiighi or diversion in the study or contemplation of them. Tlierefore mathematical studies have a strange influence towards fixing the at- tention of the<riind, and giving a steadiness tu a wander- ing disposition, because they deal much in lines, figures, and numbers ; which affect and please the sense and imagination. Histories have a strong tendency the same way, for they engage the soul by a variety of sensible occurrences ; when it hath begun, it knows not how to leave off; it longs to know the final event* through a natural curiosity that beloiigs to mankind. Voyages and travels, and accounts of strange countries and strange appearances, will assist in this work . This sort of study detains the mind by the perpetual occurrence and expectation of something new, and that which may gratefully strike the imagination.
II. Sometimes we may make use of sensible things and corporeal images for the illustration of those notions which are more abstracted and inteliectual. Therefore diagrams greatly assist the miad in astronomy and phi- losophy ; and the emblems of virtues and vices may happily te^ich children, aqd pleasingly impress those useful moral ideas on young minds, which perhaps mi^t b ^ conveyed to them with much more difficulty by mere moral rnd abstracted discourses.
I confess, in this practice of representing moral sub- jects by pictures, we should be cautious lest we so far immerse the mind in corporeal images, as to render it unfit to take in ^n abstracted and intellectual idea, or cause it to form wrong conceptions of immaterial things. This practice, therefore, is rather to be used at first in order to get a fixed habit of attention, and in some cases only ; but it can never be our constant way and method of pursuing all moral, abstracted, and spiritual themes.
Ill: Apply yourself to those studies, and read those authors who draw out their subjects into a perpetual chain of connected reasonings, wherein the following
122. OS FIXIITG THE ATTENTION.
parts of the discourse are naturally and easily derived from those which go before. Several of the mathemat- ical sciences, if not all, are happily useful for ttiis pur- pose.^ Tliis will render the labour of study delightful to a rational mind, and will fix the pow ers of the under- standing with strong attention to their proper operatjons by. the very pleasure of it. Labor ipse voluptas^ is a happy proposition, wheres(«ver it can be applied.
IV. Do not choose your constant place of study by the finery of the prospects, or the most various and en- tertaining scenes of sensible things. Too much light, or a variety of objects which strike the eye, or the ear, es- pecially while they are ever in motion, or often chang- ing, have a natural and powerful tendency to steal away the mind too often from its steady pursuit of any subject which we contemplate; and thereby the soul gets a habit of silly curiosity and impertinence, of trifling and wandering. Vagario thought himself furnished with the best closet for his study among the beauties,gaieties, and diversions of Kensington or Hampton Court ; but after seven years professing to pursue learning, he was a mere novice still.
V. Be not in too much haste to come to the determi- nation of a difficult or important point. Think it worth your waiting to find out truth. Do not give your assent up to either side of a question too soon, merely on this account, that the study of it is long and difficult. Rath- er be contented with ignorance for a season, and contin- ue in suspense till your attention, and meditation, and due labour, have found out sufficient evidence on one sMe. Some are so fond to know a great deal at once, and love to talk of things with freedom and boldness be- fore they truly understand them, that they scarcely ever allow themselves attention enough to search the matter through and through.
VI. Have a care of indulging the njore sensual pas- sions and appetites of animal nature * they are great enemies to attention. Let not the mind of a student be under the influence of any warm affection to things cf sense, when he comes to engage in the search of truth or the improvement of his understanding. A person under the power of love, or fear, or anger, great pain, or deep sorrow, hath so little government of his soul, that he can- not keep it attentive to the proper subject of his medi- tation. The passions call away the thoughts with in-
CAPACITT op the MIHD. ISB
cessant impoi'tunity towards the object that excited them ; and if we indulge the frequent rise and roving of passions, we shall thereby procure an unsteady and inattentive habit of nnind.
Yet this one exception must be admitted, viz. If we can be so happy as to engage any passion of the soul on the side of the particular study which we are pursuing, it may have great influence to fix the attention more strongly to it.
VII . It is therefore very useful to fix and engage thfe mind in the pursuit of any study, by a consideration of the divine pleasures of truth and knowledge^by a sense of our duty to God, by a delight in the exercise of our intellectual faculties, by the hope of future service to our fellow creatures, and glorious advantage to ourselves, both in this world and that which is to come. These thoughts, though they may move our affections, yet they do it with a proper influence ; these will rather as- sist and promote our attention, than disturb or divert it from the subject of our present and proper meditations. A soul inspired with the fondest love of truth, and the warmest aspirations after sincere felicity and celestial beatitude, will keep all its powers attentive to the inces- sant pursuit of them ;. passion is then refined andowise- crated to it* divinest purposes.
CHAP. XVI.
Of Enlarging- the Cafiacity of the Mmd*
THERE are three things which in an especial manner go to make up that amplitude or Capacity of mind, which is one ot the noblest characters belonging to the understaiKling : (1.) When the mind is ready to take in great and sublime ideas without pain or difficulty. (2.) When the mind is free to receive new and strange ideas, upon just evidence, without great surprise or aversion. (3.) When the mind is able to conceive cr survey many ideas at once without confusion, and to form a true judg- ment derived from that extensive survey. The person who wants either of tbese characters, may in that re- spect be said to have, a r.arrow genius. Let us diffuse our mediutionsT a little upon this-subgect.
124 OF ENLARGING THE
I. That is an ample and capacious mind which is ready to take in vast and sublime ideas without pain or difficulty. Persons who have never been used to con- verse with any ttiing but the common, little, and obvious affiirs ot lift-, have acquired a narrow or contracted hnbit of soul, that they are not able to stretch their in- tellects vv ide enough to admit large and noble thoughts ; thjy are ready to makr their domestic, daily, and fa- miliar images of things, the measure of all that is, and all that can be.
Talk to them of the vast dimensions of the planetary worlds ; tell them that the star called Jupiter is a solid globe, two hunc^red and twenty times bigger than our earth ; that the sun is a vast globe of fire, ai^ove a thou- sand times bi?ger than Jupiter, that is, t\v*o hundred and twenty th u'-and times bigger than the earth ; that the distance from the earth to the sun is eighty one mil- lions of miles ; and that a cannon bullet shot from the earth would not arrive at the nearest of the fixed stars in some hundred of years ; they cannot bear the belief of it, but hear all these glorious labours of astronomy as a mere idle romance.
Inform them of the amazing swiftness of the motion of some of the smallest or the biggest bodies in nature ; assure them, according to the best philosophy, that the planet Venus,* {i e. our morning or evening star, which is near as big as our earth,) though it seems to move from its place but a few yards in a month, does really fly seventy thousand miles in an hour ; tell them that„ the rays of light shoot from the sun to our earth at the rate of one hundred and eighty thousand miles in the second of a minute ; they stand aghast at such sort of talk, and believe it no more than the tales of giants fif- ty yards high, and the rabbinical fables of Leviathan, who every day swallows a fish of three miles long, and is thus preparing himself to be the food and entertain* ment of the blessed at the feast at Paradise.
These unenlarged souls are in the same manner dis- gusted with the wonders which the microscope has dis- covered concerning the shape, the Umbs, and motions of ten thousand little animals, whose united bulk would not equal a peppercorn ; they are ready to give the lie to all the improvements of our senses by the invention ofa variety of glasses, and will scarcely believe any thing
J
GAPACITX OF THE MiND. 125
beyond the testimony of the naked eye, without the as- sistance of art.
Now if we would attempt in a learned manner to re- lieve the minds that labour under this defect :
( 1.) It is useful to begin with some-first principles of geometry, and lead them onward by degrees to the doc- trine of quantities which are incommensurable, or which will admit of no commow measure, though it be never so small. By this means they will see the necessity c^ admitting the infinite divisibility of quantity or matter.
This same doctrine may also be proved to their un- derstandings, and almost to their senses, by some easier arguments in a more obvious manner. As the v^ry op- ening and closing of a pair of compasses will evidently prove, that if the smallest supposed part of matter or quantity be put between the points, there will be still less and less distances or quantities all the way between the legs, till you come to the head or joint ; wherefore there is no such thing possible as the smallest quantity. But a little acquaintance with true philosophy and mathematical learning would soon teach them that there are no limits either as to the extension of space or to the division of body, and would lead them to be- lieve there are bodies aniazingly great or small beyoud their present imagination,
(2,) It is proper also to acquaint them with the cir? cumfereiice of our earth, which mav be proved by very easy principles of geometry, geography, and astronomy, to be about twenty four thousand miles round, as it has been actually found to have th'S dimension by mariners ■who have sailed round it. Then lei them be taught, that in every twenty four hours, either the sun and stars must all move rnund this earth, or tiie earth must turn roimd upon its own axis. If the earth itself revolve thus, then each house or mountain near the equator, must move at the r^te of a thousand miles in an hour ; but if (as they general Iv suppose) the sunor stars move round the earth, then (tl'e circumference of their several or- bits or spheres bei g vastlv greater than this earth) they roust have a m<ition prodigiously swifter than a thousand miies^an hour. Such a thought as this will by degrees enlarere their minds ; and they will be taught, even up- on their own principles of the diurnal revolutions of the heavens, to take in some of the vast dimensions of the Jieavenly bodies, their spaces and raotion'=i- M
1(26 9B ENLARGING THJ?
(3.) To this i^ould be added the use of telescopes, to help them to see the distant wonders in the skies ; and microscopes, which discover the minutest parts of little animals, and reveal some of the finer and more curious works of nature. They should be acquainted also with some other noble inventions of modern philosophy, which, have a great influence to enlarge the human under^ standing, of which I shall take occasion to speak mcs^e under the next head,
(4.) For the same purpose they may be invited to read those parts of Milton's admirable poem, entitled Paradise Lost, where he de&cribes the armies and pow- ers of angels, the wars and the senate of devils, the crem- ation g£ this earth, tt^ether with the descriptions of Iieaven, hell, and paradise.
It must be granted that poesy often deals m these vast and sublime ideas. And even if the subject or matter of the poem doth nqt require such amazing and extensive thoughts, yet tropes and figures, which are some of the main powers and beauties of poesy, do so gloriously exalt the matter, as to give a sublime im^g-. illation its proper relish and delight.
So when a boar is chased in hunting,
..M Wis iiostrils flames expire,
And his red eye balls roll wiUi living tir^m^.prydeHi
When Ulysses withholds and suppresses his resentmcot.-
..M...., ...His wretb comprest,
Reooiliiig, mntter'd thunder in his hreast^>*t,Pq^.
, But especially where the subject is grand, the po" fails not to represent it in all its grandeur. So when the supremacy of Qod is described :
He sees with equal eye, as God of all,
A hero perish, or a spaiTow fall :
Atoms or systems into ruin hurl'd;
Anfl now a buhUe bui-st, and now a ■wot\d».,.Popfi.
These sorts of wrfting have a natural tendency to eairt lare^e the capacity of the mind, and make sublime ideas familiar to it. And instead of running always to the ancient Heathen poesy with this design, we may with equal,if not superior advantage, apply ourselves to con- verse with some of the best of our modern poets, as well as with the writings of the prophets, and the {joedcal parts of the Bible, viz. the book of Job and the Psalms,
CAPACITY 0^ THE MINI*. 127
in which sacred authors we shall find sometiiTies more sublime ideas, more glorious descriptions, more elevat- etl language, than the fondest critics have ever found ' in any of the Heathen versifiers either of Greece or Koaie; for the eastern writers use and allow much stronger figures and treses than the western.
Now there are many great and sacred advantages to be derived from this sort ot enlargement of the mind.
It will lead us into more exalted apprehensions of the great God our Creator than ever we had before. It will entertain our thoughts with holy wonder and amaze- ment, while we contemplate that Being who created these various works of surprising greatness, and sur-
S (rising smallness ; who has displayed most inconcei va- le wisdom in the contrivance of all the parts, powers, and motions of tliese little animals, invisible to the nak- ed eye ; who has manifested a most divine extent of knowledge, power, and greatness, in forming, moving, and managing the most extensive bulk of the heavenly bodies, ana in surveying and comprehending all those immeasurable spaces in which they move . Fancy, with all her images, is fi^tigued and overwhelmed in follow- ing the planetai'v worlds through such immense stages, such astonisuing journies as these are, and resigns its place to the pure intellect, which learns by degrees to take in such ideas as these, and to adore its Creator ■wit^^ new and sublime devotion.
And not only are we tRught to form juster ideas of the great God by these methods, but this enlargement of the mind carries us on to nobler conceptions of his in- telligent creatures. The mind that deals only in vul- gar and common ideas, is ready to imagine the nature and powers of man to come something too near to God his Maker, because we do not see or sensibly converse with any beings superior to ourselves. But when the soul has obtained a greater amplitude of thought, it will not then immediately pronounce every thing to be God which is above man. It then learns to suppose there may be as many various ranks of beings in the invisible world in a constant gradation superior to us, as we our- selves are superior to all the ranks of being beneath us in this visible world ; even though we descend down^ ward far below the ant and the worm, the snail and the oyster, to the least and to the dullest animated atoms whith are cfiscovered to us by microscopes.
t28 OF ENLARGING THE
By this means we shall be able to suppose what pro- digious power angels, whether good or bad, must be fur- nished with, and prodigious know edge, iti order to over- see the realms ot Persia and Graecia of old, or if any such superintend the aflfairs of Great Britain, France, Ireland, Germany, 8cc in oui d^^ys : What power and speed is necessary to desiroy one hundred and eighty five thousand xirmed men in one night in the Assyrian camp of Sennacherib, and all the first born-in the land of Egypt in another, both which are attributed to an angel.
By these steps we shall ascend to form more just ideas of the knowledge and grandeur, thu power and glory of the man, Jesus Christ, who is intimately united to God, and is one with him. Doubtless he is furnished with su- perior powers to ah the angels in heaven, because he is employed in superior work, and appointed to be the Sovereign Lord of all the visible and invisible worlds. It is his human nature, in which the Godhead dwells bodily, that is advanced to^these honours, and to this empire ; and perhaps there is little or nothing in tixe government of the kingdoms of nature and grace, but what is transacted by the man Jesus, mhabited by the divine power and wisdom, and employed as a medium or conscious instrument of this extensive gubernation.
II. I proceed now to consider the next thing where- in the capac'ty or ampUtude of the mind consists, and that is, when the mind is free to receive new and strange ideas and propositions upon just evidence, without any- great surprise or aversion. Those who confine them- selves within the circle cf their own hereditary ideas and opinions, and who never give themselves leave so much as to exvmire or believe any thing beside the dic- tates v'f their own family, or sect, or party, are justly charged with a narrowness of soul. Let us survey some instances of this imperfection, and then direct to the cure of it.
(1.) Persons who have been bred up all their davs within the smoke of their father's chimney, or within the limits of their nativi- town and village, are surprised at every new sight that appears, when they travel a few miles from home. The ploughman stands amazed at the shops, the trade, the crowds of people, the magnifi- cent bmldin|;s, the pomp, the riches, and equipage of the court and city, and would hardly believe what was
CAPACITY OE THE MIND. 129
told him before he saw it. On the other hand, the cock* ney, travelling into the country, is surprised at many actions of the quadruped and winged animals in the field, and at many common practices of rural affairs.
If either of these happen to hear an account of the famili;ir and daily customs of foreign countries, they j3 renounce them at once indecent and ridiculous ; so nar- row are their understandings, and their thoughts so con- fined, that they kr;ow not how to believe any thing wise and proper, besides what they h^ve been taught to practise.
This narrowness of mind should be cured by hearing and reading the accounts of different parts of the world, and the histories of past ages, and of nations and coun- tries distant from our own, especially the more polite parts of mankind. Nothing tends in this respect so much to enlarge the mind as travelling, i. e. making a visit to pther towns, cities, or countries, besides those in which ve weiT boiTj and educated : and where our condition pf lifie does not grant us this privilege, we must endeav- our to supply the waijt of it by books.
(2.) It is the same narrowness of mind that awakens the surprise and aversion of some pers^ons, when they hear of doctrines and schemes in human affairs, or in religion, quite different from what they have embraced. Perhaps they have been trained up from their infancy in one set of notions, and their thf ughts have been con- fined to one single tract both in the civil or religious life, •without ever hearing or knowing what other opinions are current among mankind ; or at least they have seen all other notions besides their own represented in a false ^nd malignant light, whereupon they judge and condemn at once eVery sentiment but what their own party re- ceives, and they think it a piece of justice and truth to lay heavy censures upon the practice of every different sect in Christianity or politics. They have so rooted themselves in the opinions of their party, that they can-^ not hear an objection with patience, nor can they bear a vindication, or so much as an apology, for any set of principles beside their own : all the rest is nonsense or heresy, folly or blasphemy.
This defect also is to be relieved by free conversation
with person of different sentiments ; this will teach us
to bear with patience a defence of opinions contrary to
our own. If we are scholars, we should also read th,e
M 2 •
130 OP ENLARGING THE
objeTCtions against our own tenets, and view the princi- ples of other parties, as they are represented in their own authors, and not merely in the citations ot those who would confute them. We should take an honest and unbiassed survey of the force of reasoning on all sides, and bring all to the test of unprejudiced reason and divine revelation. Note, this is not to be done in a rash and self sufficient manner, but with a humble de< pendence on divine wisdom and grace, while we walk among snares and dangers.
By such a free converse with persons of different sects (especially those who differ only in particular forms of Christianity, but agree in the great and necessary doc- trines of it,) we shall find that there are persons of good sense and virtue, persons of piety afid worth, pe! fons of much candour and goodness, who belong to different parties, and have imbibed sentiments opposite to each other. This will soften the roughness of an unpolished soul, and enlarge the avenues of our charity towards others, and incline us to receive them into all the degrees of unity and affection, which the word of God requires-
(3.) I might borrow further illustrations, both of this freedom and this aversion to receive new truths, from modern astronomy and natural philosophy. How much is the vulgar part of the world surprised, at the talk of the diurnal and annual revolutions of the earth I They have ever been taught by their senses, and their neigh- bours, to imagine the earth stands fixed m the centre of the universe, and that the sun, with all the planets and the fixed stars, are whirled round this little globe once in twenty-four hours ; not considering that such a diurnal motion, by reason of the distance of some of those heav- enly bodies, must be almost infinitely swifter, and more inconceivable than any which the modern astronomers attribute to them. Tell these persons that the sun is fixed in the centre, that the earth, with all the planets, roll round the sun in their several periods, and that the moon rolls round the earth in a lesser circle, while, to- gether with the earth, she is carried round the sun ; they cannot admit a syllable of this new and strange doc- trine, and they pronounce it utterly contrary to ail sense and reason.
Acquaint them that there are four moons also perpet- ually rolling round the planet Jupiter, and carried along with him in his periodical circuit round the sun, whicii
CAPACITY OF THE MINI). 131
little moons were never known till the year 1610, wlien Galileo discovered them by his telescope ; inforrei them that Saturn has live moons of the same kind attending him ; and that the body of that planet is encompassed ■with a broad, flat, circular ring, distant from the planet twenty one thousand miles, and twenty one thousand miles broad ; they look upon these things as tales and fancies, and will tell you that the glasses do but delude your eyes with vast images ; and even when they them- selves consult their own eye -sight in the use of these tubes, the narrowness of their mind is such, that they will scarcely believe their senses when they dictate ideas 80 new and strange.
And if you proceed further, and attemp^t to lead them into ^ belief that all these planetary worlds are habita- ble, ar>d it is probabie tbey are replenished with intel- lectual beings dwelling in bodies, they will deride the folly of him that informs them ; for they resolve to be- Keve there are no habitable worlds but this earth, anrt no spirits dwelling in bodies besides mankind ; and it is well if they do not fix the l>rand of heresy on the man who is leading them out of their long imprisonment, and loosing the fetters of their souls»
There are many other things relating to mechanical experiments, and to the properties of the air, water, fire, iron, the loadstone, and other minerals and metals, as well as the doctrine of the sensible qualities, viz. colours, sounds, tastes, &c. which this rank of men cannot believe for want of a greater amplitude of mind.
The best way to convince them, is by giving them some acquaintance with the various experiments in phi- losophy, and proving by ocular demonstration the mul- tiform and amazing operations of the air pump, the load- stone, the chemical furnace, optical glasses, and mechan- ical engines. By these means the understanding will stretch itself by degrees,and when they have found there are so many new and strange things that are most evi- dently true, they will not be so forward to condemn every new proposition in any of the other sciences, or in the aff.iirs of religion or civil lite.
III. The capacity of the understanding includes yet' another qualification in it, and that is, an ability to re- ceive many ideas at once without confusion. The am- ple mind takes a survey of several objects with one glance, keeps tbem all within siglu, and present ^c the
132 OF ENLARGING THE
soul, that they may be compared together in their mu- tual respects ; it forms jui.t judgments, and it draws proper inferences from this comparison, even to a great length of argument, and a chain of demonstrations.
The narrowness that belongs to human souis in gen- eral, is a great imperfection and impediment to wisdom and happiness. I'here are but few persons wlio can contemplate or practise several things at once ; our fac- ulties are very hmited. and while we are intent upon one part or property of a subject, we have but a slight gUmpse of the rest, or we loose it out of sight. But it is a sign of a large and capacious mind, if we can with one single view take in a variety of objects ; or at least when the mind can spply itself to several objects with so swift a succession, and in so few moments, as attains almost the same ends as if it were all done in the same instant,
This is a necessary qualification in order to, great knowledge and good judgment ; for there are several things in human life, in religion, and in the sciencesj, which have various circumstances, appendices, and re- lations attending them ; and without a survey of all those ideas which stand in connexion with, and relation to each other, we are often in danger of passing a false judgment on the subject proposed. Jt is tor this reason there are so numerous controversies found among the learned and unlearned world, in matters of religion, as well as in the affairs of civil government. The notions of sin and duty to God and our fellow creatures ; cf law, justice, author- ity, and power ; of covenant, faith, justification, redemp- tion, and gra*ce ; of church, bishop, presbyter, ordina- tion, &c. contain in them such complicated ideas, that ■when we are to judge of any thing concerning them, it is hard to take into our view at once all the attendants or consequents that must and will be concerned in the determination of a single question ; and yet, without a due attention to many, or most of these, we are in dan- ger of determining that question amiss.
It is owing to the narrowness of our minds, that we are exposed to the same peril in the matters of human duty and prudence. In many things which we do, wc ■ ought not only to consider the mere naked action itself, but the persons who act, the persons towards whom, the time when, the place where, the manner how, the end for which the action is done, together with the effects that must, or that may follow, and all other stirrounding
CAPACITY OE THE MIND. 133
circumstances : these things must necessaa*ily be taken into our view, in oixjer to determine whetiier the action, which is indiffeient in itselfi be either lawful or unlawful, good or evil» wise or foolish, decent or indecent, proper or improper, as it is so circumstantiated.
Let me give a plain instance for the illustration cf this matter. Mario kills a dog, which, considered merely in itself, seems to be an indirferejit action ; now the dog was* Timon*s, and not his own ; this makes it look unlaw- ful. But Timon bid him do it ; this gives it an appear- ance of lawfulness again. It was done at church ; and in time of divine service ; these circumstances added, cast on it an air of irreligion. But the dog flew at Ma- rio, and {)ut him in danger of kis life ; this relieves the seeming impiety of the action. Yet Mario might have escaped by flying thence ; thtreforc the action appears to be improper. But the dog was known to be mad ; this further circimistance makes it almost necessary that the dog should be slain, lest he might worry the as- sembly, and do much mischief. Yet again, Mario killed him with a pistoi which he happened to have in his pocket since yesterday's journey ; now hereby the whole congregation was terrified and di;5composed, and divine service was broken oft': this carries an appearance of great indecency and impropriety in it: but after all, when we consider a further circumstance, that Mario, being thus violently assaulted by a mad dog, had no way of escape, and had no other weapon about him, it seems to take away all the colours of impropriety, indecency, or unlawfulness, and to allow that the preservation of one or many lives will justify the act as wise and good. Now all these concurrent appendices of the action ought to be surveyed, in order to pronounce with justice and truth concerning it.
There are a multitude of human actions in private life, in domestic a flairs, in traffic, in civil government, in coi^ ts of justice, in schools cf learning, &c. which have so many 'complicated circumstances, aspects, and situations, with regard to time and place, persons and things, that it is impossible for any one to i)ass a right judgment concerning them, without entering into most of these circumstances, and surveying them extensively, and comparing and balancing them all aright.
Wherce, by the way, I may take occasion to say. How many thousands a"re there who take upon them Jt»
134 OE ENLARGING THE
pass their censures on the personal atid the domestic actions of others, who pronounce boldly on the affairs of the public, and determine the justice or madness, the wisdom or folly of national administrations, of peace and war, &c. whom neither God nor men ever qualified for sucii a post of judgment ? They were not capable of en- tering into the numerous concurring springs of action, nor had they ever taken a survey of the twentieth r.art of the circumstances which were necessaiy for such judg- ments or censures.
It is the narrowr.ess of our minds, as well as the vices of the will, that oftentimes prevents us from taking a full view of all the complicated and concurring appendi- ces that belong to human actions; thence it comes to pass, that there is so little right judgment, so little jus- tice, prudence, or decency, practised among the bulk of mankind ; thence arise intiirlte reproaches and censures, alike foolish and unrighteous You see, therefore, how needful and happy a thing it is to be possessed of some measure of t'l's amplitude of soul, in order to make us very wise, op knowing, or just, or prudent, or happy.
I confess this sort of amplitude or capacity of mind is in a; great measure the gift of nature, for some are bom Tvith'much more capacunis souls than others.
The genius of some persons is so poor and limited, that they can hardly take in the connexion of two or three propositions, urdess it be m matters of sense, and which they have learned by experience ; they are utterly unfit for speculative studies ; it is hard for them to discern the difference betwixt right and wrong in matters of reason, on any abstracted subjects ; these ought never to setup for scholars, but apply themselves to those arts and pro- fessions of life which are to be learned at an easier rate, by slow degrees, and daily experience.
Others have a soul a little more Capacious, and they can take in the connexion of a few propositions pretty well ; but if the chain of consequences be a little prolix, here they stick and are confounded. If persons of this make,ever devote themselves to science, they should be well assured of a solid and strong constitution of body, and well resolved to bear the fatigue of iiard labour and diligence in study. If the iron be blunt, king Solomon tells us, we must put more strength.
But, in the third place, there are some of «o bright and happy a genius, and so ample a mind, that they can
CAPACITY OF THE MIND. 135.
take in a long train of propositions, if not at once, yet in a very flew moments, and judge well concerning the de- pendence of them. They can survey a variety of com- plicated ideas without fatigue or disturbance ; and a number of truths nftering themselves as it were in one view to their understanding doth not perplex or con- found them. This makes a great man.
Now, though there may be much owing to nature in this case, yet experience assures us, that even a lower degj-ee of this capacity and extent of thought, may be increased by diligence and application, by frequent ex- ercise, and the o[)servation of such rules as these :
I. Labour by all means to gain an attentive and pa- tient tempei* of mind, a power of confining and fixing yoip* thoughts ^ long on any one appointed subject, till you have sinveyted it on every side and in every situa- tion, and run through the several powers, parts, pro- perties and relations, effects and consequences of it. He whose thoughts are very fluttering and wandering, and cannot be iixttd attentively to a few ideas succes- ^'ely, will never l>e able to survey many and various ©bjects distinctly ijt once, but will certainly be over- whelmed and confoufttiedwith the multiplicity of them. I'he rules for fixing the attention in the former chapter are proper to l»e consulted here.
II. Accustfim yourself to clear and distinct ideas in every thing yoh think of. Be not satisfied with obscure and confused Conceptions of thing^, especially where clearer may bef obtained ; for one obscure or confused idea, especially: if it be of great importance in the ques- tion, intermingled with many clear ones, and placed in its variety of asibects towards them, will be in danger of spreading confusion over the whole scene of ideas, and thus may have -.in unhappy influence to overwhelm the understanding w \ih darkness, and pervert the judgment. A little black paint will shamefully tincture and spoil twenty gay colon rs.
Consider yet further, that if you content yourself fre- quently with won Is instead of ideas, or with cloudy and confi]sed notions c f things, how impenetrable will that darkness be, and iliow \ast and endless that confusion, which must surrcWd and involve the understanding, when many of thfcflie obscure and confused ideas come to be set before the sibul at once? And how impossible will it be tQ form a cle<' iir and just judgment about them?
136 Off BNLARQIICG THE
III. Use all diligence to acquire and treasure- up a large store of ideas and notions ; takeever^' opportuni- ty to add someth.ng to your stock, and by frequent rec- ollection fix thenn i;i your memorv ; nothing tends to canfirrn and enlarge the memory like a frequent review of its possessions. Thei^the brain being well furnished with various traces, signltures^and images, will have a rich treasure always ready to be proposed, or offer- ed to the soul, when it directs its thought towards any- particular subject. This will gradually give the mind a faculty of surveying many objects at cnce > as a room that is ridUy adorned and hung round vith a great va- riety of pictures strisies the eye almost at once with all that variety, especially if they have been well surveyed ^ one by one at first ; this makes it haWtuai and more easy to the inhabitants to take in manf of tliose pakitett scenes with a single glance or two.
Here note, that by acquiring a ridi treasure of no- tions, I (Jo not mean only single ideas^but also proposi- tions, observations, and experiences, with reasonings and arguments upon the various jubjects that occur among natural and moral, common or sacred affairs ; that when you are called to judge conceruing-anyques, tion, you will have some principles of truth, some useful axioms and observations, always ready at hand to ^-^ rect and assist your judgment.
IV. It is necessar}' that we should as far as. possible entertain and lay up our daily new ideas in a regular Order, and range the acquisitions of oursouk under pro- per heads, whetherof divinity, law, ph5«ics, raathemat- ics, morality, politics, trade, domesticlife, civility, de- cency, &c. whether of cause, effect, aibstanc^-, mode, power, property, body, spirit, &:c. ^V-e sliould inuiMi 6ur minds to method and crder contiaually ; and whe» we take in any fresh ideas, occurrewces, and observa- tions, we should dispose of them intfeeir proper places, and see how they stand and sie^ae vith the rest of our notions on the s .me subjects ; as a scliclar would dispose of a new book on a proper shelf anco'ig its kindred au- thors ; or as an officer at the post kouse in London dis-' poses of every letter he takes in, piacing it in the box^ that belongs to the proper road orcounty.
In any of these c;ises. if things liy all in a heap, the addition of any new object w juld increase the confusion ; but method give.s a speedy and slitrt survey of theqa
CAPACITY OF THIi MIND, 137
with ease and pleasure. Method is of admirable ad- vant ige to keep our ideas from a confused mixture, an-d to preserve them i-eady for every use. The science of onthology, which distributes all beings, and all the aifec- tions of being, whether absolute or relative, under pro- per classes, is of good service to keep our intellectual acquisitions in such order as that the mind may survey them at once.
V. As method is necessary for the improvement of the mind, in order to make your treasure of ideas most useful ; so in all your further pursuits of truth, ai^d ac- quirements of rational knowledge, observe a regular ])rogressive method. Begin with the most sin)p!e, easy, ajul obvious ideas ; then by degreesjoin two. and three, and more of them together ; thus the complicatr d ideas growing up under your eye and observation, will not give the same confusion of thought as thej' would do if they were all offered to the mind at once, without your observing the original and formation of them.
An eminent example of this appears in the study of arithmetic. If a scholar just admitted into the school observes his master performing an operation in the^/ule of division, his head is at once disturbed and confounded with the manifold comparisons of the numbers of the divisor and dividend, and the multiplication of the one and subtraction of it from the other ; but if he begin regularly at addition, and so proceed by subtraction and multiplier ti:)n, he will then in a few weeks be able to take in an intelligent survey of all those operations in division, and to practise them himself with ease and pleasure, each of which at first seemed all intricacy and confusion.
An illustration of the like nnture may be borrowed from geometry and algebra, and other mathematical practices. How easily does an expert geometrician, with one glance of his eye, take in a complicated dia- gram, made up of many lines and circles, angles and arches !* How r< adily does he judge of it, whether the demonstration desigiied by it be true or false .^ It was by degrees he arrived at tiiis sir -tch of understanding; he began with a single line or a pr/nt; he joined two lines in an nngle ; he advanced to triangles and squares, polygons and circles ; thus .he powers of his understand- ing were stretched and augmented daily, till by dili-
138 OF fiKLARGING THE CAPACITY, &C.
gence and regular application, he acquired this extent-^ sive faculty of mind.
But this advantage does not belong only to mathe- matical learning. If we ap|ply ourselves at first in any science to clear and single ideas, and never hurry our- selves on to the following and more complicated parts of knowledge, till we thoroughly understand the foregoing, we may practise the same method of enlar^ng the ca- pacity of the soul with su-t cess* in any one ot the scien- ces, or in the affairs of life and religion.
Beginning with A, B, C, and making syllables out of letters, and words out of syllables, has been the founda- tiori of all that glorious superstructure of arts and scien- ces, which have enriched the minds and libraries of the learned world in several ages. These are the first steps by which the ample and capacious souls among man- kind have arrived at that prodigious extent of knowl- edge, which renders them the wonder and glory of the nation where they live. Though Plato and Cicero, . Descartes and Mr. Boyle, Mr. Xocke and Sir Isaac Newton, were doubtless favoured by nature with a gen- ius of uncommon amplitude, 5'et, in their early years and first attempts of science, this was but limited and nar- row, in comparison of what they attained at last. But how vast and capacious were those powers which they afterwards acquired by patient attention and watchful observation, by the pursuit of clear ideas, and a regular method of thinking!
VI. Another means of acquiring this amplitude and capacity of mind, is a perusal of difficult, entangled questions, and of the solution of them in any science. Speculative and casuistical divinity will furnish us with many such cases and controversies.' There are some such difficulties in reconciling L-everal parts of the Epis- tles of St. Paul, relating to the Jewish law and the Christian gospel ; a happy solution whereof will require such an extensive view of things, and the reading of these happy solutions will enlarge this faculty in youn- ger students.
In moral and political subjects, Puffi?ndorf's Law of Nature and Nations,and several deternunations tliei-ein, will promote the same amplitude of mind. An attend- ance on public trials and arguments in the civil courts of justice, will be of good advantage for this purpose ; and after a man has studied the general principles of
OF IMPROTING THE MEKOB.Y. 139
the law of nature and the laws of England in proper books, the reading the reports of adjudged cases, col- lected by men of great sagacity and judgment, will rich- ly improve his mind towards acquiring this desirable amplitude and extent of thought, and more especially in persons of that profession.
CHAP. XVII.
Of Imjiro-uing the Memwy. ,
MEMORY is a distinct faculty of the mind of man, very different from perception, judgment, and rea- soning, and its other powers. Then we are said to re- member any thing, when the idea of it arises in the mind with a consciousness at the same time that we have had this idea before. Our memory is our natur- al power of retaining what we learn, and of recalling it on every occasion. Therefore we can never be said to remember any thing, whether it be ideas or propo- sitions, words pr things, notions or arguments, of which we have not had some former idea or perception, either by sense or imagination,thought or reflection ; but what- soever we learn from observation, books, or conver- sation, 6cc. it must ail be laid up and preserved in the memory, if we would make it really useful.
So necessary and so excellent a faculty is the mem- ory of man, that all other abilities of the mind borrow from hence their beauty and perfection ; for the other capacities cf the soul are almost useless without this. To what purpose are all our labours in knowledge and wisdom, if we"\vant memory to preserve and use what we have acquired ? What si.5nify all other intellectual or spiritual improvements, if they are lost as soon as they are obtained ? It is memory alone that enriches the mind, by preserving what our labour and industry daily collect. In a word, there can be neither knowl- edge, nor arts, nor sciences, without memory ; nor can there be any improvement of mankind iig^virtue or morals, or the practice of religion, withoutthe assist- ance and influence of this power. Without memory the soul of man would be but a poor, destitute, naked being, with an everlasting blank spread over it, except the fleeting ideas of the present moment.
i40 OF IMPROVING THE MEMOR¥.
Memoiy is very useful to those who speak, as well as to those who learn. It assists the teacher and the orator, as well as the scholar cr the hearer. The best speeches and instructions are almost lost, if those who hear them immediately forget them. And those who are called to speak in public are much better heard and accepted, when they -cai) deliver their discourse by the help of a lively genius and a ready memory, than when they are forced to read all that they would communicate to their hearers, .heading is certainly a heavier way of the conv^eyance of cur sentiments ; and there are very few mere readers who have the felicity of penetrating the soul, and awakening the passions of those who hear, by such a grace and power of oratory, as the man who seems to talk every word from his very heart, and pours out the riches of his awn knowl- edge upon the people round about him by the help of a tree and copious memory. T'his gives life and spirit to every thing that is spoken, and has a natural ten- dency to make a deeper impression on the minds of men ; it awakens the dullest spirits, causes them to receive a discourse with more affection and pleasure, and adds a singular grace and excellency both to the person and his oration.
A good judgment and a good memory are very dif- ferent qualifications. A person may have a very strong, capacious and retentive memory, where the judgment is. very poor and weak ; as sometimes it happens in those who are but one degree above an ideot, who have manifested an amazing strength and extent of memory, but have hardly been able to join or disjoin tvvo or three ideas in a wise and happy manner, to make a solid, rational proposition.
There have been instances cf others who have had but a very tolerable power of memory, yet their judg- ment has been of a much superior degree, just and wise, solid and excellent.
Yet it must be acknowledged, that where a happy memory i^ornid in any person, there is one good foun- dation lai^for a wise and just judgment of things, wheresoever the natural genius has any thing of sagac- ity and brightness to make a right use cf it, A good judgment must always in some measure depend upon a survey and comparison of several things together in the mind, and determining the truth of some doubtful
Off IMFROVING THE MEMORT. 141
proposition by that survey and comparison. When the mind lias, as it were, set all those various objects pres- ent before it, which are necessaiy to form a true prop- osition or judgment concerning any thing, it then deter- mines that such and such ideas are to be joined or disjoined, to be affirmed or denied, and this in a con- sistency and correspondence with all those other ideas and propositions which in any way relate or belong to the same subject. Now there can be no such compre- hensive survey of many things without a tolerable de- gree of memory ; it is by reviewing things past we learn to judge of the future ; and it happens sometimes that if one needful or important object or idea be absent, the judgment concerning the thing inquired will there- by become false or mistaken.
You will enquire then, how comes it to pass that there are some persons who appear in the world of business, as Avell as in the world of learning, to have a good judgment, and have acquired the just character of prudence and wisdom, and yet have neither a very bright genius or sagacity of thought, nor a very happy memory, so that they cannot set before their minds at % once a large scene of ideas in order to pass a judgment ?
Now we may learn from Penseroso some accounts 'of this difficulty. You shall scarcely ever find this man forward in judging and determining things proposed to him, but he always takes time, and delays, and sus- pends, and ponders things maturely, before he passes his judgment; then he practices a slow meditation, ruminates on the subject, and thus perhaps in two or three nights and days rouses and awakens those several ideas, one after another as he can, which are necessary in order to judge aright of the thing proposed, and makes them pass before his review in succession : this he doth to relieve the want both of a quick sagacity of thought, and of a ready memory and speedy recollec- tion ; and this caution and practice lays the foundation of his just judgment and wise conduct. He surveys well before he judges.
Whence I cannot but take occasion to infer one good rule of advice to persons of higher as well as lower genius, and of large as well as narrow memories, viz. That they do not too hastily pronounce concerning matters of doubt or inquiry, where there is not an ur Tent necessity of present action. The bright genius i^ ^ 2
142 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY,
ready to be so forward as often betrays itself into greati errours in judgment, speech, and conduct, without a continual guard upon itself, and using the bridle of the tongue. And it is by this delay and precaution, that many a person of much lower natural abilities shall often excel persons of the brightest genius in wisdom and prudence.
It is often found that a fine genius has but a feeble memory : for where the geniua is bright, and the fmagination vivid, the power of memory may be too much neglected, and lose its improvement. An active fancy readily wanders over a multitude of objects, and iscontinually entertaining itself with new flying images; it runs through a number of new scenes or new pages with pleasure, but without due attention, and seldom suffers itself to dwell long enough upon any one of them, to make a deep impression thereof upon the mind, and commit it to lasting remembrance. This is one plain and obvious reason why there are some persons of very bright parts and active spirits, who have but short and narrow powers of remembrance ; for, having riches of their own, they are not solicitous to borrow.
And, as such a quick and various fancy and inven- tion may be some hindrance to the attention and mem- ory, so a mind of a good retentive ability, and which is ever crowding its memory with things which it learns and reads continually, may prevent, restrain, and cramp the invention itself. The memory of Lectorides is ever ready, upon all occasions, to offer to his mind something out of other men's writings or conversations, and is presenting him with the thoughts of other per- sons perpetually ; thus the man who had naturally a good flowing invention, does not suffer himself to pur- sue his own thoughts. Some persons who have been blest by nature with sagacity, and no contemptible gen- ius, have too often forbid the exercise of it, by tying themselves down to the memory of the volumes they have read, and the sentiments of other men contained in them.
Where the memory has been almost constantly em- ploying itself in scraping together new acquirements,and where there has not been a judgment sufficient to dis- tinguish what things were lit to be recommended and treasured up in the memory, and what things were '(He, useless, or needless, the mind has been filled with
OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 142
a wretched heap and hotch potch of words or ideas, arid the soul may be said to have had large possessions, but no true riches.
I have read in some of Mr. Milton's writings a very- beautiful simile, whereby he represents the books o/ the Fathers, as they are called in the Christian churcli. Whatsoever, saith he, Old Time, with his huge draej net has conveyed down to us along the stream of ages^ whether it be shells or shell fish, jewels or pebbles, sticks or straws, sea weeds or mud, these are the an- cients, these are the fathers. The case is much the same with the memorial possessions of the greatest part of mankind. A few useful things perhaps, mix- ed and confounded with many trifles, and all manner of rubbish, fill up their memories and compose their intellectual possessions. It is a great happiness there- fore to distinguish things aright, and to lay up nothing in the memory but what has some just value in it, and is worthy to be numbered as a part of our treasure.
Whatsoever improvements arise to the mind of man from the wise exercise of his own reasoning powers, these 111 ay be called his proper manufactures; and whatsoever he borrows from abroad, these may be termed his foreign treasures : both together make a wealthy and a happy mind.
How many excellent judgments and reasonings are framed in the mind of a man of wisdom and study in a length of years? How many worthy and admirable notions has he been possessed of in life, both by his own reasonings, and by his prudent and laborious collec- tions in the course of his reading ? But, alas ! how ma- ny thousands of them vanish away again and are lost in empty air, for want of a stronger and more reten- tive memory^ When a young practitioner in the law- was once saicf to contest a point of debate with that great lawyer in the last age. Sergeant Maynard, he is reported to have answered him, Alas ! young man, I have forgot much more law than ever thou hast learnt or read.
What an unknown and unspeakable happiness would it be to a man of judgment, and who is engaged in the pursuit of knowledge, if he had but a power of starop- ing all his own best sentiments upon his memory in some indelible characters ; and if he could but imprin'. every valuable paragraph and sentiment of the mobt
144 OF IMPROVING THTil iftEMORY.
excellent authors he has read upon his mind, with the same speed and facility with which he read them ? If a man of good genius and sagacity could but retain and survey all those numerous^ those wise and beautitul ideas at once, which have ever passed through his thoughts upon any one subject, how admirably would hie be furnished to pass a just judgment about all pres- ent objects and occurrences ? What a glorious enter- tainment and pleasure would fill and felicitate his spir- it, if he could grasp all these in a single survey ; as the skilful eye of a painter runs over a fine, and compli- cate piece of history, wrouglit by the hand of a Titian or a Raphael, views the whole scene at once, and feeds- himself with the extensive delight! But these are joys- ithat do not belong to mortality
Thus far I have indulged some loose and unconnected thoughts and remarks with regard to the different: powers of wit, memory, and judgment ; lor it was very difficult to throw them into a regular form or method "without more room, Let us now with more regularity treat of the memory alone.
Thr.ugh the meniory be a natural faculty ,of the ipind !jf in; n, snd belongs to spii its which are not incar- nate, yet ii is greatly assisted or hindered, and much diversified by the brain or the animal nature, to which the soul s united m this present state. But what part of the brain that is, wherein the images of things he treasured up, is very hard for us to determine with <;ertainty. It is most probable that those very fibres, 'pores, or traces of the brain, which assist at the first idea or perception of any object, are the same which assist al^o at the recollection of it ; arid then it will fol- iow th.lt the memory has no special part of the brain devoted' fcoits own service, but uses ali those parts in general v.i;i^ch subserve our sensntions, M well as our thinking , tiil ineasoning powers.
As the I ts#niory grows and improves in .v'pung per- sons from 1 "b^jr childhood, and decays in old age, so it ^ifiay be incr ^*^^ ^Y ^^'^ ^"^^ labour, and proper exer- cise ; or it m *a ifc^ injured atjd quite spoiled by sloth, or ^y a disease ^-^ stroke on the head. There are some reasonings on i '^'? subject which make it evident, th-^t ^he goodness ot ' ^ W^^^o^y depends in a great degree ^P^n the cons "^^^^ ^"^' ^^^ temjierature of that
OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 145
part of the brain which is appointed to assist the ex- ercise of all our sensible and intellectual faculties.
So for instance, in children ; they perceive and for- get a hundred things in an hour ; the brain is so s )f t that it receives immediately all impressions like water or liquid mud, and retains scarcely any of them ; all the traces, forms, or images which are drawn there, are immediately effliced or closed up again, as though you. wrote with'your finger on the surface of a river, or on a vessel of oil.
On the contrary in old age, men have a very feeble remembrance of things that were done of late ; i. e^ the same day, or week, or year ; the brain is grown so hard, that the present images or strokes make httle or no impression, and therefore they immediately vanish: Prisco, in his seventy-eighth year, will tell long stories of things done when he was in the battle at the Boyne, almost fiify years ago, and when he studied at Oxford, seven years before ; for those impressions were made when the brain was more susceptive of them ; they have been deeply engraven at the proper season, and therefore they remain. But words or things which he lately spoke or did, they are immediately forgotten, because the brain is now grown more dry and solid in its consistence, and receives not much more impres- , sion than if you wrote with your finger on a floor of clay, <x a plastered wall.
But in the middle stage of life, or it may be from fif- teen to fifty years of age, the memory is generally in its happiest state ; the brain easily receives and long retains the images and traces which are impressed up- on it ; and the natural spirits are moi^e active to range these little infinite unknown figures of things in their proper cells or cavities, to preserve and recollect them.
Whatsoe^^r therefore keeps the brain in its best temper and consistence may be a help to preserve the memory ; but excess of wine, or luxury of any kind, as well as excess in the studies of learning or the busines- ses of hfe may overwhelm the memory, by overstrain- ing and weakening the fibres of the brain, overwasting the spirits, injuring the true consistence of that tender substance, and confounding the images that are laid up there.
A good memory has these several qualifications : (1) It is ready to receive and admit with great ease the vp.~
146 OF IMPROVING THE MEMORY.
rious ideas both of words and things which are leamied or taught. (2.) It is large and copious to treasure up these ideas in great number and variety. (3.) It is strong and durable to retain for a considerable time those words or thoughts, which art committed to it. (4.) It is faithful and active to suggest and recollect, upon every proper occasion,all those words or thoughts which have been recommended to its care, or treas- ured up in it.
Now in every one of these qualifications, a memory may be injured, or may be improved ; yet I shall not insist distinctly on these particulars, but only in gene- ral propose a few rules or directions, whereby this no- ble faculty of memory, in all its branches and qualifi- cations, may be piieserved or assisted, and show what are the practices that both by reason and experience have been found ofTiappy influence to this purpose.
There is one great and general direction which be- longs to the improvement of other powers as well as of the memory, and that is, to keep it always in due and proper exercise. Many acts by degrees form a habit, and thereby the ability or power is strengthened and made more ready,and appear again in action. Our memories should be used and inured from childhood to bear a moderate quantity of knowledge let into them early, and they will thereby become strong for use and service. As any limb well and duly exercised, grows stronger, the nerves of the body are corroborated there- by. Milo took up a calf, and daily carried it on his shoulders ; as the calf grew, his strength grew also, and he at last arrived at firmness of joints enough to bear the bull.
Our memories will be in a great measure moulded and formed, inproved or injured, according to the ex- ercise of them. If we never use them, the^- will be al- most lost. Those who are wont to converse or read about a few things only, will retain hut a few in their inemory. Those who are used to remember things but for an hour, and charge theii* memories with it no longer, will retain them but an hour before they vanish. And let words be remembered as well as things, that you so may acquii e a cofiia verborum, as well as rcrurriy and be more ready to express your mind on all occa- sions.
Yet there sliould be a caution given in some cases ;
OP IMPROVING THE MEMORY. 14?
the memory of a child, or any infirm person, sliould not be overburdened ; for a limb or a joint may be overstrained by being too much loaded, and its natural power never be recovered. Teachers should wisely judge'of the power and constitution of youth, and im- pose no more on them than they are able to bear with, cheerfulness and improvement.
And particularly they should take care that the memory of the learner be not too much crowded with a tumultuous heap or overbearing multitude of docu- ments or ideas at one time ; this is the way to remem- ber nothing ; one idea effaces another. An overgree- dy grasp does not retain the largest handful. But it is the exerciiie of memory with a due moderation, that is one general rule towards the improvement of it. I'he particular rules are such as these : 1. Due attention and diligence to learn and know things which we would commit to our remembrance, is a rule of great necessity in this case. When the at-. tention is strongly fixed to any particular subject, all that is said concerning it makes a deeper impression upon the mind. There .are some persons who com- plain they cannot remember divine or human discours- es which they hear, when in truth their thoughts are wandering half the time, or they hear with such cold- ness and indiffereiice.and a trifling temper of spirit, that it is DO wonder the things which are read or spoken make but d slight impression on the brain, and get no firm footing, in the aeat of memory, but soon vanish and are lost.
It is needful, therefore, if we would retain a long re- membrance of the t^jings which we read or hear, that we should engage our delight and pleasure in those subjects, and u^e the other methods which arc before prescribed,, in order to fix the attention. Sloth, indo- lence, and idleness, will no more bless the mind with intellectual riches, than they will fill the hand with gain, the field with corn, or the purse with treasure.
Let it be added also, that not only the slothful and the negligent deprive themselves of proper knowledge for the furniture of their memory, but such as appear to have active spirits, who are ever skimming over the surface of things with a volatile temper, will fix noth- ing in their mind. Vario will sppnd whole morningsi ?n running over loose and unconnected pages, and with
t4S OF IMPROVING THE MEMOHT.
fresh curiasity is ever glancing over new words and ideas that strike his present fancy ; he is fluttering over a thousand objects of arts and science, and yet treasures up but littie knowledge. There niustbe the labour and the diligence of close attention to particular subjeccs of thought and inquiry, which only can im- ])re.<s what we read or think, upon the remembering faculty of man.
% Clear and distinct apprehension of the things which we commit to memory is necessary, in order to make them stick and dwell there. If we would re- member words, or learn the names of persons or things, we should have them recommended to our memoiy, hy a clear and' distinct pronunciation, spelling, or writ- ing. If we would treasure up the ideas of things, no- tions, propositions, arguments, and sciences, these should be recommended also to our memory, by a clear and distinct perception of them* Faint, glimmering, and confused ideas, will vanish like images seen in twi- light. Every thing which we learn should be convey- ed to the understanding in the plainest expressions, without any ambiguity, that we may not mistake what we desir-e toreniember* This is a general rule, wheth- er we would employ the memory about words or things, though it nmst be confessed, that mere sounds and words ai*e much harder to get by heart than the knowledge of things and real images!!
For this reason, take heed, (as I have often before warned) that you do not take up with words instead of things, nor mere sounds instead of real senti^nents and ideas. Many a lad forgets what has been taught him, merely because he never well understood it ; he never clearly and distinctly took in the meaning of tfiose sounds and syllables wiiich he was required to get by heart.
This is one true reason why boys make so poor a proficiency in learning the Latin tongue, under mas- ters who teach them by grammars and rules written in Latin, of which I have spoken before. And this is a common case with children, when thev learn their catechisms in their early days. The lang^uage and t^e seiniments conveyed in those catechisms af e far above the understanding of youth of that age, apd they have ao tolerable ideas under the words. This makes the answers much harder to be remembered, and in truth
OV IMPROVING THJC IttSSfOaY. 14.9
they learn nothing but words without ideas ; and if they are ever so perfect in repeating the words, yet they know nothing of divinity.
And for this reason it is a necessary rule in tesjch- ing childien the principles of religion, that they should be expressed in very plain, easy, and familiar words, brought as low as possible down to their understand- ings, according to their tlifferent ages and capacities ; and thereby they will obiain some useful knowledge when the words are treasured up) in their memory, be* cause at the same time they will treasure up those divine ideas too.
S. Method and regularity in the things we commit to memory, is necessary in order to make them take more effectual possession of the mind, and abide there long. As much as systematical learning is descried by some vain and humorous tfiflers of the age, it is cer- tainly the happiest way to furnish the mind with a va- riety of knowledge.
Whatsoever you would trust to your memory, let it be diiposed in a proper method, connected well to- gether, and referred to distinct and particular heads or classes, both general and particular. An apothe- cary's boy will much sooner learn all the medicines in his master's shop, when they are ranged in boxes or on shelves according to their distinct natures, whether herbs, drugs, or minerals, whether leaves or roots, whether chemical or Galenical preparations, whether simple or compound, &c. and when they are placed in some order according to their nature, their fluidity, or their consistence, &c. in phials, bottles, gallipots, cas- es, drawers, 8cc. So the genealogy of a mmily is more easily learnt when you be^iu at some great grandfather as the root, and distinguish the stock, the large boughs, the lesser branches, twigs, and the buds, till you come down to the present iiifanis of the house. An4 indeed all sorts of arts and sciences, taught in a method some- thing of this kind, are more happily committed to the mind or memory.
1 might give another plain simile to confirm the truth of this. What horse or carriage can take up and bear away all the various, rude, and uu^ieldy loppings of a branchy tree at once? But if they are divided yet further, so as to be laid close, and bound up in a more uniform manner into several faggots, perhaps thc89
150 0» IMPROVING THfc MEMORY.
loppings may be all carried at one single load or bur- den.
The mutoal dependence of things on each other helps the memory of both. A wise connexion of the parts of a discourse in a rational method gives great advan- tage to the reader or hearer in order to his remem- brance of it. Therefore many mathematical demon- strations in a long train, may be remembered much better than a heap of sentences which have no connex- ion. The book of Proverbs, at least from the tenth chapter and onwarf!», is much harder to remember than the book of Psalms, for this reason ; and some Christians have told me that they remember -what is ■written in the Epistle to the Romans, and that to the Hebrews, much better than many others of tlie sacred epistlesy because there is more exact method and con- nexion observed in them.
' He that would learn to remember a sermon which he Iiears, should acquaint himself by degrees with the method in which the several important parts of it are delivered. It is a certain fault in a multitude of preach- ers, that they utterly neglect method in their ha- rangues ; or at It ast they refuse to render their meth- od visible and sensible to the hearers. One would be tempted to think it was for fear lest their auditors should remember too much of their sermpns, and prevent their preachir^ them three or four times over ; but I have candour enough to persuade myself, that the true reason is, they imagine it to be a more modish way of preaching without particulars : I am sure it is a much more usetess one- And it would be of great advantage both to the speaker and hearer, to have discourses for the pulpit cast into a plain and easy method, and the reasons or inferences ranged in a proper order, and that under the words,_^rs/, secondly ^ 2a\d thirdly ^ how- ever they may be now fancied to sound unpolite or un- fashionable ; but Archbishop Tillotson did not think so in his days.
4. A frequent review and careful repetition of the things we would learn, and an abridgment cf them in a narrow compass for this end, has a great influence to fix them iu the memory ; therefore it is that the ruies of grammar, and useful examples of the variation of words, and the peculiar forms of speech in any lan- guage, «rew) often appoii>teU by the masters as lessons
OB IMPKOVIBrO THE MEItfORT. 151
for the scholars to be frequently repeated; and tliey are contracted into tables for frequent review, that what is not fixed in the mind at first, may be stamped upon the memory by a peri>etual survey and reyienrsal,
Re})etition is so very useful a practice, that Maemon, even from his youth to his old age, never read a book without making some small points, dashes, or houks, in the margin, to mark what parts of the discourse were proper for a review: and when he came to the end of a section or ciiapter, he always shut iiis book, and recollected all the sentiments or ex,)iessions he had remarked, so that he could give a to! Table analysis and abstract of every treatise he had read, just after he had finished it. Thence he became so well furnish- ed with a rich variety of knowle Jge.
Even when a person is hearijjg a sermoa or a leo ture, he may give his thoughts leave now aid then to step back so far as to recoUtCt thf severiil heads of it from the beginning, two or three times before the lec- ture or sermon is finished ; the omission or the loss of a sentence or two among the amplific itions is richly compensated by preserving in the mind the method and order of the whole discourse in the most import- ant branches of it.
If we would fix in the memory the discourses we hear, or what we design to speak, let us abstract thenx into brief compends, and review them often. Lawyers and divines have need of such assistances : they write down short notes or hints of the principal heads of whatthey desire to commit to their memory, in order to preach or plead ; for such abstracts and epitomes may be reviewed much sooner, and the several am- plifying sentiments or sentences will be more easily invented or recollected in their proper jilnces. The art of short hand is of excellent use for this as well as for other purposes. It must be acknowledged, that those who scarcely ever take a pen in their hand to wri':e short notes or hints of what they are to speak or learn, who never trv to cast thinc:s into method, or to contract the survey of them in order to commit them to their memory, had need have a double degree of that natural power of retaining and recollecting what thev read or hear, or intend to speak.
Do not plunge yourself into other businesses or stu- dies, amusements or recreations, immediately after you
112 0F IMPROVINII THE MEMORY.
iiaye attended upon instruction, if you can well avoid it. Get time if possible, to recollect the things you have heard, that ihey may not be washed all away from the mind by a torrent of other occurrences or engagements, nor lost in the crowd or clamour of other loud or im- portunate affairs.
Talking over the things which you have read with vour companions, on the first proper opportunity you have for it, is a most useful manner of review or repe- tition, in order to fix them upon the mind. Teach them your younger friends, in order to establish your own knowledge, while you communicate it to them. The animal jxiwers of your tongue and of your ear, as well as your intellectual faculties, will all join together to help the memory, Hermetas studied hard in a remote corner of the land, and in solitude, yet he became a ve- ly learned man. He seldom was so happy as lo enjoy 'Suitable society at home, and therefore he talked over to the fields and the woods in Uie evening, what he ha4 been reading in the day, and found so considerable ad- vantage by this practrce, that he recommended it to all bis friends, since he could §et his firobatum to it for seventeen years.
5. Pleasure and delight in the things we learn, give rreatr assistance towards the remembrance of them. Whatsoever therefore we desire that a child should commit to his memory, make it as pleasant to him as possible ; endeavour to search his genius and his tem- per; and let him take in the instructions you give him, or the lessons you appoint him, as far as may be,in away suited to his natural inclination. Fabellus would never learn any moral lessons till they were moulded into the form of some fiction or fable like those of ^sop, or till they put on the appearance of a parable, like those >vherein our blessed Saviour taught the ignorant world. Then he remembered well the emblematical instruc- tions that were given him, and learnt to practise the moral sense and meaning of them. Young Spectorious was taught virtue by setting before him a variety of examples of the various good qualities in human life; »nd he was appointed daily to repeat some story of this kind out of Valerius Maximus. The same lad was early instructed to avoid the common vices and follies of youth in the same manner. This is akin to the mt th- cd whereby the Lacedaemonians trained up their chiU
Q£ IMPROVING THE MBMORT. ISo
dren to hate drunkenness and intemperance, viz. by bringing a drunken man into their company, and show- ing them what a beast he had made of himself. Such visible and sensible forms of instruction will make long and useful impressions upon the memory.
Children may be taught to remember many things in a way of sport and play. Some young children have learnt their letters and syllables, and the pronouncing and spelling of words, by having them pasted or writ- ten upon many Uttle flat tablets or dies. Some have been taught vocabularies of different languages, having a word in one tongue written on one side of these tab- lets, and the same word in another tongue on the other side of them.
-^There might be also many entertaining contrivances for tlie instruction of children in several things relating to geometry, geography, and astronomy, in such allur- ing and illusory methods, which would make a most agreeable and lasting impression on their minds.
6. The memory of useful things may receive consid- erable aid if they are thrown into verse ; for the num- bers, and measures, and rhyme, accoiding to the poesy of different languages, have a considerable influence upon mankind, both to make them receive with more ease the things proposed to their observation, and pre - serve them longer in their remembrance. How many are there of the common affairs of human life which have been taught in early years b^ the help of rhyme, and have been like nails fastened in a sure place, and riveted by daily use !
So the number of the days of each month is engrav-. en on the memory of thousands by these four lines :
Thirty days hath September, April, June, and November ; February twenty-eight alone. All the rest have thirty-one.
\
So lads have been taught frugality by surveying and judging of their own expenses by these three lines :
Compute the pence but of one day's expense. So many pounds, and ang^els, groats, and pence, Are spent in one whole year's circumference.
For the nun ber of day sin a year is three hundred and sixty-live, which number of pence makes one pound, one angel, one groat, and one penny. O 2
154 OS IfidPROVING THE H£MORT.
So have rules of health been prescribed in the book called Schola Salernitani, and many a person has pre- served himself doubtless from evening gluttony, and the pauis and diseases consequent upon it, by these two lines :
"^Ex magna ccena stomacho Jit maxima poena : Ut sis node levis, ^t tiii cosna brevis.
ENGLISHED.
To be easy all night, _ V Let your supper be light,
0r else you'll complain Of a stomach in pain.
And a hundred proverbial sentences in various lan-r guages are formed into rhyme or a verse, whereby they are made to stick upon the memory of old and young.
It is from this principle that moral rules have been east into a poetic rnould from all antiquity. So the golden verses of the Pythagoreans in Greek; Cato's distitchs De Mortem in Latin; Lilly's precepts to scholars called Qui mihiy with many others, and this has been done with very good success. A line or two of this kind recurring on the memory, have often guard- ed youth from a temptation to vice and folly, as well as put them in mind of their present duty.
It is for this reason also that the genders, declensions, and variations of nouns and verbs have been taught in verse by those who have complied with the prejudice di long custom, to teach English children the Latin tongue by rules written in Latin ; and, tinaly, those rude heaps of words and terminations of an unknown tongue -would have never been so happily learned by heart, by a hundred thousand boys, without this smoothing arti- fice ; nor indeed do 1 know any thing else can be said with §ood reason, to excuse or relieve the obvious ab- surdities of this practice.
When you would remember new things or words, en-„. deavour to associate and connect them with some "words or things which you have well known before, and which are fixed and established in your memory. This association , of ideas is of great importance and force, and may be of exceJlent use in many instances of human life. One idea which is familiar to the mind, connected with others which are new and strange, will bring those new ideas into easy remembrance. Maron- ides had got the first hundred lines of Virgirs .ffinein
OF IMPROVING THE MEMORX. 155
printed upon his memorv so perfectly, that he knew' not only the order and number of every word, but in each verse also ; would undertake to remember two or three hundred names of persons or things, by some ra- tional or fantastic connexion bf tween some word in the verle, and some letter, syllable, property, or accident of the name or thing to be remembered, even though they had been repeated but once or twice at most in his hearing. Animato practised much the same art of memory, by getting the Latin names of twenty-two an- imals into his head according to the alphabet, viz. asinus^ daaiiiscus, canis^ draco^ elefihas^felia^ gryfihus^ hircus^ juvenia^ leOy mulua^noctua^ ovia^fianthera^quadru^ies^ rhinoceroa^ simia, taurua, ursua, xiphiaa^ hyana or ytena, zibetta. Most of these he divided also into four parts, viz. head and body, feet, fins or wings, and tail, and by some arbitrary or chimerical attachments of each of these to a word, or thing which he desired to remember, he committed them to the care of his mem- ory, and that with good success.
It is also by this association of ideas that we may bet- ter imprint any new idea upon the memory, by joining with it some circumstance of the time, place, compa- ny, &:c. whereia we first observed, heard, «r learned it. }f we would recover an absent idea, it is useful to recol- lect those circumstances of time, place, &c. The sub- staiKe will many times be recovered and brought to the thoughts by recoilectiog the shadow ; a man recurs to our fancy by remembermg his garment^ his size, or stature, his office, or e. ^loyment, &c. A beast, bird, or fish, by its colour, figure, or motion, by the cage, court yard, or cistern wherein it was kept.
To this end also we may refer that rerr^embrance of names and things which may be derived from our recollection of their likeness to other things which we know; either their resemblance in name, character, form, accident, or any thing that belongs to them. An Idea or word which has been lost or forgotten, has often been recovered by hitting upon some other kin- dred word or idea, which has the nearest resemblance to it, and that in the letters, syllables, or sound cf th^ inaroej as well as the properties of the thing.
156 OV IMPROVIlVG THE MEMORY.
If we would remember Hippocrates, or Galen, or Paracelsus, think of a physician's name, beginning with H, G, or P. If we will remember Ovidius Naso, we may represent a man with a large nose ; if Plato, we may think upon a person with large shoulders; if Crispus, we shall fancy another with curled hair ; and ;so of other things.
And sometimes a new or strange idea may be fixed in the memory, by considering its contrary or opposite. So if we cannot hit upon the word Goliath, the remem- brance of David may recover it; or the name of a Trojan may be recovered by thinking of a Greek, &c.
7. In such cases, wherein it may be done, seek after a local memory, or a remembrance of what you have read by the side or page of where it is written or print- ed ; whether the right or left, whether at the top, the middle, or the bottom ; whether at the beginning of a chapter or paragraph, or the end of it. it has been some advantage, for this reason, to accustom one's self to books of the same edition ; and it has been a constant and special use to divines and private Christians, to be funiished with several Bibles of the same edition, that wheresoever they arCj whether in their chamber, par- lour, or ;study, in the younger or elder years of life, they may find the chapters and verses standing in the same parts of the page.
This is also a great conveniency to be observed by printers in the new editions of Grammars, Psajms* Tes- taments, &c. to print every chapter, paragraph, or verse, in the same part of the page as the former, that so it may yield an happy assistance to those young learners, who find, and even feel, the advantage of a local memory.
8. Let every thing we desire to remember be fairly and distinctly written and divided into periods, with large characters in the b(?ginning, for by this means we sliall the more readily imprint the matter and words on our minds, and recollect them with a glance, the more remarkable the writing appears to the eye. This sense conveys the ideas to the fancy better than any other ; and what we have seen is not so somi for- gotten as what we have only heard. What Horace affirms of the mind or passions mjiy t|e said also of the memory.
CE IJMFBOVIXfG TBK J^IESIORT. 1B7
Segniut irritant animos demlsaa per aurem
9 nam quoi sunt oculis subjecta jidelitut, ct qua:
Tpte tioi traelit sptctatou »
APPLIED THT^S IN ENOLXSH :
Sounds wUicli address the «ar are lost and die In out: gJwii hour ; hut that which strikes the eye Lives long upon the mind; the faithful sight Engraves the knowledge with a beam of light.
For the assistance of weak memories, the first let- ters or words of every period in every page, n^ay be written in disanct colours ; yellow, green, red, black, &c. and il' you observe the same order of colours in the following sentences, it will be still the better. This will maice a greater impression, and may much aid the mi^mory.
Under this head we may take notice of the advan- tage which the memory gains, by having tlie several ob)t;cts of our learning drawn out into schemes and ta- bles; matttrs of mathematical bcience and natural philosopny are not only let into the understanding, but pi'fserved in the memory by figures and diagrams. The situation of the several pat ts of the earth is bet- ter learned by one day's conversing with a map or sea chart, than by merely reading the description of their situation a hundred times over in books of geography. S(» the constellations in astronomy, and their position in the heavens, are more easily remembered by hem- ispheres of the stars well drawn. It is by having such sort of memorials, figures, and tables hung round our studies, (U- places of residence or resort, that our mem- ory of tb.ese things will be greatly assisted and improv- ed, as I have shown at large in the twentieth chapter of the use of Sciences.
I miglit add here also, that once writing over what we design to remember, and giving due attention to what we write, will fix it more in the mind than read- ing it five times. And in the same manner, if we had a plan of the naked lines of longitude and latitude, pro- jected on the meridian printed for this use, a learner plight much more speedily advance himself in the knowl- edge of geography by his own drawing the figures of all the parts of the world upon '\i by imitation, than by many days survey of a map of the world so printed. The same also may be said concerning the- constella* tions of heaven, drawn by the learner on a naked pro-
15$ 0£ IMPROVING THB AtEMORT.
jection of the circles of the sphere upctti the plane ot the equator.
9. It has sometimes been the practice of men to im- print names or sentences on their memory, by taking the first letters of every word of that sentence, or of those names, and making a new word out of them. So the name of the Maccabees is borrowed from the first letters of the Hebrew words, which make that sentence, Mi Camoka Bealim Jehovah, i. e. Who is like thee among the gods ? Which was written on their banners. Jesus Christ our Saviour, hath been called a fish, in Greek ixers, by the fathers, because these are the firet letters of those Greek words, Jesus Christ, God's Son, the Saviour. So the word Vibgyor teaches us to remember the order of the seven origi- nal colours, as they appear by the sun beams cast through a prism on white paper, or formed by the sun in a rainbow, according to the different refrangibility of the rays, viz. violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, or- ange, and red.
In this manner the Hebrew grammarians teach their students to remember the letters which change their natural pronunciation by the inscription of a dag-esh, by gathering these six letters, beth, gimel, daleth, caph, pe, and thau, into the word Begadchefiat ; and that they might not forget the letters named Quiescent, viz, c, A, i>, and U they are joined in the word ahevi. So the universal and particular propoations in logic, are remembered by the words darAara, celare7ity Darii^ &c.
Other artificial helps to memory, may be just men- tioned here.
Dr. Grey, in his book called Memoria Technica, has exchanged the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, for some consonants, b, d, t, f, 1, y, p, k, n, and some vowels, a, e, i, 0, u, and several diphthongs, and thereby formed words that denote numbers, which may be more easi- ly remembered ; and Mr. Lowe has improved his scheme, in a small pamphlet called Mnemonics deUn-^ eated, whereby in seven leaves, he has comprised al- most an infinity of things in science and in common life, and reduced them to a sort of measure like Latin verse ; though the words may be supposed to be very barbarous, being such a mixture of vowels and conso- nants as are very unfit for harmony.
But after all, the very writers on this subject have
of DETEB-MINING A aXTESTIOIT. 159
•onfessed, that several of these artificial helps of mem- ory are so cumbersome as not to be suitable to every temper or person ; nor are they of any use for the de7 livery of a discourse by memory, nor of much service in learning the sciences : but they may be sometimes practised for the assisting our remembrance of certain sentences, numbers and names.
CHAP. XVIII.
Of Determining a Question,
I. WHEN a subject is proposed to your thoughts, consider whether it be knowable at all, or not ; and then whether it be not above the reach of your inquiry and knowledge in the present state ; and remember, that it is a great waste of time to busy yourselves too much amongst unsearchables ; the chief use of these studies is to keep the mind humble, by finding its own ignorance and weakness.
II. Consider again whether the matter be worthy of your inquiry at all ; and then, how far it may be wor- thy of your present search and labour according to your age, your time of life, your station in the world, your capacity, your profession, your chief design and end. There are many things worth inquiry to one man, which are not so to another; and there arc things that may deserve the study of the same person in one part of life, which would be improper or imper- tinent at another. To read books of the art of preach- ing, or disputes about church discipline, are proper for a theological student in the end of his academical studies, but not at the beginning of them. To pursue mathematical studies very largely, may be useful for a professor of philns' phy, but not for a divine.
III. Consider wliether the subject of vour inquiry be easy or difficult ; whetlier ym have sufiicient loun- dation or^kill, futTiiture and advantnges, for the pur- suit of it. It would be madrtess for a young statuan' to attempt at first to carve a Venus or a Mercury, and especially without proper tools. And it is equfl folly for a man to pretend to make great inn.provements in natural philosophy without due expeiiments.
IV. Coasider whether the subject be any ways use-
IfiO OB pKTi!iK.j«[iariffa a avjECSTiQn.
fal or not, before you engage in the study of it ; otteia put this question to yourselves, Cui bono '/ To what purpose :* What end will it aUain ? Is it for the gloiy of Gorl, for the good of men, for your own advantage, for the removal oF any natural or moral evil, for tne attainment of any natural or moral gond ? Will the profit be equal to the I ibour } There are many subtle im- pertinences learned in the schools, many painful trifles, even among the mathematical theorems and problems, many dijfficilefi nu^a^ or laborious follies of various kinds, wnich some mgenk us men have been engaged in. A due reflection upon these thin^^s will call the mind away from vain amusements, and save much time.
V. C'onsider what tendency it has^to make you wiser and better, as well as to make fou more learned ; and those questions which tend to wisdom and prudence in our conduct among men, as well as piety toward God, are doubtless more important, and preferable beyond all those inquiries which only improve our knowledge in mere speculations.
VI. If the question appear to be well worth your diligent application, and you are furnished with the necessary requisites to pursue it, then consider whether it be dressed up and entangled in more words than is needful, and contain or include more complicated ideas than is necessary ; and if so, endeavour to reduce it to a greater simplicity and plainness, which will make the inquiry and argument easier and plainer all the way.
VII. If it be stated in an improper, obscure, or irreg- ular form> it may be meliorated by changing the phrase, or transposing the parts of it j but be caretul always to keep the grand and important point of inquiry the same in your new stating the question. Little tricks and de- ceits of sophistry, by sliding in, or leaving out such words as entirely change the question, should be aban- doned and renounced by all fair disputants and honest searchers after truth.
The stating a question with clearness and justice es a great way many times towards the answering it. he greatest part of true knowledge lies in a distinct perception of things which are in themselves distinct ; and some men give more light and knowledge by the bare stating of the question with perspicuity and just- ice, than others by talking of it in gross contusion for whole hours together. 1 o state a question is but to
^j
OF PBTBRMINirro A CtUBSTION'. IGl
s»parate ami disentangle the parts of itft'om one anoth- er, as well as from every thing which does not concern the question, and then j.iy the T\isentangkd parts of the question in due order and methodj oftentimes without more ado this fully resolves the doubt, a«id shews the mind where the truth lies, without argu*- jnent or dispute.
VIII. If the question relate to an axiom, or first principle of truth, remember that .i long train of consequences may depend upon it ; thereffie it should Dot be suddenly admitted or receivrd.
It is not enough to determine the truth of a propo- sition, much less to raise it to the honour ot an nxiom, or first principle, to say, rhnt it has been believed through many ages, that it has been received by ma- ny nations, that it is almost universally ackm)wledged, or nobody denies it, that it is established by human laws; or that temporal penalties or reproaches will at- tend the disbelief of it.
IX. Nor is it enough to forbid any proposition the title of an axiom, because it has been denied by some persons, and doubted by others ; for some persons have been unreasonably credulous, and others have been as unreasonably skeptical. Then only j^hould a proposi- tion be called an axiom, or a self-evident truth, when, by a moderate attention to the subject and predicate, their connexion appears in so plain a light, and so cl^ar an evidence, as needs no third idea, or middle term, to prove them to be connected.
X. While you are in search after truth in question!^ of a dfcubtfu^nature, or such as you have not yet thor- oughly examined, keep up a just indifference to either side of the question, if you would be led honestly into the truth : for a desire or inclination leaning to either side, biasses the judgment strangely : whereas by this indifference for every thing but truth, you will be eX' cited to examme fairly instead of presuming, and your assent will be secured from going beyond your evidence.
XI. For the most part people are born to their opin- ions, and never question the truth of what their family,
^*or their country, or their party profess. They clothe tJhien' minds as they do their bodies, after the fashion in vogue, n( r one of a hundred ever examined their l^rin- ciples. It is suspected of lukewarmness to suppose ex- aipination necessary : and it will be charged as a ten* P
162 OF DETERMINING A aUESTIOW,
dency to apostasy if we go about to examine them. Persons are applaud©^ for presuming they are in the right, and (as Mr. Locke saith) he that considers and inquires into the reason of things is counted a foe to or- thodoxy, because possibly he may deviate from some of the received doctrinefj. And thus men, without any industry or acquisition of their own (lazy and idle as they are) inherit local truths, i» e, the truths of that place where they live, and are inured to assent without evidence.
This hath a long and unhappy influence ; for it a man can bring his mind once to be positive and fierce for propositions whose evidence he hath never examined, and that in matters of the greatest concernment, he will naturally follow this short and easy way of judging and believing in cases of less moment, and build all his opin- ions upon insufficient grounds. ^
XII. In determining a questior, especially when it is a matter of difficulty and importance, do not take up with partial examination, but turn your thoughts on alJ. sides, to gather in all tlie|light you can toward, the solu- tion of it. Take time, and uae all the helps that ar« to be attained, before you fully determine, except only where present necessity of action calls for speedy de- termination. »
If you would know what may be called a partial ex- amination, take these instances, viz.
When you examine an object of sense, or inquire in- to some matter of sensation at too great a distance from the object, or in anirxonvenicnt situation ot it, or under any indisposition of the organs, or any disguise wliatso- ever relating to the medium oy the organ of the object itself; or when you examine it by one sense only, where others might be employed ; or Avhen you inquire into it by sense only, without the use of the understanding, and judgment, and reason.
If it be a question which is to be determined by rea- son and argimient, tlien your examination is partial when you turn the question only in one light, and do nc^ turn it on all sides; when you look upon it only in its relations nnd aspects to ot^e sort of object, and not ^ another ; when you consider only the advantages of it, and the reasons for it, and neglect to think of the rea- sons against it, r<nd never survey its inconverJencies too; when you determine on a sudden, before jou have giv-
OF DETERMINING A aUESTlOIC. 165
cn yourself a due time for weighing all circumstan- ces, &c.
Again, If it be a question of fact, depending upon the report or testimony of men, your examination is but partial, when you inquire only what one man or a few say, and avoid the testimony of others ; when you only ask what ttjose report who were not eye or ear witnes- ses, and neglect those who saw and heard it; when you content yourself with mere loose and general talk about it, and never enter into particulars; or when there are, many who deny the fact, and you never con- cern you^elf about their reasons for denying it, but re- solve to believe only those who affirm it.
There is yet a further fault in your partial examina- tion of any question, when you resolve to'determine it by natural reason only, where you might be assisted by supernatural revelation ; or when you decide the point by some word or sentence, oi by some part of revelation, without comparing it with other parts,which might give further light and better help^to determine the meaning.
It is also a culpable partiality, if you examine some doubtful or pretended vision or revelation without the use of reason; or without the use of that revelation, which is undoubted and sufficiently proved to be divine. I'hese are all instances of imperfect examination ; and we should never determine a question by one or two lights, where we may have the advantage of three or four.
XIII. Take heed lest some darling notion, some fa- vouiite hypothesis, some beloved doctrine, oi^ some com- mon but unexamined opinion, be made a test of the truth or falsehood of all other propositions about the same subject. Dare not build much upon such a notion or doc- trine till it be very fully examined, accurately adjusted, and sufficiently confirmed. Some persons, by indulg- ing such a practice, have been led into long ranks of errors ; they have found themselves involved in a train otj mistakes, by taking up some petty hypothesis or principle, either in philosophy, politics, or religion, upon slight and insufficient grounds, and establishing that as a test and rule by which lo judge of all other things.
XIV. For the same reason, have a care of suddenly determining any one question on which the determina' -
164 OF ©ETERMIMING Arfl^UESTIOW.
tion of any kindred or parallel cases will easily or nat- | urally follow. Take heed of receiving any wrong turn I in your early judgment of things; be watchful as far as possible, against «ny false b.as which may be given | to the understanding, especially in younger years. The indulgence of some one silly opinion, or the giving cred- it to one foolish fable, lay&the mind open to be imposed upon by many. The ancient Romans were taught tc believe that Romulus and Remus, tite founders of their state and empire, were exposed in the woods, and nursed by a wolf : This story prepared then* minds for the reception of any tales of the like nature relating to other countries. Trogus Pompeius would enforce the belief, that one of the ancient kings of Spain was also nursed and kickled by a hart, from the fible of Romu- lus and Remus. It was by the same influence they learned to give up their hopes and fears to omens and soothsaying, when they w'ere once persuaded that the greatness of their empire, and the glory of Romulus their founder, wen- predicted by the happy omen of twelve vultures appearing to him when he sought where to build the city. They readily received all the following legends, of prodigies, auguries, and prognos- tics, for many ages together, with which Livy has fur- nished his huge history.
So the chiki who is once taught to believe any one occurrence to be a go^l or evil omen, or tuiy day of the month or week to be lucky or unlucky, hath a wide in- road made on the scurdness of his understanding in the following judgments of his life ; he lies ever open ta all the silly impressions, and idle tales of nurses, and im- bibes many a foolish story with gre^^diness, which he must unlearn again, if ever he become acquainted with truth and wisdom.
XV. Have a care of interesting your warm and re- ligious zeal in those matters whicfr' ai;. not sufficiently evident in themselves, or which are not fully and thor- oughly examined and proved ; for this zeaJ, whether right or wrf^g, when it is once engaged, will have a powerful influence to establish your own minds in those doctrines which are really doubtful, and to stop up all the avenues of further light. This will bring upon the soul a sort of sacred awe and dread of heresy, with a divine concern to maintain whatever opinion you have espoused as divine, though perhaps you have espoused
M^ihty
• F DETERnilMNG A aVESTION. 16:
it without any just evidence, and ought to have renoun ced it as false and pernicious.
We ought to be zealous for the most important point of our religion, and to contend earnestly for the fait" once delivered to the Sjaints ; but we ought not to em- ploy this sacred fervour of spirit in the service of any article, till we have seen it made out with plain and strong conviction, that it is a necessary or important point of faith or practice, and is either an evident dictate of the light of nature, or an assured article of revelation. Zeal must not reign over the powers of our understand- ing, but obey them : God is the God of light and truth, a God of reason and order, and he never requires man- kind to use their natural faculties amiss for the support of his cause. Even the most mysterious and sublime doctrines of revelation are not to be believed without a just reason for it ; nor should our pious affections be engaged in the defence of them, till we, have plain and convincing proof that they are certainly revealed, though perhaps we may never in this world attain to such clear and distint ideas of them as we desire.
XVI. As a warm zeal ought never to be employed in the defence of any revealed truth, till our reason be well convinced of the revelation ; so neither should wit and banter, jest and ridicule, ever be indulged to oppose or assault any doctrines of pr'ofessed revelation, till reason has proved thev are not really revealed ; and even then these methods should be used very sel- dom, and with the utmost caution and prudence. Rail- lery and wit were never made to answer our inquiries after truth, and to determine a question of rational controversy ; though they may sometimes be service- able to expose to contempt those inconsistent follies which have been first abundantly refuted by argument ; they serve indeed only to cover nonsense with shame, when reason has first proved it to be mere nonsense.
It is therefore a silly and most unreasonable test which some of our deists have introduced to judge of divine revelation, viz. to try if it will bear ridicule and laughter. They are effectually beaten in all their com- bats at the weapons of men, that is, reason and argu- ment ; and it would not be unjust (though it is a little uncourtly) to say, that they would now attack our re- ligion with the talents of a vile animal, that is, grin and grimace.
P 2
166 OF DET£RMINirrG A aUESTIOBT.
I cannot think that a jester or a monkey, a droll or a puppet, can be proper judges or deciders ot contro-. %ersy. That which dresses up all things in dis^guise, % not likely to lead us into any just sentiments abou^ them. Plato or Socrates, Csesar or Alexander, might have a fool's coat clapped upon any of them, and perhaps in this disguise, neither the wisdom of the One, nor the majesty ot the other, would secure them trom a sneer; this treatment would never intorm us whether they were kings or slaves, whether they were focls or phi- losophers. The strongest reasoning, the best sense, and the politest thoughts, may be set in a most ridicu- lous light by this grinning faculty ; the most obvicijs axioms of eternal truth may lie dressed in a very fool- ish form, and wra^it up in artful absurdities by this tal- ent; but they are truth, and reason, and good sense still. Euclid, with all his demonstrations, might be so covered and overwhelmed with banter, that a beginnty in the mathematics might be tempted to doubt whether his theorems were true or not, and to imagine they could never be useful. So weaker minds migiit be easily prejudiced against the noblest principle of truth and goodness; and the younger part of mankind might be beat oft" trom the belief of the most serious, the most rational and important points, ^feven of natural religion, by the impudent jests of a profane wit. I'he moral du- ties of the civil life, as well as the articles of Christian- ity, may he painted over with the culours of folly, anc^ exposeH upon a stage, so as to ruin all social an^ per- sonal virtue among the gay and thoughtless part of the woi'ld. f
XVII. It should be observed also, that these very men cry cut loudly against the use of all severe rail- ing and reproach in debates, and all penalties and per- secutions of the state, in order to convince the minds and consciences of men, and determine points of truth and error. Now I renounce these penal and smart- ing methods of conviction as much as they do, and yet I think still these are every whit as wise, as just, and as good for this purpose as banter and ridicule. Why should public mockery in priAt, or a merry joke up- on a stage, be a better test of truth, than severe, railing sarcasms, and public persecutions and penalties"? Why should more light be derived to the understand- ing:, by a song of scurrilous mirth, or a witty ballad.
OP DETERMINING A aUESTlOJY. 167
than there is by a rude cudgel ? When a professor of any religion is set up to be laughed at, I cannot see how this should help us to judge of the truth of his faith any better than if we were scourged. I'he jeers of a theatre, the jiillory, -cirKl the whipping post, -are very near akin. When the person or his opinion is made the jest of the mob, or his back the shambles of the executioner, I think there is no more'conviction in the one than in the other.
XVIII. Besides, supposing it is but barely possible, that the great God should reveal his mind and will to men by miracle, vision, or inspiration, it is a piece of contetnpt and profane insolence to treat any tolerable or rational appearance of such a revelation with jest and laughter, in order to find whether it be divine or iW)t. And yet, if this be a proper test of revelation, it inay be properly applied to the true as well as the false,.in order to distinguish it. Suppose a royal proc- lamation were sent to a distant part of the kingdom ^ And some of the subjects should doubt whether it came** from the king ornot: Is it possible tnat wit and ridi- cule should ever decide the point? Or would the
Erinceever think himself treated with just honour to ave his proclamation canvassed in this manner on a, public stage, and become the sport of buffoons, in or- der to determine the question, whether it is the word of a king or not ^ "**■
Let such sort of writers go on at their dearest peril, and spdrt themselves in their own deceivings ; let them at their peril make a jest of the Bible, and treat the sacred articles of Christianity with scoff and merri- ment: But then let them lay aside all their pretences to reason as well as religion ; and as they exnose themselves by such writings to the neglect and Son-. tempt of men, so let them prepare to m.eet the majesty and indignatif n of God without timely repentance.
XIX. In reading philosophical, mora!, or religious controversies, never raise your estee* of any opinion by the assurance and zeal wherewith the author as-**" serts it, nor by the highest praises he bestows upon it ; nor, on the other hand, let your esteem ot an opinion be abated, nor your aversion to it raised by the super- cilious contempt cast upon it by a warm writer, nor by the sovereign airs with which he condemns it. Let the force of argument alone influence your assent qx
168 OF DETERMINING A aUESTIOJT.
dissent. Take care that your soul be not warped or biassed on one side or the other, by any strains of flattering or abusive language ; for there is no question whatsoever, but hath some such sort of defenders and opposers. Le ive those writers to their own follies, who practise thus upon the weakness of their readers without argument; leave tliem to triumph in their own fancied possessions and victories; it is oftentimes found that their possessions are but a heap of errors, and their boasted victories are but overbearing noise and clamour to silence the voice of truth.
In philosophy and religion, the bigots of all parties are generally the most positive, and deal much in this sort of argu'nent. Sometimes these are the weapons of pride ; for a haughty man supposes all his opinions to be infallible, and imagines the contrary sentiments are ever ridiculous, and not worthy of notice. Some- times these ways of talking are the mere arms of igno- rance : The men who use them know little of the op- posite side of the question, and therefore they exult in their own vain pretences to knowledge, as though no man of sense could oppose their opinions. They rail at an objection against their own sentiments, be- cause they can find no other answer to it but railing. And men of learning, by their excessive vanity, have been sometimes tempted into the same insolent prac- tice, as well as the ignorant*
Yet let it be remembered too, that there are some truths so plain and evident, that the opposition to them is strange, unaccountable, and almost monstrous ; and in vindication of sucii truths, a writer of good sense may sometimes be allowed to use a degree of assur- ance, and pronounce them strongly with an air of con- fidence, while he defends them with reasons of con- vincing force.
XX. Sometimes a question may be proposed which is of so large and extensive amatute, and refers to such a multitude of subjects, as ought not injustice to be de- termined at once by a single argument or answer ; as if one should ask me, Are you a professed disciple of the Stoics or the Platonists ? Do you receive and assent to the principles of Gassendus, Descartes, or Sir Isaac Newton ? Have you chosen the hypothesis of Tycho or Copernicus ? Have you devoted yourself to the^s?nti- ^leuts of Arminius or Calvin ? Are your notions Eniscor
OF DETER.MIMINO A aUESTlO?/. 16f
pal, Presbyterian, or Independent ? Sec. I think it may be very proper in such cases not to give an answer in the gross, but rather to enter into a detail of particulars, and explain one's own sentiments. Perhaps there is no man, nor set of men upon earth, whose sentiments I entirely follow. God has given me reason to judge for myself, and though I may see suflicient ground to agree to the greatest part of the opinions of one person or par- ty, yet it does by no means follow that I should receive them all. Truth does not always go by the lump* nor does error tincture and spoil all the articles of belief that some one party professes.
Since there are difticulties attending every scheme of human knowledge, it is enough for me in the main to mclir.e to that ^de which has the fewest difficulties ; and I 'w(iuld endeavour, as far as possible, to correct the mistakes or the harsh expresstons. of one party, by soft- ening and reconciling methods, by reducing the ex- tremes, and by borrowing some of the best principles or phrases from another. Cicero was one of the greatest men of antiquity, and gives us an account of the various opinions of philosophers in his age ; but he himself was ot the eclectic sect, and chose out of each of them such positions as in his wisest judgment came nearest to the truth.
XXI. When you are called in the course of life or religion to judge and determine concerning any question, and in affiim or deny it, take a full surveyof the objec- tions against it, as well i^s of the arguments for it,as far as your time and circumstances admit, and see on which side the preponderation falls. If either the objections against any proposition, or the arguments for the defence of it, carry m them most undoubted evidence, and are plainly uninswerable, they will and ought to constrain the assent, tiiough there ma\ be many seeming proba- bilities on the ' ther side,, which at fivst sight would flat- ter the judgment to favour it. But where the reasons on both sides are very near of equal weight, there sus- pension f!r doubt is our duty, unit ss in cases wherein present determination or practice is required, and there wc must act according to the present appearing pre- ponderation of reasons.
XXII. In matters of moment and importance, it is our duty indeed to seek after certain and conclusive ar- guments, (if they can be found) in order to determine a
170 OF DETERMINING A fttTESTIOX.
question ; but where the matter is of little consequence, it is not .^orth our labour to spend much time in seek- ing after c*.;rtainties; it is sufficient here, if probable reasons offer themselves. And ev-en in matters of great- er importance, especially wherf daily practice is neces- sary, and where we cannot attain any sufficient or cer- tain grounds to determine a question on either side, we must tiien take up with such probable arguments as we can arrive at. But this general rule should be observ- ed, viz. to take heed that our assent be no stronger, or rise no higher, in the degree of it, than the probable ar- gument will support.
XXIII. Tnere are many things, even in religion, as well as in philosophy and civil life, which we believe with very different degrees of assent ; and this is or should be always regulated according to the different degrees of evidence which we enjoy ; and perhaps there are a thousand gradations in \iv assent to thetaingswe believe,because thf re are thousands of circumstances re- lating to different questions, which increase or diminish the evidence we have concerning theni, and that in matters both of reason and revelation.
I believe there is a God, and that obedience is due to him from every reasonable creature : this I am most fully assured of, because I have the strongest evidence, since it is the plain dictate both of re ison ind revelation.
Again, I believe tiiere is a future resunvctinn of the dead, because scripture tells us so in the plainest terms, though reason says <iothing of it. I i^eiieve also that the same matter of our bodies whxh died (in part at least) shall arise ; but I am not so fully assured of this circum- stance, because the re\'elation of it is nor. quite so clear and express. Yet further I believe, that the. good men who were acquainted here on earth shaii i^now each other in heaven ; but my persuasion of it is not absolutely certain, because my assent to it arises only from circum- stantial reasonings of men upon what God has cold us, and therefore my evidences are not strong beyond a pos- sibility of mistake. This direction cannot be too often repeated, that our assent ought always to keep pace with our evidence ; and our belief of any proposition should never rise higher than the proof, or evidence we have to support it, nor should our faith run faster than right reason can encourage it.
XXIV. Perhaps it will be objected here, why then
OF DETERMINING A auESTION. 171
does our Saviour; in the histories of the Gospel, so much commend a strong faith, and lay out both his miraculous benefits and his praises upon some of those poor crea- tures of little reaspning, who profes>>ed an ttssured be- lief of his commission and power to heal them ?
I answer, the God of nature has given every man his own reason, to be the judge of evidence to himself, in particular, and to direct his assent in all things about ■which he is called to judge ; and even the matters of revelation are to be believed by us, because our reason pronounces the revelation to be true. Therefore the great God will not, or cannot, in any instance, require us to assent to any thing without reasonable or suffic'ent evidence ; nor to believe any proposition morr strongly than what our evidence for it will support. We have therefore abundant ground to believe, that those :>ersons of whom our Saviour requires such strong f;iith,or whom he commends for their strong faith, had a strong and certain evidence of his power and commission from the eredible and incontestable reports they had heard of his miracles, which were wrought on purpose to give evi- dence to his commission.* Now in such a case, both this strong faith and the open profession of it, were very- worthy of public encouragement and praise from our Saviour,because of the great and public opposition which the magistrates and the priests, and the doctors of the age, made against Jesus, the man of Nazareth, when he appeared as the Messiah.
And besides all this, it may be reasonably supposed, "with regard to some of those strong exercises of faith which are required and commended, that these believ- ers had some further hints of inward evidence and im- mediate revelation from (rod himself; as when St. Pe- ter confesses Christ to be the Son of God, Matt. xvi. 16, IT. our blessed Saviour commends him, saying, '* Bless- ed art thou, Simon Barjona :" But he adds, *' Flesh and blood hRth not revealed it unto thee, but my Father ■who is in heaven."
• When our Saviour gently reproves Thomas for his unbelief, (John XX.29.) he does it in these words : " Because thou bast seen me, Thomas, thou hast believed : blessed are they who have not seen, and yet have be- lieved," t. e. " Blessed are they who, though they have not been fa\-oured with th( evidence of their senses as thou hast been, yet have been con- vincef* Sy the reasonable. and sufficient moral evidence of the well ground- ad report of others, and hnvebflieved in me upon that evidence." Of tiiis moral evidence Mr. Ditton writes exceedingly veil in his book of the Hoisiiycuon of Christ.
172 OS DETERMINING A aUBSTION.
And the same may be said concerning the faith of mir? acles, the exercise of which was sometimes required of the disciples and others ; /. e, when by inward and cli- vine influences God assured them such miracles should be wrought.their obedience to and compliance with these divine illuminations was expected and commended^ Now this supernatural inspiration carried sufficient evi- dence with it to them, as well as to the ancient prophets, though we who never felt it are not so capable to judge and distinguish it.
XXV. What is said before concerning truth or doc- trines may be also affirmed concerning duties ; the rea- son of both is the same ; as the one are truths for cur speculation, the others are truths for our practice. Du- ties which are expressly required in the plain language of scripture, or dictated by the most evident reasoning upon first principles, ought to bind our consciences more than those which are but dubiously inferred, and that only from occasional occurrences, incidents, and circum- stances : as for instance, I am certain that I ought to pray to God ; my conscience is bound to this, because there are most evident commands for it to be found in scriptui-e, as well as to be derived from reason. I be- lieve also that I may pray to God, either by a written form, or without one, because neither Reason nor reve- lation expressly requires either of these modes of prayer at all times, or forbids the other. I cannot therefore bind my conscience to practise the ooe so as utterly to renounce the otlier ; but I would practise, either of them as my reason and other circumstances direct me.
Again, — I believe that Christians ought to remembei* the death of Christ by the symbols ot bread and wine; and I believe there ought to be pastors in a Chriyrian church some way ordained or set apart to lead the wor- ship, and to bless and distribute the elements ; but the last of these practices is not so expressly directed, pre- scribed, and required in scripture as the former; and therefore I feel mv conscience evidently' bound to remem- ber the death of Christ with some society of Christians ©r other, since it is a most plain command, though their methods of ordaining a pastor be very different from other men, or from my own opinion; or whether the person who distributes these elements be only an occa- sional or a settled administrator; since none of these things are plainly determmed in scripture ; I noust not
•F DETJCRMININA A Q.ir£STIOiV. 1^3
omit or neglect an express command, because some un- necessary circumstances are dubious. And I trust I shall receive approbation from the God of nature, and from Jesus my Judge at the last day, if I have endeav- oured in this mantier to believe and practise every thing in proportion to the degree of evidence which God has given me about it, or which he has put me into a capacity to seek and obtain in the age and nation wherein I live.
Query. Whether the obstinate Deists and Fatalists of Great Britain, will find sufficient apology from this prin- ciple ? But I leave them to venture the awful experiment*
XXVI. We may observe these three rules, in judg- ing of probabilities which are to be determined by reason, relating either to things past, or things to come.
1. That which agrees most with the constitution of' nature carries the greatest probability in it, where na other circumstance appears to counterpoise it ; as, if I let loose a greyhound within si^ht of a hare upon a large plain, there is great probability that the greyhound will seize her ; that a thousand sparrows will fly aw ay at the sight of a hawk among them.
2. That which is most conformable to the constant ob- servations of men,or to experiments frequently repeated, is most likely to be true ; as, that a winter will not pass away in England witliout some frost and snow ; that if you deal cut great quantities of strong liquor to the mob, there will be many drunk ; that a large assembly of men will be of different opinions in any doubtful point ; that a thief will make his escape out of prison, if the doors of it are unguarded at midnight.
3. In matters of fact, which are past or present, where neither nature, nor observation, nor custom , gives us any sufficient information on either side of the question, there we may derive a probnbiiity from the attestation of wise and honest men, by word or writing* or the concurring witnesses of multitudes who have seen and known what they relate, 6vC. I'his testimony in many cases will a- rise to the degree of moral certainty. So we believe that the tea plant grows at China; and that the Emperor of the Turks lives at Constantinople ; that Julius Caesar conquered France ; and that Jesus our Saviour lived and died in Judea ; that thousands were converted to the Christian faith in a century after the death of Christ ; and that the bn^ks which contain the Christian religion are certain histories and epistle* which were written
Q
174 OE DKTERMljriWft ▲ aUEdTIOITr
above a thousand years ago. There is an infinite vari- ety of such piYipositions which can admit of no reasona- ble doubt,though they are not matters whicli are directly evid' nt to our own senses.or our mere reasoning powers.
XXVII. When a point hath been well exHmined, and our own judgment settled upon just arguments in our marly age, and after a large survey of the merits of the caase. it would be a weakness for us always to con- tinue fluttering in suspense. We ought therefore to stand firm in such well established principles, and not be tempted to c'.ange and alter for the sake of every difficulty, ; r every occasional objection. We are not to be ca! ried about with every flying doctrine, like chil- dren tossed to and fro, and wavering with the wind. It is a good thif.g to have the heart established with grace, not with meats, that is, in the great doctrines of the gos- pel of gr;xe, and in Jesus Christ, who is the same yes- , terday, to-day, and forever ; but it is not so riecessary in the more minute matters of religion,such as meats and drinks, forms and ceremonies, which are of less impor- tance, and for which Scripture has not given us such express directions. This is the advice of the great Apostle, Eph. iv. 14. Heb. xiii. 8, 9.
In short, those truths which are the springs of daily practice should be settled as soon as we con with the exercise of our best powers, after the state of manhood ; but those things wherein we may possibly mistake,should never be so absolutely and finrilly established and deter- mined, as though we were infallible. If the Papists of Great Britain had maintained such a resolute establish- ment and assurance in the days of King Henry VIII. or Queen Elizabeth, there never had been a reforma- tion ; nor would any Heathen have been converted even under the ministry of St. Paul, if their obstinate settle- ment in their idolatries had kept their eyes shut against . all further light. Yet this should not hinder us from settling our most important principles of faitli and prac- tice, where reason shines with its clearest evidence, and the word of God plainly determines truth and duty.
XXVIII. But let us remember also, that though the gospel be an infallible revelation, we are but fallible in- terpreters, when we determine the sense even of some important propositions written there ; and therefore, though we seem to be established in the belief of any particular sense of scripture, and though there may be
OF I^aVIRINO INTO GADSES AND EFFECTS. 175
just calls of Providence to profess and subscribe it, yet there is no need that we should resolve or promise, sub- scribe or swear, never to change our mind ; since ic is possible, in the nature and course of things.we may meet •with such a solid and substantial objection, as may give us a quite different view of things from what we once imagined, and may lay before us sufficient evidence of the contrary. We may happen to find a fairer light cast over the same scriptures, and see reason to alter our sentiments even in some points of moment. Sicsetitio, sic sentiam^ i. e. Sol believe, and sol will believe, is the prison of the soul for life time, and a bar against all the improvements of the mind. To impose such a profession on other men in matters not absolutely necessary, and not absolutely certain, is a criminal usurj3ation and ty- ranny over faith and conscience, and w hich none has power to require but an infallible dictator.
CHAP. XIX.
Of Inquiring into Causes and Effects.
SOME eftects are found out by their causes, and some causes by their effects. Let us consider both these.
I. VVhen we are inquiring into the causes of any par- ticular effect or appearance, either in the world of na- ture, or in the civil or moral concerns of men, we may follow this method :
1, Consider what effects or appearances you have known of a kindred nature, and what have been the cer- tain and real causes of them ; for like effects have gen- erally like causes, especially when they are found in the same sort of subjects.
2 Consider what are the several Dossible causes which may produce such an effect ; and find out by some circumstances how many of those possible causes are ex- cluded in this particular case ; thence proceed by de- grees to the probable causes, till a more close attention and inspection shall exclude some of them also, and lead you gradually to the real and certain cause.
3 Consider what things preceded such an event or appearance, which might have any influence upon it ; and though we cannot certainly determine the cause of any thing only from its going before the effect, yet among
176 o¥ iNauijaiKc into
the many forerunners, we may probably li^ht up.aa the true cause by further and more particular inquiry.
4. Consider whether one cause be sufficient to produce the effect, or whether it does not rcqaire a concurrence of several causes; and then endeavour as far as possi- ble to adjust the degrees of influence that each cause might have in producing the effect, s.Vii\ the proper agen- cy and influence of each of them therein. ,
So in natural philosophy, if 1 would find w hat are the principles or causes of that sensation which we call heat when I stand near the fire ; here I shall find it is necessa- ry that there be an agency oithe particles of fire on my flesh, either mediately by themselves, or at least bj^ the intermediate air ; there must be a particular sort of mo- tion and veliication imprest upon my nerves ; there must be a derivation of that motion to the brain ; and there must be an attention of my soul to this motion ; if either of these are wanting, the sensation of heat will not be produced.
So in the moral world, if I inquire into the revolution of a state or kingdom, perhaps 1 find it brought about by the tyranny or folly of a prince, or by the disaffection of his own subjects ; and this disaffection and opposition may arise either upon the account of impositions in re- ligion, or injuries relating to their civil rights ; or the revolution may be effected by the invasion of a foreign army, or by the opposition of some person at home or abroad, that lays claim to the government, &c. or a hero wlio would guard the liberties of the people ; or by many of these concurring together ; then we must adjust the influences of each as wisely as we can, and not ascribe the whole event to one of them alone.
II. When we are inquiring into the effects of any particular cause or causes, we may fdlow this method :
3. Consider diligently the nature of every cause apart, and observe what effect every part or property of it will tend to produce.
2. Consider the causes united together in their seve- ral natures, and ways of operation ; inquire how far the powers or properties of one will hinder or promote the effects of the other, and wisely balance the proportions of their influence.
3. Consider what the subject is. in or upon which the cause is to operate; for the same cauw» r>a different
CAUSES AND EFFECTS. 177
subjects will oftentimes produce different effects, as the sun which softens wax, will harden clay.
4. Be frequent and diligent in making all proper ex- periments, in setting such causes at work, whose effects you desire to know, and putting together in an orderly manner such things as are most likely to produce some useful effects, according to the best survey you can take of all the concurring causes and circumstances.
5. Observe carefully all the events which happen ei- ther by an occasional concurrence of various causes, or by the industrious applications of knowing men ; and when you see any happy efiect certainly i)roduced, and often repeated, treasure it up, together with the known causes of it, amongst your improvements.
6. Take a just survey of all the circumstances which attend the operation of any cause or causes, whereby any special effect is produced ; and find out as far as pos- sible how far any of those circumstances had a tendency either to obstruct or promote, or change those opera- tions, and consequently how far the effect might be in- fluenced by them.
In this manner physicians practise and improve their skill. They consider the various known effects of par- ticular herbs or drugs, they meditate what will be the effects of their composition, and whether the virtues of the one will exalt of diminish the force of the other, or correct any of its innocent qualities. Then they observe the native constitution, and the present temper or cir- cumstances of the patient, and what is likely to be the efiect of such a medicine, on such a patient. And in all uncommon cases they make wise and cautious experi- ments, and nicely observe the effects of particular com- potind medicines on different constitutions, and in differ- ent diseases ; and by these treasures of just observations, they grow up to an honourable degree of skill in the art of healing.
So the preacher considers tl\e doctrines and reasons, the precepts, the promises and threatenings of the word of God, and what are the natural effects of them upon the mind ; he considers what is the natural tendency of such a virtue or such a vice ; he is well apprized that the representation of some of these things may convince the understanding, some may terrify tht* conscience, some may allure the slothful, and some encourage the despondmg mind ; he observes the temper of his hear- Q 2
173 OF THE SCIENCIS5,
ers, or of any particular person that converses with him about things sacred, and he judges what will be the ef- fects of each representation on such persons; he reviews and recollects what have been the effects of some spe- cial parts and methods of his ministry ; and by a careful survey of all these, he attains greater degrees of skill in his sacred employment.
Mote. — In all these cases, we must distinguish those causes and effects which are naturally and necessarily connected with each other, from those which have only an accidental or contingent connexion. Even in those causes where the effect is but contingent, we may some times arrive at a very high degree of probability ; yet we cannot arrive at such a certainty as where the causes operate by an evident and natural necessity, and the ef- fects necessarily follow the operation.
See more on this subject. Logic, Part II. Chap V. Section 7. I
CHAP. XX.
Of the Sciences^ and their Use in particular l^rq- fessions,
I. THE best way to learn any science, is to begin with a regular system, or a short and plain scheme of that science, well drawn up into a narrow compass, o- mitting the deeper and more abstruse parts of it, and that also under the conduct and instructioi*. of some skil- ful teacher. Systems are necessary to give an entire and comprehensive view of the several parts of any sci- ence, which may have a iilhtual influence towards the explication or proof of each other ; whereas, if a man deals always and only in essays and discourses on par- ticular parts of a science, he will never obtain a distinc^ and just idea of the whole, and may perhaps omit some important part of it, after seven years reading of such occasional discourses.
Bor this reason, young students should apply them- selves to their gysten^s much more than pamphlets. That man is never so fit to judge of particular sub- jects relating to any science, who has never taken a sur- vey of the whole.
it is the remark of an ingenious writer, should a bar-
AI7D THEIR VSm, It^
barous Indian, who had never seen a palace or a ship, view their separate and disjointed parts, and observe the pillars, doors, windows, cornices, and turrets of the one, or the prow and stern, the ribs and masts, the ropes and shrouds, the sails and tackle of the other, he would be able to form but a very lanme and dark idea of either of those excellent and useful inventions. In like manner, those who contemplate only the fragments or pieces broken oft' from any science, dispersed in short unconnected discourses, and do not discern their rela- tion to each other, and how they may be adapted, and by their union procure the delightful symmetry of a regular scheme, can never survey an entire body of truth, but must always view it as deformed and dis- membered ; while their ideas, which must be ever in- distinct, and often repugnant, will lie in the brain un- sorted, and thrown together without order or cohe- rence : Such is the knowledge of those men who live upon the scraps of the sciences.
A youth of genius and lively imagination, of an active and forward spirit, may form within himself some al- luring scenes and pleasing schemes in the beginning; of a science, which are utterly inconsistent with sofneof the necessary and substantial parts of it, whidi appear in the middle or the end. And if he never read and pass through the whole, he takes up and is satisfied with his own hasty, pleasing schemes, and treasui-es these errors up amongst his solid acquisitions ; whereas his own labour and study farther pursued, would have shewn him his early mistakes, and cured him of his self flattering delusions.
Hence it comes to pass, that we have so many half scholars now a days, and there is so much confusion and inconsistency in the notions and opinions of some per- sons, because they devote their hours of study entirely to short essays and pamphlets, and cast contempt upon systems under a pretence of greater politeness; whereas the true reason of this contempt of systematic- al learning, is mere laziness and want of judgment.
II. After we are grown well acquainted with a short system or compendium of a science, which is written iu the plainest and most simple manner, it is then proper to read a large regular treatise on that subject, if we design a complete ^jLiiowIedge and cultivation of it; and either while we are reading this largei* system, or aftev
180 OF THE SCIENCES,
we have done it, then occasional discourses and essays upon the particular subjects and parts of that science may be read with tht* greatest profit; for in these es- says we may often find very considerable corrections and improvements of what these compends, or even the larger systems may have taught us, mingled with some mistakes.
And these corrections or improvements sliould be as remarks adjoined by way of note or commentary in their proper pUces, and superadded to the regular trt^^tise we have read. Then a studious and judicious review of the whole will give us a tolerable acquaint- ance with That science.
III. It is a great happiness to have such a tutor, or such friends and companions at hand, who are able to inform us what are the best books written on any sci- ence, or any special part of it. For want of this advan- tag**, manv a man has wasted his time in reading over perhaps some whole volumes, and learned little more b} it than to know that those volumes were not worth his reading.
IV. As for the languages, they are certainly best learned in the younger years of life. The memory is then most empty and unfurnished, and ready to receive new ideas continually. We find that children, in two years time after they are born, learn to speak their na- tive tongue.
V. The mere abstracted sciences, which depend more upon the understanding and judgment, and which de-.;l much in abstracted ideas, should not be imposed upon children too soon ; such are l^ic, metaphysics, ethics, politics, or the depths and difficulties of gram- mar and criticism. Yet it must be confessed, the first rudiments of grammar are necessary, or at least very convenient to b(" known, when a youth learns a new lan- guage ; and some general, e^sy principles and rules of morality and divinity are needful, in order to teach a child his duty to <^od and man ; but to enter far into abstracted reasonings on these subjects is beyond the capacity of children.
VI. There are several of the sciences that will more agreeably employ our younger years, and the general parts of them may be easily taken i: by boys. The first principles and the easier practices of arithmetic, geom- etry, plain trigonometry, measuring heights, depthi,
AND THSIR VS£. 181
lengths, distances, Sec. the rudiments of geometry artd astnmomy, together with something of mechanics, may- be easily conveyed into the minds of acute young per- sons from nine to ten years old and upwanls. — These studies may be entertaining and useful to young ladies as well as to gentlemen, and to all those who are bred up to the learned professions. The fair sex may inter* niingle those with the operations of the needle, and the knowledge of domestic life. Boys may be taught to join them with their rudiments of grammar, and their labour in the languages. And even those who never learn any language but their mother tongue, may be taught these sciences with lasting benefit in early days.
That this may be done with ease and advantage, take these three reasons :
(1 .) Because they depend so much upon schemes and pumbers, images, lines, and figures, and sensible things, that the imagination or fancy will greatly assist the un- derstanding, and render the knowledge of them much more easy.
(2.) These studies are so pleasant, tliat they will make the dry labour of learning woixls, phrases, and languages, more tolerable to bovs in a Latin school, by this most agreeable mixture. 1 he employment of y outh in these studies, will tempt them to neglect many of the foolish plays of childhood, and they will find sweeter en- tertainment for themselves and their leisure hours, by a cultivation of these pretty pieces c£ alluring knowledge.
(3.) The knowledge of these parts ot science are both easy and worthy to be retained in the memory by all children when they come to manly years, for they are useful through all the parts of human life : They tend to enlarge tne understanding early, and to give a various acquaintance with useful subjects betimes. And surely it is best, as far as possible, to train up chil- dren in the knowledge of those things which they should never ioreet, rather than to let them waste years of life in trifles, or in hard words which are not worth re- membering.
And here by the way, I cannot but wonder that any author in our age should have attempted to teach any of the exploded physics of Descartes, or the noble in- ventions of Sir Isaac Newton, in his hypothesis, of the heavenly bodies, and their motions, hi his doctrine of light and colours, and other parts of his physiology, or to
18^ OS THE SCIEN^C£S,
iostruct children ip the knowledge of the theory of the heavens, earth, and planets, without any figures or dia- grams. Is it possible to give a boy or a young lady the ctear,distinGt,and proper apprehensions of these things, without lines and figures to describe them ? Does not their understanding want the aid of fancy and images to convey stronger and juster ideas of them to the in- most soul ? Or do they imagine that youth can pene- trate into all these beauties and artifices of nature, without these helps, which persons of maturer age find necessary for that purpose ? I would not willingly name the books, because some of the writers are said to be gentlemen of excellent acquirements.
VII. After we have first learnt and i^one through any of those arts and sciences which are to be explained by diagrams, figures, and schemes ; such as geometry, geography, astronomy, optics, mechanics, &c. we may best preserve them in memory,by having those schemes and figures in large sheets of paper, hanging always before the eye in closets, parlours, halls, chambers, en- tries, staircases, &c. Thus the learned images will be perpetually impressed on the brain» and will keep the learning that depends upon them alive and fresh m the mind through the growing years of life : the mere dia- grams and figures will ever recal to our thoughts those theorems, problems, and corollaries, which have been demonstrated by them.
It is incredible how much ^ography may be learnt this way by the two terrestrial hemispheres, and by particular maps and charts of the coasts and countries of the earth, happily disposed round about us. Thus we may learn also the constellations, by just projections of the celestial sphere, hung up in the same manner. And I must confess, for the bulk of learners of astrono- my, I like that projection of the stars best, which in- cludes in it all the stars of our horizon, and therefore it reaches to the 38 J degrees of southern Utitude, though its centre is the north pole. This gives us a better view of the heavenly bodies, as they appear every night to us ; and it may be made use of with a little instruc- tion, and with ease, to serve for a nocturnal, and shew the true hour of the night.
But remember, if there be any colouring upon these maps r>r projections, it should be laid on so thin as not to obscure or conceal any part of the lines, fig-
AND THEIR USE. 183
ures, or letters; whereas most times they are daubed so thick with gay and ^larin,^ colours, and hung up s i high abovi'. the reach of the eye that should survey and read them, as though their only design were to make a gaudy show upon the wail and ihey hurg there mere- ly to cover the naked plaister or wainscot. Those sci- ences which may be drawn out into tables may also be thus hung up and disposed m proper places, such as brief abstracts of history, chronology, &c. and indeed the schemes of any of the arts or sciences may be ana- lized in a sort of skeleton, and represented upon tables, ■with vanous dependencies and connexions of their seve- ral parts and subjects that belong to them. Mr. Solo- mon Lowe has happily thrown the grammar of several languages into such tables ; and a frequent review of these abstracts and epitomes would tend much to im-' print them on the bram, when they have been once well learned ; this would keep those learned traces always open, and assist the weakness of a labouring memory. In this manner may a scheme of the scripture history be drawn out, and perpetuate those ideas in the mind with which our daily reading furnishes us.
VIII. Every man who pretends to the character of a scholar should attain some general.and superficialideas of most or all the sciences ; for there is a certain con- nexion among the various parts of human knowledge, so that some notions borrowed from any one science may- assist our acquaintance with any otlier, either by way of explication, illustration, or proof; though there are some sciences conjoined by a much nearer affinity thaa others.
IX. Let those parts of every science be chiefly studied ^ at first, and reviewed afterwards, which have a more
direct tendency to assist our proper professioi), as men, or our general profession as Christians, always observ- ing what we ourselves hnve found most necessary and useful to us in the course of our lives. Age and expe- rience will teach us to judge which of the sciences, and which parts of them, have been of greatest use. and are most valuable ; but in younger years of life we are not sufficient judges of this matter, and therefore should seek advice from those who are elder
X. There are three learned professions among us, viz, divinity, law, and medicine. Though every man who pretends to be a scholar or a gentleman, should so far
184 OB THE SCIENCES,
acquaint himself with a superficial scheme of all these sciences, as not to stand amazed like a mere stranger ^t the mention of the common subjects that belong to them ; yet there is no necessity for every m|ln of learn- ing to enter into their difficulties and deep recesses, nor to climb the heights to which some others have arrived. The knowledge of tliem in a proper measure may be happily useful to eviery profession, not only becaiise all arts and sciences have a sort of communion and connex- ion with each other, but it is an angelic pleasure to grow in knowledge, it is a matter of honour and esteem, and renders a man more agreeable and acceptable in every company.
But let us survey several of them more particularly, with regard to the learned-professions; and first of the mathematics.
XI. Though I have so often commended mathemat- ical studies, and particularly the speculations of arith- metic and geometry, as a means to hx a wavering mind, to beget an habit of attention, and to improve the faculty of reason ; yet I would by no means be understood to recommend to all a pursuit of these sciences to those ex- tensive lengths to which the moderns have advanced them. This is neither necessary nor proper for any stu- dents, but those few who shall make these studies their chief profession and business of life, or those gentlemen whose capacities and turn of mind are suited to these studies, and have all manner of advantage to improve Id them.
The general principles of arithmetic, algebra, geom- etry, and trigonometry, of geography, of modern astron- omy, mechanics, statics, and optics, have their valuable and excellent uses not only for the exercise and improve- ment of the faculties of the mind, but the subjects them- selves are very well worth our knowledge in a moderate degree,and are often made of adminble service in human life. So much of these subjects as Dr. Wells has gjven us in his three volumes, entitled, ** The Young Gentle- man*s Mathematics** is richly sufficient for the greatest partof scholars or gentlemen; though perhaps there mav be some single treatise, at least some of these ■ saibjects, which may be better written and more useful to be perused, than those of that learned author. ; But a penetration into the abstruse difficulties sin^ depths of modern alg«bra and fluxions^the various
And thsir usb. 185
methods of quadratures, the mensuration of all manner of curves, an 1 their 'Yiutual transfoi-mation , and twenty other things that some modern mathematicians deal in, are not worth the labour of those who design either of the three learned professions, divinity, law, or physic, as the business of life. This is the sentence of a consid* erable mnn, viz. Dr. George Cheyne, who was a very good proficient and writer on these subjects : He affirms, that they are but barren and airy studies for a man entirely to live upon, and that for a man to indulge and riot in these exquisitely bewitching contemplations, is only proper for public professors, or for gentlemen of estates, who have a strong propensity this way, and a genius fit to cultivate them.
But, say s he, to own a gseat but grievous truth.though they may quicken and sliarpen the invention, strength- en and extend the imagination, improve and refine the reasoning faculties, and are of use both in the necessary and the luxurious refinement of the mechanical arts ; yet, having no tendency to rectify the will, to sweeten the temper, or mend the heart, they often leave a stiff- ness, a positiveness and sufficiency on w^eak minds, which is much more pernicious to society, and to the in- terests of the great end of our being, than all their ad- vantages can recompense. He adds further, concerning the launching into the depth of these studies, that they are apt to beget a secret and refined pride, and over- weenmg and overbearing vanity, the most opposite temper to the true spirit of the gospel. This tempts them to presume on a kind of omniscience in respect to their fellow creatures, who have not risen to thci»* ele- vation ; nor are they fit to be trusted in the hands of any but those who have acquired a humble heart, a lowly spirit, and a sober and teachable temper. See Dr. Chevne's preface to his Essay on Health and long Life,
XII. Some of the practical parts of geometry,astron-. omy, dialling, optics, statics, mechanics, &c. may be agreeable entertainments and amusements to students in every profession, at leisure hours, if they enjoy such circumstances of life as to furnish them with convenien- ces for this sort of improvement ; but let them take great care lest they entrench upon more necessary em- ployments, and so fall under the charge and censure of wisted time. Yet I cannot help making this observation, that where R
18& OB THS SGIEireES,
students, or indeed any young gentleman, have in their early yeara made themselves masters of a variety of elegant problems in the mathematical circle of knowl- edge, and gained the most easy, neat, and entertaining experiments in natural philosophy, with some short and agi'eeable speculations or practices in nny other of the arts and sciences, they have hereby laid a fou idation for the esteem and love of mankind among those with whom tliey converse, in higher or lower ranks of life ; they have been often guarded by this means from the temptation of guilty pleasures, and h^ve sectired both their own hours and the hours of their companions from running to waste in sauntering and trifles, and from a thousand impertinences in silly dialogues. Gaming and drinking, and many criminal and foolish scenes of talk and action, have been prevented by these innocent and improving elegancies of knowledge.
XIII. History is a necessary study in the supreme place for gentlemen who deal in politics. The govern- ment of nations, and distressful and desolating events which have in all ages attended the mistakes of politi- cians, should be ever present on their minds, to warn them to avoid the like conduct. Geography and chro- nology, which precisely inform us of the place and time where such transactions or events happened, are the eyes of history, and of absolute necessity in some meas- ure to attend it.
But history, so'f ar as relates to the affairs of the Bible, is ss necessary to divines as to gentlemen of any profes- sion. It htlp.s us to reconcile m nny difficulties in script- ure, and demonstrates a Divine Providence. Dr. Pri- deaiix's Connexion of the Old and New I'estament is ac excellent treatise of this kind.
XIV. Among the smaller histories, biography or the raemoirs of the lives of great and good men, has a high- rank in my esteem, as woiihy of the perusal of every ' person who devotes himself to the study of divinity. Therein we frequently find our holy religion reduced to practice, and many parts of Christianity shining with a transcendant and' exemplary light. We learn there how deeply sensible great and good men have been of tie ruins of human nature, by the first apostasy from God, and how they have toiled and laboured, and turn-^ ed themselves on all sidea, to seek a recovery, in vain, till they haye found the gospel of Christ an all sufficient
Airo TBBIX, VSB. 1^7
relief. We are there furnished with effectual «nd un- answerable evidences that the religion of Jesus, with all its self denials, virtue^ and devotions, is a very practica- ble thing, since it hab been carri' d to such a degree erf honour by some wise and holy men. VVe have been there assured, that the pleasures and satisfactions of the Christian hfe, in its present practice and future hopes, are not the mere raptures of fancy and enthusiasm, when some of the strictest professors of reason have added the sanction of their testimony.
In short, the lives or memoirs of persons of piety, well written, have been of infinite and unspeaknble advan- tage to the disciples and professors of Christianity, and have given us admirable mstances and rules how to re- sist every temptation of a soothing or frowning world, how to practise important and dimcult duties, how to love God aboveball, and to love our neighbour as our- selves, to live by the faith of the Son of God, and to die in the same faith, in sure and certain hope of a resur- rection to eternal life.
XV. Remember that logic and ontology or metaphys- ics are necessaiy sciences, though they have been great- ly r. bused by scholastic writers, who have professed to teach them in former ages. Not only all students, w he tl^- er they design the profession of theology, law or physic, but all gentlemen should at least acquire a superficial knowledge of them. The introduction of so many sub* tleties, nice distinctions, and insignificant terms, without clear ideas, has brought a* great part of the logic and metaphysics of the schools into just contempt. Their Ic^ic has appeared the mere art of wrangling, and their metaphysics the skill of splitting an hair, of distinguish- ing without a difference, and of putting long hard names upon common things, and sonietimes upon a confused jumble of things, which have no clear ideas belonging to them.
It is certain that an unknown heap of trifles and im- pertinences have been intermingled with these useful parts of learning, upon which acmunt many persons in this polite age, have made it a part of their breeding to throw a jest upon them ; and to rally ^hem well has been esteemed a more valuable talent than to under- stand them.
But this is running into wide extren^es; nor ought these parlw of sciience to be abandoned by the wise, be^
18S OF THE SCIENCES,
cause some writers of former ages have played the fool •with them. True logic teaches us to use our reason well, and brings a light into the understanding ; true metaphysics or ontology, casts a light upon all the ob- jects of thought and meditation, by ranging every being, with all the absolute and relative perfections and properties, modes, and attendants of it, in proper ranks or classes, and thereby it discovers the various relations of things to each other, and what are their general ov special differences from each other, wherein a great part of human knowledge consists. And by this means It greatly CMiduces to instruct us in method, or the dis-
position of every thing into its proper rank or class of beings, attributes, or acticms. XVI. If I were to say any thing of natural philosophy,
I would venture to lay down my sentiments thus:
I think it must needs be very usefuljto a divine to un- derstand something of natural science. The mere na^ tural history of birds, beasts, and fishes, of insects, trees, and plants,as well as of meteors.such as clouds, thunder, lightnings, snow, hail, frost, &c. in all their common or uncom.mon appearances, may be of considerable use to one who studies divinity, to give him a wider and more dehghtful view of the works of God, and to furnish him with lively and happy images and ntietaphors drawn from the large volume of nature, to display and repre- sent the things of God and religion, in the most beauti- ful and affecting colours.
And if the nuere history of these things be useful for this purprse,surely it will be of further advantage to be led into the reasons, causes, and effects of these natural objects and appearances, and to know the established laws of nature, matter and motion, whereby the great God carries on his extensive works of providence from the creation to this day.
I confess the old Arisjotlean scheme of this science will teach us but very Uctle that is worth knowing.about these matters ; but the later writers, who have explain- ed nature and its operations in a more sensible and geo- metrical manner, are well worth the moderate study of a divine ; especially those who have followed the prin- ciples of that wonder of our age and nation, Sir Isaac Newton. There is much pleasure and entertainment, ;as well as real profit,to be derived from those admira- ble improvements which have been adv^ced in uatur ,
▲ N» TffSm V6E. 1%9
al philosophy in late years, by the assistance of mathe- matical leaming,as well as from the multitude of exper- iments which have been made, and are still makin^^, ia natural subjects.
XVII. This is a science which indeed eminently be- longs to the phyacian; he ought to know all the parts of human nature, what are the sound and healthy func- tions of an animal body, and what are the distempers and dangers which attend it ; he should also be furnish- ed with a large knowledge of plants and minerals, and every thing which makes up the materia medkat or the ingredients of which medicines are made ; and many other things in natural philosophy are subservient to his profession, as well as the kindred art of surgery.
XVIII. Questions about the powers and operations of oature may also sometimes come into the lawyer's cog- nizance, especially such as relate to assaults, wounds, murders, &c. I remember I have read the trial of a man for murder by drowning, wherein the judge on the bendi heard several arguments concerning the lungs being filled or not filled with water, by inspiration or ex- piration, &c. to all which he professed himself so much a stranger, a»did not do him any great honour in public.
XIX. But I think no divine, who can oljtain it, sliould be utterly destitute of this knowledge. By the assistance of this study, he will be better able to survc y the various monuments of creating wisdom in the heavens, the earth and the seas, with wonder and worship ; and by the use of a moderate skill in^this science.he may communicate 90 much of the astonishing works of God, in the fornfta- tion and government of this visible world, and so far in- struct many of his hearers, as may assist the transfusicfti of the same ideas into their minds, and raise them to the same delightful exercises of devotion. O Lord, how manifold are thy works ! In wisdom hast thou made them all ! They are sought out by all that have pleas- ure in them.
Besides, it is worthy of ihtf notice of every student in theology, that he ought to have some acquair»tance with the principles of nature, that he may judge a little how far they will go ; so that he may not be imposed upon to take every strange appearance in nature for a mira- cle, that he may reason the clearer upon this subject, that he may better confirm the miracles of Moses and of Christ, nor yield up his faith to any pretences of pro- R 2
190 OE THE SCIENCES,
digy and wonder, which are either the occasional and uncommon operations of the elements, or the crafty sleights of men well skilled in philosophy and mechanic- al operations to delude the simple.
XX. The knowledge also of animal nature, and o£ the rational soul of man, and the mutual influence of these two ingredients of our composition upon each oth- er, is worthy the study of a divine. It is of great im- portance to persons of this character and office,to judge now far the animal powers have influence upon such and such particular appearances and practices of mankind ; how far the appetites or passions of human nature are owing to the flesh and blood,or to the mind ; how far they may be moderated, and how far they ought to be sub- dued ; and what are the happiest methods of obtaining these ends. By this science also we may be better in- formed how far these passions or appetites are lawful, and how far they are criminal, by considering how far they are subject to the power of the will, and how far they may be changed, and coxrected by our watch- fulness, care and diligence.
It comes also very properly under the cognisance of this profession, to be able in some measure to determine questions which may arise relating to real inspiration, or prophecy, to wild enthusiasm, to fits of a convulsive kind, to melancholy or frenzy, &c. and what direc- tions are proper to be given concerning any appearan- ces of this nature.
XXI. Next to the knowledge* of natural things, and acquaintance with the human nature and constitution, which is made up of soul and body, I think that natural religion properly takes its place. This consisis of these two paits, viz. (1.) The speculative or contemplative, which is the knowledge of God in his various perfec- tions, and in his relations to his rational creatures, so far as may be known by the light of nature, which heretofore used to be called the second part of meta- physics. It includes also. (2.) That which is practical or active, that is, the knowledge of the several duties which arise from our relation to God, and our relation to our fellow creatures.and the proper conduct and gov- ernment of ourselves ; this has been used to be called ethics, or moral philosophy.
XXII. The knowledge of these things is proper for 3|11 men oflearnb^ i not only because it teaches them to
AND THEIR USE. 191
obtain just views of the several parts of revealed religion and of Christianity, which are built upon them, but be- cause every branch of natural religion and of moral duty- is contained, and necessarily implied, in all the revealed religions that ever God prescribed to the world. We may well suspect that religion does not come from God, which renounces any part of natural duty.
Whether mankind live under the dispensation of the patriarchs, or of Moses, or the prophets, or of our Lord Jesus Christ, still we are bound to know the one true God, and to practise all that adoration and reverence, all that love to him, that faith in his perfections, with that obedience and submission to his will, which natural religion requires. We are still bound to exercise that justice, truth and goodness towards our neighbours, that restraint and moderation of our own appetites artd pas- sions, and that regular behaviour towards ourselves and all our fellow creatures around us, which moral philos- ophy teaches. There is no sort of revealed religion that will dispense with these natural obligations; and a hap- py acquaintance with the several appetites, inchnations, and passions of human nature, and the best methods to rule and restrain, to direct and govern them, are our constant business, and ought to be our everlasting study.
Yet I would lay down this caution, viz. That since stu- dents are instructed in the knowledge of the true God in their lectures on Christianity, and since among the Christian duties they are also taught all the moral dic- tates of the light of nature, or a complete scheme of eth- ics, there is no absolute necessity of learning these two parts of natural religion, as distinct sciences, separate and by themselves ; but still it is of great importance for a tutor, while he is reading to his pupils these parts of the Christian religion, to give them notice how far the light of nature or mere reason will instruct us in these doctrines and duties, and how far we are obliged to di- vine revelation and scripture, for clearing up and estab- lishing the firm foundations of the one, for affording us superior motives aud powers to practise the other, for raising them to more exalted degrees, and building so glorious a superstructure upon them.
XXIII. The study of natural religion, viz. The knowl. edge of God and the rules of virtue and piety as far as they are discovered by the light of nature, is needful in- deed to prove the truth of divine revelation or scripture
192 OK THE SCIENCES.
in the most effectual manner : but after the divine au- thority of scripture is established, that will be a very suf- ficient spring from whence the bulk of mankind may derive their knowledge of divinity, or the Christian re- ligion, in order to their own present £^th and practice, and their future and eternal happiness. Iq this sense theology is a science necessary for every one that hopes for the favour of God,and the felicity of another world ; and it is of infinitely more importance than any of the arts and sciences which belong to any of the learned pro- fessions here on earth.
XXIV, Perhaps it will be thought necessary I should say something concerning the study of the civil law, or the law of nature and nations.
If we would speak with great justness and propriety, the civil law signifies the peculiar law of each state, country, or city ; but what we now a days usually mean by the civil law, is a body of laws composed out of the best of the Roman and Grecian laws, and which was in the main received and observed through all the Roman dominions for above twelve hundred years.
The Romans took the first grounds of this law from what they call the twelve tables, which were the abridg- ments of the laws of Solon at Athens, and oi the other cities of Greece famous for knowledge and wisdom ; to which they added their own ancient customs of the city of Rome, and the laws which were made there. These written laws were subject to various interpretations, whence controversies daily arising,they were determin- ed by the judgment of the learned ; and these determin- atictfis were what they first called Jus Czvi/e.— All this by degrees grew to a vast number of volumes ; and therefore the Emperor Justinian commanded his chan- cellor Tribonian to reduce them to a perfect body, and this is called the body of the civil law.
XXV. But that which is of most importance for all learned men to be acquainted with,is the law of nature, or the knowledge of right and wrong amoi g mankind, whether it be transacted between single persons or com- munities, so far as common reason and tlie light of na- ture dictates and directs. This is what Puffendorff calls the law of nature and nations, as will appear if you con- sult Sect. 3. Chap. III. of that most valuable folio he has written on the subject ; which is well worthy the study cf every man of learning, particularly lawyers and d|:»
AND THEIR 17SE. 193
vines, together with other treatises on the same them e.
If any question proposed relate to right and property, and justice between man and man, in any polite and civ- ilized country, though it must be adjudged chiefly accord, ing to the particular statutes and laws ot that country, yet the knowledge ot the law of nature will very consid- erably assist the luwyer and the civil judge in the deter- mination thereof. And this knowledge will be of great use to divines, not only in deciding of cases of conscience among men, and answering any difficult inquiries which may be proposed to them on this subject,but it will great- ly assist them also in their studies relating to the law of God, and the performance or violation thereof, the na- ture of duty and sin> rewards and punishments.
XXVI. I have spoken something of the languages before, but let me here resume the subject, and put in a few thoughts about those studies which are wont to be called philological ; such as history, languages, gram- mar, rhetoric, poesy, and criticism.
An acquaintance witli some of the learned languages at least, is necessary for all the three learned professions.
XXVil. The lawyers, who have the least need of foreign tongues, ought to understand Latin. During many ages past, very important matters in the law were always written and managed in that language by the lawyers, as prescripticns in medicine by the physicians, and citations of the scriptures in divinity were always made »n Latin by the divines. Pravers also were ordain- ed to be said publicly and privateh in the Roman tongue; pater iio&ters and ave marias were half the devotions of those ages. These cruel imp(>sitions upon the people w«iul(l not suffer.them to read in their own mother tongue what was done, either to or tor their own souls, their bodies, or their estaies. I am ready to suspect this was all owing to the craft and policy of the priesthood and church of Rrme, which endeavoured to aggrandize themselves, and exalt their (.wn profession into a sove- reign tyranny, and to make niere slaves of the laity a- mong mankind, by keeping them in utter ignorance, darkness, and dependence. And they were willing to compound the matter with the physicians and the law- yers, and allow then? a small share in this tyranny over the populace, to maintain their own supreme dominion over all.
I3ut we thank God the world is grown something
194 9Jt THE BCIENCSS,
wiser ; >ncl of late years the British Parliament has been pleased to give rehet from that bondage in matters re- lating to the law also, as in the age of the Reformatiai we were delivered from saying our prayers in Latin, from being bound to read the word of God in a tongue unknown to the people, and from living in everlasting subjection to the clergy iA matters of this life, and tiie life to come*
But to return : There are still so many forms of pro^ ceedings in judicature, and things called by Latin names in the pr.'tessions of the law, and so many barbarous words with Latin terminations, that it is necessary law- yers should understand this language. Some acquaint- ance also with the old French tongue is needful tor the same persons and professions,since the tenures of Lyttle- ton, which are a sort of Bible to the gentlemen of the long robe, were written in that language; and this tongue has been interwoven in some forms of the EngUsh law, from the days of William the Conqueror, who came from Normandy in France.
XXVII I. Physicians should be skilled in the Greek as well as in the Latin, because their great master Hippoc- rates wrote in that tongue, and his writings are still of good value and use. A multitude of the names, both of the parts of the body, of diseases, and of medicines, are derived from the Greek language ; and there are many excellent books of physic, both in the theoretical ana practical parts of it, which are delivered to the woild in the Roman tongue ; and of which that profession should not be ignorant
XXIX. Such as intend the study of theology should be well acquainted also with the Latin, because it has been for many hundred years the language of the schools of learning ; their disputations are generally limited to that language, and many and excellent books of divini- ty must be entirely concealed from the students, unless they are acquainted with Latin authors.
But those that design the sacred profession of theolo-* cy, should make it their labour of chief importance to Be very conversant with their Bibles, both in the Old and New-Testament ; and this requires some knowl- edge of those original languages, Greek and Hebrew, i in which the scriptures were written. All that willj pursue these studies with honour, should be able to read Cie Old Testament tolerably in the Hebrew tongue ; at
AND THEIR USE. 19&
leait the J' should be so far acquainted with it, as to find out the sense of a text by the help of a dictionary. But scarce any man should be thought worthy ot the name of a solid divine, or a skilful teaclier of the gospel, in these days of light and liberty, unless he has pretty good knowledge of the Greek, since all the important points of the Christian religion are derived from the New Tes- tament, which was first written in that language.
XXX. As for the Syriac and Arabic tongues, if one divine in thirty, or in three hundred, travel far into these regions, it is enough. A few learned men skilled in these languages will make sufficient remarks upon them for the service of the whole Cb.ristian world ; which re- marks may sometimes happen to be of use to those di- vines who are unacquainted with them in reading the fiible. But the advantage of these tongues is not of so great importance as it has been too often represented. My reader will agree with me, when he considers that the chief uses of them are these:
The Arabic is a language which hlassome kindred and affinity to the Hebrew, and perhaps we may now and then guess at the sense of some uncommon and doubtful Hebrew word, which is found but once or twice in the Bible, by its supposed affinity to the Arabic ; but what- ever conjectures may be made by some kindred of a Hebrew word to an Arabic root, yet there is no certain- ty to be gathered from it ; for even words of the same language, which are undoubtedly derived from the same theme or primitive, will give us but very doubtful and sorry information conceraing the true sense of kindred words which spring from tlie same theme.
Let me give a plain instance or two of this uncertain- ty. The word stra^f^s signifies slaughter ; stratum is Latin for a bed; s^ramen is straw ; and straguium is a quilt or coverlet : They are all drawn and derived from sternoy which signifies to throw down, to kill, or to spread abroad. Let the critics tell me what certain sense they could put upon either of these four words by their mere cognation with each other,or their derivatioa from one common verb. Again, who can teli me the certain meaning and precise'idea of the word honest in English, and assure me that it signifies a man of integ- rity, justice, and probity, though it is evidently derived from honestus in Latin ? Whereas honeatus has a very different idea, and signifies a man of some figure in the
196 OS TSE SClEJirCE^^
world, or a man of honour. Let any man judge thea how little service toward explaining the Hebrew tongue can be furnished from all the languag? of Arabia. Sure- ly a great part of the long learned fatigues and tiresome travels of men through this country, is almost vain and useless to make the Hebrew Bible better understood.
As for the Syriac language, it is granted there may be some small advantage drawn from the knowledge of it, because there is a very ancient translation of the New Testament in that tongue ; and perhaps this may some- times give a proper and apposite meaning to a difficult and doubtful text, and offer a fair hint for recovering the true meaning of the scripture from the perverse glosses of other writers. But there are several commentators and lexicographers who have been acquainted with the Syriac language; and have given us the chief of these hints in their writings on scripture.
And after all, since none of these assistances can yield us a sufficient proof of a true interpretation, and give a certain sense of a text, who would be persuaded to waste any great number of his better hours in such dry studies, and in labours of so little profit ?
XXXI. The Chaldean language indeed is much near- er to the Hebrew, and it is proper for a divine to have some acquaintance with it, because there are several verses or chapters of Ezra and Daniel which are writ- ten in that language ; and the old Jewish targums or commentaries, which are written in the Chaldean tongue, mav sometimes happen to cast a little light upon a doubt- ful scripture of the Old Testament.
But it must be still owned, that the knowledge of these eastern tongues does not deserve to be magnified to such a degree as some of the proficients in them have indulg- ed ; wherein they have carried matters beyond all rea- son and justice, since scarce any of the most important subjects of the gospel of Christ, and the way of salvation, can gain any advantage from them.
XXXII. " The art of grammar comes now to be men- tioned. It is a distinct thing from the mere knowledge cf the languages ; for all mankind are taught from their infancy to speak their common tongue, by a natural imi- tation of their mothers and nurses, and those who are round about them, without any knowledge of the art of grammar, anrt the various observations and rules that irelate to it^ Grammar, indeed^ is nothing else but rules
AND THEIR ITSE. 197
and observations drawn from the common speech of mankind in their several languages ; and it teaches us to speak and pronounce, to spell and write with propri- ety and exactness, according to the custom nf tliose in every nation, who are or were supposed to speak and write their own language best : Now it is a shame for a man to pretend to science and study in any of the three learned professions, who is not in some measure acquaint- ed with the propriety of those languages with which he ought to be conversant in his daily studies, and more es- pecially in such as he may sometimes be called upon to write as well as read.
XXXIII. Next to grammar, we proceed to consider rhetoric.
.Now rhetoric in genferal is the art of persuading,which may be distinguished into these three parts, viz. (1.) Conveying the sense of the speaker to the understanding of the Iiearers in the clearest and most intelligi'^le man- ner, by the plainest expressions and the most lively and striking representations of it, so that the mind may be thoroughly convinced of the thing proposed. (2.) Per- suading the will effectually to choose or refuse the thing suggested and represented. (3.) Raising the passions in the most vivid and forcible manner, so as to set all the soul and every power of nature at work, to pursue or avoid the thing in debate.
To attain this end, there is not only a great deal of art necssary in the representation of matters to the audito- ry, but also in the disposition or method of introducing these particular representations, together with the rea- sons which might convince, and the various methods which might persuade and prevail upon the hearers. There are certain seasons wherein a violent torrent of oration, in a disguised and concealed method, may be more efl'ectnal than all the nice forms of logic and rea- soning. The figures of interrogation and reclamation have sometimes a large place and happy effect in this sort of discourse, and no figure of speech should be want- ing here, where the speaker has art enough happily to jintroduce it.
There are many remarks and rules laid down by the teachers of this art, to improve a young genius in those glorious talents whereby Tully and Demosthenes acquir- ed that amazing influence and j-uccess in their own age znd naiion, and that innnorta! lame througli all nations
198 OK THS StIEXCKS,
and ages. And it is with great advantage these rules may be perused and learned. But a happy genius, a lively imagination, and warm passions, together with a due degree of knowledge, and skill in the subject to be debated, and a perpetual perasal of the writings of the best orators, and hearing the best speakers, will do more to make an orator than all the rules of art in the world, without these natural talents, and this careful imitation of the most approved and happiest orators.
XXXi V. W ovv you will presently suppose that plead- ers at the bar have great need of this art of rhetoric ; but it has been a just doubt, whether pleading in our British courts of justice, before a skilful judge, sho;ild admit d any other aid from rhetoric than that which teaches to open a cause clearly, and spread it in the most perspio nous, complete and impartial manner before the eyes of him who judges ; for impartial justice being the thmg which is sought, there should be no artifice used, no el- oquence or power of language employed to persuade the will, or work upon the pas^ians, lest the decisive sen- tence of the judge should be biassed or warped into in- justice. For this reason, Mr. Locke would banish all pleaders in the law for ftes out of his government of Car- olina, in his posthumous works, though that great man might possibly be too severe in so universal a censure of the profession.
XXXV. But the case is very different with regard to divines ; the eloquence of the pulpit, beyond all caa- troversy, has a much larger extent.
Their business is not to plead a cause of right and wrong before a wise and skilful judge, but to address all the ranks of mankind, the high and low, the wise and the unwise, the sober and the vicious, and persuade them all to pursue and persevere in virtue with regard to them- selves, injustice and goodness with regard to their neigh- bours, and piety towards God. These are affairs of ev:- erlasting importance, and most of t!ie persons to whom these addresses are made, are ROt wise and skilfuljudg- es, but are influenced and drawn strongly to the contra- ry side by their own sinful appetites and passions, and bribed or biassed by the corrupt customs of the world.
There is therefore a necessity not only of a clear and faithful representation of tilings to men, in order to con- vince their reason and judgment, but of all the skill and fore 3 ofi^ersuasion addressed to the >vjll and the passions.
ANA THEia VSE. 199
So TuUy addressed the whole senate of Rome, and De- mosthenes the Athenian people, among who:n were ca- pacities and inclinations of infinite variety ; andthei-efore they made use of all the lightning and thunder, all the enti*eaties and terrors, all the soothitjg elega::cies and the flowery beauties of language, which their art could furnish them with. Divines in the pulpit have miicli the same sort of hearers, and therefore they should imitate thop.e ancient examples. The understanding indeed ought to be first convin-ced by tlie piainest and strongest force of reasoning ; but when this is done, all the pow- erful motives should be used, which hive any just influ- ence upon human nature; all the springs of passion should be touched, to awaken the stupid and the thoughtless into consideration, to penetrate and melt the hardest heart, to persuade the unwilling, to excite the lajsy, to reclaim the obstinate, and reform the vicious part of mankind, as well as to encourage those who are humble and pious, and to support their practice and their hope. The tribis of men are sunk into so fatal a degeiieracy and dreadfulilistance from God, and from all that is holy and happv, that all the eloquence which a preacher is master of, should be employed in order to recover the world fi'om its shameful ruin and wretchedness by the gospel of our blessed Saviour, and restore it to virtue and piety, to God and happiness, by the divine power of this gospel. O may such glorious masters of sacred oratory never be wanting in the pulpits of the Christian world !
XXXVI. Shall I now speak something of my senti- ments concernicig poesy ?
As for books of poesy, whether inthe learned or in the modem languages, they are of great use to be read at hours of leisure, by all persons that make any pretence to good education or learning, and that for several rea-
1. Because there are many couplets or stanzas writ- ten in poetic measures, which contain a variety of mor- als or rules of practice, relating to the common pruden- tials of mankind, as well as to matters of religion ; and the poetic numbers (or rhyme, if there be any) add very considerable force to the memory. . Besides, many an elegant and admirable sentiment or descriptinn of things, wliich are found among the poets, are well worth committing to memory,and the particular measures of verse greatly assist us in recollecting such
200 ©P THE SCIENCES,
excellent passages, which might sometimes raise our conversation from low and groveling subjects.
2. In heroic verse, but especially in the grander lyrics, there are sometimes such noble elevations of thought and passion, as illuminate allthit gs around us, and con- vey to the soul mosi exalted and magnificent images and sublime sentiments: these furnish us with glorious springs and mediums to raise and aggrandize our conceptions, to warm our smis, to awaken the better passions, and to elevate them to a divine pitch, and that tor de- votional purposes. It is the Lyric ode which has shown to the world some of the happiest examples of this kind, and I cannot say but this part of poesy has been my fa- vourite amusesTient above all others.
And for this reason it is, that I have never thought the heroic poems, Greek, Latin, or English, which have obtained the highest fame in the world, are sufficiently diversified, exalted or animated, for want of the inter- spersion of now and then an elegiac or lyric ode. This might have been done with great and beautiful propri- ety, where the poet has introduced a song at a feast, or the joys of a victory, or the soliloquies of divine satisfac- tion, or the pensive and despairing agonies of distressing sorrow. Why shcjuld that which is called the most glo- rious form of poesy, be bound do\«^ and confined to such a long and endless uniformity of measures, when it should kindle or melt the soul, swell or sink it into all the vari- ous and transporting changes of which human nature is capable ?
Cowley, in his unfinished fragment of the Davideis, has shown us this way to improvement ; and whatever blemishes may be found in other parts of that heroic es- say, this beauty and glory of it ought to be preserved for imitation. I am well assured, that if Homer and Virgil had happened to practise it, it would have been renown- ed and glorified by every critic. I am greatly mistaken, if this wise mixture of numbers would not be a further reach of perfection than they have ever attained to with- out it : let it be remembered, that it is not nature and strict reason, but a weak and awful reverence of anti- quity, and the vogue of fallible men, that has established those Greek and Roman writings as absolute and con^- plete patterns. In several ages there have been some men of learning who have very justly disputed this glo- ry, and have pointed to many of their mistakes.
3. But Still there is another end of reading poesv, and
{)erhaps the most considerable advantage to be obtained irom it by the bulk of mankind, and that is, to furnish «ur toi^gues with the richest and most polite variety of phrases and words upon all occasions of life or religion. He that writes well in verse, will often find a necessity to send his thoughts in search through all the treasure of words that express any one idea in the same language, that so he may comport with ihe measures, or the rhyme cf the verse which he writes,or with his own most beauti- ful and vivid sentiments of the thing he describes. Now by much reading of this kind, we shall insensibly acquire the habit and skill of diversifying our phrases upon all occasions, and of expressing our ideas in the most pro- per and beautiful language, whether we write or speak of the things of God or men.
It is pity that some of these harmonious writers have ever indulged any thing uncleanly or impure to defile their paper and abuse the ears of their readers,or to of- fend against the rules of the nicest virtue and politeness : but still amongst the writings of Mr, Dryden, Mr. Pope, and Dr» Young, as well as others, there is a sufficient choice in our own language, wherein we shall not find anv indecency to shock the most modest tongue or ear.
Perhaps there has -ardly been a writer in any nation, and I may dare to affirm thei*e is none in our*s, has a richer and happier talent of painting to the hfe, or has ever discovered such a large and inexhausted variety of desc? iption, as the celebrated Mr. tope. If you read his translation of Homer's Iliad, you will find almost all the terms or phrases in our tongue that ar« needful to express any thing that is grand or magnificent ; but if you peruse his Odyssey, which descends much more in- to comipion life, there is scarce any useful subject of dis- course or thought, or any ordinary occurrence, which he has not cultivated and dressed in the most proper language ; and yet stiil he has ennobled and enlivened even the lower subjects with the brightest and most a- greeable ornaments.
I should add here also, that if the same author had more frequently employed his genius upon divine themes, his short poem on the Messiah, and some part of his let- ters between Abelard and Eloisa, with that ode on the dying Christian, &c.- sufficiently assure us, that his pen would have honourably imitatedsome of the lender scenes S 2
,202 eF THR SCIENCES,
of penitential sorrow, as well as the sublimer odes of the Hebrew Psalmist, and perhaps discovered to us, in a better nxanner than any other translation has done, how great a poet sat upon the throne of Israel.
4. After all that I have said, there is yet a further use of reading poesy ; and that is, when the mind has been fatigued with studies of a more laborious kind, or when it is any ways unfit for the pursuit of more difficult subjects, it may be, as it were, unbent: and repose itself a while on the flowery meadows Where the muses dwell. It is a very sensible relief to the soul, when it is over tir- ed, to amuse itself with the numbers and beautiful sen- timents of the poets ; and in a little time this agreeable amusement may recover the languid spirits to activity and more important service.
XXXVII. All this I propose to the world as rny best observations about reading of verse. But if the question were offered to me. Shall a student, of a bright genius, never divert himself with writing poesy ? I would an- swer, Yes, when he cannot possibly help it ; a lower genius, in mature years, would heartily wish that he had spent much more time in reading the best authors of this kind, and employed much fewer hours in writing. But it must be confessed, or supposed at least, that there may be seasons when it is hardly possible for a poetic soul to restrain the fancy or quench the flame; when it is hard to suppress the exuberant flow of lofty sentiments, and prevent the imagination from this sort of style or lancjuage ; and that is the onlv season, I think, wherein this inclination should be indulged ; especially by pers-^ns who have devoted themselves to professions of a different kind ; and one reason is, because what they write in that hour, is more likely to carry in it some appear^.nce above nature, some happy imitation of the dictates of the muse.* '
XXXVIII, There are other things besides history, grammar and languages, rhetoric and poesy, which have been included und r the name of philological knowledge ; such as, an acquaintance with the notions, customs, manners, tempers, poHty, 6cc. of the various nations of the earth, or the distinct sects and tribes of mankind. This is necessary, in order to understand
• The muse, in the ancient heathen sense, i# supposed to be a goddess; btit, in the philosophic sense, it can mean ne moi-e than a bright genius, with a waiTQ and strong imagination, elevated to an uncommon de^i^e.
AND THEIR USE. 203
history the better ; and every man who is a lawyer or a gentleman, .ought to obtalh some acquaintance with these things, without which he can never read history to any great advantage, nor can he maintain his own sta- tion and character in life, with honour and dignity, with- out some insight into them.
XXXIX. Students in divinity ought to seek a larger acquaintance with the Jewish laws, polity, customs, &c, in oi-der to understa^ many passages of the Old Testa- ment and the Ncwj|^d to vindicate the sacred writers from the i*eproaches of Infidels. An acquaintance also with many of the Roman and Grecian aftairs is needful, to explain several texts of scripture in the New Testa- ment, to lead sincere inquirers into the true and genu- ine sense of the Evangelists and Apostles, and to guard their writings from the unreasonable cavils of men,
XL. The art of criticism is reckoned by some as a distinct part of Philology ; but in truth it is nothing else than a more exact and accurate knowledge or skill in the other parts of it, and a readiness to apply that knowl- edge upon all occasions, in order to judge well of what relates to these subjects, to explain what is obscure in the authors which we read, to supply what is defective, and amend what is erroneous in manuscripts or ancient copies, to correct the mistakes of authors and editors in the sense of the words, to reconcile the controversies of the learned ; and by these means to spread a juster knowledge of these things amongst the inquisitive part of mankind.
Every man who pretends to the learned professions, if he doth not arise to be a critic himself in philological matters, should l>e frequently conversing with those books, whether dictionaries, paraphrasts,commentators, or other critics, which may relieve any difficulties he may meet with, and give him a more exact acquaintance ■with those studies which he pursues.
And whensoever any person is arrived to such a de- gree ot knowledge in these things as to furnish him well for the practice of criticism, let him take gieat care that pride and vanity, contempt of others, with inward wrath ardinsolence,donot mingle themselves with his remarks and censures. Let him remember the common frail- ties of human nature, and the mistakes to which the wisest man is sometimes liable, that he may practice Hus art with due mcdesty and candour,
(aiirisi^ii(Dsr©(
INTRODUCTION.
Directions for the Attainment ^ useful Knoivledge, What will be the state of the mind if uncultivated ? Who are the persons under the greatest obligations te
mental improvement ? How are correct judgment and reasoning useful to
persons in humble life? To what exercise do the common duties of society
oblige all persons ? What will be the consequence of an indiscreet deter- mination in matters before us ? Who are interested, in the concerns of a life to come ? What is the most important subject on which every
one should reason correctly ? Which are the most suitable opportunities for^this duty? What are the necessary duty and interes£ of every
person ? What is the consequence of acting without thought or
reason ? In what respects are we accountable to God ? What is the design of logic ? In what way have many writers perverted this science ?
CHAPTER I.
General Rules for the Imfirovement of Knowledge*
Rule 1. Of what should the mind be deeply possessed? What should we review, and think upon seriously ? To what exertions will this awaken us ?
Rule 2.
What are the considerations which expose us to error
in our judgments of things ? What are the subjects discussed l^ different authors,
to which we should carefully attend ?
aVESTIONS. 206
RULE 3.
What will incite to labour and activity in the pursuit
of knowledge ? Of what should we take a wide survey? On what should we meditate ? What- is fabled of Alexander the Great ? What are the worlds that cannot be conquered ? What are the questions and difficulties in which wc
should think ? A On what inquiries slMld we spend a few thoughts? For what reasons should we do this ? By what means did Arithmo learn nVndesty ? What is an evidence of improvement ? What should we read, and with whom should we be
acquainted ? What effect should this produce ? What will be a barrier against all improvement ?
Rule 4. What has proved a temptation to persons of a vigorous
fancy ? What is related of Lucidas and Scintillo ? Whose presence and what test should such persons
avoid?
Rule 5. Can laborious reading and a strong memory insure true
wisdom ? What may be applied to every sort of learning ? How may the understanding be best improved ? How may we justly obtain the reputation of true
learning? For whom are many of the preceding advices peculiar- ly proper ?
Rule 6. Who are the persons unfitted for devotedness to the
sciences ? What are the dispositions that will bring contempt on
a profession ?
Rule 7. What should animate our daily industry ? What has the ingenuity of man brought to light ? What should a student in divinity not imagine ? What truths of the Christian religion still embarrass
the minds of honest inquirers ?
209 AVEITIONS.
Rule 8. How may we attain the knowledge of things whick
relate to our own profession ? Who are the persons, whose opinions of men and
books are disregarded ? On what subjects should we not pretend to form a
judgment ?
Rule 9. In what particulars should we ^y call ourselves t»
an account ? *r
What was the rule considered sacred amongst the
Pythagoreans?
Rule 10. By what means may we fix our opinions and form a
correct judgment ? What are the inconveniencies of a dogmatical spirit ?
Rule 11. What is an evidence of humility united with courage ? Into what mistake may a wise man suddenly fall ?
Rule 12. How should we conduct so as to raise our judgment
superior to that of the vulgar ? How may fancy and humour distress us ? What is tlie description of a humourist ?
Rule 13. What is the spirit and conduct calculated to lead ujt
into error ? What are the consequences of jesting and foolish
merriment ?
Rule 14. What is that indulgence which perverts the mind in
pursuit of truth ? What will follow an abandonment of religion ? Who are the characters given up to strong delusions ?
Rule 15. Against what should we carefully watch ? What is the advice of Solomon ? What is the course which should lead us to fear the displeasure of God ?
Rule 16. For what should we suppHcate the Father of lights ? What should be our thoughts of the Author of out
being ? To what does Christianity obligate a student.*
AVB9TI0NI. sot
CHAPTER II.
Observation^ Reading, Instruction by Lectures, Conversation, and Study^ comfiared.
What are the five eminent means of knowledge ?
What is observation ?
What may be called experience, and experiment ?
How is the art of reading defined ?
How are lectures described, and what are their uses ?
What is conversation ?
What is included in meditation or study, and what are their benefits ?
What are the advantages of observation ?
How may the mind be improved by rending ?
How are public or private lectures rendered profitable ?
In what way does conversation tend to mental im- provement ?
What is indispensable in the acquisition of knowledge?
What are the advantages of thought and reasoning ?
How may the correct sentiments of others become
W properly our own ? hat is the difference between hearing and study?
CHAPTER III.
Rules relating to Observation.
What are some of the methods by which we may en- large our knowledge ?
How should the curiosity of the young be encouraged ?
In what way can usetul thinking be promoted ?
From what should we keep our minds free, and why ?
In what circumstances are envy, pride and self-flattery apparent ?
What is the curiosity which ought to be suppressed, and why ?
What should be our object, in our observation of per- sons and their conduct ?
What are the thoughts, which should for the most part be secreted ?
By what good old rule may our conversation be regu- lated?
What are the best means of establishing correct gen- eral theories ?
CHAPTER IV. Of B^oks and Reading, What useful remarks are made on books ?
208 auESTiojfs.
How may the reading of a student be directed most
Wjrofitably ? hat is a good rule in the study of books of importance?
By what method may the reading of the same book by^ three or four persons be rendered beneficial to each ?
What is another method by which persons engaged in the same study may be profited ?
In reading or in conversation, what should be our chief business ?
What should be our practice, after going through one course of a science ?
By what means may the plans of some books be im' proved ?
What advantages may be derived" from making an in- dex to a valuable book which has none ?
What remarks on authors Will enrich the understand-
ing
How may that reading be described, which is not at- tended with advances in true knowledge ?
What are the directions by which we may judge just- ly and reason correctly concerning the valuable works which we may peruse ?
What ought to be our determinations in the examina- tion of human authors ?
What are the three important things to be observed ia our reading ?
In the reading of practical treatises, what should be our conduct r
What is of more consequence than the richest treas- ures of mere speculative knowledge ?
When one person reads to several, what are the ideas on which remarks should be made ?
What are the passages, 8cc. which require a private review ?
What is worthy of remark respecting the Tatler, Ad- dison's Spectator, &c.
Of what utility are dictionaries, &c. of several sorts?
To what two temptations are superficial readers liable?
Wlio is deplorably poor in his understanding ?
CHAPTER V. Judgment of Books, How may we be aisted in our j:i<l^ nent of a book ? By what rule may we safely reject the production of an author ?
j aiTESTioirfl. 20f
In judging of books, what are the most common mis- takes ?
What noble principles do those infidels lay aside, who jest with the Bible ?
How may we be qualified to judge of a particular sub- ject ?
After having become masters of a particular theme, to what mistake in judgment are we liable ?
Who are the persons that obtrude their opinions on subjects above their capacity ?
Who may be named as another sort of judges ?
What is a mischievous principle in judging of books ?
What is the more noble exaiiiple which Horace would give us ?
What does Roscommon say of Homer ?
What are some evidences of the base passion of envy ?
How may this invidious humour be counteracted ?
What is a peculiar excellence of Sir Richard Steele's essay, called the Christian Hero ?
What may be reasonably demanded of little, ill-natured critics ; and wl.y ?
What is a very frequent fault in our judgment upon books ?
In what way should we speak of the writings of the Archbishop of Cambray ?
What should we remember respecting this great man ?
What may be said of the poesy of Casimere ?
What is the general character of Milton's Paradise Lost?
By what considerations should we be influenced in judg- ing of a man, who censures or commends a book ? CHAPTER VI.
Of living Instructions arid Lectures^ of Teachers and Learners.
How are the advantages of a tutor's instructions ap- parent ?
What are the benefits of a plurality of tutors ?
What are some of the circumstances which disqualify a man for the office of an instructer ?
What are the qualifications, temper and conduct ne- cessary to constitute a good tutor ?
In what way should the learner improve the precepts of his tutor ?
What is the behaviour becoming a stu^eot > T
210 «,VE3TION3.
What should be the student's opinion of his instructer ; and with what disposition should he make known his doubts and scruples ?
What is a frequent and growing folly ?
Gf what two extremes are youth in danger ?
What is the duty of a learner to his teacher^ CHAPTER VII. Of learning a Language.
How are the living languages distinguished from the dead?
What directions are necessary in learning a language ?
What is the best plan of a grammar for learning the Latin tongue ?
By what means may the most rapid progress be made ?
What are the advantages of conversing iji a language to be studied ?
What is a most useful exercise for boys ?
What may be fairly objected against the teaching of Latin by the heathen poets, as Ovid, Horace, Juve- nal, &c. ?
After the learning of a language, what should be our practice ? and what is the disposition, common to a critic, against which we should watch ? CHAPTER VIII.
Of inquiring into the Sense and Meaning of any Wri- ter or Sfieaker^ and esfiecially the sense of the Sa- cred Writings.
What is the farst rule to direct us in understanding a writer or speaker ?
Whiit is the second ?
What is the third ?
What is the fourth ?
What is the fifth ?
What is the sixth ?
What is the seventh ?
What is the eighth ?
What is the ninth ?
What is the tenth ?
What is the eleventh ?
What should we remember ? and of what should we maintain an awful sense ?
CHAPTER IX.
Rules of Imfirovement by Conversation. By what means may conversation be renderedimproving?
aUE£TIONS. 21J
In what respects may company become salutaty ? How may we gain improvemeut from those with whom
we meet ? Why should we not confine our conversation to one sort
of company ? How may conversation enlarge our minds ? What should be our endeavour in mixed company ? With what should we not be provoked ; and why ? How may we learn the narrowness of our own minds ? What is a great advantage in the pursuit of knowledge ? How may conversation, in social parties, become valu- able ? What should be the conduct of a hearer, whilst one of
the company expresses his opinion ? For what reason should we avoid prejudice against a
plain style ? What is the best method to obtain an explanation of
obscure expressions? By what means may objections be made with modesty ? How should a candid hearer express his differences
in opinion ? Of what should we maintain a constant sense ? What are the advantages of confessing our imperfect
informatum ? Why should we withhold our decisions in company ? On what occasion may it be proper to repel a bold ad- vocate of error ; and why f For what reasons should we avoid a disputatious temper? What is calculated to bar the understanding against
salutary convictions ? What are the best methods of gaining improvement, or
of communicating instruction in conversation? What is the affectation we should avoid ? How may a confused conversation be reduced to order ? What are the things we should not charge upon others ;
and why ? What are the evils in conversation which are enemies
to friendship ? What are the best means of counteracting ungenerous
reproaches ? To what manner of conversing should we be inured^
and on what occasions ? What ought to be the character of our chosen com- panions?
S12 ttUESTIONB.
What are those infirmities in a persMi, which render him unsuitable as an associate?
What should the contemplation of these evil qualities teach us?
On retiring from company, what should be our thoughts?
What are the errors of conversation, which we should notice for the purpose of avoiding ?
What are the advantages of an easy manner of address ?
CHAPTER X.
Of Disputes.
How is the practice of disputing described ?
In what way may disputes arise ; and how are they pursued ? f
What may be the consequences of disputes in conver- sation ?
What should be observed in attempts to convince one of error ?
In what sheuld disputants endeavour to agree; and why?
From what should the question be cleared, and how il- lustrated ?
Why i$ such a course necessary ?
How may disputants be kept to the point of inquiry ?
Of what evil is the pride of man the spring ?
What is the bane of improvement, and how does it op- erate ?
With what design should we enter on a debate ?
Against what should we watch narrowly in a dispute ; and why ?
Give some examples of unguarded conversation.
How do the purposes of God afford encouragements to prayer ?
By what caution should we guard against the subtle errors of men ?
What are some of the false opinions relative to true virtue ?
By what means does the great Master of the human family instruct us in virtue ?
How may an opponent be silenced or convinced ?
When may the passions misguide the judgment ?
What are the three sorts of disputation ?
CHAPTER XI.
The Socratical Way of Disputation,
From whom dees the Socratical method of dispute d«-
rive its name ? V
AUESTIOKS. Sl3
Give an example of the Socratical way of disputation ? What are the advantages of this method ? What is the method nearly a-kin to this ? What would be a happy manner of framing Christian catechisms P
CHAPTER XII.
Of Forensic DUfmtes, What is a general definition of forensic dispute ? On what occasions is this practice used? What is the method of proceeding ? Where the question consists of several parts, what is
the method? What is usual before the final sentence ; and why ? How may forensic disputes be rendered useful ? What was the practice amongst the Roman youth, as
suggested by Juvenal ?
CHAPTER XIII.
Of Academic^ or Scholastic Disfiutation,
What are the common methods of dispute in schools of learning ?
To what do the laws of disputation relate ?
What are the laws obhging the opponent ?
What are those which oblige the respondent?
What are those which oblige both disputants ?
Enumerate some advantages attained by academical disputation.
What are some of its inconveniences ?
What are the general directions for scholastic disputes ?
How should the tutor or moderator direct the disputa- tion advantageously ?
CHAPTER XIV.
Of Study, or Meditation.
What has been proved and established ?
To a good genius and happy judgment, what is an in- dispensable addition in the acquisition of wisdom ?
What is the first direction for youth in the pursuit of study ?
In the science of theology, what is a common danger ?
By what absurd tests have truth and heresy been tried ?
What are the practices which may discourage young students ?
214
auESTIONS.
By what means may the difficulties of study be sur^
mounted ? \
What is the pursuit calculated to distract the unaer-
standinv^ ? ' '
How miiy our diversions be made to enrich our minds ?^ What is a good rule in the pursuit of valuable knowl- edge? By what rule should we exert our care and skill irt the
d'scussion of subjects ? What advantages ft )w from this one direction ? What are the evils which may flow from an injudicious
fondness for a particular scif'nce ? What IS the fault of some little souls ; and its conse-
queuces ? ;
What is the science which should always stand chi^ ?
and why ? What should be the plan of our studies as to time ? How may fatigue in study be avoided ? In the beginning of anew study, what should be our
conduct ? What course should we pursue, when we cannot obt^
all the evidence which we desire ? In what way should speculative studies be applied to a
practical use ? What are the things in which it may be unnecessary
to change ? and why ?
CHAPTER XV.
Of fixing tkt Attention.
How may we obtain satisfactory evidence of truth, and avoid mistakes ?
What is the effect of attachment to a particular study?
What are the uses and dangers of emblematical rep- resentations ?
Describe the authors whose works should be studied.
What are the things which render any place unsuita- ble as a place of study ?
For what reasons should our decisions sometimes be withheld ?
In our studies, what are the dangers from our passions and appetites ?
When may any passion of the soul be salutary in our inquiries ?
How mav the mind be fixed and engaged in the search of truth?
avKSTioNS. 215
CH/VPTER XVI.
Of Enlarging the Capacity of the Mind,
What are the three things which constitute a capa- cious mind ?
Who are the persons of a narrow and contracted habit of soul ?
Mention some of the facts, at the relation of which such persons stand aghast.
In what way is it best to commence the instruction of such ?
Of what use maybe the reading of Milton *s Paradise Lost ? ,
Where may we find the most sublime ideas and the mnst elevated language ?
How will an enlargement of our minds lead us to con^ template the glory of God and his Son ? ^
Describe the second evidence of a noble capacity of mind.
How may narrow views be eradicated ?
How may free conversations with persons differing from us, improve our minds ?
What are some of the truths in astronomy and natural
' philosophy which astonish the unlearned ?
,What is the best cure of this ignorance ?
Describe the third evidence of a noble capacity of mind?
What are some t)f the inconveniencies of a narrow mind, in relation to religion, human prudence, civil gov- ernment. &c. ? .
Who are the persons that ought never to set up for scholars ^
What makes a great man ?
What are the six general rules by which the capacity of the mind may b« Increased ?
CHAPTER XVII. Of Imfiroving the Memory,
©escribe the memory, and its advantages.
How may the judgment be distinguished from the memory ?
What is a good rule to persons of all capacities?
What are some of the infirmities of genius and memory?
What constitutes a wealthy and a happy mind ?
What are some of the joys that do not belong t« mortality ?
216 ouestions.
At what age does the memory grow, and how may it
be improved or injured ? What are the four qualifications of a good memory ? How will a due exercise of the memory improve it ? What is the first general rule for improving the
memory ? What is the second ? What is the third ? What is the fourth ? What is the fifth ? What is the sixth ? What is the seventh? What is the eighth? What is the ninth?
CHAP. XVIII.
Of Determining a Question.
In considering a question, what should be our first
thoughts ? How may the inquiry and argument oS. a question be
rendered plain and easy ? How may the obscurity of a question be removed ? What is the advantage of the clear statement of a
question? If the question relate to an axiom, what are the truth*
connected with its solution ? When may a proposition be called an axiom ? In searching alter truth, what is a good rule ? Describe the persons who build their opinions upon v^
sufficient grounds. In deciding a question of difficulty, what may be called
instances of a partial examination ? By what indulgence may we be led into gross errors ? By what follies may the mind receive a false bias ? What is the zeal against which we should watch; and
why ? Why should jest and ridicule be avoided in our ve-
searches ? What arc inefficient methods of conviction ? What is a profane insolence, and its perils ? Of what siiould we be aware in reading controversial
productions ? When should a question not be determined by a single
argument; and why? Of what should we t&ke a full survey in a subject ?
QUESTIONS. £17
What is a g<»d fnle by which our assent to a proj)osi«
tion sl.ould be proportioned ? Wh^'t are some of the truths believed with different
decrees of assent ? ©n what grounds did our Saviour commend a strong
laith? How may we distinguish the duties, which should evi- -
dently bind our consciences, from other duties ? V\'hat are three good rules iu judtjing of prob bilities? By what means and in what particuha's bhouid our
judgments be settled ? In considering the gospel, what should we remember ;
and for what reasons ?
CHAPTER XIX.
Of inquiring into Causes arid MffiCts,
incur inquiries into the causes of an effect, what me* thod should we foUow ?
How should We proceed in relation to natural philoso- phy?
How in relation to events in the moral world ?
In our inquiries hito the effects of a cau&e, what method should we take?
Kow do physiciars improve their skill ?
By what means may a preacher extend his usefulness?
What must we distinguish ia relation to causes and effects ?
CHAPTER XX. <3/ the Sciences, and th^ir Use in fiarticulat Pro-
Jeasibns. ©f what use is system, m the learning of a science ? What is the remark (fan ingenious writer? Why is it that we have so many half-scholars ? After a good acquaintance witl) the compendium of a
science, how should we proceed ? In what respects may a tutor be advantageous? When should the lajic,uaf;es be studied ; and why ? What are above the capacities of children ? Wnat are the sciences pleasing to young persons ? What are the three reasons that render the study of
these sciences easy ? How may certain sciences be preserved in the memory T Ot v/hat should every scholar attain some general ideas? WI)Hf parts of a science should be studied first ?
21^ atrBSTiojf*.
What should we learn from the connexion of the- sci- ences?
What are the sciences, a moderate kno-vf ledge of which are of practical use ?
What was the sentence of Dr. Gheyne respecting some mathematical studies?
What ire the advantages of a knowledge of elegant" problems in the mathematics ?
Whv is the study of history essential to politicians and ecclesiastics ?
How is the study of sacred biography useful ?
What are the uses of logic and metaphysics?
What are the benefits of a knowledge of natural phi- losophy ?
How is this science necessary to a physician ?
Why necessary to a lawyer or a judge ?
In w^hat way useful to a divine ?
How may the knowledge of animal nature and of the rational soul be of practical use ?
Of what does natural religion consist, as comprised in two parts ?
How does natural religion harmonize with revealed ?
Wh-^t is a necessary caution on this subject ?
To what should the study of natural religion lead us?
What is meant bv the civil law ?
What were the first grounds of this law?
What is a more important law;, and its uses ?
What are the philological studies ?
Why is the Latin necessary to the student in law ?
In What way have the priesthood of Rome, the lawyers and physicians abused the people ?
Why are'Greek and Latin necessary to physicians ?
How will the LatiU; Greek and Hebrew assist the stu- dies of the Christian minister ?
What are the chief uses of the Syriac and Arabic tongues ?
What of the Chaldean ?
"V/hat is grammar, and its necessity ?
What are the three parts of rhetoric ?
Bv what means may this art be attained ?
Why should it be laid aside by pleaders at the bar ?
What are the reasons which justify its use by Christ- ian ministers ?
By what reasons is the reading of poesy enforced?
¥*E«TldJiii. 219
When may &. genius indulge himself in \vTiting poesy? 'i'Shat studies promote a knowledge of hist-ryf 'V'hat is the knowle<^ge which students in divinity ought
tr seek ; ajid why ? What is the art of criticism, and its uses? !How may our studies be facilitated ? Of what should a good critic be aware, that modesty «fid €aiu;U>ur Jmay siccoxn^any his criticisms I
•♦t*
CONTENTS.
?<^ Preface ---.---
The liitrodnction - - - - ^ - _
Chap. I General xvles for the improv^ement of knowledge - - - - - " , - V
Chap. II- Five methods of improving:, descriVbed and compared, viz Observation, reading, ins'-traction by lectuFes, conversation, and study, wl tn their several advantages and defects - - 2?
Chap. III. Of observation, either by ^he sens«2s or the mind - - - - - r- - 3-
Chap. IV, Of reading and books, with directions relating thereto^. ,.^^- , - . - '" S'J
jifi%BSffit of books, both approbation i
and censure jgi||pHh^.lMMi» - ^ ' - 4%
Chap. VI. 0*f Irving instructions and 'lectures, of ' ■> teachers and learners - - - - ,
Chap, ¥11. Of learning a language, particularly the Latin _._.._
Chap. Vm. Of inquiring: into the sense and meaning of any writer or speaker, whether human or divine 6t
Char. fX. Of convt»r?ation and profiting by it, and of person? fit or unfit for free converse - - 7£
Chap. X Of disputes, and general rules relating to them 8C
Cii p XI. Of Socraticai disputation, by question und answer - _ _ _ _ 97
Chap XII. Of forensic disputes in courts of justice or public assemblies . _ - - 9J
Che p. XIII. Of academic or scholastic, disputes, and the rules of them, and how far they may be useful 101
Chfip. XIV. Of study, or meditation, and the final det= ruination of things by our own judgment 110
Chap. XV Of fixing the attention - - 120
Chap. XVI. Of enlarging the capacity of the mind 12S
Chap. XVII. Of the memory, and the improvement thereof 135
Chap XVIII. Of determining a question; several cauticns about it ; of reason and revelation ; of argument and ridicule ; of assent only in propor- tion to evidence, &;c. - - - - 15§
Chap. XIX Of inquiring into causes and effects 175
Chap. XX. Of the sciences, and their uses in par- ticular professions • - if - - V^
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS ^
0 029 501 150 6
|
^^^^^■1 |
|
|
^H^ OREGON ^=\ ^ Riiir |
|
|
^ ii<(A ^=i |
|
|
r 1 |
|
|
■ 1 |
|
|
r'l |
|
|
t'^ |
|
|
* 1 OREGON RULE CO. |
wifi 1 U.S.A. |
6
7
g
9
10
11
8
10