T

A QUARTERLY JOURNAL

OP

MISSIONARY THOUGHT AND EFFORT.

Vol, III.-JULY, 1875.-No. 9.

^ 0 m Ii a g :

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1875.

THE

J U LY, 1875.

Vol. III. No. 9.

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THE

VOLUME nr.

WITH tho present issue the Review enters upon its third year. In its general character no change is con- templated ; it will continue to present the same features as hither- to, though every exertion will be made to render it more and more worthy of the place it seeks to fill, and of tho support which it has' from the first received. It will seek, as before, to repi'esent the opinion of Christian thinkers and laborers upon mat- ters of general importance to Christians in this country. Its aim will also be, as it has already been, to discuss those questions which relate not merely to the religious welfare of this and neighboring countries, and to the progress of Christianity within their borders, but also to their moi'al, social and intellectual progress. While many of its articles will be found of special value to those who are directly engaged in evangelistic labors in India, others will be given of a wider range and a more general interest. In short, no subject will be deemed inappropriate for its pages which bears in any way upon the welfare of India and the Indian people, or the discussion of which tends to throw light upon any subject pertaining to them.

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THE

CONTENTS OF No. IX.

		Page
I.	Apostolic and Indian Missions compared	I
II.	The Calcutta Auxiliary Bible Society, and the Bengali Bible	19
III.	Canareso Lullabies ...	33
IV.	Sacrificial Terms and a Misunderstood Gospel...	38
V.	Hindu and Jewish Sacrificial Ritual	55
VI.	The Atonement, its Nature and Design	66
VII.	Social and Religious Movements among the Mairs	74
VIII.	The Rise, Progress and Prospects of the Brahma Samaj ... ...	84
IX.	Notes and Intelligence : —

Baptisms during 1874 — Are Missions a failure? — Secular papers and Missions — The Liberal — The Brahma Samaj — Work of the Tract Societies during 1874 — Colportage — Issues of the Bible Societies — Pamphlet of Maul vi Ghulam Ali — Of Sayad Ahmad Shah Khan Bahadur— Koran in Roman-Urdu — Persian-Urdu Commentary on Matthew— Other new books in preparation~Augustiue's Confessions in Urdu — Pastorate of the Khasia Church — Death of Miss M. F. Seelye, M.D.— New Bible and Tract Building, Calcutta — Calcutta Young Men's Chris- tian Association — Calcutta Evangelistic Services — " Pratt Memorial School" — School at Agra — Inter- cession of Saints — The Friend of India — Irish Presby- terian Mission, Guzerat— A remarkable Conversion — Bangalore " Hindu Literary Union" — Baptism of a Brahman at Bangalore — Christian College for South India — Baptism of a Brahman at Madras — Native Liberality — Medical woi'k in the Madura Mission — Madura Mission Report — Cheap Vernac- ular Scriptures — Travancofe Census — Cholera in Ceylon — Temperance — Reports received 95

X. Book Notices : —

The Women of India, and Christian Work in the Zenana — Lugat i Kitab i Muqaddas— Lyrics (Ta- mil)— Tamil Annotated New Testament — Books received 126

EBBATUM. Page 35, stanza VII., Une 3, for time read true.

THE

INDIAN EVANGELICAL IlEYIEW.

No. IX.

JULY, 1875.

Art. I.— apostolic AND INDIAN MISSIONS COMPARED.

By Rev. G. II. Rouse, CALCurrA.

IN the gi'eat work which God has given ns to do in this land^ that of bringing it from the darkness of heathenism and estrange- ment from God to the enjoyment of the light which Christ alone can give, we cannot help now and again casting our eyes back to the records of the early ti'iuraphs of the Gospel. And when we do so, the result is generally a feeling of sadness, almost, at times, of despondency, because our success seems so much less than that of the apostles and their contemporaries. We read of their success, and it encourages us ; we then look at the results of the labors of so many years past, and when we see the gi'eat mass of the people still mad on their idols, we are almost tempted to despair, and to think that though other lands may be blessed, yet India is not to partake in the blessings. Are these feelings justified ? We believe, emphatically, that they arc not.

In comparing the results of modem missions among the hea- then with the success recorded in the Acts of the Apostles, we are often apt to take a too gloomy view of our present work, in con- sequence of two things. The first of these is, that we forget that the early preachers of the Gospel enjoyed great advantages which are not enjoyed by missionaries now. Tlio second is, that we prob- ably over-estimate the success enjoyed by the apostles and their fellow-laborers, and under-estimate the blessing with which God has crowned the efforts of his servants in these days.

I. The early preachers of the Gospel enjoyed many great advantages as compared with preachers of the present day.

2

Aposiollc (iiiil Iiidiau Mist;i(iiiK rn))i pared.

(i) To begin witli a very obvious one — the apostles and their fellow-hiborers had, many of them, the power of working niiraclcs ; this power wc have not. Now we do not for a moment say that miracles, by themselves, will convert the soul ; but no one can hesitate to acknowledge that the power of working miracles was a groat help to the early pi-eachers of the Gospel, i t at once arrested the attention of their audience ; and when the attention of people is aroused, a great step is gained towards conversion. How often we have to bewail the utter stolidity of our hearers — they assent to everything we say, and forget it as soon as we are gone. Wo would rather have the most violent opposition than this indifference. The heathen, too often, are utterly careless about the (lospel ; they think nothing about it — they have no concern about it. If we can once gain their atten- tion, and make them interested, and if at the same time we could convince them that we come with weighty credentials, as shown by our power to work miracles, they would be far more likely to understand and to receive the truth. If they saw the lame walk, or the blind see, or the dumb speak, or the dead made alive, they could no longer be careless ; their interest would be excited, their attention aroused, and they would listen to the preacher as to one whose message was indeed from another world. They might not be converted — they would not be converted, without God's grace; but we know that God works by means; and miracles are a means to arouse attention, and thus prepare the heart to receive the truth. So it was undoubtedly in early times. " Peter said, ^neas, Jesus Christ maketh thee whole : arise, and "make thy bed. And he arose immediately. And all that dwelt " at Lyddd and Saron saw him, and turned to the Lord." Peter restored Tabitha to life, " and it was known throughout all "Joppa; and many believed in the Lord." When Elymas was struck blind, the pro-consul, " when he saw what was done, "believed, being astonished at the doctrine of the Lord." At Samaria " the people with one accord gave heed unto those " things which Philip spake, hearing and seeing the miracles which "he did." And so we read again and again that the working of miracles was one of the means which led on to faith in Christ. We see, thus, what a great help to the early preachers of the Gospel was the power of working miracles. We do not mean to assert that, in early times, every evangelist possessed the power of work- ing miracles. The gift was limited, both as to persons and times. But yet much stress is laid upon it in the word of God. At Jeru- salem a large number of miracles were wrought by Peter (Acts v. 15, 16); and Stephen (Acts vi. 8); in Samaria, by Phihp (Acts viii. 6, 7) ; and by Paul, at Iconium and Lystra (Acts xiv. 3, 8) ; at • Philippi (Acts xiv. 18); Corinth (2 Cor. xii. 12); Ephesus (Acts xix. II, 12) ; and no doubt by himself and the other apostles and

i87S.]

ApontuHc (i)iil Tiul'uui Missions compared.

3

preachers in many other places (Gal. iii. 5 ; Ileb. ii. 4). Mniiy in the Corinthian Chnrch possessed miraculous <^ifts. 'J^he apostle even speaks of miracles in immediate connection with the work of the Spirit, for in Romans xv. 18, 19 the exact expression used by the apostle is that he had preached the (J()S])el " in the power of " siy^ns and wonders, in the power of tlu! Spii-it of (Jod." And our Ijord himself, in u))braiding- the cities that had z-ejccted him, laid this honor upon the miracles that ho wrought, that ho expressly said : " If the mighty works which were done in you had been "done in Tyre and Sidon, thef would have repented long ago in "sackcloth and ashes." Wo see, then, how much stress is laid in the word (jf God on the power of working mii-acles. But we have no such power ; therefore we cannot be surprised if our success is not equal to that of the apostles. The history of medical missions shows the great advantage of missionaries possessing even natural medical knowledge. How much greater an advan- tage it would be to them if, instead of mere medical skill, they had the power of causing by a word the dumb to speak and the blind to see !

(2) Another great advantage which the early heralds of the Cross possessed, lay in the fact that the way had been prepared for them by the spread of Judaism. The apostles and their fellow- laborers devoted themselves almost entirely to the evangelization of the cities and large towns. In almost every one of these into which they entered there were Jews, and in most of them a Jewish spiagogue. God had scattered his people " in the midst pf many " people, as a dew f i-om the Lord." They had thus been for many years to the Gentiles a witness to the unity and holiness of God, a standing protest against the idolatry that surrounded them. More- over, the Hebrew Scriptures, with their pure theology and elevated morality and ennobling truths, the moral law of Sinai, the Psalms of David, and the glorious pi'omises of Isaiah, had for nearly three centuries been translated into the Greek language, which was understood all over the civilized world. By these means a large number of the Gentiles, who felt the vanity of their idols and abhorred the awful wickedness of the common worship, had found more or less of rest through believing in the God of Israel. Many of these had been circumcised, and a larger number still, like Cornelius, without formally joining the congregation of Israel, attended the worship of the synagogue and believed with all their hearts in the God of Jacob. Moreover, many of the Jews them- selves, scattered in various nations, were, no doubt, like Simeon, " waiting for the consolation of Israel" — the great Saviour, who, according to the prophecy of Daniel, was about at that very time to appear. Now, when the apostles, or any of their fellow-workers, appeared in the synagogue of Aiitioch, or Thessalonica, or Corinth, they found "a people prepared of the Lord," both Jews and Gentiles,

4

Aj)oslol!c CDul Tndid)) il^^'^•^"/c))^.s■ romparfiil.

who were, we mnry say, (ihradji coiirrrfrd, boHoving in and serving God, expecting the advent of the Messiah ; and then, " opening and " ])ntting together" passage by passage of the Okl Testament, which tliev all believed, tlie preacher showed that "the Christ was to " sulfor, and to rise again the third day," and added, " 'fhis Jesus " whom I preach unto you is that Christ." When his hearers heard this blessed message, they, with a single eye and open heart, " searched the Scriptures daily, whether these things were "so;" and finding them to be true, many of them believed on Jesus, and formed the nucleus of the Christian ChurcTi in their respective towns. Thus at Antioch, in I'isidia, "many of the "Jews and religious proselytes followed Paul and Barnabas;" at Iconium, a great multitude of Jews and Clentiles, heaving Paul preach in the synagogue, believed; at Lystra, 'i'imothy had known the Scriptures fi-om his youth; at Philippi, Lydia was a worshipper at the place of prayer; at Thessalonica, a few Jews and many of the " devout " (xreeks, i.e., those who had more or less embraced Judaism, believed ; at Berea, at Corinth, at Ephesus, believing Jews or Gentiles who had been for some time worshippers of the true (Jod, formed the nucleus of the Christian Church. It is probable that the Church at Rome was largely formed of those who had been Gentile proselytes to Judaism. So it was, most likely, almost everywhere. This explains a fact we may have sometimes mar- veled at, that the apostles should have in some cases gone to a heathen town, preached but a few weeks, and yet formed a church in so short a time. The simple fact is, that God had prepared the way before them ; the apostles preached to those wh.o possessed and studied the writings of Moses and David and Isaiah and Daniel ; and, as in the case of so many thousands in Judea, found that " the law was a schoolmaster to bring them unto Christ." No doubt afterwards a large number were converted who had been simple pagans, without any faith in the God of Israel. But this class that we have mentioned formed a solid nucleus, com- posed of men and women instructed in the Old Testament oracles, who could with great vigor and success act upon the heathenism around them. Now, wherever the early preachers of the Gospel went — ^whether in Asia,, Egypt, Greece, Italy, Africa, Spain — in all the large towns they found the way tlms prepared for them of the Lord. There can be no doubt that this was to them a greater advantage even than the power of working miracles. If mis- sionaries had found such a knowledge of the Old Testament and such a waiting for the Messiah, such a "prepared people," in Calcutta, or Delhi, or Shanghae, or Tahiti, how much more rapid the progress of the Gospel would have been ! But we preach to peojJe who know nothing of the true God, who are enslaved to the most polluting and licentious idolatry, who have scarcely a religious idea in common with u,s, who have no word of God to

1875-]

' Ajiih^lnUr (Dili Tiiil'iini Mltoflonx conqxiri'd .

S

wliicli wo cim :ip])oal to prove that Josus is the Christ, who hnvo notliiiifi' but <i conscience on which we can act; and that con- scienc^c often so liardened, blinded, deadened, that one is ahnost tenijited to believe that they have none at all. No wonder, then, that our success is not equal to that of the apostles and those who labored with tluMU.

Another advantage must be noticed in connection witli these Jewish synao-ogues. Jn most heathen lands at the present day very great difHculty is experienced in making the churches inde- pendi>nt of Europ(vni supervision. In India, for instance, it is, as we know, extremely difhcult to find native pastors and deacons who can be trusted to take the entire oversight of the native churches. It was not so, apparently, in early times. The con- stitution of the Christian Church was based on that of tlic synagogue ; hence those who came over from the Synagogue to the Church had been in some measure disciphned and fitted for the right discharge of the elder's ofhce. Moreover, having long and carefully studied the Old Testament, they would be likely to have a more mature knowledge of the things of God, and therefore coukl be at once entrusted with the charge of presiding and watch- ing over the churches, especially when there were apostles living, and their representatives, like Timothy and Titus, who could " set " in order the things that were wanting."

In every way then the dispersion of the Jewish people into all parts of the Roman em2:)ire, and the translation of the word of God into Greek three centuries previously, had mightily prepared the way for the spread of the Gospel. The more we think on it, the more do we feel what an immense advantage it was to the early preachers of the Gospel that the way of the Lord had thus been prepared before them.

(3) Another great advantage which was possessed in apo- stolic times consisted in the fact that the early preachers had not to contend with such compact and mighty systems of idolatry as we have to meet at the present day in India or China. The religions they had to assail were long past their prime, they were already on the wane. Philosophy had put forth its utmost power in the minds of men like Socrates and Plato and Aristotle — men whose equals the world has scarcely seen. For four hundred years they and their successors had interrogated nature and conscience to learn whether there is a God, and if so, what is his nature; whether there is a future world, and if there be, what it is like ; and, as the result of all their searchings, the only answer that they could gather was, " We do not know." " The world, by ''wisdom, knew not God." Hence arose a feeling of scepticism, of universal doubt, so well presented to us in Pilate's scornful question, " What is truth ?" The learned and thoughtful felt that philosophy could not satisfy the cravings of their nature ; while

6

Ajwafoh'c cold IiidUin M'tKshmf! comparcLl.

as for the common idolatry of the people, tlic stories of Jupiter and Minerva and Venus, — no one could despise them more than they. The learned of the day were sceptics. The common ]H>ople still professed to believe, and in many places, especially those remote from the towns, no doubt really did believe, in their y'ods, as we may see from the conduct of the people of Lystra in believing that Paul and Barnabas were Mercury and Jupiter. But in the towns, where, we repeat, the Gospel was at first mainly preached, the doubts or positive disbelief of the upper classes had, in all probability, infected the mass of the community. Paul mig-ht preach Christ at Corinth, and the Greeks would rather take his part as against the Jews than oppose him. He might ]ireach for two years at Ephesus, and it was not till the interested silversmiths stirred up the religious and patriotic feelings of their fellow-townsmen, that the people offered any opposition to the Gospel. Thei'c was a wide-spread dissatisfaction with the national religion, a looking for something that was really true, and, in many places, an expectation that the looked-for truth was to come from the East. God's providence had been weakening idolatry, and tlu^s preparing the way for the Gospel. Moreover, we must remember that each nation had its own gods, and these could be played off against one another in argument, as is done by Justin Martyr in his Apology. The gods of Egypt were different from the gods of Greece, and these different from the gods of Asia.

Not, however, that idolatry was a weak enemy at the time of the apostles — very far from it. It had "its worship and its priests, and the common people still were its adherents. It was patronized by the emperor and court ; and the philosophers, although they despised it themselves, yet thought it right to keep it up for the sake of the masses. 13ut there was then no such compact system of idolatry as was found in India and China at the beginning of the present century. When Dr. Carey com- menced his labors in India, he found himself face to face with a colossal system of wickedness that seemed the masterpiece of Satan. It was not the religion of a nation, but of a continent— for that, we know, is what India really is : a religion firmly believed in, in one form or anothei', by two hundred million souls, prohahhj a far lur<je.r populiifidii tJinii thai of the wlajJe Homan l'h)ij)irc, and which had had the wisdom gradually to re -incorporate all the offshoots from it ; a religion (differing in this point from those of Greece and Rome) based upon sacred books, and af- fording in those books " the widest scope for the indulgence of " every phase of human thought, sentiment and passion ; furnish- " ing as it does in the Vcdic hymns and poetry an atmosphere " so rare, and presenting such shadowy heights of speculation, "as to tempt the most ambitious wing to jnit f(n'th its powers

•875-1

Ajio.slolir loid TntVnin Mi'kkudis rnvqnirrd.

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"to gain their suinmits ; and fnniisliiiif^ in the Puran.is the vilest " mire, where the filthiest and most oi)Sceno may wallow."' tl was a mighty religious system, one in essence though various in form, which philosopher a-nd peasant alike believed in as firmly as they believed their own existence — and more so ; for they will tell us, as we kiu)w, that, as for their own consciousness of existence, it is nothing but 'iiiai/a, mere illusion, like a conjuror's trick. It involved a belief in fatalism, a doctrine which deadens the conscience more than any other. The maintenance of this system was in the charge of a numerous, covetous, lynx-eyed ])ricsthood ; and, above all, the whole was bound together in a grasp stronger than death by tlio adamantine bonds of caste. Such was the Goliath against whom William Carey went forth " in the name of the Lord of hosts." Well may we say, with Dr. Maclcod : —

"I hesitate not to express the opinion that no such battle has over before been given to the Church of God to tiglit since history began; »ud that no victory, if gained, will be followed by greater consequences. Ifc seems to me as if the s])iritiial conquest of India was a work reserved for these latter days to accom]ilish ; . . . . and that when accomplished, as by the lielp of the living Christ it shall be, it will be a very Armageddon ; the last great battle against every form of unbelief, the last fortress of the enemy stormed, the last victory gained as necessary to secure the unim- peded progress and the final triumph of the world's regeneration."

Besides these there are the Muhammadans, who, as expe- rience teaches us, are still more bitterly opposed to the Grospel than the Hindus, and from whose ranks far fewer converts have been made. We believe that even 7)Lore emphatically than the apostle uttered the words in i Cor. i. 23, 24, can we adapt them, and say, " We preach Christ crucified, to the MuJiavLmadans a stavihling-hloch, and to tlie Hindus foolishness, but unto them " which are called, both Muhammadan and Hindu, Christ the " power of God and the wisdom of God."

Where the Church has not had such an enemy to overcome ; where the I'eligious systems have been weaker, and the population immeasui'ably scantier, as in Polynesia and Madagascar ; and where, furthermore, a nation seems by its very traditions to be prepared for the Gospel, as was the case witb the Karens ; there we see how far more rapid is the progress of the Gospel than where we have to contend with a religion like Hinduism or Buddhism. Here God calls upon us to exercise patience ; but when his time comes these dire superstitions shall be overturned, and the very system of caste which now, in the case of Hinduism, is such a mighty obstacle to the reception of the truth, will then make its ruin, like the falling of the walls of Jericho, all the more sudden and complete.

^ Dr. Macleod's Address on Indian Missions.

8

A/iosti>Jir (Dili TiiJldK Mlnsioiifi roi)ipa)'f(1.

We might refer to other points of contrast, did space pei'init. The Gospel spread at first chiefly among tlio inhabitants of the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, whose moral stamina was far superior to that of the Hindus. There was not among them such utter apathy as we meet with now to so great an extent auiongst the connnon people of India. Tlio social system of the ancient world allowed woman to take her part, and that a very im- portant one, in the spread of the Gospel — the degradation and seclusion of women in India presents an obstacle to the spread of the truth, the magnitude of which we can scarcely estimate. The missionaries in India belong to a conquering nation, a race occi- dental in color, habits and thought, between whom and the natives there must, under any circumstances, be in a certain manner a gulf fixed. Moreover, the early missionaries labored in a climate similar to that of their native land ; our missionaries, born and brought up in a far colder countiy than Palestine, have to labor in a climate very much hotter and more oppressive than that of Greece. The early missions were pioneered and guided by twelve men who had been appointed and trained by our Lord himself J we have to be thankful if once in a century we meet with an apostle. The early preaching of the Gospel was heralded in by the stupendous miracle of Pentecost, a unique manifestation of God's converting j^ower, one that has vrvcr Itccn repeated.

But enough has been said. " The fullness and the exhaustion " of hope met at the epoch of Christ's coming. [In the case of " the Jews] the hope of an external deliverance which had been " gradually moulded through a long history was waiting- its fulfil- " ment. [In the case of the Gentiles] the hope which man had " formed of working out his own way to truth and freedom was well-nigh quenched."^ The Gospel came just at the right time, when God had prepared the way for it by his dealings alike with Jew and Gentile ; and he endowed the early Church with miraculous powers to enforce its claims.

Still we may none the less appeal to its success as an argu- ment for its Divine origin. It was adapted to man, and therefore worthy of God ; but it was opposed to all the prejudices of man, and eventually was resisted with all the might of the Roman Empire. A spiritual, holy, humbling religion, in the hands of a few peasants conquered and renovated the world. The early Christians had a mighty task before them, which, without God's help, they never could have accomplished. But ho gave them some great advantages which he has not given to us in our mission work in the heathen world at the present day.

II. In the next place, we arc prone to over-estimate the

^ Wcalcott on the Goqid of lltc licsurrcdion.

A postal u' tiiiil IikViiiii ]\[!s.s!()iih com pared.

9

riipidity of tlu; spread of the GoMpcl in eiirly times, and to under- estiiimto tlio success wliicli (lod has given to us in these days.

We read through the Acts of the Apostles, and see how every- wliere tlie ])rea(;liing of (Jod's servants was quick and ])owcrfuI, tlirongli his Spirit, to the conversion of men. Kverywlierc; the preacliers of tlie truth met with more or less success. Kverywhero churches of Christ ap])ear to have been formed. But we forget that, though wo can read through the book of Acts in an hour or two, that book records the events of about thirttj yearn. Long intervals of time are passed over in silence. The conversion of the three thousand on the dny of I'eutecost was, indeed, a stupendous mii-acle of God's converting grace, but, as we said before, that miracle was wrouglit but once. After it the apostles appear to have labored, as missionaries do now, and with similar, though greater success. It seems to a casual reader as if the events recorded in the third chapter of the Acts occurred immediately after those recorded in the second chapter ; but really months, or even years, may have intervened. The martyrdom of Stephen and the conversion of Paul took place several years after the events recorded in ch. i., the death of James eleven years after. Between ch. xiv. and xv. there is an interval of three or four years. Moreover, though sometimes, as at Philippi or Thessalonica, a visit of a few days or weeks sufficed to form a church, composed, no doubt, chiefly of those who had been prepared for the reception of the Gospel by the reading of the Old Testament, yet, in other cases, as at Iconium and Corinth and Ephesus, the apostle stayed months and even years in the same place. Time was necessary even for apostolic success.

And not only with regard to the rapidity of the spread of the Gospel, but also with regard to the number of converts, we proba- bly form an exaggerated estimate. It is very difficult indeed to form an opinion on a point like this, in reference to which we have so few data to reason upon. We know very little of the history of the Church of Christ for the forty years succeeding the last event recorded in the Acts of the Apostles. Hence, whatever opinion we may give, ought to be given with much hesitancy ; but it would be a very interesting subject of inquiiy, how many members are likely to have belonged to the Church of Christ about the year a.d. ioo. We must remember that up to this time, and for many years after, the Gospel spread chiefly, if not almost exclusively, among the population of the towns. For centuries even, the heath-dwellers were " heathens," and the dwellers in thepcK/t, the "villages,'' were "pagans." Hence, at the date we refer to, we should find the great mass of the Christian community resident in the towns and cities of the Roman empire. We know that at first a lai-ge number of Jews received the truth ; and it is very likely, from the records of the New Testament, as Neander thinks,

2

10 .i/)ostol!c iind Iii.iViaa Mlxxinjifi ri))ii pared. [July,

tliat a simple profession of faith in Jesus as the Messiah, by a Jew, entitled him at once to baptism, although he might enter- tain very canial views as to the nature of Christ's kingdom. As yoon as a person professed his belief, he was* baptii'jed. Henco it is likely there were enroll(>d amongst the members of the Christian Church many merely nominal Christians — although, of course, at that time^ the mere pi'ofession of faith in Christ was a probable evidence of sincerity, in consequence of the general rejection of Christ's claims by the people, and the opposition and persecution involved in the acknowledgnneut of Jesus as the Messiah. As to the number of these Jewish believers^ it is difficult to fonn an estimate. In Judea they were numerous. James speaks of the " many myriads of Jews that believe " (Acts xxi. 20), but this seems to be simply a general expres- sion for a large number. Out of Judea, the Jewish believers appear to have been but few, as far as we can judge from the history in the Acts of the Apostles. Shall we then be under the mark if we put 20,000 or 30,000 as the limit of the number of believing Jews ? Next, with regard to the Gentiles — the Gospel spread chiefly in the towns ; in most of the large towns there were Christian churches, but they probably were not very large- The disciples at Troas could all meet in an upper room, about thirty years after the first preaching of the Gospel, Some churches no doubt, as those of Corinth, and Rome, and Antioch, were lai-ger than others j but probably hardly any church numbered as many as a thousand members, whilst many churches, no doubt, were very small. Christianity at this time was in most places utterly despised, not feared. Witness, for instance, the contempt with which Tacitus speaks of Christians — and he mentions them but once or twice — as if beneath his notice, Pliny's celebrated letter refers to the province of Asia Minor, where the Gospel seems to have spread more rapidly than in most other parts of the world. But, taking all in all, We shall probably not be wrong if we put down the averag'e number of members of a church as not exceed- ing (say) 400 or ^OO. As Christianity spread chiefly in the towns, it is hardly likely that there were more than one or two hundred towns in which there were churches at that time. If this estimate be anything near the mark, the number of church members in the world in the year a.d. 100, was certainly not more than 100,000. It may be fairly questioned whether they at all approached this number; but put it so, in the year a.d. 100, seventy years after the first preaching of the Gospel, the number of members of the Christian Church amounted to 100,000. Within seventy years after the baptism of the first convert by Dr. Carey, the number of church members in British India and Burma is 73,000. That is to say, in this one country alone, with all the disadvantages under which the mission in India has been carried on, and with all the

ApnsliiHc and Jiidlan Misflovi^ comparaJ.

advantag-os wliicli the early Clirisliau ])rcachers enjoyod, tlic number of churcli members in full communion, with which God has crowned his work in these days, amounts to about three- quarters of the outside estimate we formed of the number of Christians at the end of the first century. If we take in the whole of the nomiual Christian ])()pulation of India, it will amount to 224,000. Adding in that of British ]}urma it comes to 286,000. Is it likely that if there had been more adherents of tlie Christianity which "turns the world upside-down" in the Roman empire as early as a. d. 100, we should not have heard more of it ? Would not active persecution have begun earlier than it did ?

We sometimes hear of civil and military servants of the Gov- ernment returning to England, and when they are asked about the progress of missions in India, replying, " It is all nonsense ; the " missionaries are doing next to nothing. I have been twenty " years in India, and have seen no effects whatever resulting from " mission labor. The converts are very few, and what there are, " arc sim^oly a set of low-caste men who became Christians for " what they could get." Now many questions might be asked in reply to such remarks. We might say, " You never saw anything- " of the results of missions — did you ever care to look for them ? " How many missionaries do you personally know ? How often " have you attended the mission services ? Did you ever make " the distinction between a mere nominal Christian and a member " or communicant of a Christian Church ? Or would you judge of the character of Christ from the nominal Christians who " fill our jails at home ? If you were to offer your servants " double wages on condition that they break caste, do you think " one of them would accept your offer ? And yet a large number, " on becoming Christians, have had to break caste, have been " turned out of house and home, reviled, beaten, insulted, and " injured in every possible way, and have suffered great pecuni- " ary loss. If you do not believe in missions, men like Lord " Lawrence do, and they have been some years in India, and a " very large number of the most influential Government officers " have borne emphatic testimony to the reality and value of " mission work." But, carrying out our present train of thought, are not the remarks adverse to missions to which we have i-eferred just the sort of remarks which might have been made at the time we are speaking of ? Suppose, at the end of the first century, some Roman governor from Syria, or Cyprus, or -Greece, returning to Rome, had been asked by hie friend Tacitus, whether he had come across any of these new strange religionists, the Christians. Imagine the contempt with which he would say, " Christians indeed ! what do I care about them ? " Hardly a respectable person belongs to them. As to Corinth,

12

A/>osf(>I!c and TinVinn M'nii^hmn eoiuparril.

[July,

" one of their own great teachers confesses how shameful the state " of things was there. It is only a set of poor people who join " them because of the wickedness in which they are said to in- " dulge, and because the few rich people that there are among " them help the poor, and everybody is on an ecpiality." And yet, these Christians, after two centuries more, conquered the empire ; and just as certainly shall this same Christianity, it may be in a shorter time, reign without a rival from Ceylon to the Himalayas.

We may notice, briefly, a few other points of comparison between the history of the early spread of Christianity, and its spread in India. All great progressive movements in the world pass through certain stages. They are first unnoticed, then de- spiscdj then feared, then hated, then violently opposed, then yield- ed to. Now, at the end of the first century probably, Christianity, except in a few places, was still merely unnoticed or despised. But in India, it is in many parts already feared. The Brahmans see that they are losing the day. The power of Hinduism is al- ready waning. It will very likely be a long time before such a mighty system is altogether overturned ; and there will be a hard struggle for life on its part yet. But there are unmistakable sig"ns of its weakening hold upon the people. Of course, we do not say that all the attacks upon it come directly from Christian missions. The influence of European morality, civilization, education, is enormous, as tending to break up Hinduism. But all this is in- directly the result of the Christianity of England, and largely the result of mission work. The missionaries were the pioneers of education, and they still are doing a very great work in leavening education with Christian influences. They led the way to the abolition of suttee and other barbarous customs. Probably the moral tone of the Government, and of the European community in general, at the present time, as compared with what it was sixty years ago, is largely due to the labors of those devoted missionaries who have gone to their rest. Without the " salt" of mission work it is likely that there would be nothing but infidelity to take the place of the expelled Hinduism, no good spirit to fill the house when the evil spirit has been ejected ; and then we know that the last state of India would be worse than the first. But, whatever the power at work, the Christianity and civilization of England have inflicted a sore and mortal wound on the heathenism of India. It may be long dying, but die it will. Pliny speaks of the temples of Asia Minor being for a time almost deserted. Might not something similar be said even now, in some districts of India ? If the Indian law were like the Roman, and, while all religions were tolerated, proselytism were forbidden, we might imagine some Johannes Smithius, Pro- consul of the Santhal Pergunnahs, writing in his perplexity to

1875.]

Apiiiifiilir (Old Tiidiiin ]\f!siii<iiiti r(iii\p<tre.(l .

13

the I*]inpoi-ov (if Iiidia to iisk wliat was to Ix" ddiu' to stop tliis gi'Owin<)- new rcli^-ioii, so intolcraiit of all others, lie iiuglit say : " The Santha-ls in this p;irt of the country are coming over in " large lunnbers to this new superstition. The Jxdk/ii.'^ (village " gods) are being deserted. VVliole villages have been seized "with tluMufeetion, and with their chiefs have abandoned their " ancestral religion for this new intolei-ant one. What is to bo " done to stop its progress ? Of course there is no difKculty about " the two ringleaders, a Ronum axe will soon settle their career, " but whiit is to be done to the poor people who are so misled "and infatuated by theui ? " The Governor of British lUirnia ini"lit have written in much the same strain in relation to the Karens. But it would be wrong to infer that a like success was obtained all over the Empire. So from many quarters we hear that the idolatrous festivals of India, though still attended by thousands or hundreds of thousands, are much less frequented than they used to be, and those who come to them seem, in very many cases, to be less mad in tlieir idolatry than they used to be ; they appear to come, in fact, to the festivals more for the sake of the sport than for the sake of the religicm. The people are, in most phxces, less hostile to Christians than they used to be. Again and again have they said, when urged by the preacher to believe in Christ, " It is not Avritten on our foreheads that we " shall be Christians, but our children will." Or, as reported by a missionary recently, " Sahib, I am too old to change ; if the boat " is rotten, I will sink with it ; but take my son, let him be a " Christian, all will be Christians soon." This is chiefly, of course, in districts in which the Gospel has been long preached. But there are yet great tracts of country where the Gospel has been hardly ever proclaimed. So it was in early times. The temples were partially deserted in Asia Minor, when Germany and Scandinavia had probably never once heard the Gospel.

Dean Milman, in his Hii^tory of Christ iavifj, says that Alexander Severus formed an eclectic system. He had in his palace images of Orpheus and Abraham and Jesus Christ and Apollonius, and he honored — perhaps worshipped — them all. But this was nearly two centurieti after the tirst appearance of Christianity. A similar union may be seen already in India, with- in seventy years from the commencement of systematic mission work. Already thousands and tens of thousands in India, who are not Christians, regard Jesus Christ as a good man, many of them as one of the best of men that ever lived. Already it has been said, some of the common people regard him as the KalJci Avatar, the predicted incarnation of the present evil age — as perhaps he is j for Archdeacon Hardwick, in his Christ and other Masters, expresses the opinion that the belief in the coming incarnation is drawn from Christian sources^ especially Revelation vi. 2.

1-1

Ai'OKti'Ur ((11(1 TiiiUdii j\fist:l(ii)s vomjtarf'd.

[July,

Dr. ]\lilmnn also states that, in order to meet the growing ]iovver of Christiiuiity, ancient heathenism became more philoso- phic and morally pure. This was two or three centuries after the time of the apostles. But a similar change has been already in ]U'ogrc'SS in India for many years. We need only instance the Brahma Samaj. It is true that the number of members of the Jirahma iSamaj is very small, but their influence must not be measured by their numbers. A still more numerous and hopeful class consists of the large number who, from tlio instruction in Christian truth which they have received in mission colleges or elsewhere, have become intellectually convinced of the; truth of the Gospel, and whose hearts have been to some degree affected by it, but who have not yet sufficiently received the truth in the heart to be willing to brave the consequences of an open confession of Christ by baptism. Mission colleges are doing a very great work in opening the way for the Gospel. In some respects they are preparing the soil in the same way as the spread of the Jewish synagogues and of the Septuagint prepared the way for the Gospel at its first promulgation.

Another thing we must remember, in comparing the spread of Christianity now with its spread in early times, is, that then a large number of those who were called Christians, and were re- g'arded as such by the heathen, were no more Christians than are the Muhammadans at the present day. Amongst early Christians were reckoned Gnostics, Manicheeaus, Bbionites, and a host of other heretics whose sole claim to the name of " Christian" was, that somewhere or other, in a system as unfathomable in its ab- surdity as the wildest flights of German philosophy, and, where in- telligible, utterly opposed to the spirit of the Gospel, they inter- posed, under the name of Christ, a being as like the Jesus of the Gospels as the darkness is like the light. There can be no ques- tion that there is far more of Christianity in the Brahma Samaj, or even in Muhammadanism, than there was in Gnosticism or Manichajism. Now, with all the imperfections of the native Christians of India, they have been kept from heresy. Substan- tially they all hold the great doctrines of Christianity.

To return again for one moment to the numerical member- ship of the native Church in India. The nominal Christian population in India increased 6 1 per cent, between i86i and 187 1. But the number of communicants is a better test of the spiritual power of the Church than the number of nominal Christians. According to Dr. MuUens's statistics, in 1852, there were in India (exclusive of Burma) 18,410 communicants, i.e., full mem- bers of the native Church, of all denominations. In 1862, this number had increased to 31,249. In 1871 the number had risen to 52,816. Now, making due allowance for imperfect returns, we shall not exaggerate if we reckon the increase at 50 per cent.

iSyS-] AiHisfiilif itiiit TitiJiiiiiM issidiix roniimrcd. IJ

per (locado. 'Plio iucvcnso of (■nirnniiiiicatits ycv (l('c;i(](>, in I'lngliiiid, jiulj^-iiijj; I'rom tlie statistics (if (nic (IciHniiiiiat ion, whicli is not likely to grow less rapidly than oilier (leiinminations, does not exceed 25 per cent, 'riiiis we see that with all the disadvan- tages attending mission work in India, the /)ri)i>()rtin)itlfr. increase in the number of members during these ten yeai-s appears to have been double what it was in England, with all the religious privileges which are enjoyed there.

In all this we have looked chiefly at the direct results of our work, regarding that work as the preaching and teaching of the Gospel to the heathen. But it must be remembered that mis- sionaries have other work to do. Part of their time is often taken up in ministering to their fellow-countrymen, and we know that thousands of Europeans and Eurasians in India have been through their efforts led to Christ and watched over in their Christian course.

Moreover, a very large amount of the energy of our mission- aries has been devoted to the all-important work of translation. And here we certainly need not fear comparison with the early Church. There was then very little need for the translation of the Scriptures, as the great mass of the members of the Christian Church for the first two or three centuries understood Greek. Hence we read only of one or two translations of the Scriptures before the end of the second century. But the era of modern missions is emphatically the era of biblical translation. We be- lieve that in the last seventy years a hundred and elgJitij transla- tions of the Scriptures, in whole or in part, have been made in different languages, in different parts of the world. Even in India, a very large amount of time and labor has been devoted to this work. In this enormous empire there are spoken, as we know, a large mimber of totally distinct languages, as distinct as the different languages of Europe, and some of them as different from one another as Eno-lish is from Turkish — besides a much larger number of dialects. Into every one of these languages (we ex- clude now the languages of the various small aboriginal hill- tribes, amongst many of whom little or nothing has been done in the way of evangelization) the Bible has been translated, and parts of the Bible have also been translated into a great many of the dialects. This work involves no little labor. It would be comparatively easy to translate the works of Bunyan, or Doddridge, or any other uninspired author, into another language, because all that we should attempt would be to give the general sense of the English in the idiom of the native tongue. But in the case of the Bible, we want more than the general sense. Jt is the Word of God — the standard of truth and practice — and we need to translate it as literally as we possibly can. But the Greek or the Hebrew idiom would often be absolutely unintelli-

l6 Ai>:i-<to!ir (III 1 Till] idii }[!'is!on''! mill [tiired. [Julv,

ifiblc if I i-auslatc'd literally. Hence the translator has tlio orcatest difficulty in beinfz^ faithi'ul to Uod'a Word on the one liand, and yet maintaining the native idiom on the other. There are rocks on both sides, and it costs him many a W(;a.ry day and night to steer his bark aright. Hence the need of frequent revisions in these various translations, which are the more necessary, be- cause, under English and t)ther influences, many of the languages of India are undergoing important modificaticms, so that a version which was satisfactory twenty years ago, may need a thorough revision now. Much of missionary energy has thus been devoted, not to tlie prenching of the Gospel, but to the equally important work of biblical translation and the preparation of religious litera- ture. No d()ul)t the work of trajisktion is to a large extent already accom])lished, and, for the future, the time and labor of our missionai'ies may be more exclusively devoted to the work of the direct preaching of the Gospel. And in remembering all that has been done, we must not forget to mention the ever widening fii'ld of the Zenana mission. This, though the latest, is one of the most promising branches of missionary labor. When through its instrumentality many an Indian Persis and Tryphena and 'JVyphosa and Priscilla shall be raised up to " labor much in the " Lord," we may imagine the blessed influence they will, through grace, exert on their sisters, on their husbands, and on their children, the future men and women of India.

In all this we have looked exclusively at the bright side of the picture; we have no space to look as fully at the other. No doubt, with much to fill us with thankfulness, there is also much to discourage us. The success of missions in India has been to a large extent among the hill-tribes and other non-Hindu races, who have no caste, and do not believe in Hinduism, or among the Shanars and Pariahs of Southern India, or other tribes of low caste or no caste. Yet, even among those of Hindu extraction the members in full communion of the Christian Church number at least ten thousand, and probably more ; and when we remember the power of caste and the other ties of Hinduism, it is indeed a marvel of God's grace that there are so many, consider- ing how few have been the laborers in so vast a field. Wc are not disheartened when we look at the moral character of the native Christian Church ; if wc compare it with the state of things described in the Epistles to the C(n'inthians and in some other Epistles, the Indian Church can fairly bear the comparison.

But there is one point in which the early Church was far ahead of the Indian. We refer to their independence of external aid, and to their zeal in propagating the truth. It is a very discouraging fact that there seems to be in the native Indian Church so little of a spirit of independence ; that its members arc willing to contribute so very small a sum for the support of

AposfoUc and TiuVkih M'lHHiona cnmiiaml.

17

tlio ininiatry among tlioinsclves, audtlio spread of llio Gospel among their fellow-countrymen : and that in other rcspecta there is so much of dependence on English Christians, rather than an endeavor to develop a vigorous native church, independent in thought and action. This spirit can bo easily accounted for. It arises mainly from the dependent character of the people alto- gether, who have been so long down-trodden by oppressors of one nation or another ; but it arises also from the habit of looking upon Europeans as persons of unbounded wealth ; and hence the same effect is produced upon the native Christians in India as results in England when in a church of poor members there are one or two wealthy men ; everything is left for these to do, and the poorer members do next to nothing. The evil is due, not to Indian nature, but to hitman nature. We cannot expect those who are converts from heathenism to attain at once to the standard of Christian character and conduct which we expect to meet with in those who are brought up in all the light that sur- rounds them in a land like England or America — and yet how much of imperfection do wo meet with even there ! The moral atmosphere of England, even where the power of the Grosjiel is not felt, is very much purer than that of India, and yet how worldly- minded are a large number of professing Christians there ! how little is manifested of the large-hearted liberality which the disciples of Christ ought to show ! Few of our English churches can venture to cast the first stone at the Christians of India. Certainly we English Christians have not been called, for Christy's sake, to make the sacrifices which many of our Indian brethren have been called upon to make, who have been beaten and re- viled, and have had literally to give up father and mother and brothers and sisters and vfiie and cliildi'en and lands for the name of Christ. Even in the matter of liberality, a good beginning has been made by some native Christian churches, and we hope that others will bo provoked by their zeal to follow their example. The Mission Statistics for 187 1 show that in that, year the contributions of the native Christian community amount- ed to Rs. 85,12 I.

One most important fact, however, we ought to keep in mind : what was done in the early Church was done by but a comparatively small number of Christians. That work began with a few hundreds ; the work that we have done in India re- presents the zeal of luiUions of Christians in England, America, and Europe. Hence their success is relatively far greater than om'S ; that is, as compared with the number of Christians who were in the world to undertake the enterprise. Had the churches at home possessed the zeal of the early Church, or had all Christian churches sent out proportionally as many preachers of the Gospel into heathen countries as the Moravian Church, who

3

i8 Apostolic and Indian iUxsions compared. [July,

havo, wc believe, as many proaclicrs in heathen lands as at home — in that case, instead of having now five hundred, we should have five or fifty thousand missionaries in India, and the blessing would have been proportionally large — or rather far larger, for God's blessing will ever outrun our zeal. That we have not had more success is not his fault, it is ours. Had the home churches sent many laborers and offered up many earnest prayers, and had we, the preachers of the Word in India, more of an apostolic spii'it, — had we thus sown abundantly, we should have reaped also abundantly, and far more of the people of India would have been the Lord's. But we have sown sparingly, we have sent but one missionary to hundreds of thousands or millions of souls, and therefore we have reaped sparingly. Sparingly, that is, com- pared with the harvest we might have reaped, but not compared with the few laborers sent to work in the exhausting climate of India, amongst a people bound hand and foot by two of Satan's strongest chains — Hinduism and Caste.

God has blessed us, and he will continue to do so. Let us uot be impatient. Two hundred and seventy years after the first spread of Christianity, heathenism was mighty enough, in the time of Diocletian, to carry on a most ruthless persecution of Christians. It took the Christianity of the early Church three hundred years to overcome the waning heathenism of part of Eurojie, and even then that heathenism was only partially con- quered. And are we cast down because in seventy years a mightier system than the heathenism of Europe, the religion of a far larger population, has not yet been destroyed ? We find already that the native Christians in full membership in India are num- bered by tens of thousands ; and if we look beneath the surface we shall find mighty agencies at work which are surely and rapidly undermining heathenism in this vast empire. Hinduism is evi- dently doomed, if Clu'istian and other influences continue to be brought to bear upon it as in the past. It may last for another century or two, or more. It may make many a fearfu^l struggle before it dies. But looking at what God has already done, at the nucleus of an Indian Chui'ch which he has given us, at the various forces at work assaulting heathenism, or providing the Chris- tianity which is to take its place — looking at the past history of the Church of Christ, and above all at the glorious promises of Him who cannot lie — and remembering the power of the Spirit of God who is on our side, wo need not hesitate to say that the day will sure- ly come, and it may be long before three centuries shall have elapsed from the commencement of modern missions, when Hin- duism and Muhammadanism shall be things of the past, Eama and' Krishna and Durga shall be as little reverenced or worshiped as Baal or Jupiter or Osiris, and from Cape Comorin to the Hima- layas the millions of India shall with one voice acknowledge that

1875-] The Cah-iiHii Aii^'iJlarij Bihli; Sochfij. 19

Josus Christ is Lord and God. " \, Jehovah, will hasten it in " its time." " The Lord hath done great things for us, whereof " we are glad." " They that sow in tears shall reap iu joy."

Art. IL— the CALCUTTA AUXILIARY BIBLE SOCIETY AND THE BENGALI BIBLE.

IN London on the 7th of March, 1804, a body of about three hundred persons, belonging to different religious denomina- tions, with unanimous demonstrations of cordiality and joy, formed the British and Foreign Bible Society. On the 23rd of July, the same year, their Committee requested G. Udney, Esq., Member of Council, and the Rev. Messrs. Brown, Buchanan, Carey, Ward, and Marshman, all of them iu Calcutta or S cram- pore, with such other gentlemen in any part of India as they might select, to form themselves into a Committee for corre- spondence with the Bible Society just established. From various causes this request was not complied with until the 12th of August, 1809, by which time Dr. Buchanan had returned to Europe. The other gentlemen named, together with the Rev. T. Thomason in Dr. Buchanan's place, then constituted themselves the Calcutta Corresponding Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Before this Committee had been organized. Dr. Carey had introduced to the Society the scheme of Oriental translations of the Scriptures projected by the Baptist mission- aries at Serampore " under the auspices of the College of Fort " AVilliam." Though their hope of success depended chiefly on the patronage of the College, still assistance from Europe was abso- lutely necessary. Hence of Rs. 16,000 remitted by the Bible Society, Rs. 8000 were at once given to the Serampore mission- aries towards defraying the expense of the Bengali, Marathi, and Sanscrit translations on which they were then engaged. And during the whole existence of the Corresponding Committee, one half of the Society's grant, amounting for a number of years to £2000 a year, was given to the Serampore missionaries. The other half was used to meet the expense of the other translations, such as the Persian and Hindustani under the Rev. Henry Martyn, and the editions in Malayalim, Chinese, and others then projected. This Committee was not in any way responsible to the Calcutta Christian public, nor could it in any proper manner be regarded as representing their feelings or wishes. It was a Committee appointed by, and solely responsible to, the London

20

llie CaJcuffii Au.cilianj Bible Socictii

Couimitteo of tlio Bible Society. Thei'O were, however, in Cal- cutta at the time men (Protestants, Roman Catholics, and Arme- nians) who were not satisfied with this state of matters. So, moved by an earnest, eloquent sermon pi*eached by the Rev. D. Brown in the Old Church on the 1st of January, 1810, they sub- scribed within that month Rs. 9000 towards furnishing the Chris- tians of Tanjore with the Tamil Scriptures. Under the influence of a similar sermon by the Rev. H. Martyn on the i st of January, 18 1 r, on behalf of the estimated 900,000 nominal Christians through- out the whole of India, they subscribed within the year Rs. 44,000, and, being assembled in the College of Fort William, formed themselves into a society, called the " Calcutta Auctiliary Bible Societij," to co-operate with the British and Foreign Bible 'So- ciety, by all means in its power, in encouraging the circulation of the Holy Scriptures, without note or comment, " and especially " to supply the demands of the native Christians of India.'" During the first eight years of the new Society's history, they printed New Testaments in Tamil, Telugu, Singhalese, Urdu- Nagari and Malay, both in Roman and Arabic characters ; complete Bibles in Armenian and Malay ; besides portions in Malay, Hindi- Nagari and Urdu-Persian, with and without English. Yet nothing, or next to nothing, was done to extend the circulation of the Scriptures in any of the languages spoken by the native inhabi- tants of Bengal, Behar and the North- Western Provinces. This arose from the fact that Christianity had made greater progress in the Southern Peninsula and in the island of Ceylon ; and the Committee felt that the more numerous converts in these places had the first claim on their attention. Besides, versions of the Scriptures in several of the languages spoken by the natives of Northern India had been made and put into circulation by the Baptist missionaries at Serampore, and by the Rev. H. Martyn and others, all of them published more or less at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society, under the patronage of their Corresponding Committee in Calcutta. Shortly after the news of the establishment of the Auxiliary had I'oached London, the Committee of the parent society wrote to their Calcutta Corresponding Committee that their annual grant of £2000 should for the current year be increased to £4000 (exclusive of £1000 to the Auxiliary), one-half of which, as usual, was to go to the Serampore missionaries. But they annexed to their grant the recommendation that the Committee, " should it be found " practicable, merge altogether in the Calcutta Auxiliary Bible " Society, in order that there might henceforth exist but one channel of communication for Bengal. In the reasonableness " of this recommendation it was presumed the members of the " Calcutta Corresponding Committee would unanimously concur." Messrs. Udney, Carey, Marshman and Thomason were however

1875-]

(tnd llu: IhiKjdli Bible.

21

of opinion " that the measure proposed would not 1)0 advisable, ''being persuaded that the enlarged views of the liritish and " Foreign Bible Society might be more effectually promoted by " keeping the two institutions separate as heretofore. Though in " some res])ects the communications with the Parent Society would " bo simplified, and therefore facilitated, by their union, yet when " the Committee reflected on the exclusive and limited objects of " the Calcutta Auxiliary Bible Society, they felt unwilling to ob- " tain so small an advantage at the risk of other objects of essential " importance, and closely connected with the operations of the " British and Foreign Bible Society. The Calcutta Auxiliary " Association had for its immediate object the supply of the " native Christians only. By the nature of its constitution, its " operations were limited to them, at least at that time. It " appeared to the Committee, therefore, that its existence as a " separate body was necessary for the prosecution of the original " and comprehensive plans of the Parent Society, by giving en- " couragemcnt to Oriental versions, by procuring fit translators, " patronizing and maintaining them in their work, and by such " united deliberations and prompt measures as might best pro- " mote the diffusion of the Word of God throughout the East, " not only amongst the native Christians, but also among tho " heathens."

The following year, 1812, the Serampore printing-office was burnt to the ground. Among other things there was consumed £3000 worth of paper, nearly one-half of which was destined for the translations of the Corresponding Committee or the local Bible Society. The parent society at once resolved to replace at their own expense the whole quantity of paper thus lost, and sanctioned the separate existence, in harmonious co-operation, of the two societies (for such in effect they were) in Calcutta. Thus they continued till 182 1, when the Corresponding Com- mittee wound up its affairs on the uudersta,nding expressed in recommendations to the parent society, 1st, that their India grants be transmitted direct to the Serampore missionaries ; the non-compliance with this recommendation would constitute a " decisive objection to the measure" ; 2nd, that their unappro- priated funds be divided equally between the Serampore mis- sionaries and the Calcutta Auxiliary Bible Society; and T,rd, that their library be kept in its then situation, and be free to all biblical translators. This library was so kept till 1864, when it was found to bo to the Society comparatively useless lumber, and it was divided between the Cathedral Library and the Baptist missionaries' Translation Library.

The resolutions about the Baptist missionaries may have been caused partly by the fact that they were at this time in- volved pecuniarily a good deal, by their entering so heartily into a

22 The Galoifta Au.ciUdri/ Bible Socleti/ [July,

scheme of tlio parent society, founded on an offer of Mr. Hey of Leeds to pay £500 for a thousand copies of every first version of the New Testament into any of the estimated twenty-six lan- guages of India. One-half of these versions had been completed at press, but the outlay on only four had been received, leaving that on nine others to bo reimbursed. After a long delay, neces- sitated by the conditions laid down by Mr, Hey, £2500 were voted in 1824 for five of these versions, when the rule was modi- fied to the payment of £250 on the manuscript being approved, and £250 on the thousand copies being printed.

The parent society's direct connection with the Baptist missionaries ceased, as far as New Testament translations were concerned, on the 1st of July, 1833, when it resolved, in accord- ance with the recommendation of its Calcutta Auxiliaiy, that its aid should be restricted to versions in which the Greek verb " baptize" and its cognates in the New Testament were represented " by the words being transferred into the form of the language " of the version, or else translated by terms not definitely limited " to the sense of either sprinMing or immersion." The Baptist missionaries regarded compliance with this rule on their part as a violation of conscience, and the breach of an important principle — the independence of the translators — attempted to be forced upon them by a mere majority of votes. They therefore soon after formed the Baptist Translation Society.

The Baptist missionaries published in all for the Bible Society 200,000 copies of Scriptures. On the establishment of Bishop's College, in 1820, the parent society granted it £5000 for the translations and printing of the Bible.

In the year following the dissolution of the Corresponding Committee there was formed the Calcutta Bible Association, as a branch of the Auxiliary, for the sale and distribution of Scriptures in Calcutta and immediate neighbourhood. It was dissolved in May, 1867. There were other branch associations at Madras, Meerut, Benares, Cawnpore, Bellary, Monghyr, etc., into whose history we need not enter.

As we have seen, the Calcutta Society was intended for all India, including the Malayan Peninsula, Burma, Ceylon, and the Eastern Archipelago. But by the formation of the Colombo Society, in 18 12, the Bombay Society in 18 13, and more especially the Madras Society in 1820, and the Agra — which since its re- moval to Allahabad is called the North India Bible Society — in 1845, its operations have been restricted to Bengal and the sur- rounding countries. And though since, as well as before the establishment of these societies, it has given much time, thought and money to the translation, printing, sale and distribution of the Scriptures in various other languages, it has occupied itself chiefly with translations into the Bengali language, which

I87S-]

au'l the Bcngrdi Jlihlc.

23

is spoken by 38,000,000 of inhabitants. To these wo would now chiefly confine our remarks. The first attempt at a Bengali version of the Scriptures may bo said to date from 1793, when Mr. (or Dr.) Thomas, surgeon of Bengal, during his third voyage to India in coinpany with the Baptist missionaries, employed himself in translating the Book of Genesis into Bengali. He had indeed already translated Matthew, Mark, James, the Psalms and Prophecies. But he was not spared to do much, and that was not in itself of much intrinsic value. But it was a great deal to encourage Dr. Carey to prosecute the work which he had begun. Dr. Carey's translation commenced the following year, and was completed in 1809, when it was published in fice volumes. The same year the tliird edition of the New Testament in folio was published.

Dr. Carey's translation, " from its being, at times, too literal, ''is sometimes not only deficient in ease, spirit, freedom and " fluency, but also obscure, and so, in fact, though not in letter, un- " faithful." On this account, as also because of the special object which the Committee had in view (viz. the supplying of the na- tive schools), and their impression that the Serampore version had been made with a decided preference, and, as the Committee con- ceived, a strong bias, to certain peculiarities on the subject of Baptism, the first version which the Calcutta Bible Society pub- lished was not Dr. Carey's, but one made by Mr. EUerton, a member of the Church of England, engaged in mercantile busi- ness at Malda. It was not from the original language, but from the authorized English version, and was intended specially for the purpose of supplying the schools lately established. The Gospel of John, as translated by Mr. EUerton, had before this been published at the expense of the Countess of Loudon, for the use of her endowed school at Barrackpore. From the seventh Report we learn that although the Scriptures had in no instance (or at least in very few) been introduced into the native schools as a regular book of instraction, it was generally found that after the children had acquired a facility in reading, the Gospels were more or less in request amongst them, and were read with eager- ness, not only by the children themselves, but by theii' friends and relatives at home. This desire arose, no doubt, in part from the paucity of books in the Bengali language, rendering it difficult for those who had learned to read with fluency to satisfy their curiosity for information and maintain a habit of useful reading. In 1820, the whole of Mr. Ellerton's translation of the New Testa- ment was through the press. The Committee was satisfied with the " purity of its style and the accuracy of its rendering." Apparently Mr. EUerton translated only the New Testament.

In the fifteenth Report mention is made of a translation of the Psalms by Mr. (afterwards Dr.) Yates. It was published the

24

The Calnifia AuxiJldnj TUhle Socicfi/

[July,

following year (1826). In reference to this edition, the Committee remark that tlaey consider it an important branch of their duty to encourage the efforts of learned missionaries who are disposed to labor in the work of translation, and they would be glad to see the example of Mr. Yates more generally followed ; inasmuch as it is by the united and hearty exertions of missionaries, who, from their constant intercourse with the natives, have the best advan- tages for obtaining a familiarity Avith their languages, that the grand object of presenting the Holy Scriptui'cs in a native dress may be most effectually promoted.

In 1S29, there was appointed a Sub-Committee, consisting of the Rev. Messrs. Morton, Pearson and Lacroix, with power to add to their number all others whom they might find willing and competent, to co-operate in collating and revising the then existing Bengali versions of the New Testament. This Committee secured the co-operation of Dr. Yates, whom they requested to pursue his translation of the Old Testament from the Hebrew. They also recommended a revised reprint of Mr. EUerton's translation of the Grospels. His version of the Epistles was less approvable, partly because of his ignorance of the original, and partly because of the difficulty of the subject-matter and the object he had in view. The Committee at the same time commenced a new trans- lation of Genesis as a specimen to be submitted to critics and friends, in anticipation of, and as a help towards their maturing their plans for the future.

The plan suggested by Mr. Lacroix was the following : — " That the version jjrepared by one of the Committee be put " into the hands of a pandit well versed in Bengali composition, " for him to re-write it in his best style, and that such writing be " then submitted to the Committee for its revision and final " determination." They expected that they should in this manner " secure an idiomatic and equal style, and, as to accuracy and " propriety of terms, possess all the advantages offered by their " former mode of proceeding." The Rev. Mr. Pearson, one of the most active members of the Sub-Committee, who had revised EUerton's translation of Matthew, died in 183 1, vv^ithout being able to complete the revision of the other three Gospels. The Sub- Committee had lost the services of Mr. Morton the preceding year, but his place had been taken by Mr. Reichardt, who seems also to have revised EUerton's translation of Matthew. In 1832, the new translation of the Book of Genesis was published, as a specimen of what a committee could conjointly perform. With its publication the labors of that Sub-Committee seem to have come to an end, at least as far as the plan of a united version was concerned. In June, the same year, it would seem that Dr. Yates's version of the New Testament had been submitted to the Sub- committee, then cansisting of Messrs. Lacroix^ Sandys, Duff,

'«75.]

ottil the Bciiijuli nihlc.

25

Gogerly and Porcivnl. They worn uiiajiimously of opinion tliat though i)r. Yates's version was more idiomatic, both being equally faithful, yet, as only one Gospel was wanted for the use of the Society, they wer(? disposed to adopt Mr. Reichardt's revision of Mr. Mllerton's, as the introduction of anotlier version, especially into their schools, could not well serve any important purpose. They were more incliiuHl to this decision, considei'ing that to adopt Dr. Yates's, subject to alterations, would be nuiltiplying versions in Bengali, of which there were already five, and that it would in all probability be superseded by the version which they expected soon under the sanction of the Society.

The Report for 1833 has no reference to the Bengali Scrip- tures. In 1834 the Baptist missionaries at Serampore, and those at Calcutta, with a liberality that did them honor, permitted the Committee of the Bible Society to consider themselves at liberty to use the versions of the Scriptures published at their respective presses, with such alterations as the Committee might deem need- ful in the disputed word for Baptism, but the Baptist missionaries were not to be considered in any way parties to such alterations, nor were the versions, after such alterations, to be regarded in any measure theirs. This year Dr. Carey, whom we may style the father of Indian Bible translations, died, and his able colleague in 1837. As both Dr. Carey's and Dr. Yates's versions were excel- lent of their kind, the one being considered more close to the original, the other more elegant and idiomatic, but in conse- quence losing something of the closeness of a translation, a Sub- Committee was appointed to consider which, in the meantime, it might be desirable to take, until the Committee might have an opportunity to unite, if possible, the excellencies of both. After a close and patient consideration of the subject, it was resolved that Dr. Yates's version of the New Testament be reprinted, while at the same time the very unnecessary recommendation was given that neither it nor any other version be then adopted as a fina,! standard. This resolution was come to under the influence of what is known as the Rev. Mr. Morton's Report, written as the Report of a Sub-Committee consisting of the Rev. Messrs. J. Hoeberlin, W. S. Mackay, W. Morton (S.P.G.), A. F. Lacroix and T. Reichardt, and Captain Marshall. It is a very elaborate and able document on the comparative merits of Dr. Carey's and Dr. Yates's versions, and is published in the Appendix to the twenty-fifth Report. Mr. Morton was, on the whole, of the opinion, and he believed all concurred with him in it, that Dr. Yates's was immeasurably better calculated to convey the exact sense of the inspired original to the native mind, and in a dress and man- ner fitted to instruct, to please, and to impress it; that it appeared to have a decided superiority over that of his predecessor as a whole, in the three particulars of justness, idiom and perspi- 4

26

The Calcutta Auxilianj Bible Society

[July,

cuity ; to exhibit mucli more of tlie native claaracter ; to be more ^•nergetic and spirited, because less overloaded with unnecessary vocables, unmeaning repetitions and heavy modes of junction ; and though purer, too, than Dr. Carey's in its style, and formed on a higher standard, was yet much more within ordinary com- prehension. Its general error was its being too paraphrastic, of deserting without advantage or necessity the exact literality of Scripture. Besides, it was too bold in the adoption of various readings, and unequal in regard to purity, exhibiting some- times, for instance, in the midst of a sentence otherwise correct, and in juxtaposition with the most classical terms, a vulgar or corrupted one, where another, equally expressive, yet purer, might have been placed.

The Committee seems to have thrown aside at this time Mr. Ellerton's version without further consideration. Of Dr. Yates's version, an edition of 5000 copies (proofs gratuitously corrected by Rev. Mr. Hoeberlin) was printed and published in 1837. With a view to its improvement in future editions, an interleaved copy of the work was forwarded to each missionary in Bengal, with the request that he should note such amendments as might occur to him, and allow the Committee to have the benefit of his observa- tions, to be transmitted by them to the proper quarter, for the advantage of any future edition that might be printed for the Bible Society.

In 1 8 3 8 and 1839, editions of the separate Gospels, Acts, Epistles and Psalms were printed ; other portions were published in the following year (1841) from the same edition of 1837. In 1842 the Rev. W. Morton presented the Society with a new version of the Book of Proverbs in Bengali. Of this version 5000 copies were printed. The Society was extraordinarily active during these years. During 1841 there had been either printed or under- taken a larger supply of Scriptures than had been actually printed during the thirty preceding years. This activity manifested itself during the six years 1840 to 1845. There was a similar activity manifested, at least in the matter of issues, during the first half of the following decade, or over the seven yeai-s 185 i to 1857; and a similar activity commenced with 1872 ajid is at present going on. The average issues during the first of these periods were 45,000, during the second 46,700, and during the third, or the last three years, of which the last was only eleven months, the average was 45,500, while that from the commencement of the Society's operations has been only 23,500; and if these periods be deducted from the total, the average for the remaining forty- seven years is less than 16,000. In fact during the sixteen years there were about as many Scriptures issued as during the other forty-seven years of the Society's history. We are not prepared to enter at present into the cause or causes of this periodic activity.

i87S.]

and till' Ih'iKjiili nihil'.

2^

But to rotnrii to our skotcli, wo have to notice tliat in 1844 Dr. Yates's coinploto version of tlio Bible, Old and Now 'J'ostament, with references and marginal readings, was finished. The Bible Society at onco purchased 500 copies of it. The work, though commenced by Drs. Carey and 'J'homas, was really the result of Dr. Yates's ten years' labors. And it ought to be borne in mind that though it might be said to have occupied in all a period of lifty-two years, from the time when Dr. Thomas worked at it on board the' Danish East Indiaman down to the time when it was finally com- pleted by Dr. Yates, it did not take so long as the English au- thorized version took, " which from first to last was produced by " indigenous scholars, and may fairly be said to have been the result of eighty years of labor, and that too in a country whose " language was already Christianized when the work was com- " menced." Dr. Yates rested from his labors the following year, but his works do follow him. A few months after his death the' publication of the entire Bible, in one volume, with the sixth edi- tion of the New Testament included in it, was accomplished. The- volume of Dr. Carey's Bible, containing the Psalms, bad been out of print for upwards of eight years, although it was in great demand. The Society therefore presented a copy of Dr. Yates's new version to every native Christian in. full communion with any church, not only because most of them were too poor to purchase, but chiefly as a token of brotherly affection and of concern for their spiritual prosperity. It was hoped that the gift would " contribute in some- " measure to the promotion of that love and union between Chris- " tians of different nations and communions, which our common " Lord and Saviour so earnestly implored in his mediatorial " prayer (John xvii.) ; and which will, doubtless, be one of the " principal means of convincing the world that the Father has " sent the Son to be the Saviour of men."

On the establishment in the same year (1845) of the North India Bible Society, the Committee of the Calcutta Society was able for the first time to regard the Bengali department as th& principal branch of their labors. They had been relieved in 1820 of a large part of the work which they had at first under- taken, by the establishment of the Madras Bible Society. But it was only in 1845 that they were enabled for the first time to restrict their labors to the inhabitants of Bengal and surround- ing countries, including those more or less inhabited by ab- original tribes.

Another Sub-Committee was therefore appointed to inquire into the Bengali version or versions, the supply of Scriptures re- quired, as well as the practicability of obtaining a version for the Society which they might consider their own. A circular letter was accordingly addressed to the. various missionaries in Bengal, to the exclusion, unfortunately, of the Baptist missionaries. Th&

28

The Cahidia AnxUianj Bihle Socirfij

answers indicated a very general desire for an entirely new ver- sion, or a I'evised and improved edition of ^onie one or other of the existing versions, as indeed " absolntcly required." A coi're- sj)ondence took place between the Conimittee and the Baptist mis- sionaries, which resulted in the latter, whilst kindly permitting the Society to reprint their Bengali vei'sion, objecting to the Society's making their version the basis of a new version to be issued by the Society.

In the meantime, the Society's Secretary, Rev. Dr. Hoeber- lin, had prepared a version of the entire Bengali New Testament, and offered it to the Society. This offer was cordially responded to, and the Rev. Messrs. J. Paterson and J. F. Osborne were asked assist Dr. Hoeberlin in revising and passing it though the press. The Committee, at the same time, cordially accepted the offer of the Baptist brethren to have an edition of theirs thrown off to meet the immediate demand. There wei'e 2500 entire copies of each version, besides 17,000 portions, ordered to be printed on this occasion. But, on account of some difficulties between Dr. Hoeberlia and Messrs. Paterson and Osborne, the arrange- ment fell through, the order was cancelled, and, as a substitu- tionary measure, 250 copies of the Gospel of Mark and the Epistle to the Ephesians of Dr. Hoeberlin's version were ordered to be pz^inted, with the view of their being circulated among " all the " Bengali scholars in the country, lay and clerical, in order to as- " certain whether, in their judgment, the new version was a fair " adequate representation of the meaning of God's Word, and also, " on the ivhole, an improvement on existing translations." The rest of Dr. Hoeberlin's version was to be printed only on favor- able replies being got from the scholars consulted. The same year Dr. Hoeberlin resigned the Secretaryship, and nothing more was done in the way of publishing his version by the Society. He immediately thereafter left Calcutta for Eastern Bengal, and died there in 1 849, leaving his version of the Gospel of Matthew alone accessible to the Committee. This he had printed at his own expense. In 1846, an edition of 1000 copies of the book of Isaiah in Bengali was gratuitously printed for the Society by Mr. L. Mendes ; the proofs were corrected by Dr. Duff and Rev. A. F. Lacroix ; 5000 copies of the Book of Genesis and the first twenty chapters of Exodus were also printed. Both volumes were reprinted from Dr. Yates's version. This is the only edition of Isaiah in Beng'ali, as a separate portion, that has been as yet printed by the Society, though they have printed 22,000 copies of it in other Asiatic vernacular or classical languages. At its meeting in May last another edition of 3000 copies was sanc- tioned.

A second edition of their Bengali Bible was pushed through the press in 1849-51, with many corrections, as the result of a

<I'H(J lilt: BciUJdll Bllllf^.

29

pretty close revision by thelkptiwt iMi8sionaries,morc cspecinllyDr. Weuger. Of this edition tlio Society took 2000 copies, besides some 50,000 portions. The New Testament of this edition remained the standard for twenty years. On the completion of it, the Com- mittee, as on two former occasions, a])plie(l to tlic missionaries in Bengal for their suggestions, with a view to future improvements. There were then, as there have always been, men who expressed londly their dissatisfaction with every version produced, some who did and others who did not appreciate the great difficulties to be met and surmounted by foreign translators of the vernacular of a country where there is no standard of style ; where a ])andit and a ryot speaking the same language are scarcely intelligible to each other ; where there is a very poor vernacular literature, and nearly eveiy word for sacred objects has been desecrated by idol service, and .is associated in the minds of the people with ideas of heathenism. The Committee felt their need, especially in such cir- cumstances, of wisdom to guide them, on the one hand to save them from caprice and haste, and on the other from too much repugTiance to change. They were bound to be jealous for the pure text of the inspired volume, and its accui-ate translation into the vernacular languages, and equally had they to guard against unnecessarily multiplying their versions, to the triumph of the enemies of the truth. They accordingly issued circulars to all whom they thought able and willing to help them towards impi'oving the version then published. The result was that in the following year the Church of England missionaries at Krishnagar were authorized to com- mence a new translation for the Society (begining with the Gospel of John), while at the same time an edition of 2500 of Dr. Yates's translation of the New Testament, with Mr. Wenger's revision, and 47,000 portions (Grospels and Acts), were ordered to be printed at the Encyclopaedia Press under the superintendence of the Rev. K. M. Bannerjea. The Krishnagar missionaries were entrusted with the projected new translation, as they were the largest body of competent Christian scholars located in any one district in the Mofussil ; they were for the most part united in their views on this subject, and they could obtain the co-operation of many other missionaries of the Church of England in Bengal. Their versions of John and Galatians were received in 185 i, and at once sent to Mr. O'Brien Smith's Press. On their issuing- from the press, copies of them and of Mr. Wenger's revision of Dr. Yates's version were sent to all the Protestant missionaries in Bengal, and to other Bengali scholars. The result of some eighteen months' consideration and inquiry into the comparative value of the Ki'ishnagar version and Mr. Wenger's revision of Dr. Yates's, was a unanimous resolution that the latter was unquestionably su- perior to any other that had yet been produced.

In 1859, while carrying through the press a new edition of the

30 TJte Calcutta Auxiliary Bible Socicti/ [Julv,

entire New Testament, Mr. Lacroix was struck down, and taken to his everlasting rest. In 1861 the whole Bible, Old and New Testaments, was published /'or the first time in one volume. It was the third edition of the Old Testament and Mr. Wenger's second revision of Dr. Yates's version, bound up with the twelfth edition of the New Testament. During the ten years that had now closed there were published by the Society 226,450 Scriptures (including 2000 Old Testaments and 7500 New Testaments) in Bengali, 150,000 in Hindi-Kaithi, 70,000 in Musalman-Bengali, 6000 in Bengali-Sanskrit, besides smaller numbers in Uriya, Uriya- Sanskrit, Nepalesc, Kassia, Bghai-Karen, Pwo-Karen, and 1000 Old Testaments in Hindi, making a total of 47 1,450. At the same time there were put into circulation by the Society 396,534 copies. They had before this presented all Bengali pastors with a copy of the complete Bible, and taken some .pains to see that all native Christians had a New Testament. At this time, by the direction and at the expense of the Parent Society, an attempt was made to give a New Testament to every schoolmaster, and a Gospel to each of his reading scholars, in every school through- out the country. As the scheme did not meet with the full and cordial approval of the missionaries as a body, it was only par- tially carried out. Many of them were of opinion that such special efforts interfered with the labors of colporteurs and others who tried to se?/ the Scriptures, and hindered their success, — believing that though it may be sometimes wise and well to give, it is often wiser and better, if possible, to sell. Still the issues from the depository were very largely increased through this special effort. To meet it, an edition of 10,000 copies of the Bengali New Testa- ment was printed in 1864.

The last great contest concerning the Bengali translations occurred in connection with the publication of the fourth edition (small type), being Dr. Wenger's third revision of Dr. Yates's version. On its publication the Society, moved on this occasion by theTract Society Committee, issued a circular soliciting the opinions of all the missionaries in Bengal on its merits. Forty gentlemen sent in replies, but the result was not altogether flattering. There was a wide complaint of want of accuracy in rendering the original. But the Committee did not feel themselves in a position to jnake any alteration until they had before them a full specimen of a translation of the Scriptures, on the principles proposed by those who were opposed to the present version, at least equal, if not superior, to that at present in use. They accordingly resolved that steps be taken to procure a large-sized edition of the Ben- gali Bible containing such amendments as the Rev. J. Wenger might think desirable. This, the fifth and last edition, was pub- lished last year — a beautifully got-up volume, as well as a carefully translated and edited work, in which we have the results of Dr.

I87S-]

and the Bciujali llihh.

31

Wenger's thirty-foin* years' experience of Bengali translation and of Biblical study. In his own humble words, the hope is expressed " that it may stand for twenty or twenty-live years. But it is clear/' he adds, that a really permanent Bengali Bible will even- tually have to be produced by native Christian scholars." Until such scholars are raised u}), he hopes that future revisers will see the wisdom of the conservative maxim " to let well alone." Dr. Wengcr acknowledges much assistance in the last revision of the Bible from the Kev. G. H. Rouse, M.A. His notes and sugges- tions during four years were sent from England, but since his return in 1872 they were communicated in the course of constant personal converse.

We ought also to refer to the assistance given to Dr. Carey by Dr. Marshman, who was for some years Secretary to the So- ciety ; to Dr- Yates by the Rev. Mr. Pearce, who had " the eye of a " Christian, a critic and a printer" ; and to Dr. Wenger in his earlier editions by the Rev. C. B. Lewis, who has seen so many of the Society's editions through the press, and is at present engaged, along with Mr. Rouse, in seeing through editions of the Bible and the New Testament, as also of Isaiah, Deuteronomy, Ruth, Psalms, Acts and Romans, most of which are expected to be published before the end of this year.

In connection with a history of the Bengali Bible, reference might also be made to the editions of Luke in Musalman-Ben- gali, prepared under the care of the Rev. J. Paterson and pub- lished in 1854; of John and Acts in 1856, and of Genesis and Exodus and Isaiah the .following year, and of Matthew, Mark and Psalms in 1858, all by the Rev. S. J. Hill, consequent on the lamented death of Mr. Paterson. The language being a mixed dialect, it was resolved not to translate any more of the Bible into it. But since the resolution was passed, the num- ber who speak it having been found to be so large, and their inability to comprehend either the Bengali or the Hindustani Bible having been made so clear, more attention has been given to them of late, and renewed attempts have been made to reach them, not only by the Bible Society, but also by the Tract Society. During the last three years our colporteurs have sold 1274 copies of Old Testament portions, and 4902 copies of New Testament portions, in this dialect ; while during the previous three years only 1 79 portions of the Old Testament and 800 of the New Testament were sold.

Before drawing our remarks to a close, we may state that the Auxiliary has been the means of printing in all 55 1,550 Scrip- tures in the Bengali language, of which 7500 were entire Bibles, 31,550 Old Testaments and 24,000 New Testaments. The rest consisted of 377,000 portions of the New Testament and 139,000 portions of the Old Testament. This large distribution of por-

33

The Cuh'utla Auxiliari/ Bible Sucleti/.

[July,

tioiis lias arisen from the poverty of people generally not per- mitting them to spend more than a pice or two at a time on the purchase of a book. The grand total, including the above, of all Scriptures, in twenty-eight different languages, printed by it during the sixty-three years of its existence, has been 1,402,680, of which 86,000 were New Testaments and 31,000 Old Testaments, including entire Bibles. This was accomplished by means of very liberal grants of money and of paper by the Parent Society, and by the subscriptions, donations, and unpaid labors of local friends.

The building during the year of the Bible and Tract Society's House, 23, Cliuwringhee Road, Calcutta, towards which the parent societies in London contributed each a third, and local parties the remaining third, and which was opened on the ist of May last, with a meeting for prayer, praise, and thanksgiving in the morning, and for addresses in the evening, under the presidentship of the Bishop of Calcutta, the Bible Society's Patron, is the occasion which has suggested to us the propriety of our writing the above sketch.

With the completion of the fifth edition of the Bengali Bible, and the building of a Depository that can be called its own, the Society has completed an epoch in its history. A review of its labors, difficulties and success should increase our thank- fulness to (xod for all his gracious benefits towards us. We may well raise our Ebenezer and say, " Hitherto hath the Lord "helped us," and go forward with increased Zealand devotion to the translation and dissemination of his Word among the many millions of Bengal who are still ignorant of its saving truths.

\

'S7S.]

C'lnni rcnf ]j!illiiliics.

33

Art. III.— CANARESE LULLAIill^S.

Translated by Eev. J. C. W. Gostick, Mvsork.

riUll'] writcM- lias during tlie past few inontlis l)(>on ondcavor- I iug to make a collection of tlio nursei-y rliymes in vogue amongst the Canarese people. Tho result has been, on the whole, satisfactoiy, and he hopes that the translations now offered will, in some measure, give a correct idea of the original songs. They luive been gathered from the people themselves, and can bo depended on as genuine productions. Some one has said, " Let "who will make the laws of a nation, if I may make the ballads." This remark is full of truth and sagacity, and there is no doubt that national ballads exercise vast influence either for good or evil . A nation can be understood through its songs, and great ])rinciples necessary to a nation's life and continuanoe have been carried along, maintained and cherished from age to age, in na- tional song. The ballad makes the people one, awakens ancient traditions and knits the mass together. Disunited in most other respects, the Hindu people is virtually one in reverence for the ])rinciples of their religion. It has been said that they are " too " religious." Formality and vain repetition have eaten like a cancer into their religious life. But perhaps the most remark- able ])lienomenon, and which would hardly be expected in such a p(>ople and religion, is the marvellous tenacity with which they cling to it. A coward in most other matters, the Hindu is a hero here, and can furnish the world with examples of devotion and self-abnegation which cannot fail to extort admiration. This fenture has been explained in various ways. Doubtless it is in a great measure due to religious training in childhood, constant connection with rites and ceremonies, and the conservative tend- ency which is normal in the Hindu. But there is another reason, and this may be discovered in the national songs. With hardlv an exception, they are religious, and it requires no great effort of the imagination to reckon the vastness of their influence upon the national character and life. It has been remarked that the nation is f{)rmed in the nursery, and the nursery lullabies of the Hindus exercise no insignificant influence on their religious life. Whilst missionaries are laboring in schools or in evangelistic work, whilst societies are covering the land with their operations as with a network, the Hindu mother is crooning some ancient ditty to her little one. The exploits of the Pandus, the heroism of Rama, the splendor of Nala, the praises of Vishnu or Shiva, and more fre- ([uently the achievements of the widely popular Ki'ishna, all these

34

Canarcse Lidlaljii'K.

[July,

form the subjects of lier song. So, with his mother's milk the child drinks in her creed. It grows with his growth, strengthens with his strength, and becomes a part of his very life. Can we be surprised that the Hindu phalanx is hard to penetrate ? Not till female education has much increased and become a recognized fact, and the mothers of Hindustan are brought under the influence of Christian truth, may we expect a great change, and even then old influences will act, and for long we may reckon these rhymes, which are being daily, nay hourly, sung, to be no slight obstacle to the progress of Christianity. We have met with songs in praise of Christ, but the most popular ones relate to Krishna, who is the favorite hero of all classes of the Hindu community. At some future date the writer may give a few translations of songs in honor of Shiva and Rama, but on this occasion he will confine himself to two or three popular ones. The first is in praise of Krishna, and is said to have been composed by the poet Srinivasa of Gordr, and is sung by Brahmans and others whilst rocking the child to sleep : —

1.

The earth with woes was laden,

Thy prowess set her free : We humbly at thy lotus-feet

Ascribe all praise to thee.

Cliornn.

36 jo, Yashode's son, Mukunda ! Jo jo, the herdsman's boy, Govinda ! Jo jo jo jo !

II.

To save the world from sorrow,

Fierce Kamsa's might to quell, Wast born the child of Devaki,

Thou songht'st the cowherd's dell. Chorus — Jo jo, etc.

III.

AVhen Piitani, in childhood.

Her venom'd pap did give. Thy ruby lips her life-blood drew.

The goddess ceased to live.

Chorus — Jo jo, etc.

IV.

Three demons sent by Kanisa,

With purpose dread and fell. Were smitten by thy godlike arm,

Down to the shades of the hell. Chorus — Jo jo, itc.

.S75.I

( '(Otiirrsr. LiiUithie.t.

35

V.

Thoii ci'owncdsb Ugrasc-na

((Jrojit Kainsii liiiviiif^ killed), The inooii-faccd Rigmiui rejoiced,

'I'liy famo the wide earth lillod. Chorus — Jo jo, etc.

VL

When Draupadi was wedded

To Pandu's brave sous five, Thy bow laid Shishupala low, —

What could its force survive ? Chorus — Jojo, etc.

vir.

O Krishna ! brave and happy

Thou, with thy consorts eight, Didst live in time eternal joy,

Thy care o'er all was great. Chorus — Jo jo, etc.

VIII.

'Mongst sixteen thousand milkmaids

Thou ledd'st a merry life; Thou killedst Kuru and didst help

The Pandus in their strife. Chorus — Jo jo, etc.

IX.

The earth was void of sorrow,

The lotus-eyed were glad. Thy worshippers had but to pray

And all their wi.shes had. Chorus — Jo jo, etc.

X.

An infant's form assuming,

Thou prayedst by thy cot ; Thy foster-mother soothed thee :

Oh, humble was thy lot ! Chorus — Jo jo, etc.

XI.

Thy priests were all adorned

With costly gems and gold ; Gokarna's citizens were blest,

Their bliss could not be told. Chorus — Jo jo, Yashode's son, Mukunda !

Jo jo, the herdsman's hoy, Govinda ! Jo j<5 jo jo!

36

( '(i)uiri'sc Liilliil'if.-^

[July,

'Plio following song was obtained from a Sluulra woman, and is sung by people of her class : —

I.

Hush, hush, my child ! go fast to sleep,

The bogie's on the tree ! He"s killed a hundred little boys. And wants to come lor thee ! Chorus. Jo jo, my child, jo jd, Jdjojojo.

II.

Hush, hush, my child ! the bogie's junii)t

On j-ondcr bauyan-trce ! He's killed a hundred little boys,

And now he comes for thee ! Clioncs — Jo jo, my child, etc.

III.

Bad people, passing by, do wish

On thee their eyes to set, But mother's tied a talisman,

So sleep, my darling pet ! Chor^lS — Jo jo, my child, etc.

IV.

Hush, hush, my child ! lie down and sleep.

Thy bed is nicely made, I've wrapt you \n a pi-etty cloth, So sleep, be not afraid !

Chorus — Jo jo, my child, jo jo, Jo jo jojo.

Tlic following lullaby, wliicli is popular amongst tlie My- soreans, was written concerning a child born by the favor of Venkata Ramana of Triputty.

The mother lived in a village in the Mysore country.. She had no children, and being troubled in mind prayed to Venkata Ramana to remove her disgrace, promising, if he granted her re- quest, to offer the child as a sacrifice under the wheels of the god's car at Triputty. In due course, so the story runs, she gave birth to a fine boy. A mother's love proved too strong for the mother's vow, and Triputty and its car were forgotten. After a few days the child fell sick j all remedies were unavailing, and again the mother prayed to Venkata Ramana. The god ap- peared, in the form of a child, and told them that they must ful- fill their former vows. The father, grandmother and other rela- tives wondered what vows were meant, being ignorant of the mother's former prayer and vow. However, they all started off for Triputty, and on the road the father promised to the god a

( 'miiiri'sc IjiiIIiiIiIi'.i

37

^•olden cliild, tlio griuulniotlicr promised a goldou cradle, flie father-iii-law a golden flower, ele. Still the mother said nothing'. At length the time arrived for the drawing of the car. Tlie mother stood near, with her boy, irres )liite and nnwilliiig. lUit the car wonld not move. Crowds ])ulle(l, elephants pushed, yet the car remained stationary. In the midst of the tumult, the god spoke through a little child and pointing to the woman s.aid that the car shoidd not move unt il her vow wa.s fuKilled. ller hus- band and the rest upbraided her for making such a cruel vow, but insisted on her carrying it out. At length she lay down, with her child, beneath the ponderous wheel. At once the car moved, but as soon as the wheel reached her, the car leaped, and she and the child were unhurt. Thrice she lay down, and thrici; the car leaped over her. They all went home rejoicing — ho the l:d(> runs — and the following song was written in honor of the happy occasion : —

I.

They dock'd the hall with choicest wares.

The women gaily drest Did dance, and others play'd the tifc

To soothe the child to rest. Chorus.

Jo jo, 0 son by Vishnu given !

Thee Lakshmi sure will bless ; Jo jo, 0 babe thus blest by heaven !

Much wealth wilt thou possess.

II.

They rocked the babe in golden cot.

By silver chain it swung. Respect they to his mother paid.

And all her praises sung.

CImyus — Jo jo, 0 son, etc.

III.

They shook with joy the waving lamps.

And sang auspicious songs. His parents then to Vishnu prayed,

To whom all praise belongs. Chorus — Jo jo, 0 son, etc.

IV.

The betel-leaf was handed round ;

From all the country-side The people flock'd, and rich in gifts

Departed gratified.

Chorus— Jo jo, 0 son by Vishnu given !

Thee Lakshmi sure will bless ; Jo jo, 0 babe thus blest by heaven !

Much wealth wilt thou ])Ossess. Jo jo jo jo !

3S Sa:'rljiriiiJ Trnn.<i and a MittHmh'rstood (JofiprJ . [fulv,

Art. IV.— sacrificial TERi\I8 AND A MISUN- DERSTOOD GOSPEL.'

Ry Hev. T. E. Slatei!, Madras.

MORE than a year ago an article appeared in tliis Review on "the use of sacrificial terms in the Indian lausruasres." The mam object or the writer' was to prove that the word bali had been unfortunately introduced into several Hindu translations of the Holy Scriptures, as a fair translation of the Hebrew mj and the Greek 6va-ii, and that an immense advantage to the Christian advocate would be gained by the substitution of the generic word yajna or yarjn, suggesting, as the word does to the Hindu mind, that importance and sacredness which has ever been associated with the rite of sacrifice.

The value of the article, and its important bearing on the in- terests of Gospel truth, have been widely recognized, especially in the south of India and in the Telugu districts, for whose benefit the revision of the Telugu Scriptures now in progress has been imdertaken. No attempts have, we believe, been made to show that the position of the writer is assailable ; and the silence of Telugu missionaries in this respect seems to imply that in the use of the word hall they may have hitherto been making a mistake.

The subject is not restricted in its bearings to any portion of the mission field. The principles involved are of genei'al in- terest. And we caiuiot but think it high time that all missionaries should ponder the terms in which they have been endeavoring to commend the Gospel of Christ to the people of this land. This is a subject on which others besides the pi-esent writer are feeling deeply and intensely. The diflB.culty we feel in bringing it forward arises from this, that it seems to reflect somewhat severely on those who have preceded us — an attitude we should be the first to deprecate. All will, no doubt, be willing to take their share of blame. We ha ve, too often and too much, preached our theology, instead of Christ and the love of God. We have used terms to convey high and sacred ideas without sufficiently weighing their import.

^ It is right to state that this paper was written and iu the Editor's hands some time before the last Number of the Reviev) was issued, which contained a somewhat similar paper entitled Missions in India, wluf not more successful.

' See Indian Evangelical Eevietr, No. III., p. 280.

^ Eev. J. Hay, M.A., Vizagapatam.

1 875-] Sdrrillridl 'I'cnng and a MisniKh'i'tttood Uosjicl.

39

Tlio two words hnli and yajna, beiiif? Sanscrit in origin, run, in slightly altered forms, throughout the loading languages of India. The word 'sacrifice' has been rendered by hall in the old version of the Telugu Scriptm-es ; in the revised Tamil Bible ; in the Bengali Bible ; in the new Sanscrit liiblc, thougli here y'tjna is also used ; and, we believe, in the Indian languages generally, with the exception of the Marathi. But we venture to think the word may have been thus widely used without much reflec- tion on all that the term, in its universal usage, necessarily con- notes, that is abhorrent to our true ideas of sacrifice.

It i.s not difficult to understand how it came into Christian use. Koman Catholic missionaries, when they first came to the country, wanted a term for ' sacrifice.' They looked about them, and saw a g'oat killed at or near a temple, not knowing wJiat the temple was, nor to whom dedicated ; and they took the word ball, which they were told described the act, and introduced it into the Bible as a fit vehicle for conveying the true idea of Scripture sacrifice instituted by and offered to the living God. Not ex- ercising due discrimination in their zeal to popularize their ideas, and fixing supreme prominence on the bare act of slaughter, they hastily took a word from " the thickest shades of heathenism" — a word steeped in the vilest associations — a word solely and in- separably connected, as a slain offering, with the worship of demons or of the bloodthirsty Kali — without regarding the original mean- ing of the word, or without ascertaining whether the Aryan vocab- ulary could furnish a better.

The older Protestant missionaries followed on the field ; and finding the word already in use by Roman Catholics, and already associated, in the mind of the people with Christian sacrifice, the unfortunate mistake was perpetuated, and has continued to the present day.

Another explanation of the early employment of hali, or of the readiness with which the term, when presented by the act of slaughter, was accepted, may be adduced, without, it is hoped, giving offence to any. There can be no doubt that the early missionaries who came to this country held views of expiation, in connection with the Christian atonement, very different from those held by the most orthodox thinkers of the present day in England and America. Just as they believed that the heathen must all go to hell simply for being heathen, so from the influence of a severe Calvinistic training, or from living nearer to the Church of medieval times, they fell in more with the pagan view of expia- tion found in India and in other heathen lands, as it is in classic histories and poems, than what is now held to be the Scriptural view of Christian propitiation (we do not confound the two), set forth " to declare the righteousness of God." Bali, in many respects, of course, accorded with this view : Diis violatis crj^iatlo dchctur.

.10

Swrijii'iiil Trniix <niil ti ^Hsinulcrstoiid (Insiirl .

[July,

When t lie word ' sacrifice' was first translated into Imli, it could not have boon, it would thus seem, with, the proper kuow- ledg'c of the word. Many terms, and this among them, have no doubt been unsatisfactorily translated through the misguidance (iF ])a.udits and munshis, arising from their very natural inability to grasp the Christian idea aaul sentiment, or, in some cases, from a. want of sufficiently accurate accpiaintance with earlier, purer Hinduism and its rites.

If the question had been the simple, literal rendering of the original Hebrew zchaM, a ' victim/ /;^^//, which means a ' present,' ought not, any the more, to have been given. Vrulln/a., a slain offer- ing, should have been the word. But we need something more than simple slaying to convey aright anything of the purport and sacredness of both Hebrew and Christian sacrifice. Now that thoughtful and devout attention is being given to halt, and all that it connotes — and it does not need much thought to understand what hali. means to the popular mind — it is being increasingly felt that all its abominable associations, of which the people can- not possibly divest themselves whenever the word is used, as well as its literal meaning, render it altogether unfit to be employed as an equivalent for ' sacrifice' in the Word of Grod.

If in its original meaning — a meaning that has not been cor- rupted in the least — the word denotes an offering, a sort of tax or revenue, a present, the term is most objectionable as a designation of the Mosaic rite, in reference to the shed blood of which the Divine Institutor of sacrifice said, " / t/irc it yoii to " make atonement for your sins," and quite inconsistent with our idea of the sacrifice of Christ — the heavenly gift of the Father's heart, the revelation of a Divine suffering love in a human agony and death. lidli, as the writer on ' Sacrificial terms' points out, re- ])resents, not Clod's gift to man, but a man's gift to God. It thus perpetuates in the heathen mind the heathen's own totally false conception of the nature of sacrifice — the conception, namely, that by some bloody or unbloody present that he can bring, he. is able to effect a change in the angry mind of deity or demon — and, what is far more to be lamented, fastens this false notion of a present on to the Christian sacrifice ; giving thereby to the more cnlight- ed Hindus an idea of sacrifice far inferior to that which they have received from their own sacred books.

Scholarly, not pedantic Hindus, to whom Christian doctrine and the Bible were quite new, have turned up their faces in evident disgust at the thought that huJi could ever have been used for sacrifice. A scholar at Mndura, mentioned by Dr. Winslow as the man who had rendered him such efficient service ill the preparation of his Tannl-l'^nglish Dictionary, lately told the writer of the article on ' Sacrificial terms' that the word ncrcr meant ' sacrifice.'

i87S-] Sacnficial Terms and a Misiuiderstood Gospel.

41

And wlioii hloiul bocomesassociatedwith it,asithasin.separably como to bo, and which, it would seem, still j^ivcs to aomo its charm, as it did to those who first selected the word, the false notion it conveys of sacrifice becomes vile and revoltinjy in the extreme. It is still a present and nothing more ; but a present to whom, and for what ])urposc ? It is a present of blood to a cruel fiend that delights in it; as a pandit lately put it, "a cruel deed done "■to gratify a cruel nature." 1'hc haVidrui is " little more than an " offering of raw flesh to bloodthirsty demons or devils," an Aryan name for the bloody offerings of the fctichism of the prc- Ai-yan barbarians of India. It is " the sacrifice of an animal re- " garded as food, for a ferocious deity." In the North of India equally with the South it is a specific word, being offered in a bloody connection only to the sanguinary and malevolent Kali, the Moloch of India, of whom it is said " the blood of a tiger " delights her for ten years, of a human being for one thousand " years. If any of her worshippers draw the blood from his own " person and offer it her, she will be in raptures of joy ; but if " he cut out a piece of his own flesh for a burnt-offering, her " delight is beyond bounds." ^ In the South of India hali is identified with demon-worship. Nowhere is any thing of sacred- ness associated with it ; no idea of piety or true worship is ever associated with it. It is never, and was never offered to any being regarded as the Supreme God, to Ishivam, for example. It indicates to every Hindu that the being to whom it is offered is inferior to the Supreme. " The use of it assigns to the " Christian's God the position, passion and propensities of a

"demon" "It is never spoken of as propitiatory. It is

" never thought of as the means of expiating guilt or ob- " taining salvation. It is not burnt, or made to ascend as the " smoke of fragrant incense" — thus lacking the essential element of the Old Testament sacrifices — " but is simply killed and

" offered to demons, or the various forms of Kali with the idea

" that she delights in blood." May we not, after such an odious catalogue of charges, add, with the writer already cited, " it is " irreclaimably an unclean word, incapable of being hallowed to "any Christian use"?

Shall such a word — a word with such malignant and abhorrent associations — be kept in the holiest of books, and in close con- nection with that which is the highest and benignest revelation o£ Divine love ? For our part, we feel that, whatever it might have to recommend it in certain respects — ^whereas it seems to have positively nothing — the one fact of its inevitably associating the Redeemer and his "precious blood" with a bloodthirsty and heathen goddess, and so representing his atonement as appeasing

^ HnnclbooJc of Sanscrit Literature, by G. Small, M.A.

f>

43

SdcrijlcLtd Tcnuti and a Misitiulcrtituud (.iu}<pcl. [Jn\y,

Divine passion, thereby slandering the character of the Grod of the Bible, would be far more than a sufficient reason for forever erasing it from his written Word.

It is of no avail to say that those who ut^c the word in a Christian sense do not associate it thus. We have put the mean- ing of ' sacrifice' into it ; and many besides ourselves, if asked what it means, give what we mean by it. Nor is it of any use to say that there are on record one or two rare instances where it seems to have a higher meaning ; such as, I present to thee (Shiva) the ' hali (offering) of my heart though even there it proves that hali is a present, and nothing more. The question is, what do tJio 2H'oplc universally understand when the word is used ? and used, we fear — since no one ever stops the preacher to ask the meaning of hall — without one evangelist or teacher in twenty attempting to correct a conception which, once received in connection with the Cross, utterly misrepresents the Gospel. And what of the countless copies of God's Word that find their way into the hands and homes of the people of India, with no one to comment on mis- leading terms ? The mischief arising in such cases from the use of a word that in any Christian connection all admit needs ex- plaining, must be great indeed.

We wish to speak to the people of the Christian atonement — to tell them of the sacrifice of the Cross, in which God is said, not to have exacted a penalty, but to have preeminently " com- " mended his love to us;" in which he revealed all the depth and fulness of a Father's holy, gi-ievcd and suffering heart — and we use a word that sends them, for an explanation and illustration of what we mean, to the temple of a demon ! We wish to tell them that God has " reconciled us to himself by the death of his Son" — that we " are brought nigh by the blood of Jesus" — and by the use of hali we, in its stead, bring up before their eyes a picture — too familiar to them — of the offering of bloody goats and fowls, not i)i the temple, but at a distance fi'om it, to induce the malignant madonna " to stai/ where she is," and not come near to trouble themj or of the casting of pieces of reeking flesh to ferocious Siberian wolves to keep them off ! We want to set before them him who hath freely " given himself for us an offer- ing and a sacrifice to God for a sweet-smelling savor" ; and in its place, we present that which never ascends in fragi'ant incense, but lies a loathsome carcase on the gi'ound — which does not express a vestige of the one only elevating idea of sacrifice, the idea of self-surrender and personal cost, and the gracious acceptance with which such stirrender is regarded ; but simply enmity, terror, cruelty, pain, and death, in which the God of the Bible takes no pleasure, — being nothing but a bribe of blood offered to ward off a dreaded, evil influence ! All the blessed virtue, the moral effi- cacy, proceeding from the atonement, all that sheds light upon its

iSyS-l Siicrijln'dl Tcnm and a Mi'i^iindfrslooil Gosprl.

43

nature and necessity, the condoinnation and destruction of sin, the being " redcomod from all initpiity", the being delivered from " this ])resont evil worUr', the being brought to God, the receiv- ing "the acki]ition of sons", all of whicli are reprcisented in tho kSeripture as the direct result of the Saviour's sacrifice, must, so long as such terms as hiili are used, and such subversive presenta- tions of that sacrifice as commonly accompany the term aro employed, be vital truths completely lost, so far as their direct moral connection with their true source, the atonement, is con- cerned.

The statement that the blood that flowed from the Saviour's side was to pacify the ficnj wrath of God for our sins, which ap- peared lately in a work on the Evidences of Christianity, is just the kind of teaching that accords with the use of haJi, and that is given to the people of India as " the glorious Gospel of the " blessed God." Instead of sucli attempted explanations of tho rationale of the sufferings of Jesus affording any "evidence" in, favor of Christianity, we deem them dealing altogether with " another Gospel," which sadly hinders the reception of the true " Gospel of Christ," which is indeed " worthy of all acceptation," and its being easily understood and thankfully embraced.

It is not our intention to dwell on the incomparable su- periority of the word yajnn,, which, it has been proposed, should be substituted for hall, as the generic name of sacrifice.

The Rev. F. Kittel, in his Tract on Sacrifice, has amply shown, by a host of Sanscrit extracts, that it is the one word to denote ancient religious sacrifice among the Aryans. Though not nearly as well known as hali, on account of the ancient rite having long ago almost ceased, most persons know it as the sacri- fice of ancient times, to which great sacredness and efficacy are attributed. The meaning of the Sanscrit root is '' to worship ;' and a sacrificial rite is an act of worship. The blood was sprinkled, and portions of the victim burnt. Qvcrla, sacrificium, yaga, sacri- ficp, have these things in common — they express something sa- cred ; they were offered avowedly to the Sitprenio God, and yajna, as stated in the Vedas, is regarded by true Hindus as a divine institution, not, as the heathen hali, a childish present to pacify a fury ; they were propitiatory ; they were slain, the last being the only point of resemblance between them and hali ; so that yacja equally possesses the distinguishing qualification which is the only recommendation hali has.

This resemblance between yaga and hali does not seem to be generally understood. In Bengal, for example, and elsewhere, there is a common impression that yajna is a hloodless of¥ering- — ■ a kind of meat-of?ering — -whereas hali means a bloody offering; and since the sacrifice of Christ was a biood-offering, it is thought the latter term serves the Christian purpose better. Wo fully

44 SacA-ijrrial Tennis ttn<l a Misitudf^r.^'iood Goapeh [July,

grant that no view of the atonement is Scriptural; and no term adequate, that eliminates or weakens the fact that Christ shed his blood for us ; but apart from the fact already alluded to — that there is nothing of the nature of a sacrifice, or even of a victim, in the etymology of halt, and that it has only come to mean a sacrifice, as did the Latin immohitlo — was there ever a ynija withouta ijiujapaau, the sacrifice of a living being, by which compound the sacrificial victim must be of course, always rendered ?

Farther, yaj;irr implies, what is the essence of all true sacrifice, self-surrender. Mr. Kittcl, addressing the yaganumas (sacri- ficers), reminds them that their " ancestors felt it their duty to " give themselves up to their gods" ; also, that they had " the " knowledge that they were sinners of some sort," and devised, " by means of sacrifices, to get rid of their sins." The Aryans " in killing the sacrificial victim, would, as it were, not kill the " sinless animal, but tJicir oivn sin" — an apprehension that does not fall far short of the doctrine of the Apostle Paul when he says, " Our old man is crucified with Christ, that the body of sin " might bo destroyed, that henceforth we should not serve sin."

And when it is added that by means of the yajna the sacri- ficers wanted "to obtain heaven," and that they sacrificed "by " faith," we think it is not difficult to see which word, hali or yajna, connects itself most nearly with Christian thought and truth, and commends itself most to Christian sentiment and con- viction. To refrain from speaking of Jesus as a bali, and to begin to speak of yajna, would, we feel convinced with such evidence as this before us, elevate immeasurably the doctrine of the Cross. Bali is calculated, from all one hears and knows, to bring before the mind much more a sacrifice like that of Iphigenia — a costly offering to appease the relentless fury of the gods — than the sacrifice of Christ — the voluntary laying down of a life that had been already spent in acts of mercy, in accordance with the words, " Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay down "his life for his friends."

It is sometimes objected that yajna had certain objection- able rites associated with it, just as thei^e were with the sacri- jicium ; but it does not, like hali, connote them, and they are, hap- pily, almost forgotten : at any rate, their having been, at any time, associated with the yajna is surely no greater objection to the use of the tei'm than it is to the use of yajalca, the designation of the priest that did them ; and the term ydjaka, like the term yajna- vedi (altar), is the common term for priest in the Indian languages allied to the Sanscrit — a fact that gives the greatest force to the use of the cognate yaga ; for the juxtaposition of yajalca and hali seems ludicrous in the extreme, since one never heard of a yajalca making a halidan.

But it is not as a matter of philology and translation that we

45

have been led to take tliis Riibjeot up. On tlicso points wc do not presume to add to wluit has ah-eady been so fully treated. With ti'anslators a strict canon of translation must be, of course, their chief concern; and etymological d(;finition, tlujugh triflin<>; when a word's imported meaning is sure, becomes indispensable when the meaning is unfixed, as in the case before us, where the Christian and heathen ideas of sacrifice, as popularly held, so widely differ. Still it must bo remembered that the terms of Scripture will always carry with them, not merely the meaning which their etymology suggests, but the meaning which the religious life and knowledge of the people put into them. So that were the term hali as closely allied to the Plebrcw word for sacrifice as yajna, is — whereas there does not seem to be a shadow of alliance, to say nothing of its being universally understood — the horrible mean- ing winch the notions and customs now prevalent among the p(>ople put into it should, to our mind, bar its use. This con- sideration may in some respects apply to yajna ; but better have a word imperfectly understood, and train the mind of the people to put your meaning— the meaning of the Bible — as much as pos- sible into it, than continue to use one on which the most revolt- ing meaning is indelibly stamped.

There are, it is true, few vernacular terms connected with morals and religion that have not degrading associations ; and Christianity has, no doubt, the power to purify and ennoble many of them, as it did with a whole dictionary of such words in the Greek ; but New Testament writers judiciously rejected some terms, such as ^co/xoj, an ' altar' — terms that doubtless appeared to their minds to possess ineradicable idolatrous associations — in favor of other terms, which, though less popular perhaps, suited their purpose better, both etymologically and theologically ; and we think it much easier to add to yajna than to wash haJi.

The writer of the article on ' Sacriiicial terms,' at the close of his essay, says : " However true it may be in theology, it is not "fair translation to say that the sacrifice of the Son of God ap- " peased his Father's anger or satisfied his justice ; much less is it " fair to use language which, in ordinary usage, expresses simply " the averting of mischievous ill-will and malignity."

The writer, as a translator, pleads only for fair translations. It is a question of the translation of terms, and not of ideas. Translators must be translators, and their translation must be as literal as it is possible to be. They should not be theologians when translating. No peculiar theological ideas are to prejudice and bias their judgment in the act of translation. Now, though it has been clearly shown that to render the term ' sacrifice' by hali is not a fair, an adequate, and a legitimate translation, and how- ever clearly this might be shown, there are those, we know (we speak not of translators now), who refuse to give up hali, on

46

Sitcrificial Terms and a Mlsundt'rstood Gospsl.

the ground that it I'epresents a certain aspect of the atone- ment as conceived by them^ which yajna, it is said, does not express ; the preference of such for hall is not a linguistic pre- ference,— it is a theological preference, which, we maintain, ought not to hamper the question of right translation. The present writer heard, not long since, a native missionary distinctly assert that he preferred bidi, because it conveyed the idea that the sacrifice of the Saviour appeased the wrath of God ! an idea, he stated, which yajna did not convey. And we have reason to be- lieve that with many it is not because bali can be shown to be the better word that it is preferred (and if all has really been said for it that can be said, it seems to us that nothing can be said beyond the fact that it has long been in use in " several trans- " lations of the Hindu Scriptures'"), but because its heathenish associations harmonize, in certain respects, with a preconceived notion of the atonement existing in their minds.

Yajna, as admitted by the friends of bali, has no theology attached to it ; it holds its own simply on linguistic grounds, having, as no other word in the Indian languages seems to have, certain things in common with such generic terms as 6va-la and sacrificinm.

Being satisfied, then, of the great superiority of yajna, judged simply and solely by all sound principles of translation, it is open to us to look a little at this theological preeminence claimed for bali.

Does ball even " appease wrath," in the way sometimes un- derstood, though happily not so commonly now as formerly, in connection with the sacrifice of Christ ? It cannot possibly be said to do so. What the bali is supposed to effect in the ferocious nature of the demon, or of Kali, has no correspondence whatever with the change that is supposed to take place in the Divine mind when the sacrifice of Christ has atoned, quieted, and satisfied the Divine wrath, and so rendered the Divine Being ever after- wards propitious. Would a pocketful of sovereigns given to a robber " appease" him — alter, in any degree, his robber's nature ? Does the piece of raw flesh thrown to the bloodthirsty tigress " appease" her ? does it make her one whit more friendly toward the man she is waiting to devour ? It may glut her appetite for the time, but as soon as that is done, her greed will seek for something more. So the blood of the bali in no sense " appeases" demon nature. It cannot possibly propitiate— being simply a present of that which the cruel nature likes, and without the ceaseless presentation of which it is never satisfied.

What a miserable vehicle, therefore, bali comes to be even for conveying that sternest and most repulsive aspect of the sacrifice of Christ, which some still strangely cling to as the most promi- nent, the grandest and most powerful element in the Christian

'^75-] Sdri'i'/icittl 'rcniif! <(u<l a M inn lulcrsfuud (Idsjh;!.

47

atonement ; altliongh sucli expressions as ' expiation,' ' a))pcasiMfr 'wrath,' 'satisfying justice,' aro nowhere found in the Chris- tian Scriptures!

And liow sad — how dislionon'iijif to tl)at iiniecedent love of ({od— tliat unhought, niunerited, unbounded love that r/ave nn the atonement we have in Christ — as well as warping to tin; judgment of all humane and benevolent men, must be that frigid ful estimate of inexorable, exacting justice, that makes the sacrifice of Calvary to bo the gross payment of pains to passionate resent- ment— the averting of ill-will and malignity ! Jf the Gospel teaches us any thing, it is surely this, that tlic love of God is the caft.ve, and the atonement the An atonement to vidke God

gracious, to move him to compassion, woidd indeed be difhcult to believe in ; for, if it were needed, it would be impossible. And yet it is to be feared that such an atonement is regarded by not a few h\ this land — Christian and non-Christian — as the central glory of Christianity. When the Brahmist leader, Keshab Chandra Sen, sought on one occasion to expound the doctrine of the Christian atonement, his language was just such as he might have learned in the temple of a Hindu goddess. In the Indian Mirror, the Calcutta Brahmist organ, we have often met with such ex- pressions as the following, in opposition to what has been taken to be the the orthodox Christian doctrine : — " Christ is not an " advocate or intercessor striviiu/ to appease an angry deity ;" just a counterpart of the false account often given of our redemp- tion by deists, " that the common notion of Redemption among " Christians seems to represent the Deity in a disagreeable light, "as implacable and revengeful:" and again, " that a perfectly " innocent Being of the highest order among intelligent natures " should personate the offender, and suffer in his place and stead, " in order to take down the wrath and resentment of the Deity " against the criminal, and dispose God to show mercy to him ; the " deist conceives to be both unnatural and improper, and there- " foi'e not to be ascribed to God without blasphemy." ' Such objec- tions are, of course, no objections to the glorious doctrine of Redemp- tion as found in the Bible, but only objections to what is founded on the grossest ignorance and false representatious of its entire nature —founded only on the account which the schools give of the sacri- fice of Christ, and which, together wuth a doctrine of election that makes God a monster and creation a cruel show, has, in thus darkening Revelation, been the main cause of unbelief in Europe, and has furnished Socinians, deists and infidels of all kinds with manifold and unanswered cavils and objections. We are aware that the Brahmists of India, as a class, are not slow to pervert in this way, and sometimes wilfully, our Christian terms and sentiments ;

^ See Deism fairly stated andftdhj vindicated, published in 1746.

S<(tTijiri(i I Tcnnt^ atiil a MUiiiiiJerninod (Jofpi'l. [Julv,

but wlion such terms as hull are givon to the people, and combined, as this one often is, with a certain mode of stating- the atonement, wo can hardly be surprised at such pci-version, or at the Gospel being largc^ly, so wofullv, misunderstood. As it has been remarked, " Who cim say to what extent the use of this one woi'd has conti'ib- " uted to hide from the people of this country the philanthropy " of God our Saviour, commended to us in the great atonement?"

We have been amazed and saddened often, in conversing with Hindus who have been instructed in Christian truth, as well as with those who have professed a faith in that truth, to find how exclusively they regard salvation in a commercial light, the atone- ment as a compensation and a bargain ; liow largely they dwell on deliverance from j)anliih iiifii t, and how little on deliver- ance from sin, in connection with the atonement ; how fear of " the wrath to come" — fear of hell, fear of pain, rather than a fear and loathing of an actual present — a present burden and degrada- tion, a present hell within them, found in the service of the devil — a present evil that is corrupting and destroying their nature, and poisoning all the springs of life ; how safetif, rather than sound- ness and health, seems to occupy and distress their minds.

And we think the question may be asked, how far such views of the Gospel — views about which there is nothing purifying, nothing elevating, nothing in the deepest sense converting — views that are concerned with a mere dread of suffering, " than which "nothing can be in any high sense less saving to the soul" — how far such views have created or fostered that unmanliness, " littleness "^of thought and life," and desire for personal comfort that largely characterize the native Church of India ; as it has been, one has said, ^ the shame of the " religious world" of Britain for the lasthalf- ceutury ; how far they account for the absence of those " noble, " grand and powerful features" of ixnselfishness and elevation above " the world," and enthusiastic zeal for the conyersion of the nation, so inseparable from the converts of the apostolic Gospel ?

It is the Jif/ht that comes from the atonement, the centre of Revelation, that saves the soul. Instead of being a mystery, it is the key to our knowledge of the mind and character of God. It reveals the Divine heart, and what a base, cruel, killing thing sin is to that Father^s heart, that so grieved over it in humanity and broke. Christ comes to set forth the Father, not as some- thing to save vis from the Father. There can be no doubt that the main reason why the atonement, which should be the greatest, moral power in the universe, instead of, as so often represented, a great governmental transaction, has been so inoperative in this and other countries, and Christianity itself has been so, — is because •ts light has not been recognized.

^ Eev. Baldwiu Bi-own, B.A.

1875.1 S<icrilii-l((l Tfriiis ninl 11 Mi-siunlrrstooil (luftprl.

49

Especially iu India, and in iiiissioiiiu-y Hiiil religious litera- ture, as well iis iu the preaching of the (rospcl, and more parti- cularly of the atonement, it seems to us —ami we make the re- mark with the great(>st deference, and solely iu the interests of truth — there is much that calls for thoughtful pondering and re- modeling. From what we know, and hear, and read of the present cast of Evangelical thought iu Knglish churches, we are assured that the Christian theology of India more closely resembles the hard, forbidding Calvinism which characterized religious circles in Britain some fifty years ago. Our views of truth, our sys- tems of theology, too often resemble the ideas embodied in the rites of the people around us. " To the heathcm the gods are " but terrible, and law is regarded as prohibitory or avenging, " and sacrifice is offered as a compensation. As light arises, " the gods cease to become objects of terror, and law is seen as " a guide ; as light increases, the Godhead is recognized as love ; " and the laws of God are I'ecognized as reflections of himself — his " calls to duty to be that which he himself is. In this sense " sacrifice as a compensation becomes impossible cither to be "received by him or oliered by us."' Into this light little advance, we fear, has yet been made. Our ordinary ideas of merit, sd,tisf action of justice, substitution, the natives of tkis country do not and cannot understand. They do not reach the heart. Did ever any one shed a tear over the story of Selcucus and the way he cheated the law ? — a story so prized and widely circulated, as setting forth, it is thought, a Scriptural and a reason- able representation of the sacrifice of Christ. Did any conscience ever have its sin brought home to it, and any heart ever melt with sorrow, by the explanation, so often seen in Christian tracts, of the ground and nature of the great transaction of the atonement between God and man, that of debtor and creditor ? Man as owing a debt to God that he could not pay, and God ha ving a right to insist on the full payment of it, and therefore only to be satisfied by receiv- ing the death of Christ as a valuable consideration, instead of the debt th.at was due to him from man. The debt is reckoned as paid; the release of the debtor is demanded, and necessarily granted, for the last farthing that justice could exact has been scrupulously given ; and oh, the wretched Gospel that is left us ! No place for the Father's compassion ; for, the debt being paid, where is the room for forgiveness ? And in addition to the un- worthy position in which such an illustration places God, what must inevitably be its hard, legal, carnal effect upon the heart and conscience ? If one has paid my debt, or endured my penalty — the utmost penalty due to transgression — or put his merit to

^ See Present Dj [I Papers on Prominent Qtf.cstions in Theology, p, 43. Edited by the Bishop of Argyll.

7

Siirrijirnt I Tcnnti and a Mifiundrr^tuml (lasjifl. [Julv,

my credit (were sucli moral commerce possible), it might be a duty to be thankful ; but one may well believe all that ttrlfishh/. " There is an antinomianism which prefers resting on gratitude "and a payment to entering into and having coHforniitij ivitli " the righteoKf! mind of Christ." And it is to be feared that the reception of tin's mercenary aspect of the atonement has seriously retarded, and in some respects altogether prevented, the vitality of the native churches of India. Like many other Christians in other parts of the world, they feel they are safe. The debt has been paid; and there many are apt to rest. Punisliraeut is regarded as a final end ; tlie possession of a victim or substi- tute conveying the meaning of the word ' atonement,' thereby making something to be more acceptable to God than righteous- ness. That view of Christ which one cannot have and continue in sin — that revelation in Christ of the Father's mind and heart and will, and which alone secures the true Divinity of the Saviour — that sight of suffei'ing holiness and love endured in sympathy with God, through seeing sin and sinners with God's eyes, and feeling with reference to them with God's heart, and which imparts to the atonement the secret and power of returning to God, since the faith that God grieves over sin, though less easy, has infinitely more power to purify, to work in us penitence, and holiness, and love, than the faith that he can punish it eternally — that terrible recoil of Divine holiness from sin which we see in the agony and death of Jesus, and see nowhere else in that degree, nowhere if Jesus was not God manifest (Xeyo/Lievos). Such a view that makes sin an awful and a real thing, that drives it home to the heart, and does not lift it into a region of legal fiction where conscience cannot follow it, they do not seem to have had. That " wail" of God himself, over man's unkindness to his Maker, which is felt as nothing else can be felt — which executes on sin the sentence of condemnation as no penal torment inflicted ah extra, could ever do — they do not seem to have heard. There seems in so many cases a singular deficiency in a sense of sin and deep repentance, under which alone one can know anything of the " fellowship" with such sufferings — a fellowship which is the heart's own recoil from sin, the true casting out of the abominable thing ; and just as repentance without acceptance of Christ reaches not the Divine ground of pardon, so acceptance of Christ without repentance is intensest selfishness. There is training to some extent in sub- mission, but little training in righteousness, and in real participa- tion in the mind of God, which is his great gift to us in Christ. Alas, how little have any of us of that faith in Jesus, working by love, which is the root of all sanctification, the enthusiastic consecration of the soul to God ! One native brother of the right stamp — hinisclfheldi and possessed by the doctrine of the Cross, not simply holding it as a dogma to be believed — who could be

l875-] N(( (■/■///'•/((/ Tcruis and a Mitsandcrdood Gospel.

for Asiatic Cliristianity wliiit Giuitama was for Asiatic nioralily, or even wliat Kcsliab Chandra iScn is for Asiatic Tliuisin, would effect more than the whole native Churcli has yet effected. Wo do not say there are not any of such a spirit — God forbid ! we say fJunf are the men we want, tlie men for whom the societies should seek and ])ray.

In regard to the nation itself, whose only attitude (so far as the masses are concerned) towards any Power above them is one of base and slavish dread, and unto whom we are to bear the " glad tidings of great joy," telling them how " the Jcindness " and love oi God our Saviour toward man appeared," we cannot help feeling, and fooling deeply, that to cluster around the Cross Kuch associations as cannot be got rid of so long as certain terms are used, to make a fetich of the Cross, is to lead the people gross- ly to misconceive the Gospel, and thereby cause it to be of no effect.

When they transfer their lieath.en views of sacrifice to Ctris- tian facts— when they conceive of vindlctiveness and i-etaliation, of a lex talionis in the Divine Being — when they think of "appeasing" fury, of pacifying and removing a wrath in God rather than a wrath arising from the sin, the hell, the moral disorder of man'^s evil nature — when, from whatever cause, the more enlightened come to speak of a collision among the attributes of God ; Divine justice, righteousness, holiness, as distinct from Divine mercy and love, being opposed to the sinner's salvation, instead of seeking, just as much as love, because aspects and elements of love, the ful- filment of the original righteousness in the creature that had lost it — ^and when, just as in barbarous notions of justice among men, after a man has been wronged, his resentnient demands suffering to gratify it, they give this low character to God, and think of Infinite Justice demanding and being satisfied only by infinite penalty and pain, and God unable to forgive sin without receiving " adequate pay" ; a gross and commercial atonement, a mere " scheme," with rude quantitative equivalences, so much punish- ment for so much sin, pain simply bought off by pain, the pains of innocence ; and by which there is represented to be an absolute immunity of the sinful, and so a setting aside of the immutable moral laws of the universe, whereby penalty is annexed to transgres- sion, the morality of which arrangement men always fail to catch — when such exclusive stress is laid on a rectoral satisfaction of justice, and none at all on the far deeper and moral satisfaction of love, the love of a Father who could not behold the misery of his prodigal children without demanding and calling for their rightness, their salvation — when, we say, the people are receiving such impressions of Christianity as these, and entertain notions of sacrifice borrowed largely " from the bloody shambles of heathenism," and never, from sacred psalms and gospels, or even from Jewish altars ; is it

52 Sin-rijirl(i I 'rcriit.'^ and a 'MhxttJrrsiooJ. (lospcl. '[July,

not too plain that they have, in many cases, sadly and wofully niisimdorsjtood the Gospel message ? and can we wonder that " the " preaching of the Cross" has so little moral, melting, purifying and persuading power ?

Jn a book lately published, vntii]cd l'\ir(jiveuc.<<s and Luxv,^ wliose commendation, though not without reservation, in many quarters both in Britain and America, shows vei-y plainly the reaction that is taking place on muoli of the stern, logical, dog- matic theology of some forty years ago, the author, in giving some reasons why a specially deliberate attention to the subject of the atonement appears to be demanded at the present time, intro- duces a consideration drawn from the mission field abroad : —

" Ouv modern uiuIeTtakiiig of Gospel Missions abroad requires of us a through reinvestigation and, if necessavj", a faitliful reconstruction of onr doctrine ; that we may have it intermixed with no needless offences, and loaded with no artificial impediments. We cannot convert the world with an outfit which is lumber and not armor. Subordinate truths will of course have a subordinate conseciuence, but the great central truth of the Redemption misconceived, or oidy half conceived, or mixed with concep- tions that are morally revolting, will but stumble on its waj', and even if it wins a sort of victory, will come to its end in disastrous overthrow. It is unpleasant to be afflicted witli misgivings of this kind in a work so grandly beneficent and so closely bound up with the love of God, but it is not easy to be entirely clear of them. By our missions we are now put face to face with the wbole Eastern half population of the globe. Is there no reason to fear that we have precipitated ourselves upon them without a sufficient understanding either of their religious position or their intellectual ca- pacity ? or, what is more to be regretted, without any such pi'cparation of doctrine as would help us to effectually pour in the love of God on their subtle refinements, and the congeries of theosophic delusions they maintain as religions. After twelve or twenty years of missionary life among them Dr. Duff revisited Scotland, and published his octavo volume on their religious faith and condition. Not long after his return to his field he discovered, just what some of us suspected in reading his book, that he had missed the point of insight, and that back of the coarse and revolt- ing superstitions he had looked upon as their religion they had rich stores of learning and philosophy, including much valuable truth. I have not seen the retraction he published, but only the report of it ; suffice it to say that no such misconceptions are any longer possible ; for we know as a matter of common intelligence that these people have their bodies of literature reaching back to the earliest ages of human story; scholars of great ciilturc practised in the subtlest refinements of speculation; tenets aud maxims of conduct not seldom worthy of Christianity itself.

"Now that such peoples, however much impressed with our superiority in arras and naval arts, constitutional law and liberty, and above all in material wealth and production, are going to have the faith of a Gospel suddenly precipitated on them, and become Christians by simple notification, is a most irrational confidence. Our first thing is to be sure for ourselves that the Christianity wo off'er them is the true, cumbered by no revolting speculations, disfigured by no jargon of false theory; and then that we so far understand their religious prepossessions and prejudices that we can make our Christian approach by fit adaptations, and engage their assent

1 By Horace Bushnell, D.D.

'^7S-1 Sitrr!j!ri((l 'I'l/i-im^ and n M i-ouuli-n^liMid Haii^icl.

53

by a llioroiigLly appreciative jiidgmont of Llicir IrutliH and errors. Tliey are warniinj; now to a ■^low, wc litar, in tlioir own cause, wliicli is ])rool', beyond a question, tbut our (Jlu istianily will <;aiu tbeni only I y the muster- ing of their strength, and not by any dictation put upon their weakness."

Wo will not coiumcnt upon these roniiu-lcH, Liit think they are well worthy of respectful and seritnis thought, a.s indeed is much more that is being written in different quarters in a similar sti'ain.

May it not ])()ssil)ly ho that in endeavoring to account for the paucity of the practical results of our missions to the East, wo have over-estimated such obstacles as caste and the auticjuity of religious systems existing among* nations like the Hindus and Chinese — obstacles that cannot but vanish if the true power of the Cross be felt — and have overlooked deeper causes lying nearer home ? Have we, " in a work so grandly beneficent," and " so " closely bound up with the love of God," ,so presented our doctrine as would help us " to effectually pour in the love of God" on bigotry, refinement and delusion ? Or have we not rather, by the use of certain terms, and the presentation of certain aspects of Christian truth, more especially connected with the atonement and a future life — aspects that represent salvation as a great commercial fiction ; that picture a God wrathful till pacified by the death of Jesus, and an everlasting life in fire and torment as the doom awaiting the vast majority of the human race, including therein the revered ancestors of the people we would win — • have we not thus set up before them a God who, instead of draw- ing multitudes by the " glad tidings" of his love, and the revela- tion in humanity of his sorrowing, suffering heart, acts as a great repulsive force, preventing the alien, and specially the more thought- ful, from entering within the Christian pale ? A great living English preacher' has said: "It may be doubted whether there are any " images known to pagan religions so full of ghastly and unutter- " able horror as those which have become familiar to the eyes " of the disciples of a religion which declares that its God is " Love." " Is it not time," he asks, " to try what the nobler, " diviner Gospel of the love of God which is in Christ Jesus " our Lord— the Gospel which saves from sin and present misery — "will do for us and for mankind ? there is fear enough in that, " if we but know how to use it, but fear purged of its slavish, " selfish, tormenting elements." We cannot believe, as a re- spected missionary brother avowed lately he believed, that more souls are converted hij fear, i.e. fear of the future, than by any thing else. The more wrath instead of love is represented and be- lieved to be the Divine name, the more pm'ely selfish and un- purifying and artificial will the atonement be, and the more will

^ Rev. Baldwin Brown, B.A., in Misread Passages of Scripture, p. 114.

54

Sacjujtcuil 'l\'ri)is and a MitfiDulvratood Gospel. [July,

a man find joy in simply believing that he is safe. Do wc seek, at the outset; so to present our doctrine as to gain the love and confidenco and moral instincts of the heathen, and induce them to inquire, not from terror but from joy, after the way of salvation ? Does our presentation of the doctrine of the Cross so bring home as a stern reality to the Hindu conscience, and God as a sin- hating God, that it shall be " the 2)ower of God unto salvation to " every one that believeth" ? While we assert faithfully a super- human salvation, let us beware of maintaining doctrines of the salvation which are themselves an offence to right sentiment and conviction. If wo assume principles that are not admitted by any system of enlightened ethics — and the E ist has not been without such systems — how can the doctrine, as the Apostle says it does, commoiid itself " to every man's conscience in the sight of God" ? for though many statements of Holy Scripture may be beset with difficulties, we should ever bear in mind that no contradic- tions are to be found between the authoritative teaching of reve- lation and the deliverances of reason and conscience. Are wc sufficiently careful that no such contradictions shall arise by our mode of stating truth — sufficiently solicitous, lest by the very words we use to convey the message, just as by unchristian acts, we should " hinder the Gospel of Christ" ?

Ifiniln ii ml .Iricish Sarr'ijh-iii! Il'iliinl.

55

Akt. v.— lilNDU AND JEWISH SAClUFiCiAL JU'l'UAl..

Bv llKV. J. p. AsiiT()\, Calcutta.

IN tliG third Number of tliis Review an able article on the translation of sacrificial terms in the vernacular Bibles of India was contributed by the Rev. J. Hay of Vizao-apatam. The subject has important bearings not only upon Biblical translation, but" also upon the best way of presenting the Christian doctrine of atonement to the Hindu mind. Much will depend upon the views entertained as to the ancient practice of the Jews and the prevailing ceremonies. It is thought that it may be helpful if missionaries in different parts of India will give the I'esults of their observation, and state how they think the Hindu sacrifices agree with or differ from those ordained by Moses. With this in view, a comparison will be attempted in this paper between the Jewish sacrificial ritual in the time of Christ, the Vedic sacrifices of ancient India, aud the modern Hindu animal sacrifices prevailing in the temples of Madras and Calcutta as far as they have come under the observation of the writer.

I. — Sacrificial ritual at Jcrusalon in the time of Christ.

The Pentateuch is, of course, the authority as to the correct mode of offering ; but the actual customs at the time of our Lord may be learnt from the Rabbinical writings, or from such popular treatises founded on them as that of Dr. Edersheim, which has been recently published by the Tract Society. The rules are not laid down in the Pentateuch with that degree of perspicuity that it can be supposed that the ordinary reader is familiar with all the details that are necessary in making the comparison now proposed. A brief summary of the principal details will there- fore he given, which the reader can supplement at his leisure.

In the beginning of the Christian era, Jewish sacrifices were offered in Jerusalem alone. The vast building sacred to the worship of Jehovah, with its spacious courts, was opened every morning at sunrise by the priests whose turn it was to pass the night within.' Immediately as the silver trumpets sounded and

^ See Edersheim, p. 132. The celebrated temple at Kalighat is not opened till after 9 a.m. There is no gate to its courtyard, if such the small enclosure round the temple may be called. The shrine itself is too small for a priest to pass the night within. There is a small porch in front, something like a South Indian " mandapam" but smaller. Farther in front are the two sacriiicial posts where the victims are slaughtered, but there is no altar. The Pcriapalliam temple, referred to below, is also small,

50 Uiitilti (did Jewish Sarrljiriitl Jiilinil. [July,

the doors wore lioard to turn on their hinges, the morning sacritice connnenccd. Thehxmb for the daily burnt-offering, whichhad been previously washed, was waiting tobe slain, tied by a rope to aringon the altar-side, and withits fore feet fastened to its hind feet to pre- vent a struggle. 'IVo priests were required to shiy the victim, one cutting the veins in the lower part of the neck, and the other catch- ing the blood in a golden vessel. The vessel was kept in motion till the altar had been spinnkled, and then the remainder was poured into a drain underneath. The process of flaying and cutting up into numerous and elaborate joints and salting with salt followed, the skin being put aside as the perquisite of the pinests. Then came the solenin offering of incense in the holy place. The wor- sliippcrs would meanwhile have gathered together, and, with all the priests, prostrated themselves before the Lord in prayer. Solemn silence generally prevailed during this part of the service. Then, the joints of the burnt-offering having been arranged in natural order on the altar fire, the meat-offerings of flour cakes and oil were put ujton the fire, and the drink-offering poured forth. As the smoke of the sacrifice arose, the remaining prayers were offered and the benediction was pronounced. Unless it were a feast-day, when other special public sacrifices must be offered, the service was concluded with the temple music and the singing of psalms by the Levites. After this private offerings were made.

How different this public worship is from the confusion and disorder of a Hindu temple ! General and united worship was enjoined for morning and evening, — a thing altogether omitted at places like Kaligliat, except perhaps when the priests all unite once a year in one common animal sacrifice. The private sacrifices may not have been performed in so orderly a manner, — at least

though more regularly built, but it is situated in a spacious grove on a river- side. The Vishnu and Shiva temples, however, of South India bear a strik- ing resemblance to the Jerusalem temple, and approach it even in the magnificence of their dimensions. The writer lived close to a Shiva temple in Madras not so large as many, but whose general form resembles others in South India. Its oiitermost coiu-t was about a furlong square, vf ith dvrelHngs for about twenty priestly families on three sides. Within the square was a large stone tank for ablutions, and a large walled enclosure, inside which was another lai'ge court surrounding the sacred fane itself. The entrance was from the east by a vast gate, immediately opposite which and between it and the sanctuary was a square altar. This altar is never iiscd, but is doubtless a relic of ancient times when the ynjiias were offered. The sanctuary was divided into two parts, and within tlio most holy was the idol of Shiva (not his emblem), with a lamp perpetually baruing before it, by which the outcaste or the foreigner could obtain a glimpse of the god through a hole in tlio outer gate. In the same way a Gentile might perhaps (at least if the Temple had been built on a level) have obtained iVoni the Beautiful gate a glimpse of the high-priest as he disappeared within the holiest of all, supposing he were to look in a straight line over the great altar.

'875-]

Uinda and Jewish Sacrljicial liUital.

57

we know that our Lord found it necessary to drive out tlio cattle- dealers and restore order and peace in the sacred building ; but this huckstering could not penetrate within the more secluded court of the priests, where the altar was, and where the sacrifices were actually offered.

From the book of Leviticus it will be scon that there were three kinds of sacrifice ordained — animal, meat (meal) and drink offerings. The drink-offerings were of wine ; the meat-offerings were cakes of flour, generally offered with oil poured upon them. A part, or sometimes the whole of the cakes was burnt upon the great altar. The animal sacrifices may again be divided into three — the burnt-offering, the peace-offering and the sin and tres- pass offerings. The last two so much resemble one another that they may practically' be classed as one.^ A further subdivision is made to suit the circumstances of the offerer, according as he held the official position of priest or ruler, or according as he were rich or poor.

Burnt-offerings were seldom offered by private persons except as supplementary to certain sin-offerings in particular cases. Meat-offerings and drink-offerings were also supplement- ary, except when a poor man was allowed to substitute a meat- offering for a sin-offering. 2

Highly important as the daily public burnt-offering was, being a morning and evening national burnt-sacrifice— bearing- some analogy, as will be seen, to the Indian homn — it is necessary to pass on to consider the ritual of the sin and peace offerings. These were offerings by fire, but it was the fat only that was burnt,' the flesh being eaten by the priests or offerers, as the case might bo.''' A distinction however was made ; for the blood of public and priestly sin-offerings having been sprinkled within the holy place, the flesh of these could not be eaten, ^ nor could the skins, as in all other cases, be the perquisite of the priests, — the whole was burnt without the city. ^ In ordinary sin-offerings the priests partook of the flesh, but in peace-offerings the flesh was eaten by the sacrificer and his family. The fat was put upon the morning burnt-offering, and made its smouldering flame once more arise towards heaven. It is worthy of notice that in each case special reference is made to the caul upon the liver — a part of the fat specially sacred in the yajna, as will be seen. In peace-offerings it should be observed also that the right shoulder and breast were given to the priests as their portion.

The most important point in connection with these private

* Lev. V. ii. 7.

^ Lev. iii. 12-16; iv. 29-31.

^ Lev. vi. 30.

' Lev. iii. S ; iv. 35.

" Lev. T. 11-13.

* Lev. vi. 26 ; vii. 15, 31, 32.

® Lev. iv. II, 12, 21 ; vii. 8.

8

TThida (Old JeviiiJi Sarn'jicidl RHiKtJ.

offerings, from a religious poiut of view, is that tliey were always accompanied with coufession of sin. The oifercr pressed heavily with his hands upon the victim's head, taking it as a substitute, and uttered a prayer, which, it is said,* was thus worded, "I " entreat, O Jehovah, I have sinned, I have done perversely, I " have rebelled, I have committed (naming the sin) ; but I return " in repentance and let this be my atonement." In the case of thank-offerings a record of God's praise might be used instead. The rising flame and smoke symbolized that the prayer went up to God -with acceptance, and, as we learn from Philo,'' the meal that followed was looked upon by the pious Jew as an assurance that there was a " complete removal and forgetting of the sin " atoned for."

For every moral offence a sin or trespass offering was or- dained, and the Rabbis supplemented the general statements of Leviticus by a more detailed list of transgressions. Three only' — namely, blasphemy of the holy name, neglect of circumcision, and failure to remove the leaven at the Passover — could not be atoned for. For these there was only a " fearful looking for of " judgment to come," which it was expected that God himself would inflict ; but even in these cases, if God spared the life of the offender till the following day of atonement, the sinner's fears might be removed at the general expiation effected on that solemn day, when the high-priest entered within the vail and sprinkled the blood before the mercy-seat.*

To sum up, the kingdom of the Jews was regarded as the kiug'dom of Jehovah. All sins were considered as crimes against the Divine King'; and rulers, priests and people must all alike make atonement for their sins to him. Repentance and con- fession were enjoined, and the sacrifice was symbolical of the law that the wages of sin is death. In every sacrifice, even in the votive peace-offerings,'' the hands of the offerer were pressed upon the head of the victim, and it was regarded as his substitute. Thank- offerings were made, as well as the more visual expiatory offerings ; and votive offerings were permitted, though probably they were not encouraged ; but the idea was not entertained that sacrifices had a magical power against enemies, nor do we read of sacrifices being offered for the obtaining of temporal blessings.

The above refers to the time of Christ, a period intermediate between the ancient Hindu days and the time when the modern

^ Ederslieim, p. 88. " Id. p. 105. ^ Congregationalist, 1875 ; p. 45.

* Something like this is seen in Manu, xi. 27, where we read " the " sacrifice Vainandri must be constantly performed on the first day of the " new year, as au expiation for having omitted the appointed sacrifices of " cattle and the rites of the Soma-plant."

' Edersheim, p. 88.

.875.]

JTiiuhi aiul Jeiritih HKcri/lrldl RUkuL

59

Hindu vitual arose. It has been clioseii because the Jewish cus- toms of that age may bo tested down to the minutest detail by rcferonco to the Rabbinical writings; but it will bo seen that in all essentials the ritual was the same as tluit which prevailed in the 'I'abornaclo under Moses. It is perhaps impossible to say how far the ])atriarchal sacrifices agreed or differed from those that wen; offered in tlio wilderness. The institutions were doul)tless sim])hn", and partook more of the household character, which, it will be seen, was the peculiarity of Vedic sacrifices, at least to a great extent. The question then naturally arises, how far the tra- ditions which guided Abraliam, when he began his journey from Chaldea, were the same which guided the first Aryan settlors, who are su]i])oscd to have come from regions bordering on the same part of the world. It must be confessed that it is difficult to enter upon this branch of the subject without expecting beforehand that many points of similarity will be found. There is a danger of being led away by this idea ; but the endeavor will be made to draw no more conclusions than the facts will fairly allow.

II. — The ancient Vedic sacrifices fyajnaj.

The most noticeable point at the outset is that the ancient Hindu scriptures make no mention, as far as the writer is aware, of temples. The house, or rather the compound of the offerer is the place of sacrifice. It is there that the altar is built, and the sacred perpetual fire preserved. This very fact may have caused the animal sacrifices to be less frequent, and have confined the more expensive and imposing of them to the dwellings of rajas and wealthy chiefs. It was impossible to offer an animal every morn- ing and evening, but the sacred fire was maintained, and a sacri- fice of clarified butter (ghee), to which barley or rice flour was added, seems to have taken its place. This sacrifice was called homa, and prevails even to the present day, and may, for instance, be seen performed by the family priests of wealthy men at the temple of Kali at Kalighat, near Calcutta. There is reason to believe that this was originally considered as a substitute for an animal offering — the oleaginous ghee, a product of the cow, being offered as a part for the whole.'

For the expiation of sin, animal sacrifices were ordained. It is to be wished that an ancient scripture could be found in which, after the manner of Leviticus, the different sins should be enu- merated, and the appropriate sacrifices assigned for each. Still there are indications that such were actually prescribed. Thus a king might perform a horse-sacrifice or the sacrifice of a bullock, or some others whose nature is less known, ^ to remove the guilt

^ This may be inferred from Haug's Ait. BroJi. pp. 204, 103, 98, 92. * Mauu, xi 75, called Swerjit, Abhijit, Vishvajit, Trivrit and AgnisJitut.

6o Ilhidit ami Jeirluli Sacrifirictl Jxltucd. [J"ly,

of slaying a Brahman. A curious instance is given in Mann/ where it is prescribed that for the expiation of a certain unclean- ness a one-eyed ass was to be offered and its fat poured upon the firCj and the ceremony closed with the oblation of ghee. The horse-sacrifice is called the king of sacrifices, and is said to remove all sin.'^ The solstices are appointed as the times most appropriate for animal sacrifices. That the animal was the substitute of the offerer, and was supposed to die in his stead, is shown again and again in the Aitarcya Brdhmaiia, and the mystical notions which had begun to be added to the cere- mony when that treatise was composed all depend for their force upon this idea. Horses and bullocks were probably offered only by kings and men of high estate ; but the sheep and goat were also regarded as fit for sacrifice, and these may have suf- ficed for the less wealthy. Even in the days of the Rig Veda, as in the present day in Bengal, the goat was thought to be the most appropriate sacrifice; for in the A'svamedlia a goat was always led before the horse and was sacrifi.ed first, as is ordained in the Veda itself.

As in the Jewish, so in the ancient Hindu sacrifices, the offer- ing was emphatically a burnt-offering. The blood was sprinkled but the fat was burnt, and, strange to say, prominent importance, as in Leviticus, is given to the caul {vapa}.^ The victim was cut up into thirty-six joints, for which operation the Brahmans gave as minute rules as the Rabbis. In Jerusalem the priests did not need a large share of the peace-offerings, for many were made daily, and the sin-offerings were wholly eaten by them ; but in the time of the Brahmanas, when many priests came to one sacri- fice, there was not much left for the sacrificer and his wife. Per- haps in simpler sacrifices the principal priests only would come. The parts assigned to them are the right shoulder, the breast and the two loins. * Along with the fat, a meat-offering of rice- flour on which oil or ghee had been poured was cast into the fire, and, from the way in which it is spoken of, it may be inferred that in cases of poverty it might have taken the place of an animal, and have been offered, as amongst the Jews, in its stead. ^

In Manu^s time, and long before the advent of the Buddhist religion, animal sacrifices had become less frequent. Mann even speaks of them as the " primeval" sacrifices ; but they were still practised in his time, and perhaps even to a greater extent than would appear from his pages ; for he says in his fifth book that animals were ordained for sacrifice, that those which were fit for

^ Mann, xi. 119. ° Manu, xi. 261. ^ Haug, ii. 102.

* The Hoiar, AJhvarya, Brahma and TJdgatar. See Haug, ii. 465 and ii. 441.

° Compare Hang. ii. 98, and Lev. v. 11-13.

6i

sacrifice might bo legally eaten, and that the meat should not ho eaten after the second day. He sy)eaks also of a desire for Hcsh- mcat, and that it might be satisfied by adhering to the primeval rule, evidently meaning that it nuist be first presented to the deities.' 'iliis may bo the origin of the custom at Kalighat re- ferred to below^.

The decline of those ancient sacrifices in India may be ac- counted for in three different ways. First, undue importance was attached to the drink-offering. Secondly, the Brahmans began to multiply the number of hymns and mantras that were to accom- pany the sacrifices, and to attach special force to them. Numer- ous instances of this may be quoted from the Brahmanas.^ Thus the different verses are prescribed by which long life, children, cattle, beauty, fame and heaven may be obtained. In Mann the same verse which says that the horse-sacrifice removes all sin says also that the same may be effected by a specially holy text of the Veda. If a priest could repeat the whole Veda he might even be absolved from the guilt of slaying the inhabitants of the three worlds I Since words are cheaper than offerings, it is no wonder that they began to be preferred. But, thirdly, for those whose consciences were deeply moved by the sense of guilt, penances were prescribed. It needs no argument to show how readily men will have recourse to them to ease their conscience. Manu even goes so far as to say that if the various penances he had presci'ibed fail to give ease, the guilty person should " repeat ' ■" the same devout act until his conscience be perfectly satisfied." If to these reasons are added the vegetarian habits of certain classes, and the pride which they felt in them, it is not to be wondered that the advent of Buddhism should cause the ancient yajnus to become extinct.

III. — The modern Sinda amnml sacrifices fbalij .

There is in Bengal a twofold way in which they may be offered. One is in the Hindu's house, before an image of Durga or Syiima (Kali) made of mud and straw gaily painted and ornament- ed with tinsel. These are offered in the autumn by almost every respectable Hindu family, and a fresh idol is made on each oc- casion. The other way is to sacrifice at a public temple of Kali, the most famous of which is at Kaligh^t, near Calcutta. These sacrifices are offered every day in the year by rich or poor. The writer has witnessed both kinds. They do not differ in any

Something of the same kind may be traced in Dent. xii. 20-24, where it appears that it was ouly because of the distance of the Temple that an excejjtion was made in regard to eating flesli that had not been offered in sacrifice.

^ Hang, ii. 106, 117. ^ Manu, xi. 234.

62

Hhuhl and Jrwi'sh Sacrlllcial 'Rttual.

[July,

essential particular, as far as lie is aware, and the description of one may suftice for tlie purposes of this paper.

'J^'he temple of K;digliut is not large, and the entrance is far from imposing, being by a naiTOw alley through the bazaar. The doors of the shrine arc opened at about nine o'clock in the morn- ing. The sacrifices are more numerous on some days than others, but probably a day never passes without several being offered. Let us suppose an ordinary case. A Hindu has been attacked with a severe illness. In the midst of his sufferings he vows that if he recovers he will offer a goat to Kali. Accordingly, at a convenient time, he and some of his family or friends come to Kalighat, accompanied by the family Brahman, or by one hired for the oc- casion. A young black he-goat is purchased, and taken and dipped once in the neighbouring canal, which is supposed to be one of the sacred mouths of the Ganges. While still wet it is brought to the temple precincts^ and the building is quickly perambulated seven times. Four annas are then paid to the temple priests whose lot it is to officiate on that day. This done, the Brahman referred to above, whose fee is one anna, puts his hand on the head of the goat and mutters a prayer, which should be to the following effect : " Om, Oh three-eyed, terrible-faced, skull- " wreathed goddess, thou art the destroyer of all Asuras, etc. . . " I give this sacrifice ; accept it. Oh beloved of Shiva. Having " received it, be satisfied. Oh protect me; accept this sacrifice with "its blood, and confer blessings on us."' He then sprinkles some water on the animal, and perhaps also a flower or two, and makes a sign with his hand as if he were going to strike off its head. It is said that this is the true sacrifice ; but this has pro- bably ai'isen from the modern prejudice against a Brahman's slaying an animal. One of the party now lays hold of the goat by its legs and thrusts its head between the two sacrificial posts, and another secures it by a wooden pin inserted above the neck through two holes in the posts. The blacksmith who serves the officiating temple-priests hereupon comes forward with his long knife, resembling a rude sword, and having received his fee of one pice strikes off the head at a blow.'^ The head is taken as a perquisite by a set of low-caste people who are the menial servants of the temple-priests. As the blood pours forth, the offerers generally dip their finger in it and apply it to the forehead. A prayer is prescribed for this portion of the service, which runs

^ See P. C. Ghosh's Burga Puja-

" If he fails, which is very rarely the case, the animal is considered impure, and before another can be substituted, an expiatory fire-sacrifice, in which the animal's flesh is burnt, must be performed. This is the only trace of expiation that the writer can discov^er in these rites, and it is worthy of notice that the expiation can be made only by a fire-sacrifice. It probably rarely, if ever, occurs.

Uiiulii mill Jrivhh Hacrlficnd TUtitdt.

63

as follows: " Oin, may those whom I touch with my feet; Oin, " may tlioso wliom I sec with my eyes, be subdued by me if thoy " bo my enemies. Om ; (ilin, Srim, svaha." This prayer is quoted from Mr. Ghosh's work, but the majority probably are ignorant of it, and content themselves with tlie mere form. Tlie remainder of the animal is then generally taken home and cooked for a feast. Sometimes the whole or a part is given to the priests for their use, and sometimes the animal is not killed at all, but a part of its right ear is cut off, and it is set free in this maimed condition, and is supposed to bo sacred from that time and cannot be offered again. It is however more generally slain and taken home for a feast. The other two modes appear to be quite optional, and do not depend upon the nature of the sacrifice, or the object for which it is presented.

The priests at Kalighat are Brahmans and bear the tribal name of Hdlddr, but are not considered to be of a high order. In South India the priests are always Shudras. Temples of the kind described are to be found all over India. ' A few particulars as to a noted one at Periapalliam, near Madras, may be interesting. The idol is named Ellama, and is almost identical in appearance with that of Kali at Kalighat, though not so large. The concourse of pilgrims is very great at certain times in the year. The offerings are chiefly votive. Sheep are sacrificed, but fowls, vs^hich are more highly appreciated as food in the South of India, are more commonly chosen. The place is chiefly frequented by the lower orders, but the more respectable occasionally visit it to fulfill a vow. The custom is for the whole family to go to the temple and encamp in the neighborhood, and, when the time of sacrifice has arrived, to divest themselves of their ordinary clothing, and put around them large garlands of sacred leaves. They then pei'am- bulate the temple, pay their fee, sacrifice the animal, and return- ing to their encampment prepare the sacrificial meal. If the victim is a sheep and the whole is not consumed on that day, the flesh is cut in strips and dried, and taken home and eaten as a luxury.

It is asserted that these rites have been adopted from ab- original tribes. It may be so, but they have become thoroughly incorporated in Hinduism. Reasons have been assigned above for the decline of the ancient sacrifices, but the desire for animal food doubtless remained, and could never be entirely extinguished. This desire may have had its weight in bringing about the adop- tion of the modern hali. That the worship of goddesses prevailed in Vedic times is plain from the Vedas themselves. Consider- able prominence is given to them in the Aitareya BraJimana, and it

^ There is a celebrated one near Mirzapore, N.W.P. How far the ritual there agrees with the above is not known to the writer.

64

Uindtt and Jewish. Sacrificial Ritual.

is precisely stated that tlic blood that was sprinkled in the yajna was offered to the evil spirits. These facts may have also had their weight in connection with the modern practice of sacrificing to goddesses whose nature is represented as malignant. The blood is . supposed to propitiate these angry beings. It is also distinctly avowed at Kalighat that the desire for animal food is the sole reason for many of the sacrifices. Indeed, the writer is informed that no one in Kalighat is supposed to eat animal food unless it has been first offered to the goddess ; and the scruples of many a guest are overcome when he is told that it is a sacrifice of which he is asked to partake. Hence it may not be unfair to say that the temple is the recognized slaughter-house for the neighborhood.

In comparing the three modes of sacrifice above describedj it will be seen that the yajnai^ have many more points of simi- larity with Levitical sacrifices than the modern halis. This is not only apparent from both having been offerings by fire, and from the facts that it was the fat and not the flesh that was burnt, that both were accompanied by meal and drink offerings, and that other points of similarity in detail can be pointed out, but also because in both the animal was viewed as a substitute for the offerer, and the prevailing object in each was the expiation of sin. As a Haldar said to the writer at Kalighat, the modern Hindu will not confess his sin in public, but will strive to ease his con- science by secret penance. It must not be forgotten, however, that the Vedic sacrifices were offered to many gods. It is even thought by some' that idols are referred to in the Vedas. There is therefore, after all, more likeness between the Aryans and the Chaldeans than between them and Abraham and Melchisedek, who worshiped the Most High God. Yet it may fairly be in- ferred that a simpler system prevailed before the time of the complicated ritual of the Brahmans, just as the patriarchal institu- tions were simpler than those of Moses. Even Mann recognizes the necessity of confession and repentance. These are his words : " In proportion as a man who has committed sin shall truly and " voluntarily confess it, so far is he disengaged from that offence, " like a snake from his slough. If ho commit sin and actually '''' repent, his sin shall be removed from him."^ With all these facts before us, it is difficult to with old the conjecture that the yajna in ante-Vedic days may have been offered by many an Aryan to the one God, in all simplicity and sincerity, with confession of sin, and repentance and prayer for remission.

It is difficult to feel the same respect for the modern baits. The Hindus themselves look upon them as low and unele- vating. They have nothing to do with the remission of sins.

^ Muii-'s Sanskrit Texts, v. 453.

" Mauu, xi. 229-231.

■875-]

Ifunlii iiiiil Jrinis/i Siicrijiriii I ItHtiiiL

6S

and arc either a simple slaughter or an offering of blood to quiet the superstitious dread or the malignant wrath of a revolting goddess. If the effusion of blood were all that shocked the mind at Kdlighut, there would not be much force in the objection, as such elTusiou was even more abundant at Jerusalem; but the objects in view, the degraded servants taking the heads of the victims, the menial blacksmith striking the blow, the hurry and confusion, the slaughter-house aspect of the whole, are all at variance with the solemn order, grave dignity and truly religious spirit of the Jerusalem temple service. There we find real wor- ship,— the people join with the priests in prayer and pi-aise to the one God, the merciful Jehovah. Purification is sought, and national failings acknowledged. The whole worship culminates in the great day of atonement. On that solemn day the holiest of all is entered ; no idol sits there, but the one supreme and in- visible Lord is adored by all. The scapegoat is set free, not by caprice, but with the sins of the nation symbolically laid upon it, and the faith of the people in the mercy of God is annually revived.

It is true that the Jewish ritual was not to be permanent, but it was, as the Apostle says, " our schoolmaster to bring us " unto Christ." The yajna was symbolical, and may have been typical, though there is no reference to types in the literatui'e handed down to us ; but the ball is neither symbolical nor typical, and the aversion to it felt by the better class of Hindus may be shared by Englishmen.

It is difficult to see how it can be made of use in illustrating the Scriptm'al doctrines of sacrifice and atonement. The ancient rites of the yajna might be more helpful in this respect, but in general the ordinary Hindu is quite ignorant of their nature, and nothing seems to surprise Kim more than to be told that the yajna was a fire-sacrifice, that the fat of the horse, the bullock or the goat was put upon the fire, and that the flesh was cooked and eaten as a sacrificial meal. However, it may be hoped that as education spreads, the Hindu will learn more of the ancient his- tory of his country, and may thus be in a better position to ap- preciate any arguments from analogy in favor of the atonement. In the meantime the subject is well worthy the study of the curious, and the missionary may bo thankful if he can find any common ground on which to stand when discussing with the learned Hindu.

9

66 The Atonement — its Nature and Design. [July,

Art. VI.— the ATONEMENT— ITS NATURE AND

DESIGN.

By Rev. D. Whiiton, Nagpue.

IN the last number of the Review^ there appeared an article, by the Rev. John Hay, entitled ''Missions in India — why not " more successful." This subject is not a new one. It has occupied the attention of missionaries for a long time, and the discussion of it in newspapers, missionary records, public lectures and mis- sionary conferences has contributed not a little to swell the bulk of our missionary literature. It has been discussed in al- most every aspect that can be thought of. The peculiarities of the Hindu creed, the deadness of the Hindu conscience, the iron rule of caste, the small number of well-trained and devoted native preachers, the numerous languages, the style in which missionaries live, and the inconsistencies of professing Christians, — these and many other hindrances to the progress of the Gospel in India have been pointed out and discussed again and again, till the subject has been well-nigh exhausted. Had the author of the ar- ticle referred to confined himself to the beaten track, we should pro- bably have thought our work done when we had read and pondered the views laid before us ; but when he takes us, as he does, into a new field, and discloses obstacles to the progress of the Gospel of which we had not even dreamed before, we feel that the question has entered on a new stage of development, and demands some- thing more than mere thoughtful consideration.

Apart from the difficulties that beset the path of the Gospel in India arising from the peculiarities of the character and the creed of the Hindu, Mr. Hay sees obstacles of enormous magni- tude in the way we present the Gospel to the people. There are but two ways in which the Gospel can be presented to the Hindu, or to any man, and these are preaching and practice. We must preach " the truth as it is in Jesus," and we must show the power of that truth in our daily lives. The one way is the complement of the other, and both are needed to a full and effective exhibi- tion of the Gospel. Well, Mr. Hay sees grave defects in both. Our lives are not what they should be, neither is our preaching. Now, before going farther, we take this opportunity of saying once for all that the importance attached by Mr. Hay to practical godliness commands our unqualified approval and excites our warm- est sympathy. Paul's counsel to Timothy was, " Take heed unto

^ See Indian Evangelical Review, No. 8, p. 461.

i87S-] The Atonement — !ts Nature and Design.

67

" thyself, and unto the doctrine." And we are firmly persuaded that no genuine, deep and wide-spread spiritual movement can bo expected among the benighted millions of India till the Spirit of God be poured out from on high to revive and (juicken those that bear the Christian name. Nothing tends so powerfully to commend the Gospel to the heathen as the practical exhibition of its truth and power in the hearts of those that profess and preach it. A living Christian is the best argument for a living Christ. Our preaching, too, is doubtless capable of improvement. If we had more of the Spirit, more of the knowledge of him who is " mighty " to save," and consequently more love to him and zeal in his cause, our preaching would share in the general elevation of our spiritual life. Then we might adapt it bettor to the circumstances of our hearers, and to their peculiar modes of thought. In the books we write for them we might have less abstract reasoning, and more illustration and dialogue, of which, as every one knows, the Hindu is very fond. We should take care, too, that the words we use convey as accurately as possible to the mind of the hearer the ideas we mean to convey by them.

But, in preaching the Gospel, an exact correspondence be- tween our ideas and the words we use is not the only thing to be attended to. The ideas themselves demand our consideration, and the words and illustrations we make use of will, of course, depend on what those ideas are. If, for example, we still believe in such things as justice, merit, punishment, we will continue to speak of them, and to the best of our ability illustrate them. We will do this even at the risk of being considered as speaking "the language of scientific theology," because, so far as these words are concerned, we can perceive no difference between " the " language of scientific theology" and that of common, every-day life. If, on the other hand, we have ceased to believe in these things as they are commonly understood by men, then the best way is to discontinue the use of the words altogether, as by using them in a sense altogether different from that which they usually bear, we lay ourselves open to being perpetually misunderstood. In short, the points on which we differ from Mr. Hay do not concern words, phrases and illustrations, but ideas.

Mr. Hay denies that the ideas usually represented by the words ' justice,' ' merit,' ' punishment,' are applicable to the atonement made by Christ for the sins of men. He believes that the death of Christ was an atonement, — that is, it was the means of reconciling men to God ; but he denies that in it and by it God was reconciled to men. According to him, God did not need to be reconciled, because he had never been angry. Justice was not satisfied, because it required no satisfaction. The obe- dience and sufferings of Christ were not meritorious, because there is no such thing as merit. Christ was not punished for our

68 Thr Afonrmnii — Us Nature and Design. [J^lVj

sin ; ho only suffered for it. Such is Mr. Hay's view of the atonement considered negatively. This is what the atonement was not. What then was it ? It was the revelation of God in Christ for " the effectual condemnation and destruction of man's "sin." God revealed himself in Christ as suffering on- account of man's sin — suffering as a father docs when he sees a beloved sou forsaking the ways of virtue and abandoning himself to a career of vice — suffering because he cannot but suffer while he loves the sinner but loathes his sin. It was this burden of sin on the Savioui^'s love that broke his heart. His death was inevit- able where love brought him into conflict with the power of evil. And the design of all this was to show how evil and bitter a thing sin is, and so to constrain sinners to forsake it and be reconciled to God.

We wish briefly to investigate this theory of the atonement. A theory of the atonement is an attempt to answer the question, Why did Christ die ? Now in trying to frame an answer to this momentous question, it is of the utmost importance to attend to the sources that furnish the facts and principles on which we are to proceed. These are two in number — the Bible, and the moral nature that God has given us. It is quite true that the Bible is the only rule of faith, and that we are bound in every in- stance to accept its teaching as the very truth of God; but, in seeking to find out what that teaching is, we must give due effect to the dictates of our moral nature. Were man, for example, merely an intellectual being with no moral nature at all, he might read the Bible from G-enesis to Revelation without once perceiv- ing that it taught anything on the subject of (hity, and in the event of a controversy arising between him and beings possessed of both intellect and conscience, he would stoutly maintain that the idea of duty was a mere invention on the part of his opponents, and that the Bible knew nothing of it. Hence, if we wish to know all the Bible teaches on any given point, we must allow every genuine dictate of our moral nature to have full scope in interpretation. Now what we have to complain of with regard to this theory of the atonement is, that it deliberately excludes the idea of merit from the work of Christ. Mr. Hay says, " But " what saith the Scripture ? The idea of merit, meritorious obe- " dience and suffering, in connection with redemption, is foreign " to the word of God. It is a purely heathenish idea., and the " Bible knows nothing of it. Theologians have introduced it as " a link between what Jesus did and suffered and the benefit " accruing therefrom to the believer : but it is an invention of " their own, and seems to militate against the doctrine of our " Lord's divinity." Here we have a distinct assertion that there was no merit in anything Christ did ; that the idea of merit in connexion with redemption is not found in the Bible, but owes

iSyS-] ^^hp. Afoncmcnf — lU Nature and Drsiijv. 69

its birth to hcatlions and theologians. But why is it not found in the Bible, and why is it denied a phice in the scheme of redemp- tion ? Hear what Mr. Hay says : " Is there any merit in the " branch because being eiigrafted on the living vine the sap and "fertilizing vigor thereof pervade it and make it fruitful ? Any " merit in the dry and ])arched ground when the rain from heaven " falls upon it and fei-tilizes it ? Any merit in the eye because " the light of heaven forms in it an image of the lovely landscape " from which it has been reflected ? Any merit in the tender heart " when the sight of wretchedness and vice excites in it sympathy ? " Any merit of love because it bears the burden of another's sin "and sorrow ? Any merit of holiness because with painful sensi- " tivcness it shrinks from all contact with impurity ? Any merit "of affection when a loving father in view of the rebellion and " profligacy of a beloved son is bowed unto the dust and dies of a " broken heart ? Any merit of thankful joy when the believer be- " holding as in a mirror the glory of the Lord is changed into the " same image from glory to glory as by the Spii'it of the Lord ? " None whatever. Let all that glory glory in the Lord." Putting these two quotations together, we see that merit is excluded from the redemptive work of Chi'ist because it is excluded fi'om all moral action. No moral action deserves any thing. The idea of merit or desert is an impertinent intruder into the moral region, having no more right to be there than to claim a place within the domain of physical science. This is the keystone of the whole theory. For if there is no merit there can be no demerit. If merit and demerit do not exist, it would be hard to define reward and punishment. And when all these have ceased to exist justice is put out of office. Hence, if this position can be made good, the theory will have, at least, logical con- sistency ; but if it cannot, all that is built upon it must fall to the ground.

We should have thought, therefore, that Mr. Hay would have taken good care to establish his fundamental position on clear and incontestable evidence, and we are not a little surprised to find that he has neglected to produce any evidence at all. The only thing we can discover in the shape of evidence is that series of tri- umphant interrogations that has just been quoted. We hardly know whether Mr. Hay seriously intends that eloquent passage to be taken as a proof of the basis on which his theory rests, but if he does, we may estimate its value as such by another series of interrogations arranged on the same principle. If there is no merit, there can be no demerit ; and we have a right to reply in this fashion : — Is there any demerit in the hard heart when the sight of wretchedness fails to kindle the glow of sympathy and compassion ? Any demerit of hatred because it rejoices at an- other's sorrow ? Any demerit of impurity because it gloats over

70 The Atonement — its Nature and Desir/n. [July,

scenes of degradation and shame ? Any demerit of ingratitude when Judas Iscariot sold his Master for thirty pieces of silver? None whatever.

Mr. Hay claims, indeed, to have the Bible on his side ; and if that could be shown, it would supersede the necessity of any other proof, and settle the matter at once and for ever. But of what use is it to appeal to the Bible on the point in question ? He has already made up his mind that the idea of merit forms no part of the moral nature of man, and, naturally enough, he fails to find it in the Word of God. It is not in th.e power of language, sacred or profane, to convey this idea to his mind.

Again, " the idea of merit," he says, " seems to militate " against the doctrine of our Lord's divinity." He cannot see how Christ can be a revelation of God if merit is to be attached to his actions. There may be a difficulty here, but it is only a part of the great " mystery of godliness." Two natures— the divine and the human — meet and embrace each other in the person of Christ. He was a true man, while he was the eternal and ever-blessed God. The nature of this union is an inscrutable mystery. In virtue of it Christ was at once a revelation of God and a revela- tion of man. He was as truly and really a revelation of man as a revelation of God. Now the notion of merit is an essential prin- ciple in the moral constitution of man, and if we deny it to Christ we run the risk of denying his manhood. This reply will, of course, have no weight with Mr. Hay, as he denies the principle on which it rests ; and this brings us back to the real point at issue, — Ai"e merit and demerit qualities of moral action ? We repeat that we do not know on what grounds, besides those that have just been noticed, Mr. Hay has come to the conclusion that merit and demerit are pure theological fictions. Let him prove that they are so on independent grounds, and he will establish a claim to be heard on the relation they are generally supposed to bear to the atonement.

We suppose Mr. Hay admits that all men — except perhaps a few erratic philosophers — have notions of merit and demerit as qualities of moral action. At all events he speaks of " arguments " based on OMr ideas of merit and demerit, reward and punishment." Now it is a matter of no small importance to determine whether those ideas are true or false. Does our nature deceive us — is conscience a liar — when it informs us that a good action deserves to be rewarded, and a bad action to be punished ? Are those our ideas merely ? Are they not ideas that God has himself given us in giving a moral nature of which they are ineradicable ele- ments ? Where are we to stop if we begin to deny fundamental principles like these ? We should like to know how Mr. Hay proposes to deal with his pantheistic friend, of whose system he has given such an excellent delineation. The Hindu pantheist

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believes that God and he are one. He knows also that his own consciousness tells him that God and ho are not one. What is ho to do in this perplexity ? All things have somehow or other come froni God, and he cannot understand how in these circum- stances there should be any real substantial difference between God and himself. Still, the testimony that consciousness bears to his individuality is very clear and distinct. What is ho to do? A happy thought strikes him. May not the voice of conscious- ness be a delusion arising from ignorance ? and forthwith ho abandons common sense and becomes a philosopher. Now in what respect, we ask, does Mr. Hay's reasoning on the subject of merit differ from that of his Hindu friend on the su.bjcct of pan- theism ? Mr. Hay cannot understand how merit can be trans- ferred from one to another. " Deservedness," he says, "is from its " very nature intransferable.'' But here a tremendous difficulty arises. Sin deserves death ; and if deservedness cannot be trans- ferred, salvation is impossible. What is to be done ? Deny the testimony of conscience that deservedness is a quality of moral action, and the whole difficulty vanishes ! We hardly think that this style of reasoning will prove an effective weapon in doing battle with the pantheism of India. For ages the conscience of India has slept the sleep of death ; and now, when it is beginning to awake, we ought to use every effort to stir it up, instead of seeking to suppress one of its dictates.

We may now inquire whether merit may be transferred. Mr. Hay says it cannot. The law of God, he says, forbids the idea. The soul that sins shall die. This is an important point, for if it cannot be shown that merit may be transferred, the com- monly received theory of the atonement will not stand. The possibility, lawfulness and justice of merit being transferred is an essential ]n-iiiciple in that theory. We frankly admit that there are difficidties connected with this subject ; but they are difficulties which, to our mind at least, do not prove insuperable obstacles to a full and cordial reception of the principle. When we say that merit may be transferred, we do not mean that that may be done in any and every case. If no previous relation has been estab- lished between the parties whereby one is constituted the repre- sentative of the other, the merit or demerit of the one cannot be legally, and therefore not justly, imputed to the other. To such a case the principle that the soul that sins shall die is strictly applicable. But where a relation has been established, where one has been constituted the representative of another in any transac- tion, the merit or demerit of the representative is legally and justly imputed to the party or parties whose representative he is. For example, had Adam not been constituted the head and re- presentative of his posterity, the guilt of his sin could not have been imputed to them. Similarly had Christ not been made the

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The Afo)ir))iciit — (7.S Nature roul Design.

[July,

surety and substitute of his cliildrcn — the cliildrcu that God liad given him — the merit of his obedience unto death could not have been imputed to them. It is the covenant made with Adam and with Christ, in virtue of which they are constituted the heads and representatives of their respective seeds^ that makes the transfer of merit in both cases legal and just. Hence, the real question comes to be, not whether merit may or may not be transferred, but whether God had a rii/Jit to make such covenants. Are we prepared to challenge the right of the Sovereign of the universe to make what arrangements he pleases for his own ghny and the good of his creatures ? Would it not be much better to say with Paul, when expoimding an equally mysterious subject, " Nay, but, " 0 man, who art thou that repliest against God ? Shall the " thing formed say to him that formed it, Wliy hast thou made me " thus V

If we have succeeded in establishing the foregoing positions, the nature and design of the atonement in reference to God will at once appear. The Son of God having been constituted the surety and substitute of all that the Father had given him, took upon him their guilt and all their legal responsibilities, and by his obedience unto death satisfied justice, and "magnified the law " and made it honorable." When we have once admitted that sin deserves death, and that the desert of sin may be transferred from the sinner to Christ, the death of Christ as a satisfaction to justice is seen to be a natural and inevitable result. For what is justice ? Justice consists in treating creatures as they deserve ; and when Christ took the place of sinners and assumed all their responsibilities, justice demanded that he should be treated ac- cordingly.

As the design of this article is simply to vindicate the death of Christ as a satisfaction to justice, we do not enter on the other aspects of his atoning work. These are not less important than the one with which we have been occupied, but Mr. Hay has illustrated them so well that it is quite unnecessary to go over the ground again. We believe that Christ was a revelation of God ; that his wondrous love to sinners was a revelation of the love of G od, " who is rich in mercy, and who, for the " great love wherewith he loved us even when we were dead " in sins, quickened us together with Christ." We believe that Christ was " a man of sorrows," and that one cause of his great and overwhelming sorrow was the conflict his holiness and love had to maintain with the sin and misery of this world. We believe that it is the cross of Christ that melts the sinner's heart and, through the Spirit, makes him a new creature, so that " the " world is crucified unto him, and he unto the world." Wo believe all this, but we believe also that Christ died in our room and stead to satisfy divine justice. The cross of Christ is shorn of half its

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glorv when it is rogarJod as nothing more tlian tho triumph of Huf- fering love. Groat, uns[)oakably great, is tho love of Christ on tho cross ; but who will say that its greatness is lessened, or its glory impaired, by tho gloaming of the sword of justice in tho Father's hand ? "Awake, O sword, against my shepherd, andagainsttho man " that is my follow. Smite the shophord, and tho shoop shall bo "scattered.'' 'Jliese words give a dignity and a grandeur to the Sa- viour's sufferings which we altogether miss in the theory wo have been considering. The death of Christ is at once tho victory of love and the trium})h of justice. Much of tho suffering our Saviour endured was doubtless due to the causes specified by Mr. Hay; but that does not interfere in the slightest degree with their being at the same time a satisfaction to justice. We cannot however agree with Mr. Hay in ascribing all the Saviour's sufferings to those causes. How are we to account for that mysterious cry on the cross, " My Grod, my God, why hast thou forsaken me ?" Hero wo think Mr. Hay's theory utterly fails. The only attempt that he makes to explain it is by quoting a passage of Scripture that throws no light on it whatever. Why did God forsake his Son ? Mr. Hay replies, " Thus it behoved Christ to suffer." This is siniply evading the difficulty, and only shows that his theory of the atonement is too narrow for the Word of God. To be aban- doned of God is the punishment due to sin. Tho favor of God is life, and his frown is death. That frown the blessed Saviour had to endure " to make an end of sin and bring in an everlastiBg "righteousness." Even while enduring that frown, however, he could say " My God." The sum of all the promises God has made to us in Scripture is that " he will be a God unto us," and when we can say " My God" with full assurance, we are par- takers of the very blessedness of heaven. Hence this wonderful and most mysterious cry of our glorious Redeemer bridges the gulf between heaven and hell. We see him with his Father in heaven, and we see him in the pit of woe. Blessed Saviour, who hast plucked us as brands from the burning! To thee throughout eter- nity our song shall be, " Unto him that loved us and washed us " from our sins in his own blood, and hath made us kings and " priests unto God and his Father, to him be glory and dominion " for ever and ever! Amen."

10

74

Soc>((l and Iidiijiuutt Movettioiis niiianij the i\fi(irs. ['riily,

Art. VII.— social AND RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS AMONG THE MAIRS.

ARECENT discussion between Mr. Lyall and Professor Max Miiller, on the proselytizing and missionary character of the Hindu religion, must still bo fresh in the minds of most readers of this Review. Like many other discussions, it arose in great measure from misconception and ambiguity in the use of terms. Of proselytism and propagandism in the true use of these words, Hinduism and, a fortiori, Brahmanism can know nothing. The religion which claims to belong to birth and race, and is so exclusively indigenous to Hindustan as to cast out of its communion members who stray beyond the bounds of that country, must undergo a radical change, and cease to be what it is, before it can become truly proselytizing. Of the Hindu, as emphatically as of the poet, it may be affirmed, " Nascitur, nnicjit." But while this is true, — and the essentially non-proselytizing character of Hinduism, as Max Miiller meant to affirm it, cannot be successfully assailed, — the discussion need not be regretted, nor has it been barren of valuable results. To Mr. Lyall the gratitude of every student of the religious history of our race is due, for the light which he has thrown on the novel system of accretion by which alone Hinduism can expand, and which seems to be specially active in the present age. There can be no doubt that a process of assimilation and possible absorption is going on among the hill ab- origines, by which they are being brought into close relations with Hinduism, and prepared for receiving from the Brahmans a recognition more or less complete. But, so far as our ex- perience goes, this is in no sense due to Brahmanical propa- gandism. It is an absorption in which the absorbing body is almost, if not altogether, passive ; and due entirely to the eager and active desire of the body absorbed to raise itself in the social scale, and win the respectability which religious orthodoxy can bestow.

For the last fifteen years we have had the opportunity of seeing this assimilating process going on in the case of the tribes inhabiting the hill-tract of Mairwara, and think that it may not be void of interest or use, as thi-owing light on the subject of the above-mentioned discussion, and as a small contribution to the history of religion, to give a brief sketch of the movement, and' trace out the causes to which it is due.

That part of the Aravali range lying between 73° and 74° east longitude is peopled chiefly by two tribes called Mairs and Mairats — the former a sort of bastard Hindus, the latter mongrel Muhammadans. Both alike claim to be descended from Prithi

iS7S-] Sdcliil and nfU'jiiintf Movemcnfti amonrj fhe Ma!r.<!.

7S

Raj, brother of the kinpf of Delhi who reigned in A j mere in the l)e,<rinnin<>- of tlie twelfth century. The legend runs that this fiunous Hi'iiput chief, having made a marauding raid on the city of Hoondee, carri(>d off tlienco a slave girl, whom ho made over to his son, Jodhla Khan. He, smitten with her beauty and believ- ing her to be a llujputni, took her to liis house. Two sons were tlu^ fruit of this union : and these had almost grown uj) to man- hood, when, unluckily for them, their father discovered that their mother was a Mini, and turned mother and sons out of his house. ] u their wanderings they came to the hill country, now called by the jieople themselves the Magra, and, intermarrying with the ab- origines among whom they settled, became the pi'ogenitors of the JNlairs. Of the substantial truth of this legend there seems small reason to doubt : and the pltys'uinc of the people lends it some color and credibility. They are a much taller and handsomer race than any of the purely aboriginal tribes, such as the Minas and Bhils ; and many faces are to be seen among them of a Rajput type, as pure as can be found in the Thakur^s fort or the Raja's darhnr.

Gifts andijagirs bestowed on Mairs for services done at the Muhammadan court of Delhi, and religion changed out of grati- tude to benefactors, are said, and probably with truth, to have given rise to the mongrel Musalman tribe of Mairats ; and, till very recently, their consorting, eating and intermarrying with the Mairs sufficiently proved their common origin and descent.

In the lapse of time, this original Mair and Mairat stock received large accessions from without. Fugitives and outlaws of all kinds from the surrounding states of Rajisthan found shelter and a refuge among the hill fastnesses of Mairwara, and by de- grees became incorporated with its independent and freeboot- ing population. Nor can it be doubted that many of these were pure Rajputs by blood and orthodox Hindus by religion. As little can it be doubted that, as they became absorbed among the Mairs, they conformed to the cow-killing and other unortho- dox habits by which the wild tribes were distinguished.

Such being the origin of the race, it is obvious that they are not to be regarded as an original hill tribe, like the Bhils and Minas, who by descent and religion lie wholly outside the pale of Hinduism ; but as lapsed Hindus, who, by association and inter- marriage with outcasts, have identified themselves with their position and habits. We will see afterwards the influence which this fact has exercised and is exercising on their efforts to return within the pale of Hinduism. How great their lapse had been is evidenced by their close association and intermarriage with the Mairats, who by the adoption of the religion of Islam had finally severed all connection with Hinduism. Still more clearly is it proved by their freely eating the flesh of the sacred cow, and by

76

Social (oul RcUiiiuus ilfoiv';/;^';//^ amontj ihr }[a!rs. [July,

their yeai'ly sacrifice of young buffalo bulls to their pati'oii god- dess, Piplaj. The annual festival or inela at which these sacri- fices were presented used to be cherished as the grand religious in- stitution of the country, to which gathered the entire population, female as well as male. Within the narrow court of the tem- ple dedicated to the goddess, scores of young buffaloes, intro- duced in succession, were literally hacked to pieces by a dozen Mairs, half naked and armed with knives and swoi'ds ; while thou- sands of spectatoi's, lining the surrounding heights, gloated on the agonies and frantic charges of the maddened and miserable ani- mals, whose flesh was afterwards divided among them as common spoil. From these and similar practices abhorrent to the ortho- dux Hindu, the Mairs had come to be regarded as no better or higher than the other outcasts of the hills, and had won for themselves the opprobrious epithet of dlted, or carrion-eater.

Such was the social and religious position of the Mairs prior to their subjection to British rule, to the influences resulting from which, as we shall now proceed to show, and not to any Brah- manical propagandism, the changes going on among them are mainly due.

As an effective means of civilizing the Mairs and curbing their freebooting spirit, the able English ofiicers sent to ad- minister the affairs of the country raised from among them a local corps. In this regiment it was deemed advisable to enlist a fair proportion of j^urhis from the North- West Provinces, whose soldierly qualities were known ; that, by their example, the Mairs might be trained to become good soldiers, and any tendency towards turbulence be held in check. These purhis, who were high-caste Hindus, whfle despising the outcast Mail's, became to them models not only of soldierly discipline and de- portment, but of religious faith and practice. The young Mair, who, had he remained in his native village, would never have cherished an aspiration beyond the easy creed and habits of his fathers, learned among the jjurhis of the regiment the bitter truth of his social and religious inferiority, and began to aspire, by the practice of like habits, to raise himself to the same high level. These views, aspirations and habits, caught and circu- lated from the purbis, the young soldiers carried with them to their native villages among the hills, and, with all the superiority which as soldiers and men of the world they had acquired over the unsophisticated rustics, gradually infused and implanted the new habits and ideas among the whole Magra community.

The rapid progress which under British rule the Mairs were simultaneously making in material prosperity greatly helped to establish and strengthen the movement. The men who, as free- booters, had formerly picked up a precarious subsistence, were now farmers in easy, if not prosperous circumstances. The desire

187s •] Si>ci(il (Hid l?cliiiiiiii.-^ ^[orcinoiil^ (lynnaij the

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of social elevation naturally kept pace with material prosperity; an<l the thriving farmer lent a ready ear to his soldier Hon or brotlu-r's aspirations after a higher status, and gladly abetted his attempts to reform their habits, and cnnFonu them to that Ilinduismfrom whicli they had liipsed. Till after the mutiny of 1857, however, no general movement seems to have been made in the directicm towards which their wishes tended. Prior to that event Hindus and JVIuliam- madans alike kept aloof from them, and snubbed the pretcnsioTis of both Mairs and Mairdts to caste privileges and equality. To this fact we probably owe it that in those days of defection and disaster we were able to maintain our position in Ajmcrc, the key of Rajputana, and effectually to keep in check any I'ebellious proclivities among the surrounding Rajput states. The green flag was raised in the Bcawr cantonment by the Musalmau rowdies of the town, in the hope that the Mairat sepoys of the regiment would join them. But these said " Nay ! You have " stood aloof from us and derided our claims to be your co- " religionists. Now we will have nothing to say to you, but prove " loyal to our English rulers, who are like parents to us.'''' The 2JUrhts in the regiment plied the Mairs with inducements to mutiny and join them in an advance on Delhi ; but in vain. It was too late now to speak them fair, when they wanted to make use of them. Years of contempt and isolation had alienated all their sympathies. And so the Mairs and Mairats stood loyally firm, and saved onr tottering power from what must have been a great and crowning disaster in Rajputana.

But since the mutiny the Musalmans, at least, with eyes opened to the folly of their former policy, have been pursuing other and very different tactics. The Mairats are flattered, patted on the back, and told that if they would only give up associating, eating and intermarrying with the Mairs, they would be recog- nized as perfect Muhammadans, and admitted to all the rights and privileges of children of Islam.

The effect of this policy has been greatly to accelerate the movement towards winning for themselves a higher social and religious status, which, as we have seen, had already arisen among the Mairs and Mairats. The latter are gradually becoming isolated from the former, and breaking off all those bonds of brotherhood which used to unite them as branches of one great family. Some of their clans have already ceased to eat, associate or intermarry with the Mairs, and the rest are rapidly conforming to their example. Scouting the name of Mairat, they now uni- versally claim to be Musalmans, and are eager to conform to all the rites and observances of Islamism, which, on its side, shows no slackness in manifesting its proselytizing character, and re- ceiving the new-made converts into its bosom.

This movement of the Mairats, far from checking, has given

Social (iiiJ Ihliijious ifore))ie)it!i amonrj the. Mairs. [Jiilv,

a now impulse to the wukiug social ambitions of the Maivs. If conformity to the strict observances of Islam is sutticient to raise their Mairat brothers to a position of orthodox respectability, why slunild not they, by a like conformity to Hinduism, wipe off the reproach of being dliedx, and win for themselves considera- tion and respect among the ranks of Hindu orthodoxy ? Previous to the famine of 1 868, a compact was entered into by the head- men of the Mair community, binding themselves and their clans to abstain from cows' flesh. Bnt the pangs of hunger proved stronger than caste restrictions. The Mairs, pressed by starva- tion, saved their lives at the expense of their orthodoxy, lapsed into cow-eating, and, reviving the cattle-lifting raids of old ma- rauding times, spi'ead consternation and mourning over empty stalls in many a border village.

As, however, the effects of the famine passed away and pros- perity returned, the desire of rising in the social scale revived with new force and activity. A new compact has been framed, by which the whole Mair community bind themselves not only to abstain from cows' flesh, but to hold aloof from the annual )nda at Piplaj, whose atrocious buffalo-sacrifices used, in old times, to be their pride and delight. For several successive years they have rigidly adhered to the terms of this compact. The whole- sale butchery and all participation in its spoils have alike been renounced by the Mairs, and left to the Balais and other low castes beyond their pale. Even the hhoprts, or officiating priests, to whose share the heads of the slaughtered animals used to fall, have been obliged, on pain of exclusion from the community, to forego their cherished spoil.

Nor is this movement exclusively confined to the Mairs and Mairats. Even the BhUs, found in considerable numbers in the bill country lying to the south of the Magra^ have initiated a movement of the same kind, and, by abstaining from cows' flesh and conforming to caste observances, are trying to wipe away their reproach, and raise themselves in the social scale.

In the face of such facts, therefore, it cannot be doubted that a very important and interesting process of religious, or rather caste assimilation is going on among these hill tribes of Rajputana. That, in the case of the Mairats, it has assumed the form of more or less active proselytism, which will erelong bring them within the pale of Islam, and merge them among the ortho- dox professors of that faith, there can be as little doubt. We expect this result to happen, because it is in harmony with all the tenets, traditions and practices of Islam. But when the question comes to be, Will the Mairs in like manner become merged in Hinduism ? will the movement ever pass from assim- ilation to absorption ? will they ever receive recognition from orthodox Hindus, not to speak of high-caste Brahmans? the answer

'875-] Social <uitl lliili'ijiuiis Mut'cinciilt^ amonij the M((,irs.

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becomes much more difficult and besot with (h)ubt. It must be; borne in mind that till now the movement junorig the Mairs has been entirely onesided and confined to themselves, — that, so far as we have been able to discover, not only have no proselytizinfr efforts been put forth airionj^ them by Bralimans or orthodox Hindus, but not the least encouragement even has been held out to them from that quarter. Abscn-ption into Ifinduism would soem, therefore, even in the case of tribes which have lapsed from that religion, to be, if not impossible, at least, very difficult of attainment : and the Mairs are likely to find that after having done all that is possible for them — after having renounced their beef-eating propensities, foregone their cherished sacrifices to Pipldj, exchanged the worship of local and disreputable deities for more orthodox members of the pantheon, and in other respects conformed as closely as possible to Hindu caste and ritual, — they are as far as ever from receiving Bralimanical recognition, or taking rank as true Hindus.

Lest our own views and experiences should have proved warped and misleading on these points, we have consulted several of the people themselves, and especially one who, himself a Mair of good family and position, has for several years been a faithful Christian evangelist, but whose constant itineracies among his Mair brethi*en and intercourse with them enable him to speak with a great amount of certainty concei'ning their position and hopes. His views of the causes of the movement we found to be almost identical with our own : and when asked the question, " Have the Brahmans or Hindus had anything to do with the " origin or encouragement of the movement V his reply was, " Not " in the least. They have had nothing to do with it." To our next question, " Are the Brahmans and orthodox Hindus ever " likely to recognize the Mairs as Hindus ?" he shrugged his shoulders and smiling said, " Perhaps a hundred years hence." Nor are we disposed to think that our native friend in the least exaggerates the difficulty and slow progress of this process of religious absorption. The contact of two bodies must be slowly brought about when, while one unmistakably gravitates to the other, that other is either coldly indifferent or positively repellent. Some social convulsion — another mutiny, or the sudden uprising of patriotic feeling — may, of course, at any moment, overcome Hindu vis i».t'?'^tVe and hasten the process to a consummation. Otherwise, the Mairs are doomed, we fear, to drag out an isolated existence, unblessed by beef and the society of their brother Mairats, unless, as our hopes suggest, they may find the social elevation for which they crave, and many other higher cravings and aspirations grati- fied by adopting en masse the religion of their rulers — that religion which consists not in " meats and drinks and diverse washings," but in " righteousness and peace and joy in the Holy Ghost."

So Sorliil (Dhl lu-!ii/ti)ii--< Moi'cinenfs aiiwiifj the Mairfs. [Jul}',

But our sketch of the religious condition of the Mairs would be sadly imperfect wore we to stop short here. He who has studied only the daily ebb and flow of the tides, and the obvious wave- rij^ple which follows the play of the winds on the surface of ocean, and knows of no mov^ements beyond, is not more ignorant of the great currents lyliit-'h sway the waters of the sea, th;i,n is he of the great under-currents of religious movement among the Mairs who knows nothing beyond this surface-drifting towards Hin- duism. Like almost all outcast and isolated tribes, the Mairs have fallen almost entirely into the hands of those different sects of wandering ascetics, who, in every variety of dress and guise, as sturdy beggars overrun the country. If yon ask a Mair, How many religious sects, or jj(f)?i//.s, are to be found in the Magra ? should his reticence allow him to reply a-t all, he will tell you that there are twelve and a half fantJiH, neither more nor less — • the twelve ranging from the somewhat decent Kah'ir pantlns to the obscene Bisltwasis : the \\nli-panth expressing with grim humor the existence of a sect of eunuchs, members of which, recognizable by their appearance of tall and masculine women, are met with all over the country. But while so many sects are actually found, there are three which in numbers and influence predominate, and which are found if not entirely confined to, at least, almost exclusively occupying certain well-defined dis- tricts of the country. In the north and eastern parts of the Ma- gra the Bishmtls'is are chiefly found ; in the central parts the KMiViija pa.ntlus ; and in the more sonthern districts, beyond Todgarh, the Kanihi panthu, or, as they are styled by the people themselves, Slav manj panthl.t.

The rites observed by all these paiitlis are kept secret under the most awful sanctions, and are celebrated at midnight orgies from which all but the initiated are most jealously excluded. Each sect has its peculiar watchwords and passes, its mantras, charms and incantations, to divulge which is regarded as a sin of the deep- est dye, to be followed by the most dreadful bodily and spiritual punishments. They are thus secret societies which, besides- the charms of mystery and social festivity — powerful allurements to a large class of minds, as is witnessed by the growing popularity of freemasonry in Europe — add the baser but no less powerful at- tractions of all manner of moral abomination perpetrated in the name of religion. When the vilest passions that degrade human- ity can thus be gratified under the mask of religious observance, it is not to be wondered at that many men of higher caste and social position are said to have become members of these secret societies. In this, too, lies an additional attraction to the Mair — that, all caste and social distinctions for the time forgotten, he can meet at these orgies on the same platform with high-caste Hindus, and eat, it may be, out of the same dish with a twice-

iSyS-] Socltil and Rolujiom Movements among the Mairs.

8i

l)orn Braliman. This abrogation of casto, indood, ia confined to the timo and placo of these orgies. In the outside world tho boon companions of tho night before are back in their old positions of doapisiul Miiiv and revered Brahman, and pass each other with as little token of recognition as if they had never met.

Knowing their signs and passes, wo have, now and again, cherished tho hope of finding an entrance to their meetings and becoming a witness of their rites. Onco -and again, through a family which belonged to the panth, bnt one of whoso members had embraced Christianity, we received intimation of the timo and place of their meetings. But on every occasion, whatever caution we observed in approaching their orgies, we invariably found that the birds had taken fright and flown.

Of sects whose proceedings are conducted with such secrecy, it is difficult to know much with positive certainty in regard to their growth or decadence. There are certain external signs, indeed, which would seem to indicate that their present condition is one of decadence. In tho immediate neighborhood of our mission stations, at least, certain tilaks (spots or lines painted on the face) and dis- tinctive marks which the initiated used to assume are more rarely met with ; and we have heard it urged that idolatrous practices seem to be losing their hold on the people; and that the hlwpas, or in- digenous priests and devil-dancers, are neither feared nor con- sulted as they used to be, while their pretensions are often openly derided. But still we are convinced that these signs of the waning influence of the priests are much more apparent than real. Tho piirtial disappearance of the tilaJcs and certain other marks of tho initiated is due chiefly, wo believe, to their having discovered that these had become well known to the missionaries, and led to their easy identification. The second sign, urged by some, that openly idolatrous practices are losing their hold on the people, is no proof of the waning influence of the priests, while it may show the reverse, because in almost all the panihs they are taught, while paying outward respect to the gods of their fathers, to esteem them as less than nothing, and to transfer all the allegiance formerly rendered to them to their astiato spiritual guides. Of this decadence of open idolatry some part is also doubtless due to the teachings of Christian missionaries, to whom the third sign of decadence supposed to bo found, in the declining influence of the hliopas and devil -dancers, is entirely to be credit- ed. The claims of these pretenders to divine or diabolic afflatus and inspiration have been so often signally esposcd and held up to derision, that it would be singular indeed did the people still cherish towards them the old reverence, faith and fear. But the wonder rather is, that, knowing the whole thing to be imposture and delusion, the people should still flock to wit- ness these orgies, and, as we have oftener than once seen,

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82 Social and Udujioiis Movements among the Mairs. [July,

shouUl carry them out to the end with undiminished gusto, after the hhopd's pretensions had been so exposed as to make him the laughing-stock of all around. And yet even in this respect we find human nature to be the same all the world over. The (johcmoiiches of the Magra, who are attracted by the hJwpd's weird antics, only prove their relationship to their cousins in London, or New York, who swarm round spiritual mediums, and open-mouthed sit out long spiritual seances. The love of the mys- terious and supeniatural is deep-seated in human nature, is not to be repressed, and will seek for gratification in one way or another. When, as in the case of the Mairs, it becomes associated with festive gathering, the partaking of such unwonted dainties as tho roasted fiesh of tho immolated goat, and with midnight music, Bong and chant, it is no wonder that the rude people are attracted and enjoy their sport, even when they laugh within themselves at tho patent imposture and humbug of the officiating priests. The conviction has long been borne in upon us that the Chris- tian missionary would do well to take a leaf out of the hhoyd's book —not, indeed, in the way of copying his imposture, but encour- aging the native Christians to cultivate habits of joyous sociality, of frequently meeting together for the practice of a purer music and more consecrated mirth, and of instituting social soirees whoso attractions, while legitimate, shall be powerful as those which now lead the people away from purity and truth. We would thus help to redeem our religion from a charge for which there is at present often too much gi'ound — that it is a gloomy thing, re- pressing all the purer instincts that crave social enjoyment ; and it might be hoped that, in time, even the Mairs might come to prefer a Christian soiree to a night with the devil-dancing hhopa.

Meantime, we cannot shut our eyes to the fact that there seems to be no real decadence in the influence wielded by the priests over the mass of the Mairs. It exists and floui'ishcs, spite of the growing light which is being let slowly in upon them from Christian schools, books and teaching. What is even more re- markable, it runs as a powerful under-current across the course of that upper tide by which the Mairs are being drifted towards a higher social station, and conformity to a strict and orthodox Hinduism. The former current, as we have tried to show, is much deeper and stronger than the latter. For it has its roots in the spiritual necessities of the people — in the felt want of solving the old pressing problem, " How should man be just " with God V The latter movement, as we have seen, lies more on the surface, and goes no deeper than the desire of rising in the world, of wiping off the old reproach, and winning a position of honor and respectability. Were that position won too narrow ; and were the Brahmaus, as they are little likely to do, to recognize the claims of Mairs to rank as members of the great Hindu com-

187s •] f^ocial and licliginus Movements among Die Mairti.

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munity, still the deeper and more pressing craving of their natures would remain. It would remain unsatisfied, no less by tho cliaff of Brahmaiiical ceremonies than by tho vile husks of the hhopds' obscenities — remain to find, at last, its full satisfaction only in that grandest exhibition of Divine love and mercy which tho Gospel of salvation brings.

W. S.

Note.

Since writing tho above, we liavo had onr attention drawn to an articlo which nppoavcd in the Ifevicw for last Octobei", entitled " Propagative Relit^ious," and which had formorly escaped our notice. We are glad to find that our views, quite independently formed, so entirely coincide with those of the writer of that able article. It is satisfactory to find the conclusions to which he has been led chiefly, if not solely, by his knowledge of what Hinduism and Brahmanism really are, confirmed by the social and religious movements actually going on among the hill tribes of llajisthan. We feel deeply, with that writer, the solemn responsibility which rests on all Christians, of pre- senting the true " bread of life" to these restless, hungry souls, as that wliicli cau alone satisfy their cravings. And while, in the interests of ti'uth, we have shown in the above a"ticle how little the Mairs are yet disposed to accept the offered boon, and how prone they still are to feed on husks, we would not have it supposed that we bate one jot of hope regarding their ultimate conversion to Christianity, or regard these stirrings and heavings as aught else than the beginning of those overturnings which are to herald the advent among them of His kingdom whoso right it is to reign.

The Rise, Progress and Prospects

[July,

Art. VIIL— the RISE, PROGRESS AND PROSPECTS OF THE BRAHMA SA^IAJ.

By Rev. C, N. B.vneejea, B.A., Allahaiud.

RAJA Ram Mohan Rai, the celebrated Hindu reformer, es- tablislied in 1816 a society in Calcutta for the purpose of spiritual improvement. Its exercises consisted in the recita- tion of texts from the Vedas, chanting of Vedic hymns, and the discussion of religious doctrines. Very few, about half a dozen pei'sons only, rallied round the Raja, of whom Pandit Ram Chandra Bidyabagis was the most distinguished. For a short time the meeting proved a success, but with the departure of its great originator and leader to England the zeal of the members abated, and the Samaj began to fade away, its necessary ex- penses being defrayed by the late millionaire, Babu Dwarkanath Tagore, and its ministerial functions discharged by the above- named Pandit. The orthodox community, headed by the late Raja Shri Radhakant De, was violently opposed to this " Pirali "movement," as they contemptuously called it. It is said that, to conciliate the Hindus, " the Vedas were chanted at first behind a " screen, accompanied with the sound of the sacred conch-shell, " and the holy volume was reverentially opened in the sanctuifb " sanctorum of the Samaj.'' By and bye, a building was pur- chased and fitted out at Jorasiinka, Calcutta, where the Brahmas continue to meet for worship every Wednesday evening. Such was the origin of the Brahma Samaj.

Babu Debendranath Tagore, a son of the late Babu Dwarka- nath Tagore, embraced the creed of the Samaj in 1842, and infused fresh vigor into it. He had previously formed another society for religious inquiry, called the Taitwa Bodhini Shoha, which took up the cause of the Brahma Samaj. Debendra Babu established an Anglo-vernacular school in Calcutta, and thence removed it to Bansheria, with the avowed object of teaching the TJpanisliads, or philosophical disquisitions founded on the Vedas. The school was given up, in 1846, for want of patronage, and the land and building were sold to the Free Church of Scotland Mission in Calcutta. Debendra Babu also started a monthly periodical styled the Tattiva Bodhini Patrika, which gave a tone to the Bengali language, especially under the able editorship of Babu Okhoy Kumar Dutt. The Patrika exists to this day as the accredited organ of the Shoba. He sent like- wise fom* pandits to Benares in order critically to study the Vedas. The Tattwa Bodhini Shoba was abolished in 1859, and its organ taken up by the Brahma Samaj.

'875-]

of flu: lirnhmd Stunaj.

8S

From a tabic drawn np by Dr. Mullens, it appears that tho Saindj had an income of Ra. 1538 in 1841, of Rs. 6727 in 1847, and of Rs. 3155 in 1851. Since then tlie lirahmas have ceased to publish tho annual balance-sheet, perhaps owing to tho severe criticisms of tho able statistician. For tho same reason, tlio lii'ahmas generally refuse to supply any information regarding tho Sam^^j .to Christians. As it is, wo have managed, with very great tlifficulty, to obtain a few items. They appear to liave had 105 members in 1841, 573 in 1847, and 488 in 185 i. According to tho last census, the number of Brahmas at present is only 90. But this is an unaccountable error.

Their publications, considering the limited means and time at their command, are very considerable. They havo translated several Upanishads, portions of the Puranas, and Sanhitas of the Vedas ; written many sermons and discourses, both expository and vindicatory ; and composed two beautiful volumes of hymns, admired both for language and tune. Raja Ram Mohan Rai him- self did much in this respect.

The Brahma creed of the first epoch was rather clumsy. They believed in the inspiration of the Vedas, in the existence of ono God, in the transmigration of souls, in the final absorption into the deity, etc., etc.

Time sped on. The pandits returned from Benares. Many from the ranks of Hinduism enlisted themselves members of the Samaj. Debendra Babu became very favorably known, and the Samaj in consequence grew in attractiveness. An important question now claimed their attention. Mr. Colebrooke and the Christian mission- aries had often told the Brahmas tha.t the Vedas were essentially pantheistic in their tendency. But the Brahmas did not seem to attach much importance to the statement at first. The return of the pandits from Benares, however, enabled them to settle this vexed question once for all — for they also bore testimony to the pantheistic character of the Vedas. Babu Debendranath Tagore, who had now become, both by character and social position, the acknowledged head of the Samaj, became convinced of the falsity of the Vedas, and honestly avowed his convictions. Thus the Vedas were repudiated, and with them the doctruies of the transmi- gration of souls and their final absorption into the deity. This period in the history of the Brahma Samaj may be called the ^' Age of Reason," as the first was the Age of the Vedas."

It was about this time (that is in 1843) that the following covenant and formulce of worship were adopted : —

0)51. To-day, being the day of the month in the year of Sakatda —

I hei'ewith embrace the Brahmaic faith.

1st Vow.

I will worship, through love of him and the performance of the works he loveth, God the creatoi-, the preserver and tho destroyer, the giver of

86

Tho Rise, Progress and rrospcda

pnlvation, tho omnisriont, tho omniprcsout, tho bUasful, tho good, tho i'orinless, tho ouo ouly without a second. '

2nd Vow.

I Tcill worship no created object as the creator.

3rd Voio.

Except tho day of sickness aTid of tribulation, every day, tho mind boin"' undisturbed, I will engage it, with love and veiteraLiou, iu God. °

ith Vow.

I will exert myself to perform rigliteoua deeds.

Bth Vow.

I will bo careful to restrain myself from vicious deeds.

6</i Vow.

If through the influence of passion I commit any vice, then, wishing redemption from it, I will mako myself cautious nob to do it again,

1th Vow.

Every year, and on the occasion of every happy domestic event of mine, I will bestow gifts upou the Brahma Saraaj.

Grant me, oh God, power to observe the duties of this great faith !

FornmlcB of Worship. Om. One only without a second.

I.

Oni. Repeated reverence to Him, the Being Divine, who is in fire, who is in water, who is iti plants and trees, and who pervadeth all tho world.

II.

Oni. God is true, wise av.d infinite. Ho is the blissful, tho immortal, the manifest, all good, all peace and without a second.

III.

Om. God is omnipotent, pure, bodiless, exempt from all disease, nerveless, immaculate, impervious to unholinoss, all-seeing, mind-regulating, above all and self-existent. He it is that over dispenseth their respective requisites to his creatures. By him had been created life, wind, all the senses, sky, air, light, water, and the all-containing earth. It is through awe of him the sun shinctb, it is through awo of him clouds, winds and death are in motion.

IV.

Om. Salutation be to thee, who art tho Being truo and tho Cause of the world ! Salutation be to thee, the all-intelligent and the support of all worlds ! Salutation be to thee who art without a second and the bestower of salvation ! Salutation bo to the supreme, the all-pervading and the ever- lasting 1 Thou only art the protector. Thou only art the adorable. Thou only art the supporter of the world, and the manifest. Thou only art the creator, the preserver and the destroyer of the universe. Thou only art ex- cellent, the unmoving of purpose — immutable. Thou art ho whom fearful objects fear, whom dreadful objects dread, the asylum of beings and tho purifier of purifiers. Thou alone art the governor of all exalted dignities in the earth, tho most excellent of excellent objects and the preserver of preservers. Wo contemplate thee, we adore thee, we salute thee, who witnessest the world. We take refuge in thee, who art tho truo, the one, the dwelling-place of all, tho undcpending, tho governor and the ship of tho ocean of tho world.

oj tho Brahma Samdj.

87

V.

Load mo fnrfli, 0I1 CJixl from unri'^htnousnoss into ri^'litconsnosR ; load mo forth I'rotn diirknoss into lilb ; load ino t'ortli iVotn doiitli into iiiiriiort.'dity ! Oil thou, all-iiv,iuifcst, ituiuifust tliyaull' to inu : oil God, protect luccvcr with thy right faco ! ^

Oh God, romoviiifj all my transgression committed through infatnatioii, and saving ino froin tem|)t;i( ion, m ike ?no day by day regardful to obey thy laws, and zealous to conteni])lato with lovo and venerai.ioii thy endless glory and thy all-good, all-pure and all-blissful nature, that i may bo enabled to attain felicity pei'fect and everlasting !

VII.

God is the creator, the preserver and tlic destroyer, present in oartli, 8l?y and heaven ; we contem[)latc the adorable power and glory of tho Diviuo Being who brought forth the world and sendoth ua thoughts.

VIII.

Om. Ho tho ono and formless, knowing tho necessities of his creatures, disponseth, through power manifold, many an object of desire to them. IIo it is that [icrvadeth the world from the beginning to the end. Lot him engage us in salutary thoughts.

Oin. One only without a second.

Those who signed tho covenant were called 'covenanted' Brahmas, and the others ' uncovenanted' ; corresponding to the Christian terms ' members' and ' adherents' of a church.

In October, 1850, a book containing a complete exposition of the principles of the Brahma Samaj, called the Brahma Vharma, was published and extensively circulated.

The most conspicuous member of the Samaj of this period, next to the Fradhnn Achurji/a, was Babu Raj Narayan Bose, a good English and Bengali scholar, wlio for nearly twenty-five years has done much by his writings ami speeches for the Brahma cause. It was this gentleman that delivered a most remarkable lecture on Hinduism about two years ago.

By and bye, certain Brahmaic ceremonies were introduced, according to stated foiTus, which differed from the corresponding Hindu ceremonies in being divested of superstition. These are observed on the occasions of birth, marriage, death, etc. Babu Debendranath Tagore was the fii-st who celebrated a marriage in his family according to the reformed formula. Since then a few such cases have occurred in other Brahma families, without much opposition from the orthodox parties.

During the years 1847 — 1858 several branch Samajes were established at Bliawanipur, Midnapur, Krishuagar, Chinsura, Bard wan, Dacca, Tipperah, Mymensing and other places. We have called them ' branch Samajes' advisedly, for the Brahmas, where- ever they may be, consider the Jorasanka Samaj their head- quarters, the anniversary of which is celebrated on the i ith day of Magh of each Hindu year with great eclat. Hundreds of Brah-

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Tliu Rise, Progress and Prospects

[July,

mns — several with tlioir wives — asscrablo in the Samdj building, and at Dcboudva Babu's family rosidonce, for two consecutive days, and amid much worshipping, feasting, singing and bestowing of gifts, these days seem to glide away in joy and hilarity. The progressive Bralimas, wlio also join in these festivities, usually have a procession ou the occasion, somewhat like that of the Free- masons.

The Brahma mode of worship is voiy simple ; it is chiefly an imitation of the Christian Sabbath service. They begin v/ith chanting some Vedic hymns in Sanscrit, then comes the reading of select passages from the liturgy, as they call it. That over, they pray ; after prayer, a speech or a sermon is either read or delivered extemporaneously. Tlien they sing two or three hymns, and close with the benediction, " Om, peace, peace, peace, Hari ! " Om."

The third epoch in the history of the Brahma Samaj com- menced with the conversion, so called, of a remarkable young man, whose intelligence, zeal and eloquence soon secured for him a pro- minent position among the Brahmas. This young man had, prior to embracing the Brahma faith, established a society in his own house for religious discussion, where he used to deliver extem- pore addresses in English. Babu Keshab Chandra Sen (for he is the gentleman to whom we refer) introduced the lecture system among the Brahmas ; in which Debendra Babu took part in Bengali, and he in English. The latter, being well read in Western philosophy, advocated the cause of intuition with great power and eloquence. The writings of Francis Newman and of the late Theodore Parker have done much for intuition or inter~ tuitioii in Calcutta. For a time Keshab Babu's success was re- markable— for every Brahma talked of intuition. But they soon gave it up.

It was about this time that he directed the attention of the Samaj to various internal reforms which had, from time to time, been suggested by its best members. It is said that the first Brahma marriage, to which reference has been already made, was held at his suggestion ; and it was he who first had the courage to bring his wife to dine at Debendra Babu's on the occasion of an anniversary meeting of the Samaj. This was doubtless a step in the right direction, and the Brahmas made a great deal of this casteless feast. (Debendra Babu, according to Hindus, is a de- scendant of peiwerted Brahmans or PiraVis.)

Babu Keshab Chandra Sen has not only been busy in Calcutta; he has also done much for the Brahma cause by his travels. He has, from time to time, visited the large cities of theNorth-Western Provinces, Madras and Bombay, not neglecting the principal local Samaj cs of Bengal proper, and has everywhere, by his energy, good sense and eloquence, stirred up the faith and zeal of the

i87S.]

of the Jiriflima S(i)niij.

people. He lias recently visited Europe also. Would that we had many like him in the native Christian community ! May the Lord convert him to Christianity !

About six years a<i^o Kesliab Jiabn advocated further reform, and earnestly called u[)on the Brahmas to act up to their con- victions, openly and fearlessly repudiating caste, throvvinc^ off the sacred thread, crying down idolatry instead of clandestinely patronizing it, and encouraging widows' marriage and inter- marriage among the Brahmans. A hot discussion followed, as might have been expected. Babu Debendrauath Tagore thought the time had not arrived for at once taking the bold step recommended. A large majority sided with him, and so the con- servatives outvoted the progressives. The result was a schism in the Bralimist body, and Keshab Babu, with his party, separated from the Jorasanka Samaj. The progressive Brahmas now hold their meetings at Collootollah. They are forming a library and a fund of their own. Their place of business is technically called the ' Mission house.' One Babu Pratap Chandi'a Mozumdar is the treasurer and secretary, and Keshab Babu their great Aclidrjya or bishop.

The Brahmas have two English organs — besides the vernacu- lar Tattiva Bodlhini Patrika and Dharma Tattwa — the Indian Mirror and the National Paper. The former represents the pro- gressive party, and is by far the more influential of the two.

The progressive Brahmas held a grand meeting lately for the purpose of sending in a memorial to the British Grovernment for legalizing Brahma marriages — which are, of course, very different from the corresponding orthodox Hindu ceremonies. Several such cases having taken place, the Brahmas ought not to labor under a grave social disadvantage. The Legislature has, we are glad to find, granted the prayer of the memorialists, not- withstanding the violent opposition of the conservative Brahmas and the orthodox party.

Our readers may be curious to learn what their present faith is, — what their numerical strength, — what their income, — how they behave at home and abroad, — and in what light they are viewed by the orthodox parties. To each of these five questions we now proceed to give a brief reply.

WJiat is their present faith ?

The Brahmas believe in the existence and moral government of one true and merciful Grod ; in the fatherhood of God and brotherhood of men ; in sin and its punishment ; in a future state. They do not believe in idolatry, in caste, or transmigration of souls, or in redemption. Indeed they say that sin must be adequately punished, although it is proper to repent and pray to God, and do the deeds pleasing in his sight. They do not believe, however, in

12

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The Bise, Progress and Prospects

[July,

eternal pnnishmoiit. Accordiiig to tlicm, all punishment is reform- atory, not retributive, and all souls will be ultimately in heaven. They do not believe in a revelation of God's will, but appear to rely on intuition supplemented by reason and education. They aro something like the Neo-Platonists of ancient days, or the Eclectics of more modern times.

The diiiereuce between the two branches of the Samaj seems to consist not so much in doctrine as in practice — not so much in the articles of faith as in the attitude towards Hinduism and Christianity. But it should not be ignored that the Adi Samaj has still a latent desire for the Vedas, and seems to place greater reliance upon good works. At one time they showed a very great regard for Christ and the Bible, so much so that Keshab Babu admitted in London that " England's greatest gift to India was " the Bible," and the Brahmas of Monghyr spent a whole day, at Christmas time, in singing praises to Christ.

It is not therefore surprising that Keshab Babu should have lectured " on Jesus Christ : Europe and Asia," as he did, or that people should have even thought him to be " not far from the " kiu<?dom of God." AYe once attended a Brahma service in Cal- cutta, and we can confidently assert that it would have been consid- ered quite a Christian Sabbath service with the addition of the phrase " for Christ's sake" to the beautiful prayer offered up. The sermon was preached from St. John's first Epistle! But the Brahmas are not Christians, and do not believe in the divinity of Christ and in his finished atonement for sin, though, strangely enough, they call him their Saviour.

Their numerical strength.

The Brahmas have about fifty Samajes in Bengal proper, fifteen in the North-West, one at Madras, one at Bombay, two or three elsewhere — total, perhaps about sixty or seventy.

Babu Debendranath Tagore is their Pradhan Achnrjya (Arch- bishop), Babu Keshab Chandra Sen Achdrjya (Bishop), Babu Ananda Chandra Bedanta Bagis, Bacharam Chattarji and several others upachdrjyas (priests), Ijesides Babus Raj Narayan Bose and Pratap Chandra Mozumdar (secretaries).

Taking twenty to each Samaj, on an average, they have about 1400 covenanted Brahmas, besides hundreds of nomin^ adherents.

Their income.

The income of the Samaj, like its numerical strength, is not exactly known. They do not publish an annual balance-sheet. But it cannot be less than Rs. 50,000 annually, taking subscrip- tions, donations, proceeds of the sale of publications, etc., etc. It ought, however, to be stated that the liberal donations of Babu

iSys.]

of the Brahma Samcij.

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Dobondranatli Tagoro make up a considerable portion of tlio in- come of the Saiuaj. The I^/mrai Asram of the progressives must bo a costly institution.

Their behavior.

The conservative Brahmas are mostly like the nominal ad- herents of a Clu-istian congregation. They are one thing in the Saniuj, and in actual life quite another. We have seen some of them drag-ging the car of Jagannath, accepting invitations on auspicious days, putting on the Hindu orthodox mourning at the death of parents, performing their funeral ceremonies in accord- ance with the Pauranic formulte, and paying and accepting in return Brahmanical salutations. In their every-day life they are hardly distinguishable from their idolatrous neighbors. Better things are not expected of them, for with very many Brahmism is an intellectual necessity, not a matter of genuine faith. There are, of course, some noble exceptions. Conspicuous among them is the meek Debcndranath, whose integrity, humility, liberality and hospitality, and devotion are known to all. His eldest son, now that the old gentleman has practically retired from the world, is slowly taking' his place.

But the progressive IBrahmas are, as they ought to be, a better set. They seem to have truer faith in Brahmism, and show greater moral courage in practising the several reforms above adverted to. They are a respectable class of men, and ought to be honored as such. In a higher sense, they are the in- direct result of missionary labor. Had Christianity never been preached in India, the progressive, nay even the conservative Brahmas could not have existed, and characters like Ram Mohan Rai or Keshab Chandra Sen would have been an impossibility. But we have not much faith in their perseverance, for they have to meet strong opposition both from the conservative Brahmas and the orthodox Hindus. And they must lack an abiding interest in their heartless, intellectual creed, which after all is calculated to give them very little real consolation, for they have but an inadequate notion of sin and its atonement, and no interest in a personal Redeemer.

What the orthodox Hindus think of them.

The orthodox Hindu sees very little difference between the Brahma a,nd the Christian. He looks upon both as the enemies of Hinduism ; though the former is still a member of Hindu so- ciety and the latter has been discarded. The Brahma, in his esti- mation, is a secret foe, undermining the strongholds of Hinduism, though ostensively putting on the jagna pabil and bowing to an idol ; whereas the Christian is an avowed enemy, and, therefore, less to be dreaded. Of course the intelligent Hindu knows the

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[July,

difference between a Bralima and a Christian, but he is seldom orthodox. The " old folks," as the simple-minded orthodox Hin- dus are somewhat disrespectfully styled, give us distinctly to understand that it does not much signify who kills Hinduism — the Brahma or the Christian — so long as it is killed. And his poor consolation in this indescribable state of agony is, that the shastras have predicted the catastrophe.

Now to the -prospects of the Brahma Samdj, and to be brief. If the past is any guide in prognosticating the future, Brah- mism has a bright career before it. Within a few years the Brah- maic tenets havo spread far and wide, and that by the active exertions of only five men. This fact, gloss it over as we may, speaks volumes in its favor. English education has helped the dissemination of J^rahmisni, and so long as its blessings are not withdrawn, it will continue to favor the same cause.

The moment the Pauranic mind is educated it is sure to be un-Hinduized. For no educated or even half -educated man can afford to continue an idolater or to believe in caste, and so he be- comes a Brahma. Were his education in every case saturated with Christianity it would be a different thing.

The reaction from grovelling- superstition is atheism, which, sobered down by the religious instinct in man, naturally settles itself into monotheism ; and Brahmism is one manifestation of monotheism.

Hinduism teaches that there are two classes of men, — the tattwa (jyani or enlightened, and the murha or ignorant. For the former the rit/an-kando, or worship of one God (call it mono- theism or mouoism), is provided. But for the latter the ' harma- kando, or polytheism, is necessary. The educated will, in the twinkling of an eye, see in karma-kando the deep net woven by priestcraft. They survey things from an elevated platform, and are likely to fall in with the gyan-kando. Hence the Hindu mind tends to Brahmism or something analogous to it.

Very few men in the world are prepared naturally to suffer persecution. Bat Christianity requires it. Consequently those who cannot continue polytheists are likely to embrace Brah- mism, which is a sort of half -way-house between Hinduism and Christianity.

Christianity humbles human nature. It says to man, " There "is none that doeth good, no, not one.'" "Without me ye " can do nothing." " The soul that sinneth, it shall die." But Brahmism flatters human nature. It, says the Samdj, is not so bad as Christians suppose. We can repent and reform our- selves, if we like. There is no such thing as an eternal hell. Our spiritual career is progressive, and if we are not all right noro, in another world or stage of existence we shall be so. A merciful Father cannot bear to punish men, for men are Code's

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children, not subjects. Ho only chastises us with a view to draw us to refornmtion.

'J'he Cross is still jui offence. And no argument, however cogent, no course of instruction, liowever judicious, can ever make a nuui a Christian without God's bhsssing. Conversion is not the province of intellect, but of grace alone. " Not by power, nor by "might, but by niy Spirit, saith the Lord." So it is natural to become a Brahin.a.

(xovernment and private education is uni'cligious lorofessodly, but iconoclastic in reality. Christian schools, again, are few, and the university system is acting prejudicially to the great cause of Christian missions. We pay more attention to preparing boys for matriculation and degrec-s than to converting them. The conse- quence is, our credit in the university is rising, while the number of our converts is almost stationary. A solemn thought this ! And is it not a circumstance in favor of Brahmism ?

But it will be said. Positivism is doing its work. Many have already embraced the creed of Comte, among whom are some of the best educated. This will neutralize the influence of Brahmism. Perhaps it is true to some extent. But the Hindus will not have long to do with it, since it is essentially atheism, and the Hindu mind is preeminently religious. It may play with it for a time, as it did with Spiritualism, but it will surely fall back upon monotheism.

Another, perhaps, would say. Deism lias never been a religion of a race or country. A few philosophers and their select dis- ciples only have followed it. True, but every Hindu is a philos- opher,— Max Miiller will bear us out. Brahmism is suited to his philosophical tendencies, and the Brahmas are studiously keep- ing out the vulgar from their ranks. Besides^ they are trying to socialize their religion, by instituting rites and ceremonies of their own, and training up their wives into Brahmism. It is not now a mere intellectual creed. Then, again, in other countries people soon turned Christians from idolatry because their way was comparatively smoother. But here, caste, cruel caste, is the obstacle. And ivhen this master-building of the arch-enemy will tumble, it is not easy to divine, thougb it seems to fade away. The considerations generally adduced to account for the non- dissemination of Christianity in this the strongest citadel of Satan, are exactly the reasons why Brahmism has spread so quickly, and will probably continue to do so, for a long time to come. Then, again, tlie Brahma tenets admit of considerable latitude.

A third would say. The Brahmas do very little to pi'opagate their faith. Yes, they do not preach, as we do ; neither have they many schools of their own, where they can directly teach Brahmism. But can it not be said with ti'uth that missionaries and the Government are doing the needful for them ? If Eng-

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[July,

lish education lias any distinct tendency in tHis country, it is this, that it pretty soon nn-Hinduizes the native mind. That is all the Brahmas want. We till the ground for them, and in some re- spects cast the seed also, and they quickly reap the fruits there- of. Human nature is for them. Besides they have their tracts, books and other publications, and their lecture system and social arrangements.

A fourth would say, Christianity must prevail, for God has said so. Doubtless it will. In common with all believers, we hold that "nothing is impossible with God." He can give birth to " a nation in a day.'"'' But who knows wJocn that happy, glorious day will come ? Were we treating of the ultimatum of tilings, our line of argument would be necessarily different ; but judging the case from a human point of view, how can we shut our eyes to the grand prospects of the Brahma Samaj ?

Let us pray earnestly and preach zealously. It cannot be but that the God of grace, who alone ruleth the hearts of men, will remove this formidable barrier to the spread of his own religion. The gates of hell shall not prevail against the Lord^s anointed. The uttermost parts of the earth have been given to Christ for a possession. May the Lord be graciously pleased to hasten the consummation of his own eternal counsels !

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95

AuT. IX.— NOTES AND INTELLIGENCE.

I7R0^I the varions mission reports for 1S74 which have been sent . in to ns, avc liavo endeavored to compile statistics sliowing tlic increase of the native Church in India daring the last year. The somevs'hat ini])erfeet result of our attempt is given below. No effort was made this year to collect these statistics by means of circulars addressed to the different missions. Tiie success of the attempt made last year to do this was not very encouraging. We have therefore used principally the mission reports received, though in a few cases personal application has been made with the desired result. The LticJciiow Witness has borrowed the idea from ns, and in its issue of July 9 gave a partial view of the numerical result of last year's mission work. In some cases, noted in our appended table, we have used the figures given in the Witness. We can hardly agree with that paper, however, in the opinion that the accessions to the Christian Church during 1874 would, if faithfully reported, amount to 10,000, even including Burma and Ceylon. Probably 9,000 would be nearer the mark.

The following is our table : —

Indian Home Mission to the San tlials^... ... ... ... 1,650

Gossner's Evangelical Mission, Chota Nagpur ... ... 1,592

S. P. G. Mission, Chota Nagpur^ ... ... ... ... 1,500

Church Mission, South India ... ... ... ... ... 739

London Mission, South India and Travancore... ... ... 273

American Jtethodist Mission, North India^ ... ... ... 250

American Baptist Mission to the Telugus ... ... ... 228

American Madura Mi.ssion ... ... ... ... ... 182

American Baptist Mission, Coconada ... ... ... ... 133

Church Mission, North India ... ... ... ... ... 133

American Mai-athi Mission ... ... ... ... ... 126

American Baptist Mission, Assam ... ... ... ... 98

English Baptist Mission, Orissa ... ... ... ... ... 93

Basel Evangelical Mission, South India ... ... ... 84

Irish Presbyterian Mission, Guzerat ... ... ... ... 75

10 other Missions, less than 75 each ... ... ... ... 259

Total for 25 Missions... 7,415

Coylon (estimate)* ... ... ... ... ... ... 150

American Baptist Mission, Burma ... ... ... ... 977

8,542

The figures given in .July 1874, we believe, understated the real facts by at least a thousand. In regard to the present statement we may remark : that these numbers do not in all cases show the accessions from among the heathen only ; it is impossible to separate the number of such from the number of children of native Christian parents who

1 These figures we take from the Lucknow Witness.

* The estimate for Ceylon is the same as that given last year ; it is based on the annual average of baptisms during the years 1860-70. We have no doubt that it is too small an estimate, but imderstatements are better than overstate, meuts.

96

Notes and InfcUtgcncc.

dnriiiu: (lie past year have entered the Church for tlio fifst time as coimuunicants ; that " different missions have different standards for " judging of tlie titness of candidates. While some missionaries are " in the liabit of baptizing any who seem willing to place themselves " under Christian instruction, others demand evidence of an actual " change of heart ;" that, on the other hand, some missions arc not re- presented in our table at all. Errors from these sources will, at least in part, balance each other.

We regret exceedingly that in a matter upon which we should like to speak with some degree of authority and accuracy, the necessity exists for relying so much upon guess-work ; and while it cannot, we are sure, be charged upon us that, either in the figures given now, or in those presented last July, Ave are guilty of exaggeration, it would still be useful to know with a greater degree of certainty exactly what numerical success is attained year by year. So long, however, as mis- sionaries do not take interest enough in the matter to answer letters of inquiry, or even to send their reports to those who are compiling the annual statistics, accuracy is very obviously out of the question. It is our hope, however, to do better next year. If blank forms are circulated, say in the month of January, 1876, to all the mission stations of India, will the missionaries who receive them kindly take the trouble to fill out the forms and return them to us ? We know of no other way in which the numerical progress of mission work can be ascertained with any approach to accuracy. The experiment is, to say the least, worth the trial which we hope to be able to give it.

Last year, a comparison of the number of accessions during 1873 with the average annual number of accessions during the two pre- ceding decades respectively, indicated that the rate at which the people of India are turning to Christianity is at least doubling every ten years. This conclusion receives additional support from the statis- tics for 1S74 above presented. The hope may reasonably be cherished that, when another complete missionary census is taken, as we trust will be done in 1880, or 188 1, the average increase in native Christian communicants during the present decade, will be found to have been at least double the average for the last decade. We shall confess oai'selves disappointed if it is not considerably more than that.

It appears from all this, that missions in India are gaining ground, slowly indeed, yet surely ; aud not only this, — it appears that the annual average of accessions is increasing year by year, or in other -words that the rate at which missions in India are progressing is doubling with each decade. In view of these facts, the old question now arises, — To what extent can the missionary enterprise in India be denounced — as it jDcrpetually is — as a failure ? We desire to utter a little parable on the subject.

There was once a great battle going on in which a very small army was engaged against one of immensely greater size and strength. At fii'st it seemed as if the little army would be annihilated in a moment ; but it was not ; on the other hand it kept on fighting with much persistency, thongh for a long time it seemed to produce no

1875-]

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perceptible impression npon tlie foe. At last, aft(;v fisflitiiif^ for a loiij^ time, it bef^aii to f^ain ground ; very slowly at first, it is ti-ne, biif, more and more each lionr. The ranks of the little ai-my were supplied with new recruits as fast as the veterans fell, and they fougiit on witlumt showing any signs of retreating, or evincing any symptoms of disoonragement, but on the other hand manifested every determination to fight on until they coutpicred. Some people were watching the con- flict from a neighboi-ing hill. So long as it seemed certain that the little army would be overwhelmed with speedy defeat, they kept still. But jnstas soon as the little army began slowly to gain ground, these people began to hoot at them, and to tell them that they were " defeated," — that their " cause was a marvellous failure," — that they " ought to have " listened to us, and planned the battle differently, and thus have " escaped disgrace," — and much more to the same purpose. And the more ground the little army gained, the more the people on the hill scoffed, and the louder they shouted " failure." Meantime the little army fought on as before, and paid no attention whatever to the people that were hooting: at them from the hill.

The work of evangelizing India may be progressing at a slow rate ; and who ever said that it was progressing rapidly ? It may be a long conflict that will give India to the Chnrch ; and who ever claimed that the battle would be won in a day ? But we submit that, until Christians, driven from the field, give up their efforts, the battle is not lost. So long as the conflict is in progress — so long as the Christians show no signs of abandoning the field — so long as they continue to push forward with unabated vigor and persistency, and e.specially so long as they continue to gain ground, though slowly, yet at a constantly accelerating rate, — so long is the cry of " failure" rather premature. Thei'e is a story of a naval commander, who, when his ship was riddled by the enemies' shot, his masts gone, many of his guns dismounted, and liis decks slippery with blood, was asked if he was ready to surrender. Through his trumpet he shouted back, " Xo, '■ I have not begun to fight" ; and it was not long ere the enemies' flag came down. Deride us all you like, gentlemen. It does not hurt us at all, and seems to afford much amusement to you. Of one thing we may be certain. If Christianity is true, it will prevail in Hindustan, and in the world ; every other form of faith, even the Brahma Samaj, wUl go down before it. If it is not true, it will prevail nowhere, but will utterly disappear from the face of the earth. We must make up our minds to accept one of these two alternatives. The Christian Scriptures, with all the prophecies which they contain, are either true or false ; and for our own part, if we must choose between the prophe- cies of Isaiah and the vaticinations of the Indian Mirror, we think that on the whole we will take the former. Strong in this confidence we can afford to endure all the taunts of our adversaries. We bide our time.

We find in a recent number of the Bombay Gazette a striking in- stance of the profound ignorance regarding missionary operations which some people are fond of parading in place of knowledge. The writer undertakes to show the " cost of Christian converts in India." He has

13

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Notes and Intelligence.

[July,

seen somewhere a statement of tlie income for 1874 of five of the leading missionary societies of Great Britain, lie assumes tliat three-fonrths of this incomo is expended in India. That assumption is false, to begin with. But his next assumption is still more startling ; it is that these five societies are the only societies now at work in India ! All the Scotch societies, all the American societies, all the continental societies, are coolly blotted out of existence, and all the converts gained through their efforts are set down to the five societies that have the honor to fall within the range of the Bomhny Gazette's vision. The writer of the paragraph then goes on to quote from this Review the figures relative to the increase of the Cliristian Church in India during 1873, which we published last July. After this, it is a mere matter of simple division ; and each nominal Christian convert is demonstrated to have cost Rs. 940 ! Now since the writer in the Gazette wanted to make out a case as bad as possible for the missionaries, he was very foolish not to inquire, before he began to write, what the facts in the case really were. If he had found out that instead of there being merely five societies working in India there are about thirty, large and small, he could have made the figures look a great deal worse than he succeeded in doing. The result at which he arrived is absolutely worthless, even when regarded from his own exceedingly false point of view, that the success or failure of missions can be inferred from the average " cost " of each convert. You can no more tell how much a Cliris- tian convert has " cost " than you can weigh the moral forces of Christianity on a patent scale. The only thing which the Bombay Gazette has proved by its lucubrations upon this subject is that it does not know enough about missionary operations to make fun of them successfully.

Abundant illustrations of the unscrupulous manner in which missionary matters are treated by the secular press, can be found in many of our Indian journals. We do not complain because editors are ignorant of the facts pertaining to missions, and do not take the trouble to inform themselves. That is none of our business. Gentlemen who write for the press may treat such subjects as they please, and pass over in silence any which they may wish to leave untouched. We neither desire nor expect to see the columns of the secular papers occupied with the discussion of matters pertaining to the spread of Chiistianity. But what we do say is, that if missionary matters are to be discussed in the daily papers, the editors of such papers ought, in justice to their readers no less than to themselves, to take some pains to find out the actual facts. It is a most common thing to see missionaries and their operations discussed and criticized in the public prints with a lofty disregard of truth which would not be tolerated either by editors or readers on any other subject. If these subjects are worth treating at all, they are worth treating intelligently.

The Indian Mirror of Calcutta, the organ of the Brahma Samaj, is one of the chief sinners in this respect. We have before, at various times, had occasion to notice some of the oracular utterances of this journal, and

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99

one or two in recent numbers must not be passed over. A parngrapli appeared not long ago on tlu; "enormous incomes of Christian Missionary " Societies." From internal evidence we should su|)j)ose tiiat it was written by some halt-educated apprentice in the ofHce, whose knowledge of English composition and of the subject he was writing about would seem to have been about on n par. How elated our friends of tiic Church Missionary Society will be to read the following elegant sentences from this choice paragraph : —

"The Chui-cli Missionary Society, for instance, had an income of i73,ooo£ during; tlie last year, and the annual expense is sliglitly in excess. The Clmroh Missionary Society is priucii)ally engaged, wo suppose, in oslahlisliiug and conduct- ing Bcliools, wliich, even if most favorably considered, do some indirect good. Expectations were disappointed last year as to number of students who availed themselves of the Society's schools during the last year."

Our readers must make what sense they can out of some of this. After mentioning the receipts last year of the British and Foreign Bible Society and the Religious Tract Society, the paragraph winds up as follows : —

" The spirit of Christianity, we almost feel persuaded to say, is crushed be- yond this enormous wealth, and a great number of the Missionaries seem only bent upon furnishing splendid reports to be read at the annual Exeter Hall meeting."

Is the school-master abroad in Calcutta ? and could he make it con- venient to call at the office of the Indian Mirror ?

Theism has (or had) a new organ in Calcutta. Last November appeared the first number of 7%e Liberal, a monthly Theistic Journal, to be conducted partly in Bengali and partly in English. Deploring "the want of charity and toleration that has already begun to manifest " itself in the infant theistic society of India," and desirous of making "an organized and definite effort to bring about a better state of things," the projectors started the new monthly, aspiring " to make it what it "should be, an impartial exponent of Theistic opinion."

"We must be sincere," says the editor in the opening number, "and honestly confess that Ave do not hope to command ability and " intelligence on our side." There is not the slightest occasion for this humiliating confession. The examination of a single number renders the absence of both " ability and intelligence" sufficiently obvious to the most careless reader. Of course it was not long before the new exponent of Theistic opinion hit uj)on a fresh subject, and we are treated to a disquisition on the causes which have produced the " failure of missions" in India, smuggled in, however, under the title " Propagation and the " Brahmo's probable future." This article is so original, at least in its grammar, — the few ideas it contains are not specially new,— that we feel disposed to give our readers the benefit of a few extracts : —

" Fii'st of all it is a fact in history that proselytism always leads to social antagonism. By proselytism I mean the system of taking away men and women from the bosom of their families and the arms of their friends. Christ committed the first mistake by saying to the fishermen of Galilee ' Leave your father and ' follow me,' or ' Leave the dead to bury the dead and follow me,' and his followers have since trodden in his shoes. Jesus himself was a Jew, in fact a Jew of Jews, still, owing to this spirit of proselytism, his system of religion created so much antip- athy in the minds of the Jews that they still burn with rage in his name. So was

lOO

Notes and InielUgence,

[July,

the case with Buddhism in India. Buddhism numbers millions over millions as its followers, but this great movement seems to have never touched the bocly of Hin- duism itself. It has been even banished from India its native home.

" The early Christian Missionaries in India carried the mistake to extremity by introducing; the barrack system. Young souls would bo often snatched away from t he arms of their dear parents and carefully nurtured in these religious hot-houses. This religious kidnapping on the one hand has doubly recoiled on the mind of the community, producing a fatal reaction, and, on the other, has given rise to a sort of Iiard-heartedness in the convert ; — a natural result of the merciless breaking of all dear and sacred ties. Thus the Christian Missionary has become well nigh associ- ated with the horror that hangs about the veriest kidnapper.

" The second cause is to he found in the foreign as])ect of the religion itself. It is a pity that Christianity came in pantaloons to the shores of India. Men who were other than the children of India, who differed from them as pole from pole in manners, dress, and modes of living and thinking, and, what is still worse, who be- longed to the ruling race, with whom there is a living cause of political antagon- ism, came to preach this new religion to us. People came to hear the new religion preached, and involuntarily shrank back to hear the uncouth names and uncouth traditions propounded to them. — Etc., etc.

" The third cause is to be traced in the attitude of unnecessary hostility that the missionaries genei'ally assume towards the faith of the people. Heathenism is rotten to the core, and there is not a single redeeming feature in it ; — this im- pression has ruled the missionary in all his preachings. They have largely used the negative method; that is, exposing the faults of the enemy more than the moral superiority of their own system. This was a great and serious oversight. Even now the Christian missionary does not see his mistake ; — even now it is not an un- usual sight to see him rimning with all sorts of malignant tracts to the market- places and public thoroughfares on a day of public festival

With due respect for the honest zeal and energy of those gentlemen, I feel obliged to repeat that it is a very great mistake indeed ! I feel sure that if the Christian missionaries in India had carefully kept within the limits of the positive method of preaching, they could have ensured greater sympathy and evoked greater re- spect from the people.

"The fourth cause is to be found in the circumstance that all the early con- verts to Cln-istiauity betook to denationalized modes of living. Christianity, like every other system of I'eligion, has no earthly connection whatever with hat and coat ; but, curiously enough, the early native convert thought them the most suit- able garbs to clothe his religion. Not only that, the early convert fell with ven- geance upon every description of forbidden food and forbidden drink, the beef and the wine for instance ; thus giving the people an occasion for confounding his religion with his palate. Fortunately a very different tide has now set in, within the native Christian Church, which aims at the correction of this influence, though too late. Our Christian friends should have seen long before, that it is not a part of weakness and cowardice, but rather of prudence and charity, to comply with the wishes of the people in all secondaries. In our country, religion is ever associated with stiict temperance, rather with strict abstemiousness ; consequently the peojjle naturally start back with horror when they see a religion buried beneath a heap of roasted beef or steeped in forbidden drink. Divest Christianity of this revolting association and you make it more acceptable to the Hindu.

" The fifth cause is indiscriminate baptism. Our missionary brethren, in their anxiety to convert India to the gospel, have neglected to examine the nature and quality of their conversions. Every wayward and spoiled child of our commu- nity has found a ready shelter in the compound of the missionary

What notion can the guardians form of a religious body that can easily take in the dregs and pests of their families, and, what is worse, can look tipon the gain as a great and significant victory ? Certainly not a very respectable one. The feelings of disrespect and aversion they have for their runaway children, ultimately tell upon the body itself ; and the Christiaus are set down as a heartless and demoral- ized race The missionary also lowers himself in the estimation

of the Hindu by filling his fold with such bad moral stuff. From our birth almost we are taught to look upon the Bible, the missionary and the innocent Jesus himself

•875.]

Nofm and Tnt( Jli(jcnr.e.

lOI

as tilings to 1)0 dos])iscd nnd Hliunnod. Let our good missionaiy frionda realize and pictuio to theinsolvo.s tho damage thoy have uniiitontionally coinrnittod to the

cause of thoir faith in ludia Alas for Itulia, she has lost a precious

gem for tlie fault of those who presented it before her ! Christ has a cliaracter that has drawn nj) humanity towards Hoavon thrnu!;h hundreds of centuries, and why should not o\ii- dear country see and iw\ tlio Ix^auty of this character ? Why should

we spit upon tho face of this innocent child of Gotl When I see this

Christ-phobia in tho nation I cannot easily parilou the thoughtless missionary brother.

" Thus I liave mentioned almost all the chief causes that have led to the failure of Christian Missions in India, and only one remains to bo noticed, and that is tho insufliciency of the faith itsolf. Tho Oliristian scheme of redemption is mixed up with so nmch absurdity and apparent inconsistency that it is very diUicult to make the suporfine and metaphysical mind of the Hindu swallow these pilla. It requires any other eye but that of a believer to detect the over-stretched character, if not to say tho hollowncss of such a scheme. Certainly the nation is ready to believe much, even the moral superiority and the almost superliuman grandeur of Christ's character, but tho Christian scheme would have us believe too much ; accept- ance of one doctrine brings in another, that one a third, till the mind loses its patience and shuns the whole thing altogether."

Even Christianity, however, can be of some negative use in India ; the Liberal would make it serve the same purpose as the drunken Helot in Sparta. " In propagating Theism," says our author, who is disposed to improve the foilure of missions for the benefit of the Brahma Samaj, " we should carefully avoid the several errors that have combined to " neutralize and frustrate the endeavors of the Christian missionaries." In conclusion the learned writer, who thinks it would not do "to advo- " cate reforms from a high platform of self-imposed superiority," or to " talk in a patronizing tone," counsels his brethren to use chiefly two means of influence, — first by freely mixing with them [the mass of the people] in all " philanthropic and political movements ;" and secondly, by contributing " largely to the literature of the country. Let those amongst us who "have received a good education consecrate their energies towards enrich- " ing the literature of the country. Literature is the best medium of speak- "ing to the speechless multitudes" [composed of persons who for the most part cannot read !] . " Literary excellence bridges over many a gulf. In " our admiration for the genius of the man, we forget his peculiar bias, "or even the failings of his character [and of his grammar too ?]. In " short, let us seek ceaseless activity in everything that is truly calculated " to ameliorate the condition of the country. If we stand aloof from the " great body of the people as we have since done, there is every likelihood " of our being one day reduced to a narrow sect like the native Christian."

If the Samaj contains many geniuses of this water, and if they all "consecrate tlieir energies towards enriching the literature" of their country, the millennium of Brahmism must be near indeed.

We ought, perhaps, to apologize for occupying so much space with such trash ; yet it is useful to know what our opponents think — or pretend to think — and the nature of the arguments with which they assail us. This extract may be also useful as an indication of the depths to which " a good education" can reduce a being endowed with a rational soul and with ordinary intellectual capacities. We hope that the performances of this writer are not to be taken as an illustration of what passes in Bengal for a " good education," but fi'om other literary specimens of a similar nature which we have seen we rather fear that they must be.

102

Nofcn and Intelligence.

[July,

M\NY who will read Mr. Banerjea's article on the Brahma Samaj with much interest will ])erhnps feel disposed to question the cor- rectness of his conclusion that the future prosj)ects of the Samaj are " grand." Mr. Banerjea argues that, since English education and West- ern civilization are effecting a marked change in the Hindu mind un- favorable to Hinduism, and since Bralunism offers to the Hindu, while in this condition, a form of religion on aeccount of which he will not probably be called upon to endure persecution, and a creed which, instead of humbling human nature as Christianity docs, flatters it, and which "admits of considerable latitude," — therefore it will rapidly gain ad- herents, and is destined to a " bright career." In the present religious crisis, the religion of Jesus stands before the people as a faith for em- bracing which converts may be called upon to endure suffering, which will yield to no national custom that may be at all questionable, and make no compromise with any opponent. " Come out from among them " and be ye separate" is the word ; be a "peculiar people." The people hesitate to embrace a faith so rigid and unyielding. Brahmism, on the other hand, instead of summoning its adherents to endure persecution and presenting to the people an unbending creed, appears in a compromising attitude, and with its flattering voice invites all of philosophical tendencies, who have received the benefits of an English education (the vulgar are studiously kept out, Mr. Banerjea tells us), to accept certain tenets which " admit of considerable latitude," and to embrace a faith for which they need not suffer, and by embracing which they are separated if at all, only to a very slight degree from the people. While Chris- tianity says, " Come out and be Christians ;" Brahmism says, " Remain "as you are (or nearly so) and be Brahmists." For such reasons the Samaj can make converts much faster than the Gospel, — though we have yet to learn that as a matter of fact it does. But if this is all the foundation which Brahmism has for its glorious hopes — and from articles which we have seen written by Brahmists we are led to believe that Mr. Banerjea has stated truly the compromising attitude of the Samaj — ■we cannot believe that those hopes wall be realized. These conciliatory elements in Brahmism, this lax and yielding creed, are elements not of strength, but of weakness ; they may be the means of a rapid numeri- cal increase, but they will not conduce to strength and permanence. Converts made to such a faith on such a system will be only fair-weather converts. They cannot be dejjended upon either for real and earnest work, or even for a permanent attachment to the body they have professedly joined. Easily won, they will be as easily lost. And the causes of rapid growth of Brahmism may prove to be also the causes of its rapid decline.

So far, then, as mere numbers are concerned, the future prospects of the Samaj ?««?/ be " bright." Whether its prospects for a permanent and weighty influence are equally bright is a question of a very different nature. We append here an extract from the last report of the Calcutta Church Missionary Association, the significance of which in this connection will be sufficientljr obvious : —

" Credit was given to Braliraoa for fervent piety, for deep interest in the religious controversies of tlic day, and for great enthusiasm in the propagation of their heaven-born religion. But at the same it was averred that ' thoy had seriously ' failed in some of the most hnportaut points of practical duty, such as obedience to

I87S-]

Notes and TnfcUigencc.

103

' tlioir ministov (Kosliab Babu) and Bclf-donial in contributing money towards tho ' keeping of tlioir clun cli in repair. Tlioy not only refused to give anytliiiig towards ' tho liquidation of tho debt with which their church wan still saddled, hut tlioy ' would not oven help in defraying its current oxi)onsoa.' A mooting was thcroforo convened in Sojjteniber to 'orgnni/.e a congregation.' It was attendfid by 400 people, aiul presided over by Kosliab Balm hin\8elf. After a hot discussion of fivo ' hours, various resolutions wore adopted, of which wo give tho two most important : ' (l) that all religious matters and all responsibility for tho spiritual imj)rovemont ' of tho worshipporg should bo entrusted to tho hands of the minister ; (2) that ' those among tho Brahmos that are not guilty of tho moat serious and liatoful ' crimes, that believe in tho fundamental truths of Urahmoism, and regularly join ' in tho service of the Brahmo Mandir of India, are eligible as members on con- ' dition of their pi-omising to pay four annas (sixpence) per mensem, or three rupoos yearly, towards tho expenses of the said Mandir.' A congregation was then formed consisting of forty-six bond fide members !

" Tliose are telling facts. They clearly show the present position of the progres- sivo Brahmo Somaj as regards numbers and influence. Certainly, there is nothing specially lofty in tho standard erected by those who promise ' to regenerate tho world.' On the contrary it is painfully evident that religious life is now at the lowest ebb in the Brahmo Somaj, and that their influence for good has all but ceased."

Two short paragraphs, which we clip from a copy of the Mirror of recent date, may perhaps be regarded as affording some confirmation to the views presented in the e.\tract given above : —

" We have heard it said that the attendance in tho Brahma Mandir is now-a- days somewhat thin. Is it because the sermons are not bo attractive as they ought to be P Tho matter demands investigation."

"A series of half a dozen public lectures may revive the drooping spirit of tho Brahmo community in these days. Is it possible to organize a series at onco P"

Tract and Bible Societies and Mission Presses in India were not idle during 1874. From the reports which have been received we are able to present the following concise statement of their work ; these figures, it should be borne in mind, relate merely to the vernacular work of these Societies ; some English tracts are included, but only those that have been printed in this country for circulation among English-reading natives. In this department of labor the Bangalore Tract Society has been very active, and the excellent English tracts which have been prepared and issued from its press ought to be known and circulated throughout India. Ail books imported from England have been carefully excluded from the following table : —

Society.	Total Issues.	Of which were gratuitous,
Panjab Religious Book Society	20,453 122,975 42,250 63,867 103,143 1 18,244 122,742 526,373 49,855 73-590	10,081 64, 700 ? 28,586 13,802 39.376 ? ? ? ?
Methodist Mission, North India North India Tract and Book Societv Calcutta Christian Tract and Book Society Bombay Tract and Book Society Madras Religious Tract and Book Society Basel Evangelical Mission, South India Total
1.243,492

104

Notes and Intelllijencc.

We arc sorry that wc cannot tell in all cases how many tracts and hooks were sold, and how many distributed gratuitously. The number of total issues, however, is encouraging, and shows progress. A com])arison of the figures reported in our pages in previous years with those given now yields the following results : —

1872, ciglit Societies. 1873, ton Societies.'- 1874, ton Societies.	About 850, 000 copies. 951.198 1,243,492
Increase, 1874.	292,294

The increase in the case of several individual Societies is shown in the following table : —

SociExy.	1873-	1S74.	Gain.
	4,467	20,453	15,986
	93,720	122,975	;29,255
	4,631	42,250	37,619
	70,300	122,742	52,442
	376,19s	526,373	150,175
	10,550	49,855	39,305

The issues of the other Societies were less in 1S74 than in 1873. The largest falling off was in the case of the Bombay Society, — from 181,000 to 1 18,000.

A few interesting extracts from several Tract Society Reports are ap- pended. The Lodiana Report says : —

" From the above it will be seen: (i^ that there is a constantly increasing demand for Christian books and tracts ; (2) that this demand has not been dimin- ished materially by the practice of selling the larger books and tracts at a low price. Every effort is made to improve the style of all publications, and to render them as attractive as possible. Notwithstanding the large editions of the small tracts printed in Persian Urdu, the editions of many of those printed last year were exhausted before the end of this. All this shows the greatly increasing demand for reading-matter amongst the people, in consequence of the efforts of the Government and mission schools to educate the masses. May we not believe that the printed page thus earnestly sought after, will accomplish much for the spread of the Gospel P"

From the Calcutta Report : —

" The Committee have been much encouraged in carrying on the work of the Society during the past year. From year to year it has been their wont to study the varying currents of thought and feeling in the community ; they have felt that the wisdom they require, in order to send forth ' words in season,' con-

^ In 1873 Guzerat Tract Society's Report was included, but that of the Burma Tract Society was not received. In 1874 we have the Burma Report, bub not that of the Guzerat Society.

1875-]

Nulrs (Dili hilvUhjc\iro..

'05

siats larpoly in thoif being able to road ariplit, ' llic niKn« of tlio limos.' They rejoico to tliiiik that the i)ast year showed t(!iidcncii'a decidedly favorable to Cliria- tiau work. Tlie restlpssiiess referred to in the hiHt R('))ort uiuloiibtedly eontiiiuoH, but it is seen in the breaking up of old parties ratlier than in tlio forinaticin of new ones. There is )nuch reason to fear tliatthe varions forms of atlieisni and infidel- ity still coiuiiiand a large, and perhaps an increasing nnmljer of adherents. Last year saw a new edition of l';iino's Aijo of lieiis'm published at a low price by a Jlengali piddisher. Nothing can be clearer than that the light is thickening; men feel the necessity for declaring themselves. They cannot recede into Ilinduism ; they are unwilling to accoi)t Christianity. The education that has sapped the former cannot, they think, spare t ho latter ; and they are fain to prove thia by arguments derived almost entirely from the sceptical writings of the West. The nescience which asserts that in matters relig-ious nothing can witli cer- tainty bo known, is in their view the only rational position. The Committeo believe that all this is what might naturally bo expected iu such a transition period as society in this country is now passing through, but they are equally assured that it is a striking testimony to the growing power of Christianity ; and the Committee cannot doubt that if the negative positions referred to be met by tlie positive teaching of ' the truth as it is in Jesus,' the present e.xolic scepticism will ere long be replaced by a naturalized faith."

The Madras Report speaks as follows : —

" As wc look towards the future we sec the fields ' white already to harvest.' There is no reason why the progress that has been made should not be main- tained. The total income of the Society steadily increase 1 during the first thirty- five years, but decreased during the next fifteen. The tide has now turned, so that the quinquennial period with which the last Report concluded, shows the largest income on record during any such period.

" We regret to report that the progress has not been maintained during the last year. The amount received from sales has very considerably increased, but that arising from subscriptions and donations is most disaj)pointing, so that the year closed with a large number of tracts and books ready for the press when funds shall be forthcoming."

CoLPORTAGE statistics for 187-1, so far as we have been able to compile thetn, are given in the table below. We are obliged to omit one imj)ortant item — cost of the agency, because it is not in many cases reported : —

Society.	No. of Colporteurs.	Copies sold.	Value.
C. V. E. S., Bengal	20 7 i8 Book hawkers 5 15 14 2	17,461 13.788 11,569' 69,330 3,720 21,290' 74,100* 9.931	Es. a. p. 571 13 0 2IO 0 0 1, 168 II 9'' 593 9 0 374 I 0 971 12 II 1,309 8 I p

^ Including 5122 Scriptures, Testaments and portions.

* Including Rs. 620-12-9, proceeds from sale of Scriptures. 3 Including 607 Scriptures, etc., value Rs. 9S-2-3.

* Including 3836 Scriptures, etc. li

io6 Notes and Intelligence. [Jwly>

The issues of vernacular Bibles, Testaments and Scripture portions have been as follows during the past year : —

Society,	Issues, 1874.	Issues, 1873.
	5,452 13.465 5,122 31.999 44.265 ' 9.243 9,854	11,889 9.625 ? 16.364 40,171 4,995 ? 72,591 ?
	16,326
Total ,
18,726	155,63s*

If the issues from Madras -were included, the total for 1874 would be not far from 200,000.

There has been of late some excitement in the Panjab among INIuhammadans, owing to the appearance of a pamphlet written by Maulvi Ghuliim Ali, of the town of Kussur, advocating the lawfulness of burning old, worn-out copies of the Koran. All are aware of the reverence the Moslem has for his sacred book — so that if he so much as let it fall on the ground accidentally, he gives its weight in graiu to°the poor. The custom has hitherto been, when a copy of the Koran has become worn out by use, to wrap it up carefully in clean silk and consign it to the bottom of a well. Why this arrangement was not considered satisfactory by the Maulvi above mentioned we cannot say, but the fact is that he has pub- lished quite an elaborate pamphlet advocating cremation versus burial.

This pamphlet fell into the hands of some "Wahabis in the city of Amritsar, who, emboldened by the arguments of the Maulvi, went so far as to burn two new Korans in the street, against the remonstrances of the IMuhammadans. Great excitement prevailed for a time, and, it seems, was only allayed by the arrest of the sacrilegious Wahabis. A suit was brought against them for conduct calculated to offend the religious feelings of the Muhammadan community, and two of them were sentenced to two years' imprisonment !

Some time ago a pamphlet in Urdu, entitled Ichar i Haqq, was published in the Panjab and distributed gratuitously by a Muhammadan ex-Assistant Commissioner — Sayad Ahmad Shah Khan Bahadur — ad- Tocating the lawfulness of Moslems eating and drinking with Christians. The pamphlet contained faiwas or decisions of the most sound and influ-

^ During eleven months only.

* We have recoived no report from the Madras Bible Society for 1874.

* No exact compai-ison is possible, owing to the fact that the returns for 1873 do not include three Societies which are included in 1874, while they do include the Madras Society, omitted in 1874.

>87S.]

Nates and TutcWKjencp,

ential Mnulvis in (lie Norlh-Wcst, all of which went to show that it was lawful for Muliaimiuulaus to oat and drink with Christians. It is believed that much good will flow from this j)ui)licatiou, in the way of hrcaking down the foolish prejudices of Muhaniinadans in India. Yet it must be said that whilst many Muhammadans confess their belief in the teachings of this pamj)hlet, very few are ready to act accordingly.

It may be of interest to some of our readers to know that the pro- posed publication of the Abdul Qadir translation of the Koran in Roman Urdu lias been begun at the Lodiaua Mission Press. It will contain, first, a preface and an introductory essay, with a table of chapters, and also a chronological table of the same — all of wliich will be prepared by the Rev. T. P. Hughes of the Peshawar Mission ; secondly, the text (i.e. translation by Abdul Qadir) of the Koran ; and, lastly, an index of the whole. The work will not be issued before July, 1876.

There is another work of considerable importance being printed at the Lodiana Mission Press for the Panjab Religious Rook Society. It is a commentary on the Gospel of Matthew in Persian Urdu, and will occupy about 600 pages quarto. It is the work of the Rev. 11. Clark and the Rev. Imaduddia of Amritsar. The principal point worthy of note in it is that it is prepared for Indian C/iristians, and takes note of the dilfcuK.ies peculiar to India. It is a model work. May we hope to have the whole of the New Testament commented upon in a like manner ?

Two other books — viz.. The Strong Tower, translated into Urdu by Dr. Brodhead and printed in Persian character, and What think xje of Christ ? translated into Urdu, and printed in Persian character — are almost ready to be issued.

There is about to be issued, as we are informed by one of the Mir- zapore missionaries, from the Mirzapore Orphan School Press, an Urdu ver- sion, in the Arabic character, of that great work Augustine's Confessions. The translation, which has been made from the original, is the work of the Rev. J. Ilewlett, B.A., of the Mirzapore Mission. No pains have been spared to render intelligible in Hindustani the intellectnal and spiritual struggles of Augustine's great soul in discovering the truth ; and that record of his deep experience, which is in many respects a type of that of every true Christian. Not only has every line of the translation been gone over many times with a munshi, and various persons consulted about the rendering of difficult passages, but a proof of each portion has been handed to different natives of judgment and experience, that they might look it over and give their suggestions. We do not expect that this work will take readily — it is too solid and too faithful to do so ; but we have no doubt that it will live in Hindustani, as it has done in other languages while thousands of other books have died out.

Early in April a native pastor was ordained in connection with a church in Khasia, in the Shillong district of Assam. The former pastor was a Welsh Calvinistic Methodist, who had left the missionary society

loS N(>t<'!< (Old TufrU'ujincc. [July,

of timt boily. On his death occurring lately, the members of his church chose an evanf>elist who had been laboring in the district as their pastor. The ordination service was conducted in Calcutta by several Bengali pastors. It is to be regretted that some ill-feeling has been created in connection with the matter. The brethren belonging to the Welsh (3alvinistic Methodist Mission feel aggrieved that brethren in Calcutta should have encouraged the Khasia Christians in their continued separation from that Mission, with which they were formerly connected ; while the Bengali j)astors declare that they simply recognized the Khasia church as already existing, without reference to former connection, and showed their confidence in and esteem for the newly chosen pastor by ordaining him. The subject of the relation of missionaries to each other "in, by and to their work" came up for discussion at a recent meeting of the Calcutta Missionary Conference.

The American Woman's United Missionary Society has sustained a great loss in the death of ^liss Mary T. Seelye, M.D., of Calcutta, medical missionary of the Society. She was the first female physician who practised her profession in Calcutta, where she has labored most devotedly for the last three and a half years. Few persons have been enabled to do so much good and successful work, or to exert such a wide-spread influence in so short a time. It is to be feared that her unwearied labors, in which she never spared herself, hastened her end. An accomplished lady in education and manners, and a skillful physici.an, she used all her talents and opportunities in seeking to make known the Gospel to the females whom she visited. She completely removed any prejudice against female physicians that existed at the time of her arrival in Calcutta, and not only native but European ladies of all classes sought her medical advice and aid. There was no more active Christian worker in the city than she, and thougli her career was short, it was full of successful work. This is the second agent of the Woman's Mission cut down within seven months.

The Bible and Tract Societies in Calcutta recently opened their new premises. The building is situated in Chowringhee Road, and is a neat, plain structure, and much better adapted for a book and tract depot than the old building in Hare Street. On the day of opening there were special services held in the new erection. A prayer meeting was held in the morning, and a public meeting in the evening. At the latter, Dr. jMilman presided, and addresses were delivered by Rev. Messrs. Richards and Macdonald.

The Young Men's Christian Union (formed after the visit of the Rev. Mr. Somerville to Calcutta) and the Young Men's Christian Associa- tion, started upwards of forty years ago, both in Calcutta, were amalgam- ated at a united meeting of the two societies, held on Tuesday, the 25 th of May. The membership is now upwards of sixty, and the new Associa- tion is already engaged in evangelistic work in several parts of the city.

i87S.]

Notes ami Intrlln/fvce.

109

A SERIES of cvanpielistic services, similar to those held in June of last year, were to be held early in July in the city of Calcutta. The meet- ings "were arranged to be held on the first three evenings of the week be- ginning with July 5th, in the Union Chapel, and on the last three evenings in St. Andrew's Chin-ch (Presbyterian). It is cxi)ected that these united meetings will be followed up by meetings in connection with several of the other churches.

The clergy of the Church of England in Calcutta have recently done a thing which strikes us, to say the least, as rather ungraceful. The foundation of a girls' school, called the " Pratt Memorial School," was lately laid by Dr. Milman in Calcutta. The site is in the compound of St. James's Church, directly opposite the Calcutta Girls' School. This latter institution has been in existence for nearly twenty years, and its objects are exactly the same as those of the promoters of the Pratt Memorial School, with this difference, that the former is conducted on unsectarian principles, the latter is to be a purely Church of England school. The Calcutta Girls' School is managed by a committee consisting of min- isters and laymen of all Protestant denominations. It has had rather a troubled career of late years. For a long time the school was well snj)i)orted by members of all the churches, and many of the friends of the Chuvch of England took a deep interest in it and gave it liberal assistance. About six years ago, however, some of the Church of England sujiporters of the school made an attempt to secure the attendance at St James's Church of all the scholars whose parents belonged to the Church of England. This, though at first resisted, was at last yielded to, on the understanding that the scholars should be under proper guardianship while at church, and that they should have the consent of their parents to leave the school during the hours of service. The arrangement was not a convenient one to carry out, great difficult}' being found in having the scholars properly looked after while at church. There was all the less need for it, inasmuch as diviue service was conducted every Sunday in the school by ministers of the city in rotation. But as there were threats of starting a new girls' school, imless the wishes of the friends of the Church of England were acceded to, the committee reluctantly yielded to the request.

That the clergy of the Church of England were not satisfied with promoting a school on an unsectarian basis, was made manifest by their action on occasion of the death of Archdeacon Pratt. In order to honor the memory of that worthy and good man, a " Pratt Memorial School " Fund" was established, and subscrij)tions solicited. The members of the Calcutta Girls' School who belonged to the Church of England were among the foremost in promoting the new undertaking ; and one of them, a Calcutta clergyman, actually moved one of the resolutions at the public meeting held to promote the new school. All the speeches, and the subsequent proceedings, ignored the existence of the old school, and the public outside Calcutta would naturally have believed that no such school existed.

Last year, when the " Pratt Memorial School Fund" was not in such a flourishing state as to warrant the building of a new school, an attempt was made to amalgamate the two schools ; but the amalgamation, to

no

Nofrs and IntcUlgence.

[July,

use an Irishism, was all on the one side. The comniittce of the Calentta Girls' Sehool, finding the difHenUy of su])porting the sehool yearly in- creasing, and fearing the rivalry of the new school, were induced, on the advice of the Church of England nienihcrs of committee, to make a pro- posal to the Pratt Memorial committee with the view of uniting the schools. The scheme ultimately pro])osed by the latter committee, after protracted negotiations, was to the effect that the united school should be managed by a committee of eighteen members, two of whom might be non-E])isco])alians ; that the committee should be regulated in all their proceedings by the rules of the Diocesan Board ; that all the teachers should belong to the Church of England ; that the Cliureh Catechism should be taught in the school, and service according to the Prayer Book regularly held ; but that a " conscience clause" would allow puj)ils to de- cline the religious teaching of the school, at the request of the ])arents. The presence of the non-Ej)iscopalian members of committee was intended to give a tinge of liberality to the arrangement ; and it was expected that they would look after the interests of the scholars belonging to their denom- inations. So anxious was the committee of the Calcutta Girls' School to unite the schools, that by a majority (the minority earnestly pro- testing) they accepted the above terms, requesting only that each pupil should have her religious denomination written opposite her name on entering the school. It was this condition that wrecked the whole scheme ! The Pratt Memorial committee were willing to excuse attendance on re- ligious lessons, if requested to do so by the parents (and this is the rule in all the Diocesan Board schools, so that no favor was shown to the Calcutta Girls' School in this respect), but they declined to ask either parents or pupils to what denomination they belonged. Small and insigni6cant as this point may appear to be, it must have appeared to the Pratt Memorial committee of some importance, when they gave up a proposal for union, for which, it was believed, they were, as anxious as the other committee. It is obvious that they expected the " conscience " clause" to be practically a dead letter, and that the parents of non- Episcopalian pupils would not, except in few instances, ask their children to be kept from the Church of England service. By thus making the parent the protesting or requesting party, it looks as if they had the hope, from the usual unwillingness of parents to do this, of having all che pupils instructed and regarded as belonging to the Church of England.

The only concession to be granted to the Calcutta Girls' School committee was that a few non-Episcopalian members were to be on the Pratt Memorial School committee, to see that the conscience clause was enforced. As the conscience clause exists in all other Church of England schools, it looks very much like a confession of the need of being watched when even this favor was granted. For all this, the Calcutta Girls' School committee were to hand over the furniture, etc. of the school ; the lease of the school building was to be continued to the united school, and all efforts were to be made to secure the continuance of the Government grant to the Pratt Memorial School which has been received by the Calcutta Girls' School.

All negotiations having failed, a new school is to be built directly opposite the old school. The result can hardly be doubtful. Attempts will be vigorously made to mthdraw the subscriptions of members of the

l87S-] Notes and InlcllUjenee. ill

Church of Englaiul from tlic Calcutta Girls' School. 7\s the number of pu])ils iu the latter school has never heeu sutheiently large to make it self-supporting, even with the help of the Government grant, both the subscriptions and pupils will now be divided between two schools, that have hitherto been found insnfHcient for one. The weakest, and in this case the poorest, must go to the wall ; and the Calcutta Girls' School must be closed.

It would ajjpcar from this that joint efforts to ])romote education betvreen Episcoi)alians and non-]iIpiscopalians are well-nigh hoi)cles3. This is certainly a thing deeply to be regretted. The reasons which make such coojieration desirable are too obvious to rccpiirc specification. There was once a boys' school in Calcutta conducted on an unsectarian basis ; but that has become a Church of England school, and the work of inclusion will be complete when the Girls' School is closed. There could not have been a better oj)])ortuuity for cordial coopera- tion among ministers and laymen of all churches than on the Girls' School committee. The only interruptions of the harmonious work- ing of the committee were when repeated attempts were made by mem- bers of the Church of England — with the parents of the pupils — to keep children who had any connection, noTninal or otherwise, with the Church, under the control of the clergy. The Church of England members of the Girls' School committee remained on the committee only so long as they hoped to succeed in their attempts to scctarianize the school, and since negotiations with the Pratt Memorial committee came to an end, they have either resigned, or withdrawn from all active work on the committee.

What makes the anticipated closing of the Girls' School all the more to be regretted is, that it will be replaced by a school which will be under the control of the High Church party, in whose schools the teaching is often of such a nature as to leave little to choose between it and that of the Roman Catholic schools. The Calcutta Girls' School and the Doveton College are the only two public schools in Calcutta conducted on a really unsectarian basis. All the other large schools are in the hands of the High Church party and the Roman Catholics, except the Presbyterian pupils of La Martiuiere.

As a further illustration of the unwillingness just mentioned, we may state that a few gentlemen in Agra lately started a new school in that city, for which there was decided need. No sooner was this done than the chaplain started another, although nothing had been done in this direc- tion till the " Dissenters" began the work. And thus, where one good school would flourish, two will perhaps barely exist.

At the laying of the foundation-stone of the Pratt Memorial School in Calcutta, Dr. Milnian referred to the high character and devotedness of Archdeacon Pratt, and in the course of his remarks said that he (the Archdeacon) was with them in spirit and was interceding for them and their work on that occasion. Apart altogether from the questionable assumption that the Archdeacon had carried to heaven his denomi- national proclivities, and that he could be supposed to rejoice in the sectarian character of the undertaking, the reference to "intercession"

Nutrs 0)1(1 Infi ll lijoice.

[July,

is siguificnnt, especially coming from Dr. Milman. From intercession f/i/ (lie Areluleacou unto jirayer /o the Areluleacon is but a sliort logical or theological stej). It' a saint can intercede with God, sublunary mortals may intercede with saints, — all the more so if they believe that the spirits of the saints are with them and hear their prayers. We do not enter into the question regarding the prayers of gloritied saints; we are simply pointing out the logical deduction from the strong statement of the Bishoj). We can hardly see how he could find fault with any of h'ls clergy- men who would ask any of the " saints," — believing, too that they would " hear" the prayer — to intercede with God for spiritual blessings on their behalf ; and we shall not be surprised if Dr. Milman's words give greater license of speech and ease of conscience to some of his clergy al- ready fast stepj)ing " Homewards."

The Friend of India has recently passed into the hands of new proprietors, and has a new editor. It is published in Calcutta, instead of Serampore. In get-up it is immensely superior to the Serampore organ, the printing and paper of which were, in its later days, becoming disgracefullj^ bad. The new Friend will compare favorably with any English ])aper in regard to mechanical execution and editorial arrange- ment of contents. As to the editorial policy, announced in the first number and carried out with fair consistency in succeeding numbers, we cannot speak so favorably, or very hopefully. The promoters profess to advocate the principles of both the Friend and the Indian Observer, which are now in the hands of the same proprietors. W^e fancy it will task the editorial powers to the utmost to do this fairly and faithfully. The Friend had the reputation of being a semi-religious paper, and used to be held in high esteem by missionaries and others interested in Christian work, and though of late years it lost the good character it formerly' had, yet it was always regarded as a paper with more or less of a religious leaning. The Indian Observer \\Sl(\, if any character at all, a character the reverse of this. It was the latest born, and perhaps the weak- est bantling of the Pall Mull Gazette type, in the footsteps of which it sought faithfully to walk, though the gait was often tottering and feeble. How any combination of the principles of the evangelical Friend and those of the jeering Mephistophileau Observer is possible, we leave it to the new editor to show. We fear the attempt to sit on two editorial chairs at once will result in the ])rovtrblal fall between two stools. The policy is too timid and too compromising to be successful. We believe the promoters would have doae more wisely had they manfully taken a decided course either way. There is a fine opportunity for a weekly paper after the type of the Friend in its best days, and we regret that the enterprising promoters of the new paper have thrown it away. With the exception of some articles which lately appeared on the irre- pressible famine business, and which were characterized by grossly per- sonal attacks on the Viceroy, for which the editor had afterwards to apologize, the jjolitiual and other articles are well written, and in a fair and liljeral spirit. It is in religious matters that the halting is seen. The Friend, for instance, (piite accepts the abstract ])rinciple of the injustice of taxing the pcojjle of India to support church establishments to which

'S75-]

Noh'-s and TtitcUltjcvce.

113

only a proportion of Englisli residents belong, hut is resolutely opposed (o disetitnblislunent, as most inexpedient. Its theory is that Government and religion cannot be aisociated together, that this is most expediently done by having a state-paid religions establishment, and that such an establishment being a political necessity, it must be kept up, even though it is abstractly unjust to tax the many to support the religion of the few. We are not arguing in favor of or against Government re- ligious establishments here j we only wish to show that the reasoning of the Friend is not such as is likely to convince the friends or opjjonents of state churches. If state churches are supported by inflicting an injustice on the people, by taxing them in favor of a religion they do not believe in, then the injustice runs throughout the whole transaction, and no such phrase or principle as that of " political expediency " can give it a different character. If the Friend is to be a worthy defender of the Established Churches, he must begin at the beginning, and show that as a matter of justice as well as expediency, money can and ought to be raised from all and sundry, whatever their religion, in support of the churches established by Government. No other line of defence is worth attempting, so long as people are disposed to form opinions regarding political govern- ment ou the great principle of even-handed justice.

In regard also to the state of the Church of England there is a halting policy. Broad, High, and Low Church parties are in turn patted on the back, but the prevailing feeling to which expression is given in the columns of the Friend is that of perplexity and wonderment as to the ending of all the contentions of parties. The only decided stand taken ou a religious question is with regard to the Church of Rome. Here, we are glad to find, there is no compromise, but out-and- out antagonism.

Could not Larger space be given to missionary intelligence, eveii though defences of missionary work might be wanting? The few para- graphs appearing weekly are very meagre and uninteresting, and give no adequate idea of the missionary work done and results achieved.

We -wish the new Friend all prosperity, in the best sense of the word ; but our venerable senior can hope for that only as it gives effect to those views of religion and religious matters generally which are common to the mass of earnest Christians in this and the mother country. The emasculated Christianity of certain literati, who affect to sneer at what they think the vulgar views of the people, should never find a place in the good old Serampore journal, nor should a *' Mr. Facing-both-ways" sit in the editor's chair, if the Friend is expected to renew its youth. A little less horror of Exeter Hall and its associations is desirable on many grounds.

The work of the Irish Presbyterian Mission in India is con- fined to the province of Gnzerat and the adjoining peninsula of Kathiawad. The operations of the Mission are of a varied character. There is a press in active operation, from wliicla issues a continual series of tracts and books, and at which have been printed several editions of the Christian Scriptures. It was the first press set up in the province, and it still continues to hold its own as a printing establishment. As somewhat of an industrial institution, it affords the 15

114

Notes and Intelligence.

[July,

means of livelihood to several families of converts. In other respects it is an instrument of importance to the Mission.

Agricnltaral settlements are another feature of operations con- nected with this Mission. There is one of these settlements at Wal- lacepor, near Gogo, at which station there is a Chi-istian community of forty-seven individuals. There is another at Shahavadi, where, and in the city of Ahmadabad, thoi'o is a Christian community of 270 indi- viduals. At Borsad also several Christian families maintain themselves wholly or partly by agi'iculture, but most of the community support themselves by weaving.

Educational operations arc conducted with vigor. There are vernacular schools at all the stations — Rajkot, Gogo, Surat, Borsad, and Ahmadabad. At Surat and Ahmadabad there are also Anglo- vernacular schools, teaching up to the Matriculation standard of the Bombay University. There is farther under the care of the Mission an orphanage. The girls of the orphanage are all sheltered under the same roof in a commodious building at Surat, but the boys are boarded out separately in Christian families at Ahmadabad and Borsad.

A short time ago extensive premises were purchased at Surat to accommodate partly the girls of the orphanage, and partly the boys of the Anglo-veniacular school. Witliin the last few months, a mission house has been built at Ahmadabad, and adjoining the mission house commodious buildings have been erected for the Anglo- vernacular school.

The work at Borsad has during the course of its history passed through several distinct phases. At first it was of an itinerant character. The converts remained in their native villages, and were visited from time to time by the agents of the Mission. Notwith- standing the many advantages of a plan like this, it was attended with so many practical difficulties and dangers, that after a time it had to be abandoned. The converts were advised to come together and settle in some central locality. At first Dhewan, and then Borsad, in the Kaira Zilla, was chosen as a suitable place. The settlers were origin- ally of diiferent castes, but had all been agriculturalists. They con- tinued to follow their old calling. The Mission had nothing to do directly with, their farms. The growth of the community soon ex- hausted the capacity of the land to maintain its members. Another settlement was, therefore, formed at Shahavadi, near Ahmadabad. Almost all the old settlers at Borsad removed to the new and more favorably situated property. Borsad seemed, for a time, almost desert- ed. But the work then assumed a new phase. The Dheds, a rather numerous, though low caste portion of the Hindu community, began to draw towards Christianity. The gaps at Borsad were soon filled. But the work continuing to spread, the number of converts got too large to render it possible, or even desirable, to form them into a dis- tinct community. It was now practicable to fall back upon the plan which had been many years ago abandoned. The converts could now live and hold their own in their native villages. There are now some thii'ty villages in each of which reside from two to twelve families of converts. The whole native Christian community at Borsad and tha neighborhood numbers 688 individuals. The Dheds support them-

•87S.]

Notes ami J nti Uujinre.

IIS

selves chiefly by weaving. But thin occupation in Rottinf^ loss and lcs3 reninnerativc, and many of the woavora are tluuking of turning to agricnlturo.

The naino by which Christians aro commonly known in Gnzerat is Visvdsi, 'believers.' It was first a])i)lied to them by the heathen, who heard them talk much of Visvdsa, 't'aitli.' It was afterwards adopted by the converts as a designation both Scriptural and appropriate. A3 soon as any one joins the Christian commauity, or, indeed, almost as Boon as he begins to feel any inclination to do so, he calls himself a Visvasi. There is a disposition in quite a number of the people thus far to associate themselves in name with Christians. This is not an unmixed good. The Christians would rather that none called them- selves Fisvdsis but those who were baptized. But the matter is beyond their control. It is much to be desired that the Christian life of the community recognized as Christian were more earnest, spiritual and godly. Yet there is an element of true Christian faith ; it is believed that there is spiritual life among them. Their knowledge of Scripture facts and doctrines is growing. Truth and tlie means of grace will have among them the same sanctifying influence as elsewhere.

It is probable that before long there will be erected in several villages suitable places of worship. The next step will be the elec- tion of pastors and office-bearers. The Lord hasten his work in his day!

There is one question which rises np in succession in all parts of India, What stand do the converts take with reference to caste ? There are among the converts in Guzerat a few individuals who still have a lingering affection for the institution. But the feeling is grow- ing weaker. Intermarriages between members of different castes have been numerous. A Brahman has married a Kolan, Vanias have married Patidars and Kolis, Patidars have married Kolis and Dheds, etc. Under these circumstances an exclusive temper cannot hold out long. Yet this is one of the dangers to which we are or may be in future exposed.

The following tables show the statistical position of the IMission first, as to agency, and next, as to the native Christian community : —

I. — Agency.

Stations.

Rajkoto

Gogo

Surat (L. M. S. 1815) ... Borsad (L. M. S. 1845)... Alimadabad

Total

1841 1844 1846

1847 1S61

1^

School Teachers.

I

2 7

IS 4

29

^1

2 5

10

28

3 7 «7 15 15

57

ii6

^otes ami InteUigcncc.

[July,

II. — Native Christian Community.

Stations.

Baptized in 1874.

Eajkoto

Gogo

Surat

Boread

Alimadabad

Total

75

44

2 II

3 84 19

119

(2;

28 46

83 242 208

607

5 9 34 71 61

180

Orphans.

o a

M. F.

M. F.

29

.2 a

.a U

40 564

I4	42
I	47
41	124
446	688
62	270

II7I

The last report of the " Chutteesgurh Mission in connection with "the German Evangelical Missionary Society" (U.S.A.) contains an interesting narrative of the conversion of a Hindu, which we append : —

" Tie is a man of abont thirty years, Kshatree by caste, and a native of the North- West Provinces. He was educated in a Normal School at Benares, and came to these parts six years ago, when he obtained a sitnation as master in a recently established school in Bhandar, the residence of the Sathnami Gurn. He became there acquainted with the Christian religion by means of a young man who had been for a long time in our Mission school. He studied diligently the Word of God aud other books on the Christian religion, and soon found out that this religion answered much better the fallen human race than that of his fathers and his own. After that, he entered into a conespondonce with us on religious subjects, and visited us on Christmas, 1873. Being well pleased with what he saw and heard here, he returned to his place, promising that he would put himself under Christian instruction preparatory to baptism, with his wife, as soon as circumstances W9uld allow. During the time in which he searched the Scriptures he felt the necessity of prayer, and having no offspring he prayed also for that. He was heard ; a daughter was born to him ; but in June, 1874, the child died, and the father became deranged in his mind. He neglected his duty, wandered about,- — persecuted, as he imagined, by the gods whom ho was about to abandon ; wherever he met with an idol he would destroy it.

" Not until October did we hear of his lamentable state. He had returned from his wanderings to Bhandar forsaken and feared by everybody ; only his faithful wife bore with noble heroism, worthy of a Christian woman, the misery which had befallen them. With a child born on the way, and only one day old, she followed her restless husband, watching and nursing him, and taking care of the little property which they carried with them, consisting of gold and silver ornaments, and which had attracted the attention of many a thievish eye.

" Hearing of his deplorable condition. Pandit Ganga Ram, a friend of his, with another Christian brother, was sent to inquire into his state. The meeting was most affecting. The tried couple wept, and declared that God had sent an angel to their rescue.

" Efforts were made by wicked men to Mil the unfortunate sufferer by means of medicines, in order to get possession of his money and ornaments. The whole family came to Bisrampore, where the patient was put under medical treatment.

1S7S-]

Nutes and Infcllujmce.

iiy

and by the poodnoss nnd help of God ho waa fully restored to health and strength uftei- a month.

" A hank'r trial waa in store for him now. Uo owed his life nnd preaovvation to God anil Christian frion<Is. lie was conscious of his obligations to that (jod who had ilclivcrod him from doath in his unconverted etato. At tlio same time he was tied with stronf^ bonds to his kindred, relations and caste people, lie would bocorae docideilly a loser also with regard to secular matters if ho embraced the Christian religion, and yet ho felt he must yield himself up to the Lord, wlio had become too strong for him.

" It waa a sad time. Several times he proposed to leave this plaro and go back to his native country, — in other words to lloo before the Lord, lie felt no inclination to pray. It was evident that some secret reason stood in the way. With his excellent knowlodgo of Chi-istian truth, with the conviction of his utterly help- less state without a Saviour, with experiences of Divine care and love like those which he had received, how could he hesitate for a moment to yield himself up to Clirist ?

" The secret came out at last. In one of his dark hours he had vowed a vow to sacrifice a certain sum, which he had laid aside for that purpose, to the goddess Kali, to cause her to abstain from further porsecuting him. He kept that secret, which tormented him day and night, to himself : judging that giving this cursed money to the Lord's cause would be a crime like the one Judas committed by throwing the 30 pieces of silver into the temple. And yet as long as he had not broken his connection with Satan, by giving to him that which he had vowed, he could not become a Christian. Thus he concluded. At last an opportunity was found to fulfill his vow.

" It chanced that a Cabul merchant offered several Cabul sheep for sale, amongst them an old ram. Jadosing bought it,^ — nobody knew for what purpose ; after a few hours the ram waa gone. He had let it loose, — the vow was fulfilled. Kali had her sacrifice. Almost from that moment he became an altered man. There was nothing more now in the way ; he shortly after this event was baptized with his wife and cliild, and is now master in our Mission school, giving testimony to Hindus and Chamars that salvation only ia in Christ."

In a previous number of this Review we reported the formation at Bangalore, on very hberal principles, of " a Hindu Literary Union," number- ing among its members government officials, and other influential educated natives ; Europeans also being eligible for membership. At the meetings of the " Union," many important secular subjects, such as caste, the position of women in India, needful reforms in native society, etc., have been discussed. Latterly the attention of the members has been directed to Divine Revelation, arising out of a discussion on scepticism and super- stition ; and one of the missionaries was asked to read a paper on the eubject.

A paper was read accordingly by the Rev. B. Rice, L. M. S., of which the following is an outline : — I. A Divine Revelation is necessary. For, I . Human reason is insufficient of itself to discover all that man needs to know. 2. Whatman Aa« made out by the light of nature wants authority. 3. That a divine Revelation is necessary has been the belief of mankind in all ages. II. It is possible for God to speak to man. For he who cre- ated the human spirit must have access to it. III. A Divine Revelation is probable. For God is our Father, and must be willing to teach his children. IV. As to the mode in which a Divine Revelation may be given, there appear to be two ways, I . Either such a Revelation maybe given- to every one. Or, 2. Certain persons may be specially qualified to declare the will of God, due credentials being given them. V. The latter is the mode in which God has revealed his will in the

Notes and InteJllgence.

[July,

Bible. VI. There can be but one Revelation, since God is one, and lie cannot give contradictory Revelations. YII. The one Revelation was orig-inaliy given in germ to the first parents of our race, and might in its developments have been possessed by all men had they not wandered from (Jod, and framed systems of their own. VIII. The Christian Revela- tions satisfies the deepest longings of humanity, i. Por light from above. 2. For a manifestation of the Godhead. 3. For a Mediator. 4. For a sufficient sacrifice for sin. IX. It is therefore the duty of all to study and obey this one Revelation

The discussion which followed on the reading of this paper was long and animated. The orthodox party defended Hinduism in toto, with all its grotesque incarnations, and the sensualities of its gods. The Hberal party were for an eclectic system, choosing so much out of all religions as might appear to be the best, and making the compound resulting from this selection the rule of faith. The debate is not yet concluded ; much interest is evidently' awakened on the subject ; and the result will, we trust, be serious reflection on the greatest of all topics that can occupy the mind of man. Let us hope, also, that some will be led to study the Bible more diligently than they have ever done before. May the Father of lights sbine into their hearts, and give them the knowledge of his glory in the face of Jesus Christ !

An interesting young man, a Brahman of high standing, has lately been baptized in connection with the London Mission at Bangalore, whose history affords another proof of the power of earnest Christian teaching, and the formidable difficulties which Hindus of good caste have to break through before they can openly avow their convictions, and publicly pro- fess their faith in Jesus. This young man was born at Tinnivelli, and, with a view to obtaining a good secular education, was sent by his parents to the mission school at that place. He from the first evinced great delight in the Bible, and studied it with care. A native Christian friend conversed much with him at this time, yet with no immediate effect ; it was only after some lapse of time that he began to realize the truth of that book by which he had been so much attracted. This led on to a more careful examination of the claims to belief of Hinduism, with the result that he discarded it, and ceased to worship the Hindu deities. Still, convinced, as so many are, of the truth of Christianity and the falseness of Hinduism, he feared the consequences of an open profession of Christ. But (to quote his own words) —

" I did refuse to worship with them [his friends] our tutelar gods and goddesses, and argued with them in favor of the Clu-istian rehgion. Then they with fierce hatred loaded my feet with heavy iron chains, and mercilessly persecuted me, as if I had been a robber and a murderer. I patiently suffered all these things in remem- brance of niy Saviour's words : — ' Blessed are ye when men shall revile you, ' and persecute you, and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely for my ' sake. Rejoice and be exceeding glad, for great is your reward in heaven.' I then lifted up my heart in prayer to God, and asked him to forgive my per- secutors ; to pour out his Holy Spirit upon them that they might find out their sinful course and turn to the Eock of their salvation."

He then goes on to state how his friends sent him Jrom place to place in hope of diverting his mind from thoughts of Christ ; at the same time alluring him by tempting promises of dainty food, costly clothes.

I87S-]

Nultif and hifcll i'joire.

no

and sensual pleasures ; and liow at Icngtli he made his escape, and, alter many privations and diflievdties, reached Madras, where he intended to l)e haptized ; but on further consideration, fearing that he sliould meet witii liindrance from those to whom lie was known in that city, he made u|) his mind to [)roceed rather to IJangalore, where, after due examination, he was received into the Cliristian Church by bajjtism. But at ]5anga!ore, also, threatening letters have been sent to iiini, insults have been heaped upon him, and even an attempt made to do him personal injury. He bears all with patience, however, and is making ])rogress in his knowledge of Divine truth. May many, hke him, be enabled to obey the voice of conscience and of God !

Thk movement to secure the permanence of a Christian College for Southern India seems to be making steady, if not very rapid progress. In the late General Assembly of the Free Church a deliverance was unanimously adopted, approving of Mr. Miller's scheme, and instructing the Foreign Mission Committee of the Church to carry it into effect as soon as possible. The pecuniary means for doing so are not yet entirely provided ; but important steps have been made, and there is every pros- pect that all that is needed will be by and by secured. After full discussion the London Committee of the Church Jlissionary Society came some months ago to the resolution of making a grant of 36300 a year to the Free Church of Scotland for at least five years, on condition that the College in Madras be efficiently maintained. A day or two after their decision an offer was received from some generous but unknown donor, apparently ignorant of the resolution that had just been passed, to sub- scribe 2,00 2)6 >• annum to the funds of the C. M. S. on condition that aid was given to the same extent in carrying out Mr. Miller's plan in its entirety. It is understood that the Wesleyan Missionary Society are prepared to aid the Free Church to about the same extent. We have not heard of any similar decisions being yet arrived at by the other missionary bodies interested, but the home authorities of all have more or less directly expressed their sympathy with the scheme, and their cordial wishes for its complete success. There is reason to believe that some, at all events, of the societies that have not yet decided will see their way to give material as well as moral aid. Their doing so is a question, we suppose, simply of their ability, not of their inclination. In a scheme proposed in so catholic a spirit and aiming at so catholic an end, we are sure that any Protestant society whose attention is fairly drawn to it will wish to aid. The College must, no doubt, continue for a time to hold a special relation to the Free Church. To make an abrupt separation between the future and the great work done already would be to cut the roots and still expect the tree to grow. But v\e have little doubt that in course of time the College will become in uame and appear- ance what it promises to be in spirit even from the first — in no respect denominational or sectarian, but Christian in the widest sense. In com- mending the scheme to the Free General Assembly, Dr. Smith (late of the i^7-?>«c? q/'//K//a) remarked most truly that there was no Christian man in Southern India (he might have added in the whole of India), of whatever church, who would not rejoice if the Assembly committed itself to the undertaking.

120 XutcK nad InlfUiijrnce. [July,

A YOUNG man, a Brahman, belonging to a rather wealthy familv, was baptizcil in the month of June in the Free Church Mission at Madras, in the schools of which Mission he recently tiuished his education. The chief interest of the case is that, though little more than a youth, he was able to fight the inevitable battle with his parents and family, without receiving shelter from the missionaries, and that he has never been an inmate of any mission house. Tliis is a course that certainly cannot be followed in every case, but as undoubtedly one such instance of the jjower of Christianity has more effect for good on the native community than a whole array of cases in which the convert has received " protection. "

An occurrence which indicates how the native churches are growing in the sense of their own responsibility and the grace of giving, recently took place iu two of the local meetings of the missionaries, helpers and pco]de of the American Madura Mission. The pastors in this Mission are supported by the collections of their own chundies, supplemented by grants from a society which is sufficiently designated by its name — The Native Evangelical Society. The finances of this body for three or four years past had been put to a severe strain by the ordination of several new pastors, who looked to the Society for supplementary grants ; so that the debt on the treasury and the current expenses of the year together amounted to up- wards of Rs. 1600. At these meetings referred to, representations of the Society's treasury were made, and the question of cancelling the debt by special contributions discussed. An enthusiastic spirit of giving was awakened, the result of which was, that the natives contributed on the spot, and gave such an impulse to the matter throughout the Mission as to secure enough to meet all the obligations of the Society. Not a few of the gifts involved much self-sacrifice on the part of the givers.

One of the useful matters which has been quietly going on in tlie Madura ^Mission has been the training of medical men in its hospitals and dispensaries for practical M'ork among the masses of the people. Eight or ten men who have been so educated are practising here and there about the district.

With a view to supplying the Mission stations and some of the more important villages with men equal to the common wants of the people, a larger class is now being trained in the dispensary and hospital at Dindigal. Malarial fever and its adjuncts, rheumatism, diseases of the stomach and bowels, ophthalmia, ulcers and skin diseases constitute a very large percentage of the cases which come to dispensaries or hosjjitals for treatment. Persons well educated at the bedside and in the compoundijig room, with a fair knowledge of anatomy, chemistry and therapeutics, will be able to alleviate a large amount of the misery of the poor people, now practically without physicians.

The writer of the Annual Report of the Madura Mission addresses himself to answer faithfully the question, whether, so far as mission work in the Madura Mission for the year 1874 is concerned, missions in India have been a failure. It might in some cases be perilous to at-

'S75-]

Notcit and Intalliyoice.

121

tempt to answer snth n question as this before tlic last day cf the year had scuroely passed. I5ut, writing his report within the next month, the tuitlior shows that tlie work of his Mission has not been a fruitless one. We notice tliat 182 persons were received as communicants to the churches— 120 of them from the heatliea ; that catechumens in the con- gregations have increased by 427 ; that 2739 pupils are taught in the Bciiools, and that lis. 4027 were raised by churches and congregations for religious and charitable purposes, and that 16,932 cases had been treated in the Dindigal dispensary. It would be interesting to follow the sta- tistics still further in answer to the inquiry. The narration in the body of the Report adds to, rather than detracts from, the force of the answer which the figures give.

The Madras Bible Society has lately issued a pocket edition of the Tamil Bible, which will be a great boon to the native cliurches. We are glad to hear that the Bangalore Bible Society has also resolved on publishing a portable edition of the Canarese Bible, to be printed at the Mangalore Mission Press, which is sure to turn out a volume in the highest style of workmanship. The Canarese Bible has not been hitherto obtainable in one volume, except in a large and lieavy quarto. This has proved a great hindrance to the free use of the Scriptures in that lan- guage. For such a bulky volume could not be used easily for reference in schools, neither could it be taken to public worship, nor conveniently used by people generally. A portable one- volume edition has, therefore, been for a long time past a desideratum.

The same may be said also of editions of the Bible in other vernacu- lar languages. They are in many cases too bulky, and also, being ia more than one volume, are inconvenient for reference.

More attention also needs to be paid to Jovmess of price. The new Tamil Pocket Bible bound in cloth is sold at 12 annas. This is a step in the right direction. But Dr. Mullens mentions that, during his late visit to Madagascar, it was resolved, after much consultation, to sell the Mala- gasy Bible, which had just arrived, at one shilling, or 8 annas, a C'.py, more than that being considered to be beyond the means of the mass of the people. The same applies to this country. Why should English school Bibles be sold as low as 3 and 4 annas to natives who are in many cases well able to pay more, and the vernacular Scriptures needed by the poorer classes be priced, as the Canarese Bible was until lately, at I rupee 8 annas ? Such a price as this is absolutely prohibitory to the majority of the people of this country, and is a serious obstacle to the free circulation of the Word of God.

The question of caste, in connection with the census of the Travan- core State, of which we have spoken in a previous number, was decided by the Government of that state in the most admirable manner. The question is really one of great importance to the native Christian com- munity, who feared that they were about to be thrust back, by an au- thoritative decision of Government, into the castes which they regarded themselves as having left forever. The 1 8th of May was the day fixed for the taking of the census. The missionaries were requested to IG

122

Notes and InteUiijencc.

aid in any way convenient in this nseful work, csjiecially by allaying any ignorant fears that might arise witli reference to the subject. The missionaries of the London Missionary ISociety replied that they would have much jileasure in doing so, and at the same time expressed their hope that it was not intended that the column for ' caste' should be filled up by inserting the former caste designation of Christians. 1 he missionaries urged the undesirability of bringing up the subject of caste amongst Christians, to perpetuate what had better be forgotten, and perhaps revive former feuds and jealousies. They referred to the case of Muhammadans, whose former caste is at once ignored, and to a decision of the Madras Government "approving of native Christians " being always recorded as such, irrespective of their former caste," and they inquired to what caste could the children of mixed marriages which have taken place amongst their people be said to belong ?

The missionaries were nobly supported in this application by Mr. Ballard, the British Resident, and H. H. the Maharaja at once acceded to the wishes of the missionaries, and " directed the census agency not to " insist on native Christian converts furnishing information with regard " to their castes." This decision is highly satisfactory and of great value to the Christian community, now officially recognized as one distinct class. Of course the subdivision into Protestant, Roman Catholic and Syrian Christians will be maintained.

Notwithstanding the Government orders, one case at least has been known in which an inferior official has accompanied the enumerators and demanded the caste of a native Christian ; on this being refused, the official undertook, with abuse, to compel the Christian to give it.

Considerable alarm was experienced by the poor low-caste population, untaught and uncared for as they are. In some parts near the capital the Pariahs and Pulayars were told by the Muhammadans that their fowls and sheep would be seized on the day of final enumeration, and that therefore they had better sell them off beforehand at any price they could get. This was done, and the poor people are now left without their domestic animals, which they were beguiled into selling off at about a third of the usual rates. Popular education would remove these absurd false alarms.

The outbreak of cholera in the northern part of Ceylon has caused the Government to interfere in the matter of pilgrimages. All assem- blages, or concourses of pilgrims, in the upper half of the island have been prohibited until September 1st, with the exception of those to the Katragama festival ; and this has been so regulated that none can attend who have not obtained a license from the Government Agent. This prohibition prevents the great annual Romish pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Anna at Kalpitiya, and some lesser heathen festivals. The Roman Bishop acquiesces in the order, and has deferred the festival to October. The measure is unquestionably a wise one. The same steps should be taken and followed out uncompromisingly on the continent by the local Governments of the different presidencies. Hitherto the Indian local authorities have considered their work sufficiently done when they have inserted a notice in the district Gazette notifying the existence of cholera at a sacred shrine, and warning the people of the danger of a

Nofca and Intel iigenre.

'23

pilgrimage. "Wrre the {)ilp;rims tlie only persons liable to suffer, this would be rensonnble and sufficient Hut it is perfectly well known to the dwellers alonj; the great routes of jjilfjrinuige that cholera-infected pilgrims sow cholera in the villages along tlu-ir route as certainly as if they carried it in their pockets, and distributed it with their money to the villages. When pilgrimages thus become public nuisances they should be met with judicious but prompt suppression. Such an order marks a new stage of progress. We are glad that the peoj)le of Ceylon have enough intelligence to render such a restriction advisable.

Though priests and merchants at the shrines might make an outcry against any regulation of their festivals, we believe the day has come when the people at large -would acknowledge the sanitary necessity of such measures, and acquiesce in them.

In an article upon Tempm-ance suggested by onr article on that subject in the last number of this Review, the Bengal Christian Herald speaks as follovrs : —

" That the evil [intemperance] is daily growing, as is proved by the open- ing of new liquor-shopg almost everywhere, cannot be doubted for a moment by any who have got even a superficial acquaintance with the real state of things. It appears to be the groat curse which Western civilization has introduced into this countiy, and it requires combined and vigorous efforts to check and eradicate it"

Yet while tbus agreeing in the main 'witli onr article, the editor of the Herald sees reason to dii¥er with the author of it on one point of much interest. We need not say that we hope the Herald is I'ight, and our author mistaken upon this matter. The opportunities for forming an intelligent opinion which the Editor of the Herald possesses are all that could be desired, and we rejoice to learn the opinion at which he has an>ived. We give his own words : —

" We think the picture drawn by the writer in the Revieio as to the prevalence of intemperance amongst Indian Chriitians is somewhat overdravim. The in- stances cited are, we believe, of an exceptional character, and, as far as our knowl- edge goes, the evil does not seem to have taken such a deep root amongst them as the instances given would lead one to suppose. In Calcutta there are many educated converts who have largely imbibed habits of Western civilization, but we do not just now recollect the name of a single person amongst them who is a drunkard. Intemperance is perhaps more prevalent among some uneducated Christians, but even there the evil, we are thankful to say, has not taken a very deep root. It becomes, however, the duty of every missionary, and all who are interested in the welfare of Indian Christiana, to guard zealously against the introduction of the evil where it has not as yet made its appearance, and adopt measures at once to eradicate it where it hag."

Since the publication of the January Number, we have received the following Reports, which we beg to acknowledge with thanks : — The Sixteenth Report of the Amritsar Mission of the C. M. S. The Fortieth Annual Report of the Lodiana Mission.

The Second Report of the United General Committee of the Kamaon Mission. Report of the Mission in Delhi and the South Panjab of the S. P. G. The Thirtieth Annual Report of tho Baptist Mission, Agra. Report for the year 1 874 and Minutes of the nth Annual Session of the India Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church.

124

Kofcs and InfcUi'/jencc.

The Oudh Church Mission at Lucknow andTyzabsd.

'Jthe Annual Ecport of the Kuriukhabad Mission for the year ending Oct. 3li-t, 1874.

llopoi t of the Almora Mission in connection with the L. M. S. for 1874. llcport of the Mirzaporo and Singrowlee Missions iu connection with tho L. M. S., 1874.

Xhe Fifty-fifth Keport of the Calcutta Corresponding Committee of the CM S., 1S74.

Kopoi-t of the Dacca and East Rengal Baptist Mission for 1874. Indian Report of the Orissa Baptist Mission for 1874-75.

Forty-second Annual Report of the American Froo Baptist Mission in Lower

Bengal, for tho year ending March, 1875. Sixth Annual Report of the ChutteosgurU Mission in connection with tlio

Gorman Evangelical Missionary Society of the United States of America,

for tho year 1874-75. Report of the Bombay or Western India -\uxiHary C. M. S. for 1874. Report of the American Mission among the Maratbas for 1874. Kolapoor Mission, 1874.

Report of tho London Mission, Belgaum, for 1874.

The Thirty-sixth Report of tho Wesloyan Mission in tho Mysore Ten-itory, fur 1874.

Report of the South India District Committee of tho London Missionary Society for 1874.

Seventh Annual Report of the American Baptist Tehigu Mission, 1874-75. Twenty-first Annual Report of the Arcot Mission of the Ral'ormed Church in

America for 1874. Madras Mission of the Free Church of Scotland, Report for 1874. The Fortieth Annual Report of the Amoriean Madura Mission, 1874. Keport of the London Mission, Salem, 1874.

Annual Report of the Neyore Mission District in connection with the L. M. S., 1874.

Report of the London Mission, Tripatoor, 1874.

Annual Report of the Trevandnim Mission District in connection with tlio L. M. S., 1874.

Annual Keport of the Nagerooil Mission District in connection with the L. M. S., 1874.

Annual Report of the Travancore District Committee in connection with the L. M. S., 1874.

Koport of the Basel German Evangelical Missionary Society, 1874. Ninth Annual Keport of the Burma Missionary Convention, 1873-74. Fifteenth Animal Report of tho Rangoon ]\lissionary Society, 1873-74. Thirty-seventh Annual Report of the Maulmain Missionary Society, 1873-74. The Nineteenth Keport of the Ceylon Tamil Cooly Mission, 1874. Report of the Wesleyan Mission Extension Fund, South Ceylon District, 1874.

Seventh Annual Keport of the Bombay Medical Missionary Society, 1874. Report of the Madras Medical Mission in connection with tho Edinburgh

Medical IVIis.siuu Society, 1874. Annual Report of the Mission Hospital and Dispensaries in connection with

the L. M. S., Nagei coil, 1874.

Second Report cf the Panjab Branch of tho Indian Female Normal School ants

Instruction Society, 1S74. Notices of some Indian Women, to accompany the above. Report of the Secundra Church Mission Orphanage, 1874. Christian Vernacular Education Society for India, Report fur 1 874. C. V. E. S. for India, Bombay Branch, 1874.

Report of the Bombay English Bible Women's Association, 1 87 4. Report of the Hindu Girls' School connected with tho Chui-ch Missionary and Indian Female Instruction Societies, Madias, 1874-75.

'875.]

Notes and Intclh'tjimce.

'25

Seventh Report of tho Panjiib Bolifnous Book Society, 1873-74. Seventh Ivcjjort of ihe Punjab Auxiliary Biblo Society, 1873-74. Catalo'^iio of Hooks, etc. in tho Depository of tho Ameriuun Presbyterian Mission, Lodiana.

Twonty-sixlli Annual Ri-port of tlio North India Trant and Hook Society, 1874. Twenty-ninth Aunual lldport of tlio Norlli India biblo Society, 1871. Forty-Ufth Report of tho Calcut ta Christian Tract and Book Society, 1874. Sixty-second Report of tho Calcutta Auxiliary Hiblo Society, 1874. Report of tho Bombay Auxiliary to tho British auJ Foreign Biblo Society, 1874.

Report of tho Bangalore Tract and Book Society, 1873-74. Report of tho Bangalore Biblo Society, 1S74.

Fifty-sixth Aunual Report of tho Madras Religious Tract and Book Society, 1874.

Eleventh Annual Report of tho Burma Bible and Tract Society, 1874.

126

Book Noticeit.

['Tuly,

Art. X.— book NOTICES.

The Women of India, and Christian Work in the Zenana. By Mrs. Weitbrecht. London: James Nisbet and Co., 1875. pp. 232 fcap. 8vo.

This is an interesting little volume made up of letters and papers that have all appeared in German, in the Allgemeine Missions- Zeitschrift, relating almost exclusively to the labors of English, Scotch or German ladies in and around Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. It bcgius with an endeavor to set forth the social condition of the women of India during the earlier ages. In the Vedic age woman held an influential position, as regards both the domestic and religious life of the family ; one man was usually the hus])and of one wife, though traces of polygamy and polyandry are to be found among the writings of this period. During the " Ueroic Age," as Mrs. Weitbrecht terms the period of the Hindu epics, the position of woman corresponded closely to that of the women of Europe during the age of chivalry. The Mahahharat and Ramayana contain stories of women, chaste and beautiful, who were allowed to make the choice of a husband for themselves. The stories of Sita and Savitri are given at some length as illustrations of the high character ascribed to the women of that time. During the Brahmanic age, however, when the laws of Manu came to be practised, woman lost her exalted position, and became a mere slave. These laws speak of women as wholly untrustworthy, fickle, frail, vicious and perverse, surcharged with all manner of hateful passions and impure desires ; and by means of such laws woman lost every vestige of independence which she might previously have possessed. During the succeeding Puranic Age, when the laws of Manu became thoroughly Brah- manized, instead of rising any higher, woman sank lower, if anything, in the social scale, and in this condition the missionary ladies found her when they first came to India. The early efforts put forth by the first mis- sionary ladies to educate and elevate the position of the Hindu women are briefly sketched. These eff'orts for a long time consisted principally of schools for girls ; but more recently access has been gained to the houses of several high-caste women ; and this phase of the work, or what is called Zenana-visiting, is dwelt on more at length. The difficulties connected with this work, as well as the encouragements to be derived from it, are faithfully delineated with the aid of extracts from letters written at various times by different ones engaged in the work. The latter part of the book contains interesting biographical sketches of some of the more prominent missionary ladies that have given themselves to the work of benefitting the women of this land.

The book is an excellent one, as far as it goes, but it is very far from being a complete history of the work an account of which it professes to give. The labors of American missionary ladies are passed by with a simple allusion ; and nothing is said of the work for women accomplished outside of the large centres of activity, like Calcutta and Bombay, — a work as important and as interesting as that attempted at such centres.

i87S.]

127

LuGAT I KiTAH I MuciADDAs. (Bil)le Dictionary, in the Hindustani' language, Roman character.) By Mrs. Mather, late of the Mirza- pore Mission-- Mirzapore Mission Press, 1875. pp. 587.

By the ])reparation and puhlication of this IJihle Dictionary Mrs. Mather has laid the native Cliristiaus of Nortliern India under great obligations. It forms a handsome volume, extending to 587 pages, printed in double columns, in a clear large type, on good pajjcr, with numerous wood engravings, which, if not fine, are very hclj)ful in illustra- ting the text. Those who consult it will speedily find that the informa- tion given is minute, full and accurate, and yet so compressed that within a comparatively small space every thing essential for a satisfactory Bible Dictionary is contained. We have compared several of the articles with those of a small English Bible Dictionary beside us, and have found it very preferable. The style is generally both simple and idiomatic. The influence of the book may be narrowed by its being in the Roman character, but the greater number of intelligent native Christians who use the Urdu as their mother-tongue are well acquainted with that character, and they can, and no doubt in many cases will help others to a knowledge of its contents. The stock of books accessible to our native Christians who are ignorant of the English language is yet very limited, and a more directly useful addition to it than that made by Mrs. Mather's volume we can scarcely conceive. If our native preachers not only consult it, but study its leading articles, turning up the numerous passages to which reference is made, their own minds will be furnished, and their preaching will become much more varied and instructive than it commonly is. Thus a great boon will be conferred on their brethren to whom they minister.

Lyric3 (Tamil). Madras: The Christian Vernacular Education Society, 1875-

This little book contains (in lithograph) a small collection of native tunes in European notation. The tunes, 24 in all, are those belonging to some of the 300 in a large volume of native lyrics published by the Madras Tract Society. We notice that two or three of the melodies are European or Hindu melodies which have apparently come by way of the English into Tamil use. Nearly all the airs in the collection are agreeable to a European ear, easy and pretty. Apparently only some of the more simple ones out of 150 in the Lyric-book have been selected for this experiment. We believe this is the first publication of Tamil tunes, though they have been in use in Christian worship for twenty years. So far as these are concerned the experiment may be pronounced a success. The author did not, however, aim to grapple with the difficulties of the Hindu time or scale. We hope, now that the ground is broken, we shall have many more of these melodies— some of them really very beautiful— fixed in a permanent form. Considering the extent over which the Tamil Church is spread, it is particularly desirable that the tunes used in different districts should be published. At present many of the melodies common in Travancore are unknown in Madura and Tanjore, while the tunes of some of the best hymns current in these districts are

I2S

Book Notices.

[July, 1875.]

not generally known in Travancore or Tinnevelli. We are indebted to Rev. W. E. De llieiner of Jatl'iia for this brochure.

The Tamil Annotated \ew Testament has just been published by the Madraa llelii^ioas Tract and Book Society. It forms a volume of 1 2S0 pages, royjil octavo, ?.nd is the first complete commentary on the whole of the New Testament ever published in India. The basis of the commentary is the Annotated New Testament of the London Relii^ious Tract Society. It has been translated and edited by llev. W. T. Satthianadban, of the Church Mission, Madras, who has, in the prep- aration of the book, consulted several other valuable commentaries. The price at whicli the work is offered is marvellously low. To all sub- scribers who register their names before the 30th of September the com- plete work will be furnished for one rupee, bound in half sheep, or one rupee and a half in full black sheep. The prices afterwards will be Rs. and lis. 2 respectively for the two styles.

Tiie Madras Tract Society may well congratulate itself upon the com])letion of this work, and the Tamil native (Jhurch upon its possession. The Maratlii edition of the same work (of which the first volume, con- taining the Gospels, was published last year, and noticed in our puges) will be ready ere long, though Bombay cannot compete with Madras in the matter of cheap printing ; and editions in other Indian languages are to follow. The Religious Tract Society, whose liberality has made the issue of these expensive volumes ia these several languages possible, has conferred a lasting benefit upon the native Church of India.

As we were obliged to omit all Book Notices from the April Number, and as our space in the present Number admits no more than those given above, several ])ublications remain to be noticed hereafter. We beg to acknowledge receipt of the following, with thanks : —

The Elomcnrs of Psychology ; by Dr. R. Jardine.

The Anglo-Karen Hand-Book and Reader ; by C. If. Carpenter.

Conference on Urdu and Hindi Christian Literature held afc Allahabad 24th and 2SI,h February, 1875.

A Dictionary of the Oraro Language ; by T. J. Keith.

Outline Grammar of the Garo Language ; by T. J. Keith.

A Compendium of Molesworth's Jlarathi and English Dictionary, 2nd edition ; by Baba Pad man ji.

Hinduism and Christian Educatoin : two Lectures ; by Rev, William Steven- son, M.A.

A Traveller's Notes ; by a native Delegate to the Allahabad Mission Con- ference.

A Chtirge delivered by the Rt. Rev. H. A. Douglas, Bishop of Bombay, Jan. 12, 1875.

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Opinions of the Press.

TmS publication is conducted by Mr. Owen Aratoon, a gentleman highly esteemed in the literary circles of the metropolis. It ought to bo supported not merely in Bengal, but also iu other parts of India. — Madras Standard.

The Magazine should be in the hands of aW.—Luchioiu Times. It approaches much more to a good English periodical than any other Indian one we have seen. Besides two continued stories, it contains a variety of other articles of real ability and beneficial influence. — TJce Luclinoio Witness.

It is very nicely printed and contains very interesting reading. It is quite equal to any periodical published in Calcutta, and we wish it all success. — The Indian Church Gazette. The Calcutta Magazine should find many readers. — Times of India. We perceive that the editor has spared no pains to make it interest- ing.— The Hindoo Patriot.

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NEW AND IMPORTANT SYSTEM OF LIFE ASSURANCE.

ORIENTAL GOVERNMENT SECURITY LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANY, LIMITED.

Tho difference of Premium between this and ALL the otter Life Assurance Companies in India is from 19 to 103 per cent, in favor of the " Oriental" Rates.

From no other Office can greater Security and sucli Genofits be obtained.

Dr. NORMAN MACLEOD.

Many persons witli whom in their distress he came iu contact in his ministerial capacity did nut avail themselves of tin; blessings of insurance as they out;ht to do. He was not speakinif of th'ise amongst tho wealthy or poorer classes, but of tho middle classes. How was this n gleet to be accounted for ? He thought one of the causes, and one which was far more prevalent than people were aware of, was that which was very common to humanity — selfishness. There were many persons who had very little interest in spending money when they did not expect to get some immediate or direct return for it; they did not feel disposed, as it were, to spend money when they knew that no direct use could be made of it till the nails were put into their coffins. He supposed there was no man, excepting an extremely selfish man, who would go even on a voyage, or be absent from his family for a few weeks or months, without ever thinking how they were to get on, how they were to pay their rent or get food or clothing during his absence. He would certainly seek to ijrovide for them. How much more should a man provide for his family when he was taking that voyage from which there was no return ! He had heard persons under the guise of piety say in their circumstances they would prefer to trust in Providence.

Well, he thought we could not trust Providence too much when wo did our duty ; it was not only great ignorance, but it was real profanity to suppose that we were to trust Providence for helping us to become inconsiderate, selfish, procrastinat- ing, and indifferent to tho well-being of others. If they wasted their substance and were iudiffereut to their families, were idle and procrastinating, he said Providence would leach them by permitting them to suffer and to see the consequences of their own acts. Providence helped those who helped themselves, or, in other words, those who did their duty ; he thought there were some people who did not insure their lives, from procrastination, forgetting all the time they were thinking about it they were liable to sickness, not to speak of death. The man who might bo able to insure hie life this week might in a week ior month fall into bad health, or might Bufier from some disease which would prevent his life from being accepted by any Assurance Office. Again, a man procrastinated until the small income which ho received could not afiijrd the premium. Such m en forget that they must purchase the insurance at a dearer rate the older tJiey were.

Dr. GUTHRIE.

I look upon Life Assurance as the best means by which a man can avert leaving his family dependent either upon private benevolence or public charity.

If the Assured should die after payment of one Fromium, he secures to his Family a provision although possessed of no other means.

Prospectuses, and Forms of Proposal may be obtained from any of tbe Agents, or from

D, McLAUCHLAN SLATER, F.i.A.,

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