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A comparison of montane and lowland rain fo in Ecuador. I. The forest structure, physiognomy, and floristics. Journal of Ecology, 51: 567-601 1 ANODON E J M. 1979. Yage among the Siona: Cultural patterns in visions, pp. 63-80. In Browman, D„ and R. A. Schwar/, fds.. Spirits, Shamans, and Stars. Mouton Publishers, The Hague. Nethcriands. MiiRRA J 1946 The historic tribes of Ecuador, pp. 785-821. In Steward, J. H.. ed.. Handbook of; American Indians. Vol. 2, The Andean Civilizations. Bulletin 1 43, Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsom Institution, Washington, D.C. '":^ -..>. wish to publish figures that require costly special naDcr or color reproduction mv prior arrangements with the Scientific Editor, Page Proofs: Fieldiana employs a two-step correction system. Lach author will normally rcccn^ copy of the edited manuscript on which deletions, additions, and changes can be made and quei . answered. Only one set of page proofs will be sent. All desired corrections of type must be made on i iroofs. Changes in page proofs (as opposed to corrections) are very expensive Aatli in page proofs can only be made if the author agrees in advance to pay THIS FUSUCATION IS PRINTED ON ACID-FREE PAPER. FIELDIANA Anthropology NEW SERIES, NO. 13 Indian Trade Ornaments in the Collections of Field Museum of Natural History James W. VanStone Curator. North American Archaeology and Ethnology Department of Anthropology Field Museum of Natural Histon- Chicago. Illinois 60605-2496 Accepted May 16, 1989 Published October 31, 1989 Publication 1404 PUBLISHED BY FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY © 1989 Field Museum of Natural History ISSN 0071-4739 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Table of Contents List of Illustrations Abstract 1 I. Introduction 1 II. Pendants Crosses 3 Effigies 3 Miscellaneous 4 III. Brooches 5 IV. Gorgets 6 V. Arm- and Wristbands 7 VI. Ear Ornaments 7 VII. Miscellaneous 8 VIII. Identifying Marks 8 Effigies 10 Brooches 10 Ear Ornament 11 Intentionally Obliterated Touch- marks 11 IX. Conclusions 12 Acknowledgments 13 Literature Cited 13 Appendix 15 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9, 10, 12. 13. 14. 15. 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21- Pendants 19 Engraved design on a breast ornament . 20 Disk brooches 21 Disk, ring, square, and heart brooches . , 22 Round gorgets; star, heart. Masonic, and animal effigy brooches 23 Engraved design on a round gorget 24 Engraved design on a round gorget 24 Crescent-shaped gorgets 25 Armbands and crescent-shaped gorgets . 26 Engraved design on a crescent-shaped gorget 27 Engraved design on a crescent-shaped gorget 27 Armbands 28 Engraved design on an armband 29 Engraved design on an armband 29 Armbands 30 Engraved design on an armband 31 Engraved design on an armband 31 Wristbands 32 Earrings, ear wheels, earbobs, and mis- cellaneous ornaments 33 Waistband and head hatbands 34 -32. Unidentified touchmarks and marks of uncertain attribution 35—40 Indian Trade Ornaments in the Collections of Field Museum of Natural History Abstract Throughout its history. Field Museum of Nat- ural History's Department of Anthropology has acquired a sizable collection of American Indian trade ornaments. This collection, which includes a variety of pendants, brooches, gorgets, and other objects of personal adornment, is descnbed and illustrated in this study. Numerous items in the collection are marked with the individual marks of craftsmen who produced ornaments for the In- dian trade. Though some marks cannot be iden- tified with certainty, the majority of marked pieces represent the work of Canadian craftsmen and were traded to the Indians by traders based in Montreal. The collection as a whole illustrates the impor- tance of this trade and the variety of ornaments traded to Indians in the Great Lakes area in the latter 18th and early 19th centuries. I. Introduction Over the years since it was founded in 1894 to house collections from the World's Columbian Ex- position of 1893, Field Museum of Natural His- tory has acquired several collections of American Indian trade ornaments. These collections vary considerably in size and completeness of docu- mentation, but are impressive primarily because of the variety of styles and forms represented. Also, a sizable number of individual pieces bear maker's touchmarks which can be identified with known craftsmen who produced ornaments for the Indian trade. In December 1 900 the museum purchased from Walker C. Wyman a large collection of archaeo- logical and ethnographic material from the Great Lakes region which includes 27 trade ornaments (accession 727), all of which were apparently col- lected or purchased by Mr. Wyman. Ten of these pieces are identified in the museum's accession records as having come from "Cross Village, Michigan" and the remainder lack proveniences. This community is at the northern end of an area along the northeast shore of Lake Michigan orig- mally known as L'Arbre Croche. which extended as far south as Petoskey in Emmet County. Ac- cording to Blackbird (1977, p. 10), there was a continuous village of some 15-16 miles long in this area. It was occupied by Ottawa Indians who moved there in 1 742 from Michilimackinac (Tan- ner, 1987, p. 62). The Indians at L'Arbre Croche, like other Ot- tawa in villages along the shores of lakes, relied heavily on fishing with nets for subsistence. In- dividual or group hunting of deer, bear, beaver, and other mammals as well as a variety of water- fowl was also important, particularly in winter when the Indians moved to their more southerly hunting grounds. Women planted com, beans, and squash near the summer villages, and the gathering of wild food products was widely practiced (Feest & Feest, 1978, p. 774). Archaeological materials relating to the early historic period in the L'Arbre Croche area have been described briefly by Alberts (1953, pp. 89-95) and Quimby (1966, pp. 150- 151). In a 1943 exchange with H. E. Brouwknect, the museum obtained 70 trade ornaments, 6 1 of which were excavated by unknown individuals from a site on Round Island. Michigan, in the Straits of Mackinac adjacent to Mackinac Island (accession 2328). Unfortunately, no other information was received with this collection. In the 1 8th and early VANSTONE: INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS 19th centuries a nearby fort was the center of the fur trade in the western Great Lakes. This fort, established by the French about 1715 at Michil- imackinac on the tip of the lower peninsula of Michigan, was moved by the British to nearby Mackinac Island in 1 78 1 . It marked the boundary between the Ottawa territory on the west and Ojib- wa (Chippewa) country to the east (Tanner, 1987, pp. 62-63). The Brouwknect collection also con- tains seven pieces identified in the catalog of the Department of Anthropology as from the "Ottawa or Chippewa." In addition, two pieces are from Lee County, Mississippi. This area, with the Tu- pelo region as its focal point, was the primary center for the entire Chickasaw Nation from the earliest contact period until their removal west in the 1830s. It was also an important trade center for British and, later, American traders from the southeastern coast and the Ohio and Mississippi rivers (Gibson, 1971, pp. 33, 36, 38, 41, 43-44, 68, 86). In July 1954 Arthur Shulene sold the museum a collection of historic archaeological material, in- cluding 36 trade ornaments, excavated in 1928 from Indian graves along the Des Plaines River near Channahan in Will County, Illinois (acces- sion 2520). A number of ornaments in this and the two previously described collections have been illustrated by Quimby (1958. fig. I, p. 319). In 1977-1978 the Department of Anthropology received sizable collections of trade ornaments as gifts from Mr. and Mrs. Theodore Van Zelst (accession 3348) and Mr. and Mrs. John M. Mitch- ell (accession 3368). These collections, assembled by the donors over a period of 30 years, lack pro- veniences. A total of 47 ornaments from these accessions are included in this study. Smaller collections of trade ornaments de- scribed here include two pieces from the Sac and Fox of Tama, Iowa, mcluded in a collection pur- chased in 1905 (accession 947); six pieces from the Potawatomi of Wisconsin obtained along with other ethnographic material on a field trip m 1925 (accession 1618); two pieces recovered from a grave in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, included in a col- lection obtained in 1893 (accession 97); and five pieces from the Seminole of Florida purchased as pari of a larger ethnographic assemblage in 1906 (accession 996). No other information concerning these collections occurs in the accession files. The literature on various aspects of Indian trade ornaments is not extensive and there are relatively few sources in which a variety of forms are well illustrated. The purpose of this study, therefore, is simply to describe and illustrate a varied collection of ornaments, emphasizing variety, and to focus on the makers of such ornaments and the marks used to identify their work. The term "trade silver" is sometimes applied to any item that possesses a high polish and was used by Norih Amencan Indians for decoration and trade. Such ornaments, or trinkets, were made of brass, copper, pewter, lead, and German or nickel silver, as well as laminated sheet silver. Objects of all these materials are represented in Field Mu- seum's collection, but the majority are of sheet silver. Exceptions are indicated in the individual descriptions. Ornaments of sheet silver were made specifically for use in the fur trade by silversmiths in Canada, England, and the United States, and are consid- ered to be an excellent criterion for dating ar- chaeological sites in the western Great Lakes and elsewhere in eastern Northern America between ca. 1 760 and 1 820. In addition to their importance as chronological indicators, these silver orna- ments, although of Euramerican manufacture, have always been regarded by anthropologists as an in- tegral part of North American Indian culture, re- flecting many aspects of Indian-white relations in the latter 18th and early 19th centuries (Quimby, 1966, pp. 91, 100). Silver ornaments were initially introduced to North American Indians in the form of diplomatic gifts and later became a significant item in com- mercial trade. The earliest silver ornaments were medals, sometimes also made of brass, copper, or pewter, which were given to Indian leaders as a badge of honor and to secure friendly relations with the various tribes. As hostilities between Eu- ropean powers in North America increased, In- dian allies became extremely important, particu- larly to the French and Bntish, and the amount and variety of silver ornaments presented during alliance ceremonies proliferated. In addition to diplomatic alliances, Europeans also desired the impressive profits that could be derived from trade for furs. As the Indians wanted, among other trade goods, silver for their furs and services, traders became increasingly aware of the necessity of in- cluding items such as brooches, earrings, arm- bands, crosses, gorgets, and finger rings in their trading inventories. With this accelerated demand, by the mid- 18th century silver ornaments were being produced in North America specifically for the Indian trade (Fredrickson & Gibb, 1980, pp. 27-28, 33). In the 18th century, coins were the primary FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY source of silver in North America. They were melt- ed down, alloyed with a small amount of copper to give durability, and then pressed or pounded into thin sheets. Very little metal was thus required for individual items, and large-scale production was relatively inexpensive. The sheets were cut to form gorgets, brooches, armbands, and other forms, and then decorated with engraved or pierced de- signs (Fredrickson & Gibb, 1980, p. 41). German or nickel silver, an alloy of copper, zinc, and nickel metallurgically defined as conlaming no silver, may have been developed in China as early as the 8th century A.D. It was being man- ufactured commercially in Germany in the early 19th century and was introduced into the North American trade shortly after 1830. By the late 1830s and early 1840s, at least in part because of the rising cost of pure silver in the early 19th cen- tury, articles of nickel silver were in use in the Great Lakes Indian trade. The high cost of pure silver rendered continued manufacture and trade in ornaments of this material commercially im- practical, and they were gradually elimmated from the Indian trade between 1830 and 1850. The commercial manufacture of Indian trade orna- ments of nickel silver apparently continued until as late as 1845 (Hanson, 1979; Demeter, 1980, pp. 108-109, 116-117). Field Museum's collection of trade ornaments is sufficiently varied so that the items can be de- scribed under the following headings: pendants (primarily crosses and effigies), brooches, gorgets, arm- and wristbands, ear ornaments, and miscel- laneous forms. The descriptions which follow, al- though hopefully sufficient to make clear the spe- cial characteristics of each form, are brief and the reader is urged to pay particular attention to the photographs. Relevant comparisons with similar specimens in published collections are made whenever possible. II. Pendants Crosses Although copper and brass crosses given to Christian converts by early Jesuit missionaries ob- viously were church symbols, it seems clear that the silver crosses distributed as trade items by fur traders and government agents at a later date were without religious significance (Quimby, 1937, pp. 15-16). They were worn by men and women sim- ply as chest and ear ornaments (Quimby, 1 966, p. 95; Fredrickson & Gibb, 1980, p. 60). Two types of crosses in Field Museum's collec- tion were common trade items; the Latin or single- barred cross and the Florentine or double-barred form. There is a single example of the former in the collection, the arms of which have been re- stored with nickel silver, possibly by a museum restorer. The head and foot of the shank as well as the ends of the crossbar are foliated. Both sides of the shank are ornamented with identical incised designs, some of which are rocker-engraved in a zigzag pattern. There is a suspension ring at the proximal end. The restored arms are undecorated. This cross, from Round Island, Michigan, is stamped with the mark of the Montreal silver- smith Robert Cruickshank and is illustrated by Quimby (1966. fig. 20, p. 94). Latin crosses are illustrated by a number of authors, including Fred- rickson and Gibb (1980, pp. 61-62, 120-123, 141). On both of the Florentine or double-barred crosses in the collection the head and foot of the shank as well as the ends of the crossbars are fo- liated. Each has a suspension hole with silver wire rings and the lower crossbar slightly longer than the upper. The larger of these crosses, illustrated by Quimby (1966, fig. 20, p. 94), is from Round Island and is ornamented on both sides with in- cised wavy lines and triangles, from the apex of which are floral-like designs (fig. la). The smaller is decorated with rocker-engraved zigzag lines and is stamped with the mark of Robert Cruickshank; it is from Will County, Illinois (fig. 1 b). Florentine, or "Lorraine," crosses are illustrated by Fredrick- son and Gibb (1980, pp. 61, 97, 99, 102, 121- 122). The collection also contains a Maltese cross pen- dant from Round Island. It has a silver wire sus- pension ring and is ornamented on both sides around the edges with rocker-engraved zigzag lines (fig. Ic). This is an unusual form rarely seen in ornaments made for the Indian trade by Eur- american silversmiths. It is more often encoun- tered in those cut by Indians from larger silver ornaments. The high quality of the rocker engrav- ing around the entire perimeter of this cross in- dicates the work of a professional silversmith. Effigies Animal effigy pendants are among the most problematic trade ornaments. Although the mu- seum collection contains a variety of animal forms. VANSTONE; INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS many authorities have doubted their authenticity because there has been htlle direct evidence of their having been used in trade. The ten effigy pendants included in this study were examined by two experienced students of Indian trade orna- ments with particular attention to materials, forms, manufacture, patina, and wear patterns. These pendants are undoubtedly authentic. Field Museum's collection contains six beaver effigy pendants, two solid cast and four hollow; all have suspension holes. Two virtually identical sol- id beavers of bronze or brass are small and crude, the shape of the animal being poorly defined, with incised cross-hatching on the tail and the eyes and claws indicated (fig. Ig). The four hollow beaver effigies, three of silver, are larger and more care- fully made. Two silver examples, both with ap- plied bottoms, were recovered in an archaeological context on Round Island, The bodily form is clear- ly indicated as are the eyes and claws. On one, stamped with the mark of Robert Cruickshank, there is cross-hatching on the tail (fig. Id), while on the other the texture of the tail is indicated by short raised bumps produced by hammering the tail portion over a similarly ornamented form be- fore the bottom was applied. This beaver has the touchmark of Jonas Schindler on the bottom; it has been partially obliterated intentionally (fig. 1 i). The third touchmarked silver beaver, of unknown provenience, is hollow, broad, and flat, with no anatomical features indicated except rocker-en- graved claws and eyes (fig. Ij). A brass or bronze beaver, almost identical in form to the previously described silver example, has two suspension holes and an applied bottom. The eyes are incised and the claws indicated by rocker-engraved zigzag lines (fig. Ik). Few silver beaver effigies recovered in an ar- chaeological context are described in the literature. One, bearing the mark of Robert Cruickshank, is in the Wisconsin State Historical Museum and was recovered from an Indian grave on the Brule Riv- er, Douglas County, Wisconsin (Brown, 1918, p. 96, pi, 3). Another excavated example, stamped with the mark of Narcisse Roy, is in the Grignon House collection, Kaukauna, Wisconsin (Mason, 1983, p, 242, fig. 4). Many of the silver beavers in museum collec- tions have the touchmark of Robert Cruickshank (Fredrickson & Gibb, 1 980, p. 5 7). Quimby (1966, p. 95) has suggested that such effigy ornaments were probably first made at the request of Indians living in the northern half of the western Great Lakes region, since it was in this area that stone beaver effigies of considerable antiquity were widespread. Turtle effigies are represented in Field Mu- seum's collection by two examples. A silver touch- marked effigy, lacking a suspension hole, is hollow and without anatomical details (fig. 1 e). The other, of unknown provenience, is of cast lead or pewter, crude, and covered with incised ornamentation (fig, 10- The suspension ring is on the flat reverse side. In the late 1890s a silver turtle effigy, now in the Davenport (Iowa) Public Museum, was re- covered from a grave in Emmet County, Michigan (Alberts, 1953, p, 90), A hollow copper fish effigy, of unknown pro- venience, has a separate applied back and is dec- orated with rocker-engraved zigzag lines indicat- ing the mouth, gills, and dorsal fin; similar zigzag lines encircle the touchmark (fig. Ih). A hollow copper bird effigy also has a separate applied back and a touchmark. It is hung on a rosary chain of spherical copper beads which were once silver plated (fig. In). Miscellaneous An unusual pendant or breast ornament from Round Island has been cut from an armband. It consists of two pieces joined by silver wire loops through holes at each end. On the larger piece, which shows along its entire lower edge part of the original nbbing of the armband, is the engraved figure of an Indian holding a bow (fig. 2). At the lower end are triangular dangles at each comer and in the center. The two side dangles now appear as notched arrowhead effigy forms, probably the result of the accidental tearing out of the suspen- sion hole during use. Each time this occurred, a new perforation was made in another comer. A cross with expanded arms hangs from the center dangle. At the upper edge is a pair of suspension holes (fig. Im). The six loops of silver wire required | to construct this piece may have been taken from j pendants and earbobs; this ornament is illustrated by Quimby ( 1 966, p. 94). Similar but less elaborate "plaque and bangle" assemblages were recovered ] at the Fletcher site cemetery. Bay County, Mich- j igan (Mainfort, 1979, p, 396, figs. 63-64). Also cut from an armband are five rectangular pieces of silver from Round Island which may have been connected in a manner similar to the previously described ornament. The ribbing shows i on one piece and there is rocker engraving on ; another. HELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY A simple diamond-shaped pendant from Will County. Illinois, with a suspension hole retains a portion of the original design, an embossed eagle with outstretched wings grasping branches in its talons, over which is a line of six-pointed stars (fig. 1.1). It appears to have been cut from a U.S. Army gorget or possibly a special U.S. government treaty gorget or armband. The miscellaneous ornaments described here were almost cenainly cut by Indians from larger silver ornaments. The production of multiple items from a single large item was a common practice. III. Brooches Brooches are the most abundant ornament form in Field Museum's trade silver collection. There are 75 examples, all but three of sheet silver, and they include seven types. Forty-three brooches, including two of nickel silver and one of pewter, are concave disks with central circular openings; only nine are of known provenience. The tongue for fastening to the gar- ment is missing from 14 specimens. Twenty-two are decoratively perforated with a symmetrical ar- rangement of oval, tnangular. diamond-shaped, heart-shaped, and semilunar perforations and are ornamented with rocker engraving. Of this num- ber, nine have smooth edges (fig. 3a-0 and 1 3 have scalloped edges (figs. 3g-m, 4a-c). Ten brooches, six with smooth and four with scalloped edges, have no ornamental perforations (fig. 4d-i. k, m-n). One of these, with the tongue hole torn out. may have had the edges trimmed down (fig. 4i). Another, with crude rocker-en- graved designs, appears to be homemade from a larger brooch (fig. 4f). A pewter specimen is a com- mercial piece of unknown origin adapted as a brooch (fig. 4o). Seven disk brooches from Round Island are small, convex on the underside, and were appar- ently recovered together (fig. 4p). A somewhat larger example is decorated with a rocker-en- graved wavy, curved line (fig. 4x). A disk brooch of nickel silver is flat and the surface is ornamented with a circular design made of small Y-shaped indentations (fig. 4t). A some- what similar brooch is illustrated by Fredrickson and Gibb (1980. p. 97). Another is oval, lacks the perforation for a tongue, and is ornamented with wavy, spurred lines (fig. 4y). A single disk brooch is ornamented with rocker-engraved lines and the center hole is in the shape of a six-pointed star (fig. 5,1). Disk brooches have been widely described and illustrated (see Beauchamp. 1903. pis. 4-8: Quim- by. 1 937. fig. 2, front row. 1958. figs. 1 . 5-6. 1 966, fig. 20, lower left: Alberts, 1953, pis. 3e. 4e-f: Her- rick, 1958. pi. 3. figs. 30-31: Fredrickson & Gibb. 1980, pp. 90. 96, 104-105, 109-110, 129-130. 149. 153). Thirteen brooches have plain openings in the center which are unadorned except for the tongues; these are missing from two specimens. These plain, or ring, brooches exhibit considerable variation. Five are thin and flat (4j). Four of these were re- covered together from the Will County site: the fifth IS thin and ornamented with a rocker-en- graved zigzag line (fig. 4w). One large ring brooch is convex on the underside (fig. 4j.l). and another, cast and lacking a cross pin. has a wide center hole with scalloped edges (fig. 4s). A group of three cast ring brooches from Round Island are beaded on the outer surface (fig. 4r). and another set of three, also cast, with the same provenience, have cren- ulated surfaces (fig. 4q). Round or ring brooches similar to those in Field Museum's collection are illustrated by Fredrickson and Gibb (1980. pp. 22, 96. 120. 132. 151). Somewhat distinctive are three square brooches, one ornamented with a rocker-engraved zigzag line (fig. 4z), another plain with notched comers (fig. 4ee). and the third perforated and ornamented with a series of incised circle dots (fig. 4dd). Similar "council square" brooches are illustrated by Fred- rickson and Gibb (1980. pp. 95, 128, 151). A style of brooch closely associated with Iro- quois tribes is formed of one or two intertwined hearts, sometimes ornamented with a crown (.Al- berts. 1953. p. 53; Harrington. 1908. p. 355). The heart-shaped brooch is believed to have come from Scotland, w here it was a popular betrothal symbol. The form ma\ have been introduced by British- trained silversmiths or requested by Indians after seeing it worn by Scotch traders (Parker. 1910, p. 353; Fredrickson & Gibb, 1980, p. 53). Of the 1 1 heart brooches in Field Museum's collection, one is a simple unadorned heart, cast in two pieces, from Round Island (fig. 4u). A sim- ilar brooch is illustrated by Frednckson and Gibb (1980. p. 123). Five are relatively plain with one to three perforations at the top and ornamented with rocker-engraved zigzag (fig. 4v. aa-cc. gg). Two are slighth more elaborate with projections at the top but only sparsely ornamented with rock- er-engraved lines (fig. 4fF, hh). A single specimen VANSTONE: INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS has an elaborate crown with a number of projec- tions and perforations as well as punched dot or- namentation (fig. 5j). There are two double heart brooches (fig. 5i, k), one with incised circle-dot ornamentation along the top of the crown (fig. 5k). A number of these heart brooches resemble spec- imens illustrated by Converse (1900, pis. 65-66), Beauchamp (1903. pi. 14). and Fredrickson and Gibb (1980, pp. 53, 94, 124-125, 152). There are three examples of the so-called "star brooch" (Quimby, 1966, p. 93; Fredrickson & Gibb, 1980, p. 52). Two are eight-pointed stars, one of which, from Will County, is concave on the reverse with the points of the stars ending in small ovals (fig. 5h). The second, which lacks a tongue, is Indian-made from a gorget or armband. Some of the original engraving is visible (fig. 5f). The third brooch is twelve-pointed with bosses at the ends of the points and many rectangular and semi- lunar perforations (fig. 5c). Star brooches are il- lustrated by Fredrickson and Gibb ( 1 980, pp. 131. 152-153). A small brooch is in the form of a stylized turtle effigy, the eyes represented by raised bosses, claws by notches in the side of the specimen, and the tail by a raised line (fig. 5m). No similar brooches were noted in a survey of the literature. A characteristic form of trade silver brooch is in the Masonic style, consisting of variously com- bined compasses, squares, and distortions of other Masonic emblems. This style of brooch has been identified almost exclusively with Iroquois tribes and appears to have had no Masonic significance to most of the wearers. However, many British officers and traders in North America were mem- bers of the Order of Freemasons and a few Iroquois leaders in the late 18th and early 19th centuries are known to have been Masons (Beauchamp, 1903, p. 91; Alberts, 1953, pp. 56-58; Fredrickson & Gibb. 1980, p. 53). Field Museum's collection contains only one Masonic brooch. It has three raised bosses, an attribute that is characteristic of the form, and an unusual shape (fig. 5g). An iden- tical specimen is illustrated by Converse (1900, p. 236, pi. 62, no. 1), who considered the lower end to be in the shape of a tomahawk. IV. Gorgets Two types of gorgets, worn primarily on the chest, are recognized by students of Indian trade ornaments; both types are represented in Field Museum's collection. There are four round gorgets that are concavo-convex in cross section, are or- namented on the concave outer surface with in- cised designs, and have, or had, paired suspension holes that are separate pieces and form bosses on the outer surface. The first, from the Chickasaw, Lee County, Mississippi, is ribbed around the out- er edge and decorated with an incised and rocker- engraved sunburst design in the center (fig. 6); one suspension ring and its boss are missing (fig. 5b). Two from Round Island are also ribbed around the outer edges. The suspension rings are missing from one of these and the incised design on this gorget is the figure of a running deer (fig. 5e); the other IS ornamented with a floral design (fig. 5a). The fourth round gorget, from Will County, has high quality rocker engraving around the edge and the engraved figure of a running fox in the center (figs. 5d, 7). Round gorgets were derived from the medallion-like shell gorgets most prevalent among aboriginal southeastern Indians (Quimby, 1966, p. 93; Fredrickson & Gibb, 1 980, pp. 32, 106, 134, 140, 142). The collection contains 13 crescent-shaped gor- gets which are also concavo-convex in cross sec- tion. Six, of diminishing size, have the same cat- alog number and are described in the Department of Anthropology catalog as a necklace from the Potawatomi of Wisconsin. They are made of tinned sheet iron and the edges are rolled around brass wire. All have a pair of suspension rings with boss- es and incised designs in the center on the convex outer surface. Four have identical incised orna- mented diamond designs, one an ornamented heart and one an animal, possibly a fox or dog (fig. 8e). It is likely that these gorgets are mid- 19th century copies of earlier silver, copper, or brass ornaments. A pair of identical large gorgets were collected among the Seminole. They are ribbed around the edges and have a pair of suspension holes (fig. 90- These ornaments would appear to have been quickly and cheaply made. The lack of contour and rolled-over edges that would take time and labor suggest a late date, perhaps the mid- 19th century. Three gorgets from Will County are ribbed around the outer edges. One is decorated with an incised animal, possibly a raccoon (fig. 9e); another, which lacks its suspension rings and bosses, with a roulette-engraved sunburst showing human fea- tures (figs. 8b, 10); and a third with a rocker-en- graved turtle (figs. 8a, 11). A single gorget from Lee County. Mississippi is plain with suspension holes and a scalloped lower edge. The intentional zigzag scratches on the front and back, almost in- visible without magnification, were done by In- FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY dians (fig. 8c). The thirteenth gorget is of copper or brass with raised suspension holes in place of bosses. In the center in relief are the initials of the Hudson's Bay Company (fig. 8d). According to Fredrickson and Gibb, who illus- trated a number of crescent-shaped gorgets ( 1 980. pp. 31, 59, 98-99, 106, 114. 116-118, 141, 144- 146), most of these chest ornaments were an ad- aptation of the flat, elongated French military gor- get rather than the more deeply crescentic British gorget. V. Arm- and Wristbands The collection contains three pairs of armbands, strips of sheet silver curved to fit the arm above the elbow, and six single bands. Two pairs are identified in the catalog as having been used by the Chippewa or Ottawa. The first pair is ribbed along the edges and ornamented with rocker-en- graved straight and wavy lines. In the center of one band is the engraved figure of a beaver (figs. 12c, 13), and in the same position on the other a large, long-necked bird, possibly a crane, holds a snake in its beak (figs. 12d, 14). The second pair is two bands made out of one. This would enable the Indian owner to trade the other band of the pair. There is one original end and the others are trimmed and repunched. When worn, each band would show only on the front of the arm. Both are undecorated except for ribbing along the edges (fig. 9a-b). The third pair is of German silver and was acquired by the museum in 1905 on the Sac and Fox reservation at Tama, Iowa; it presumably dates from the mid- to late 19th century. The bands are ribbed along the edges and ornamented with stamped bosses filled with rocker engraving (fig. 15a). Of the six single armbands, two from Round Island have been cut and trimmed from larger bands and repunched; they are undecorated (fig. 9c-d). The third band, from Cross Village, Mich- igan, is ribbed along the edges and has an engraved floral design, probably of Indian origin, in the cen- ter (figs. 12a, 16). A similar band, identified as Chippewa or Ottawa, is also ribbed along the edges and has the engraved figure of a large, long-necked bird, probably a crane, in the center (figs. 1 5b, 1 7). The fifth band has no catalog number. It is ribbed along the edges and is ornamented with rocker- engraved wavy lines and a heart with scalloped edges (fig. 1 2b). The sixth single band, very narrow with pronounced ribs along each edge, is orna- mented with a series of short, rocker-engraved zig- zag designs; there are no attachment holes (fig. 1 5c). Armbands with engraved designs are illus- trated by Fredrickson and Gibb ( 1 980, pp. 9 1 , 98, 103, 138, 143-144). Wristbands in Field Museum's collection are narrower and shorter than armbands. There are four pairs and 1 2 bands which cannot be grouped into pairs. All have a single attachment hole at each end. One pair from the Seminole appear to have been cut from larger bands and are undec- orated (fig. 1 8a). Two pairs from Round Island are ribbed on the outer surface and have one scalloped edge (fig. 18e). The fourth pair, recovered from a grave in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, and ac- quired by the museum in 1893, is also ribbed on the outer surface but otherwise undecorated. Eight single wristbands from Cross Village are of varying widths and, with one exception, are ribbed on the outer surface (fig. 18b-d, f-g). One of these has a smooth outer surface with trimmed ends and repunched attachment holes; it may have been a child's wristband (fig. 18g). There are four bands from Will County that vary in width and thus presumably are not pairs; they are extensively ribbed on the outer surface (fig. 1 Si). Ribbed wrist- bands similar to those described here are illus- trated by Fredrickson and Gibb (1980, pp. 138, 150, 152). VI. Ear Ornaments Three earrings from Will County are cast in the form of Florentine crosses (fig. 19n). Another, of unknown provenience, consists of a Latin cross with foliated ends attached to a large ring and ball. A rocker-engraved line runs around the edges of the cross on one side (fig. 19b). Earrings in the form of crosses are illustrated by VanStone ( 1 970, p. 23) and Fredrickson and Gibb (1980, pp. 61, 135). Three pairs of ear ornaments have homemade dangles mounted on a ring and ball. On two of these, fiom Round Island, the dangles are in the form of cut triangles (fig. 1 9o, r). On the other pair, from the Chippewa or Ottawa, one dangle is dia- mond-shaped and the other is in the form of a Maltese cross (fig. 19e). The collection contains 22 ball-and-cone ear- bobs, four of which are probably pairs. Of the total, 10 are from Round Island and the remainder from VANSTONE: INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS Will County. Typical examples are illustrated (fig. 1 9.1-m). One has a brass button dangle rather than a cone (fig. 19q), and four are of the very small type sometimes worn individually as nose orna- ments (fig. 19s-t). Ball-and-cone earbobs are il- lustrated by Brown (1918. pi. 3), Alberts (1953. pis. 7c-d, 8e), VanStone(1970,p. 23), Fredrickson andGibb(1980. pp. 135, 136, 148), Hanson ( 1983, p. 3), and Mason (1983, fig. 10). Three round, flat disks with perforations that create stylized floral patterns are identified as ear wheels. One is from Round Island (fig. 1 9a), another from Will County (fig. 19c), and the third of un- known provenience (fig. 19d). Ear wheels were de- signed to hang from the ear on a wire hook; they are illustrated by Alberts (1953, pi. 21), Fredrick- son and Gibb (1980, pp. 97, 136), and Hanson (1983, p. 3). An unusual pair of ear ornaments consists of two sizes of fluted, ovoid cylinders with tapered ends, suspended from ball-and-chain links, which have been elongated by addmg the standard ball and cone. At the upper end of one is a solid at- tachment piece with a hook for the ear (fig. 190. It is possible that both of these were hung from one ear. VII. Miscellaneous The collection contams two finger rings of the so-called Jesuit type, with decorations inspired by religious subjects. Both are made of brass and their provenience is unknown. The oval bezel of one is decorated with the Ave Maria motif consisting of incised approximations of the letters "'A" and "M" placed between parallel, horizontal lines (Cleland, 1972, p. 205; Wood, 1974, p. 87, fig. 3b). Above this ornamentation is a small incised crown. The band is plain with a flat inner and convex outer surface (fig. 1 9h). In western New York State, most Jesuit rings with the Ave Maria motif have been recovered from archaeological sites dating be- tween 1645 and 1700 (Wood, 1974, table 1, p. 1 00). The second Jesuit ring has a rectangular bezel ornamented with an incised abstract motif (Wood, 1974, p. 94). Its band is double-ridged on one side at its juncture with the bezel and single-ridged on the other in the same location (fig. 19g). Two rectangular silver bands are identified as headbands or hatbands. The most elaborate, from Cross Village, has a scalloped upper edge and along the lower edge a rocker-engraved wavy line that terminates in a checker pattern at the ends. At regular intervals in the center, the band is stamped with inverted T-shaped perforations (fig. 20b). The second headband/hatband is round with the di- ameter shorter at the top than at the bottom. There are oval perforations at either side near the center. The surface is rocker-engraved around the edges with wavy and straight lines, and with a cross at the center of one side (fig. 20c). Headbands were rarer than other styles of trade silver and often worn as decoration on European hats (Fredrickson & Gibb, 1980, pp. 30, 57, 89, 107, 148, 151). A simple waistband from the Seminole is or- namented with a row of raised bosses along one edge. There are punched holes at either end for tying around the waist (fig. 20a). This form is un- known in the Great Lakes region. Like the other Seminole silver pieces described in this study, this one appears to date from the mid- to late 19th century. To minimize labor costs, it lacks many of the features of contour and decoration char- acteristic of earlier trade silver ornaments. An oval nose ring is a concave, crescent-shaped piece of silver with a gap for the nasal septum. A small cone-shaped dangle hangs in the center (fig. 19k). A silver tube from Round Island has a circular perforation at one end and may be a hair pipe (fig. 19p). Like this tube, five oblong beads, also from Round Island, have been rolled from flat, rect- angular pieces of silver. Both the tube and the beads were made by Indians. A narrow strip of sheet silver cut by Indians in the stylized shape of a snake and with suspension holes at either end may have been part of a neck- lace. There are faint, incised cross-hatchings on the outer surface (fig. 19i). It is similar to Late Woodland copper snake effigies from several Up- per Great Lakes sites. An unidentified oval salvage piece from Round Island, possibly incomplete, is ornamented with homemade rocker engraving and has perforations for sewing to a garment (fig. 19j). VIII. Identifying Marks Of the 196 pieces described in this study, 76 are marked either with the individual mark of a smith who produced ornaments for the Indian trade or pseudo hallmarks of various designs, or both. Of the marked specimens, 44 have maker's touch- FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY marks that can be identified with some degree of certainty, and on the remainder the marks cannot be identified. Of the total number of marks de- scribed here, only those not shown in Langdon ( 1 966, 1 969), Quimby ( 1 958, fig. 2: 1 966, pp. 98- 99), and Fredrickson and Gibb (1980, p. 39) are illustrated. The Montreal silversmith Robert Cruickshank made and sold silver ornaments to the North West Company. His mark consists of the script capital letters "RC" in a curvilinear cartouche (Quimby. 1966, p. 98-99); it occurs on a Latin cross, two Florentine crosses (fig. la-b), a beaver effigy (fig. Id), three disk brooches (fig. 4e, g, k), two round gorgets (fig. 5b, e). an armband (fig. 12b). and two wristbands (fig. 18g-h). On the Florentine cross from Round Island, the mark has been partially obliterated intentionally, and on the armband and wristbands it is accompanied by the word "Mon- treal" in a rectangular cartouche. Records indicate that Cruickshank's penod of production lasted from 1779 to 1806 or perhaps 1809 (Traquair, 1938; Quimby, 1937, 1966, p. 198; Langdon, 1966, p. 62). Another well-known Montreal silversmith was Charles Arnoldi, whose work may be represented in the collection by a disk brooch (fig. 40 and a double heart-shaped brooch (fig. 5k). The touch- mark, consisting of the letters "CA" in script cap- itals separated by a pellet (Quimby, 1966, pp. 98- 99), was previously attributed to Charles Amoldi, but recent research suggests that it may, in fact, represent a Cruickshank-Michael Amoldi part- nership (Fredrickson & Gibb, 1980. p. 41). Doc- umentary evidence dates Charles Amoldi's work from at least 1784 to 1810 (Alberts, 1953, pp. 26- 27; Langdon, 1966, p. 42; Quimby, 1966, p. 198). Barbeau (1942, p. 13) illustrates a fine Florentine cross by Amoldi or Cruickshank-Amoldi. which is now in the American Museum of Natural His- too'- A beaver effigy (fig. li), a star brooch (fig. 5h), three armbands (figs. 12d. 15b), and four wrist- bands (fig. 1 8e) have touchmarks consisting of the Roman letters "IS" in an oval cartouche (Quimby, 1966, pp. 98-99). The touchmark has been inten- tionally obliterated on all three armbands. This is the mark of the Quebec silversmith Joseph Schindler and. after his death, his wife. Schindler was living in Quebec City as a silversmith at least as early as 1767 and worked there until his death in 1786. The Widow Schindler, as she was called, moved to Montreal and provided Indian trade silver from 1797 until she died in 1802. According to Langdon (1966, pp. 125-126), it is not clear from the records whether she actually made silver or simply acted as an agent. Traquair (1938, p. 5) suggests that she may have carried out her work as a kind of home industry (Alberts, 1953, p. 28; Quimby, 1 966, p. 1 98). Wristbands in the McCord Museum, Montreal, with Schindler's mark, are il- lustrated by Graham (1985, p. 15). His mark closely resembles that of Joseph Sasseville (1790-1837), a Quebec silversmith (Fox, 1978, pp. 140-141). Three disk brooches (figs. 3h, 4b-c) and four wristbands (fig. 180 are stamped with the Roman letters "PH" separated by a pellet and enclosed in an oblong cartouche (Quimby, 1966, pp. 98-99). This is the punch mark of Pierre Huguet dit La- tour, a Montreal silversmith and merchant, and his son (177 1-1 829). The elder Huguet sold large quantities of trade silver to North West Company traders in 1797-1798 (Langdon, 1 966, p. 94). Two wristbands with Huguet's mark also have the word "Montreal" in a long, rectangular cartouche. Another important figure in the silver trade in Montreal was Narcisse Roy. His touchmark, which occurs on a wristband (fig. 1 8b) and an ear orna- ment (fig 19a), consists of the script capital letters "NR" in a trapezoidal cartouche (Quimby, 1966, pp. 98-99). Roy, who was apprenticed to Robert Cruickshank. made and sold silver items to the North West Company. Outfit 1799-1803 (Lang- don, 1966. p. 121). The capital letters "lO" in a square cartouche occur on a heart-shaped brooch (fig. 4v) and a star brooch (fig. 5c). This is the mark of James Orkney, who worked in Quebec ( 1 79 1-1 826) and was part- ner for a time with Joseph Sasseville (Langdon, 1966, p. 110). A perforated disk brooch (fig. 3k) was made by Joseph Mailloux (1708-1794), who worked in Quebec (Langdon, 1966, p. 99). His rather elab- orate mark consists of the capital letters "IM" in an oval cartouche with a fleur-de-lis ornament above and a star below. Langdon (1966, p. 22) has noted that silversmiths of the French colonial pe- riod frequently added the fleur-de-lis and star, which were used by French silversmiths, to their marks. A Masonic brooch (fig. 5g) bears the script letters "FL" in a clover-shaped cartouche, the mark of Francois Larsonneur (1762-1806). who was bom and worked in Montreal. On 15 September 1781 Larsonneur was engaged by Pierte Huguet dit La- tour to make articles for the Indian trade for one year (Langdon, 1966. p. 94). The capital letters "S.C." in a square cartouche. VANSTONE: INDL\N TRADE ORNAMENTS which occurs on a copper fish-shaped pendant (fig. Ih), is the mark of Simon Curtius of Montreal, who is known to have sold Indian trade ornaments to a trader between 1797 and 1801 (Langdon, 1966, p. 63). A disk brooch (fig. 3,1) bears the letters "TP" in a cartouche that is roughly rectangular. This mark closely resembles one which Langdon (1966, p. 1 1 6; 1 969, p. 64) attributes to Thomas Powis, who worked in Quebec City in the 1780s. Fredrickson and Gibb (1980. p. 96) illustrate a disk brooch with a similar mark. Another Canadian silversmith, Chnstian Grothe, whose touchmark was the capital letters "CG" separated by a pellet and enclosed in a rectangular cartouche, is represented by a single armband (fig. 12a). Grothe. from Montreal, is known to have worked between 1795 and the early 1860s (Lang- don. 1966, p. 78; Quimby, 1966, pp. 98-99). Two identified British silversmiths are repre- sented in the collection. An armband (fig. 9a) bears the mark of Hester Bateman. the capital script letters '"HB" in a rectangular cartouche accom- panied by three hallmarks: a lion passant in a rect- angular cartouche, a leopard's head with crown, and the script capital letter "Q" in a square car- touche (Quimby, 1958, fig. 2, no. 16; 1966, pp. 98-99). This latter mark is a date letter for the years 181 1-1812 (Wyler, 1937, p. 131). Bateman worked in London beginning in the late 18th cen- tury (Fredrickson & Gibb. 1980. pp. 98, 106). A crescent-shaped gorget (fig. 8c) marked with the capital letters "LK" in a rectangular cartouche has the same hallmarks as those on the Bateman piece except for the date letter, which is a "U" for the years 1775-1776 (Wyler, 1937. p. 131). Quimby (1958, fig. 2, no. 15, p. 323; 1966, pp. 98-99, 197) has identified this mark as that of Luke Kendall, who worked in London beginning about 1775. The only American silversmiths represented in the collection may be A. and J. Scrymgeour. whose mark "A & JS" in a rectangular cartouche accom- panied by "New York." also in a rectangular car- louche, occurs on a disk brooch from Will County (fig. 3b). A similarly marked brooch, identified as the work of the Scrymgeours. was recovered from a grave at the Ada site, Kent County. Michigan (Herrick. 1958, p. 15, pi. 3, fig. 30). The remaining pieces of marked trade orna- ments in Field Museum's collection have touch- marks that cannot be positively identified with known smiths, although tentative identifications are offered for some pieces. These marks are de- scribed below according to type of ornament. 10 Effigies A beaver-shaped silver pendant (fig. 1 j) is marked with the capital letter "B" in a rectangular, serrated cartouche. This mark, illustrated in Langdon (1966, p. 54; 1969, p. 15), is believed to be that of a Canadian silversmith who worked during the first half of the 18th century. A hollow turtle-shaped silver pendant (fig. le) is marked with the capital letters "TW" in a square cartouche (fig. 2 1 ). A cast lead or pewter turtle (fig. 10 has a large capital "R," the vertical line of which forms the right half of a "V"; in the same cartouche is the Roman numeral "XII" (fig. 22). This numerical designation is generally believed to be associated with Canadian smiths (Quimby, 1966, p. 200), but the touchmark resembles one used by Nicholas Roosevelt of New York City, who worked between 1 745 and 1769 (Wyler, 1937, p. 311). A bird-shaped copper pendant (fig. 1 n) is marked with three crowned "A'"s, each in a shaped car- touche. Langdon (1966, p. 43; 1969, p. 4) illus- trates the same mark on a tumbler cup and, al- though he does not hazard an identification, he notes that the style of the cup belongs to the first half of the 18th century and that the maker may have been from Quebec. Wyler (1937, p. 325), however, identifies a similar crowned "A" as a Paris date mark for the years 1744-1750. Brooches Two disk brooches (figs. 3g. 4x) and a heart- shaped brooch (fig. 4hh) are marked with an un- crowned capital letter "A" in a shaped cartouche (fig. 23). Two disk brooches (figs. 3c. 4t). both made of German silver, are punch-marked with the capital letters "LH" separated by a pellet and enclosed in a rectangular cartouche (fig. 24). This is possibly the mark of L. Halliday. who worked in Montreal around 1850 (Langdon. 1969. p. 33). The mark on two disk brooches (fig. 4d, i), a script capital "WC" in a shaped cartouche, is as- sociated by Quimby (1966. pp. 98-99) with an unidentified Canadian silversmith. Also uniden- tified is the mark on a small conical square brooch (fig. 4dd) and a heart-shaped brooch (fig, 5i) which resembles a script "I" or "B" enclosed in a square cartouche (fig. 25). and the capital letter "C" in a foliated cartouche (fig. 26) on a disk brooch (fig. 4y). FIELDIANA; ANTHROPOLOGY A pair of disk brooches (figs. 3d. 4n) is marked with the capital letters "JO" in a square cartouche. Quimby (1958, p. 324; 1966, pp. 98-99) has iden- tified this mark as that of John Oakes of Montreal, but it does not resemble the mark of this Canadian silversmith illustrated in Langdon (1966. p. 190). An unidentified mark consisting of the capital letters "RP'Tollowed by a pellet and enclosed in a multipointed cartouche (fig. 27) occurs on a pair of identical heart-shaped brooches (fig. 4aa, cc). Another heart-shaped brooch (fig. 4ff) is marked with the capital letters "JB" m an oval cartouche (fig. 28) and may be the mark of James Butler of Halifax, Nova Scotia, whose known working dates are 1750-1751. Langdon (1966, pp. 54-55) lists Butler but does not illustrate his mark. However, the mark of an unidentified "JB" who worked in either Quebec or New Brunswick in the second quarter of the 1 9th century is illustrated (Langdon, 1969, p. 16). A heart-shaped brooch (fig. 5j) and a very small ring brooch (fig. 4w) are marked with the capital letters "JH & NP" in a rectangular cartouche (fig. 29). Another heart-shaped brooch (fig. 4gg) is marked with the capital letters "IH" separated by a pellet and enclosed in a rectangular cartouche. This mark, which is illustrated by Langdon ( 1 966, p. 86; 1 969, p. 39), is attributed to a Quebec silversmith work- ing between 1810 and 1820. The mark on a turtle-shaped effigy brooch (fig. 5m) is badly worn but may be read as the script capitals "RG" or "RC" separated by a pellet. The exact shape of the cartouche cannot be determined and the mark is unidentified (fig. 30). Ear Ornament An ear wheel (fig. 1 9d) is marked with the capital letters "RR" separated by a pellet and enclosed in a rectangular cartouche (fig. 31). This mark cannot be identified. Pseudo hallmarks, either alone or accompany- ing the maker's marks previously described, occur on 1 3 pieces of trade silver. English silver can be dated precisely because of the custom of hall- marking the work of all silversmiths, a legal device to insure the quality of the work (Quimby, 1966, p. 99). At the end of the 18th century and in the early 1 9th century, pseudo hallmarks are found on Canadian-made Indian trade silver. Although it is possible that these marks were intended to make such work competitive with English silver, it is more likely that they were employed to indicate that the quality was equal to the highly competi- tive hallmarked silver (Langdon, 1966, p. 23). The most common pseudo hallmark on trade silver in Field Museum's collection is the word "Montreal" in a rectangular cartouche. It occurs in conjunction with the mark of Robert Cruick- shank on three armbands, with the mark of Pierre Huguet dh Latour on two wristbands, and alone on three wristbands, a disk brooch, and a round gorget. The word "New York" in a rectangular cartouche on a disk brooch occurs in conjunction with the mark of A. and J. Scrymgeour. These marks, of course, denote place of origin. The lion passant in a rectangular cartouche oc- curs as a genuine hallmark on an armband and a crescent-shaped gorget, the work, respectively, of British silversmiths Hester Bateman and Luke Kendall (Quimby, 1966, pp. 98-99), and on an armband (fig. 9d) accompanied by the script cap- ital letters "LH" in a square cartouche, the work of an unknown British craftsman (Quimby, 1966, pp. 98-99). The mark, more like a stick figure, occurs alone on a heart-shaped brooch (fig. 4bb), a square brooch (fig. 4z), and a necklace segment (fig. 19i). As noted previously, the Roman numeral "XII" is generally attributed to Canadian silversmiths. This mark occurs on a headband (fig. 20c) and a wristband. It is also present, however, on a cast lead or pewter turtle effigy (fig. If), tentatively identified as the work of an American smith. Miscellaneous pseudo hallmarks include the Roman numeral "III" with a circular punch above and below (fig. 32) which occurs on an earring (fig. 19b), and two pairs of horizontal, rectangular punches with a vertical rectangular punch between them on a fish-shaped copper pendant (fig. Ih) attributed to the Montreal silversmith Simon Cur- tius. Intentionally Obliterated Touchmarks Four silver ornaments in Field Museum's col- lection have touchmarks that have been partially obliterated intentionally. Three are armbands with the mark of Joseph Schindler and the fourth is a Florentine cross marked by Robert Cruickshank. The armbands are designated in the Department of Anthropology catalog as "Ottawa or Chippe- wa." The cross is from Round Island. A survey of the literature has failed to turn up other examples VANSTONE: INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS 11 of the deliberate obliteration of the marks on trade ornaments. During the fur trade era. the Indians of northern Michigan found it necessar> at times to make de- cisions concerning their allegiance, as wars and treaties between France and Great Britain. Great Britain and the .Amencan colonies, and Great Bnt- ain and the United States caused the occupants of the %anous forts to change accordingly. For ex- ample, the fort at the Straits of Mackinac was held by the French ca. 1715-1761. by the British 1761- n94 and 1 8 1 2-1 8 1 5, and by the .A.mencans 1 794- 1812 and from 1815 (Tanner. 1987. pp. 40-41. 105-107, 115). It is not difficult to imagine that Indian owners of silver ornaments would obliter- ate the British-era marks of Canadian silversmiths to demonstrate, in a small way. their allegiance to the .Amencans. IX. Conclusions Although many trade ornaments in Field Mu- seum's collection lack specific proveniences, a sig- nificant number, perhaps most, were recovered archaeologically from sites in the Great Lakes area. Aside from the interesting variety of forms rep- resented, the presence of numerous pieces of known provenience and with marks that can be identified with known smiths makes the collection valuable for historical purposes. In particular, the marks of identified smiths provide significant information concerning the nature of the fur trade in this re- gion. Not all trade ornaments were marked, pre- sumably because the craftsmen did not consider them significant creations, or possibly because man\ were the work of apprentices. A review of the accessions containing marked ornaments pro\ides information concerning the histoncal significance of the collection. Of the 36 ornaments excavated from graves in Will County, Illinois (accession 2520), seven are marked, two with the initials of Canadian silversmiths and four with the word "Montreal"; the se\enth mark is American. Of the 27 trade ornaments in accession 727. 10 are from Cross Village. Michigan, and eight of these have the marks of Canadian silver- smiths: of the remainder, which are of unknown provenience, five have Canadian marks. There are 70 ornaments in accession 2328. 61 of which were presumably excavated from a site on Round Is- land. Michigan; of these, 14 have Canadian marks and one a British mark. Of the remaining nine ornaments in this accession, five are identified as "Chippewa or Ottawa" and are probably also from Round Island, three have Canadian marks, and two are Bntish. Two ornaments are from Lee County, Mississippi; one of these has a Canadian mark and the other the mark of a British silver- smith. .All 47 of the ornaments selected from the Mitchell-Van Zelst collection (accessions 3348, 3368) lack proveniences; seven have Canadian marks and one a tentatively identified American mark. Finally, a single ornament which lacks a catalog number bears the mark of a Canadian silversmith. It is clear that the majont> of identified marked ornaments in Field Museum's collection are of Canadian manufacture and date between ca. 1760 and 1 820. a period when the fur trade was becom- ing increasingly important to the Canadian econ- omy. A large number of traders, including such well-known names as McTavish, Fraser, and McGilli\ray. were closely associated with the Montreal-based North West Company and its struggles with the Hudson's Bay Company for con- trol of the trade. Smaller independent fur trade companies were also based in Montreal. It is sig- nificant that a large proportion of the trade or- naments from the Great Lakes region in published reports are of Canadian manufacture (Brown, 1918; Overton. 1931; Quimby. 1937, 1938; Alberts, 1953: Herrick, 1958; VanStone, 1970; Mason, 1983). .As Langdon (1966. pp. 17-20) has noted, Mon- treal-based traders tended to patronize local smiths to a greater degree than did those of the Hudson's Bay Company. %vho generally ordered their trade goods and supplies from England. Field Museum's collection indicates the skill of Canadian smiths, as well as the variety of forms available to the traders. Langdon (1966. pp. 19-20) suggests that it was the aggressive bartering activities of the indepen- dent traders, together with the considerable output of the Montreal silversmiths, that was responsible for directing a substantial share of the fur trade to that city in the late 1 8th century . Canadian traders were particularly active in the Great Lakes region and were at least partly responsible for the con- tinued British influence there, which persisted un- til after the war of 1812. During that war, the Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi were all Brit- ish allies. Quimby (1937. pp. 18, 20) believed that this explained the large proportion of Canadian trade ornaments that have been found in the Great Lakes area. 12 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY ] Although there is only a single definitely iden- tifiable American-made trade ornament in Field Museum's collection (the "New York" marked perforated disk brooch, fig. 3b), the importance of this item should be emphasized: It is a rare piece of evidence of United States-based traders in the Midwest, and is most probably related to John Jacob Astor's American Fur Company. Astor founded his firm in 1 808 and pressed Congress to pass laws, aimed at Montreal-based traders, bar- ring foreigners from importing goods into the United States and trading there. In 1816 such leg- islation was passed and by the following year As- tor's company had complete control of the Great Lakes fur trade south of the Canadian border with Fort Mackinac as its headquarters (Lavender, 1 964, pp. 109-1 10, 233). The company funneled Amer- ican and foreign trade goods into the Midwest, and the New York-made trade brooch found in Will County. Illinois, was most likely included in a shipment of such goods. Acknowledgments The photographs in this study are the work of Mr. Ron Testa and Mrs. Diane Alexander White, Field Museum of Natural History. Figures 2, 6- 7, 10-1 1, 13-14. and 16-17 were drawn by Mrs. Linnea M. Lahlum. Mr. Gary Litherland and Mr. Timothy Kent examined the collection of trade ornaments and provided the author with valuable assistance. For a careful and critical reading of an early draft of this study, the author is grateful to Mr. Kent and to Dr. Charles E. Cleland, the Mich- igan State University Museum. Conservation work on some of the ornaments was undertaken by Ms. Catherine Sease and Mrs. Loran H. Recchia. Sev- eral drafts of the manuscript were typed by Mrs. Recchia. Funding for this publication was provided in part by an anonymous fund of the Department of Anthropology. Literature Cited Alberts. R. C. 1953. Trade silver and Indian silver work in the Great Lakes region. The Wisconsin Ar- chaeologist, n.s., 34(1): 1-123. Barbeau, M. 1942. Indian-trade silver. The Beaver, Outfit 273: 10-14. Beauchamp, W. M. 1903. Metallic Ornaments of the New York Indians. New York State Museum, Bulletin 73. Albany. New York. Blackbird. A. J. 1977. History of the Ottawa or Chip- pewa Indians, 2nd ed. Little Traverse Regional His- toncal Society, Petoskey, Michigan (reprint of 1887 ed.). Brown, C. E. 1918. Indian trade implements and or- naments. The Wisconsin Archaeologist, 17(3): 61-97. Cleland. C. E. 1972. From sacred to profane: Style drift in the decoration of Jesuit finger rings. American Antiquity, 37(2): 202-210. Converse. H. M. 1900. Iroquois silver brooches, pp. r23 1-254. In New York State Museum, 54th annual report, vol. 1 . Albany, New York. Demeter, C. S. 1980. Nickel silver: An aspect of ma- terial culture change in the Upper Great Lakes Indian trade. Historical Archaeology, 14: 108-119. Feest. J. E.. AND C. F. Feest. 1978. Ottawa, pp. 772- 786. In Trigger. B. G.. ed.. Handbook of North Amer- ican Indians. Vol. 15, Northeast. Smithsonian Insti- tution. Washington, D.C. Fox, R. A. C. 1978. Quebec and Related Silver at the Detroit Institute of Arts. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, Michigan. Fredrickson, N. J., andS. GiBB. 1980. The Covenant Chain: Indian Ceremonial and Trade Silver. National Museums of Canada, Ottawa. 168 pp. Gibson, A. M. 1971. The Chickasaws. The University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma. Graham, C E. W. 1985. Indian trade silver in the McCord Museum collection. Canadian Collector, May/ June: pp. 15-19. Hanson, C, Jr. 1979. German silver. The Museum of the Fur Trade Quarterly. 15(2): 9-11. . 1983. Trade eamngs— An overview. The Mu- seum of the Fur Trade Quarterly, 19(1): 2-8. Harrington, M. R. 1908. Iroquois silverwork. An- thropological Papers of the American Museum of Nat- ural History, 1: 351-369. Herrick, R. 1958. A report on the Ada site, Kent County, Michigan. Michigan Archaeologist, 4(1): 1- 27. Langexjn, J.E.I 966. Canadian silversmiths 1700-1900. Stinehour Press. Toronto. . 1969. Guide to Marks on Early Canadian Sil- ver— 1 8th and 1 9th Centuries. The Ryerson Press, To- ronto. Lavender, D. 1964. The Fist in the Wilderness. Dou- bleday & Company, Inc., New York. Mainfort, R. C. Jr. 1979. Indian social dynamics in the period of European contact. Michigan State Uni- versity, Publications of the Museum, Anthropological Series, 1(4). Mason, C I. 1983. The Grignon House collection of late historic trade materials from Kaukauna, Wiscon- sin. The Wisconsin Archaeologist, n.s.. 64(3^): 239- 260. Overton, G. 1931. Silver ornaments from Grand Butte. The Wisconsin Archaeologist, n.s.. 10(3): 91-98. Parker, A. C 1910. The origin of Iroquois silver- smithing. American Anthropologist, 12(3): 349-357. VANSTONE: INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS 13 QuiMBY. G. I. 1937. Notes on Indian trade silver or- naments in Michigan. Papers of the Michigan Acad- emy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, 22: 15-24. . 1938. Dated Indian burials in Michigan. Pa- pers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Utters, 23: 63-72. . 1958. Silver ornaments and the Indians. Mis- cellanea Paul Rivet, Octogenano Dicata (XXXI) Con- greso Intemacional de Americanistas, 1: 318-337. . 1966. Indian Culture and European Trade Goods. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 217 pp. Tanner, H, H,, ED. 1987. Atlasof Great Lakes Indian History. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 224 pp. Traquair, R. 1938. Montreal and the Indian trade silver. Canadian Historical Review, March, pp. 1-8. VanStone, J. W. 1970. Canadian trade silver from Indian graves in northern Illinois. The Wisconsin Ar- chaeologist, n.s., 51(1): 21-30. Wood, A. S. 1974. A catalogue of "Jesuit" and or- namental rings from western New York: Collections of Charles F. Wray and the Rochester Museum and Science Center. Historical Archaeology, 8: 83-104. Wyler, S. B. 1937. The Book of Old Silver. Crown Publishers, New York. 14 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY Appendix American Indian Trade Ornaments (Accessions 97, 727, 947, 996, 1618. 2328, 2520, 3348. 3368) Following is a list of the Indian trade ornaments in Field Museum's collection described in this study. Cat. No. Description Provenience Maker Pendants 47846 Latin cross Round Island, Mich. Cruickshank 47847 Florentine cross (fig. la) Round Island Cruickshank 207710 Florentine cross (fig. lb) Will County. 111. Cruickshank 47845 Maltese cross (fig. Ic) Round Island 268479 beaver effigy (fig. Ig) unknown 268475 beaver effigy unknown 47855 beaver effigy (fig. Id) Round Island 47856 beaver effigy (fig. li) Round Island Schindler 300485 beaver effigy (fig. Ij) unknown 300419 beaver effigy (fig. Ik) unknown 300420 turtle effigy (fig. le) unknown 300474 turtle effigy (fig. If) unknown RoosevelK?) 300391 fish effigy (fig. Ih) unknown Curtius 300490 bird effigy (fig. In) unknown 47853 breast ornament (fig. Im) Round Island 47860. 1-5 breast ornament pieces(?) Round Island 207708 diamond-shaped pendant (fig. 1.1) Will County Brooches 68293 68294 68304 207714 207719 268454 300503 300504 300505 68295 68297 68298 68299 68300 68301 68302 68303 207721 268441 268447 300425 300428 47848 47849 47851 47852(2) 47854 47862, 1-7 300439 268455 300423 300443 68305 disk brooch (fig. 30 disk brooch disk brooch (fig. 3d) disk brooch (fig. 3e) disk brooch (fig. 3b) disk brooch (fig. 3c) disk brooch disk brooch (fig. 3a) disk brooch disk brooch (fig. 4c) disk brooch (fig. 3m) disk brooch (fig. 4b) disk brooch (fig. 3h) disk brooch disk brooch (fig. 4a) disk brooch disk brooch disk brooch (fig. 3j) disk brooch (fig. 3i) disk brooch (fig. 3k) disk brooch (fig. 31) disk brooch (fig. 3g) disk brooch (fig. 4e) disk brooch (fig. 4g) disk brooch (fig. 4d) disk brooches (fig. 4h-i) disk brooch (fig. 4o) disk brooches (fig. 4p) disk brooch (fig. 4x) disk brooch (fig. 4t) disk brooch (fig. 4y) disk brooch (fig. 5,1) disk brooch (fig. 40 unknown unknown unknown Will County Will County unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown Will County unknown unknown unknown unknown Round Island Round Island Round Island Round Island Round Island Round Island unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown Scrymgeour Huguet Huguet Huguet Mailloux Powis Cruickshank Cruickshank Cruickshank/ Amoldi(?) VANSTONE: INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS 15 Cat. No. Description Provenience Maker Brooches 68306 disk brooch (fig. 4k) unknown 68307 disk brooch (fig. 4n) unknown 207720 disk brooch (fig. 4m) Will County 68309 ring brooch (fig. 4,1) unknown 207718, 1-4 ring brooches (fig. 4j) Will County 300472 ring brooch (fig. 4w) unknown 300434 ring brooch (fig. 4s) unknown 47864. 1-3 ring brooches (fig. 4r) Round Island 47865, 1-3 ring brooches (fig. 4q) Round Island 300446 square brooch (fig. 4z) unknown 300427 square brooch (fig. 4ee) unknown 300436 square brooch (fig. 4dd) unknown 47866 heart brooch (fig. 4u) Round Island 268444 heart brooch (fig. 4v) unknown 268466 heart brooch (fig. 4bb) unknown 300429 heart brooch (fig. 4gg) unknown 300430 heart brooch (fig. 4aa) unknown 300431 heart brooch (fig. 4cc) unknown 268469 heart brooch (fig. 4ff) unknown 300435 heart brooch (fig. 4hh) unknown 268461 heart brooch (fig. 5j) unknown 268453 heart brooch (fig. 5i) unknown 268462 heart brooch (fig. 5k) unknown 207716 star brooch (fig. 5h) Will County 68310 star brooch (fig. 5f) unknown 268445 star brooch (fig. 5c) unknown 300426 animal efligy brooch (fig. 5m) unknown 268467 Masonic brooch (fig. 5g) unknown Cruickshank Orkney Cruickshank/ AmoldiC?) Schindler Orkney Larsonneur Gorgets 47831 47832 47833 207717 155858. 1-6 19392(2) 19393 207711 207712 207713 47839 300491 round gorget (figs. 5b. 6) round gorget (fig. 5a) round gorget (fig. 5e) round gorget (figs. 5d, 7) crescent-shaped gorgets (fig. 8e) crescent-shaped gorget (fig. 90 crescent-shaped gorget crescent-shaped gorget (fig. 9e) crescent-shaped gorget (figs. 8b, 10) crescent-shaped gorget (figs. 8a, 11) crescent-shaped gorget (fig. 8c) crescent-shaped gorget (fig. 8d) Lee County, Miss. Round Island Round Island Will County Polawatomi of Wisconsin Seminole Seminole Will County Will County Will County Lee County unknown Cruickshank Cruickshank Kendall Arm- and Wristbands 47836, 1-2 armbands (figs. 12c-d. 13-14) 47835, 1-2 armbands (figs. 9a-b) 92051,1-2 armbands (figs. 15a) 47837 armband (fig. 9c) 47838 armband (fig. 9d) 68279 armband (figs. 12a. 16) 47834 armband (figs. 15b, 17) no # armband (fig. 12b) 300461 armband (fig. 15c) 19391,1-2 wristbands (fig. 18a) 47840 wristband Chippewa or Ottawa Chippewa or Ottawa Sac and Fox, Iowa Round Island Round Island Cross Village. Mich. Chippewa or Ottawa unknown unknown Seminole Round Island Schindler Bateman Grothe Schindler Cruickshank Schindler 16 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY Cat. No. Description Provenience Maker Arm- and Wristbands 47841 wristband 47842 wristband (fig. 18e) 47843 wristband 52329, 1-2 wristbands 68283 wristband (fig. 18h) 68284 wristband (fig. 18d) 68285 wristband (fig. 18b) 68286 wristband (fig. 18c) 68288 wristband 68289 wristband (fig. 180 68290 wristband 68291 wnstband (fig. 18g) 207722, 1^ wristbands (fig. 18i) Ear Ornaments 207703 earrings (3) (fig. 19n) 300497 eamng (fig. 19b) 47868 eamngs (2) (fig. 19e) 47869 earrings (2) (fig. 19o) 47863 eamngs (2) (fig. 19r) 47870 earbobs (4) (fig. 19,l-m,q) 47872 earbobs (2) 47873 earbobs (2) 47875 earbobs (2) (fig. 19s-t) 207725 earbobs (6) 207726 earbobs (6) 47850 ear wheel (fig. 19a) 207709 ear wheel (fig. 19c) 300421 ear wheel (fig. 19d) 68313 eamngs (2) (fig. 190 Miscellaneous 268464 finger nng( fig. 19g) 300498 finger ring (fig. 19h) 68292 head/hatband (fig. 20b) 300470 head/hatband (fig. 20c) 19390 waistband (fig. 20a) 300481 nose ornament (fig. 19k) 47853 hair pipe(?) (fig. 19p) 47867 beads (5) 300440 necklace section(?) (fig. 19i) 47861 unidentified (fig. 19j) Round Island Schindlcr Round Island Schindler Round Island Schindler Praine du Chien, Wis. Cross Village Cruickshank Cross Village Huguet Cross Village Roy Cross Village Cruickshank Cross Village Huguet Cross Village Huguet Cross Village Huguet Cross Village Will County Will County unknown Round Island Round Island Ottawa or Chippewa Round Island Round Island Round Island Round Island Will County Will County Round Island Will County unknown unknown unknown unknown Cross Village unknown Seminole unknown Round Island Round Island unknown Round Island Roy VANSTONE: INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS 17 Fig. 1. a, Florentine cross (47847); b, Florentine cross (207710); c, Maltese cross (47845); d, beaver effigy (47855); e, turtle effigy (300420); f, turtle effigy (300474); g, beaver effigy (268479); h. fish effigy (300391); i. beaver effigy (47856); j, beaver effigy (300485); k, beaver effigy (300419); 1, diamond-shaped pendant (207708); m, breast ornament (47853); n, bird effigy (300490). (Neg. no. 1 1 1322.) VANSTONE: INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS 19 1 cm Fig. 2. Engraved design on a breast ornament (47853). 20 nELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY Fig. 3. a, disk brooch (300504); b, disk brooch (2077 19); c, disk brooch (268454); d, disk brooch (68304); e, disk brooch (207714); f. disk brooch (68293); g, disk brooch (300428); h, disk brooch (68299); i, disk brooch (268441); j, disk brooch (207721); k, disk brooch (268447); I, disk brooch (300425); m, disk brooch (68297). (Neg. no. 111317.) VANSTONE: INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS 21 mJf U ' e f § f Fig. 4. a, disk brooch (68301); b, disk brooch (68298); c, disk brooch (68295); d, disk brooch (47851); e, disk brooch (47848); f, disk brooch (68305); g. disk brooch (47849); h. disk brooch (47852); i, disk brooch (47852); j, ring brooch (2077 1 8); k, disk brooch (68306); 1, nng brooch (68309); m, disk brooch (207720); n, disk brooch (68307); o, disk brooch (47854); p, disk brooch (47862); q, nng brooch (47865); r, nng brooch (47864); s, nng brooch (300434); t, disk brooch (268455); u, heart brooch (47866); v, heart brooch (268444); w, nng brooch (300472); x, disk brooch (300439); y, disk brooch (300423); z. square brooch (300446); aa, heart brooch (300430); bb, heart brooch (268466); CO, heart brooch (300431); dd, square brooch (300436); ee. square brooch (300427); ff, heart brooch (268469); gg, heart brooch (300429); hh, heart brooch (300435). (Neg. no. 1 11319.) 22 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY o '^y m Fig. 5. a, round gorget (47832); b, round gorget (47831); c, star brooch (268445); d, round gorget (207717); e, round gorget (47833); f, star brooch (68310); g. Masonic brooch (268467); h, star brooch (207716); i, heart brooch (268453); j, heart brooch (268461); k, heart brooch (268462); 1, disk brooch (300443); m, animal effigy brooch (300426). (Neg. no. 111321.) VANSTONE: INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS 23 vVVvV ^^^ \^V 1 cm Fig. 6. Engraved design on a round gorget (47831). 1 cm H Fig. 7. Engraved design on a round gorget (207717). 24 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 1 cenlimefefs ilrh'li' LJ ^ nw Fig. 8. a, crescent-shaped gorget (2077 1 3); b, crescent-shaped gorget (2077 1 2); c, crescent-shaped gorget (47839); d, crescent-shaped gorget (300491); e, crescent-shaped gorgets (155858, 1-6). (Neg. no. 1 1 1323.) VANSTONE: INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS 25 :_ .4. I'Trirhli^ Fig. 9. a, armband (47835. 1); b, armband (47835, 2); c, armband (47837); d, armband (47838); e, crescent- shaped gorget (20771 1); f, crescent-shaped gorget (19392). (Neg. no. 111318.) 26 HELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY - ^ '■ I'll -1 » I t . \ I 1 cm Fig. 10. Engraved design on a crescent-shaped gorget (207712). 1 cm Fig. 1 1 . Engraved design on a crescent-shaped gorget (2077 1 3). VANSTONE: INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS 27 c o a T3 B e o 28 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY 1 cm H Fig. 13. Engraved design on an armband (47836, 1). Co V 1 cm Fig. 14. Engraved design on an armband (47836, 2). VANSTONE: INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS 29 ^N^ ■* o o •o c a x> E n o c a Si e o 30 FIELDLANA: ANTHROPOLOG' 1 c m Fig. 16. Engraved design on an armband (68279). 1 c m Fig. 1 7. Engraved design on an annband (47834). VANSTONE: INDIAN TR.A.DE ORN.WIENTS 31 •9 a - h V' c •T3 C c %^ O) (0 00 00 ON J3 ^ 00 > CO 32 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY ^i 4- g ? k f i 1 1 1'l 1 1 1 1 1 ^i ! f U Fig. 1 9. a, ear wheel (47850); b, earring (300497); c. ear wheel (207709); d. ear wheel (30042 1 ); e, eamngs (47868); f, earrings (683 1 3); g. finger ring (268464); h, finger ring (300498); i, necklace section (300440); j, unidentified (47861); k. nose ornament (300481); 1, earbob (47870); m, earbob (47870); n. eamngs (207703); o. earrings (47869); p. hair pipe(?) (47853); q, earbob (47870); r, earrings (47863); s, earbob (47875); t, earbob (47875). (Neg. no. 1 1 1320.) VANSTONE: INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS 33 o o T3 e c T3 C CO XI O 34 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY ■^ Fig. 21. Unidcnlitk'd louchniaik on a luille-shaped pendant (300420). (Neg. no. 107957-6.) Fig. 22. Unidentified touchmark on a turtle-shaped pendant (300474). (Neg. no. 107957-7.) VANSTONE: INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS 35 Fig. 23. Unidentified touchmark on two disk brooches (68293, 300439). (Neg. no. 107954-6.) Fig. 24. Unidentified touchmark on two disk brooches (268454-268455). (Neg. no. 107955-4.) 36 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOGY Fig. 25. Unidentified touchmark on a conical square brooch (300436) and a hean-shaped brooch (268453). (Neg. no. 107957-8.) 1 ^ <<»;^ , ^*i, Fig. 26. Unidentified touchmark on a disk brooch (300423). (Neg. no. 107954-7.) VANSTONE: INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS 37 I i; — \ \ Fig. 27. Unidentified touchmark on two heart-shaped brooches (300430-300431). (Neg. no. 107955-3.) Fig. 28. Unidentified touchmark on a heail-shaped brooch (268469). (Neg. no. 1 1 1324-2.) 38 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOG Fig. 29. Unidentified louchmark on a hcan-shaped brooch (268461) and a ring brooch (300472). (Neg. no. 107955-5.) Fig. 30. Unidentified touchmark on a turtle-shaped effigy brooch (300426). (Neg. no. 1 11 324-7.) VANSTONE: INDIAN TRADE ORNAMENTS 39 Fig. 31. Unidentified touchmark on an ear wheel (300421). (Neg. no. 1 1 1324-8.) ^^r t ^-^ ■•^'iki Fig. 32. Pseudo hallmark on an earring (300497). (Neg. no. 1 1 1324-22.) 40 FIELDIANA: ANTHROPOLOG'i .1 Field Museum of Natural History Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive Chicago, Illinois 60605-2496 Telephone: (312) 922-9410 4 -i: ■■;-;:^i^;!i::::'i-'i;;:;;?p:''iS^