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THE INFLUENCE OF PLATO ON SAINT BASIL

BY

THEODORE LESLIE SHEAR {|

A Dissertation

SUBMITTED TO THE BOARD OF UNIVERSITY STUDIES OF THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY IN CONFORMITY WITH THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

BALTIMORE J. H. FURST COMPANY 1906

Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from Microsoft Corporation

httops://archive.org/details/influenceofplatoOOshearich

CONTENTS.

PAGE a EN TRO DUCDIONT cocececee cesses tessa nee teeeeoe reaeete sececcaeweeh et cceeete acest 1- 4 ievintnence of elato on theyPatherssce-csesssccencsesecceee eee 1- 3 Dee Gite] OLE Salt) bastlessscecn ad an secnedc ad bs Section te seescoeseenes ese 3- 4 Il. INFLUENCE OF PLATO ON BAsin IN THEOLOGY AND ETHICS........... 5-21 1. Existence, name and attributes of God................ecseeceeeees 5- 7 Jee Nature Ole Mamas ci has sestacscsc canes seeacccu uses cnciens noses ee seeneneee 7-8 3 Superiority of poul over’ body-. 2 2...s..2ccssesesscvonceeasens ehoee te 9-11 A-Piimamortality. of the SOW ys. ccocassscscecseverecsencvosenseeusesesee 11-12 SMA TELE CSSATICVICERS adoRoasta les sets ee aseaccsteecosuse conto de seen eee aa 12-21

628 Scheme: ol the: LOuUrT: VATEUCS Ses ssce eat coe soe eeetannecenceee eter ane 18 III. INFLUENCE OF PLATO ON BASIL IN PHILOSOPHY. ..........c0ceeceee oes 21-37 13 Voluntary and involuntary action:.......:./50..2+2secnsnaesadseane 21-22 2. Relation of the Hexaemeron to Plato’s Timaeus................ 23-37

ARE ISLET Ce OL CREATOR eset chen aecane erence denen ae cee 24

pet Creation Of UNLVerses.- ses ese eee oree eee eee 25 é. ‘Pheary of elements ,)2s2-:. siege ste osbon sedesecesoescdcvaoets 26-28 ad: ‘Nature and’ form’ of universe: .:-.4:..-2--2.se<s-0sses-eeee 28-31 Gz Begmnningk OF GME. isoisacas sa ceakasads doen seceeeeseened ssdaes 31-32

f. Formation of creatures, man, beast, etc..............+++ 33 TV. INFLUENCE OF PLATO ON BASIL EN LANGUAGE. ......20.00..0.scscccceees 37-58 Ry) Dircet Quopahlonic. secs tc can se cae onde se ooned daten «cd ea eee een 37-39 23) Comparisan-and: MetAPHOLs .<. 5..5:5.0+2+s0<Jess 4-2 <sanseenineceesasec 39-50 SLAM MALICAM SLALCINEDIES feces accel oeceteoseens ceace cee en cece artes 50-51 Aer Dterary, Al POROMS? iiA5566 2b acqnsaiits cgssieseh tal vai se endatccasooraess 51-55 SHPIMASCE LIANG OUSS sa. sccioceoecs cay eee ies eaen ete ae reece d gue tule a eennee 56-58 Wa CONGIUSIOND.cetccrcsssecssssanees Bees reba eaemetdtestnate coated cove tesa ete eshis 59-60

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THE INFLUENCE OF PLATO ON SAINT.BASIL.

INTRODUCTION. THE INFLUENCE OF PLATO ON THE CHURCH FATHERS.

The relation of Plato to the Church Fathers is a subject that has received considerable attention in special treatises as well as in general works. <A brief survey of some of the results obtained will be given to show how widespread this influence was.

Justin Martyr (c. 100-165 A. D.), the earliest apologist whose works have been preserved even in part, was a Platonist before he was a Christian and Platonic quotations abound in his works. Huber, however, points out, Die Philosophie der Kirchenvidter, p- 14, the difficulty of harmonizing Justin’s pro-Platonic and anti-Platonic views. In Apol., u, 13 (Migne, Pat. Gr., v1, p- 465, B. 11) he states that the teachings of Plato are not foreign to Christ, and then again in many places we find that he attacks the heathen philosophers, Plato, Aristotle, ete. ; see Cohor. ad Graecos, chap. 5 ff., and declares Plato’s inconsistencies in chap 7.’ But whether as an advocate or an opponent of Plato’s doctrines he shows a thorough knowledge of his works, quoting from the Republic, Timaeus, Meno and Phaedrus.

Similar views of the importance of Plato were likewise held by Athenagoras, a contemporary of Justin, and a man who, like Justin, was trained in the Greek philosophy, see Huber, op. cit., p- 24, and Ackermann, Das Christliche im Plato und in der platonischen Philosophie, p. 3.

The theological nature of the work of Irenaeus (c. 130- 202 a. D.) that has been preserved to us, Contra Haereses, does

1See attack on Justin’s authorship of this work by A. Puech in Mélanges Henri Weil, 1898, pp. 395-406.

1

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The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

not offer very much opportunity for reference to Plato, but even in Irenaeus two quotations from Plato are cited, from the Laws and the Timaeus. These quotations are in the same section, Migne, vu, 3, 25, 5, and are cited by Irenaeus in praise and defence of Plato.

Tertullian (c. 150-220 a. Dp.) quotes Plato frequently but con- demns him. He says that Plato has become the source of all heresies, that the philosopher serves only for his own glory and, therefore, between him and the Christian a great difference exists.’

Clement of Alexandria (150-215 a. p.) and his pupil Origen (185-254 a. p.) were both great admirers of Plato. Both quote Plato frequently, though Clement very much more frequently than Origen, and both emphasize the Christian element in his works in their attempt to harmonize Platonism and Christianity.’

Passing over others we may mention further Hippolytus who flourished early in the third century, and who wrote a work against Plato, and Arnobius, c. 200 A. p., who ealls Plato the “sublime head and pillar of philosophy,” Adv. Gent., 1, 8, and quotes him several times.

We come next to the fourth century and to two authors, contemporaries of St. Basil, whose relation to Plato has been discussed in special dissertations. Gregory of Nyssa, Basil’s brother, is shown to be dependent on Plato for many of his statements on the immortality of the soul by A. M. Akulas, n wept adavacias THs Wuyfs dd&a Tod dadtwvos év cuyKpice mpos tHv Vpnyopiov tod Nvaons, Athens, 1888.

The second author is Julian, the fellow-student of Basil, and afterwards the Emperor Julian. Prof. Gildersleeve in his essay on the Emperor Julian, Essays and Studies, p. 373, remarks that “his prodigious memory seems to haye held in solution all Plato.’ And further, W. C. France in a dissertation entitled, “The Emperor Julian’s relation to the new sophistiec and neo-Platon- ism, with a study of his style,” Chicago, 1896, makes the statement, p. 71, that Plato is Julian’s favorite prose author. In

1See Huber, p. 106, and Ackermann, p. 11. ? Ackermann, pp. 6 and 7.

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 5)

support of this she cites statisties from Schwarz, Philologus 51, 1892, p. 642, which show that in Julian there are fifty-one quotations from Plato, a number that greatly exceeds the quota- tions of all the other prose authors combined. To this France also adds a list of some thirty-five cases of Platonic reminiscence.

From this brief statement of a few facts bearing on the relation of Plato to the leaders of early Christian thought it is plain that Ackermann’s observation is entirely correct when he remarks on p- 8 that it seems very difficult for the Christian Fathers of the first centuries to escape the influence of Plato.

Now the purpose of the present study is to show how far the influence of Plato is manifested in the works of Basil, but before proceeding to the subject proper it is desirable to take a rapid review of Basil’s early life and education in order to show the tendency of his preliminary training.

OUTLINE OF LiFe oF St. Basit..!

The period of Basil’s life that was devoted mainly to education comes before the time of his decision to consecrate himself to the work of the Church and falls naturally into four divisions: 1, his term of study under his father; 2, his term at Caesarea; 3, at Constantinople, and 4, at Athens.

Basil the elder was a famous teacher of Pontus. The biogra- phers devote much space to eulogy of the two families that were united in this Basil and St. Emmelia, and describe this couple as endowed with the highest attainments and most excellent virtues. If we may judge from the history of their children this record must be true, for the oldest daughter Macrina has been canonized a saint and three sons were bishops in their life-time and were afterwards made saints. If it is a great thing to receive glory

1The chief authorities consulted for the life of St. Basil are: Bohringer, Die drei Kappadozier, p. 1 ff. ; Gregorius Nazianzenus, Oratio in laudem Basilii Magni, Miene, v. 36, 494, A 1ff.; Maranus, Vita Sancti Basilii, Preface of Migne, v. 29, p. vf.

4 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

from one’s ancestors, much greater is it to add glory to them, says Gregory, p. 504.

By this father, then, an éyxv«duos rraidevors was given to Basil, see Greg. 509, B 14, and of this education Paul Allard says that it consisted of instruction in the art of writing well and speaking well, but the study of this comprehends that of the ancient classics with their immense repertoire of prose and verse.’ The phrase “ancient classics” here refers only to Greek literature as the Greek Fathers did not “condescend to learn Latin.” ”

The dates of the events of Basil’s early life are all very uncertain, but it seems probable that he did not go to Caesarea until compelled by the death of his father to seek a teacher elsewhere. This is the reasoning of Maranus who estimates the date at about 342 a. p. when Basil was thirteen. At what time he left Caesarea and the extent of his residence in Constantinople it is impossible to determine, but he reached Athens probably in 351 and remained there five years, Vit. Bas., xu. The Vita also mentions the teachers of Basil at Athens as Himerius and Prohaereses, Hesychius and Terence among others, while Gregory, p- 528 A, describes Basil as excelling in his various branches of study, in rhetoric, in Greek literature and in philosophy.

Soon after his return from Athens Basil entered eagerly into church work and was ordained presbyter in 362. He was an assistant to Eusebius, upon whose death he was elected to succeed to the bishopric of Caesarea in 370, an office which he lived to hold for only nine years.

Basil’s wide knowledge of Greek is shown in his works by many references to the Greek legends and in many quotations from the Greek authors from Homer down, and we shall now pass to the consideration of the extent of his indebtedness to

Plato.

1 Revue d. Questions Historiques, 1898, N. S. 20, p. 10. * Farrar, Lives of the Fathers, u, p. 3.

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 5

INFLUENCE OF PLATO on BAsiIt IN THEOLOGY AND ETHICS.

The question of the resemblance of the theology of Plato to the Christian theology has been discussed by Ackermann on p- 38 ff. of the work already cited. Ackermann shows that this resemblance is very close in regard to the doctrines of the exist- ence, essence, name, attributes and works of God. These topics will be taken up in order here in so far as similarities in Basil lead to their consideration.’

Basil assumes, naturally, the existence of God since, for example, before the creation of the universe there must have been an existing cause, and that was God, see p. 25 for this statement and its parallel in Plato.

As the unity of the Godhead was one of the fundamental tenets of Christianity it is also assumed everywhere in Basil, for Plato’s belief in monotheism Ackermann refers to Polit. 270 A and Tim, 31 A.

In regard to the compositeness of the divine nature Basil says 4, 105, B 1: xa@apa ovvlécews 7) Oeia pvows, with which Johnston, edition of Basil’s De Spiritu Sancto, p. 48, note, com- pares Plato’s Republic, 611 B: o&d padiov aidvov eivar ovvOeTov &x modrov. To this may be added Phaedo, 80 A, To pév Oetw Kat aOavatm .... Kal ddvadvT@ ... . OopoldTaTor eivas uy, TO O€ avOpworive Kal OvnT@... . Kal duadvT@ . . . . OpowdTaTor EivaL ca@ua. Compare also Rpd. 381 Af.

Next in regard to the name for God, @e0s, both make attempts at etymologies, Bas. 4, 265, A 5: mapa yap to TeOeKévar ta mavta i) Gedo Oar Ta TavTa oO Oeds dvoudSerar.

Crat. 8397 D: jALov Kal cernvny Kal yhv Kal doTpa Kal ovpavey: ate oty avTa opavres Travta ael idvta Spoum Kat Oéovta, amo TavTns THS pUcEews THS Tod Oeiv Geodrs avTovs érrovoudoa.

These explanations are quite far apart and cannot be connected

1All references are to the Teubner text of Plato, and to Migne’s edition of Basil, vols. I-1v (Patrolog. Graec. cursus, vols. 29-32), excluding vol. 1 and other portions considered spurious by Migne.

6 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

in any way. Similarly with reference to the titles and attributes of God, though as Ackermann points out Plato’s phraseology in various passages is identical with that of the Fathers it would be utterly ridiculous to suggest that in this subject the Fathers, or particularly Basil, were influenced by Plato.

For example Basil, 1, 525, B 14, says: a@pOaprov yap Kat ayévyntov eivar Tov Ocov Tov brov reyower, and 532, C 1: Geos .... olov 6 apOapTos, 6 aOavaTos, 0 adpatos.

Such statements as these are paralleled by Plato’s description of God in Tim. 27D as 76 év del, yéveow &é ov« éxov,... . TO pev 82 vonoe meta Adyou TepiAnT TOY, del KaTA TavTAa dv, but of course there is no connection between the references.

There are also several similar statements in the two authors in regard to God as the creator of the universe, Bas. 3, 201, A 12: Tapa Tov Ta TavTa cvoTnoapevov Oeov.

Ib. 212, B 7: rod Oeod tod Ta TWavTa cvoTnoapéevon.

Tim. 29 D: 76 wav tebe 0 Evmotas Evvéorycer, and Ib. 30 B: Euuotas 76 wav. Also 41 D, 53 B, ete.

Another parallelism that may be added here has reference to God as the protector of man, Bas. 3, 329, C 7: audiPoror yivovtat.... eb €aTe Geos erripedovmevos TOV THOE.

Phaed. 62D: 6 viv 6) éedréyopuev edtroyos Ever, TO Gedy TE Eivar TOV €TTLMLEAOUMEVOV MOV.

These and similar references are interesting as showing the relation between Plato and a Christian writer like Basil, but they are merely the points in which Plato approaches the Christian doctrine of which in the present instance Basil happens to be the expositor, and they might be paralleled easily in any doctrinal Christian writer, ancient or modern.

It is hardly conceivable that St. Basil, the great theologian, the mighty leader of orthodoxy during the fourth century, was dependent on Plato for any part of his theology. It happens that some of Plato’s statements approach the Christian ideal and were interpreted from the Christian point of view, but the Christian doctrines were not moulded to the Platonic form. Attempts were made to prove Plato a Christian, but the Church would hardly maintain that Christ was a Platonist, as the impious

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 7

Celsus seems to suggest when he declares that Jesus borrowed from Plato perverting his words, see Origen, Contra Celsum, vI, 16.

ETHIcs.

We pass next to the consideration of man and his relation to his fellow-man, to the study of the connection of Plato and Basil on the ethical side. And first in regard to the nature of man and the reason why he was made to stand upright in contrast to the other creatures, Bas. 3, 216, C 4, says: ép@vov érdace povoy TeV Céwv tov avOpwrov ty é& avtov Tov oynmatos eldns OTe ex THS avobev cvyyevetas eat 7) San cov. Ta wey yap TeTpdTroda TraVTa mTpos Tv yhv Préret, Kal pos THY yaoTépa VvéveuKev* aVOpwTr@ Sé e f ‘ > § id > /

ETOLuN POS ovpavoy n avaBreWis.

Tim. 90 A: 70 6€ wepi Tod KUpiwtdtrou Tap’ jmiv r~ruyis ” r fc a G ” p evans.| / \ ane. k eldovs diavocicOar dei THOE, WS apa avTo Saiwova Oeds ExdotTw dédaxe, ToUTO 5 by hapmev okey pev Huov et AKpw TO TOLAaTL

’ 4 les ee alee Pate Patt, mpos 5€ THv év ovpav@ Evyyévecay amo yhs nuads alpew ws ovtas \ > BA > \ > / > / / ’ lal @uTov ovK éyyelov AAAA ovpdmov, opOdTaTa RéyovTes: éxeiMev yap, 0ev 1) TpaTn THS ~ruyhs yeveows Edu, TO Oeiov tiv Kehbadnv

Kal pilav uav avakpepavydy opOot Tay TO coma.

The essential points in these statements are obviously the same. The Creator made the body of man to stand in an upright position and, therefore, the soul of man should be naturally inclined toward the things of heaven rather than toward the things of earth. To be particularly emphasized is the similar use

, . oe 5 A ” / 5) \ € of Euyyévera in Basil’s phrase é« THs avobev cvyyeveias éotlv 7

, ‘« . \ \ ? ? led s f#n cov and its Platonic parallel wpos tiv év otpave Evyyeverav Has aLpeELv. |

It may be mentioned also that the comparison with the beasts is not lacking in the Timacus, but in 91 E appears in a somewhat similar form, see p. 33.

Still further on the nature of man may be cited, Bas. 3, 917, A 6: jjmepov Kai Kowwrkorv Caov 6 avOpwrros Kal ody) povactiKdY ovdé ayptov.

Legg. 766 A: avOpwrros 5é . . . . ipepov,. . . . matdelas pev

8 The Influence of Plaio on Saint Basil.

opOAs Tuxdv Kal picews evTVYoUS OeoTaTov HuEepwTatdv Te CaHov yiyver Oar puret.

And again, Bas. 3, 581, C5: od Td opdpevdv éotiy 0 dvOpwros.

Aa. 365 E: tis ~uyis és tov otxetov idpuleions torov To UrroderpOev cama, yedOes dv Kal adoxyov, ovK Extiv 0 avOpwrros.

This reference to the pseudo-Platonic Axiochus is suggested by Padelford, Hssays on the Study and Use of Poetry by Plutarch and Basil the Great, p. 115, and the similarity in thought is certainly noteworthy. Both maintain that we must not be over-solicitous about the body to the neglect of the soul, because without the soul the body is nothing. E. R. Maloney, in his edition of Basil’s homily on Greek literature, note on this passage, p. 56, also says, “this sentence is taken from Plato,” but he gives no reference. Other parallel passages cited in this connection are Cicero, Somn. Seip. 8, and Lactantius, Divin. Instit. 2, 3, 8. The phrase of Lactantius is interesting enough to add, hoe enim quod oculis subiectum est non homo sed hominis receptaculum.

This separation of body and soul is indeed even more distinctly stated, for we are told that man’s nature is not simple but two- fold, consisting of a body and a soul, as in Bas, 4, 248, D 6: ovx amdovs Tis odTOS éoTiv (sc. 0 AvOpwrros), ex THmaTOS Kal Wuyxs cuverTos.

Tim. 34 B: wuyny 6€ eis TO wéoov avrov (sc. Tod avOperrov) Geis Sua TravTos Te éTeve Kai Ett EEwOev TO CHwa aby TrepteKddue TavTN.

And a further subdivision is made into vods, yuyn and capa in Bas. 3, 204, A 9, and Tim. 30 A, but on these two statements there is no particular comment to be made except that shortly afterwards Basil seems to draw from the Timaeus again as indi- cated in the next citation. Wandinger, Hdition of Basil’s Homily to the Youth on Classical Literature, p. 44, in a note on this passage of Basil compares Phaedo 75 and Timaeus 52, but these references seem little to the point.

Another phrase of Basil, which is not far removed from the one just cited, is the echo of the Timaeus to which reference is made above. Bas. 3, 216, A 15: ths Wwuxyfs cov thy Stvamy

Tpos TO Tama cvvedyncen.

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 9

Tim. 73. B: ths wuyfs TO copate Evvdovperys.

The idea of the binding of the soul to the body is so striking that its repetition would at once suggest borrowing.

We next pass to the subject of the difference of the soul from the body and the superiority of the one to the other.

Bas. 3, 644, C 10: écov yap Siapdpa o ovpavos amo THs yi,

... TocovToy Siadhéper Wuyi) TopmaTos.

Legg. 959 A: wuyny cdpatos eivac TO wav dvapepovaar.

And the statement of the superiority of the soul also is to be noted in both authors :

Bas. 3, 565, D 1: Kka® dc0v oxida Kail dvap Tav adrnOav amroneimeTar* warrov 6é, iv oikeoTépw ypnowuat Trapacelypate, dow Wy?) Tois TAoL TYLLwTEpAa THMLATOS.

Tim. 34 C: 0 6€ (Oeds) Kat yevéoe: Kat apetn mpotépay Kai mpecButépayv >Wuynyv c@pmatos ws Seotretiv Kal apEovcay apEomevou Evvectnoato.

Basil uses this fact of the soul’s superiority as a familiar comparison to illustrate the difference between life in heaven and life on earth, and he remarks in 565, C 9, that if one should gather together and comprehend into a unit all blessings that have been since the world began, not in the smallest degree would that unit be equal to the good things which he will find in heaven. Padelford, op. cit., p. 103, in a note on this passage refers to Plato’s Republic, 614 A, where, after reciting the benefits that accrue to the just man in his lifetime, the @@Aa, pic Pol and dapa from gods and men Plato adds that these are nothing either in number or magnitude compared to those which await a man when he is dead.

Since now the soul is superior to the body we must cherish the soul but neglect the body :

Bas. 3,581, A 1: rhs yuyns eripéreay eye, Tacav oyodnv avo TOV AdXrXwY AyovTas. ov bn Oty TO GHmwaTt SovAEvTEOV,.... adra TH Wuxyn Ta BéATLCTA TropLaTéoD.

Phaed. 67 A: éyyutdt@ éodpeba Tod eidévar, éav OTL wadtoTa pndey omA@pev TO THmaTL pode Kowwvapev, . . . . GAA KkaBapevopev av’ avtov. Also Tim. 18 B should be compared here, émipédeay Exovtas apeTns Ova Travtos, THY addA@V éTI-

10 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

TndeuLaT@V ayovTas eYoAnV, Where the expression in each clause is obviously identical with that of Basil, but from a study of the context it would seem that this whole section of Basil is dependent rather on the discussion in the Phaedo, ep. Bas. A 5, and Phaed. 67 D.

Another parallelism from the same sections may be mentioned in this connection.

Bas. 3, 581, C9: xdOapows woyijs,.... Tas 1a THY aicOnoewn noovas atipave, un opOarpors éEotiav,. . . . by Oia TOV OTD 1... MeAMOlaY.... KaTaXeElD.

Phaed. 65 C: (4 Wuyn) royierar . . . . TOTE KaANOTA, STAY avTny TOUT@Y uNndev TrapAaduTrH, LNTE AKON MHTE Opis wHTE AdyNnd@v pod Tis HOovy, ... . OVKODY.... . ) TOU diroaddou uy?) uadoTa atimacve: TO o@pma. |

The idea expressed in these statements is practically the same, that is, the mortification of the flesh, and the abstract sight and hearing of Plato are simply transferred by Basil to the concrete eyes and ears. ;

There is also another pair of references to be added, Bas. 3, 584, D 3, and Phaed, 66 C, where both attack the body as the cause that leads to the acquisition of wealth. All these quotations then are sufficient to show the similarity between these two dis- cussions and to indicate the Phaedo as the probable source of Basil.

Bas. 3, 213, C 8: yveO bru TO pev Royixov eote Kal voepoy THs auyns, TO Sé mabntiKoy Te Kal Aroryor.

Tim. Loc. 99 EB: tas pev yap avOpwrrivas Wuxyds TO wév NoyiKov €oTt Kal voepov, TO & aroyov Kal adpov.

This reference from the Locrian summary is given because of the identity of phraseology. It is plainly an abridgment of the discussion in Tim. 69 C ff. of the two parts of the soul, the divine and the mortal, and we find it stated that the mortal part was subject to dewa Kal avayxaia TaOjpata, among others Oappos Kat poBov, appove EvpPovrw, and that these were all mingled aicOjoea adoyo, a description that justifies the adjectives used by Basil and the Locrian. Whether Basil is borrowing from this summary which was made before the second century A. D.' or is abstracting

'See Christ, Gr. Lnt., 4th ed., p. 461, n. 3.

The Influence of Plato. on Saint Basil. 11

directly from Plato it is impossible to tell, but in any case the ultimate source is Plato.

Again, in connection with the soul, Basil borrows from this same chapter of the 7imaeus when he describes the body as the chariot of the soul.

Bas. 3, 549, A 1: uy... . Newry Tis ovca Kal voepd,.... Kal c@pa, TO TavTy Sobev dynwa Tpds Tov Biov.

Tim. 69 C: waparaBovtes apynv Wwuyijs ‘alavatov, TO pera TovTO OvnTov copa avTH TepleTopvevoay Oynud TE TAY TO THpa édocav. Cf. Tim. 44 E.

The next topic to be considered is the immortality of the soul. This subject appears frequently in Basil, though nowhere is it treated as a matter for argument. Various passages might be cited here where there is some similarity of statement between Plato and Basil, as many passages of Plato are quoted attesting his approach to the Christian views on this subject, but it seems useless to accumulate references when there is no evidence that Basil is in any way influenced by Plato. Therefore, only a few passages will be cited.

Cocker, Christianity and G'reek Philosophy, p. 374, points out that Plato teaches that the immortal part of the soul was created or generated by God, and was not always existent. In regard then to the creation of the soul and the body, and the relation of one to the other Basil says, 1, 168, A 12: pn vowe mpeaButépay eivar (Thy Wuyiy TeV KTHVOV) THS TOD ToHpaTos avuToV UTocTdcews, nde émidiapévovcay peTa THY THS TapKOS duddvow,

While this attests the fact of the creation of the soul it is a clear contradiction of Plato’s theory of the priority in creation of the soul, Jim. 34 B: tiv dé 8) Woynv ody as viv torépay eTLYELPOD MEV eye, OUTWS euNXaVicaTO Kal Oo Oeds vewTépay~ ov yap av dpyecOar pec BvTepov bd vewrTépou EvvépEas clacev.... o 6€ Kal yevéoes Kal apeTn mpoTépay Kal mpecBuTépay >uyiy cauatos ws Secroti Kal apEovcay apEopwévov Evvertyjcato. See also Tim. 69 C, quoted above, and Legg. 967 D: uy ws gore mpecPUTATOV aTravTwV boa youns meTeiAnhey aOavarter Te.

The emphatic statement of Basil and the way in which he

12 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

introduces it by the words 2) vowife would suggest that he had in mind such arguments on the other side as are given by Plato and wished to belittle them.

Other statements on immortality are, Bas. 3, 204, B12: yvad cavtov THY dvow: bt OvnTov pév cov TO capa, AOavatos dé 7 apux7.

Phaedr. 245 C: yoy maoa abdvatos: To yap aekivntov adavatov, and Meno 81 B and Phaed. 70 A.

We may add finally Bas. 3, 588, C 7, and Rpb. 608 D.

VIRTUE AND VICE.

The next subdivision of this subject deals with the considera- tion of some vices and virtues in connection with which various parallel references will be cited.

The definition of evil is given by Basil, 3, 341 B 14: orépnous yap ayalod éott TO Kaxov, by the side of which is to be placed the statement in the Axiochus, 369 E: ty otepnoe Tov ayabav avrevodyev Kak@v alaOnouw.

Then Basil continuing, in 341 C, draws an illustration from the eye. After the creation of the eye blindness came to exist through the loss of the eyes, so that if the eye had not been of a corruptible nature there could have been no blindness. otT@ kai TO KaKkov ovK ev (Ola brrapEa eoTiv, adda Tois THS Wuyhs Tnpebacw emruy (VeTal.

Plato too uses the eye as an illustration, though in a slightly different way and in support of his statement that that which destroys and corrupts is evil, Rpb. 608 E. For as ophthalmia to the eyes and disease to the whole body, as mildew to grain, rot to wood and rust to iron, so 7o EvuduTov Kakov éExdotov Kal % Tovnpia ExacTov amodAAvow.

Now these two statements are not as far apart as might appear at a glance, and in fact Plato’s thesis that the innate evil in each thing destroys it has been followed in the main by Basil. Blind- ness, he says, destroys the eyes, but surely blindness is the inborn evil of the eyes, for if the eyes had not been of a corruptible

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 18

nature there could have been no blindness. Furthermore this passage of the Republic has been used several times by Basil, see p. 45, and without doubt he was very familiar with it, it therefore seems probable that we have another echo of it in the present case.

In connection with the subject of evil, reference may be made to a pair of quotations which treat of the origin of diseases, Bas. 3, 344 A 9 and Tim. 81 E. These passages resemble each other in several respects. In the first place the sum and substance of each statement is that the cause of disease is an abortion of nature. The body is formed with its own proper constitution, says Basil, éxticOn pev Ta CHa peTa THS TpeTOVENS av’Tois KaTaTKEUTS KATA gvowv, which is merely another form of Plato’s statement of the elements that make up the body, tertdpwv yap dvtwv yevov €& av oupTréemnye TO THma, YAS, Tupos Vdatds Te Kal aépos, while Basil’s évoonoe TOU KaTa diow TapatparTrevta is exactly equivalent to the phrase of Plato, ) mapa gvow mreoveEla Kali evdea . . . vdoous Tapeyel.

Add to these resemblances the fact that this discussion in the Timaeus was a locus nobilissimus ac celebratissimus as Stallbaum calls it, note ad loc., and it is very probable that the passages are related.

One of the vices that must be mentioned here as being the subject of some parallel statements in our two authors is anger. It is defined in Basil, 3, 369 A 9: éote yap Oupos pév otov EEapis Ts Kal avabvpiaois ofeia Tod mafouvs, which is to be compared with Cratylus, 419 E: @vpos 8€ ao rhs Ovcews Kai Cécews Tis wuxis éyou av TodTO TO dvoya, where in each case the fiery nature of the quality is recognized. Basil devotes an entire homily to the condemnation of anger, 3, 353 B 1 ff., but in spite of all that can be said against it he acknowledges that it is good and necessary under certain circumstances, as for the purpose of arousing strength and courage in the soul. In 3, 365 B 1 ff. this idea is developed in a way that is remarkably similar to the treat- ment of the subject in Rpb. 375 Af., and the resemblances of expression between these two sections may be emphasized. The first sentence in the passage cited from Basil, wpos woAda Tov THs

14 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

apeTas Epyov eritndeov THS Wuyts TO Ovpoedés, is almost identi- cal with Plato’s ra TAs Wuyijs (sc. olov dei Tov PUAaxa eivat, fra), dre ye Ovjoedh. Then Basil says, adornpay (sc. Thy ux) Kat avdpeiav érrotnoev 0 Ovyos which is parallel to the question of Plato, avépeios .. . elvar . . . COeAHoer 0 pu) Oupoerdys ; also Basil’s description of anger, vedpov eos Ths Wuxfs o Oupds and ypyotpos 6 Ouuos are balanced by the characterization in the Republic, dmayov Te Kal avixntov Ovuyos.

But the most notable point of resemblance between the two passages is the use of the same comparison in the same way. This is the figure of the watch-dog which is gentle toward its master and acquaintances, but ferocious toward the stranger. This comparison is considered in its place under the subject of comparison, p. 44, but the similar expressions may be pointed out here.

Basil describes one side of the dog’s nature as mpaos Kat xetponOns Tots @peXovar, which is the Platonic wpds tods cvvnbes TE Kal yvwpiwous TpaoTaTous, cvvnOns being also used by Basil in the same sense in another clause, tod 6 cuvydous avT@ Kal pidov éuBoncavtos vromticowv. But the dog has another side to his nature as well which is indicated by Basil in the words, zpos tay adXoTplav Kat dovnv Kai driv eEaypiovpevos, Kav Oeparreiay eye doxy, and this corresponds to the sentence of Plato in 376 A, Ripb., where he says of the dog, dv pev av iby ayvrta, yareTraive., ovdev O€ Kaxov mporerovOes. Thus then the similarity of phrase- ology together with the use of the same comparison would tend to prove that one passage is the source of the other.

Another vice that is assailed by Basil is the insatiable desire for wealth and in connection with this topic there are several references to be cited. Basil, 3, 292 C 7, speaking of the dis- satisfaction of people with their possessions, says that they are always unhappy because no matter how wealthy they become they continually envy the man who is still wealthier. This same idea is expressed in Legg. 918 D. Other references are Bas. 3, 293 A 8 and Legg. 870 A. But there is no particular comment to be made on these passages, for while the thought is similar there is no resemblance in the phraseology.

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 15

Now one excuse that the avaricious give for their practice of accumulating wealth is the necessity of making provision for their children and this idea, therefore, is the subject of attack by both our authors, see Bas. 3, 284 B 11 and 297 C 8, with which com- pare Legg. 729 A. |

Another topic in this connection deals with the relation of wealth to war. Basil maintains that wealth is conducive of war, as by it the sinews of war are supplied, 3, 297 B 11: ws more mXovTOS, % TOD ToNeuou Urd0ecrs, bv dv YadrKeveTaL SmrAa, Sv dv axovata. Edn. So in the Republic, 422 A, the same point is recognized, 7Os Hiv 1 modus ola 7 ota Trodepelv, érrerdav xXpHmaTa py KEKTNMEVN 7, AAAwWS Te KAY TpdS peyaAnv TE Kal Wrovciav avayKacOn Trodepeiv.

In reply to this Socrates, from a different point of view, argues that wealth is a hindrance to war as it introduces into a state luxury and effeminancy, and this also is the view stated in the Laws 831 E.

Envy is another vice that is considered by St. Basil in a separate sermon, and some of his statements are not far removed from passages of the Philebus, though the resemblances seem due to the nature of the subject as in the case of the stock definition of envy given in Bas. 3, 373 A2: 0 p@dvos tHv éxovoay avrov uyny eEavarione, and A6 dvrn ydp €ote THS TOD mANoIOv evrpaylas 0 dOdvos, to be compared with Phil. 50 A: Tov yap hOdvov wporoyjoOar AUTnY THs Wuyhs jhuiv mada, and Ib., HdovaY Sé ert Tois TOY hidwv Kaxois ... TOY POdvov. See also Bas. 3, 373 C 8 and Phil. 48 B.

Next we have to consider attempts to place the responsibility for the infliction of misfortune. People blame the gods for their troubles, a practice that is reprehended by both authors, Bas, 24992) B 10, and 26s)\C5,) jand)| ‘Apb.)\\619) C.,) Wor, God is not the cause of evils. Basil makes this thought the subject of a special homily, 3, 329 A 1ff., and it is treated at some length in the Republic, 379 Bf. Bas. 3, 341 B10: dros 8é prjte Oedv aitiov Hyod THs brapEews Tod KaKod, punte Ldlay imdctacw Tov KaKod eivac davtagov. Compare also 332 A 15. This same idea is expressed in the Republic, 380 B: kaxav dé

16 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

aitiov davar Oedv Tin yiyverOar ayabov dvta, Siapayetéov Tavtt tporw, and C: uy tavtev aitioy tov Oedy adda Tov ayabar. Compare also Rpb. 379 C and Tim. 42 D.

While the section of the Republic, from which these quotations have been taken, was used freely by Basil (see p. 52), and while he may have had this section in mind here, it is impossible to make any definite assertion of this as the subject is so purely theological, and the most we can do is to point out the similarity in the statements, where the same explanation is given, God is good, and therefore He cannot be the cause of evil.

If then God is not the cause of evil, but man brings it upon himself, the question arises as to the extent of the freedom of the will. Basil in 3, 337 D9 holds that sin waits on our choice, and that it is in our power to be evil or to abstain from it. Further on, 345 A 1, he draws an illustration from the history of Adam, who on account of sin was excluded from Paradise and dia ToUTO HuapTe ev Ova pboxOnpav tpoaipeow. Basil is thus plain and unequivocal in his statement of the absoluteness of the freedom of the will, and this is in harmony with Plato’s teaching in the Republic, 617 E, that our lot does not choose us but we choose our lot, apetz b€ addécmotov, Hy TYn@v Kat atiwalwv mréov Kal €XaTTov avTHs exactos &&ea, aitia éEXopévouv: Beds avaitios. But on the other hand he makes a contrary statement in Tim. 86 D when he remarks that no one is voluntarily evil, but that the evil man becomes so dca trovnpay é&w tiva Tod c@maTos Kal amraidevtov Tpopyy, see p. 32. On this confusion in Plato about necessity and free-will comment is made by Jowett, Translation of Plato, 3d ed., vol. m1, Int. to Timaeus, pp. 408 and 425. See also Gomperz, Griechische Denker, 11, pp. 237 ff.

Virtue is the next topic to be considered on the basis of treat- ment by our two authors. Several parallel passages that show a decided resemblance are from Basil’s sermon to young men on education, and the second and third books of the Republic, which Basil has used frequently in this homily. First, then, in regard to the impressionability of the young Bas. 3, 572 A 4, says: ov [ikpov yap TO OpEXos olKELoTHTAa TLiva Kal GuYHnOELaY Tais TOV VvéwY

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. i

apuyais THs apeThs éyyevérOa, érreirep apeTdotata TépuKev Eivat Ta TOV TOLOVTOY pabnpaTa.

Rpb. 378 D: 6 yap véos ovy oids Te Kpive 6 Ti Te bdvoLa Kal d un, AAN & av THALKOVTOS oY AABy év Tais ddEas, duTeKIUTTA TE Kal apetaotata iret yiyveo Oa.

It is shown on p. 55 that this passage of Basil is probably an echo of the Republic, 377 A. The section immediately following in Basil is parallel to Mpb. 364 A, and the citations before us simply furnish more evidence that Basil is drawing from this part of the Republic. So Jahn supports Hess who alters the totovtTwy of Basil to TyAcKovTwy after the analogy of the text of Plato, Neue Jahrbiicher, 49, 1847, p. 389. Another pair of passages bearing on this subject may be cited from about the same sections in both works, bas. 3,575 D1 and Rpb. 360 D. But in still another case there is even a greater similarity, Bas. 3, 572 C3: tocovtov deity aicytynv obrAHoar yupvov oferta, érerdy mep avtov (sc.’Odvocéa) dperi avtl (matiov Kexoounpmevor érroince. Rpb. 457 A: drobutéov 8) tais Tov hvdrdKov yovakiv, éereirep apeTny avTl tmatiov dudidoovtat, Kal KoLYwYNnTéoY TrOAELOV.

The resemblance here is between the women exercising nude in order to receive the greatest benefit, and the naked Odysseus appealing to Nausicaa for help. Practically the same phrase is used in each case, ‘virtue covered him instead of clothes,’ and equally well in regard to Odysseus might be used the summary of this matter in the Republic, 457 B: to pwév @pédLpov Kadov, TO d€ BraPepov aicypdv. This quotation, ‘as has been shown, is found in Basil in connection with many reminiscences from the Republic, and there is no doubt of the relation in the present instance.

Again, on the subject of virtue, Basil says, 3, 572 D5: povn d€ KTnMaTwV 1 dpeTn avadaipetov Kat Govt. Kal TEeAEVTHOAVTL mapauévovoa. This is quite similar to the statement of the Rpbd. 618 E in connection with the story of Er. The choice of lots should be made in the line of virtue which leads to that which is more just, éwpaxayev yap, OTe CovTi Te Kal TeXEUTHOAVTL avTN kpatiotn aipeois. There may be compared here too Bas. 4, 69 C 6 and Legg. 730 B.

18 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

Basil further, in 1, 316 C 2, makes a summarized statement in regard to the four great virtues, dpdévnows, cwppootyn, Sikaroovvn and d&vépela, which he defines in terms quite similar to those used in the elaborate discussion of these virtues found in the Republic, 427 Eff. Plato in 430 B gives the definition of avdpela as dtvapus SdEns pO%s Sevav mépe Kat yxy, which is followed closely by Basil, who calls it the principle wept Sever cat od Sevadv. Another close parallelism may be indicated in the definition of duavoctvn as the allotment of good and evil to each according to his due, bas. 3, 401 BQ: Stxavoctvn éotw és atroveuntiKh Tod Ka7’ a&iav, and Plato, Rpb. 332 D: % obv 8 riot th arrodibotca Téyvyn SiKaLoovyy dv kadoito; ... % Tos dirow Te Kal éyOpois wpedelas TE Kat BraBas atrod.idovca.

These examples cited show the greatest resemblances, but on the whole there is no great difference between the two sets of definitions. It is true that the doctrine of the four cardinal virtues was enunciated for the first time in the Republic, but it must be remembered that this doctrine gained great popularity and was used much by the church writers, so the question of connection in the present instance is a very doubtful one. This is also true when Basil again seems to have reference to this scheme of the four virtues in 3, 381 B 3, with which Wyttenbach * compares Republic, 560 D, for the resemblance here is in form of expression only and is very slight, while there is no similarity of context.

Finally in this connection there are two parallel references which relate the misfortunes of a virtuous man who holds a public office. Basil in 4, 1041 D 3 tells how it is an old story that those who aspire to virtue refrain from accepting public office, whereas the venal man considers office as the greatest good since it will enable him to benefit his friends, take vengeance on his foes and acquire great possessions. Plato in the same line of thought says, Rpb. 343 E, that if a just man takes office he neglects his own business, can get nothing from the public treasury, and has trouble with his family and friends because he

1 Note on Plutarch’s de discern. adul. ab amico, 56 B.

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 19

will not assist them unjustly; but in the case of the unjust man the opposite is true. While these descriptions are given from different points of view, the first from the point of view of the rascal and the second from that of the honest man, there is considerable similarity in the general tone and arrangement. Both emphasize the fact that a magistracy held by a dishonest man is used by him to advance his own interests and to benefit his friends. The resemblance is worth noting and is sufficient to suggest the possibility that Basil had in mind the passage of Plato.

We now pass to the presentation of some miscellaneous parallel- isms connected with the general subject of ethics. A similar statement in regard to friendship, namely, that it is produced by association is given by both authors, Bas. 3, 348 C 3, and Phaedr. 240 C.

Another similarity in the line of definition is found in Bas. 3, 217 C12: t& yap éotw apetn, vuKTos Kal juépas év Siaxyvoen wuyns pardpov Kal yeyavopevov dvayev.

Crat. 419 C: yapa d€ tH Siaytoe Kal evrropia Ths pons THs apuyxis Eouce KEKAN MEV.

It is to be noted here that the same phrase, dudyvows THs Wuxis, is used by Basil in the same connection in which it is found in Plato, that is, in definition or explanation of yapa. In fact, shortly before the sentence quoted above he asks, r/ weév ovv To xatpev avté; which he then proceeds to explain. It is, there- fore, not unlikely that there is a connection between these two passages.

There is a more striking resemblance in the next pair of cita- tions, Bas. 3, 588 A 2: ov« got 6 warrov hevetéov TO cwpPpovodvTt Tov mpos dofav Shy Kal Ta Tos TOANOIS SoKOvVTA TpocKOTrElD.

Rpb. 362 A: dycover tov adiKov, dte . . . ov mpos ddEav CavTa, ov Soxeiv ddikov aAN eivas Drew.

Plato devotes considerable space in the Republic, 362 ff., to the discussion of this matter of appearances, making Adimantus argue in opposition to Socrates for the necessity of employing such a veil before one’s real self. There is no doubt that Basil had this

20 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

treatment in mind when he wrote the present passage. In 565 C Adimantus says: ‘Since appearance overwhelms actuality and is master of happiness, to this I must turn my whole attention, before me and around me I must trace out the sketch of virtue, but behind I must drag the cunning and crafty fox of Archilochus.’ So Basil, in the sentence immediately preceding the one quoted above, uses this metaphor of the fox of Archilochus repeating even the words of Plato, and again, shortly afterwards, in 588 B 4 he gives the phrase ‘to trace out the sketch of virtue.’ For the identification of these phrases see p. 49. The passage under discussion then is simply a further reference to the same section of the Republic.

Further on the subject of justice each author maintains that it is worse to do wrong than to suffer it, Bas. 3, 364 D 1 and Gorg. 473 A. But he who does the evil is in danger of future punish- ment. Basil, 3, 580 C 14, urges us not to waste our time lest we be called to account od te mapa Tots avOpdrrois, AXN év Tois, el TE bro yhv, cite Kal Orrov On Tod TayTOS dvTA TUyXaveL SucaLwTnpLoLs, with which is to be compared Phaedr. 249 A: (atyruyat) xpileioat d€ ai pep eis TA UTTO YAS SikacwTHpia EXOodcat Sikny éexTivovaw.

Basil seems to have borrowed verbatim Plato’s phrase Ta w7re yjs Sicarwtypia, and then to have thought it wise to add some modification in regard to the statement of the location of the dicacornpia. This parallelism is noted by Jahn, Neue Jahrb., Suppl. Band 13, 1847, p. 461.

But those who are so deeply dyed in wickedness as to be themselves beyond the hope of cure must not be destroyed, but are to be left as examples to others. This thought is presented by Basil, 3, 340 C 9, in a way that is similar to that of the Gorgias, 525 C. In fact with variations in the line of phrase- ology and vocabulary excepted the passages are practically identical. The meaning and context are the same in each case and it seems certain that the first is an imitation of the second. See also Wyttenbach’s note on Plutarch’s de ser. nwn. vind. 564 E.

Finally, under this heading we may refer to a pair of state- ments on the duties of children to parents, Bas. 3, 912 B 6, and

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 21

Legg. 717 B, in which there is not sufficient similarity to require any discussion.

INFLUENCE OF PLATO ON BASIL IN PHILOSOPHY.

The writings of St. Basil are divided into three groups by Bohringer, Die Kirche Christi und thre Zeugen, 2d ed., vi1, Die drei Kappadozier, p. 60. These divisions are, (1) the dogmati- eal works such as that against Eunomius and the Book on the Holy Spirit; (2) the Homilies; and (3) the Epistles. There is then no work that could be classed distinctively under the head of philosophy. So further Huber says, op. cit., p. 212, that we find no original ideas in Basil, for, although at Athens he studied philosophy as well as other branches, no lasting impression was made on him because shortly afterwards he devoted himself to theology and the study of the doctrines of the church. More- over, his life in the church is characterized by the activity of his work, which left him no time for philosophy. As Bohringer, loc. cit., says: Basil ist mehr ein Mann des Handelns und der That als der Wissenschaft, das praktische Element ist in ihm weit iiberwiegend.

Under this caption, however, it seemed best to group various statements of Basil on voluntary and involuntary action, and to treat the question of the relation of his Hexaemeron to Plato’s discussion of the creation of the universe in the Timaeus. As Basil handles it the subject is rather theological than philosophi- eal, but it will be shown that in his attempt to harmonize philosophy and theology Basil has retained many of Plato’s philosophical theories.

The subject of voluntary and involuntary action, which is another phase of the question of the freedom of the will, see p- 16, is mentioned or discussed in several places by Basil. In 3, 404 A 12 he asserts that some sins are involuntary, others voluntary, and in 580 D 5 that for the involuntary wrong there may be pardon, but for the voluntary severe punishment is certain. Similarly Plato, Legg. 860 E, determines greater punish- ment for the voluntary than for the involuntary sin. Compare

22 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

also Hipp. Min. 375 D. Basil further illustrates his statement in 404 B 1f. by a comparison of two prostitutes, one of whom is sold to a mropvoBockes and so is compelled to sin, while the second voluntarily gives herself up to that form of life. Then in 404 B6 he declares that punishment varies as early training tended to virtue or vice. So in the Protagoras, 323 D ff., Plato maintains that no man is held responsible for what occurs by nature or by chance.

But the most important passage on this subject in Basil is 4, 676 A 11 ff. which shows some similarities to Legg. 865 f. Basil begins with the sentence 6 a&ivy mapa Tov Oupov Kata Tijs €avtod yapueThns xpnodpuevos goveds éo71, and further on, in 676 C 2f., he takes up the discussion of homicide done under the impulse of anger and decides that if the instrument is a club or a stone it is involuntary, as there is a chance that the assailant intended only to injure and not to kill, but if a sword or axe is used the murder is voluntary. Plato devotes considerable space to this same question of homicide arising from passion, Legg. 866 Ef. He describes two kinds of such homicide, one when the act is done in the moment of rage and is followed by immediate repentance, which is involuntary; and the other when the anger is restrained for the moment and the murder is the result of a premeditated plan of revenge, in which case the deed is voluntary. In 868 D, among the involuntary crimes which are to receive a comparatively light punishment, he mentions the following which recalls the opening sentence of Basil’s discussion, cited above, yuvaika 6€ yapueTny éav avnp Sv opynv Ktelvn Tia TIS, 7) yur?) éauTns avdpa. Basil also gives other illustrations of involuntary homicide, as, for example, when a stone is hurled at a dog and hits a man, when a man dies under blows administered in chastise- ment, etc., which are not the same as those given in the Laws, 865 Af., but are similarly used. Finally then the treatment in the Laws is very elaborate, while that of Basil is quite brief, but the general similarity is worth noting.

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 23

RELATION OF PLATO’s TIMAEUS TO Basit’s HEXAEMERON.

The nine homilies of Saint Basil on the Hexaemeron, a treatise on the creation of the world, constitute one of his most important pieces of work and one that received much praise from the Fathers. Gregory of Nazianzus says of this work:' ‘When I take up and consider his Hexaemeron I walk with the Creator and I learn to know the theory of creation, and I admire the Creator more than before when I used my sight alone as my instructor.’ The praise of Basil’s brother, Gregory of Nyssa, verges on the extravagant when he connects the name of Basil with that of Moses in regard to their descriptions of the creation. In his treatise on the Hexaemeron he writes to his brother Peter as follows :? ‘ You have directed me to present in order the theory of the creation of the universe elaborated by the great Moses with divine inspiration, and to point out how Holy Scripture is consist- ent with itself, and that too though you have before you the divinely inspired treatise of our Father (i. e. Basil), which all who know admire no less than the work of Moses himself, and rightly in my opinion.’ Gregory writes at considerable length in this eulo- gistic way and points out that Basil has completely elucidated by his reflections the difficult work on the creation of the world so that there is no one who can not easily understand it.’

This treatise of Basil was afterwards used freely and worked over by Ambrosius (d. 399 A. D.), and was translated into Latin by Eustathius.

It is not necessary here to make any preliminary statement on the line of argument of Basil in the presentation of his views on the creation. In the main he takes his outline from Genesis and for much of his matter he is dependent on his training in the scriptures. But in part again he seems to be indebted to Aris- totle.* Weshall proceed at once to the question of his relation to

1 Orat. 43, p. 585 A 9 (Migne).

2P. 61, A 6 (Migne).

3See Tillemont, Histoire Ecclesiastique, IX, p. 288. 4See Miillenhoff, Hermes, II, 252 f.

24 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

Plato and in this case from the nature of the subject chiefly the Timaeus of Plato.

At the very beginning the statement of the subject even seems to recall the Timaeus. It is to be a treatise wept dicews (Bas. 1. 8 A 1), as the subject of the Timaeus is also declared to be wept dvcews in Tim. 27 A where the company decide that Timaeus should be first speaker as he had taken the most pains to gain knowledge mept dicews tod tavtds. So it is very probable that Basil had Plato in mind when he said (loc. cit.), wodAa wept picews erpaymatevoavTo ot TOY “EXAjvev codoi, and the state- ment immediately following on the difficulty of the subject and the variety of views is clearly a reflection from the Timaeus. Basil says that among the wise men no theory remains immovable but one always displaces another, though there is no similarity in expression the same thought is found in Jim. 29 C.

Now in beginning a treatise on the creation of the universe it must necessarily be assumed that the universe was not ever-exis- tent but at some time had to be brought into being. Basil then sounds this note of warning in 1.9 A 8: pa obv dvapya davtagov Ta op@peva, and this is also one of the first points of the Timaeus, given in 28 B, 6 kéopos yéyover, am’ apyiis Twos apEdpevos.

On the other hand we are informed of that which is ever-exist- ent, without beginning and without end, Bas. 1.12 A10:... Oeov avapyov te Kal atedevTnTOv and Tim. 34 A: obros bn Tas GVTOS del AoLTHOS OHeod.

If then the universe is a thing created there arises at once the question as to what was previous to the creation. Basil 1. 13 A 4 says that there was a certain Katdotaoi mpeoButépa Tis Tod Koopov yeveoews, which was wrépypovos, aiwvia, aidvos. This view seems to be significant as showing the influence of philosophy in opposition to the statement of Genesis, év apy7 émolncev 0 Beds TOV ovpavoy Kal THY yhv, which offers no suggestion of any possibil- ity antecedent to the beginning. The Timaeus makes several statements on this point. First it gives the view of primaeval chaos and asserts that the chief reason for the creation of the uni- verse was the desire of God to bring order out of that chaos, in 30 A, and then in 52 D is specified what was before the universe, dv

‘

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 25

Te Kal yopav Kal yéveow eivat Tpia TpLYH Kal Tplv ovpavon yevér Oa. See also 48 B, 53 A and 69 B.

Now proceeding with the development of the theory, before there can be any creation there must be a cause and this accordingly is also one of the early questions discussed. Basil, 1. 4 A 6, asserts that the creation of the heaven and earth did not take place automati- cally but there was a moving cause which was God, and then he adds: ‘what sense of hearing is worthy of the magnitude of these words, what soul prepared for the reception of such tidings.’ The necessity of a cause preceding is similarly stated in the Timaeus which also adds the suggestion of the immensity and greatness of that cause, which is the father God, Tim. 28 A and C. rov.. ToinTny Kal Tatépa TovdEe TOU TavTOS eEvpeiy TE Epyov Kat EvpdvTa els Travtas advvatov NéyeLV.

After the statement that God is the cause of existence the im- portant point here is of course this remark on the nature of God, that He is difficult to find and when found can not be appreciated by all. This is clearly followed by Basil in the sentence quoted above, and in regard to its importance in general there is a note by Ackermann, op. cit., p. 40, n. 1: ‘No passage was so fre- quently cited by the church Fathers, now with praise and now with blame, according as they understood.’

From this the next step in the theory comes naturally in the expansion of the idea of God as creator of the universe. In bas. 1.9 Al it is the highly-honored name of God, 7 paxapia vars, apyn TOV dvtev etc., and this idea is expressed or inferred sey- eral times in the Timaeus and is summarized conveniently in 30 B. It may deserve mention here in passing that of the attributes of God given in the list, which has partly been quoted in the pass- age of Basil just cited, one is 7) ap@ovos ayabdrns which may be a reminiscence from Jim. 29 E: aya6os iy (se. 6 Beds), ayabe dé ovdels Trept ovdevds ovdETrOTE eyyiyveTar POdvos.

After the statement of the creation some characteristics are noted specifying the grade of the thing created. It was the product of the wisdom of God says Basil 1. 17 B 9, while the Timaeus 30 B asserts that it was formed dua tHv Tod Beod mpcvoray. Other state- ments of the perfection of the creation are Bas. 1. 17 C 8 and Tim.

26 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

28 C,in which there is particularly noticeable the similarity in the two remarks on the relation of the creator to his work, each affirming the beauty of the creature as a consequence of the excel- lency of the creator. In this connection compare also as. 1. 13 B 3 and Tim. 29 E.

The next question that presents itself concerns the nature of the substance of the creation. Plato bases his theory absolutely on the Empedoclean doctrine of the four elements and the discussion of the matter in the Timaeus is clearly the source of Basil. In commenting on the thesis of Genesis that God created the heavens and the earth Basil, 1. 20 A 9 shows how the theory of the ele- ments lies implicit in this statement and is necessarily assumed. If the existence of the earth be granted the other elements, fire, water and air are easily found, for fire leaps from stone and iron which are of the earth, the well-diggers have proved the presence of water in the earth and finally the winds from the south are suffi- cient proof of the air. Thus it is apparent that Basil is trying to harmonize the statement of Genesis with the theory of the Timae- us, expressed in 31 B and 32 B, that the created body consisted first of fire and earth and that later between these constituents the god added water and air, binding all together into a whole. Basil then accepts the doctrine of the elements and insists that this doc- trine is inherent in the Old Testament teaching, for though earth alone is mentioned common sense only is needed to show that earth comprehends all the other elements and therefore the state- ment of the existence of earth is no less than the statement of the existence of the elements.

As a proof of the importance that Basil attaches to this point he reverts to it again in 33 C 5 and selecting the element, water, for particular emphasis explains that, while nothing is said about God creating the water, we are told that the earth was invisible and therefore must assume that water as a veil covered the face of the earth.

In still another passage of Basil the reference to the Timaeus is even more plain and the language is practically repeated, Bas. 1. 25 A 14: kai of pwev ovvberov adrov (sc. Tov Kdopor) ex TeV

/ / 2. . TeToapav oTOLYEloY ELlpnKacW, ws amTOV dvTa Kal opaTor, Kai

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 27

peTexovTa yns pmev Ova THY avTiTUTriav, Tupos Sé dua TO KaDopac Pat, Tov dé Nowrrev dua THY piEw. Compare also Bas. 4. 248 D 2.

Tim. 31 B: cwpatoedées dé 6% Kal opatov amv te det TO ryevomevoy eivar * yopicbev dé mrupds ovdév av TrOTE OpaToY YyEvoLTO, ovde amTov avev TLVOS OTEPEOV, TTEpEoY SE OVK avEU YAS.

The similarity here is so obvious that it is hardly necessary to emphasize it. Both statements agree that the universe is visible and tangible, opatos «al dards, and both explain these terms in the identical manner but with different words, asserting that the visibility is due to fire, the tangibility to the hardness of the earth.

Since thus the theory of the elements has been established the next step in advance is the notice of the harmony among these con- stituents, which is set forth in Bas, 1. 33 A 9 and Tim. 32 C, where there is a striking similarity in the repetition of the idea of the bond of friendship as that which yokes the elements together, a bond unbreakable, that can not be unloosed save by him that bound, Basil’s phrase, éXov 8€ Tov Kécpov avopoiomeph TUYXAaVOVTA appnkt@ Til pircas Sec pe eis wlav Kowoviav Kal 4ppoviay cvvedycer, corresponding to the following sentence of Plato: To Tod xéopou capa éyevviOn SC avadoyias, dirtav Te Exyev ex TOUT@V, WOT ELS tavTov avT@ EvvedOov advTov bTd Tov aAAov ANY vVTO TOD Evvdjcavtos yevéeoOa. Further at this same point in each work there is discussed the subject of the completeness of the creation, the complete employment of the elements, Bas. 1. 33 B 5 and Tim. 32 C.

Finally before leaving the matter of the elements a question arises in regard to their relations to each other and the passage of one to another. This is mentioned by Basil, 1. 61 B 13 and elab- orated shortly afterwards in 89 C 4; it is discussed by Plato, Tim. 49 C. The idea presented here of the close interrelation of the elements is the same in each case and in fact the passage of Basil might be viewed as a commentary on that of the Timaeus, giving a fuller explanation. Plato states that water when congealed becomes earth, Basil unites water and earth by the quality of cold- ness. Water melted, says Plato, passes into air, water and air are connected in Basil by the quality of moistness. Finally beside Plato’s statement that air when inflamed becomes fire, stands Basil’s

28 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

union of fire and air in the quality of heat. Thus both sections are seen to be very similar and both are concluded by a similar sentence in summary, Basil’s cai obrw yiverat KiKros Kal Yopos évapydvios corresponding to KvKAov Te oTw SiadiddvTa els GXAyra Thy yéveow of the 'Timaeus.

But in the course of transition as one element is dissolved into another, it loses its characteristic form and therefore is practically destroyed, Bas. 1. 64 C 14 and Tim. 56 D.

Next in both authors the power of fire is emphasized as surpass- ing that of all the other elements, Bas. 1. 65 C 1 and Tim. 58 A; and further the nature of fire is characterized as a nature that is double, on the one hand being the flame that burns, on the other the flame that provides light to the eyes, Bas. 1. 121 C14; 297 B 14. and Tim. 58 C. We also find parallel notes in regard to the condensation and precipitation of water in Bas. 1. 69 A 18 and Tim. 49 C.

From the substance of the universe, the elements, we pass to the nature and form of the universe which is the next point that is developed similarly in each work, Bas. 1. 38 A 2 and Tim. 32 D, where to be particularly noted is the emphasis that both authors lay on 70 apémov, which brings these two passages into close - relationship. Compare for example the phrase of Basil, ovpav@ bev abwpice THY OVpav@ TpéTroveay pvow with the words oxjpa dé éSwKxey av’T@ TO mpérov of the Timaeus. Basil thus declares that God determined for the heaven the nature that was proper for the heaven, and for the earth too its own proper nature, which is identical with the statement of Plato that God gave to the universe the form that was proper and natural.

The expression is also notably similar in the following extracts, Bas. 1. 60 B12: ove... TodTo avaynn Kal tTHv €Ewbev éerripaverav opaipikas arnpticbar, Kal Orov axpiBas EvTopvoy eivar Kal relws TrEpLN'y MEVOV.

Tim. 33 B: 610 kai oparpoedé&s, . . . KUKAOTEpEs AUTO éTOpvEevcaToO ... Aelov O€ 69 KUKAw Trav éEwOEV adTO amnKkpLBodTO TroARXROY Yapuv.

Of course the subject here discussed is the same in each case and in this sentence of his description Basil has apparently borrowed

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 29

his vocabulary directly from Plato, while altering the phraseology and the forms of the words. So oga:puxds corresponds to opatpoedes, axptBas to amnxpiBodTo, évtopvor eivat to éropvevaaro, and evws mrepinyywévov to retov KvKA@. Add to this also the par- allel phrases for the ‘outer surface’, tv éoOev ériddveay and mav é€oev, and it is plain that the resemblances are too close to be accidental.

In connection with the subject of the form of the universe there is considerable discussion relative to the question of the possibility of the existence of more than one ovpaves or xécpos. Plato is distinct and emphatic in his statement on the negative side, there is and there will ever be but one ovpaves for it comprehends all creatures and therefore could not be second to another, Tim. 31 A. Reference should also be made here again to Jim. 32 C where Plato states that all the elements are completely used in the forma- tion of the universe and therefore there can be but one universe, since nothing is left from which a second might be formed. Now it seems probable that Basil had in mind Plato and this presenta- tion of the subject in the Timaeus when he wrote in 1. 56 D 4 ff: ‘They assume that there is a single ovpaves, the nature of which can not be double or triple or manifold, on the ground that all universe-matter has been expended on the one leaving nothing for a second or third.’ But Basil refuses to subscribe to this view and in support of his opposition cites the fact that learned men of the Hellenes are arrayed on either side. He therefore espouses that theory for which he finds scriptural warrant, 1. 57 B 9, referring to the third heaven of Paul, II Cor. 12. 2, and the heavens of heavens of the psalmist, Ps. 148. 4.

An additional point in favor of the belief that in this treatment Basil has reference to the Timaeus is presented in the fact that immediately after the preceding statement Basil remarks that this theory of the numerous ovpavol is no more marvelous than is the theory of the seven orbits of the stars. Now this description of the arrangement of the stars, which will be considered later, follows in the Timaeus very shortly after the question of the single ovpaves is discussed and therefore the appositeness of this compar- ison by Basil is made apparent.

30 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

Basil further does not fail to touch on the etymology of the word ovpaves which is mentioned several times in Plato, Bas. 1, 72 B7; 180 C 2 and Tim. 32 B; Rpb. 509 D; Crat. 396 B, in all of which there is the same underlying thought of its derivation from the verb opaw. Compare Bas. 1, 180 C 2: odpavod évradda mapa TO opdcbar Tod aépos mpocepnuevov and Crat. 396 B: ovpavia, opaca Ta ave.

The Timaeus however does not discuss odpaves in the sense in which it is often used by Basil, that is the heaven of Genesis as contrasted with the earth. In Plato it is primarily the universe and therefore Basil resorts to the Old Testament for his description of the nature and form of the vault of heaven, referring in 1. 20 C 14 to the verses of Isaiah, 51. 6 for its nature and 40. 22 for its form.

But the earth receives attention in both works particularly in regard to the question of its immobility or rotation. There has been much discussion of the passage of the Timaeus, 40 B, bearing on this point, yjv... eiANouévny S€é Trepl Tov dia TavTos Todov TeTapevov ... €unxavnoato, The difficulty lies in the considera- tion of efAXowevnv and whether this word should be interpreted as conveying the idea of rest or motion. But Boeckh, Stallbaum, Jowett and others, in spite of opposition principally on the part of Grote, stoutly maintain their belief that Plato here had no inten- tion of asserting the theory of the rotation of the earth. In a pas- sage in the Phaedo indeed he clearly states its immobility, 108 E : el ) YH cot ev péow TO Opava Trepideprs ovca, wndév avTn Seiv pnt aépos mpos TO m1 Tecely nT aArAANS avayKnS pNndEemLas ToLavTNS, .. . LadppoTrov yap Tmpayua opotov Tivos ev wéow TeOev ovy &£er parrov ovd’ HTTov ovdapdce KrALOHVAaL, Oomoiws 8 Exov GKALVES [MeEVEL.

The statements of Basil differ little from those of Plato, see 1. 24 A 12 and particularly B 10 ff. where Basil seems to have some particular treatment in mind for he says that certain of the dvotxoi declare the earth to be immovable on the following grounds, which are quite the same as those given in the Phaedo, @s dpa dia TO THY peony TOU TavTOS ElAnpéva Yopav, Kal dia Ti lonv tavTobev pds TO akpoy amdcTacW, ovK ExovoaY OTroU

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 31

H@XXov atroKNOn, avayKaiws pévev ed Eéavtis. Attention is especially directed to the relation to each other of the final phrase in each quotation, but the similarity is marked throughout. The idea expressed, that motion of the earth is impossible because it would destroy the condition of the equipoise and equality in space, is practically the same although the form of expression is somewhat different, except that Plato’s phrase ovy Ee wadrXov odd’ HrTov ovdapmoce KXLOHVvaL has been followed by Basil almost verbatim in his ov« €yovoav Srrov wadrov aTroKdLOn.

Thus the immobility of the earth is declared, but that the universe as a whole has a circular movement is the assertion of Bas. 1. 9 A 9 and Tim. 34 B.

The next point that comes up for consideration is the question of the beginning of time and the distinction between day and night as presented by bas. 1.13 B7 and Tim. 37 E. Each of these passages consists of two sentences which are respectively similar, the first sentence in each case stating that time was not existent before the creation of the universe but began instantly with the universe, while the second sentence describes time as that which is divisible into the past, the present and the future. The general thought and arrangement are the same, the details of vocabulary and phraseology are quite different. Perhaps Basil again has in mind this passage of the Timaeus when he says emphatically in 1. 560 B 8 that a child would know that the days, months and years were pétpa Tod ypovov, ovyi uwépn, where- as the Timaeus in the passage cited calls them pépn ypovov.

Further resemblances of expression are found in other state- ments on this subject, particularly Bas. 1. 121 B 5 and Tim. 39 B, where there is a similar expression of the idea that God kindled the sun and made it of sufficient brightness to shine on the whole universe. To be also compared with this same passage of the Timaeus and the Locrian summary 97 B, are Bas. 1. 16 B 3, 48 B 11, and 49 B 12.

Immediately subsequent to the question of the division of night and day comes the theory regarding the arrangement of month and year, in the statement of which there is a general resemblance to be noted between Bas. 1. 137 B 7 and Tim. 39 B.

32 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

Further in connection with this same subject of time comes the discussion of the stars and their orbits. Basil is clearly quoting some authority for he says 1. 57 B 13, that it is granted by all that seven stars are borne in the seven orbits, which they say are in harmony one with another. It seems probable that Basil has reference to the elaborate presentation of this matter in the Timaeus 36 C. The fundamental points are the same, but Basil’s treat- ment is much simpler than that of Plato, and his statements might easily be deduced from the Timaeus. Moreover, it has been shown on p. 29 above, that Basil may have introduced this matter in order to support his theory of the ovpavoé in opposition to Plato.

Finally, in regard to the stars both works have notes on their wide distribution, Bas. 1. 141 A 6 and Tim. 40 A.

From this consideration of the universe and its creation we now pass to a few parallel statements in regard to the creatures. First, concerning the ethical nature of the creature it is agreed by both authors that sin did not come from the creator, for evil by the law of opposites can not have its source in the good, Bas. 1. 37 C 4 and Tim. 29 KE. But on the other hand, that sin is a growth within the man himself is asserted by Bas. 1. 37 D 1 and Tim. 86 D.

There is also some space devoted to the consideration of the subject of the sensations in the Timaeus, 61 D ff. Cold and heat are discussed in 61 D, the heavy and light in 62 C, the hard and soft in 62 C, taste in 65 C, color in 67 C, ete, and this treatment would be an admirable source for such a summarized note as that of Basil 1. 21 A 12, to the effect that if the world were deprived of the sensations of the black, the cold, the heavy, the thick, and of taste, nothing would remain. Compare here also Bas. 3. 216 C 13, and Legg. 961 D.

Further there are several notes on voice and hearing given by both authors, as Bas. 1.56 B12 and Tim. 47 B, but in form of expression and content the passages show very little similarity. There is however some parallelism in the treatment of the phenom- enon of color, as both declare that color, exists as far as our precep- tion is concerned only through the sight, Bas, 1. 81 A 1, and Tim. 67 C,

The Influence of Pilato on Saint Basil. 33

Again, Basil’s statement in regard to the formation of flesh seems to be repeated from Plato, Bas. 1. 168 A 4: aia 6€ mayer els cdpxa mébuxe petaBadrdrAgav. Tim. 82 C: kata piow yap odpKes mev Kai vetpa e& aipatos yiyveta, .. cdpKes 5€ aro TOU mayevtos, 5 mHyvuTa yoprlcuevov var.

Now the Timaeus says very little about the creatures other than man but even the few statements made are found also in part in Basil. In regard to the beast, Bas. 1. 192 A 4 repeats in almost the same words the description given in 3. 216 C 4 ff. which is quoted above on p. 7. Both of these references then give the idea of the Platonic passages, Tim. 90 A and 91 E, that the degradation of beasts is shown in the fact that their heads are brought low and their looks are toward the earth.

The fish also receive some attention in both works as Bas. 1. 149 B5dand Tim. 92 A, where however the resemblance is limited to similar notes on their peculiar nature which allows breathing in water but not in air. And finally there are similar notes declaring that trees, plants, etc., were created to be food for men, Bas. 1.96 C1 and Tim. 76 E, 77 C.

In conclusion now it must be clear that in his treatment of the creation Basil has followed very closely the outline and reasoning of the Timaeus. From the very statement of the subject not only are the main doctrines of Plato repeated but even at times there appear notable parallelisms in expression which compel one to the belief that in the preparation of these sermons Saint Basil made free use of the Timaeus as one of his books of reference.

This dependence is shown chiefly in the first four sermons which deal more particularly with the creation of the universe in contrast to the formation of the creatures. In these are found the parallel references which we have discussed, developing logically the theory of the creation from the matter preéxisting through a preceding cause to the fact of the creation, followed by the discus- sion of the nature of its substance and the theory of the elements. The nature and form of the universe are then considered, presently leading to the question of the divisions of time, and finally is stated the theory of the formation of the creatures.

The last three homilies of Basil discuss respectively the creeping

b4 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

things, the creatures of the air and creatures of the waters, the creatures of the land. Since it has been pointed out that the Timaeus devotes very slight attention to these subjects, it is not surprising that we find hardly a single Platonic parallel in this section. Basil was compelled to look to other sources and Millen- hoff has shown in Hermes, IJ, p. 252 f., that for these matters he has drawn largely on Aristotle.

There is on the other hand one subject that occupies a large section of the Timaeus about which Basil has practically nothing to say. This is the subject of the formation of man, the presenta- tion of his characteristics and his attributes. It is evident that Basil did not intend to neglect this subject, for at the conclusion of the ninth homily, the last one in this series of which we have any knowledge, he says, 1. 208 A 13: In what then man has the characteristics of the image of God and how he partakes of His likeness will be told in the succeeding books by the grace of God.” That he wrote no more than nine homilies on the Hexaemeron is attested by the Fathers, for example Cassiodorus, de instit. divin. lit., I. And Socrates, IV, 267, affirms that the work of Basil was finished by his brother Gregory, who also in his turn asserts, de hom. opif., p. 125 C 1 (Migne), that the reason for his work on the formation of man was not to convict Basil of error because he had neglected this subject in his sermons on the creation, but rather to communicate to others the great light that he had re- ceived from him. He completed this work immediately after the death of Basil, see Tillemont, op. cit., IX, p. 289 f., and Vita Basilii of the Garnier ed.’

The sermons zrept tis Tov avOpwrov KatacKevijs, (2, p. 9, Migne), attributed by some to Basil, are considered by Tillemont, l. ¢., as the work of some ancient writer who possessed something of the style and genius of Basil, and who wrote merely for exercise and not to impose on others or to deceive the church.

So we observe that without doubt it was the intention of Basil

1 Migne, Patrolog. Lat., v. 70, p. 1110. 2 Migne, Pat. Gr., v. 67, p. 536 A 2. * Reprinted in Migne, St, Bas., I Preface, Chap. XLI, p. clxiil.

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 35

to discuss also this subject which is so extensively treated in the Timaeus, but for some reason he was prevented from completing his plans. The main subject of the Timaeus then was not of pur- pose neglected and so the lack of the presentation of this matter in Basil can not be considered as a serious break in the parallelism between the two works.

In his History of Classical Scholarship, p. 343, Sandys makes the statement that “Basil in his Hexaémeron imitates Philo Judaeus and in his turn is imitated by Ambrose.” Now, in so far as it would suggest that the degree of imitation is the same, this note is rather inaccurate, as will be briefly indicated. The depend- ence of Ambrose on Basil in this work is pointed out by all the editors. For example Migne, Pref. to Hex., Bas. 1. p. 1, says: ‘‘No one, I fancy, who has read both works will deny that Ambrose in those sermons of his has performed the office of trans- lator and not that of originator. I grant to be sure that Ambrose added something of his own, and altered and transposed, but he did it as a free translator would.” Also in the preface to the homily on the Psalms, p. 210, he declares how “every one knows that Ambrose, when he wrote his books on the Hexaemeron, took many thing verbatim from Basil.”

The second quotation is from the preface of the Ballerini edition of Ambrosius, (Med. 1875), where the author maintains that both Ambrose and Basil probably drew from the lost Hexaemeron of Origen, a deduction made from a statement of Hieronymus the accuracy of which can not be verified. This preface also cites the Maurini Patres as giving the opinion that while Ambrose took very much from Basil he did not borrow servilely nor in the manner of a translator, but frequently altered and sometimes severely criti- cised the earlier work. This seems on the whole a very fair statement of the matter, although it is obvious that on almost every page Ambrose does play the part of mere translator. A single reference showing the word for word borrowing mentioned above may be selected from many that are readily found, Ambros. 21 and Bas. 20 C 14, where the imitation of Ambrose takes the form of a literal translation, and the closest parallelism to Basil is marked throughout the entire work, as is shown by Schenkl, ed. of

36 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

St. Ambrose, Oorp. Scrip. Eccles. Lat., v. 32, 1897, who in his footnotes to the Exameron refers to Basil no less than 353 times.

Matters are quite different however when we come to the con- sideration of the relation of Basil to Philo. Siegfried, in his Philo von Alexandria, (Jena, 1875), devotes a chapter to the sub- ject of Philo’s influence on the Greek church Fathers but mentions Basil only once incidentally on page 369. Cohn, in the proleg. to the Cohn-Wendland ed. of Philo, p. LX f., discusses the authors who have borrowed from Philo, referring to Eusebius, Ambrosius and others, but not even suggesting the name of Basil. In his notes, however, to Philo’s de opificio mundi, he cites a single parallelism where the same phrase appears in both works, Philo, de op. mun. 149, and Bas. Hex. IV, p. 80 BI. Philo in his treatise draws freely from the Timaeus, in fact Philo is saturated with Plato as the ancients testify, 7 IAatov diroviva 7) Dirov mratewviter, a phrase which the later writers seem not to tire of repeating.’ Now, as Basil uses the same source it is natural to expect similarity in some cases, but the differences are more marked than the resemblances. So, for the sake of example, Basil following Plato, enlarges on the theory of the elements which is not discussed by Philo in this treatise. Philo again gives an elaborate treatment of the significations of various numbers, devot- ing fourteen chapters to the number 7, XX X—XLIII, a subject which is not mentioned by Basil. And further Basil does not enter into the question why man was created last, Philo, XX V— X XIX, ete. Also in some cases Basil’s statements seem to cor- rect those of Philo, as where Philo remarks, ch. XXIV and X XIX, that the earth was called invisible because it was a model perceptible only by the intellect, and incorporeal; but Basil, 29 B 8, says that it was invisible either because there was no man to see it or because it was covered by water.

Although these instances might be multiplied almost indefi- nitely, enough has been presented perhaps to prove that while Basil was without doubt acquainted with Philo, his reference in Epis.

‘See Testimonia de Philone in Proleg. of Cohn-Wendland ed.

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 37

190! attesting that, his Hexaemeron can by no means be called an imitation in the sense that Ambrose is an imitator of Basil. Basil plainly went back to the source of Philo and abstracted material for his sermons at first hand.

INFLUENCE OF PLATO ON Basin IN LANGUAGE.

This chapter will treat of those notable similarities in expres- sion which point to a direct borrowing from Plato. Much allow- ance has been made for commonplace words and for such combina- tions in expression as might suggest themselves to any writer. The attempt will be made to present here only those phrases that show by use of a particular word or an unusual combination signs of immediate Platonic influence.

Direct Quotation.

The first section of this chapter will deal with those cases in which Basil quotes Plato directly or makes reference to him by name.

Bas. 3.576 A 9: obtés éotw 0 éxxatos THs adixias Opos, & tt de¢ Tdatwou reiOec Oat, To Soxeiv Sixarov elvar pn ovTa.

Rpb. 361 A: éoxatn yap adicia Soxeiv Sixacov eivas pi dvra.

This same idea is also expressed in Gorg. 527 B.

The second reference is Bas. 3. 584 B3: tocodtov avOextéov avtov daov, dyno Ihdtwv, trnpeciay pirocodia KTwpévov.

Rpb. 498 B: trav copdtov... ed para éripeneio Oar, vnpeo (av pirocopia KkTwpevovs.

These two quotations are from the oration to youths on the study of Greek and both are surrounded by quotations and remi- niscences from Plato. Indeed it is not easy to understand why in these places Plato is mentioned by name while further on in the same work, p. 585 D 5 (cited on page 49), another extract is taken verbatim from the Republic but no mention is made of

1 Migne 4. 700 C 1. cited by Cohn, proleg. CIV,

38 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

Plato and no hint is given that a quotation is being presented. This manner of giving a quotation, however, or presenting a reminiscence without indicating the source, is quite characteristic of Basil, and France, op. cit., p. 71, points out that this is also the rule in Julian.

The third and last direct quotation from Plato is found in Basil’s Epistles, 4.236 A 3: xal ris rept Adyous ozrovdis ovdEer upierat * AANA 76 TOD [IAaTwvos, ev yew@vu Kal Cady TpayuaTor, olov vio Telyer Tl KpaTEep@ aTroaTas, ovdevds OopvBov THY :uyny avaTripirracat.

Rpb. 496 D: rabta ravta Aoyicp@ AaBov jovylav éyov Kal Ta avTov mpdtTwv, oiov év yew KovopTod Kal CaArns v7r0 mvevpaTos pepomevov wv7ro Tevyiov amooTds, opw@y Tovs dAXoUS KATATLULTAALEVOUS avomlas ayaTa.

This is a good example of the way in which Basil borrows from Plato, not giving the passage exactly, but as if quoting from memory he interweaves his own words with those of Plato. In the other cases then when the name of Plato is not mentioned we should not require an absolute identity of phraseology before accepting a passage as a quotation or reminiscence.

Now these three are the only direct assigned quotations from Plato in the 1543 pages of Basil (Migne). This is a remarkably small proportion compared with the practice of the other Fathers, Justin Martyr for instance shows 37 direct quotations in 286 Migne pages; Julian, Basil’s contemporary, gives 51 in 612 Teubner pages,’ and with very few exceptions the Fathers all cite Plato frequently.

In addition to these direct quotations Plato is referred to by name several times in Basil. Once in the same homily on educa- tion, 3. 584 C 7, reference is made to Plato’s selection of an unhealthy spot for the Academy in order to mortify the flesh. Then in the Epistles there are two passages that have to do with the style of Plato, 4. 1092 C10: tatrtnv éyer thy onpaciav 7 reEs, nv ex Tov IIdatwvos ad’tav 4 codictiKn cov Hiv tTpo- exeipicato, and most important of all as definitely stating Basil’s

1See Schwarz, Philol. 51, 1892, p. 642 f.

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 39

admiration for Plato is a section from 4. 572 C 8, where he says that Aristotle and Theophrastus when they had something to dis- cuss went straight at the subject matter, as they were aware how far they fell short of the grace of Plato. “ But Plato through the power of his language both discussed philosophy and at the same time satirized his characters as in comedy, attacking the boldness and impudence of Thrasymachus, the fickleness and vanity of Hippias, and the boastfulness and pompousness of Protagoras.”’ Basil continues with a reference to the arrangement in the Laws, and so, besides attesting his high regard for Plato, this passage shows too his thorough knowledge of Plato’s works and from this point of view its importance can not be too much emphasized.

Comparison and Metaphor.

Saint Basil, like all writers of sermons, continually has need of illustrations to clarify, explain and enlarge topics presented and therefore his works abound in comparison and metaphor. There is hardly a page but can show more than one, and many phases of life and varied spheres of knowledge are drawn upon for their composition. It is beyond question that Basil must have taken many of these from the classical works that he read, from Plato as well as from others, but there is no doubt also that many were suggested to him from his own knowledge and experience of life. The line of demarcation is often impossible to draw. | For instance in the case of the figures bearing on the subject of physi- cians or medicine which Basil uses so frequently, it is impossible to imagine that he has in mind Plato’s numerous figures on the same subject. They are commonplace figures that would occur to any writer in any language. But often the use of a word or phrase, or the similarity of context enables us to assert with con- siderable certainty an instance of borrowing, and this is the method that we shall aim to pursue in the examples to be presented in this section.

In the small number of examples no classification has been pos- sible and they will be cited as a rule in the order in which they occur in the works of Basil.

40 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

Bas. 1.116 D1: o> yap of otpdBiror ex TAS TpwTNS adTois évdobelans mArnyhs tas ébeEAs movodvTar mepiotpopas, Stay anéavtes TO KeVTpOV ev EavTOIs TrEpLpepwvTaL.

Rpb. 436 D: as of ye orpdBiror bdou éotaoi Te apa Kal Kwobvtat, bray ev TO avTo THEaVTES TO KEVTPOY TrEpLpEepwvTat.

The context in these two passages is quite different. Basil uses the comparison of the top to illustrate the statement that every- thing in nature suceeeds in order from the first beginning, while Socrates suggests his comparison in support of the thesis that the same thing can stand still and be in motion at the same time. In each quotation the clause immediately following the word oTpoGvror infers the purpose of the comparison.

The word otpoBiros in the meaning ‘top’ is very rare. In addition to these examples in the Republic and Basil but one other is cited in the Thesaurus, Plutarch Lysand. 12, where the use is quite different. Aristophanes uses the word Béufié, Aves 1461; Homer gives o7popuPos, Il. 14. 413, as does Lucian also, As. 42: matovow abpca TH xeipi, Gate pe bro THS TANYNS GoTrEp otpouBov éEarrivns otpépec@ar. While the word for ‘top’ in any form is not one that we should expect to find very often in the literature, the fact that Basil uses the same word as Plato is signifi- cant. Moreover the word otpépec@at as used by Lucian seems very much more natural in connection with tops than zrepupéper Oa, and the use of the latter by Basil is an additional sign that the phrase is borrowed. But the last clause beyond any question of doubt puts the Platonic stamp on Basil’s phrase. In the words étav mytavtes TO KévTpov év éavTois mepipépwvTar Basil has repeated with really no change the language of Plato.

The next references use for comparison the brightness of the sun, of which Basil says, 1. 516 A 14,... davotatov eivar trav Kat ovpavoy aotépwy Tov HALov, which has its parallel in Theaet. 208 D, jru0s, .. . OTe TO AaprpeTaTov éoTt TOV KATA TOV OvpavoY idvtwy Tept ynv. Basil employs the comparison of that which is perfectly plain and obvious to all, while in the Theaetetus it is introduced as an illustration of a kind of definition that defines by giving a peculiar characteristic of an object which distinguishes it from all others. The description of the sun however is so similar

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 41

in each case as to suggest the possibility of the phrase being bor- rowed.

Bas. 3.164B1: ovdels abvpdv ctepavodtar: ovdeis oTuyvafov Tpomaiov tatnot. Compare also 440 B 8.

Critias 108 C: adda yap aOvpodvtes avdpes ovTw TpoTaLoV éotnoav.

This is a proverbial expression cited in Leutsch and Schneide- win, Paroem. Gr. I 382 as given by Suidas from the Critias. Basil is plainly repeating the identical phrase, and though it is possible that the proverb may have been well-known, from the fact that it is not cited elsewhere for the literature in this exact form, it would seem probable that Basil is consciously borrowing from Plato.

Basil refers several times to the legend of the punishment of the Danaids, in 3. 184 A 2 and again in 545 C 2, and finally in 581 A 13: tav é& “Adou Korafouevav ovdév mdoxovTes QVEKTOTEPOV, ATEXVAS eis TIP EaivorTes, Kal KooKiv@ PépovTes Vdwp Kal eis TETPHMEVOY aVTAOUVTES TOOL.

Gorg. 493 B: trav év “Avdov... odto. aOw@TaTOL ay Elev OF apmvnTol, Kai hopotey eis TOV TeTpnuEVOY TriPov Bdwp éEtépw TOLOUTH TeTpnueva Kookiv@. Cp. also Rpb. 363 D.

From these repetitions it would seem that Basil was much impressed by this story of the fate of the daughters of Danaus. With his third reference beside the quotation from the Gorgias the parallelisms in language indicate beyond doubt his indebted- ness to Plato. Both, it is to be observed, first refer to the severity of the punishment, after which they mention the carrying of the water in a sieve and the cask with holes that is to receive it. There are many references to this legend in the literature but in all the phraseology is quite different. One that is most similar may be cited for the purpose of comparison, Lucian, Tim. 18: @ote és tov tav Aavaidwv ridov idpodopnoev por dSoxo Kal patny érravtAncev, but here the mention of the daughters by name and the omission of the circumstances of the sieve and of the descrip- tion of the jar as terpnuévos present an independent phrase that could not be .associated with that of Plato. On the other hand

42 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

the language and arrangement of Basil are so similar as to forbid the thought that the resemblance is the result of chance.

Bas. 3. 212 B12: tov dvtov rip dicw Rroyiou@ Kabopas. copias Opémn Kaptrov no.oTov.

Ib. 472 AT: ef 8€ Tis yera, BrCrov tHv wept Tas cuAdNaBas Huov adorecyiav, avTos pev loTw avodedh KapTrov Tod yéAwTOS dpemropevos.

Rpb. 457 B: 6 8€ yerov avip emt yupvais yuvaki Tod Bedrictou eveca yupvalopevas atedrn Tov yerolov [codias | dpérav KapTrov ovdev oider.

Stobaeus, Flor. III, p. 103 (Teub.), cites the phrase atedy copias Kaprrov dpérev as a quotation from Pindar, and it is given by Boeckh in Frag. 227, and among the Pindaric azropOéypara with the note, eoque alludit Plato Rep. p. 457 B ubi delendum esse cgodiéas scite notat Schneiderus.’ Adam, in his Edition of the Republic, note ad locwm follows Schneider in regarding codias in this passage as a gloss and excluding it from the text. He points out that Pindar refers to the copia of the physiologists as atedys, i. e. no real copia at all. More suo Plato adapts the Pindaric fragment to his own purpose. He attacks comedy and replaces Pindar’s cogiéas by the words Tod yeXofov. The humour of his adversary is ateAés—no real humour at all.’ See also Adam, Rpb. appendix III to book V.

Basil shows in the first passage quoted that he knows the origi- nal form of the sentence, but later when he comes to adapt it we find it changed even as Plato changed it. Indeed, the use of the phrase in the second passage cited is identical with that of Plato except that the humor of the mocker is avwperés. The parallel- ism of the two passages is perfect and the phraseology of Basil, that is the omission of codéas and the substitution of Tod yéA@wTos therefor, supports the reading and interpretation of Adam for the reference in the Republic and helps to confute the view of Stall- baum that the Tod yedo/ov is the gloss that crept into the text.

Bas. 3. 220 D 5: of ph edixvovpmevor THs peyadovolas Tod

‘This view, however, retracted by 8. in ed. Plat. note ad loc. ( Leip. 1831).

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 43

vouwobérov, mept ynv Kal capKas, ws mepl TéApa oKoANKES, iAvomr@pevot ev TOs TOU c@pmaTos maG_ect.

Phaed. 109 B: ‘pas .. @omep rept TédAua pmvpunKas 7) Batpaxovs mrept THY OddNaTTav olKodYTAaS.

This passage of the Phaedo is the sole place cited in the litera- ture where this comparison is found. The thought and expression in Basil are very similar. What differences there are seem to strengthen the view that Basil is borrowing. In fact this sentence when placed beside that of the Phaedo shows rather a crude con- nection between assertion and comparison which makes the com- parison appear not entirely natural. In Plato the antithetical relations are obvious. We in our insignificance live round the sea, the Mediterranean, as ants and frogs round a marsh. This permits also a proportionate arrangement, as we are in proportion to the ants or frogs so is the sea toa marsh. The quotation from Basil compares passionate men crawling round the earth to worms crawling round a marsh. ‘The relations plainly are not as fit as is the case in the Platonic passage. It is easy to assume that Basil has worked over a borrowed phrase to suit the exigencies of a slightly different connection. The changes are not difficult. Basil was an inlander preaching to inlanders, the phrase zrept tiv O@adratTav was too restricted, hence the wept ynv. The verb must then of necessity be altered and ¢Avomao@at was selected perhaps to increase the obloquy. ox@Ané is the crawling creature requir- ed by the new verb, and ox@An€é is not a far call from pvpyné.

While this analysis may be rather fanciful, for the general reasons stated it seems not unjustifiable to count the phrase of Basil as an echo of the comparison of the Phaedo.

Next there are a number of comparisons which have to do with the eyes, among which particularly to be noted are Bas. 4. 128 A 2 and Rpb. 516 A which show the greatest resemblances. Here the first clause of Basil corresponds to the first clause of the pass- age from the Republic, each stating that eyes accustomed to dark- ness when brought suddenly to the light are blinded and can not see actualities. Therefore, to note the parallelism in the second clauses, they must look first at the shadows of objects, then at the reflections in water, and finally at the objects themselves.

44 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

Both this citation and Bas. 3. 236 B 3 clearly suggest that Basil is drawing from the famous cave simile of the Republic.

Basil frequently makes use of the figure of the steersman in comparison and metaphor, as in 3. 256 C 12, and 421 C 1, which particularly show Platonic influence when placed beside Republic 488 C, and D. The first passage in each case refers to the steers- man’s neglect of his duties and the second details some of those duties. Both of the sections of Plato are from the famous com- parison at the beginning of the sixth book of the Republic, to which as Jowett points out, in note to 488 A, Plato returns as to a familiar image in Polit. 297 E. In this latter place it is to be noted that Plato couples in his comparison the steersman and the physician, Tov yevvaiov KuBepyyntny Kai Tov... tatpov... So it may be an additional sign of reminiscence from Plato when Basil in the first passage cited, 3. 256 C 10, says, ovre yap tatpov eTaw@, ... ovTe KUBepynTny .. .

We next come to a pair of comparisons which centre round the dog. The first one, which is used in Bas. 3. 365 C 1 and Rpd. 375 KE, has already been discussed on p. 14. This comparison introduces the dog mild to its friend and fierce toward its foe in each case as an illustration of the benefit of anger under certain circumstances. Plato’s statement is, dwayov Te Kat avixntov Oupds, Ib. B, and therefore it should be an attribute of the character of the @vAaé. Basil, Jb. B. 3, compares proper anger to the soldier who bears aid always at the necessary points, and then summing up with the words wadiota ypnotpos o Oupos he introduces the comparison of the dog. This similarity of the setting, added to the resemblances of expression indicated before on the page cited, is strong proof that this section of the Republic has here been Basil’s model.

The dog again figures in Bas. 3. 369 A 1: Kat roves 70 TeV Kuva@v, ob Tos Aiovs Saxvovet, TOD BadXovTos ov TpocaTTOpMEVoL.

Rpb. 469 D: otec te Stddopoyv Spav trols tovTo TrowodvTas TOV Kuvav, at Tos Nas ois av BAHOGot YareTralvovat, TOU BaddovTOS ovy amrTomeva ;

This is another example where a comparison has been borrowed by Basil and poorly fitted to his context. The comparison itself

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 45

in each case is obviously identical. Plato compares those who rob the corpses of their enemies to dogs who attack the stones with which they are struck instead of those throwing the stones. The comparison is perfectly fit, the dead thing is assaulted after its power has gone from it. Basil, however, makes use of the com- parison to illustrate the folly of getting angry at a different person from him who has provoked you. The whole point of the comparison is thus lost, all that remains being the fact that the anger is directed toward the wrong object.

The form Sdaddovtos in this passage of the Republic is the reading of Adam, who selects it in opposition to the second aorist, Baxevtos, of the other editors, because the latter is found in one Ms. only (A), because Aristotle uses BaddXovTos and not Badovtos when he quotes the sentence in Rhet. 3. 4 as a typical example of simile, and because the “present is more picturesque and true to nature.” We observe then that the form of the expression in Basil again supports the reading and interpretation of Adam in refutation of the commonly accepted view.

There are several references in Basil which illustrate the thesis that the inborn evil in each thing destroys it, so in 3. 373 A 1 envy destroys the soul as rust does iron, and shortly afterward in 380 A 13 it is declared that envy is the disease of friendship as mildew is of wheat. This again is repeated in 4. 1005 C 38, @otrep 9 épvciBn Tov aitou éoTl POopa ev avT@ yivomevyn TO oiTo, oUT@ Kal 7 KOAaKEla THY Piriav VTrodvomevn, AUN éoTl THS dirLas.

All of these are to be considered in connection with Rpb. 608 E where Plato states that each thing has its own proper disease as oitw épuvciBnv, onmeddva te EvrAOS, yark@ 5é Kal ovdnp@ tov.

The first two passages of Basil occurring one immediately after the other in the same general sense with each other and with the Platonic usage, suggest that Basil must have had the phraseology of this reference of the Republic vividly in mind when he wrote this homily, and thought this sentence of Plato capable of being split so as to provide him not with one only but with two com- parisons. The third quotation from Basil again shows the simile % épuvciBn tov oitov. Now this simile is not so common in the

46 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

language that we should expect it to appear in Basil even thus much. The Thesaurus, s. v. épuciBn, gives but one reference to where it is found, the passage of the Republic cited above. In addition to this the similar connection in thought helps to convince us that Basil is using a borrowed phrase. Plato states that every- thing has its natural disease, wheat has mildew, iron has rust, ete. Similarly in Basil envy is the proper disease of friendship as mildew is of wheat, and again even as mildew of wheat so fawn- ing is the disease, destruction of friendship.

There are several comparisons now that have to do with the ship and the sea. Bas. 3.421 B13: @o7ep Tt rAotov avepwatia Tov bro TOV adel TpoomimTevTwY Tepipepouevos. Compare also Jb. 577 C 8.

Theaet. 144 A: kat arrovtes pépovtar BoTrep TA aveppatiota Told.

In addition to the identity of phrase in the reference from Basil and that from the Theaetetus there is also a marked simi- larity of context. Both employ the comparison as an illustration of those who are under the influence of passion. Basil, immedi- ately preceding the quotation given above, exhorts his hearer not to permit the storm of wrath to overthrow him, and the comparison in Plato is made directly with those clever men of retentive memory who for the most part are prone to anger. ‘This then seems to be another example of a borrowed simile. .

In the same sphere of the sea may be cited Bas. 3. 436 A 8: nOOV)) ayKLaTpOV eoTe TOV diaBOXov.

Ib. 964 B 5: Hdo0vn yap éote TO wéya TOU KaKxod dédeap.

Tim. 69 D: ... ndovnv, wéytotov Kaxod dédeap.

The first of these fish metaphors, where pleasure is the hook, suggests that Basil here may have had the Platonic statement in mind. The second reference from Basil is merely a repetition of the phrase of the Timaeus, which is the only example of this metaphor cited in the Thesaurus. As is pointed out in the com- mentaries Plato is praised for it by Cicero, Cato Maz. 13, divine enim Plato escam malorum appellat voluptatem, quod ea videlicet homines capiantur ut pisces.

We return again to the thought of the boat and note that Basil

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 47

in 3. 565 A 14 urges us not to be led of others @o7ep mrolov Ta mnoadia THS Siavoias vuav tapadeytas, beside which is to be mentioned Clit. 408 A: ... dovAm adpevov 7) érevOdpw Sidyew TO TotovT@ Tov Biov éotlv apa, KaOdrrep TrOiov TrapadovTL TA THdaLA THS Suavoias ado.

But two occurrences of this simile are cited, the reference given from Plato and the same phrase borrowed by Themistius, Orat. 321 B, who quotes the entire sentence from the Clitopho beginning with the word dovA@. Though Basil has abstracted in phraseology no more than the simile itself, the connection is similar in that it is used as an illustration of one who is under the guidance of another. The resemblance in the context then, the identity of phrase, and if that is not sufficient the repetition of the figura- tive use of wndaNa, all combine to afford unquestionable proof of the relationship of the two passages.

We pass now to an elaborate simile of dyers and dyeing which is introduced in each case for the purpose of illustrating the importance of preliminary education, Bas. 3. 568 A 9 ff. and Rpb. 429 Df. Basil declares in exhorting the Christian youths that all that we do is in preparation for the future life and this end we must prosecute with might and main. ‘The scriptures are our guide thither but often we are unable to understand them on account of immaturity, and therefore we must acquire preliminary training by study of the poets, historians and orators, just as dyers prepare the cloth before they dye.

The context of the Republic here is concerned with the dis- cussion of courage which Plato defines as the salvation of the opinion concerning the things to be feared and their character, begotten by law through education. As therefore cloth must be prepared to take a good dye, so the soldier to attain to courage must receive a thorough preliminary education.

In form of expression the simile itself in each case is practically the same if allowance is made for a certain interchange of words, which makes it appear indeed as if Basil were deliberately alter- ing a borrowed passage to make it more his own. So Basil says, of Sevoorrowot TrapacKevdcavtes Tpdtepov Oeparreiars Tic, 6 TH wor av 4 TO SeEdpevoy THY Badjv, oUTw Td dvOos émdyovow, beside

48 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

the Platonic phrase, of Badeis . .. . mpotapackevafovow ... . Ocparrevoavtes, Oras SéEerar 6 Tt padtota TO avOos, Kal odTw dH Bdmrovot. Sevooroiws in the meaning of Badgeds is cited by Suidas and Hesychius, but no example of such use from the literature is given in the lexicons. Bliimner, Tech. u. Term. 1. 217, 6, says: “das eigentlich yon der Farbe gebrauchte Wort Sevoorro.es findet sich fir Farber gebraucht.” In support of this statement he cites only three lexical notes, from Moeris, Suidas and Harpocration’s lexicon of the Attic Orators. Harpocration’s note does not seem to bear on the point, however, and the others simply mention the fact. Plato in this passage cited above uses the word twice, first in 429 E 1 with the meaning ‘ deeply-dyed’ and hence ‘indelible ;’ but on its second appearance the word shows a metaphorical use of this meaning in 430 A 4, devaozrocos avtav 4 dSd€a yiyvorto Kat rept Senvav Kali Tept THY addy, which has its parallel in the similar metaphorical use by Basil of avéxTrvtos in the clause (loc. cit.), wéArer avexTrUTOS MV .... 4) TOU Kadod Trapapmevew SdEa, avéKxmdvTOS too is simply the nega- tive of the Platonic é«7rAuTos in 429 E 6.

It is almost unnecessary to add a note on the identity of Basil’s mapackevacavtes Tpotepov Oeparreias ticiv with the Platonic mpotrapackevatovow Oeparetoavtes, of déEecOar thv Badyy with SéEecOai To dvO0s. Plato also says d€€ecOar @orrep Badny in 430 A 3. Attention is finally called to the interchange in Basil’s Séecbar THY Badny, otTw TO avOos érrayovow and Plato’s déEecGar To avOos, Kal oT@ 67 Bamrovot.

From these various considerations then, from the similarity in form and expression of the comparisons and from their similar relations to their respective contexts it seems without doubt that this is another instance where Basil has drawn extensively from Plato. A. Jahn, Newe Jahrb. 49, p. 397, agrees to this identifi- cation and mentions several editors who accept and make comment on it.

Bas. 3. 581 C13: py dia tdv dtov SvePOapperny perwdiav TOV UKaV KATAXELDV.

Rpb. 411 A: katayeiv ths Wwoyis bia tov atov, dorep bia XOVNS, ... TAS appovias.

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 49

Hiller in the Neue Jahrb. 109, p. 174, maintains that this passage of Plato and particularly the comparison of the ears to a funnel must have had a common source with Aristoph., Thesm. 18, axon S€ yoavnv Sta Ssuetetpyvato. This source he suggests was an early philosopher, and consequently the phrase in Plato is a simple reminiscence. Now, although Basil does not mention the funnel the rest of the clause is so similar as to convince us that in its turn this is a reminiscence from Plato. In fact there can be little doubt about the identification since Basil uses this metaphor in the midst of a section where he draws largely from this identical portion of the Republic, see below.

Bas. 3. 584 C1: domep tvioyov vo dvonviov trav UBpev hepopevav tapacupopevov dryer Oar.

Phaedr. 254 E: 0 & yvioyos .... Tod UBpicrod tamov éx TOV oddvT@Y . .. . OTdTAS TOY YaNLVOV, THY KaKNYOpov YABTTaV.... Kka0nuake.

In Basil the connection of thought is that as the charioteer is disregarded by his frenzied steeds so is the mind disregarded in the ascendancy of the passions. This is the exact point in the elaborate comparison of the Phaedrus, 253 Dff., of the charioteer and his two horses, on which Thompson, ed. of Phaedrus, p. 45 (note to 246 A), remarks: “All commentators, ancient and modern, have recognized in the charioteer and his pair of steeds the well- known triple division of the soul into the reasoning, the passionate, and the appetent principles (AoyoriKov, Oupuxdv, émiOvpntiKor) which lies at the root of Plato’s ethical doctrine.”

The brief simile of Basil then with the warning against allow- ing the rational principle to be overcome by the other two seems to have been taken from the Phaedrus, and Wandinger here, op. cit., p. 46, n., refers very properly to that comparison.

The last example to be presented in this chapter has to do with the fox of Archilochus to which reference has already been made on p. 20. Basil says in 3. 585 D6: tis ’Apysrcyou adwrrekos TO Kepdaddov Te Kal TroKirov Cyrooowev—and again in 588 B 4: oKLaypadiay Tia THS apeTAS ... . TWEepiyparrapueba.

Rpb. 365 C: mpcOvpa pév Kal oxifjpa KiKd@ Tept éuavTov

50 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

oKiaypadiav apeTns mepiypatrréov, THY Sé TOU copwradtov’ ApxiAdyou aroreca EAxTéov é&dmicbev Kepdaréav Kal mroiuirnv.

Obviously Basil is giving a quotation word for word from Plato and it is interesting to note how he divides the passage of Plato into two phrases which are separated in his work by several pages. He probably had read the whole general section of the Republic bearing on this subject in preparation for his own treat- ment, as is shown above on the page cited. Such a striking comparison would remain vividly in his mind and he simply uses it again as he sees fit.

_There are many other comparisons and metaphors which show more or less resemblance between Basil and Plato, but those cited here have been selected as among the most important and they are sufficient to prove the contention of this chapter that in this department also Basil is heavily indebted to Plato.

GRAMMATICAL STATEMENTS.

In this section will be presented a small number of passages relating to the grammatical structure of the sentence, in which the language of Basil bears a close resemblance to that of Plato. First, both authors similarly emphasize the importance of master- ing the elements before proceeding to anything more advanced. The letters must be learned before the syllables can be understood and the syllables lead up to the Adyos, Bas. 4. 69 C 3 and Theaet. 203 A. Then comes the definition of the Adyos as that which is composed of cuvAdaBai Kal res, Bas. 4. 69 B 10, and this is practically the same as that given in Crat. 424 E, for though it is true that the Cratylus gives the complete course, letters, sylla- bles, words and sentence, while Basil mentions only syllables and words, A€€is in this usage apparently including dvoya and pha, as parts of the sentence, yet immediately afterwards as cited above in 69 C 3 he points out the necessity of the letters preceding the syllables and so they too must be assumed in their place in his analysis of the sentence.

Next there is to be noted a similarity in the definition of évoua which Basil gives in 1, 681 C 10: trav yap ovowwy onmavtiKa Ta

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 51

dvouata, ovx avTa ovcia, which is to be placed beside the Crat. 388 C: dvoua apa didackadixcy ti éotiv dpyavov Kai SvaxpitiKov Ts ovoias. Now the fact that in Basil at the beginning of the second page following there appears a further parallelism to this section of the Cratylus is additional proof of borrowing, Bas. 1. 685 A 7 and Crat. 385 E, where the similarity of expression and context is noticeable. The passage of the Cratylus is an elaborate treatise on names and their relations to objects, things, and it is the mpaypuata that have BéBasov ovciav. So Basil in discussing the Trinity says in the place cited, Ta mpdyuata tov dvoyaTev iaxupetepa, xTrA. Thus throughout this section Basil seems clearly to be indebted to Plato.

Finally there is given in each work a division of Adyos into three forms, Bas. 3.477 A 2 f. and Theaet. 206 Cf. The first division of Basil is exactly the same as the first division of the Theaetetus, that is the description of Aoyos as the expression of thought in speech. The second division of Plato has to do with analysis or as it is expressed, the passage to the whole through the elements. Basil’s statement of his second category is quite different from this but in his elaboration of the subject he has considerable to say about the Adgyos representing complete thought, Bas. 477 B15 f. There is no resemblance between the two works in the statements on the third division of Aeyos, but this circumstance does not destroy the general parallelism of the two passages which has been indicated.

LITERARY ALLUSIONS.

There are to be considered under this heading a few quotations and literary allusions given both by Basil and Plato, preceded by the citation of some parallel notes concerning the poets.

Basil, in his address to Christian youths on education, devotes one of his early chapters to the consideration of the merits and demerits of the poets, basing his remarks on the discussion of the matter by Plato in the Republic 376 E ff. as is noted by Padelford, op. cit., p. 104, n. 5. Some of these parallelisms will be indicated.

In the first place there are preliminary statements, Bas, 3. 568

52 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

C 10 and Rpb. 377 C, in regard to the different kinds of poets and the decision on what of their works are to be accepted and what rejected, which are very similar, and especially to be noted is the description of the poet as wavtoéames in Basil which is to be compared with Rpb. 398 A where it is stated that the poet has the power of becoming wavtodards bd copias. Further on in 569 A 4 Basil says that we should not commend the poets who represent the gods as scoffers or railers, or in love or intoxicated, nor yet when they define happiness as coincident with the loaded table and with ribald song. This is a condensation of a large section of the Republic in the closing chapters of the second and the opening chapters of the third book, where many illustrations, chiefly from Homer, are presented. Some particularly significant passages may be mentioned. Rpb. 379 E shows the same form of expression as that used by Basil, ‘we shall not commend the breaking of oaths,’ ete. And in regard to the railing and scoffing mentioned by Basil reference should be made to Rpb. 389 E. f. where Plato cites among other examples J/. 1. 225, oivoB8apes, kuvos bupat eyav, Kpabinv & éddgdoo, and to Rpb. 388 E f. with the quotation from I/. 1. 599, deBeortos 8 ap’ évapto yédos pakdpecor Ocoiow, | ws idov “Hdaiorov Sia dopata Tovrviovta.

Finally the last part of Basil’s statement about happiness and its connection with the loaded table seems to have its source in Rpb. 390 A which criticises the remark of the wisest man, Odysseus, when he says that it seems to him most beautiful when tables are full to overflowing with flesh, Od. 9. 8.

Basil passes next to the family quarrels of the gods, 3. 569 A 11, “among them brother fights against brother, the parent against his children and the children against their parents.” On this subject too there is an extensive treatment in the same section of the Republic 377 E ff, where many concrete examples are given.

The last count of Basil’s indictment against the poets has reference to those who describe the loves and adulteries of the gods, especially of Zeus the chief of the gods. This bears a close relationship to Rpb. 390 B f. where it is agreed that it is not proper to listen to a poet describing, for example, Zeus who forgets

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 53

all things in his passion for Hera, J/. 14. 312 ff., or the illicit love of Ares and Aphrodite, Od. 8. 266 ff.

Thus in this whole discussion then, although the treatment of Basil is very much condensed and all citation of examples from the poets has been omitted, it is clear that his source is the elabo- rate presentation of Plato.

Bas. 3. 292 A 10: Kai tH pév yrdoon éEourvvcat, vd 8é THS xerpos Suehéyxyn. Also 501 D 6, and particularly 576 A 7: aAW’ 7) YAO@TTA pev Ouwpoxer, 7 SE Honv av@wortos, Kat Evpuridnv €pet.

Theaet. 154 D, and particularly Conv. 199 A: 9 yA@TrTa odv brréaxeTo, 7 SE Ppnv ov.

All these quotations are clearly variations of Euripides, Hippol. 612, ) yA@TT’ ouwpoy’, 7 5é dpnv avdmotos. Hug, commentary on Conviv. l. c., points out how this verse was seized by the writers of comedy as the text for many attacks on Euripides, of which he cites Aristoph. Thesm. 275, Ran. 101, 1471. It thus passed into conversational language and became proverbial in use. It is impossible to say that Basil was in any way impelled to its use by its appearance in Plato, but on the contrary the fact that Basil in the third passage cited above gives the original more exactly than Plato would suggest that he was taking it at first hand, or at least following some other source. In his note on the use of this verse by Justin Martyr, Apol. I. 39, Prof. Gildersleeve ealls it “one of the most notorious and best-abused verses in Greek scenic poetry.”

Now the chief reason for citing these passages in this connection is to illustrate the difficulty of proving a relation between such allusions. It is generally an impossible thing to do unless great assistance is rendered by the context. It must therefore not be imagined that the few examples in this chapter represent the sum total of all such allusions or quotations common to Plato and Basil. In the other cases where there is no more proof of relation- ship than in the present the references have been omitted.

Next there are parallel passages on Odysseus and the Sirens in Bas. 3. 568 D3 and Conv. 216 A; and then we come to an elaborate discussion as to whether Homer and Hesiod are friends

54 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

or foes of virtue. Basil in 3.572 B 13 declares distinctly that all the poetry of Homer is a praise of virtue and all things in his poetry lead up to this end, on the other hand Plato is quite as definite in Rpb. 600 E when he says that the poets from Homer on are imitators merely of the image of virtue. Plato indeed in this whole section of the Republic, 598 D ff., attacks the poets and particularly Homer because though they are considered masters of virtue, in fact they are only imitators of virtue and have no real knowledge of it.

“Tt is clear,’ as Adam remarks, note on Rpb. 598 D, “that Plato is refuting a view of poetry which found enthusiastic advo- cates in his own time,” but Plato also in his turn is severely criticised. Griifenhan, Gesch. d. klass. Phil. III, p. 239, writing of the period from the time of Augustus to the end of the fourth century, states that in this period we find frequently an ethical view of the Homeric poems both in secular and Christian works. He continues, “so nennt Dion Chrysostomus in seiner zweiten Rede mept Paowdetas den Homer einen ‘ Verkiinder der Tugend,’ und Basilios der Grosse nahm gleichfalls an, dass Homer mit seinen Gedichten ein ‘ Lob der Tugend’ habe geben wollen.” He refers here to the passage of Basil cited above where considerable space is devoted to this discussion. Basil particularly mentions verses of Hesiod, a poet who is included with Homer in Plato’s criticism 600 D, as written to guide men to virtue, as will be shown below. In general then it seems probable that Basil in this treatise on the education of Christian youths is distinctly refuting the Platonic theories in his advocacy of the study of the Homeric poems.

The passage of Hesiod quoted and discussed by both authors, Bas. 3.572 A 8 and Rpb. 364 A ff., is from the Op. et Dies, 287 f. tiv pév Tou KaxdTynTa Kal thadov Eat édéoOar | pyidios - dréyn pev 000s, para 6’ éyytOr valer.| rhs 8’ aperhs idpHta Geol mpotrapoifev EOnkav, KTH.

Plato maintains that such passages of the poets as this from Hesiod impel the youths to vice; on the contrary says Basil, what other meaning could Hesiod have had except to incite them to virtue. Again after giving the quotation Basil repeats that in his opinion Hesiod had no other meaning than to incite us to virtue,

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 55

plainly emphasizing his view of the matter in opposition to that of some one else, and without doubt criticising the statement in the Republic.

Various circumstances help to support this theory. Both authors are dealing with the subject of the education of youths and Basil immediately before has discussed the degrading influence in education of the poets with their descriptions of the quarrels and debauches of the gods, ete., a section which, as has been shown on p. 52 finds its source in several chapters of the Republic shortly following the reference quoted in this connection. Now again Plato in this same passage, 365 C, introduces the comparison of the fox of Archilochus, which is used by Basil also near the end of this same treatise, see page 49. These facts then prove that Basil borrowed freely from this part of the Republic, abstracting and condensing as he pleased, and therefore, with the similarity of quotation and with the tone of Basil’s language added, there is little doubt that he had in mind this particular interpretation of Hesiod’s words given here by Plato. This view however is not accepted by Jahn, N. Jahrb. 49, p. 414, who opposes Hess and Niisslin in regard to it. But Jahn’s objection, that the use of Hesiod’s quotation in the two places is so entirely different that Basil could not have had this passage of Plato in mind, has already been answered.

Another parallelism may be mentioned here taken from the same section of each work, which gives further evidence in support of this theory of relationship, Bas. 3.572 A 4 and pb. 377 A. In these sections we have a very similar pair of phrases which relate to the education of the young. The idea stated in each case is that particular care must be taken with their training because in the young the character is most impressionable. Basil also repeats various words from Plato and there is no doubt of the relation of the two passages. See Jahn, NV. Jahrb. 49, p. 407.

In conclusion of this chapter several other references may be mentioned. Bas. 3. 588 B 9 and Crat. 428 A quote and treat similarly another verse of Hesiod, O. et D. 361. Again Bas. 3. 580 C 8 and Prot. 339 C quote the saying of Pittacus, yaderov écOrov Eupmevar.

56 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

MIscELLANEOUsS PARALLELISMS.

There still remain several parallel passages which could not be included in any of the foregoing chapters and so may be grouped together here. Only the most important examples will be cited.

Bas. 3, 241 A 1, 624 D 1 and Rpb. 455 D consider the ques- tion of the equality of women with men. Basil says that women engage in warfare for Christ and do not plead the weakness of their bodies as excuse for abstaining therefrom and, he adds, many women have far excelled men. So Plato begins his statement with the remark that women frequently are better than men, ete. Plato’s advocacy of the equality of women ‘is part of a well- reasoned and deliberate attempt by the Socratic school to improve the position of women in Greece,” says Adam, Rpb. note to 451 C. The movement seems to have been quite widespread and finally to have reached considerable magnitude, as it was savagely attacked by Aristophanes in his Heclestazusae. See Adam, Rpb. App. I to bk. V, on the relation of the fifth book of the Republic to Aristophanes’ Eecles., and Ivo Bruns, Frauenemancipation in Athen.

This view of woman is of course fundamental in the Christian teaching, so we must not emphasize too much the similarity here, but it may be noted that Basil’s assignment of woman to warfare, in spite of the weakness of her body, is paralleled by Plato’s decision that she must take her position beside man, whether performing guard duty or engaged in active military expeditions. See Rpb. 466 C f.

We come next to cite a pair of references on the subject of envy, Bas. 3. 252 C 11 and Theaet. 174 E. Basil is giving a descrip- tion of envy, which causes each man to desire the sphere of life above his own, the slave desires to be free, the free man to be well-born, etc., and in this list of positions desired is placed the nobility which attends the ability to trace one’s ancestors for seven generations. In the Theaetetus too this is placed beside great accumulation of wealth as one of the desirable things of life which is scorned by the student of philosophy there described. It is

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 57

this tone of scorn and general parallelism of treatment together with the similarity of phrase that would suggest the dependence of one passage on the other. Stallbaum in his note on this refer- ence of the Theaetetus refers to Welcker, Theognis, Proleg. p. LI, who gives a brief discussion of this subject of genealogy as a claim to nobility. He cites but one parallel passage from the literature that bears particularly on our citation, and that is from Menander, Mein. IV, p. 229, which is not likely to have affected here the relation of Basil to Plato.

Both our authors make declarations against the pampering of the body which show considerable parallelism, Bas. 3. 584 C 11 and Rpb. 407 B. The contexts are somewhat similar. Plato cites various examples, as Phocylides and his maxim, 6e?, drav To non Bios 7, apetnv aoxeiv, 407 A, and Asclepius who either cured or killed but did not meddle with dietetics, 408 A. So Basil also introduces some illustrations, referring to Pythagoras who rebuked one of his scholars for growing fat, and to Plato who fearing the ascendancy of the body selected an unhealthy spot for the site of the Academy.

Next both treat the subject from the point of view of the man of wealth. Plato maintains that in order to be able to devote such excessive care to his body a man must be wealthy, but that even though wealthy such a man would be an undesirable member of society, and the sons of Asclepius would not attend him were he richer than Midas. Similarly Basil argues that if a man disre- gards this attention to his body he has no need of riches, and this is the man who makes the good citizen. As an illustration to match the reference to Asclepius in Plato is mentioned the example of Diogenes, who in his scorn for the body and its pleas- ures showed himself richer than the Persian king. But additional evidence that Basil in this section is dependent on the Republic is furnished by the fact of the mention of Plato here twice by name, once as indicated above in connection with the selection of the site of the Academy, and again in 584 B 3 where a quotation is given. This quotation, which is to the effect that we must pay only sufficient attention to the body in order to keep it for the service of philosophy, is taken from the Republic 498 B, see p.

58 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

37, and proves at least that Basil had the Republic in mind in his treatment of this question.

These various considerations then, taken together with simil- arity of phraseology, the phrase 7 dyav attn Tov’ cwpatos emtméerdeva of Basil balancing the % weputt7 attn émipédera TOD c@uatos of Plato, the pos tiv wuynv éurddiov of the one corresponding to the pos apetnv éwrddios of the other, give considerable warrant for the belief that the earlier passage was the source of the later.

Basil in this same discussion borrows still further from Plato and from the same book of the Republic. This time it is in connection with the subject of the good and bad modes of music and the influence which they exert. So the effect of the Phrygian mode is described in 3. 580 A 4 ff. where it is said of Timotheus that his skill in playing was so great that he could arouse passion by the harsh mode and soothe it again by playing the gentle mode. Thus once by the Phrygian mode he caused Alexander to leap to arms in the midst of the feast. Further in 581 D 6 the Dorian mode is approved because by it the player once caused a band of drunken revelers to cast away their crowns and to flee home ashamed. Likewise in the Republic the Dorian and Phrygian are commended and are the only modes to be allowed in the state, Rpb. 398 FE ff., where Socrates proceeds to describe these two modes in explanation of their selection. The one, the Dorian, is fitted for time of war and gives calmness and endurance in misfortune; the other, the Phrygian, is the mode for the time of peace, which gives moderation and wisdom. The one is the strain of courage, the other the strain of temperance. Obviously this is slightly different from the account of Basil but the fact that Basil has introduced this discussion in this section of his treatise on the education of youths, in connection with borrowings from the same passage of the Republic and with approval of the same modes praised by Socrates, is sufficient evidence of his indebtedness to Plato.

Finally reference may be made to Bas. 3. 928 C 7 and Rpb. 369 B; as well as to the passages Bas. 4. 752 A 4 and Rpb. 370 B, where there is a certain degree of similarity to be noted.

The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil. 59

CONCLUSION.

This study has not pretended or attempted to give the total influence of Plato on St. Basil, for such a task would be well-nigh impossible. We have observed that Basil was brought up in the Schools and traditions of Greece, he was trained under Greek influence and was taught by Greek instructors and without doubt Plato was his model from his earliest days and therefore influenced the whole formation of his style. Further the secondary influence of Plato can not be disregarded. It has been shown that he was the most popular of the classical authors with the early Church writers on account of his many statements that could be interpreted as bearing on Christianity, and Basil, by his acquaintance with the works of his predecessors, was still more imbued with this Platonic atmosphere.

We have, however, attempted to show the more immediate and the more conscious imitation of Plato with the result that whereas Basil does not exhibit the extent of imitation to be seen in various of the other Fathers who have been mentioned, the reason for this is not far to seek. Justin Martyr in the Cohortatio ad Graecos (cp. p. 1) abounds in Platonic quotation, in Platonic reference and in Platonic imitation, but consider his Dialogue with Trypho on the doctrines of the Christian and the Jew, and the Platonic references are practically nil. So in Basil too the subject with which he is dealing is the determining factor and_ it is no surprise that his theological discussion on the Trinity seems to borrow little from the Greek philosophy. In our chapter then on the theology of Basil there is little said of the influence of Plato, for while some similarities are noted nothing of relationship can be proved. But in his statements on the subject of ethics there is more opportunity for Basil to borrow from Plato and more of such borrowings have been indicated, though Basil is still most practical in his teachings and serious in his aim to reach the people and has therefore nothing to do with theories of ethics.

We have already stated that Basil was no philosopher and so he gives no space to purely philosophical discussions. But in

60 The Influence of Plato on Saint Basil.

general throughout his works, here and there, a Platonic reminis- cence or imitation appears, especially in the form of a comparison or metaphor, which proves that even in his busy and practical life he did not forget his Plato.

In the corpus of Basil, however, there are two works and two of the most famous works, in which the nature of the subject gives him a good opportunity to use Plato and where indeed we find that Plato is used to the full. The first of these is the Hexaemeron, which has been discussed thoroughly and on which the conclusions are stated on pages 33 ff., and the second is the Essay to youths on the study of classical literature, Acyos mpos tous véous, Migne 3. 564 C-589 B. In this short work are found two of the three direct quotations from Plato given by Basil, and on almost every page there is some more or less obvious reminiscence. These cases have been presented and discussed in their proper sections throughout this paper and we need only mention here that the collection of so many into such a small compass is proof of the observation just made, that when the nature of the subject permitted, Basil drew liberally from his distinguished source.

Finally, then, the influence of Plato on St. Basil is exhibited in reminiscence, imitation and rarely quotation, sporadically through most of his works, and while in some there is little sign of it, in at least two it is most marked and noticeable.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The following were the chief works used :

Ackermann, G. Das Christliche im Plato u. in der platonischen

Philosophie. Hamburg, 1835.

Adam, J. The Republic of Plato. Cambridge, 1902. Ast, F. Lexicon Platonicum. Leip., 1835-38. Bohringer, F. and P. Die Kirche Christi u. ihre Zeugen VII.

Die drei Kappadozier. Stuttgart, 1875.

Cocker, B. F. Christianity and Greek Philosophy. New York,

1870.

Farrar, F. W. Lives of the Fathers, St. Basil, II. New York,

1889.

Hermann, C. F. Platonis Dialogi. Leipzig, 1856-70. Huber, J. Die Philosophie der Kirchenviter. Miinchen, 1859. Jahn, A. Neue Jahrb. 49 (1847), p. 371 f. Supp. Band 13, p.

455; Zeits. f. Alterthumsw. 10 (1843), p. 1012. Johnston, C. F. H. The Book of St. Basil on the Holy Spirit.

Oxford, 1892.

Jowett, B. The Dialogues of Plato trans. into Eng. 3d Ed.

Oxford, 1892.

Lothholz, G. Bas. d. Gr. Rede an christliche Jiinglinge. Jena,

1857.

Migne. Patrologiae Cursus Completus, series Graeca. Basilii opera omnia, v. 29-32. Paris, 1857.

Gregorii Naz., Orat in laudem Bas. Mag., v. 35, p. 494. Miillenhoff, K. Hermes, II, p. 252. Aristoteles und Basil. Padelford, F. M. Essays on the study and the use of Poetry by

Plutarch and Basil the Great. New York, 1902. Stallbaum, G. Platonis opera omnia. Gotha, 1836-85. Tillemont, L. S. Histoire Ecclesiastique, IX. Saint Basile.

Paris, 1714.

EDR E:

Theodore Leslie Shear was born in New London, New Hamp- shire, August 11, 1880. He received his preparatory education at the Halsey Collegiate School, New York City, and in the Fall of 1896 entered New York University where he graduated with the class of 1900. The year 1900-01 he devoted to graduate study in New York University under the supervision of Professor Sihler. In 1901 he entered Johns Hopkins University where he has since studied, pursuing work under Professors Gildersleeve, Bloomfield, K. F. Smith, and Associate Professors Miller and Wilson, to all of whom he desires to express his deep-felt grati- tude, and especially to Professor Gildersleeve for the inspiration of his teaching.

May, 1904.

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