mim^mmm>m'i*'}*iLm^*j^mr'is:imkf II INJURIOUS m INSECTS How to Recognize and Control Them W.CO'Kam ■mim^ii'^f»tfm^£idmmiim^mm*i>^^^ ®I|P i. 1. Bill IGibrara ^nrth (Carolina %>mt SB931 (i6 NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES S00601134 F ^' "^.r^.^.^.u^^^. This book is due on the date indicated below and is subject to an overdue fine as posted at the Circulation Desk. OCT 1 1975 f#;) m JM( •■' 1 "la/y «8b iUC]'? INJURIOUS INSECTS THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO DALLAS • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO The Colorado Potato-beetle. Forerunner of Modern Methods of Insect Control. Original. See pages 03 and 145. INJURIOUS INSECTS HOW TO EECOaNIZE AND CONTROL THEM BY WALTER C. O'KANE ENTOMOLOGIST TO THE NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERI3IENT STATION AND PROFESSOR OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY IN NEW HAMPSHIRE COLLEGE ILLUSTBATED WITH 600 OBIGINAL PHOTOGBAFHS Nebj gork THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1912 All rights reserved Copyright, 1912, By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published Novembei J. S. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. TO HERBERT OSBORN DEVOTED SCIENTIST • INSPIRING TEACHER GENUINE ERIEND ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author wishes to acknowledge his obligation to the many friends and co-workers who loaned or gave specimens needed for the preparation of the illustrations in this book. While all of the illustrations are original and are prepared from photographs by the author, it would not have been possible to carry through this part of the work without the help of others. The late Dr. J. B. Smith gave freely many excellent specimens from his collections. A great deal of valuable material was furnished by Dr. E. P. Felt. Special acknowledgment is due also to Dr. L. 0. Howard and his associates, Mr. A. L. Quaintance, Dr. F. H. Chitten- den, Mr. W. D. Hunter, Mr. F. M. Webster, Mr. E. A. Schwarz, Dr. A. D. Hopkins, Dr. H. G. Dyar, Mr. So A. Rohwer, and Mr. Otto Heidemann. Similar generous courtesies were extended by Dr. W. E. Britton, Mr. P. J. Parrott, Professor G. W. Herrick, Dr. S. A. Forbes, Pro- fessor H. A. Gossard, Professor H. Osborn, Professor C. P. Gillette, Dr. T, J. Headlee, Professor F. L. Washburn, Professor Wilmon Newell, Professor R. H. Pettit, Dr. E. D. Ball, Mr. E. L. Worsham, Dr. H. T. Fernald, Prof. Franklin Sherman, Jr., Dr. W. E. Hinds, Professor H. Garman, Mr. Lawson Caesar, Professor T. B. Symons, Mr. N. E. Shaw, Dr. E. G. Titus, Dr. Leonard Haseman, Dr. Edith M. Patch, Prof. R. L. Webster, Mr. J. S. Houser, Prof. A. G. Ruggles, Mr. C. R. Crosby, Mr. F. E. Brooks, Mr. Patricio Cardin, Mr. J. J. Davis, Dr. H. J. FrankUn, and Mr. W. S. Abbott. Grateful acknowledgment is here made to the author's assistants. Miss Cornelia F. Kephart and Mr. C. H. Hadley, Jr., for their invalu- able and skillful help throughout the work of preparing both illustra- tions and manuscript. ^ AKRANGEMENT OF INJURIOUS SPECIES IN THIS BOOK The insect pests described in this book are grouped as follows : 1. Pests of garden and field crops; including all injurious species commonly found on such plants as corn, potatoes, cucumbers, wheat, squashes, and the like. With these are included pests of greenhouses. 2. Pests of orchard and small fruits: the common injurious species of apples and other tree fruits, currants and similar bush fruits, and strawberries or other low-growing plants, usually designated as fruits. 3. Pests of the household, of stored products, and of domestic ani- mals. These comprise the common injurious species that do not feed on living plants. Within each of the first two groups the various species are arranged according to the place where they are found at work. Thus, insects that work within the soil are treated first; then the borers found within stem, trunk, or imb; then the pests found feeding on the surface of stem or trunk; then the leaf feeders; and finally the insects attacking flower or fruit. Among leaf feeders, again, the insects are grouped according to their general characteristics, whether caterpillars, sucking bugs, and so on. The page headings are arranged to serve as an index to the place where an insect is found at work, and its general characteristics. The author hopes by this means to facilitate the identification of a pest by those who are not familiar with insects, and to avoid as far as possible the duplication inevitable where one attempts to group pests according to host plants — a confusion unavoidable because so many of our common pests feed on several varieties of plants, and may properly be listed as well under one as under another. CONTENTS I. Introduction 3 II. The Parts of an Insect's Body 7 III. The Internal Structure of Insects .... 11 IV. The Senses of Insects 16 V. The Behavior of Insects . . . . . .18 VI. How Insects Transform 19 VII. How Insects are Classified 22 VIII. How Insects Spread 40 IX. Insects as Carriers of Disease ..... 42 X. The Natural Enemies of Insects .... 45 XI. Farm Practice in Relation to Insect Control . 56 XII. Direct Control by Mechanical Means ... 59 XIII. Insecticides — General Principles ... 63 XIV. Poison Insecticides — For Biting Insects . . 65 XV. Contact Insecticides — For Sucking Insects . . 70 XVI. Repellents 79 XVII. FUMIGANTS 80 XVIII. Fungicides Combined with Poisons .... 85 XIX. Spray Machinery — General Principles ... 89 XX. Types and Sizes of Spray Pumps. Dusting Appa- ratus 92 XXI. Accessories 100 XXII. Insect Pests of Garden and Field Crops . . 107 XXIII. Insect Pests of Orchard and Small Fruits . . 224 XXIV. Insect Pests of the Household and Stored Prod- ucts 349 XXV. Insect Pests of Domestic Animals .... 371 xi PART I THE STRUCTURE, HABITS, AND CLASSI FICATION OF INSECTS n^JURIOUS INSECTS CHAPTER I Introduction The Tax paid to Insects Insects exact of the human race an enormous toll m property injured and destroyed. Unfortunately, in the interrelations of life, most things that man desires, uses, or needs are the natural food of one or another species of insect, usually of many. Specific examples of insect depredations give one some notion of the total. Thus, in a hmited area in southern Indiana and near-by counties, a species of cutworm attacking com caused a loss in one year, 1908, of $200,000. The tobacco flea beetle in a single season, in Kentucky and Tennessee, inflicted damage to the extent of $2,000,000. Injury by a plant louse, the pea aphis, in two years of abundance, was esti- mated at $7,000,000. In the Black Hills National Forest, a species of beetle has destroyed timber representing at least 1,000,000,000 feet of lumber. The annual price of the boll weevil to cotton growers is figured at $15,000,000 to $30,000,000. Losses due to the cattle tick reach a total of $40,000,000 each season. In a single year of excessive abun- dance the Hessian fly exacted from our farmers an estimated total of $100,000,000. In Ohio the yield of wheat in that one season dropped from 15 bushels per acre to 6. The ravages of the chinch bug in our crops of wheat and corn in the last 60 years are believed to reach the sum of $350,000,000. Yet these examples are but one phase of the matter, representing a few of the notable insect outbreaks that have been studied and esti- 3 4 INTRODUCTION- mated. By far the greater part of the annual toll goes unrecorded, — often unnoticed. Each season every crop on every farm pays its tax, whether large or small, to the bus}^, six-footed creatures that look to it for food. It is only when we stop to consider what this total must be, reckoned as a percentage of the value of all crops combined, that its tremendous proportions become evident. The best observers agree that, in the average, insect depredations equal at least 10 per cent of the value of all farm crops. Our agricul- tural products in this country have now reached an annual worth of $10,000,000,000. The total damage wrought by insects, therefore, may fairly be placed at $1,000,000,000 each season! This is nearly five times as great as the combined appropriations for the United States army and navy; is equal to the entire bonded debt of the United States ; is more than four times the annual property loss by fire ; more than fourteen times the annual income of all colleges in this country ; is sixty times greater than the funds allotted annually to the United States Department of Agriculture. Value of a Knowledge of Insects Unquestionably, the loss due to insect attack may be reduced ma- terially by the adoption of proper methods of prevention and control. In many cases, the program to adopt involves no direct fighting, such as spraying, but simply the shaping of farm, garden, or orchard practice along lines unfavorable to the insects concerned — such matters as judicious rotation of crops, or cleaning fields of weeds. To-day's warfare against insect pests strives toward prevention as well as cure. In order to plan our campaign intelligently we need to know the more important general facts about insects as a class : the main charac- teristics of the different groups with which we have to deal ; how they have fitted themselves to survive and multiply; what measures of control are adapted to particular groups ; how the structure and habits of one group render it susceptible to certain kinds of control measures, such as spraying, while in other groups wholl}^ different measures are necessary. To know these general facts is to possess a fundamental advantage in conducting successful warfare. Not to know them usu- CHARACTERISTICS OF INSECTS 5 ally means the loss of time and money in attempting unsuitable remedies or neglecting good opportunities. Characteristics of Insects The place of insects in the animal world is in a group known as Ai'thropoda, a word meaning '' jointed foot." They are related on the one hand to spiders, scorpions, and cen- tipedes, and on the other to crabs, crayfish, and the other crustaceans. With these animals they have various points in common ; for example, a hard- ened body wall or " external skeleton," jointed legs occurring always in pairs, and a body made up of distinct rings or segments. Other characteristics are peculiar to insects alone, and serve to define them. These are as follows : a body composed of three distinct regions, head, thorax, and abdomen; one pair of compound eyes; one pair of antennae, or "feelers"; three pairs of legs; two pairs of wings ; and a peculiar, complicated type of growth, called metamorphosis, by which the individual goes through three or four unlike stages in its life round. Fig. 1. — A mite. An ar- thropod, related to insects. Enlarged and natural .size. Original. Fig. 2. — A typical insect, showing the parts of the body and the attachment of appendages. Original. Fig. 3. — Types of antennae, a. pectinate; 6, moniliform ; c, filiform; d, lamellate; e, capitate; /.geniculate; g, cla- vate ; h, serrate. Original. 6 CHAPTER II The Parts of an Insect's Body The Head Adult insects have a more or less distinct head, varying greatly in shape according to the habits of the species. Prominent on either side, near the top of the head, are usually to be seen the compound eyes. These are very large in some groups, such as the horseflies or dragon flies, which need to have espe- cially good vision, but are absent in some other groups, such as certain parasites, which have little need of the ability to see. A com- pound eye is made up of many lenses, each with its own sensi- tive area and nerve. The num- ber of these lenses often is great ; the common house fly has about 4000 on each side. Between or above the compound eyes are usually three simple eyes. out readily by looking closely. Near the compound eyes are the antennae, or " feelers." Their shape is diverse with the different groups, and is one of the valuable means of determining the identity of many insects, or of placing a specimen in its proper group. Eight or ten general types of antennae are recognized. 7 Fig. 4. — Head of a beetle, showing mouth parts. Enlarged and natural size. Original. These are small, but can b^ made 8 THE PARTS OF AN INSECT'S BODY The remaining prominent structures on the head of an insect are the mouth parts. From a practical standpoint, there is no other one thing in the makeup of an insect's bod}^ so important as the type of mouth parts in a given pest. All insects may be divided into two classes, according to whether they obtain their food by biting and chewing, or b}'- sucking ; in other words, whether they have l)iting or sucking mouth parts. Fig. 5. — Mouth parts of a beetle. a, labrum ; b, mandibles ; c, maxillae ; d, labium ; e, hypopharj-nx. Origi If we examine the head of a beetle, for instance, we shall find that it possesses a distinct pair of jaws, or mandibles, obviously intended for chewing or biting. Above these is an upper lip, or labrum ; below is a pair of maxillsB, serving to hold the food and otherwise to assist in eating ; and below these a lower lip or labium. If we look closely, we shall be able to find between the mouth parts the insect's tongue, or hypopharynx. HEAD AND THORAX But if we observe the head of a squash bug, we find no jaws or other parts that would serve to chew or bite. Instead there is a stout beak, and if we were to dissect this, we should find that it contained a tube for sucking ui) plant juices or other fluids.. In ad- dition, we should fuid in most insects of this type, two or three pairs of lancets within or close to the beak, used to punctui'e or rasp the tissues so as to induce a greater flow of the juices. Insects with biting mouth parts may be killed by cov- ering the plant on which they feed with a poison, such as lead arsenate. But insects with sucking mouth parts do not eat the surface of the plant and cannot be killed by applica- tions of stomach poison. For the latter other remedies must be used, such as some substance that will kill the insect by corrosive action on its body. The Thorax The middle part of an insect's body is called the thorax. Usually it has three distinct rings, or segments. On each segment is a pair of legs and on each of the last two is a pair of wings, except in the group of two-winged flies, which have only a single pair, on the middle segment. An insect's leg consists, tj'pically, of a small joint next the body, the trochanter; a large and heavy joint, the femur; a slender tibia; Fig. 6. — Mouth parts of a honeybee. Enlarged. Original. Fig. 7. — Mouth parts of a horsefly, fitted for pierc- ing and sucking. Enlarged. Original. 10 THE PARTS OF AN INSECT'S BODY Fig. 8. — Foot of an in- sect, showing claws and pulvillus. Enlarged. Original. and a foot, or tarsus, made up of five joints, or sometimes less. On the end of the tarsus often occur claws between which is a small pad, or pulvillus. The wings vary greatly in size, shape, and texture. They constitute an important char- acter in separating insects into various groups, as will be seen. For example, beetles are easily recognized by the possession of a front pair of wings that are hardened or horny and serve simply as covers for the large, membranous hind wings. The Abdomen The third, or hind part of an insect's body is called the abdomen. It consists often of ten rings or segments, though frequently this number is reduced. There are never any legs on the abdomen of the adult insect. At the hind extremity in both sexes are the reproduc- tive organs. The two sexes are invariably separate in insects, and never normally combined in a single individual as in some other forms of lower animal life. CHAPTER III The Internal Structure of Insects How Insects Breathe All insects, even those living in water, need air. But their method of obtaining it is entirely different from that developed in higher animals. No insect has nostrils, or any opening in its head through which it breathes. Instead, there is a row of small apertures, called spiracles, down each side of its body, one on each segment, beginning with the second or third segment of the thorax and extending back along the rings of the abdomen. The spiracles of each side open into an air tube running lengthwise of the insect, just within the body wall. From these main tubes smaller tubes diverge, and these in turn branch and re- branch, growing constantly smaller, until the finer tubes permeate every part of the insect, even to the tips of the antennae and the joints of the feet. The tubes are known as tracheae and the entire group as the tracheal system. The smaller 11 Fig. 9. Tracheal system of an insect. (Dia- grammatic.) Original. 12 THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF INSECTS Fig. 10. — Spiracles of a grasshopper. Enlarged. Original. higher animals, whose blood circulates in ar- teries, veins, and capil- laries. In insects the blood flows freely around the internal organs and through the tissues. There is a heart, how- ever, which keeps the blood moving. It is an elongated structure, situ- ated just beneath the upper surface of the in- sect's body, and consists of a series of chambers, each with valves opening from the body cavity into the chamber, and with another valve open- ing into the next chamber toward the front. The trachea) are extremely thin walled, and the oxygen that they contain is thus brought to the various tissues. Air circulates slowly in the tracheae. The openings or spiracles are guarded by various devices, such as a fringe of hairs. The Circulatory System The entire body cavity of an insect is bathed in a yellowish or greenish fluid that we speak of as its blood. There is no closed system of blood vessels, as in the Fig. U. insect's heart. Original. (Diagrammatic.) THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 13 end of the heart toward the head opens into the body cavity. When the heart contracts, the blood it contains is forced forward, and when it expands, more blood is admitted through the side valves. The Digestive System There is a fairly close parallel between the digestive system of in- sects and that of some higher animals. The various organs concerned Fig. 12. — Digestive system of an insect. (Diagrammatic.) Original. are much modified in many species, according to their food habits; but taking a typical group, we find the following parts : From the mouth the food passes through a pharynx and is con- veyed by a gullet or esophagus to a crop, which serves as a storage place. Thence it enters the gizzard, where it is ground up, and so passes on into the stomach, where part of the digestion and absorp- 14 THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF INSECTS tion takes place. Thence it enters the intestine, where it is still further digested. The waste is expelled from the hind end of the body. Opening into the intestine near the stomach are tubes that prob- ably serve as kidneys. They are known as Malpighian tubes. The Nervous System Most insects are extremely active creatures, and have a well-de- veloped nervous system. Taking a simple type, we find that a pair of nerve cords begin in the upper part of the head, encircle the esophagus, one on each side, again come close together or unite, and extend back to the hind ex- tremity of the body, lying just above the lower body wall throughout. In the upper part of the head and in the lower part are enlargements, called ganglia, from which are given off branch nerves to the eyes, antennae, and mouth parts. In the thorax there are three more ganglia, one for each segment, though these may be more or less united. In the abdomen are further ganglia, often somewhat concen- trated toward the front end of the abdomen. Many branch nerves arise from the thoracic and abdominal ganglia. Fig. 13. — Gizzard of a cricket, showing muscles and grinding surfaces. Enlarged. Original. The Fat Bodies Within the body cavity are many irregular masses of peculiar fatty tissue. The functions of these masses are not fully understood. It is known, however, that reserve food is stgred up in them, especially THE BODY WALLS 15 in the case of caterpillars that are reaching full growth and getting ready to transform. Fig. 14. — Nervous system of an insect. (Diagrammatic.) Original. The Body Walls The bodies of most insects are covered with a more or less horny or hard coating, to which the muscles are attached, and which takes the place of the bony, internal skeleton of higher animals. The basis of this coating is a fluid substance called chitin, which hardens on exposure to air. In order to permit of movement, this outer shell is made up of distinct plates, joined to one another by flexible skin. CHAPTER IV The Senses of Insects It is obvious that most insects possess a well-developed power of sight. It is not believed that they have the ability to form images of objects, in other words to " see," with the precision of higher ani- mals. To a limited extent the compound eyes probably give an insect certain powers of forming images up to a short distance — not more than a few feet. They undoubtedly are well adapted to discern movement. The ocelli, or simple eyes, are fomied somewhat on the plan of the human eye ; but the lens is of fixed focus, and the number of nerves in the retina is comparatively small. The sense of hearing is well known to exist among many insects. The location of the auditory apparatus has been de- termined in certain species. Thus, the antennse of some insects are known to have auditory functions ; grasshoppers have an " ear " on the first segment of the abdomen; other species have a similar organ on the foreleg. Most insects have a sense of taste. The hypopharynx, or tongue, and short appendages attached to the maxilla?, or lower jaws, are commonly the seat of this sense. There is abundant evidence of the existence of a sense of smell. In fact this sense is particularly well developed in many insects, and serves to guide them to their food, to lead the females to the proper plants on which to deposit their eggs, and often to bring the male to 16 Fig. 15. — Tongue of a cricket. Enlarged and natural size. Original. SPECIAL SENSE ORGANS 17 the female at mating season. Minute structures found in the antennae and the maxillary palpi are commonly the seat of the olfactory sense. All insects have more or less specially developed parts for exercising the sense of touch. The antennae, or " feelers," are primarily adapted to serve this function, but hairs or bristles connected with sensory nerves occur at various places over the body. This would be expected, since the body is so completely covered with its armor of chitin. CHAPTER V The Behavior of Insects Most of the movements of insects are automatic responses to a direct external stimulus. For example, ants of certain species always move away from the hght ;- flies, toward it. Roaches will attempt to crowd into narrow crevices, where their body is in close contact all around with the surrounding substance. Some kinds of caterpillars habitually crawl toward the ends of twigs, or contrary to gravity. Aquatic insects move toward water. Most of the movements of insects, if carefully analyzed, will be found explainable as some of these simple reactions. But there is another group of movements that are really complex. An example is seen in the spinning of its cocoon by a caterpillar. Here we have genuine evidence of the workings of ' instinct. Yet even these ex- amples of insect behavior have one point in common ; they are started by some simple stimulus, and once set going, they invariably are carried out to the same conclusion, regardless of circumstances. Thus, a female codling moth, the parent of the common worm found in apples, frequently lays its eggs on the leaves of trees which are bear- ing no fruit, with the inevitable result that all its offspring die. Rarely, in the highly specialized orders, such as the bees or ants, insects are observed to follow a procedure that seems to demand some reasoning power as its basis. An indi\'idual apparently will learn by experience, and voluntarily modify its procedure in going through a similar action. Such cases, however, are not common. Most insect behavior is automatic and purely reflex. 18 CHAPTER VI How Insects Transform All insects, except two primitive groups of little importance, go through distinct changes of form in the Ufe round of the individual. These changes constitute what is known as metamorphosis. Fig. 16. — Illustrating complete metamorphosis. Egg, larva or caterpillar, cocoon and pupa, and adult of the Rusty Tussock Moth, Hejnerocampa an- tiqua Linn. Original. Thus, the cabbage butterfly lays an egg. From the egg hatches a tiny " worm " or larva. The larva grows, and in due time changes 19 20 HOW INSECTS TRANSFORM to a " chrysalis " or pupa. And finally, from the pupa emerges the winged butterfly, ready to begin the life round over again. This is an example of complete metamorphosis, including four distinct stages — egg, larva, pupa, and adult. With the squash bug we find the adult laying an egg, as before. But from this egg hatches, not a larva or worm, but a tiny, active bug, Fig. 17. — Illustrating incomplete metamorphosis. Eggs, nymphs, and adult of the Squash Bug, Anasa tristis De G. Original. similar to the parent insect except that it has no wings. This immature form grows, shedding its skin four or five times, and finally with the last moult acquires its wings and is now a typical adult. The imma- ture stage is known as a nymph, and this is an example of incomplete metamorphosis, including only three distinct stages instead of four — egg, nymph, and adult. In all insects the larval or nymph stage is the period of growth. TYPES OF METAMORPHOSIS 21 To this stage belongs primarily the function of feeding and growing. The adult insect may or may not feed, but it never grows. To the adult stage belongs the function of mating and thus perpetuating the race. The pupa, which we find in insects with complete metamor- phosis, represents a resting stage devised to accommodate the tre- mendous changes taking place in the transformation of the wormlike larva into the winged adult. The type of metamorphosis constitutes a fundamental character in separating insects into groups. CHAPTER VII How Insects are Classified More than 350,000 distinct species of insects have been described. In addition at least as many more remain to be studied and classified. Obviously, in all this array, there must be certain groups that have many characters in common, or give indication that at some period in the remote past they were derived from common ancestors. These groups are known as Orders. There are more than twenty recog- nized orders of in- sects, but the great majority of injurious species are included in ten principal eco- nomic orders. The leading characteris- tics distinguishing these from one an- other are the type of metamorphosis, the kind of mouth parts, the number, shape, and texture of the wings, the presence or absence of compound eyes, the type of antennae, and the shape of the body. The ten principal orders and their characteristics are as follows: 22 Fig. 18. — A typical specimen of the order Orthop- tera. Original. ORTHOPTERA 23 Orthoptera Familiar to all are many of the species that go to make up this order: the grasshoppers, katydids, crickets, and roaches. The entire group is characterized by incomplete metamorphosis. The immature form just hatched from an egg is quite similar in appear- ance to the adult, except that it is very much smaller, and that it has no wings. As it grows, wing pads develop, and finally, with the last moult, the adult comes forth. All insects in this order have biting mouth parts. There are two pairs of wings. The front pair are leathery, and, when at rest, cover the hind pair, which are thin and papery, and are folded in plaits. The antennae vary, but frequently are quite long and slender. The order is di\dded into various subgroups or fami- lies. Thus we have the jumping Orthoptera, includ- ing the Gryllidse or crickets, the Acrididae or grasshop- pers, and the Locustidse or katydids; the running Or- thoptera, including the Blat- tidae or roaches; the grasping Orthoptera, including the Mantidse or praying mantids; and the walking Orthoptera, including the peculiar insects known as the Phasmidse or walking sticks. There are many injurious pests in this order; some of them, such as the Rocky Mountain locust, famous for the devastation that they have wrought to American farms. The immature stages, or nymphs, as well as the adults, are destructive, though in less degree because they are smaller. -One of the jumping Orthoptera, or GryUidae. Original. 24 HOW INSECTS ARE CLASSIFIED Mallophaga These are parasitic insects, commonly known as bird lice, although there are some species that infest domestic animals. The metamorphosis is incomplete. Eggs laid by the adult female hatch into minute creatures looking much like the mature insect. The members of this order are plainly adapted for their parasitic life. The body is flattened. There are no compound eyes. Wings are absent. The antennae are short and simple. The mouth parts are fitted for biting, and the food consists of the hairs or feathers of the host, or loose scales of ''^I^^Hpf' dead skin. The Mallophaga never ^^^ feed on the blood of their host, as do the members of the order Siphonaptera, the fleas. ^\l;gedTnd naturfl ^zT' ofig- ^^out 2000 species have been de- inal. scribed. Odonata The adults in this order are the dragon flies, often called " snake feeders " or " darning needles." Metamorphosis is incomplete. The nymphs, which hatch from the eggs, are aquatic, spending their lives beneath the surface of ponds or streams, where they lead an active existence, capturing and devouring such other forms of animal life as come within their reach. The mouth parts of the nymph are peculiarly adapted to its needs, being pro- vided with a hinged lower lip which can be extended, and which bears hooks on its farther edge. By means of these the nymph is enabled to catch its prey unawares. The adults are large insects, and have two pairs of strong, narrow, ODONATA — THYSANOPTERA 25 Fig. 21. — Adult dragon fly. Original. membranous wings. Each wing is marked with a shallow notch about midway along its front margin. Adults as well as nymphs are pre- dacious, Hving on other insects which they capture. Their mouth parts are of the biting type. They have large compound eyes, — as, indeed, we should expect in insects that live by capturing others. The abdomen is slim, and is never provided with a sting of any sort, as is so often supposed. Insects of this order are of importance be- cause they make a business of capturing in- dividuals of other species, many of which we may reasonably assume would be injurious. The order has been carefully studied, and about 2000 species have been described. Thysanoptera Fig. 22. —The empty pupal skin of a dragon The group to which has been given this ^^ Original. name is made up of very small insects, many of which the layman will recognize rather by their characteristic work than by acquaintance with the appearance of the insect itself. Their common name is " Thrips." 26 HOW INSECTS ARE CLASSIFIED Fig. 23. — Adult Euthrips tritici Original. thrips, Fitch. Metamorphosis is incomplete. Both nymphs and adults are slender insects, pro- vided with sucking mouth parts. The adults have two pairs of peculiar wings, very nar- row, almost without veins, and fringed along the margins with a row of long hairs, set close together. The wings are laid along the back when not in use. In most species the adults are not more than one tenth or one twelfth of an inch in length. The an- tennae are comparatively short and simple. Usually the presence of these insects is recognized fu-st by a whitening of the leaves or a shriveling of other parts on which they happen to be feeding. Close examination will then reveal the tiny active insect itself. Hemiptera A large group, including the true " bugs," characterized throughout by sucking mouth parts. Metamorphosis is incomplete. Active nymphs, which look more or less like the adults except that they have no wings, hatch from the eggs laid by the parent female. There are two large subdivisions in this order, the Homoptera and the Het- eroptera, distinguished from each other by the tj^^e of wings, and the manner in which the beak is attached to the head. In the Homoptera the wings, four in number, are membranous throughout, and when the insect is at rest, usually are held in a slop- FiG. 24. — A cicada. Sub- order Homoptera. Original. HEMIPTERA 21 ing position along the back, like the two sides of a hip roof. The common '' locust," or cicada, is a familiar example of this suborder. In the Homoptera the sucking beak arises from the hind part of the lower side of the head. The Heteroptera are well illustrated in the '*' squash bug." In this suborder the front pair of wings are horny in the half nearest the in- sect's body, and thinner in the outer half. The hind wings are mem- branous throughout. When at rest, the front wings are laid along the Fig. 25. — The giant water bug, Lethocerus americanus Leidy. Suborder Heteroptera. Original. back, with the thin, outer halves crossed, one on top of the other, while the hind wings are concealed beneath the front pair. Often, when the insect is at rest, its wings look as if they were a part of its body, though there is always the tell-tale diagonal line where the thickened part of the wing gives way to the thinner part. In the Heteroptera the beak arises from the front part of the head, though in many species it is sharply bent so that it points backward beneath the head. The more important families of Homoptera are as follows : Cicadidae, the cicadas or, as commonly called, " locusts." Jassidae, the leaf hoppers. Destructive pests. 28 HOW INSECTS ARE CLASSIFIED Psj^llidse, the psyllas. Minute, jumping forms. Plant feeders. Aphidida*, the plant lice. Coccidae, the scale insects and mealy bugs. The more important families of Heteroptera are as follows : Reduviidse, the assassin bugs, Predaceous on other insects. Occa- sionally attack man. Have a strong, three-jointed beak. Tingitidse, the lace bugs. Wings finely reticulate, looking like lace. Plant feed- ers. Acanthiida}, including some plant feed- ers ; also the common bedbug. Capsidse, the leaf bugs. Usually small. Often injurious. Lygseidse, the chinch bugs. Destruc- tive plant feeders. Coreidse, the squash bugs. Often ill smelling. Some species rather large. Pentatomida), the stinkbugs. The family includes both plant feeders and predaceous forms. Thyreocoridae, the negro bugs. Very small forms. Pediculidae, the sucking Hce, parasitic on mammals. The number of described species in the Hemiptera exceeds 20,000. Fig. 26. — The giant water bug, wings folded. Sub- order Heteroptera. Origi- nal. Coleoptera The order Coleoptera includes the beetles, readily distinguished, as a rule, by the fact that the front pair of wings are hardened and act simply as horny coverings for the larger, membranous hind wings, which are folded beneath the others when at rest. Metamorphosis is complete. There are four distinct stages, instead of three, as with all the other orders mentioned thus far. Eggs are laid by the adults, and from these hatch worm^ike larvae, commonly called COLEOPTERA 29 *' grubs." A resting stage, or pupa, follows the completion of growth of the grub. Finally from the pupa emerges the adult beetle. Fig. 27. — A beetle, Lachnosterna. Original. The mouth parts are formed for biting. In one subgroup within this order the head is prolonged in a sort of snout. This is not a sucking organ, but bears at its end true jaws, adapted for biting and chewing. The larvai or " grubs " of the snout beetles have no legs. The antenna) are of many dis- tinct types, ranging from simple filiform or moniliform shapes to complex types that can only be classed as " irregular." Some of the subgroups are commonly des- ignated according to the kind of antenna; as, for example, the Clavicorns, the Lamellicorns, or the Serricorns. Something like 20,000 species have been described. Fig. 28. — A nout beetle, Rhynchites. Enlarged and natural size. Original. 30 HOW INSECTS ARE CLASSIFIED Larvae and adults feed on decaying Both larvae and adults predaceous. There are many families, in practically all of which are to be found species of importance. A few of the typical families are the following : Carabidse, the ground beetles. Active insects both as larvae and as adults, and usually predaceous. Silphidae, the carrion beetles, animal matter. Coccinellidae, the lady beetles. One of the most beneficial families. Elateridae, the click beetles. Parents of the wireworms. Buprestidae, the adults of the " flat-headed borers." Scarabffiidae. Large beetles, well illustrated in the " June bug." The larvae of some feed on decaying animal or vegetable matter, while others are highly injurious. Cerambycidae, the parents of the " round-headed borers." Chrysomelidse. Typical leaf eaters. Examples are the potato beetle, asparagus beetle, and many others. Meloidae, the bUster beetles. Curculionidffi, the curcuhos. Snout beetles. The larvae legless grubs. Siphonaptera The Siphonaptera in- clude the fleas. The order is a small one, but is in- teresting because of the adaptations that it exhibits for parasitic or predaceous existence. Metamorphosis is com- plete. From the egg hatches a legless larva, slen- der and wormlike, which later transforms to a pupa, and from this in turn emerges the adult, ready to Fig. 29. — Adult flea. Enlarged. Original. begin the life round again. SIPHONAPTERA AND DIPTERA 31 The adults are practically wingless, though small, scalelike projec- tions from the top of the thorax show where the wings should be, and perhaps once were. The body is flattened laterally, thus enabhng the insect to slip around easily among the hairs of its host. While the sur- face of the body is quite smooth and hard, it is provided with regular rows of stiff bristles, pointing backward, which help to force the insect in the direction in which it wishes to go, and likewise help it to escape from the fingers of its captor. A further evidence of its parasitic life is seen in the entire absence of compound eyes. The mouth parts are fitted for sucking. Diptera The insects falling within this order are easily recognized from the fact that they have only a single pair of membranous wings. The order includes the groups that we speak of as flies, mosquitoes, midges, and gnats. Metamorphosis is complete. The larva is commonly called a maggot, and is without feet. In most species it has no distinct head. In many sub- groups within this order the pupa or resting stage preceding the adult is peculiar in that it is inclosed within the hardened and shortened skin of the larva. The single pair of wings borne by the adult are on the middle segment of the thorax. On the hind segment are a pair of small knobs, represent- ing the second pair of wings found in other insects. The mouth parts are primarily of the sucking type, but often are complex, and frequently are modified so that certain of the parts are fitted for piercing or for rasping. Thus, in the horseflies there are sharp lancets in addition to the sucking tube, the former penetrating Fig. 30. — Adult fly, Tabanus. Enlarged to twice natural size. Original. 32 HOW INSECTS ABE CLASSIFIED the tissues and assisting in bringing on a generous flow of blood, which the latter conveys to the insect's pharynx. In the female mosquito similar structures are found, sharp stylets penetrating the flesh and the pharynx pumping the blood up through a sucking tube. The antennae are of various shapes, from the elaborately feathered structures of the male mosquito to the short, peculiar form, orna- mented with a prominent bristle, found in manj^ of the so-called ''flies." Classification within the order is complex, and is based partly on the manner in which the pupal skin is ruptured when the adult emerges, partly on the tj^pe of antenna, partly on the arrangement of the veins in the wings, as well as other structural pecul- iarities. More than 40,000 species have been described. The number of families is very large, but among the more important groups may be mentioned the following : Culicidae, the mosqui- toes. A nuisance to man and domestic animals, and in some cases carriers of disease. Larvae aquatic, as a rule. Chironomidse, the midges (but not the so-called midges attacking wheat, clover, and the like). Larvae often aquatic. Cecidomyiidae, the gall midges. Many injurious species, some of prime importance, as the Hessian fly. Simulidae, the black flies. Attack man and domestic animals. Tabanidae, the horseflies. Asihdae, the robber flies. Predaceous on other insects. Fig. 31. — Adult mosquito. Enlarged and natural size. Original. LEPIDOPTERA 33 Syrphidae, the syrphus flies. The larvse of some species are pre- daceous on noxious insects. (Estridae, the botflies. The larva are notorious parasites in mam- mals. Muscidse, a very large family including the common house fly. Tachinidae, the tachina flies. The larvae often beneficial because attacking noxious insects. Anthomyiidae, including the root maggots. A special interest attaches to this order because several of its mem- bers have been directly connected with the transmission of serious human diseases, as discussed in a later chapter. Lepidoptera The insects included within this order are the moths, the skippers, and the butterflies. The main characteristic of the order is the fact that the wings and body are covered with minute scales, which are arranged in definite patterns and often give to the wings beautiful and elaborate colors. In all Lepidoptera there is com- plete metamorphosis. The larva is commonly known as a cater- pillar, or simply as a " worm," the latter term more frequently attached to larvae that are not covered with hairs. Thus, on the one hand, we speak of the cabbage worm and the canker worm, on the other the tent caterpillar and the yellow-necked caterpillar. The larvae have three pairs of legs near the front end of the body, a single pair of legs or claspers at the hind end, and usually two to four pairs of fleshy prolegs between. All adults in the order Lepidoptera have four wings, except in cer- tain species where the wings are entirely lacking. The mouth parts Fig. 32. — Scales from the wing of a butterfly, Pontia. Enlarged. Orig- inal. 34 HOW INSECTS ABE CLASSIFIED Fig. 33. — A hntterRy, Argynnis. Original. are fitted for sucking. The adults in this group take only liquid nourishment, or frequently none at all. The larvae, however, are provided with well- developed jaws, adapted for biting and chewing. It is in the larval stage that the represent- atives of this order are injurious. The moth itself, or but- terfly, is harmful only in the sense that it is the parent of a succeeding de- structive stage. The antennae are of three general types, and separate the order into its sub- groups. Butterfhes have slender antennae composed of a large number of indistinct rings or segments, with an enlargement or club at the end. In the skippers the club at the end of the antenna is somewhat elongated, and is turned back at the farther end in a slender hook. The antennae of moths are more or less feathered, often elabo- rately so. Butterflies are usu- ally on the wing in the day- light hours, while moths have a tendency to fly at night. Butterflies habitually rest with their wings folded together ver- ticafly above the body; skip- pers may hold the wings in a similar position, or may hold ,, « , . X- 1 J Fig. 34. — A skipper, Atrytone. the front wmgs vertical and the hind wings horizontal; moths habitually rest with their wings held horizontal or roof like, or curved around the abdomen. The Original. LEPIDOPTERA 35 bodies of butterflies are slender ; those of skippers are rather stout ; the bodies of moths are typically heavy. About 60,000 species are known. In classification among this tremendous number use is made of the markings on the wings, but especially of the veins in the wings. The number of families is very large, and injurious species are found in a large proportion of them. Examples are as follows, though this list necessarily is brief and by no means representative of the entire order : Fig. 35. — A moth, Automeris. Original. Cossidse, the carpenter moths. Larvae bore in the trunks or branches of trees. Pests of shade trees. Pyraustida3. The larvae of many species are leaf rollers, and are serious pests. Graphohthidae. Adults small. The family includes the codhng moth, the bud moth, and other pests. Tortricidae. The larvae usually work within webs. Tineina, a superfamily of very small moths, the larvae of which often are leaf miners, but sometimes construct cases within which they feed, as in the case-bearing clothes moths. Sesiidae, the clear-wing moths. Larvae often borers and very in- jurious, as the peach-tree borer, the squash borer, and others. 36 HOW INSECTS ARE CLASSIFIED Notodontidse. Larvae large and usually feed exposed. Examples are the yellow-necked and the red-humped caterpillars. Geometridse. Parents of the " measuring-worms." Noctuida?. An immense family. The moths fly at night. The larvae include many of our worst insect pests, such as the army worm, cotton boll-worm, and cutworms. Lj^mantriidse, the tussock moths. Sphingidse, the hawk moths. Large insects. Larvae conspicuous. Example, the tomato worm. Saturniidae, the silkworm moths. Larvae large and armed with tubercles or spines. Lasiocampidae. The larvae often construct large nests, as the tent caterpillar. Pieridae. A common family of butterflies, including the imported cabbage worm. Hymenoptera The order Hymenoptera includes the bees, ants, wasps, sawflies, and a host of parasitic species, many of which are extremely minute. Metamorphosis is complete. The larva is grublike or wormlike. Often the pupa is inclosed in a cocoon. Fig. 36. — A sawfly. Enlarged and natural size. Original. HYMENOPTERA 37 Fig. 37. — The saws of a sawfly. Enlarged and nat- ural size. Original. Adults in this order are characterized by the possession of two pairs of wings, both pairs membranous, the front pair larger than the hind pair. The mouth parts are com- plex, and are adapted for biting and for sucking. However, the structure of the mouth parts is not usually of direct eco- nomic importance, since the adults do not habitually feed on or destroy that which is of value to man. In one subgroup of the Hymenoptera the abdomen of the adult is broad at the point where it joins the thorax; in other words, the insects are " broad waisted." This section includes the Tenthredinidai or sawflies, a family containing many injurious species. The name sawfly is given to this family because the end of the abdomen in the adult female is provided with genuine saws, which it uses in making a place for the deposition of its eggs. Sawfly larvae strongly resemble the larva? of the Lepi- doptera, but may be distinguished from them by the number of pro- legs — the false legs situated behind the three pairs of genuine legs near the front end of the body. The larva^ of sawflies usually have six to eight pairs of these pro- legs, while those of the butterflies or moths have never more than five pairs. Examples of injurious sawflies are seen in the pear slug and the currant worm. A closely related subgroup of the Hymenoptera comprises a number of families in which the female is pro^^ded with a boring apparatus at the hind end of the abdomen. These families include some of our important beneficial species living as parasites in the bodies of other insects, the Ichneu- FiG. .38. — An ichneumon Original. Pimpla. 38 HOW INSECTS ARE CLASSIFIED monidae Chalcididse, and others. With these the abdomen is joined to the thorax by a narrow waist. Fig. Adult winged ant. Enlarged and natural size. Original. Finally there are the stinging Hymenoptera, which also are narrow- waisted, like the boring Hymenoptera. T3^ical specimens are the common bees, wasps, and ants. It is within these families that we find social develop- ment at its height. Few in this section are classed as in- jurious, the exceptions being found principally among the ants. The stinging Hymenoptera are divided into the following Fig. 40. — A wasp, Sphecina. Original. SUperfamilies : HYMENOPTERA 39 Formicina, the ants. Many species with high social develop- ment. Sphecina, the digger wasps. Soli- tary in their habits. A large group, including many families. Vespina, the true wasps. One group is soUtary and another social. Apina, the bees. Various habits, but all collect pollen or honey to feed their young. The number of described species of Hymenoptera is in excess of 30,000. Fig. 41. — A bee, Bombus. Original. CHAPTER VIII How Insects Spread The spread of insects is brought about by a great variety of agencies, some of which are within human control, while others are not. It is the purpose of this chapter to point out a few of the former as well as the latter, and to emphasize the value of taking precautions to prevent the spread of noxious species. With many serious pests an omice of prevention is worth a good many pounds of cure. Certainly the power of flight possessed by most insects is normally their principal means of dispersal to new feeding grounds. Unfor- tunately this is a matter usually quite beyond human control. Never- theless, as will be seen later, there are barriers even to powers of flight, and some of our most injurious pests, which are capable also of sustained flight, would never have reached this country at all, or the section where they are now a menace, had it not been for other means of dispersal entirely within the control of man. Strong winds, streams, ocean currents carrying debris or drift infested with insects, birds which are known occasionally to bear minute forms on their feet — all these are occasional means of the dispersal of insects and their introduction into new localities. But if we were to reckon up the hundred pests that are working greatest havoc with our farms and orchards to-day, we should find that at least half of them, if not three fifths, had been introduced, directly or indirectly, through the agency of man himself. The wa^^s in which this comes about are many. When shrubs or trees are imported from foreign countries, they are likely to be infested with pests new to this continent. The insect thus imported is apt to get a foothold and to develop into a pest of the first magnitude. It was 40 MEANS OF SPREAD 41 in this way that the San Jose scale was brought to the United States, and similar circumstances made possible the introduction of the brown- tail moth. Various substances used as packing for manufactured products im- ported from the far corners of the world may harbor threatening insects. Fruits, fruit products, or other edibles imported for consumption in the United States may, and often do, introduce injurious species. Undoubtedly the majority of the pests thus accidentally introduced fail to become establishes! and never are heard from. But if only an occasional species gains a foothold and nuilti})lies, the results are sufficiently disastrous. Finally, it happens sometimes that living specimens are imported for experiment or study, and through accident are allowed to escape. The best-known example of this is found in the gJT^}^ moth, now cost, ing New England millions of dollars in attempted suppression or control. CHAPTER IX Insects as Carriers of Disease Within comparatively recent years careful study has been given to insects as carriers of human disease, with the result that astounding facts have been disclosed. We know to-day that several of the serious and fatal diseases that afflict man, and several others to which domestic animals are subject, are carried or transmitted by insects ; and in some cases the disease is carried in no other way. The study of these facts and possibilities constitutes the new Medical Entomology. House Flies Beyond doubt the commonest and the worst offender is the house fly. Both observed facts and careful experiments have proved that this insect is instrumental in the spread of typhoid fever, tuberculosis, and certain intes- tinal diseases, and there is every probability that further study wiU reveal others. The habits of the fly in its choice of breeding places, its irrespressible tendency to enter our houses and walk over our food, and the structure of its body, especiafly its feet and its tongue, form the chain of circum- stances by which the transfer of disease germs is brought about. The same fly that spent its larval life as a maggot in filth or infected excre- 42 Fig. 42. — The House Fly, Musca domes- tica Linn. Enlarged. Original. TRANSMISSION OF DISEASE 43 ment later comes through our opened doors or unscreened windows, its hairy feet loaded with dangerous germs, and alights on the food set on our dinner table. Or, coming from the street, where it has been feeding on the sputum of some unfortunate victim of tuberculosis, it brings in the deadly bacteria in the ridges and hollows of its tongue. Mosquitoes In a wholly different manner the mosquitoes of certain species have been proved to transmit malarial fever. Indeed it is known that this disease never is transmitted in any other way. Here, in contrast to the fly which simply carries germs mechanically on some part of its body, we have an insect that serves as an intermediary host to the organism, the latter going through a definite part of its life round within the body of the insect, the remainder within the body of man. The mosquito itself is infected by sucking the blood of a human being suffering from malaria. The organism that causes the disease, being thus transferred to the stomach of the insect, goes through certain changes, and eventually collects in large numbers in the salivary gland of the mosquito. If, now, this insect bites another person, the organisms are transferred to the latter, and shortly develop in the blood, giving rise to the characteristic chills and fever, recurring at regular intervals, according to the particular type of organism with which the mosquito has been infected. As a direct result of this knowledge it has been possible to bring about phenomenal results in fever-ridden districts, by careful screening, and by isolating fever patients so that mosquitoes could not get at them while they were suffering from the disease. In places where this Fig. 43. — A malarial mosquito, An- opheles maculipennis Say. Enlarged and natural size. Original. 44 INSECTS AND DISEASE work has been carefully done the death rate from malaria has been re- duced to a small fraction of that formerly prevailing. Other Diseases Transmitted Yellow fever is transmitted solely by certain species of mosquitoes. In Montana and Idaho a disease known as spotted fever is carried by a tick. The terribly fatal bubonic plague is transmitted largely by fleas. A species of fly has been found to be the means of spread of the sleeping sickness that has been ravaging some sections of Africa. Yet this is only a part of the known list. Among domestic animals, a striking example is found in the disease known as Texas fever, which has caused tremendous losses among owners of cattle. The organism causing this disease is carried by a species of tick, and infection invariably takes place only through the bite of this tick. In Asia and Africa other serious or fatal diseases of domestic animals have been traced to insect carriers, and it is probable that similar discoveries will be made here. CHAPTER X The Natural Enemies of Insects That insects have a host of natural enemies which constantly prey on them is as certain as the fact that insects exist at all. If it were not so, and if our pests reached the full limit of their powers of increase un- checked, there would shortly be no living plant left on the face of the earth, and no trace of animal life. Insects possess preeminently, the ability to multiply rapidly and to spread widely. Thus it has been computed that the progeny of one plant louse in a single season, if allowed to multiply at the maximum rate and if none suffered accidental death, would make a mass of matter equal in weight to that of the earth. Fig. 44. — Protective coloration. Butterflies among dead leaves. Original. Fig. 45. — Protective resem- blance. Moth on the trunk of a tree. Original. Birds and Other Animals Among the higher animals that destroy noxious insects birds are entitled undoubtedly to first rank. Few of us appreciate their services. 45 46 NATURAL ENEMIES OF INSECTS Scores of species depend largely on insects for their food during a part of the 3^ear, if not throughout all of it. Among our best friends are the swallows, chickadees, cuckoos, the kingbird, catbird, robin, blue- bird, and the woodpeckers ; but this list is merely suggestive. Birds are peculiarly fitted for dealing with outbreaks of injurious insects. Possessed of the power of flight they can flock to places where insect pests that they enjoy are in abundance. At the same time they are not bound to maintain a species at reasonable abundance in order to protect their source of food and keep it from disappearing entirely, as is the case with many insect parasites. Toads are entitled to prominent rank as destroyers of insects. The number of specimens consumed by them in a season is enormous. Other animals that live on insects to a considerable extent are skunks, moles, and field mice. Efficient enemies of aquatic insects, or of such as spend part of their life beneath the water, are various species of fishes. Predaceous and Parasitic Insects The greatest inroads in the ranks of injurious insects are made by other members of the same great class itself, by the predaceous and parasitic insects. In general, we speak of predaceous insects as those that attack and feed on other insects or animals of various species, but are not dependent on a single individual host for their existence. Thus Fig. 46. — A predaceous bug, Sinea diadema Fab. Original. Fig. 47. — Adult Braconid. An egg parasite. Enlarged and natural size. Original. PREDACEOUS AND PARASITIC INSECTS 47 the dragon %, poised in air and waiting to pounce on some unwary gnat or fly, is predaceous. A parasitic insect, on the other hand, usually is higWy specialized for existence on some particular species of host, and has reached such depend- ence on its host that if the latter dies before the parasite has completed Fig. 48. — Larva, showing exit holes of parasites. Original. Fig. 49. Eggs of a parasite on a cut- worm. Original. its life round, the parasite perishes. Many parasitic insects live within the bodies of their hosts. A familiar example is found in the species that lays its eggs in the body of the tomato worm, the parasitic grubs finally gnawing their waj^ to the surface, where they spin tiny, white cocoons on the bod}^ of their host. For most of us, the tremendous work of para- sitic and predaceous spe- cies in destroying insect pests passes unnoticed. It is brought to mind when we see or hear of a bad outbreak of some injurious insect, and later observe that the threaten- ing species has suddenly grown scarce — eometimes seemingly disap- peared from the face of the earth in the very localities where it had been abundant. If we were to follow up such cases carefully, we should find, as a rule, that as soon as the threatening species Fiu. 50. Cocoons of parasites on Original. lar\a. 48 NATURAL ENEMIES OF INSECTS l:)esan to grow cxcessivel}^ nuniorous, some one of its enemies, stimulated by the abun- dance of food, increased so rapidly that with the next generation or the next season the injurious species was well-nigh wiped out of existence. In truth, there is a sort of natural balance between the numbers of a given species of insect and those of its enemies. If the insect increases abnormally, the parasites are stimu- lated to heavy increase and the numbers of Fig. 51. — Predaceous the host are rapidly diminished. If, on the beetle, Calosoma. Orig- ,^ ^ ^ .1 ■, . ^ 1 n j.i . J other hand, the host decreases abnormally, the parasites perish from lack of food, and thus, freed temporarily from their attack, the host is enabled to increase once more. Consideration of the above law hel]3s greath^ to explain the fact that injurious species imported from a foreign country are so often intolerable pests. We have brought over the host with- out its enemies. Finding con- ditions here congenial, it multi- plies to excessive numbers, escaping the attack of the parasites that would have taken it in hand in its native home. Occasionally, it has been found possible to import artificially the parasites of an introduced pest, and to establish them successfully in this country. But the venture is tedious and ,. , ,.^ ,, ^ Fig. 52. — Adult tachina fly; enlarged exceedmgly difficult. Some con- and natural size. The larva, are para- dition of weather or tempera- sites. Original. VALUE OF PARASITES 49 ture is found unfavorable to an essential parasite ; or it is discovered that in its new home the parasite itself is attacked by some enemy from which it was free in its native land. Rarely, however, the experiment is successful; and the few instances that do work out satisfactorily abundantly repay for the labor and cost of all. The most extensive attempt at the introduction of parasitic and predaceous enemies from abroad for the control of a menacing pest is that now in progress, under the auspices of the Bureau of Entomolog}^ of the United States Department of Agricul- ture, in the fight against the gypsy moth. At least ten or twelve species must be col- lected, imported, and colo- nized successfully, in order to make this work a complete success ; but there is excellent prospect of ultimate accom- plishment ; and meanwhile, no other known measures will avail to limit the ravages of the pest. Among our valuable families of predaceous insects are the ground beetles, tiger beetles, and lady-bird beetles in the order Coleoptera ; the assassin bugs and many aquatic forms in the order Hemiptera ; the dragon flies constituting the order Odonata ; and several families in the two-winged flies or Diptera. Two orders furnish the majority of our parasitic species, the Diptera and the H>Tnenoptera. The number of parasites within these orders is enormous. The principal families include the Tachina flies and the Syrphus flies in the Diptera, and the Ichneumons, Braconids, and Chalcids in the Hymenoptera. Fig. 53. — Eggs of C/ir^sopa sp. Predaceous on plant lice. Enlarged. Original. 50 NATURAL ENEMIES OF INSECTS Fungous and Bacterial Diseases of Insects Fungous diseases of various kinds attack insects, and occasionally are responsible for their death in large numbers. A famihar example is seen at the close of every summer when many of our common house flies may be observed clinging to the ceil- ing, their abdomens distended and covered with a fine, pow- dery substance, while a ring of the same light powder sur- rounds the insect's body on the ceiling. Nearly every season speci- mens of the common tent caterpillar may be found hang- ing from a leaf or twig, the body misshapen and covered with a powdery growth. Mil- lions of brown tail caterpillars have been killed in the New England states in the last two years by a fungous disease. Attempts have been made to propagate these diseases artificially. A fair measure of success has sometimes at- tended these efforts, but the undertaking is difficult, owing to the fact that certain con- appear to be essential to the Fig. 54. — Tent Caterpillar, Malacosoma americana Fab., killed by a fungous disease. Original. ditions of weather and moisture growth of the fungus. Caterpillars of some species are attacked also by bacteria of one or FUNGI AND BACTERIA 51 more species. Thus, the g\T3sy caterpillar occasionally dies off in large numbers from the effect of a disease due to a species of such Fig. 55. — Tent Caterpillars killed by a disease caused by a species of bacteria. Original. organism. The same or a similar disease attacks also the common tent caterpillar. PART II THE METHODS OF INSECT CONTROL CHAPTER XI Farm Practice in Relation to Insect Control To a considerable extent, — more than most of us suspect, — the depredations of injurious insects in our fields, orchards, and gardens may- be reduced or controlled by the farm practice followed on a given place ; methods of tillage, crop rotations, and such matters as thoroughness in eradicating weeds. More emphasis should be laid on the fact that all farm matters, including the tax paid to insect pests, are largely interdependent ; that careful consideration given to the subject of prob- able insect attack when planning the procedure for a season or a series of seasons invariably will pay, and pay well. Crop Rotation Of these various matters, crop rotation is one of the most important. An example will illustrate the point. Many insects attack only one kind of plant ; say corn, for example, or strawberries, or onions. It may always be expected that a few such pests will find their way to a field that has been planted to some one of these crops. If not very abundant, they may, and probably will, pass entirely unnoticed, and the injury that they do will be so slight that it may properly be disregarded. Now, many or most of these insects spend the winter close by the scene of their summer's feeding ; in the ground, under rubbish, or elsewhere near at hand. Assume now that this field is planted to the same crop the succeeding season. It will start out with an abundance of insect enemies, especially adapted to that crop. Instead of an injury so small that it passes unnoticed we may have a disastrous attack. Again it is well to avoid planting in the same field in successive seasons crops that are closely related botanically. Some of our in- 55 56 FARM PRACTICE IN RELATION TO INSECTS jurious species attack not simply a single variety of plant, but any that comes within the same group, — for example, the striped cucumber beetle, which will feed impartially on melons, squashes, and cucumbers. It should be noted in passing that the plan that is good practice from the standpoint of avoiding insect attack is likewise the procedure recognized as wisest in maintaining the fertility of the soil and avoiding difficulties on other scores. Special Questions in Crop Rotations Even where unlike crops follow one another, it may be wise to alter the program because of threatening insects left by one crop for the next in the rotation. To illustrate: when a field has been in sod for a number of years, it is apt to harbor large numbers of wireworms. This is due to the fact that sod ground forms the natural breeding place of this insect. The presence of the wireworms might not be suspected, for the grass roots on which they feed are so numerous in the soil that no appreciable damage would be done to the sod. But, break up this sod, so that the grass roots are killed, and plant the field to potatoes. The wireworms will still be there in considerable numbers, since they normally spend two or three years in the larval stage. In the whole field there will be left for them to feed on nothing but the seed potatoes that the owner has placed in the ground. The result, if the field was well infested, will be a wholsesale destruction of the seed potatoes, and if the owner replants, a repetition of the same performance. Had the field been planted to clover, or some other similar crop in the family of legumes, there would have been little or no injury. Fall Plowing Deep fall plowing is of value in destroying many forms of soil- inhabiting insects — as well as helping to form a good seed bed and conserve soil moisture. It is the habit of several pests of field and garden crops to spend the winter as pupae or adults in the soil, some- times in little earthen cells. Deep plowing, late in the fall, dis- turbs these and throws many of them up to the surface of the ground. METHODS OF AVOIDING INJURY 57 Removing Crop Remnants Other insects have the habit of hiding away under rubbish or crop remnants, such as old potato vines or cabbage stumps. It pays to remove these as soon as the crop is off. The vegetable matter that they represent need not be lost if they are piled up in some odd corner and allowed to rot, so as to form humus which later may be used where desired. Destruction of Weeds Weeds are a genuine nuisance in the matter of encouraging noxious insects. It is common for a pest that feeds on a given variety of plant to make use of some closely related weed as its source of food until the cultivated crop is ready for attack. Some of our garden insects habitually thus eke out an existence in the early spring or late fall. In the case of other species it is the habit of the pest to go through its first generation of the season on a weed, a second generation coming forth in irresistible numbers as the time arrives for the cultivated crop to put in its appearance. Changing Time of Planting or Harvest Sometimes, as in the districts where wheat is attacked by Hessian fly, there is advantage to be gained by changing the time of planting. With the Hessian fly it is the aim of the grower to defer the planting of winter wheat for a few days beyond the customary time, so that the plants will not be large enough to serve the purposes of the fly when it comes out later to lay its eggs. On farms where this procedure is followed carefully and accurately, injury from this pest has largely been avoided. With other insects similar variations in farm practice have been worked out, wherever the habits of the pest make such a remedy possible. The Value of Poultry Countless numbers of insects are picked up by poultry when allowed to range over considerable area, as is especially the case where the colony system of housing is followed. Not only arc troublesome 58 FARM PRACTICE IN RELATION TO INSECTS pests thus destroyed, but the fowls themselves obtain a fair share of their living. In orchards several serious pests transform or hibernate in the soil, or hide away under weeds and in clumps of grass. An example is the plum curculio. Fowls will secure many of these. In the fields chickens will readily follow a plow, and will find many specimens that live in the soil, such as white grubs and wireworms. Bugs and caterpillars in grains and grasses are destroyed by the wholesale. Stimulating Plant Growth Where it is not possible to prevent the attack of an insect, it often is feasible so to stimulate plant growth that the injury will not prove disastrous. Or, to put it the other way, crops that are kept growing vigorously and are fed liberall}'- are able to withstand insect attack, and to make a good yield in spite of it. Since we cannot always predict what pests will be prevalent in a given year, the wisdom and the ad- vantage of maintaining vigorous and healthy growth by all practicable means is apparent. The fact is again here emphasized that whatever constitutes good farm practice in one regard is apt to help out as well in others. CHAPTER XII Direct Control by Mechanical Means Some of the important measures for the control of injurious insects have been discussed in the preceding chapter. For the most part these may be classed as indirect methods, since they are intended largely to prevent attack or injury, and are a part of general farm practices adopted for various reasons besides those relating to insects. On the other hand there are measures that are intended directly to accomplish the destruction of a given pest or to prevent its attack, and are adopted primarily for that purpose. First among these are a number of simple methods that naturally suggest themselves in the case of the larger insects or those that con- gregate in hmited areas ; such as hand picking or burning. Measures of this kind require no special apparatus, and often are effective. They may or may not presuppose accurate knowledge of the life history or habits of the insect dealt with ; but often such knowledge is essential if any real benefits are to be secured. Examples of this type are as follows : Hand Picking Hand picking, jarring, or brushing is a common practice in dealing with such insects as the tomato worm, squash bugs, and the like. It is worth knowing that a mass of such insects collected in a box or other receptacle can easily be killed by sprinkling them with kerosene. Burning Burning is often a prompt and effective remedy, especially with cater- pillars that tend to congregate in masses. A familiar example is seen in the common tent caterpillar. 59 60 CONTROL BY MECHANICAL MEANS A simple torch is conveniently made by iy'mg a ball of raj^s tightly on the end of a pole, and soaking with kerosene, taking care not to use so much of the liquid that it runs down the pole. Destroying Egg Masses Destruction of egg masses is a valuable means of control where the egg clusters may be found readily. Egg masses may be crushed, or they may be painted with some penetrating oil, such as creosote. Banding In the control of some caterpillars, banding the trees is simple and effective; but it is absolutely worthless against others. Its value depends on the characteristics of the insect to be dealt with. Thus, in the case of the cankerworm infesting apple trees, the adult female happens to be wingless, and must crawl up the trunk to lay her eggs. A sticky band will stop her from going up to the branches, and if the band is maintained until the young worms have hatched and they in turn are thus prevented from ascending the tree, no damage can be done to the foliage. But this band would be useless as a means of preventing a winged moth, such as the parent of the tent caterpillar, from gaining access to the tree. Bands are of value also where it is desired to prevent caterpillars that have hatched on adjacent land from migrating to trees that had been protected or cared for. An effective substance for banding is the material known as tree tanglefoot. It cannot be made at home, but must be bought ready prepared. Printer's ink is dangerous if applied directly to trees with tender bark. It may be smeared on a sheet of paper tied around the tree. Covering with Cloth or Screen Usually this plan is made use of to prevent injury to young plants, until they have grown large enough to withstand attack. Young melon or squash plants are thus protected from injury by the striped cucumber beetle. Where cloth is used, it should be of thin texture. Common cheese- BANDING — DESTROYING BORERS . 61 cloth serves the purpose very well. Handy covers are made by cutting a barrel hoop into two pieces, crossing these at a right angle, tacking the ends to a second hoop, and covering this frame with cloth. Such frames may be packed away for storage, one within another, taking up little room. Wire screening may be shaped into cones, which are used in the same way as the cloth-covered frames, and have a similar advantage of packing away in small space. If galvanized wire is used and properly stored when not needed, it will not rust for several years; but the first cost is rather heavy as compared with cheesecloth frames. Destroying Borers Cutting out borers with a knife is a remedy that seems drastic, but it may be the only means of putting a stop to an injury that would otherwise prove fatal. Frequently, it is possible to kill the borer by probing the burrow with a soft copper wire. If the end of the wire is nicked, so as to give it a few rough barbs, it will bring the borer or a piece of him out with it, and the operator may thus know whether he has succeeded in reaching the culprit. If cutting is necessary, a sharp knife should be used and the course of the burrow carefully followed. In this way no more real damage will be done to the tree than has already been done by the borer itself. It is well to paint the wound afterward with a mixture of lead and linseed oil — not with ready-mixed paint, which is apt to contain injurious oils added as driers. Removal of Dead or Dying Limbs There are certain species of small borers that attack especially trees that have been weakened. Once started, they continue to breed in such places, rapidly killing the tree and spreading from it to others in the neighborhood that do not happen to be growing as vigorously as might be. By prompt removal of the infested limbs or trees the pests may be eliminated and other trees near by saved from attack. This, in fact, is the only feasible means of control in the case of some insects, 62 CONTROL BY MECHANICAL MEANS such as the shot-hole borer. The hmbs or trees removed should be converted at once into cord wood and burned. Otherwise, little will be gained by their removal. Use of Traps The kinds of traps are legion, and range all the way from chips or stones placed in the garden for squash bugs to hide under to more or less ingenious devices for capturing roaches and flies. Many are efficient, though it often seems that new individuals make their appear- ance about as fast as the others are caught. At best the total numbers merely are reduced. A variation of traps is seen in the use of trap crops. By this device some kind of plant is introduced that the pest is fond of, and after the insects have collected on these plants, they are destroyed by poisoning, burning, or by spraying them wdth some oil or corrosive, such as pure kerosene. In other cases the trap precedes the regular crop, and thus diverts attack from the more valuable plant. Thus, early kale is sown in fields that later are to be set out to cabbages, in order to attract the overwintering adults of the harlequin cabbage bug. CHAPTER XIII Insecticides — General Principles The use of chemicals for the destruction of insect pests had its origin with the advent of the Colorado potato beetle in our fields, about 1870. The beetle first came to notice as a pest of cultivated potatoes in the region between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. It spread steadily eastward, and in a few years reached the Atlantic coast. It was feared at the time that the growing of potatoes was doomed, and famine was freely predicted. Then came the suggestion that the potato tops be dusted or sprayed with Paris green, so as to poison the pest. The remedy was found to work. And thus was started the modern practice of using chemicals for the control of injurious insects. To-day a large proportion of our insect pests, more especially those infesting garden truck, fruits, and stored products, are controlled by some form of spraying, or by fumigation. The primary rule governing the appHcation of chemicals for the con- trol of an injurious insect is to determine the feeding habits. If the pest is one that eats the foliage or tissues^ in other words, if it has bit- ing mouth parts, it may usually be killed by applying to the plant some form of stomach poison, such as Paris green or lead arsenate. If, on the other hand, the pest sucks the plant juices instead of chewing or eating the tissues, in other words, if it has sucking mouth parts, it is utterly useless to apply any of the stomach poisons to the surface of the plant, for they will not be taken up by the insect. The sucking beak, thrust down through the surface of the leaf, misses the poison. In this class of insects, therefore, the chemicals applied must be such as will Idll the insect by contact with it, usually by entering its breath- ing pores. 64 INSECTICIDES — GENERAL PRINCIPLES In other words, poison sprays for leaf-eating insects are applied to the plant, to be eaten along with part of the plant. Contact sprays are applied to the iiisect, and only incidentally to the plant, since we could not hit the one without hitting the other. With these, the great aim is to apply the material so thoroughly that it will certainly come into contact with all the insects concerned. A third method of using chemicals is to take advantage of the suf- focating qualities of certain gases. Such materials are known as Jumi- gants. They are of great value in fighting pests living in stored prod- ucts, such as the grain weevils. It is necessary, in using fumigants, that the materials treated shall be in a closed receptacle. An anomalous material, applied frequently in the open air but kill- ing the insect by the volatile oil that it gives off, is the so-called Per- sian insect powder. Examples of insects that have biting mouth parts and are killed by poison sprays are the grasshoppers, roaches, beetles, and practically all caterpillars. Examples of insects that have sucking mouth parts, and cannot be killed by poisons, but must be fought with contact sprays or by some other means, are the thrips, fleas, and the true " bugs " — such as the squash bug, plant lice, scale insects, and leaf hoppers. CHAPTER XIV Poison Insecticides — For Biting Insects Paris Green Paris green 5 ounces Lump lime 1 pound Water 50 gallons For small quantities use : Paris green 1 heaping teaspoonful Lump lime 2 or 3 ounces Water 3 gallons Paris green is a bright green, heavy, finely divided powder, and is one of the compounds of arsenic. It may be applied dry, but is much better used in water or other liquid as a spray. It is a violent poison. The present standard calls for at least 50 per cent arsenious oxid, and not over 3^ per cent soluble arsenic. If applied dry, mix with three or four times the same weight of flour or fine, air-slaked lime, preferably the latter. Dust lightly on the plants. Be careful not to put on too much, or there will be danger of burning the foliage because of the " free " or soluble arsenic apt to be found in the material. A good way is to mix the poison and the lime together, thoroughly, place in a muslin bag and shake gently over the plants. If this is done when the dew is on, or just after a shower, the material will stick better to the foliage. If to be used as a spray, Paris green may be mixed with water or with Bordeaux mixture. In either case, the amount to use is from 4 to 5 ounces of the Paris green to 50 gallons of the liquid. If water is used, add about 1 pound of fresh lump lime to each 50 gal- lons of water. This is done to neutralize any soluble arsenic present and thus avoid injuring the foliage. F 65 66 POISONS — FOR BITING INSECTS Resin soap is sometimes added to a solution of Paris green and water, in order to make the material stick to smooth leaves. It may be bought in stores, and should be used at the rate of 3 pounds to 50 gallons. Resin-lime mixture, especially adapted for the purpose of a ^' sticker," is made by heating in an iron kettle 1 gallon of water, 1 pint of fish oil or other animal oil, and 5 pounds of resin. Then add lye solution, prepared by dissolving one can of lye according to the directions on the can. After thorough stirring, add hot water to make 5 gallons, and boil two hours, adding water to make up that lost by boiling. The re- sulting liquid is light brown and clear and will unite smoothly with cold water. For use take 3 gallons to 50 gallons of water, then add 3 gallons of thick whitewash, and finally add the Paris green. Advantages of Paris green are its cheapness, its quick action in kill- ing insects, and the fact that it may readily be obtained in most stores. Disadvantages are its Hability to adulteration, the fact that it settles quickly in the spray barrel, that it sometimes burns the foliage, and that it is rather easily washed off by rains. The last-named fact is an advantage, rather than a disadvantage, if it is desired to spray plants that will soon be ready for use, and will therefore need to be washed clean. Arsenate of Lead Arsenate of lead (paste) 3 to 10 pounds Water 50 gallons or Arsenate of lead (powder) . . . . 1 to 4 pounds Water . .50 gallons For small quantities use: Arsenate of lead (paste) 1 tablespoonful Water 1 gallon Arsenate of lead is obtainable in two forms : a thick, light-colored paste, or a white powder. The former is more commonly the manner in which it is put up. The two do not differ chemically. Arsenate of ARSENATE OF LEAD 67 lead is a compound of arsenic, but is a less violent poison than Paris green. The standard requirements for the paste call for at least 12 1 per cent arsenic oxid, not over f per cent soluble arsenic, and not over 50 per cent water. To apply as a spray, the paste may be mixed with water, with Bor- deaux mixture, or with lime-sulphur solution. In either case the strength to employ is from 3 to 10 pounds of the paste in 50 gallons of water, or of Bordeaux mixture, or of lime-sulphur solution. If the dry lead arsenate is used in making up a spray, it is advan- tageous to employ the finely powdered form made by the " electro " process. The proportions will be from 1 to 4 pounds of the powder to 50 gallons. Either the paste or the powder should first be mixed with a little water, so as to get it into a thin paste. It is entirely unnecessary to add lime. Owing to the fact that arsenate of lead is not as violent a poison as Paris green, it is necessary to use heavier doses for larger or resistant insects, as indicated in the formula given above. Powdered arsenate of lead, applied dry, is developing a special field of usefulness and promises to become a valuable form of insecticide application. Paris green has been used in this way for many years, especiall}^ on some truck and field crops in the South ; but it is rather hkely to burn the foliage and is easily washed off by rains. Powdered lead arsenate, especially the amorphous form made by the so-called '' electro " process, rarely will burn the plants, and if apphed after a shower or when the dew is on the leaves, it sticks tightly. On most truck crops or field crops it has important advantages over liquid applications. The apparatus for applying it is light and inex- pensive ; large areas can be covered easily and rapidly ; the need of drawing a hea\y cart through the field is obviated ; and if a good pow- der gun is used, the material can be forced in large quantities into the places where it will do the most good. It is not suitable for orchard work in general, or for work of such character as vineyard spraying. Advantages of lead arsenate are the facts that it will not usually burn foliage, that it stays in suspension in the spray mixture fairly 68 POISONS — FOR BITING INSECTS well if moderately agitated, and that it is not easily washed off the leaf surface. Disadvantages are its larger cost and the fact that it does not so quickly kill insects as does Paris green. Hellebore Hellebore 1 ounce Water 1 gallon or Hellebore 1 part Flour 3 parts Hellebore is a white powder, consisting of the finely ground roots of the plant known as white hellebore {veratrum album). It is of little value unless it is fresh, or has been kept in a tightly closed vessel. It is poisonous to the larger animals when taken in sufficient quantity. It may be used dry or as a spray. If it is to be used dry, mix it with flour at the rate of one pound of the powder to three pounds of flour, and let the material stand over night in a closed vessel. It may then be dusted on the plants in any convenient manner. There is no dan- ger of burning the foliage. If to be used as a spray, steep one ounce of the powder in one gallon of water. Hellebore has the advantage that it loses its poisonous properties after exposure to the air for three or four days, and therefore may be applied with safety to ripening fruits ; for example, currants that are about ready to use. Poison Bran Mash Bran 25 pounds Paris green ^ pound Cheap molasses 1 quart Water as needed to moisten. For small quantities use : Bran 1 quart Paris green 1 teaspoonful Cheap molasses . . . .1 tablespoonful Water as needed to moisten. POISON BRAN MASH 69 Poison bran mash is a mixture of Paris green, bran, and sweetened water, and is used particularly for cutworms. Mix, dry, | pound of Paris green and 25 pounds of bran. Mid- dlings or meal may be used instead of bran, but the latter is to be pre- ferred. Prepare some sweetened water, by mixing 1 quart of cheap molasses and 2 gallons of water. Moisten the poisoned bran with this sweetened water, using additional water if necessary so as to get the bran thoroughly moist throughout, but not so wet as to be sloppy. The poison mash thus obtained is scattered on the surface of the ground. CHAPTER XV Contact Insecticides — For Sucking Insects Lime-sulphur Solution Lime sulphur is a chemical combination of lime and sulphur, and kills insects by its caustic properties. At the same time it has con- siderable value as a fungicide, for the control of such plant diseases as apple scab. The material is used both as a winter spray, when the trees are dor- mant, and as a summer spray, the latter for fungus diseases ; but the solution for summer use is much weaker. Material of the proper strength for winter use must never be sprayed on trees in leaf as it will burn the foliage. The best time to apply the winter strength of lime-sulphur solution is in the early spring, just before the buds swell. For San Jose scale and for leaf blister mite, two insects for which this material is especially useful, this is the most effective season. It may be applied in the fall, however, at any time after the leaves drop. There are three ways of preparing the winter wash of lime sulphur : by diluting the commercial concentrated solution now on sale in stores to the required strength; by making a concentrated solution at home, and properly diluting when needed ; and by making at home a solution which w^hen finished is ready at once for use. These will be described in order. Commercial Lime Sulphur Commercial concentrated lime sulphur is a clear, reddish brown liq- uid. It has been placed on the market by a number of manufacturers, and is obtainable practically everywhere. For use, this material simply is diluted with water. The amount of water to be added always is indicated on the container in which the hquid comes. But if it is desired to test the strength, this can be done 70 CONCENTRATED LIME SULPHUR 71 with a hydrometer, which will indicate the specific gravity. Procure a hydrometer marked according to the Baume scale, and dilute accord- ing to the table given below in the directions for diluting home-made concentrated lime sulphur, remembering that this is for use on dormant trees only. Since this spray material is quite clear, it shows but little on the trees. Some operators, therefore, are following the practice of adding lime to the material after it is diluted ready for the spray tank, in order to make the spray show up. Probably there is no advantage gained in efficiency, but one can tell whether the tree is thoroughly coated. The lime must be added after the material is diluted. Either lump lime or air-slaked lime, at the rate of 6 or 8 pounds to 50 gallons of diluted spray, may be employed. It will require about ten minutes for the lump lime to slake. Care should be taken to arrange matters so that the addition of lime will take place before the final straining. Home-made Concentrated Lime Sulphur Lump lime 50 pounds Sulphur 100 pounds Water (hot) 70 gallons Dilute as directed. If suitable appliances are at hand, it is feasible to make up con- centrated lime sulphur at home, which can be diluted for use when needed. It is absolutely necessary, however, to keep the finished prod- uct sealed up away from contact with air, and it is essential that the purity of the materials used be guaranteed. In most cases, it will be found that the commercial concentrate is safer. To prepare the concentrate, have ready two boilers, one of which must be of 100 gallons capacity and is used for boiling the materials, while the other serves to keep ready a supply of boiling water to re- plenish the material as it boils down. It is advisable to have a measur- ing stick, so that the amount of liquid may be ascertained from time to time, and hot water added when needed. It is much better if the cook- ing can be done by steam, in a closed vessel ; but direct fire will do. 72 INSECTICIDES FOR SUCKING INSECTS Place in the main boiler 50 pounds of stone lime. Add 20 gallons of hot water. While the lime is slaking add 100 pounds of sulphur. Stir the mixture thoroughly and constantly, adding more water from time to time. When the lime is slaked, add hot water to make 70 gallons. Boil this slowly for one half to three quarters of an hour, or until all of the sulphur and lime are dissolved. Dip out small quanti- ties and test from time to time. As the material boils away, add hot water to keep the volume up to 70 gallons. When the materials are all dissolved, pour out into barrels, straining carefully, and allow to cool. At once close up as nearly air tight as possible. To dilute for use as a winter spray, take 1 gallon of the concentrate to 5 gallons of water. Or, better, have a Baume hydrometer, test the specific gravity of the concentrate, and dilute with water according to the following table : Reading on Hydrometer in Degrees Number of Gallons of Water to Baume One Gallon of the Concentrate 35 9 34 8f 33 8i 32 8 31 7^ 30 7i 29 6f 28 6i 27 6 26 5f 25 5i 24 5 23 4i 22 4i 21 3f 20 3i 19 3i 18 3 17 2f 16 2i 15 2i 14 2 The above dilutions are for winter strength (the material commonly used for San Jose scale and leaf blister mite). KEROSENE EMULSION 73 Regular Home-made Lime-sulphur Wash Lump lime 20 pounds Sulphur 15 pounds Water 50 gallons The material here described, when finished, is of the proper strength for use as a winter spray, without further dilution. It contains much sediment, and must always be carefully strained before use, or it will clog the nozzles intolerably. It is the standard formula with many fruit growers, and is considered to be especially effective against San Jose scale. It is easier to prepare it if facilities are at hand for cooking by steam ; but the use of large iron kettles is permissible, provided the material is stirred constantly and vigorously during the entire time it is cooking. Place in the boiler 20 pounds of stone lime. Add a few gallons of hot water to start the lime to slaking, and then gradually add 15 pounds of flowers of sulphur, stirring constantly. Add 12 gallons of hot water, and boil hard for an hour. Dilute with more hot water until there are 50 gallons of the mixture. Strain carefully, using preferably a brass wire strainer with twenty meshes to the inch. Apply the solution while still hot. Kerosene Emulsion Hard soap h pound Hot water (soft) 1 gallon Kerosene (coal oil) 2 gallons Dilute as directed. Kerosene emulsion is a valuable insecticide, especially for destrojang hibernating insects in rubbish, and, when further diluted, for killing plant lice, and other similar insects. The ingredients are kerosene (coal oil), soap, and water. By means of the soap the oil is broken up into extremely fine particles, or, in other words, is '' emulsified," so that in effect it may be applied greatly diluted, and its killing power on insects secured without injuring plant tissues. To prepare, shave up ^ pound of laundry soap in 1 gallon of soft 74 INSECTICIDES FOR SUCKING INSECTS water. Have the water boiling hot. As soon as the soap is all dis- solved, remove the solution from the fire and add 2 gallons of kero- sene. At once agitate the material violently. This is best accom- plished by the use of a bucket pump, turning the nozzle back into the bucket, so that the material is constantly passed through the pump. In a few minutes a smooth, creamy emulsion is formed, without any free oil. This will become thicker as it cools, but if it is properly made, no oil will separate out. This is the stock material, and will keep well, if sealed from air. For use on trees or shrubs that are dormant it is customary to dilute the stock emulsion with 5 to 7 parts of water. On trees or plants in leaf dilute with 10 to 15 parts of water, depending on the type of in- sect and the kind of fohage. Soft-bodied insects such as plant lice are easily killed by a dilution containing only 5 or 6 per cent of oil. To get exact dilutions use the following table : For 4% strength add 15f gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution- For 5% strength add 12^ gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution. For 7% strength add 8| gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution. For 10% strength add 5f gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution. For 12% strength add 4| gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution. For 15% strength add 3| gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution. For 18% strength add 2f gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution. For 20% strength add 2f gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution. For 25% strength add If gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution. Oil sprays are best applied on a sunny day when the wind is blowing, since surplus oil will then evaporate more quickly and there will be less danger of injuring the plant. Crude oils are emulsified in the same way as kerosene. For certain insects, as indicated later, this spray is effective and desirable. Linseed Oil Emulsion Hard soap 1 pound Hot water (soft) 1 gallon Linseed oil (raw) 2 gallons Dilute as directed. TOBACCO EXTRACT 75 The manner of making linseed oil emulsion is similar to that of making kerosene emulsion. The material has a special use in fight- ing oyster shell scale. To make the stock emulsion take 1 pound of soap, shave up fine, and dissolve in 1 gallon of boiling soft water. When the soap is all dissolved, remove the solution from the fire and add at once 2 gallons of raw linseed oil. Churn the mixture violently by pumping it back on itself with a bucket pump. After a few minutes, a yellowish, smooth, creamy emulsion will be formed. No oil should separate out, if the stock is properly prepared. To prepare for use, take 1 gallon of the stock and dilute with 9 gallons of soft water. This is for use on trees not yet in leaf. For oyster shell scale it is best applied just before the buds swell in the spring. Commercial Tobacco Extract Highly concentrated extracts of tobacco are now on the market, and constitute a valuable class of contact insecticides. They are dark-colored liquids, and are prepared for use by diluting with water, according to the degree of concentration of the brand purchased and the kind of insect concerned. It is advantageous to add soap to the solution, in order to make it spread more readily and prevent it from collecting in globules. Use 1 pound of soap to 50 gallons of the diluted spray. Rather strong dilutions of commercial tobacco extract have been found of possible value as winter sprays to kill the overwintering eggs of certain plant lice on the bark or twigs of dormant trees. Weaker dilutions are standard remedies for fighting various soft- bodied sucking insects, such as plant lice, thrips, and the like. These dilutions are applied with perfect safety to trees in leaf. Similar dilutions are used as dips for sheep or other domestic ani- mals, to kill mites and lice. " Black Leaf 40," containing 40 per cent nicotine sulphate, is used for winter spraying, as noted above, at dilutions ranging from 1 part to 300 of water down to 1 part to 600. For use in summer the dilu- 76 INSECTICIDES FOR SUCKING INSECTS tions range from 1 part to 500 in the case of resistant insects down to 1 part to 1000 in the case of tender plant Hce. The dilutions for killing lice and mites on animals are similar to the last named. The strength of 1 to 500 should be used only as a wash and not as a dip, when treating pests on animals. '' Sulphate of Nicotine " is a preparation of similar strength, and the dilutions are the same. Liquid " Nico-Fume " contains 40 per cent free nicotine, but the dilutions and manner of use are similar to the above. " Black Leaf Extract " contains a much lower percentage of nico- tine, and less water is added to it than to the others named. Home-made Tobacco Extract If tobacco stems or tobacco dust are available, an extract may be made at home. To prepare, pack the stems in a pail or kettle and cover with water. Allow to stand over night. Or, boil 1 pound of dust or stems in 1 gallon of water. An hour's boiling is sufficient. Dilute the extract with 1 to 2 parts of water. This material may safely be applied to plants in leaf and is effective against plant lice. Add soap at the rate of 1 pound to 50 gallons of spray. It is not advisable to employ this as a winter spray to kill the eggs of plant lice because the percentage of nicotine present may not be sufficient. Insect Powder Insect powder 1 ounce Water 2 gallons This is the material variously known as pyrethrum, buhach, or Persian insect powder. It consists of the finely ground flower buds of a plant. The active principle is volatile ; hence the material rapidly loses its strength on exposure to air. It must be fresh, or must have been kept in a closed receptacle, to be effective. Commonly it is used dry. Small powder guns are obtainable for applying it. To use it as a spray, mix 1 ounce in 2 gallons of water. If it is SOAP SOLUTION 77 desired to use it in larger quantities, a convenient method is to steep 1 pound in 1 gallon of alcohol, then dilute with 40 gallons of water. This material is not poisonous to man or the higher animals. Soap Solution Hard soap 1 pound Water 5 gallons A simple solution of soap and water is effective against plant hce and similar sucking insects, and is especially useful for treating insects infesting house plants, where it is not desirable to use other and less pleasant materials. Ordinary laundry soap may be used. Dissolve 1 pound of soap in 5 gallons of water. This solution will not injure plants in leaf. Whale-oil soap may be used instead of laundry soap. The potash soap is best. It should contain not over 30 per cent water. One pound in 4 or 5 gallons of water is the proper strength for plants in leaf. A solution of whale-oil soap and water is sometimes used for San Jose scale, applying it to trees in winter, while they are dormant. For such use, take 2 pounds of the soap to 1 gallon of hot water. This material is not as effective against scale as lime-sulphur solution, and the cost is greater. Carbolic Acid Emulsion Hard soap . 1 pound Hot water (soft) . 1 gallon CarboUc acid (crude) . 1 pint Dilute as directed. This is one of the remedies occasionally recommended for killing root maggots. , These maggots are not properly sucking insects, but because of the conditions under which they are found, the use of a contact insecticide is sometimes recommended. 78 INSECTICIDES FOR SUCKING INSECTS Carbolic acid emulsion is prepared in the same manner as kerosene emulsion. Dissolve 1 pound of hard soap in § gallon of boiling water. Then add 1 pint of crude carbolic acid, and at once churn the mixture by pumping it back on itself with a bucket pump until a smooth emulsion is formed. This is the stock material. To prepare for use dilute at the rate of 1 part of the stock emulsion to 50 parts of water. CHAPTER XVI Repellents Occasionally some chemical is found to be of service in driving away insects at work on a plant. Many remedies of this nature are pro- posed from time to time, but in most cases further tests prove that they are without real value. Dry-slaked lime is of service in driving away certain pests, such as the striped cucumber beetle. To prepare, place fresh lump lime in a metal vessel and add a small amount of hot water. The lime will slake to an extremely fine powder. This is dusted on the insects. If desired, flowers of sulphur may be added to the slaked lime. Tobacco dust is reasonably effective as a repellent. It must be fresh, and is dusted directly on the insects; or when used as a pre- ventive of attack by root maggots, the dust is heaped up around the stem of each plant. Naphthaline, or " moth balls," is of moderate value as a repellent for such insects as the common clothes moths, or for some of the pests that infest dried animal products. This material is not, how- ever, a complete protection. It should be noted, further, that if moths have already laid their eggs on garments, and the latter are afterwards packed away with naphthaline, no benefit whatever will be s'ecured. The substance is a repellent solely for the adult moth, and not for the larva, which does the real damage. Protective Wash for Trunks of Trees Dissolve 2 quarts of strong soft soap in a bucket of water. One pound of hard soap may be used instead of the soft soap. Add ^ pint of crude carbolic acid and 2 ounces of Paris green. Then add lime, or clay, or both, so as to make a thick paste. Paint this on the trunks or limbs of trees as a deterrent for borers. It will not give entire protection, but will help to ward off attack. 79 CTTAPTT'K WIT FiMUiAN rs In ^ouoral. fumipition is available iov killini!; insorts only wlion tl\i^ plants or substauoes tivatod are in an inolosoii space. This is for the reason tl\at the various gases whieh are the active killinj2; auients in any fmniiiation nuist be eontined to be elTeetive. Funiigatiou is eoninionly used in ii;reen houses, in the treatment of pests infestinu; stored or niantifaetured products, and in the treatment of nursery stock suspected of infestation with San Joso scale. The methods employed and the streni2;ths of material used vary with these ditYerent classes of work. The iivneral manner of using the chemicals, and the principles involved, are similar. Carbon Bisulphide Carbon bisulphide . . 1 ])ound to each 100 cubic feet This is the material ordinarily used for killiuii; pests of stored and manufactured products, except in grain elevators where the risk of accidental tire is considered too great. It is a cU\ir, lu\ivv licjuid, with a strong and disagreeable odor. On exposure to air, it evapo- rates rapidly, giving otT a gas that is heavier than air, and therefore diffuses down rather than up. Allow 1 pound of carbon bisulphide for each 100 cubic feet of space in the fumigating chamber. Or, if grain is being fumigated, allow 1 ]Hnmd of the liiiuid to each 100 bushels oi grain. In small quantities this is about equivalent to 2 drams to the bushel. This is the dosage at ordinary temperatures t)f ()0° to 70° Fahren- heit. At nuich lower temperatiu-es a heavier dose will be reciuired, 80 CARBON TKTRACHLOHIIjE 81 and at higher temperatures one half to three fourths of the above will suffice. Place the material to be treated in a box, barrel, or bin that can be made at least fairly air tight. Pour out the carbon bisulphide in onf; or more shallow dishes, and place on top of the materials. Put on the cover at once, and leave for twenty-four hours. Blankets or canvas thrown over the top of the box will assist in retaining the fumes. 1)0 not allou) any fire, or even a lighted cigar, anywhere near at the time of fumigating or for a period after, until the fumes have disappeared. Use reasonable care not to breathe the fumes too much or too long at a time, as they will be apt to cause headache or illness. Xo in- convenience should be experienced if ordinary care is exercised. If large- amounts of grain are being fumigated, it is best to intro- duce some of the liquid to the middle layer of the heap instead of putting all on top. To do this, fit a round stick loosely in a section of small iron pipe. Leaving the stick in the pipe, shove it down through the grain. Then withdraw the stick, and pour the desired amount of the carbon bisulphide down the pipe. The stick merely serves to keep the grain from filling the pipe when it Is shoved down into the heap. After being fumigated, the grain should be shoveled over, so as to help remove the gas remaining in it. Carbon Tetrachloride Carbon tetrachloride . . 2 pounds to each 100 cubic feet A substitute for carbon bisulphide is found in carbon tetrachloride. It has the advantage of being nonexplosive, and therefore may be preferred in fumigating bins in a house or barn, or wherever there is possible danger of fire. It is not as active as carbon bisulphide, and will not kill insects as readily. The proper strength to use is 2 pounds of carbon tetrachloride for each 100 culjic feet of space or each 100 bushels of grain. In small quantities use 4 drams to each cubic foot or each bushel of grain. 82 FUMIGANTS Sulphur Under some conditions a satisfactory fumigation may be had by burning sulphur at the rate of 2 pounds to 1000 cubic feet. It should be noted that the fumes are harmful to vegetation, that they will bleach fabrics, and that they will destroy the germinating power of seeds. As a means of killing bedbugs in empty rooms the treatment is excellent. Place the sulphur in a fire-proof vessel, and this in turn within a larger vessel, and ignite. Keep the place closed for 24 hours. Hydrocyanic Acid Gas The most active fumigating agent in use is hydrocyanic acid gas, made by combining water, sulphuric acid, and potassium cyanide. This gas is a deadUj 'poison to man as well as insects, and its use should not be attempted unless careful precautions are taken, or the opera- tor has had experience. It should never be used for fumigating any part of an inhabited house, unless the entire premises can be vacated for two or three days until the structure is thoroughy aired. For fumigating nursery stock, the materials are used in the propor- tion of 1 ounce of 98 per cent potassium cyanide, 2 ounces of com- mercial sulphuric acid, and 4 ounces of water for each 100 cubic feet of space in the fumigating chamber. The chamber is kept closed for 40 minutes. To generate the gas, have ready an earthen crock of generous size. Pour the necessary amount of water into the crock, and slowly add the sulphuric acid, stirring the mixture. Never re- verse this order and pour the water into the acid. Considerable heat will be generated. Place the proper amount of potassium cyanide in a paper bag, or tie up loosely in paper, drop the package into the crock, and at once leave the room, closing it up air tight. A con- venient way of adding the cyanide is to suspend the bag over the crock with a string, the other end of which is led through a small hole in the fumigating chamber, so that the operator can retire first and seal the door, and then lower the bag of cyanide into the acid. HYDROCYANIC ACID GAS 83 In fumigating a house, or a part of a house, the materials are com- bined in the same manner as above, but the proportions to use are 1 ounce of cyanide, 1 ounce of sulphuric acid, and 3 ounces of water to each 100 cubic feet. All cracks should be sealed or stopped up. Gummed paper is useful for this purpose. After the fumigation is complete, the house must be aired out by opening the windows from the outside. Fumigation of dwellings ought never to be attempted unless one thoroughly understands the process and the necessary precautions. In greenhouses the amount of material to use cannot definitely be specified in advance, and ought always to be ascertained by careful preliminary trial. Different plants will withstand varying amounts of the fumigant, and much depends on the tightness of the house. It is best to begin with a dose of | to ^ ounce of cyanide to the thou- sand cubic feet, continuing the treatment for about 2 hours, at once airing the house and observing results. If the insects are not all killed, and the plants are uninjured, the dose may be made a little heavier. Fumigation in greenhouses must aways be done at night, and the leaf surfaces must be dry. The house may be aired out late the same night or early the next morning, before the sun is hot. Greenhouse fumigation is of special value against mealy bugs, white fly, and violet aphis, because other possible treatments are in- jurious to the plants or ineffective. It is not successful against scale insects or red spider. When greenhouses are cleared of plants between crops, they should be thoroughly fumigated, using the cyanide at the rate of 5 to 8 ounces to the thousand cubic feet and continuing the treatment over night. Valuable protection will thus be secured for the succeeding crop. Fumigation with Tobacco For the control of most plant lice in greenhouses, fumigation with tobacco is a common method. This cannot be employed in houses containing violets, since the fumes will spot the leaves. 84 FUM WANTS The usual method is to burn stems or dust, or to vaporize hquid extracts of tobacco, or to make use of a specially prepared punk now on sale in stores. The last is usually the most satisfactory method. It is desirable in tobacco fumigation to generate the smudge near the level of the floor, because it rises rather rapidly, and if generated at the height of the benches, much of the strength of the fumigant will be concentrated near the roof. CHAPTER XVIII Fungicides combined with Poisons Materials that are used for the control of plant diseases, such as scab, mildew, and the like, are called fungicides, as contrasted with materials used for the destruction of insects, called insecticides. Fungi- cides are not intended for the control of insect pests, and for the most part have no value whatever in insect warfare. However, one of the materials commonly used for plant diseases, Bordeaux mixture, has also some effect in driving away certain insects from plants, or at least is distasteful to them. A second fungicide, lime sulphur, as prepared for use in summer on trees in leaf, also has some value as a mild contact insecticide, of considerable efficiency against such soft-bodied sucking insects as plant lice. In addition, it is common practice to use either of these materials with a poison, such as arsenate of lead, added to it, as a combined insecticide and fungicide, instead of applying the two sprays sepa- rately. Directions for their preparation and use, therefore, seem proper at this point. Bordeaux Mixture Copper sulphate 4 pounds Lump lime 4 pounds Water 50 gallons Bordeaux mixture is a combination of copper sulphate, often known as " blue vitriol " or " bluestone," with lime and water. It may be bought in paste form, ready to dilute with water and apply; or it may easily be made at home. To make Bordeaux mixture, place 25 gallons of water in a barrel, and suspend in it, just below the surface, a cloth bag containing 4 85 86 FUNGICIDES COMBINED WITH POISONS pounds of copper sulphate. Allow the copper sulphate completely to dissolve. If it is desired to hurry this part of the process, the sul- phate may be dissolved in hot water, using about 2 gallons and stirring well, and this may then be poured into the barrel and the latter filled up to 25 gallons. In another barrel slake 4 pounds of lump Ume, adding more water and stirring well as the lime dissolves, until there are 25 gallons in the barrel. Then combine the sulphate solution and the limewater by dipping alternately from each into the spray tank. Or, the two may be poured slowly at the same time into the spray tank. It is essential that the mixture be thoroughly strained as it goes into the sprayer. On some plants the above formula for Bordeaux mixture is too strong, and should be altered to the following : copper sulphate, 2 pounds; lump lime, 2 pounds; water, 50 gallons. The method of mak- ing is the same. Bordeaux mixture must be used as soon as prepared. If allowed to stand, it changes in composition. More lime may be added, and the material thus made use of, but this procedure is not recommended. Where this material is used in large amounts it is convenient to prepare separate stocks of copper sulphate solution and lime " putty.'* Kept separate, they will not deteriorate. Dissolve the copper sulphate in water at the rate of 1 pound of the sulphate to 1 gallon of water. One gallon of this concentrated solution will then equal 1 pound of the sulphate. To prepare lime putty, place a known weight of lump lime in a flat trough and add just enough water to slake it. When it is all slaked, see that it is spread out evenly and cover with an inch or so of clear water, to exclude the air. It will be easy to figure out the number of square inches of putty to remove in order to have the equivalent of the desired weight of lump lime. Do not make the mistake of weighing out this putty and considering that a given weight is the equal of the same weight of lump lime. Arsenate of lead may be combined with diluted Bordeaux mixture ; but the better plan is to add it to the limewater before the final mixing. The poison should first be well mixed with water, so as to make a thin paste, in order that all of it may find its way into the final mix- SUMMER STRENGTH LIME SULPHUR 87 ture. If this is done, allowance must be made for the volume of the arsenate of lead solution when filling up the barrel of hmewater to the requisite 25 gallons. A ready prepared Bordeaux paste containing arsenate of lead is on sale in stores. Summer Strength Lime Sulphur Summer strength lime sulphur is now coming into use a« a fungi- cide for the control of certain diseases. While this is similar, chemi- cally, to the lime-sulphur wash used as a winter spray for scale insects, it is much weaker. It is prepared by proper dilution of the com- mercial concentrated solutions, or by a so-called " self-boiled " method, in which the chemical composition is somewhat different. The proper dilutions of lime-sulphur concentrate for summer spraying of apples, making use of the Baume hydrometer as a measure of strength, are as follows : In Degrees Baum£ Number of Gallons Reading of Hydrometer of Water to One Gal- lon OF Concentrate 35 45 34 43i 32 40 31 37i 30 36i 29 341 28 • 32f 27 31 26 29i 25 271 24 . 26 23 24i 22 22f 21 2U 20 19f 19 18i 18 17 15 14 14 121 88 FUNGICIDES COMBINED WITH POISONS Remember that these are the dilutions for summer strength hme sulphur to be used on apple trees in leaf, and not for the winter wash, which is much stronger. The self -boiled lime sulphur is for summer use only, and has nothing to do with the winter wash used for scale insects. The method of making is as follows: Place 20 pounds of lump lime in a barrel and pour over it 3 gallons of cold water. As soon as the slaking is well started, add 20 pounds of flowers of sulphur, which must be free from lumps. Begin stirring the mixture as soon as the sulphur is added. A violent heat will be gen- rated by the slaking of the hme, and it is this that brings about the desired combination of the two materials. Now add more cold water until the mass has the consistency of paste. The boiling will subside in from 5 to 15 minutes, and at once more cold water must be added so that no further action will take place. There should be none of the red hquid that indicates the formation of the chemical compounds charac- teristic of the winter wash. The mixture may now be diluted for use by adding water until there are 100 gallons all told. Great care should be taken to follow the above directions accurately, for if the boiling is con- tinued too long, compounds will be formed that will burn tender foliage. In no case should hot water be used instead of cold, either for slaking the lime or for the dilutions. Arsenate of lead may be added to the summer strength lime sulphur, thus providing a combined fungicide and poison insecticide, with certain additional properties as a contact insecticide. This applies either to the diluted concentrate or to the self-boiled lime sulphur. CHAPTER XIX Spray Machinery — General Principles Several important considerations should l^e taken into account in the selection and care of spray machinery and appliances. Chief among these are the following : The spray pump should be of adequate size for the work for which it is intended to be used. As will l)e noted below, there are many different sizes and styles of pumps, ranging from the hand atomizer with a capacity of a quart or less of spray material, and suitable only for a very limited use, to the heavy power outfit fitted with a 200-gallon tank, and capable of throwing a stream 70 feet into the air. Either outfit would be absolutely unsuited to the work of the other. While these two examples are at the extremes, the same principle holds good, in lesser form, to other outfits that grade in between these two. It is poor economy to save four or five dollars on an outfit and expend several times that amount each season in extra labor and time. The first question to be decided, therefore, is that of the type and size of pump that will be best adapted to the work in hand. Whatever the style of pump decided on, it must be made of proper materials. Some of the spray solutions in common use have a corroding action on iron. The only material that will withstand their attack is brass or bronze, and care should be taken to get a piimp in which all the metal working parts that come into contact with the liquid are of heavy brass or similar alloy. This applies to the inside of the cyhnder, the piston, the valves, valve seats, and any other submerged parts where close fitting is essential to the smooth and satisfactory working of the apparatus. Lately pumps have been placed on the market in which the inside of the cylinder is coated with a heavy, white enamel. If this is so 90 SPRAY MACHINERY — GENERAL PRINCIPLES applied that it presents a perfectly true surface for the piston, and if the enamel is so baked on that it will not chip or wear rough from the grit that invariably gets into spray material, such cylinders should prove satisfactory. A pump must have an efficient mechanical agitator, which will automatically keep the liquid thoroughly stirred. A jet of liquid forced out in the vicinity of the intake is insufficient. Agitators of the paddle type, connected in some fashion to the pump handle or piston rod, are in general use, and are fairly effective. Another style of agi- tator works on the principle of a propeller, and gives excellent service. The size of air chamber is important. If it is large, the operator of the pump will find that a steady pressure can much more easily be maintained. Power pumps are apt to have air chambers of proper size, because if lacking, they will quickly tell on the working of the engine, especially if the latter is of the single cylinder type. Some of the smaller hand pumps would be more efficient and would work more easily if pro- vided with a more generous air cushion. It should be remembered that the spray liquid is only to a minute degree compressible, whereas air is resilient and absorbs the variations in pressure between strokes. Valves are necessarily a part of every pump, and are of various t5^es. Those in commonest use are the poppet valve, the swing check, and the ball valve. Of these the ball valve is apt to give the best satis- faction, if it is made of proper materials. The action of the liquid tends constantly to turn the ball this way and that as it rises and falls, resulting in equal wear all round, both as regards the ball and the seat. Poppet valves with a single rod guide beneath to hold them in line are very likely to wear unevenly and later to leak, resulting in weakened efficiency. Any valve with a straight or square, instead of a beveled seat is apt to give trouble. All poppet valves present the following difficulty: they tend to seat in identical positions, and if grit or other foreign matter gets in, there is leakage at one point, which does not promptly right itself and soon results in uneven wear. It is essential to the satisfactory working of a pump that its valves fit accurately and do not leak. Ease of getting at the working parts of the pump is worthy of con- THE PARTS OF A PUMP 91 sideration. In spite of the care that may be exercised in keeping the apparatus in good order and straining all materials used, there will be occasions when it becomes essential to inspect the valves or other working parts. If, in order to do this, it is necessary to dismount the pump, or to take it entirely to pieces, much time will be lost — prob- ably on the very day when time is most valuable. Some of the barrel pumps first placed on the market were entirely inclosed in a heavy metal casting, and required much time and labor for inspecting their working parts. Later types have eliminated this, although some of the older pumps are still on the market. The piston packing should present adequate surface, and the packing itself should be easily replaceable. In some makes of pumps pro- vision has been made for tightening up the packing from the outside. Leather is not a good material for packing. The chemicals used in spray materials will soon harden it and render it unfit for service. In some makes of barrel pumps a stuffing box is employed in place of piston packing. The objection to this is twofold : it makes a rather more complicated apparatus, and it is difficult or impossible to avoid excessive friction. In the horizontal, double-action pump a stuffing box is necessary, because of the design of the pump, but in this case, there is so much gain in efficiency in other ways that the objection noted may be disregarded. CHAPTER XX Types and Sizes of Spray Pumps. Dusting Apparatus Atomizers Fig. 56. — A hand atomizer. Original. one quart, and are adapted for use on work. Bucket Pumps Bucket pumps are suitable for work in a small garden, and for whitewashing or spraying poultry houses. They may readily be fitted with a longer hose and an extension rod, and may then be used for spraying fruit trees, if one has only a few trees to treat. In garden spray- ing their principal disadvantage is the fact that one cannot work rapidly when compelled to move a bucket along a few feet at a time, and that it is not always easy to manipulate the pump, and at the same time direct the spray where needed. 92 These are small and cheap devices, pro- ducing a spray by the principle of driving a current of air across a small outlet tube. They are provided with a metal or glass tank holding about house plants, or similar light Fig. 57. — A bucket pump. Original. SMALL HAND PUMPS 93 Knapsack Pumps Knapsack pumps consist of an oblong tank furnished with straps for hanging on the back, and provided with a small, inclosed pump, the handle of which projects forward over one's shoulder. They are not in general favor. The apparatus is fairly heavy to carry, and is likely to spill liquid down one's back. V s. -C^N > % >'^^^^^H^^B Fig. 58. — A knapsack sprayer. Original. Fig. 59. An automatic sprayer. Original. Automatic Sprayers Automatic sprayers are air-tight cylinders designed to be carried by hand. The cylinder is filled partly full of the spray material, the top fastened on, and by means of a self-contained pump air is forced in until the liquid within is under pressure. A valve allows the spray to be driven out through the nozzle as desired. The apparatus is handy, and desirable for garden work. Its principal disadvantage is the lack of an agitator. Only the brass sprayers should be purchased. Those in which the tank is made of iron, while cheaper, will not give satisfaction. A light extension rod may be attached to the cylinder, and the apparatus used for spraying small trees, if only a few are to be treated. 94 SPRAY APPARATUS Barrel Pumps Barrel pumps of one type or another are in use in the majority of orchards of moderate size where any spraying is done. Usually they are mounted directly on a 50-gallon barrel, which serves as the spray tank. Such pumps have a capacity ranging from 1 to 4 gallons of Fig. 60. — A barrel pump. Original. liquid per minute, and are intended to operate at a pressure of 100 to 125 pounds. They are capable of furnishing material for two leads of hose. Commonly the outfit is placed on a wagon of some kind, or on a sled. Unless the trees to be sprayed are headed very low, there should be a simple tower or elevated platform, about 4 feet high, bolted to the wagon, on which one of the operators may stand while the other works from the ground. LARGE HAND PUMPS 95 Horizontal Pumps Horizontal hand pumps are typically of the double-action type, and have a capacity of 3 to 5 gallons of spray material per minute. They have a marked advantage over barrel pumps in that the handle is longer Fig. 61. — A convenient tower used in connection with a barrel pump. Original. and works in such position that the operator can maintain the desired pressure and volume with much less effort. They do not bring the constant strain on the muscles of the back, characteristic of barrel pumps, and since they arc double acting, both the forward and the reverse strokes count. In efficiency, pumps of this type are nearly the equivalent of the smaller power outfits. 96 SPRAY APPARATUS Traction Outfits Traction sprayers derive their power from the wheels of the vehicle on which the pump and tank are mounted. They are especially useful in spraying grapes, potatoes, or other field crops ; in other words, they are adapted to the kind of work in which one desires a continuous spray delivered constantly at a definite position or angle. For spray- ing of this character they may properly be selected. For general orchard work they are not suited unless there is some ar- rangement by which the gearing may be disconnected and the pump operated by hand when desired. Outfits of this kind should always be pro- vided with a large air chamber, a pres- sure gauge in plain sight, and a relief valve which will open at a certain pressure and allow the fiquid to flow back into the tank. The capacity of traction sprayers is figured on the basis of a vehicle moving at the rate of 250 feet a minute, and ranges from 5 to 18 gallons of liquid per minute. The connection to wheels is made by eccentric, chain, or gearing. Hand traction sprayers operate on the same principle, but are much smaller, are intended to be wheeled about by hand, have a tank of about 20 gallons capacity, and are so arranged that the pump may be thrown out of gear and operated in the same fashion as a barrel pump. Fig. G2. — A horizontal pump. Original. POWER OUTFITS 97 They are fairly satisfactory, but are apt to prove heavy and hard to manage. In one type the construction is such that a single horse may be hitched to the outfit, which is then guided by the operator much in the manner of a plow. Power Sprayers Power outfits consist essentially of a gasoline engine, a rather heavy pump geared or belted to the engine, and a large tank, the whole A gasoline power sprayer. Original. 98 SPRAY APPARATUS mounted on skids or on wheels. Such outfits range in capacity from 4 to 12 gallons of spray material per minute, and are operated at a pressure of 200 pounds or more. The pumps used may be of the large, single cyhnder, single-action type, or double action, or multiple cyhnder. The engines in the smaller and medium size outfits are usually of 1^ to 3 horse power, single cyhnder, and either air or hopper cooled. In the recently designed, extremely powerful outfits, used for spraying tall trees from the ground, the engine is of the automobile or marine type, with two, three, or four cylinders. The main advantages of power outfits include the rapidity with which the work can be accom- plished, the saving of hand labor at pumping, and the high pressure at which the spray is applied. Where many trees are to be sprayed, the power outfit will do the work at less cost per tree than the less ex- pensive, smaller outfit. Compressed Air Outfits Compressed air sprayers are in use in some orchards. In this type of apparatus the sprayer itself consists simply of two large steel tanks mounted on skids or wheels, and fitted with the necessary leads of hose. One of the tanks is filled with the spray material, while in the other air is stored under considerable pressure, usually 160 pounds. Pipes connect the air tank with the liquid tank, and the spray material is agitated by arranging the inlet of air in such fashion that it comes out of a number of jets at intervals along the bottom of the liquid tank. The air is compressed at a central station by means of an air com- pressor using gasoline or other power. It is customary to have two or more of the sprayers, so that one may be at the central station re- ceiving its spray material and its charge of compressed air, while the other is in the orchard. Usually the air pressure is reduced to about 80 pounds by the time a sprayer has discharged its liquid and is ready to return to the central station. The system has the advantage of rather rapid work, and of comparative simplicity, so far as the sprayer itself is concerned. Its disadvantages are the fact that it operates necessarily at a constantly changing pressure, thus tending somewhat to uneven work, and the high cost of installing the plant. DUSTING MACHINES 99 Dusting Apparatus Various types of machines are obtainable for applying insecticides in powder form. Most of these are designed to be carried by hand, and rapid work can be done with them under suitable conditions. They are not so well adapted to applying materials to trees, nor to situations that are difficult to reach because of thick, intervening foliage — as, for example, in treating vineyards. But for use on truck or field crops, espe- cially in the application of powdered arsenate of lead, they have a growing utility. In the more de- sirable types a constant stream of air is maintained by a rotary fan, and the powder may be directed through one or more outlets as desired, amount of material delivered may also be regulated. For dusting field crops a simple device is in use in the South, consist- ing of a pole 4 to 8 feet long, to which are tacked cloth bags at proper intervals, according to the distance between rows. A hole bored through the pole above the bag provides a means of filling it. Often the pole is set across a horse's back, the jarring being sufficient to sift the poison through the cloth. Fig. 64. — A geared powder gun. Original. The CHAPTER XXI Accessories Nozzles Nozzles, as now designed, have reached a point of greater efficiency than was the case a few years ago. On small hand outfits, adapted for the kitchen garden, the question of nozzle is not so important. It is neither possible nor necessary to get up heavy pressure with these outfits, and the amount of work to be done is comparatively light. But in orchard spraying, particularly on a large scale, the nozzle may greatly help or hinder rapid and satisfactory work. The so-called Bordeaux nozzle is one of the older types still in use on light hand outfits. It has an adjustable opening, which may be arranged so as to throw a semisolid, fan-shaped stream, or a fairly fine spray. This nozzle is entirely unsuited to orchard work on any considerable scale, but is well liked for vineyard or field spraying be- cause the nozzle can quickly be cleaned by reversing the core. The vermorel nozzle has a central orifice, back of which is usually some particular type of chamber. As originally designed, the entire nozzle was small, and the central opening decidedly so. It invariably clogged up in short order, and hence was, and is, made with some sort of needle built into the central line of the nozzle, and so arranged that this needle can be forced forward to clear the orifice. The nozzle gives a fine, mist spray. Its defects are its intolerable tendency to clog and the fact that it can deliver only a small quantity of spray material; in other words, it is of low capacity. However, on light hand outfits, it is in general use and is fairly satisfactory. The modern disk nozzle was evolved from the vermorel. It differs 100 TYPES OF NOZZLES 101 from the old form in being much larger, in having a larger orifice, and in relying on the design of the chamber back of the orifice, combined with an interposed plate, to give the finely divided spray desired. It has large capacity, especially when operating under the heavy pressure generated in a power outfit. The tendency to clog is reduced, but unfortunately is not by any means entirely eliminated. At the present stage in designing, it is the most satisfactory and efficient nozzle for ordinary orchard work. Practically all of the manufacturers of spray apparatus are making a nozzle of this type. For special work in spraying shade trees from the ground still another type of nozzle has lately been evolved. This is essentially a heavy brass Fig. 65. — Types of nozzles. On the left, the vermorel ; in the center, the disk type ; on the right the Bordeaux. Original. tube, from three to six feet in length, with gradually diminishing bore, ending in a simple round orifice, from one eighth to three eighths of an inch in diameter. It is operated under extremely heavy pressure, and sends high into the air a solid stream which breaks into a fairly fine spray as it nears the summit of its arc. Naturally the material is delivered at a rapid rate. The advantage for extensive work on shade trees lies in eliminating the necessity of climbing the trees, thereby reducing the cost of spraying in spite of the amount of material used. Extension Rods Extension rods are necessary in orchard spraying, in order to elevate the nozzles to a point where the spray can reach the upper parts of the tree. Such rods are of two types : small iron pipe, and metal-lined bam- boo. Iron rods are more commonly used, and are satisfactory, except 102 ACCESSORIES for their weight. They are more easily grasped if wood handles are fitted around them. Bamboo rods are lighter, and therefore tire the operator less. Those lined with aluminum sometimes cause trouble through the twisting off of the connections at the lower end of the rod. Where aluminum is used the metal should be of heavy gauge at this point, and should be one of the harder alloys. ■p aa r- ^ a A A t I. V. . There should be a cut-off Fig. 66. — Cut-off and end of bamboo exten- sion rod. Original. at the lower end of the ex- tension rod, and it should have a handle of sufficient size to give a good grasp for turning on or off. Unless rods are provided with an easily operated cut-off, much spray material will be wasted in working from one part of a tree to another or from tree to tree. Hose Hose leads are essential for barrel or power outfits. The length of hose naturally varies with the character of work contemplated. If two leads are used from a single pump, and one operator stands on the spray wagon or on an elevated platform, it is convenient to have the hose in two lengths, the longer for the man on the ground and the shorter for the man on the platform. One half or three eighths inch hose may be used. The former transmits the pressure to better advantage; the latter is lighter to handle. Hose connections deserve consideration, especially in outfits designed to work under considerable pressure, as in power apparatus. The long connections, which admit of two bands on each side instead of one, should be selected. In high-power outfits for shade-tree work, special hose is needed. Connections are obtainable for this work which are provided with bands fastened mechanically to the unions, so that the hose cannot come apart when being dragged over the ground. HOSE — STRAINERS — TANKS 103 Strainers An essential part of any outfit is a good strainer. Many spray materials contain a great deal of sediment, and the coarser parts of this must be removed if long life is to be expected of the pump, or continual clogging of the nozzles avoided. Furthermore, unless all materials are carefully strained as they are poured into the spray tank, various sorts of foreign matter, such as waste, filings, or bits of wood or leaves, will get into the tank and be sucked up into the pump, where they will cause trouble. A satisfactory strainer can be made by cutting out the central portion of the bottom of a 12-quart pail, fastening a large funnel securely beneath, and a generous cone of wire cloth above, within the bucket. The edges of the wire cloth forming the cone should be soldered together. Another excellent type consists of an oblong box, one end of which is made somewhat sloping, so that the affair can be set into the opening of the spray tank without binding. The box is without top or bottom. An oblong piece of wire cloth is fastened into the box at an angle, so that one end of it is nearer the top than the other. In both of these strainers the essential feature is that the wire mesh shall be so fixed that sediment will not clog it. In either one the spray material will constantly wash clean the upper part of the screen. Sediment that collects along the bottom of the screen can readily be dumped out from time to time. The wire cloth used should be of brass, 20 to 30 meshes to the inch. Nothing else will give satisfactory service. Spray Tanks The ordinary size of spray tank for use with a hand pump in orchard work is 50 gallons. Frequently the tank consists of a barrel, with a pump mounted on its end or side. For use with a power pump the spray tank should be larger, pref- erably of 150 to 200 gallons capacity. The best type is the half round, because it may more easily be tightened up and kept from leaking. All- round stave tanks, if provided with some means of tightening the hoops 104 ACCESSORIES readily, are satisfactory. Iron tanks are somewhat objectionable because if copper compounds, such as Bordeaux mixture or copper sulphate solution, are used in such tanks, the chemicals will tend to break down. Other chemicals have a corroding action on the iron. Mixing Tanks Where extensive spraying is carried on it is convenient and desirable to provide suitable mixing tanks elevated on a stout platform. By this means much valuable time will be saved in the preparation of materials. In addition, the work of spraying can be completed more promptly, the materials applied when they will do the most good, and advantage taken of favorable weather conditions. The design of a mixing plant will depend on the nature of the work to be done, the amount of work, the topography of the location, the source of water supply, and like matters. The general principles governing its design are the provision of an adequate supply of stock solution, convenience in mixing, and the utilization of gravity in transferring liquids from stock tanks to mixing tanks, and from the latter to the spray tank. Expensive and troublesome outlet valves may be avoided by using a section of large diameter hose, the free end of which may be fastened up above the level of the hquid in the tank. PART III INJURIOUS INSECTS CHAPTER XXII Insect Pests of Garden and Field Crops Wire worms (Elateridoe) WiREWORMS are slender, cylindrical worms, ^ inch to 1 inch long, their skin brown and shining, the segments showing plainly. They have three pairs of small, dark legs close to the front end of the body. The whole insect looks tough and wiry. They infest a variety of field and garden crops, working on or in the roots or tubers, and are especially injurious to corn and potatoes, though they attack freely wheat, oats, and other cereals. There are several species, differing in minor characters but alike in general appearance and manner of work. All are the larvae of " click beetles," or " snapping beetles." Ordinarily they breed in sod ground, the worms feeding on the roots of grasses. In such circumstances their presence is seldom noted, because the Fig. 68. — The Wheat Wireworm. Enlarged and nat- S^'O^nd is SO W^ell ural size. Original. filled with roots that 107 Fig. 67. — Adult of the Wheat Wireworm, Ayri- otes mancus Say. Enlarged and natural size. Original. 108 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS Fig. 69. — A common wire- worm, Melanotus communis Gyll. Original. Fig. 70. — Larva and pupa of Melan- otus comynunis Gyll. Original. their work does not attract attention. But when such ground is broken up and planted to potatoes or corn, the worms have com- paratively little to feed on, and quickly become a pest. They are slow in development, re- quiring two years or more as larvae, so that there are many of them remaining the follow- ing year after sod, and often many the second year. Suitable crop rota- tion, combined with fall plowing and culti- vation, is the only means of handling these pests. They do not injure clover or related plants, as a rule, and where fields are badly infested it is wise to put one of the legumes into the rotation following sod. No applications to the soil will kill the worms unless made so strong as also to kill plant life. Fig. 71. — Work of wireworms in potato. Original. WIREWORMS AND GRUBS INJURING THE ROOTS 109 Fig. 72. — Adult of a white grub, Lachnostcrna fusca Froehl. Original. White Grubs {Lachnosterna spp.) The presence of white grubs usually is first indicated by the dying off of plants here and there in the field or garden. Corn, and various garden crops as well as straw- berries, are subject to marked injury. Examination of the soil beneath plants attacked will disclose the grubs. They will be found lying somewhat cm-led up, are soft- bodied, an inch to an inch and a quarter long, and have a brown head. The end of the abdomen is swollen and darkened. The adults are brown, heavy-bodied beetles, familiarly known as '' May beetles " or " June bugs." They fly at night, feed on the leaves of various trees, and are attracted to fights. Eggs are laid in the soil, and about two years are required for the development of the grub. At the end of the second summer the larva makes a pupal cell in the soil at a depth of a foot or less, and transforms to the beetle ; but the latter is soft-bodied at first, and does not grow hard and emerge until the following spring. Grass land is the natural breeding place, and injury usuallj^ occurs in fields that have been in sod for a number of years, and have recently been broken up for other crops. Careful planning of crop rotations is the best means of avoiding injury. Fall plowing will help to some extent. Chickens following the plow will destroy the grubs turned up. Hogs are fond of white grubs, and will root up and eat large numbers of them. There is no chemical that may be applied to the soil to kill them. Fig. 73. — Larva of Lachno- sterna fusca Froehl. Original. 110 FESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS Leather Jackets ( Tipulidce) Occasionally field crops, such as wheat, grasses, or clovers, are seriously injured by large numbers of naked grubs, the young stages of several species of crane flies (Tipulidce). The adults are slender-bodied very long-legged insects, often known as " gallinippers " or " giant mosquitoes." The grubs are an inch or less in length, dark in color, cylindrical, tough, the hind end blunt. They work just beneath the surface of the ground, 'eating the roots, traveling from plant to plant in the soil. The grubs are half grown in the fall, and winter in a dormant condition. In spring growth is resumed. The adults emerge in early summer, and prefer fields that have grown up to tall grasses or other herbage. There is a second generation in summer, the adults laying eggs again in grassland in September. Plowing before September 1 will place the field in such condition that the adults will not lay eggs in it, and thus protect winter wheat from injury. On grass or clover no effective means of avoiding or stopping attack is known, except plowing up. Ants {Formicina) Frequently colonies of ants of one kind or another take up their abode in gardens, and prove a nuisance. They can easily be killed by the use of carbon bisulphide. With a pointed stick make several holes into the hills, and then pour into each half an ounce or so of carbon bisulphide, at once pressing the foot on the earth to close the hole. The fumes will penetrate the ground and kill off all of the colony. In some sections of the Gulf states and in parts of California a persist- ent and destructive ant has become established : the so-called Argen- tine Ant {Iridomyrmex hwnilis Mayr). It is a nuisance through enter- ing dweUings, and frequently is destructive in gardens. This species tends to hunt for warm quarters as winter approaches. Advantage is taken of this habit by providing a box of suitable decaying vegetable matter in the garden, preferably a mixture of cotton seed and straw. As this material decomposes it heats, and many colonies of ants, includ- SMALL WORMS BORING IN THE ROOTS 111 ing the overwintering queens, migrate to it. The whole thing is then covered with canvas and fumigated with carbon bisulphide. Summer colonies are killed by fumigation in the same manner as described above for other species, or by poisoning with dilute arsenic and sweetened water, as described in the chapter on Household Insects. The Southern Corn Root-worm {Diahrotica duodecimpundata 0\W .) The presence of the southern corn root-worm or " bud- worm " is usually first indicated by an enfeebled growth of the young plants. The leaves turn yellow, or the plant simply fails to make a normal, vigorous growth. If a plant is pulled up and the roots are shaken, some of the grubs will likely be thrown out, and the round holes where they have bored into the side of the main stalk, just below the ground, will be noted. The grubs are about three fourths of an inch long when full grown, are quite slender, smooth, white or light yellow, and have a small brown head. The adult of this worm is a small beetle, about one fourth of an inch long, commonly known as the twelve-spotted cucumber beetle. It is greenish yellow in color, and has twelve black spots on its back. It feeds on the pollen or silk of corn, on a great variety of garden crops, especially cucumbers, squashes, melons, and related plants, and sometimes on the young heads of various grains or grasses. Control of the root-worm in corn is largely dependent on general farming methods. Crop rotation will help to hold it in check, and so will systematic clean tillage. The worms do not infest the roots of cotton, buckwheat, or the smaller grains. Late-planted corn is less liable to attack, and so is corn in well-drained land. Many farmers find it expedient to plant an excess of seed. Remedies for the adults on garden crops are given elsewhere. The Western Corn Root-worm (Diabrotica longicornis Say) In the Central states the roots of corn are injured by a small, slender worm which mines in the main roots, tunneling here and there, seriously checking the growth of the plant if not killing it entirely. The worm is 112 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS Fig. 74. — The Western Corn Root worm. Adult. Enlarged and natu ral size. Original. two fifths of an inch long, slender, whitish or yellowish, and has a black or brown head. The adult is a small beetle, greenish in color, one fourth of an inch in length. It is found occasion- ally on melons or squashes, along with its relative, the striped cu- cumber beetle, but is more apt to be seen on sun- flowers, golden rod, or thistle blossoms. There is one generation each year. The winter is passed as eggs beneath the surface of the ground. The simplest means of control is crop rotation. The eggs are laid only in cornfields in late summer, and the larvae are injurious only to corn. If corn is planted in fields that have been in other crops, it will not be injured. In practice it is usually safe to run corn two years in succession, changing to another crop the third year. Corn-root Webworms (Crambus spp.) Young corn plants are seriously injured or killed by several species of webworms feeding on the roots, or on the stalk close to the surface of the ground. The outward evidence of attack is the stunted growth of the corn or the death of young plants. Injury is always worse in ground just broken up from sod. The same insects attack in similar fashion young tobacco plants in certain eastern sections. Several species are recorded, all in the genus Crambus, and including C. vulvivagellus Clem., C. luteolellus Clem., C. trisectus Walk., and C. mutabilis Clem. Fig. 75. — Work of the West- ern Corn Root- worm. Origi- nal. WEB WORMS INJURING THE ROOTS 113 The worms feed in a silk tube more or less covered with par- ticles of dirt. They vary in color from yellowish to brown, are three fourths to one inch long when full grown, and their bodies have numerous low tubercles. They hatch from eggs laid by small, active moths which have the habit of resting on grass stems with their wings folded around their bodies. The natural breed- ing place is grassland. There are two generations annually, the moths of the second brood appearing in the latter part of summer. Winter is passed by the half-grown worms in the soil. Fig. 70. — Larval cu.se of Corn- root Webworm at base of corn plant. Original. Fig. 77. — Larval cases of a Corn-root Webworm, Cramhus vulvivagellus Clem. Natural size. The one at the left cut open to show pupa within. Original. Fall plowing and cultivation will help to hold the pests in check, but to avoid injury do not plant corn in land that is just broken up from sod. Land that is fallowed in the latter part of summer will not be infested the next spring, for the moths will not lay eggs on bare ground. The Corn Root Aphis {Aphis maidi-radicis Forbes) Colonies of bluish green " lice " suck the juices from the roots of corn, and in certain sections feed also on the roots of other plants, in- 114 PESTS OF- GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS eluding cotton, squash, pumpkin, and strawberries. Plants badly attacked are stunted, lack color, and otherwise show that they are not making a healthy growth. Examination of the roots will then show large numbers of the lice. The corn root aphis is cared for, and is dependent on, colonies of ants. The latter are usually the common, small, brown ants of the species Lasius niger americanus Mayr. In winter the eggs of the aphis are cared for by these ants, who keep them in their nests, bring them out in the sunlight on warm days and carry them below frost line when the weather is severe. In spring the aphis eggs hatch, and the j^oung wingless lice are carried by the ants to suitable weeds, the roots of which will form ac- ceptable food until the corn has sprouted. Thereafter the ants are in constant at- tendance on the lice, transferring them to the roots of corn when the latter become available. As warm weather comes on, the lice give birth to a second generation of living young, in which winged individuals ap- pear, and these migrate to new fields. Breeding goes on rapidly, the number of generations sometimes reaching a dozen in the course of the sum- mer. In the fall eggs are laid, and these are cared for again by the ants until another season. In control, the most important measure is to plow and harrow in the fall, so as to break up the nests of the ants. Keeping the fields clean of weeds will help materially, depriving the hce of food in the spring. Rotation is of value, since the first generation of the hce are wingless and by the time winged individuals appear corn will be sufficiently advanced to withstand attack from lice that fly in from other places. It is helpful, also, to keep corn growing vigorously. Fig. 78. — Larva of Crambus luteolellus Clem. Slightly en- larged. Original. PLANT LICE ATTACKING THE ROOTS 115 Fig. 79. Clem. -Adult of Crambus luteolellus Slightly enlarged. Original. Plant Lice attacking Beet Roots In Washington and Oregon sugar beets sometimes are seriously infested by a plant louse (Pemphigus feete Doane). Affected plants fail to make normal growth, look sickly, and the main root grows spongy. The lice cluster on the smaller rootlets. There are several generations in the course of a single season, and occasionally winged individuals appear and fly to other fields. It is probable that the species lives normally on some wild plant, but the identity of this has not been discovered. In Colorado another species, Tychea brevicornis Hart., has wrought similar injury. No direct means of control is known for either of these pests. The Sugar-cane Mealy-bug (Pseiiclococcus calceolarice Mask.) In Louisiana the roots, crown, and stalk of sugar cane are attacked by small, degenerate insects which work in clusters made conspicuous by a white, cottony secretion. The insect itself is soft bodied, pink, and wingless. Only the males are winged, and they are seldom noticed. For the most part they pass the winter on seed cane, but may sur- vive also on Johnson grass. When the seed cane is planted in the spring, the young are transferred with it to the fields. They may hibernate also on cane stubble. Fig. 80. -The common, brown ant. .^ ^^^ ^^^^ Lasius niger americanus Mayr. i-v^kj^^o,^ kj i Enlarged and natural size. Original, move towards eradication, combined 116 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS with washing the seed cane with whale-oil soap. Remnants of cane in the fields, and Johnson grass in or near by, should be burned. The Clover Root-borer {Hylastinus obscurus Marsh.) In the Central states clover is subject to considerable injury by this insect, the presence of which is seldom recognized. The adult beetle is small, dark, and cylindrical. Coming out in the spring from clover roots, in which it has passed the winter, it lays eggs in shallow cavities which it ex- cavates in the sides of the larger roots of clover plants in the same or adjoining fields. The grubs that hatch from these eggs burrow in and through the roots, Fig. 81.— Work of the Clover Root- borer. Original. Fig. 82. — Adult of the Clover Root-borer. En- larged and natural size. Original. sometimes completely destroying their central parts and killing the plant. In the latter part of summer the grub changes to a pupa, from which a beetle emerges in fall, but remains in the root until the following spring. Only two-year-old plants are likely to be attacked. Plowing a badly infested field at once after haying will kill many of the grubs, because the roots will be turned up and dried out. Pasturing a field serves to \ORING IN MAIN ROOT-STALK OR TUBER 117 check injury or to prevent it. Clover, if infested, should not be aUowed to stand after the second season's haying. The Sweet Potato Root-borer {Cylas formicarius Oliv.) In some sections in the Gulf states the tubers of sweet potatoes, both in the field and in storage, are infested with borers, whitish in color, robust, one fourth of an inch long. The adult is a small snout beetle with dark blue wing covers and brown thorax. It lays its eggs m the end of the tuber where it chances to project from the ground, or some- times at the base of the vine. There are several generations annually. Eggs may be laid on potatoes in storage. The only means of control is to keep the tubers well covered with earth. If infested, the crop should be harvested early and at once fumigated with carbon bisulphide. The Potato-tuber Worm {Phthorimcea operculellaZeW.) In California this tiny insect is a pest of prime importance to potato growers. Injury is twofold. The stalks of potato vines are tunneled, the vines badly damaged or killed; and the tubers themselves are FiQ. ^3. _ Adult of the Potato-tuber Worm. Enlarged and natural size. Original. 118 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS attacked, both in the field and in storage. The worm is quite small, only one fourth of an inch long. Eggs are laid on the vine by the parent moth, the grub tunneling down just beneath the skin of the stalk. Or eggs may be laid on potatoes that are not entirely covered with earth. Further damage goes on after the potatoes are dug. ^-j Control consists in cleaning up related weeds, prompt removal of wilting vines, jP destruction of the vines after digging, and immediate sorting and fumigation of the tubers. The Cabbage-maggot {Pegomya brassicoe Bouche) The roots of cabbage, cauliflow^er, turnip, and radish are seriously injured or destroyed Fig. 84.— Work of the Cab- bage-maggot. Original. Fig. 85. — Cabbage-maggots on cabbage root. Enlarged. Original. MAGGOTS ATTACKING THE ROOTS 119 Fig. 87. — Work of the Cabbage-maggot in radishes. Original. Fig. 86. — Adult of the Cabbage- maggot. Enlarged and natural size. Original. by soft, whitish maggots, one fourth of an inch long. When working on cabbage, the mag- gots eat away the root hairs and gnaw into the larger root. Their work is accompanied often by more or less decay of the tissue. When working on radishes, they frequently tunnel entirely within and through the fleshy main root, or cause injury of such a nature that a much-branched root is developed instead of a single, sjTnmetrical tap root. A hairy, two-winged fly is the parent of the maggots. Eggs are laid on the ground near the stem, or on the stem itself, and the young maggots make their way into the ground along the outside of the stem. T7 u^ ^ y , ..■ u 1^1 There are two to four Fig. 88. — Tool for cutting hexagonal disks. Original. generations annually. 120 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS In the fall eggs, larvse, and adults may be found in old cabbage stumps. • The maggots may be killed by pouring around each plant a half cup of carboUc acid emulsion. A pointed stick may be thrust diagonally beneath each plant and a teaspoonful of carbon bisulphide poured down the hole. The maggots may be prevented from gaining access to the roots by fitting a disk of tarred paper around the stem of each plant. The disks should be about four inches in di- ameter, slit to the center, and marked with short cross cuts at this point, so that they may be fitted closely and easily around the stem. When in place, the disks rest flat on the ground. A handy tool for cutting hexagonal disks in quantity is illustrated. After the first row of cuts has been made across a sheet of cardboard each additional cut wdll make one disk. It is of importance to clean up all old cabbage stumps in the fall. Deep plowing will reduce the number of the flies the succeeding year. Rotation of crops is desirable. Abundant fertil- ization will help cabbages to withstand attack. The Onion Maggot {Phorbia cepetorum Meade) Infestation by the onion maggot is similar to that of the related species working on the roots of cabbage and radish. The eggs are laid by the adult Fig. 89. — Work of the Onion % in the leaf sheaths, and the mag- Maggot. Original. gots work their way down into the MAGGOTS ATTACKING THE BOOTS 121 Fig. 90. — Adult of the Onion Maggot. Enlarged and natural size. Original. bulb. There are two to four gener- ations each year. Practical means of direct control are wanting. Onions should be planted each season in fields as far removed from the previous season's planting as may be. In small plots carbolic acid emulsion may be used. Liberal amounts of tobacco dust along the rows will act as a fair deterrent. The Barred-winged Onion Maggot {Choetopsis cenea Wicd.) is a similar species found on onions, and sometimes on the roots of corn and sugar cane. The Ufe history and the remedies are similar. The Seed-corn Maggot {Pegomya fusdceps Zett.) This insect sometimes works on sprouting sweet corn, but is rather a pest of beans and peas. It is a white, soft-bodied maggot, without legs, and works beneath the surface of the ground, eating into and destroying newly planted peas or beans, especially just as the tender Fig. 91.— Work of the Seed-corn Maggot on the roots of beans. Original. 122 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS Fig. 92. — The Seed-corn Maggot. Enlarged and natural size. Orig- inal. sprouts are pushing above the ground. A later generation works in similar fashion. The adult is a two-winged fly. The appUcation of carbolic acid emulsion is the only direct remedy available. Injury is apt to be worse when manure has been ap- phed to the fields in the spring, probably because it attracts the adult flies or offers them shelter. The Carrot Rust-fly {Psila rosce Fab.) The leaves of the plants attacked turn red or rusty looking, while the roots are tunneled by small brown maggots, one fourth of an inch long. Fig. 93. — Work of the Carrot Rust-fly. Original. On the surface the root may not show much evidence of injury, but when it is cut through, the brown burrows wiU be evident. Occa- sionally celery is attacked by the same species. The adult is a slender-bodied, two-winged fly. There is one genera- tion annually in the field, but breeding may at times go on in carrots in storage. BEETLES BORING IN MAIN STALK 123 Fig. 94. — Adult of the Carrot Rust-fly. En- larged and natural size. Original. The Sugar-cane Beetle {Ligyrus rugiceps Lee.) The stubble and stalks of sugar cane, and the stalks of corn, are burrowed into below the ground by a chunky, black beetle, about half an inch long, with stout, coarsely spined legs. Corn is usually killed, while cane may partly re- cover and make some growth, though the yield will be short. The injury takes place for the most part early in the growing sea- son. Eggs are laid in the ground on the weakened or decaying Fig. 96. — The Sugar-cane roots. The Carrots planted late escape serious injury. Direct measures of con- trol are the same as for the onion maggot. Freshly manured fields should be avoided. Beetle. Original. a r V a is a Fig. 95. — Work of the Sugar- cane Beetle. Original. 124 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS fleshy grub. There is one generation annually. The insect hiber- nates in the soil in cane fields. Planting of cane should be deferred until spring in order to have opportunity of spring plowing and cultivation. The running of second or third year cane should be avoided. Trash should be cleaned up in the fall. Corn should not follow cane. The Carrot Beetle {Ligyrus gibbosus De G.) The roots of carrot, celery, parsnips, sugar beets, potatoes, and corn are eater into by a beetle, which works usually just below the surface of the ground. The insect is black above, reddish Fig. 97.— The Carrot Beetle. Original. Fig. 98.- -Work of the Carrot Beetle. Original. beneath, and about half an inch long. There is one generation a year. The adults come out in the latter part of summer, and over- winter in the soil. Damage may occur either in fall or in spring. Removal of crop remnants, fall plowing and cultivation, and similar cultural meas- ures are advised. The Slender Seed-corn Ground-beetle {Clivina impressifrons Lee.) Seed corn planted in low or peaty ground sometimes is injured or destroyed by a small beetle which eats out the heart of the sprouting kernels. The insect is a little Fig. 99. — The Seed-corn Agonoderus. Enlarged to twice natural size. Orig- inal. WORMS BORING IN MAIN STALK 125 less than a half inch long, dark red, somewhat flattened, and has a large thorax and a fairly narrow " waist." The pest passes the winter as an adult beetle in the ground. The larva) are found throughout summer in the ground, and are very active, attacking other insects. Since only wet ground is chosen by this insect, corn should be omitted from such fields if possible. Late planting apparently serves to dis- courage the beetles, and to ward off most of the injury. Occasionally similar damage is done by another ground beetle, Agonoderus pallipes Fab. It is a black, oblong beetle, one fourth of an inch long, and destroys corn by eating out the germ end. No direct remedial measures have been devised. The Corn-stalk Borer (Diatrcea zeacolella Dyar) In both Northern and Southern states field corn is subject to serious injury by a borer, the immature stage of a moth, closely related to Fig. 100. — Work of the Sugar-cane Borer. Original. 126 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS the sugar-cane borer. In early summer, the tender unfolding leaves are found riddled, and often the central part destroyed, so that growth is aborted. In midsummer a new generation of borers works in the pith of the lower stalks, making numerous channels, often causing the stalk to break down in strong winds. The first lot of moths are out early in the growing season, and lay eggs on the young leaves. In the fall the larva of the second brood burrows down into the base of the stalk, where it spends the winter. Control measures consist in the removal and destruction of all stalks left in the field in fall. If the stalks are short, they may be plowed under deeply. Rotation of crops will help in control. The Sugar-cane Borer {Diatrcea saccharalis Fab.) The work of this borer in sugar cane is similar to that of the related species in corn. The larvae destroy the buds or " eyes " by entering the stalk through them, stunting the growth of the young plants, and their burrows so weaken the main stalks that the plants break off in strong winds. In addition the sugar content is seriously lowered. Eggs are laid on the leaves, and the larvae feed for a short time in the upper whorls, but soon enter the cane. Pu- pation takes place within the stalk. There may be several broods annually. Winter is passed as larva or pupa within the cane, and emergence of adults begins early in the spring. Control is difficult. All tops and trash should be spread out to dry, and burned as soon as possible. Infested cane around sheds and refineries should be destroyed. Shoots and suckers from the stubble of early cut cane should be cut off, so as to cause the death of the young borers within that otherwise would hibernate. Fig. 101. — Adult of the Sugar-cane Borer. Original. SMALL WORMS IN STALK OR STEM ABOVE GROUND 127 The Smaller Corn Stalk-borer (Elasmopalpus lignosellus Zell.) The stalks of corn, peas, peanuts, and possibly other plants are attacked by a small cylindrical worm, half an inch long when full Fig. 102. — Larvieofthe Smaller Corn Stalk- borer. Original. Fig. 103. — Adult of the Smaller Corn Stalk-borer. Original. grown, hght greenish in color, its back marked with nine fine, reddish lines, somewhat interrupted at each segment. It works within the stalk, but makes three or four holes to the surface, here and there, through which it pushes out excrement. The adult moth expands three quarters of an inch. Hibernation may take place as adult, as larva in the stalks, or as pupa in the ground. The means of control include rotation of crops, prompt destruction of the remnants of infested stalks, and fall plowing and cultivation. The Clover Stem-borer {Languria mozardi Latr.) Tiny grubs are found boring inside the stems of clover. They are the larvae of a beetle, one third of an inch long, with dark blue wing covers and a red head and thorax. Where clover is regularly mowed Fig. 1U4. — Work of the Clover S t e m-b o r e r . Original. Fig. 105. — Adult of the Clover Stem-borer. Enlarged and natu- ral size. Original. 128 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS or pastured, the pest is never abundant enough to demand special treatment. Bill-bugs (Sphejiophorus spp.) Bill-bugs are small, dark snout beetles, one fourth to three fourths of an inch long. Their serious injury is to young corn, and varies somewhat according to the species at work. Fig. 107. — A Bill-bug, Sphenophorus costipennis Horn. Original. The Maize Bill-bug {Spheno- phorus maidis Chittn.) injures corn, both in its larval stage as a grub burrowing in the lower part of the stalk and the taproot, and Fig. 106. — Work of Bill-bugs. Original. Fig. 108. — A Bill-bug, Sphenophorus zece Walsh. Original. as an adult beetle, later in the summer. Infested corn looks untlirifty, is stunted, and later the stalks are distorted and twisted. If a stalk is cut open, the burrow of the grub will be found in its lower part, and up to August the grub itself will be found, a small, thickset larva with a black head. By September the adult beetle, black, two fifths to three fifths of an inch long, will be found in GRUBS OR MAGGOTS INJURING STALK OR STEM 129 the lower part of the burrow, about the level of the crown. The beetles hibernate in this position, in the uncut part of the stalk. Control of this species is secured by removal and destruction of the corn stubble, taking care to get the lowx^ part of the plant with the remnant of stalk. Other species injure corn only as adults. Cavities are eaten in the stalk or through the crown, the punctures showing as the leaves unfold. One of these species passes its larval life as a grub in the bulb of timothy; another in wild sedges growing in wet ground. With these, to avoid injur j^ it is necessar}^ to refrain from planting corn on recently drained ground. If possible, such lands should be burned The Western Grass-stem Sawfly {Cephus occidentalis Riley and Marlatt) In the northwest, in recent years, wheat has been injured by the work of a grub that bores in the stem, causing the kernels to dwarf, and often causing the stem to break over close to the ground. The larva is three fourths of an inch long, yellowish white. The adult is a four- winged sawfly, its abdomen banded with yellow. Eggs are laid just below the head of the grain attacked. The grub bores down within the stem, girdles it from the inside not far above the ground, and remains below the girdle until the following spring, when the adults emerge. The native food plants are quack grass, wheat grass, brome grass, rye grass, and timothy. Remedial measures consist in keeping down the growth of native grasses around wheat, and in plowing the stubble in fall or early spring so as to kill the insects liiding within it or prevent emergence of the adults. The Joint-worm {Isosoma tritici Fitch) The presence of joint- worm in wheat is nearly always accompanied by distortions or enlargements of the stem at the point where the grub is at work. Such parts become hardened, and are apt to come out with the grain at threshing. The heads of badly infested plants 130 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS usually are stunted and give a reduced yield, and the straw tends to break down. The adult of the grub that does this mischief is a small, black, four-winged fly. It lays its eggs in the standing stem of wheat in May or June in the uppermost joint available. Several larvae may develop within a single stem. The larva remains in the straw until the following spring. In control cut the straw as low as possible, so as not to leave many larvae in the field. Infested straw not used up by April 1 may be burned, f I j but usually not many adults issue from dry, ^ ! well-made straw stacks. The best measure is to K ■ burn the stubble in the field. Where clover is K growing in the stubble, it is possible to choose 1 a time in winter or spring when the clover I has been frozen down, and will not be injured. I ;i Rotation should be I •^' practiced, and wheat kept growing vigor- ously so that it may be well along by the time the adults come out to lay their eggs. In such plants the larvae will cause less loss in yield than in backward or weak plants. Fig. 109. — The Joint-worm. Larva and work. En- larged. Original. Fig. 110. — The Joint-worm. Adult. Enlarged and natu- ral size. Original. A closely related species, Isosoma hordei Harr., attacks the stems of barley, causing a distortion of the stem at the point of injury, and more or less reduction in yield, as in the case of the species infesting wheat. The recommendations for control are the same. GRUBS OR MAGGOTS INJURING STALK OR STEM 131 The Wheat Straw-worm {Isosoma grande Riley) In the wheat growing regions west of the Mississippi this insect causes much damage. Its work is of two types. Overwintering, mostly wingless adults lay eggs in April in the tender tissues of young wheat plants. The grubs that hatch from these feed in the crown of the plant, practically destroying it so that growth stops. After a pupal stage a second generation of adults in late May or June emerges. These are winged, and are apt to disperse rather widely. The female lays eggs in the wheat stem, below the head and just above the youngest joint that is not covered with a sheath of leaves. Larvae hatching from these eggs feed in the stem, and remain in the straw until the next season. The plant attacked will mature a head, but the kernels are apt to be small. Rotation is important because it will prevent damage by the first, wingless generation, which causes the more serious injury. The overwintering larva can be killed by burning or otherwise disposing of the straw and stubble. Fig. 111.— Work of Iso- soma hordei. Original. Fig. 112. — Work of the Wheat Straw-worm. Orig- inal. The Wheat-stem Maggot (Meromyzn americana Fitch) The evidence of the presence of the wheat-stem maggot is a char- acteristic blanching of the heads of wheat, rye, oats, or other small 132 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS grains here and there in a green, growing field. Often the stem below the head will be somewhat shriveled or discolored. A tiny maggot may be found within the stem. The adult is a small fly with a striped body. The first generation of flies emerge in early sum- mer from the 3"oung plants. Their offspring are the brood of maggots that cause the blanched heads. The adults of these mag- gots emerge after normal threshing time, and there follows a midsummer gen- eration on volunteer grain or wild grasses. Adults from these lay eggs on fall wheat or native grasses, and the maggots from these sur- \ive the winter, completing growth in the spring. On fall wheat they injure the base of the plant. Prompt threshing and stacking will kill many of the insects in the ripe straw, and bury the survivors in the stack where the flies can- not get out to go through Late sowing of fall wheat Fig. 113.- enlarged, -The Wheat-stem Maggot. Adult, and work, natural size. Original. the midsummer generation on grasses, probably will help to some extent. The Stalk Borer {Papaipema nitela Guen.) The stalks of many kinds of plants, such as tomato, corn, oats, barley, and others, are attacked by a worm which bores into them from without, feeds within, and frequently bores out again, moving CATERPILLAR BORING IN MAIN STEM 133 1 to a ncighl)oring stalk. The entrance and often the exit holes of the worms are evi- dent, together ^^^th castings thrown out Fig. 115. — Stem cut open, showing larva of Stalk Borer at work. Original. of the burrow, and the plant often wilts bej'ond the point of attack. The full-grown larva measures about an Fig. 114.— Work of the Stalk Borer. Original. Fig. 1 1G. — Adult of the Stalk Borer. Original. inch in length. It is marked with five longitudinal stripes, but those on its sides are broken and wanting from the third to the seventh segments. The adult is a gray moth. Eggs are laid in the fall on the ground near suitable food plants, and hatch the next spring. 134 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS Certain weeds, especially burdock and ragweed, are the native food plants. Control consists in cutting and promptly destroying such weeds in or near the crops or plants attacked. The only direct measures feasible are removal of infested stalks as soon as the presence of the borers is discovered. Fig, 117. — Work of the Squash Borer. Original. The Squash Borer (Melittia satyriniformis Hbn.) Whitish, fleshy grubs, about an inch long when full grown, bore in the stems of squashes and sometimes pumpkins or melons, often Fig. 118. — Larva of the Squash Borer in stem of plant. Slightly enlarged. Original. Fig. 119. — Cocoon and empty pupal shell of the Squash Borer. Original. killing the part of the plant beyond them. Yellowish excrement will be found beneath the stem at the points where they are at work. WHITISH GRUBS BORING IN THE STALK 135 Fig. 120.— Adult of the Squash Borer. Slightly enlarged. Original. varieties are planted as traps, the moths will lay on them rather than on winter varieties. All \'ines should be gathered and burned as soon as mature. Fall cultivation followed by deep spring plowing will kill many of the larvae in the soil or prevent the moths from emerging. Moist earth drawn over the vines at joints will induce the formation of ad- ditional roots, enabling the plant to withstand attack. The \ine may be slit and the borers removed. The Potato Stalk-borer (Trichobaris trinotataSsiy) The potato stalk-borer is a small, yellowish- white grub, half an inch long, which bores in the Eggs are laid on the vines by the adults in early summer. The parent is a handsome moth. There is one generation in the north, but usually two in the south. The larva enters the ground to pass the winter. If earlv _ Fig. 122. — Adult of the Potato Stalk-horcr. and natural size. Original. Fig. 121. — Work of Enlarged the Potato Stalk- borer. Original. 136 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS stalks of potato plants, frequently killing the vines. Its work is evident usually in midsummer. The adult is a gray snout beetle, with three black spots at the hind end of its thorax. It lays eggs just under the surface of the vines, and the grubs work beyond the reach of poison. Fortmiately, the adults remain in the stalks over winter, and the pest is easily checked for the next season by removing and destrr^ying the vines as soon as the crop of potatoes is harvested. Neighboring weeds also should be destroyed. The Lima Bean Stem-borer {Monoptilota nuhilella Hulst) In a few sections in the South the stalks of lima beans are at- tacked by a borer, wliich bur- rows inside and causes the for- mation of characteristic galls. The worm is bluish green, and nearly an inch long when full grown. There are probably two generations in the southern part of the insect's range. Winter is passed as larva or pupa in the soil. Fall plowing and cultivation will help to sup- press the insect. If stems show- ing the galls of the first genera- tion are removed and destroyed, the numbers of the second gen- eration should be materially reduced. The Hop-plant Borer ( Hydrce- cia immanis Grt.) The hop-plant borer feeds at three different points in or on the vines in the course of its Fig. 123. — Work of the Lima Bean Stem-borer. Orig- inal. Fig. 124. — Work of the Hop-plant Borer. Original. GRUBS BORING IN STALK OR STEM 137 Fig. 125. — Adult of the Hop-plant Borer. Original. existence. Early in the season it bores inside the growing tips, causing them to turn down. It is now a slender green worm, marked with black dots. Soon it drops from the tips, enters the vine near the ground, and bores within at this point. At this stage it is reddish in color, dotted with black, and three fourths to an inch in length. After two or three weeks, it bores down and out, and feeds beneath the ground, just above the old roots, sometimes nearly cutting the \ane off. It now reaches a length of two inches, is thick bodied, whitish, and marked with fine brown dots. A pupal stage is passed in the soil. Some of the adults emerge in the fall and some in the spring. Tips showing the work of the earlier stage should be pinched off and destroyed. The grubs working in the soil may be driven deeper to the old roots b}^ pulling away the dirt for a few days, later heaping ashes around the vines. On the old roots they will do little damage. The Cabbage Curculio {Ceutorhyncus rapce Gyll.) A small snout beetle appears on cabbage plants early in the season, us- ually wliile the plants are still in the seed bed. The beetle is one eighth of an inch long and varies in color from gray to black. Its body is quite broad. Eggs are laid in the stalks, and a whitish grub tunnels witliin. Infested plants may droop over in their upper half, or break off in transplanting. The grub is full grown in three weeks, trans- forms in the soil, and the adults emerge a week later, disappearing after a few days. There is one generation annually. Various wild plants, especially hedge mustard and wild pepper- grass, are native food plants and are preferred to cabbage. Use may be made of these as traps, destroying them as soon as the beetles have laid their eggs in them. An appUcation of arsenate of lead or Paris 138 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS green to the cabbages in the seed bed Ukely will serve to poison enough of the adult beetles to reduce injury by the grubs. The Asparagus Miner {Agromyza simplex Loew) Irregular mines are made just beneath the outer skin of asparagus stems. Frequently the surface will become ruptured and turn back, and beneath may be seen the tiny brown puparium, looking like a flaxseed. The larva which causes the injury is a footless maggot one fifth of an inch long, white, tapering to the head end. The adult is a small fly, rather hump backed, with a large head and prominent eyes. Fig. 126. — Work and pupa- rium of the Asparagus Miner. Enlarged. Orig- inal. Fig. 127. — Adult of the Asparagus Miner. Enlarged and natural size. Original. Badly infested stalks should be cut off or pulled up, and burned. Stalks that are being cut regularly for market will not show injury. A few plants may be left at this time as traps, and these destroyed. The Rhubarb Curculio (Lixus concavus Say) The stems of rhubarb sometimes are scarred and pmictured by a snout beetle. ATTACKING SURFACE OF STALK OR STEM 139 Fig. 128. — The Rhubarb Curculio. Slightly en- larged. Original. three fourths of an inch long. It may be controlled by hand picking. The normal place of breeding is in the stems of dock, and this weed should be removed from the neighborhood of rhubarb. The Hessian-fly (Mayetiola destructor Say) Few insects have wrought greater dam- age than this pest in its periods of abundance. It is one of the prime enemies of our wheat-growing regions. The adult is a tiny, two- winged gnat, one tenth of an inch long. It emerges in the fall, at the time that winter wheat is just unfolding its leaves, and laj^s eggs on the upper surface of the leaves. The re- sulting maggot goes down to a point within the leaf sheath, feeds, and later transforms to a small, hard, brown object looking like a seed, and known as the "flaxseed." In spring a new lot of adults emerge from these ''flaxseeds," and at once lay eggs on the leaves of the young wheat as be- fore. The maggots which hatch from these eggs feed at the base of the leaf, caus- ing characteristic in- jury. An infested plant is stunted, shows no visible stem, and is darker than normal in color. If the infestation is severe, the plant is seriously injured or entirely destroyed. The summer is passed in the flaxseed stage, in the wheat stubble. Fig. 129. — ^^■..I■k and pupariaof the Hessian- fly. Original. Fig. 130. — Adult of the Hessian-fly. Enlarged and natural size. Orig- inal. 140 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS In the spring wheat sections the hfe history is similar, except that winter is passed as a flaxseed in the stubble, and there are two genera- tions in quick succession in summer. No direct remedies are known. Crop rotation is of some value, but the adults can fly and thus infest new fields. The most effective plan is to delay planting of wheat in the fall for 10 days to two weeks beyond the usual time. The young wheat plants wiU then not be above ground or of suitable size when the adults emerge, and usually injury is largely averted. Cutworms ( Noduidce) About the time that young plants in gardens are pushing through the soil they are found cut off even with the surface of the ground, Fu 132. — Larvse of Noctua clande- stina. Original. Fig. 131. — Work of Cutworms. Origi- nal. Fig. 133. Adult of Noctua clandestina. Original. CUTTING OFF ENTIRE PLANT 141 the wilted top usually lying near the beheaded root stalk. Corn and other field crops suffer the same fate. As a rule the worms them- selves are nowhere to be seen ; but if one removes the soil to a depth of an inch or two near a dead plant, one will likely find a dark, naked worm, lying curled up and motionless. There are many species. The worms differ in markings, but their work is much the same. They are the larvae of night-flying moths of the family Noduidoe. Their parents are on the wing in July and August, laying eggs in fields that are grown up to herb- age of almost any kind. A field that has been allowed to run to weeds is favorite ground. The young worms that hatch from these eggs feed for a few weeks in the fall, and then hibernate in the soil. In the spring they resume activity, and after the ground has been plowed and seeded, they are ready to destroy the first green plants that show up. Fig. 134. — Larva of Agrolis ypsilon. Original. Fig. 135. — Adult oi xiw'oli^ ypsilon. Original. In large areas, cultivate thoroughly in late summer, keeping the ground free of weeds, and plow deeply in the fall, following this with early cultivation in the spring. 142 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS' Fig. 136. Adult of Noctua c-mgrum Original. In the garden injury may be avoided by the use of poison bran mash in the spring, scattering it over the ground before the plants arc due to come up. The worms will then be killed before they have done any damage. Tomatoes, cab- bages, and other large plants may be protected by fitting a collar of paper around the stem, setting it two or three inches into the ground, and letting the upper edge be three or four inches above the surface. Grasshoppers {Acrididce) Grasshoppers have been at times among the most destructive of pests on American farms. Almost every season finds them in exces- sive abundance and seriously injuring crops in some one of the states. At least half a dozen species have records of periodical devastation, but all are of such characteristic form, and their life histories are so similar, that it is unnecessary to attempt to recognize the va- rious species. The j^oung appear early in summer. They have no wings, and are quite small, but other- wise they are much like the adults. They reach the winged stage in midsummer or later. Eggs are laid in the ground in pod- shaped masses, an inch or so below the surface. Pasture land, lanes, or places in undisturbed, close-growing vegetation of any kind are chosen for egg laying. Frequently large numbers are laid in alfalfa. The insect remains in the egg stage over winter. Fig. 137. — Adult of MelanopLus femur- rubrum. Original. GRASSHOPPERS 143 When the insects have been abundant, all suitable breeding places should be deeply plowed in the fall. Alfalfa may be disked. In gardens or similar locations poison bran mash may be used, if poultry can be kept out. In field crops two methods of direct control are in general use. The insects may be poisoned, or they may be caught in so-called " hopper-dozers." For wholesale poisoning a fairly satisfactory sub- stance is the home-made material known as the Criddle mixture. Take five pails of horse manure, dissolve two pounds of salt in a pail of water and stir in one pound of Pairs green or London purple, and moisten the manure with this. Scatter it broadcast through the field. Another and an effective material is poison bran mash. Fig. 138. — \du\t oi Camnula pellucida. Original. The hopper-dozer consists of a long, shallow, sheet-iron pan, the bottom covered with wet carpet or burlap and liberally dosed with kerosene. Along the back of the pan is fixed a shield of canvas about three feet high, and this also is wet with kerosene. The pan is drawn sidewise over the ground by a man at each end, or by horses. The grasshoppers jump as the pan reaches them, come in contact with the kerosene in the pan or on the shield, and are killed by it. The scheme is satisfactory only if put into use while the insects are still in their wingless stages. Certain specie^: of grasshoppers develop the habit of migrating when excessivel.v ?bundant. In such cases direct remedial measures are practically impossible. 144 FKSTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS Blister-beetles (Meloidce) Swarms of rather large, long-legged beetles, black, gray, or striped black and yellow, with distinct heads and " necks " and elongated, straight-cut bodies, sometimes descend on field or garden crops and Fig. 139. — The Striped Blister- beetle. Original. Fig. 140. — The Ash-gray Blis- ter-beetle. Original. quickly destroy the foliage. They often do great damage to sugar beets, potatoes, and beans, or other legumes. There are several species, as noted below. The younger stages are spent in the soil, the larvae feeding in the Fig. 141. — Nuttall's Blister- beetle. Original. Fig. 142. — The Black Blis- ter-beetle. Original. egg clusters of grasshoppers. Emergence of the adult beetle takes place in the spring. The Striped Blister-beetle (Epicauta vittata Fab.) is black, marked with three distinct, longitudinal yellow stripes. It is common on potatoes and sugar beets, but often attacks other crops. The Ash-gray Blister-beetle {Macrobasis unicolor Kby.) is a smooth LARGE BEETLES EATING THE LEAVES 145 gray in color. It is oftenest found on legumes, and sometimes on potatoes. The Gray Blister-beetle (Epicauta cinerca Fors.) is of the same general type. Nuttall's Blister-beetle (Cantharis nuttalli Say) is a handsome, shin- ing, deep blue in color and the largest species of the group. It ranges through the Western states, and is espe- cially destructive on beans and other legumes. The Black BHster-beetle {Epicauta pennsylvanica DeG.) is often destructive to potato \ines. It is a shining black in color. The Buttercup Oil Beetle {Meloe an- Fig. 143. -The Buttercup OU .. „. ox- ... - 1 • r Beetle. OriKUial. gusticoUis bay) is mjurious for brier periods. It is .a deep, sliining, blue black in color, and has shortened wing covers. Often the abdomen is greatly enlarged. Blister-beetles may be poisoned by prompt and thorough applica- tions of Paris green or arsenate of lead, but they are apt to appear suddenly, and to do much damage before noticed. In field crops the beetles sometimes are driven away bj^ a hue of people armed with brush mo\'ing slowly across the field. The Colorado Potato-beetle {Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say) Potato-beetles or " bugs " need little descriiition. For many years they have been omnipresent, and all who have raised potatoes or seen them growing will readily recognize the heavj^-bodicd beetle, three eighths of an inch long, with its yellow or orange wing covers marked with 10 black lines. (See frontispiece.) The young or larva is often known as a " slug," and after the season is well started is found in large numbers on the vines. It is dark red, becoming lighter as it grows older, and has a series of black .spots down each side. Its head is quite small. The eggs are bright orange, and are found in masses on the under side of the leaves. The pest passes the winter as adult beetles under ground. They come 146 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS out from these quarters early in the spring, and begin laying eggs as soon as food plants are avail- able. Usually the over- wintering beetles live and continue laying eggs for a considerable period. The grub en- ters the ground to pu- pate, when it has be- come full grown. There are two generations an- nually. Poisoning by means of Paris green and lime, or lead arsenate, is the simplest and best Eggs of the Colorado Potato-beetle, remedy. Use a rather Slightly enlarged. Original. j^^^vy dose and apply early, as soon as the potato tops are a few inches liigh, repeating as needed. Fig. 144. The Three-lined Potato Beetle (Lema trilineata Oliv.) Injury by this species is about the same as that done by the Colorado potato-beetle. The eggs are laid along the midrib of the leaf. The larva covers itself with a mass of excre- ment. The adult is a hand- some beetle, its body striped with light yellow and black. T^ , .1 • " ,. ,1 , Fig. 145. — The Three-lined Potato Its length IS a little more than beetle. Enlarged and natural size, one third of an inch. There Original. BEETLES AND GRUBS EATING THE LEAVES 147 are two broods each season. The pest is easily killed by the application of Paris green or arsenate of lead. The Larger Beet Leaf-beetle (Monoxia pimcticollis Say) Both the adult beetles and the larvae feed on the leaves of beets. Injury is begun by the beetles, wliich are one fourth of an inch long, brownish to black in color, each wing cover vaguely marked with an obscure Ughter band. Eggs are laid on the leaves, and from these hatch the larvae, which add to the damage. The full- grown larva is one third of an inch long, rather robust, and nearly black in ground color. The segments are distinctly shown by low tubercles, the tops of which are marked with light yellow, gi\'ing the larva Fig. 146. — The Larger Beet Leaf-beetle. Enlarged and natural size. Original. The insect a dotted appearance, appears to breed normally on native wild plants. Its work may be checked by the prompt application of Paris green or arsenate of lead. The Bean Leaf-beetle {Ceratoma tr if areata Fors.) Black and yellow beetles, one sixth of an inch long, feed on the fohage of beans, cowpeas, and re- lated plants, eating holes in the leaves. The ground color of the insect is yellow or red, margined with black and with four black spots on its back. The larvae live on Fig. 147. — The Bean Leaf-beetle. Enlarged and natural size. Original. the roots of the plants, suitable shelter. The insect hibernates as an adult in any 148 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS Prompt application of Paris green or arsenate of lead will check the pest. Apply early before the bean pods are well formed. Clean- ing up rubbish in the fall is of value. The destruction of weeds that belong in the same botanical family is an additional remedial measure. The Bean Lady Beetle {Epilachna corrupta Muls.) In some of the Western states beans are subject to injury by tliis species. Early in the season the foliage is eaten by the adults, which have hibernated. These are fol- lowed by the larvae, and later a new generation of adults is at work. As soon as the bean pods appear they are attacked as well as the leaves. The larvae skele- tonize the leaves, working on the under side, wliile the adults de- vour the leaf tissue entire. The adult beetle is broadly oval, one tliird of an inch long, light Fig. 148. -The Bean Lady Beetle. ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^lor, and marked with Enlarged and natural size. Origi- eight dots on each wing COVer. ^^1- The larva is about the same size, yellowish, and covered with short, branched spines. There is one generation annually. Arsenicals, either Paris green or arsenate of lead, will kill both larvae and adults. The applications must be made to the under side of the leaves. The Squash Lady Beetle {Epilachna borealis Fab.) Both the insect and its work are characteristic. The adult beetle is one third of an inch long, nearly as wide, yehowish to brownish in color, and marked with seven large black dots on each wing cover. In addition there are four small dots on the thorax. The eggs are yellowish, and are laid in clusters on the leaf. The larva is oval in shape, a half inch long, and covered with rather^ long, branching spines. The beetle marks out a circular area on a leaf and then feeds within this. The larva BEETLES ANT) GRUBS EATING THE LEAVES 149 ^ ^ w M TW^J Su^^- ^"f .^^ V< ri''_S^^-\ ^ -v^ ^^^'.^^1 ^ ^rfLfjff -iJ-i ^JA^ 1, iV3?iiiri .^^ 1^ Fig. 149. — Work of the Scjuash Lady Beetle. Original. Fig. 150. — Larva of the Squash Lady Beetle. Slightly enlarged. Orig- inal. feeds anywhere on the leaf. Squashes and re- lated plants are at- tacked. Winter is passed as an adult. There is one generation annually. Eggs should be re- moved when found. Paris green or arsenate of lead may be used to poison the beetles and larvae. With each of the last two species adults are at work both in spring and in summer because of the hibernating habits. Fig. 151. — Adults of the Squash Lady Beetle. Original. 150 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS The Striped Cucumber Beetle {Diabrutica vittata Fab.) As soon as the tender leaves of melons, cucumbers, and squashes are above ground, a lot of yellow and black striped beetles, two fifths of Fig. 152. — The Striped Cucumber Beetle. Adults, natural size and enlarged. Original. an inch long, hunt them out and do their best to destroy them. The larvae eat the tender roots of the same plants on which the adults are seen ; and in addition the feeding of the adults is instrumental in spreading a bacterial wilt that often suddenly kills the vines. SMALL BEETLES I^'JrBING LEAF AND STEM 151 There is one brood of tliis species in the North, but in the South two generations are recorded. The adults hibernate in any convenient shelter or in the ground. Where possible, young plants should be protected with cloth or wire screen until they have got a start. Lacking this, it is wise to plant an excess of seed, thus allowing for the thinning that the pest will do. It is difficult to poison the beetles, because they will hunt out parts of the stem or leaves, or later the inside of the flowers, where the sur- FiG. 153. — Plants protected with cloth screens, to prevent injury by the Striped Cucumber Beetle. Original. face is not coated with a spray material. Nevertheless, considerable protection is afforded by spraying thoroughly with arsenate of lead, using 4 or 5 pounds to 50 gallons of water. Many repellents have been tried, but most are of little use when the beetles are numerous, and their effect seems to last only a short time. Probably the best is drj^-slaked or air-slaked hme with which has been mixed flowers of sulphur. Fine road dust or tobacco dust will drive them away from the plants temporarily. Beans or squashes planted ahead of the main crop will in a measure protect the latter. Removal of crop remnants, and general cleaning up of the garden in the fall, will help to avert serious injury the next season. 152 FESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS The Twelve-spotted Cucumber Beetle {Diabrotica duodecimpundata Oliv.) This insect, in its larval stage, is known in the South as the southern corn root- worm, where it is a pest of corn and other field crops. In the central and northern re- gions injury by the adult beetle is more often noted, the crops at- tacked being cucumber, melon, squash, beets, cabbage — in fact, almost every sort of vegetable. The beetles are especially partial to the blossoming parts of the plant. The adult is easily recognized. It is one fourth of an inch long, broader toward the hind end, yel- lowish green in color, and ornamented with twelve black spots on its back. Its head is black. The adults hide away during the winter, and appear early in the spring. There are two generations in the North, and probably more in the South. Remedies for the adult beetle are the same as those for the striped cucumber beetle. The Asparagus Beetle (Crioceris asparagi Linn.) Both the young shoots and the leafy tops of asparagus are attacked by the larva and the adult beetle of this species. The shoots are ^Aspartg^s^^^ltll! rendered unfit for use, and the injury to the Enlar^f^d and natural tops weakens the plants. size. Original. Fig. 154. — The Twelve-spotted Cu- cumber Beetle. Enlarged and natu- ral size. Original. SMALL BEETLES AND GRUBS ATTACKING FOLIAGE 153 The adult is one fourth inch long, blue black in ground color, its wing covers yellow, bordered and marked with dark blue, and its thorax red. It is active in habits, dodging around a stem when Fjg. 156. The Asparagus Beetle. Larvae and adults natural size, and adult enlarged. Original. disturbed. The grub is three tenths of an inch long, grajdsh or olive, with a sliining black head. The beetles emerge from their hibernating quarters about the time that asparagus shoots are ready for the first cutting. Eggs are laid on the shoots, and later on the stems. The larva enters the ground 154 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS :,;ec'*'^ Fig. 157. — Larva of the Asparagus Beetle. Enlarged and natural size. Original. to pupate. There are two to four generations annually. To control, permit a few shoots to grow up at once, and poison with Paris green the beetles and grubs on these. Collect the shoots desired for the table or market at frequent intervals. Fresh, air-slaked lime dusted on the grubs will kill them. The Twelve-spotted Asparagus Beetle {Crioceris duodecimpundata L.) Injury by this species to the young shoots is much the same as that due to the common asparagus beetle. Holes are dug and the surface is eaten both by the grubs and by the adult beetles. Later, when the tops are grown, the adults tend to feed largely on the substance of the berries. The adult beetle is one fourth inch long, orange in color, with six black dots on each wing cover. The grub is three tenths of an inch long, with yellowish body and brownish head. There are from two to four generations annually. Control is the same as that for the common asparagus beetle. Fig. 158. — The Twelve-spotted Aspara- gus Beetle. Enlarged and natural size. Original. Tortoise Beetles attacking Sweet Potatoes As soon as sweet potato plants are set out in the field they are sought out by odd little insects known as tortoise beetles. Holes are eaten SMALL BEETLES AND GRUBS ATTACKING FOLIAGE 155 Fig. in the leaves, and when the young or larvae get to work a few days later, the foliage may be pretty well destroyed. The adult beetles are broadly oval, flattened, and their backs bear some resemblance to a tortoise shell. The Two- striped Sweet Potato Beetle {Cassida hiviUata Say) is one fourth of an inch long, and has two black stripes on each of its yellow wing covers. The Golden Tortoise Beetle {Copto- cycla bicolor Fab.) is larger and a bright, golden yellow. The Black-legged Tortoise Beetle {Cassida nigripes Oliv.) is five sixteenths of an inch long, and has gold wing covers, each bearing tliree black spots. The larvse of tortoise beetles are known as " peddlers," because they often carry a mass of excrement on two spines at the hind end, and elevate this over their backs. There is one generation a year. The adults hide away in warm, dry places. To con- trol, dip the plants before set- ting out in arsenate of lead 1 pomid to 8 or 10 gallons of water. The larvse may be killed by applying Paris green or arsenate of lead to the plants after setting. 159. — Work of Tortoise Beetles on sweet potato. Original. Fig. 160. — A Tortoise Beetle, Coptocycla bicolor. Enlarged and natural size. Original. 156 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS The Cucumber Flea-beetle {Epitrix cucumeris Harr.) Synonyms : The Potato Flea-beetle ; The Tomato Flea-beetle The leaves of potatoes and tomatoes, and sometimes those of cucumbers and related plants, are riddled by very small, black, active beetles wliich quickly jump and disappear when disturbed. Their Fig. 161. — The Cucumber Flea-beetle. Adults and work on potato leaf, natural size, and adult enlarged. Original. SMALL, ACTIVE FLEA-BEETLES INJURING FOLIAGE 157 work gives the leaf the appearance of being shot full of small holes, though frequently only the upper surface is eaten off at each feeding place. The beetle is so small that its markings can be made out only under a hand lens. It measures one sixteenth of an inch long, is c|uite black, and has yellowish legs and antennae. The larvae are very slender, tiny worms, and live in the soil, feeding on the roots. When nu- merous on potatoes, they may cause the surface of the tubers to develop raised spots or ''pimples." The adults hibernate in rubbish. Their first generation is raised on weeds related to the potato, such as horse nettle and the hke. There are two or three broods in a season. Bordeaux mixture combined with Paris green or arsenate of lead and applied as a spray is the best remedy. It will drive away most of the beetles, and those that remain will be poisoned. Fig. 162. — Potato injured by larvae of the Cucumber Flea-beetle. Original. The Pale-striped Flea-beetle (Systena tceniata var. blanda Say) The common name w^ell describes this species. The adult is one eighth inch long, its thorax cream colored, and its wing covers striped with the same shade, alternating with yellow. Practically every kind of garden or field crop is attacked, including sugar beets, corn, tomatoes, melons, cabbages, turnips, cotton, and many others. The foliage of the plants is riddled with fine holes. The larvae feed on the roots of common weeds. The pest passes the winter as a rule in the larval stage, the adults appearing in large numbers in the early part of summer. There is one brood annually. 158 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS Where feasible, apply arsenicals to the plants attacked, or Bordeaux mixture combined with arsenicals. Weeds should be destroyed in the fall. The Banded Flea-beetle {Systena tceniata Say) is similar in appear- ance, though darker, and of the same habits. r.G. 163. — The Pale-striped Flea-beetle. Enlarged and natural si^e. Original. Fig. 164. —Work of the Banded Flea-beetle. Orig- inal. The Striped Flea-beetle {Phyllotreta vittata Fab.) Cabbage, turnips, and related crops are preferred by this species of flea-beetle. The adults make numerous small holes in the leaves, and the slender, whitish larvse live in the soil, feeding principally on the roots of various weeds of the same family. The adult is one eighth of an inch long, black, each wing cover marked with a hght, waving band. Paris green or arsenate of lead, either alone or in combination with Bordeaux mixture, may be used on turnip tops, or on cabbage that is not ready for market. On cabbage, until it is half-grown, add resin soap to the Paris green. After the plants are three fourths grown use repellents. FxG. 165. — The Striped Flea- beetle. Enlarged and nat- ural size. Original. SMALL, ACTIVE FLEA-BEETLES INJURING FOLIAGE 159 The Western Cabbage Flea-beetle {Phyllotreta pusilla Horn.) This species is related to the preceding, and follows it closely in life history and habits. The adult is one twelfth of an inch long, dark green in color, without bands or other similar markings on its wings. Control is the same as for the preceding species. Fig. 166. — The Western Cab- bage Flea-beetle. Enlarged and natural size. Original. Pjq 167.— The Tobacco Flea-beetle, largcd and natural size. Original, En- The Tobacco Flea-beetle {Epilrix parvula Fab.) A small, dark, active beetle, provided with strong hind legs that enable it to jump readily, injures the leaves of tobacco both in the seed bed and in the field by eating numerous small holes in them. If one of the beetles be examined closely, it will be found to have a darker band across its back, and its wing covers are finely pitted. The adults appear from their winter hiding places early in the spring. Eggs are laid on the ground or on the plants. The larvae live in the ground, feeding on small roots. Seed beds that are closely covered with cloth will not be injured. The adult beetles may be killed by thorough spraying with arsenate of lead or Paris green. The Spinach Flea-beetle {Disomjcha xanthomelxBna Dalm.) A much larger species of flea-beetle commonly attacks spinach, and is often a serious pest of sugar beets. The adult is one fourth of an inch long, with yellow thorax and shining blue wing covers. 160 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 1 The larvsB of this species feed on the leaves. They are one fourth inch long when mature, Fig. 168. — Work of the Spinach Flea-beetle. Original. Fig. 169. — The Spinach Flea-beetle. Enlarged and natural size. Original. rather thick bodied, grayish in color or sometimes dark purplish. On each segment are rows of raised tubercles. There are two broods in the course of the summer, the adults hibernating. The use of Paris green to poison the larvae and adults, and the destruc- tion of weeds in the fall and spring, are the remedies. The Triangular Flea-beetle {Disonycha triangularis Say) is about the same size as the preceding, and has the same feeding habits. Its thorax is marked with three black dots arranged in the form of a tri- angle. The life history is similar Fig. 170. — The Triangular Flea-beetle. Enlarged and natural size. Original. to that of the preceding, and the same remedies will apply. SMALL, ACTIVE FLEA-BEETLES INJURING FOLIAGE 161 The Sweet Potato Flea-beetle {Chcetocnema confinis Cr.) Soon after sweet j^otato plants are set in the field they begin to show the characteristic work of the sweet potato flea-beetle. Narrow lines are gouged out on the surface of the leaf, at first following parallel to the veins, but later running in any direction. At the same time the beetles them- selves will be noticed in in- creasing numbers. They are tiny, active, bronze-colored Fig. 172. — The Sweet Potato Flea-beetle. Enlarged and nat- ural size. Original. insects, one sixteenth of an inch long. In tliree or four weeks the beetles practically all disap- pear, ha\ing migrated to wild plants of related species. The only injury is at the beginning of the season. Dip the plants in arsenate of load when setting them out, immersing the tops but not the roots. Use 1 pound of lead arsenate to 8 or 10 gallons of water. In addition, spray the plants with arsenate of lead about ten days later, to protect new foliage. Plants that are set out late will escape serious injury. Fig. 171. — W ork of tin- Sweet Potato Flea- beetle. Original. 162 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS The Hop Flea-beetle {Psylliodes pwidulata Melsh.) Leaves of hops, sugar beets, and some other plants are attacked by very small, active beetles, which feed at first on the tender shoots and buds and later eat holes in the leaves. The adult is about one tenth of an inch long, shining black, its upper surface marked with many minute pits in regular rows. The larva is slender, wliitish, and lives in the ground. There are two generations in the hop regions of the north Pacific coast. The insect hibernates ^gflB^^ as an adult. ^^k^^^H^BjP On sugar beets control is not easy. Bor- '^ deaux acts as a fairly effective repellent. A fair proportion of beetles may be poisoned by applying arsenicals. Fig. 173. — The Hop Flea- Where the beetles appear suddenly in de- beetle. Enlarged and j. x- i xi • i , 1 . r» • • 1 structive swarms on hops, their numbers may natural size. Original. . , be reduced materially by brusliing them from the vines and catching them on sticky shields made by stretching cloth over light frames and coating the surface with tar. Banding the vines and poles with tanglefoot before the adults first appear will largely protect the vines, since the adults seem to follow the habit of crawling up the vines instead of flying. The Alfalfa Leaf- we evil {Phytonomus posticus Fab.) Alfalfa throughout the Western states is seriously threatened by this pest, which is native to Europe and Asia and has accidentally been introduced into this country. The plants are injured both by the adult weevils and by their young or grubs. Depredations begin in early spring, when the beetles come out from their winter quarters and puncture the young stems of alfalfa to make places for depositing their eggs. Shortly the grubs hatch and begin feeding on the tender leaves and the crown of the plant. Transformation to the adult stage begins in June, and later the beetles SNOUT-BEETLES AND GRUBS EATING LEAVES 163 swarm on the plants, eating the freslily expanded leaves and gnawing the surface of stems in such way as to kill the growth above. Fig. 174. — The Alfalfa Lcaf-woovil. En- larged and natural size. Original. Fig. 175. — Pupa of the Alfalfa Leaf-weevil. Enlarged and natural size. Original. The adult is one eighth to tliree sixteenths of an inch long, and when freshly emerged is brown. It grows darker in a few days. Its body is covered with black and gray hairs, giving it a mottled appearance. The grub is one fourth inch long, tapering toward each extremity, and has a light stripe down its back. Remedial measures thus far devised include : t borough disking early in the spring so as to induce quick, \'igorous growth of the plants; the use of a spike-tooth harrow combined with a brush drag immediately following the first cutting ^ fi 1 J r' 1 r1 5, /• 1 • .-. i 1 ' 1 '* f ' 1 J 1 ^%. ■^ -'^i Fig. 176. — Egg puncture and work of the Alfalfa Leaf-weevil. Original. Fig. 177. — Feed- ing punctures of the Alfalfa Leaf- weevil. Original. 164 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELIt CROPS Fig, 178. — The Clover Leaf -weevil. Work on clover leaves. Adult enlarged to twice natural size. Original. of hay, so as to knock off and kill the grubs ; breaking up old alfalfa fields, not allowing a field to remain more than six years ; and scrupulous cleaning up of all rubbish or other hiding places in the fall. The Clover Leaf-weevil {Phy- tonomus punctatus Fab.) In early spring the leaves of clover and alfalfa show the Fig. 179. — Cocoons ol the Clover Fig. 180. — Clover head deformed bj' Leaf-weevil. Slightly enlarged. work of the Lesser Clover Leaf-weevil. Original. Original. SNOUT-BEETLES AND GRUBS EATING LEAVES 165 characteristic work of the larvae of the clover leaf-weevil. The grubs themselves are not apt to be seen, for they work only at night and he concealed close to the base of the plant during the daytime, but the edges of the leaves will be found eaten out in regular scallops. The full- grown larva is a half inch long, dusky green, with a lighter stripe down the middle of the back. In July or August the adult beetle is to be found, feeding on the leaves of the plants. It is one third of an inch long, dark brown in color but lighter on the sides, and covered with short hairs. Eggs are soon laid by the beetles, the young grubs feeding for a short time and then hiber- nating near the plants just below the surface of the soil. No direct measures of con- trol are feasible. Badly in- fested fields should be plowed and seeded to some other crop. Damage is seldom serious until F.G 182-The Lesser Clover Loaf-woe- ^ p^,^ ,^^^ ^^^^ .^ ^j^^^^ ^^^ vil. Enlarged and natural size. Orig- inal, two years. Fig. 181. Larva and work of the Lesser Clover Leaf-weevil. Original. 166 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS Fig. 183. — Cocoon of the Lesser Clover Leaf-weevil in clover head. Enlarged. Original. Large numbers of the grubs often die from a fungous dis- ease, and may be seen coiled around the stems near the top. Cattle eating clover on which many of these dead larvse are present, are apt to be mildly poisoned. The Lesser Clover Leaf-we evil (Phytonomus nigrirostis Fab.) Small holes are eaten in the young and tender leaves of clover, and later, at the bloom- ing period, the inner parts of the heads are destroyed by a tiny grub, the immature stage of a small, greenish snout beetle. -Fig. 184. — Clover leaves showing characteristic work of the Lesser Clover Leaf-weevil. Original. The beetle spends the winter in rubbish or other shelter. Emergence begins with warm weather, and egg-laying continues for several weeks. There is only one generation annually. No direct remedial measures are known. SNOUT BEETLES EATING THE LEAVES 167 The Flavescent Clover-weevil {Sitones flavescens Marsh.) Occasionally the leaves of clover are eaten by a brownish snout beetle, three sixteenths of an inch in length, its body rather thickly covered with short hairs. The larv« work in the softer parts of the stems. The insect hi- bernates as a larva. Dusting or spraying with Paris green or arsenate of lead will kill the beetles. Fig. 185. — Work of the Flavescent Clover- weevil. Original. Fig. 186. — The Imbricated Snout Beetle. Enlarged and natural size. Original. The Imbricated Snout Beetle {EpiccErus imbricatus Say) PracticaUy aU species of garden and field crops, and sometimes the buds or foliage of tree or bush fruits, may be attacked by this insect. It is a rather large snout beetle, five eighths of an inch long, its wing cov- ers banded in zigzag pattern with gray and light brown. The snout is broad and short. The larva lives in the ground. The adults cannot fly. f The beetles may be poisoned by promptly appb^ng arsenate of lead or Paris green. 168 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS Fig. 187. — 'Larya oi Phlegethontins sexta. Original. Tobacco or Tomato Worms {Phlegethontius sexta Joh., and Phlege- thontius quinquemaculata Haw.) Large, naked, green worms, armed with a curved horn near the hind end, eat the leaves of tomato and tobacco. There are two species. P. quinquemaculata has eight V-shaped, light- colored markings on Fig. 188. — Adult oi Phlegethontius sexta. Slightly reduced. Original. LARGE, NAKED WORMS EATING THE LEAVES 169 each side of its body ; P. sexta has only seven markings instead of eight, and these are merely oblique hnes. Either form is found to some extent both North and South. The full-grown worm is often 3 inches long. The adult is a large, strong- flying moth, seen in evenings. When the worm has completed its growth, it enters the soil to a depth of 4 or 5 inches, and makes a cell. In the South worms that mature early will emerge in the latter part of the same summer, thus giving a second generation. Emergence of the adult moths begins in June, but continues for fully two months. A large pro- portion of the adults emerge rather late than early, and the result is that worms are most numerous in August. Hand picking is universally prac- ticed. The worms may be poisoned by dusting lightly with Paris green or arsenate of lead. The moths may be killed by placing a few drops of arsenide of cobalt in the flowers of jimson, which they frecjuent. Prepare by mixing arsenide of cobalt, Fig. 189. — Pupa of Phlc- gethontius sex- ta. Slightly reduced. Orig- inal. Fig. 190. — Pu- pa of Phlegethon- tius quinquemac- ulata. Slightly reduced. Orig- inal. Fig. 191. Adult of Phl((jethontius quinquemaculata. Original. Slightly reduced. 170 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 1 ounce, water 1 pint, and molasses or honey to sweeten. Fall plow- ing will kill large numbers of the larvae in the soil. Fig. 192. —The Celery Caterpillar. Original. The Celery Caterpillar (Papilio polyxenes Fab.) Leaves of celery, parsnips, and other plants of the same family are eaten by a large, naked worm, bright green or yellow, and strikingly Fig. 193. — Adult of the Celery Caterpillar. Slightly reduced. Original. banded with velvet black. The adult is commonly known as the black, swallow-tail butterfly. There are two generations in the North, and three or four in the Southern states. Usually the worms are easily controlled by knocking them from the leaves and crushing them. When excessively abundant, they may be NAKED WORMS EATING THE LEAVES 171 killed by applying arsenicals, using either arsenate of lead or Paris green. The Zebra-caterpillar {Mamestra pida Harr.) A conspicuous, naked caterpillar, two inches or more long when full grown, feeds on garden crops of various sorts, especially beets. Fig. 194. — The Zebra-caterpillar. Larva and adult. Original. spinach, celery, and peas. The body is yellow, with a black stripe down the back, and another down each side. The head is red. There are two generations, the first feeding in early summer and the second in the fall. The species hibernates as a pupa. Hand picking is the usual remedy, but they may be poisoned by liberal doses of arsenate of lead or Paris green. The Striped Garden Caterpillar {Mamestra legitima Grote) This species closely resembles the related zebra-caterpillar. It may be distinguished from the other by its darker color and the fact that the lateral stripes are divided into two portions, the upper lighter than the lower. The feeding habits, life round, and means of control are the same as for the zebra-caterpillar. 172 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS The Army Worm {Leucania unipunda Haw.) In occasional seasons naked, dull-striped worms, related to the common cutworms, become abnormally abundant, march from field to field, and de- vour corn, wheat, oats, and other related plants. Individuals of this species are in our fields every year, but we do not particularly note their pres- ence until they reach their times of unusual abun- dance, abandon their normal habits of remain- ing concealed during daylight and feeding only at night, and in their search for food form the devastating "armies." The full-grown worm is about 1 J inches Fig. 195. — Larva and work of long, dark in gen- the Army Worm. Slightly en- gj-al color, with larged. Original. ., n • i three yellowish stripes down its back and a stripe down each side, stage of a dull, brownish moth. Fig. 196. — Work of Army Worms on tim- othy heads. Original. It is the younger NAKED WORMS EATING THE LEAVES 173 Adult of the Army Worm. Original. The winter is passed as half-grown hirva? in the ground. In the spring these larvae transform, moths emerge, and in a few weeks another generation of worms is at work. It is this generation that is ai)t to reach such numbers as to prove a serious pest. In the North there are three broods in a season; in the South five or six. Normally the insect is held down to moderate numbers by its natural enemies. When the worms reach ex- cessive abundance and begin to travel from one field to another, invasion may be stopped by plowing three or four furrows, and main- taining a thick dust in these if possible. As worms collect in the furrows they may be killed with a drag, or by sprinkling them with kerosene or kerosene emulsion. Another measure sometimes advisable is to apply a heavy dose of Paris green to a strip a few yards wide on the side of the field that is threat- ened. Or poison bran mash may be used. It is advis- able to plow in the fall fields in which the worms have been numerous in late sum- mer, in order to destroy as many of the hibernating larvae as possible. Fig. 198. —The Fall Army Worm enlarged. Original. Slightly The Fall Army Worm {Laphijgrna frugiperda S. and A.) This species is related to the " army worm," but whereas the latter reaches its periods of occasional destructive abundance in the early summer months, the fall army worm becomes a pest in the latter part of the summer, usually in August. The full-grown worm is dark in color, about 1^ inches long, and has a yellowish stripe down the middle of its back. Within this stripe, on each segment, are four 174 FESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS small dark dots. There is a rather dark stripe down each side of the body. Frequently this species is abundant without developing the instinct of marching in " armies." It feeds on alfalfa, sugar beets, and many other field and garden crops. Winter is passed as pupa in the ground. There are two broods in the North; four in the South. Control depends on the nature and extent of the crop attacked. In limited areas apply arsenicals. In large fields the worms may be killed by crushing them with a heavy roller. Fall plowing and disking, combined with cultivation where feasible, will kill many of the overwintering forms. Fig. 199. — Adult of the Fall Army Worm. Original. The Beet Army Worm (Laphygma exigua Hbn.) In some of the Western states this species has periods of disastrous abundance on sugar beets. Its invasions occur at the same time as those of the fall army worm. The larva resembles the latter, but lacks the distinct black dots. On each side there is a dark stripe, along the lower edge of which is a series of white dots. The winter is passed as an adult moth. There are two broods in the summer, and apparently the normal food plants are certain weeds. Clean culture is indicated, in order to keep down the weeds on which the species may live in spring or fall. The worms may be poisoned by applying Paris green or arsenate of lead. Fig. 200. —Adult of the Beet Army Worm. Slightly enlarged. Original. NAKED WORMS EATING THE LEAVES 175 The Cotton Worm (Alabama argillacea Hbn.) Dark greenish caterpillars, striped with black, eat the leaves and tender shoots of cotton, attack beginning in a small way early in the season, and increasing as additional generations of the pest are developed. When quite small, the caterpillars are light green, marked with dark spots, and eat only the under surface of the leaf, but they soon change to the coloring noted above, and their work is extended to include all of the leaf tissue. The adult is a brownish moth expanding somewhat over an inch, and invades the Southern states, from Mexico, or points farther south. It is abundant only at rare inter\'als. Kggs are laid on the leaves, and the pupal stage takes place in a folded leaf on the plant. There are three to seven generations annually. The application of arsenicals to poison the worms is effective. The ordinary practice is to apply dry Paris green, dusting Fig. 202.-Adultof the Cotton Worm. ^^ ^n the plants by means of Original. bags tacked to a pole. Fig. 201.— The Cotton Worm. Original. The Alfalfa Caterpillar {Enrymus eurytheme Boisd.) The leaves of alfalfa, and sometimes of other plants, are eaten by a dark green caterpillar, occasionally abundant enough to be destructive. The worm is naked, one inch long, has a white stripe down each side, obscurely broken by small red and black dots, and sometimes dark stripes down the middle of its back. The adult is a j^ellow butterfly, expanding about two inches, its wings 176 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS bordered with black. In the southwest there are four generations annually. Where attack is severe, fields should be mow^ed. Alfalfa that is pastured is much less liable to injury. Fig. 203. — Adult of the Imported Cabbage Worm. Original. The Imported Cabbage Worm {Pontia rapw Sch.) A velvety green worm, an inch to an inch and a half long, eats large, irregular holes in the leaves of cabbage or cauliflower, and disfigures the heads by deposits of excrement. When examined closely, the worm is seen to have a faint yellow stripe down the center of its back. The adult is the familiar white " cabbage butterfly," often observed hovering over fields of cabbage or cauliflower all through summer. There are from one to four or five -The Imported Cabbage Worm, broods, according to the section Larva on leaf. Original. where found. Fig. 204. SMALL, NAKED WORMS KATIHG TIIK LEAVES 177 Arsenicals may be used safely on cabbages uutil they are half grown An effective spray is Paris green to which has been added resin soap sticker, so that ,t will not run off the leaves. Directions for making the resin soap mixture are given elsewhere in this book. Poison bran mash, as pre- pared for cutworms, is effecti\-e, and may be used safely until the plants are nearly full grown. Hellebore is available on plants ready for market. The Southern Cab- bage Worm {Pontia Fig. 205. —Adult of the Southern Cabbage Worm. Original. Vroiodice Boisd.) is a elosely related speeies with similar habits. The Cross-striped Cabbage Worm {Evergestis rimosalis Guen.) The larva of this species is bluish in color, about three fifths of an inch long, and has numerous narrow stripes of ))lack across its back. It feeds on cabbage heads in the same manner as the com- mon cabbage worm. The adult expands , about one inch, and Fig. 206. — The Diamond-back Moth. Enlarged and is light yellowish natural size. Original ^i • - . ' wings marked with black or brown. the margins of ts 178 FESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS The normal range of this species is through the Gulf states and neigh- boring territory. Remedies are the same as for the imported cabbage worm. The Diamond-back Moth {Plutella 77iaculipemiis Curt.) Tiny active green worms, scarcely more than a quarter of an inch long when full grown, eat small holes in the leaves of cabbage, and occasion- ally become so numerous that notable damage is done. The adult is a delicate moth. There are two or three generations in the North, and half a dozen or more in the South. The remedies given for the imported cabbage worm will readily hold this species in check. The Cabbage Looper (Autographa brassicoB Riley) At the same time that the imported cabbage worm is found feeding on cabbage heads this species is likely to be observed at similar mis- FiG. 207. — The Cabbage Fig. 208. —Adult of the Cabbage Looper. Original. Looper. Original. chief. It is a light green worm, with a faint whitish stripe down each side, and moVes with a looping movement, often resting with the middle of its body elevated. Remedies are the same as for the imported cabbage worm. The Celery Looper {Plusia simplex Guen.) Occasionally this species becomes abundant enough to be a pest, destroying the leaves of celery. It is a smooth-bodied caterpillar, and LOOPERS, OR MEASURING WORMS 179 moves with a looping gait. On each side of its body is a row of dark dots or rings. Hibernation takes place as a half-grown cater- pillar. There are three broods annually. The pest may be checked by the use of arsenicals, preferably Paris green and lime, which can be washed from the leaves when the stalks are ready to use. Fig. 200. •Adult of the Celery Looper. Original. The Northern Grass Worm {Drasteria erechtea Cramer) Clover and grasses sometimes are damaged by a fairly large '' meas- uring worm," which eats the leaves. When full grown the worm is Ij inches long, striped with gra}' and brown, and has the habit of moviiig with a ,-*»<^ Fig. 210.— The Northern Grass Worm. Original. Fig. 211. -Adult (>{ the Xorthcni Crass Worm. Original. looping gait. It transforms in a nest made by drawing leaves to- gether with silk. There are several generations in the course of a summer. The best means of control in periods of excessive abun- dance is fall plowing. The Hop Snout-moth (Hypena humuli Harr.) The foliage of hops is attacked by green caterpillars an inch long when full grown. The body is dotted with black, there is a dark stripe 180 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS down the center of the back, bordered with hghter, narrow hnes and a similar light hne on each side of the body. When crawling, the caterpillar raises the bod}' sHghtly in the middle. There are two broods annually, the first Fig. 212. — Larva of the Hop Snout-moth. Original. Fig. 213. — The Hop Snout-moth. Shghtly enlarged. Original. in spring and the second in midsummer. The species hibernates as an adult moth. Spraying with arsenicals will readily control the pest. Fig. 214. — Work of Endelomyia rosce. Original. Sawflies on Wheat Rarely the larvae of two or three species of sawflies are found feed- ing on wheat, eating the leaves, gnawing into the stems, or cutting off the heads. In the species Dolerus collaris Say and Dolerus arven- sis Say, the larvae are dark gray, cylindrical, and have 22 legs. In the species Pachyne- matus extensicornis Nort., the larva is greenish, with a yellow head, a,nd has 20 legs. HAIRY CATERPILLARS EATING THE LEAVES 181 The pupal sta^o is passed in the soil. The only means of control avail- able is deep fall plowing. Rose Slugs Three species of " slugs," the larvae of sawflies, commonly infest the foliage of roses in this country. The surface of the leaves may be skeletonized, as with the native American species, Endelomyia rosce Harr, ; or holes may be eaten in the leaves, as with an imported species, the Bristly Rose Slug, Cladius pecti- nicornis Fourer ; or the larva may attack the edge of the leaf, eating out large sections, as with another imported species, the Coiled Rose Slug, Emphjtus cinctus L. Either arsenate of lead or Paris green will readily poison the slugs. Or, they may be dislodged by a fig. 215. — The Yellow-bear Cater- strong stream of water. pillar. Original. The Yellow-bear Caterpillar {Diacrisia virginica Fab.) Rather large and hairy caterpillars attack the leaves of a great variety of vegetables as well as many kinds of weeds. Usually they are not abundant enough to do serious injury. A full- grown cat(Tpillar is 2 inches long. Th(^ hairs arise in tufts on the l)ack and sides, and vary from light yellow to brown. The adult is a light-colored moth, expand- ing 1| to If inches, marked with a few small dark dots. There are two gen- erations, the second lot of caterpillars appearing in August or September. Hand picking will suffice to control this insect when present in moder- FlG. 21G. — Adult of the Yellow-bear Cater- pillar, Original, 182 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS Fig. 217. — The Salt-marsh Caterpillar. Original. ate numbers. When very abundant, spray with Paris green and Hme, making the dose quite heavy as the caterpillars are resistant. The Salt-marsh Cater- pillar, Estigmene acroea Dru., is another hairy caterpillar closely paralleling the above in appearance and habits. Its body is darker, and there are yellow markings on each side. The Hedgehog Cater- FiG. 218. — Adult of the Salt- marsh Caterpillar. Original. pillar, Isia Isabella S. and A., is thickly covered with close-cropped soft hairs, brownish red along the middle of its body and black at either end. Control of these two species is the same as for the yellow-bear caterpillar. Neither is apt to be abun- dant enough to be a serious pest. Fig. 219. — The Hedgehog Caterpillar. Original. WEB WORMS EATING THE LEAVES 183 .■■>- - * -. ■? Fig. 220. — Adult of the Hedgehog Caterpillar. Original. The Saddle-back Caterpillar {Sihine slimulea Clem.) This i.s a short, broad caterpillar, distinctly spiny. There are two especially long spines at each end. The body is dark at either end, light green in the middle, and in the center of the green area is a dark, oval spot. The spines cause irritation if they come in contact with the Fig. 221. — The Saddle-back Caterpillar. Original. Fig. 222. —Adult of the Saddle-back Caterpillar. Original. skin. Care should be taken not to handle the caterpillar or to touch it inadvertently. The Garden Webworm {Loxostege similalis Gn.) Corn and cotton, and sometimes beets or garden crops, are invaded by hordes of yellowish worms, one half to three fourths of an inch long, marked with many small, dark dots. They spin webs over the plant and skeletonize the leaves. The pest appears early in the season, having migrated from pigweed, which is the normal food plant, or from alfalfa, 184 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS on which the first generation often is raised. There are from three to five generations annually. The adult is a yellowish moth, expanding three fourths of an inch. Winter is passed as larva or pupa in the soil. In garden or small areas, the pest may be controlled by prompt appli- cation of Paris green or arsenate of lead. Fall plowing will help for the next season. Alfalfa should be well disked. No pigweed should be allowed to grow in or near the garden or field. ^^f^^i^f^ Fig. 223. — The Garden Web- worm. Original. The Sugar-beet Webworm {Loxostege sticticalis Linn.) The work of this species is practically identical with that of the garden webworm. Recently it has developed into a serious pest of sugar beets in some of the Western states. The larva is an inch long when full grown, brownish in color, with a narrow dark stripe edged with white down the Fig. 224.— The Sugar-beet Web- worm. Original. Fig. 225. — Adult of the Sugar-beet Webworm. Original. middle of its back, and a light stripe down each side. There are numerous dots over the surface of its body. It webs up the foliage as it works. Winter is passed in a silk cocoon in the soil. The moths emerge in the spring and lay eggs on the leaves of pigweed and alfalfa. There is a second generation in July and a third in August. It is the last that is usually most injurious to sugar beets. WEB WORMS EATING THE LEAVES 185 Late fall plowing will break up the winter cells in the soil. Paris green or arsenate of lead may be used as a direct means of control. The poisons should be applied promptly, at the first sign of the presence of the pest. The Southern Beet Webwornl {Pachyzancla bipunctalis Fab.) In the South a webworm, similar in habits to the 'common garden webworm, has been found feeding on beets. The full grown worm I? three fourths of an inch long, slender, dark green in color. The adult is a yellowish moth, expanding one inch. There are at least four generations annually. To control, apply arsenate of lead or Paris green, cither dry or as a spray, as soon as the worms are first observed. The poisons should be applied promptly to be effective. The Cabbage Webworm (Hellula undalis Fab.) In the Southern states cabbages, turnips, and related crops are dam- aged by a small, striped caterpillar, which spins webs in the leaves for Fig. 22G. — The Cabbage Webworm. Original. Fig. 227. — Adult of the Cabbage Webworm. Original. shelter, feeding exposed, but retiring to the webs when resting. When full grown, the worm is half an inch long, yellowish in ground color, and ornamented with five narrow stripes down its body. Injury is most apt to occur in late summer, on young plants set out for fall crops. Arsenicals may be used to i)oison the caterj)illars, since they are not hidden in their webs when feeding. Either Paris green or arsenate of lead is effective. 186 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS The Celery Leaf-tier, or Greenhouse Leaf-tier (Phhjctcenia ferrugalis Hbn.) A variet}' of garden and field crops including celery, beets, tobacco, and others are damaged by this insect. In addition it is injurious on plants grown under glass, especially roses, carnations, and chrysanthe- mums. The larvae usually bend a part of a leaf over on the rest, or fasten two leaves together with silk, feeding within. They are whitish caterpillars, with a green stripe down the middle of the back. The head is light brownish, and is marked with dark dots. When mature, the caterpillar is Fig. 228. — The Celery Leaf - tier. Larvae. Original. Fig. 229. —Adult of the Celery Leaf- tier. Original. three fourths of an inch long. There are two or three generations out- doors, and an indefinite number in greenhouses. Since the caterpillars feed for the most part concealed, poisons must be applied early in order to be at all effective. Paris green or arsenate of lead may be used. Hand picking is advisable wherever it can be practiced economically. The Clover-hay Worm {Hypsopygia costalis Fab.) Late in winter the lower layers of clover hay in stack or mow often are found matted together with silk. When the hay is turned over, active wriggling worms are dislodged. In spring the silk cocoons of the pupae will be observed, here and there in the mass. The adult, a small moth expanding less than an inch, emerges in LEAF ROLLERS lyJURING THE FOLIAGE 187 Fig. 230. — Work and larva of the Clover-hay Worm. Original. June and July, and laj^s eggs on cured clover wherever it cart be found. A second lot of moths are out in late summer. If the hay is used up clean each year, and any refuse is destroyed,* there will be practically no injury. If there is Hkelihood that all will not be used by the next July, salt down the first two feet of hay when put- ting it up, using two quarts of salt to the ton. Do not place new hay on top of remnants of last year's crop. The old hay should be removed and the mow thoroughly cleaned. Fig. 231. — Adult of the Clover- hay Worm. Original. Fig. 232. — Work of the Oblique Banded Leaf Roller. Original. 188 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS The Oblique Banded Leaf Roller (Archips rosaceana Harr.) Roses and other plants in greenhouses and occasionally fruit tree foliage sometimes are badly injured by active, green or reddish cater- pillars, three fourths of an inch long, which roll up the leaves, fasten them with silk, and feed within. The cater- pillar has an indistinct darker stripe down the middle of the back, the head is dark brown or black, the segments of the body are rather distinct. The adult is a brownish, smooth moth, and emerges from a pupa formed within the rolled leaves. Fig. 233. — Adult of the Oblique Banded Leaf Roller. Original. Fig. 234. — The Bean Leaf -roller. Original. Hand picking is often the best means of control, though a prompt use of Paris green or arsenate of lead will check the pest, pro- vided the application is made before most of the larvae have retired into rolled-up leaves. The Bean Leaf-roller (Eudamus proteus Linn.) Rather odd-appearing worms, 1^ inches long when mature, with narrow neck and prominent head, eat the leaves of beans and sometimes other leg- umes. The ground color of the larva is yellow, and its body is dotted with Fig. 235. Adult of the Bean Leaf-roller. Original. LEAF-MINERS INJURING THE FOLIAGE 189 black. It occurs principally in the South, and there are several generations annually. The pest may easily be checked by apply- ing arsenate of lead or Paris green, taking care not to use too heavy a dose, since beans are suscei)tible to burning. The Spinach Leaf-miner {Pcgomya vicina Lintn.) Whitish mines are matl' n the leaves of beets and spinach by a maggot which burrows wil'.iin the tissues. Several of these mines are seen often in a single leaf. The maggot is the larval stage of a gray, two-winged fly, which lays its eggs mi the under side of the leaf. The pupal stage is passed in or on the ground. There are several generations annually. Since this pest lives also in lamb's-quarters, thorough destruction of this weed will help in control. Where practicable, infested leaves should be removed from the plants and destroyed. No successful sprays have been devised. The Tobacco Leaf-miner {Phthorimoea operculclla Zell.) This pest is commonly known as the '' split- worm." It is a very small larva, and injures the older leaves of growing tobacco by mining within the leaf tissues, causing small blotches. The larva3 move more or less from place to place, one worm making several mines. There are several generations in a single season. The native food plant is horse nettle. Spraying or dusting with arsenate of lead or Paris green will kill many larvae as they start their new mines. Horse nettles should Fig. 236. — Work of the Spinach Leaf-miner. Original. 190 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS be destroyed. The worms may be killed in their mines by pressing the upper and lower leaf surfaces together. The Squash-bug {Anasa tristis DeG.) Few pests of the garden are more widely or more unfavorably known than the common squash-bug. As soon as squashes, cucumbers, or melons have made their first leaves, the overwintering adults appear and begin sucking the plant juices, causing the leaves to curl up, turn Fig. 237. — The Squash-bug. Eggs, nymphs, and adult. Original. brown, and die. Before long one will find the first batches of eggs, and after a few days the young bugs begin to appear, to add to the damage. Usually through summer all three stages, egg, young, and adult, are to be found on the vines at the same time. The adult is rusty brown to black, five eighths of an inch long, and provided with a strong sucking beak. Its head is small in proportion to the size of its body. The young, or nymphs, are grayish to black. They tend to cluster in colo- nies, hiding in a curled-up, dead leaf when not at work. The eggs LARGE, SUCKING BUGS INJURING FOLIAGE 191 are laid in batches on the under side of a leaf, and are orange or red in color. They are easily seen. The adults hibernate in old vines or other shelter. There is one brood annually in the North, but two or even three in the South. The young may be killed by spraying with 10 per cent kerosene emulsion. Egg masses should be destroyed. The adults may be trapped under bits of Ijoard or stones, where they should be looked for frequently. Destroy the vines as soon as the crops are off, in order to kill the bugs not yet matured. No contact spray is known that will kill the adults without also seriously injuring the vines. The Harlequin Cabbage-bug {M urgaiitla hidrionica Hahn.) Cabbages, cauliflower, and related plants, in the South Atlantic states, are badly injured or destroyed by a small, gaudily colored bug, variously known as the "calico back," or "terrapin bug." The leaves of the plants attacked shrivel and turn brown, and often the plant is killed outright. The adult l)ug is one Fig. 238.— Til. ■ ll.ii.Mnin Cul)- bagc-bug. Eggs, nymph, and adult. Original. fourth of an inch long, broad, shield shaped, and strikingly marked with red or yellow, and deep blue. The 3'oung, or nymphs, are similar in appear- ance. Close search of the leaves Fig. 239. — Eggs of the Harlequin Cab- bage-bug. Enlarged. Original. 192 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS will reveal the peculiar-looking eggs, like white barrels with dark hoops. The adults spend the cold weather in rubbish or other shelter, and become active very early in the spring, feeding first on wild mustard and other weeds of the same family. There are several generations in the South. In the fall the bugs feed until driven in by cold weather. The most important control measure is a thorough cleaning up early in the fall, as soon as the crops are harvested, combined with an early planting of trap crops in the spring, on which the bugs will congregate and where they may be destroyed by spraying with 25 per cent kerosene emulsion or with pure kerosene. Kale or mustard are good traps. After the bugs are on cabbages they cannot be killed by spraying without at the same time injuring the plants. The Tarnished Plant-bug {Lygus pratensis Linn.) Truck crops of all kinds are injured by a small, brownish, sucking bug. Both in its earlier stages and as a winged adult, it sucks the juices of the leaves or tender stems. The mature bug is about one fifth of an inch long, and somewhat obscurely marked with dull yellow and brown. The young nymphs may be killed with a contact insecticide such as 7 per cent kerosene emul- sion or tobacco extract. The winged adults are too active to make this treatment effective. Thorough cleaning up of all rub- bish and crop remnants in the fall is the only other means of con- trol. The False Chinch-bug (Nysius ericce Sch. {angiistatiis Uhl.)) has similar habits. There are various other species that occasionally are troublesome. Control measures are the same. Fig. 240. —The Tarnished Plant-bug. Enlarged and natural size. Orig- inal. SUCKING BUGS INJURING THE FOLIAGE 193 The Chinch-bug {Blissus leiicopterus Say) One of the most destructive insects in the history of American farming is the species of sucking bug occasionally at- tacking corn and wheat in countless mil- lions, and known as the chinch-bug. When it is numerous, fields are blasted as if by fire. The bug that causes this damage is quite small, one fifth of an inch long or less, dark or black in color, and with thin, white wings folded across the body when at rest. In the East another form is found with wings much shorter. The immature stages are often seen with the adults, and differ httle in shape, but are wingless, smaller, and when young are bright red. The adults overwinter in clumps of grass, fallen leaves, weeds, and rubbish accumulating along fence rows, strips of woodland, and especially in corn shocks left in the fields. They come from these places in spring, and lay eggs in grain fields or on suitable weeds. The young appear in May and June. These mature, and there is a second lot of young in August or early September. Where small grains are infested, the swarms of bugs are driven from these at harvest and travel in armies to corn, which they literally overwhelm. When large numbers of adults have hiber- nated, the most striking injury may be Fig. 241. —Chinch-bugs on corn plant. Original. 194 PESTS OF G A ED EN AND FIELD CROPS that caused by adults and young on the grains to which the adults have migrated in the spring. This is especially evident where corn shocks have been left standing in fields seeded to small grain. Meaures of control are various, and must be thorough and timely. The most important measure is destruction of all hibernating places where the bugs are accustomed to spend the winter. Clumps of grass should be raked up and burned; fence corners cleaned out ; all places that harbor bugs looked after. If plowing is depended on to destroy hiber- nating bugs, it must be done with great thoroughness, else the bugs will succeed in reaching the surface of the ground. Invasions of the bugs from newly harvested fields can be prevented by suitable barriers, among wliich the following is known by experience to be prac- ticable and effective: A strip of ground along the side from which the invasion tln-eatens is smoothed and compacted by dragging over it a heavy plank. Along the center of this path a narrow line of coal tar or road oil is poured. The fine of oil need be only half or tliree quarters of an inch wide. At intervals of three or four rods post holes are dug, the edge of the hole nearest the field to be protected just inter- cepting the line of oil. The invading bugs, when they reach this line, travel along it until they come to the angle of the oil line and the hole, when they are crowded into the hole and are unable to get out. They can then be killed easily by sprinkling with kerosene or kerosene emul- sion, or by crushing with a pole. In dusty weather the oil fine will need renewal every day or so, while the invasion threatens. If a field of wheat is seen to be beyond reasonable hope, it is best to plow it under at once, harrow thoroughly, and plant to potatoes, alfalfa, soy beans, garden truck, or whatever is seasonable. Fig. 242. — The Chinch-bug. Enlarged and natural size. Original. LEAFHOPPERS INJURING THE FOLIAGE 195 In meadows where severe attack is noted the wisest measure is to cut and then burn over, although this probably will kill the grass roots. In moist weather chinch-bugs are killed in large numbers by a fungous disease. Attempts have been made to propagate this artificially, but the measure cannot be depended on with sufficient certainty in times of severe attack. The Tobacco Suck-fly {Dicyphus minimus Uhl.) In Florida a black, sucking bug, one eighth of an inch long, with long greenish legs, attacks the leaves of tobacco and by its punctures spots the leaf, making it wilt, turn brown, and crack. The younger stages feed in similar fashion on the under sur- face of the leaf. There are several generations annually. Spraying with tobacco extract will kill the immature forms and check the pest. The Beet Leafhopper {Eutettix tenella Baker) A very small, active insect, one of the ''leaf hoppers," swarms on the foliage of sugar beets in count- less myriads. The leaves of plants attacked usually exhibit a char- acteristic appearance, commonly known as " curly leaf." The edges are rolled in, the leaf surface is wrinkled, and growth is stunted. As a consequence the beet puts out many fibrous roots, does not reach normal size, and its sugar content is low. The adult is very small, whitish or i^ale green, winged, and is pro- vided with strong hind legs, en- FiG. 243. — Beet leaves curled by the Beet Leafhopper. Original. 196 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS Fig. 244. — The Beet Leafhopper. Enlarged and natural size. Original. abling it to jump quickly and take wing readily. The younger stages are similar, but are smaller and wingless. Usually the hoppers appear in the beet field suddenly, having fed first on some other plant, probably species of weeds. In hot, dry fields conditions are especially favorable to the pest and unfavorable to the beets, while in fields where the reverse conditions prevail the beets are able to withstand attack. Infested fields may be sprayed with a contact insecticide, making the first application just as the young nymphs are found in numbers, and repeating. Kerosene emulsion may be used, diluting the stock solution with 8 parts of water. It is very difficult, however, to hit all the insects with the spray. A drag may be used to turn the leaves over, so as to help to make the application more thorough. Frames coated with tar dragged through the fields at the first appear- ance of the adults will catch many, and will help to check injury. The Spring Grain-aphis, or " Green Bug" {Toxoptera graminum Rond.) Occasionally, in recent years, oats, wheat, barley, and sometimes corn have been damaged to the extent of millions of dollars by this tiny louse. It occurs in both winged and wingless forms. The latter is about one twentieth of an inch long, yellowish green, with a faint dark line down the middle of its back. Its eyes are quite black. The winged form is a little larger, has a dark thorax, but otherwise is of the same general appearance. Attack comes on suddenly in the spring. Countless billions of the lice appear on young grain, sucking the juice of the leaves, stunting the growing plants or killing them outright. Reproduction goes on rapidly. When the fields in a section attacked are destroyed, or the plants have PLANT LICE INJURING THE FOLIAGE 197 grown and thus have acquired tougher leaves, the hoe develop a winged generation, leave the section where at work, and appear as suddenly in other regions farther north, where conditions are favorable to further multiplication. Late in summer, as the grain fields mature, the lice leave them and take up their residence on grasses, such as common bluegrass or on corn. In the fall, when winter grain has sprouted, many move back to the new feeding ground. With the coming of cold weather, eggs are laid among grain plants. In the more Southern states there are living Fig. 245. — The Winged adult, size. Original. Spring Grain-aphis. Enlarged and natural Fig. 246.— The Spring Grain-aphis. Wing- less form. Enlarged and natural size. Orig- inal. females in existence all winter. The insect is able to breed at unusu- ally low temperatures. Oats and wheat are the favorite food plants, but the list includes rye, barley, corn, and several species of wild grasses, especially orchard grass. Normally this insect is held in check by its natural enemies, especially by a four-winged parasite which attacks the lice, laying its eggs within their bodies. Severe attacks follow warm winters combined with cold springs — a condition unfavorable to the parasite, but favorable to the aphis. Direct control is not feasible. Cleaning up volunteer oats and other food plants in the fall will greatly reduce the numbers the following spring. Attempts have been made artificially to introduce the parasite, but without entire success. 198 PESTS OF G A ED EN AND FIELD CROPS The European Grain Aphis {Siphocoryne avence Fab.) In summer the leaves, stems, and heads of small grains sometimes are literally covered with this species of plant lice. They are rather pale green in color, marked with short bands of darker green on the back, and for the most part are wingless. Usually their increase is quickly followed by a similar increase in parasites, so that serious injury is averted, but occasionally they seriously damage young wheat in the fall. The lice come to the grain fields in the spring from fruit trees, where they have passed the winter in an egg stage, and have already gone through one or two generations on the fruit buds and foliage. They return to the trees in the latter part of summer or the fall. No direct measures of control on grain are known. The Corn Leaf-aphis {Aphis maidis Fitch) In midsummer, corn, or more especially sorghum and broom corn, becomes infested with bluish green lice which work on the younger leaves, and on the tassel. On broom corn their punctures often are followed by a red discoloration due to a bacterial disease. The wingless female is usually seen. It has black legs, antennae, and honey tubes, and a row of black dots down either side of the back. Winged generations are devel- oped as the corn matures, but the alternate host plants, if any, are unknown. No remedial measures have been devised. The Green Peach Aphis, or Spinach Aphis {Myzus persicce Sulz.) This plant louse often is known as the spinach aphis, or " green fly." It is the same species as the louse found on the foliage of peach trees early in the season, Fig. 247.— The Green Peach Aphi Enlarged. Original. PLANT LICE INJURING THE FOLIAGE 199 and kno^vn there as the '' green peach aphis." The Uce migrate in early summer to various truck crops, especially spinach, cab- bage, lettuce, and celery. They are light green or yellowish in color, with darker markings on the abdomen. The head, antennae, and honey tubes are black. This species is never covered with white powdery secretion, hke the cabbage aphis. It is controlled by spraying with a contact insecticide, preferably tobacco extract or 5 per cent kerosene emulsion. In greenhouses this species is found throughout the year, and is a troublesome pest. The Melon Aphis, or Cotton Aphis (Aphis gossypii Glov.) Melons, cucumbers, cotton, strawberries, and many other plants are subject to infestation by this species of plant louse. It usually is seen in the wingless form, and works for the most part on the under surface of the leaf, which is badly curled by its attack. Tender growing shoots are a favorite feeding place. The wingless louse is dark green, varying to yellow. Its legs are light yellow, and its honey tubes are black, long, and tapering. Its length is one fifteenth of an inch. The young stages are similar, but are smaller and wingless. Winged individuals are de- veloped whenever the lice are compelled, tlirough lack of food or removal of a crop, to seek new feeding ground. Consequently attack may come on suddenly and unexpectedly. The full life round is not known, and probably the species passes one Fig. 248. Work of the Melon Aphis. Original. 200 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS or more generations on some alternate host plant, and sm'\'ives there through the winter. When found on garden crops, the Uce may be killed by spraying with tobacco extract or 5 per cent kerosene emulsion. Fumi- gation with carbon bisul- phide will destroy them, using an inverted tub as a fumigating chamber. The dose should be at the rate of one tablespoonful of car- bon bisulphide to a 20 gallon tub. Aphis punk may be substituted for the carbon bisulphide and a light frame of oiled mushn may take the place of the tub. Where cotton is infested, direct control is impracti- cable. In this case adopt rigorous clean culture so that weeds may be kept down in and around the field. The Pea Aphis (Macrosiphum pisi Kalt.) In seasons of abnormally dry spring weather a large green plant louse becomes abundant on peas. The adult lice are one eighth of an inch long, pea-green in color, with prominent dark red eyes, and long legs. They feed on the leaves and cluster on the terminal shoots. Usually they reach their greatest abundance in midsummer, and disappear in August. The lice come to the pea vines from clover fields, where they have spent the winter as tiny, black eggs. The first generations Uve on the clover. Winged individuals appear as the season advances, and migrate to peas. In August they return to clover. Contact sprays may be used in direct control on peas. Tobacco extract is effective, or 5 per cent kerosene emulsion may be employed. Fig. 249. — Wingless and winged adults of the Melon Aphis on Leaf. Enlarged. Original. PLANT LICE INJURING THE FOLIAGE 201 If peas are planted far enough apart in rows and the ground is dry, the Uce may be brushed from the vines and killed by following with Fig. 250. -The Pea Aphis. Adults at work on vine. Original. a cultivator between the rows. If the ground is wet, the lice may be brushed into a long, shallow pan. A Uttle water should be poured into the pan and covered with a film of coal oil. The Bean Aphis (Aphis rumicis Linn.) The tender shoots of beans sometimes are covered with thickly clustered plant lice. The same species is found commonly on pig- weed, dock, and other weeds. The aphis is one tenth of an inch long, black, often with a few whitish dots on each side> the an- tennae are wliitish in their central seg- ments. Winter is passed in an egg stage on the twigs of wahoo or of snowball. The lice first migrate to weeds and then to beans. In late summer, they return to the slirubs named. Fig. 251.— The Pea Aphis. Adult enlarged and nat- ural size. Original. 202 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS On beans they may be killed by spraying with tobacco extract, or with 5 per cent kerosene emulsion. The Cabbage Aphis {Aphis hrassicce Linn.) Cabbage, cauliflower, and related plants are subject to infestation by a soft -bodied plant louse, which collects in masses on the surface of the leaves. The Hce are green, but are covered with a whitish, powdery secretion. Winter is passed as eggs on old cab- bage stumps or heads in the field. There may be a dozen or more gen- erations in a sum- mer. Spray thorouglily with tobacco extract to which soap has been added, or with 5 per cent kerosene emulsion, or with soap solution, 1 pound in 3 gallons of water. Dip infested seedlings in the same solution before setting out. Dispose of crop remnants. Judicious rotation will help in delaying attack. Wild mustard and shepherds-purse should not be allowed to grow near cabbage. Fig. 252. — Work of the Cabbage Aphis. Original. The Potato Plant-louse (Macrosiphum solanifolii Ashm.) In occasional seasons potato vines are seriously checked in the latter part of summer by myriads of green, soft-bodied plant lice, which suck the juices of leaf and stem. Spraying the fields with contact insecti- cides, either tobacco extract or 5 per cent kerosene emulsion, will kill the lice. Since the pest survives the winter on alternate host plants, es- pecially shepherds-purse, clean culture and burning over waste places THRIPS INJUniNG THE FOLIAGE 203 is recommended. The potato vines themselves, also, should be burned. The Hop-aphis {Phorodon humuli Sclir.) Hops are subject to infestation by a green, soft-bodied louse, one eight- eenth to one tweKth of an inch in length. The male plants in hopyards always are infested first, and from these the lice spread two or three weeks later to the female or fruiting plants. Their attack causes the leaves to turn yellow, and seriously reduces the yield. Recent studies show that the winter may be passed in an egg stage somewhere near or on the hop- vines, although it is known that the same species winters also on plum trees. There are many generations in the course of a summer. Thorough spraying with a contact insecticide, such as tobacco ex- tract or 5 per cent kerosene emulsion, will kill the aphids. Remedial treatments should be begun while the lice are still isolated on the male plants, before spread has started. The Greenhouse Thrips {Heliothrips hwmorrhoidalis Bouch^) The foliage of plants in greenhouses sometimes is injured by a very small, sucking insect properly known as a thrips. E\ddence of the work is seen first in numerous whitish spots, where the juices of the leaf have been sucked out. These spots show in the beginning more plainly on the lower surface. As attack goes on, the spots spread, forming blotches, dead areas appear around the edges of the leaf, the fohage wilts, and finally drops off. The surface of the leaf is covered with small drops of reddish fluid, which frequently turns black. The adult insect is one fifteenth of an inch in length, dark bodied, and though it has wings is not much disposed to fly. The young are lighter colored, and have no wings. They suck the leaf juices just as do the adults. Three or four weeks are required for a generation. Usually this pest is controlled successfully by fumigation with tobacco. 204 p:ests of garden and field crops The Onion Thrips {Thrips tabaci Lind.) A great variety of truck crops and some flowering plants under glass are subject to injury by this minute form of insect life. The juices are sucked from the leaves, causing numerous tiny white spots. The insect itself is so small as almost to escape notice. It is yellowish, slender, and one twenty-fifth of an inch long. Eggs are laid within, the leaf tissue. Several generations may be developed in a season. Crop remnants and neighboring weeds should be burned in the fall. Attack may be checked by spraying with tobacco extract, being careful to get the material into the axils of leaves, since such places are favored by the pest. The insects are more active on the outer parts of the plant in the early morning, and thus are more easily reached at that time. The Tobacco Thrips {Euthrips nicotianceHinds) The work of this minute insect may be rec- ognized by a whitening of the leaves, especially along the veins. The adult winters in tobacco fields, and breeds rapidly in the warmer months. Before tobacco plants are up and after they are gathered it lives on weeds, or often on oats. Spray with kerosene emulsion, diluting the stock emulsion with 10 parts of water. Fig. 253.— White spots on onion leaf caused by the Onion Thrips. Enlarged to twice nat- ural size. Original. The Grass Thrips {Anaphothrips striata Osborn) Usually the work of this insect is observed rather than the pest itself. Various grasses, including oats, turn white, the appearance being known as " silver top." More closely examined, the leaves will be found covered with white dots where the juices have been sucked out, SMALL, ACTIVE WHITE FLIES ON FOLIAGE 205 and further observation will disclose the minute, slender insects that are doing the mischief. They are one twenty-fifth of an inch long, the larger winged individuals brownish in color and the smaller wing- less forms somewhat pinkish. Winter is passed in debris at the base of the plants. There are several generations in the course of a summer. Remedies are rotation of crops, or burning over infested fields in winter. The Greenhouse White-fiy (Aleurodes vaporariorum Westw.) Wherever plants are grown under glass this troublesome pest is sure to put in its ai)pearance, and injure the plants by sucking their juices. Fig. 254. Larvie and adult of the Greenhouse White-fly. Original. Enlarged. The adults have four wangs, covered with a whitish powder, and are . active creatures, flying readily. They are about three fiftieths of an inch in length. The young are flattened, oval in shape, and have sucking mouth parts, like the adults. The insect is nearly always found on the under side of the leaves, and prefers the younger foliage at the upper part of the plant. The leaves attacked lose their \'itality, and if the insect is not checked, the 206 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS plants will die. Cucumbers and tomatoes usually are badly infested, but almost an}^ vegetables or flowering plants grown in greenhouses may be attacked. The most effective remedy is fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas. Some benefit will be derived from spraying with whale-oil soap, 1^ ounces to 1 gallon of water. Mealy Bugs Slow-mo\ing, oval, soft^bodied bugs, one tenth to one sixth of an inch long, the body covered with a whitish, powdery secretion, infest various plants grown under glass. In the South they are a nuisance Fig. 255. — Mealy Bugs on melon. Original. on citrus fruits. The Citrus Mealy Bug, Pseudococcus citri Risso, and a closely related form, Pseudococcus longispinus Targ., are common species. The young are small, red, and fairly active at first. The adult males are winged. Contact insecticides, especially such as contain soap or oil, are effec- tive remedies. They should be applied with considerable force in order to penetrate the waxy powder with which the bodies of the insects are coated. MINUTE, SUCKING MITES INJURING FOLIAGE 207 The Red Spider {Tetranychus bimaculatus Harv.) In greenhouses, throughout the year, many plants are subject to attack by an exceedingly small mite, commonly known as the "red spider." Very fine webs are spun on the under surfaces of leaves or over flower heads, and beneath these the mites work, sucking the juices of the leaves, giving them a sickly yellow or brown appear- ance, and finally killing the plants, unless checked. In the Southern states cotton is injured by this species, the leaves turning brown and falling off. Vegetables grown outdoors, especially beans, cucumbers, and melons, often are infested, par- ticularly in the Southern states. Rarely, shade trees in the South are injured. The mite is reddish or greenish in color, one fiftieth of an inch long, has four pairs of legs, and its body is marked with tw^o darker spots. In greenhouses, fumigation is not effective. The mites may be controlled by frequent spraying with clear water or with soap solu- tion. On such plants as are not injured by sulphur an effective treatment is a spraying with water 1 gallon, flowers of sulphur 1 ounce. On cotton or truck crops the last-mentioned spray is effective. Or the plants may be dusted with a mixture of sulphur and air-slaked Fig. 256. — Foliage injured and webbed by the Red Spider ; and adult Red Spider, greatly enlarged. Original. 208 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS lime. Around cotton fields weeds should be kept down, and in the fall all dead, infested cotton plants should be burned. The Clover Mite {Bryobia pratensis Garm.) Both the leaves of clover and the foliage of various fruit trees are attacked by a small, eight-legged mite, which sucks their juices, causing much injury when abundant. It is a tiny red creature three hun- dredths of an inch in length. On clover no direct remedial measures seem feasible. The mite passes the winter as a rule in an egg stage on the bark of neigh- boring fruit trees. It may be killed there by spraying in winter witlv lime-sulphur solution. Fig. 257.— The Clover Mite. Enlarged to fifteen times natural size. Original. Fig. 258. — Eggs of the Clover Mite on bark. Enlarged to ten times natural size. Orig- inal. . The Cotton Boll Weevil {Anthonomus grandis Boh.) No pest of recent years has wrought greater damage than this in- vader from Mexico. It is now distributed throughout the greater part of the cotton-growing regions. Both the squares and the bolls are attacked, their substance eaten out, and their contents so damaged that they die or fail to produce fiber. The injury is wrought both by the adults iu their feeding and egg-laying punctures, and by the grubs which hatch from the eggs laid within the bolls or squares. The adult boll weevil is a small snout beetle, one fourth of an inch long. It is brownish in color through most of its existence, but lighter when newly emerged and darker after it has been out for two or three weeks. The grub, found only within the squares or bolls, is whitish, heavy bodied, and has a dark head: It has no feet. SNOUT BEETLES ATTACKING BUD OR FRUIT 209 In the early spring the adult beetles appear in the cotton fields from their winter hiding places. Usually there are but few of them at this time. When the squares begin to form, eggs are laid within them, and as the grub develops the square usually falls to the ground. A pupal stage is passed within the square, and soon a second generation of adults is out. Eggs are now laid in the squares as before. There are four or five generations in the course of the season. When the squares are no longer available, eggs are laid in the bolls in similar fashion. Hibernation of the adult weevils does not begin until late in the season, long after the regular crop of cotton is picked. When the first frosts come, the adults seek shelter in which to spend the winter, while the immature stages die. At this time the adults fly to considerable distances, seeking places to hibernate. Fig. 259. Work of the Cotton Boll Weevil. Original. Fig. 260. — Larva of the Cotton Boll Weevil, enlarged and natural size. Original. Fig. 261. — Adult Cotton Boll Weevil. Enlarged and natural size. Original. 210 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS The most important means of control is a thorough cleaning up of the cotton fields as soon as the crop is. gathered, together with destruc- tion of all stalks, dead bolls, and crop remnants. At this time the existing adult beetles are not yet ready to hibernate, and there are many grubs and pupae in the field that would later become beetles, coming out at the normal time of hibernation. These immature stages are thus destroyed, and the adults, left with no cotton plants to feed on, are for the most part starved, or are unable to get to suitable places to spend the winter. In destroying the stalks it is best to plow them out, leaving a row now and then, at once raking th^ loose plants to the standing row and burning the entire lot. Early in the season, when it is seen that squares are being badly punctured, and are dropping off in large numbers, a chain drag may be drawn between the rows so as to draw the squares into the middles, where they will get the full force of the sun. Most of the grubs within will be killed by the heat. It is possible to poison a large percent- age of the adult weevils by applying powdered arsenate of lead to the squares with a blower or powder gun, making the first applica- tion as soon as squares begin to form, and repeating as necessary. Any practice that will help to get the cotton planted and matured early will greatly help to avoid serious injury, because the cotton will then be well along before the weevils have become numerous. Thus, winter plowing, early spring planting, and the use of early ma- turing varieties, together with frequent cultivation in the growing season, are advisable. By this means the plants are stimulated to quick, vigorous growth, and escape serious attack at the period when they are more susceptible to injury. Fig. 262. — Pupa of the Cot- ton Boll Weevil. Enlarged and natural size. Original. LARGE WORMS BORING IN BUD OR FRUIT 211 The Cowpea Curculio {Chalcodermus ceneus Boh.) The pods of cowpeas are punctured, and early in the spring young cotton plants are injured, by the feeding of this beetle. The immature stage or grub lives within the growing " peas," and ruins them for seed. The adult beetle is one fourth of an inch long, bronze black, its thorax and wing covers deeply pitted. When working on cotton, the beetles puncture the tender stems. The insect hibernates as an adult. Eggs are laid in cowpeas as soon as the pods are large enough. The larva enters the ground to pupate. No direct control measures are known. If cowpeas are badly in- fested, it is unwise to follow with cotton in the same field. The Corn Ear-worm (Heliothis obsoleta Fab.) Synonyms: The Cotton Boll-worm; the Tomato Fruit-worm; the Tobacco False Budworm Widespread injury to valuable garden and field crops is due to the ravages of this insect. The full-grown worm is variable in markings, but usually is dull greenish or brownish in color, with indistinct stripes or spots, and is Fig. 263. — Larva and work of the Corn Ear-worm. Reduced to one half "> natural size. Original. about 1^ inches long. It is naked, and the skin looks somewhat greasy, Uke that of cutworms. On corn the worms feed in the young kernels and eat the tender 212 FESTS OF G A ED EN AND FIELD CROPS silk inclosed within the husk. They are especially destructive to sweet corn. On tomatoes they bore into the fruit and eat more or less of the pulp within. Cotton is attacked at the time that the corn in southern fields is maturing, and therefore is no longer suitable for food. The worms eat into the bolls. Tobacco is subject to injury at the same season, the larvae eating into the buds and stalks, though in Florida the plants are attacked also early in the season and the leaves muti- FiG. 264.— Adult of the Corn Ear-worm. lated before they have un- ^"^^^^^- folded. The adult is a yellowish or brownish moth, expanding a little more than If inches. There are two broods in the North, and from four to six in the South. The eggs of the first generation are laid on any avail- able food plant, depending on the section of country. Succeeding broods do the greater part of the injury. Winter is passed as a pupa in the soil, in a peculiar burrow constructed by the larva, which de- scends several inches, turns, and makes a gallery nearly to the surface of the ground for the use of the moth in emerging, and then retires to the bottom of the gallery to transform. One of the best means of control is fall plowing and cultivation, so as to break up the exit galleries in the soil. Prevention of attack by the later broods often is difficult. Early planted corn is more likely to escape injury. The same is true of cotton. On cotton, arsenical poisons are used with good results, usually applied dry. Strips of late corn planted among cotton after the latter is under way will come into silk at the right time to divert attack from the cotton. Cowpeas may be used in the same way. On tobacco buds an effective remedy consists in poisoning the worms with a mixture of corn meal and dry arsenate of lead, using 1 WORMS BORING IN BUD OR FRUIT 213 teaspoonful of the arsenate of lead to a quart of meal. Apply the mixture dry, sprinkling it on or into the buds. The same remedy is available when the worms are troublesome, boring into tomatoes. The Tobacco Budworm (Chloridea virescens Fab.) Injury by this species becomes noticeable late in the season, the larva boring into the rolled-up leaves or buds, and later into seed pods. In appearance the caterpillar resembles the boll-worm, but is smaller, and its stripes are narrower and more distinct. The life round is similar to that of the boll- worm, and the means of control are the same. Cutworms attacking Cotton Bolls Certain species of cutworms frequently climb the stalks of cotton and bore into the bolls. The one most commonly observed, Prodenia ornithogalli Guen., may be recognized by two rows of triangular black spots down its back, edged with very narrow light stripes. One or more earlier generations are passed on weeds. Application of arsenicals will help to check the pest. Use the same remedies recommended for the boll-worm or "corn ear- worm" attacking cotton. The Cotton Square-borer ( Uranotes melinus Hbn.) Cotton squares are bored into and their inner substance eaten by a flat, oval worm, clear green in color, its head drawn in beneath the front part of its body. Cowpeas, and certain weeds, are favorite food plants, as well as cotton. Eggs are laid on the leaves, and the larvae feed exposed for a few days before boring into the squares. The adult is a deep red butterfly, with shining red spots at the lower edge of the hind wings. Dusting or sprajang with arsenate of lead or Paris green will kill the young worms if the application is made early, before they bore into the squares. 214 FESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS The Wheat-head Army-worm {Meliana albilinea Hbn.) Naked, dark brown or green, striped caterpillars eat into the heads of wheatj or other small grains, and in the same way are destructive Fig. 265. — The Wheat-head Army-worm. Larva and adult, natural size, and work in wheat head, enlarged. Original. wo EMS BORING IN FRUIT 215 on the heads of timothy. Their work is confined largely to the ker- nels, the chaff falling to the ground. They are at work in June and July, and a second brood appears in the later summer months. The adult is a brownish yellow moth. At the end of summer the full-grown caterpillars of the second brood enter the ground, where the winter is passed. Early fall pasturing will starve out the second brood of caterpillars. With tliis should be combined the destruction of wild grasses, for the worms will feed on these in lack of their favorite food. Stock may be removed from the pastures by the middle of September if desired. Early fall plowing, where feasible, will accomplish somewhat the same result. The Pickle Worm {Diaphania nitidalis Cramer) In the Southern states ripening melons, squashes, and cucumbers are rendered wortliless by a whitish or greenish worm, half an inch Fig. 266. —The Pickle Worm. Original. to an inch long, which bores holes into the fruit, feeding both on the rind and inside. Blossoms, leaves, and stems, also, are injured, but the damage to the fruit is the most serious. The adult is a handsome moth, brownish in color, with large, clear 216 FESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS areas in its wings, and expanding one to one and a quarter inches. At the end of the abdomen is a brush of brown hairs. There are four generations in a season. The winter is passed as a pupa in dried and folded leaves on the ground. Usually the moths are not abundant until July. Fig. 267. ■Section through melon showing work of the Melon Caterpillar. Original. The most effective means of control is the planting of early squashes, as trap crops, among the melons. The insect will choose the squashes for its egg laying, and if the melons are of an early variety, they will practically escape injury. Destruction of rubbish and fall plowing will help. The Melon Caterpillar {Diaphania hyalinata Linn.) Damage by the melon worm is similar to that done by the pickle worm. Squashes, melons, cucumbers, and re- lated plants are subject to Fig. 268. — The Melon Cater- pillar. Original. Fig. 269.— Adult of the Melon Cater- pillar. Original. SMALL WORMS WORKING IN THE SEED 217 attack, the worms first eating the foUage and then boring into the fruit. The full-grown worm is f to 1^ inches long, yellowish in color, and marked with two narrow light stripes down its back. The adult has white wings, broadly bordered with dark brown. The winter is passed as a pupa in folded leaves on the ground. There are three to four generations annually. ' The species is most injurious in the Gulf states. Since the worms devour the foliage before feeding in the fruit, the best remedy is to apply arsenate of lead or Paris green to the vines. Crop remnants should be cleaned up, and fall plowing is advisable. Early squashes may be used as traps, to divert attack from melons. The Pea-moth {Cydia (Semasia) nigricana Steph.) In northern sections growing peas are subject to infestation by a cylindrical, light yellow larva, half an inch long when full grown, which works in the young seed within the growing pod. Infested pods ripen early, crack open, and the worm then emerges and goes into the ground to transform. The eggs are laid on the pods about the close of the blossoming season. Arsenate of lead or Paris green applied at this time and again in ten days will check the pest. Early peas are not usually much infested, and the same is true of very late varieties. The Clover Seed-caterpillar (Laspeyresia {Enarmonia) interstinctana Clem.) Tiny, whitish worms, a third of an inch long when full grown, work in the growing heads of clover, eating the florets or the soft, forming seeds. In their work they hollow out a cavity in the head, which fails to bloom or often blooms on one side only. If a head is torn open, the caterpillar will be found inside. The adult moth appears at the time of the first blooming of clover. Succeeding generations are on the wing at the time of the second blooming, and again in late summer. Hibernation takes place as pupae in silk cocoons on the ground, or sometimes as adults. 218 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS In control, make the first cutting of hay early in June, while the caterpillars are still in the heads, and store this hay as soon as pos- sible. Pasture clover fields in the fall. Plant new fields remote from old ones. Plow up old fields in the fall or early spring, and in the spring harrow and roll. Fig. 270. — The Clover Seed-caterpillar. Adult, enlarged and natural size. Original. Fig. 271. — Work of the Wheat Midge. Enlarged to three times natural size. Original. The Wheat Midge {Itonida (Contarinia) tritici Kby.) The " red weevil " is another common name of this insect. When it is present in large numbers in the heads of wheat, oats, or rye, it gives them a pinkish tinge. The damage is done by a tiny pink mag- got, which feeds on the forming kernel, within the protection of the glumes. As a result of its work the ripe kernel is slirunken, and the yield, especially of wheat, seriously reduced. When mature, the maggot falls to the ground, spins a delicate cocoon, and remains there until the next spring, when the tiny, gnathke adult comes out, ready to lay eggs again on the forming heads. Fall plowing is an effective remedy. Instead of this the stubble may be burned over. If clover is growing in the stubble, burn in winter when the ground is frozen, so that the roots may not be injured. MINUTE WORMS WORKING IN THE SEED 219 The Sorghum Midge {Contarinia sorghicola Coq.) Heads of sorghum are attacked by the larva of a minute two- winged insect or " midge," preventing the formation of seed. If infested heads are examined, the seeds will be found shriveled, while beside them may be seen a tiny grub. Profitable crops of seed can- not be secured where the midge is abundant. The first generations of the midge are passed in other plants that mature heads earlier, notably Johnson grass. By the time the sor- ghum is sufficiently mature the midges are numerous. Eggs are laid witliin the developing seeds. Remedial measures include destruction of Johnson grass, and clean harvesting in the fall. The Clover Flower-midge {Dasijneura leguminicola Lint.) The presence of the clover flower-midge is recognized by the fact that the florets of clover bloom fail to develop normally, become shrunken, and the whole head lacks color. The adult insect is a minute, gnatlike creature with long legs and dusky wings. Eggs are laid in the clover head, and the larva feeds in the ovaries, preventing the normal expansion of the floret and the development of seed. A pupal stage is passed in the ground, followed by a second brood at the time of the second blooming of clover. Winter is passed in the soil. In fields containing mostly clover and httle timothy it is /' t^ wkj- ^^^KSr iiriMr ■*-' I Fig. 272. — Clover head showing irregu- lar blooming caused by the Clover Flower-midge. Original. 220 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS feasible to cut for hay early, before the larvae have done much damage or completed their growth. The second crop will then be free of attack. Where timothy is combined with clover, the insect is con- trolled by clipping back the growth in May, thus retarding the blooming of clover past the danger point, since the heads will not be at the blooming unginai. period when the midges are flying. Here again the second blooming will be exempt. The Clover Seed Chalcid Fly (Bruchophagus funebris Row.) The larva or grub of this tiny insect lives in the ripening seeds of clover or alfalfa. Its presence is seldom suspected, and the only evi- dence may be the shortage of the seed and the large quantity of empty hulls blown out with the chaff. Fig. 273.— The Clover Flower-midge. Florets showing arrested development. Original. Fig. 274. — The Clover Flower-midge. Section through floret, showing work and larva. Enlarged and natural size. Original. SUCKING BUGS ATTACKING FRUIT OR BUD 221 The adult is a very small, black, four- winged fly. Eggs are laid in the de- veloping seed while it is still tender. The grub eats out the contents of the seed, and transforms in the empty shell. A second brood of flies then emerges and lays eggs in the developing seeds of the second crop of clover. The winter is passed in seeds that have fallen to the ground or in those still remaining in uncut heads. Clipping back clover to retard the blooming season will give immunity. The heads will not then be in a suitable stage of growth at the time the adults are on the wing. Fig. 275.— The Clover Seed Chalcid Fly. Adult, greatly- enlarged. Original. y^ % Fig. 276.— Work of the Clover ►Seed Chalcid lly, natural size. Original. Enlarged to six times Plant-bugs attacking Cotton Bolls {Pentatoma ligata Say, Nezara hilaris Say, Dysdercus sutarelliis H. Schf., and others) Injury to cotton bolls by various plant-bugs often is imperfectly recognized, though the total damage may be severe. In general, all 222 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS these insects have strong, sucking beaks, which they insert through the protecting leaves of the young boll. On the outside a close ex- amination will reveal small punctures. Within, the evidence of attack is usually a failure of some or all of the seeds to mature, a shriveling of some parts, or a staining of the Unt. Frequently the injury re- sults in complete destruction of the boll. Most plant bugs attacking cotton reach greatest abundance in August or September. They hibernate as adults, largely in old plants, rubbish, and similar shelter. Remedial measures include destruction of weeds in the spring, to deprive the overwin- tering bugs of food ; early planting, to mature the cotton before the adults are out in greatest abundance ; and the burning of old stalks and rubbish early in the fall. Hand picking may be necessary where a species is present in overwhelming numbers. Cotton Sharpshooters {JassidxE) Small active insects are found on cotton in the latter part of the season, making tiny punctures in the bolls. They are variously marked and colored, and, examined closely, appear to have abnormally large heads shaped hke a broad V, widest where it joins the body. Coming late in the season, their work does not do appreciable damage, and no remedial measures are necessary. In the early part of summer they are to be found on the young foliage of trees. Fig. 277. — TheCot- ton-stainer, Dys- dercus suturellus. Original. Plant Lice attacking Wheat Heads Two closely related species of plant lice, Macrosiphum granaria Buck and Macrosiphum cerealis Kalt., often are found on wheat and occa- sionally become so abundant on the growing heads that the grain is stunted and the yield reduced. Both species are yellowish green in color, have long black antennae and slender, black honey tubes. The PLANT LICE ON FRUIT OR BUD 223 length of the body is one tenth of an inch. In midsummer they live on various grasses, returning to volunteer wheat and oats in the fall. No means of control are known other than rotation of crops and the destruction of volunteer grains. The natural enemies of these lice ordinarily hold them in check. CHAPTER XXIII Insect Pests of Orchard and Small Fruits The Grape Root-worm {Fidia viticida Walsh) Evidence of the presence of tliis insect is twofold. Above ground the parent beetle eats characteristic, chainlike holes in the leaves. Be- neath ground the grubs which hatch from eggs laid by the beetles gnaw channels and holes in the larger roots and entirely destroy the smaller roots and root hairs. The serious injury is that done by the grubs. The adult beetle is one fourth inch long, robust, grayish, and covered with very short hairs. It emerges in Fig. 278. — Roots of grape in- jured by the Grape Root-worm. Original. Fig. 279. — Adult of the Grape Root- worm. Enlarged and natural size. Original. 224 GRUBS INJURING THE ROOTS 225 July, feeds on the leaves, and lays eggs in clusters under loose bark on the canes. The young grub, as soon as hatched, drops to the ground, makes its way to the roots, and feeds throughout the summer. When full grown, it is two fifths of an inch long, whitish, with a pale brown head. In the fall the larva goes deeper in the soil, and winters in an earthen cell. In spring it returns to a point two or three inches below the surface of the ground, and in June makes a pupal cell, in which it Fig. 280. — The Grape Root-worm. Larvae. Original. Fig. 281. — Grape leaf showing characteristic work of the adults of the Grape Root-worm. Original. remains for nearly three weeks. The adults emerge from this in July. The most effective means of control is a thorough spraying of the vines the last of June, or as soon as beetles are seen, using ar- senate of lead 3 pounds, molasses 1 gallon, and water 50 gallons. The molasses is added because it attracts the beetles and makes the spraying more effective. Stirring the soil beneath the \'ines about the middle of June will destroy many pupse in their cells. White Grubs (Lachnosterna spp.) Strawberr\^ plants often are severely injured by white, thick-bodied grubs which feed on the roots. Entire sections in large strawberry patches may thus be killed out. This is the same pest that attacks the roots of corn and other field Q 226 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS and garden crops, and is discussed under the heading " White Grubs, " in the section on Insect Pests of Garden and Field Crops, page 109. The Woolly Apple Aphis {Schizoneura lanigera Hausm.) The woolly aphis is found both on the larger twigs or limbs and on the roots of apple trees. It is characterized by a white, fluffy secre- tion, looking like little masses of cotton. On the twigs it is found in Fig. 282. Apple root showing characteristic work of the Woolly Apple Aphis. Original. clusters on the more tender bark, especially at the axils of twigs or where there has been some break in the bark, or on water sprouts. Its work here results in a swelhng, which is apt later to crack open. On the roots the attack causes knotty enlargements. The root forms are the more serious, because of interfering with the normal functions of the roots. Attack is especially severe on newly set trees, which are less able to withstand injury. For the greater part of the year the lice are wingless. Toward the end of summer winged individuals are developed, and these fly to new hosts, where, after a succeeding sexed generation, eggs are laid in crevices of the bark. Hibernation is accompHshed both by these eggs and by the subterranean colonies. For the lice working above ground spray with tobacco extract or with 7 per cent kerosene emulsion. Apply the material with con- siderable force. For those beneath ground draw back the earth from around the tree to a distance of 2 or 3 feet and a depth of 4 PLANT LICE INJURING THE ROOTS 227 or 5 inches, sprinkle 2 to 6 pounds of tobacco dust on the roots and soil thus exposed, and then replace the dirt removed. Ten per Fig. 283.— The Woolly Apple Aphis. Cluster of Uceontwig. Original. Fig. 284. — Scars on twigs caused by- work of the Woolly Apple Aphis. Original. cent kerosene emulsion may be used instead of the tobacco dust, chawing away the dirt and applying 2 or 3 gallons. The Grape-phylloxera {Phylloxera vastatrix Planch.) Numerous small, rather spherical galls are formed on the under surface of the leaves of grapes, wliile on the roots other colonies of the 228 FESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS same species of lice cause swellings which later decay, resulting in the death of the roots. The serious injury is that done by the root-in- habiting forms. On native grapes, in the eastern states, this insect is fairly common, but the roots of these grapes are resistant and no notable damage results. On imported grapes in the Pacific coast states the roots are attacked rather than the leaves, and here the insect is serious, its work resulting in the death of the vines. The hce are small, yellowish, and soft bodied. Winged generations are produced, which spread the species to new fields. Fig. 285. — Work of the Grape-phylloxera on roots. Original. Fig. 286. — Galls on grape leaf caused by the Grape-phylloxera. Original. In control, in California, imported varieties are grafted on native eastern stocks, thus securing practical immunity. Infested vineyards are treated by flooding, applying water first for 10 days, just after the picking season, again for a similar period a few weeks later, and for a thirty-day period in winter. Vines grown in nearly pure sand are not severely attacked. PLANT LICE FEEDING ON THE ROOTS 229 The Black Peach Aphis {Aphis jjersicoB-niger Er. Sm.) The roots of peach trees often become infested with a soft-bodied, black plant louse. Usually a few of the same hce will be found on the leaves as well, but often the only visible evidence of attack is the yellowing of the fohage and general untlirifty appearance of the tree. Ex- amination will disclose large numbers of these insects clustered on the roots. When mature, they are shining black, and the body is more nearly round than that in most plant Hce. The younger forms are brown or reddish. Treatment consists in drawing away the earth from around the base of the tree and applying 3 or 4 pounds of tobacco dust, replacing the earth afterwards. The lice on fohage may be killed by spraying thoroughly with tobacco ex- tract or 7 per cent kerosene emulsion. The Strawberry Root-louse {Aphis forbesi Weed) Dark greenish or bluish, soft-bodied plant lice infest the roots of strawberries. Where beds are badly attacked, patches are killed out here and there. If a plant that is unthrifty is pulled up, clusters of the hce will be found on the roots, always in com- pany with ants. The ants are responsible for the root infestation. The hce hatch early in the season from eggs laid in the fall on the stems and leaves by the last generation of the previous year. Two or three generations are passed alcove ground ; then the ants appear and carry the hce to the roots, later transporting them to other plants as the ones infested sicken and die. An effective treatment consists in covering the plants with straw in Fig. 287.— The Black Peach Aphis. Lice clustered on root. Original. 230 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS early spring, before growth starts, and burning them over, thus de- stroying the eggs on the leaves and stems. Beds may be sprayed with tobacco extract after the eggs hatch and before the ants appear, but the apphcation must be thorough. Old beds that will be discarded should always be plowed up in the fall, or, better, burned over in fall or winter. Fig. 288. — Early-season genera- tion of the Strawberry Root- louse on strawberry leaf and stem. Original. Fig. 289. — Eggs of the Strawberry Root-louse among hairs of leaf- stem. Enlarged. Original. The Strawberry Crown-girdler {Otiorhynchiis ovatus Linn.) Strawberry plants sometimes are girdled an inch or two be- low the surface ^of the ground by the young or grubs of this insect. Infested plants tend to wilt down, and if one pulls at the tops, they will be found to come up readily, and to show the , . ,- . , . Fig. 290. — Adult of the Strawberry work of the msect on the mam Crown-girdler. Enlarged and natu- root a little below the crown. ral size. Original. GIRDLING THE MAIN ROOT 231 The adult beetle is a general feeder, and sometimes injures shade trees. Wild strawberry and the roots of various common grasses are the natural food of the grubs. It is inadvisable therefore to set out plants in ground that has been in sod where examination shows the presence of tliis grub or similar root feeders in numbers in the soil. The Cranberry Girdler {Crambiis hortuellus Hiibn.) Injury by this species is easily recog- nized, the plants being girdled just below the surface of the sand. The tops show the effects by turning brown and dying. Damage is likely to be confined to restricted areas. Flooding for ten days after picking is an effective means of control. Fig. 291.— Adult of the Cranberry Girdler. Origi- nal. The Grape Root-borer {Memythrus polistiformis Harr.) The softer tissues within the roots of grapes are attacked by a yellowish white borer, 1^ inches long when full grown, and somewhat Fig. 292. — The Grape Root-borer. Original. robust. Infested vines do not usually die, but fail to make thrifty growth. Two years are required by the borer to reach maturity, and therefore one will ordinarily find Fig. 293. — Pupa of the Grape Root- borer. Original. 232 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS Fig. 294. —Adult of the Grape Root- borer. Enlarged to twice natural size. Original. two sizes of borers in the roots. When mature, the borer pupates just below the sur- face of the ground. The adult is a clear-winged moth closely resembling a wasp. Cultivation in June and July will destroy or bury many of the pupae. Vines should be stimulated liberally so as to withstand attack. Removal of the larvae from the roots by hand is sometimes practiced. Prionid Borers (Prionus spp.) Fig. 295. — A Prionid Borer. Slightly enlarged. Original. Large, yellowish- white borers, sometimes 2| inches long, occasion- ally are found working in or on the roots of grapevines, pear trees, and other fruits. They are the larvse of dark brown beetles of the genus Prionus. When working in a large root, the borer often hollows out the entire inner parts, leaving only the shell. Removal by hand is the only known remedy. Fig. 296. — Adult of a Prionid Borer, Prionus imbricornis. Origi- nal. BORING IN THE CROWN 233 The Strawberry Crown-borer ( r^Zo(ierma /ragran'ce Riley) The inside of the crown of strawberrj^ plants is hollowed out by a white, thick-bodied grub, one fourth of an inch long, with a brown head. The adult is a small, dark beetle, one fifth of an inch long, with three darker spots toward the outer edge of each wing cover. It emerges in the fall, hibernates, and lays eggs in the Fig. Fig. 297. — Adult of the Strawberry Crown-borer. Enlarged and nat- ural size. Original. spring. Usually only older plants are infested, because egg laying is over by the time that runners formed in midsummer have made any growth. There is one generation annually. The adults are unable to fl3^ Therefore, if old beds are attacked, care should be taken to make ne\v plantings at some distance, and to use only new runners, which will not usually be found infested. In discarded beds the plants should be plowed out at once after the pick- ing season, raked into piles, and burned. This should be done not later than August, in order to kill the insect while still in the crowns. Where beds are moved every two or three seasons, no trouble need be feared from this insect. 298.— Work of Crown-borer. the Strawberry- Original. 234 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS The Strawberry Crown Moth {^geria rutilans Hy. Edw.) On the Pacific coast straw- berries, blackberries, and rasp- berries are injured by a whitish, cylindrical borer, three fourths of an inch long when mature, which burrows in the crown of the plant. The adult is a clear-winged moth, resembling a wasp. Remedies include sub- mersion of infested fields, or the removal and destruction of infested plants. Fig. 299. — The Strawberry Crown Moth. Enlarged to twice natural size. Origi- nal. The Raspberry Root-borer {Bembecia marginala Harr.) A pinkish grub works at the base of blackberry and raspberry canes, often girdling the cane just above the crown, causing the death of the shoot. The injury is apt to be noticed in the early part of the growing season, when vig- FiG. 300. — Work of the Raspberry Root-borer. Original. Fig. 301. — The Raspberry Root-borer. Larva, slightly enlarged. Original. orous canes suddenly wilt. Sometimes the grubs tunnel up in the pith for a few inches, and again they, may work through the roots. Two years are required for the growth BORING IN THE TRUNK 235 of the larva. The adults are clear-winged moths, are on the wing in late summer, and lay eggs on the leaves, whence the larvae make their way to the base of the plant. Removal and destruction of infested canes and roots each spring is the only remedy. Fig. 302. — Adult of the Raspberry Root- borer. Slightly enlarged. Original. The Round-headed Apple-tree Borer {Saperda Candida Fab.) Apple trees, especially newly set stock, are subject to severe injury by a grub that bores in both sapwood and heartwood toward the base Fig. 303. — Work and larva of the Round-headed Apple-tree Borer. Original. of the trunk. Its work may be recognized by discolorations of the bark and the presence of castings pushed out of its burrows. The full-grown grub is an inch long, yellowish white, with a small, dark head, and a slightly enlarged, brown first segment. The parent is a handsome striped beetle. Eggs are laid on the bark, 236 P£STS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS usually within a foot of the ground, in June and July. The larva requires three years for maturity, feeding first in the sapwood, but later penetrating to the heart of the tree. The food plants include apple, pear, quince, and related wild species. Cutting out with a knife or probing with a soft copper wire are effectual remedies, if carefully done each season. If a wire probe is used, nick the end so that rough barbs will be made and the borer thus drawn out. Mechanical protections tied around the trunk for two to three inches below the ground to a height of two or three feet will prevent egg laying. For this pur- pose one may use wood veneer, heavy paper, or even old news- papers, which usually will last through one season. Pure white lead and linseed oil may be painted on the trunks of apple trees, but ready mixed paint must not be used, since it may contain other oils that are injurious. Protective washes are of some benefit, but need to be renewed occasionally, and will not wholly prevent attack, though they will lessen the number of borers. Fig. 304. — The Round-headed Apple-tree borer. Burrows emerging at base of tree. Adult. Original. BORING IN THE TRUNK 237 The Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer (Chrysohothris femorata Fab.) Fig. 305. The Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer. Work and larva. Original. The flat-headed apple-tree borer works only in the sapwood, often well up on the trunk, and completes its life round in one year. The grub has a flattened and enlarged segment just back of the head. Its parent is a small, metaUic colored beetle. The food plants include apple, pear, peach, and various forest trees such as oak and maple. Eggs are laid in June and July. The grub makes shallow burrows, for the most part just under the outer bark. The insect hibernates as a grub in the burrows. Remedies are the same as for the round-headed apple-tree borer, but mechanical protectors must inclose the entire trunk. The Peach-borer (Sanninoidea exitiosa Say) An exudation of gum, often mixed with sawdust or frass, usually close to or just beneath the surface of the ground, is the outward e\i- FiG. 306.— Adult of the Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer. Original. . 238 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS dence of the work of the peach-tree borer. This may be observed at any time of year, but the gum is fresh in late summer or very early Fig. 307. — The Peach-borer. Larva in burrow. Slightly enlarged. Original. in the spring. If one will take a sharp knife and cut through the bark, one will find a burrow running in the sapwood, and at its end a yellowish or pinkish grub, with brown head. The length of a full-grown grub is about one inch. Peach trees are much weakened by the attack, and if several borers are present, the tree may be killed. Cherry and plum trees are infested to some extent by the same borer. The adult is a moth, but its clear wings give it much the appearance of a wasp. In the female only the liind wings are clear. Its general color is deep blue. The abdomen of the female is marked by an orange band. Eggs are laid in May, June, or July, directly on the bark, usually near the ground. The young grub works entirely in the sapwood, from the time when first hatched until the early part of the following summer, resting and remaining dormant during the winter months and resuming activity in the spring. The moths emerge from May until July. There is one generation each year. Fig. 308.— Cocoon of the'Peach-borer. Original. BORING IN THE TRUNK 239 A common remedial measure consists in cutting out the grub with a sharp knife. This is best done in the fall or very early in the spring. The burrows may be probed with a soft wire nicked so as to form Fig. 3U9. — Adults, female and male, of the Peach-borer. Original. rough barbs ; the grub or a piece of it will then be drawn out with the wire. The best preventive measure consists in drawing up earth around the- base of the tree in early spring, remo\dng it toward the latter part of summer. The moths will not lay eggs on the trunk when this is done. The trunk may be protected with a cyUnder of paper tied around it, extending up 12 or 15 inches and dowTiinto the ground an inch or two. Washes applied to the tree to prevent egg laying are only partly successful. 240 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS The Lesser Peach-borer {Synanthedon pidipes G. and R.) Old or weakened trees are apt to be attacked by this borer, which works in the soft, growing tissue anywhere in the trunk, from the ground to the main branches. The same insect also at- tacks plum, cherry, and wild cherry. The worm itself has much the appearance of the com- mon peach borer, but is smaller, rarely being over four fifths of an inch long, when full grown. In the South there are two genera- tions ; in the North, only one. The winter is passed by the larva in the trunk, and pupation takes place early in the spring. The adult is Fig. 310. — The Lesser Peach-borer. Slightly enlarged. Original. Fig. 311. — The Lesser Peach-borer. Pupa protruding from crack in bark. Original. Fig. 312. — Adult of the Lesser Peach- borer. Slightly enlarged. Orig- inal. a clear-winged moth. Eggs are laid on the trunk, especially in cracks or crevices. The best preventive measure is to keep trees growing vigorously and promptly to treat with white lead any chance wounds in the bark. BORING BENEATH BARK OF TRUNK OR LIMB 241 Where borers are present, cut them out with a knife, or probe the burrows with a soft copper wire. Knife wounds should be painted with white lead. The Shot Hole Borer (Eccoptogaster (Scolytus) rugulosusRa.tz.) Pluni, pear, apple, peach, and cherry are attacked by this tiny insect. The outward evidence of injury is seen in numerous round holes in the bark, each hole clean-cut, about one sixteenth of an inch in diameter, as if the trunk or limb had received a charge of bird shot. As a rule only trees are attacked that have been weakened from some cause or other. If a piece of bark is removed where the holes are numerous, shallow galleries will be found beneath. These are of char- acteristic form. A central gallery, one or two inches long, runs parallel with the axis of the trunk or hmb, while from this many other galleries di- verge, quite small at the start but growing rapidly larger. A small, dark beetle makes the main gallery as its brood chamber, laying its eggs in pockets along each side. Grubs hatch from these, bore the diverging chan- nels as they grow, and finally come out as adult beetles, cutting round emergence holes through the bark. In northern sections there are two generations each year ; in the South there are three. To control, remove and burn dead or dying trees in which the insect is breeding in large numbers. They will in\'ariably spread from these Fig. 313.— Burrows of the Shot Hole Borer, disclosed by removal of bark. Original. 242 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS to others in the orchard that chance not to be making vig- orous growth. Trim back and fertihze trees only moderately attacked. Apply a coat of thick carbolated wliitewash in early spring, again in June, and again in August. Use 1 pint of crude carbolic acid to 10 gallons of the wliitewash. Fig. 314. — The Shot Hole Borer. Sec- Fig. 315. — The Shot Hole Borer, tion of bark over burrows, showing exit Adult. Enlarged and natural size, holes. Original. Original. The Peach Bark-beetle {Phloeophthorus liminaris Harr.) Injury is similar to that of the shot hole borer. The bark of peach, plum, or cherry trees is peppered with many small, round holes. If the tree is not already too much weakened, consider- able gum will flow from these holes. Removal of a section of bark will show the difference between the work of this insect and that of the shot hole borer : the main channels made by this pest run around the axis of the trunk or limb, while those of the shot hole borer run parallel to it. Fig. 316. — Burrows of the Peach Bark-beetle. Original. GRUBS BORING IN THE CANE 243 There are two generations each year. The adult beetles hibernate in cells dug out in the inner bark, often in healthy trees. In the spring they come out, select weakened trees, and bore the main channel just under the bark, laying eggs in the sides of this channel. The grubs work out at right angles, making di- verging burrows. A second lot of beetles ap- pear in August, construct channels as before, and from their grubs come the hibernating adults. Control measures are the same as those recommended for the shot hole borer. Fig. 317. — The Peach Bark-beetle. Adult. Enlarged and natural size. Original. The Currant Borer {^geria tipuliformis Clerck) Currants or gooseberries are injured or killed by the work of this borer. The infested plants usually show the attack first by their unthrifty appearance; the next season they fail to leaf out. The borer is a yellowish grub, half an inch long when full grown. It works in the center of the cane, spends the winter within the Fig. 318. — Adult of the Currant Borer. Enlarged and natural size. Original. Fig. 319. — Work of the Currant Borer, Original. 244 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS ^^iw^mt Fig. 321.— The Red- necked C ane-borer. Larva, enlarged to twice natural size. Original. cane near its base, resumes work in the spring and soon transforms. The adult is a clear-winged moth, and emerges in June through a hole in the cane cut by the grub before transforming. Removal and destruction of infested canes in the fall or spring is the only remedy. The Red-necked Cane-borer {Agrilus ruficollis Fab.) A whitish grub, one half to three fourths of an inch long, with an enlarged head, bores in the canes of black- berry and raspberry. In the former the bur- rows make a spiral girdle just beneath the bark, and cause a slight swelling, re- sulting in the death of the cane the fol- lowing season. The galls occur usually within two or three feet of the base of the cane. In raspberries no serious damage is done. The adult is a rather slender beetle, one third of an inch long, with dark wing covers and a copper-colored thorax or " neck." Eggs are laid in June and July at the base of leafstalks. The grubs pupate within the canes, above the galls, and remain there until the fol- lowing May. Before May 1 remove and de- stroy infested canes, including those of wild blackberry near at hand. Fig. 320.— Work of the Red-necked Cane-borer. Orig- inal. Fig. 322.— Adult of the Red-necked Cane-borer. Enlarged and natural size. Original. GRUBS OR MAGGOTS IN CANE OR STEM 245 The Raspberry Cane-borer (Oberea himaculata Oliv.) Raspberry or blackberry shoots attacked by this insect wilt toward the end, and often bend sharply over. Within will be found a slender grub, which later bores down through the cane, pupates in the base of it, and emerges the following June as a slender, dark beetle, with long antennae and yellow thorax. The grub, when full grown, is one inch long Fig. 323 —Adult of the Rasp- berry Cane-borer. Slightly en- larged. Original. Fig. 324. — Work of the Raspberry Cane-borer. Original. and has a small brown head. Two years are required for the entire life round. If a cane that has wilted is examined closely, it will be found that the beetle has girdled it at two points with a row of punctures. The egg is laid between these two rows. Remove and destroy the upper parts of infested canes as soon as the presence of the insect is discovered. If this work is delayed until late summer, it is necessary to remove the entire cane in order to get the grub. The Raspberry Cane-maggot {Phorhia ruhivora Coq.) The tips of the young shoots wilt and droop as when attacked by the cane-borer described above, but the canes do not show the character- 246 PESTS OF OUCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS istic punctures and do not bend sharply at one place. The drooping is due to the presence of a maggot wliich burrows in the pith of the cane and more or less girdles it from the inside. The adult is a two-winged fly, and emerges in the spring. The insect remains as a pupa within the cane over winter. Cut and destroy infested canes as soon as the wilting of the tips is observed. The Currant Stem-girdler (Janus integer Nort.) Currant shoots wilt and bend over sharply, and usually the tip soon breaks off and falls to the ground, leaving a square-cut stub. Within the remaining stalk, a few inches below the cut, will be found a light yellow larva half an inch long, wider toward the head, and pro- vided with a forked spine at the hind end. The parent insect is a sawfly. The girdling of the stem is done by the adult just after depositing its egg in the shoot and at a point just above the egg. The larva hibernates in the main shoot. It seldom burrows more than six inches below the stub. Infested shoots should be cut off eight or ten inches below the stub. The Grape-cane Gall-maker (Ampeloglypter sesostris Lee.) A tiny snout beetle, one eighth of an inch long, sometimes injures grape canes in the Fig. 325. — Work of the Grape-cane Gall- maker. Original. Fig. 326. — Adult of the Grape-cane Gall-maker. Enlarged and natural size. Original. GRUBS IN STEM OR SHOOT 247 spring by puncturing the new wood. The part injured later develops into a gall an inch or an inch and a half long, wliich shows a deep scar on one side. Eggs are laid in the punctures, and grubs develop in the pith of the cane. The adults come out in late sununer, and hide in rubbish over winter. Since the beetles feed to some extent on the leaf and stem tissues, they may be poisoned by spraying with arsenate of lead or Paris green. Galls should be cut off and destroyed before the time of emergence of adults in late summer. The Grapevine Girdler (Ampeloglypter ater Lee.) This insect in its adult stage is similarto the grape-cane gall-maker, but its color is black. It injures terminal shoots by girdling them, so that the end of the shoot later falls to the ground. The young or grub develops within the shoot. The adult emerges in the fall and hibernates in the leaves or trash. Spraying with arsenate of lead or Paris green in May or June will kill the beetles. In early summer cut off the ends of canes showing the charac- teristic girdling, making the cut a few inches below the girdle. The Blackberry Pithy-gall (Diastrophus turgidus Bass.) Curious, hard enlargements of the canes of blackberries are caused by small, fleshy larvae which hatch from eggs laid by a black gall-fly. Several larvae inhabit each gall, remaining within it as pupae over winter. The species is not abundant enough to be a pest, but galls should be re- moved whenever found. /' k 1 f I Y Fig. 327. — The Blackberry Pithy-gall. Original. 248 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS The Peach Twig-moth {Aiiarsia lineatella Zell.) In the spring, about the time of blooming of peach trees, terminal clusters of leaves here and there wilt, and the twigs soon die. Close examination will show that a tiny borer has been at work in the twigs, eating out the inner substance for an inch or so, or dig- ging out a hole in one side. The larva itself, if discovered, will be found to be quite small, with a dark head and dark terminal segment. Shortly the little gray moths, expand- ing about half an inch, are about, and a second brood is on the w^ay. Later there is still another brood. The larvse of these later generations often work in the young fruit, causing drops of gum to exude. The winter is passed as a larva, hidden away in a little chamber just under the outer bark, in the axil of a new shoot or bud. To control, spray with lime sulphur, at the time that the buds are first swelling, so as to kill the larva within its winter home. If this treatment is omitted, spray with arsenate of lead, 4 pounds to 50 gallons of water, just as the Fig. 328. Work of the Peach T wig-moth. Original. BORERS IN BRANCH OR TWIG 24:9 buds first begin to open. The later treatment is designed to poison the borer when it begins work on the twigs. Fig. 329. -Adult Peach Twig-moth. Enlarged and natural size. Original. The Shot-borer {Xyleborus dispar Fab. (pyri Peck)) A tiny black beetle, one tenth of an inch long, bores into twigs branches in late summer and deposits eggs. The resulting grub in the twig, becoming full grown the following June.' In the spring close observation will reveal one or more round punctures, a twentieth of an inch in diameter. Infested twigs are apt to wilt and should be cut off and burned as sooi as the wilting is noted. or small burrows Fig. 330. — Work of Fig. 331. — Adults of the Shot- the Shot-borer. borer. Enlarged and natural Original. size. Original. Fig. 332. — Section through branch, showing work of the Shot-borer. Original. 250 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS The Apple Twig-borer {Schistoceros hamatus Fab.) In early summer the twigs of apple, cherry, or pear, or the canes of grape may show characteristic little tunnels, beginning just above a shoot or bud, and extending down a short distance in the main stem or branch. They are the work of a small, dark brown beetle, about one third of an inch in length, which soon deserts its temporary burrow and is not likely to be seen. The insect breeds in diseased wood, hibernating within the same. It is troublesome in the neighborhood of Fig. 333. —Work of the Apple piles of recent trimmings and the like, Twig-borer. Original. and these should be removed and de- stroyed. The tunnels in the twigs of fruit trees are made apparently in feeding, or for temporary shelter. Fig. 334. — The Apple Twig-borer, enlarged and natural size. Originai. The Twig-girdler {Oncideres cingulata Say) Pecan trees and others are injured by a dark gray beetle half an inch long, which girdles twigs or smaller branches. A clean cut is made GIRDLING THE TWIGS 251 by the beetle, Fig. usually deep enough for the twig to break entirely off. The beetles are at work in late summer. After girdling a twig the beetle lays eggs in it, and the larvae bore in the twig, becoming full grown the following summer. There is only one generation each year. 335. — The Twig-girdler. Original. Where young trees are seriously attacked, the beetles should be hunted out and destroyed. All twigs cut off should be gathered up and burned. The Twig-pruner {Elaphidion villosum Fab.) Fig. 336. — Work of the Twig-girdler. Original. Fig. 337. — Work of the Twig-pruner. Original. Various kinds of fruit and shade trees sometimes suffer the loss of terminal twigs, girdled by this insect. The work is done by the larva or grub of an elongate, dark brown beetle, a half to three fourths of an inch long. Eggs are laid in the twigs in July, and the grub feeds within, finally gnawing a circu- lar groove as far as the outer bark, so that the twig breaks off, taking the grub with it. The fallen twig then ^^^ 338. -Adult of the Twig- serves as its pruner. Original. 252 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS home until the following spring, when it trans- forms and comes out as an adult. The remedy is to gather and destroy the fallen twigs. Tree Crickets {(Ecanthus spp.) Small, light green, and rather slender crickets make long rows of punctures in the canes of raspberries and blackberries, and in tender twigs of fruit trees, the injury often resulting in the death of the cane or twig. If a twig showing these char- acteristic punctures is split, it will be found that the holes were made as a place to deposit eggs. The species usually responsible is (Ecanthus nigricornis Walk. The punctures are made in the latter part of summer, and the eggs hatch in the spring. There is one brood in the North, but two in the South. Both young and adults feed on other insects, and should be regarded as beneficial. m mt\ . w^ 1 m mm 1 Fig. 340. — A Tree Cricket. Original. Fig. 339. — Punc- tures made by Tree Crickets. Original. Fig. 341. — Section through twig, showing punctures of Tree Crickets in detail. Enlarged. Original. PUNCTURING THE TWIGS 253 Injured twigs may be removed in early spring or in the course of winter pruning. The Buffalo Tree-hopper {Ceresa huhalus Fab.) The twigs and smaller limbs of orchard trees sometimes show regular rows of oval scars, due to the egg-laying punctures of a curious little in- sect, the buffalo tree-hopper. The scars do not heal, and, if numerous, weaken the twigs. The insect that makes the punc- FiG. 343. — Work of Buffalo Tree-hop- per. Original. Fig. 344. — Work of the Periodical Cicada. Original. Fig. 342.— The Buffalo Tree- hopper. Enlarged and natu- ral size. Original. tures is triangular in shape, Ught green in color, three eighths of an inch long, and has a two-horned enlarge- ment at the front of its body. The young that hatch from the eggs do not feed in or on the twig, but on various weeds. In control, weeds should be kept down in the orchard, and twigs that show many of the egg-lay- ing slits may be pruned in winter. The Periodical Cicada {T ibicen septendeciin Lmn.) Occasional injury to twigs of fruit trees is re- corded due to egg-laying punctures of the periodi- cal cicada. This insect is closely related to the '' dog-day cicada," or " locust," which is heard 254 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS sounding its long, high-pitched note in summer. Usually the only- notable cases of injury are to newly set fruit trees, which are so small Fig. 345. — Emergence of Adult Cicada from pupal skin. Original. as to make the work in the twigs really serious. The injury takes the form of a row of regular punctures in the twig, each puncture with a frayed or torn margin. Definite " broods " of this insect exist in various parts of the country, and these have been studied and mapped so that the coming of the adults can be pre- dicted. The immature stages of the cicada are passed in the soil, and either 13 or 17 years are re- quired for this part of the insect's growth, depending on the section and the brood. At the end of this time the adults suddenly appear in large numbers, lay eggs, and another life cycle begins, as before. Bordeaux mixture appears to act as a repellent when sprayed on young trees that are threatened with injury. The San Jose Scale {Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst.) This serious pest of fruit trees, shade trees, and ornamentals is an insidious insect, and seldom is recognized until it has gained a foothold and has already caused marked injury. The first evidence of its pres- ence usually noted is the weakening or dying of twigs. On further Fig. 346. — The Periodical Cicada. Original. SMALL SCALES ON BARK OF TRUNK OR BRANCH 255 examination such twigs are found to have a scurfy or ashy look, the bark being crusted with hundreds of minute scales, no larger than a very small pin head. If a sliver of the outer bark is cut away, the inner, soft bark will be found to show more or less reddish discolora- FiG. 347. — The San Josi- Scak'. Above, natural tsize. Center, enlarged. Be- low, a single scale, enlarged. Original. tion. On peach trees the scale is apt to gain a foothold first on the larger limbs, rather than the small twigs. When the scales are quite numerous, they will be found also on the leaves and fruit, as well as the bark. On the fruit of apple, peach, or pear a reddish discoloration surrounds isolated scales. Peach trees frequently are killed by the 256 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS insect in three years. Apple and pear trees, and various ornamental shrubs, usually manage to exist for some time longer. If a hand lens is used for closer examination, it will be found that each scale is circular in shape, rather flat, dark in color, and has in its center a small raised spot, like a nipple, surrounded by a slight de- pression. Smaller, oval scales represent the males. There are several generations each season. The species lives through the winter as half-grown females. With the coming of warm weather these complete their growth, the tiny winged males appear, and in a few days each female begins giving birth to exceedingly small, living young. The latter crawl about over the bark for a few hours, then settle down, insert their sucking beaks, and soon are covered with a pro- tecting wax scale. They do not move thereafter. The total prog- eny of a single female in one season is enormous. The insect is especially likely to be introduced on nursery stock, and the greatest care should be taken in the purchase of trees for an orchard. If stock has been properly fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas, the scales will be killed. Treatment of trees or shrubs consists of spraying in the dormant season with lime-sulphur solution. The best time of application is in the spring, just before the buds swell. Where the infestation is severe, it is well to spray in the fall, after the leaves have dropped, and again in the spring. For small shrubs, and the like, if it is not desired to use the lime- sulphur spray, a solution of whale-oil soap, 2 pounds to 1 gallon of water, may be applied in winter. The potash soap should be used. Fig. 348. -Work of San Jose Scale on pear. Original. SMALL SCALES ON BARK OF TRUNK OR BRANCH 257 Several other species closely resemble the San Jose scale, and on superficial examniation can hardly be distinguished from it Thev have not, however, so distinct a ring and nipple. The Putnam's Scale {Aspi- diotus ancylus Putnam) infests many kinds of fruit and shade trees. It has one generation annually. The Cherry Scale (Aspidiotus forbesi Johns.) is found on the bark of cherry and other fruit trees. It is lighter in color than the San Jose scale. The European Fruit-scale (Aspidiotus ostreceformis Curt.) attacks principally plums, but occasionally other fruits, except the peach. It produces several generations annually and is often a serious pest. Fig. 349.— Branch incrusted Avith Put- nam's Scale. Original. FIO. 350 -Cherry Scale. Enlarged ,„ seven ,i„,es natural size. Original. 258 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS The Oyster-shell Scale {Lepidosaphes ulmi Linn.) The shape of this scale is quite like that of a narrow, miniature oyster shell. It is about one eighth of an inch long and is easily ob- served without a lens. It commonly infests a great variet}^ of deciduous trees and shrubs, and when very abundant, is capable of causing the death of its host. The young scales ap- pear in May or June, crawl about over the bark for six or eight hours, and then insert their beaks, settle down, and secrete the wax covering under which they remain for the rest of their life. The males are winged. Eggs are laid in fall, beneath the scale covering the female, and remain there until the next spring. In the South there are two broods; in the North one. Regular, annual spray- ing in winter with lime sulphur for San Jose scale will hold this insect sufficiently in check. For direct, remedial treatment of badly infested trees this wash is not sufficiently active or dependable. The only remedies that may be depended on are a spraying in early spring with linseed oil emulsion ; or an application of 12 per cent kerosene emulsion at the Fig. 351. — Oyster-shclI Scale. Enlarged to twice natural size. Original. CONSPICUOUS SCALES ON THE BARK 259 time that the young are hatching. The date for the latter must be determined by close watching. Fig. 353. — Scurfy Scale. The larger are females ; the smaller are males. Slightly enlarged. Orig- inal. Fig. 352.— Oys.(i-.^luii >cale. Greatly en- larged. Original. The Scurfy Scale (Chionaspis fuvfura Fitch) The scurfy scale is found principally on apple, but occasionally on pear, peach, cherry, currant, and gooseberry. The scale of the female is small, flat, whitish, and broadly oval. With these will be found the scales of the male, which are smaller, narrow, and longitudinally ridged. There is one generation annually. Eggs are laid in the fall, beneath the scale of the female, and from these hatch the minute young, in Fig. 354.- Scurfy "S^Ile. Greatly *he Spring. Only the male is enlarged. Original. winged. 260 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS Sprajnng with lime sulphur in winter, as for San Jose scale, will control this pest. The Rose Scale (Aulacaspis rosce Bouche) Roses, blackberries, and raspberries frequently become infested with white scales which cover the canes. The individual scales, when full grown, are about one tenth of an inch long, thin, flat, and snowy white. ^^ There may be three or more generations in a year. MM Judicious pruning will help to hold them in /^\ check. Lime sulphur may be used as a winter -^B spray. Or, spray in winter with whale-oil soap, ^H 1 pound to 1 gallon of water. I The Cottony Maple-scale {Pulvinaria vitis Linn.) This large and easily recognized scale attacks grape vines and various fruit and shade trees. It is conspicuous in early spring, when the fluffy, cottony secretion containing the eggs is pushed out from under the body of the female. There is one generation annually, the female over- wintering on the bark. The means of control is to spray with 10 per cent kerosene emulsion when the young are hatching in the spring. The European Fruit Lecanium {Lecanium corni Bouche) The smaller limbs and twigs of fruit trees are Fig. 355.— Cottony attacked by a species of large scale, one eighth ijj^j ' of an inch long and nearly hemispherical. When young, it is yellowish, but when older, is dark and shiny. The upper surface of the insect is hardened, thus pro- tecting the softer parts beneath ; in other words, the scaly covering CONSPICUOUS SCALES ON THE BARK 261 Fig. 356. — The European Fruit Lecanium. Enlarged to twice natural size. Orig- inal. is really a part of the insect itself and is not detachable as with the San Jose or oj^ster- shell scales. The best remedial measure is a winter spraying with crude oil emulsion at 12 per cent strength or distillate oil emulsion at 5 per cent strength. Distillate oil emulsion is prepared by dissolving 8 pounds of whale- oil soap in 3 gallons of hot water, adding 5 gallons of distillate oil and at once pumping the mixture back on itself. To dilute for a 5 per cent strength add 1 gallon of emulsion to 11^ gal- lons of water. The Terrapin Scale {Euleca- nium nigrofasciatum Perg.) The terrapin scale is nearly hemispherical, about one twelfth of an inch long, nearly as wide and high, and reddish in color. The surface is marked with darker, radiating spots or streaks, and usually there is a series of shallow depressions near the margin. The food plants include peach, apple, plum, cherry, quince, pear, and various shade trees. The scale is difficult to kill. The best remedy is spraying with 20 per cent kerosene emulsion in spring, just before growth starts. Do not apply so much liquid that it will run down the trunk of the tree. Fig. 357. — Terrapin Scale. Below, a single scale, enlarged. Original. 262 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS The Spotted Pelidnota (Pelidnota punctata Linn.) Heavy-bodied, slow-moving beetles sometimes are found in considerable numbers on the leaves of grapes. They are an inch long, golden yellow, and each wing cover is marked with three small black dots, widely sepa- rated. The immature stages are Fig. 358. —The Spotted PeHdnota. passed in rotting wood. The beetles Original. are usually controlled by hand pick- ing, but may be poisoned with applica- tions of Paris green or arsenate of lead. The Light-loving Anomala (Anomala lucicola Fab.) Occasionally the foliage of grapes is riddled by brownish beetles, one third of an inch long, in shape and appearance like Fig. 359. — The Light-loving ,1 Anomala. Enlarged to twice the com- , , . r, • • i natural size. Original. mon June beetles, but smaller. The larvae live in the soil and are not injurious. The beetles are readily killed by spraying with arsenate of lead or Paris green. An allied species, Anomala marginaia Fab., is found in the South, where it sometimes destroys the foliage of apples, grapes, raspberries or blackberries. It is half an inch long and light brownish in color. Still another species with similar habits is Anomala undulata Mels., one third of an inch long, yellowish in color, and marked with black. -p^^ 361. — Anoma/a imdu- The above are pests only at compara- lata. Enlarged. Original. Fig. 360. — Anomala marginata Enlarged. Original. BEETLES INJURING THE FOLIAGE 263 tively rare intervals. Prompt application of Paris green or arsenate of lead will poison them. The Cherry Leaf -beetle (Galerucella cavicollis Lee.) An oval, red beetle, one fourth of an inch long, with black legs and antennae, feeds on the leaves of cherry, plum, and peach, and when numerous riddles the foli- age. The larvae also feed on the leaves. The pupal stage is passed in the ground, and there are two broods annually. The remedy is prompt spraying with arsenate of lead or Paris green. Fig. 362.— The Cherry Leaf-beetle. Enlarged and natural size. Original. The Strawberry Leaf-beetle (Tijpophorus canelliis Fab.) A chunky, dark beetle, one eighth of an inch long, with four obhque, black patches on its wings, occasionally appears in large numbers in strawberry fields early in the season, and riddles the leaves. The larvae or grubs which follow shortly are small and thick bodied, and feed on the roots of the plants. The beetles hibernate as adults. Prompt spraying with Paris green or arsenate of lead will check the beetles. Another species with somewhat similar feed- ing habits, Colaspis Fig. 363. — Work of the Strawberry Leaf- beetle. Original. 264 rSSTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS brimnea Fab., is occasional!}^ in evidence on strawberry or grape, and rarely on garden or field crops. It is yellowish, oval, rather convex, Fig. 364. — Larva ol the Straw- berry Leaf-beetle. Enlarged and natural size. Original. Fig. 365. — The Strawberry Leaf-beetle. Adult, enlarged and natural size. Orig- inal. and about one fifth of an inch long. The grubs feed on the roots. There is a single brood annually. Arsenicals will poison the adults. Fig. 366. —Pupa of the Grape Colaspis. Enlarged and natu- ral size. Original. Fig. 367. — The Grape Colaspis. Adult, enlarged and natural size. Original. The Grape Flea-beetle (Haltica chalybea Illig.) Early in the growing season, the swelling buds of grapes are eaten into and destroyed, and as the tender leaves unfold they are riddled. The beetles which are responsible for this damage are small, steely- FLEA-BEETLES INJURING THE FOLIAGE 265 blue insects, one eighth to one fifth of an inch long, and rather broad. They are able to fly readily and jump quickly. Eggs are soon laid, and the larvae feed on the surface of the leaves, leaving the veins untouched. A pupal stage is passed in the ground, and there is a sec- ond generation in midsummer, but damage by this later brood is not par- ticularly noticeable because the foliage is relatively more abundant. To control, spray with 4 pounds of arsenate of lead and 1 gallon of cheap molasses to 50 gallons of water. Apply the spray early, at the first appearance of the beetles, before they have opportunity to destroy the buds. Where only a few vines are concerned, the adults may be jarred off onto sheets, if the work is done early in the m.orning before the beetles Fig. 368. — Work of the Grape Flea-beetle. Oni^inal. Fig. 369. — Larva (jf the Grape Flea- beetle. Enlarged and natural size. Original. Fig. 370. — The Grape Flea-beetle. Adult, enlarged and natural size. Original. 26G PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS become active. Cleaning up rubbish will help to reduce the numbers of overwintering adults. The Strawberry Flea-beetle (Haltica ignita Illig.) A shining, active beetle, one fifth of an inch long, appears in early summer on the leaves of strawberry and other plants. Its shape is rather oblong, and its color ranges from golden to greenish, or deep blue. Shortly afterward the larvae may be found on the fohage, usually on the under leaves where they are concealed. They are almost black and one fourth of an inch long. The body surface is covered with low tubercles. Pupation takes place in the soil. In the South there are two or three generations annually ; in the North one. The pest is easily checked by Fig. 372.— The Strawberry Flea- . ...... beetle. Enlarged and natural size, spraymg or dustmg With arsenate Original. of lead or Paris green. Fig. 371. Work of the Strawberry Flea- beetle. Original. The Tent Caterpillar (Malacosoma americana Fab.) In the spring leaves of apple, wild cherrj^ and other plants are stripped by this caterpillar. Its work is characterized by the forma- tion of a conspicuous web or nest in the forks of smaller branches, the caterpillars spending part of their time on or in this nest and going LARGE CATERPILLARS EATING THE LEAVES 267 out from it to feed on the leaves. They do not form any webs on the leaves, but only the tent in the forks. Fig. 373.— The Tent CaterpiUar. Original. The full-grown caterpillar is about two inches long. Its body is black, ornamented with a well-defined white hne down the middle of its back, and with a row of blue spots along each side. The adult moth is dull reddish in color. 268 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS The eggs are laid in a compact mass, encircling a twig, and remain where placed until the following spring. The caterpillars hatch as soon as the foliage is out. Nests and caterpillars may be destroyed by burning with a torch, selecting a time when the caterpillars are at rest on or in their web. Fig. 374. — Nest of the Tent Caterpillar. Original. Fig. 375. — Egg-mass of the Tent Caterpillar. Original. Fig. 376. — Adult of the Tent Caterpillar. Original. They will be found there when the weather is cloudy or stormy, or early in the morning before the sun is well up. Instead of burning, the nests may be sprayed with 25 per cent kerosene emulsion or with LARGE CATERPILLARS EATING THE LEAVES 269 pure kerosene, taking care not to get this on the surrounding foHage. Spraying the foHage with Paris green or arsenate of lead will easily poison the caterpillars. The Forest Tent Caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria Hbn.) The conniion name of this species is misleading, for it does not construct a tent. It is, however, closely related to the tent cater- pillar, and has ac- quired a similar name. While often a forest pest, it is apt to attack fruit tree foliage as well, and may strip the trees when abundant. The full-grown caterpillar is two inches long, dark in color, and has a row of conspicu- ous, diamond- shaped, white spots down the middle of its back. Eggs are Fig. 377. — The Forest Tent Caterpillar. Original. Fig. 378. — Egg-mass of the Forest Tent Caterpillar. Orig- inal. Fig. 379. — Adult of the Forest Tent Caterpillar. Original. laid in a compact ring around twigs, and covered with a shin- ing varnish. The young cater- pillars appear early in spring. 270 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS They have a habit of travehng back and forth up and down the trunk and hmbs of a tree, and sometimes collect in masses. On orchard trees they are readily controlled by poison sprays, preferably arsenate of lead. Fig. 380. — The Yellow-necked Caterpillar. Original. The Yellow-necked Caterpillar {Daiana ministra Dru.> In iate summer yellow and black striped caterpillars feed on orchard foliage, working in colonies and strip- ping a single limb as they go. The mature caterpil- lar is nearly two inches long. Just back of the head is an orange ridge. When dis- turbed, the caterpillars raise both head and tail into the air, holding fast by the middle. The eggs are laid on the leaves in midsum- mer, by a brownish moth. Winter is passed as a pupa in the soil. There is one generation annually. Removal of the colo- nies of caterpillars by cutting off the twig or limb is the usual pro- cedure. They may easily be killed by spraying with Paris green or arsenate of lead. Where orchards are given a spraying with arsenicals the first of August this pest will not be in evidence. Fig. 381. ■Adult of the Yellow-necked Cater- pillar. Original. LARGE CATERPILLARS FEEDING IN COLONIES 271 The Red-humped Apple Caterpillar (Schizura concinna S. and A.) Fig. 382. — The Red-humped Apple Caterpillar. Original. This species has the same habits and life round as the preceding. It is abundant in late summer, and feeds in colonies. Like the other, it jerks its head and tail into the air when alarmed. The body of the cat- erpillar is spiny, and is marked with fine, narrow stripes of black and yel- low. A short distance back of the head is a hump which is conspicu- ously red. Fig. 38.3. — Eggs of the Red- humped Apple Caterpil- lar. Enlarged. Original. Control is the same as for the preceding species. The two will be found on orchard foliage at about the same time of year. Fig. 384. — Adult of the Red-humped Apple Caterpillar. SHghtly enlarged. Original. 272 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS Fig. 385. — Adult of the Grapevine Hog Caterpillar. • Original. Caterpillars of Hawk Moths Large and conspicuous worms two or three inches long are often found on the foliage of grapes and Virginia creeper. They vary in markings, but usually have a prominent spine or a distinct hard tubercle at the hind end. They feed singly, have enormous appe- tites, and will easily strip parts of the vines bare of leaves. There are three or four species commonly to be seen. All are the immature stages of swift-flying, heavy-bodied moths, observed usually in the evening, poised over flowers, sipping the nectar, and known locally in some sections as " humming-bird moths." The pupal stage is passed in the soil. There is one generation annually. The Grapevine Hog Caterpillar {Ampelopha- gus myron Cram.) is two inches long, yellowish green, has two white stripes down the back and seven oblique stripes on each side, and seven pink or red spots down the middle of the back. There is a horn near the hind end. The Achemon Sphinx Fig. 386. The Achemon Sphinx. Slightly reduced. Original. CONSPICUOUS CATERPILLARS DESTROYING FOLIAGE 273 (Pholus achemon Dru.) is thi'ee inches or more long when full grown, yellowish green in color to reddish brown, and has six conspicuous white dashes or spots down each side. The third segment back of Fig. 387. — Larva of the Achemon Sphinx. Original. the head is enlarged. At the hind end is a horn, changing to a round " eyespot " as the caterpillar nears maturity. Abbott's Spliinx (Sphecodina abbottii Swain) reaches a length of 2| inches, is light «Bfc_ ^ m ^SS^^^Mto W..J^;'~^ r >iq| f5» 'iG. 388. — The Abbott's Sphinx. Original. brown in color with darker streaks lengthwise of the body and black Hnes across each segment. At the hind end is a conspicuous, round black spot margined with yellow. 274 PESTS OF ORCHARD AN J) SMALL FRUITS Since the larvae are conspicuous and are not numerous, hand picking is feasible. Arsenical poisons, such as Paris green or arsenate of lead, may be used if desired. Fig. 389. — Larva of the Abbott's Sphinx. Original. The Plum-tree Sphinx (Sphinx drupiferarum S. and A.) Large, green caterpillars are sometimes in evidence on the foliage of plum trees, devouring the leaves. They are naked worms, two inches or more in length, the body marked on each side with seven diagonal dashes of narrow white bordered with purple. On the hind end is a conspicuous spine. The adults are strong-flying moths, seen hovering over flowers in the eve- ning. The pupal stage is passed in the soil. There is one generation annually. Hand picking is the usual remedy, but arsenate of lead or Paris green may be used on the fohage if desired. The False Army-worm (Calocampa nubera Lint.) In recent seasons, cranberry foliage has been severely injured by a large caterpillar, two inches long when full grown, dark green in color, Fig. 390.— Adult Plum-tree Sphinx. Slightly reduced. Original. CONSPICUOUS CATERPILLARS DESTROYING FOLIAGE 275 somewhat spotted with white, and with a greenish yellow head. The depredations take place in early summer. The moths are out in August and September. Bogs attacked may be reflowed for 24 hours, when the worms are found at work, thus killing them or dislodging them from the vines. Arsenate of lead or Paris green may be used to advantage if applied while the worms are small. The Smeared Dagger (Acronyda (Apatela) oblinita S. and A.) Conspicuous cater- pillars, 11 inches long when full grown, feed on the foliage of strawberries and rasp- berries, and occasion- FiG. 391. — Larva of the Smeared Dagger. Original. ally on clover. The body is velvety black. There is a band of red across the back on each segment, red tubercles and yellow spots along the back, and a yellow band along each side. There are two broods annually. Control consists in prompt apphcation of arsenate of lead or Paris green. The Eight-spotted Forester (Alypia octomaculata Fab.) The foliage of grapes, and often of Virginia creeper, is eaten by conspicuous naked caterpillars, 1| inches long when mature. The head is Fig. 393. -Larva of the Eight-spotted ^^^^^^^ orange. There is an Forester. Original. orange band acioss each seg- FiG. 392. — The Smeared Dagger. Original. ^^^grtMs^jm^ 276 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS Fig. 394.— The Eight-spotted Forester. Slightly enlarged. Original. merit, and on each side of the body is a wav}^ white longi- tudinal band, faint on the segments toward the head, but prominent toward the hind end. The adult moth is black, marked with eight large spots. The readiest means of control is to apply arsenate of lead or Paris green to the foliage. The Grape-leaf Skeletonizer ( Harrisina americana Guer-Men.) Orderly rows of small, yellowish, black-spotted caterpillars feed on the surface of grape leaves, devouring the surface tissue, but leaving the veins untouched. Later, when more nearly full grown, the larvae separate and work singly, eating all of the leaf except the main ribs. ?m .^"X. Fig. 395. — Larva of the Grape-leaf Skeletonizer. Original. The mature caterpillar is a half inch long. The parent moth emerges in June, and lays eggs on the under side of grape leaves. Larvae hatched from these eggs complete their growth in a month to six weeks, and a second generation of moths come out in July or August, followed by a second lot of caterpillars. The insect passes the win- ter in the pupal stage in dead leaves or rubbish. Fig. 396. —Adult of the Grape-leaf Skele- tonizer, enlarged to three times natural size. Original. SMALL CATERPILLARS EATING THE LEAF SURFACE 277 When the caterpillars are feeding together, the simplest means of control is to remove the leaves on which they are at work. Later, when the larvae have scattered, it is necessary to apply arsenate of lead or Paris green. If grapes are sprayed early with arsenicals, enough of the poison will adhere to check these insects when they begin feeding. The Apple-leaf Skeletonizer {Canarsia hammondi Riley) A small, brown caterpillar, not more than half an inch long when full grown, injures apple foliage by eating the surface of the leaves. Fk 397. — Work of the Apple-leaf Skele- tonizer. Original. erpillar is marked by four black dots the first segment and two on the second. The pupal stage is passed on the leaf. The adult is a grayish moth, expanding half an inch. There are two or three broods in a season. The application of arse- nate of lead or Paris green to the foliage \\\\\ soon check tonize the pest. It is necessary to inal. Fig. 398. — Larva of the Apple-leai Skeletonizer. Enlarged. Original. It begins work near the center of the leaf, and spins over itself a thin web. Frequently sev- eral of the worms will be found under a single web. The cat- just back of the head, two on 'mm 9.— Adult of the Apple-Leaf Skele- r. Enlarged and natural size. Orig- 278 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS reach the terminal leaves, for the caterpillars are apt to feed in such locations. The Palmer-worm {Dichomeris ligulellus Hbn. ( Ypsolophus pometellus Harr.)) At occasional periods, separated by long intervals, a small striped caterpillar becomes numerous on apple and other trees, severely injuring the foliage and often eating irregular cavi- ties in the surface of the young fruit. The full- grown worm is about a half inch long, has three narrow dark stripes down its back, and usually spins a few strands of silk over itself, sometimes thus The adult is a tiny moth. Fig. 400. — Adult of the Palmer- worm, larged and natural size. Original. bending over the edge of a The best remedy is a prompt application of Paris green or arsenate of lead. The Apple-leaf Bucculatrix {Bucculatrix pomifoliella Clem.) Greenish yellow caterpil- lars, half an inch long when full grown, feed first in mines within the leaf tissues of apples, or related trees, and later on the surface, skele- tonizing the leaf. The seg- ments of the caterpillar's body are prominent and rounded. leaf. ■ >>• F^ 1 V^^yii^lfll J J H^-«d r 4' PHH^^^^ r^ t^^ Fig. 401. — Work of the Apple-leaf Buccu- latrix. Original. SMALL CATERPILLARS INJURING THE LEAVES 279 Fig. 402.— Cocoon of the Applc-luut Buccukitrix. Enlarged and natural size. Original. In the fall the larvjB migrate to twigs or branches and make small, wliitish, ribbed cocoons, often somewhat conspicuous when occurring in large numbers. The tiny parent moth emerges from the cocoon the following spring. The use of Paris green or arse- nate of lead to poison the cater- pillars when they begin feeding on the surface of the leaf is the easiest remedy, although a win- ter spraying with lime sulphur or 15 per cent kerosene emulsion will be likely to kill the overwin- tering form. The species is seldom a genuine pest. Fig. 403. — Adult of the Apple-leaf Bucculatrix. Enlarged and natural size. Original. The Spring Canker-worm {Paleacrita vernata Peck) A small, naked measuring worm or inchworm attacks the foliage of apple trees in early spring. At first small holes are eaten in the leaves, 280 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS but later the entire leaf is destroyed, except worms are three fourths to one inch long, naked Fig. 404. — The Spring Canker-worm. Original. moving, they arch the body so as to bring the front. This species may be distin- guished from the similar fall canker- worm by the fact that the latter has an additional pair of rather small pro- legs near the hind end. the main veins. The dark green, and some- times rather dis- tinctly striped. They have a pair of prolegs or clasp- ers on the hind end, a single pair a short distance forward of these, but no other legs from that point to the three pairs of true legs near the front end of the body. Thus, in hind end up near the Fig. 405. — Adult female of the Spring Can- ker-worm. Enlarged and natural size. Fig. 406. — Work of Canker- Original, worms. Original. SFANWORMS EATING THE LEAVES 281 When full grown, the worms enter the ground, and remain there until the following spring. The adults come out several weeks before the apple is due to blossom. The female is wingless, crawls up the trunk, and lays her eggs. The male is winged. The eggs hatch after the apple leaves have unfolded. Spraying with arsenicals, using rather heavy dosage, will kill the worms. Instead of this the trees may be banded six weeks before the apples are due to bloom, so as to prevent the females or the worms from reaching the upper parts of the tree. Orchards that are regu- larly sprayed with poisons, such as arse- nate of lead or Paris green, will not suffer from tliis pest. The Fall Canker-worm {Alsophila pometaria Harr.) This species is quite similar in characteris- tics to the spring can- ker-worm. The larva may readily be recog- nized from the fact that it has two pairs of prolegs near the hind end of the body just forward of the claspers located on the extreme hind end. Fig. 407. whereas the spring canker-worm has only one pair. The injury wrought by the two species is identical. Either will strip the foliage from apple trees in earl}' spring, when numerous. ■The Fall Canker-worm, larged. Original. Slightly en- 282 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS The life round in this species is different from that of the spring canker-worm. The full-grown larva enters the soil to transform, but the adults emerge in the fall, instead of the spring. The female is wingless, and at once climbs the trunk and lays her eggs. These eggs remain over win- ter. They hatch in the spring, with the opening of the apple foliage. Spraying with arsenical poisons will control this species. If it is desired to control the pest by banding, it will be necessary to apply bands in the fall, so as to prevent the females from crawling up to the higher parts of the tree, and to renew the bands in the spring to prevent the young worms from ascending. The females, if stopped in the fall by bands, will lay eggs below the ob- structions, and thus further banding at the hatching sea- son in the spring is essential. The Currant Spanworm {Cymatophora ribearia Fitch) This worm is one of the loopers or measuring worms. Fig. 408.— Eggs of the Fall Canker-worm. Enlarged and natural size. Original. fS'^ Fig. 410. — Adult of the Currant Span- worm. Original. Fig. 409. — The Currant Spanworm. Slightly enlarged. Original. It is a little over an inch long when mature, is Ught yellow- ish or cream colored, and dot- ted with black. The worms appear in early spring from eggs laid on the stems the previous summer by the par- ent moth. When they are very abundant, the foliage is destroyed by them. SPANWORMS EATING THE LEAVES 283 Fig. 411. — Adult of the Cran- berry Spanworm. Original. Spraying with arsenical poisons is a ready remedy. Usually the currants are not ripe when the worms appear, and therefore poison sprays may be used safely. The Cranberry Spanworm {Chora pampinaria Guen.) The leaves of cranberry, asparagus, cotton, strawberry, apple, pear, clover, and others are sometimes eaten by a brownish or olive span- worm, 1| inches long when mature. Its body is streaked and mottled with hghter and darker shades. On the back, about one third of the way to the rear of the head, are two low black tubercles, and near the hind end are two more. There are two pairs of fleshy false legs near the hind end, and three pairs of true legs close to the front end. The worms have a habit of resting motionless, hold- ing fast to a stem by the hind legs, the body projecting at an angle. The adult is a gray moth marked with many spots and zigzag lines of black and brown. There are two generations annually, larvae appearing in late June and again in August. Dusting or spraying with arsenate of lead or Paris green will poison the worms. The Elm Spanworm {Ennomos subsignarius Hbn.) In June the larvae of this moth may be found on the foliage of a great variety of trees, including apple, pear, or other fruits as well as forest trees. Usually they are brown, but sometimes green, look much like a twig, and have three low tubercles on the back, one near the hind iiG. 412. — Adult of the Elm Spanworm. Original. 284 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS Fig. 413. — Larva of the Lime-tree Winter Moth. Original. end, another a third of the way toward the head end, and another two thirds of the way toward the head. They have no feet along the middle part of the body, and move with a looping gait. The adult is a wliite moth, expanding about 1^ inches. Eggs are laid in Juty, in masses on the twigs, and hatch the following summer. On orchard trees the best meas- ure of control is an application of arsenate of lead or Paris green. The Lime-tree Winter Moth {Erannis tiliaria Harr.) The larva of this species some- times strips the foliage of apple trees. It is a spanworm or " measuring worm," 1| inches long when full grown, the body yellowish above with several fine black lines down its back, the under side lighter. The adult moths usually emerge in the fall, but occasionally not until spring. The male is winged, but the female is spiderlike and wingless. The caterpillars are at work in the early weeks of the growing season. Pupation takes place in the ground. In its appearance and habits this species resembles the canker-worms. The remedies recommended for the latter will apply to this pest. Fig. 414. — The Lime-tree Winter Moth. Original. The Chain Spotted Geometer {Cingilia catenaria Dru.) Characteristic, slender measuring worms, 1| inches long when full grown, feed on the foliage of various bush fruits. The caterpillar SAWFLY LARVAE EATING THE LEAVES 285 is cylindrical, light yellow, marked with two fine, brown lines on the back and two on the sides, and distinctly marked with two black dots on each segment. Pupation takes place in a delicate, lace-like cocoon among the leaves. The adult moths are numerous in late summer. The worms are easily poisoned by applying arsenate of lead or Paris green to the foliage. Fig. 415. — Larva of the Chain Spotted Geometer. Original. Fig. 416. — Adult of the Chain Spotted Geometer. Original. The Imported Currant Worm {Pteronus ribesii Scop.) Currants and gooseberries are subject to periodical strip- ping by this worm. Through- out most of its existence the larva is greenish in color, marked with numerous black dots, but just before trans- forming it is clear green without any dots. When full grown, its length is three fourths of an inch. Fig. 417. — The Imported Currant Worm. Work and larviE. Original. 286 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS Fig. 418. — Cocoons of the Imported Currant Worm. Original. the spraying is done early, arsenate fruit is coloring, use hellebore. The Native Cur- rant Worm (Di- phadnus appendicu- latus Hartig) causes similar defoliation. The larva is half an inch long, and light The pupal stage is passed in little cells in the soil. There are two generations, one lot of worms appearing in early sum- mer and the second brood five or six weeks later. Hibernation takes place in the pupal stage. The adult is a sawfly. Until currants are ripe the best remedy is an apphcation of Paris green and lime. If of lead may be used. When the Fig. 420.— Adult of the Native Cur- rant Worm. Enlarged and natural size. Original. Fig. 419. — Adult of the Imported Cur- rant Worm. Enlarged and natural size. Original. green, without black spots. There are two generations. The adult is a sawfly. The measures of con- trol are the same as for the im- ported currant worm. Paris green may be used safely until the fruit is half grown, SAWFLY LARV.^ EATING THE LEAVES 287 The Raspberry Sawfly {Monophadnoides rubi Harr.) Greenish, spiny worms eat the foHage of raspberry and blackberry, stripping the bushes and leaving only the main leaf veins. The full- grown larva is three fourths of an inch long and covered with short Fig. 421. — Larva of tiie Raspberry Sawfly. Original. Fig. 422. — The Raspberry Sawfly. Enlarged and natural size. Orig- inal. spines, which are dark on its back but light on its sides. When ma- ture, the worms enter the ground, and remain there until the follow- ing spring, when the transformation to the adult sawfly takes place. Paris green or ar- senate of lead may be used to poison the worms until the fruit is set. After that use hellebore. The Grape Sawfly {Selandria vitis Say) Greenish or yellowish slugs, their bodies dotted with black, feed Fig. 423. — The Grape Sawfly. Enlarged and natural size. Original. in groups on the leaves of grapes, usually on the under side of the leaf. The adult is a sawfly. There are two broods annually. 288 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS An application of arsenate of lead or Paris green is the best control measure until the fruit is well colored. The Strawberry Sawfly {Empria {Harpiphorus) maculata Nort.) About the time that strawberries begin blooming, the leaves are eaten by sluglike worms, half an inch long, yellowish in color, with a pale stripe down the back. When not feeding, the slugs often rest on Fig. 424. — The Strawberry Sawfly. Enlarged and natural size. Original. the under surface of the leaf, coiled in a sort of spiral. The adults are small, four-winged insects. Winter is passed in the ground. There is one brood each year. The best means of control is an early application of arsenical poisons. If ripe strawberries are already on the vines when injury is noted, hellebore may be used. The Pear-slug (Caliroa {Eriocampoides) cerasi Linn.) Small, dark green, slimy slugs eat the surface of the leaves of pear, cherry, and plum, gnawing off the epidermis and leaving the veins and lower surface. The tissues where they have been at work turn brown, SLUGS EATING THE LEAF SURFACE 289 Fig. 42^ Work and larva of the Pear-slug. Original. and if the slugs are numerous, the entire foUage of the tree may look scorched and drop off. When nearly full grown, the larvse lose their slimy coating with the last molt, and are then a clear yel- low in color. There are two or three gen- erations in a season. The slugs are apt to be more nu- merous in the middle or latter part of summer. The adult is a sawfly. Eggs are laid within the tissues of tlie leaf. Ordinarily the simplest means of control is to apply Paris green or arsenate of lead to the foliage. The slugs are easily killed. The Peach and Plum Slug {Caliroa amygdalina Rohwer) The work of this insect is similar to that of the common pear-slug. The species is found in the Gulf states. There are half a dozen or more generations each season, and injury is most severe toward the end of summer. Spraying with an arsenical poison is the readiest remedy. Fig. 426. — Adult of the Pear-slug. En- larged and natural size. Original. 290 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS The Gypsy Moth {PortJietria dispar Linn.) This notorious European pest has now become established in the New England states, where it is doing immense damage, defoli- ating forest, shade, and fruit trees. Evergreens are freely at- tacked after the caterpillars are half grown. The full-grown gypsy caterpil- lar is 2^ inches long, hairy, and dark or black in general color. Beginning just behind the head there is a double row of five dark blue spots down the back, fol- lowed by a double row of six dark red spots, the last pair of the latter just above the hind Fig. 427. — Larva of the Gypsy- Moth. Original. end. After they are three fourths grown the caterpillars tend to feed only at night, com- ing down the trunks of the trees and hiding or resting in masses during daylight. Pupation takes place in a flimsy cocoon, on the trunk or Fig. 4_'b. — Egg-massof the Gypsy Moth on bark. Original. LARGE, HAIRY CATERPILLARS EATING THE LEAVES 291 near by, and the adult moths are out in July and August. The female is light grayish, hea\-y bodied, and has a wing expanse of two inches, but cannot fly. The male is much smaller, brown in general color, and flies readily. Eggs are laid in masses, and are covered with yello'wish hairs from the body of the female. Egg masses occur on the trunks of trees, the under side of branches, or on any Fig. 429. — Newly hatched larvse of the Gypsy Moth on egg-mass ; and empty pupal shell. Original. permanent object near at hand. The egg stage lasts until the follow- ing May, when the young caterpillars hatch and at once begin feeding. Large sums ha^-e been spent by federal, state, and town author- ities to prevent the spread of this pest, reduce its ravages, and introduce its natural enemies. The egg masses may be painted with creosote at any time between September and the following April. This will penetrate and kill the eggs. The larvse may be poisoned by spraying with arsenate of Fig. 430. -The Gypsy Moth. Adult male. Original. lead, using 5 to 8 pounds to 50 gallons of water, and applying early while the larvse are still small. Tall trees may be banded with burlap, so as to provide a place where the caterpillars will hide by day and where they may be killed by mechanical means. 292 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS Fig. 431. — The Gypsy Moth. Adult female. Original. Evergreens may be protected by banding the trunks with tanglefoot to prevent larvae from crawling up into them after getting a start on deciduous growth near by. The same plan is useful to prevent in- jur}' to fruit or shade trees that have been properly cared for but are threatened by larvae coming from egg masses in stone walls or on neglected growth close at hand. In woods of mixed growth it is advisable to remove all hard wood, leaving only a stand of pure ever- green, since the larvae cannot live on evergreens until half grown. The Browntail Moth (Euproctis chrysorrJwea Linn.) Throughout winter the small, compact nests of this insect are conspicuous on the tips of twigs of many species of orchard and Fig. 432. - Winter nest of the Brown- ^^^^de trees and shrubs. A typical tail Moth. Original. nest usually includes two or three HAIRY CATERPILLARS EATING THE LEAVES 293 leaves woven up tightly in silk, and attached to the twig by a tough strand of silk, which often follows the petiole of a leaf. Evergreens are not attacked by this species. Within the nest are several hundred very small caterpillars. Before foliage starts in the spring they come out and wander over the twigs P'iG. 433. — Larva of the Browntail Moth. Original. Fig. 434. — Adult Browntail Moths. Male above, female below. Original. near the nest. When growth starts, they begin at once feeding on the foliage, often eating the leaves as fast as they unfold. The mature caterpillar is an uich and a quarter long, brownish in general color, marked with a row of oblique white dashes down each side of its back, and with two orange spots near the hind end, one be- hind the other. Pupation takes place among the leaves. The adults emerge in July. Their wings are pure white, and the body of the female bears a tuft of brown hairs at the end of the abdomen. The moths fly at night and often are seen in large numbers around lights. Eggs are laid on the leaves and hatch early in August. The young caterpillars skeleton- 294 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS ize leaves near by, giving the foliage a brown appearance. After a few weeks they make their winter nest and retire to it, remaining therein until the following spring. In addition to the damage done by the caterpillars there is an annoy- ing and sometimes serious poisoning of human beings by barbed hairs borne by the caterpillars. These hairs often are carried by the wind. Fig. 435. Egg-masses and adult female of the Browntail Moth. Original. The ordinary means of control is the removal and burning of the winter nests. On fruit trees it is a better plan to spray with arsenical poisons the first week in August, at the time when the caterpillars are just hatching from the egg. They are not resistant to poison when small, and a moderate dose will kill them. Spraying in the spring is not satisfactory. TUFTED CATERPILLARS EATING THE LEAVES 295 The Tussock Moths Three species of caterpillars of striking appearance, the larval stages of tussock moths, infest the foliage of orchard and forest trees. Of Fig. -430. Larva of the Rusty Tussock ISIotL. Original. Fig. 437. — Egg-mass of the White Marked Tussock Moth on cocoon. Original. these the White Marked Tussock Moth {Hemerocampa leucostigma^. and A.) is in many sections the most common, while in others the Rusty Tussock Moth {Hem- erocampa antiqua Linn.) or the Definite Marked Tussock Moth (Hemerocampa definita Pack.) may be the one most in evidence. Fig. 438.— The White Marked Tussock Moth. Adult male. Original. Fig. 439. — The Rusty Tussock Moth. Adult female. Original. The caterpillar of the white marked tussock moth is hairy, 1| to 1| inches long, yellow, striped with black. Its head is bright red. There are four tufts of white hair on its back, a pencil of black hair projecting 296 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS forward on either side of its head, and a similar single pencil projecting back from the hind end. The caterpillars of the other two species are somewhat similar in appearance, though not so brightly colored. The eggs of the first species are laid in a mass of frothy, white sub- stance, on top of the cocoon of the female, on the bark of trunk or limb. Fig. 440.— Egg-mass of the Rusty Tussock Moth. The eggs of the Original. others are not cov- ered with froth. The adult females are wingless, looking somewhat like gray spiders. They emerge and lay their eggs in late summer. The simplest means of control is to spray with arsenical poison, either Paris green or arsenate of lead. Egg masses may be destroyed when found by painting them with creosote. Sometimes trees are banded to prevent the insect from invading them from near-by uncared-for premises. The Fall Web worm ( Hijphantria cimea Dru.) Colonies of hairy caterpillars feed in com- pany on the foliage of orchard or forest trees, building a web around the terminal leaves. As the green leaves within their nest are devoured, fresh foliage is drawn in and the nest enlarged, until it becomes f.g. 44l.-Th. Fall Web- decidedly conspicuous. Several different worm. Original. ACTIVE WORMS FEEDING WITHIN WEBBED LEAVES 297 webs may be made in succession by the same colony. The caterpil- lars have a dark body, covered with long, whitish hairs. The work is entirely distinct from that of the tent caterpillar, which builds its nest in the forks of branches and does not include any foliage in it. When full grown, the cater- pillars disperse, liide away, and spin up cocoons, from which the adult moths emerge the fol- lowing summer. In the South there are two generations. Trees may be spraj^ed with arsenate of lead or Paris green, and the caterpillars thus killed when they extend their webs over new and poisoned foliage. Or the nests may be cut off when first observed, and de- stroyed, along with the cater- pillars in them. The Leaf Grumpier (Mineola indiginella Zell.) In winter dark little twisted cases of silk mixed with bits of leaves may be seen attached to twigs of apple trees. From these, brownish red caterpillars, one fourth of an inch long, come out in Fig. 442.— Work of the Leaf Grumpier. Original. ^4||||^ '^US.sirt* Fig. 443. — Larva of the Leaf Grum- pier. Enlarged and natural size. Original. Fig. 444. — Larval cases of the Leaf Grumpier on twig. Original. 298 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS Fig. 445. — Adult of the Leaf Grumpier. Enlarged and natural size. Original. early spring and attack the tender foliage, drawing the leaves of a cluster more or less together with silk. Before long the dried bunches of dead leaves are conspicuous. The adult is a moth, expanding about three fourths of an inch, its wings gray, with darker and lighter markings. Eggs are laid in mid- summer, and the young larvae feed for a time, later moving to the twigs where they con- struct their winter shelter. Early, prompt spray- ing in the spring with arsenate of lead or Paris green will kill the caterpillars, but the treatment must be given before the work is well advanced. If orchard trees are regu- larly sprayed, they will seldom suffer damage from this pest, be- cause the poison adhering to the foliage will kill the young larvae when they begin work in midsum- mer, before they retire to their winter homes. The Bud-moth {Spilonota {Tmetocera) ocellana Schiff.) The opening buds of apple, pear, and sometimes cherry, peach, or plum are attacked by small whitish caterpillars, one fourth of an inch long or less, with dark brown heads. As the young leaves expand, the caterpillars bind them to- Fig. 446 Work of the Bud-moth. Original. ACTIVE WORMS FEEDING WITHIN WEBBED LEAVES 299 Fig. 447. — Larva of the Bud-moth. Enlarged and natural size. Original. gether with silk, feeding inside, so that small, dead, brown clusters are to be seen here and there. When full grown, the larvae are brownish, and three quarters of an inch long. The caterpillars change to pupse within the webbed leaves, and later the small gray and brown moths appear and lay eggs on the under- side of leaves. The tiny worms which hatch from these feed for a few weeks and then migrate to twigs and make silk cases in which they pass the winter. Spraying with arsenicals is effective if done very early when the buds are just expanding, and repeated as soon as the leaves are fairly out- Regular seasonal spray- ings will control this species through poisoning the larvse when they first hatch from the eggs in midsum- mer. For this reason they Fig. 448. -The Bud-moth. Enlarged and ^'^ ^«* ^P* *^ ^^ «^^^ ^^ natural size. Original. well-cared-for orchards. The Blackhead Cranberry Worm (Rhopobota {Eudemis) vacdniana Pack.) Small, velvety green caterpillars, with shining black heads, draw to- gether the tip leaves on uprights and feed within. The pest is com- monly known as the "fire worm " because of the scorched appearance of a badly infested bog. There are two broods annually. The species over^vinters as an egg attached to the under side of the leaf. Where sufficient water is available, it is an effective plan to reflow for two or three days when the worms are coming down out of the uprights and pupating. If this is not feasible, the only satisfactory 300 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS remed}'- is to apply arsenicals early to poison the worms. The second brood, if serious, can be controlled only by applying arsenical poisons. Fig. 449. — The Blackhead Cran- Fig. 450.— Adult of the Blackhead Cran- berry Worm. Enlarged and natural berry Worm. Enlarged and natural size. Original. size. Original. The Yellowhead Cranberry Worm {Peronea (Acleris) minuta Rob.) The larva of this species is quite similar in appearance to the pre- ceding, but has a yelloAV head. It works in the same manner, webbing up the tips and destroying or kilhng the foliage within. The winter is passed as an adult moth. The most practical means of control is to hold the water in the spring so as to force these adults to Fig. 451. — Adult of the Yellowhead Cranberry Worm. Enlarged and natural size. Original. lay their eggs elsewhere. On infested bogs reflowing for 48 hours will kill the worms. There are three broods annually. Spraying or dust- ing with arsenical poisons is effective, if done early. SMALL WORMS FEEDING WITHIN WEBBED LEAVES 301 The Grape Plume Moth {Oxyptilus periscelidadylus Fitch) Small, green or yellow larvse, half an inch long when mature, web together the younger leaves of grapes and feed on the foliage within. Fig. 452. — Work and empty pupal skin of the Grape Plume Moth. Original. They are seldom numerous enough to be a pest. The adult is a delicate, buff-colored moth, with narrow, feathery wings. The usual and Fig. 453. — Larva of the Grape Plume Moth. Slightly enlarged. Original. Fig. 454. — The Grape Plume Moth. Enlarged to twice nat- uial size. Original. easiest means of control is to pick off and destroy the webbed-up clusters of leaves. 302 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS The Oblique Banded Leaf-roller {Archips rosaceana Harr.) Active, light green or rosy caterpillars, three quarters of an inch long, with a darker stripe down the back, roll up the leaves, fasten them with silk, and feed within. They infest apple and other fruit trees, raspberries, roses, and straw- berries, and often are destructive to flowering plants in greenhouses. Pu- ^^^^ pation takes place within the folded 1^^^ mBB^L leaves. The adult is a smooth, I^H^^ H^I^Im brownish moth. See page 188. <^^^K ^^tBSm Control is often difficult, but a ^l^^lk ^^KBF prompt, thorough use of Paris green ^^^^^ ^BB or arsenate of lead will check the pest. The Fruit-tree Leaf-roller {Archips (Cacoecia) argyrospila Walk.) Fig. 455. — Work of the Fruit tree Leaf-roller. Original. The young leaves and fruit of or- chard trees and bush fruits are at- tacked by yellowish larvae, which spin threads wherever they go, drawing leaves somewhat together. The full-grown worm is about an inch long, has a black head, and has a few short hairs scattered over its body. It is active when disturbed. The pest appears very early in spring, when the buds are first unfolding. It hatches from eggs laid in flat masses on the bark. There is one generation annually. Early spraying with arsenate of lead or Paris green at the time that the buds are opening, and again when the blossoms have ^'^.Jttr^^^taf-^illt! fallen, is the means of control. Original. ACTIVE WORMS FEEDING WITHIN FOLDED LEAVES 303 The Grape Leai-folder (Desmia funeralis Hhn.) Leaves of grape are folded with their upper surfaces together by a small, active, greenish worm, which feeds inside. The worm is an inch long when full grown, has a brown head, and a brown spot on each side of the first two segments. Transformation takes place within the folded leaf. The adult is a small moth with black wings spotted with white. There are two broods in the North, three in the South. Winter is passed as a pupa in the folded leaf on the ground. To control, destroy or plow under the fallen leaves. Or spray very early in sum- mer with Paris green or arsenate of lead so as to poison the first lot of caterpillars when they have just hatched and before they fold the leaves. The Strawberry Leaf-roller (Ancylis comptana Frohl.) A tiny worm, one third of an inch long, brown or often green in color, folds the leaves of straw- berry, or sometimes blackberry or raspberry, and feeds within. As the larva eats off the inclosed leaf surface the leaf turns brown, and when the pests are numerous, whole beds of plants will look as if scorched. Two broods occur in the North and three in the South. The later Fig. 457. — Work and pupa of the Grape Leaf- folder. Slightly enlarged. Original. Fig. 458. — Adult of the Grape Leaf folder. Original. 304 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS broods are found on blackberry or raspberry, rather than strawberry. On blackberry leaves the work is similar to that on strawberry leaves, but on raspberry the larvae tend rather to web up a terminal cluster of leaves. Hiberna- tion takes place as larva or pupa witliin a folded leaf. The adult is a tiny brownish Fig. 459. Work of the Strawberry Leaf-roller. Original. Fig. 460. — Larva of the Strawberry Leaf-roller. En- larged and natural size. Original. moth, expanding a little less than half an inch. Since the larvae feed for a short time exposed on the upper surface of the leaf before drawing it together, an early application of Paris green or arsenate of lead will check the pest. This application must be made early, and usually must be repeated, because new leaves are being put out Fig. 46L — Adult of the Strawberry Leaf-roller. Enlarged and natural size. Original. ACTIVE WORMS FEEDING WITHIN FOLDED LEAVES 305 by the plant. In the South it has been found feasible to cut over strawberry beds in midsummer and burn them. It is said that the plants are not permanently injured by this treatment. The Apple Leaf-sewer {Ancylis nubeculana Clem.) Fig. 462. — Work of the Apple Leaf-sewer. Original. The leaves of apple or other fruit trees arc folded along the midrib, so that their upper surfaces are lorou^ht together, and a small, active, greenish caterpil- lar, not more than a half inch long, feeds within. The adult is a brown and white moth. Winter is passed Fig. 463. — Larva of the Apple Loaf- sewer. Enlarged and natural size. Original. within the folded leaves on the ground. If the pest is numerous, rake up and burn the leaves in win- ter. Early applications of arse- nate of lead or Paris green, as Fig. 464.— Adult of the Apple Leaf- sewer. Enlarged to twice natural size. Original. 306 FESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS called for in regular orchard spraying, will poison the larvae before they fold the leaf. The Lesser Apple Leaf-folder (Peronea minuta Rob.) A greenish yellow, naked worm, a half inch long, with a yellow head, folds together the tender terminal leaves on apple trees, especially in nurseries. When attacking larger leaves, it often bends over and fastens only a small part of the leaf near the margin. There are three broods annually, the larvae being at work first soon after the leaves are well out, again in June, and again in August. See page 300. To control, apply arsenate of lead in the spring as soon as the leaves are expanded, and repeat for the later broods. Fig. 465. — Adult of the Cigar Case- bearer. Enlarged and natural size. OriginaL The Cigar Case-bearer {Coleophora fletcherella Fern.) Areas in the leaves of apple, pear, or quince are mined and turned down by a very small cater- pillar that carries with him a little cyUndrical case made of a tiny sec- tion of a leaf, the hind part of his body protected by this case. The caterpillar completes its growth in June, migrates to a branch, to which it attaches its case, and transforms. The adult moths fly in July and lay eggs on the leaves. The young caterpillar first mines in the leaf tis- sue, and later constructs a very small. Fig. 466. — Larval cases of the Cigar Case-bearer. Original. CASE-BEARERS FEEDING ON THE LEAVES 307 short case, which it carries to a twig and in which it spends the winter. The remedy is an appHcation of arsenate of lead or Paris green as soon as the caterpillars are seen feeding. Fig. 467. — Larval cases of the Pistol Case-bearer. Enlarged. Original. The Pistol Case-bearer (Coleophora malivorella Riley) has a similar life history and does about the same injury. It is distinguished from the above by the shape of the larval case, wliich in this species is slender, somewhat tapering, and distinctly curved. The Bag-worm ( Thyridopteryx ephemeroeformis Steph.) This curious larva makes a bag out of silk and pieces of leaves as a protection to its body. The female is wingless and never leaves the bag. The male is a small, clear-winged moth. Eggs are deposited by the female within the bag, and remain there until the following spring. Removal of the bags in winter will put a Fig. 468. — Larval case of the Bag-worm. Original. Fig. 469. — Adult male of the Bag-worm. Slightly enlarged. Original. 308 FESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS stop to the insect. Or the foliage may be sprayed with arsenate of lead as soon as the leaves are out. The Pear-leaf Blister-mite (Eriophyes pyri Pgst.) The leaves of apple and pear often are infested with a species of mite that burrows into the tissues of the leaf, causing a characteristic dis- coloration and swelling. Spots show in the upper leaf surface, at Fig. 470. — Work of the Pear-leaf Blister-mite. Original. first reddish, but later turning brown. At each spot the leaf is some- what thickened and its surface is slightly raised. Sometimes the fruit also is attacked and distorted. The mites themselves are very small. They hibernate under bud scales, migrating to the leaves as soon as the latter unfold, entering the tissue from the under side and feeding within. From time to time indi\dduals come out and move to new places, starting additional colonies and causing a continual increase in the number of spots. In late summer they move back again to the twigs, hiding away for winter. BLISTER-MITES AND LEAF-MINERS 309 Fig. 471. — Apples deformed by the Pear-leaf Blister-mite. Original. Treatment consists in spraying in winter with lime-sulphur solution, so as to kill the hibernating mites. In summer they cannot be reached by any spray material because of their feeding habits. The Apple Leaf Trumpet Miner (Tischeria malifoliella Clem.) Characteristic, trumpet-shaped mines in the upper surface of apple leaves indicate the presence of this insect. Usually the mines are not more than a half inch long, beginning with a quite nar- row brown or dead area and en- larging rapidly to their maximum width. There are from two to four generations annually. The winter is passed by the full-grown larva in its mine in fallen leaves. The tiny adult moths emerge in the spring with the expanding of apple foliage. Fig. 472. — Work of the Apple Leaf Trumpet Miner. Original. 310 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS Late fall or early spring plowing to bury fallen leaves is the simplest means of control. ■ Fig. 473. — Larva of the Apple Leaf Trumpet Miner. Enlarged and nat- ural size. Original. Fig. 474. —Adult of the Apple Leaf Trumpet Miner. Enlarged and natural size. Original. The Blackberry Leaf-miner {Metallus ruhi Forbes) The leaves of blackberry sometimes show numerous blotch mines, caused by a small larva working within the leaf tissue. Occasionally the foliage is severely injured. There are two to four broods in a summer, the later ones doing the most damage. The adult is a small sawfiy. No direct means of control are known except to remove infested leaves early in the season. The Resplendent Shield-bearer (Coptodisca splendoriferella Clem.) # *^4^ Fig. 475. — Cocoons of the Resplen- dent Shield-bearer on a piece of bark. Original. Fig. 476. — The Resplendent Shield- bearer. Apple leaf showing mines and sections removed. Occasionally apple, plum, or quince show the characteristic work of this insect. Round, transparent mines are made in the leaves, and SMALL, SUCKING BUGS INJURING THE LEAVES 311 after a time the larva feeding within cuts out the infested area bodily and carries it to a twig or branch, where it uses it as a shelter until the following spring. There is one brood annually. A winter spra3nng with lime-sulphur solution or other strong con- tact insecticide will kill the overwintering form. The Four-lined Leaf-bug {Poecilocapsus lineatus Fab.) A sucking bug, about half an inch long, with four short black stripes on its back, sometimes injures the leaves of currants, gooseberries, or other plants by its feeding punc- tures. Spots where the bug has been feeding turn brow^n, and sink a little below the level of the leaf. In time the entire foliage, or that toward the tips of the twigs, may be killed. In early spring, when first hatched, the bugs are very small, bright red, and have no wings. They feed on only the tenderest terminal foliage. They become full grown in June, and the female lays eggs in slits cut in the stems of the food plants. In the North there is one generation, hibernation taking place in the egg stage; in the Southern states there may be a second brood. The young nymphs may be killed with a contact insecticide, such as 10 per cent kerosene emulsion. The adults are best destroyed by brushing them from the plants into pans containing a film of kerosene. It is difficult or impossible to control the adults by spraying. The Grape Leaf-hopper ( Typhloctjba comes Say) Tiny, active insects suck the juices from grape leaves, making numerous very small white spots. If attack is severe, the leaves shrivel, turn brown, and die. The adult insect is one tenth of an inch long, light yellowish in color, with green markings on its wings. It has strong legs, jumps Fig. 477. — The Four-lined Leaf -bug. Enlarged and natural size. Original. 312 FESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS quickly, and flies readily. Attack by it is most noticeable in Sep- tember. The njTiiphs look like the adults, except that they are smaller Fig. 478. — Work of the Grape Leaf -hopper. Original. and have no wings. Both adults and nymphs feed on the under sur- face of the leaves. The adults leave the grape in October and migrate to neighboring vegetation. They overwinter in dead, fallen leaves, clumps of grass, or any similar protection. In spring they feed first on weeds, then migrate back to the grapes and feed on the young shoots and leaves. Eggs are laid in the tissue of the grape leaves in June and July. Nymphs emerge shortly, and are numer- ous in July and August. The nymphs do not hop or fly, merely running around over the leaves. There is one gen- eration each year. Cleaning up rubbish in the vineyard is only of nominal value, since the adults migrate in October to neighboring hiding places. The best Fig. 479. — The Grape Leaf-hopper. En- larged and natural size. Original. SMALL, ACTIVE INSECTS INJURING THE FOLIAGE 313 Fig. 480. — Work of the Apple Leaf- hopper. Original. means of control consists in spraying thoroughly with tobacco extract as soon as nymphs appear. The spray must be directed to the under side of the leaves and must be applied before the insect has reached the winged stage, in order to be effective. The Apple Leaf-hopper {Etnpoasca mali Le B.) A very small whitish insect, winged and active in its ma- ture stage, swarms on the leaves of apple trees and some- times on other foliage, suck- ing the juice of the leaf. The feeding punctures cause tiny white spots, which in time be- come numerous enough to give the foliage a distinctly bleached ap- pearance. On young trees, and especially on nursery stock, the at- tack usually results in a curling of the tender leaves, somewhat resembling the work of plant lice. The insect winters partly as adults in rubbish, partly as eggs in the bark of the trees. There are several generations in the course of the summer. In orchard trees spraying with a contact insecticide, such as tobacco extract, \\\\\ kill many of the leaf- hoppers if the material is applied early in the season, before the winged stage appears. On nursery stock a desirable preventive measure is dipping in soap solution. The Pear Psylla (P.s/y/^a T^T/ncoZa Foerst.) The pear psylla is a minute, sucking insect, wingless in its immature stages, but active and winged as an adult. It sucks the juices of the Fig. 481. — The Apple Leaf-hopper Enlarged and natural size. Orig- inal. 314 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS buds and newly forming leaves. When the pests are numerous, the leaves are killed, and often are blackened through the growth of a fungus on the sticky honeydew secreted by the insect. Fig. 482. — Work of the Pear Psylla. Original. The adult is very small, dark in color, its body showing characteristic markings. It has four membranous wings. Seen through a hand lens it looks hke a tiny cicada, or ''lo- cust." The adults hide away for the winter in crevices of the bark, and emerge and lay eggs at the time that the buds are swelling. The young are numerous when the blossoms are falling. There are Fig. 483. -Adult Pear Psylia. En- four or five broods in a season, larged and natural size. Original. The pest may be controlled by PLANT-LICE INJURING LEAVES AND SHOOTS 315 spraying with 'a contact insecticide, such as tobacco extract, to kill the hibernating adults. To do this the bark should be scraped, and the spray applied very early in the spring. A second method consists in spraying with winter-strength lime sulphur to kill the eggs, ap- plying the material when the buds are swelling. Finally, a contact insecticide may be used to kill the nymphs, applying the spray when the blossoms are falling. Any one of these treatments, thoroughly applied, is effective. Plant Lice on Apple Foliage Three species of small, soft-bodied, sucking lice are commonly found infesting the foliage of apples : the Apple Aphis {Aphis pomi DeG.) ; the Rosy Apple Aphis {Aphis sorbi Kahl.) ; and the European Grain Apliis {Siphocoryne avence Fab.). In addition to these the Clover Aphis {Aphis hakeri Cowen) is some- times found on apple late in the fall and in the early spring. Infestation may first be observed on the j'oung shoots which are found completely covered with very small, green or pink- ish lice. About this time, also, it maj' be noticed that many of the lice are clustering on the under sides of leaves near the ends of shoots, causing them tc curl. p^^ 484. — Work of the Apple Aphis on ter- Again the first evidence minal shoot. Original. 316 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS Fig. 485. — Adults of the Apple Aphis on twig, larged and natural size. Original. En- of injur}^ may be observed on the expanding buds, on which clusters of the hce are found, their work resulting in deforming the young leaves or the blos- soms, or in consid- erable injury to the young fruit. The life histories of these various species are not the same, in spite of the similarity in their superficial ap- pearance and their initial work. The Apple Aphis {Aphis ponii) passes the entire season on the apple. In the winter it is in the egg stage, large numbers of the small, black shining eggs often being found on terminal twigs. The first generations in summer are wing- less, but in later generations winged individuals develop. This species is charac- teristically bright green in color, with black, rather slender honey tubes. It is one twelfth of an inch long. Usually the lice observed on tender shoots and beneath curled terminal leaves belong to this species or to the following. Fig. 486. — Eggs of the Apple Aphis on twig, and natural size. Original. Enlarged PLANT-LICE INJURING THE FOLIAGE 317 The Rosy Apple Aphis (Aphis sorbi) hatches from eggs that have remained on the apple throughout winter, but with the third generation migrates to other food plants. This is a slightly larger species. The wing- less female is one tenth of an inch long, bluish in color, and has yellow honey tubes tipped with black. The winged female has a black thorax and a red ab- domen. The European Grain Aphis (Siphocoryne avence) is found in summer on small grains, but for the most part migrates in the fall to apple, pear, or re- lated trees, where its win- ter eggs are laid. It develops in the spring like the preceding species, leaving the fruit trees with the coming of the third generation. On apple trees it is commonly first observed clustered on the ex- panding buds. The Clover Aphis {Aphis hakeri) rears its summer gen- erations on clover or alfalfa. These lice are light yellow or pink. Usually they leave the clover in the fall, passing through a winter egg stage on apple or pear. The first generation from these eggs Fig. 487. — Adults of the Apple Aphis clus- tered along veins of leaf. Enlarged. Orig- inal. Fig. 488. — Work of Aphi. Original. young fruit. 318 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS in the spring are dark green or red, and have honey tubes yellow throughout. Ants are apt to be found in attendance on any of these aphids. They come to secure the substance that the lice excrete, commonly called " honeydew." Control of these insects is best achieved by prompt application of a contact insecticide as soon as the lice are first seen. They are readily killed by spraying with tobacco decoction, or 7 per cent kero- sene emulsion, taking pains to do a thorough job. The tobacco extract will spread more readily if soap is dissolved in it. The Cherry Aphis {Mijzus cerasi Fab.) Injury by this plant louse is usually no- ticed soon after the leaves have unfolded in the spring. It will be found clustered thickly on tender shoots or leaves. It is a shining black aphid, and if exam- ined under a lens will be found to have long, slender honey tubes. The summer generations are wing- less, but in the fall winged individuals are produced. So far as known, this species is never found on any other host than cherry. It passes the winter in the egg stage. Fig. 489. — The Cherry Aphis. Original. PLANT-LICE INJURING THE FOLIAGE 319 To control, spray with tobacco extract or with kerosene emulsion as soon as the lice are first seen. The Currant Aphis {Myzus ribis Linn.) Like most other plant lice this species causes a curling up of the foliage infested. Both currants and gooseberries are subject to attack. The leaves curl tightly, and their upper surfaces show chstinct raised areas or blisters, between the veins. The lice are one twelfth of an inch long, mottled green, and have red eyes. The pest passes the winter as shining eggs, attached to the woody parts of the plants. Contact sprays, such as tobacco ex- tract or kerosene emulsion, will kill them, but should be appUed before the leaves are badly curled. Fig. 490. —Work of the Currant Aphis. Original. The Grapevine Aphis {Macrosiphum viticola Thos.) Dusky, soft-bodied plant lice with greenish legs cluster on the tender leaves and young shoots of grapevines. They appear in the early part of the season, and usually are not noticed after growth is well established Fig. 491. — Work of the Grapevine Aphis. Original. Fig. 492. — The Grapevine Aphis. Greatly enlarged. Original. 320 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS in summer. Spraying with tobacco extract or kerosene emulsion will kill them. Plant Lice on Peach Foliage Two species of plant Hce are common on peach fohage. They are especially likely to do notable injury in the spring, clustering on the tender shoots, curling the leaves, and sometimes dwarfing and distorting the forming fruit. The Green Peach Aphis (Myzus persicce Sulz.) hatches in early spring from eggs laid in crevices of the bark. The first lice are pink, but the next generation are light green, often with darker green stripes across the abdomen. These in turn give birth to a third brood, many of which, unlike the preceding, have wings. The latter fly to new food plants, and for the next two or three months breed on various garden crops, such as to- matoes, spinach, cabbage, and many others. In the fall another winged gen- eration returns to the peach or other re- lated trees, and the winter eggs are laid. The measures of control are spraying with 7 per cent kerosene emulsion or with tobacco extract when the lice are first observed. The Black Peach Aphis (Aphis persicw- niger Er. Sm.) lives the year round on peach. It differs from the preceding in the fact that colonies are maintained on the roots both summer and winter, as well as the colonies on the leaves and twigs in summer. The full-grown aphid is shining black. Control of this species must be directed toward the root-inhabiting forms as well as those above ground. In fact the former are often much the more abun- dant, while few or none may be seen on the foliage. See page 229. Fig 493 Aphis. inal. — The Black Aerial form. PLANT-LICE INJURING THE FOLIAGE 321 The remedy for those below ground is to draw away the earth from around the base of the tree, in a circle 4 or 5 feet in diameter, and apply 2 to 4 pounds of tobacco dust. The lice on the foliage are best treated with a spray of tobacco extract, or 7 per cent kerosene emulsion. Plant Lice on Plum Foliage Three species of plant lice are more or less common on the leaves and tender shoots of plums, especially in the spring. They tend to collect in clusters, the leaves are more or less distorted and curled by their attack, and the flowers and fruit may be badly injured. After two or three generations they leave the plum and fly to other hosts. The Brown Plum Aphis {Aphis setarice. Thos.) spends the summer on various grasses. It is dark in color and has white-marked legs and antennae. The Mealy Plum Aphis {Hyalopterus arundinis Fab.) is covered with a bluish white powder. The back of the body bears three darker obscure stripes, and the shape of the body is rather elongated. The honey tubes are short and rather thick. In summer the lice are found on grasses. The Hop Aphis {Phorodon humidi Schr.) flies to hop- vines in early summer, and is a pest rather on the latter than on the plum. The treatment is a thorough spraying with tobacco extract or 7 per cent kerosene emulsion just as soon as the lice are first observed. It is important to apply the spray promptly, before the leaves are badly curled. The Clover Mite {Bryohia pratensis Garm.) This tiny, 8-legged mite swarms over the foliage of clover in some seasons. In the West it feeds also on the leaves of various fruit trees, sucking their juices. The leaves attacked lose their green color and grow yellow and sickly. The mites survive the winter for the most part in the egg stage on the bark of fruit trees. See page 208. In smnmer trees should be sprayed with sulphur, 10 pounds to 50 gallons of water, adding soap so that the sulphur will not float on top of the water, and keeping the mixture well stirred. Spraying with Y 322 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS lime-sulphur solution in early spring, just as the buds are starting, is also an effectual treatment, resulting in killing the eggs. Use the mate- rial at the same strength as for San Jose scale. Red Spider on Fruit Tree Foliage {Tetranychus bimaculatus Harvey) Another mite attacking the foliage of fruit trees, and sucking the juices, is the common red spider so often troublesome in greenhouses. It hibernates in the soil near the trees. When feeding on fruit tree foliage, this mite usually is green in color. It has two dark spots on the abdomen. It spins a very thin web on the under leaf surface, and feeds beneath. This habit will readily distinguish it from the clover mite just described. See page 207. Spraying with sulphur, 10 pounds to 50 gallons of water, is an effective treatment. Add soap to make the sulphur mix with the water, and keep the mixture well stirred. Screen the sulphur to remove lumps before adding to the water. The Rose-chafer {Macrodactylus subspinosus Fab.) Hordes of long-legged, sprawling beetles attack the blossoms of grapes, ripening fruit, such as cherries, and the blossoms of flowers. Fig. 494. — The Rose-chafer. Adults and work on cherries. Original. The body of the beetle is a little over one third of an inch long, rather slender and cyUndrical, and dull greenish or golden yellowish in color. BEETLES ATTACKING BLOSSOM AND FRUIT 323 Fig. 495. — The Rose-chafer. En- larged and natural size. Original. Because of its long legs the insect looks larger than it is. In habits it is sluggish. Holes are eaten in fruit, and the sides of unopened grape blossoms are eaten out so as to get at the stamens and pollen within. In flowers the beetles at- tack especially the central parts. The insect breeds in sandy ground. The larva is a small, whitish grub, and feeds on grass roots. In the fall it goes down below frost line, returning in spring and transform- ing. The adults come out in June. Eggs are laid in the ground, \ to 4 inches below the surface. Egg- laying continues over a considerable period. There is one generation each year. Direct control is possible by spraying thoroughly with arsenate of lead, 5 pounds to 50 gallons of water, to which should be added 1 gallon of molasses. Without the molasses the spray is not so effective, as the beetles will avoid the parts of the plant that are coated with poison and seek out places where none of the spray has lodged. Spray first when the beetles are due, and again in one week. Hand picking is feasible in flower Fig. 496^- Larva of tho Rose- .j^^^g If possible, break up the ad- chafer. Original. " jacent breeding grounds, especially sandy fields in sod or weeds. The insect does not breed in ground kept in clean cultivation. The Indian Euphoria {Euphoria inda Linn.) Ripening peaches and pears sometimes are eaten into by brownish, heavy-bodied beetles, about half an inch long, their wing covers marked with irregular darker patterns. They are slow moving and not easily 524 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS Fig. 497. — The Indian Euphoria. Adults at work on peach. Orig- inal. tracted to a heap of decaying fruit. The Green June Beetle {Allorhina nitida Linn.) The feeding habits of this beetle are similar to those of the Indian Euphoria. Ripe fruits, especially peaches, disturbed. The species is two brooded, and it is the adults of the second brood that are found on the fruit. The larvse are thick-bodied grubs, and live on decaying vegetable matter. When the adults are nu- merous enough to be trouble- some, fruit should be picked a little before it is quite ripe, or the beetles may be at- FiG. 498. -The Indian Euphoria, enlarged. Original. Adult pears plums, or occasionally small fruits, are attacked and their substance eaten out. The beetle is a handsome fellow, its upper sur- face a velvety green, bordered with •brown. The larva looks much like a common white grub, and feeds on decaying vegetable matter. The means of control of the ■E^ Ann rru r- i t> x, adults is tlic samc as that recom- FiG. 499. — The Green June Beetle. SHghtly enlarged. Original. mended for the Indian Euphoria. CONSPICUOUS WORMS FEEDING ON THE FRUIT 325 The Green Fruit Worm {Xylina antennata Walk.) Occasionally the young fruits of apple, pear, or strawberry are eaten into by light-colored naked caterpillars, faintly striped with yellow. Usually the worms eat shallow, irregular holes in the sides of the fruit. Fig. 500. Apples injured by Green Fruit Worms. Original. Fig. 501. — A Green Fruit Worm. Original. They are seldom found in orchards that are sprayed early in the sea- son, especially if arsenical sprays are applied to the buds before blooming time. When injuring fruit, the worms may be jarred from the trees and killed. It is difficult to poison them at this time, because they are nearly full grown and are resistant to arsenicals ; there- fore spraying the fruit with poisons is not likely to be Fig. 502. -Adult of a Green Fruit Worm, satisfactory. Xylina latidnerea. Original. 326 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS Xylina laticirierea Grt. is another common species of identical habits. The Cranberry Fruit-worm (Mineola vaccinii Riley) The growing berries are eaten into and the contents devoured by a small, greenish caterpillar, half an inch long when full grown. The work begins when the berries are small, and con- tinues until they are coloring up, the cat- erpillar entering one berry after another by a small hole, usually thus destroying three or four by the time it is full grown. Fig. 504. — Larva of the Cranberry Fruit-worm. Enlarged and natural size. Original. Infested berries ripen prematurely. Win- ter is passed by the caterpillar in a silk Fig. 503. — Work of the Cran- cocoon in the sand, berry Fruit-worm. Orig- ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ abundant, reflow at once inal. , , ' after picking, drawing off the water again after ten days. Paris green or arsenate of lead may be used when the worms first appear, but must be applied thoroughly and re- peated. The Gooseberry Fruit-worm (Zophodia grossularice Pack.) Active, pale green, shining caterpillars, three fourths of an inch long when mature, eat into the fruit of gooseberries and often web a number of berries together. When disturbed, they promptly let themselves down by a silk thread. There is one generation annually. Hiber- nation takes place on the ground in the pupal stage. WORMS BORING INTO THE FRUIT 327 Fig. 505. — Work of the Gooseberry Fruit-worm. Slightly enlarged. Original. Hand picking is often the simplest means of control. If necessary, Paris green or arsenate of lead may be applied in order to stop a bad outbreak, but if the fruit is of good size, it will not be safe to use it. Plowing or cleaning up rubbish in the fall will help to re- duce injury the following season. Fig. 506. — Adult of the Gooseberry Fruit-worm. Slightly enlarged. Orig- inal. The Raspberry Span-worm (Synchlora cerata Fab.) The fruit of raspberries some- times is eaten by grayish or yellowish span-worms, three fourths of an inch long when mature. They are peculiar in their habit of decorating themselves with bits of flowers or leaves stuck Jf^ Fig. 507. — Adult of the Raspberry Span- worm. Slightly enlarged. Original. Fig. 508.— The Raspberry Span- worm. Original. 328 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS on the short spines on the sides of their bodies. The adult is a delicate pale-green moth. Hellebore is the only poison that is safe to use on fruit of this kind. Fig. 509. — Work of Climbing Cutworms. At left, larva of Peridroma margari- tosa. Original. Climbing Cutworms (Noctuidw) The expanding buds of fruit trees, especially in the case of newly set stock, sometimes are eaten out and destroyed, no worms being in evidence when the trees are looked over, although the trouble continues. This is the charac- teristic work of cer- tain cutworms, which, in the lack of other food to Fig. 510. — Adult of Cutworm, Peridroma margaritosa. ^' Original. the trees and de- EATING INTO OR INJURING THE FRUIT BUDS 329 vour the tender unfolding tissues, working at night and hiding by %he remedy is a prompt application of Paris green or arsenate of lead to the trees, so as to coat the buds. Instead of this, or in addition to it a little poison bran mash may be placed at the base of each tree. Occasionally the buds of greenhouse plants are attacked m similar manner. A hberal dose of poison bran mash is then indicated, scattered on the the ground throughout the attack. The Imbricated Snout Beetle {Epimrus imhricatus Say) OccasionaUy a rather large snout-beetle, its wings banded in zigzag pattern with brown and gray, its snout short and broad, feeds on the buds or young fohage of tree or bush fruits. See page 167. The beetle cannot fly. The larva lives in the ground. Paris green or arsenate of lead applied early as a spray will check the insect's work. The New York Weevil {Ithycerus novehoracensis Forst.) Large, gray snout-beetles, half an inch long and marked with black, appear on fruit trees in early spring, gnaw into the tender twigs, and eat into the base of buds. The larval stage is passed in the twigs of oak and hickory, and injury is always greatest on fruit trees close to woodland. Thorough spraying with Paris green or arse- ^ nate of lead early in the spring when the buds ^^^ .^^ _ ^^^ ^^^ are swelling is the only direct means of con- York Weevil. Slightly , , enlarged. Original, trol. The Pear Thrips {Euthrips pijriDiiDl.) The pear thrips is a minute insect attacking the newly opening flower and leaf buds of pear, and, in California, tho.e of prune, cherry, al- mond, peach, and apricot. The evidence of attack is a distorting, blackemng, or complete kilhng ^0 330 FESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS of the opening buds. The adult thrips, which causes this injury, is a small, winged insect with sucking mouth parts. It comes out from its winter hiding place in the ground at the time that growth first starts, and as soon as the bud scales have parted, works its way down into the flower, puncturing the tis- sues and sucking the juices. Egg laying begins later, and the immature thrips feeds on the tender leaf tis- sues for two or three weeks. Then it drops to the ground, penetrates the soil to a depth of three or four inches, and remains there until the following spring. Direct control is possible by means of timely and thorough spraying with tobacco extract (the commercial preparation), to which has been added distillate oil emulsion so as to make a 2 per cent solution. The emulsion is prepared by dissolving 8 pounds of whale-oil soap in 3 gallons of boiling water, and adding 5 gallons of distillate oil (28 degrees Baume), at once driving the mixture through a spray pump into a tank or barrel. One gallon of the emulsion to 24 gallons of the tobacco water will give a 2 per cent solution. The spraying must be done just as the buds begin to un- fold, and may need to be repeated. Deep plowing followed by thorough cultivation in the fall, to disturb and destroy the pupating larvae, is of value. Fig. 512. Expanding buds killed by the Pear Thrips. Original. Fig. 513.— The Pear Thrips. Enlarged to fifteen times nat- ural size. Original. DWARFING OR INJURING THE BUDS 331 The Flower Thrips (Euthrips tritici Fitch) In the Southwest the opening flower and fruit buds of various fruit trees are subject to serious injury by minute, slender, active insects which enter them in large numbers and suck the juices of the tender, growing parts. The adults have two pairs of narrow, fringed wings. The younger stages are wingless, but do equal damage with the adults. The injury is sometimes so severe that young trees are killed. An effective remedy is thorough spraying with tobacco extract. Distillate oil emulsion may be added to this, as recommended for the pear thrips. The Flower Thrips is illustrated on page 26. The Peach Bud Mite (Tarsonemus waitei Bks.) Young peach trees in nurseries sometimes suffer severe injury to the terminal bud or shoot, due to the work of an exceedingly small, eight- legged mite. The main shoot dies, or fails to develop, and the tree then puts out several new shoots below, destroying its symmetry and rendering it worthless for transplanting. Some of the mites hibernate under bud scales, but it is possible that others may spend the winter on some other host plant. Careful pruning will help the tree to overcome injury and send out a new terminal shoot. Lateral buds that start up should be removed, in order to avoid a bushy top. Spraying with self-boiled lime sulphur early in the growing season may kill most of the mites. The Grape-blossom Midge {Contarinia johnsoni SHng.) The flower buds of early varieties of grapes sometimes fail to develop properly through the work of this tiny insect. Buds attacked show an abnormal swelling or redness, and only occasional berries will set, so that the bunches of fruit will be straggling, if not entirely wanting. The injury is due to the larvae of a minute midge that appears just as the buds are beginning to swell and lays its eggs in the opening ends. After three weeks the larvae are full grown, drop to the ground, and remain there until the following year. Spraying with tobacco extract when the buds first begin to swell 332 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS will largely avert injury. The material should be applied thoroughly and with ample force. The Plum Curculio {Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst.) . The fruits of plum, apple, and cherry, and sometimes of peach, are subject to injury by tliis pest. Round or crescent-shaped punctures are made in the sides of the fruit by the adult beetles in feeding and egg laying. Within the fruit a grub or worm develops. The punctures made by the adult are of two sorts. In feeding, the beetle Fig. 514. — Egg-laying punc- tures of the Plum Curculio. Slightly enlarged. Original. Fig. 515. — The Plum Curculio. Enlarged and natural size. Original. gnaws out a small, round hole. When egg laying, it makes a crescent-shaped cut around the point at which it has in- serted its egg in the fruit. These in- juries are especially serious on young fruit, causing them to grow gnarly and misshapen. The beetle itself is quite small, three sixteenths of an inch in length, dark in color with lighter markings, and has four ridges or himips on its back. Its mouth parts are at the end of a snout. The larva or grub is whitish, one third of an inch long, and entirely without feet. The beetles spend the winter in rubbish or similar shelter in or near GRUBS DEVELOPING WITHIN THE FRUIT 333 the orchard. Early in the spring they come out; and as soon as the buds are unfolding feed sparingly on the tender tissues. When fruit has set, egg laying begins and continues for several weeks. Infested fruit is apt to drop. The larva enters the ground to transform. There is a second generation in midsunmier, the adult of this hiding away until the following spring. Control is best directed toward killing the overwintering beetles by spraying the trees with arsenate of lead or Paris green as soon as the buds are fairly open- ing in the spring, repeating later if nec- essary. Where trees are sprayed at the time that the petals fall, this will consti- tute the second spraying. In addition, it will pay to eliminate rubbish as far as possible from the orchard or its neigh- borhood, and to adopt clean cultivation. The former will destroy the hiding places of the beetles, and the latter will kill many of the larvae that have entered the soil to transform. The destruction of fallen fruit at frequent intervals is of value, where feasible. On plmii trees the beetles may be controlled by jarring them from the trees m the early morning, spreading a sheet beneath to catch them. Fig. 516. — Larva and work of the Plum Curculio in cherry. Slightly enlarged. The Apple Curculio {Anthonomus quadrigibbus Say) Usually the curculio attacking the fruit of the apple is the plum curculio. Sometimes the depredator is the pest here considered. The work of this species may be distinguished from that of the plum curculio by the fact that the punctures that the apple curculio makes are com- paratively inconspicuous. The beetle itself is similar to the plum curculio, but is stouter and chunkier, has a larger snout, and has four very prominent humps on its back. 334 PJESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS The life round is much hke that of the other species. The adults hibernate in any convenient shelter, and lay their eggs in the young fruit. The larva is a footless grub. Its body is enlarged in a sort of hump back of the head. It pu- pates in the soil, and the adults emerge in the latter part of sum- mer, soon going into hibernation. On small trees jarring is an effec- tive plan. On larger trees early spraying with arsenate of lead or Paris green will poison many of the beetles. Rubbish of all sorts FiG.5i7.-The7^eCurculio. En- should be kept cleaned up, in order larged and natural size. Original. to eliminate winter hiding places. The Plum Gouger (Anthonornus scutellaris Lee.) The plum gouger is a brownish beetle, one fourth of an inch long, and may be distinguished from the plum curcuUo by the absence of the characteristic humps found on the wing covers of the curculio. Early in the season holes are eaten in the base of the flower, and the beetle feeds on the part within that would later become the fruit. After the plums are of some size the adult punctures them and lays an egg within, the grub li\'ing inside the Fig. 519.— The Plum Gouger. . . , ^, ? i. j Adult, enlarged and natural ^^^^g seed. The adult does not size. Original. make a crescent-shaped cut around Fig. 518. — Feeding punc- ture made by the Plum Gouger. Original. GBUBS DEVELOPING WITHIN THE FRUIT 335 the punctures as does the curculio. In feeding the beetle gouges out small round holes. The grub pupates inside the fruit, and then emerges as an adult. In- fested plums usually drop before the adult is due to emerge. Hiber- nation takes place in the adult stage. Jarring the trees to catch the beetles is a fairly effective treatment. Prompt destruction of fallen fruit is of value, where practicable. Early sprajdng with arsenate of lead or Paris green, as recommended for the plum curcuUo, is likely to kill most of the hibernating adults. The Grape Curculio {Craponius inoBqualis Say) The fruit of grapes is sometimes found in- fested by a white, fleshy, inactive grub, footless, and tapering towards each end. This is the larval stage of the grape curculio. It may readily be distinguished from the other grub commonly found in grapes, that of the grape berry moth, which has distinct legs, is more slender and cylindrical, and is greenish or Hght purplish in color. The adult beetle is one tenth of an inch long, quite broad, and brown in color. It appears from hibernation when the grapes are blossoming, and feeds on the foliage. Later it begins laying eggs in the berries. The grub, when mature, drops to the ground, transforms in the soil, and a new generation of beetles is abroad in late Fig. 521.— The Grape Cur- , ^, . . , ., culio. Enlarged and nat- Summer, shortly entermg hibernation. ural size. Original. There is thus one generation each year. Fig. 520. — Work and larva of the Grape Curculio. Slightly enlarged. Original. 336 FESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS Spraying with arsenate of lead or Paris green will readily poison the adults because of the long time during wliich they feed on the grape foliage. The poison should be applied just after the grapes finish blooming. Vineyards that are sprayed regularly with arsenicals for other pests, such as the grape berry moth, will not find this in- sect in evidence. If it is found that many berries are infested, these should be collected and destroyed. Fig. 522.— The Quince Cur- culio. Enlarged and natural size. Original. The Quince Curculio {Conotrachelus crakegi Walsh) Both the adult and the grub of this species injure the fruit of quinces. The former eats holes into the fruit, when it is still small. The latter burrows within the flesh, making wandering cavities, and finally eats its way out through the skin. Quinces that have been punctured by the adult grow misshapen. The adult curculio is a small, snout beetle, one fourth of an inch long, its body broadest at the middle and its back marked with seven longitudinal ridges. Eggs are laid under the skin of the young fruit. The grubs enter the ground when full grown, and re- main there until the following spring. The only effective remedy is to jar the beetles from the trees in the early morning, catching them on sheets and destroying them. The application of ^^^ 523. -Work of the Straw- poison sprays is of no avail. berry Weevil. Original. GRUBS DEVELOPING WITHIN THE FRUIT 337 Fig. 524.- Weevil. Original. -Larvae of the Strawberry Enlarged and natural size. The Strawberry Weevil {Anthonomus signatus Say) The work of the strawberry weevil is conspicuous and unmistakable. Flower buds, soon due to open, are seen to droop and bend over, and in a few days most of them will break off and fall to the ground. If one is cut open at this time, a small, white grub will be found within, feeding on the inner tissues of the bud. After lajang an egg in a bud the beetle punctures the stem just below, so that the bud droops and soon falls. The grub, when full grown, transforms within the bud on the ground. The new lot of beetles feed for a time in various places and then hide away until the next year. Only staminate varieties are attacked. Early spraying with arsenate of lead or Paris green will kill many beetles. The material should be applied as soon as the first buds begin forming. All rubbish should be cleaned up around the field. When badly infested, the plants may be burned over at once after picking. Wild blackberries and strawberries should be destroyed. It should be remembered also that pistil- FiG. 525. — The Strawberry , ^ . ,. . , Weevil. Adult, enlarged and |^^« varieties are unmune from any natural size. Original. injury. The Codling Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella Linn.) A pinkish, rather fleshy worm eats cavities within the fruit of apples, especially through and around the core, and finally bores a large hole to the surface. z 338 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS Fig. 526. — Section through apple showing characteristic work of the Codling Moth. Original. The adult is an inconspicuous, brownish moth, and emerges in the spring from a cocoon usually located under rough scales on the bark of the tree. Eggs are laid on leaves or some- times on the fruit itself. Fig. 527. — Larva of the Codling Moth. Slightly enlarged. Original. Fig. 528. — Cocoon of the Codling Moth un- derneath a piece of bark. At the top, the pupa. Original. makes its way to the nearest apple and enters the young fruit through the calyx end of its life inside, and when mature, eats its Fig. 529. — The Cod- ling Moth. Adult, slightly enlarged. Original. . It feeds for the rest way out, travels to a WOEMS DEVELOPING WITHIN THE FRUIT 339 Fig. 530. — The time to spray for the Cod- ling Moth. The calyx still open. Original. suitable shelter, and spins its cocoon. Here it may remain until the next spring, but in the Central and Southern states there is a second brood. The larvae of the latter often feed merely on the surface of the apple in- stead of boring into it. Control consists in spray- ing with arsenate of lead. The most important point is to apply the material just after the blossoms fall, while the calyx cup is still open, and to direct the spray so that the poison will lodge in the blossom end of the up- turned apples. A second spraying about three weeks later, at the time when the worms are just hatching, will augment the value of the first, because the larvae feed a little on the leaf before going to the apple. For the second brood in midsummer arsenate of lead is used, as for the fu"st brood. The Lesser Apple Worm (Laspeyresia {Enarmonia) prunivora Walsh) Injury to the fruit of ap- ples by the lesser apple worm is often confused with that of the codling moth, but is distinct on careful examina- tion. Early in the season the injury is apt to take the form of small cavities eaten Fig. 531. — Too late to spray for the Cod- ling Moth. The calyx closed. Original. 340 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS into the surface of the fruit at the calyx end. When the fruit is ripening, the damage is more conspicuous and more serious. At this time the second brood larvae are ac- tive, and blotch mines are made just under the skin of the apple. The larva within may penetrate the pulp to a depth of half an inch, or occasionally nearly to the core. Frequently the work goes on for some time after the fruit is picked. The parent insect is a small moth. Eggs are laid soon after the Fig. 532. Injury by the Lesser Apple Worm. Original. fruit is set. The full-grown larva is one fourth to one third of an inch long. Pupation takes place under scales of bark on limbs, or some- times in the calyx end of the fruit. The larvae of the second brood Fig. 533. — Larvae of the Lesser Apple Worm. Enlarged. Original. pass the winter in inconspicuous cocoons, in situations similar to those of the first brood, or in barrels in which fruit has been placed. Fig. 534. — Section through apple showing characteristic work of the Lesser Apple Worm. Enlarged. Original. SMALL WORMS DEVELOPING WITHIN THE FRUIT 341 Control measures are the same as those recommended for the codhng moth : thorough spraying with arsenate of lead just after the petals fall, and again the first of August. Fig. 535. ■Adult of the Lesser Apple Worm, and natural size. Original. Enlarged The Grape Berry Moth {Polychrosis viteana Clem.) Most " wormy " grapes, so often seen on vines, exhibit the charac- teristic work of the grape berry moth. While the berry is still green, a purpUsh spot appears on one side. If it is cut open, a small greenish or purplish caterpillar will be found within. This is the larva of the sec- ond brood. Earlier in the sea^ son, when the grapes are in blossom or the berries are just forming, the inconspicuous first brood of caterpillars is on the vines, eating into the blossoms and tiny frilit, and webbing up the clusters. The insect overwinters as a pupa in a little cell made by Fig. 536. — Section through grape, show- ing larva and work of the Grape Berry Moth. Original. 342 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS Fig. 537. —The Grape Berry Moth. En larged and natural size. Original. cutting out a small piece of a leaf. These cells break loose from the leaves after the latter fall. The moths emerge in the spring and lay eggs on the stems or fruit. The second brood of moths are out in July, and in the North there is a partial tliird brood in August. Thorough and timely spray- ing with arsenate of lead will control this pest. The first spray must be apphed just be- fore blooming, the second just after, and the third when the berries are half grown. Soap may be added to the spray material to make it spread and stick to better advantage. If the vineyard is plowed in the fall, many of the overwintering pupae will be buried or killed. The Raspberry Byturus {By turns umcolor Say) The fruit of red raspberries sometimes is stunted by the work of this beetle and its grub. Occasionally the leaves are riddled by the feeding of the beetles. The adult beetle is one seventh inch long, and brownish in color. It appears in spring, feeds on the fohage, and eats into the flower buds. In midsummer the grubs are at work and will be found in the thick white base on which the berry is borne. The grub is one fourth inch long, and marked across each segment with brown. Infested berries ripen early and are dwarfed in the soil. Fig. 538. — The Raspberry Byturus. Adult, enlarged and natural size. Original. The larva spends the winter Control is best secured by spraying the foliage with arsenate of lead MAGGOTS TUNNELING WITHIN THE FRUIT 343 or Paris green to poison the beetles when they appear in the spring. Since they feed freely on the leaves, the majority of them will be killed by an application of poison at this time. The Apple Maggot {Rhagoletis pornonella Walsh) In the northeastern states early or sweet apples, or sometimes late fruit, are often infested with the so-called '' railroad worm," a small, whitish maggot which tunnels here and there through the pulp of the Fig. 539. — Section through apple, showing charac- teristic work of the Apple Maggot. Original. apple as it ripens, making a small, brown track wherever it goes. In thin-skinned varieties, these tunnels are apt to show through from the outside as wandering, brown tracks. This insect must clearly be dis- tinguished from the common " apple worm " or codling moth, which eats preferably in and around the core and gnaws a large and con- spicuous hole to the surface. A two-winged fly, with oblique-banded wings, is the parent of the rail- road worm. It appears in July, and lays its eggs, one at a time, under- 344 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS Fig. 540. — Adult of the Apple Maggot. Original. neath the skin of the apple. The maggot feeds in the pulp, completing its growth after the apple has fallen from the tree and has become more or less mellow. It then bores its way out, enters the ground, and re- mains there until the following July. The maggot cannot be killed by spray- ing because it feeds wholly within the pulp of the fruit during its entire life. Control consists in keeping dropped fruit picked up, so that the maggots will not have a chance to enter the ground. Very early fruit should be picked up twice a week, fall fruit once a week, and winter fruit once in two or Fig. .541. — Egg of the Apple three weeks. Maggot, inserted beneath skin ^ . , , , , i • , of fruit. Greatly enlarged. ^ive stock may be turned mto an Original. orchard to eat up the apples as they MAGGOTS FEEDING WITHIN THE FRUIT 345 drop. Pigs, sheep, or cattle will often accomplish this to good advan- tage. Cliickens will hunt out and destroy many of the pupa) in the soil. Fig. 542. — Burrows of the Apple Maggot, show- ing through skin of fruit. Original. The Cherry Fruit Maggot {Rhagoletis cingulata Loew.) Small, whitish, footless maggots about one third of an inch long are found in the pulp of ripening cherries, where they tunnel about, causing decayed ca\dties. The adult is a small fly with barred wings . Eggs are laid under the skin of the Fig. 543. — Adult of the Cherry Fruit Maggot, enlarged and natural size. Original. Fig. 544.— The Cherry Fruit Mag- got. Larvse, enlarged and natural size. Original. 346 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS fruit in midsummer. When full grown, the maggot leaves the fruit and enters the ground, its skin contracting and hardening to form a puparium. It remains there until the following season. Where trees are badly infested, chickens may be made use of to scratch up and eat the puparia. No measures in the way of spraying are available. The Pear Midge (Contarinia pyrivora Riley) Early in the season the young fruit of pears becomes stunted and distorted. If a Fig. 545. — Section through young pear, showing work and larva of the Pear Midge. Original. fruit is cut open, tiny maggots wiU be found within, working especially in and around the core. Eggs are laid when the buds first open by an exceedingly small midge. After completing its growth the maggot leaves the fruit and enters the ground, where it remains until the follow- ing spring. There is one brood annually. No satisfactory means of con- trol has been devised. The Currant Fruit-fly (Epochra canadensis Loew.) In early summer a small, white maggot may be found working in the berries of currants or goose- berries. The parent insect is a yellowish, two-winged fly with barred wings. Eggs are laid Fig. 546. — Larvae of the Pear Midge, enlarged and natural size. Original. Fig. 547. — Work of the Currant Fruit- fly. Original. DWARFING OR SCARRING THE FRUIT 347 under the skin of the fruit. Infested fruit usually falls to the ground. When full grown, the maggot bores out of the berry, enters the ground, and remains there until the following spring, when the adults issue once more. The use of poultry to pick up Fig. 548. — Section through currant, showing work and larva of the Cur- rant Fruit-fly. Enlarged. Original. the fallen infested fruit is prac- tically Fig. 549.— The Currant Fruit-fly Adult, enlarged and natural size Original. the only available remedy, unless it is feasible to have the fruit gathered by hand. The Tarnished Plant-bug (Lygus pratensis Linn.) A brownish bug, not over one fifth of an inch long when full grown, occasionally injures the buds and the young fruit on apple trees by sucking the juices. Buds are dwarfed or killed, and sometimes the fruit shows marked dimples or similar deformities, due to egg-laying punctures of the adults. The adults hibernate in rubbish. If the Fig. 550.— Work of a Plant- bug, Lygus invitus. Orig- inal. 348 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS orchard and its surroundings are thoroughly cleaned of weeds and litter in the fall, there is not likely to be noticeable damage. The bugs may be jarred from small trees. A related species, Lijgus invitus Say, is a pest on pears, scarring the fruit by its feeding punctures. The Apple Red Bugs {Heterocordylus malinus Rent., and Lygidea mendax Reut.) Sucking bugs, about one fourth of an inch long, known as apple red bugs because of their brilliant color in their younger stages, puncture young fruit, causing it to grow distorted. There are two species, similar in appearance. Eggs are inserted in the bark, and hatch in early spring. The young feed at first on the newly expanding foliage, making numerous punctures and giving the leaves at times a red appear- ance. Later they attack the fruit. The remedy is to spray with tobacco extract just after the leaves expand and before the blossoms open, so as to kill the younger stages soon after they hatch from the egg. Soap may be added to the spray material. Fig 551. — Work of Apple Red Bugs. Original. Fig. 552. —The Negro Bug. Enlarged and natural size. Original. The Negro Bug {Thyreocoris (Corimelcena) pidicaria Germ.) Exceedingly small, hard-shelled, shiny black bugs, resembling tiny beetles, sometimes feed on the ripe fruits of raspberry or blackberry, giving the fruit an unpleasant flavor. Usually they are not common enough to demand attention. No remedial measures are known. CHAPTER XXIV Insect Pests of the Household and Stored Products House Flies The commonest fly found in houses is the species properly known as the House Fly {Musca domestica Linn.). It is of medium size, grayish, and has mouth parts dilated at the end in a sort of lobe, fitted for tak- ing up liquid food. Its early stages are passed in moist, decaying matter, especially horse manure or other excrement. These flies never bite ; but they are pernicious visitors be- cause of their filthy habits, and their known agency in the dissemination of disease. A second species, the Stable Fly {Stomoxys cal- citrans Linn.), is the pest that annoys us by " biting," especially before storms. It has piercing mouth parts. Other species often are observed, but the two named above are in the great majority, and of these two the house fly is by far the more numerous. Since flies are known to carry disease, it is of prime importance to be rid of them in our homes. Proper screening is the first requisite, and nothing can be accomplished without this fundamental protection. 349 Fig. 553. — The House Fly. Original. 350 PESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS But in addition we must look to the breeding places, especially manure heaps. Usually the most feasible plan of caring for these is to inclose or otherwise screen them. If the manure can be removed once a week, flies cannot complete their life round in it. An effective means of poisoning flies that have already gained access to a room is as follows : Add two tablespoonfuls (1 ounce) of 40 per cent formalin to one pint (16 ounces) of sweet milk, or of equal parts milk and water. Pour this out in shallow plates, so that flies can get at it easily. A piece of bread placed in the middle of each plate Fig. 554. — The Stable natural size. Fly. Enlarged and Original. will allow more space for flies to alight and feed. Catching flies by means of traps, or with sticky fly paper, is a uni- versal practice, and helps in reducing the numbers within a room, but the method described above will usually be found more rapid and effective. Mosquitoes {Culicidce) Mosquitoes are of many species, but most have at least one point in common ; their immature stages are found in stagnant water. They do not require breeding places of large area. An open rain-water barrel, an old watering trough, tin cans containing rain water; aU such places provide suitable breeding ground. The larvae are familiarly known as " wrigglers," and live on minute animal or vegetable hfe, beneath the surface of the water. They must come to the surface occasionally to breathe. Following the larval, there is an active pupal stage, preceding the emergence of the adult. MOSQUITOES AND ANTS 351 The entire life round requires only ten days to two weeks under favor- able circumstances. Any thorough effort at control is best directed toward destroying the breeding places or preventing the insect from breeding in such as cannot be destroyed. The latter may be accomplished by pouring oil on the water, so as to prevent the larvae from reaching the air when they come up to breathe. Large tanks above ground may be screened. In a word, stagnant water must be eliminated, or mosquitoes kept from it. In addition careful screening of houses is highly desirable, especially since some diseases are carried by certain species. In clearing a room of mosquitoes a fairly satisfactory substance is available in pyrethrum, or '^ Persian insect powder." This may be heaped up in little piles on a pan and lighted ; or, better, it may be poured out on a piece of tin or a pan set over a kerosene lamp. In the latter case not much smoke is given off, but the volatile oil that stupifies the insect permeates the air. Another and successful fumigant consists of 1 part of saltpeter mixed with 3 parts of powdered jimson weed, and burned on a tin pan. Eight ounces to 1000 cubic feet is sufficient. House Ants The commonest ants in houses are the '' httle red ant," Monomorium pharaonis L., and a closely related species, somewhat larger and black in color, Monomorium minutum Mayr. In getting rid of ants it is a great help if the main colonies can be hunted out and destroyed. The black ant hves outdoors, and enters the house through some convenient crack. The little red ant always has its nest in the walls or under the floors. Either may be caught and killed in large numbers by saturating a sponge with sweetened water, placing it where they are abundant, and now and then dropping the sponge into boihng water. Scraps of bone or meat will do as well, and should be burned when well covered. A successful method of fighting ants has recently been devised in California in the warfare against the notorious Argentine Ant (Iri- domtjnnex humilis Mayr.), which overruns dwellings, stores, and ware- 352 PESTS OF TH^ HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS Fig. 555. —The Little Red Ant. En larged and natural size. Original. houses and is an intolerable pest. In this case it is not possible to hunt out and destroy the nests because they are made in every con- ceivable location. The plan consists in setting out numerous supplies of a dilute, slow-acting poison, which the foraging ants not only eat but carry back to the nests and feed to the young. By using a diluted poison the colony itself is slowly exterminated, as well as the foragers that go out from it. The poison is prepared by dis- solving 5 pounds of sugar in 1^ pints of water, placing it in a double boiler and heating gently. Then dissolve one fourth ounce of sodium arsenite in a little hot water, and add this to the syrup solution. Place a sponge in a can or a glass jar with a tin lid, and punch three or four holes in the lid. Moisten the sponge with the poisoned syrup. If ants avoid the jar after a time, move it sUghtly, and they will again visit it. In large buildings it is neces- sary to provide several of the jars for each floor. In residences from one to six jars usually will be sufficient. Often one will do the work. The above material is poisonous to human beings, and proper care should be taken in its preparation and use. The best barrier to prevent ants from gaining access to places where food is placed or stored is the so-called " ant tape." To make this prepare a saturated solution of corrosive sublimate and water by heat- ing an excess of the crystals in water in a granite or porcelain vessel (not iron), cooling and filtering. Soak common cotton tape in this for several hours, then take out, hang up, and dry. Ants will not cross this tape. It will remain effective for a year, but must not be placed in contact with any iron, tin, or aluminum. It must be remembered that corrosive sublimate is a dangerous poison. ROACHES AND FLEAS 353 Roaches At least four species of roaches are common in the United States: the American Cockroach {Periplaneta americana Linn.), the Oriental Cockroach {Blatta orientalis Linn.), the Australian Roach {Periplaneta australasice Fab.), and the German Roach, or " Croton Bug" {Blatella germanica Linn . ) . All are more or less domesticated, eat any kind of food product, and leave behind them a disgusting odor. In some species both males and females are winged, while in others the female has only short remnants of wings. All are alike in having Fig. 556. — The German Roach, or " Croton Bug." Shghtly enlarged. Original. The young look much like the From one to three years are flat, thin bodies, and strong, biting jaws, adults, but are of course much smaller. required for their development. A number of prepared poisons are on the market for the destruction of roaches, and some of these are fairly effective. Various traps are employed. Large numbers may be killed by setting out two shallow dishes, one containing flour and plaster of Paris mixed together, and 2 a 354 PESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS the other water. Use four parts of flour to one part of plaster of Paris. Arrange the dishes so that roaches can easily climb on them and pass from one to the other. Badly infested buildings may be entirely cleared by fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas. Great care should be taken in using this treatment, for it is violently poisonous. Fleas Fleas are too well known to need description. Where houses become infested, the trouble is nearly always traceable to a pet cat or dog, although the pest may be brought in on clothing of a visitor. The species usually observed is the common Cat and Dog Flea (Ctenocephalus canis Curt.). ^^H^^^ The adult flea lays eggs among the hairs of J^^^H9^ its animal host. These drop off, and the egg ST yE' ^ hatches to form a minute, white, slender larva, Vv \^ which lives in cracks in the floor or other pro- tected places, feeding on any available organic matter, such as hairs, or even dust. The Fig. 557. — The Cat and , , <• , i i j^ j^i i tj Dog Flea Enlarged ^^^^^ transforms to a pupa, and later the adult and natural size. Orig- emerges, ready to leap on the first cat or dog i^^l- that comes its way, or on a human being. To rid a house of fleas all cracks must be washed with hot suds, and preferably dosed with gasoline. At the same time any animal pets must be looked after and cleared of the insect. Insect powder dusted thoroughly into the animal's fur will stupefy the fleas and cause them to drop off. They may then be gathered up and destroyed. Another treatment is to scatter over the floor of a room 4 or 5 pounds of naphthaline, and keep the place tightly closed for 24 hours. This will effectually^ rid a room of the adult insects, but will not be likely to affect any eggs that might be present. The naphthaline may be swept up and used over again. The Bedbug (Cimex lectularius Linn.) The bedbug is an ancient and cosmopolitan insect, existing through- out the world. It has become wholly domesticated, and lives entirely BEDB UG — CL 0 THES MOTHS 355 in human dwellings, hiding away in crevices by day, and coming out to suck the blood of its unfortunate host by night. Normally its hfe round requires about three months, but it can exist for a long time in a house tempo- rarily vacated. In cities it sometimes migrates from vacant residences to others near by that are occupied. The young are similar in shape to the adults, and, like their parents, have a strong sucking beak. A thorough course of treatment of all hiding places is necessary for their eradica- FiG. 558. — The Bedbug. Enlarged and natural size. Original. Fig. 559. — Head of Bedbug. Greatly enlarged. Original. tion, unless it is possible to vacate a house for two or three days and fumigate with hydrocyanic acid gas. Gasoline, corrosive sublimate, or tur- pentine may be used in cracks to kill them. In vacant houses sulphur may be burned, using it at the rate of 2 pounds to the 100 cubic feet, and placing the material in a metal or earthen dish, which should in turn be placed within a larger dish, to guard against danger of fire. The Clothes Moths Several species of tiny, dusky moths lay eggs in woolens or furs, the resulting larvae feeding on the garments, eating holes in them, and often doing irreparable damage. The larva of a common species. Tinea pellionella L., makes a little case within which it feeds. In the Northern states this particular species occurs in the larval state — the only stage in which it is directly destructive — in summer only. In the South it may occur all the year. The adults are on the wing at any time in the warmer months. They are active and shy, and avoid the light. 356 PESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS Attack is most severe on winter clothing laid away for the summer. Garments should be hung out in the sunlight and thoroughly brushed Fig. 560. — Work of Clothes Moths. Original. or beaten before being packed away. They may then be inclosed in boxes, and the cracks sealed with gummed paper. This work should be done before hot weather has arrived. Deterrants, such as naphtha- FiG. 561. — A Clothes Moth, Tinea pellionella. Enlarged and natural size. Original. line or moth balls, are of moderate value. Upholstered furniture and the like should be sprayed or sponged with gasoline two or three times in summer. CARPET BEETLE — SILVER FISH — CHEESE SKIPPER 357 The Carpet Beetle, or Buffalo Moth {Anthrenus scrophularice L.) A small, hairy, oval larva, about one fourth of an inch long, feeds on carpets, working from the under side, and usually following the line of a crack in the floor. The adult is a beetle, thi-ee sixteenths of an inch in 1 1 1 1 1 Fig. 562. — Work of the Car- pet Beetle. Original. Fig. 563.— The Carpet Beetle. Enlarged and natural size. Original. length, dark in color, and irregularly mottled with white. The beetles appear through the fall and winter. Where rugs are used, no damage is recorded as a rule. If carpets are necessary, and infestation is in progress, it is essential to take up the floor coverings, spray them with gasoline, and wash all cracks with hot suds, following with gasoline. The Silver Fish {Lepisma saccharina L.) Substances containing sugar, starch, or sizing are sometimes injured by a tiny, active, wingless insect of a silvery appearance, having very long antennae and three long feelers at the hind end of the body. It invariably runs quickly away when objects on which it is at work are brought to the light. Pyrethrum dusted into places where it hides will kill them, or they may be poisoned by dipping pieces of cardboard into a thick paste in which has been mixed Paris green, and sUpping these into cracks where they are abundant. 358 PESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS The Cheese Skipper (Piophila casei) The softer kinds of cheese and the fatty parts of hams or bacon are the favorite breeding places of minute, slender maggots that have a way of curling the body and then suddenly straightening it, so that they throw themselves some little distance. They are the larvae of very small, grayish flies. Infested materials should be removed, and shelving or bins given a thorough cleaning, for the maggots will develop in very small quantities of grease or other suitable material. It is sometimes necessary to fumigate, in order to kill the adult flies that are in hiding. The Angoumois Grain-moth (Sitotroga cerealella Oliv.) In the Southern states stored grain is severely attacked by a very small grub which starts work within the kernels in the field, and con- tinues its depredations after the grain is harvested and stored. The Fig. 564. — Work of the Angoumois Grain-moth. Original. GRAIN-MOTHS 359 outward evidence of its work is seen in tiny, round holes through the hard outer coating of the grain, showing where adults have emerged. Frequently the adult moths, small, buff-colored " millers," are notice- ably abundant, especially at threshing time. There are half a dozen or more generations in the course of the year. The earliest moths in spring at once fly to the grain fields and two or three generations are reared in the growing kernels. The grubs of the last are har- vested along with the grain, and the work goes on Fig. 565. — Larvae of the Angoumois Grain-moth. En- as long as warm Fig. 566.— The Angoumois Grain- larged to twice nat- weather lasts. moth. Enlarged and natural size. ural size. Original. Original. Corn usually be- comes infested only after being husked, the moths flying to it and laying eggs on it. In control, grain should be threshed as soon as harvested. It should be stored in tight bins, watched carefully, and if it heats, indicating the presence of the pest, should be fumigated at once with carbon bisulphide. Corn husked late and placed in open cribs out doors seldom becomes infested. The European Grain-moth {Tinea granella Linn.) A tiny moth, with brown and white spotted wings, lays its eggs on developing grains in the field, its minute grubs feeding within the kernels in similar fashion to the It continues to breed in stored grains, Fig. 567. — The European Grain- moth. Enlarged and natural size. Original. Angoumois grain moth just as does the other insect named, but its work may readily be 360 PESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS distinguished from the fact that there is always more or less webbing over the grain. Remedies consist in prompt threshing, storing in tight bins, and fumigation with car- bon bisulphide as soon as the presence of the pest is discovered. The Mediterranean Flour Moth {Ephestia kuehniella Zell.) This imported pest now ranks as one of the most destructive and troublesome of the insects infesting stored flour, bran, buckwheat, crack- ers, and cereal foods. It is the im- mature stage of a dull gray moth, expanding about one inch. The full grown larva is a half inch long, white, ornamented with fine Fig. 568. — Empty pupal skin of the European Grain-moth. En- larged and natural size. Orig- inal. Fig. 569. — Work of the Mediterranean Flour Moth. Original. black dots, and sparsely covered with hairs. It feeds within a silk tube, and spins quantities of silk wherever it goes, especially when FLOUR MOTHS 361 traveling about before pupation, with the result that the material in which it is at work is matted together and rendered valueless. In most situations, breeding goes on continuously. Remedies consist of fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas. Treat- FiG. 570. — Larva of the Mediterra- nean Flour Moth. Slightly enlarged. Original. Fig. 571. — The Mediterranean Flour Moth. Slightly enlarged. Original. ment by heat is now gaining in favor, and promises to be a valuable method. This treatment is described under the following insect. The Indian-meal Moth {Plodia interpunctella Hbn.) Stored grains and flours of many kinds frequently become infested with the larvse of this tiny moth, which travel here and there through the grain or meal,* eating as they go, and always spinning quantities of web with which will be found mixed the castings of the worms. The larva is about a half inch long, whitish or pale pink or greenish. In heated warehouses breeding may go on throughout the year. The adult is a small moth, expanding one half to three fourths of an inch, the fore wings reddish brown in their outer parts, the F^«- ^^2. — The Indian-meal , • , ^. Moth. Larva. Slightly en- ^ ^ ^' larged. Original. In elevators or warehouses that are heated by steam the pest may be treated successfully by heat. If the temperature throughout the building can be raised to 120 degrees Fahrenheit, and maintained at that point for 6 hours, practically all 362 PESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS Fig. 573. — Adult of the Indian-meal Moth. Enlarged and natural size. Original. of the insects will be killed. Some additional piping may be necessary in order to accomplish this, but usually the cost is justified by the results, and the improvement, once made, is permanent. The pest may be killed by fumigation with carbon bi- sulphide or hydrocyanic acid gas. The Meal Snout-moth {Pyralis farinalis Linn.) The habits of this species resemble those of the Indian- meal moth. The larvae work in grains or grain products, such as flour, bran, or meal, and spin long tubes of silk, ruining more than they consume. There are three or four generations annually under favorable conditions. Treatment is the same as for the preceding species. Fig. 574. — Larvte and pupa of the Meal Snout-moth. Slightly enlarged. Orig- inal. BEETLES AND WEEVILS 363 Fig. 575. — The Meal Snout-moth. Slightly enlarged. Original. Fig. 576. — The Granary Wee- vil. Enlarged and natiiral size. Original. Fig. 578. — The Rice Weevil. Enlarged and natural size. Original. Fig. 579. — The Confused Flour Beetle. Enlarged and natural size. Original. 364 PESTS^ OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS Fig. 580. — The Saw-Toothed Grain Beetle. Enlarged and natural size. Original. Beetles and Weevils in Stored Products Stored grain and other stored products are subject to infestation by many species of small beetles. In most cases the greater part of the injury is due to the feeding of '' grubs," which are the immature stages of the pest concerned, but since the grubs often work concealed, while the adults are active and visible, the latter are the stages commonly noted. Some of the species most likely to be observed are the following: The Granary Weevil (Calandra gra- naria Linn.). A brown snout-beetle, one seventh of an inch long. Infests stored grains, especially wheat, corn, and bar- ley. The wings are not functional, and the insect cannot fly. The Rice Weevil {Calandra oryza Linn.). A dark brown snout-beetle with two obscure, slightly lighter markings on each wing cover. Attacks stored grains ; also such manufactured products as crackers, flour, and the like. The adult can fly. The Confused Flour Beetle (Tri- holium conjusum Duv.). A flat, brown beetle, one sixth of an inch long. A destructive pest of flour, cereal foods, and grains. The Rust-red Flour Beetle {Tri- holium navale Fab . ) . Closely resembles the preceding species. The same feeding habits. The Saw-toothed Grain Beetle (Silvanus surinamensis Linn.). A slender, dark brown beetle, its thorax edged with short teeth. Found in all kinds of foodstuffs. The Cadelle ( Tenebroides maiiritanicus Linn.) . A black, oblong beetle, one third of an inch in length. The larva whitish, fleshy, tapering Fig. 581. — The Cadelle. En- larged and natural size. Orig- inal. WEEVILS 365 somewhat toward each end, three fourths of an inch long. Feeds on the germ of grains. Adults and larvae also predaceous. For all of these pests the surest treatment is fumigation with carbon bisulphide or carbon tetrachloride. They may be killed, also, by heat- ing the material in which they are at work to a temperature of 125 to 140 degrees for three or four hours. When foodstuffs in houses are infested, a thorough cleaning out of the storage places is necessary, together with proper treatment of the materials affected. In addition all cracks and cre\dces should be sprayed wi^h gasoline, taking proper precautions to guard against fire. The Bean Weevil {Acanthoscelides {Bruchus) obtectus Say) Dried beans that have been gathered and stored for winter use are injured or destroyed by this insect. Many beans will be found showing Fig. 582. — Work of the Bean Weevil. Original. round holes where the adult weevils have emerged, others will have grubs still at work inside, and in the box or bin will be found numerous 366 PESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS small, mottled, brownish beetles, about one eighth of an inch long, their wing covers a little shorter than their bodies. Infestation may have been carried over from old beans left in the box from last season's crop, for the insect continues to breed through the year in stored beans. Or the eggs may have been laid in the beans while still on the ^dnes in the field, the beetles being abroad on the wing in late summer. Fumigation with carbon bisulphide or carbon tetrachloride is the best treatment, and should be applied as soon as beans are gathered. Infested beans should not be planted for seed. Fig. 583. — The Bean Weevil. Adult, enlarged and natural size. Original. Fig. 584. — The Cowpea Weevil. Enlarged and natural size. Original. The Cowpea Weevil {Pachymerus (Bruchus) chinensis L.) Stored beans, peas, and cowpeas are attacked by this weevil. In most particulars its life round is the same as that of the bean weevil. It continues to breed in the stored seed. Treatment consists in fumigation with carbon bisulphide or carbon tetrachloride. The Four-spotted Bean Weevil (Pachymerus (Bruchus) quadrimacu- latus Fab.) Still another weevil working in dried beans and peas is the four- spotted bean weevil. While the adult differs somewhat from the pre- WEEVILS 367 Fig. 585. — Work of the Four-spotted Bean Weevil. Original. ceding in shape and markings, its habits and hfe history are practically the same. It lays eggs in the field, but also continues to breed in the dried, stored product. The treatment is fumigation with carbon bisulphide or carbon tetrachloride. Fig. 5hG. — The Four- spotted Bean Weevil. Enlarged and natural size. Original. Fig. 587. — Work of the Pea Weevil. Original. 368 FESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS The Pea Weevil {Laria (Bruchus) pisorum L.) The adult pea weevil is similar in appearance to the bean weevil, but is a little larger and has a shorter thorax. The grubs live in peas, hatching from eggs laid on the pods early in the season by the adults, while the peas are still in the field. Unlike the bean weevil this pest never goes on breeding in the dried, stored product. The grubs are in the peas when they are gathered. In the South the adults emerge before the next planting time, but in the North the insect is still in the seed when it is planted. Emergence of the adults may be accelerated by keeping the peas in a warm place. Seed may be held over for a season. The best treatment, however, is fumigation with carbon bisulphide or carbon tetrachloride. Fig. 588. — The Pea Weevil. En- larged and natural size. Original. Weevils in Nuts The white, thick grubs often found in chestnuts, pecans, and hickory nuts are familiar to all. Their exit holes also, where the mature grub has cut its way out through the shell, are commonly recognized. The adults of these grubs are beetles, one fourth to one third inch long, yellowish in general color with darker markings, and charac- terized by an extremely long snout, slender as a pin. Biting jaws are located at the end of the snout. There are three species concerned : the Larger Chestnut Weevil (Balaninus prohoscideus Fab.) ; the Chestnut Weevil (Balaninus rectus Say) ; and the Pecan, or Hickory Nut Weevil {Balaninus caryce Horn.). All are similar in appearance, and their habits are much the same. Direct means of control of these pests in the field is not possible. NUT-WEEVILS — MEAL WORM 369 The adults come out from the ground in spring, and continue emerging throughout the summer. When the nuts are large enough, they punc- ture them through the husk or burr with their long snouts, and la}^ their eggs within. The grubs mature usually soon after the nuts fall, eat their way out, and winter in the soil. Xuts should be gathered regularly and at frequent in- tervals. In the case of chest- nuts it is wise to fumigate with carbon bisulphide immediately after gathering. The gas will pene- trate the nuts and kill the weevils, some of which will be so small that they have not yet damaged the kernel appreciably. ^^p^n^^H ■Hi^^ m^ n HfllMfll ^^^H Fig. 589. — Work of the Hickory Nut Weevil. Original. The Yellow Mealworm {Tenebrio molitor Linn.) Corn meal or similar material is often infested with yellowish or brownish worms, an inch long when full grown, their backs shining and '' hard-shelled," looking somewhat like wireworms. The adult is a Fig. 590. — The Yellow Mealworm. Slightly enlarged. Original. Fig. 591.— Adult of the Yellow Mealworm. SHghtly enlarged. Orig- inal. dark, oblong beetle, which flies at night, and lays eggs wherever it can find suitable material. Treatment consists in a thorough cleaning up of waste meal, combined with fumigation or heating of infested lots. There is only one generation annually. 2b 370 PJESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS The Cigarette Beetle (Lasioderma serricorne Fab.) Stored tobacco, and various other stored products, often become infested with this pest. The larvae is a white, fleshy, tiny grub. The adult is one sixteenth of an inch long, brownish, its head bent back under its thorax. The larvae feed here and there through their food sub- stance, and the beetles make small round holes in Fig. 592. — Work and larva of the Cigarette Beetle. Enlarged. Original. Fig. 593. — The Cigarette Beetle. Adult, enlarged and natural size. Original. emerging. There are several generations annually under suitable conditions. Warehouses that have become infested should be thor- oughly cleane<:l up, and then fumigated with carbon bisulphide or hydrocj^anic acid gas. CHAPTER XXV Insect Pests of Domestic Animals Many different species of insects live as parasites on or in domestic animals. Some of these have totally different habits and character- istics; and thus the treatment for one will not always answer for another. But between many species only minor differences exist. The commoner and more typical forms will be given here. The Horse Bot-fly (Gastrophilus equi Fab.) In its larval stage this insect is an internal parasite within the stomach of the horse, where it lives attached to the walls. It injures the animal by interfering with digestion and by the irritation set up by its pres- ence. The adult fly frequents horses throughout midsum- FiG. 594. — Larvae of the Horse Bot-fly. Slightly enlarged. Original. Fig. 595. — Eggs of the Horse Bot-fly, attached to hairs. Enlarged and nat- ural size. Original. 371 372 PESTS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS mer, and fastens its eggs to the hairs of the animal's shoulders or fore legs. The eggs are yellowish in color and plainly visible. They are hatched by the action of the ani- mal's tongue in licking itself, and are carried by the tongue to the mouth, whence they reach the stomach. When full grown, the larvae pass out and pupate in the soil. Examine the stock once every two weeks during summer, and if eggs are found, shave them off with a sharp knife or moisten them with kerosene, or with Fig. 596.— The Horse Bot-fly. ^ solution of carboHc acid 1 part, water Slightly enlarged. Original. 30 parts. The Sheep Bot-fly {(Estrus ovis Linn.) The maggots of this species develop in the upper nasal passages of sheep, sometimes penetrating the brain. Living young are deposited in the nostrils by the adult flies in June and July. The mature mag- gots work their way out through the nostrils after ten months and pupate in the ground. Finely powdered lime is used to induce sneezing, so as to dislodge the maggots. The same result is secured by dipping a feather in tur- pentine and running it up the nos- trils. A mixture of tar and grease or other repellent may be smeared on the nose to keep off the adult flies, but is not entirely effectual. Fig. 597. — Larva of the Sheep Bot- fly. Slightly enlarged. Original. The Ox Warble (Hypodernia lineata Villers) The ox warble is a species of bot-fly, which spends the latter part of its larval stage as a fleshy, footless grub beneath the skin of the back. INTERNAL PARASITES 373 A hole is made through the sldn by which the grub gets air. These holes are a source of great loss in dressed hides, and the presence of the grub causes irritation and often loss of weight or of milk flow in the infested animal. The adult is about the size and shape of a honey-bee, but has only two wings instead of four. The sides of its head and thorax are marked with white, and on the upper surface of the thorax are four shining raised lines. The base of the abdomen is whitish. Eggs are laid in early summer attached to hairs near the heels of the animal. The egg opens as the animal licks its heels, and the young grub is carried by the tongue to the mouth. It at once penetrates the walls of the throat and for several months is in the connective tissue along the back of the neck and else- where. Finally it settles under the skin of the back, and makes its breath- ing hole through the hide. When mature, it drops to the ground, where it remains until the next spring. The presence of the grub results in damage to the beef, gi\ang it a slimy appearance. In addition the hide is injured. Fhes will not lay eggs on animals that are standing in water. In smaU herds strong-smelling oils may be smeared on the lower part of the legs, and will act as deterrents. A mixture sometimes recom- mended consists of sulphur, 4 ounces; spirits of tar, 1 gill; train oil (whale oil), 1 quart. As a rule the adult flies do not enter stables or attack animals under shelter. The grubs under the skin are best removed by pressing each side of the hole until the end of the grub protrudes, and drawing it out with tweezers. The best time to do this is in February or March. The grubs can be located by passing the hand along the back. If the grubs are thus removed, the flesh beneath wiU heal and the hole will close within a short time. Fig 598. — Larva of the Warble. Original. 374 PESTS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS The Screw-worm '{Ckrysomyia macellaria Fab.) Exposed wounds or even the bites of ticks form the breeding ground of the whitish maggots of this species. Eggs are laid in large numbers in such places by the adult fly, and the young burrow in the surrounding tissues, later enter- ing the ground to transform. There may be several genera- tions annually. Prompt treatment of chance wounds, and dipping to kill or prevent ticks, are the best Fig. 599. — The Screw- worm Fly. En- measures to adopt. In the larged and natural size. Original. treatment of WOUnds a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part, water, 30 parts, is excellent, followed by a dressing of pine tar. Sucking Lice on Domestic Animals The larger animals, including cattle, horses, swine, and others, are often infested with sucking lice, which frequently cause great irritation. Several species are conmion. The Short-nosed Ox Louse {Hmmato- pinus eurysternns Nitzsch) is slaty in color, one eighth to one fifth of an inch long and about half as broad. Usually it is most troublesome on the neck and shoulders. The Long-nosed Ox Louse {Hoematopinus vituli Linn.) is slender, one eighth of an inch long. Its head is distinctly elongated. The Hog Louse ( Hcematopinus urius Nitzsch) is gray, one fourth of an inch long, the body broadly elliptical, the u A T5 ji • / . ^ • f ^^ , Fig. 600. — The Short-nosed head narrow. Badly mfested pigs fail to q^ Louse. Enlarged and make proper gains in weight. natural size. Original. LICE — TICKS — MITES 375 For all of these pests, treatment consists in the application of suit- able contact insecticides, which may be kerosene emulsion, tobacco extract, or various ointments. Kerosene emulsion should be prepared by diluting the stock emulsion with 8 or 10 parts of water. '' Black leaf 40," or '' nicotine sulphate," is diluted at the rate of 1 part to 800 of water. Biting Lice on Domestic Animals Various species of flat-bodied, broad-headed, biting lice infest the larger animals. They feed on the rough parts of the skin and on the hairs, and cause considerable irritation, though they do not suck the blood. Commonly they are spoken of as the " little red lice," as distinguished from the bluish sucking lice. All are members of the genus Trichodedes. T. scalaris Nitz. infests cattle ; Piag. is common on the horse; the sheep. Washes of kerosene emulsion or tobacco extract are effective, as described for sucking lice. Fig. 601.— The Long-nosed Ox Louse. Enlarged and natural size. Original. T. parumpilosiis T. spfuerocephalus Nitz. is found on The Cattle- tick (Margaropus annulatus Say) Throughout many of the Southern states cattle are subject to a fever which is transmitted by a tick. Enormous losses are caused each year by the work of this pest. The tick which serves as a carrier for this disease is a dark-bodied, eight-legged creature, and goes through a peculiar life round. The adult engorged female drops from the cattle to the ground and lays its eggs. These hatch into ''seed ticks," which then crawl up on the nearest herbage and wait for cattle to come Fig. 602. — The Cattle- , ^ , i • , i x ^u tick. Shghtly enlarged. ^^^^^- ^^^^ ^ack on an animal host, they Original. go through their Ufe round to adult. 376 FESTS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS Control is based on keeping cattle out of tick-infested pastures long enough to starve out all the seed ticks. The latter do not go in search of a host, but wait for it to come. Luckily this scheme works in well with various desirable crop rotations. In the case of range animals, dipping or spraying to kill the ticks on the animal is resorted to. The Sheep Tick {Melophagus ovinus Linn.) Degenerate, reddish or brownish, flattened insects, one fourth of an inch long or less, suck the blood of sheep and lambs. They are especially injurious to the latter. The pest is most numerous in the spring months. The entire life round is spent on the sheep. While this species belongs in the order of flies, the adults are entirely wingless. Sheep should be dipped after shearing. Various substances are on the market for this purpose. Or, one of the commercial tobacco extracts may be used, following Fiu. (HKi.-Thc Shoei) Tick. .,.,,. . , , ,, , . Enlarged and natural size. ;the mstructions printed on the contamer Original. in which the material is sold. The Sheep Scab-mite (Psoroptes communis Furst, var. ovis) Small, sucking mites breed in large numbers under scales or crusts formed on the skin of sheep. There is violent itching, and the wool looks rough and ragged, often sticking together in places, or falling entirely out. Attack is usually confined to the neck, back, and rump, the under parts being more or less free of the mites. The mites are exceedingly small, and swarm around the edges of the scabs. Dipping of infested animals is the only thorough remedy. The same materials are used as in dipping for the sheep tick, the one dip serving to kill both insects. LICE AND MITES ON POULTRY 377 Biting Lice on Poultry Several different species of biting lice affect poultry, including the genera Menopo7i, Lipeurus, and others. They var}^ in particular characteristics, but all are alike in the fact that they do not suck the blood of their host, but cause injury by eating the surface of the skin and the finer parts of the feathers, and by the tiny pricks of their sharp claws as they move about over their host. On young chicks their irrita- tion may readily prove fatal. The eggs or " nits " are laid on the feathers, and in warm weather hatch in ten days. Both young and adults are apt to be especially active at night, crawling over the perches and moving from one fowl to another. Treatment must include both the poultry house and the fowls in order to be entirely effective. The latter may be dusted with a mix- ture of 10 pounds of sulphur to | bushel of air-slaked lime. The same material may be used in the house, taking care to get it into all cracks, and mixing it with the dust bath. A more effective measure for the house is spraying with lime-sulphur solution or 10 per cent kerosene emulsion. Treatment of the fowls should be repeated at the end of a week or ten days. Fig. 604. — A Chicken Louse, Li- -peurus variabilis. Enlarged and natural size. Original. The Chicken Mite {Dermanyssus gallince Redi.) Several species of mites attack poultry, but the commonest is the one here described. It is a minute, eight-legged creature, one twentieth of an inch long, normally grayish in color but appearing red when filled with blood. It has sucking mouth parts. Eggs are laid in droppings or in places where dirt has accumulated, and the j^oung feed at first on such substances. Later they crawl on 378 PESTS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS hens or young chicks, but they do not remain on them all the time, usually feeding only at night or when a hen is on a nest, and hiding in cracks in the henhouse during daytime. Often they will be found during the day clustered in little colonies on the under side of perches, especially in crevices in the wood. In control the first measure is a thorough cleaning up of the poultry house. Then spray the interior with lime-sulphur solution or with 20 per cent kerosene emulsion. The spraying treatment should be repeated after a few days. The Itch Mite of Poultry {Cnemidocoptes mutans Robin.) This pest is related to the common chicken mite, but attacks rather the legs, the comb, or the neck, ^^i • , '~^.- ^ where it burrows under the skin, causing a scaly Chicken Mite. ' * -^ Enlarged and Crust to form. natural size. Dry, sunny quarters should be provided for Original. fowls attacked. The legs or other affected parts should be washed in warm soap and water, followed by the appli- cation of a suitable ointment, which should be one containing sulphur. Another species, Cnemidocoptes gallince Railliet, causes such irrita- tion that the fowls pull out their feathers ; or the feathers break off. A whitish, powdery substance will be found in the base of the quills, and in this the lice live. Give the same treatment as for the other itch mite, just described. The Cuban Hen Flea {Argopsijlla gallinacea West.) In the Southern states this species of flea seriously infests fowls and sometimes is a nuisance to man. On fowls, the fleas collect in large numbers on spots bare of feathers, such as the comb or wattles, bury their sucking mouth parts in the flesh, and stick so tight that they can hardly be dislodged. The young develop in waste matter in the nest or on the ground. The remedies are suitable ointments or washes. BITING FLIES 379 Horseflies, or "Gadflies" {Tabanidce) Horses and cattle, and often other animals as well, are persecuted by various species of large, two-winged flies, which alight on the head, neck, back, or flanks, and torment the animals by piercing the skin and sucking the blood. The pests are capable of causing noticeable loss of flesh, not to mention the unpleasant effects on the animal's disposition. These flies have no connection with the bots or grubs found in the stomach of the horse or under the skin of the back of cattle. Their sole injury is that caused by their bites. Their young live in pools or running streams, and their eggs are laid on leaves or twigs over- hanging the water. Various oils may be applied to the animals, to drive away the flies. One method is to spray them with kerosene emulsion, diluting the stock with 10 parts of water. The Horn-fly {Lyperosia irritans Linn., formerly Hcematobia serrata) The horn-fly is a biting insect about the size of a common house fly but more slender, and injures cattle by swarming on them in large numbers, biting and annoying them severely. The fly gets its name from its habit of resting in clusters around the base of the horns, where it cannot be dislodged by its host. It does not feed at this point particu- larly, but rather on the flanks, bellj^, and wherever opportunity offers. There are several generations annually. The larva is a small maggot, and lives in moist, fresh dung. If all dung is collected frequently and spread out to dry, the maggots will be killed. Cattle may be protected by repellents, among which fish oil or train oil is the best. Kerosene emulsion, applied with a spray pump, will kill such flies as it hits, and will give protection for two or three days. 606. — The Horn-fly. Enlarged and natural size. Original. REFERENCES For general accounts of the writings in Economic Entomology, and for lists of publications, see Bulletins 40 and 81 of the Bureau of Ento- mology, United States Department of Agriculture. Detailed accounts of the insects considered in this book will be found in the following bulletins and reports. Abbreviations Bur. Ent.=Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture. Exp. Sta.=The various State Experiment Stations. Rpt. State Ent.= Annual Reports of the various State Entomologists. Farmers' Bull. = Farmers' Bulletin, United States Department of Agriculture. Acanthoscelides obtectus. Yearbook, U.S.D.A., 1898, page 239. Acrididoe, 23 Rpt. 111. State Ent., page 136. Acronycta oblinita, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 155-157. ^geria rutilans, Bur. Ent. Bull. 23. .^geria tipuliforinis, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 60-64. Agrilus ruficollis, N. J. Exp. Sta. Special Bull. N. Agriotes mancus, Bur. Ent. Bull. 27. Agromyza simplex, Bur. Ent. Bull. 66-1. Alabama argillacea, Bur. Ent. Circ. 153. Aleurodes citri, Bur. Ent. Bull. 92. Aleurodes vaporariorum, Bur. Ent. Bull. 92. Allorhina nitida, 23d Rpt. 111. State Ent., page 101. Alsophila pometarin, Rpt. Conn. State Ent., 1908, page 777. Alypia odomaculata, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 66-67. Ampeloglypter ater, W. Va. Exp. Sta. Bull. 119. Ampcloglypter sesostris, W. Va. Exp. Sta. Bull. 119. Ampelophaga myron, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 42-45. Anaphothrips striata, jSIaine Exp. Sta. Bull. 83. Anarsia lineatella, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 169. 381 382 REFERENCES Anasa tristis, Bur. Ent. Circ. 39. Ancylis co?nptana, N. J. Exp, Sta. Bull. 225. Ancylis nubeculana, N. Y. State Museum Bull. 124. Anomala spp., 10th Rpt. N. Y. State Ent., page 411. Anthonomus grandis, Farmers' Bull. 344. Anthonomus quadrigibbus, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 98. Anthonomus scutellaris, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 47. Anthonomus signatus, N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 225. Anthrenus scrophidarice, N. Y. State Museum Bull. 136. Aphis bakeri, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133. Aphis brassicce, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 300. Aphis forbesi, N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 225. Aphis gossypii, Bur. Ent. Circ. 80. Aphis maidis, Bur. Ent. Tech. Ser. Bull. 12-VIII. Aphis maidi-radicis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 85-VI. Aphis persicae-niger, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133. Aphis pomi, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133. Aphis rumicis, Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 23. Aphis setaricB, Okla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 88. Aphis sorbi, Rpt. Conn. State Ent., 1909, page 343. Archips argyrospila, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 311. Archips rosaceana, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 311. Aspidiotus ancylus, Mo. Fruit Sta. Bull. 18. Aspidiotus forbesi, Mo. Fruit Sta. Bull. 18. Aspidiotus ostreceformis, Bur. Ent., Bull. 20. Aspidiotus perniciosus. Bur. Ent. Bull. 62. Aulacaspis rosce, N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 159. Autographa brassicce, Bur. Ent. Bull. 33. Balaninus spp., W. Va. Exp. Sta. Bull. 128. Bembecia marginata, Wash. Exp. Sta. Bull. 63. Blattidce, Bur. Ent. Circ. 51. Blissus leucopterus, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 95, Bur. Ent. Bull. 69. Brucophagus funebris, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. Bryobia pratensis, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 152. Bucculatrix pomifoliella, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 214. Byturus unicolor, Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 202. Calandra granaria, Farmers' Bull. 45. Calandra oryza, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bull. 203. Caliroa amygdalina, Bur. Ent. Bull. 97-V. Caliroa cerasi, Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 130. Canarsia hammondi, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., page 217. Carpocapsa pomonella, Bur. Ent. Bull. 41. REFERENCES 383 Cassida spp., N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 229. Cephus occidentalis, Bur. Ent. Circ. 117. Ceratoma trifurcata, U.S.D.A. Yearbook, 1898, pages 253-255. Ceresa bubalus, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 17. Ceutorhynchus rapce, Bur. Ent. Bull. 23. Chcetocnema confinis, N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 229. Chalcodermus ceneus, Bur. Ent. Bull. 85-VIII. Chionaspis furfura, Bur. Ent. Circ. 121. Chloridea virescens, Farmers' Bull. 120. Chrysobothris femorata, Bur. Ent. Circ. 32. Chrysomyia macellaria, Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. Cimex lectularius, Bur. Ent. Circ. 47. Cingilia catenaria, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 186-187. Cladius pectinicornis, Bur. Ent. Circ. 105. Cleora pampinaria. Bur. Ent. Bull. 66-III. Clivina impressifrons, Bur. Ent. Bull. 85-11. Cnemidocoptes spp.. Bur. Ent. Circ. 92. Colaspis brunnea, 23d Rpt. 111. State Ent., page 104. Coleophora fietcherella, Bur. Ent. Bull. 80-11. Coleophora malivorella, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 124. Conotrachelus cratcegi, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 148. Conotrachelus nenuphar, Bur. Ent. Bull. 103. Contariyiia johnsoni, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 331. Contarinia pyrivora, N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 99. Contarinia sorghicola, Bur. Ent. Bull. 85-IV. Coptocycla spp., N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 229. Coptodisca splendoriferella, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 263-265. Crambus hortuellus, Mass. Exp. Sta. Bull. 115. Cr ambus spp.. 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 95. Craponius incequalis, W. Va. Exp. Sta. Bull. 100. Crioceris asparagi. Bur. Ent. Circ. 102, Crioceris duodecimpunctata, Bur. Ent. Circ. 102. Ctenocephalus canis, Bur. Ent. Circ. 108. Cidicidce, Bur. Ent. Bull 88. Cydia nigricana, Bur. Ent. Bull. 33. Cylas formicarius, Tex. Exp. Sta. Bull. 93. Cymatophora ribearia, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 184-186. Dasyneura leguminicola, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. Datana ministra, N. H. Exp. Sta. Bull. 139. Dermanyssus gallinoj, Bur. Ent. Circ. 92. Desmia funeralis, Farmers' Bull. 70. Diabrotica duodecitnpunctata, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 44. 384 REFERENCES Diabrotica longicornis, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 44. Diabrotica vittata, 20tli Rpt. N. H, Exp. Sta. Diacrisia virginica, Bur. Ent. Bull. 82-V. Diaphania hyalinata, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bull. 214. Diaphania nitidalis, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bull. 214. Diastrophus turgidus, Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 45. Diatrcea saccharalis, Bur. Ent. Circ. 116. Diatroea zeacolella, Bur. Ent. Circ. 139. Dichomeris ligulellus, N. Y. Cornell, Exp. Sta. Bull. 187. Dicyphus minimus, Fla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 48. Disonycha spp., 21st Rpt. III. State Ent., page 115-117. Dolerus spp., Insect Life, Vol. IV, page 169. Drasteria erechtea, Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 116. Dysdercus suturellus. Bur. Ent. Circ. 149. Eccoptogaster rugulosus, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 180. Elaphidion villosum, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 151. Elasmopalpus lignosellus, Bur. Ent. Bull. 23. Elateridce, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 44. Emphytus cinctus, Bur. Ent. Circ. 105. Empoasca mali, Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 111. Empria maculata. Mo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 54. Endelomyia rosce, Bur. Ent. Circ. 105. Ennomos subsignarius, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 286. Ephestia kuehniella, Bur. Ent. Circ. 112. Epicoerus imbricatus, Bur. Ent. Bull. 43. Epilachna borealis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 19. Epilachna corrupta, Yearbook, U. S. D. A., 1898, p. 251. Epitrix cucumeris, Bur. Ent. Bull. 19. Epitrix parvula, Bur. Ent. Circ. 123. Epochra canadensis, Maine Exp. Sta. Bull. 35. Erannis tilaria, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 193-195. Eriophyes pyri, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 306. Estigm,ene acrcea, Bur. Ent. Bull. 43. Eudamus proteus, Fla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 45. Eulecanium nigrofasciatum, Md. Exp. Sta. Bull. 149. Euphoria inda, Bur. Ent. Bull. 19. Euproctis chrysorrhoea, N. H. Exp. Sta. Bull. 136. Eurymus eurytheme. Bur. Ent. Circ. 133. Eutettix tenella. Bur. Ent. Bull. 66-IV. Euthrips nicotiance. Bur. Ent. Bull. 65. Euthrips pyri, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 343. Euthrips tritici, Fla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 46. REFERENCES 385 Evergestis rimosalis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 33. Fidia viticida, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 331. Formicina, Bur. Ent. Circ. 34. Fungous Diseases, Bur. Ent. Bull. 107. Galerucella cavicollis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 19. Gastrophilus equi, Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. Hcemotopinus eurysternus, Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. Hoematopinus urius, Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. H (Emotopinus vituli. Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. Haltica chalybea, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 331. Haltica ignita, Bur. Ent. Bull. 23. Harrisina americana. Bur. Ent. Bull. 68-VIII. Heliothis obsoleta, Farmers' Bull. 290. Heliothrips hcemorrhoidalis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 64- VI. Hellula undalis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 109-III. Hemerocampa leucostigma, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 312. Hemerocampa spp., 111. Exp. Sta. BuU. 151. H eterocordylus malinus, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 291. Household Insects, Bur. Ent. Bull. 4. Hyalopterus arundinis, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133. Hydrcecia immanis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 7. Hylastinus obscurus, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. Hypena humuli, Bur. Ent. Bull. 7. Hyphantria cunea, Del. Exp. Sta. Bull. 56. Hypoderma lineata, Bur. Ent. Circ. 25. Hypsopygia costalis, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. Insects and Disease, Bur. Ent. Bull. 78. Iridomyrmex hmnilis, Cal. Exp. Sta. Bull. 207. Isia Isabella, 23d Rept. lU. State Ent., pages 72-75. Isosoma grande. Bur. Ent. Circ. 100. Isosoma hordei, Bur. Ent. Bull. 42. Isosoma triiici, Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 226. Ithycerus noveboracensis, 5th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., page 187. Itonida tritici, Farmers' Bull. 132. Janus integer, N. Y. Cornell, Exp. Sta. Bull. 126. . Jassidce, 21st. Rpt. 111. State Ent., pages 62-79, Bur. Ent. Bull. 57. Lachnosterna spp., 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 116. Languria mozardi. 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. Laphygma exigua. Bur. Ent. Bull. 33. Laphygma frugiperda. Bur. Ent. Bull. 29. Laria pisorum. Yearbook, U.S.D.A., 1898, pages 234-239. Lasioderma serricorne, Fla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 48. 2c 386 REFERENCES Laspeyresia inter stinctana. 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. Laspeyresia prunivora. Bur. Ent. Bull. 68-V. Lecanium conii, Bur. Ent. Bull. 80-VIII. Lema trilineata, 1st Rpt. Mo. State Ent., page 99. Lepidosaphes ulmi, Bur. Ent. Circ. 121. Lepisma saccharina, Bur. Ent. Circ. 49. Leptinotarsa decemlineata, Bur. Ent. Circ. 87. Leucania unipuncta, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 95. Ligyrus gihbosus, Bur. Ent. Bull. 33. Ligyrus rugiceps, Bur. Ent. Bull. 54. Lipeurus spp., Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. Lixus concavus. Bur. Ent. Bull. 23. Loxostege similalis, 23d Rpt. Ill, State Ent., page 89. Loxostege sticticalis, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 98. Lygidea mendax, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 291. Lygus pratensis, Mo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 47. Lyperosia irritans, Bur. Ent. Circ. 115. Macrodactylus subspinosus, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. BuU. 331. Macrosiphum pisi, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. Macrosiphum solanifolii, Maine Exp. Sta. Bull. 147. Malacosoma americana, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 152. Malacosoma disstria, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 159. Mamestra legitima, Bur. Ent. BuU. 66-III. Mamestra picta, 14tli Rpt. N. Y. State Ent., pages 201-207. Mar gar opus annulatus, Tenn. Exp. Sta. BuU. 81. Mayetiola destructor. Bur. Ent. Bull. 16. Melanotus communis, 18tli Rpt. 111. State Ent., pages 27-51. Meliana albilinea, Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 122. Melittia satyriniformis, Ga. Exp. Sta. Bull. 45. MeloidoB, Bur. Ent. Bull. 43. Melophagus ovinus, Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. Memythrus polistiformis, W. Va. Exp. Sta. Bull. 110. Menopon spp., Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. Meromyza americana, Bur. Ent. Bull. 42. Metallus rubi, Del. Exp. Sta. BuU. 87. Mineola indiginella, 4tli Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 211-213. Mineola vaccinii, Mass. Exp. Sta. Bull. 115. Monomorium spp., Bur. Ent. Circ. 34. Monophadnoides rubi, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 150. Monoptilota nubilella. Bur. Ent. Bull. 23. M anoxia puncticollis, 24th Rpt. Colo. Exp. Sta., pages 108-111. Murgantia histrionica. Bur. Ent. Circ. 103. REFERENCES 387 Musca domestica, Farmers' Bull. 459. Myzus cerasi, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133. Myzus persicce, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133. Myzus ribis, N. Y. Geneva, Exp. Sta. Bull. 139. Noctuidce, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 95. Nysius angustatus, 23d Rpt. 111. State Ent., page 117. Oberea bimaculata, Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 96. (Ecanthus spp., 23d Rpt. III. State Ent., page 215. (Estrus ovis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. Oncideres cingulatus, Okla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 91. Otiorhynchus ovatus, Maine Exp. Sta. Bull. 123. Oxyplilus periscelidactylus, 4tli Rpt. Minn. State Ent., page 221. Pachymerus chinensis, Yearbook, U.S.D.A., 1898, page 242. Pachymerus quadrimaculatus, Yearbook, U.S.D.A., 1898, page 245. Pachynematus extensicoriiis. Insect Life, Vol. IV, pages 174—177. Pachyzancla bipunctalis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 109-11. Paleacrita vernata. Bur. Ent. Bull. 68-11. Papaipema nitela, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 95. Papilio polyxenes, Bur. Ent. Bull. 82-11. Parasites, Introduction of. Bur. Ent. Bull. 91. Pegomya brassicce, N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 200. Pegomya fusciceps, Bur. Ent. Circ. 63. Pegomya vicina, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 99. Pelidnota punctata, Okla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 26. Pemphigus betoe, Wash. Exp. Sta. Bull. 42. Pentatoma ligata, Bur. Ent. Bull. 86. Peridroma margaritosa. Bur. Ent. Bull. 29. Periplaneta americana, Bur. Ent. Circ. 51. Peronea minutaf Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 102. Phlegethontius spp., Bur. Ent. Circ. 123. Phla^ophthorus liminaris. Bur. Ent. Bull. 68-IX. Phlyctoenia ferrugalis, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 190. Phorbia cepetorum, Bur. Ent. Circ. 63. Phorbia rubivora, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 126. Phorodon humuli, Cal. Exp. Sta. Bull. 160. Phthorimcea operculella, Cal. Exp. Sta. Bull. 135, Farmers' Bull. 120. Phyllotreta pusilla, Bur. Ent. Bull. 43. Phylloiretra vittata, Rpt. Ent. U.S.D.A., 1884, pages 301-304. Phylloxera vastratrix, Farmers' Bull. 70. Phytonomus nigrirostis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 85-1. Phytonomus posticus, Utah Exp. Sta. Bull. 110. Phytonomus punctatus, lU. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. 388 REFERENCES Piophila casei, Bur. Ent. Bull. 4. Plodia i?iterpunctella, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bull. 203. Plusia simplex, Bur. Ent. Bull. 33. Plutella maculipennis, Ky. Exp. Sta. Bull. 114. P cecilocapsus lineatus, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 58. Polychrosis viteana, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 223. Pontia protodice, 1st Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 71-77. Pontia rapoB, Bur. Ent. Bull. 60. Porthetria dispar, N. H. Exp. Sta. Bull. 136. Prionus imbricornis, 5th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., page 110. Prodenia ornithogalli, Bur. Ent. Bull. 43. Pseudococcus calceolarice, La. Exp. Sta. Bull. 121. Pseudococcus citri, Cal. Exp. Sta. Bull. 214. Psila roscB, Bur. Ent. Bull. 33. Psoroptes communis, Ind. Exp. Sta. Bull. 80. Psylla pyricola, Rpt. Conn. State Ent., 1903, pages 262-266. Psylliodes punctulata, Bur. Ent. Bull, 66-VI. Pteronus ribesii, Rpt. Conn. State Ent., 1902, pages 170-172. Pulvinaria vitis, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 112. Pyralis farinalis, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bull. 203. Rhagoletis cingulata, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 172. Rhagoletis pomonella, N. H. Exp. Sta. Cire. 14. Rhopobota vacciniana, Mass. Exp. Sta. Bull. 115. Sanninoidea exitiosa, Ga. Exp. Sta. Bull. 73. Saperda Candida, Bur. Ent. Circ. 32. Schistocerus hamatus, Farmers' Bull. 70. Schizoneura lanigera, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133. Schizura concinna, N. H. Exp, Sta. Bull. 139. Selandria vitis, Rpt. N. J. State Ent., 1889, page 304. Sibine stimulea, 4tli Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 98-99. Silvanus surinamensis, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bull. 203. Siphocoryne avence, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133. Sitones flavescens, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. Sitotroga cerealla, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bull. 203. Sphenophorus maidis. Bur. Ent. Bull. 95-11. Sphenophorus spp.. 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 95. Sphinx spp., 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., page 29. Spilonota ocellana, Rpt. Conn. State Ent., 1909, page 353. Stomoxys calcitrans, Bur. Ent. Circ. 71. Synanthedon pictipes, Bur. Ent. Bull. 68-IV. Synchlora cerata, 8th Rpt. N. Y. State Ent., pages 129-133. Systena blanda, Bur. Ent. Bull. 23. REFERENCES 389 Systena spp., 23d Rpt. 111. State Ent., page 107. TahanidcB, Ky. Exp. Sta. Bull. 151. Tarsonemus waitei, Bur. Ent. Bull. 97-VI. Tenebrio molilor, Farmers' Bull. 45. Tenebroidcs mauritanicus, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bull. 203. Tetranychus bimaculatus, Bur. Ent. Circ. 150. Thrips tabaci, Fla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 46. Thyreocoris pulicaria, Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 102. Thyridopteryx ephemerceforinis, N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 181. Tibicen septendecim. Bull. 71. Ticks : classification, Bur. Ent. Bull. 72. Tinea granella, Bur. Ent. Bull. 8. Tinea pellionella. Bur. Ent. Circ. 36. Tipulidce, Bur. Ent. Bull. 85-VII. Tischeria malifoliella, Bur. Ent. Bull. 68-III. Toxoptera graminum, Bur. Ent. Circ. 93. Tribolium confusum, Farmers' Bull. 45. Tribolium navale, Farmers' Bull. 45. Trichobaris trinotata. Bur. Ent. Bull. 33. Trichodectes spp., Minn. Exp. Sta. Bull. 48. Tyloderma fragarice, Ky. Exp. Sta. Bull. 80. Typhlocyba comes, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 344. Typophorus canellus, Maine Exp. Sta. Rpt., 1895, pages 106-110. Uranotes melinus. Bur. Ent. Bull. 57. Xyleborus dispar. Bur. Ent. Bull. 7. Xylina spp., N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 123. Zophodia grossularice, 4tli Rpt. Minn. State Ent., page 214. INDEX Abbott's Sphinx, 273. Abdomen, 10. Acanthiicloe, 28. Acanthoscelidcs obtecfus, 365. Accessories : cut-off, 102. extension rod, 101. hose, 102. mixing tanks, 104. nozzles, 100. spray tanks, 103. strainers, 103. Achemon Sphinx, 272. Acid, carbolic, emulsion, 77. hydrocyanic, 82. Acleris minuta, 300. Acrididce, 23, 142. Acronycta ohlinita, 275. ^geria rutilans, 234. tipuliformis, 243. Agitator, 90. Agonoderus pallipes, 125. Agrilus ruficollis, 244. Agriotes mancns, 107. Agroynyza simplex, 138. Agrotis ypsilon, 141. Air chamber, 90. tubes, 11. Alabama argillacca, 175. Aleurudcs vaporariorum, 205. Alfalfa Caterpillar, 175. Leaf-weevil, 162. Alfalfa insects (additional) : Army Worm, 172. Clover Leaf-weevil, 164. » Clover Seed C^halcid Fly, 220. Cutworms, 140. Fall Army Worm, 173. Garden Webworni, 183. Grasshoppers, 142. Alimentary canal, 13. Allorhina nitida, 324. Almond, injury by Thrips, 329, Alsophila pometaria, 281. Alijjna octomaculata, 275. American Cockroach, 353. Ampeloglypter ater, 247. sesostris, 246. Ampelophagus m.yron, 272. Anaphothrips striata, 204. Anarsia lineatella, 248. Anasa tristis, 190. Anatomy of insects : external, 7. internal, 11. Ancylis comjjtana, 303. nubeculana, 305. Angoumois Grain-moth, 358. Animal pests, 371. Anomala, Light-loving, 262. Anomala lucicola, 262. marginata, 262. undulata, 262. Anopheles m,aculipennis, 43. Ant: Argentine, 351. Black, 351. characteristics, 110. Cornfield, 114. House, 351. Little Red, 351. Strawberry root, 229. Winged, 38. Ant Tape, 352. Poison, 352. Ants with plant lice, 318. Antennae, types of, 6. Anthomyiidae, 33. Anthotiotnus grandis, 208. quadrigibbus, 333. scutellaris, 334. signatus, 337. 391 392 INDEX Anthrenus scrophularioe, 357. Apatela ohlinita, 275. Aphididce, characteristics, 28. Aphis: Apple, 316. Bean, 201. Beet root, 115. Black Peach, 229, 320. Brown Plum, 321. Cabbage, 202. Cherry, 318. Clover, 317. Corn Leaf, 198. Corn Root, 113. Cotton, 199. Currant, 319. European Grain, 198, 317. Grapevine, 319. Green Peach, 198, 320. Hop, 203, 321. Mealy Plum, 321. Melon, 199. Pea, 200. Potato, 202. Rosy Apple, 317. Spinach, 198. Spring Grain, 196. Strawberry Root, 229. Wheat, 222. Woolly Apple, 226. Aphis hakeri, 317. * brassiccB, 202. forbesi, 229. gossypii, 199. maidi-radicis, 113. maidis, 198. persicce-niger, 229, 320. pomi, 316. rumicis, 201. setarice, 321. sorbi, 317. Apina, 39. Apparatus, dusting, 99. spraying, 92. Apple Aphis, 316. Rosy, 317. Woolly, 226. Caterpillar, Red-humped, 271. Curculio, 333. Leaf Bucculatrix, 278. Leaf-folder, Lesser, 306. Leaf-hopper, 313. Leaf-sewer, 305. Leaf Skeletonizer, 277. Leaf Trumpet Miner, 309. Maggot, 343. Red Bugs, 348. Tree Borer, Flat-headed, 237. Round-headed, 235. Twig-borer, 250. Worm, Lesser, 339. Apple insects (additional) : Anomalas, 262. Bag-worm, 307. Browntail Moth, 292. Bud-moth, 298. Buffalo Tree-hopper, 253. Cigar Case-bearer, .306. Climbing Cutworms, 328. Clover Aphis, 317. Codling Moth, 337. Cranberry Spanworm, 283. Elm Spanworm, 283. European Grain Aphis, 317. Fall Canker-worm, 281. Fall Webworm, 296. Flower Thrips, 331. Fruit-tree Leaf-roller, 302. Green Fruit Worm, 325. Green June Beetle, 324. Gypsy Moth, 290. Imbricated Snout Beetle, 329. Indian Euphoria, 323. Leaf Grumpier, 297. Lime-tree Winter Moth, 284. New York Weevil, 329. Oblique Banded Leaf Roller, 30i Oyster-shell Scale, 258. Palmer-worm, 278. Pear-leaf Blister-mite, 308. Periodical Cicada, 253. Pistol Case-bearer, 307. Plum Curculio, 332. Putnam's Scale, 257. Railroad Worm, 343. Resplendent Shield-bearer, 310. San Jose Scale, 254. Scurfy Scale, 259. Shot-borer, 249. Shot Hole Borer, 241. Spring Canker-worm, 279. Tarnished Plant-bug, 347. Tent Caterpillar, 266. INDEX 393 Apple insects (continued) : Terrapin Scale, 261. Tussock Moths, 295. Twig-pruner, 251. Yellow-necked Caterpillar, 270. Apricot, injury by Thrips, 329. Archips argyrospila, 302. rosacea na, 188, 302. Argentine Ant, 110, 351. Argopsylla gallinacea, 378. Argynnis, 34. Army Worm, 172. Beet, 174. Fall, 173. False, 274. Wheat-head, 214. Arsenate of lead, 66. with Bordeaux, 86. Arsenic, compounds of, 65. Arsenide of cobalt, 169. Arthropods, 5. Ash-gray Blister-beetle, 144. Asparagus Beetle, 152. Twelve-spotted, 154. Asparagus Miner, 138. Aspidiotus ancylus, 257. forbesi, 257. ostreceformis, 257. perniciosus, 254. Assassin bugs, 28. AsilidcB, 32. Atomizer, 92. Atrytone, 34. Aulacaspis rosoe, 260. Australian Roach, 353. Autographa brassicce, 178. Automatic sprayers, 93. Automeris, 35. B Bacterial diseases of insects, 50. Bag-worm, 307. Balaninus caryce, 368. proboscideus, 368. rectus, 368. Bamboo extension rods, 102. Banded Flea-beetle, 158. Banding trees, 60. Bark-beetle, Peach, 242. Barley insects (see Wheat). Barley Straw Worm, 130. Barred- winged Onion Maggot, 121. Barrel pumps, 94. Barrier : ant tape, 352. oil, 194. tanglefoot, 60. Bean Aphis, 201. Lady Beetle, 148. Leaf-beetle, 147. Leaf-roller, 188. Weevil, 365. Weevil, Four-spotted, 366. Bean insects (additional) : Blister-beetles, 145. Cutworms, 140. Lima Bean Stem-borer, 136. Pale-striped Flea-beetle, 157. Pea-aphis, 200. Pea-moth, 217. Red Spider, 207. Root Maggots, 121. Smaller Corn Stalk-borer, 127. Striped Garden Caterpillar, 171. Zebra-caterpillar, 171. Bedbug, 354. Bee, illustrated, 39. Beet Army Worm, 174. Leaf-beetle, Larger, 147. Leafhopper, 195. Webworm, Southern, 185. Beet insects (additional) : Army Worm, 172. Blister-beetles, 144. Carrot Beetle, 124. Celery Leaf-tier, 186. Cutworms, 140. Fall Army Worm, 173. Garden Webworm, 183. Grasshoppers, 142. Hop Flea-beetle, 162. Pale-striped Flea-beetle, 157. Root lice, 115. Spinach Flea-beetle, 159. Leaf-miner, 189. Striped Garden Caterpillar, 171. Sugar-beet Webworm, 184. Triangular Flea-beetle, 160. Twelve-spotted Cucumber Beetle, 152. Zebra-caterpillar, 171. Beetle : Ash-gray Blister, 144. Asparagus, 152. 394 INDEX Beetle {continued): Banded Flea, 158. Bean Lady, 148. Bean Leaf, 147. Black Blister, 145. Blister, 144. Buttercup Oil, 145. Carpet, 357. Carrot, 124. characteristics of, 28. Cherry Leaf, 263. Cigarette, 370. Colorado Potato, Frontispiece, 63, 145. Confused Flour, 364. Cucumber Flea, 156. Grape Flea, 264. Gray Blister, 145. Green June, 324. Hop Flea, 162. Imbricated Snout, 167, 329. Larger Beet Leaf, 147. May, 109. Nuttall's Blister, 145. Pale-striped Flea, 157. Peach Bark, 242. Rust-red Flour, 364. Saw-toothed Grain, 364. Slender Seed-corn Ground, 124. Spinach Flea, 159. Squash Lady, 148. Strawberry Flea, 266. Leaf, 263. Striped Blister, 144. Cucumber, 150. Flea, 158. Sugar-cane, 123. Sweet Potato Flea, 161. Three-lined Potato, 146. Tobacco Flea, 159. Tortoise, 154. Triangular Flea, 160. Twelve-spotted Asparagus, 154. Cucumber, 152. Two-striped Sweet Potato, 155. Western Cabbage Flea, 159. Behavior of insects, 18. Bembecia marginata, 234. Berry Moth, Grape, 341. Bill-bugs, 128. Birds, 45. Biting insects, insecticides for, 65. Biting lice : characteristics of, 24. on animals, 375. on poultry, 377. Biting mouth parts, 8. Blackberry Leaf -miner, 310. Pithy-gall, 247. Blackberry insects (additional) : Anomalas, 262. Negro Bug, 348. Oblique Banded Leaf Roller, 302. Raspberry Byturus, 342. Cane-borer, 245. Cane-maggot, 245. Root-borer, 234. Sawfly, 287. Spanworm, 327. Red-necked Cane-borer, 244. Rose Scale, 260. Smeared Dagger, 275. Strawberry Crown Moth, 234. Leaf-roller, 303. Tree Crickets, 252. Black Blister-beetle, 145. Black Flies, 32. Blackhead Cranberry Worm, 299. Black leaf extract, 76. forty, 75. Black-legged Tortoise Beetle, 155. Black Peach Aphis, 229, 320. Blatella gennanica, 353. Blafta orientalis, 353. Blattidce, 23. Blissus leucopterus, 193. Blister-beetles, 144. Blister-mite, Pear-leaf, 308. Blood of insects, 12. Blossom Midge, Grape, 331. Blue vitriol, 85. Body walls, 15. Boll WeevU, Cotton, 208. Boll-worm, Cotton, 211. Bomhus, 39. Bordeaux mixture, 85. nozzle, 100. Borer : Apple Twig, 250. Clover Root, 116. Clover Stem, 127. Corn Stalk, 115. Cotton Square, 213. Currant, 243. INDEX 395 Borer {continued): destruction of, 61. Flat-headed Apple-tree, 237. Grape Root, 231. Hop-plant, 136. Lesser Peach, 240. Lima Bean Stem, 136. Peach, 237. Potato Stalk, 135. Prionid, 232. protection against, 236. Raspberry Cane, 245. Raspberry Root, 234. Red-necked Cane, 244. Round-headed Apple-tree, 235. Shot, 249. Shot Hole, 241. Smaller Corn Stalk, 127. Sfjuash, 134. Stalk, 132. Strawberry Crown, 233. Sugar-cane, 126. Sweet Potato Root, 117. Bot-fly : Horse, 371. Ox, 372. Sheep, 372. Braconid parasite, 46. Bran mash, 68. Bristly Rose Slug, 181.' Brown Ant, 114. Brown Plum Aphis, 321. Browntail Moth, 292. Bruchiis chinensis, 366. obtectus, 365. pisorum, 368. quadrimaculatus, 366. Brucophagus funcbris, 220. Bryobia prate nais, 208, 321. Bubonic plague, 44. Bucculatrix, Apple-leaf, 278. Bucculatrix pomifoliella, 278. Bucket pump, 92. Bud Mite, Peach, 331. Bud-moth, 298. Budworm : Tobacco, 213. Tobacco False, 211. Buffalo Moth, 357. Tree-hopper, 253. Bug: Apple Red, 348. Bed, 354. Bill, 128. Chinch, 193. False Chinch, 192. Four-lined Leaf, 311. Green, 196. Harlequin Cabbage, 191. June, 109. Maize BUI, 128. Mealy, 206. Negro, 348. Plant, 221. Squash, 190. Sugar-cane Mealy, 115. Tarnished Plant, 192, 347. Timothy Bill, 129. Buhach, 76. Buprestidoe, .30. Burning caterpillars, 59. Buttercup Oil Beetle, 145. Butterflies, characteristics of, 34. Byturus, Raspberry, 342. Byturus unicolor, 342. Cabbage Aphis, 202. Bug, Harlequin, 191. Curculio, 137. Flea-beetle, Western, 159. Looper, 178. Maggot, 118. Webworm, 185. Worm : Cross-striped, 177. Imported, 176. Southern, 177. Cabbage insects (additional) : Cutworms, 140. Diamond-back Moth, 178. Pale-striped Flea-beetle, 157. Striped Flea-beetle, 158. Zebra-caterpillar, 171. Caccecia argyrospila, 302. Cadelle, 364. Calandra granaria, 364. oryza, 364. Calico Back, 191. Caliroa amygdalina, 289. cerasi, 288. Calocampa nuhera, 274. Calosoma, 47. Camnula pellucida, 143. 396 INDEX Canarsia hammondi, 277. Cane-borer: Raspberry, 245. Red-necked, 244. Cane insects (see Sugar Cane). Cane-maggot, Raspberry, 245. Canker-worm : Fall, 281. Spring, 279. Cantharis nuttalli, 145. Capitate antenna, 6. Capsidce, 28. Carahidoe, 30. Carbolated whitewash, 242. Carbolic acid, emulsion, 77. for wounds, 374. Carbon bisulphide, 80. tetrachloride, 81. Carpenter Moths, 35. Carpet Beetle, 357. Carpocapsa pomonella, 337. Carrion beetles, 30. Carrot Beetle, 124. Carrot Rust-fly, 122. Carrot insects (see Celery). Case-bearer : Cigar, 306. Pistol, 307. Cassida hivittata, 155. nigripes, 155. Cat and Dog Flea, 354. Caterpillar : Alfalfa, 175. Celery, 170. Clover Seed, 217. Forest Tent, 269. Grapevine Hog, 272. Hedgehog, 182. Melon, 216. Red-humped Apple, 271. Saddle-back, 183. Salt-marsh, 182. Striped Garden, 171. Tent, 266. Yellow-bear, 181. Yellow-necked, 270. Zebra, 171. Caterpillar (see also Worm). Cattle-tick, 375. Cauliflower insects (see Cabbage). Cecidomyiidoe, 32. Celery Caterpillar, 170. Leaf-tier, 186. Looper, 178. Celery insects (additional) : Carrot Beetle, 124. Rust-fly, 122. Striped Garden Caterpillar, 171. Zebra-caterpillar, 171. Cephus occidentalism 129. Cerambycidae, 30. Ceratoma trifurcata, 147. Cereals, insects (see Stored Products). Ceresa bubalus, 253. Ceutorhyncus rapce, 137. ChcBtocnenia confinis, 161. Choetopsis cenea, 121. Chafer, Rose, 322. Chalcid Fly, Clover Seed, 220. Chalcididce, 37. Chalcodermus ceneas, 211. Characteristics of insects, 5. Cheese Skipper, 358. Cherry Aphis, 318. Fruit Maggot, 345. Leaf-beetle, 263. Scale, 257. Cherry insects (additional) : Apple Twig-borer, 250. Browntail Moth, 292. Bud-moth, 298. G>T>sy Moth, 290. Lesser Peach-borer, 240. Peach Bark-beetle, 242. Peach-borer, 237. Pear-slug, 288. Plum Curculio, 332. Rose-chafer, 322. San Jose Scale, 254. Shot-borer, 249. Shot Hole Borer, 241. Terrapin Scale, 261. Tussock Moths, 295. Chestnut Weevil, 368. Larger, 368. Chickens, value of, 57. Chicken Mite, 377. Chinch-bug, 193. False, 192. Chionaspis furfura, 259. Chironomidce, 32. Chitin, 15. Chloridea virescens, 213. Chrysalis, 20. INDEX 397 Chrysomelidce, 30. Chrysomyia macellaria, 374. Chrysopa, 48. Cicada, Periodical, 253. Cicadidce, 27. Cigar Case-bearer, 306. Cigarette Beetle, 370. Cimex lectularius, 354. Circulatory system, 12. Citrus Mealy Bug, 206. Cladius pedinicornis, 181. Classification, basis of, 22. Clavate antenna, 6. Clear-\\'ing moths, 35. Cleora pampinaria, 283. Click beetles, 30, 107. Climbing Cutworms, 328. Clivina impressifrons, 124. Clothes Moths, 355. Clover Flower-midge, 219. Hay Worm, 186. Leaf- weevil, 164, Lesser, 166. Mite, 208. Root-borer, 116. Seed-caterpillar, 217. Seed Chalcid Fly, 220. Stem-borer, 127. Weevil, Flavescent, 167. Clover insects (additional) : Army Worm, 172. Cutworms, 140. Fall Army Worm, 173. Grasshoppers, 142. Northern Grass Worm, 179. Cnemidocoptes gallince, 378. mutans, 378. Cobalt, arsenide of, 169. Coccidoe, 28. Coccinellidce, 30. Cockroach : American, 353. Australian, 353. German, 353. Oriental, 353. Cocoons of parasite, 47. Codling Moth, 337. Coiled Rose Slug, 181. Colaspis hrunnea, 263. Coleophora fletcheralla, 306. malivorella, 307. Coleoptera, 28. Colorado Potato-beetle, Frontispiece, 63, 145. Commercial lime sulphur, 70. Complete metamorphosis, 19. Compressed air outfits, 98. Confused Flour Beetle, 364, Conotrachelus cratcegi, 336. nenuphar, 332. Contact insecticides, 70. Contarinia johnsoni, 331. pyrivora, 346. sorghicola, 219. tritici, 218. T'ontrol of insects : banding, 60. burning, 59. contact insecticides, 70. covering, 60. crop rotation, 55. destroying borers, 61. weeds, 57. egg masses, 60. fall plo%ving, 56. farm practice, 55. fumigants, 80. fungicides with poisons, 85. hand picking, 59. insecticides, 63. mechanical means, 58. poison insecticides, 65. protective washes, 79. removing crop remnants, 57. removing dead limbs, 61. repellents, 79. stimulating plant growth, 58. time of planting, 57. traps, 62. use of poultry, 57. Copper sulphate, 85. Coptocycln hicolor, 155. Coptodisca splcndoriferclla, 310. CorcidcE, 28. Corimelcena pulicaria, 348. Corn Bill-bugs, 128. Ear-worm, 211. Leaf-aphis, 198. Root Aphis, 113. Root Wcbworms, 112. Root-worm, Southern, 111. Western, 111. Stalk Borer, 125. Smaller, 127. 398 INDEX Corn insects (additional) : Agonoderus, 124. Army Worm, 172. Blister-beetles, 144. Carrot Beetle, 124. Chinch-bug, 193. Cutworms, 140. Fall Army Worm, 173. Garden Webworm, 183. Grasshoppers, 142. Ground Beetles, 124. Leather Jackets, 110, Root Maggots, 121. Rose-chafer, 322. Seed-corn Maggot, 121. Slender Seed-corn Ground-beetle, 124. Spring Grain-aphis, 196. Stalk Borer, 132. Sugar-cane beetle, 123. Twelve-spotted Cucumber Beetle, 111. Vagabond Crambus, 113. Wheat Wire worm, 107. White Grubs, 109. Wireworms, 107. Cornfield Ant, 114. Corrosive sublimate, 352. Cossidce, 35. Cotton Aphis, 199. Boll Weevil, 208. Boll-worm, 211. Cutworms, 213. Square-borer, 213. Stainer, 222. Worm, 175. Cotton insects (additional) : Cowpea Curculio, 211. Garden Webworm, 183. Pale-striped Flea-beetle, 157. Plant-bugs, 221. Red Spider, 207. Sharpshooters, 222. Cottony Maple-scale, 260. Covering for plants, 60. Cowpea Curculio, 211. Weevil, 366. Cowpea insects (see Peas). Crambus hortuellus, 231. luteolellus, 113. mutabilis, 112. trisectus, 112. Crambus vulvivagellus, 113. Cranberry Fruit-worm, 326. Girdler, 231. Span worm, 283. Worm : Blackhead, 299. Yellowhead, 300. Cranberry insects (additional) : Chain Spotted Geometer, 284. False Army-w^orm, 274. Fire Worm, 299. Craponius incequalis, 335. Crickets, 23. Tree, 252. Criddle mixture, 143. Crioceris asparagi, 152. duodecim punctata, 154. Crop of insects, 13. Crop rotation, 55. Cross-striped Cabbage Worm, 177. Croton Bug, 353. Crown-girdler, Strawberry, 230. Crown-borer, Strawberry, 233. Crown Moth, Strawberry, 234. Crude oil emulsion, 74. Grumpier, Leaf, 297. Ctenocephalus canis, 354. Cuban Hen Flea, 378. Cucumber Beetle. Striped, 150. Twelve-spotted, 152. Cucumber Flea-beetle, 156. Cucumber insects (additional) : Melon Aphis,'' 199. Melon Caterpillar, 216. Pickle Worm, 215. Red Spider, 207. Squash Borer, 134. Squash-bug, 190. Squash Lady Beetle, 148. Culicidce, 32, 350. Curculio : Apple, 333. Cabbage, 137. Cowpea, 211. Grape, 335. Plum, 332. Quince, 336. Rhubarb, 138. Curculionidce, 30. Currant Aphis, 319. Borer, 243. INDEX 399 Currant Fruit-fly, 346. Span worm, 282. Stem-girdler, 246. Worm : Imported, 285. Native, 286. Currant insects (additional) : Four-lined Leaf-bug, 311. San Jose Scale, 254. Terrapin Scale, 261. Cut-off, 102. Cutworms, 140, 213, 328. Cydia nigricana, 217. Cylas formicarius, 117. Cymatophora ribearia, 282. D Dagger, Smeared, 275. Damage by insects, 3. Dasyneura leguminicola, 219. Datana ministra, 270. Definite Marked Tussock Moth, 295. Derma nyssus gallince, 377. Desmia funeralis, 303. Destroying egg masses, 60. weeds, 57. Diahrotica duodecimpunctata, 111, 152. longicornis. 111. vittata, 150. Diacrisia virginica, 181. Diamond-back Moth, 177-178. Diaphania hyalinata, 216. nitidalis, 215. Diastrophus turgidus, 247. Diatrcea saccharalis, 126. zeacolella, 125. Dichomeris ligulellus, 278. Dicyphus minimus, 195. Digestive system, 13. Diphadnus appendiculatus, 286. Diptera, 31. Diseases carried by insects, 42. Disk nozzle, 100. Disonycha triangularis, 160. xanthomelcena, 159. Dispersal of insects, 40. Distillate oil emulsion, 261, 330. Dog Flea, 354. Dolerus arvcnsis, 180. collar is, 180. Domestic animal pests, 371. Dragon Flies, 24. Drasteria erechtea, 179. Dry-slaked lime, 79. Dusting apparatus, 99. Dysdercus suturellus, 221. E Ear-worm, Corn, 211. Eccoptogaster rugulosus, 241. Egg parasites, 46. Egg-plant insects (see Potato). Eggs of parasite, 47. Eight-spotted Forester, 275. Elaphidion villosum, 251. Elasmopalpus lignosellus, 127. Elateridce, 30, 107. Electro process, 67. Elm Spanworm, 283. Emphytus cinctus, 181. Empoasca mali, 313. Empria maculata, 288. Emulsion : carbolic acid, 77. crude oil, 74. distillate oil, 261, 330. kerosene, 73. linseed oil, 74. Enarmonia inter stinctana, 217. prunivora, 339. Endelomyia rosoe, 181. Enemies of insects, 45. Ennomos subsignarius, 283. Ephestia kuehniella, 360. Epira;rus imbricatus, 167, 329. Epicauta cinerea, 145. pennsylvanica, 145. vittata, 144. Epilachna borealis, 148. corrupta, 148. Epitrix cucumeris, 156. parvula, 159. Epochra canadensis, 346. Erannis tiliaria, 284. Eriocampoides cerasi, 288. Eriophyes pyri, 308. Esophagus of insects, 13. Estigmene acrcea, 182. Eudamus proteus, 188. Eudemis vacciniana, 299. Eulecanium nigro/asciatum, 261. Euphoria inda, 323. 400 INDEX Euphoria, Indian, 323. Euproctis chrysorrhoea, 292. European Fruit Lecanium, 260. Fruit-scale, 257. Grain Aphis, 198, 317. Grain-moth, 359. Eurymus eurytheme, 175. Eutettix tenella, 195. Euthrips nicotiance, 204. pyri, 329. tritici, 26, 331. Evergestis rimosalis, 177. Extension rods, 101. External anatomy, 7. Eyes, structure, 7. Fall Army Worm, 173. Canker-worm, 281. plowing, 56. Webworm, 296. False Army-worm, 274. Budworm, Tobacco, 211. Chinch-bug, 192. Farm practice, 55. Fat bodies, 14. Femur, 9. Fever, malarial, 43. spotted, 44. typhoid, 42. yellow, 44. Fidia viticida, 224. Field crop insects, 107. Filiform antenna, 6. Fire Worm, 299. Fish, Silver, 357. Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer, 237. Flavescent Clover-weevil, 167. Flea: carrier of disease, 44. Cat and Dog, 354. characteristics of, 30, Cuban Hen, 378. House, 354. illustrated, 30. Flea-beetle : Banded, 158. Cucumber, 156. Grape, 264. Hop, 162. Pale-striped, 157. Potato, 156. Spinach, 159. Strawberry, 266. Striped, 158. Sweet Potato, 161. Tobacco, 159. Tomato, 156. Triangular, 160. Western Cabbage, 159. Flour Beetle : Confused, 364. Rust-red, 364. Flour Moth, Mediterranean, 360. Flower-midge, Clover, 219. Flower Thrips, 26, 331. Fly: Carrot Rust, 122. characteristics of, 31. Clover Seed Chalcid, 220. Currant Fruit, 346. Gad, 379. Grape Saw, 287. Greenhouse White, 205. Hessian, 139. Horn, 379. Horse, 379. Horse Bot, 371. House, 42, 349. Ox Bot, 372. Raspberry Saw, 287. Screw-worm, 374. Sheep Bot, 372. Stable, 349. Strawberry Saw, 288. Tobacco Suck, 195. Western Grass-stem Saw, 129. Wheat Saw, 180. Fly poison, 350. Forest Tent Caterpillar, 269. Forester, Eight-spotted, 275. Formalin and milk, 350. Formicina, 39, 110. Foot of insect, 10. Four-lined Leaf -bug, 311. Four-spotted Bean Weevil,, 366. Fruit-fly, Currant, 346. Fruit insects, 224. Fruit Maggot, Cherry, 345. Fruit-tree Leaf-roller, 302. Fruit- worm : Cranberry, 326. Gooseberrv, 326. INDEX 401 Fruit-worm {continued): Green, 325. Tomato, 211. Fumigants, 80. Fumigating tub, 200. Fumigation : greenhouse, 83. house, 83. nursery stock, 82. tobacco, 83. Fungicides with posions, 85. Fungous diseases of insects, 50. Functions of stages in growth, 20. Gadflies, 379. Galerucella cavicollis, 263. Gallinippers, 110. Gall-maker, Grape-cane, 246. Ganglia, 14. Garden insects, 107. Webworm, 183. Gas, fumigating, 80. Gasoline sprayers, 97. Gastrophilus equi, 371. Geared sprayers, 96. General feeders, fruits : Anomalas, 262. Bag-worm, 307. Browntail Moth, 292. Buffalo Tree-hopper, 253. Chain Spotted Geometer, 284. Climbing Cutworms, 328. Clover Mite, 321. Cottony Maple Scale, 260. Cranberry Spanworm, 283. Elm Spanworm, 283. European Fruit Lecanium, 260. Fall Webworm, 296. . Flower Thrips, 331. Forest Tent Caterpillar, 269. Fruit-tree Leaf-roller, 302. Green June Beetle, 324. Gypsy Moth, 290. Imbricated Snout Beetle, 329. Indian Euphoria. 323. New York Weevil, 329. Oblique Banded Leaf Roller, 302. Oyster-shell Scale, 258. Periodical Cicada, 253. Putnam's Scale, 257. Red-humped Apple Caterpillar, 271. 2d Red Spider, 322. San Jose Scale, 254. Tarnished Plant-bug, 347. Tent Caterpillar, 266. Terrapin Scale, 261. Tree Crickets, 252. Tussock Moths, 295. Twig-pruner, 251. Yellow-necked Caterpillar, 270. General feeders, garden : Army Worm, 172. Banded Flea-beetle, 158. Blister-beetles, 144. Celery Leaf -tier, 186. Chain Spotted Geometer, 284. Cutworms, 140. Fall Army Worm, 173. Garden Webworm, 183. Grasshoppers, 142. Hedgehog Caterpillar, 182. Imbricated Snout Beetle, 167. Onion Thrips, 204. Pale-striped Flea-beetle, 157. Red Spider, 207. Salt-marsh Caterpillar, 182. Spinach Aphis, 198. Stalk Borer, 132. Striped Garden Caterpillar, 171. Tarnished Plant-bug, 192. White Grubs, 109. Wireworms, 107. Yellow-bear Caterpillar, 181. Zebra-caterpillar, 171. Geniculate antenna, 6. Geometridce, 36. German Roach, 353. Giant Water Bug, 27. Oirdler : Cranberry, 231. Currant Stem, 246. Grapevine, 247. Strawberry Crown, 230. T\\ag, 250. Gizzard of insects, 13. of cricket, 14. Golden Tortoise Beetle, 155. Gooseberry Fruit- worm, 326. Gooseberry insects (see Currant). Gouger, Plum, 334. Grain Aphis : European, 198, 317. Spring, 196. 402 INDEX Grain Beetle, Saw-toothed, 364. Grain insects (see Stored Prod- ucts) . Grain Moth : Angoumois, 358. European, 359. Grain weevils, 364. Granary Weevil, 364. Grape Berry Moth, 341. Blossom Midge, 331. Cane Gall-maker, 246. Colaspis, 263. Curculio, 335. Flea-beetle, 264. Leaf -folder, 303. Leaf -hopper, 311. Leaf Skeletonizer, 276. Phylloxera, 227. Plume Moth, 301. Root-borer, 231. Root-worm, 224. Sawfly, 287. Grape insects (additional) : Abbott's Sphinx, 273. Achemon Sphinx, 272. Anomalas, 262. Apple Twig-borer, 250. Cottony Maple Scale, 260. Eight-spotted Forester, 275. Prionid Borers, 232. Rose-chafer, 322. San Jose Scale, 254. Spotted Pelidnota, 262. Tree Crickets, 252. Grapevine Aphis, 319. Girdler, 247. Hog Caterpillar, 272. Grapholithidce, 35. Grasshoppers, 142. Grass-stem Sawfly, Western, 129. Grass Thrips, 204. Worm, Northern, 179. Grass insects (additional), (see Tim- othy). Gray Blister-beetle, 145. Green Bug, 196. Fly, 198. Fruit Worm, 325. Greenhouse fumigation, 83. Greenhouse Leaf-tier, 186. Thrips, 203. White-fly, 205. Greenhouse insects (additional) : Climbing Cutworms, 328. Mealy Bug, 206. Oblique Banded Leaf Roller, 188. Onion Thrips, 204. Red Spider, 207. Spinach Aphis, 198. Green June Beetle, 324. Peach Aphis, 198, 320. Ground beetle, 30. Seed-corn, 124. Grubs, White, 109, 225. Gryllidoe, 23. Gypsy Moth, 290. Hcematobia serrata, 379. Hcematopinus eurysternus, 374. urius, 374. -Dituli, 374. Haltica chalybea, 264. ignita, 266. Hand picking, 59. Hand pumps, 92. Harlequin Cabbage-bug, 191. Harpiphorus maculata, 288. Harrisina americana, 276. Hawk Moths, 272. Hay Worm, Clover, 186. Head, appendages, 7. Hearing, organs of, 16. Heart of insects, 12. Heat treatment, for grain insects, 361. Hedgehog Caterpillar, 182, Heliothis ohsoleta, 211. Heliothrips hcemorrhoidalis, 203. Hellebore, 68. Hellula undalis, 185. H enter ocampa antiqua, 19, 295. definita, 295. leucostigma, 295. Hemiptera, 26. Hen Flea, Cuban, 378. Hessian-fly, 139. Heterocordylus malinus, 348. Heteroptera, 27, 28. Hexagonal disks. Tool, 119. Hickory Nut Weevil, 368. High-pressure nozzle, 101. Hog Louse, 374. INDEX 403 Home-made lime sulphur. concentrated, 71. regular, 73. Homoptera, 26, 27. Honeydew, 318. Hop Aphis, 203, 321. Flea-beetle, 162. Plant Borer, 136. Snout-moth, 179. Hopper-dozer, 143. Horizontal pumps, 95. Horn-fly, 379. Horn Worms, 168. Horse Bot-fly, 371. Horseflies, 379. Hose, 102. House Ant, 351. Flea, 354. Fly, 42, 349. Mosquito, 350. Roach, 353. Household Pests, 349. Hyalopterus arundinis, 321. Hydrcecia immanis, 136. Hydrocyanic acid gas, 82. Hylastinus obscurus, 116. Hymenoptera, 36. Hypena humuli, 179. Hyphantria cunea, 296. Hypoderma lineata, 372. Hypopharynx of insects, 8. Hypsopygia costalis, 186. I chneumonidce , 37. Imbricated Snout Beetle, 167, 329. Incomplete metamorphosis, 20. Indian Euphoria, 323. Indian-meal Moth, 361. Importation of insect pests, 40. Imported Cabbage Worm, 176. Currant Worm, 285. Insecticides, contact, 70. general principles, 63. poison, 65. Insects, characteristics of, 5. Insects and disease, 42. Insects : domestic animals. 371. garden and field crops, 107. household and stored products, 349. orchard and small fruits, 224. Insect outbreaks, 3. Insect powder, 76. Instinct of insects, 18. Internal anatomy of insects, 1 Interrelations of insects, 46. Intestines of insects, 14. Iridomyrmex humilis, 110, 351, Iron extension rods, 101. Isia Isabella, 182. Isosoma grande, 131. hordei, 130. tritici, 129. Itch Mite, of Poultry, 378. Ithycerus noveboracensis, 239. Itonida tritici. 218. Janus integer, 246. Jarring insects, 333. Jassidce, 27, 222. Jimson weed, 351. Joint-worm, 129. June Beetle, Green, 324. June Bugs, 109, 225. K Katydids, 23. Kerosene emulsion, 73, 74. Kidneys of insects, 14. Knapsack pump, 93. Labium of insects, 8. Labrum of insects, 8. Lace bugs, 28. Lachnosterna fusca, 109. spp., 29, 109, 225. Lady Beetle, 30. Bean, 148. Squash, 148. Lamellate antenna, 6. Languria mozardi, 127. Laphygma exigua, 174. frugiperda, 173. Larger Beet Leaf-beetle, 147. Chestnut Weevil, 368. Laria pisonim, 368. Larva, defined, 19. Lasiocampidce, 36. Lasioderma serricorne, 370. Lasius niger americanus, 114. Laspeyresia inter siinctana, 217. 404 INDEX Laspeyresia prunivora, 339. Lead arsenate, 66. Leaf-aphis, Corn, 198. Leaf-aphis (see Aphis). Leaf-beetle : Bean, 147. Cherry, 263. Larger Beet, 147. Strawberry, 263. Leaf-beetle (see Beetle). Leaf-bug, Four-lined, 311. Leaf Grumpier, 297. Leaf-folder : Grape, 303. Lesser Apple, 306. Leafhopper : Apple, 313. Beet, 195. Grape, 311. Leaf-miner : Apple Trumpet, 309. Blackberry, 310. Spinach, 189. Tobacco, 189. Leaf-roller : Bean, 188. Fruit-tree, 302. Oblique Banded, 188, 302. Strawberry, 303. Leaf-sewer, Apple, 305. Leaf -tier : Celery, 186. Greenhouse, 186. Leaf-weevil : Alfalfa, 162. Clover, 164. Lesser Clover, 166. Leaf -weevil (see Weevil). Leather Jackets, 110. Lecanium corni, 260. Lecanium, European Fruit, 260. Leg, structure of, 9. Lema trilineata, 146. Lepidoptera, 33. Lepidosaphes ulmi, 258. Lepisnia saccharina, 357. Leptinotarsa decemlineata, Frontispiece, 63, 145. Lesser Apple Leaf-folder, 306. Apple Worm, 339. Clover Leaf -weevil, 166. Peach-borer, 240. Lethocerus americanus, 27. Leucania unipuncta, 172. Lice : Biting, on animals, 375. on poultry, 377. Hog, 374. Long-nosed Ox, 374. Plant (see Plant Lice). Poultry, 377. Short-nosed Ox, 374. Sucking, on animals, 374. Light-loving Anomala, 262. Ligyrus gibbosus, 124. rugiceps, 123. Lima Bean Stem-borer, 136. Lime, dry-slaked, 79. putty, 86. Lime sulphur : dilution table, 72. self-boiled, 88. solution, 70. summer strength, 87. Lime-tree Winter Moth, 284. Linseed oil emulsion, 74. Lipeurus variabilis, 377. Little Red Ant, 351. Lixus concavus, 138. Locustidce, 23. Locusts, 142. Long-nosed Ox Louse, 374. Looper : Cabbage, 178. Celery, 178. Looper (see Spanworm, Canker-worm). Louse : Hog, 374. Long-nosed Ox, 374. Short-nosed Ox, 374. Louse on plants (see Aphis). Loxostege similalis, 183. sticticalis, 184. Lygoeidoe, 28. Lygidea mendax, 348. Lygus invitus, 348. pratensis, 192, 347. Lymantriidce, 36. Lyperosia irritans, 379. M Macrobasis unicolor, 144. Macrodactylus subspinosus, 322. INDEX 405 Macrosiphum cerealis, 222. granaria. 2'?2 pisi, 200. solanifolii, 202. viticola, 319. Maggot : Apple, 343. Barred-wingod Onion, 121. Cabbage, 118. Carrot, 122. Cherry Fruit, 345. Onion, 120. Raspberry Cane, 245. Seed-corn, 121. Wheat-stem, 131. Maize Bill-bug, 128. Malacosoma americana, 266. disstria, 269. Malarial fever mosquito, 43. Mallophaga, 24. Malphigian tubes, 14. Mamestra legitima, 171. picta, 171. Mandibles of insects, 8. Mantidce, 23. Margaropus annulatus, 375. Mash, poison bran, 68. Maxillae of insects, 8. May beetles, 109, 225. Mayetiola destructor, 139. Meadow Maggot, 110. Meal Snout-moth, 362. Mealworm, Yellow, 369. Mealy Bug. Citrus, 206. Sugar-cane, 115. Mealy Plum Aphis, 321. Measuring Worms (see Spanworm). Mechanical means of control, 59. Medical Entomology, 42. Mediterranean P'lour Moth, 300. Melanoplus fcmur-ruhrum, 142. Mclanotus communis, 108. Meliana alhilincn, 214. Melittia satyriniformis, 134. Melee angusticollis, 145. Meloidce, 144. Melon Aphis, 199. Caterpillar, 216. Melon insects (additional) : Cucumber Flea-beetle, 156. Pickle Worm, 215. Red Spider, 207. Squash Borer, 134. Squash-bug, 190. Squash Lady Beetle, 148. Striped Cucumber Beetle, 150. Twelve-spotted Cucumber Beetle, 152. Melophagus ovinus, 376. Memythrus polistiformis, 231, Menopon spp., 377. Meromyza americana, 131. Metallus rubi, 310. Metamorphosis, complete, 19. incomplete, 20. Midge : Clover Flower, 219. Grape-blossom, 331. Pear, 346. Sorghum, 219. Wheat, 218. Migratory Locust, 143. Mineola indiginella, 297. vaccina, 326. Miner : Apple Leaf Trumpet, 309, Asparagus, 138. Blackberry Leaf, 310. Spinach Leaf, 189. Tobacco Leaf, 189. Mite: characteristics, 5. Chicken, 377. Clover, 208, 321, Depluming, 378. Itch, of Poultry, 378. Peach Bud, 331. Pear-leaf Blister, 308. Sheep Scab, 376. Mixing tanks, 104. Molasses, added to poison spray, 265, 323. Moniliform antenna, 6. Monomorium minutum, 351. pharaonis, 351. Monophadnoides rubi, 287. Monoptilota nuhilella, 136. Monoxia puncticollis, 147. Mosquito : disease-carrying, 43. fumigants, 351. house, 3.50. illustrated, 32. malarial, 43. 406 INDEX Moth: Angoumois Grain, 358. Browntail, 292. Bud, 298. Buffalo, 357. characteristics, 34. Clothes, 355. Codling, 337. Definite-marked Tussock, 295. Diamond-back, 178. European Grain, 359. Grape Berry, 341. Grape Plume, 301. Gyps5^ 290. Hop Snout, 179. Indian-meal, 361. Lime-tree Winter, 284. Meal Snout, 362. Mediterranean Flour, 360. Pea, 217. Peach Twig, 248. Rusty Tussock, 295. Strawberry Crown, 234. Tussock, 295. White-marked Tussock, 295. Moth balls, 79, 356. Mounding up for borers, 239. Mouthparts, biting, 8. beetle, 8. honeybee, 9. horsefly, 9. sucking, 9. Murgantia histrionica, 191. Musca domestica, 42, 349. Muscidce, 33. Myzus cerasi, 318. persicoB, 198, 320. ribis, 319. N NaphthaHne, 79, 354, 356. Native Currant Worm, 286. Natural enemies of insects, 45. Negro Bug, 348. Nervous system of insects, 14. New York Weevil, 329. Nezara hilaris, 221. Nico-fume, 76. , Nicotine sulphate, 76. Noctua clandestina, 140. c-nigrum, 142. Noctuidoe, 36, 140, 328. Northern Grass Worm, 179. Notodontidce, 36. Nozzles, 100. Nursery stock fumigation, 82. Nuttall's Blister-beetle, 145. Nut Weevils, 368. Nymph, defined, 20. Nysius ericoe, 192. Oat Insects (see Wheat). Oberea bimaculata, 245. Oblique Banded Leaf Roller, 188, 302. Odonata, 24. Q^canthus spp., 252. CEstridcc, 33. a*Jstrus ovis, 372. Oil barrier, 194. Oil Emulsion : distillate, 261, 330. kerosene, 73. linseed, 74. Oil, repellent, for cattle, 373. Oncideres cingulata, 250. Onion Maggot, 120. Barred-winged, 121. Onion Thrips, 204. Orchard insects, 224. Orders, defined, 22. Oriental Cockroach, 353. Orthoptera, 23. Otiorhynchus ovatus, 230. Ox Louse : Long-nosed, 374. Short-nosed, 374. Ox Warble, 372. Oxyptilus periscelidactylus, 301. Oyster-shell Scale, 258. Pachymerus chinensis, 366. quadrimaculatus, 366. Pachynetnatus extensicornis, 180. Pachyzancla bipunctalis, 185. Paleacrita vernata, 279. Pale-striped Flea-beetle, 157. Palmer-worm, 278. Papaipema nitela, 132. Papilio polyxenes, 170. INDEX 407 Parasites, illustrated, 47. introduction of, 49. Parasitic insects, 46. Paris green, 65. Parsley insects (see Celery). Parsnip insects (see Celery). Pea Aphis, 200. Moth, 217. Pea Insects (see Bean). Peach and Plum Slug, 289. Peach Aphis : Black, 229, 320. Green, 320. Peach Bark-beetle, 242. Borer, 237. Lesser, 240. Bud Mite, 331. Twig-moth, 248. Peach insects (additional) : Bud-moth, 298. Cherry Leaf-beetle, 263. Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer, 237. Green June Beetle, 324. Indian Euphoria, 323. Pear-slug, 288. Periodical Cicada, 253. Plum Curculio, 332. Putnam's Scale, 257. San- Jose Scale, 254. Scurfy Scale, 259. Shot-borer, 249. Shot Hole Borer, 241. Terrapin Scale, 261. Peanuts, injury by borer, 127. Pear-loaf Blistor-mite, 308. Pear Midgo, 346. Psylla, 313. Slug, 288. Thrips, 329. Pear insects (additional) : Apple Twig-borer, 2.50. Browntail Moth, 292. Bud-moth, 298. Cigar Case-bearer, 306. European Grain Aphis, 317. Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer, 237. Green Fruit Worm, 325. Green June Beetle, 324. Gypsy Moth, 290. Indian Euphoria, 323. Oblique Banded Leaf Roller, 302. Oyster-shell Scale, 258. Pistol Case-bearer, 307. Plant-bugs, 347. San Jose Scale, 254. Scurfy Scale, 259. Shot Borer, 249. Shot Hole Borer, 241. Terrapin Scale, 261. Tussock Moths, 295. Pear insects (see also Apple). Pea Weevil, 368. Pecan, Twig-girdler, 250. Weevil, 368. Pectinate antenna, 6. Pediculidce, 28. Pegomya hrassicce, 118. fusciceps, 121. vicina, 189. Pelidnota, Spotted, 262. PeUdnota 'punctata, 262. Pemphigus betoe, 115. Pentatoma ligata, 221. Pentatomidce, 28. Peridroma margaritosa, 328. Periodical Cicada, 253. Periplaneta americana, 353. australasice, 353. Peronea minuta, 300, 306. Persian insect powder, 76, Pests : domestic animals, 371. field crops, 107. fruit, 224. garden, 107. household, 349. orchard, 224. stored products, 349. Pharynx of insects, 13. Phasmidce, 23. Phlegethontius quinquemaculata, 168. sexta, 168. Phloeophthorus liminaris, 242. PJdi/ctcenia ferrugalis, 186. Pfiolns achemon, 272. Phorhia cepetorum, 120. ruhivora, 245. Phorodon humuli, 203, 321. Phthorimoea operculella, 117, 189. Phijllotreta pusilla, 159. vittata, 158. Phylloxera, Grape, 227. Phylloxera vastatrix, 227. Phytonomus nigrirostis, 166. 408 INDEX Phytonomus posticus, 162. punctatus, 164. Pickle Worm, 215. Pieridoe, 36. Pimpla, 37. Piophila casei, 358. Pistol Case-bearer, 307. Pithy-gall, Blackberry, 247. Plant-bug : Cotton Boll, 221. Tarnished, 192, 347. Plant-bug (see Bug). Planting, time of, 57. Plant-lice (see Aphis). Plague, bubonic, 44. Plant-louse, Potato, 202. Plaster of Paris, 353. Plodia inter punctella, 361. Plowing, fall, 56. Plum Aphis : Brown, 321. Mealy, 321. Plum Curculio, 332. Gouger, 334. Plum insects (additional) : Browntail Moth, 292. Bud-moth, 298. Cherry Leaf-beetle, 263. Cherry Scale, 257. European Fruit-scale, 257. Green June Beetle, 324. Gypsy Moth, 290. Hop Aphis, 321. Lesser Peach-borer, 240. Peach and Plum Slug, 289. Peach-borer, 237. Peach Bark-beetle, 242. Pear-slug, 288. Resplendent Shield-bearer, 310. San Jose Scale, 254. Shot-borer, 249. Shot Hole Borer, 241. Terrapin Scale, 261. Plum-tree Sphinx, 274. Plume-moth, Grape, 301. Plusia simplex, 178. Plutella maculipennis, 177-178. Poecilocapsus lineatus, 311. Poison : ant, 352. bran mash, 68. fly, 350. fungicide, combined, 85. hairs, 294. insect, 65. Polychrosis viteana, 341. Pontia protodice, 177. rapce, 176. scales, illustrated, 33. Porthetria dispar, 290. Potato-beetle : Colorado, Frontispiece, 63, 145. Three-lined, 146. Potato Flea-beetle, 156. Plant-louse, 202. Stalk-borer, 135. Tuber Worm, 117. Potato insects (additional) : Blister-beetles, 144. Carrot Beetle, 124. Leather Jackets, 110. Stalk Borer, 132. White Grubs, 109. Wireworms, 107. Potato, Sweet (see Sweet Potato). Poultry, value of, 57. Poultry : Itch Mite, 378. Lice, 377. Powder gun, 99. Power sprayers, 97. Predaceous insects, 46. Prionid Borers, 232. Prionus spp., 232. Prodenia ornithogalli, 213. Protective resemblance, 45. Washes, 79. Prune insects (see Plum). Pruner, Twig, 251. Pseudococcus calceolarioe, 115. citri, 206. longispinus, 206. Psila rosae, 122. Psoroptes communis, 376. Psylla, Pear, 313. Psylla pyricola, 313. Psyllidw, 28. Psylliodes punctulata, 163. Pteronus ribesii, 285. Pul villus of insects, 10. Pumpkin insects (see Squash). Pumps : automatic, 93. barrel, 94. INDEX 409 Pumps {continued): bucket, 92. compressed air, 98. dusting apparatus, 99. hand, 92. horizontal, 95. knapsack, 93. power outfits, 97. traction outfits, 96. Pupa, defined, 20. Putnam's Scale, 257. Pyralis farinalis, 362. Pyraustidce, 35. Pyrethrum, as fumigant, 76, 351. Q Quince Curculio, 336. Quince insects (additional) : Cigar Case-bearer, 306. Resplendent Shield-bearer, 310. Terrapin Scale, 261. Quince insects (see also Apple) . R Radish insects (see Cabbage) . Railroad Worm, 343. Raspberry Byturus, 342. Cane-borer, 245. Cane-maggot, 245. Root-borer, 234. Sawfly, 287. Spanworm, 327. Raspberry Insects (additional), (see Blackberry) . Reason, in insects, 18. Reduviidce, 28. Red Bugs, Apple, 348. Red-humped Apple Caterpillar, 271. Red-necked Cane-borer, 244. Red Spider, 207. 322. Removing crop remnants, 57. Repellents, 79. Ant Tape, 352. Oil, 373. Resemblance, protective, 45. Resin-lime mixture, 66. Resin soap, 66. Respiratory system, of insects, 11. Resplendent Shield-bearer, 310. Rhagoletis cingulata, 345. pomonella, 343. Rhopobota vacciniana, 299. Rhubarb Curculio, 138. Rhynchites, 29. Rice Weevil, 364. Roach : American, 353. Australian, 353. German, 353. Oriental, 353. Robber flies, 32. Root-aphis : Apple, 226. Beet, 115. Corn, 113. Peach, 229, 320. Strawberry, 229. Root-borer : Clover, 116. Grape, 231. Raspberry, 234. Sweet Potato, 117. Root-louse, Strawberry, 229. Root-worm : Grape, 224. Southern Corn, 111. Western Corn, 111. Rose-chafer, 322. Rose insects (see Greenhouse Insects) . Rose Scale, 260. Slugs, 181. Rosy Apple Aphis, 317. Rotation of crops, 55. Round-headed Apple-tree Borer, 235. Rust-fly, Carrot, 122. Rust-red Flour Beetle, 364. Rusty Tussock Moth, 19, 295. Rye insects (see Wheat). S Saddle-back Caterpillar, 183. Salt-marsh Caterpillar, 182. Saltpeter, 351. San Jose Scale, 254. Sanninoidea exitiosa, 237. Saperda Candida, 235. Saturniidce, 36. Sawfly : characteristics, 37. Grape, 287. illustrated, 36. Raspberry, 287. 410 INDEX Sawfly {continued): saws, illustrated, 37. Strawberry, 288. Western Grass-stem, 129. Wheat, 180. Saw-toothed Grain Beetle, 364. Scab-mite, Sheep, 376. Scale : Cottony Maple, 260. Cherry, 257. European Fruit, 257. European Fruit Lecanium, 260. Oyster-shell, 258. Putnam's, 257. Rose, 260. San Jose, 254. Scurfy, 259. Terrapin, 261. Scales of Lepidoptera, 33. Scaraboeidce, 30. Schistoceros hamatus, 250. Schizoneura lanigera, 226. Schizura concinna, 271. Scolytus rugulosus, 241. Screens for plants, 60. Screw-worm, 374. Scurfy Scale, 259. Seed-caterpillar, Clover, 217. Seed-corn Agonoderus, 125. Maggot, 121. Seed ticks, 375. Selandria vitis, 287. Self-boiled lime sulphur, 88. Semasia nigricana, 217. Senses of insects, 16. Serrate antenna, 6. Sesiidce, 35. Seventeen-year Locust, 253. Sharpshooters, Cotton, 222. Sheep Bot-fly, 372. Scab-mite, 376. Tick, 376. Shield-bearer, Resplendent, 310. Short-nosed Ox Louse, 374. Shot-borer, 249. Shot Hole Borer, 241. Sibine stimulea, 183. Sight, powers of, 16. Silkworm moths, 36. Silphidce, 30. Sihanus surinamensis, 364. Silver Fish, 357. Simulidoe, 32. Sinea diadema, 46. Siphonaptera, 30. Siphocoryne avence, 198, 317. Sitones flavescens, 167. Sitotroga cerealella, 358. Skeletonizer : Apple-leaf, 277. Grape-leaf, 276. Skipper, Cheese, 358. Skippers, characteristics of, 34. Sleeping sickness, 44. Slender Seed-corn Ground-beetle, 124. Slug : Peach and Plum, 289. Pear, 288. Rose, 181. Smaller Corn Stalk-borer, 127. Smeared Dagger, 275. Smell, sense of, 16. Snout beetle : characteristics of, 29. Imbricated, 167, 329. Snout beetle (see Curculio, and Weevil) . Snout-moth : Hop, 179. Meal, 362. Soap solution, 77. whale-oil, 77. Sodium arsenite, 352. Sorghum Midge, 219. Southern Beet Webworm, 185. Cabbage Worm, 177. Corn Root-worm, 111, Spanworm : Cranberry, 283. Currant, 282. Elm, 283. Raspberry, 327. Sphecina, 38, 39. Sphecodina abbottii, 273. Sphenophorus costipennis, 128. tnaidis, 128. spp., 128. zeoe, 128. Sphingidcc, 36. Sphinx : Abbott's, 273. Achemon, 272. Plum-tree, 274. Sphinx drupiferarum, 274, Spider, Red, 207, 322. INDEX 411 Spilonota ocellana, 298. Spinach Aphis, 198. Flea-beetle, 159. Leaf-miner, 189. Spinach insects (additional), (see Beets). Spiracles of insects, 12. Split-worm, 189. Spotted fever, 44. Spotted Pelidnota, 262. Spray machinery : accessories, 100. general principles, 89. pumps, 92. tanks, 103. tower, 95. Spread of insects, 40. Spring Canker-worm, 279. Grain-aphis, 196. Square-borer, Cotton, 213. Squash Borer, 134. Bug, 190. Lady Beetle, 148. Squash insects (additional) : Cucumber Flea-beetle, 156. Melon Caterpillar, 216. Pickle Worm, 215. Striped Cucumber Beetle, 150. Twelve-spotted Cucumber Beetle, 152. Stable Fly, 349. Stalk Borer, 132. Potato, 135. Stem-borer, Lima Bean, 136. Stem-girdler, Currant, 246. Stickers, for spray materials, 66. Stinkbugs, 28. Stigmata, 12. Stomach of insects, 13. Stomoxys calcitrans, 349. Stored Product pests, 349. Strainers, 103. Strawberry Crown-borer, 233. Crown-girdler, 230. Crown Moth, 234. Flea-beetle, 266. Leaf-beetle, 263. Leaf-roller, 303. Root-louse, 229. Sawfiy, 288. WeevU, 337. Strawberry insects (additional) : Cranberry Span worm, 283. Grape Colaspis, 263. Green Fruit Worm, 325. Melon Aphis, 199. Oblique Banded Leaf Roller, 302. Smeared Dagger, 275. White Grubs, 225. Straw- worm. Barley, 130. Wheat, 131. Striped Blister-beetle, 144. Cucumber Beetle, 150. Flea-beetle, 158. Garden Caterpillar, 171. Structure of insects: External, 7. Internal, 11. Suck-fly, Tobacco, 195. Sucking insects, insecticides for, 70. Sucking Lice, on animals, 374. Sucking mouthparts, 9. Sugar-beet insects (see Beet). Sugar-beet Webworm, 184. Sugar-cane Beetle, 123. Borer, 126. Mealy-bug, 115. Sulphate of nicotine, 76. Sulphur and lime, for poultry lice, 377. Sulphur, burning, 82. for bedbugs, 355. spray, 207, 321. Summer strength lime sulphur, 87. Swallow-tail Butterfly, 170. Sweet Potato Beetle, Two-striped, 155. Flea-beetle, 161. Root-borer, 117. Tortoise Beetles, 154. Synanthedon pictipes, 240. Synchlora cerata, 327. Syrphidce, 33. Syrphus flies, 33. Systena tceniata, 158. tceniata var. hlanda, 157. Tabanidce, 32, 379. Tabanus, 31. Tachina flies, 33, 48. Tachinidoe, 33. Tanks, 103. Tape, Ant, 352. Tar frames, 196. 412 INDEX Tarnished Plant-bug, 192, 347. Tarsonemus wcetei, 331. Tarsus of insects, 9. Taste, Powers of, 16. Tenehrio raolitor, 369. Tenebroides mauritanicus, 364. Tent Caterpillar, 266. killed by bacteria, 51. killed by fungus, 50. Forest, 269. Tenthredinidoe, 37. Terrapin Bug, 191. Scale, 261. Tetranychus himaculatus, 207, 322. Thorax of insects, 9. Three-lined Potato Beetle, 146. Thrips : characteristics of, 25. Flower, 26, 331. Grass, 204. Greenhouse, 203. Onion, 204. Pear, 329. Tobacco, 204. Thrips tdbaci, 204. Thyreocoridce, 28. Thyreocoris pulicaria, 348. Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis, 307. Thysanoptera, 25. Tibia of insects, 9. Tihicen septendecim, 253. Ticks and disease, 44. Tick : Cattle, 375. Sheep, 376. Time of planting, 57. Timothy insects : Army Worm, 172. BUl-bugs, 128. Chinch-bug, 193. Fall Army Worm, 173. Grasshoppers, 142. Grass Thrips, 204. Leather Jackets, 110. Northern Grass Worm, 179. Root-worms, 111. Wheat-head Army-worm, 214. Wheat-stem Maggot, 131. White Grubs, 109. Tinea granella, 359. pellionella, 355. Tineina, 35. Tingitidce, 28. Tipulidce, 110. Tischeria malifoliella, 309. Tmetocera ocellana, 298. Toads, value of, 46. Tobacco Budworm, 213. dust, 79. extract, commercial, 75. extract, home-made, 76. False Budworm, 211. Flea-beetle, 159. fumigation, 83. Leaf -miner, 189. Split-worm, 189. Suck-fly, 195. Thrips, 204. Worms, 168. Tobacco insects (additional) : Celery Leaf-tier, 186. Cutworms, 140. Tomato Flea-beetle, 156. Fruit-worm, 211. W^orms, 168. Tomato insects (additional) : Colorado Potato-beetle, 145. Cucumber Flea-beetle, 156. Stalk Borer, 132. Tongue of cricket, 16. Tortoise Beetle, 154. Black-legged, 155. Golden, 155. Tortricidce, 35. Touch, sense of, 17. Tower, for spraying, 95. Toxoptera graminum, 196. Tracheal system of insects, 11. Traction outfits, 96. Transformations of insects, 19. Trap crops, 62. Traps, insect, 62. Tree Crickets, 252. Tree-hopper, Buffalo, 253. Triangular Flea-beetle, 160. Tribolium confusum, 364. navale, 364. Trichobaris trinotata, 135. Trichodectes parumpilosus, 375. scalar is, 375. sphcerocephalus, 375. Trochanter of insects, 9. True bugs, 26. Trumpet Miner, Apple Leaf, 309. INDEX 413 Tuberculosis, 42. Tub, fumigating, 200. Turnip insects (see Cabbage). Turpentine, for Sheep-bots, 372. Tussock Moth : Definite Marked, 295. Rusty, 19, 295. White Marked, 295. Twelve-spotted Asparagus Beetle, 154. Cucumber Beetle, 152. Twig-borer, Apple, 250. Twig-girdler, 250. Twig-moth, Peach, 248. Twig-pruner, 251. Two-striped Sweet Potato Beetle, 155. Tychea brevicornis, 115. Tyloderma fragarice, 233. Types of antennae, 6. Typhlocyha comes, 311. Typhoid fever, 42. Typophorus canellus, 263. U Uranotes melinus, 213. Valves, 90. Veratrum alburn, 68. Vermorel nozzle, 100. Vespina, 39. Virginia Creeper, caterpillars on, 272, 275. W Walking Sticks, 23. Warble, Ox, 372. Washes, protective, 79. W^asps, 38-39. Webworm : Cabbage, 185. Corn-root, 112. Fall, 296. Garden, 183. Southern Beet, 185. Sugar-beet, 184. Weeds, 57. Weevil : Alfalfa Leaf, 162. Bean, 365. Chestnut, 368. Clover Leaf, 164. Cotton Boll, 208. Cowpea, 366. Flavescent Clover, 167. Four-spotted Bean, 366. Granary, 364. Hickory Nut, 368. Larger Chestnut, 368. Lesser Clover Leaf, 166. New York, 329. Nut, 368. Pea, 368. Pecan, 368. Rice, 364. Stored products, 364. Strawberry, 337. Western Cabbage Flea-beetle, 159 Corn Root-worm, 111. Grass-stem Sawfly, 129. Whale-oil soap, 77. Wheat-head Army- worm, 214. Wheat Midge, 218. Sawflies, 180. W^heat-stem Maggot, 131. Wheat Straw-w^orm, 131. Wire worm, 107. Wheat insects (additional) : Aphis, 222. Army Worm, 172. Blister-beetles, 144. Chinch-bug, 193. European Grain Aphis, 198. Fall Army Worm, 173. Grass-stem Sawfly, 129. Grass Thrips, 204. Hessian-fly, 139. Joint-worm, 129. Leather Jackets, 110. Plant Lice, 222. Spring Grain-aphis, 196. Stalk Borer, 132. White grubs, 109. Wireworms, 107. W^hite-fly, Greenhouse, 205. White Grubs, 109, 225. White Lead, for borers, 236. White Marked Tussock Moth, 295. Whitewash, carbolated, 242. Wire cloth, 103. probe, 236. Wireworms, 107. Wheat, 107. Wood veneer, 236. 414 INDEX Woolly Apple Aphis, 226. Worm : Apple, 337. Army, 172. Bag, 307. Barley Straw, 130. Beet Army, 174. Blackhead Cranberry, 299. Cabbage Web, 185. Clover-hay, 186. Corn Ear, 211. Corn Root Web, 112. Cotton, 175. Cotton Boll, 211. Cranberry Fruit, 326. Cranberry Span, 283. Cross-striped Cabbage, 177. Currant Span, 282. Cut, 140, 213, 328. Elm Span, 283. Fall Army, 173. Fall Canker, 281. Fall Web, 296. False Army, 274. Garden Web, 183. Gooseberry Fruit, 326. Grape Root, 224. Green Fruit, 325. Imported Cabbage, 176. Imported Currant, 285. Joint, 129. Lesser Apple, 339. Native Currant, 286. Northern Grass, 179. Palmer, 278. Pickle, 215. Potato-tuber, 117. Railroad, 343. Raspberry Span, 327. Screw, 374. Southern Beet Web, 185. Southern Corn Root, 111. Spring Canker, 279. Sugar Beet Web, 184. Tobacco, 168. Tobacco Bud, 213. Tobacco False Bud, 211. Tomato, 168. Tomato Fruit, 211. Western Corn Root, 111. Wheat-head Army, 214. Wheat Straw, 131. Wire, 107. Yellowhead Cranberry, 300. Yellow Meal, 369. Worms (see also Caterpillar, Grub, Moth, Beetle). Wrigglers, 350. Xyleborus dispar, 249. pyri, 249. Xylina antennata, 325. laticinerea, 326. Yellow-bear Caterpillar, 181. Yellow fever, 44. Yellowhead Cranberry Worm, 300. Yellow Mealworm, 369. Yellow-necked Caterpillar, 270. Ypsolophus pometellus, 278. Zebra-caterpillar, 171. Zophodia grossularice, 326. The following pages contain advertisements of books on kindred subjects Cyclopedia of American Agriculture Edited by L. H. BAILEY Director of the College of Agriculture and Professor of Rurai Economy, Cornell University. With 100 full-page plates and more than 2,000 illustrations in the text; four volumes; the set, $20.00 net; half morocco, $32.00 net; carriage extra Volume I— Farms Volume ill— Animals VOLUME n— Crops Volume IV— The Farm and the Community "Indispensable to public and reference libraries . . . readily comprehensible to any person of average education." — The Nation. "The completest existing thesaurus of up-to-date facts and opinions on modern agricultural methods. It is safe to say that many years must pass before it can be surpassed in comprehensiveness, accuracy, practical value, and mechanical excellence. It ought to be in every hbrary in the country." — Record-Herald, Chicago. Cyclopedia of American Horticulture Edited by L. H. BAILEY With over 2,800 original engravings; four volumes; the set, $20.00 net; half morocco, $32.00 net; carriage extra "This really monumental performance will take rank as a standard in its class. Illustrations and text are admirable, . . . Our own conviction is that while the future may bring forth ampHfied editions of the work, it will probably never be superseded. Recognizing its importance, the publishers have given it faultless form. The typography leaves nothing to be desired, the paper is calculated to stand wear and tear, and the work is at once handsomely and attractively bound." — New York Daily Tribune. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK NEW FARM AND GARDEN BOOKS Sheep Farming By JOI A. CRA^l and F. R. MARSHALL Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. $1.60 net. This book deals with sheep husbandry as a phase of intensive farming. Recognizing that it is Kkely to be used by persons un- famiUar with sheep, the authe ;s have worked from the standpoint of the producer of market stock, rather than from the standpoint of the professional breeder. The various breeds are discussed in such a way as to enable the reader to select the kind that is most likely to do well under his conditions and to acquaint him with the care it is accustomed to and needs. The management of the flock in the fall, winter, spring and summer seasons, the formation of the flock, the selection of foundation stock, and the means of maintaining a high standard of flock efficiency, are all discussed in subsequent chapters. Forage Crops for the South By S. M. TRACY Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. Preparing. Professor Tracy has had long experience in Southern agriculture, both in application and in teaching. He was formerly Professor of Agriculture in the Mississippi Agricultural College, and now con- ducts a branch station or farm for the United States Department of Agriculture. He is a botanist of note and has traveled exten- sively in the South as a collector. His book is not only authentic, but practical. In it is contained a discussion of all kinds of plants and crops adapted to the Southern States for fodder, soiling, pasturing and hay. The text is abundantly illustrated THE MACMILLAN COMPANY PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK NEW FARM AND GAP^HN BOOKS Crops and Methods for Soil Improvement By ALVA .vGEE Illustmied. Cloth, l^mo. Preparing. This is a simple and comprehensive treatment of all questions bearing on the conStirving and improving of farm soil. It should be of interest to the practical man, the farmer, the lecturer, and all who deal directly or in- directly with farmers. Popular in style, it is easy reading for anyone. Principles of Fruit Growing By Professor L. H. BAILEY New edition. Cloth, 12mo. $1.50 net. Since the original pubUcation of this book, in 1897, it has gone through many editions. The progress of fruit gro^\^ng in the meantime has been very marked and it has been necessary to completely rewrite the work. The present issue of it brings the accounts of the new practices and discoveries as they relate to fruit growing up to date. All of the text and practically all of the illustrations are new. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK RURAL SCIENCE SERIES Edited by L. H. BAILEY On the Care of Live-stock Nelson S. Mayo's The Diseases of Animals . W. H. Jordan's The Feeding of Animals I. P. Roberts' The Horse M. W. Harper's Breaking and Training of Horses George C. Watson's Farm Poultry. On Selection of Land, etc. Isaac P. Roberts' The Farmstead $1 50 On Tillage, etc. F. H. King's The Soil 1 50 Isaac P. Roberts' The Fertility of the Land ... 1 50 F. H. King's Irrigation and Drainage 1 50 Edward B. Voorhees' Fertilizers 1 25 Edward B. Voorhees' Forage Crops 1 50 J. A. Widtsoe's Dry Farming 1 50 L. H. Bailey's Principles of Agriculture .... 1 25 On Plant Diseases, etc. E. C. Lodeman's The Spraying of Plants .... 1 25 On Garden-Making L. H. Bailey's Garden-Making 1 50 L. H. Bailey's Vegetable-Gardening 1 50 L. H. Bailey's Forcing Book 1 25 On Fruit-Growing, etc. L. H. Bailey's Nursery Book 1 50 L. H. Bailey's Fruit-Growing 1 50 L. H. Bailey's The Pruning Book 1 50 F. W. Card's Bush Fruits 1 50 1 50 1 50 1 25 1 50 1 25 On Dairy Work, Farm Chemistry, etc. Henry H. Wing's Milk and Its Products . ... . 1 50 J. G. Lipman's Bacteria and Country Life .... 1 50 On Economics and Organization I. P. Roberts' The Farmer's Business Handbook . . 1 25 George T. Fairchild's Rural Wealth and Welfare . . 1 25 H. N. Ogden's Rural Hygiene 1 50 J. Green's Law for the American Farmer .... 1 50 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK THE RURAL MANUALS Edited by L. H. BAILEY Manual of Farm Animals A Practical Guide to the Choosing, Breeding and Keep of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Swine. By MERRITT W. HARPER Assistant Professor of Animal Husbandry in the New York State College of Agri- culture at Cornell University Illustrated, decorated cloth, 12mo, 5Jt5 pages, index, $3.00 net, by mail, $2.18 "The work is invaluable as a practical gviide in raising farm animals." — Morning Telegram. "A book deserving of close study as well as being handy for 'reference, and should be in the possession of every farmer interested in stock." — Rural World. Manual of Gardening A Practical Guide to the Making of Home Grounds and the Growing of Flowers, Fruits and Vegetables for Home Use. By L. H. BAILEY Illustrated, cloth, 12mo, BJ^. pages, $2.00 net; by mail, $2.17 This new work is a combination and revision of the main parts of two other books by the same author, "Garden Making" and "Practical Garden Book, together with much new material and the result of the experience of ten added years. Among the persons who collaborated in the preparation of the other two books, and whose contributions have been freely used in this one, are C. E. Hunn, a gardener of long experience; Professor Ernest Walker, reared as a commercial florist; Professor L. R. Taft, and Professor F. A. Waugh, well known for their studies and writings on horticultural subjects. A STANDARD WORK REVISED AND ENLARGED The Farm and Garden Rule Book By LIBERTY H. BAILEY Illustrated, cloth, 12mo, $2.00 net When Professor Bailey's "Horticulturist's Rule Book" was published nearly twenty-five years ago, the volume became a standard agricultural work running through sixteen editions. Taking this book as a basis the author has now made a wholly new book, extending it to cover the field of general farming, stock-raising, dairying, poultry-rearing, horticulture, gardening, forestry, and the like. It is essentially a small cyclopedia of ready rules and references packed full from coyer to cover of condensed, meaty information and precepts on almost every leading subject connected with country life. IN PREPARATION Manual of Home-Making. Manual of Cultivated Plants THE MACMILLAN COMPANY PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK How to Keep Hens for Profit By C. S. VALENTINE Cloth, illustrated, 12mo, $1.50 net; postpaid, $1.63 "The Plymouth Rock, Java, Dominique, Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, and Buckeye breeds are discussed in the first few chapters. Con- siderable attention is given to other breeds later on. Eighteen beautiful half-tone engravings adorn the book. From the standpoint of the prac- tical farmer and poultry-grower, we consider this book as one of the very best of its kind. The author is evidently an experienced poultry- man. It is a book that should be of special help to beginners in poultry, while at the same time it contains much information for the expert." — Farmers' Tribune. The Beginner in Poultry By C. S. VALENTINE Decorated Cloth, profusely illustrated, 12mo, $1.50 net; postpaid, $1.63 It has been estimated that of the five million people who are raising poultry in this country today half have gone at it blindly. And it is just as impossible to make a success of the poultry business without preparation as it is impossible to succeed in any other business without an acquaintance with the fundamentals. The difficulty which the novice has experienced in going at the raising of chickens systematically in the past has been that he could find no book in which the essentials — only the essentials and all of them — of poultry-raising are given. To write such a book has been Mr. Valentine's purpose In "The Beginner in Poultry" he discusses the different breeds of fowls, the types of houses, feeding and the kinds of food, raising chickens for the market and for their eggs, diseases and their cures and everything else which will be of ■value for the one who is starting out — and much for the seasoned poul- try-raiser as well. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK THE RURAL OUTLOOK SET By Professor L. H. BAILEY Director of the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University Four Volumes. Each, cloth, 12mo. Uniform binding, attractively boxed. $5.00 net per set; carriage extra. Each volume also sold separately. In this set are included three of Professor Bailey's most popular books as well as a hitherto unpublished one, — "The Country-Life Movement." The long and persist- ent demand for a uniform edition of these little classics is answered with the publica- tion of this attractive series. The Country-Life Movement Cloth, 12mo, 220 pages, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.34 This hitherto unpublished volume deals with the present movement for the re- direction of rural civilization, discussing the real country-life problem as distin- guished from the city problem, known as the back-to-the-land movement. The Outlook to Nature (New and Revised Edition) Cloth, \2mo, 195 pages, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.34 In this alive and bracing book, full of suggestion and encouragement, Professor Bailey argues the importance of contact with nature, a sympathetic attitude toward which "means greater efficiency, hopefulness, and repose." The State and the Farmer (New Edition) Cloth, 12mo, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.34 It is the relation of the farmer to the government that Professor Bailey here discusses in its varying aspects. He deals specifically with the change in agricultural methods, in the shifting of the geographical centers of farming in the United States, and in the growth of agricultural institutions. The Nature Study Idea (New Edition) Cloth, \2mo, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.34 "It would be well," the critic of The Tribxme Farmer once wrote, "if 'The Nature Study Idea' were in the hands of every per.son who favors nature study in the public schools, of every one who is opposed to it, and, most important, of every one who teaches it or thinks he does." It has been Professor Bailey's purpose to interpret the new school movement to put the young into relation and sumoatby with nature, — a purpose which he has admirably accomplished. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK