'Blackie ftP Son Limited ^Private Library Case (S . Lepidoptcra (Butterflies and Moths). Four wings, more or less covered with scales. Mouth suctorial. <:•. Hymenoptera (Ants, Bees, Wasps and Sawflies). Four mem- branous wings, few veins. Mouth biting and suctorial. tl. Dipt era (True Flies). Wings two only ; the second pair reduced to two club-shaped processes called halteres or poisers. Mouth piercing or suctorial. t'. Hemiptera (Bugs, Scale Insects, 1'lant Lice). Wings four. Mouth piercing and suctorial. The front wings may be leathery at the base (hemi-elytra) in Bugs (Heteroptera), or all transparent, as in Plant Lice (Homoptera), or absent (Scale Insects). /. Xcuroptera (Lace-wing and Dragon Flies). Wings four ; more or less uniform, with a network of veins. Mouth biting. (j. Orthoptera (Locusts and Grasshoppers). Wings four; front pair more or less leathery, veins more or less straight ; hind pair fan-shaped, with radiating and concentric veins. Mouth biting. //. Thysanoptera (Thrips). Wings four; very narrow, fringed all around with hairs. Mouth weak, biting. /'. Apt era (Springtails, etc.) Xo wings. Xo life changes. The first four undergo what is called complete metamorphosis, that is, there are the following stages during growth : — (1) The ovum or egg. (2) The larva (caterpillar, maggot or grub). (3) The pupa or chrysalis. (4) The sexual adult. The third stage is the one in which the active, sexless larva is transformed into the sexual adult, the period when the caterpillar is transformed into the moth. It is a period of rest and complete change ; the pupa is unable to crawl or fly or feed, a quiescent period when most of the organisation of the larva is broken down and reformed. The groups or orders e to h undergo what is called incomplete metamorphosis. Here we have the same stages, namely, egg, larva, pupa and adult, but the pupa is active and feeding. Growth and Summary of the Characters of Insects, etc. 9 development takes place gradually, and there is no abrupt change as seen between the larva and the adult in the moth or fly. The final group (i) undergo no metamorphosis. B. The Worms or VE1JMES are divided into three main groups : — (1) riatyhelminthes or Flat Worms. (2) Nemathelminthes or Eound Worms. (3) Annelida or Segmented Worms. So far only some of those belonging to the Nemathelminthes are known to be injurious to fruit. But it is possible that the Annelid worms, the Enchytrseidse, which are parasitic on other plants, may occur on the roots of ground fruit. The injurious Eound or Nemathelminth Worms belong to the sub-order Nematoda, and have filiform bodies, the two ends being more or less pointed, and the posterior end of the male, which is usually smaller than the female, slightly curved ; they are round in section, their skin smooth or slightly wrinkled, and the sexes are separate. The plant parasites belong to a family of Nematoda known as Anfj'uilhdidse, or Eelworms, which are small, microscopic, thread-like worms. These nematodes live both free in the soil and in the tissues of plants, and others in decaying vegetation. Those which attack plants, and also which are found in decaying plant tissues, have a boring spine. The sexes are separate, and the female produces large eggs. Enchytrseidss are a family of Annelid worms of small size, never more than 1 inch or so in length, and sometimes found in masses around the roots of plants, and are of a white colour. C. MOLLUSCA of importance are confined to the order Gasteropoda. Two families of this order attack fruit, namely, Snails (Helicidse) and Slugs (Limacidas). The Helicidse have a shell into which the snail not only can withdraw its body, but which can be closed up at the entrance by means of a structure called the epiphragm. The LimacidtB have a very weak shell buried under the skin. Both produce eggs, and the young are like the parents. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE. THE MORE IMPOETANT INSECTS FEEDING ON APPLE. A. LEPIDOPTERA. THE LARGE TORTOISESHELL BUTTERFLY (Vanessa, polycliloros. Linn.). Foliage, p. 186. THE EYED HAWK MOTH (Smerinthus ocellatus. Linn.). Foliage, p. 15. THE APPLE CLEARWING (Mgeria myopiformis. Bork.). Bark, p. 17. THE LAPPET MOTH (Lasiocampa qiiercifolia. Linn.). Foliage, p. 19. THE BROWN TAIL MOTH (Euproctis chrysorrhoea. Linn.). Foliage, p. 22. THE GOLD TAIL MOTH (Portliesia similis. Fues.). Foliage, p. 27. THE LACKEY MOTH (Clissiocampa neustria. Linn.). Foliage, p. 30. THE DECEMBER MOTH (Pcecilocampa populi. Linn.). Foliage, p. 34. FiGURE-OF-8 MOTH (Diloba coeruleocepliala. Linn.). Foliage, p. 35. VAPOURER MOTH (Orygia antiqua. Linn.). Foliage, p. 38. TRIDENT MOTH (Acronycta psi. Linn.). Foliage, p. 41. DOT MOTH (Mamestra persicariw. Linn.). Foliage, p. 264. GOAT MOTH (Cossus ligniperda. Fab.). Wood, p. 42. WOOD LEOPARD (Zeuzera pyrina. Linn.). Wood, p. 46. WINTER MOTH (Cheimatobia bmmata. Linn.). Foliage, Blossom and Fruit, p. 50. MOTTLED UMBER MOTH (Hybernia defoliaria. Clerck.). Foliage and Fruit, p. 58. MARCH MOTH {Anisoptcryx wscularia. Schiff.). Foliage, p. 61. PEPPER AND SALT MOTH (Ampliidasys betularia. Linn.). Foliage, p. 64. CLOUDED DRAB MOTH (Tceniocampa incerta. Hufn.). Foliage and Fruit, p. 66. THE GREEN PUG MOTH (Cliloroclystis rectangulata. Linn.). Blossom trusses, p. 68. CODLING MOTH (Carpocapsa pomonella. Linn.). Fruit5 p. 69. THE COMMON TORTRIX (Tortrix ribeana. Hb.). Foliage and buds, p. 79. ALLIED TORTRIX (Tortrix lieparana. Schiff'.). Foliage and buds, p. 79. i (Tortrix podana. Sc.). I (Tortrix rosana. Linn.). Foliage and buds, OTHER TORTRICES < j (Sideria achatana. Fab.). pp. 80 and 81. \(Pijrodes rlieediella. Clerck.). THE ALLIED BUD MOTH (Antitliesia variegana. Hb.). Foliage and buds, p. 82. THE BUD MOTH (Hetlya occllana. Fab.). Buds and young flowers and foliage, p. 82. SMALL ERMINE MOTH (Hyponomeuta malinella, Zell.). Foliage, p. 86. PITH MOTHS (Blastodacna hellerella, Dup., and Blastodacna vinolentella, H. S.). Shoots, p. 92. 14 Insect Pests. A. LEPIDOPTERA— continued. APPLE LEAF MINER (Lyonetia clercliella. Linn.). Mining leaves, p. 96. BLISTER MOTH (Cemiostoma scitella. Zell.). Leaves (Vide Pear). WILD CRAB LEAF MIXER (Nepiicida malella. Stain.). Mines leaves, p. 100. APPLE LEAF BLISTER MOTH (Ornix petiolella. Stain.). Mines foliage, p. 103. CASE BEARERS (Coleoplwridw spp.}. Foliage and blossom, p. 196. B. COLEOPTERA. APPLE BLOSSOM "\VEEVIL (Antlwnomus pomorum. Curtis). Blossom, p. 104. THE TWIG CUTTER (Rlujncliites cceruhtis. De Geer), ETC. Twigs and shoots, pp. 117-118. BLOSSOM BEETLES (Meligetlies wneus. Fab., etc.). Blossom, p. 115. THE FRUIT BARK BEETLE (Scolytus nigulostts. Ratz.). Bark, p. 111. SHOT BORER BEETLE (Xyleborus dispar. Fab.). "\Vood (Vide Plum). ALLIED SHOT BORER (Xyleborus saxeseni. Ratz.). Wood (Vide Plum). ROSE CHAFER Cetonia aurata. Linn.). Foliage and Blossom (Vide Raspberry). COCK CHAFER (MelolontJia vulgaris. Fab.). Foliage and roots (Vide Raspberry). GARDEN CHAFER (Pliyllopertlia liorticola. Linn.). Foliage and roots (Vide Raspberry). THE GREEN LEAF WEEVIL (PliyUobius ntaculicornis. Genii.). Foliage and roots, p. 119. THE BROWN LEAF WEEVIL (PliyUobius oblongus. Linn.). Foliage and buds, p. 119. C. HYMEXOPTERA (Sawflies, Wasps). APPLE SAWFLY (Hoplocamfxi testudinea. Cameron). Fruit, p. 122. APPLE EMPHYTCS (Empliytus sp.). Snags and shoots, p. 127. WASPS (Vespa vulgaris, Linn., and V. sylvestris. Scop.). Fruit, p. 129. LEAF CUTTING BEE (Megacliile ligniseca. Kirby). Wood. D. HEMIPTERA (Aphides, Scales, etc.). PERMANENT APPLE APHIS (Aphis pomi. De Geer). Curls leaves, p. 133. BLOSSOM AND STEM APPLE APHIS (Apliis fitcliii. Sand.). Shoots, p. 137. ROSY APPLE APHIS (Apliis sorbi. Kalt.). Leaves, p. 136. WOOLLY APHIS (Scliizoneiira lanigera. Hausm.). Roots, trunks, boughs, shoots and leaves, p. 141. APPLE SUCKER (PsyUa inaJi. Forst.). Leaf and blossom buds and blossom, p. 153. MUSSKL SCALE (Lcpidosaphes ulmi. Linn.). Bark, leafage and fruit, p. 165. OYSTER-SHELL BARK LOUSE (Aspidiotns ostreceformis. Sig.). Bark (Vide Plum). BROWN SCALE (Lccanium caprea. Linn.). Bark, p. 175. CUCKOO SPIT INSECT (Pliilwmis sjnimariiis. Linn.). Leaves (axils of), p. 200. Insects Injurious to the Apple. 15 THE EYED HAWK MOTH. (Smerinthus occllatus. Linn.) The large caterpillars of this beautiful Hawk Moth are sometimes reported from apple trees, upon which their presence is soon detected by the great amount of foliage they devour and the large pellets of " frass " dropped by them. The damage done may be serious if numbers occur. Miss Ormerod (1) records these larvae as stripping the leaves of apples at Bewdley, her correspondent saying, " The caterpillar is very destruc- tive " ; another communication from Meldrith, Cambridgeshire, stated, " They entirely denude the trees of all their leaves." They have been sent me from several places in Worcestershire, Suffolk, Kent and Surrey, with notes regarding the damage they have done. The damage is more apparent than real. Knowing, however, the ravenous habits of the Hawk Moth caterpillars when young, it is not unlikely that any undue increase might lead to much loss occasioned by the young larvae. The chief food plants are willow, sallow and poplar, but they also occur on sloe, peach and almond. DESCRIPTION AND LIFE-HISTORY. The moth measures from 2^ inches to nearly 3^ inches in wing expanse (Fig. 1). The fore wings are of a rich grey-brown, with pale chocolate or olive-brown markings, a median bar being noticeable ; the hind wings are rosy-red, becoming rather greyish at the edges, and with a large greyish-blue eye-spot on each, encircling a black pupil and sur- rounded by black, as seen in Figure 1 ; the broad thorax is dark in the middle, greyish-brown at the sides, and the abdomen is also greyish -brown. The moth frequents gardens and orchards, but especially osier beds and willows. It appears from the end of May until the middle of July, and may be found all over England, but is rare in Scotland. The ova are laid singly on the leaves. The egg is plump and oval, the upper surface shrunken in the middle, the shell shiny, but finely reticulate ; in colour it varies from pale-greenish to yellow. The larva? may be found in the months of June, August and September, the majority in the last two months. When mature the larva is 3 inches long; in colour it is 16 Insect Pests. green, sometimes bluish-green, at others bright apple-green, minutely dotted with white and- with eight white or pale yellow diagonal bars on each side, bordered above with darker colour; the tail is light blue, the apex being deep green, reddish-brown or black, rarely uniform blue; the spiracles are yellowish- white, edged with brown. FIG. 1.— THE KYKD HAWK MOTH (Smerinthus ocellatus. Linn.) Adult, larva and pupa. The length of larval life is about six weeks. They then enter the soil and make a cavity about 2 inches deep. The pupa is deep brown, and measures often If inch ; in this stage the Eyed Hawk remains throughout the winter and spring. Insects Injurious to the Apple. 17 TREATMENT. All that is necessary as far as present attacks have gone is hand- picking the caterpillars. Should they ever occur in such large numbers as I have seen them in osier beds in Middlesex and Huntingdonshire, then spraying with arsenate of lead would prove successful. EEFERENCES. (1) Ormcrod, E. A. Keporfc of Observations of Injurious Insects, etc., during the year 1894 (18th Report) p. 1 (1895). (2) Buckler, W. 'The Larvae of British Butterflies and Moths,' vol. II., pp. 99-103 (1887). THE APPLE CLEARWING. (sEgeria myopiformis. Bork.) On the 21st of June, 1907, larvae and pupae of this Clearwing Moth were sent me from the Croydon district by the Secretary of the Horticultural Mutual Improvement Society (3). The larvae were taken out of an apple tree, Warner's King, where they had been working havoc underneath the bark. They occurred in patches. In many instances they were found in the wounds caused by Woolly Aphis. " The attacked trees are about six years old," wrote the Secretary. Mr. Boshier, " and are in good bearing condition." On the 26th of June a further lot of pupae were sent, taken from Duchess Favourite, Warner's King, Colonel Vaughan and Winter Queening. The larvae were mostly found about 7 feet from the soil. This Clearwing Moth (Fig. 2) is some- what similar to the Currant Clearwing in general appearance, but can at once be told by the broad red belt on the abdomen. The length is about 20 mm., with a wing 4 expanse of 22 to 25 mm. The head, thorax FIG 9 [F- E- and body are black ; the latter has a bright THE AppLE CLEA~ WING MOTH. red band above, white beneath in the male; (^;geria myopiformis. Bork.) in the female the underside is only edged with white ; the tail fan is black. The wings are transparent, with dark sealed areas. The rnoths fly by day, and are found in May, June and July. 18 Insect Pests. LlFE-HlSTORY AND HABITS. They frequent gardens and orchards, and lay their eggs almost exclusively on apple trees. Wood (1), in his ' British Moths,' says they are " said to feed on the small stems and twigs of the apple tree." This does not appear to be always the case, for the trunks only seemed to be attacked at Croydon. The moth lays its eggs on the trunk of the tree and the larvse tunnel under the bark ; there they work until they are mature, and then they eat out a hollow in the wood, which they line with silk of a dull grey colour, and cover the outside with brown wood chips. The larva is dull yellowish-white. Buckler (2) describes a pinkish pulsating dorsal vessel, with an internal purplish - pink tinge from segments five to eight ; this could not be detected in the specimens sent me. The head is retractile and shiny reddish-brown ; the second segment is somewhat wider than the others, and has a brown dorsal shield ; the segments are very distinct, and the prolegs FIG. 3.— COCOONS AND PUP.E OF THE APPLE CLEARWIN yopifo Bork.). small and very inconspicuous ; there are traces of spots, each termi- nated by a bristle. The specimens sent were mature, and measured a little more than f inch in length. The whole larva seems rather flattened. The mature larva; were very sluggish when extracted from their irregular burrows. They had all pupated by the 29th of June. The pupte (Fig. o) are bright pale brown, and lie completely protected in the silken cases covered with rich brown wood chips and apparently some " frass " from the larval workings. In length the pupte varied from a little over ^ to nearly ^ inch. They were all curved and slender, and tapered to a point at the apex, which is bluntly rounded with a ring of spines ; the first five abdominal rings have two dorsal rows of spines, the two following, one row each. The spines are somewhat darker than the ground colour. When ready to hatch, the pupre make their way partly out of the cocoons, and the empty brown skins are seen protruding from the trees. Insects Injurious to the Apple. 19 TREATMENT can only be of very doubtful benefit, as the larvre are difficult to get at, but it is said that a sticky dressing smeared up the trunks in May easily checks the egress of the moths, and prevents further egg-laying. REFERENCES. (1) Wood, F. 0. 'Natural History of British Moths,' vol. I., p. 18. PL 5, fig. 5 (1872). (2) Buckler, William. 'The Larvae of British Butterflies and Moths,' vol. II., pp. 128-129. PL xxix., fig. 1 (1887). (3) Theobald, F. V. Report on Economic Zoology for year ending April 1st, 1907, p. 20 (1907). THE LAPPET MOTH. (Lasiocampa quercifolia. Linn.) This is another handsome moth which now and again is sent by orchardists, owing to its large and strange caterpillars devouring such quantities of foliage. Fortunately, it is not very common and certainly cannot be looked upon as a pest. The quaint and active pupre in the cocoons are also frequently sent. Xumbers have been brought me by hedge- trimmers who have noticed them moving, and taken them for mice, the mouse-coloured cocoon having led to this mistake. The ravenous larva' destroy the leaves of apple and plum in orchards and gardens, often stripping whole shoots and boughs. Miss Ormerod refers to it (1), but I know of no other record of it as causing annoyance. It occurs fairly commonly over the Midlands, eastern, western and southern counties of England. c 2 [H'. //. Ham 4.— EGGS OF LAl'PET MOTH. (X 20.) 20 Insect Pesls. Its food plants are the apple, plum, pear, hawthorn, blackthorn, willow and sallow. LlFE-HlSTORY AND H A BITS. The moth appears at the end of June and in July. It varies in length, the male being much smaller than the female ; the latter is often 3j inches from wing to wing, the male seldom more than 2^. The form is shown in Figure 6, page 21 ; the colours are rich brown, with irregular dark transverse scolloped lines, the posterior wings very similar, and both pairs have scolloped edges. When at rest the under wings project in a characteristic manner beneath the upper. The eggs (Fig. 4) are very marked. The larva? hatch in late summer and autumn, and hibernate during the winter. Previous to this they moult once, and then remain ex- tended on a twig (Fig. 5) and assume the colour of the wood. The mature larva? reach over 4 inches in length, they are grey and grey-brown in colour with faint A"-shaped dark marks or other indis- tinct ornamentation down the back ; always present, how- ever, are two beautiful deep blue or purple, velvety bands across the segments next the head. Above the legs on each side and on all the segments is a row of fleshy pad-like appendages with long grey hairs, like lappets, and hence the name " Lappet Moth " ; there is a more or less prominent hump on the last but one segment, and all the body is finely hairy (Fig. 6 B). AVheii mature in summer the caterpillar spins a long oval cocoon, pointed at each end, in all I have seen, and of a mouse colour, hairs being mixed with the silk. This cocoon is spun up amongst the [/•'. Edenden. YOVXG LARVAL LAPPET RKADY FOR WIXTEKIXc;. Insects Injurious to the Apple. 21 twigs of the trees, in crevices in bark and amongst rubbish on the ground. The large dark brown pupa is very motile, and moves with such vigour that the cocoon shakes and even moves along an even surface. FIG. 6.— THE LAPPET MOTH (Lasiocampa qvercifolia. Linn.). A, female and male ; B, mature larva. [F. Edenden. TREATMENT. If this curious moth becomes sufficiently abundant in plantations it could be easily kept from doing harm by arsenical spraying. So far, all that is necessary is hand collection. 22 Insect Pesls. REFERENCES. (1) Ormerod, E. A. ' Handbook of Insects Injurious to Orchard and Bush Fruits,' p. 24 (1895). (2) Ormerod, E. A. Eighteenth Report of Observations of Injurious Insects. p. 4 (1895). THE BROWN TAIL MOTH. (Euproctis chrysorrhoea. Linn.) This moth is a common British insect, and its presence in America is only too well known on account of the vast amount of harm it is doing there. It appears to have been accidentally introduced into New England some seventeen years ago on rose bushes from France. Since then it has rapidly spread, and has not only caused damage over a large tract of country, but appears to be still on the increase. Besides being found in Britain, this insect is common on the Continent, and extends eastwards as far as the Himalayas and as far south as Algeria. According to Stainton (1), the Brown Tail Moth is local. Where it does occur, however, it may become very abundant. It belongs to the family of moths known as Liparidse, and is closely related to the Gold Tail, but has many divergent traits in its life-history. One of its curious features is that it may occur one year in enormous numbers and then completely disappear. In Kollar (2) is recorded the following : — " In the summer of 1782 this insect created great alarm over the country from its multifarious colonies which were so immensely numerous, we are informed by Mr. Curtis, that in many of the parishes near London subscriptions WINTER TENT <>F BKOWN TAIL MOTH , , , . AND YOINGLAKV.* OUTSIDE, were opened and the poor people employed to cut off the webs at one shilling per bushel, and which were burnt under the inspection of the church- wardens, overseers or beadles of the parish." Insects Injurious to the Apple. 23 Prayers were even offered up in some of the churches to deliver the country from the apprehended ap- proaching calamity (3). It occurred in enormous numbers in East Kent in 1901, next year it was scarce, and since then it has been very difficult to find " tents " of these caterpillars. Amongst localities where it has been or is found may be mentioned Epping, Lewes, Tenterden. Ramsgate, Canterbury, "Wye, Sittingbourne, Fav- ersham, Hythe, Ashford, Linton, Teignmouth, Bristol, Lymington, New- market, Bisterne, Norwich, Stow- market, Black Park, Dorking, etc. The damage done by these tent- forming caterpillars is very similar to that done by the Lackey Moth. FIG. 8. ANOTHER NON-HANGING WINTER TENT (A) AND EGG-MASS (B). (Half natural size.) LlFE-HlSTORY AND HABITS. The female moth (Fig. 9) has pure satiny white fore wings with a faint dusky spot on each; hind wings pure white ; the head, thorax and abdomen pure white ; a dense brown to golden brown pad-like tail tuft, and the brown colour may spread on to a few segments of the abdomen ; the male has no dusky spots on the front wings, and the brown tail tuft is much smaller and more fanlike. The wing expanse varies between 1^ inch and If inch. The moth is a night-flyer, and may be found resting by day on walls, leaves, lamps, etc., and is very sluggish, falling down as .if dead wben its resting-place is shaken. The female lays her eggs on the under surface of the leaves. These are placed in a long mass reaching [F. Edenden MALE AND FEMALE BROWN TAIL MOTHS. (Natural size.) 24 Insect Pests. sometimes an inch in length; these long egg-masses are covered over by the hairs from the female's tail, the eggs being completely hidden. The ova are round, of a dull golden hue, and as many as two hundred and fifty may occur in each batch. They are not only laid on apple, pear and plum, but also on oak, elm, blackthorn and whitethorn. The lame hatch out from the beginning of August and live on throughout the winter. At first they are very small, of a dirty yellow colour, with black head and four rows of black dots and numerous hairs. They at once bend over and spin a single leaf together, eating only the epidermis, and at the same time they attach the leaf to the twig by a mass of silk, so that it cannot fall off. Towards September they commence to make a regular nest of dull grey silk, attaching several leaves together in the process ; these dead leaves become lined and covered with silk and are all firmly united. This nest (Figs. 7 and 8) remains on the trees all the winter. In September the larv?e moult and still feed on as long as the leaves contain any sap. This small nest they use as a protection in damp weather and at night. Even after the leaves have gone it is not unusual to see the small larva? basking in the sun outside their tent. As the weather becomes colder they become dormant The hardest frosts do not seem to FIG. 10.— PART OF EGG-MASS AND LARVA OF BRO\VX TAIL MOTH. and remain in their dwellings, harm them. In the spring they commence to feed on the leaves as they open, the young lame wandering some way from their nest. Very frequently a colony will divide, two nests being made and sometimes even a third is formed. Early in May they moult again, and assume a deep brown colour with reddish-brown hairs, a row of white spots on each side, a narrow double broken line of red on the back, dark between, and with two prominent bright red tubercles on the back of the eleventh and twelfth segments ; these two tubercles are depressed in the middle and can be elevated or withdrawn at will by the caterpillars. Their object is unknown. If it is to frighten off enemies they are useless, for the Brown Tail Moth caterpillar in this country is subject Insects Injurious to the Apple. 25 After the last moult the caterpillars their nest, and they devour the to much parasitic infestation, spread out over the fruit trees. They then seem to forsake leafage wholesale. From the end of June to the beginning of July they spin cocoons amongst the leaves of the fruit trees, as a rule several together forming a large mass united by a dusky web. In their cocoons they change to deep brown puptu. Kollar (2) says as many as twelve cocoons may be gathered into one ball. Some years ago I counted as many as forty on a damson tree in one mass (4). From these pupte the moths come out in the latter part of July and in August, and soon begin to lay their long egg-masses. NATURAL ENEMIES. Kollar (2) records both the eggs and the larvae attacked by Ichneumon flies. These para- sites, which are apparently common on the Continent, do not occur, as far as we know, in Britain. They are considered important by American ento- mologists, who are introducing them into the States. Howard (5) tells us that many thou- sands have been introduced and released in the vicinity of Boston. The only abundant parasite that I have come across in Britain is a Tachinid fly, Thdymorplia vertiginosct, Fl. This fly appeared in great numbers in 1901, and I feel sure had a large share in stamping out this moth (6). [» OF A "TENT,'' WITH NEARLY MATURE LARVJE. 26 Insect Pests. BROWX TAIL CATEKPILLAE EASH. The hairs of the Brown Tail caterpillar are very finely barbed and also brittle. If one touches a caterpillar these hairs stick in the skin and break off, and cause very severe irritation in the form of a distinct rash. Moreover, when the insect occurs in large numbers, much inconvenience is caused by the hairs, broken off at moulting time or when the cocoons are being formed, blowing about in the air. They then not only settle on the face but get into the mouth, eyes, etc., and cause very great annoyance and some danger to the afflicted person. The worst urticating hairs are those short brown ones from the tubercles on the back and sides. Howard (5) describes very bad symptoms resulting from these hairs in America. The best remedy to apply when one has been covered with these hairs is the following: — Carbolic acid ^ drachm, zinc oxide ^ oz., lime water 8 oz. PREVENTION AND REMEDIES. The winter tents (Figs. 7 and 8) should be sought for and burnt ; as they are easily seen this is not a difficult task. Any " tents " that show in early summer should also be destroyed either during a wet day or towards evening. It is advisable to hold a sheet under the tents when being cut off in the summer, in case any of the caterpillars fall. Should these caterpillars appear unawares in a plantation the whole should be sprayed with arsenate of lead. REFERENCES. (1) Stainton, H. T. « Manual of British Butterflies and Moths,' I., p. 134 (1857). (2) Kollar, Vincent. 'A Treatise on Insects, etc.' Eng. Trans., p. 190 (1840). (3) Curtis, John. ' History of the Brown Tail Moth ' (1782). (4) Theobald, F. V. Tent Caterpillars, Board of Agriculture Journal, Sept. (1901). (5) Howard, L. O. The Brown Tail Moth, and how to Control it. Fanners' Bulletin, No. 264. U.S. Dept. Agri. (1906). (6) Theobald, F. V. Report on Economic Zoology for year ending April 1st, 1907, p. 25 (1907). Insects Injurious to the Apple. 27 THE GOLD TAIL MOTH. (Portliesia similis. Fues.*) The caterpillar of this moth is often very harmful, not only to hawthorn hedges, but also to fruit trees throughout the country at certain times. It occurs on apple, plum, pear, cherry, nuts and roses. The pretty caterpillars devour the foliage. The chief harm is done by the young larvte when they come from their winter quarters, for they feed ravenously on the tender leaves. This beautiful moth, with pure satiny white wings, is found settled with its wings folded downwards on leaves, palings, lamps, etc., in August. In the male is noticeable a dusky spot on the inner border of the fore wings. Thorax and abdomen are pure white, but the latter has a golden yellow tail tuft. In size the male varies from 1 inch to 1£ inch, the female up to If inch. LlFE-HlSTOKY AND HABITS. The life-history may be briefly summed up as follows : The moths lay their eggs in August on apple, plum, pear, cherry, hawthorn, hazel, cob, oaks, Spanish chest- nut (3), roses and other trees. The eggs are laid in golden coloured nests of hairs derived from the female " tail." They hatch in some seven to ten days, and the FIG. 12.— GOLD TAIL MOTH AT REST. small larva; feed upon the leaves until (Slightly enlargecL) the autumn, during this time they moult once (Taschenberg (2) says twice). As soon as the leaves harden, these little caterpillars at once go into winter quarters. They seek out shelter in bark crevices, under the bark scales, under moss and lichens, and in various holes. Here they spin small dull grey cocoons about £ inch in length, and remain hibernating during the winter. Although they appear to be solitary, yet numbers will collect in any suitable place of shelter. * Also known as P. auriflua. Fab. 28 Insect Pests. In spring they come forth as soon as the buds swell, and com- mence to feed on the young leaves. Some sent from Kvesham came [/•'. Edenden. FIG. 13.— THE GOLD TAIL MOTH (Porthesia ximi/ix). A and B, female and male ; C, summer cocoon ; D, small winter cocoon ; E, larva. out of their small cocoons on the IStli of March. They continued feeding until July, Imt many matured in the latter part of June. The larva is deep brownish-black, with a bright red dorsal stripe, a red line on each side spotted with white, and another above the legs. The segments have tufts of brown hairs. [A. V. D. Rintoul. J PLUM LEAF. When mature it spins up in a grey cocoon with larval hairs in its meshes, and changes to a deep brown pupa ; these are usually Insects Injurious to the Apple. 29 formed on or near the food plants, sometimes between leaves, at others on the bark or between the forks, or on palings, etc., near by. There seems something wrong with the account of this insect given in the English translation of Kollar's ' Treatise on Insects Injurious to Farmers,' etc., by J. and M. London, for on page 199 they speak of P. aurif.ua as the Brown Tail Moth, and on page 190 P. chrysorrlicea is put as the Gold Tail (1). The popular names are most appropriate if lightly applied, and this error is pointed out in case that interesting little German work falls into the hands of those who are not fully acquainted with the insect's economy. The Gold Tail does not form a web at all, the larvae feed solitarily, but the Brown Tail (P. clirysor- rhcea) does. That it is of frequent annoyance we know, but the damage done when the larvte are large is comparatively slight, compared with the little known harm caused by it in the young stage in the spring, which we can easily check. PREVENTION AND TREATMENT. This consists of catching the larvae by enticing them to some comfortable winter quarters, such as has been found in the banding adopted for Codling Moth prevention. Mr. Small of Evesham (4) for- warded me many of the small winter cocoons found under the sacking placed to catch Codling Moth, and such has been reported by several other correspon- dents. These bands and the collected larval cocoons can be burnt in winter with the Codling Maggots caught by them. The caterpillars, when appearing in any numbers, can be killed very readily by spraying with arsenate of lead, which has been found much more effective than Paris green for this species. The only bird that feeds upon these larvae is the Cuckoo. REFERENCES. (1) Kollar, Vincent. ' A Treatise on Insects Injurious to Gardeners, Foresters and Farmers,' p. 199 (1840). (2) Taschenberg, E. L. ' Praktische Insekten-kunde.' Die Schmetterlinge. (Dritter Theil), p. 95 (1880). (3) Theobald, F. V. Insects attacking the Spanish or Sweet Chestnut. Journal South Eastern Agricultural College, No. 8, p. 47 (1899). (4) Theobald, F. V. Report on Economic Zoology for the year ending April 1st, 1907, p. 22 (1907). PEAR FRUITLET EATEN BY GOLD 30 Insect Pests. THE LACKEY MOTH. (Clissiocampa neustria. Linn.) The Lackey Moth belongs to the family Bombycidre, more or less hairy moths, the males having pectinated antenna?, the females thread-like ones. This moth is widely distributed over the south, west and middle FIG. 16.— NESTS (iF I.ACKKY MOTH. (One-flfth natural size.) [/•'. Edtnden. Insects Injurious to the Apple. 31 of England, but is most abundant in the south and west. It does not seem to occur further north than York, where it is uncommon. In the south of England it is always more or less common in our plantations, but at certain times it appears in enormous numbers, especially in apple and pear orchards, where it strips the foliage. Only last year a vast concourse of them appeared in the Sittingbourne and Faversham areas of Kent and carried all before them, one grower stating that he could collect them by bushels. Carpenter (1) records it from Ireland. It is particularly common in France, where there are laws compelling growers to cut off and destroy the " tents " and the larvae. Guerin Meneville states that it is one of the most injurious fruit and forest tree pests in France. Kollar (2) gives an account of it, and says that it is troublesome in Germany. Unfortunately it feeds on hawthorn hedges and in woods, and being capable of moderate powers of flight, it is thus always liable to invade our orchards and gardens. LlFE-HlSTORY AND HABITS. The moth (Fig. 18) is very variable in size and colour, and measures about 1 inch in expanse of wings in the male and 1^ inch in the female. The front wings are a rusty reddish-brown, ochreous or brick-dust red, with two pale or dusky transverse lines across them, the space between the two bars being often more deeply coloured than the rest of the wings; the hind wings are the same tint as the fore, but often a little paler. The moth occurs in July and August, and a few stragglers may be found in September. The females deposit their eggs in rings or bands, and usually choose the year's growth of wood. Each band contains from forty up to two hundred eggs. The bands are shown in Fig. 17. When the wood shrinks they may become quite loose and turn round and round, but at other times they may be found tightly gummed to the shoots. In colour they are dull grey to greyish-brown, with a small [F. Edenden, FIG. 17.— EGG BANDS OF LACKEY MOTH. Young hatching out on right. (Twice natural size.) 32 Insect Pests. Tonge. dark central depression, and are readily seen on the shoots. About the end of April they hatch out. The young caterpillars are quite dark at first and somewhat hairy. Very soon they commence to form a web of fine silk, enclosing a few leaves, and beneath this they con- tinue to feed for some time. As they grow, the silken house is enlarged until it may reach over a foot in length. At first the larva1 seem to feed entirely under the tent, but as they grow they spread out over the trees and feed upon the foliage, returning to their web FIG. is.— FEMALE AND MALE LACKEY MOTHS, at night and in dull wet weather. They become brilliant coloured as they grow, being bluish-grey, with two black spots on the segment next the head and also two on the bluish-grey head ; three orange -red stripes run along each side, and be- tween the two lowest of these is a broad blue stripe with little black specks, these brilliant lines being separated by black and black spotted with blue ; a pure white line runs down the back, with a narrow dark line on each side. The whole larva has upon it rather rusty hairs, which are darker above than at the sides. When full grown the caterpillar reaches 1£ inch in length. On warm days they may often be found in batches, several lying parallel to one another, either on [Horace Knight. FIG. 19.— CATERPILLAR OF LACKEY MOTH. (Xot quite full grown.) Insects Injurious to the Apple. 33 the outside of the tent or along the branches. They are somewhat timid and fall to the ground on the tree being shaken, but soon crawl back to the foliage again. Maturity is reached from the middle of June to the end of July, when they disperse and spin cocoons of loose pale silk ; mixed with it are a number of hairs and a yellowish powder. The cocoons may be spun singly amongst the leaves, or on fences, etc., or, as seen in Fig. 20, a mass of them together. In the cocoon the larva changes to a dark brown pupa, from which the moth hatches in two or three weeks. The food plants are very varied, such as oak, elm, hawthorn and roses being their favourites, besides the fruit trees men- tioned. PREVENTION AND REMEDIES. Many of the egg bands are naturally cut off by pruning, and these of course should be burnt. As the egg bands are readily seen, it would be advisable after an attack of Lackey Moth to go over the plantation and see that all of them are destroyed in winter. Spraying with arsenical washes has been found of great bene- fit, and the early destruction of tents should always be seen to. For this we can use long-handled pruners, and care should be taken to see that all the caterpillars are destroyed. Where large trees are attacked and spraying is not possible, an excellent plan is to have the larvae shaken down. Thick grease bands placed around the trunks of the trees will stop those which are not killed on the ground from ascending again. NATURAL ENEMIES. No insect parasites are of any value in checking the Lackey Moth. Of birds the only one that seems to feed upon the caterpillars is the Cuckoo, which is well known to feed on hairy larvse. D [F. Edenden. FIG. 20. — COCOOXS OF LACKEY MOTHS AND JUST HATCHED ADULTS. 34 Insect Pests. REFERENCES. (1) Carpenter, G. H. Injurious Insects, etc., observed in Ireland during the year 1906. Eco. Proc. Royal Dublin Society, I., pt. 11, p. 438 (1907). (2) Kollar, Vincent. ' A Treatise on Insects,' p. 200 (1840). (3) Theobald, F. V. Report on Economic Zoology for the year ending April 1st, 1907. p. 25 (1907). THE DECEMBER MOTH. (Pacilocampa populi. Linn.) The natural food plants of this insect in its caterpillar stage are poplar, lime, oak, elm, birch, sallow, elder, ash, aspen and whitethorn. Carpenter (1) records it on apple in Ireland, from Newcastle, Co. Clare, where it was very injurious. The moth takes its name from its appearing in December, but a few may often be found in the preceding month. It is a common and widely distributed insect, especially in the Midlands and the south and west of England. LIFE-HISTORY, HABITS, ETC. The moth measures a little over 1^ inch in wing expanse ; the fore wings are a dark purple-red, brown to rusty brown, inclining to a brighter hue at the inner corner, where it is followed by a wavy buff line and another curved line across the wing beyond the middle ; the hind wings are paler and show a still paler central stripe. In some specimens the ground colour is blackish-brown, and the brighter markings are absent. The thorax and body, as seen in the FIG. 21.— DECEMBER MOTH , , . i i • (P«ciiocampa populi). photograph, are robust and hairy. IF. Edenden. The moths fly at night in Decem- ber, and are attracted to light, being frequently found in houses and village shops. The female apparently lays her eggs at night and they do not hatch until the following March or April (Carpenter) (1). The cater- pillar is very variable ; Buckler (2) figures four quite different forms after the last moult. The normal appearance is as follows : bluish- grey with a double row of grey, black-edged spots along the back, and a row of large black spots on each side, there are also dashes of Insects Injurious to the Apple. 35 crimson and black on the back ; the venter is dull orange with black spots, and the body is hairy, the sides fringed below with more numerous and rather long grey hairs, with a few still longer dark brown ones. In length they reach If inch. Another well marked form described by Morris (3) is yellowish-grey with a dark grey band spotted with white on each segment, darker on the back, on each of which is an interrupted orange line and two red spots on the posterior part of the second segment. Another form is dull brownish-grey with a black spot at the sides of each segment and with traces of dark brown spots edged with black on the dorsurn, and four white spots in front and two behind. Buckler (2) figures a beautiful variety of pale grey and dark grey hue with a black dorsal line swelling out on each segment and bearing on each swollen area a pair of yellow spots ; the hairs brown. They mature by June and then pupate in a slaty-grey cocoon amongst leaves, etc., at the foot of the trees, or even in the soil. The pupa is reddish-brown. TREATMENT. Should this caterpillar occur, as it has in Ireland, in such numbers as to do harm, it may easily be checked by spraying with arsenate of lead. EEFERENCES. (1) Carpenter, G. H. Injurious Insects and other Animals observed in Ireland during the year 1905. Eco. Proc. Boy. Dub. Soc., vol. I., pt. 8, p. 333 (1806). (2) Buckler, W. ' The Larvae of British Butterflies and Moths,' vol. III., p. 58. Pis. xlvii. and xlix. (1889). (3) Morris, F. O. ' A Natural History of British Moths,' vol. I., p. 81 (1872). THE FIGURE-OF-8 MOTH. (Diloba ccerulcoccpluda. Linn.) The caterpillar of this rather inconspicuous yet readily identified moth is popularly called the " Blue-head." It feeds upon apple, 'plum and cherry, and is also recorded as feeding upon blackthorn and sloe by Morris (1) and Stainton (2). It is frequently abundant on hawthorn hedges. In Huntingdonshire in 1887 the writer found it stripping the hedgerows at Swineshead and Great Staughton, but the following year it was quite scarce. Miss Ormerod refers to it in 1890 (3), specimens being regularly sent to her as doing mischief in the orchards. It, however, is seldom a serious enemy of the apple. The reason D 2 36 Insect Pests. [A. V. D. Rintoul. FIG. -2-2.— FIGl'KE-OF-S MOTHS. Male an.l female. of their sudden disappearance after an abnormal number have appeared, •as in 1887, is undoubtedly the fact that a heavy storm or wind knocks them off the trees, and then many are destroyed. This was pointed out by Taschenberg many years ago. LIFE-HISTORY, HABITS, ETC. The moth (Fig. 22) appears in September and October, but a few may hatch as early as the 20th of August, and some have been taken as late as the 28th of November. Miss Ormerod (3) records them as being taken at Toddington on the 18th of November. In size the moth varies very considerably; the male may be less than 1 inch in expanse of wings, the female may be over 1^ inch. The fore wings are of various shades of greyish-brown .and brown with pale ring-like spots, one on each wing, being of the form of the figure 8; in some specimens a faint r< >sy tinge is notice- able ; the hind wings are greyish- brown with darker ray-like lines and a dark wedge-shaped patch at the hinder angle. It is common and widely spread all over Britain, and may be found flying at dusk and when dark in orchards and gardens and along hedgerows. The female lays her eggs singly and usually widely apart, but now and then one finds them in groups of five up to ten, and according to Ormerod (1) in groups of six or eight. They are placed anywhere on the shoots and spurs of the fruit trees and are easily seen owing to their grey or greyish-brown hue ; they are round in form, flattened below and with radiating ribs. A> described by Buckler (2), they are curiously covered with brown {F. Edenden. 3.— EGGS OF FIGURE-OF-8 MOTH. (Diloba cceruleocephala.) (Greatly enlarged.) Insects Injurious to the Apple. 37 [F. Edenden. FIG. 24. — FIGURK-OF-8 MOTH AT REST. hairs. These are placed in an irregular manner, and soon get washed off by rain. The hairs, as seen in the photograph, are dark and are not found on all the eggs (Kg- 23). The ova hatch about the time the leaves are beginning to expand. The larvae at once feed upon them, usually taking their food singly, even if the eggs are laid close together. The caterpillar (Fig. 25) is very marked, owing to its head being blue with two small black spots ; the body is of varied hue ; some are yellowish-green, others bluish- grey and more yellowish-green below, with a broken yellow line along the back and another on each side below the air holes, and the segments have small black spots ; the pale legs are also spotted with black, as also are the sucker-feet. When full fed the caterpillars are plump and very sluggish and reach over 1 inch in length. They devour the foliage with rapidity when about half grown, and continue to do so until a few days before they are full fed. They are mostly mature by the end of June ; some sent me from Yorkshire were just ready to spin by the first week in June in 1900, others have been observed as late as the 7th of July (1905), a record in an old notebook records one spinning on the 3rd of July (1884). Many of the caterpillars leave the trees when full fed and spin a rough grey cocoon on any convenient spot, others do so on the twigs and boughs of the trees. AVith the silk are mingled bits of bark, and they may be even entirely covered with it. From these cocoons the moths hatch out in September and onwards into November. FIG. 25.— LARV.E OF THE FIGURE-OF-8 MOTH. Immature forms on foliage. 38 Insect Pests. PBEVEXTIOX AND TKEATMEXT. As this moth comes to light it may possibly be prevented from causing any annoyance by using light-traps, such as Yermorel's >: Medusa Lamp " (vide App. D). Mr. Wise reported to Miss Ormerod that in November they were catching this moth by means of lamps in the Toddiugton plantations. The arrangement employed there was simply placing a lighted lamp in an open shed, which had the underneath parts of the roof tarred or greased. The Medusa lamp mentioned, however, is far more convenient and will attract many night-flying moths and so prevent egg-laying. When numerous enough to need treatment, the arsenate of lead wash is all that is neceessarv. REFERENCES. (1) Mori-is. F. O. • A Natural History of British Moths,' vol. II., p. 62 (1872). (2) Stain ton, H. T. • Manual of British Butterflies and Moths,' vol. I., p. 125 (1857). (3) Ormerod. E. A. ' Handbook of Insects Injurious to Orchard and Bush Fruits,' p. 16 (1898). (4) Buckler, W. 'Larvae of British Butterflies and Moths,' vol. III., p. 1 (1888). (5) Taschenberg. L. ' Praktische Insekten-kunde,' III., p. 101 (1880). THE VAPOURER MOTH. (Onjfjia a/itiqua. Linn.) The Yapourer Moth is one of those insects which delights as much in a town life as in a country one. It is no unusual thing to see the male of this moth flying in the crowded thoroughfares of London and the suburbs and in other large towns. They sometimes appear in large numbers and cause much damage, in their beautiful caterpillar stage, to fruit and forest trees and even roses. Amongst the favourite food plants may be mentioned the apple, pear, plum, damson, roses, hawthorn, sloe, and even the fir. Buckler (5) records the Acacia dealbata also as a food plant. In some years it has been found on elm and lime, and I have found it on the walnut. Some seasons it appears in large numbers in the London parks, and records have been sent of the great damage caused by it in the north of England to hawthorn hedges. Carpenter (6) records it on apple from County Leitrim on trees imported from France. Insects Injurious to the Apple. 39 The female is quite wingless, but the moth belongs to quite a distinct family from the Geometric^ or Loopers. Beaumur (1) gave an excellent description of this insect. It is widespread over Europe. [F. Edenden. FIG. 26.— THE VAPOURER MOTH (Orygia antiqua. Linn.). A, female ; B, male ; C, empty pupa skin ; D, cocoon ; E, larval skin. Taschenberg (2) refers to its damage in Germany. Ormerod (3) mentions that its attack is known in orchard-houses as well as out of doors. The caterpillars devour the foliage, and being very ravenous, if present in large numbers, do a very great amount of harm. LlFE-HlSTORY AND HABITS. The male (Fig. 26 B) has four ample wings, which expand from 1 inch to 1£ inch; the colour is rich chestnut-brown with a white spot on each fore wing, on the inner border ; there are also darker transverse lines across the fore wings, and the antennce are plumose. The female (Fig. 26 A) is grey, paler below, very plump, and practically wingless, the organs of flight being reduced, like the Winter Moth, to mere blunt pro- cesses. The adults occur from early July to the end of September ; the majority in August in the south of England. The male flies by day, especially on bright sunny days, and with a rapid flight. The female is sedentary, remaining on the cocoon from which she emerged. After being fertilised by the male she lays her eggs in a close single- layered mass on the outside of the cocoon and dies. These ova (shown [F. E. FIG. 27. OVA OF VAPOURER MOTH. (Natural size.) 40 Insect Pests. at Figs. 27 and 28) remain on the cocoons all the winter. In form the eggs are round, with a rim near the top where there is a central depression. Their colour varies from reddish-brown to reddish- grey. These cocoons (Fig. 26 D) are found on the twigs, stems, etc., of the trees, on fences, etc., near by, and are quite conspicuous objects when covered with the ova (Fig. 27). They may commence to hatch out as early as the end of April, but such is unusual ; more usually they hatch in June, and each batch of eggs hatches out irregularly. According to New- man (4), they come out a few at a time over a period of ten weeks. Buckler (5) mentions that some eggs began hatching on the 14th of May, and the larvae continued to hatch out about two a day, sometimes three, until the 29th of May when there were " twenty-one hatched and I cast adrift the remaining eggs." The caterpillars reach about 1^ inch when mature ; they are dark greyish, spotted with red, with four large dense tufts of creamy yellow, almost white or brownish hairs on the back, like four brushes, and with a long tuft of dark hairs pointing forwards on each side of the head, another pair on the fifth segment, and a single group on the tail end, these hairs all ending in fine pin- like heads. They are full grown from August to September; although many usually occur together they feed separately on the leaves. When full fed they spin cocoons of pale silk mixed with hairs from their tufts and change to brown pupse with numerous pale hairs. This stajje lasts from two to three weeks. [E. Tonge. FIG. 28.— KGGS OF VAPOURER MOTH. (X 10.) [F. E. CATERPILLAR OF VAPOCRER MOTH. Insects Injurious to the Apple. 41 PREVENTION AND EEMEDIES. The egg-masses on the cocoons, which are very noticeable in winter, should be collected and destroyed ; where they occur in very large numbers they may be burnt off the trees with a paraffin torch to save time. Systematic collection of the egg-masses should always take place after an attack. The caterpillars are easily destroyed by spraying with arsenate of lead. Weak emulsions have also some effect on them. EEFERENCES. (1) Eeaumur, E. A. F. de. ' Histoire des Insectes,' I., p. 34 (1734-1742). (2) Taschenberg, E. L. ' Praktische Insekten-kunde,' III., p. 96 (1880). (3) Ormerod, E. A. ' Handbook of Insects Injurious to Orchard and Bush Fruits,' p. 138 (1898). (4) Newman, E. 'An Illustrated Natural History of British Moths,' p. 40 (1869). (5) Buckler, W. ' The Larvae of British Butterflies and Moths,' vol. III., p. 11 (1889). (6) Carpenter, G. H. Economic Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society, I., pt. 6, p. 289 (1905). THE GREY TRIDENT MOTH. (Acronycta psi. Linn.) This insect was received with a note that it was found attacking apple and plum foliage in a garden at Liverpool in August and September in 1906. It does not appear to have been recorded as feeding on fruit trees before. But in 1907 several inquiries regarding it were received from various parts of Britain. Stainton (' Manual Brit. Butts, and Moths,' Vol. I., p. 180, 1857) says of the larva? : " on various plants." The same is also given by Wood in his ' British Moths ' (Vol. II., p. 71, 1872). The moth measures 1^ inch across the expanded wings ; the fore wings are pale grey, varied with darker marks, including one long black line from nearly the middle to the base of the wings, with several short branches arising from it ; amongst the other marks is one something like an X, about the middle, just below the costa, and one shaped like the Greek i/r at the anal angle. This moth exactly resembles the common Trident (Acronycta tridens), but is slightly larger. It is also known as the Common Dagger Moth. It is found restino1 on tree trunks in and around woods, gardens and lanes 42 Insect Pests. during the day. They are also found settled on stone walls in the north of England. It is widely distributed in Britain, and in some districts is very common. The adult occurs in May, June, July and August, and lays her eggs on all manner of plants, shrubs and trees. The caterpillar which is found in August, September and October is dull, greyish - [A. V. D. Rintoul. FIG. 30.— GREY TKIDENT MOTH (Acromjctd psi). black, with a broad, pale yellow line along the back, a large black prominence on the fifth segment, and a short black one on the twelfth. The pupa is found in a dirty grey to brown cocoon, spun in crevices of the trees, or amongst moss on the ground, or on old trees. It is not surprising to have them recorded from apple and plum or any other fruit trees, as it is well known the larvse are polyphagous. TREATMENT. Arsenical washing will kill them where they occur in sufficient numbers to be dealt with. THE GOAT MOTH. (Cossus ligniperda. Fab.) The Goat Moth is one of the largest of British moths, and although really very common is seldom seen in its mature state. FIG. 31. THE GOAT MOTH (Cossus Ugniperda) AND LARVA ; ALSO MOTH ESCAPING [To face p. 42. FROM PUPA. Insects Injurious to the Apple. 43 This is because the dull colours of the moth resemble so closely the bark of the trees upon which they rest. Although the moth is not frequently seen, nevertherless in its caterpillar state it is a common and well-known object ; whilst the damage the larvre 'do is so very marked that there are few people who cannot recognise the ravages of this pest. The Goat Moth (Cossus liynipcrda) is found in most wooded parts of Great Britain, and is especially common in and around towns, where ornamental and park trees are frequently ruined by them. I have seen great numbers of trees killed in and around London, whilst in the suburbs the damage is still more frequent. Similarly in France, especially around Paris, considerable damage is done by them ; the elms in the Bois de Boulogne have suffered severely. It is also a pest in Germany and other parts of Europe. In Great Britain it is perhaps most abundant in the south and east, but its attacks are frequent even up to the extreme north of Scotland. The damage is done to the trees by the caterpillars eating tunnels and galleries into the very heart of the trunks. They do not pick out unhealthy trees only, perfectly sound ones often being invaded. As as rule, when once a tree is " struck," unless remedial measures are employed, it will be killed sooner or later, according to the number of these pests attacking it. Xot infrequently reports are sent from orchardists as to their damaging apple and pear trees, and I have seen them once attacking the walnut (1). The damage done in orchards is, however, unusual. It has been recorded as attacking apple and pear in France, and in Germany Taschenberg (2) records that two hundred and sixty- six larva? were taken from one pear tree. The number found in a tree varies from one or more up to the number recorded above by Taschenberg. Generally, not more than twenty or thirty are found in a forest tree of the largest size in this country, and but few, as a rule, in fruit trees. The wood eventually becomes completely honey- combed, and it is not until the tree is really dead that they stop their work. The caterpillars, if not mature, leave the dead tree and €rawl to a neighbouring one, or may even feed on roots in the .ground. Their presence can be told, when in small numbers, by the holes in the trunk, often as big round as a man's finger ; later, boughs begin to die and break off during gales, even when they are still sufficiently healthy to have foliage upon them. In a few years the damage becomes more noticeable, both in regards to decaying and 44 Insect Pests. dead boughs, and especially in the trunk, which becomes perforated with innumerable holes up to about eight feet from the ground. They cause the death of a tree much more rapidly than is generally supposed. An ash which I kept under observation (3) was first attacked in 1891 ; the tree was left alone, and for eight years- struggled on, not only not growing but gradually decaying, until it put out a few stunted leaves as a dying effort, and by 1903 it was quite dead. This tree was thirty-six feet high and four feet in circumference six feet from the ground. It is only old apple and pear trees that are attacked, especially old cider and perry fruits. LlFE-HlSTORY AXD H.VBITS. The Goat Moth (Figs. 31 and 32) varies to some extent in size, the female being from 3 to 3i inches in expanse of wings, the male from 2£ to 3. In build it is stout and clumsy ; the head clothed with dense grey hairs ; the thorax greyish-brown ; the large, hairy abdo- men has darker trans- verse bands, and the apical borders of the segments are grey ;. the broad fore wings dark grey and brown, with dusky transverse streaks; the hind wings ashy-grey to greyish- brown, with some in- distinct brown marks, and the antenna; are fringed with grey in both sexes. It occurs during June and July, and flies at dusk, but is very inactive, usually depositing its eggs on the trees from which they hatch. The female has a horny extensile ovipositor, by means of which she places her eggs far in crevices, etc., of the bark of the trees. It is said that one female may lay as many as a thousand eggs (Kollar (4) ). Three females kept under observation each deposited between two and three hundred. They were laid in [A. V, D. Rintoul. ;i> MALE GOAT MOTH (Cossus ligniperda). (Slightly reduced.) Insects Injurious to the Apple. 45 groups varying from fifteen to fifty. The eggs are laid mainly at night and are brown in colour, round, convex above, flattened below and ribbed. In ten days the larvre hatch out and at once burrow under the bark and soon into the wood. The young caterpillar is pink all over, but when mature is dirty, deep ochre-yellow with a broad stripe of rich mahogany-red down the back ; the head is deep blackish-brown, and there are two deep brown spots on the first segment; the legs are brown, and the forelegs yellow with brown hooks. "When full grown the larvae reach from 3 to 3^ inches in length (Fig. 31). They feed on the trees for three years, tunnelling into the wood most of that time. Now and then they leave the trees and wander about ; some never return. Numbers of cases have been reported of these larvie being found in the earth devouring and burrowing into the roots of plants, such as dahlias (3). Normally, in the spring of the third year the larva comes to the entrance of the tunnel and close to it forms a cocoon lined with silk and coated outside with wood chips. Pupation takes place as a rule in May. The pupa is rich brown with rings of sharp spines on the abdominal segments. The moth emerges in three or four weeks after pupation. Previous to the emergence the pupa forces its way out of the cocoon and partly out of the opening in the tree; the empty pupa skins may frequently be seen in that position. When kept under unnatural conditions the caterpillars have taken four years to mature. PREVENTION AND PIEMEDIES. Trees in close proximity to others that are attacked may be protected by thickly smearing the trunks over in May with a mixture of clay, lime and soft soap. This should be made into a thick paint and smeared all over the trunk up to eight feet and a thick layer put around the base and the ground. Clay and cow-dung has been found to answer the purpose, but is not nearly as good as the former mixture. This will prevent the eggs being deposited on the trunk and roots where exposed. It is quite useless to scrub the bark, as suggested by Miss Ormerod, for the eggs are laid deep in crevices and would not be reached in the majority of cases, neither can many be rubbed off, as suggested. For killing the larvre in the trees, the best plan is to place lumps of stick cyanide in each hole and smear the whole trunk over with clay, the entrances to the holes being firmly plugged up with the same. Paraffin emulsion squirted into the holes is said to be a good remedy, but where the tunnels are very long and tortuous it is very doubtful if many are killed by it. Sulphur and tobacco fumes blown 46 Insect Pests. in by means of bee bellows have also produced good results, but no plan is as successful as the cyanide treatment and stopping up the holes with clay. A correspondent writes that he has saved some valuable trees by injecting about 2 c.c. of carbon bisulphide into the tunnel and closing the hole with wet clay. This almost invariably killed the caterpillars. All dead trees should be burnt at once when possible before the caterpillars escape. XATUKAL ENEMIES. Bats, Goat-suckers, and Owls eat the moths. The Green and the Large Spotted Woodpeckers devour the caterpillars and pupa?. The Tits or Paridee devour the eggs, according to Taschenberg (1). Probably the Tree Creeper, Wryneck, and Nuthatch do the same. The pupae are sometimes infested with Ichneumon fly larva?. BEFERENCES. (1) Theobald, F. V. The Animal Pests of Forest Trees, pp. 6-9. Journal S. E. Agri. Coll., No. 13, p. 159 (1904). (2) Taschcnberg, E. L. ' Praktische Insekten-kunde,' Dritter Theil, p. 2-4 (1880). (3) Theobald, F. V. Second Eeport on Economic Zoology (Brit. Mus. N.H.), pp. 77-84 (1904). (4) Whitehead, Sir C. < Insects Injurious to Fruit Crops,' p. 40 (1886). (5) Ormerod, E. A. ' Handbook of Insects Injurious to Orchard and Bush Fruits,' p. 18 (1898). THE WOOD LEOPARD MOTH. (Zcuzera pyrina. Linn.) This large moth has long been known as a borer into the trunks of various trees in this country and all over Europe. It is generally supposed to be partial to the chestnut, hence its old name, ccsculi. Kollar (1) says in reference to this as follows : " Choosing that tree (chestnut) for its abode less frequently in the neighbourhood of Vienna than any of the other trees that serve it for food, living chiefly in elms, walnut, pear and apple trees." It is certainly often found in the chestnut in our country, but is not noticed to the same extent that it is in fruit plantations. Like many noxious insects it has spread abroad, and we learn of its occurrence in the United States, attacking and destroying elms and maples (2). Its chief damage is to the small branches of the cherry, but it Insects Injurious to the Apple. 47 has been sent me from apple and plum both from the south and Midlands of England. Whitehead (6) says that pear trees are its special favourites, and he also records as many as seventy- six larvae being taken from one tree in Herefordshire in 1879. In 1884 several were found by me in a young walnut tree, the tree having been killed by their tunnelling into it near the ground, and other instances of their destructive habits in the walnut have also been brought to my notice (3). It has been decidedly on the increase in apple trees this last few years, hence is included in this section. LlFE-HlSTORY AND HABITS. During June and July we find that this lepidopteron, which belongs to the Coccidse, makes its advent in the winged or perfect state, when they may be seen at rest upon tree trunks near the ground. The perfect insect is about 2 inches in ex- panse of wings ; white, some- times almost transparent white, with isolated spots of steel-blue colour, the nervures terminating in patches of the same colour. The head covered with white downy hair ; antennse black. Thorax white, with two rows of three metallic-blue spots ; abdo- men deep bluish-black, covered at the edges of the segments with a white hairy down. The female is similar to the male, only larger, and armed with an extensile ovipositor. The eggs, which are dark yellow or orange-yellow, are laid deep in the bark of the tree during June, July and August ; they take from two to three weeks to deve- lop. Whitehead (6) says they hatch in a few days after oviposition. FIG. 33. WOOD LEOPARD MOTH AND TUNNELLED -WOOD. (One-third natural-size.) 48 Insect Pests. [A. V. D. Rintoul. FIG. 34. MALE AND FEMALE WOOD LEOPARD MOTH (Zeuzerd pyrina'). (F. E. i] FIG. 35.— LARVA OF WOOD LEOPARD MOTH IN APPLE BRANCH. I [F. E. FIG. 36. — EXTERNAL SIGNS OF WOOD LEOPARD MOTH ATTACK. Insects Injurious to the Apple. 49 The larva is yellowish-white ; on each segment are small black processes, from each of which springs a short black bristle. The head is brown, with two black spots, and is retracted into the first segment, which is shining black and broad. The larvae work right into the wood, and eat away the hardest parts, forming tunnels of some length. When full grown, which is in about ten months after their advent from the egg, they reach as much as 2 inches in length, but shorten very much prior to casting their skin for the pupal change. Each larva spins a silken cocoon, mixed with particles of wood, beneath the bark, in which it changes to a bright brown pupa, REMEDIES. When only a few of the larvse are present, it is possible to get rid of them by suffocating them by various vapours. An ordinary pair of " bee bellows " filled with touchwood and sulphur alight will blow or force the fumes into the hole. The fumes ascend and reach the larvre even if they are some distance up the trunk. Bisulphide of carbon fumes I found also successful in destroying the caterpillars. In all cases it is most essential to plug up the entrance hole with wax or wood so as to stop further insect attack and wet from entering, which soon leads to the rapid decay of the tree. But frequently we are unable to detect any hole ; all that is seen is that the branch of the cherry, pear, plum or apple tree is dying. It is then best to cut the branch right back until sound wood is reached, and slit up the branch until the larva is found, and then kill it to prevent further damage. REFERENCES. (1) Kollar, Vincent. ' Insects Injurious to Gardeners, Foresters and Farmers/ (Eng. Trans., 1840.) (2) Lintner, A. J. 'Ninth Eeport on Injurious Insects of the State of New York,' p. 426 (1893). (3) Theobald, F. V. Eeport upon Insect Pests in 1894, with especial reference to Insects attacking the Walnut (1895). (4) Theobald, F. V. 'The Animal Pests of Forest Trees,' p. 27 (1904), and Journal S. E. Agri. Coll., No. 13, p. 180 (1904). (5) Ormerod, E. A. ' Handbook of the Insects Injurious to Orchard and Bush Fruits' (1898). (6) Whitehcad, Sir C. ' Eeport on Insects Injurious to Fruit Crops,' p. 44 (1886). Agricultural Department. Privy Council Office. 50 Insect Pests. THE WINTER MOTH. (Oheimatdbia brumata. Linn.) Of all fruit-tree pests this is one of the most harmful and wide- spread, but fortunately, owing to its habits, we can not only keep down its numbers, but can even exterminate it in our orchards by well-tried methods. It is needless to caution growers to take with care any such statements, as have been made, that washes will kill the eggs of this moth. The Winter Moth takes its name from the fact that it appears late in the year. It is also called the Evesham Moth, on account of its having been noticed in numbers in that neighbourhood, but it occurs no more so there than in any other part of Britain. The food plants are very varied ; most forest trees except conifers are attacked, oaks often being defoliated by them. Of fruit, it is found most on apple and plum, but it occurs also on pear, peach, currants and gooseberries, and now and again on raspberries, walnut, roses and other flowers. The caterpillars are known as " Loopers " or " Measurers," on account of their means of progress, which is by a series of loops ; the larva figured on page 53 is in an intermediate position. The family which contains this pest is known as the Geometridee. So great in numbers do these " Loopers " become that they often quite defoliate the trees (Fig. 44), and later are known to attack the fruit, eating holes in the sides (Figs. 39 and 40). When young they also damage the blossoms and even buds. One of the worst attacks was in 1868 and 1869 in the apple and pear orchards of Herefordshire and Worcestershire. In 1907 an enormous amount of harm was done in parts of Kent and in a few cases in Worcestershire. In the Sittingbourue and Faversham areas in the former county the trees looked in summer as if it were winter. Mr. Gardener of Ombersley complained loudly of the harm they were doing to his plums, and found they were spreading below on to the gooseberries. This habit has been recorded by Ormerod (2) from Kidderminster and also from Gloucestershire, where they passed on to currants beneath the plums. So widespread is the attack of this pest that it is not necessary to refer to any further specific cases. Carpenter (1) records the attack of this insect in Ireland in County Fermanagh. Fortunately, what we already know of its life-history goes a long Insects Injurious to the Apple. 51 [F. Edenden LES AND MALES OF THE WINTER 3IOTH (Cheimatobia brumata\ way to place this enemy under our control. The only unfortunate thing is that the Winter Moth also feeds upon various hedgerow and forest trees, and thus we are always liable to invasion if our planta- tions and gardens are approximated to woods, spinneys, and ill -kept hedgerows. Neverthe- less, owing to the pecu- liar structural characters of the female, the damage from this source is much lessened. LlFE-HlSTOEY AND HABITS. The male Winter Moth is a fully- winged insect, although its flight is not powerful. In size it is about !£ inch from tip to tip of the expanded wings. There is not much variation in size in the males, but in the female this is the reverse, as is seen in the accom- panying photograph (Fig. 37). The colour of the fore wings varies between greyish-brown and brown ; some few may show an ochreous tinge, marked with several transverse darker wavy lines varying in distinctness in different specimens ; the hind wings are of a paler uniform colour. The female is greyish to greyish-brown in colour, and differs totally ' from the male, having the merest traces of wings, which are totally useless as organs of flight; these remnants of wings sometimes show ornamentations, the fore pair having two darker transverse streaks, the hind pair rarely a trace of a single one. There is some variation in size of these wing remnants, but none have been seen larger than those represented in the photo- graph. Miss Ormerod, however, gives a figure of them (2, p. 157) about two-thirds the length of the body, which must be very unusual, judging from the thousands examined. The males have been observed for many years to appear some days before the females. They may be seen at dusk, flying lazily E 2 [F. E. FIG. 38.— TWO OVA OF THE WINTER MOTH. (Greatly enlarged.) 52 Insect Pests. [F. E. I G. 39.— APPLE FRUITLET EATEN BY WINTER MOTH. along hedgerows and in the orchards and gardens. They are attracted by light. One often sees them collected on street lamps, and they occur outside windows. This is a habit we may well bear in mind, for it V is possible that we might trap them in very large *\JB^^ numbers by light, and thus prevent the fertilisation of the females. The females crawl out of the soil from their cocoons and earthen cases. Nature directs them by one of her marvellous ways to the tree trunk, and this they ascend to deposit their eggs. Some, however, have been found in grass orchards • crawling up the herbage, and it appears beyond • doubt that some of these are carried by the males in \ copula. The number, however, is comparatively few. The dates of appearance of the Winter Moth vary to such an extent that one can only give here very wide limits. The earliest date I have record of is the 1st of October, 1896, and the latest the 12th of January, 1905. This was on walnuts at Kingston-on-Thames. Their appearance on this tree is always later than on apple or plum. In some places they appear at one time, in others at another. For instance, during 1907 they were re- ported by Mr. Mercer of Eodmersham as covering the grease bands in Novem- ber, whilst at Wye they were at the "swarming period" on the 17th of December. Six years ago the swarming period at the latter place was the 2nd of November. It is quite impossible to say when they will hatch out. The limits, for practical purposes, may be included between the 1st of October and the 15th of January. Frequently we have a few females straggling up some weeks before and some weeks after the main hatching. This again we must bear in mind, for a single female may deposit as many as 350 ova, enough, if they all hatched out, to defoliate a tree. The females mainly seem to be ferti- lised during their ascent, but have been found in copula on the shoots. Whether the latter had been carried up by the male or not is unknown. FIG. 40. — CHERRIES EATEN BY WINTER MOTH LARV.E. Insects Injurious to the Apple. 53 [Edenden. FIG. 41. — LOOPKR CATERPILLAR 0 WINTER MOTH. The ova (Fig. 38) are very marked. At first they are pale yellowish- green, later they become brick-dust red. They are slightly elongate, truncated at each end and have a dis- tinctly sculptured shell. The position in which they are laid varies, some are placed around buds, some are around the inside of pruned surfaces, others in crevices in the twigs and smaller boughs. Frequently they are well protected by the natural hairs of the shoots, mosses, lichens, etc. The shell is thick and is quite unlikely to be affected by any chemical that would not seriously harm the trees, if not kill them. The period of hatching- varies each year and in different localities. The small caterpillars usually hatch before the buds burst and at once commence to attack the young foliage as it opens. The minute " Loopers " are at first dark in colour and very difficult to detect unless they are moving. At first they feed freely on the small leaves. As they grow they become green with pale lines along their bodies, some yellowish - green, others dark green with the pale lines more prominent. The colour of the head also varies at different stages. When mature they reach 1| inch to rather more in length, when fully expanded. The exact length must not be taken into account however, as they vary so much ac- cording to their degree of extension. They are always much fatter than those of the March Moth, which is the only one they are likely to be confused with. [A. I'. D. Rintoul. FIG. 42. APPLE LEAF EATEN BY TWO YOUNG WINTER MOTH LARV.E. (Seen on the leaf.) 54 Insect Pests. The habits of the Winter Moth larva? are varied. At first, as explained, they feed on the opening leaf buds ; later they get into the blossom trusses and spin them together and also the leaves, living under the shelter they form. Before reaching maturity they feed freely on the foliage again, and are known to attack the fruit, especially cherries. Damage to fruit has been very notice- ^S^Jft . able when they invade gooseberries l|ft m growing under apples or plums. By the middle of June the cater- pillars arc mostly mature and they then fall to the ground; at least we suppose so, for no one seems to have observed them do otherwise. They all reach the ground in some way, and the majority enter the soil to the depth of two or three inches. Having pressed out a small cavity in the earth they spin an oval case of silk, which becomes covered externally with particles of earth. In this silken and earthen case the " Looper " larva, having IF. Edenden. FIG. 43.— PIP.E AND COCOONS OF THE WIXTEK MI>TH. [ If. U. Hammond. FIG. 44.— APPLE TREES DEFOLIATED BY WINTER MOTH LARV.E. contracted considerably, casts its skin and becomes a brown pupa. This hatches into the male or female from October to early January, and the adult forces its way out of the soil. If in grass orchards it Insects Injurious to the Apple. 55 is not unusual to find the cocoon (devoid, of course, of any earth) amongst grass and other herbage. The depth at which pupation takes place in the soil is very variable. If the soil is rough and cloddy they frequently pupate under a clod ; if firm and compact they enter the soil to a depth of two inches. All those kept in confinement pupated from one to three inches, never deeper, and very few more than two inches below the surface. PREVENTION AND REMEDIES. The prevention of this and the allied pests, the Mottled Umber Moth and the March Moth, is an easy matter. The process, namely, grease-banding, is well known to all fruit-growers and is firmly believed in and carried out by very many. It must be borne in mind, however, that it is only these wingless females which are caught ; grease-banding has no effect on such pests as the Lackey Moth, Figure-of-8 Moth, Gold and Brown Tail Moths, Tortrix Moths or the Little Ermine, which have winged females. But where the Winter Moth and its allies are the culprits then grease-banding is far better than relying on spraying. The bands should be made as follows : — First tie on the tree a band of good stout grease-proof paper, so that nothing can crawl beneath it, then smear this over with sticky grease. There are several kinds on the market, and the grower will find out which have the most permanent sticky qualities. The position of the bands adopted by growers varies. Some apply them high up the trunks, others low down. In the former case the reason given is that stock rubs off the grease. It may be pointed out that when the bauds are placed high up, many eggs have been detected laid on the trunks. In due course these will hatch out and the larvie may ascend to the boughs. It is best, therefore, to apply the bands low down, about 1 foot from the surface, in grass orchards, where mud spattering does not interfere with the grease. In bush plantations this can be done, and it has been found that when placed so low down in grass orchards that sheep do little harm to the grease. Where the ground is cultivated, however, it is sometimes found that if the bands are placed lower than 2 feet that they get covered in mud. In young trees it is necessary to band the stakes as well, for the females will crawl up these as readily as the stem. For the Winter Moth the banding should be in working order by the 1st of October and should be kept going until the second week in January. It is of no use to grease the bands once and then leave 56 Insect Pests. them. During the past year the writer visited a plantation in December in which the bands were all dry, a few days later the females were appearing in numbers, and thus, for saving a small additional expense, all that had been spent in banding the trees was wasted. Moreover, the bands frequently become so smothered with insects that others can readily pass over their dead bodies. It is not [F. Edende FIG. 45. — A GREASE-BANDED APPLE TRE] (The band here is placed far too high.) only female Winter Moths that are caught, but the winged males in large numbers and these aid very materially in covering the bands. Numbers of the Winter Gnats (Trichocera regelationis) also get caught and many midges and other flies, all tending to smother the grease and so make a bridge for later hatched moths to cross. These covered bands should be cleared and smeared again. The numbers of females caught on each band is frequently very Insects Injurious to the Apple. 57 large. Mr. Clive Murdock writes from Linton that many of the bands contain one hundred females ; Mr. Mercer of Eodmersham that [some three hundred were found on one band. Still greater - numbers have been found by the writer on bands sent him from various parts of the country. Mr. Ballard, manager of the Eardiston Farming Company, near Tenbury, who follows this banding year by year, places a layer of cement around the large cider trees to receive the grease. This plan seems to work very well and does not seem to harm old, rough and 58 Insect Pests. large trees, where ordinary banding would be very troublesome. In the Evesham district of Worcestershire the practice seems to be to smear the grease directly on the tree. This plan is most injurious and very slovenly. Trees so treated were noticed to have the bark unhealthy. Spraying fur Winter Moth is often necessary where banding has been badly carried out or where it has not been practised. For these caterpillars Paris green was once largely used, but owing to its frequently scorching the leaves many growers did not continue its use. Arsenate of lead is by far the best substance to use for this pest. The two formulae are given in the appendix, but since we can now obtain this poison made up as Swift's Arsenate of Lead Paste we had better employ this, as errors in mixing make this wash harmful, but never as bad as Paris green. The arseuate of lead should be put on as a fine spray as soon as the leaves commence to show. The young caterpillars are then killed before they have done any damage. A second spraying is often necessary in the case of apples and pears ; this should not be later than ten days after the blossom has fallen ; at this time any remaining Winter Moth, Mottled Umber and March Moth larvre are poisoned, and also the Codling Moth prevented, and many other leaf- eating forms at the same time are destroyed. The employment of poultry in a plantation is certainly very beneficial in regards to checking Winter Moth, and some growers- have found pigs of equal benefit. It is not at all unusual to see the latter in Kent orchards. Spraying with winter washes is quite useless for preventing this pest. REFERENCES. (1) Carpenter, G, H. Injurious Insects and Other Animals observed in Ireland during 1905. Eco. Proc. Roy. Dub. Soc. I., pt. 8, p. 329* (1906). (2) Ormerod, E. A. ' Handbook of Insects Injurious to Orchard and Bush Fruits,' p. 158 (1898). THE MOTTLED UMBER MOTH. (Hybernia dc/oliaria. Linn.) The caterpillars of this moth work in a similar way to those of the Winter Moth, but they more frequently attack the fruit. Mr. W. Bear forwarded some small apples from Hailsham in 1900, which Insects Injurious to the Apple. 59 [E. Tonge. FIG. 47. — MALES AND FEMALE OF THE MOTTLED UMBER MOTH. had been gnawed by these larva?. In 1902 specimens of similar damage were received from Yorkshire and from a gardener in Nottinghamshire. The damage to foliage is, however, of greatest importance. Although generally distributed the Mottled Umber Moth is not nearly so harm- ful as the Winter Moth. .Neverthe- less great damage is now and then done by it to fruit trees, especially those situated near oak woods, etc. Mr. Paget - Norbury of Malvern Links has several times written complaining of this insect, which was particularly abundant on his trees near some oaks and some of which had been badly damaged, especially in 1905 and 1906. It has also been sent me with notes of its destructive habits from many places in Kent, from other parts of Worcestershire, Herefordshire, Staffordshire, Huntingdonshire, Cam- bridgeshire and South Devon. In the latter county Major Vigors sent it from Whimple where it was doing damage to peaches. The food plants are just as varied as those of the former species. Amongst orchard fruit may be mentioned besides apple, plum, cherry, pear, and cob and filbert nuts. Cherry growers in Kent have often com- plained of its gnawing away the fruitlets, eating out round holes down to the stone, just as the Winter Moth does. Specimens of [E. Tonge. . r FK, 48.-OVA OF MOTTLED UMBER MOTH. $** ***»& ^ ^° (x 20.) sent by the Fruit 60 Insect Pests. Growers' Association in 1907, but no locality was mentioned. Of wall fruit, both peach and apricot are attacked occasionally ; various IF. Edenden. :MBER MOTH. forest trees, such as oak, beech, lime, elm, birch and in hedgerows, the whitethorn, blackthorn and privet. Owing to its larger size, when it appears in numbers it may do more harm than the "Winter Moth. LlFE-HlSTOKY AND HABITS. The male moth varies from a little under to a little over If inch in wing expanse. The front wings are normally a pale dull yellowish, mottled with yellowish - brown and dusted with brown ; there are two more or less prominent dark lines, the first bent in an angle, the second bent in three angles and often followed by a darker hue, and there is a central dark spot on each wing; the hind wings are of a more uniform yellowish-grey, with minute darker specks and a dark spot on each. The colour is, however, very variable, some specimens being dark rusty-brown all over, owing to the thick dusting of dark colour, such as is seen in Fig. 49. The female is quite wingless and plump, much larger than the female Winter Moth, of various shades of yellowish-grey, and is much speckled with dark brown or black. Miss Ormerod (1) describes [A. V. D. Jiintoul. FIG. 50.— LARVJ. OF MOTTLED UMBER MOTH. Insects Injurious to the Apple. 61 and figures the female with two black spots on each segment, but these do not show so clearly in any females I have noticed. The moths appear from the end of October onwards until the beginning of February. The females crawl up the tree trunks, just in the same way as the Winter Moths. The ova are deposited on the buds and twigs, in bark crevices and on pruned surfaces. The caterpillars hatch out later than those of the Winter Moth, usually in April. They are readily told from the Winter Moth by their colour ; the back is chestnut-brown, and the sides a pale creamy-yellow to bright yellow, the venter pale yellow to pale greenish-yellow, and the spiracles pale with dark rims. Their means of progression is just like that of the former species. When mature they reach 1^ inch in length. They have been sent by various correspondents as late as July, but most reach maturity at the end of June, they then fall to the ground and pupate in the soil. PREVENTION AND TREATMENT. The remarks made concerning the Winter Moth apply here. (1) Ormerod, E. A. Fruits,' p. 179 REFERENCE. Handbook of Insects Injurious to Orchard and Bush THE MARCH MOTH. (Anisopteryx ccscularia. Schiff.) This is another member of the wingless female group. Although not so generally reported as a nuisance, it now and again does considerable harm to the apple, and has also been sent by corre- spondents from Surrey on the plum and pear. Its normal food plants are the whitethorn and blackthorn ; it also infests the oak, lime, elm, maple and walnut, and a few may be taken on the Spanish chestnut. It occurs over a wide area from Scotland downwards, and has been reported as a fruit pest from Here- fordshire, Yorkshire, Sussex, Kent and Middlesex. I have also seen it in abundance on plums in [F. Edenden. FIG. 51.— MALE AND FEMALE MARCH MOTH. 62 Insect Pests. [F. Edenden. FIG. 52. — FEMALE MARCH MOTH. (Anisoptenjx cescularia. Schiff.) (Greatly enlarged to show side view of tail tuft.) Cambridgeshire and in Yorkshire. The popular name is derived from the date of its appearance. Specimens may, however, be taken as early as mid February and as late as mid April, a few strag- glers going on until the end of the month. LlFE-HlSTORY AND HABITS. The male moth flies at dusk and may be found in gardens, orchards, woods, and along hedgerows. The colour of the fore wings is greyish-brown, with dark and pale wavy lines running across, as seen in the photograph (Fig. 51), and there is a small dark brown spot near the upper border of each wing ; the wing expanse varies from 1£ to li inch; the hind wings are pale grey, with a darker line more or less continued from the outer line on eacli fore wing. The female is greyish to greyish- brown and quite wingless, and has a very pronounced fan -like tail of hairs. She crawls up the tree trunks, just as the two preceding do. The eggs are laid in a partial band, vary- ing in size from j to nearly ^ inch across, they are deposited in more or less parallel rows and are embedded in hairs from the fan-like extension of the tail ; the eggs are bright and shiny, and vary in number in each ring. Ormerod (1) records as many as five hundred in a ring, this appears to be exceptional, some fifty to two hundred being a wide limit. The eggs hatch in April. The [F. Edenden. FIG. 53. CATERPILLAR OF THE MARCH MOTH. Insects Injurious to the Apple. 63 small larvffi soon spread about. The colour is bright green or green tinged with yellow (the latter I have particu- larly noticed when feeding on hawthorn) and somewhat paler between the seg- ments ; on the back is a narrow dark green line edged with pale creamy white or grey ; on each side are three pale lines, either white or grey ; the head is uniformly green. The general form at once separates it from the Winter Moth larva, it being very slender and uni- formly cylindrical and about 1 inch long when full grown. They mature by the end of June or early in July, then fall to the ground, where they form a cocoon covered with earth very similar (E. Tonge. IQ. 55.— EGG BAND OF MARCH MOTH. (X 10.) FIG. 54. — KGG BAND OF MAKCH MOTH. (Twice natural size.) to the Winter Moth ; the silk of the cocoon is of a dull yellowish hue and very closely woven together. Porritt (2) mentions that caterpillars which hatched from eggs on the 3rd of April went to earth the middle of May. Many may be found in June, and I have taken numbers as late as the 7th of July. PREVENTION AND TREATMENT. The treatment is the same as for the pre- ceding. Where this moth is prevalent it is well to see that the grease bands are kept 64 Insect Pests. in working order right into March, especially on plum trees and damsons. REFERENCES. (1) Ormerod, E. A. 'Handbook of Insects Injurious to Orchard and Bush. Fruits,' p. 178 (1898). (2) Porritt, G. T. ' Larvae of British Butterflies and Moths,' vol. VII., pt. 1,. p. 157 (Bay Soc.). THE PEPPER AND SALT MOTH. (Amphidasys betularia. Linn.) Although one can scarcely look upon this insect as a pest, yet its larvse so frequently strip the leaves of the apple and the cherry [F. Edenden. FIG. 56.— FEMALE AXD MALE PEPPER AND SALT MOTH (Amphidasys betularia). in the autumn that it cannot well be passed over. It is owing to its- fortunate late appearance that so little harm is done, yet surely some loss of ripening of the wood must result even in late September when all the leaves are eaten off. It is much more frequent than is supposed, for two reasons : first, the grower does not much trouble about enemies when the fruit is being or has been gathered); and, Insects Injurious to the Apple. 65 [F. Edenden. 57.— LARVA OF PEPPER AND SALT MOTH. Greeu variety on rose. secondly, the strange mimetic habits of the larva prevent its being seen (Fig. 58). Specimens with inquiries have been sent me from several places in Yorkshire, from most of the home counties, and twice from Somerset. LIFE-HISTORY, ETC. The moth (Fig. 56) belongs to the Geometridae, the Looper- caterpillar family. In size it varies from 1^ to nearly 2^ inches in wing expanse. The general appearance is seen in the figure. The ground colour is dull white, and all four wings are speckled with black, variations occur such as black dots, traces of transverse black lines and a more prominent black central spot. In a few rare cases true melanic forms occur, the insect becoming almost black. They are found in late May and in June and July, in gardens, fruit plantations and \voods. The female, which is always larger than the male, places her eggs singly on the leaves of apple, cherry, hawthorn, oak, elm, poplar and birch. They now and again hatch in mid June, but the majority hatch in late July and August. The caterpillars grow but slowly ; the late hatched ones I have found as late as the 30th of October, but the majority we notice in Kent in September. The caterpillars when mature reach over 2 inches in length, they are very variable in colour, some are green, others yellow, others dark brown. They resemble a stick in appearance. The colour of all those I have found on apple and cherry has been dark brown, those on hop, called " Hop Cats " in Kent, are always green ; in all there [W. H. Hammond. FIG. WS.— LARVA OF PEPPER AND SALT MOTH. Brown variety on fruit trees. 66 Insect Pests. are two pale, sometimes white, prominences on the ninth and twelfth segments and traces of pale lines along the hody. Later in the year the similarity to the twigs is very marked and even earlier, when the foliage is eaten, as is to be seen in the photo- graph shown here (Fig. 58). In 1907 I found the larvie at Wye on apple trees as late as the 2nd of November, at which date they and all preceding ones had entered the soil to pupate. TREATMENT. Where they occur in any numbers it is well to have them either hand-picked or the trees sprayed with arseuate of lead. As a constant feeder on apple and cherry we may expect that some day it may occur in undue numbers and call for definite treatment. THE CLOUDED DRAB MOTH. (Tcrnioeampa incerta. Hufn.) The caterpillar of this moth has been reported by Mr. Getting to have attacked his apples near Eoss. In his note he said: "It is astonishing what holes the caterpillar can eat in the fruit." \F. Etlenden. FIG. 59.— LARVA OF Tivniocampa incerta ON APPLE LEAF. Later, Mr. (Setting wrote me that he had only found the two- actual caterpillars sent me, but that he had come across a good few suspiciously eaten apples. " The first I sent I found actually eating the apple " (2). This insect has also been sent from Kent, with a note that it was harmful to the foliage of young trees. The normal food plants of the caterpillars of the Clouded Drab Moth (Tceniocampa incerta) are sloe, willow and oak. Taschenberg Insects Injurious to the Apple. 67 records it feeding ou the elm and lime (1). The moth is pale leaden grey, with three thin darker, wavy, transverse lines, and a broad dark area between the second and third thin lines ; the hind wings are [F. Eitenden. FIG. 60.— THE CLOUDED DRAB MOTH. (Tit'iiidcamjja incerta.) FIG. 61. — PUPA OF TixniocampOj incerta. unicolorous, but the veins show up darkly ; the hairy thorax is the same colour as the fore wings, and the broad hairy body is paler than the thorax. In colour, however, there is some variation, for it is not [F. Edenden. (Tieniocampa incerta). infrequent to find dull reddish-brown specimens. The wing expanse varies from Ijr to 1^ inch. Like most of this group, it occurs freely at sallow blossom in the F 2 68 Insect Pests. spring, and may be easily collected at dusk by shaking the blossoms over an open umbrella. They occur on the wing in March and April, and a few straggle 011 into May. The caterpillar is green, dotted with black, with a dorsal yellowish- green line and two lateral lines of the same colour. They may be found in May, June and just into July, and normally feed on the leaves ; the habit of eating the fruit and occurring on apples appears to be abnormal. When mature they reach ~\.\ inch in length, and then pupate in the soil. They are said to form a loose cocoon of particles of earth, but the one sent by Mr. Getting changed to deep rich brown pupa nakedly in the breeding cage. The moths hatched out in February owing to their having been kept in a warm laboratory. It is also known as Tccniocampa instabilis. Esp. This insect is common everywhere in Britain. REFERENCES. (1) Taschenberg, E. L. ' Praktische Insekten-kuncle.' Die Schmotterlinge. Dritter Theil, p. 137 (1880). (2) Theobald, F. V. Eeport on Economic Zoology for year ending April 1st, 1907, p. 25 (1907). THE GREEN PUG MOTH. (Chlorodystis rcctanyulata. Linn.) Although little or nothing has been recorded concerning this insect as an enemy of the apple it is nevertheless very harmful. Carpenter (1) refers to it in Ireland, having noticed it on apple branches sent from County Fermanagh. Mr. Jeffreys of Ashford many years ago pointed out to me the importance of this insect to apple growers, but no direct observations have been made on it, although it occurs in small numbers all over the country. The damage is done by the small caterpillars feeding in the buds and blossoms of the apple and pear. They feed mainly upon the petals of the blossoms, but also gnaw the strigs and even young leaves ; now and then one notices some of the blossoms of the trusses spun together by this caterpillar, and the work may casually be attributed to the Winter Moth unless the culprits are carefully examined. It is also known as Eiqrithecia rectangulata. LlFE-HlSTORY AND HABITS. The moth has a wing expanse of about f inch, the fore wings are deep green with dark brown and grey bands, and the hind Insects Injurious to the Apple. 69 wings have also a similar greenish tinge. The abdomen is of somewhat similar hue and crested, with two more or less darker spots near the back. It appears in May, June and July. The female places her eggs on the fruit trees and they remain there all the winter. In spring the larva? appear and enter the opening buds. The caterpillar is pale yellowish-green with a rusty-red line down the back, the divisions between the segments reddish and a line at the sides of a yellowish-green. The dorsal line varies in colour and size; some have it broad, others narrow or almost absent, sometimes it is dark green, at others almost purple. These larvae are most noticeable in April and May tF- E- and are all mature by early June. FIG- ^.-GRKEN PUG MOTH J (CMoroclijstt* recta ngulata). They then fall to the ground and pupate in a cocoon of earth. The pupa is deep red at the tail end, the thorax and wing cases yellow, tinged with olive. THEATMENT. Early spraying arsenate of lead. The same spraying used for Winter Moth should suffice. It may be pointed out that if these caterpillars are in excess grease-banding need not be persisted in. EEFERENCE. (1) Carpenter, G. H. Injurious Insects and Other Animals observed in Ireland during the year 1905. Eco. Proc. Royal Dublin Society, vol. I., pt. 8, p. 331 (1908). THE CODLING MOTH. (Carpocapsa pomonella. Linn.) Everyone knows a maggoty apple and avoids it unless they can get no other. Few people, except fruit-growers and gardeners, know anything of the cause, however. The " maggot " is the caterpillar of a small moth, one of the Carpocapsidce, whose larvae live in fruits or seeds. If we turn the Codling Maggot over on its back we shall see that below are legs, these are of two kinds, the first six are horny and pointed, and then in the middle of the body are four pairs which are soft and fleshy " false legs," and there is another pair behind. Thus the Codling Maggot is a true caterpillar, like that of the Cabbage White Butterfly. It is very important for growers to notice this, as 70 Insect Pests. two other kinds of larvae occur in apple, one abundantly in this country, namely, the Apple Sawfly (Hoplocampa testudinea), and the other the Apple Fruit Fly (Trypeta, pomonella, Walsh), which occurs in America. The former has more legs than the Codling Maggot ; the latter has none. The small Tineid Moth (Argyresthid conjugdla, Zeller) also attacks apples in Europe (vide Bevetning om Skadeinsekter og Plantesygdomme i Land-og Havebruget, 1905. By W. M. Schoyen, pp. 22-23, 1906, Kristiania). The damage the Codling Maggot causes is often very serious. Frequently the crop has been almost ruined, especially in the cider- growing districts of the western counties. Our choicest dessert apples suffer just as much as the cooking and coarser kinds. Years ago it seems to have been well known, for in an old Dutch book published in 1645 (1) we find an account of it and also a figure. Cato wrote on "Wormy Apples" in his treatise on Agriculture, written nearly 200 years B.C. Year by year it has become better known, and year by year it has spread further and further afield, until we now get the Codling Moth in nearly all parts of the world where apples are grown. If we go to the market and examine American, Canadian, Portuguese or Madeira apples, we find them often badly damaged, and also numbers of the live maggots in the barrels, etc., they come over in. In this way they have been spread from country to country. The Codling Moth has several relatives, all of which live in seeds or fruit, one we find in the sweet chestnut (Carpocapsa splendidana), another in beech nuts (Carpocapsa grossana), another in euphorbia seeds, the so-called "jumping beans," the movements of the caterpillar within the seed causing the seeds to jump into the air. The appearance of the infested apples is too well known to need description here, but is depicted in the photograph (Fig. 68). OF THE CnW.INi; JIi.iTH. LlFE-HlSTOKY AND HABITS. The difficulty in observing insects laying their eggs is always great, and amongst those which fly at twilight and at night almost impossible, at least in their natural state. We shall have to watch Insects Injurious to the Apple. 71 [IK. //. Ha very carefully to see the Codling Moth at this operation. The moth first appears about the time the apple blossom commences to fall, but in very small numbers. In size it is usually about ^ inch across the expanded wings ; the front wings are grey, with numerous darker wavy trans- verse lines and a metallic eye- like spot at the corner; the hind pair are plain grey. The male can be told from the female by the former having a distinct short dark line on the under surface of the front wings. These moths are ex- tremely pretty creatures when seen in the light, the wings CODLING MOTHS, PUPA AND cocoox UNDER BARK. having a satiny sheen. When at rest the wings are closed up in roof-like manner over the abdomen. During daylight we find them resting under the leaves and on the trunks of the trees. When in the latter position they are very difficult to detect, especially if the trees are covered with lichens and moss, owing to the colours of the wings blending with those of the tree. This protective coloration in insects is often very marked, much more so than in the insect we are dealing with, and serves to pro- tect them from the prying eyes of birds and other natural enemies. The eggs (2) are placed separately, as a rule, on the sides of the fruit, but now and again on the leaves. Each egg is a very thin, almost trans- parent round body, resembling a fish scale and shining on the fruit like a drop of dew. If we look at it under a microscope we see it is beautifully sculptured, especially round the edge. So GREATLY ENLARGED OVUM OF THE CODLING MOTH. (The actual size is smaller than a pin's head.) 72 Insect Pests. [F. Edenden. FIG. 67.— A CODLING MAGGOT IX APPLE. transparent is it that we can observe the little caterpillar being formed inside.* Only one egg as a rule is placed on each apple, and as a single female may lay over one hundred eggs we see what great harm a small number of these little moths may do in a garden or orchard. As soon as the little caterpillar escapes out of its egg-shell it crawls over the apple, and when it comes to the " eye " it has reached the first stage of its journey. During the first week or ten days after the apple blossom has fallen, the separate parts surrounding the eye (the calyx) remain pointing outwards, but later on close up to some extent over the eye. In either case the small larva can easily enter. At first it feeds upon the tissue of the eye and then commences its passage deep into the pulp of the fruit. Its first objective seems to be the core, and during its tunnelling operations it forces its excrement (called " frass ") out of the small hole of entry at the eye. Thus we can detect a struck apple in its early stages by the wet brown matter oozing from the top. Later on the culprit forms a further tunnel to the exterior, opening as a large round hole at the side, bottom or even summit of the fruit. From this opening * The first full account of the egg was given by Slinger- land. Bull. 142. Cornell University Agricultural Ex- periment Station, U.S.A., FIG. 68.— APPLES ATTACKED BY CODLING MAGGOT. fig. 131, Jan. 1898. (Slightly reduced.) Insects Injurious to the Apple. 73 more wet frass is ejected, as long as the maggot remains within the fruit. Some little while , after this opening has been formed, the mature stage of the larva is reached. The caterpillar is then about ^ inch long, pale pinkish in colour, with a few scattered hairs and brown head. Sometimes the larvae are creamy white, at others a deep pink. This latter colour I have particularly noticed in those coming from abroad. The time has now come for leaving the fruit. This they do in two ways : the majority lower themselves to the ground, if the fruit has not fallen, others crawl out of the apple and down the branches. Those that fall to the ground re- ascend the tree trunks, and make their way under the first shelter they come to. If it is in an old orchard they crawl under the rough bark, or the moss and lichens growing upon the trees ; if it is a young orchard, or one kept very clean, they get under such protection as the sacking used to prevent the string, by which the young trees are held to stakes, from cutting the bark, or between the forks of the branches. In these sheltered spots the larva? spin rough cocoons, often mingled with wood chips when formed under the bark. The silken cocoons are sometimes dusky white, sometimes brown. In these cases the larvae cast their skin in the spring and change to chestnut- brown pupse, from which the moths ultimately hatch. As a rule, we have only one generation of Codling Moth during the year, but there may be two. For a long time there has been an [W. H. Hammond. FIG. 69. — APPLES ATTACKED BY SCAB FUNGUS. Often mistaken for insect damage. (Half natural size.) 74 Insect Pests. idea that now and again there is a second brood in this country. During 1906 I succeeded, under normal outdoor conditions, in hatching out moths in August, which deposited eggs on apples out of doors, the ova hatching in six days, and the maggots entered the fruit at the base, not the eye. These larva? matured by the 10th of October. Thus we have proof here of a second brood, just as happens in parts of America. During the same year Mr. Getting sent me Codling maggots from Eoss, found in the ]ast week in September in Cox's Orange Pippins. Many of these apples had been freshly attacked, and Mr. Getting noticed that the entrance hole was either at the side or base of the fruit. In warmer climates than ours there may be even more than two broods in each season. The larva} that form their cocoons in the autumn remain in the same condition until spring, when they change to pupie a few weeks before the moths emerge. But when they spin early in the year and are going to give rise to a second generation, they pupate a few days after the cocoons are completed. Slingerland (2) gives the life of the caterpillar as varying from twenty to thirty days. They take longer to mature with us, some under observation took fifty days. Ormerod (5) states that they take four weeks. NA.TUBAL ENEMIES. It is during the winter that the numbers of this pest are reduced by natural agencies. The Tits, especially the Blue and the Great Tit, devour the lame, wrenching them out of the cocoons after breaking off the sheltering bark beneath which they are hidden. There are not nearly enough of these birds, however, to do sufficient good, for year by year we get orchards and gardens robbed of much of the fruit by this noxious yet interesting little insect. Eecent reports of the benefit of parasites in connection with this pest are of interest, but seem to be of no practical value. Slingerland (2) records a number from America. The ova are attacked by a minute hymenopteron, Trichogramma pretiosa (1), and the larvae also suffer from Ichneumon parasites, but the Codling Moth persists in enormous numbers. In Europe the parasite mentioned on p. 77 occurs in some numbers. Insects Injurious to the Apple. 75 PREVENTION AND TREATMENT. We can, however, lessen their number ourselves very easily. To accomplish this all we have to do is to tie a band of hay or old cloth around the trunk of the tree close to the ground about June. If we examine the band in the winter we shall often find it full of the cocoons of the Codling Moth. These bands can be burnt, and so very great numbers of the pest may be destroyed. Several correspondents have written stating that they have collected large numbers of the maggots during the past few years by banding the trees, and that, in consequence, the number of maggoty apples have been much reduced. Old manure sacking is very suit- able for this purpose. A few remain, having come down from above, and will hatch out and lay their eggs, these may be coped with by spraying the trees with an arsenical poison directly the blossom has fallen. The poison lodges in the eye of the apple, and the first meal the young caterpillar takes is arsenic, instead of apple, arid so it is killed. This spraying should take place not later than ten days after the blossom has been shed. At the same time the fungicide Bordeaux mixture may be used with the arsenate of lead. The latter can now be obtained in paste form (Swift's Arsenate of Lead Paste), which is more convenient to use than the home-made mixture. This spraying must be done properly to be successful. As fine a mist as possible must be thrown out, so that it penetrates well into the calyx. A great deal depends upon the right time of application. In a mixed orchard, it is of course impossible to do this at one operation, owing to the various times of blooming. For other reasons as well, it is thus advisable to grow only one or two kinds of apples in each plantation. Of the three arsenates used for this purpose, viz., Paris green, London purple and arsenate of lead, there is no doubt that the last-named is much the most potent. The following table (3) may here be quoted showing the benefit derived from arsenical spraying. FIG. 70.— THK HAY-ROPE BAND IN OPERATION. (Reduced from Dr. Trimble's picture.) 76 Insect Pests. A. — IN AMERICA. Treatment. Percentage of Fruit Harvested. I. (Paris Green Paris Green \ Arsenate of , 5 lb. to 50 galls, water , i lb. to 50 galls, water Lead (weaker solution) 61-65 43-46 74-98 t 63-04 51-33 81-63 Arsonate of Lead (stronger solution) 82-50 81-45 > Unsprayed 43-67 49-09 Percentage of Picked Fruit Injured. / Paris Green, J lb. to 50 galls, water 17-48 2-02 1 Paris Green, \ lb. to 50 galls, water 12-87 3-10 II. { Arsenate of Lead (single strength) 9-26 5 • 88 j Arsenate of Lead (double strength) 8-30 3-43 \ Unsprayed ...... 32 • 78 37-82 B.— AT WYE. Treatment. Percentage of Fruit Injured by Maggots. ( Paris Green, J lb. to 50 galls, water 37^5 29-7 III. Arsenate of Lead (normal) . 20-5 15.5 Unsprayed . 62-5 71-5 Grimes' Golden Apple. J Worcester Pearmaii The strength of the arsenical wash, used at Wye, was as follows : Acetate of Lead Arsenate of Soda Water 12 o/. 4 ox. (40-50 p.c.) 100 gallons. Eecent experiments have shown that this wash was not then recommended at sufficient strength for all purposes. The new formula is given in the appendix. A great deal of good may be done in grass orchards by keeping pigs in them when the apples are falling, and some benefit has been found from the presence of poultry. Trees should also be kept clean by either using once every two or three years the lime and salt Insects Injurious to the Apple. 77 wash or caustic alkali wash, or if Mussel Scale is present the Woburn wash in winter. REFERENCES. (1) Goedaerdt, I. ' Metamorphosis et Historia Naturalis Insectorum ' (1662- 1667). (2) Slimjerland, M. V. The Codling Moth. Bull. 142. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, U.S.A., p. 69 (1898). (3) Theobald, F. V. Second Report on Economic Zoology (Brit. Mus.), p. 50 (1904). (4) Theobald, F. V. Eeport on Economic Zoology for the year ending April 1st, 1906, p. 21 (1906). (5) Ormerod, E. A. ' Handbook of Insects Injurious to Orchard and Bush Fruits ' (1898). The Codling Moth Ichneumon. (EpTiialtes carlonarius. Zach.) This is a well-known European parasite of the Codling Moth and is very common in some countries, notably in Spain. The female searches for the cocoons which the grubs of the Codling Moth have spun up under the bark of the trees, and by means of her long ovipositor she punctures the cocoons and deposits an egg in the grub. A female is believed to lay one hundred and fifty eggs, one in each grub. The Ichneumon maggot on hatching from the egg feeds upon the Codling Moth larva, pupates in its cocoon and eventually hatches as a Ephialtes carbonarius. The period from the egg to the hatching of the Ichneumon varies from thirty-eight to forty -six days. It is mentioned here on account of the great fuss that has been made concerning it as a means of checking this apple maggot. It was introduced from Spain into California some while ago by a Mr. Compere. Mr. Froggatt found no trace of this parasite in the Californian orchards, and he adds, "and I might state that I have been unable to find any instance in which this Ichneumon parasite has been found in any orchard."* Further he says : " The general opinion of all the apple growers with whom I talked is that this parasite is a failure up to the present in California, and will not make the least difference in their spraying work."* It is pleasing to find both Mr. Froggatt and Mr. Lounsbury, who have gone to see these various wonders, giving their sound and honest version of these matters. * Journal Dep. Agri. Victoria, vol. V., pt. 12, p. 717 (1908). 78 Insect Pests. The very glowing accounts so often given of the beneficent action of introduced parasites is merely throwing back for years any possible advance that might be made in this interesting subject. TORTRIX MOTHS ON THE APPLE. (Tortrix ribcana, Hb. ; T. heparana, Schiff. ; Tortrix rosana, Linn. ; T. podana, Sc. ; Sidcria achatana, Fab. ; Pyrodes rhcediella, Clerck. ; and Spilonota roborana, Tr.) The above are the chief kinds of Tortrix Moths which have been sent to me as feeding on the apple. Few of the Tortricidse are to be met with on the wing before FIG. 71.— TORTRIX M"TI (Horace Knight. Tortrix ( Lozota-nia) Tortrix (L»zi>tn'nia) In'j.nrana. ibeann. Tortrix (Lozot:>< ia) ; June, but they go on appearing until August. The larva? are very active and can usually be told by their curious sinuous back- ward movements when they are touched ; they have the normal number of legs, and can thus at once be told from the Winter Moth larva?. The foliage and blossom is devoured by them ; the former they frequently roll up or unite together with fine silken strands, and the same is done with the blossom. In the young stages they feed more freely, however, on the leaves, etc. The pupal stage is chiefiy passed in the tubes or spun-together leaves where they have been feeding. The winter is mostly passed in the egg stage, but some hibernate as small larva; in cases of debris. Insects Injurious to the Apple. 79 Reports of damage caused by these larvae to fruit trees have been received from the Duke of Northumberland's, Alnwick ; from nurseries in Worcestershire, Cornwall and Somerset ; and from orchards in Kent, Surrey, Cambridgeshire, Sussex, Radnorshire and Devon. No less than twelve species are to be found constantly at work on fruit, and many more occur now and again. The following are the most important ones on apple. THE COMMON TORTRIX (Tortrix ribcana. Hb.). The front wings are pale yellowish-brown, with dark brown markings, one at the base of the wing, a central fascia which is broader in the centre, its inner edge straight, also a small central spot; hind wings slaty-grey ; wing expanse f inch to a little more. The moth appears towards the end of June and in July. The (Horace Kitiijht. Sideria aeltatana. J'i/rodes rheediella. caterpillar is dark olive-green with dark brown head and black spots ; the sides yellowish-green, spots pale around their edges ; slightly hairy. They r