¥c,"

For Reference

NOT TO BE TAKEN FROM THIS ROOM

/

Private Property of

Z, P. METCALF
No -

INSECT PESTS

OF

FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

BY

E. DWIGHT SANDERSON

DEAN OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY
DIRECTOR WEST VIRGINIA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

FIRST EDITION
i'lKST THOUSAXD

NEW YORK:
JOHN WILEY & SONS

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited
1912

Copyright, 1012,

E. DAVIGHT SANDERSON

THE SCIENTIFIC PRESS

ROBERT DRUMNIOND AND COMPANY

BROOKLYN, N. Y.

o^n % HitfF

PREFACE

The edition of the writer's '' Insects Injurious to Staple Crops,"
first published ten years ago, having been exhausted, the pub-
lishers requested a revision. It was found, however, that the
advances in economic entomology during the past decade were such
that it was necessary to practically rewrite the book. At the
time it was first published two other books were projected; one
to deal with the insects affecting garden crops, and the other to
discuss those affecting fruits. Pressure of regular work pre-
vented the author from completing the manuscript for these
works and in 1907 Dr. Chittenden issued his excellent book on
" Insects Injurious to Vegetables," so that there seemed to be
no immediate demand for another volume on that subject. At
the same time two other well-known entomologists were work-
ing upon books which would cover fruit insects, so that the
writer abandoned the field to them. Subsequently, the work
of one of these friends was cut short by his sudden death, and
the other abandoned the task, at least for the present.

Under these circumstances, it seemed that there was a distinct
place for a book to cover all the insects affecting the crops of
farm, garden and orchard, and having leisure to devote to it, the
author developed the work in its present form.

It has been the author's effort to discuss all of the more impor-
tant insects of farm, garden and orchard at sufficient length
to give a clear idea of their life histories and habits, and also the
best means of control, so that the book may be used as a reference
work both by the student of economic entomology and by
the practical farmer, gardener, or fruit-grower. Insects of minor

VI PREFACE

or local importance have been purposely omitted. The insects
of practically all of the leading crops are considered, except the
citrous fruits. With these the author is unfamiliar, but it is
hoped to add a chapter upon them by a competent authority
in a subsequent edition. In general, the discussion of insects
and their control as given is based upon conditions east of the
Rockies, and practically no consideration has been given to the
conditions of the Pacific Coast or of the irrigated country of the
far West.

The author is well aware that there are doubtless many errors
of fact or of wrong emphasis in these pages. Such must nec-
essarily be the case in a work the greater part of which must be
compiled. All of the leading authorities on the subjects discussed
have been consulted and the writer has endeavored to present
their evidence fairly, with such interpretation as his personal
knowledge made possible. He will be greatly indebted to those
who will aid him in securing the accuracy of the work by report-
ing any errors or by suggesting improvements in it, as it is hoped
to revise the pages from time to time so that they may serve
as a reliable reference work upon our insect pests of the farm,
the garden, and the orchard.

On the following pages are given the sources from which
the illustrations have been secured, but the author wishes to
express his special appreciation of the very large number of figures
which were furnished him by Dr. L. 0. Howard, Chief of the
Bureau of Entomology, and Mr. J. A. Arnold, Chief of the
Division of Publications, of the United States Department of
Agriculture, either as electrotypes or original drawings or photo-
graphs, and to Ginn & Company of Boston for the loan of
numerous electrotypes made for an Elementary Entomology by
Prof. C. F. Jackson and the writer, now being published by
them.

E. DwiGHT Sanderson.

West Virginia University,
morgantown.

SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS

The author wishes to express his very sincere appreciation
of the courtesy extended him by those friends mentioned below
who have furnished or loaned him electrotypes, photographs or
drawings, thus making possible the ample illustration of this
volume.

From the United States Department of Agriculture, through
the courtesy of Dr. L. 0. Howard, Chief of the Bureau of
Entomology and of Mr. J. A. Arnold, Chief of the Division
of publications, the following illustrations were secured, either
as electrotypes or as new plates made from the original drawings
or photographs: Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 24, 50, 53, 55, 59, 61, 66, 83,
85, 86, 88, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106,
110, 113, 114, 117, 124, 125, 126, 127,, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132,
133, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 149,
150, 153, 154, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 167, 168, 170,
171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186,
187, 188, 189, 192, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206,
207, 208, 211, 216, 218, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228,
230, 231, 232, 235, 236, 240, 241, 242, 244, 246, 247, 248, 257, 258,
262, 264, 265, 266, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 277, 281, 283, 285,
292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 300, 304, 306, 307, 325, 326,
353, 354, 355, 356, 377, 379, 394, 395, 396, 398, 400, 401, 402,
404, 406, 413, 431, 432, 438, 446, 449, 472, 474, 475, 480, 487,
490, 496, 497, 502, 503, 504, 505, 508, and 512.

The following illustrations were originally prepared by Dr.
C. V. Riley and have been secured from various sources: Figs.
5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 54, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 74, 75, 76, 77,

viii SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS

78, 79, 80, 98, 99, 107, 147, 152, 212, 213, 214, 215, 220, 243,
259, 260, 261, 320, 473.

Dr. S. A. Forbes, State Entomologist of Illinois, Urbana, 111.,
kindly furnished the following: Figs. 50, 51, 56, 58, 120, 121, 122,
123, 151, 156, 157, 234, 299.

Prof. G. W. Herrick of the Cornell University Agricultural
Experiment Station furnished electrotypes and photographs of
the following illustrations by Dr. Shngerland: Figs. 57, 84, 87,
249, 250, 251, 253, 254, 338, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 360, 361,
362, 363, 364, 373, 381, 382, 383, 384, 422, 437, 482, 483, 485,
486, 495, 498, 499, 500, 501, 513.

Prof. F. L. Washburn, State Entomologist of Minnesota,
kindly furnished the following and also some of the figures of
Dr. Riley listed above: 81, 330, 343, 350, 351, 378, 380, 491.

Prof. H. A. Gossard of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment
Station furnished the following: 89, 108, 341, 342.

Prof. R. H. Pettit, Entomologist of the Michigan Agricultural
Experiment Station, furnished the following: 92, 100, 245,
and 341.

Prof. C. P. Gillette, Director of the Colorado Agricultural
Experiment Station, supplied figures 229, 239, 352, 439, 450,
506, 507, and 511.

Dr. J. B. Smith, Entomologist of the New Jersey Agricultural
Experiment Station, loaned the following and also some of the
Riley figures: 13, 20, 109, 209, 210, 303, 308, 309, 323, 324,
327, 334, 335, 336, and 337.

Prof. P. J. Parrott kindly sent photographs of the following
from the files of the New York State Agricultural Experiment
Station: Figs. 340, 349, 399, 465, 466, 493, 494, 509, 510.

Prof. W. E. Rumsey of the West Virginia Agricultural Exper-
iment Station kindly loaned photographs of the following: 357,
358, 359, 367, 368, 369, 370, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 441, 444.

Prof. H. Garman of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment
Station furnished Figs. 97, 165, 166, and 238.

Director R. W. Thatcher of the Washington Agricultural
Experiment Station furnished Figs. 237, 328, 329, and 339.

SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix

Dr. S. J. Hunter of the University of Kansas loaned electro-
types of Figs. 112 and 113.

Prof. T. B. Symons of the Maryland Agricultural Experiment
Station loaned electrotypes of Figs. 119, 267, 310, 311, 312,
313, and 314.

Prof. H. E. Summers of the Iowa Agricultural Experiment
Station loaned drawings of Figs. 154, and 333.

Director P. H. Rolfs of the Florida Agricultural Experiment
Station loaned photographs of Figs. 169 and 302.

Director T. C. Johnson of the Virginia Truck Experiment
Station furnished copy for Figs. 217 and 269.

The Orange Judd Company of New York City kindly furnished
electrotypes of Figs. 219, 301 and three of the Riley figures.

Director J. C. Kendall of the New Hampshire Agricultural
Experiment Station loaned the following electrotypes and several
of the author's illustrations: 34, 43, 49, 118, 256, 322, 397, 417,
445, 447 and 448.

Director S. W. Fletcher of the Virginia Agricultural Exper-
iment Station and Dr. E. A. Back of the Virginia Crop Pest
Commission furnished the following: Figs. 36, 393, 440, 442,
and 443.

Dr. W. E. Britton, State Entomologist of Connecticut, fur-
nished electrotypes and photographs of the following: Figs. 41,
284, 305, 390, 416, 426, 429, 430, 477, 478, 479.

Prof. R. I. Smith of the North Carolina Agricultural Exper-
iment Station furnished photographs of Figs. 280, and 291.

Prof. A. L. Quaintance furnished photographs of Figs. 282,
286, 287, 288, 289, and 290.

Director F. B. Mumford of the Missouri Agricultural Exper-
iment Station loaned Figs. 434 and 435.

Prof. C. S. Crandall of the Illinois Agricultural Experiment
Station, loaned drawings of Figs. 436 and 492.

Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. furnished Fig. 221, from the
Riverside Natural History.

The Friend Manufacturing Company contributed Fig. 45.

The Deming Company furnished Figs. 27, 28, 30, 33, and 39.

X SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS

F. E. Myers tic Bro. furnished Figs. 29 and 45.

The Spraniotor Company suppUed Fig. 31.

E. C. Brown & Co. donated Figs. 32 and 40.

The Goulds Manufacturing Company supplied Fig. 4G.

The follomng figures are original or are the author's illus-
trations: 6, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 23, 25, 37, 38, 42, 44, 4G,
47, 48, 52, 70, 71, 72, 73, 82, 111, 134, 135, 177, 178, 179, 190,
191, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 233, 252, 255, 263, 268, 275, 276,
278, 279, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 331, 332, 391, 392, 403, 405,
407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 414, 415, 418, 419, 420, 421, 433,
451, 452, 453, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 463,
464, 465, 467, 468, 469, 470, 471, 481, 483, 488, and 489.

CONTENTS

Preface v

Sources of Illustrations and Acknowledgments vii

CHATTER PAGE

I. Injury to Crops by Insect Pests 1

II. Beneficial Insects, Predaceous and Parasitic 9

III. Structure and Development of Insects 22

IV. Farm Methods for the Control of Insects 32

V. Insecticides 42

VI. Spraying and Dusting Apparatus 60

VII. Insects Affecting Grains, Grasses, Forage and Mis-
cellaneous Crops 79

VIII. Insects Injurious to Small Grains 121

IX. Insects Injurious to Corn 157

X. Insects Injurious to Stored Grains 186

XI. Insects Injurious to Clover 200

XII. Insects Injurious to Tobacco 222

XIII. Insects Injurious to Cotton 241

XIV. Insects Injurious to the Hop-plant 273

XV. Insects Injurious to Potatoes and Tomatoes 285

XVI. InsECTS Injurious to Beans and Peas 305

XVII. Insects Injurious to Beets and Spinach 330

XVIII. Insects Injurious to Cabbage and Cruciferous Crops . . . 347
XIX. Insects Injurious to Melons, Cucumbers, Squash, etc. . . 379
XX. Insects Injurious to Miscellaneous Garden Crops.... 402

XXI. Insects Injurious to the Sweet Potato 430

XXII. Insects Injurious to the Str.\wberry 441

XXIII. Insects Injurious TO the R.\spberry and Bl.\ckberry . . . 459

XXIV. Insects Injurious to the Currant and Gooseberry 477

xi

xii CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

XXV. Insects Injurious to the Grape 492

XXVI. Some Insects Injurious to Orchard Fruits 538

XXVII. Insects Injurious to the Apple and Pear 582

XXVIII. Insects Injurious to the Peach, Plum, Cherry and

^ Stone Fruits. .,. 645

Index 671

INSECT PESTS

OF

FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

CHAPTER I
THE INJURY TO CROPS BY INSECT PESTS

Ever since the locust plagues in the time of the Pharaohs his-
tory is replete with accounts of insect scourges and the enormous
losses they have caused the agriculturists of all ages. However,
instead of diminishing with the advancement of agricultural
methods, injurious insects have undoubtedly become both, more
numerous and more destructive in modern times. " In no coun-
try in the world do insects impose a heavier tax on fai-m products
than in the United States. The losses resulting from the depre-
dations of insects on all the plant products of the soil, both in
their growing and in their stored state, together with those on
live stock, exceed the entire expenditures of the National Gov-
ernment, including the pension roll and the maintenance of the
Army and the Xavy."* " Very careful estimates, based on crop
reports and actual insect damage over a series of years, show
that the loss due to insect pests of farm products, including
fruits and live stock, now reaches the almost inconceivable total
of $1,000,000,000, annually."t The above quotations from Mr.
C. L. Marlatt, Assistant Chief of the Bureau of Entomology,

* C. L. Marlatt, Yearbook U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1904, p. 461.
t C. L. Marlatt, Journal of Economic Entomology, IV, 109.

2 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

United States Department of Agriculture, may appear to the
reader either kidicrous or startHng, according to whether he be
more or less informed concerning the important role which insects
play in our agricultural economy, which in turn forms the warp
of American prosperity.

A brief resume of the records of damage done by insect pests,
of the cost of fighting them, and of the estimates which form the
basis of the above statement, will make it the more convinc-
ing.

Growing Cereals. — Probabh' no other insect does so widespread
damage as the Hessian fly, attacking our chief staple, wheat, as
well as rye and barley. One-tenth of the whole crop, valued
at $50,000,000 to $70,000,000, is generally conceded to be de-
stroyed by this pest every year. In certain sections the loss often
amounts to from 30 to 50 per cent, and in 1900 was estimated
at fully $100,000,000 (Marlatt, I.e.). The southern grain louse
or "' green bug " caused a loss estimated at from $5,000,000 to
$10,000,000 in T(^xas, Oklahoma and Kansas in 1907, and every
year there is a considerable shrinkage of the wheat crop due to
the work of various species of plant-lice whose injury doubtless
amounts to 2 or 3 per cent of the crop, worth $15,000,000 to
$20,000,000.

The corn crop of the United States was worth $1,720,000,000
in 1909. One of the worst pests of this crop in the Mississippi
Valley is the chinch-bug. Several years ago Professor F. M.
Webster estimated the loss fi-om this insect since 1850 at
$330,000,000, and at present it probably destroys at least 2 per
cent of the corn crop every year, worth over $30,000,000, and in
many years the loss is much more. The western corn root-worm
and the corn root-aphis which work unnoticed on the roots
of the corn throughout the same territory cause an equal loss.
The corn ear-worm often destroys from 5 to 10 per cent of the
crop in the South, and throughout the Corn Belt it undoubtedly
decreases the crop by 2 or 3 pei- cent.

The total value of cereal crops in tlu> United States in 1909
was practically $3,000,000,000, whicii was undoubtedly decreased

THE INJURY TO CROPS BY INSECT PESTS 3

by 10 per rent tlue to the ia\-agos of in.sect pests, wliicli thus
taxed our grain growers some $300,000,000.

Hay and Forage Crops. — A host of small insects attack our
grasses and forage crops, many of them being so small that they
are unnoticed, though their aggregate injury is something enormous.
Of the larger pests of grasses and forage plants the army worms
are among the best known and have often caused a loss of over
half a million dollars to a single State in one season. Grass-
hoppers of various species are also alwaj's more or less injurious
and often become a serious menace. Probably the most serious
injury, however, is done by subterranean larvae such as the cut-
worms, wireworms, white grubs, and weliworms. which bi'eed in
sod land, and l)y the hordes of little leaf-hoppers which are
always prevalent, but whose injury often passes unnoticed. Ten
per cent of the hay crop was worth SGo.OOO.OOO in 1900, and this
is a fair estimate of the damage done to ha}' and forage crops
by their insect enemies.

Cotton. — The cotton plant has a numl)er of injurious insect
enemies, of which the boll weevil, bollworm. and leafworm are
the most injurious. In 1904 the writer made a statistical stud}^
of the decrease in the cotton crop of Texas due to the boll
weevil, and showed that it was then costing that State $25,000,000
per annum.* This estimate has been confirmed by independent
investigations made by Mr. W. D. Hunter of the U. S. Bureau
of Entomology, and although the lo.ss in Texas is not so .serious
at present, the weevil has spread eastward into Alabama, so
that its total injury remains practicall}- the same, and has
undoubtedly been a large factor in the higher price of cotton
in recent j-ears. The bollworm is most injurious in the south-
western cotton-producing States, where it causes a loss of from
5 to 60 per cent of the crop. The total damage to cotton b}'
the bollworm is appi-oximately $20,000,000 per annum and not
infrequently exceeds that amount. In ISSO the United States

* E. D. Sanderson, The Boll Weevil and the Cotton Crop of Texas. (Bul-
letin Dept. of Agriculture, Insurance. Statistics and History, Aastin, Texas,
1905, p. 28, 7 maps.)

4 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Entomological Commission made an investigation of the cotton
worm and valued its ravages at $30,000,000, but with the
extensive use of Paris green and arsenical poisons its injury has
been greatly reduced and now amounts to from S5, 000,000 to

5 10,000,000 annually. Various minor pests of the cotton plant
inflict a considerable amount of local injury and with the above
pests damage the crop at least 10 per cent, worth $85,000,000
in 1909.

Tobacco. — Tobacco is attacked by insects, which form one
of the chief " bugbears " of tobacco growing, at all stages of its
existence. Ten per cent of the crop, worth $10,000,000, is cer-
tainly destroyed by them every year.

Truck Crops. — Truck crops are peculiarly susceptible to
insect attacks, and their control forms one of the chief items in
the cost of production. It is safe to say that truck crops suffer
from insect ravages fully twice as much as do the staples, or 20
per cent of their total value. Statistics are not available for
the present value of truck crops, but they were probably worth
$300,000,000 in 1909, making the insect tax for the trucker
fully $60,000,000.

Fruits. — Fruit trees are also much more seriously injured
b)^ insects than are the staple crops, and their control involves
a large expense to the fruit-grower. Where it is not combated,
the codling moth, or apple worm, would cause a loss of from
30 to 50 per cent of the crop, and where it is controlled by
spraying a considerable expense is involved. The loss and cost
of treatment for this pest alone amount to $20,000,000 for the
United States, and were it not for the fact that it is now largely
controlled in the principal fruit-growing sections, the loss would
be double or treble this sum. The loss due to the San Jose scale
is difficult to estimate, but it is well known that it has destroyed
millions of trees and that in the principal fruit regions where this
pest is prevalent it is necessary to treat the trees annually
at a cost of from 10 to 25 cents per tree, so that $10,000,000 a
year would be a very conservative estimate of its annual cost.
Both deciduous and citrous fruits have a host of insect pests,

THE INJURY TO CROPS BY INSECT PESTS 5

alway« present and doing more or less damage and occasionally
becoming so abundant as to threaten the life of the trees or their
crops. Twenty per cent of the value of our fruit products,
worth at least $30,000,000, is certainly destroyed by insect
pests every year.

Forest Inseda. — Onl}' those who have had opportunity to
observe the ravages of insects in timber and in timber products
can appreciate the enormous losses which they occasion. Prob-
ably no one is better informed upon this matter than Dr. A. D.
Hopkins, in charge of the Forest Insect Investigations of the
U. S. Bureau of Entomology, who has made a life study of these
pests in all parts of the country. In a recent circular he states *
that " the amount of insect-killed and damaged timber left in the
woods, plus the reduction in value of that utilized, to be charged
to insects is not far from an equivalent of 10 per cent of the value
of the annual output of forest products of all kinds, in the rough.
The total value of the forest products of the United States in 1907
is given as $1,280,000,000; the losses from insect depredations
would therefore represent an annual loss in cash value of more
than $100,000,000." To this should be added a similar loss to
farm woodlots, which may be estimated at an additional $10,000,-
000. The insect injury- to the shade trees of city streets, parks,
and estates should also be mentioned, for such pests as the gypsy
moth, the elm leaf-beetle, tussock moths, etc., are not only causing
enormous losses and large expense for their control, but they are
often destroying the values of real estate and through killing the
trees are destroying the scenic value of property and changing the
esthetic environment in a manner which it will require many
decades to remedy, if the previous conditions can ever be even
partially reproduced. The State Forester of Massachusetts has
recently shown that the New England States and the Federal
Government have spent fully $7,000,000 in fighting the gypsy and
brown-tail moths in Xew England, and at the present time the
New England States, the Federal Government, municipalities and
private individuals are spending fully $1,000,000 per annum
* A. D. Hopkin.s, Circular 129, Bureau of Entomology, U. S, Dept. Agr.

6 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

in this warfare for the preservation of their shade and forest
trees.

Live Stock.^lnsect pests, including the ticks and mites, are
almost as important as enemies of live stock as of crops. The
principal drawback to cattle raising in the South is the Texas
fever, transmitted by the cattle tick, which has been charged by
the officials of the Bureau of Animal Industry with a loss of $100,-
000,000 annually. The ox-warble, which causes the "grubby"
hides of cattle, causes a loss estimated at from $10,000,000 to
$35,000,000 per year due to the depreciated value of the hides and
the lessened quantity and poorer quality of the beef of affected
animals. The screw-worm fly is a constant annoyance to cattle and
source of loss on the range, and numerous biting and parasitic flies
cause a considerable loss to the grower of live stock, both through
actual damage and through the annoyance preventing gTo^vth and
production. The sheep scab, sheep tick, the sheep bot — causing
"staggers" or "grub-in-the-head " — horn-fly, buffalo-fly, black-fl}-,
and numerous species of lice which affect all of the domestic ani-
mals, are among the pests which must be combated by the stock-
man. In 1909 the live stock products were worth $3,000,000,000,
and it is estimated that fully 10 per cent of this amount was lost
through injury from insects.

Stored Products. — Even after the crops have been gathered
and garnered, and indeed after they and animal products have
been manufactured, they are constantly subject to the attacks of
numerous "weevils," "moths," and other insect pests of stored
products. Every housewife and every merchant knows that only
through constant surveillance can they prevent these ravages.
Mills, tobacco warehouses, storage houses, and vessels, must be
frequently cleaned and often must be fumigated to prevent the
increase of insect pests peculiar to them. It is estimated that at
least 5 per cent of the cereal crops are destroyed by insects while
in storage, which would mean a loss of $150,000,000, and in many
cases the loss to corn, particularly in the South, is much greater.
The total loss due to insects in stored goods of all kinds is impos-
sible to estimate, Init would fall not far short of $200,000,000.

THE INJURY TO CROPS BY INSEC'l' IMvSTS 7

With this brief survey of the losses due to iiiseet pests, we may
summarize them in a table which will show that the total is based
upon conservative estimates.

Annual Values of Farm Products and Losses Chargeable
TO Insect Pests *

Product.

Values.

Percentage of
Loss.

Amount of Loss.

Cereals

Hay and forage . . . .

Cotton

Tobacco

Truck crops

Sugars

Fruits

Farm forests

Miscellaneous crops
Animal products. . .

$3,000
665
850
100

t 300
95

t 150
110

t 100

3,000

000,000
,000,000
,000,000
,000,000
,000,000
,000,000
,000,000
,000,000
,000,000
,000,000

10
10
10
10
20
10
20
10
10
10

$300,000,000
66,500,000
85,000,000
10,000,000

150,000,000

9,500,000

30,000,000

11,000,000

10,000,000

300,000,000

Total.

$8,370,000,000

Natural forests and fore.st

products

Products in storage

$972,000,000

100,000,000
200,000,000

Grand total.

$1,272,000,000

♦Based upon table of (". L. .Marlatt, I.e., niodifjed by statistics of the Secretary of
.Vgriculture, Yearbook U. S. Dcitaittuciit of .\Kriculture for 1909.
t Estimated.

One billion dollars is thus a conservative estimate of the
damage done to staple crops, fruits, truck crops, domestic animals,
timber and stored products by these apparently insignificant
insects.

Yet there is another aspect to the matter. "One man's loss
is another man's gain" is never more true than as regards these
losses occasioned by insects; for, through widespread injury by
them, prices rise, while if these injuries did not occur and corre-
spondingly large crops were placed upon the market, prices must
surely fall. These estimates of losses due to insects are then very
largely comparative. Yet, to a large extent, they are still real
losses, the same as are those occasioned by fire and storm; for

8 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

though a small crop may luring hettei- prices, it is usualh' at the
expense of individuals or communities which have sustained ex-
ceptionally heavy losses. Were these losses evenly distributed
among all those producing a given crop, there would be no real
hardship to them; but such is by no means the case.

All this, then, goes to emphasize the fact that the successful
farmer — as the successful man in any other trade or profession —
is the one who is able to overcome obstacles which, though pos-
sibl}^ ruining his neighbor, are making a good market for his special
crop; for these insect pests can be largely overcome. The millen-
nium will doubtless come before the farmer will be able to stop
fighting them, but a large part of the damage by them can be pre-
vented at a cost which renders it profitable. Rational methods of
general farm practice with the proper use of apparatus and insecti-
cides, even such as are now known, and in which improvements
are being constantly made, if intelligently used by American
farmers, would save to them the larger part of this enormous loss.

CHAPTER II
BENEFICIAL INSEC^TS, PREDACEOUS Ax\D PARASITIC

Ladybird-beetles

After his strawberries have been ruined by the strawberry
weevil, the garden truck by cutworms, the wheat despoiled by the
Hessian fly, the melon-patch fallen a prey to plant-lice, and the
fruit crop has been a failure on account of the codling moth, plum
curculio, and San Jose scale, it is scarcely surprising that the
farmer does as one of my acquaintances did and "orders the hands
to kill everything that crawls."

But such would be entirely too heroic a measure, and if strictly
adhered to the remedy would be as bad as the disease, for it would
mean not only useless labor, but the destruction of the most effect-
ive means whereby insect pests are held in check. We pride
ourselves — and justly — that with our spray pumps and deadly
sprays many crops can be effectually protected; but were it not
for those other insects which feed upon these injurious forms,
what an enormous, and, in some instances, almost futile task it
would be !

Among these beneficial insects the little ladybird-beetles of
the family Coccinellidoe are entitled to be in the first rank.
Almost all the beetles and larvse feed upon plant-lice and scale
insects. Of such value are those feeding upon scale insects
that not many years ago several Australian species were
imported into California that they might prey upon the San
Jose and other scales. One of these was eminently successful
and almost completely destroyed the cottony cushion-scale.

Of those feeding upon plant-lice, one of the most common
is the Nine-spotted Ladybird (Coccmella novemnotata). This

0

10 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

beetle is about unc-fourth of an inch long, with black head and
body. The wing-covers are orange-yellow marked with nine
black spots — four on each side and one on the central suture.
The larva has been fancied to resemble a miniature alligator;
it is nearly twice as long as wide, almost black, marked with
bluish and orange spots, and has long legs, which carry it around
quite rapidly. The beetles hibernate during the winter and
come forth in the spring and lay their eggs wherever the young
will be able to find food when they hatch. When the larva
has satisfied its ravenous appetite and become full grown it
fastens itself to a leaf or twig, — seemingly by its tail, if such

Fig. 1. — The nine-spotted ladybird {Coccindla novemnotala), and ils
larva enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a term might be allowed, — transforms to the pupa, and in a week
or ten days the adult beetle emerges from the pupal skin. This
life-cycle is repeated several times during the summer season,
before the fall brood enters winter quarters.

Another very common form among plant-lice on garden truck
is the little Adnlia hipunctata, or Two-spotted Ladybird. It is
slightly smaller than the preceding, and with only one black spot
on each wing-cover (Fig. 2) .

Several other species in the genus Hippodumia are very
useful, and among them the Convergent Ladybird (Hippo-
damia convergens) is one of the best known. Its name is received
from two white dashes on the ])lack thorax, which converge
posteriorly. The thorax has also a white margin, and there are

BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PREDACEOUS AND PARASITIC 11

thirteen black dots on its orange wing-covers. These larvai
and beetles are very common among the plant-lice on melon-
vines, and are an important factor in their extermination. They

Fig. 2. — The two-spotted ladybird (Adalia bipunctuta): a, hirva; b, mouth-
parts of same; c, claw of same; d, pupa; e, adult; /, antenna of same;
all enlarged. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Fig. 3. — The convergent ladyloird {Hippodamia convergens) : a, adult; b, pupa;
c, larva; enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

have also been noted for eating the black peach aphis and many
other plant-lice.

A form which is often very abundant among plant-lice on corn
is the Spotted Ladybird (Meyilla maculata). The head, thorax,
and wing-covers are a dark pink, with two black spots on the

12 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

thorax and ten on the wing-covers. Such numbers of these
little fellows have frequently been found huddled together under
the rubbish at the base of some tree in a last year's cornfield
that they might be taken up by the handful without difficulty.

Fiu. 4. — The spotted ladybird {Megilla macukita): «, larva; b. pupa; c, adult;
enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Many other species feed upon plant-lice, but the above are the
most common, and all bear a resemblance to one another, being
generally orange or red with black spots, and of a characteristic

round or oval form, flattened below,
so that the legs may be drawn in
under the wing-covers.

Those ladybirds which feed upon
scales are much smaller and are
black, though sometimes spotted
with red or orange.

As far as known, there is no
way in which these useful allies
may be encouraged or increased in numbers, but it is trusted
that the above may give such a brief view of their habits that
fewer may be killed through ignorance concerning their true
worth.

Fig. 5. — The twice-.stabbed
ladybird {Chilocorus bivulne-
rus). a, adult; b, larva; en-
larged. (After Riley.)

BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PREDACEOIS AND PARASITIC 13

Syrphus-flies

Besides the little l^eetles described above there is a family
of flies, the Syrphidw, man}' of whose larva* feed upon plant-
lice. This family is a very large one, and thus the habits of its
different meml^ers vary consideral^h'. One of them, the drone-
fly, so closely resembles a honey-
bee as to be almost indistin-
guishable from it. The larva of
this fly {Eristalis tenax) is one
of the common rat-tailed mag-
gots which are found in putrid
matter. It is thought that the

old " bugonia " superstition oi y. ^ ., , ....

° ^ lUG. 6. — Si/rp/ius nbestr, enlarged.

the ancients that bees came from

maggots in dead aninmals, etc., was due to the confusion of this

fly with honey-bee.

In another group of the family, the adult flies of which also
quite closely resemble bees, the larvae are parasitic in the nests
of honey- and bumble-bees, feeding upon their larva\

But the larvae of possibly the most typical portion of the
family, embracing the genus Syrphus and its near allies, are
entirely predaceous upon plant-lice. Rarely can a colony of
plant-lice be found without some of these little enemies hard
after them.

The adult syrphus-fly is a very striking insect, with its dark
green metallic thorax, and abdomen variously banded with
yellow and black. The female fly lays her eggs upon some plant
bearing plant-lice. The larvae which hatch from these are elongate,
flattened maggots, about one-half an inch long, with hardly a
trace of a head, but with four small hooks, which serve as jaws,
projecting from the more pointed end of the body. These mag-
gots are often of a light-green color, and so like the color of
the plants as to render them most difficult to recognize. The
young larvae at once commence crawling over the plant in search
of aphids, and as soon as they come in contact with one it

14 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

is finuly cla.s{)C(l hy tlic sniall liooklcts until (lie juices are sucked
from its body. In this manner very large numbers are destroyed,
a single maggot of the American Syrphus-fiy {Syrphus americanus)
having been observed to eat twenty-five apple plant-lice {Aphis
pomi) in as many minutes. When the larva is ready to pupate
it attaches itself to a leaf, and the larval skin dries up and forms
a case or puparium inside of which the pupa remains until it
transforms to the adult fly.

Though most of these larvae feed upon plant-lice upon the
leaves, one of them, the Root-louse Syrphus-fly {Pipiza radicans),
lives entirely underground during that stage, and feeds upon

Fig. 7. — The root-louse syrphus-fly {Pipiza radicans). a, maggot; /;,
puparium; r, fly. (After Riley.)

the root-lice of the apple and the grape. None of this family
are injurious, and as a large portion of tlicm are so beneficial
as to frequently destroy whole broods of plant-lice, they should
not be distur))e(l in their good work if possil^le to avoid it.

The Ground-beetles

If, as you scrape away the loose chips at the base of a tree
in your door-yard, turn over an old log in the woodland, or pick
up a fallen fence-i-ail, you will scrutinize the inhabitants under
these shelters, a number of shining lilack beetles varying in length
from one-fourth to 1.] inches will usually be noticed. If the city
reader be not so fortunate as to be familiar with or have access
to these hiding-places, he may find large numbers of the beetles
under any electric arc light during the warm summer evenings;
for there they are having a sumptuous banquet upon the small

BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PREDACEOUS AND PARASITIC 15

flies aiicl moths attriictcMl Ijy the glare. The}' are rarel}- seen
at large during the thiy, as they are ahiiust exckisively iiuflurnal
insects, and from their habit of remaining ahiiost entirely in or
on the ground the}' are usually known as " Clround-beetles." As
might therefore be inferred, they are exceedingly valuable to the
farmer by destroying large numbers of noxious insects which
pass a part or all of their existence in the soil. Besides the
glossy black forms which are most commonl}' seen, many are
brilliantly marked with gold, green, purple, and iridescent tints.
The Fiery Ground-beetle {Culosoma caliduin), so called on

Fig. 8. — The fiery ground-l>eetle {('uloxunia calidum). a, beetle; b. larva;
f. " the searcher " {Calosoma scrutator). (After Riley.)

account of the wing-covers being dotted with bright gold, has
many times been of great assistance in helping to rid a corn-field
of cutworms. The larva of this insect are about one inch in
length, of a dark brown color, with the skin of a hard, horny
texture like that of the beetle. They have strong, prominent
jaws, and at the posterior end of the body is a forked appendage
looking much like another pair of jaws. It is not only surpris-
ing that these larva? will eat so large a number of cutworms,
as they have frequently been known to do, but that they will
dare to attack such a formidable creature fulh' three or four
times as large as them.selves, but their assault is sharp and
vigorous, and a single larva has often been seen to kill and eat

16

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

several full-grown cutworms in a short time. Many instances
of the good work of this l^eetle are on record, among which one
by the late Professor J. A. Lintner may be cited, where he found
them eating large numbers of the corn-crambus — sometimes
locally known as the corn bud-worm. Another somewhat larger
beetle, called by Professor J. H. Comstock *' the Searcher " (Calo-
soma scrutator), and in fact one of the largest of the family, is a
brilliant metallic greeii, bordered with a dark purplish-blue, and
has the good quality of having a very particular appetite, causing
it to kill large numbers of caterpillars, but eating only part of each.
While in the earth as pupa large numbers of the Colorado
potato-beetles are destroyed by members of
this family, and one species, Lebia grandis,
which is peculiar in that the wing-covers are
somewhat abbreviated, thus leaving the tip
of the abdomen exposed, has been noticed on
the plants eating the eggs and young larvae of
this old potato pest.

Another valuable species is one called by
Dr. Riley the Murky Ground-beetle (Harpalus caliginosus) . Its
larva is of considerable assistance to fruit-growers by eating

Fig. 9 . — Lebia gran
dis. (After Riley.)

Fig. 10. — The murky ground-beetle {Harpalus caliginosus): adult at left;
a, larva; b, head of same; c, mandible. (After Riley.)

large numbers of curculio larvit', which it secures from the plums
after they have fallen to the earth. From a glance at its formid-
able jaws, Fig. 10, b-c, it is easy to conjecture the fate of many a
curculio grub.

BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PREDACEOUS AND PARASITIC 17

Thus here again are found some " bugs " that are friends and
not foes, worthy of all the protection that can be afforded them,
and well repaying such oai-eful observation of their habits as may be
bestowed upon them.

Insect Parasites

Though large numbers of injurious insects are annually de-
stroyed by those which are purely predaceous upon them, man)'
more succumb to those minute forms which live parasitically
within them. A few of these parasites belong to the order Dip-
tera, or true flies, but most of them are classed in the order Hymen-
optera, in which order are also included the saw-flies, ants, wasps,
and bees.

Of the half-dozen families of hymenopterous parasites one of
the largest and most beneficial is that of the Ichneumon-flies.
The illustrations will best show the form and structure of these
insects, which the casual
observer will hardly be
able to disti-nguish from
other families of the group.
But it will be noticed that
the fine veins of the wings
vary considerably in the
dififerent parasites figured,
and it is by these that the
entomologist is enabled
to separate the different

groups and often to iden- ^^^- H— Maggots of Pimpla inquisitor, a
^.„ ^, . ^ , parasitic Ichneumon-fly, feeding on a cater-

tlfy the species at a glance, pjn^^^ which had spun its cocoon an.l was
Both this and the follow- JP'^fiy of pupate,
ing family are peculiar in

having an exceedingly long ovipositor or egg-tube, of which the}'
make a very good use. It is with this extensile tube that the
female deftly punctures the skin of some unsuspecting cater-
pillar, and under it inserts her eggs. In a few days there hatch
from these a host of young maggots which feed upon the juices and

IS INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

tissues of the caterpillar, but are seemingly careful to avoid injur-
ing any of its vital organs, for as soon as the caterpillar reaches
its full growth it changes to a pupa, apparently unaffected.
When the maggots have reached their full size each spins up a
small silken cocoon inside the pupa, entirely filling up its now dead
shell, and instead of a beautiful moth appearing in the spring,
a horde of small flies are seen to emerge from a round hole in the
side of the pupa, or cocoon.

Thus large numbers of such pests as the apple-tree tent-cater-
pillar {Clisiocampa ameri-
cana), bagworms (Thyridop-
teryx ephemerorformis) , cater-
pillars of the swallow-tailed
butterflies which feed upon
parsley, carrots, etc., and a
host of others, are consumed
by members of this family.

Those belonging to the
genus Ophion are partial to
the lai'ge American silkworms
which pi'oduce some of our
largest and most Ijeautiful
moths, and difficulty is fre-
quently experienced in rear-
ing a desired number of moths
on account of the large per
cent of cocoons parasitized.
The species of the family
Braconidce are very similar to
those of the preceding one, and contain some equally beneficial
insects, feeding as they do upon such pests as the codling moth,
webworms, plum-curculio grubs, plant-lice, etc. Some of the more
common forms of this family belong to the genus Microyaster, and
their small white cocoons may frequently be seen almost covering
one of our large tomato- or tobacco-worms (see page 234) , the pupa*
of which are often known as "horn-blowers." Many mistake

Fig. 12. — Tlie loiig-t:iile(.l Ophion (Ophion
macrurum). a, adult; b, masKot;
enlarged. (After Riley.)

BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PREDACEOUS AND PARASITIC 19

these cocoons for the eggs of the worms, and therefore destroy
some of their l)est friends. Though some thus spin their cocoons
on the outside of the host, others remain inside of the parasitized
insect until the adult fly
emerges. Thus dead plant-
lice may often be found with
a large round hole in the ab-
domen— the only evidence
of where one of these para-
sites has emerged. For this
reason dry, shrunken plant -
lice should never be de-
stroyed.

The Chalcis-flies, which
comprise another closely re-
lated family, are exceedingly
minute insects, sometimes
not over one one-hundredth
of an inch long. They are
generally of a metallic black
color, and the usual veins of

the wings are almost entirely absent. Many of these flies are
parasitic upon plant-lice, while a large numbei- of their laiva' live
and mature in the eggs of other insects.

Very similar to the chalcis-flies in their habits of infesting
plant-lice and insect eggs are some even smaller insects — in fact
the smallest known, the largest being rarely over one-twenty-fifth
and the smallest only six- or seven- one-thousandths of an inch in
length — with a correspondingly tremendous and unpronounceable
name, known to science as the Proctotrypidcc.

During the last half century the American farniei- has been
compelled to contend with an increasing number of insect pests,
which now and then have become veritable scourges. Every now
and then we hear of communities assembling for prayer and fasting
to appease the Almighty, whose wrath has hurled a new insect
plague against them, but such a procedure is by no means as com-

FiG. 13. — A plant-louse parasite {Ap/tidms
avermphis) , showing above the parasitized
louse from which it has issued. (Copied
from J. B. Smith.)

20 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

mon as formerly, and little reflection will show that these scourges
are entirely due to natural causes. In fact they are very largely
brought about by man himself. Some of these pests are due to the
fact that in trying to subdue nature by clearing and cultivating the
land, man has deprived the insects of their natural food plants.
They must, therefore, needs feed upon that which is substituted
by him, and as it is less abundant than the former wild vegeta-
tion, the number of insects and the injury they inflict are more
apparent.

By far the larger number of our worst pests, however, are those
which come to us from foreign shores. Foreign insects are con-
stantly being imported in one way or another, sometimes being
already established pests in other lands and sometimes only becom-
ing so under their new surroundings. These are even more injuri-
ous than those native, for whereas many of our native birds, in-
sects, and diseases constantly prey upon native insects and thus
keep their numbers in check, the enemies of imported pests rarely
accompany them, and they thus increase at an alarming rate and
do enormous damage before they are attacked Ijy the natural
enemies of similar native pests. It is in the case of these imported
pests that the value of parasitic and predaceous insects is most
apparent. In an effort to make use of them to fight the gypsy
and brown-tail moths in New England, the U. S. Bureau of Ento-
mology has for sevei'al years been importing large numbers of the
parasites and predaceous enemies of these posts and liberating
them in affected regions, thus carr\-ing on a practical experiment
on a large scale which may show the importance of these parasites
in combating imported pests.

Even with our native pests, however, we have frequent exam-
ples of the value of parasitic and predaceous enemies. Thus the
southern grain louse, or "green bug," was soon brought under
control by the myriads of little parasites which preyed upon it
(see page loo), and these were artificially transpoiled for some
distance and liberated in large numbers. Though these efforts at
the distribution of this parasite may be open to some question
as to their effectiveness, other parasites have been successfully

BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PREDACEOUS AND P.ARASITIC 21

distributed, and there can be no question tliat before long we
shall come to better understand how we may make use of these
valual)le allies, and some day we may be able to duplicate the
apparent miracle by which Dame Nature sweeps away an insect
plague in a few days with the aid of these apparently insignificant
parasites.

CHAPTER 111

STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS

The more experience the farmer has with insect pests, the
more he comes to realize that if he would successfully combat
them, he must have a certain amount of necessary knowledge
concerning their structure and growth.

In general, the artificial means which may be effectually-
used to combat an insect pest will depend more or less upon
the anatomical structure of the insect, while control by general
methods of culture will depend upon a knowledge of the peculiar-
ities of its life-history. The value of a proper understanding of
these important factors in insect control is therefore apparent.

General Structure of an Insect

The body of an insect is composed of three separate parts,

the head, thorax, and abdomen
(Fig. 14), each of which is com-
posed of several rings or segments.
To the head are attached the
jointed antennae, or feelers, the
compound eyes, and the mouth-
parts, which are described below.
Each of the three segments of
the thorax bears a pair of legs,
and adult insects usually possess
one or two pairs of wings upon the

Fig. 14. -Honey-bee, showing the ''^^^ two segments of the thorax,
three principal regions of the body The al^domen is composetl of nine

of an insect: — h, head;</;, thorax;
abd, alxlomen.

the fenudes of certain orders.

or ten segments, l)ut l)ears no
appendages save the ovipositor of

22

STKUCTrKK AND DKVELOPMKNT OF INSEC'TS 23

Harvest-mites, or " (huUly-long-legs," sow-ljugs, thousand-
legged worms, and similar \-ermin are often popularl}- called
insects, l)nt all of them can readil}' be distinguished from true
insects l\v their possessing more than six legs, the harvest-mites
and spidci's having eight and the others many more.

How Insects Grow

With rare exceptions insects hatch from eggs laid b}- the
adult females. Upon hatching they are but little larger than
the eggs, and often bear but little resemblance to their parents.
Thus the young caterpillar would never be recognized as the
immature stage of the butterfly by one unfamiliar with its transfor-
mations. Grasshoppers and some other insects, however, upon
hatching from the egg bear a marked resemblance to the adult
form, except that they lack wings.

Complete Metconorphosis. — When the caterpillar hatches
from the egg it at once commences to feed and grows very
rapidly, laut before long an obstacle to further growth arises.
Unlike higher animals, insects possess no internal skeleton or
framework for the organs of the body, but the outer skin becomes
hardened and to it the muscles and ligaments are attached. This
hardening of tiie skin is best seen in the horny wing-covers of the
beetles, and is due to the secretion of a hard substance called
chitin. This chitin is secreted by all parts of the skin in greater
or less degree, and thus forms a sort of shell for the whole l:)ody.
Though this hardening is not so apparent in larva^ as in adult
insects, it is always present, and it is for this reason that when the
young caterpillar has made a certain growth it is forced to shed its
skin, which refuses to expand further, in order to develop more
fully. Thus the skins of insects are shed several times (see Fig. 15,
b), — usually five or six, but sometimes as many as twenty, this
process being known as molting. During its life as a caterpillar,
which is called the hirral stage, and during which it is called a
larva, it is an elongate, worm-like creature, with six short,
jointed legs on the three thoracic segments, a pair of fleshy false
legs or pro-legs on the last abdominal segment, and probably

24

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

several pairs of pro-legs between these and the true legs. No
traces of wings can be seen, but the body is often covered with
hairs, spines, or warty tubercles.

With the next molt the insect changes in appearance most
radically, becoming a pupa, or chrysalis, as this stage is termed

Fig. 15.— Complete metamorphosis. The different stages of the corn ear-
worm (Heliothis ohnoleta Fab.): a, eggs on corn-silk; h, the first tiiree
larval stages; c, pnpa from below; d, same from above; e, adult moth —
all enlarged; h, about twice natural size.

for butterflies. During the pupal stage the insect remains
dormant cither in a small cell slightly under the surface of the
earth, or in a silken cocoon spun l)y the caterpillar, or merely
attached to the food-plant by a strand of silk or the cast lar\'al
skin. In many of the Diptera, — the order including flies, mos-
quitoes, gnats, etc., — however, the last lai'val skin is not shed.

STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS 25

but hardens and forms a case — called a pupariiini — within which
the pupal stage is passed.

The t}-pical pupa (Fig. 1.5, c, d) of a Initterfly oi' moth re-
sembles neither the adult insect nor the larva, is of a more or
less oval shape, with the wings and antennae tightly folded at

FiGi. 16. — Incomplete metamorphosis of a bug {Brachymena i-pustulata):
a, eggs; b, adult bug; c, different stages of young bugs or nymphs.

the sides, the legs drawn up snugly together under them, and the
head and mouth-parts bent upon the breast, or sternum, though
all of these parts are not always recognizable, the legs and mouth-
parts being sometimes lacking. Gradually the adult insect
develops, and at last the pupal skin is broken open and the air}-
butterfly emerges to enjoy a short life and perpetuate the species.

26 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

SiK'li ii series of ti'ansformations is that commonly found among
butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), flies
(Diptera), and bees (Hymenoptera), and is known as a complete
>neta>Norj)}ioxis. All of these insects noi-mally pass llu-ougli
four stages, of egg, larva, pupa, and adult.

1 ncoinplete Metamorphosis. — In contrast to this mode of
development is that of the grasshoppers (Orthoptera), bugs
(Hemiptera), and some other insects. As already stated, these
are much like the adult upon emerging from the egg. With
each molt they become larger and small wing-like pads gradually
appear on the sides of the thorax. There is no dormant or pupal
stage, the adult insect differing from the previous stages in hav-
ing fully developed wings, being larger, and often by an accompany-
ing change of markings. The immature stages of such insects
are called mjmphs, and this development an incomplete nieta-
tnorphosis, having but three stages, of egg, nymph, and adult
(Fig. 16).

The time occupied by the complete life-cj'cle of an insect
varies from a week or ten days for the plant-lice to thirteen or
seventeen years for some cicadas, and is entirely dependent
upon the habit of the species and the climate. A correct knowl-
edge of the exact time and conditions under which the trans-
formations occur for each individual insect pest is therefore often
most essential when seeking means for its control.

How Insects Feed

The material to be used in combating a given insect is largely
dependent upon the structure of its mouth-parts. Much Paris
green is wasted upon insects unable to eat it and which it will,
therefore, never kill. ,

Insects may be roughly divided into two classes, those which
bite and those which suck their food. Among the former are
the beetles, grasshoppers, the larvie of butterflies and moths,
and the larvae of saw-flies ; and among the latter are butterflies,
flies, bees, and bugs, while the larvse of most flies and bees do not
possess mouth-parts homologous with those of the above.

STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS

27

liitintj J7(;////(-/>f//7.s.- Mouth-parts typical of those of hitmg
insects are casil}' seen
in the grasshopper
(Figs. 17 and IS). In
brief, tliey consist of an
upper and a lower lij).
between which are two
pairs of jaws which
work transversely. The
upper pair of jaws, oi-
mandibles {»ul.}, are
stout, short, and horny,
usually sharpened at
the tip, slightly serratetl

at the niargnis, Jin^l Fig. 17.— Front-view face of grasshopper (^'c/t/2<o-
fiattened at the base. cerca americana): ant., antenna; oc, ocellus;

The lower pair of jaws. '!'- ^^^^ '^^ ^^7,^ "^^ f '- ^=!'f ™- "'•. "PP^
^ "• lip; wx./J., maxillary palpus; /o6./^, labial pal-

or nuixilld' (ni.r.), are pus; ^r;?.. galea, lobe of maxilla; /(/6., labium, or

longer, not so strong, ""der lip.

and to each of them is attached an accessory lobe, and a jointed

B

Fig. 18. — .4, mouth-parts
of grasshopper sep-
arated to show posi-
tion and relation; B,
mouth-parts dissect-
ed; Ibr., labrum; md.,
mandible; hyp., hypopharynx or tongue; mx.p., maxillarv palpus;
Ih. p.. l.'ibinl p.alpus; hib.. labi<im; nia.r.. maxilla^.

28 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

style called a palpus or feeler. At each side of the lower lip is

another palpus, these palpi being
sensory organs.

Sucking Mouth-parts. — In the
sucking insects these mouth-parts
are prolonged into a tube through
which the juices of the food plant
— or animal — are sucked. In the
plant-lice and other bugs the lower
lip is elongated so that it forms a
tube, and the maxillae and man-
dibles consist of long hair-like
bristles, or setie, enclosed within
this tube (Fig. 20) . The tip of this
beak is rested upon the surface of a
leaf into which the sets} are thrust,
lacerating the tissue, and by a
pumping process of the mouth the
juices are sucked up through the
beak. The structure of the mouth-
parts of the various orders of suck-
ing insects varies considerably, but
all agree in that they suck up the
food in a liquid state. Any appli-
cation of a poisonous spray to the

, surface of foliage will be of no avail
Fig. 19. — Cicada, snowing mouth- .

parts of a bug, a sucking insect • agamst them, though sure death to
a, seen from below, beak or ^^^^^ biting insects which chew the
rostrum (ro. G.) reposing be- oi i • • - . . v

tween forelegs; b, head removed : leaves. Suckmg msects must there-
e, eye; Ibr., labrum; md., man- fore be killed by other means,
dible-setse; mx., maxillary setae;
lab., labium.

How Insects Breathe

Along the side of a caterpillar or larva, on one thoracic seg-
ment and on each abdominal segment except the last, is a small
oval spot, in the centre of which is a slit closed by two mem-

STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS 29

Fig. 20.— Mouth-parts of a plant-
louse: a, the jointed beak; b, the
lancets, much enlarged ; c, antenna ;
d, foot. (After J. B. Smith.)

Fig. 21. — Diagram of tracheal
or breathing system of an
insect: sp., spiracles; tr.,
trachea. (After Kolbe.)

Fig. 22. — Ideal .section through an insect: a, alimentary canal; h, heart;
n, nerve cord; s, spiracle; t, tracheal tubes; I, legs; iv, wings. (From
Riverside Natural Histoiy.)

:j()

INSECT PESTS OF KA1{M, CARDEN AND OHCllAKD

hranous lips. These apertures aic called spiracles or stigmata
(Fig. 21 sp.), and are the openings of the respiratory system.
Similar openings are to be found in all insects, though not so
easily seen in the adults. Connecting these spiracles is a pair of
tubes on each side of the body, throughout its length, from which
branch off smaller tubes to all of its organs and tissues. Fresh

Fig. 23. — Internal anatomy of silk-worm, from photo of Azoux Model:
A , upper or dorsal bodywall seen from within ; B, the hack of the silk-
worm removed, showing; alimentary canal; C, alimentary canal removed,
sho-wang nervous system and tracheal trunks; tr., trachea; d.r., dorsal
vessel or heart; 7)/*., pharynx or mouth; su., supra-oesophageal ganglion;
.sp.,s/)., spiracles or breathing poi-es; n., nerve cord; tr.t., tracheal
trunk; o^.s., oesophagus or throat; rr., crop; .s.(/., silk gland; pro.,
provontric\ihis; st., sloniach; Ji.i.. hind intestine.

air is thus inhaled to all parts of the body through these tubes
(Fig. 21, ^r).

The blood of insects does not circulate through any system of
tubes as it does in the higher animals. Along the middle of the
back, above the alimentary canal, is a long tube popularly- called
the heart (Fig. 23, dv). This heart is composed of a number of
chambers, each of which is furnished with side valves for
admitting blood from the body-cavity. The blood coming
into the heart from the body-cavity is propelled forward toward

STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS 31

(he head, where it aguin flows into the l)ody-cavity. Thus various
currents of l)loo(l aie maintained throughout tlie body, hut other
than the heart there is no system of blood-vessels, the blood merely
filling the bod}"-ea\it}' around and through the various organs and
tissues. Constantly flowing around the respiratory tubes or
tracheae, the blood is quickl}^ and thoroughly purified, though the
exact manner in which this is done is not definitely known. The
respiratory sj^stem has absolutely no connection with the mouth
or pharynx (Fig. 23, ph), as have the lungs of the higher animals,
and if an insect is to be suffocated, it must be done by closing the
spiracles. It is in this way that tobacco-dust, lime, pyrethrum,
and similar insecticides kill sucking insects, by penetrating the
spiracles and choking the tracheal system. Whale-oil soap,
kerosene emulsion, and the other " contact " insecticides, or " irri-
tants," also stop up the spiracles and thus cause death, but they
may act as " irritants," penetrating the skin and thus killing the
insect. When insects are killed by means of a gas such as carbon
bisulfide or hydrocyanic acid gas, they are asphyxiated by a
substitution of these gases for air, the same as arc the higher
animals.

Though arsenical poisons are generally used as spra}'s for biting
insects, soft-bodied caterpillars and similar larvae are often killed
by the use of contact insecticides, which affect them the same as
sucking insects.

The reader will observe that, almost without exception, the
i-emedies advised for different insect pests in the following pages
are determined by some peculiarity, either of structure or develop-
ment, of the insect to be combated.

CHAPTER IV
FARM METHODS FOR THE CONTROL OF INSECTS

The old adage " an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of
cure," is never more true than in the control of insect pests, for in
aln)ost all cases their successful control is l)y prevention before the
injury has become acute, rather than l^y destruction after the
injury is noticeable. Even insecticides must be applied so that
they will kill the insect before it has done serious damage, for after
damage is apparent it is too late to prevent the injury, so that
the use of insecticides for the protection of crops must be of a pre-
ventive nature. In the control of insects affecting the staple
crops which are grown over immense areas with a small profit per
acre, it is evidently impracticable to use insecticides and mechani-
cal methods which are used in the orchard and garden. For the
control of staple crop insects we are compelled to rely largely on
general methods of farm management, which may be carried out
in connection with the farm operations at small cost, and which
will fatally interfere with the development of the insect to be con-
trolled. To do this intelligently involves an understanding of
the life-history of the insect, revealing the time at which it is most
vulnerable and the reason for the method of control advised. The
importance of such a knowledge of the life histories and habits of
insects to be controlled by farm methods will become apparent
in the following chapters.

Though the insects affecting staple crops are more largely con-
trolled by farm methods, those of the garden and orchard may be
much reduced by the intelligent application of the same princi-
ples, and he who adapts his methods so as to prevent insect attack
will be much more successful than if he depends upon artificial
means for their destruction.

32

FARM METHODS FOR THE CONTROL OF INSECTS 33

Looking Ahead. — In planning the management of their land
and crops for the coming season, few farmei's consider the effect
which any given procedure will have upon the injurious insects with
which they may have to contend. A field which has for several
years been in wheat, corn, or tobacco, may be sown with some
other crop for the sake of soil improvement, but how often is it
considered necessary to rotate crops to avoid insect pests? In
most cases they are left out of consideration until a crop has been
seriously injured and the necessity for a change of methods thus
impressed on the owner.

Particularly while crops are young they should be frequently
inspected and examined for any evidence of the pests which com-
monly affect them. Be prepared to attack any pests which
may be found upon their first appearance, for many of the
most destructive insects increase with amazing rapidity, and
when they have become abundant it is too late to prevent the
damage.

Crop Rotation. — One of the most important factors in insect
control is the rotation of crops in such a manner that the same
crop shall not be grown continuously on the same land. In man}'
cases a yearly rotation will be advantageous, while a frequent
rotation will always be found beneficial. Many insects feed on
only one crop. It is evident, therefore, that if they hibernate in
or near the field which it occupied and it is then planted to the
same crop the next year, they will be furnished food for their
increase, while if the field be planted in a crop not attacked by
the insects peculiar to it, they will have to migrate from it, with
probal)ly a very considerable mortality as a consequence, for they
will radiate in all directions and man}^ will die before finding food,
while many more will have been destroyed in the preparation of
the old field for the new crop.

The western corn root-worm may be entirely controlled by a
rotation so that corn is never grown two successive 3'ears on the
same land, for the larva; feed only on the roots of corn, and when
it is followed by a small grain, grass, or clover, they are starved
out. Injury by the Hessian fly to wheat is also very materially

34 INSECT PESTS OF FAKM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

reduced where a frequent rotation is practised, as is that of the
chinch-bug on corn.

Care shoukl be exercised to arrange a rotation in which crops
nearly related botanically do not follow each other, for usually
the same insects attack them. Thus white grubs, cutworms,
and wireworms live normally in grass land, and where it has not
been plowed for several years they often become exceeding^
abundant. If the sod he then turned under and the land planted
to corn these insects will attack the corn, and as there are rela-
tively few plants to the number of insects which were feeding
upon the grass, the injury will usually be serious. To avoid
this, sod land should be planted in a small grain, buckwheat,
potatoes, or some crop not affected by these pests. Similarly,
the insects which affect cabl)age usually feed on all the cole crops,
and turnips, radishes, etc., following cabbage will be liable to
injury by the same pests. Clovers, cowpeas, and other leguminous
crops become of importance in rotation in this connection, as
they are not usually attacked by the insects affecting other crops,
and of course are widely used in every good rotation for the pui'-
pose of storing nitrogen in the soil through their root tul)ei-cles.

Tiy))e of PUmling. — Planting crops so that they may avoid
the greatest abundance of their worst insect enemies is often the
best method for their protection. Thus late-sown wheat is
usually exempt from the attack of the Hessian fl}^ (see page 123)
and late-planted corn is much less affected by the stalk-])orer
(see page 172) than that planted earliei-. On the other hand
early planting of early-maturing varieties often enables the crop
to mature before its pests l)ecome most abundant. Thus early
planting and early varieties are of the greatest impoi-tance in
preventing injury by the cotton l)oll weevil, the cotton boll-
worm and corn ear-worm. Early cabbage plants seem to be less
injured by root-maggots, and early varieties of peas escape the
injury of the pea aphis.

Weeds. — Many insects feed upon some common weed in one
stage while in another stage they arc injurious to a cultivated
crop. Thus the flea-beetles feed upon the roots of solanaceous

FARM METHODS FOR THE CONTROL OF INSECTS 35

weeds during the larval stage, while the adults attack all sorts of
garden crops. In many cases caterpillars, such as the salt marsh
caterpillar, army worms, the white-lined sphinx moth, and
grasshoppers multiply upon weeds growing in neglected fields
until they overflow and destroy crops. Many insects feed on
weeds during the early part of the season or after the crop which
they injure is harvested, so that the destruction of these weeds
may often considerably shorten their breeding season or increase
their mortality. Thus the corn root-aphis lives on the roots
of smartweed and other weeds and grasses until corn is available
and cutworms feed on whatever vegetation is found before a
crop is planted. In this connection " volunteer " plants should
be classed as weeds, as they frequently furnish food for insects
in the same way. Thus the cotton boll weevil feeds on volunteer
cotton in early spring and the Hessian fly on volunteer wheat
in late summer and early fall. Such useless trees as wild cherr^•
and seedling apple trees might also be considered as weeds, as thev
harbor many of the insect pests of our orchards and should be
destroyed as far as possible.

Fertilization and Culture. — Although there is some evidence
that under some conditions, kainit, lime and nitrate of soda mav
have some direct effect on insects, it is probable that their chief
importance is to so stimulate the plant that it will not be subject
to insect attack or will grow in spite of some injury. It is well
known that plants which have been weakened from any cause
whatsoever are much more sul)ject to the attacks of insects and
diseases, and it is therefore obvious that plants which have had a
vigorous growth and which will mature rapidly will much better
withstand insect attack. Thorough preparation of the soil
before planting, liberal fertilization, and thorough culture are
most important in growing a crop in spite of its insect enemies.
In many cases liberal fertilization and culture will mature a o-ood
crop where under poorer care it would have succumbed to insect
injury. In general, land covered with barnyard manure presents
more favorable conditions for the hibernation of insects than that
fertilized with mineral fertilizers, but unless this is very appreciably

Fig. 24. — Above, a poorly kept roadside with railfence overgrown with
brambles, thus affording protection for large numbers of destructive
insects during winter. Below, a well kept roadside, offering the least
protection possible for destructive insects. (After Webster, U, S.
Dept. Agr.). 36

far:\i methods for the control of insects

37

the case, it will usually be prcferretl to tliciii as far as it is
available.

Clean Fanuim/. —Mier a crop has been harvested there is
usually some portion of the plant which is allowed to remain
on the land. In this refuse the insects peculiar to the crop often
feed and multiply until killing frost and then hibernate over
winter, ensuring injury to similar crops on the same land the

Fig. 25. — A field of cabbage stumps in midwinter, att'ording ideal condi-
tions for the hibernation of cabbage pests.

next year. Thus the wheat joint worm and the corn stalk-ljorer
both winter in the stubble of those crops, and the chinch-bug
commonly hibernates in the butts of corn stalks, all of which
may ])e largely controlled l)y burning the stubble. Possibly
the most important means of control of the cotton bo-11 weevil
is the destruction of the stalks in the fall as soon as the cotton
can be picked, thus preventing the weevils feeding and starving
them out before they are ready to hibernate, and removing the
shelter for hibernation. Thus all the renmants of a crop such as

38 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

stubble, vines, leaves, or stumps, us may l^e, should be removed
from tli<3 field as soon after it is harvested as possible. As many
insects hibernate in such rubbish, this fact may sometimes be
utilized by thoroughly cleaning a field and leaving one or two
piles of rubbish in which many of the insects will assemble for
hibernation, and which ma}' then be burned or otherwise destro3'ed.
Many caljbage insects hibernate under the old stumps and leaves
and will congregate in piles of them. The premises upon which
the fence rows are kept free from weeds and grass and the fields
are cleaned up and plowed as soon as possible after a crop is
removed, usually suffer much less from insect pests than those of
more easy-going neighbors.

Burning. — Such cleaning up of stubble and of wild vegetation
which furnishes food and shelter for insects ma}' often be accom-
plished by burning. The burning over of grass land aids greatly
in the control of army worms, chinch-bugs, grasshoppers and
plant-lice, while the burning of the stubble will largely control
the wheat jointworm. Strawberry beds are sometimes burned
over in early spring to destroy the eggs of the root-louse, and
aphides on small grains may sometimes l^e killed out on small
areas by covering with straw and burning while the plants are
small.

Plowing. — Deep plowing and thorough harrowing are the most
effective means of ridding the soil of many pests of staple crops.

Late Fall Plowing. — Where the succession of crops permits,
plowing in the late fall is most advantageous, as it destroys the
insects while hibernating, although for some insects early fall
plowing and thorough harrowing during the fall are preferable.
Where plowing is not possible, thorough disking is often used
for the same purpose, as on alfalfa. As different insects pass the
winter in different stages this method does not affect all alike.
Some will be destroyed by having the cells in which they have
gone to pass the winter broken up, and being unable to construct
new cells they will be subjected to undue freezing and thawing
and excessive moisture, and will thus be killed by the weather.
Cutworms and the corn stalk-borer pass the winter in the soil

FARM METHODS FOR THE CONTROL OF INSECTS 39

as larvse; the cotton boll worm or corn ear- worm hibernates
in the pupal stage; while May beetles and click beetles hibernate
as newly transformed beetles; but all of them will be similarlj^
affected by the breaking up of their winter cells, which is the
most effective manner of combating them.

Other insects lay their eggs in the ground in the fall which
may be buried too deep for the young to emerge, or larvae or pupae
which normally remain near the surface may be turned under so
deeph' as to destroy them. Thus grasshopper's eggs are laid in
the fall just beneath the surface, and by plowing in late fall or
earty spring they may be turned under so that but few are able to
emerge, which is the best means of combating them. The apple
maggot hibernates in the pupal stage just beneath the surface of
the soil, and by deep plowing in early spring the puparia may be
liurietl too deeply for the flies to emerge.

Young grasshoppers are often destroyed after they hatch by
plowing deep furrows, starting at the outside of the field and plow-
ing in a square, thus forcing them to the centre and catching large
numbers of them in the furrows.

Early plowing and thorough harrowing in the spring are of
value against cutworms by keeping the ground fallow and thus
starving them, out before a crop is planted and the same method
may be used against other pests with similar habits.

Thorough cultivation in the summer has been found to be of
value against many insects, affecting them differently according to
their haliits. Many which pupate in the soil during the summer
are destroyed while making their pupal cells, or these cells are
broken and they are thus subject to abnormal moisture and tem-
perature conditions and are thus killed. This has been shown to be
the case with the cotton boUworm or corn car-worm, and is true
of the plum curculio, against which thorough cultivation -has
proved to be one of the most effective means of control in apple
orchards. Thorough cultivation is also of importance in breaking
up the nests of ants which care for such aphides as the corn root-
aphis. Summer fallowing is used to starve out some pests; for
example, the clover root-borer may be eradicated by plowing up

40 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

infested clover immediately after it is cut and exposing the roots
to the sun and wind, which will soon dry them out and thus destroy
the food of the larvae, which will soon perish.

Trap Crops. — Trap crops are those which are planted as a bait
or lure to attract the early insects so that they may be destroyed
upon them before the crop to be protected is available. Doubt-
less the reason that trap crops are not more frequently used by the
farmer is because their successful use requires more or less of a
knowledge of the life history and habits of the pest to be fought.
But that is easily acquired and will make the fight against them
more interesting and successful.

South of Mason and Dixon's line the harlequin cabbage-
bug frequently becomes the most serious pest of cabbage and
related plants. When a cabbage patch has become well infested
it is an exceedingly difficult matter to prevent injury, for the adult
bugs cannot be killed by insecticides which will not injure the
plant. If, however, a crop of kale be planted the previous fall,
the bugs which hibernate over winter will attack it in the spring,
and may then be killed by spraying them with pure kerosene, and
the danger to the cabbage crop be thus largely averted.

A few rows of wheat are often planted early in the fall as a trap
for the Hessian fly, and as soon as the eggs are deposited they are
plowed under deeply and the later planting thus at least partly
protected.

One of the most successful examples of averting injury by a
trap ci'op is the use of corn to lure the cotton bollworm and thus
prevent its injury to cotton. Corn is the favorite food plant of
this pest, which prefers to deposit its eggs on the silk and tassels.
By planting a few strips of late-maturing corn through the cotton
field, they will come into silk about the time the brood of moths
which normally deposit their eggs on cotton are flying and they
will lay them on the corn in preference, which should then be cut
and fed to stock. In this way l)y planting strips composed of sev-
eral rows planted at successive dates, the cotton may be almost
entirely pi-otected. Possibly a modification of this method ma}'
be applied for the protection of tomatoes or toljacco, though these

FARM METHODS FOR THE CONTROL OF INSECTS 41

crops have never been thus protected from tiiis insect to our
knowledge.

Radishes are sometimes used as a trap crop for the root-mag-
gots which affect the roots of cabbages and onions. The same
principle is sometimes used in combating forest insects by gird-
ling a tree upon which certain kinds of forest pests will concentrate,
and it is then cut and l)urned.

These examples will suffice to show that very many of the most
important insect pests may l^e largely controlled by simply adapt-
ing the general methods of farm management so as to avoid or
prevent injury by them. The}- indicate the importance of a
knowledge of the life history of any insect which is to be combated,
knowing which, some of the above or similar methods will often
suggest themselves as applicable. Such a control of insect life
through the practical use of natural agencies epitomizes the scien-
tific method in the art of agriculture; i.e., the most practical and
effective and yet simjole methods based upon exact knowledge.*

* See F. M. Webster, Farm Practice in the Control of Field Crop Insects.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1905, p. 465, and Some Things that the Grower
of Cereal and Forage Crops Should Know about Insects, Yearbook U. S.
Dept. Agr., 1908, page 367.

CHAPTER V

INSECTICIDES

Materials used for the destruction of insects are commonly
called insecticides, and are roughly divisible into four classes:

1. Poisons, which kill by being eaten and are usuall}^ composed
of various forms of arsenic and are therefore often called arseni-
cals.

2. Contact insecticides, which kill by either clogging up the
spiracles, the openings of the respiratory system, or by entering
the trachea, and thus causing suffocation, or by their corrosive
action on the skin.

3. Repellants, which deter the insect from attacking the plant
or animal to which they are applied.

4. Gases, which are used for fumigating buildings, stored prod-
ucts and greenhouses where other means are not practicable.

1. Poisons

Poisons are applied to the food of the insect and must be eaten
by it to be effective. It is evident, therefore, that they are only
effective against biting (mandibulate) insects, or for those which
lap up their food from the surface, and that they are of no avail
against the true sucking insects, such as the true bugs which suck
the juices from beneath the surface of the plant. Poisons are not
always, however, the most effective means of combating biting
insects, which are sometimes more effectively controlled by con-
tact insecticides or other means.

Nearly all of the stomach poisons are derivatives of arsenic

and are therefore termed arsenicals. As they are dangerous to

human life they should be kept well labeled, locked up when not

in use, and vessels in which they have been used should" be care-

fuUv cleaned.

42

INSECTICIDES 43

1. Paris (jreen is a green crystalline powder composccl of the
aceto-arscnite of copper. When properly made it should contain
at least 50 per cent arsenic oxid (AS2O5), and there should be as
little water-soluble arsenic as possible, for the water-soluble arsenic
is the cause of the burning of foliage which often results from the
use of Paris green. Various State laws require that there be not
over 82 per cent soluble arsenic, but even this amount is often
injurious to tender foliage. Paris green is rather a coarse powder
and settles readily in water, and is readily washed off by drenching
rains. It costs from 25 to 35 cents per pound. It is usually used
at a rate of from 3 to 8 ounces to a 50-gallon barrel of water; 5
ounces per barrel is satisfactory for most purposes. In mixing,
first stir up in a small vessel with a little water into a paste, which
will mix more readily. Add an equal weight of quicklime, or
slightly more will do no harm, which will take up any soluble
arsenic.

2. London purple is a waste product in the manufacture of
aniline dyes, and is principally arsenic and lime. It is quite
variable in composition and usuall}^ contains a much higher,
and quite variable, amount of soluble arsenic, so that it is apt to
scald the foliage unless thoroughly mixed with fresh stone lime.
For this reason it is now used only for rough work, such as poison-
ing grasshoppers, making poisoned bran mash, etc., and is not
to be recommended for general use on fruit trees and garden
crops. It usually costs 10 or 12 cents a pound, and is used in
the same proportions and in the same way as Paris green.

3. Arsenate of lead is usually sold in the form of a white paste,
composed of arsenic and lead, the exact chemical composition
varying with the process of manufacture. To be of standard
grade it should contain at least 12^ per cent of arsenic oxid
and not over f per cent water-soluble arsenic oxid (AS2O5),
and not over 50 per cent water. Owing to the small amount
of soluble arsenic it may be used in much larger quantities than
other arsenicals and on tender foliage which others will injure.
From 2 to 8 pounds per 50-gallon barrel of water are used, 2
or 3 pounds per barrel being commonly used for most of the

44 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDExN AND ORCHARD

pests of the orchard and garden. Arsenate of lead remains in
suspension rather better than Paris green and is exceedingly
adhesive, remaining on the foliage for two or three months.
Arsenate of lead is made from arsenate of soda and acetate of
lead or nitrate of lead, and may be made by the user if desired,
but owing to the varying composition of these chemicals when
purchased on the open market and tlie fact that the manufactured
article can now be purchased in quantity practically as cheap as
it can be made, its home manufacture is not recommended, and
is now but rarely practiced. The market price of arsenate of
lead has varied widely, owing to strong competition, but usually
sells at from S to 10 cents per pound in 100-pound kegs, and at
20 cents for single-pound packages.

Arsenate of lead is now made in a powdered form for dusting
on crops where spraying is impracticable or unsatisfactory. Most
of that manufactured in powdered form is crystalline and will
not mix as readily with water as the paste, and is therefore not
recommended for use with water. One manufacturer, however,
is producing an amorphous powder, which is bolted like flour, and
which mixes readily with water, and may be used exactly the
same as the paste, of course using approximately only half as much
weight for the same effectiveness, as half of the paste is water.

4. Arsenite of lead is a compound very similar to the arsenate,
which is made from sodium arsenite, but it contains less arsenic
and usually much more soluble arsenic, for which reason its use
has not proven satisfactory, and is rarely sold by reliable dealers.

Used in Water. — The above arsenicals are generally diluted
with water and applied as a spray, which is usually much the
most efficient method. Where Bordeaux mixture or lime-
sulfur is to be sprayed on fruit trees or garden crops for the
control of fungous diseases, the arsenical may be added to them
at the same rate as to water. The combination of arsenicals
with other common fungicides is not usually possible without
danger of serious injury to the foliage.

Used as Dust. — Under some circumstances the arsenicals are
more readily applied in the dust form, Dusting may be done

INSECTICIDES 45

most effectivel}- by the use of a powder-gun, which consists
of a rotating fan which drives the poison from a reservoir through
a tube by which it may be directed to the desired point. The
powder-guns most commonly used are carried by a man, though
larger machines carried on a wagon are in use for orchard work.
Paris green is usually diluted with 10 to 20 parts of flour, ground
g3'psum, or preferably air-slaked lime, though some prefer to
use it undiluted when machines are used which control the amount
of the application. Dusting should be done while the dew is
on the foliage in early morning, except on such plants as have a
rough or adhesive foliage. Paris green is frequently used as a
dust upon potatoes, cabbage and other garden crops, as well as
for dusting weeds and grass for grasshoppers, army worms, etc.
Powdered arsenate of lead has recently been shown to be an
effective remedy for the cotton boll weevil (see page 272), and
is used pure. Its use in dry form will doubtless be found more
practicable on other crops than has that of Paris green.

5. Arsenite of lime is a home-made arsenical, very much cheaper
than those previously mentioned, and giving very satisfactory
results for certain purposes. It is not as adhesive as arsenate
of lead, and as it sometimes burns foliage has been largely dis-
carded for orchard spraying. It is, however, very satisfactory
for potatoes and other low-growing crops, especially when added
to Bordeaux mixture, which sticks it to the foliage, and it may be
used to good advantage for fighting grasshoppers and leaf-eating
caterpillars when it is desired to poison considerable areas of
weeds or waste grass. The so-called Kedzie formula is the most
satisfactory, as the soda hastens the complete combination of
the arsenic, and the resulting solution is in a clear liquid form
which can be readily measured.* Take 1 pound of white arsenic

* Arsenite of lime is often made by boiling 1 pound of lime with 2 pounds
of white arsenic in 1 gallon of water for thirty to forty-five minutes. This
results in a paste of arsenite of lime, which settles in the solution. One quart
of this mixture is used per barrel of water or Bordeaux mixture, but unless
the stock solution is always stirred equally well, the amount of poison in a
quart will be quite variable, with varying effectiveness; hence the clear
solution of arsenite of soda as in the above formula is preferable.

46 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

and 4 pounds of crystal salsoda (2 pounds only of anhydrous sal-
soda are necessary), and boil together in 1 gallon of water for
twenty minutes. This forms a stock solution of arsenite of soda,
whichmaybe kept until needed. Put it in a jug and label " Poison."
When ready to spray add a quart of this solution and 3 or 4 pounds
of freshly slaked lime to each barrel of water (50 gallons). When
used at this rate the arsenite of lime will cost about 7 cents for a
barrel, exclusive of labor in its preparation, as compared with 10
cents for an equal amount of Paris green (^ lb.), or 20 cents for
arsenite of lead (2 lbs.). Unless large quantities are to be used
for the purposes indicated, it will hardly pa}^ the small user to
bother with its manufacture, and the danger of poisoning in the
mixing or in the careless disposal of waste or uncleaned utensils
must also be considered, though it may sometimes be useful in an
emergency when manufactured arsenic als are not available.

6. Resin-soap Sticker. — Upon the smooth foliage of such plants
as cabbage and asparagus it is exceedingly difficult to stick
Paris green or even arsenate of lead when used as a spra3\ To
obviate this the addition of resin-soap acts as a sticker. Place
5 pounds of pulverized resin and 1 pint of fish-oil or any cheap
animal oil, except tallow, in an iron kettle with 1 gallon of water,
and heat until the resin is softened; add the lye solution as made
for hard soap; stir thoroughly; add enough water to make 5
gallons and boil about two hours, or until the mixture will unite
with cold water, making a clear, amber-colored liquid. If the
mixture has boiled away too much, add sufficient water to make
5 gallons. This makes a stock solution of liquid resin soap.
For use add three gallons to 50 gallons of water, and add 3 gal-
lons of milk-of-lime or whitewash (3 lbs. stone lime in 3 gallons),
and ^ pound of Paris green. The addition of lime turns the
small soap particles into hard soap to which the Paris gi-een
adheres and is thus distributed throughout the mixture in
uniform quantity and rendered exceedingly adhesive. The
stock solution may be added directly to Bordeaux mixture with-
out the addition of extra lime, to which Paris green or arsenate
of lead may be added in the usual quantity. Similar resin soap,'

INSECTICIDES 47

called sticker, is sold by James (lood of Philadelphia, Pa., and may
be used in the same way at the rate of 3 pounds to 50 gallons.

7. Poisoned Bran Mash. — Foi- combating grasshoppei's and cut-
worms arsenic is often api)lietl in the form of a bran mash. Mix
1 pound of Paris green or London purple (or whit{> arsenic col-
ored with a dye) with 25 pounds of bran or middlings. Stir a
quart or two of cheap molasses into a gallon of wat(>r ami moisten
the bran, stirring thoroughly, until it makes a stiff mash. Do
not add so much water that the mash will be thin and will cake
when exposed. Apply a heaping tablespoonful near each plant
or every 2 or 3 feet in the row. Keep poultr}- out of fiekls
thus treated. For cutwoi-ms apply a day or two l)efore setting
plants anil as near evening as possible.

8. Hellebore. — The powdered roots of the white hellebore are
often used as an insecticide in place of arsenicals, especially for
currant worms, rose slugs, and similar saw-fly larva? and for insects
affecting crops soon to be eaten, as the hellebore is much less
poison to man and animals than arsenicals. It may be applied
dry, diluted with from 5 to 10 parts of flour, or as a spray, 1 ounce
to a gallon of water. It is too expensive to use except for a few-
plants in the yard or garden, and like pyrethrum, deteriorates
with age and if exposed to the air.

Harmlessness of Arsenicals when Properly Applied. — The ques-
tion is frequently asked whether it is safe to apply arsenicals to
vegetables and fruits to be used as food. Where sprayed or dusted
as directed the amount of arsenic which would be deposited on
the plant would not be sufficient to cause any Injury, and Professor
C. P. Gillette has shown that twenty-eight cabbages dusted in the
ordinary way would have to be eaten at one meal in order to pro-
duce poisonous effects. Occasionally growers dust cabbage with an
unreasonable amount of poison, and very rarely instances of poison-
ing are recorded, but there is no value in applying any more poison
than is necessary to make a thin film over the surface, and more
than that is wasted. Because a certain amount of poison will kill
an insect does not indicate that a larger amount can kill it any
'' deader." Experiments have also shown that tobacco sprayed as

48 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

recommended cannot possibly bear enough arsenic to be injurious,
and that cattle or horses may be pastured under trees sprayed
with arsenicals with impunity.*

2. Contact Insecticides

Contact insecticides are used against insects with sucking
mouth-parts and soft-bodied biting insects, which may be more
readily destroyed by this means than by arsenicals. These sub-
stances are fatal to the insect either by clogging the spiracles
or trachea, and thus causing suffocation, or by corroding the
skin. It should be remembered that the chitinous skin of most
insects is not easily corroded, and that in most cases a material
strong enough to penetrate the skin will also injure foliage, so that
only soft-bodied insects can be combated with corrosive sub-
stances upon foliage.

In the application of contact insecticides it is ubsolufely essen-
tial that the spray come into contact with the insect, as a mere spra}'-
ing of the foliage is of no value whatever.

1. Kerosene emulsion is one of the oldest remedies for plant-
lice, and other sucking and soft-bodied insects, and is often
resorted to because it is readily made and the materials are
always at hand.

Dissolve h pound of hard or whale-oil soap (or 1 quart soft
soap) in 1 gallon of boiling water. Add 2 gallons of kerosene and
churn with a force pump by pumping back and forth for five to
ten minutes until the oil is thoroughly emulsified, forming a
creamy mass with no drops of free oil visible. This stock solution
is now diluted so that the resulting mixture will contain the de-
sired per cent of kerosene. Thus for aphides one part of the stock
solution should be diluted with from 10 to 15 parts of water, giving
from 4 to 6 per cent of kerosene in the spray, while for a winter
wash for San Jose scale, it should be diluted only three or four

* Thi.s i.s not truf of gra.ss beneath trees which have Ijeen sprayed with
a straight-jet fire-hose, a.s is commonly done in Massachusetts in the extensive
operations against the gypsy moth, but refers to spraying which has been
done with an ordinary spray nozzle, which applies the material as a fine spray.

INSECTICIDES 49

times, giving from 16 to 22 per cent kerosene. The emulsion must
be thoroughly churned and should be applied with a nozzle throw-
ing a fine spray. Apply only enough to wet the insects. Equall}-
effective emulsions may be made from crude petroleum, the pro-
portion of the soap and crude oil in the stock emulsion varying
with the quality of the oil. Emulsions made with some of the
crude oils seem to be much less injurious to foliage of some plants
than when made with kerosene. Such an emulsion is made in
California from distillate oils and is known as distillate emulsion.
We have used crude Texas oils with equal success.

2. Kerosene. — Pure kerosene should never be used on foliage, for
though occasionally someone will report using it successfully
without injury, in practically all cases serious burning of the foliag-e
results. It was formerly recommended against the San Jose
scale on fruit trees, but such serious injury resulted that it has been
almost entirely discarded, though it may be used on apple and pear
trees if applied with a nozzle which throws a fine spray, on a bright
sunny day, and only a very thin film applied to the tree while it is
dormant, but even these trees are often injured if the application
is not made with the greatest care.

3. Crude Petroleum. — Crude petroleum is used in the same man-
ner as kerosene against scale insects, but seems to be less injurious
to the tree, and has l^een extensively used in New Jersey against
the scale on peaches, where but little injury has resulted where it
has been carefully applied. It contains more heavy oils and con-
sequently does not penetrate the bark so readily, and the light oils
evaporating leave the heavy oils on the bark for some months,
which aid in preventing young scales from getting a foothold.
Crude oil for use as an insecticide should have a specific gravity of
from 43° to 45° Beaume scale, and is sold by certain Eastern com-
panies as " insecticide oil."

4. Oil and Water Treatment. — Spray pumps have been sold for
several years which make a mechanical mixture of oil and water
in desired proportions. These have been thoroughly tested both
by entomologists and by extensive use by practical fruit-growers
and the general verdict is that they are unreliable and unsatisfac-

50 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

tory. None of them now on the market give a uniform percentage
of oil, and injury to foliage is therefore liable to result. With the
advent of miscible oils the oil-and-water pump is not to be recom-
mended.

5. Miscible Oils. During the last few years several manufac-
turers have placed on the market undei- various trade names what
are now called miscible oils. These are petroleum rendered solu-
ble by the addition of vegetable oils, cut or saponified with an
alkali, and are really a sort of liquid petroleum soap which will
combine readily with water. They have been used principally
as winter washes against the San Jose scale, for which they are
most effective when diluted 10 or 12 times. For a summer wash
they have been used effectively against plant-lice and other insects
for which kerosene emulsion would be used, diluted 25 to 30 times.
In barrel lots the miscible oils sell at 40 to 50 cents pei- gallon, thus
making the cost of a gallon of mixture for a wintci- application at
10 per cent, 4 or 5 cents per gallon.

6. Whale-oil and Other Soaps. — Any good soap is an effective
insecticide for destroying aphides and young or soft-bodied larva?.
Any good laundry soap made into a thick solution one-half poimd
per gallon is an excellent remedy for such insects on house-
plants. Whale-oil or fish-oil soap has lieen extensively used
against scale insects and plant-lice. The ])est brands are made
from caustic potash rather than caustic soda, and should contain
not over 30 per cent of water, there l)eing wide variation in the
water content. For the pea aphis and other aphides 1 pound
to 6 gallons of water has been found very effective. For a win-
ter wash for the San Jose scale 2 pounds per gallon of water arc
applied while hot, the soap being dissolved in hot water. The
soap can be bought for 3^ to 4 cents a pound in large quantities,
thus making the treatment for scale cost fi-om 7 to S cents a
gallon.

7. Lime-sulfur Wash. — The lime-sulfur wash has always been
the standard remedy for the San Jose scale on the Pacific Coast,
and during the last few years has come into wide use in the East
for the same pest. It has also been found to be an efficient

INSECTICIDES 51

remedy for the pear leaf blister-mite, and the oyster-shell
bark-louse. In addition to its insecticidal properties it is an
excellent fungicide, and the spring applications just before the
buds start are very effective in killing out the wintering spores
of various fungous diseases, while the diluted wash is being used as
a summer spray for fungous diseases in place of Bordeaux mixture.

The usual formula is, unslaked stone lime, 20 pounds; flowers
(or flour) of sulfur, 15 pounds, water to make 50 gallons. Stir
up enough water with the sulfur to make a thick paste. Slake
the lime in the vessel in which it is to be cooked with a small
quantity of hot water. Then adil the sulfur paste to the slaking
lime. Add 10 or 15 gallons of water and boil for forty-five min-
utes. The mixture may then be diluted to make a barrel of 45 or
50 gallons, straining it carefully into the spray barrel or tank. A
large iron kettle or hog-scalder may be used for boiling the wash,
or where steam can be made available a steam pipe may be
run into several barrels and the wash boiled in them. Such
barrels may well be placed upon a platform so that the wash
may be drawn from them directly into the spray-tank. The
materials for making the wash will cost 1^ to 1^ cents per gallon
and the labor practically as much more. The leading manufac-
turers and dealers in insecticides are now selling concentrated
lime-sulfur solution which is all ready for use by merely diluting
to the desired strength, at a rate which will make the solution
to be used cost from 2^ to 3 cents per gallon, nearly as cheap
as it can be made at home and with the saving of time and a dis-
agreeable job. In many communities a central plant makes the
wash and can sell it with a fair profit at a low rate.

8. Home-made Concentrated Lime-sulfur. — During the last few
seasons many large growers have been making their own con-
centrated lime-sulfur solution, and where the quantity to be
used warrants, a considerable saving ma}' be effected. The New
York Agricultural Experiment Station has made very careful
studies* of the best methods of making and diluting the mixture
from which the following is quoted:

♦Bulletins 329 and 330, N. Y. (Geneva) Agricultural Experiment Station.

52 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Geneva Station Formula for Concentrated Lime-sulfur Solution.

r Pure CaO 36 lbs.

Lime ] If 95 per cent pure 38 lbs.

I If 90 per cent pure 40 lbs.

Sulfur, high grade, finely divided 80 lbs.

Water 50 gals.

Dilutions for Dormant and Summer Spraying with Lime-sulfur

Mixtures

Amount of Dilution. Number of Gallons of Water to One
Gallon of Lime-sulfur Solution.

hydrometer.

For San Jos^ Scale.

For Blister -mite.

For Summer Spray-
ing of Apples.

Degrees Beauin^.

36

35

9

81

8i

8

7*

7i

61

H

6

51

5i

5

4^

4i

3|

3^

3i

3

2!

2k

2\

2

12^

12

lU

11

lOi

10

9.V

9"

8^

8

7i

7

6^

6

5^

5

4|

4i

4

31

3i

3

45
43i

34

4U

33

40

32

37 1

31

36 i

30

34i

29

32 J

28

31

27

29*

26

27 1

25

26

24

241

23

22^

22

21i

21

19f

20

18i

19

17

18 .

16

17

15

16

14

15

12|

" In making, slake the lime in about 10 gallons of hot water,
adding the lumps of lime gradually to avoid too violent boiling and
spilling over. . . . The sulfur must be thoroughly moistened and
made into an even, fluid paste without lumps (before adding to
the lime). . . . Pour in the sulfur paste gradually during the
slaking, stirring constantly to prevent the formation of lumps,
and when the slaking has finished add the full amount of water

INSECTICIDES 53

and boil gently for one hour. If kettles and fire are used, more
than the required amount of water may be used at first, to com-
pensate for evaporation, or the volume may be kept constant by
adding successive small quantities to hold the mixture at the
original level, as shown by a notch on a stick resting on the bot-
tom of the kettle, and marked when the mixture first begins to
boil. When boiling with live steam the mixture will be more
likely to increase in volume than to decrease, so that no water
need be added.

" This concentrate will keep with little change, unless the
weather is below 5° F., if stored in filled, stoppered barrels.
Even in open receptacles there will be no loss if the surface be
covered by a layer of oil to prevent access of air. Each boiling
should be tested with a Beaume hydrometer * and its density
marked on the barrels or other containers."

The dilution is based upon the specific gravity as shown by
the hydrometer and may be safely made according to the out-
line in the above table.

In making this mixture it is important that only high-grade,
pure lime should be used, and lime with less than 90 per cent
calcium oxid (CaO) should be discarded.

9. Self-boiled Lime-sulfur. — Self-boiled lime-sulfur has proven
to be the only safe fungicide for the foliage diseases of the
peach and stone fruits, and is used extensively as a summer spray
on pome fruits. As a winter wash for San Jose scale it has not
proven as effective as the boiled mixture, but when used as a
summer spray for fungous diseases it also has considerable
insecticidal value. Its general usefulness as a summer insecticide
is in the process of experimental determination, but sufficient
results have already been secured to warrant the statement
that it will prove of considerable value as a summer insecticide
for certain pests, where it is to be used for the fungous diseases
of the host plant at the same time. This mixture has been developed

* These hydrometers, made specially for testing lime-sulfur mixture, may
be obtained from the Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N. Y., and
other dealers in laboratory glassware.

54 INSECT PESTS OF FAKM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

chiefly by the work of Mr. W. M. Scott of the United States
Department of Agriculture, from whose latest bulletin * the
following is quoted :

" In order to secure the best action from the lime, the mix-
ture should be prepared in rather large quantities, at least enough
for 200 gallons of spray, using 32 pounds of lime and 32 pounds
of sulfur. The lime should be placed in a barrel and enough water
(about 6 gallons) poured on to almost cover it. As soon as the
lime begins to slake the sulfur should be added, after first running
it through a sieve to break up the lumps, if any are present.
The mixture should be constantly stirred and more water (3 or
4 gallons) added as needed to form at first a thick paste and then
gradually a thin paste. The lime will supply enough heat to
boil the mixture several minutes. As soon as it is well slaketl
water should be added to cool the mixture and prevent further
cooking. It is th(Mi ready to be strained into the spray tank,
diluted, and applied.

"The stage at which cold water should be poured on to stop
the cooking varies with different limes. Some limes are so sluggish
in slaking that it is difficult to obtain enough h{>at from them to
cook the mixture at all, while other limes become intensely hot
on slaking, and care must be taken not to allow the boiling to
proceed too far. If the mixture is allowed to I'emain hot for
fifteen or twenty minutes after the slaking is completed, the sulfur
gradually goes into solution, combining with the lime to form
sulfids, which are injurious to peach foliage. It is thei'efore
very important, especially with hot lime, to cool the mixture
quickly by adding a few buckets of water as soon as the lumps
of lime have slaked down. The intense heat, violent lioiling,
and constant stirring result in a uniform mixture of finely divided
sulfur and lime, with only a very small percentage of the sulfur
in solution. It should be strained to take out the coarse particles
of lime, but the sulfur should be carefully worked through the
strainer."

10. Sulfur. — Pure sulfur is one of the best remedies for red
* P'armers' Bulletin, 440, U. S. Dept. of Agr., p. 34.

INSECTICIDES 55

spider, on whatever plants it may occur, and for other mites which
infest citrus fruits. It may be dusted on the infested plants or trees
or applied with any other insecticide, using 1 or 2 pounds to 50
gallons. For citrus-mites the tye-sulfur wash and sulfide of lime
are extensively used. Sulfur is frequently dusted in poultry
houses to rid them of lice, and may be mixed with lard and rubbed
on the skin of domestic animals affected with lice.

11. Pyrethriim, buhach, or Persian insect powder, is made by
pulverizing the petals of the pyrethrum blossom, and kills insects
by clogging their breathing pores. It is not poisonous to man or
domestic animals and may therefore be used where other insecti-
cides would be objectionable. It is chiefly used for household
pests, and in greenhouses and small gardens. It deteriorates
rapidly with age and should be kept in tight cans. An objection
to much commonly bought is that it has been kept in stock too
long by the retailer, thus losing its strength. Large users buy
direct from the only American manufacturers, the Buhach Pro-
ducing Co., Stockton, Cal. It may be used as a dry powder,
pure or diluted v\^ith flour, or in water at the rate of 1 ounce to 2
gallons, which should stand a day before using. For immediate
use it should be boiled in water for five or ten minutes. It is fre-
quently burnt in rooms to destroy mosquitoes and flies, for which
it is effective, without leaving any odor after the room is
aired.*

12. Tobacco. — A tobacco decoction may be made by boiling or
steeping tobacco leaves, stems, and refuse in water at the rate of
1 pound to 1 or 2 gallons. This may be diluted slightly according
to the strength of the tobacco and the insect to be combated.
Such a decoction is an excellent remedy for dipping plants affected
with aphides, and may be used as a spray for -plant-lice and similar
soft-bodied insects. Various extracts and solutions of tobacco are
now sold by manufacturers which are extensively used in spraying
against plant-lice, and which are proving more satisfactory on
account of their uniform strength. Tobacco dust has been used
successfully against root-infesting aphides by removing the sur-

* See Farmers' Bulletin, 444, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 7.

56 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

face soil and applying a liberal dressing of the dust and then
covering. The rains leaching through the tobacco carry the
tobacco water to the affected roots and destroy or repel the
aphides.

3. Repellants

Repellants include any substance which may be applied to a
plant or animal to prevent insect attack. A popular notion that
any vile-smelling substance will repel insect attack seems to have
very little evidence in its support. Tobacco dust, air-slaked lime,
or even fine road dust, thoroughly covering a plant will prevent
the attack of various flea-beetles and leaf -eating beetles, but to be
successful the plants must be frequently dusted and kept well cov-
ered. Bordeaux mixture, our most widely used fungicide, when
liberally sprayed on potatoes and tomatoes, acts as a repellant to
the little black flea-beetles which often seriously damage the
young plants.

The various fly-sprays which are used for spraying cattle to
prevent the annoyance of flies act merely as repellants.

Fruit-trees are often painted with a thick soap solution con-
taining 1 pint of crude carbolic acid to 10 gallons as a repellant
for the adult borers which lay their eggs on the bark.

A substance which has come into prominence in the fight
against the gypsy moth in New England is tree tanglefoot, a sticky
substance the same as is used to coat flj-papers. This comes in the
form of a very sticky paste, a band of which is placed around the
trunk of the tree and which prevents the ascent of caterpillars, as
it will remain sticky for some weeks. It may be used in the same
way to prevent the wingless female canker worms and other
wingless insects from ascending trees, or to prevent the ascent of
caterpillars on unaffected trees.

Various proprietary insecticides are frequently offered for sale
with wonderful claims for their effect as repellants, but only in rare
cases are they of any value except for use as a dust as already sug-
gested. One of the most common fakes of this sort is that of the
itinerant tree-doctor who offers to bore a hole in a tree and plug
it with sulfur or other offensive compounds, which will effectively

INSECTICIDES 57

prevent any insect or fungous depredations. A generous price
per tree is charged, which is the only '' effect " of the treatment.

4. Gases.

Carbon Bisidjid (or disulfid) is extensively used against insects
affecting stored goods and grains, and for root-feeding insects. It
is a clear, volatile liquid giving off fumes heavier than air. It is
sold in 25- to 100-pound cans at 10 to 12 cents per pound. It may
be thrown directly onto grain without injury to it or placed in
shallow dishes. For grain in store in fairly tight rooms apply 5 to
8 pounds to every 100 bushels, distributing the bisulfid over the
surface or in pans containing not over one-half to 1 pound each.
Make the enclosure as tight as possible; covering the grain with
blankets or other tight cover, if necessary, and leave for twenty-
four hours. Recent experiments have shown that the vapor is
much less effective at low temperatures and that the dosage must
be greatly increased at temperatures below 60° F. For fumi-
gating buildings " there should be about 1 square foot of evap-
orating surface to every 25 square feet of floor area, and each
square foot of evaporating surface should receive from one-half
to 1 pound of liquid." For fumigating clothing or household
goods, place them in a tight trunk and place an ounce of liquid
in a saucer just under the cover. The gas is exceedingly explosive ;
allow no fire or light of any kind around the building or enclosure
until it has been well aired. The fumes should not be inhaled, for
though not seriously poisonous, they have a suffocating effect and
will soon produce dizziness and a consequent headache. The
treatment for root-maggots and root-feed'ng aphides is discussed
in connection with those insects (pages 355 and 496).*

Hydrocyanic Acid Gas is extensively used for the fumigation
of nursery trees and plants, certain greenhouse insects, pests of
dwelling houses, storehouses, mills, etc., and in California for
scale insects on fruit trees. It is made by combining cyanide of

* For a complete discussion of the use of this gas, see Farmers' Bulletin,
145, U. S. Dept. Agr., and see page 197 below.

Carbon tetrachloride is now used for some purposes in much the same
manner as carbon bisulphide, and is not so explosive.

58 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

potassium, sulfuric ac'd and water. The gas is slightly lighter
than air and is a most deadly poison. Its use is to be recom-
mended only by thoroughly competent and careful persons who arc
fully advised as to the method of use for the particular purpose
desired. Concerning its use advice should be sought from the State
Agricultural Experiment Station, or from the State Entomologist,
or from the Bureau of Entomology of the U.S. Department of Agri-
culture. The general methods used are fully described by the late
Professor W. G. Johnson in his book " Fumigation Methods \
(Orange Judd Co.), with which should be considered the results
of more recent experiments and experience.

Sulfur Dioxid. — The fumes of burning sulfur, mostly sulfur
dioxid, have long been recognized as a standard remedy for the
fumigation of dwellings and barracks for insect pests. Successful
fumigation for the bedbug has been reported when stick sulfur has
been burned at the rate of 2 pounds per 1000 cubic feet of space.
The chief objection is the strong bleaching effect of the fumes in
presence of moisture and their destructive action on vegetation.
Recently this gas has been extensively used under the name of
" Clayton gas," for the fumigation of ships and ships' cargoes, par-
ticularly grain. It is forced into the tight hold of a ship by specia4
apparatus and is exceedingly penetrating and effective. The
germinating power of seeds is quickly destroyed, but the}' are not
injured for food. 1 to 5 per cent of the gas, with an exposure of
twenty-four hours, is effective for most seed and grain pests. It
cannot be used on vegetation or for moist fruits.

Tobacco Fumes. — ^Tobacco is extensively used as a fumigant
for aphides in greenhouses and for certain plants, such as melons,
by using it under covers. Several forms are now commonly
used. Tobacco or nicotine extracts are sold vmder various trade
names, which are volatilized by heating either with a small lamp
or by dropping hot irons into the dishes containing the fluid.
The same material may be purchased in the form of paper which
has been saturated with the extract and which is burned accord-
ing to directions, a certain amount being sufficient for so many
cubic feet of space, which forms a more convenient method of

INSECTICIDES 59

application. Certain finely ground tobacco powders, called
" lumigating-kind " tobacco powder, are used in the same way
and are much the cheapest form of tobacco for fumigation,
though requiring slightly more work in preparing for fumigation.
These tobacco preparations are excellent for the fumigation of
household plants, which may be placed in a closet and then
fumigated according to the directions of the particular brand
employed. Melon vines, young apple trees, bush fruits, and
similar outdoor crops may be effectivelj^ rid of plant-lice b}-
fumigating with tobacco-paper under a frame covered with
canvas or muslin sized with glue or linseed oil.

For further discussion of Insecticides see Farmers' Bulletin 127, U. S.
Department of Agriculture.

CHAPTER VI
SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATUS

Atomizers. — Hand atomizers of the general style shown in
Fig. 26 may be purchased at any hardware store, and are useful
for applying soap or oil solutions to a few house or garden plants.
They are not adapted for more extensive use and to try to spray
many plants, or a tree, with them, is a waste of time.

Bucket Pumps. — The simplest type of spray pump is that
made to use in a bucket. The better types usually cost $5 to
$8, the cheaper styles, selling for $2 or $3, being inferior and
unsatisfactory.

Fig. 26. — An atomizer handy for spraying a few plants.

There is as much difference in the structure of Ijucket pumps
as in those of the barrel type, and many of the statements made
below concerning the latter will apply also to bucket pumps.
The bucket pump should have an air chamber, so that a steady
pressure may be maintained. Some firms are making bucket
pumps of the same general type of the barrel pump shown in Fig.
34, which are very satisfactory in this regard. A footrest attached
to the pump and a clamp to attach the pump to the bucket are

useful accessories.

60

SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATUS

61

Many firms are now selling these pumps mounted in large
galvanized-iron covered buckets, and furnished with a mechanical
agitator. This is a desirable arrangement, for the buckets are
much larger than those ordinarily used, thus saving frequent
filling, while the cover prevents slopping, and the pump is always
ready for use without the necessity of hunting up a bucket and
then cleaning it, which is necessary after using a bucket which
is used for other purposes.

Bucket pumps are useful for small gardens or for a few small
trees, or bushes.

Fig. 27. — a, a cheap type of bucket pump with no air-chamber, which
will not maintain satisfactory pressure; b, a better type of bucket
pump with small air-chamber. (Courtesy Doming Co.)

Knapsack Pumps. — The knapsack pump consists of a copper
or galvanized-iron tank carried on the back like a knapsack, in
which is mounted a bucket pump with a lever handle for pumping.
In the better makes this handle is detachable, and a plain handle
may be attached so that the tank may be used as a simple bucket
pump, for which a footrest is attached to the tank. The pump
should have a good mechanical agitator. The copper tanks
are preferable, for Bordeaux mixture will soon eat through gal-
vanized iron. Knapsack pumps are useful for spraying such

G2 INSECT -PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

crops as tomatoes, melons, etc., which cover the ground, so that

it is difficult to drive through them without injuring the vines,

crops growing on steep hillsides, or for a small acreage of any

garden crops, small fruits, or small

trees. The main objections to

them are that they are heavy to

carry, thus limiting their use to a

small area; they frequently slop

over, and wet the carrier's back;

and the pumps do not develop

sufficient jjressure for some kinds

of work. Consequently they are

not as much uschI as formerly, but

are useful for the purpcjses indi-

FiG. 28. — Bucket pump mounted in
bucket, and mounted in tank with
agitator. (Courteisy Deniing Co.)

Fig. 29. — Bucket jjump with
large air-chamber, which will
maintain a good pressure.
(Courtesy F. E. Myers & Bro.)

cated, and inasmuch as they may also l)e used as a simple
bucket pump, they are to l)e preferred to them. Tlie cost varies
from $8 to $12 or $15.

Compressed-air Sprayers. — In recent years the compressed-
air sprayer has come into favor for use in small gardens. It
consists of a brass tank which is filled with the liquid; the air

SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATUS

03

is compressed by an air-pump, and spraying continues until
the pressure runs down, when
a stopcock is turnetl and the
pressure is again raised 1)}' pump-
ing. The tank holds from
3 to 5 gallons, and is carried
lieneath one arm, slung ])y a
strap over th(> other shoulder.
The clii(>f ol)j('ctions to this tyj)e
are that it is not v(>rv con-
venient to fill, though the newer
models are nuich improved, is
not readily repaired, has no
agitator, and requires frecjuent
pumping. On the other hand,

they are easily carried, do not

1 1 1 1 1 +K u If I'lt^- 30. — One of the best types of
leak, and leave both hands tree, , , at ^ r ^
' knapsack sprayers. Note foot-
so that one might be usetl for rest, agitator, handle, and wide

11 - f , straps. (Demine Co.)

spraj'mg a small tree from a step- ^ i "^ & >

ladder. These compressed-air spra\-ers cost from $5 to $8.

Barrel Pu tii ps —
The most serviceal)le
spray pump for the
average farm is the
barrel pump. A\'ith a
gootl barrel piunp ]()()
to 150 f u 1 1-g r o w n
apple trees ma}' Ije
sprayed in a day, so
that it will be found
sufficient for an or-
chard of 500 trees or
less. By using a row-

^, „, ™, , , . spraying attachment,

Jig. 31. — The knapsack sprayer in use. tr j o j

(Spramotor Co.) a few acres of pota-

64 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

toes or other row crops may be sprayed with a barrel pump much
more quickly than b}' hand. In buying a row attachment, be sure
that it is adjustable for rows of different widths. A good barrel
pump costs from $lo to $25. Most of the pumps sold 'at $10
or less are too light to do effective work or are not well constructed.
Numerous pump companies advertise in the agricultural papers,
and after considering the following points one may select a
suitable pump from their catalogs:

Fig. 32.-Compressed- New type of compressed-air sprayer with

air sprayer with separate pump. (E. C. Brown Co.)

section of tank
removed to show
air pump within.

1. The pump should be guaranteed to furnish four nozzles
at 80 to 100 pounds' pressure with ordinary pumping.

2. It should have a large air chamber within the barrel, and
not projecting aVjove it.

3. As few of the working parts of the pump as possible should
be above the head of the barrel, as exposed parts are. easily
broken.

4. The cylinder, plunger, valves and working parts should be of
brass. The handles and other parts commonly made of cast iron
are much more durable when made of malleable or galvanized iron.

SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATUS

65

5. There should be a good mechanical agitator of the paddle
type, preferably arranged so that it can be worked with the
pump handle without operating the pump. An agitator is
essential to keeping the mixture in suspension. Agitators of the
so-called " jet-type," in which a stream from the bottom of the

Fig. 33. — An undesirable type of
barrel sprayer — now off the
market; the air-chamber and
other parts above the barrel
render it top-heavy, and may
be easily broken.

Fig. 34. — A desirable type of barrel
pump embodying most of the
features described. (Morrill &
Morley.)

cylinder is supposed to agitate the liquid, are unsatisfactory
and allow a loss of pressure without sufficiently agitating the
liquid.

6. The pump should be so attached to the barrel that it can
be quickly removed for repairs. Those pumps which have lugs
for attaching the pump plate to the barrel are much better than
those with screws.

CG INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

i|m jgg"-

Fig. 35. — Two types of doul)le-acting lever pumps, to be mounted on
truck and connected with tank.

Fig. 36 — Double-acting horizontal pump mounted on 250-gallon tank.
A good type of outfit for medium sized commercial orchards. (Va.
Agr. Exp. Sta.)

SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATUS

07

8. The valves, with their scats or cages, should be readily
removable for cleaning, and should be so constructed that they
remain evenly ground.

All of these points may not be embodied in any one pump,
but most of the better pump manufacturers are eml)odying these
features in their newer models, a good examplf^ of which is shown
in Fig. 34.

Barrel, knapsack, and
bucket pumps are manufac-
tured which have separate
tanks for oil and water
which are mixed in a de-
sired proportion and sprayed
as a mechanical mixture.
They have been found un-
reliable in controlling the
amount of oil, and are not
now in general use.

Horizontal Pumps. — For
larger orchards and shade
trees, the double-acting-
horizontal pumps which are
operated with a lever, as
shown in Fig. 35, furnish
mfore ; power and conse-
quently make more rapid
work possible. They are
mounted on 100- or 150-
gallon tanks and may be
airanged for filling the tank where running water is not available.
These pumps cost from $30 to $50 and will maintain 100 to 125
pounds pressureiwith four to eight nozzles. They are usually
used with two. men spraying and another driving and pumping,
or a fourth man pumps and changes places now and then with
the driver, as the operation of this type is rather too heavy for
one man constantly.

Fig. 37 .-Gasoline power sprayer, complete.
Note wide tread steel wheels, steel tower
on tank, and intake hose for filling tank
where running water is not available; 3|
h.p., 4-cycle gasoline engine, will niain-
tain 10 nozzles at 200 lbs. pressure.

68 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

v^-j-^r :' -^*-i:

Fig. 38. — One of the latest three-cylinder power pumps, designed for
spraying shade-trees and woodlands.

Fig. 39. — ^Row-spraying attachment for use with barrel pump, adjustable
for various width of rows, (Deming Co.)

SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATUS

69

Power Outfits. — P'or orchards of nuich over 500 trees or for
extensive shade-tree work a gasoline power outfit is more econom-
ical and enables a large area to be covered more quickly, which is
often a most important consideration. Most of the pump manu-
facturers and many gas engine companies are selling such outfits
mounted upon a truck, with spray tank, and tower complete for
from $250 to S400.

Traction Sprayers. — For a small acreage of potatoes or other

P"iG. 40. — A good type of geared sprayer for row crops.

row crops, a barrel pump with row attachment is very satisfac-
tory, but for any considerable acreage, a two-wheeled traction
sprayer is much more economical of labor and time which are
the two chief items in the cost of spraying. Such traction
sprayers are made of widely different types, the power in all
cases being furnished by a gear or chain which operates the pump
from the wheels. The mechanical construction of the traction
sprayers should be carefully studied, and if possible tested, before

70

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

purchasing, as they differ greatly in efficiency. The better types
cost from $60 to $100, and usually have attachments adapting
them for all sorts of row crops, such as potatoes, strawberries,
bush fruits, grapes, etc., which require different styles of piping
to properly direct the nozzles.

Several traction sprayers are sold for orchard work but, though
thej' are fairh* satisfactor}- for small trees, they do not develop
enough power for spraying large trees, and have a heav}- draft.

Gas Sprayers. — A very handy and efficient spraying outfit is now

Fig. 41. — Row sprayer applying arsenate of lead to potatoes, showing
arrangement of nozzles to cover vines. (After Britton.)

made which uses carbonic-acid gas as the power (Fig. 42). The
liquid is placed in a steel-tank, to which is attached a tube of
carl3onic-acid gas, the same as is used for soda fountains. The
gas is admitted to the tank by a valve until the desired pres-
sure is secured, and the gas then forces the liquid out, thus
obviating the need of a pump. The outfit is mounted on a
steel truck with steel tower, or may be mounted on any wagon,
and is also mounted on two wheels with suitable attachments
for ro . " spraying. The cost of the gas is somewhat higher
than gasoline or hand power, but less labor is required

SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATI^S

71

and constant high pressure is maintained. Unfortunate!}- the
gas makes a chemical combination with hme-sulfur mixture, so
that this type of sprayer is not adapted for its use. A modifi-
cation of the gas sprayer outfit lias recently been made in which
a gasoline engine operates an air-comjjressor, which places an air
pressure on the liquid in the tank in the same manner as would
the compressed carbonic-acid gas. It is claimed that these
outfits are superior to an ordinar}- gasoline engine and pump,
in that the liquid does not pass through the pump, and that

Fig. 42. — Carbonic-acid gas sprayei* at work.

there is therefore less wear on the pump, and that the outfit is
lighter.

A somewhat similar use of compi-essed air is being made for
orchard sprayers by a few large fruit growers. The outfit
consists of two steel tanks holding 50 to 100 gallons each,
which are fitted with valves connecting them and at the outlet.
One of these tanks is filled with liquid and in it is an agitator
operated from the wheel. The other tank is charged with com-
pressed air by an air-compressor stationed at the filling- otation.
The air-pressure secured in the air-tank is sufficient to force all

72 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

of the liquid out of the other tank at a pressure never below 100
pounds, and averaging 125 to 150 pounds. The advantages of
these outfits are that they are much lighter, so that more liquid
can be carried, and that the men on the outfit need have no
mechanical ability, as is necessary with the operation ofa gasoline
engine pump. The trucks and tanks are much cheaper than the
gasoline sprayers, but the cost of the engine and air-compressor
at the charging station makes the total cost probably more. It
is also necessary for each tank to return to the charging station,
and it is not possible to use a supply tank, as is commonly done
with gasoline sprayers. However, these outfits are in successful
operation by some of the largest orchardists, who l^elieve them to

Fig. 43. — Vermorel, l)ordpaux, and disk type of nozzles.

be much the best type of sprayers for large operations, so that they
merit study by those contemplating extensive spraying.

Nozzles. — A good nozzle is as essential as a good pump for suc-
cessful spraying. The best nozzles now in common use are of
three types.

The Vermorel type consists of a small chamber into which the
liquid is admitted at a tangent and leaves through a small hole in a
removable cap, thus making a fine, cone-shaped spray. A small
pin, with a spring to hold it back when not in use, serves as a dis-
gorger to remove any sediment which may clog the outlet. This
type of nozzle is made in many slightly different styles and often
sold under trade names, such as the Demorel, Mistry and others.
A slightly modified form has no spring attached to the disgorger,
but has a loose cap which is held away from the pin by the force of

SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATUS

73

the liquid, and the outlet is disgorged by simply pressing the cap
down on the pin. Such are the Spramotor (Spramotor Mfg. Co.)
and Vapor-Mist Xozzles (Field Force Pump Co.) and are disgorged
rather more easily than those with springs. The Vermorel type
makes the finest spray of the three types of nozzles and will there-
fore be preferred for use with oils and fungicides where a very fine
spray is desired. The liquid nuist be thoroughly strained, for they

are easily clogged. Usually two or
three nozzles are attached to a Y, T, or
ring, for orchard or shade tree work.

Disk Type. — An evolution from the
latter type has recently been brought
out in which the chamber has been
nuide much broader and flatter, thus
giving a very strong rotary motion to

Fig. 44. — A cluster of spniinotur noz-
zles and single nozzle of the same
t>T)e.

Fig. 45.— Angle form of
disk type nozzle, partic-
ularly useful for orchard
spraying. (Friend Mfg.

Co.)

the liquid and breaking it into a fine spray through a large aperture,
so that no disgorger is required. This is known as the disk type of
nozzle, and was originated by the Friend Mfg. Co., but is now sold
by all the leading pump companies in various forms under different
trade names. The nozzle is light, does not catch on twigs, and the
large aperture prevents clogging, even of unstrained liquid, and
allows the passage of a large amount of liquid, one of these
nozzles spraying as much as two or three ^^ermorels. This type
was designed for use with power sprayers, but will give good

74 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCIL\RD

results with barrel or horizontal pumps which will maintain a
pressure of 85 pounds or more. One of these nozzles to each line

of hose will be sufficient with a barrel
pump, and two to a line with power.
The disk type is adapted to orchard
and shade-tree work.

The Bordeaux nozzle is of entirely
different structure, the spray being
formed by a straight stream hitting a
lip which breaks it into a fan-shaped
spray, the fineness of the spray being
governed by the width of the aperture.
To unclog the nozzle the core through
which the stream emerges is reversed,
thus giving a straight stream and clear-
ing the nozzle immediately. For this
reason the Bordeaux nozzle is partic-
ularly adapted to traction sprayers
where several nozzles are used and it is
necessary to unclog them ({uickly. It
is usuall}' preferred for garden and row
crops, and some prefer it for treic work,
though it is not as widely used for that
purpose as the previous types.

At the present time these three
t}'pes of nozzles are much superior to
all others, and the user will do well to
stick to them and let others experiment
with new or cheap creations until
they have proven themselves better.
Nozzles which merely sprinkle or make a
strong; long stream are undesirable for

Fig. 4(). — Bamboo extension
rod at left, and iron rod
with drip-guard at right.

spraymg.

Extension Rods. — In orchard spraying an extension rod is a
necessity. Most pump companies sell a bamboo rod enclosing a
light brass tube, and fitted with thread for the nozzle at the tip and

SPRAYING AND DUSTING AITARATUS

45-degree elbow
for attaching
nozzles to end
of rod for
orchard spray-
ing.

with a shut-off or stopcock at the lower end, so that the stream

may be cut off when moving from tree to tree and the pressure

maintained. These arc light and easily handled, but the bamboo

and connections frequently break, so that many

prefer using a straight piece of three-eighths or

one-half inch galvanized-iron pipe, threaded for

the nozzle and stopcock. Wooden handle-grips,

or grips made of burlap, may be wired around the

pipe, so that it will be easier to hold. Ten feet

is a good length.

The nozzle should be attached to the rod
by a 45-degree connection, so that it points at
that angle. This enables one to spray directly over the topmost
branches and under the lower ones, making the work much easier

and more effective than

where the nozzle is attached
straight.

In spraying low-grow-
ing crops, such as melons,
beans, etc., upon which it
is desiralDlc to spray the
under surface of the foliage,
a short pipe alwut 3 feet
long is usually used, with
the nozzle attached to it
by an L, so that the noz-
zle is at right angles to
the pipe and will spray the
under surface.

Hose. — Use the best
four-ply one-half-inch hose
for barrel or power sprayers and three-eighths-inch for bucket or
knapsack sprayers. For barrel or power sprayers use couplings
with double-length shanks which will permit the use of two clamps
or bands on either side of the union. Wire ])ands for attaching
hose to pump or nozzle are unsatisfactory and should l)e avoided.

r«p*^;--:;:v:T'i Iv-l?:^..?^^?':*^ ■^-;

Fig. 46. — Spraying squash with underspray
nozzle at right angle to rod.

Fiu. 47. — The old way: attempting to spray tall apple-trees from the ground
and making very hard work of it.

Fig. 4S. — The modem way: spraying apple-trees from a rough tower
bolted to a one-horse wagon.

SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATUS

77

Strainers. — To obviate the delay caused by nozzles clogging
with dirt and sediment, strain all mixtures through a fine copper
strainer when filling the spray tank. Have the tank tight and
see that it is clean before filling.

Towers. — For orchard spraying it is essential that the operator
be high enough to spi-ay all parts of the tree quickly and thor-
oughly. Most of the power outfits are built with a tower such
as shown in Fig. 37. A ver}- serviceable tower may be erected on
a one- or two-horse wagon, at slight expense. It is bolted to the
body, so that it is easily removed. The floor should be as high

Fig. 49. — A powder-gun for applying insecticides in dust form. (After

Weed.)

as the weight of the wagon and roughness of the land will allow,
and the railing should be about the height of the sprayer's waist.
Dusting Apparatus. — For dusting a few plants a small powder
bellows may be used, but where crops are to be dusted a powder
gun will be found much more economical. One of the best
types is shown in Fig. 49. This has tubes which will direct
the dust onto two rows if desired and regulates the amount
of dust used. Larger traction outfits mounted on two wheels
are made for dusting row crops, but hand work with the smaller
machine has usually proven more effective. Larger outfits are
also made for carrying in a wagon for dusting orchards. These
have been used extensively in the Ozark region, but the use of
dust has not proven as effective for most purposes as the spra}',
though it is superior for some purposes, as for the cotton boll

78 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

weevil (see p. 272\ and may sometimes be used where it is dif-
ficult to secure or haul water.

Other mechanical devices for combating particular insects
will be described in connection with them.*

* For further information see " Information Concerning Spraying for
Orchard Insects," A. L. Quaintance, Yearboolc, U S. Dept. Agr., for 1908.
p. 267.

CHAPTER Vir

Insects Affecting Grains, Grasses, Forage and Miscellaneous

Crops

Several of our worst insect pests live normally in grass land,
but when they become numerovis feed upon gi-ains and various
forage and garden crops, so that they are not readily classed as
enemies of any one crop, and will therefore be discussed together.

White Grubs *

Among the most common pests of corn, strawberry beds,
and garden crops are the large white grubs which feed upon
the roots and often kill the plants. Their habit of lying curled
up in a semicircle, and the large l)rown head, white bod}*, and
enlarged abdomen, at once distinguish them from other forms
of grulxs. Although they are very similar in color and form,
there are numerous species, all of which arc the }'oung of different
species of the large brown May-beetles or June-bugs, as they are
commonly called, which frequently fly into lights in late spring.

Life History. — The eggs are laid mostly in June, preferably
in grass land, l)ut also in corn fields and gardens. The egg is
of a broad oval shape, pure white, about one-tenth inch long,
and is laid in a small ball of earth a half inch in diameter, from
1 to 5 inches below the surface. The eggs hatch in about two
weeks, most of them hatching by the middle of July. The
young grubs feed upon plant roots, and grow slowly, as it
requires two years or more for them to become full-grown.
In the fall they burrow down in the soil, gradually going deeper

* Lachnosterna spp. Family — Searabceidce. See S. A. Forbes, Bulletin
116, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station.

80

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

as frost approaches until by the first freeze most of them are
from 7 to l-t inches deep. The next year they do much more
serious damage, and hmd which has been in sod and then
planted in corn, strawberries, or other crops of which they are
fond, is often so full of the grubs that the crops are ruined. In
1895 an Illinois field of 250 acres which had been in grass for
twenty years was so injured that the sod could be rolled up
like a carpet over the entire field. It is not surprising, therefore,
that Professor Forbes records finding as many as thirty-four grubs
to the hill of corn in another Illinois field which had previously
been in sod. Whei'e sod is taken into areenhouscs the grubs

Fig. 50. — Luchnmterna arcuata: u, l^eetle; h, pupa; r, egg; d, ucwly-hatched
larva; e, mature larva; /, alial segment of same from below, a, b,
e, enlarged one-fourth; c, d, f, more enlarged. (After Chittenden,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

often become serious pests. When the grub is two, or possibly
sometimes three years old, it forms a small oval cell from 3 to
10 inches below the surface and there changes to a soft, white
pupa, sometime in June or July. The pupal stage lasts slightly
over three weeks, and in August or September the adult beetle
wriggles out of the pupal skin, but remains in the pupal cell
until the following spring, when it comes forth fully hardened.
Thus three full years are occupied by the life-c}Tle of each brood,
though grubs in all stages of development may be found in the
soil every year.

The adult beetles feed at night upon the foliage of various
trees. They hide in the soil during the day, migrate to the trees

INSECTS AFP^ECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 81

at dusk, and return to the fields just before daybreak. The
different species have favorite food plants, but all of our common
deciduous shade and forest trees are more or less eaten, poplar,
willow, and maple being particularly relished. On a warm evening
the beetles may often be heard feeding and their work may be
identified by the ragging of the foliage, as if it had been torn.

Control. — As allowing land to lemain in grass for several years
is conducive to the increase of the grul).s, a freciuent rotation will
prevent their multiplication, the grass being followed l)y potatoes,
buckwheat, small grains, or some crop not seriously injured by
them.

As the beetles remain in the pupal cells over winter and are
tender and not fully hardened, deep plowing and thoi-ough har-
rowing in fall or early spring will kill large numbers of them
by breaking open the cells and exposing them to the weather
and by burying and crushing them.

Swine will gorge themselves on grubs in badly infested land,
and if confined so that they will thoroughly root it over, will
very effectually rid it of them. Flocks of chickens or turkeys
following the plow will catch a considerable number of grubs,
as do the crows and l)lackbirds, which pay for the corn they eat
by the war they wage on grubs.

The beetles may be jarred from the trees upon which they are
feeding in the cooler part of the night and collected, as is exten-
sivel}' done in Europe. Lanterns hung over pans or tubs contain-
ing water with a surface film of kerosene placed near the trees on
which they feed, will catch large numbers on warm nights when
they are flying.

Wireworms*

Wireworms are hard, shining, slender, cylindrical, brown
larvae about three-quarters to 1 inch long, which bore into
the seed of corn, wheat and other grains, often necessitating
replanting, and also feed on their roots, as well as on potatoes,
turnips, and many gai'den crops. They are the young stage of

* Family Elateridce.

82 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

brownish beetles of the family

Elateridce, which from their
habit of snapping their
bodies up in the air
are known as " click
beetles." The beetles
are one-half to three-
quarters inch long, de-
citledh' flattened, dark
brown, often with
darker markings, with
short heads, and shield-
shaped thoraxes, as
shown in Fig. 50. Although the
common wireworms look much
alike, examination usually re-
veals that they belong to several
species which are distinguished
by a comparison of the caudal
segments, as shown in Fig. 51.

Life Hislory. — The life history
is very similar to that of the
white grubs, except that from
three to five years are required
for the complete life cycle. The
eggs are deposited in old sod
land, which is the favorite
breeding ground. The detailed
life histories have not been care-
fully studied '^ut ih< second year
after grass land has been planted

in grain is that in which the
Fig. 50. — ^ , beetle of wlieat wireworm , . .

{Agriotes mancus)X^;B,D, beetle "^ovHt mjury occurs, particu-

(X4)and wireworm (X7) of Draste- larly with corn, upon which the
riv^elegans; C^ the corn wireworrn is more concentrated than

{Melanotus cribuloms) X4^. (Alter
Forbes.) with small grains. The. larvaj

become full grown in midsummer, form small cells in the soil

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE

83

and in them transform to pupae. Three or four weeks later
the adult beetles shed the pupal skins, but few of them make
their way to the surface during the fall, most of them remaining
in the pupal cells until the following spring.

Control. — As tluy I'esemble the white grubs in life-cycle, so
the means of control are similar. By plowing in late summer
or early fall and thoi'oughl}- hai'rowing for a month or so, large
numbers of the pupa and newly transformed beetles will be
destroyed. When the wireworms are numerous in restricted
areas, as they often are on spots of low moisi land, they may be
effectually trapped with but little labor by placing under boards
bunches of clover poisoned with Paris green. A short rotation

Fig. 51. — A, last segment of Melanotus communis, dorsal view (After
Forbes) ; fi, the wheat wireworm, Agriotes mancus — a, h, c, d, details
of mouth-parts, enlarged; C, caudal segment of the wireworm of Draste-
teriiis elegans; D, caudal segment of the wireworm of Asapfte.^t decoloratus,
much enlarged. (A, C, D, after Forbes; B, after Slingerland.)

of crops in which land is not allowed to remain in grass for any
length of time will prevent their increase. Many remedies have
Ijeen suggested for these pests, but few of them have proved
to have much merit in careful tests. Coating the seed with gas
tar, as is d xe to ' votect it from crows, has been very widely
practiced, and though previous experiments indicated that it could
not be relied upon, Dr. H. T. Fcrnald conducted tests in Massa-
chusetts in 1908 and 1909 in which seed coated with gas-tar
and then dusted in a bucket of fine dust and Paris green suffi-
cient to give the corn a greenish color, was effectively protected,
the treatment seeming to act as a repellant, and not affecting
the germination of the seed.

84 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Cutworms*

Under the general term cutworms we commonly designate
any of the larvje of several species of moths, which are more
or less siiuilur in general appearance and habits, and which have
the hahit of feeding on low-growing vegetation, and cutting off
the stem just at the surface of the ground. They should be
carefully distinguished from white grubs, wliicli are sometimes

Fig. 52. — Earth removed from base of seedling to show cutworm in hidino; —

natural size.

wrongly called cutworms on account of their similar hal)its.
Some of the species attack certain ci'ops more commonly than
others, Init most of them are quite omnivorous in their feeding.
When they become overabundant they will eat anything green
and succulent — foliage, flowers, buds, fruit, stalks, or roots, and
sometimes migrate to other fields in armies like the army worms.
Some species commonly climb young fruit trees which have l)een

. * \'arious species of the family Xocttiiclu'.

1N8ECT8 AFFECTING GKA1N8, GRASSES, FORAGE 85

planted on grassy land or which arc allowed to grow in grass

Fig. o;?. — (iroasy cutworm (Agwtis Fic:. 54. — The dark-sided ciit-

yp.'iilon); a, larva; &, head of wime; worm {Agrolis mcasnria).

f, adult — natural size. (After (After Riley.)
Howard, IT. S. Dept. .\t:r.)

Fig. 55. — Peridnnnia sancia: a, adult, 6, r, d, full-grown larva'; e. f, eggs
all natural size except e, which is greatly enlarged. (After Howard,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

or w^eeds, and are known as climbing cutw'orms. Our common
species are most injurious to garden crops and to corn, cotton,

86 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

tobacco and similar crops grown in hills or rows, small grains
and forage crops being injured but rarely.

Though over a score of species are common, it is not practica-
ble to distinguish them in this discussion, and though their life
histories are somewhat different, they may be considered as a class.

The adults are moths with dark fore wings, variously marked
with darker or lighter spots and narrow bands as shown in
Figs. 52-59, and with lighter hind-wings, which are folded over
the back when at rest. Like the cutworms, they feed at night,
sipping the nectar from flowers, and are known as owlet
moths. The females deposit their eggs in grass land or where
a crop has been allowed to grow up in grass and weeds in late

Fig. 56. — The bronzed cutworm (Nephelodea mininns Guen.): back and side
views of larva enliirged, and moth — natural size. (After Forbes.)

summer, laying them in patches on the stems or leaves of grasses
or weeds, or on stones or twigs in such places.

The little caterpillars which hatch from these eggs in August
and September feed on the roots of whatever vegetation is available
until frost, going deeper as it approaches, and finally hollow out
small cells, in which they curl up antl hibernate until the next
spring. The next spring they are exceedingly hungry after their
long fast, and attack any vegetaton at hand with surprising vorac-
ity. If the land is in grass or weeds they have plenty of food,
and if it is then plowed and planted in some crop, it will
certainly be injured.

The cutworms usually become full grown during late spring
or early summer, and are then about 1^ to 2 inches long, of
a dull brown, gray or blackish color, often tinged with green-

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 87

ish, and more or less marked with longitudinal stripes, oblique
dots and dashes, the markings usually being of a subdued
tone, so that the cutworm harmonizes in color with the
soil. They are cylindrical, with the head and prothoracic plate
horny and reddish brown, and bear three pairs of jointed legs

4 .a' •>

m

Fig. 57. — Cutworm moths: b, the well-marked cutworm-moth {Noctua
clandestina Harris); the dingy cutworm (Feltia subgothica Haworth) ;
male {m) and female (/) moths. (After Slingerland.)

on the thorax and five pairs of prolegs on the abdomen. The
mature caterpillars pupate in cells a few inches below the sur-
face and in three or four weeks the adult moths emerge, usually
in July and early August in the Central and Northern States
and earlier farther south.

Thus there is usually but one generation a year in the North
while in the South there are commonly two generations and in
some cases three. Though other stages than the larvas of
various species are known to sometimes hibernate, nevertheless

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

the worst injury is usually clone in the .spring, when young plants
have just been set or are just appearing.

Control. — It is evident from their life history that like the
white grubs and wireworms, cutworms may be most effectually
combated by plowing in late fall and again plowing and har-
rowing thoroughly in early spring, so as to keep the land fallow
and thus starve them out. Land which is to be planted in
corn or crops sul)ject to cutworm injury should be plowed as
early as possible in late summer of the preceding year and kept
fallow so that the moths will not deposit their eggs uiK)n it,
as the}^ will if it is left in grass or w(hm1s.

J,

Fig. 58.— Moth of the glassy cut- Fig. 5*>. — Granulated cut-worm (AgroNa an-
worm (Hadenn devastatrix nexa). a, larva; /, pupa; h. adult — natural

Brace). (After Forbes.) size. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Poisoned bran mash (see p. 47) is probal)ly the best thing
for destroying cutworms, and if well applied a few days before
plants are set or a few days after seed is planted, will often
protect crops on infested land. On corn land it may be applied
with a seed drill, and in gardens an onion drill is sometimes
used in the same way, placing the mash on the surface near
the plants; or it may be applied by hand, placing a tablespoonful
near each plant or every 2 or 3 feet in the row. Distribute
the mash late in the afternoon, so that it will still l)c moist
when the worms feed at dusk. Keep poultry away from fields
so treated. Clover which has been thoroughly sprayed or dipped
in water containing one-third pound Paris green per barrel may be
used in the same way, particularly along the outside of fields to be
protected from invasion or along borders of fields next to grass.

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 89

Market gardeners frequently protect cabbage, tomato and
similar plants ])y knocking the bottoms out of tin cans or making
cylinders of building paper and placing these around the stems,
sinking them into the soil. Where cutworms assume the climl)ing
habit and attack fruit trees, distribute the bran mash oj' poisoned
clover liberally arountl the bases of the trees and put a band
of tanglefoot around the trunk of each tree, which will prevent
their ascent. Thorough cultivation of the orchard and neighbor-
ing land will also reduce their numbers. When they assume the
migratory habits of army worms, they may be controlled by the
same methods as descril^ed for them. Garden plants may some-
times be protected from cutworms, as well as flea beetles, by dip-
ping them in arsenate of lead, 3 pounds per barrel, when planting.

The Chinch-bug *

The adult Chincli-l)ug is about one-fifth incli long, with a
black body. Its white wings lie folded over each other on the
abdomen, and are marked by a small black triangle on their
outer margins, while the bases of the antennae and the legs are
red. The young bugs are yellowish or bright red marked with
brownish-black, becoming darker as they grow older. Along
the Atlantic coast and along the southern shores of the Great
Lakes north of a line from Pittsburg, Pa., to Toledo, Ohio, the
majority of the adults have short wings reaching but half over the
abdomen and are incapal)le of flight; Ijut l)etween the Alleghany
and Rock}' Mountains the long-winged form greatly predominates.
It occurs also in restricted localities in Central America and
along the Pacific coast. The worst injury is to small grains
and corn in the Central and North Centi-al States, but frecjuently
injury is done in the Eastern States, especiall}' to timoth}- meadows
which have stood for several years. Though individually insig-
nificant, when assembletl in countless myriads chinch-bugs have
doubtless been of greater injury to the farmers of the Mississippi
Valley than any other insect attacking grain crops, the total
damage from 1850 to 1909 being estimated at $350,000,000.1

* Blissus leucop(eru.s Say. P'amily Lygceidoe.

t See Circular 113, Bureau Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., F. M. Webster.

90

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Life History. — During the winter the bugs hibernate in clumps
of grass, in the butts, and in old shocks of corn, or under what-
ever rubbish is available. In early spring they assemble in
fields of grass and small grains. Soon they pair and the females
commence to lay their small yellowish-white eggs upon the
roots or bases of the stalks, each laying some 150 to 200 eggs.

The eggs are laid from the middle of April until the first of
June, depending upon the latitude and weather, and hatch in
two or three weeks. As the nymphs grow they often do serious
injury to small grains and grass, upon which they become full
grown about the time of harvest. When wheat is harvested
they spread to oats and soon to corn, but, curiously enough, though

Fig. 60. — The chinch-bug (Blissr/.s leucoptcnis Say): adult at left; a, b, eggs
magnified and natural size; c, young nymph; e, second stage of nymph;
/, third stage ; ^, full-grown nymph or pupa ; d, /«, /, legs; i, beak through
which the bug sucks its food. (After Riley.)

the adults have wings they travel from field to field on foot, were it
not for which fact we should be at a loss to cope with their migra-
tion. Eggs arc now laid upon the unfolding leaves of the corn,
from which the nymphs commence to emerge in about ten days.
This second brood matures on corn in August and September and
is the one which later hibernates over winter, though where corn
is not available the whole season may be passed on grass.

Control. — The burning over of grass land, and the grass along
fences, hedges, and roads, as soon as it becomes dry enough in
late fall and early winter, is of prime importance to destroy
the bugs after they have gone into hibernation. The removal

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE

91

of all corn stalks from the fields and plowing the butts under
deeply, or where the bugs are very abundant, raking out the
butts and burning them, will rid the fields of the pest.

It is practically impossible to combat the pest in the summer

Fig. 61. — Corn-plant two feet tall infested with chinch-bugs. (After Webster,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

on grass or small grains, but its migration to corn or from field
to field may be effectually checked. In dry weather a dust
furrow may be used as a barrier to good advantage. Just before
harvest plow a deep furrow around the field to be protected,
or on the threatened sides, and thoroughly pulverize the soil by
dragging a heavy log back and forth in the furrow, , making

92 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

the side next the corn as steep as possible.* In attempting
to chmb this barrier, the dust will slide from under the Inigs
and large numbers will accumulate in the bottom of the furrow,
where they will be killed l)y the heat of the soil if it has a
temperature from 110° to 120° (air temperature of over 90°).
Keep the furrow clean by dragging a log through it now and
then. B}' sinking post-holes a foot deep ever}' few feet in the
bottom of the furrow the bugs will collect in them and may I)e
crushed or killed with kerosene. Such a dust furrow will l)c
of no valLU> in showery weather, and is most effective in hot dry
weathc>r on light soil; it may often l)e used to advantage in
combination with the following methods.

In place of the dust furrow or in combination with it, a strip
of coaltar is often run around the field. The strip should be
about the size of one's finger, which can be made by pouring
from a watering can with the mouth stopped down, and should
be run inside the dust furrow and with post-holes sunk along
its outer edge. Sometimes it is run in a zig-zag line with the
holes at the inner angles so that t\m Inigs will be concentrated
at the holes. These tar strips must be frt'shened whenever dust
or ruljbish covers them. The soil may be prei)ared for the tar
strip l)y i)lowing a l)ack furrow and packing the top with a
roller or beating it hard with spades; ov a sti'ip of sod ma}' be
prepared l)y scraping away the grass with a I'arni sci-apcr and
then smoothing ca-refully with shovels oi' hoes; or a dead fun'ow
may be iiiu and the tar strip run on the smooth bottom. To
maintain such a tar strip for four weeks costs about .|2 a mile
and has proven itself entir<>l}' practical and effective.

If the bugs have already become luimeious in the outer I'ows of
corn, most of them nuiy be destro}'ed b}' sj)ra}ing with kerosene
enudsion (see }). Is) nuide to contain four per cent kerosene, apply-
ing it in the early morning or towards night. It costs 34 cents a

* Such a furrow may possibly be made more readily l^y plowing several
furrows and harrowing the ground thoroughly until reduced to a fine mulch
and then plowing a dead furrow through the middle, and then dragging this
with a log, making the sides as steep as possible. With such construction
the furrow will cost about three cents per linear rod.

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 93

barrel tlilult-d. and a man will spray live acres per tlay, using a
barrel per acre, ^^'llale-oil soaj), one-half pound to the gallon of
water, has proven equally effective and cost $1.12 per barrel.

A blast torch, for which an attachment is furnished with
many of the compressed-air sprayers, ma}' be used to advantage
for de^roying the Inigs in a dust furrow or along the tar line,
or a spray of pure kerosene oi- crude p(>troleum may l)e used for
the same purpose.

Extensive experiments have been made in Illinois and Kansas
with the use of the muscardine fungus against the chinch-l)ug.
Though oecasionall}' the results seem to be profitable, and though
it is undoubtedly effective in wet seasons and it may be well
to distribute the fungus to places where it does not occur so
that it may reduce the numbers of the ])ugs in wet seasons,
it seems to be of veiy little value in dry seasons, when the
injury is worst, and cannot l)e relied upon to check the increase
of the pest when used accordiiig to the methods so far devised.

When chinch-bugs ])ecomc abundant and their migratioTi to
corn seems imminent, the farmer should prepare to devote himself
and as man}- hands as necessary to fighting them until their
advance is checked, for delay will mean ruin, while the prompt
use of the above methods will save the corn crop.

Grasshoppers or Locusts *

Plagues of destructive locusts — or what we Americans call
grasshoppers — have been recorded since the dawn of history.
In America the worst devastation was done by the flights of
the Rocky Mountain or Migratory Locust {Melanoplus spretus
Thos.), which swooped down upon the States of the western
part of the Mississippi \'alley in the years 1873 to 1876 in destruc-
tive clouds. Since then the}- have several times done considerable
injury in restricted localities and are often destructive in northern
Minnesota, the Dakotas, Montana and Manitoba, but they will
probably never again be a plague in the Central States.

Concerning their recent distril^ution, numbers, and destruc-
* ^'a^ous species of the family Acrididie.

94 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

tiveness, Mr. W. D. Hunter reported after the season of 1S97:
" There was, this season, a general activity of this species through-
out the permanent l)ree(ling region greater than at anytime in many
years. This was brought about by a series of dry years, which
have resulted in the abandonment of farms in many places. It is,
of course, well understood that the absence of serious damage since
1876 has been partially due to the settling up of valleys in the per-
manent region. I wish to make it clear, however, that the dry-
ness is the primary and the abandoning a secondary cause."

The Rocky Mountain Locust

Let us first consider this, the most injurious species, as the
other locusts differ fi'om it in Init few essential points other
than in being non-migratory.

To correctly understand its habits the reader should first
divide the area which this species affects into three parts. Of
these the (1) " Permanent Region, including the highlands of
Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado, forms the native breeding-
grounds, where the species is always found in greater or less
abundance," * (2) the Subpermanent Region, including Man-
itoba, the Dakotas, and western Kansas, is frequently invaded.
Here the species may perpetuate itself for several years, but
disappears from it in time. (3) The Temporary Region, including
the States bordering the Mississippi River on the west, is that
only periodically visited and fr-om wliich tlic species generally
disappears within a year.

Spread. — When for various reasons the locusts become excess-
ively abundant in the Permanent Region they spread to the
Subpermanent Region, and from there migrate to the Tem-
porary feeding-grounds. It is the latter area which suffers
most severely from their attacks, but, fortunately, they generally
do not do serious injury the next year after a general migration.
In the Subpermanent Region their injuries are more frequent
than in the Temporary, but are hardly as severe or sudden as
farther east. Migrating from their native haunts, flights of
* Bull. 25, U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Entomology. C. V. Riley.

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE

95

the grasshoppers usually reach southern Dakota in early summer,
Colorado, Nebraska, Minnesota, Iowa, and western Kansas
during midsummer, and southeastern Kansas and Missouri
during late summer, appearing at Dallas, Texas, in 1S74, and about
the middle of October, and even later in 1876. As thus indi-
cated, the flights are in a general south to southeasterly direction,
while west of the Rockies they descend to the more fertile
valleys and plains, but without any such regularity as eastward.
While the rate of these flights is variable and entirely dependent
upon local weather conditions, twenty miles per day may be
considered a fair average. The flights are more rapid and more
distance is covered in the early part of the season, when, while
crossing the dry prairies, a good wind will often enable them
to cover 200 to 300 miles in a day. As they first commence to
alight in their new feeding-grounds their stay is limited to but two
or three days, but later in the season it is considerably length-

FiG. 62.— Rocky Mountain locust; adult and different stages of growth of
young. (After Riley.)

ened, and, after a section is once infested, swarms will be seen to be

constantly rising and dropping during the middle of the day.

Life History. — Over all the infested area, and while still sweep-
ing it bare of crops and vegetation, the females commence to lay
their eggs, and continue to deposit them from the middle of August
until frost. For this purpose " bare sandy places, especially on
high, dry ground, which is tolerably compact and not loose," are
preferred. "Meadows and pastures where the grass is closely grazed
are much used, while moist or wet ground is generally avoided."

In such places the female deposits her eggs in masses of about
thirty. These are placed about an inch below the surface in
a pod-like cavity, which is lined and the eggs are covered by a

96

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

mucous fluid excreted during oviposition. From two to five hours
are recjuired for this operation, and an average of three of these
masses is deposited during a period of from six to eight weeks.

As the time of ovipositing varies with the latitude, so the
hatching of the eggs occurs from the middle or last of March
in Texas till the middle of May or first of June in Minnesota
and Manitoba. Until after the molt of the first skin, and often
till after the second or third molt, the young nymphs are con-
tent to feed in the immediate vicinity of their birth. When
the food becomes scarce they congregate together and in

«^s^s;§^s=

Fig. G3. — Rocky Mountain locusts; a, a, a, females in different ])ositions,
ovipositing; b, egg-pod extracted from ground, with end broken open;
c, a few eggs lying loose on ground ; d, c, show the earth partially removed,
to illustrate an egg-mass already in place and one lieing placed; /shows
where such an egg-mass has been covered up. (After Riley.)

solid bodies, sometimes as much as a mile wide, march across
the country, devouring every green crop and weed as they go.
During cold or damp weather and at night they collect under
rubbish, in stools of grass, etc., and at such times almost seem
to have disappeared; but a few hours of sunshine brings them
forth, as voracious as ever. When, on account of the immense
numbers assembled together, it becomes impossible for all to
obtain green food, the unfortunate ones first clean out the
underbrush and then feed upon the dead leaves and bark of
timber lands, and have often been known to gnaw fences and

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 97

frame Ijuildings. Stories of their inc-redible appetites are legion;
a friend informs me that he still possesses a rawhide whip which
they had (juite noticeably gnawed in a single night!

By mathematical computation it has been shown that such
a swarm could not reach a point ovei' thirty miles fiom its
l)irthplace, and as a matter of fact they have never been known
to proceed over ten miles.

Fig. G4. — A .swarm of grasshoppers attacking a wheat-field. (After Riley.)

As the nymphs become full grown they are increasingly
subject to the attacks of predaceous birds and insects, insect
parasites, fungous and bacterial diseases, and are also largely
reduced by the cannibalistic appetites of their own numbers.
When the mature nymphs transfoi'm to adult grasshoppers and
thus become winged, large swarms are seen rising from the
fiekls and thing toward their native home in the Northwest.

98 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

This usually takes place during June and early July in the
North, and as early as April in Texas, so that it is frequently
impossible to distinguish the broods of the temporary region
from the incoming brood which has migrated from the permanent
region. Although the eggs for a second brood are sometimes
laid, these seldom come to maturity, and the species is essen-
tially single-l)roo(le(l.

The Lesser Migratory Locust

Besides the Rocky Mountain locust there is only one other
species that truly possesses the habit of migrating, though to
a far lesser extent, and which is therefore known as the Lesser
Migratory Locust {Melanoplus atlantis Riley). It is considerably
smaller than its western relative and somewhat resembles the
red-legged locust both in size and appearance. The species
is very widely distributed, occurring from Florida to the Arctic
Circle east of the Mississippi, and on the Pacific slope north of
the fortieth parallel to the Yukon. The habits and life history
of the species are in all essentials practically the same as the
former species, except that they have no particular breeding-
grounds. Injuries by this grasshopper were first noticed in
1743, almost sev(Mity-five years before the first record of the
Rocky Mountain locust, and since then it has done more
or less serious damage in some part of the territory inhabited
every few years.

Non-migratory Locusts

There are several species of locusts which, though lacking
the migratory habit, and thus being more easily controlled,
often become so numerous as to do serious damage over limited
areas. Both as regards the regions inhabited, its habits, and
life history, the common Red-legged Locust (Melanoplus femur-
rubrum Har.) hardlj^ differs from the last species, and is often
found in company with it. It is non-migrator}-, however, and
though the damage it does is thus entirely local, it is often of
considerable importance.

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE

99

Fig. 65. — Red - legged

[Melanoplus femur -
Hiirr.). (After Riley.)

locu.st
rubrum

Records of locust plagues in California date back as far as
1722. Many of them were doubtless due to the California
Devastating Locust (Melanoplus devastator Scud.), and in the
last invasion of 1885 this species outnumbered all others seven
to one. Resembling the last two
species in size and markings, the
habits and life history of this species
are also supposed to be similar to
them, though they have not as yet
been thoroughly studied.

Together with the last species
the Pellucid Locust {Camnula

pellucida Scud.) has been largely responsible for the losses occa-
sioned by locusts in California, and has also been found in Xew
England, but is not noted there as specially destructive.

Our largest winged Amer-
ican locust, the American
Acridium (Schistocerca ameri-
cana Scud.), is practically
confined to the Southern
States from the District of
Columbia to Texas, and thence
south through Mexico and-
Central America, being rarely
found in the Xorth. This
species is essentially a tropical
one, and has often been ex-
ceedingly destructive, being
especially so in 1876 in
Missouri, Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, and southern Ohio.
Considerably larger than the preceding species are the Dif-
ferential Locust {Melanoplus differentialis Thos.) and the Two-
striped Locust (Melanoplus bivittatus Scud.), of which the former
is peculiar to the central States of the Mississippi Valley, Texas,
New Mexico, and California, while the latter has a more extended
range from Maine to Utah and as far south as Carolina and

Fig. 66. — The pellucid locust {Camnula
pellucida Scud.) . (After Emerton.)

100 INSECT PE.STS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Texas. These two differ from the smaller species in laying
only one or two masses of eggs, and the eggs of differentialis

Fig. 67. — The American acridium {Schistocercn americana Scvid.). (After

Riley.)

have often been found placed under the bark of logs, but other-
wise their habits are very similar. The two-striped locust is

characterized by two yel-
lowish stripes extending
from the eyes along the
sides of the head and
thorax to the extremities
of the wing-covers, and
is probably the species
most commonly observed
by the farmer.
The Differential Locust. — Throughout the Mississippi Valley
from Illinois southward, the Differential Locust * is one of the

Fig. 68.— The Two-striped locust {Mela
7ioplns bivittatus Scud.). (After Riley.)

Fig. 69. — The DiHereiitial locust (Melnnoplus differentialis Thos.).

Riley.)

(After

most common and destructive grasshoppers, and is an excellent
example of several of our more abundant and injurious species
which have verv similar habits.

* Melanoplus differentialis Thos.

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 101

The little grasshoppers hatch about the middle of May, from
eggs which were laid in the fall, though we have observed
them in March in Central Texas, and arc of a dusky brown

Fig. 70. — The southern lul)ber grasshopper {Dirlifnplionn rc'icjlitus) : nymph
and adult, sUghtly enlarged.

color, marked with yellow. The head and legs are the most
prominent feature of the young nymph.s. During their subse-
quent growth they molt five times at
intervals of ten da}^s to two weeks, the
relative size and appearance of the
different stages being shown in Fig.
72. Professor H. A. Morgan, who

made a careful study of an outbreak Fig. 71.— Egg-mass of the

. . differential locust — enlarged.

ot this species in Mississippi m 1900,

has given an interesting account of their growth and habits.

" The young on first emerging from the eggs are sordid

white and after an airing of an hour or two, are darker, assuming

102 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Fig. 72. — Nymphs of the differential locust
in different stages (1 to 5) of growth —
all enlarged.

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 103

a color not unlike the dark-gray alluvial soil over which they
feetl. There are changes of color as the earlier stages are assumed,
but until the close of the third stage these changes are not
readily perceptible in the field to the naked eye. At the close
of stage four the greenish yellow color becomes prominent on
many forms, and in stage five the greenish yellow and yellow
brown colors predominate. The vigorous feeding and rapid
growth of the young in stages four and five, and the promi-
nence of the wing-pads in stage five, cause the grasshoppers
in these conditions to appear almost as conspicuous as adults.

" The habits of the young are interesting, and a knowledge
of some of them may be helpful in developing remedies. After
hatching they remain for several hours in close proximity to
the egg-pod from which they emerged. With this period of
faint-heartedness over, they may venture out for a few yards
each day into the grass, weeds, or crop neighboring the egg-area.
Upon being disturbed they invariably make the effort to hop
in the direction of the so-called nest. Nymphs emerging from
eggs on a ditch bank, if forced into the water, will seldom make
the effort to reach the other side, but will turn back to the bank
from which they were driven. As development takes place the
extent of their peregrinations into the crop is easily traced b}-
the shot-hole appearance of the leaves upon which they feed.
The tender leaves of cocklebur are always preferred by the
grasshoppers in the early stages. Young Bermuda grass is also
a favorite food, and succulent grasses of all kinds are freely
eaten. In the third, fourth, and fifth stages, as grass, weeds,
and even shrubs disappear along the ditch banks and bayous,
the crops of corn and cotton adjacent begin to show signs of
vigorous attack, and the march of destruction commences. ... A
few hours before molting the grasshoppers tend to congregate
and become sluggish. Molting varies as to time, and slightly
as to manner, with different stages. In the early stages less
time is required and the operation occurs on the ground or upon
low bunches of grass and weeds. Ever}- effort of the grass-
hoppers at this time seems to be to avoid ccnspicuity, and in

104 INSF>CT PEST8 OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

doing so spare themselves, in a manner, enmity of parasites.
After the molting of the first, second, and third stages it is not
long before the young grasshoppers are sufficiently hardened to
begin feeding again, l3ut after the molt of the fourth and fifth
stages, particularly the last molt, some time is required to
extend the wings and dry and harden the body before feeding

is resumed. The last molt
usually occurs on the upper
and well-exposed leaves of
corn and other plants upon
which they may be feeding,
though it is not uncommon
for the gi-asshoppers to drop
to the ground during the
maneuvers of the process.
The reason for the selection
of the more exposed leaves
for the last molt is obvious.
Tlio bodies are large, and
rapid drying protects them
from fungous diseases which
lurk in the more shaded
and moist sections during
the months of June and
July. The last prominent
haljit to which we call at-
tention is that of the fully
grown grasshoppers to seek
the shade offered by the
growing plants during the
hottest part of the day."
The hoppers become full grown about the first of July. The
adult is about H inches long, its wings expand 2.V inches, and
it is of a bright yellowish-green color. The head and thorax
are olive-brown, and the front wings are of much the same color,
without other markings, but with a brownish shade at the base;

Fig. 73. — Differential locust, laht stage of
nymph with its cast skin on tip of corn
plant.

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 105

tlic hintl-wings are tinged with green; the hind-thighs are bright
yellow, especially below, with four black marks; the hind-shanks
are yellow with black spines and a ring of the same color near
the base. The adults at once attack whatever crops are avail-
able, often finishing the destruction of those injured by them as
nymphs, but in a few days their appetites seem to become some-
what appeased and they commence to mate and wander in search
of suitable places for la34ng the eggs. Relatively few eggs are
laid in cultivated ground, the favorite places being neglected fields
grown up in grass and weeds, the edges of cultivated fields, private
roadways, banks of ditches and small streams, and pasture lands.
Alfalfa land is a favorite place for oviposition, and alfalfa is
frequently seriously injured by this species. It is doid)tless due
these egg-laying habits and the abundance of food on inicultivated
land that this species always increases enormously on land
which has been flooded and then lies idle for a year or two.
Most of the eggs are laid in August and early September. Each
female deposits a single egg mass of about 100 eggs just l)eneath
the surface of the soil. During this season the females may
frequently be found with the abdomens thrust deep in the
soil, as the process of egg-laying requires some time. The
eggs are yellow and arranged irregularly in a mass which is
coated with a gluey substance to which the earth adheres, which
protects them from variable conditions of moisture and tem-
perature.

Enemies. — As before mentioned, large numbers of the nymphs
are destroyed before reaching maturity by their natural enemies.
Among these a minute fungus undoubtedly kills many of those
already somewhat exhausted, especially during damp weather.
Almost all of our common birds, as well as many of the smaller
mammals, are known to feed quite largely upon them.

A small red mite {Tromhidiuvi locustarum Riley), somewhat
resembling the common red spider infesting greenhouses, is
often of great value not only in killing the nymphs by great
numbers of them sucking out the life-juices of the young hopper,
but also in greedily feeding upon the eggs.

106 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The maggots of several species of Tachina-flies are of con-
siderable value in parasitizing both nymphs and adult locusts.
Their eggs are laid on the neck of a locust, and, upon hatching,

^ ^ c V ^ d

Fig. 74. — A Locust-mite {Trombidium locustarum): a, the larva as seen on
locust's wing; c, male mite; d, female, the two latter appearing as when
egg-destroyers — all greatly enlarged. (After Riley.)

the maggots pierce the skin and live inside by absorbing its
juices and tissues. When full grown the maggots leave the
locust, descend into the earth, and there transform to pupae

Fig. 75. — Antlwrmjia egg-parasite, a, fly; b, puparium; c, larva; d, head of
larva. (After Riley.)

inside of their cast skins, and from the pupse the adult flies
emerge in due time.

The maggots of one of the Bee-flies (Systoechus oreas) feed
upon grasshopper eggs, but their life history is not fully known.

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 107

The common Flesh-fl}' {Sarcophaya avnaria Limi.), Fig. 77, is
also ver}' destructive, tliough largely a scavenger.

Fig. 76. — Two tachina-flies. {Exorista leucanloc Kirk, and E. flavicauda
Riley). (After Riley.)

But of all the insects attacking locusts, the Blister-beetles,
which, unfortunately, are often known to us as very injurious
to various garden crops, are
probably of the most value.
The female beetle deposits
from four to five hundred of
her 3'ellowish eggs in irregular
masses in loose ground, and
in about ten days there hatch
from these eggs some " very
active, long - legged larvae,
with huge heads and strong
jaws, which run about everywhere seeking the eggs of locusts."
Each of these larvae will consume one of the masses or about

Fig. 77. — Common flesh-fly (Sarco-
phaga carnaria hinn.): c, larva; b,
pupa; c, fly. Hair-lines show natural
size. (After Riley.)

Fig. 78. — Various stages of a blister-beetle {Epicauta vittata). (After Riley.)

thirty eggs. The subseciucnt life history of these insects is very
complicated on account of thcit peculiar habits, but the various
stages are shown in Fig. 78.

108 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Control. — As the eggs are usually laid in the ground in the
fall, deep plowing in late fall or early spring effectually buries
them too deep for the young nymphs to emerge. On alfalfa
land thorough disking is often used for the same purpose.
Thorough harrowing in the fall so as to pulverize the soil for
the depth of an inch will break up many of the egg masses,
though it is not as sure a control as plowing them under.

When the young emerge, they may sometimes be destroyed
by burning over stubble, grass and rubbish where it is present
in sufficient quantites, or by augmenting it with straw, which
may be done to advantage on cold days when the nymphs are
congregated in such shelter. If the surface of the ground is
smooth and hard many may be killed by the use of a heavy
roller, particularly in the morning and evening, when they are
sluggish in their movements. Plowing a badly infested field
in a square, working toward the centre so as to drive the young
nymphs inward, will result in burying many of them in the furrows,
and the last may be burned or trapped in holes as described
below. Simple ditches 2 feet wide and 2 feet deep form
effectual barriers for the young hoppers. The sides next to the
crop to be protected should be kept finely pulverized by hauling
a log or a brush of dead branches through the ditch. The ditch
may be made as described for chinch-bugs and is handled in
the same manner, the little hoppers drifting to the bottom of
the ditch, where they are killed by the heat on a hot day or
where they are caught in post-holes sunk every few feet in the
bottom of the ditch. This method may be used to advantage
in plots of corn, cotton, or garden truck which has already
become infested, by running furrows around the field and occa-
sionally through it, and then driving the young hoppers toward
them, which may be readily done by a number of children armed
with branches. Where ditches containing water are available
the young hoppers may be very effectively destroyed by oiling
the surface of the water with kerosene emulsion (p. 48) and
then driving them into the ditches, for even if they succeed in
crawling out they will succumb to the oil.

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 109

Where the 3'oung hoppers have congregated in large numbers
on the edge of fields, in patches of weeds, etc., they may be
destroyed by spraying them with kerosene or crude petroleum
either pure or, preferably, in an emulsion, and the weeds antl

FiQ. 79. — Simple coal-oil pan or liopperdozer. (.After Riley.)

Fig. 80. — The Price oil-pan or hopperdozer, with partitions to prevent
slopping. (After Riley.)

grass along fences and in neglected fields should be thoroughly
treated with a strong arsenical spray or dust.

In pastures, small grains or any crops permitting their use,
immense numbers of the nymphs may be caught by the use

no INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

m

a,
o

o

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 111

of liopperdozers, which may be utilized where the use of poisoned
bran would not be possible. The hopperdozer consists of a
shallow pan containing water with a surface of kerosene, crude
petroleum, or coal tar, which is sometimes used without water.
The pan is mounted on runners or wheels and if larger than about
3 feet square is usually provided with partitions to prevent
slopping. The back and sides are high and sometimes are made
of canvas. " A good cheap pan is made of ordinary sheet
iron, 8 feet long, 11 inches wide at the bottom, and turned

Fig. 82.— Carolina locust killed by fungous disease. (Photo by Weed,)

up a foot high at the back and an inch high in front. A
runner at each end, extending some distance behind, and a
cord attached to each front corner, complete the pan at a cost
of about 11.50 (Fig. 80). We have known of from seven to
ten bushels of young locusts caught with one such pan in an
afternoon. It is easily pulled by two boys, and by running
several together in a row, one boy to each rope, and one to
each contiguous pair, the best work is performed with the

112 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

least labor." Larger pans are drawn or pushed by horses. The
oil is best used on the surface of water, from which the insects
are removed with a strainer, and any which hop out will die
after having come in contact with the oil.

Destroying the Adults. — The destruction of the winged insects
is an entirely hopeless task, for, though even large numbers
are caught, so many will remain that the damage done the
crops would be but very slightly diminished. One of the most
promising means for averting the swarms of winged migratory
locusts from alighting in the fields is by a dense smudge, in
which some foul-smelling substances are placed. Where strictly
attended, and with favorable winds, this has often proved highly
successful. To accomplish the best results farmers over an
extensive area should combine in its use.

The South African Fungus. — In 1900 Professor Morgan made a
test of a fungous disease which had been found to destroy large
numbers of grasshoppers in South Africa, to determine whether,
after starting it by artificial propagation, it would spread suffi-
ciently to destroy any considerable number of locusts. The
weather was favorable, rains being frequent. Early in August
it was found that " over the areas where the liquid infection
was spread diseased hoppers were abundant." " As many as
a dozen dead grasshoppers could be found upon a single plant,
and some upon nearly every weed on ditch-banks where grass-
hoppers were numerous. From the centres of infection great
areas had become inoculated, spreading even beyond the planta-
tions first infected." The property upon which it was placed
became thoroughly infected with the fungus. Strangely, though
many other species of grasshoppers were abundant, only the
differential locust was killed by it. Dr. Howard states that this
disease has also spread and done effective work in Colorado.
However, more recent experiments made by the writer in Texas
gave only negative results, and it is doubtful if any reliance can
be placed upon the artificial use of such fungous diseases for
locust control.

Poisoning. — A mash composed of bran, molasses, water, and

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 113

arsenic or Paris green, which has been extensively used for cut-
worms, was found to be quite successful in the experiments
of Mr. D. W. Coquillet in the San Joaquin Valley, California,
during 1885, for protecting orchards, vineyards, gardens, etc.,
and might even be of some value for grain crops. Two pounds
of Paris green, 25 pounds of bran, barely moistened with
water and cheap molasses, will be about the correct propor-
tion. It should be placed in the fields, a tablespoonful to
each plant or vine. At this rate the cost per acre of vineyard,
including labor, will not exceed fifty cents. The poison acts
slowly, but if judiciously used will be found very effective,
especially for the non-migratory forms. In Texas the mash
has been found satisfactory in destroying the grasshoppers
attacking cotton. One planter writes: " We are successfully
using arsenic (for grasshoppers) at the following rates: 10 pounds
of wheat bran, H gallons sorghum molasses, 1 pound arsenic.
Make a thick mash, sow l^roadcast on infected ground, and
it will surely kill them. I used 40 povmds last year and made
49 bales of cotton. My neighbors did not do anything and
entirely lost their crop." The writer has also seen excellent
results from the u.se of the mash in Texas with only one pound of
poison to 25 pounds of bran. However, Professor Morgan con-
cluded that " the mash cannot be relied upon in severe outbi"eaks,
such as occurred in the delta, ])ut may be used in limited attacks
where the area affected would not warrant the more aggressive
methods."

" When grasshoppers are young or half-grown, a poisonous
l)ait, known as the Oriddle Mixture, has proved effective in
many parts of the country (particularly for the Rocky Moiwitain
locust). This consists of one part of Paris green and about
one hundred parts of fresh horse manure, by measure. Enough
water is added to make the mass soft without being sloppy.
It can be taken to the field by a wagon or stone boat antl
scattered about by means of a paddle." — Washbuin.

114 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Army Worm*

Almost every year some locality reports serious injury to
crops by armies of caterpillars, which have not been previously
known for many years. This being the case the farmers are
at a loss to combat them, and by the time information has been
secured the pests have completed the damage. The Army
Worm occurs throughout the United States east of the Rocky
Mountains and lives in low, rank growths of grass, which form
the normal breeding-grounds. When from an abundance of
such food, or through failure of the parasites to prevent their

increase, the caterpillars be-
come overabundant, they as-
sume the army habit and
march en masse, consuming
all in their path.

The next year their natural
enemies will usually have them
under control again and there
will be but little damage, and
then they will not be observed
as injurious for a series of

Fig. 83.— Army-worm moth (Leucania years, though the moths are

unipimcta), pupa, and eggs in natural always fairly common,
position in a grass-leaf. Natural size. t -j- tt ■ , t . i at , i

(After Comstock.) ^*/« History.— In the North

the moths appear early in June
and the females lay the small yellowish eggs in rows of from
ten to fifty in the unfolded bases of the grass leaves, covering
them cwith a thin layer of glue. Over seven hundred may be
deposited by one female, so that when the young caterpillars
hatch in about ten days, the progeny of a few moths might
form a quite destructive army. The worms usually feed entirely
at night, and thus whole fields will sometimes be ruined l^efore
they are discovered, though a few generally feed by day, as
they all do in cloudy weather. The leaves and stalks of grains

* Leucania unipuiicta Haworth, Family Noctuidce,

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS. GRASSES, FORAGE 115

Fig. 84. — Army worms at work on corn-plant. (After Slingerland.)

IIG INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

and grasses form their favorite footl, the lieads usually being
cut off, but various garden erops are often seriously injured if
they happen in their path. Though usually untouched, even
clover is not exempt. In from three to four weeks the
worms have become full grown and are then about H to 2
inches long, of a dark gray or dingy black color, with three
narrow, yellowish stripes above, and a slightly broader and
darker one on each side, cjuite resembling cutworms, to
which they are nearly related. They now enter the earth and
transform to pupse, from which the adult moths emerge in about

two weeks. These lay eggs
for another brood of worms
which appear in September,
l)ut are very rarely injuri-
ous. The moths which de-
velop from this last brood
either hibernate over winter,
or deposit eggs, the larvae
from which become partially
grown before cold weather
and then hibernate. In
either case the J^oung larvae
feed in the spring, not usu-
ally doing much damage,
pupate in May, and the
moths of the first genera-
tion appear in June as
Thus in the North there are three broods
a year, the young larvte usually hibernating, while in the
South there may be as many as six generations, and the
moths usually hibernate over winter and lay their eggs in the
spring.

The moths very often fly into lights and are among the com-
monest of our pla'n " millers." The front wings are a clay or
fawn color, specked with black scales, marked with a 4arker
shade or stripe at the tips, and with a distinct spot at the centre,

Fig. 85. — An army
w o r m — a bout
one -third en-
larged. (After
C'hittenden, U. S.
Dept. Agr.)

already described.

Fig. 86. — a, head
of fall army
worm; b, head of
army worm —
enlarged. (After
Chittenden, U.S.
Dept. Agr.)

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 117

which gives the specific name unipunda. The hind-wings are
somewhat hghter with blackish veins and darker margins.

Enemies. — Were it not for other insects which pre}' upon the
army worm, the army lial)it woidd doubtless be more often
assumed and we should have to deal with them more frequently.
Ordinarily, however, the parasitic and predaceous insects hold
them in check very efficiently and when an outbreak does occur,
the later broods of the same season are often entirely destroyed by
their insect enemies. Large numbers are always destroyed by the

Fig. 87. — ^The farmer's friend, the rerl-tailed tachina-fly {Winthemia 4-pustu-
lata): a, natural size; b, much enlarged; c, army worm on which fly
has laid eggs, natural size; d, same, much enlarged. (After Slingerland.)

predaceous ground-beetles and their larvse (p. 14), but their
most deadh" enemies are the tachina-flies (p. 106). These lay
from a dozen to fifty eggs on a caterpillar, and the maggots
from them enter the body and absorb the juices and tissues of
the host, thus soon killing it. AVhen feeding at night the worms
are ordinarily free from these parasites, but when the marching
habit is assumed the flies swarm around them on cloudy days
and before the next year they again have the remnants of the
voracious army under subjection. Therefore, worms with the

118 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND, ORCHARD

tachina-fly eggs on them (Fig. S7) should never he destroyed
where avoidable.

Control. — When detected, all efforts should be centred on
keeping the worms out of crops not yet attacked and confining
their injury to as small an area as possible. As a barrier to
their progress, there is nothing better than a dust furrow made
as already described for chinch-bugs (p. 91), two or three of
which may be found necessary in cool weather or where a fine
dust cannot be maintained.

Deep fall plowing and thorough harrowing will be effective
against the hibernating larvie, as wuU the burning of all grass
along ditches, fences, and spots where the larva? normally live.

By thorough spraying, or perhaps better by dusting, a strip
of the crop with Paris green or some arsenical, and liberally
distributing poisoned bran mash (see p. 47), large numbers
may be destroyed. AVhere they are massed in furrows they
may be destroyed by spra}'ing them with pure kerosene or crude
petroleum.

As in fighting chinch-bugs the army worm nuist be given
immediate and conclusive combat if the loss of crops is to be
prevented, for they move rapidly and destroy all in their path.

The Fall Army Worm *

Though somewhat the same in its habits as the true army
worm, the Fall Army Worm is so called because it appears later
in the season, the former species being rarely injurious after
August 1st. It is also more omnivorous, for while the army
worm prefers grasses, and grains, the fall army worm feeds
upon a large variety of crops, including sugar-beets, cow-peas,
millet, sweet potatoes, and many other forage and truck crops.
In Nebraska and the Central West it is a serious pest of alfalfa
and is called the Alfalfa Worm. It is also sometimes very de-
structive to lawns, as was the case in Chicago in 1899. The fall
army worm is more of a native of the Southern States, but
occurs from Canada to the Gulf and west to the Rockies.
* Laphygtna frugiperda S. and A. Family Noctuidos.

INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 119

At first glance the caterpillars have niucli the same general
appearance as the army worm, but closer examination reveals
marked differences. Along each side of the body is a longitudinal
pitch-colored stripe, and along the middle is a yellowish-gray
stripe about twice as wide, which includes four lilack dots on
each segment. The caterpillars assume the hal)it of working
in armies, l)ut usually do not feed in such large numljers as the
tme army worms and thus are more difficult to combat.

Life History. — The winter is passed in the pupal state, the
pupse being about one-half
inch long and being found
in cells one-ciuarter to one-
half an inch below the sur-
face. The moths emerge
in the spring and the
females lay their eggs on
grass in clusters of fifty or
more, each mass being
covered with the mouse-
colored hairs from the bod>'
of the female. The eggs
hatch in about ten days
and the caterpillars are
found during Ma}' and
June. The complete life
history of the insect has
not been carefully followed,
but it seems probable that
there are but two complete generations in the North, three gen-
erations in the latitude of central and southern Illinois and the
District of Columbia, and four in the extreme South. In any
event, the destructive brood of caterpillars appears in August and
early September.

The parent moth is of a " general yellowish, ash-gray color,
with the second pair of wings almost transparent, but with a
purplish reflection. In extent of wings it measures about \\

Fig. S8. — The fall army-worm: o, moth,
plain gray form; h, fore wing of Pro-
denia-like form; c, larva extended; d,
abdominal segment of larva, side view;
e, pupa; d, twice natural size, others
enlarged one-fourth. (After Chittenden,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

'-I

120 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

inches, and when closed the length of the insect is about three-
quarters of an inch. The front wings are mottled or marbled,
especially near the central area, and usually there is visible
a fine white line a short distance from the edge and parallel
to it. The hind-wings have a fringe of darker hair as well
as veins that contrast somewhat with the lighter portion "
TFig. 88).

Control. — Deep fall plowing and thorough harrowing will
break up the pupal cells and thus largely prevent the develop-
ment of the spring brood of moths. In pei'ennial crops like
alfalfa thorough disking may be used and on lawns deep raking
with a long-toothed steel rake will kill many of the pupae. In
fields of young grain and on lawns many of the caterpillars ;may
be killed by a heavy roller. When not present in too large
numbers, the worms may be destroyed by spraying the food
plants with Paris green, arsenate of lead or other arsenicals,
or by the use of poisoned bran mash. When present in large
numbers and the army habit is assumed they should be com-
bated the same as the armv worm.

CHAPTER VIII

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS *

Meadow-maggots or Leather- jackets f

Several instances have been recorded in which serious injury
has been done to wheat, clover, timothy, and bkie grass by
the larvae of Crane-flies. These insects are never so injurious
in this country as in Europe, w^here they are known as " daddy-
long-legs," the common name of our harvest-spiders, though
doubtless injury done by them is often attributed to other insects.
The farmer usually declares the work to be that of wireworms
or cutworms, the adults often being known as " cutworm-flies,"
unless the maggots are so abundant as to attract his attention.
When the maggots are abundant enough to do much injury,
they usually occur in very large numbers, but ordinarily, though
common everywhere, they are not numerous enough to attract
attention.

Several species (Tipula bicornis Loew, T. costalis Say, and
Pachyrrhinis sp.?) have at various times done considerable
damage in localities in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and elsewhere.

Life History —So far as studied, the life histories of these
species seem to be much the same. The larvae remain dormant
over winter, but evidently commence feeding again very early
in the spring, a wheat-field having shown the effects of their
injuries from February 1st to April 1st. The larvae become
full grown from the latter part of April until the middle of May,
depending upon the species and season. The full-grown maggots
are about an inch long, of a dirty-grayish color, and of a tough,

* See " The Principal Insect Enemies of 0 rowing Wheat," C. L. Marlatt,
Farmers' Bulletin No. 132, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
t Family Tipulidce.

121

122 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

leathery texture. They are nearly cylindrical, somewhat taper-
ing in front and terminating bluntly behind. Legs are entirely
wanting, but at the blunt end are a few fleshy processes and a
pair of small, horny hooks. The larvae seem to prefer low, moist
ground, and will live for some time on land entirely flooded or
in a ditch. They feed very largely on dead vegetable matter,

but when exces-
sively abundant
they attack the roots
of wheat, grass, and
clover, so weaken-
ing them near the
siu'face that the
plants, deprived of
proper nourish-
ment, are killed and
loosened from the
ground.

Pupa3 may be
found during the
latter part of May,
occupying small
cells in a vertical
position near the
surface of the soil.
Prior to emerging
the adult pushes
from one-half to
two-thirds of the
body above the sur-
face and remains in this pose for several hours. The males
usually emerge first, as their assistance is required by the
females, which are loaded down with eggs, to extricate them-
selves from the pupal skins. The sexes pair immediately, there
being many more males than females — one observer states one
hundred to one — ^^and the females deposit their eggs upon grass

Fio. 89. — A Crane-fly {Tipula hcbca Loew): mule,
adult. (After Weed.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 123

and clover lands, to the number of three hundred each. Eggs
^ are laid for another brood in September, the maggots from which
live over winter.

Remedies. — Injury to wheat-land may be largely prevented
by plowing early in September.

No satisfactory remedy for the maggots is known when
injuring clover, timothy, or grass, although large numbers have
been destroyed by driving a flock of sheep over infested
land. Dr. S. A. Forbes states that " close trampling of the
earth b}^ the slow passage of a drove of pigs would doubtless
answer the same purpose, which is that of destroying the larva;
lying free upon the surface or barely embedded among the roots
of the grass."

Several of our common birds as well as a number of ground-
beetles feed upon the maggots and flies. The maggots are
also sometimes attacked by a fungous disease which in the
damp soil in which they live doubtless gr-ows and spreads
rapidly. Altogether these different enemies keep them so well
in check that they rarely become of importance.

L
The Hessian Fly *

The Hessian fly is much the most destructive of any of the
insects attacking wheat, to which its injury is practically con-
fined; for though it occasionally injures barley and rye, it has
never been reared on other grains or grasses. Its name was re-
ceived from the fact that it was first noticed on Long Island in
1779, near where the Hessian troops had landed three years before.
It now occurs over the main wheat-growing area of the eastern
United States between parallels 3o° and 45° westward to the 100th
meridian, on the Pacific coast, in Canada, and in many other parts
of the world where wheat is grown. Not infrequently it destroys
25 to 50 per cent of the whole ciop in some localities, and it has
been estimated that 10 per cent of the crop of the whole country
is lost from its ravages.

Life History. — The adult flies are little dark-colored gnats about
* Mayetiola destructor Say. Family Cecidomyidoe,

124 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

one-tenth inch long, so small as to commonly escape observation.
Each female lays 100 to loO minute reddish eggs, one-fifteenth
inch long, placing them in irregular rows of from three to five or
more, usually upon the upper surface of the leaves. In a few days
these hatch into small, reddish maggots, which soon turn white,
are cylindrical, about twice as long as l^'oad and have no true head
or legs. The fall brood of maggots burrow beneath the sheaf of
the leaf and its base, causing a slight enlargment at the point of

Fig. 90. — The Hessian fly {MaydioLa destructor): o, female fly; 6, flaxseed
stage or pupa; c, larva; d, head and breast-bone of same; e, pupa;
/, puparium; g, infested wheat-stem showing emergence of pupae and
advilts. (After Marlatt,, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

attack; but in the spring they usually stop at one of the lower
joints, in both instances becoming fixed in the plant, absorbing
its sap and destroying the tissues. The first indications of the
work of the maggots on winter wheat in the fall are the tendency
of the plants to stool out, the dark color of the leaves, and the
absence of the central stems. Later many of the plants yellow
and die. The spring maggots attack the laterals, or tillers, which
have escaped the previous brood, so weakening them that the

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS

125

stems break and fall before ripening and cannot be readily liai--
vested.

About four weeks after hatching the maggots are full grown,
and are greenish-white and al)()ut three-sixteenths inch long. The
skin then tui'us bi'own, shrivels slightly, and inside it is formed the
pupa. This outside case, composed of the cast larval skin, is known
as the " puparium," and this stage is commonly called the "flax-
seed " from the resemblance to that seed. In this stage most of
the fall brood passes the wintei', the flies emerging in April or May,
while the summer
brood remains in
the "flaxseed" stage
in the stubble tlui-
ing the late sum-
mer antl emei'ges
when the first wheat
is planted in the
fall, emerging later
further south.

Several species
of small ehalcis flies
(page 19) parasitize
the larvae and pupae,
and were it not for
their assistance it
would doubtless be
difficult to raise
wheat. As yet no
practical method
of increasing their abundance has been devised, though colonies
have been carried to regions where they were scarce.

Control. — The principal means of avoiding injury l)y tlie Hes-
sian fly in the winter wheat regions is late planting in the fall.
Inasmuch as the flies appear within about a week and then dis-
appear, if planting be delayed until after that time, but little of the
wheat will be injured. Dry weather in late summer and early

Fig. 91. — Tlie Hessian fly, adult male — greatly
enlarged. (After Marlatt, U. S. D. Agr.)

126 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

fall will delay the appearance of the flies, even with normal tem-
perature conditions, and the further south, the later they appear.
From experiments being conducted by the V. S. Bureau of Ento-
mology, Professor F. M.Webster states that the following dates will
probably be found safe for sowing wheat in average seasons: in

Fig. 92.— "Flax-seeds" or puparia of the Hessian fly on young wheat-
enlarged. (After Pettit.)

northern Michigan soon after the 1st of September; in southern
Michigan and northern Ohio, about September 20th ; in southern
Ohio after the first week in October; in Kentucky and Tennessee,
October 10th to 20th; in Georgia and South Carolina, October

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS

127

25th to Xovember loth. The exact time will also depend upon
altitude as well as latitude.

A rotation of the wheat crop compels the flies when they emerge
from the stubble to travel in search of the young wheat plants.
Should storms or hcav}' winds occur, the frail little flies will be de-
stroyed in large numbers, whereas if they found wheat immedi-
ately available the mortality would be small.

Inasmuch as most of the spring brood remain in the stubble
in the flaxseed stage after harvest, if the fields be then burned
over, large numbers will be destroyed. This may be done by cut-

A

y

Fig. 93. — Hessian fly: a, egg, greatly enlarged; h, section of wheat-leaf
showing eggs as usually deposited — less enlarged; c, larva; d, pupa
taken from puparium or "flaxseed" — e; c, d, e, much enlarged. (After
Webster and Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

ting the grain rather high at harvest, and then mowing the weeds
and grass and allowing them to dry a few days before burning.
Unfortunately this practice is often impossible, owing to the prac-
tice of seeding wheat land to grass and clover.

As early volunteer plants always become badh' infested and the
pupse wintering on them give rise to a spring brood which attacks
the main crop, all volunteer plants should be destroyed by plowing
or disking before the larvae have matured. This principle has some-
times been utilized in the form of a trap crop, strips of wheat being
sown early so as to attract the flies and then being plowed under

128 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

after the bulk of the eggs had been laid upon them, thus protecting
the main crop, planted later.

The enrichment of the soil, the preparation of a good seed bed,
and the use of good seed, so as to secure a vigorous growing crop,
are all of the greatest importance in overcoming injury by the
Hessian fly. After the crop is once attacked, no truly remedial
measures are known except to apply liberally some quick-acting
fertilizer which will cause the plants to tiller freely and give them
sufficient vigor to withstand the winter and thus increase the
healthy stems the next spring.

Though none are exempt from attack, those varieties of wheat
" with largo, coarse, strong straw are less liable to injury than
weak -stra wed and slow-growing varieties." * In New York in
many localities in 1901 a wheat called Dawson's Golden Chaff was
found to be but little injured, where others were nearly destroyed.
However, in Canada, where this variety originated, it is as seriously
injured as other kinds, and may become so in New York. Bearded
Red Wheat No. S was also found to be a very resistant variety, as
were Prosperity, Democrat, Red Russian, and White Chaff Medi-
terranean. It should be remembered, however, that none of
these are invariably " fly -proof," and that though under certain
conditions they may be but little injured, in other localities and
under less favorable circumstances they may be injured as much
as any other sorts.

Among other conclusions Professor Roljerts* and his colleagues
state that the fly '' injures wheat more on dryish and poor land
than on moist but well-drained, rich soils." Also, " that the soil
must be so well fitted and so fertile that a strong, healthy growth
will be secured in the fall, though the sowing of the seed be delayed
ten to fifteen days beyond the usual time. Such preparation of
the soil will also help the wheat to recover from any winter injury.
Thick seeding and vigorous growth also tend to ward off the fly."
" Much stress should be laid on the proper fitting of the land for
wheat. Plowing should be clone early — at least six weeks before

* Cornell University Agr. Exp. Sta., Bulletin 194: The Hessian Fly, I. P.
Roberts, M. V. Slingerland, and J. L. Stone.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 129

sowing — to give abundant time for the repeated working of the
soil in order to recompact the subsurface soil and secure a fine but
shallow seed-])ed in which there lias been developed, by tillage and
the action of the atmosphere, an abundance of readily available
plant food. Manures antl fertilizers should be kept near the sur-
face and the young roots encouraged to spread out on the surface
soil, thus avoiding much of the damage by heaving in winter and
leaving the deeper soil for fresh pasturage for the plants during
the following spring and summer."

In summarizing his knowledge of means of controlling this
pest, Professor F. M. Webster, who is probably our best authority
upon it ,says: " After thirteen years of study of the Hessian fly,
I am satisfied that four-fifths of its injuries may he 'prevented by
a better system of agriculture. For years I have seen wheat grown
on one side of a division-fence without the loss of a bushel In'
attack of this pest, while on the other side the crop was invariably
always more or less injured. No effect of climate, meteorological
conditions, or natural enemies could have brought about such a
contrast of results. The whole secret was in the management
of the soil and the seeding."

The Wheat Saw-fly Borer *

The " Corn Saw-fly " has for many years been a well-known
wheat pest throughout England, France, and the Continent,
but was not noted as injurious in this country till 1SS9, when
Professor J. H. Comstock published a very complete account
of its injuries upon the University Farm at Ithaca, X. Y., where
it had done more or less damage for two years, though Mr.
F, H. Chittenden states that he collected a single adult at Ithaca
in the early 'SO's. Specimens were also collected at Ottawa,
Canada, and Buffalo, X. Y., in 1SS7 and 18SS, and injury has been
reported by Dr. James Fletcher from Manitolja and the Xorthwest
Territories. The injur}' under Dr. Fletcher's observation, how-
ever, was probably due to a nearly related species, the Western

* Cephns pygmosus Linn. Family CephidcE. Bulletin 11, Cornell JJnW.
Agr. Exp. Station.

130 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Grass-stem Saw-fly (Cephiis occidentalis Riley and Marlatt).
This is. a native species which normally lives in wild grasses and
which has been quite injurious in certain sections of the North-
west during recent years. It habits and the means of control
are practically identical with the sjDecies here discussed. f

The following is gleaned from Professor Comstock's interesting
account.

Injury. — Xo external indications of injury to the plant can

l)e seen until the larva within
has almost completely tunneled
the stalk, at which time there
is a discoloration just below the
injured joints. Thus damage by
this insect is not readily noticed,
it merely dwarfing and stunting
the growth of the plant by bor-
ing in the stem.

" If infested straws be ex-
amined a week or ten days before
the ripening of the wheat, the
cause of this injury can be found
at work within them. It is at
that time a yellowish, milky-
white worm, varying in size from
one-fifth to one-half an inch in
length. The smaller ones may
not have bored through a single
joint; while the larger ones will
have tunneled all of them, except,
perhaps, the one next to the ground.

Life History. — " As the grain l^ecomes ripe the larva works
its way toward the ground; and at the time of harvest the greater
number of them have penetrated the root. Here, in the lowest
part of the cavity of the straw, they make preparations for pass-,
ing the winter, and even for their escape from the straw the
t See F. M. Webster, Circular 117, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

Fig. 94. — The wheat saw-fly borer
(Cephus pygmceus Linn.): a, out-
line of larva, natural size; b, larva,
enlarged ; c, larva in wheat-stalk,
natural size; d, frass; e, adult
female;/, Pachyonerufi calcitrntnr,
female, a parasite — enlarged.
(After Curti.s, from "Insect Life. "J

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 131

following year. This is done l)y cutting the straw circularly
on the inside, nearly severing it a short distance, varying from
one-half to one-inch, from the ground. If the wheat were grow-
ing wild, the winter winds would cause the stalk to break at
this point; and thus the insect after it had reached the adult
state could easily escape; while but for this cut it would be very
liable to l)e imprisoned in the straw." Ordinarily, the straw is
cut by the reaj)er l)efore it becomes broken; but a strong wind

Fig. 95. — The western grass-stem saw-fly (Cephus occidentalis) : a, larva;
b, female saw-fly; c, grass-.stem showing work, c, enlarged, a, b, more
enlarged, (.\fter Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

just before harvest will cause a large number of stalks to become
broken, much as if affected by the Hessian fly.

" After the circular cut has been made, the larva fills the
cavity of the straw just below it for a short distance with a plug
of borings. Between this plug and the lower end of. the cavity
of the straw there is a place about one-half an inch in length.
It is here that the insect passes the winter." This cell is lined
with silk so as to form a warm cocoon. Here the larva passes
the winter and changes to a pupa in March or April. The adult
insect emerges early in May. The adults are four-winged insects,

132 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

and are popularly known as saw-flies on account of the saw-like
ovipositor of the female, by means of which she inserts her
eggs in the tissue of the plant. This species is quite different in
some respects from the saw-flies feeding upon the leaves of wheat,
and belongs to the family Cephidoe.

The female commences to lay eggs by the middle of May.
By means of her sharp ovipositor she makes a very small slit
any place in the stalk of the plant and in this thrusts a small
white egg — about Yioo of an inch long — which is pushed clear
through the walls of the straw and left adhering to the inside.
Though several eggs are deposited in a straw, but one larva
usually develops. " The eggs hatch soon after they are laid,
and the larvae may develop quite rapidly. A larva which
hatched from an egg laid May 13th was found to have
tunneled the entire length of the stalk in which it was " on May
28th.

Remedies. — " The most obvious method of combating the
insect is to attack it while it is in the stubble; that is, sometime
between harvest and the following May. If the stubble can be
burned in the autumn, the larvae in it can be destroyed. The
same thing could be accomplished by plowing the stubble under,
which would prevent the escape of the adult flies. But as it is
(often) customar}' ... to sow grass-seed with wheat, it is feared
that the plowing under of infested stubble would rarely be prac-
ticable; and it is also questionable if the burning of the stubble
could be thoroughly done without destroying the young grass.
It would seem probable, therefore, that if this insect becomes
a very serious pest, it will be necessary. . . either to sow grass-
seed with oats and burn or plow under all the wheat stubble,
or to suspend growing wheat for one year, in order to destroy
the insects, by starvation."

Some Wheat-maggots

Very similar to the Hessian fly in its mode of injuring the
wheat-stalk is the Wheat-stem Maggot {Meromyza aineincana
Fitch). The adult flies were first described bv Dr. Fitch in 185G,

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS

133

though the work of the maggots had probably been noticed as
early as 1821 by James Worth of Bucks County, Pa., and by the
Michigan Farmer in Michigan about 1845.

Extending from Dakota and Manitoba to Texas, the range
of this insect practically covers all the eastern United States and
southern Canada.

Unlike the Hessian fly it feeds and breeds upon wild grasses and
is thus much more difficult to control. Prof. A. J. Cook found
the larvae in both
barley and oats in
Michigan, Prof. F.
M. Webster reared
an adult from blue
grass (Poa praten-
sis), and Dr. Jas.
Fletcher records it
as breeding in
Agropyrum, Des-
champsis, Elynius,
Poa, and Setaria
viridis in Canada.

Life History. —
Like the Hessian
fly the adult flies
lay their eggs on
fall wheat in Sep-
tember and Octo-
ber, and the young maggots when hatched work their way
down into the stem, either cutting it off or causing it to discolor
or die. The eggs are about one-fortieth of an inch long and
of a glistening white color. The larvse are a light greenish
color, about one-fourth of an inch long, tapering toward the
terminal end while subcylindrical posteriorly, being quite elon-
gate. The pupae are the same color as the larvae, but more
rounded, being only one-sixth of an inch long, and reveal the
legs and wing-cases of the imago forming within them. The

Fig. 96. — Wheat bull )-\vorni {Meromyza americana):
n, mature fly; b, larva; c, puparium; d, infested
wheat-stem — all enlarged except d. (After
Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

134 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

external case of the pupa, called the puparium, is merely the
shrunken and hardened cast skin of the last larval stage,
within which the insect transforms to the pupa. The fly is
about one-fifth of an inch long. It is of a yellowish-white
color with a black spot on the top of the head, three broad black
stripes on the thorax, and three on the abdomen, which are often
interrupted at the sutures, so that they form distinct spots.

The eyes are a bright
green.

The winter is passed
l)y the larvae in the
young plants and in
spring they transform
to pupic and adult
fiics. These in turn
deposit eggs in such a
position that the mag-
gots issuing from them
may readily feed upon
the succulent portions
of the growing stalk.
Numerous larvae thus
sapping the life of the
plant soon kill it out-
right or cause the top
and head to wither and
die. The adults of this brood emerge in July and lay eggs
on volunteer wheat and grasses, the maggots working in the
same manner as in the fall and coming to maturity so that
another brood of flies lays eggs for the fall brood on the newly
planted wheat.

Owing to the fact that this insect breeds also in grasses dur-
ing late summer it is much moi'c difficult to combat than were it
confined to wheat as its food-plant, as is the Hessian fly.

Remedies. — " If the grain is stacked or threshed and the
straw stacked or burned," says Professor Webster, " it is clear that

Fig. 97. — The American frit-fly (Oscinis variabilis
Locw): a, larva or maggot; b, puparium; r,
adult fly. (After Garman.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 135

the number escaping would be greatly reduced," for, as the
adults emerge soon after harvest, they would escape to deposit
their eggs were the straw left in the fields, but " it is not likely
that those in the centre of the stacks would be able to make
their way out, and the threshing-machine would destroy many
more. How much could be accomplished by late sowing of grain
is uncertain, as the females are known to occur abundantly up to
October. If plots of grain were sowed immediately after harvest
in the vicinty of the stacks, many of the females could, no doubt,
be induced to deposit their eggs therein, and these could be
destroyed by plowing under." Burning of the stubble will also
aid in keeping this pest under control.

There are several undetermined species of flies belonging
to the genus Oscinis, which have practically the same life history
as the wheat stem-maggot and injure the wheat in the same
manner. They very closely lesemble the common house-fly in
miniature, being about one-fourth as large. They will not need
consideration by the practical farmer other than in applying
methods of control as already given. One species of this genus,
determined by Professor H. Garman as Oscinis variabilis Loew and
christened the American Frit-fly, has been found common in
Kentucky and Canada, but in the larval stage is so nearly
identical in appearance and habit with the stem-maggot that it
can with difficulty be distinguished from it.

That these pests do not do more injury is probably due, to a
considerable extent, to the fact that large numbers of them are
destroyed by a small hymenopterous parasite, known as Ccelinus
meromyzce Forbes, which very commonly infests the larvae, and
by other parasites and predaceous insects.

Rarely will these pests do serious damage, but very often
it is sufficient to merit consideration, and only a knowledge of
their life history can give a key to their successful control.

136 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Wheat Joint-worm

/

For the last sixty years tlie joint- worm has been known as
a serious pest of wheat throughout the wheat-growing region
east of the Mississippi River, the damage varying from a
shght injury which is hardly noticeable, and which may escape
observation for several years, to an almost total destruction of
the crop.

The adults appear in April, May, or early June, according to the
latitude, and are small black, four-winged flies about one-eighth
inch long, with the joints of the legs and feet yellow. They look

s o m e t h i n g like
small, winged black
ants (Fig. 99) and
cLii-iously enough
l)elong to a family
whose members are

11 IW •-f-* / /^fllS\ almost all paras'.tic

on other insects, so
that before they had
been thoroughly
studied they were
thought to be para-
sites of the Hessian
fly. The females
lay their eggs in the stems, generally selecting the uppermost
joints that have appeared at that time. " The young worms
develop rapidly, each in a little cavity within the straw. Often
knots, swellings, and twistings occur in the straw at the point
of infestation; again there is little sign of the insect's presence
except a slight discoloration or a little deviation of the fibres
and grooves of the straw from their natural course. When the
infested section is split with a knife it is found to be brittle and

* Isosoma tritici Fitch. Family Chalcididce. See J. S. Houser, Bulletin
226, Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta.; and F. M. Webster, Circular 66, Bureau of Ento-
mology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

Fig. 98. — a, wheat-straw affected hy joint-worm; h,
adult as seen from above. (After Riley.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS

137

woody in character, and contains from 3 or 4 to 20 or more 3'el-
lowish larvae, about one-eighth inch long when full-grown. These
larvae remain in the straw until the following spring, when they
issue as adults and commence again the life cycle in the new crop.
The damage is done by the worms cutting off the sap supply
from the head, causing it to become shortened, containing
comparatively few kernels, and such kernels as develop are apt
to be small and shriveled from lack of nourishment. Also because
of the brittleness of the straw high winds are apt to break much
of it down." — Gossard.

The presence of the pest is always indicated at threshing by

Fig. 99. — Wheat straw-worm (Isosomo grande Riley): o, ventral view; b, side
view of larva; c, antennae; d, mandilsle; e, anal segment, ventral view; /,
adult female; g, fore-wang; h, hind-wing; /, aborted wing. (After Riley.)

short, hard bits of straw, containing the larvae, which are carried
out with the grain instead of going over in the straw. It has
usually been considered necessary to separate and burn these,
but Professor F. M. Webster finds that the larvae in them are
probably killed in threshing, as he has been unable to rear
adults of either the joint-worm or its parasites from such bits of
straw.

Control. — A rotation of the wheat crop is of primary impor-
tance in the control of this pest, and where wheat is not planted
on the same land and is sown as far from that of the previous

138 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

year as possible there will be but little damage. It is obvious
that the stubble should be plowed under where possible, or burned
during the late fall or winter. Cut infested grain as low as pos-
sible so as to remove the larvae in the straw. Where the stubble
cannot be burned, break it down by harrowing in the spring and
then collect with a hay rake and burn. Prepare the seed bed
thoroughly and fertilize well, when injury is expected, so as to

Fig. 100. — Swellings made by wheat joint-worms in straw — enlarged.

Pettit.)

(After

ensure a strong growth and early ripening. Green manure
containing infested straw should not be scattered on land to be
used for wheat, and all infested straw which has not been used
up by April should be burned.

The Wheat Straw-worm *

" The Wheat Straw-worm," says Professor F. M.Webster," sus-
tains the same relation to winter-wheat culture west of the Miss-
issippi River that the joint-worm does to the cultivation of this
cereal east of this river. Both, when excessively abundant,
occasion losses from slight to total. A wheat stem attacked
by the joint- worm may produce grain of a more or less inferior
quality and less of it; but the spring attack of the wheat straw-
* hosoma yrande Riley. Family Chalcidida.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS

139

worm is fatal to the plant affected, as no grain at all is produced,
and while the second generation of the same has a less disastrous
effect in the field, it nevertheless reduces the grade and weight
of the grain." Though the straw- woiTn occurs over much of
the same territory in the East as the joint- worm, it is rarely so
injurious.

Life History and Description.'^ " There are two generations
of the insect annually, the adults of the first generation differing
considerably in appearance from those of the second. To the
farmer they will all look like minute or large, shining black ants,

Fig. lUL — \Mieat straw-worm: adult of fall generation, much enlarged.
(After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

with or without wings, their legs more or less banded with yellow,
and having red eyes. Individuals of the first generation emerge
in April from the outstanding straws and stubble. They are
very small, most of them are females, antl many are wingless.
The females deposit their eggs in the young wheat plants, the
stems of which at this time extend but little above the sur-
face of the ground. The egg is placed in or just below the
embryonic wheat head and the larva or worm works within

* From Circular 106, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., by F. M.
Webster and Geo. I. Reeves.

140 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

the stem, usually causing a slight enlargement. When the
worm is full grown it will be found in the crown of the plant,
having eaten out and totally destroyed the embryonic head,
its body occupying the cavity thus formed.

"The females which deposit these eggs, being small and fre-
quently wingless, are in no way fitted for traveling long dis-
tances. The larva or worm is of a very light straw color, indeed
almost white, with brown jaws. These worms develop very

rapidly and, as the}' feed
on the most nutritious part
of the plant, they become
robust and larger than
those found in the mature
straw in late summer. In
May the larvae become full
grown and pass at once
through a short pupal
stage. The pupse are at
first the same color as the
larvae, but later change to
a shining jet black. In
a few days the fully devel-
oped insects gnaw circular
holes through the walls of
the stem and make their
way out. These adults are
much larger and more robust than the individuals of the first
generation and are provided with fully developed, serviceable wings.
That they make good use of their wings, and scatter themselves
about over fields adjacent to their place of development, is shown
by their occurrence in fields of grasses (in the stems of which
they do not breed) situated considerable distances from wheat
fields. In ovipositing, the females of this generation select
the largest and most vigorous-growing stems in which to place
their eggs.

" The adults of the second generation deposit their eggs

a

Fig. 102. — The wheat straw-worm:
method of oviposition of female of
summer form: a, female inserting
her eggs, b, section of wheat stem,
showing egg; c, and ovipositor, d;
c, egg, greatly magnified. (After
Riley and Webster, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS

141

from early May, in Texas, up to the middle of June, in northern
Indiana, or about the time the wheat is heading. Their aim
at this time is to place the eggs singly in the growing stem,
just above the youngest
and most succulent joints,
which are not so covered
by the enfolding leaf
sheaths as to be inaccessi-
ble to them. Thus it is
that the stage of advance-
ment in the growth of the
wheat stem at the time of
oviposit ion of the svimmer
generation of females
determines whether the
larva^ will be well upward
in the straw, and there-
fore removed after har-
vest, or lower down and
consequently left in the
field in the stubble.

" The method of ovi-
posit ion and the point
where the egg is usually
formed is shown in Fig.
103. The larva forms no
gall, nor does it harden
the stem within which it
develops. There is nor-
mally but one larva in each joint; but if several eggs have been
placed between joints and produce larvse there will be one in the
centre of the stem just above the joint and others in the walls just
under the internal wall-covering or inner epidermis. These larvae
in the walls of the straws do not, as a rule, kill the stem, but
their effect is to curtail the yield by reducing the weight. The
larvae develop rapidly and reach their full growth before the

FiG. 103. — Wheat straw-worm, showing
point where female of the spring form
deposits the egg in young wheat in early
spring. Enlarged showing position of egg
at right. (After Wester, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

142 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

straw has hardened. By October, in the Middle West, though
earHer in the South, they pass into the pupal stage, in which, as a
rule, they remain until early spring, whereupon they develop to
adults and gnaw their way out." In the Northwest, where both
winter and spring wheat are grown, the injury is particularly
severe to spring wlieat, as the adults of the second generation from
vvinter wheat oviposit upon it while it is still young and ruin it in
much the same way as the first generation does on the winter
wheat in spring. Volunteer plants which carry the pest over
winter have the same effect in increasing the injury to spring
wheat.

Control. — A rotation of crops which will eliminate the growing
of wheat two years in succession on the same land is by all means
the most successful and practicable means of control. The adults
of the first generation are very small and largely wingless; they are
unable to migrate far, so that rotation is exceedingly efficacious,
though it should ])e planned so that wheat is not planted next to
stubble land, for the edge will become infested by the first genera-
tion, and the second generation will then become distributed
throughout the field. The ])ui"ning of stubl^le and outstanding
straw will be advantageous wherever practicable. Clean fallow-
ing in early summer and the abandonment of spring-wheat culture
will reduce injury in the Northwest.

Wheat Saw-flies *

Several species of saw-fly larva sometimes feed on the leaves
and rarely on the heads of wheat, but seldom do serious injury.
Dolerus arvensis Say and Dolerus collaris Say have both been
reared upon wheat from Ohio and New Jersey, though both species
occur throughout the United States and southern Canada east of
the Rockies. The adult flies " are comparatively large, robust in-
sects, of a dull black or bluish color, varied with yellow or reddish."
" The larvae are quite uniform in color and general characteristics.
They have twenty-two legs, are cylindrical, and generally of a

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 143

uniform grayish or slaty color, dorsally and laterally, but nearly
white vcntrally." *

The adults deposit their eggs in the spring, and larva? are
to be found early in June.

The only record found of the life history is that of D. collaris
by Professor F. M. Webster, who found that a larva collected
on June 15, 1897, entered the ground in about ten days, and
the first adult emerged January 11, 1898, though the adults
usually appear later.

The most common saw-fly feeding upon wheat foliage is

Fig. 104. — A wheat saw-fly {Dolcru.s arvensis iiay) : female — much enlarged.
(After Riley and Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Pachyneniatus extensicornis Norton. " The adult insects appear
during the latter part of April and first of May, the males antedat-
ing the females several days. The eggs, when first laid, are of a
light green color. They are inserted to the number of two to five,
or more, together along the edges of the wheat-blades and just
beneath the epidermis. Some fifteen or sixteen days elapse before
hatching. The newly hatched lar^^a is rather slender and elongate,
tapering gradually from the head to the last segment; head yel-
lowish, eyes black. Full growth is attained in about five weeks,

* Family Tenthredinidoe. Wheat and Grass Saw-flies. C. V. Riley and
C. L. Marlatt, " Insect Life," Vol. IV, p. 169.

144 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

the mature larva having a length of about four-fifths of an inch.
The head is of a pale clay-yellow color, the eyes are black, and the
color of the body is green or yellowish green. The larva is at once
separated from the Dolerus larva by the possession of but seven
pairs of abdominal feet." (R. and M., I.e.) When full-grown the
larvae enter the earth and construct silken cocoons, in which they

Fig. 105. — The grass saw-fly (Pachynematus extensicornis Norton) : a, a, eggs
on wheat-blade; young larvae; c, full-grown larva; d, cocoon from
which adult has emerged; e, f, adult in.sects — e, male; /, female, a and
b, naturalsize; c-f, enlarged. (After Riley and Marlatt, U. S. D. Agr.)

doubtless remain unchanged over winter, transforming to pupa)
shortly before the adults emerge the next spring. The form of the
adults is well shown in the illustration. " The female is stout and
in general light yellowish or ochraceous in color. The abdomen
is for the most part dark brown or black, dorsally, except tlie pos-
terior lateral margin and the extreme tip. The male is much more
slender and elongate than the female, and is almost black in color,

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 145

the tip of the abdomen being reddish and part of the legs whitish."
This species has been taken on wheat in IlHnois, Nebraska, Dela-
ware, Maryland, Ohio, Indiana, and Pennsylvania. During 188G
and 1887 it did considerable damage by cutting off the heads, —
sometimes, as stated by a Maryland man, cutting fully one-half of
them. No more recent damage has been recorded, and owing to
the slight injury usually done no remedies have received a prac-
tical test. Deep fall plowing might be of advantage by burying
the larvae so deeply that the adults would be unable to escape.

The Wheat-midge *

History. — While the Hessian fly attacks the stalk of the
wheat-plant, another species of the same genus, known as the
Wheat-midge, or " Red Weevil," often does very serious damage
to the maturing head. It, too, is a foreigner, having first been
noticed as injurious in Suffolk, England, in 1795, though probable
references to its depredations date back as early as 1741. " In
' ElHs's Modern Husbandman ' for 1745 the attacks of the vast
numbers of black flies (the ichneumon parasites) are noticed
in the following quaint terms : ' After this we have a melancholy
sight, for, as soon as the wheat had done blooming, vast numbers
of black flies attacked the wheat-ears and blowed a little yellow
maggot which ate up some of the kernels in other parts of them,
and which caused multitudes of ears to miss of their fulness, acting
in some measure like a sort of locust, till rain fell and washed them
off; and though this evil has happened in other summers to the
wheat in some degree, yet if the good providence of God had not
hindered it they might have ruined all the crops of wheat in the
nation.' (Hind's 'Essay on Insects and Diseases Injurious to
Wheat Crops,' page 76)". It seems probable that it was first
introduced into America near Quebec, where it " appears to have
occurred " in 1819, and was first observed in the United States

* Diplosis tritici. Family Cecidomyidce. See Bulletin No. 5, Vol I -^d
Ser., Ohio Ag. Exp. Sta., F. M. Webster.

146 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

in northwestern Vermont in 1820. It did not become very
destructive, however, until 1828, from which time until 1835
is kept increasing in such numbers as to cause the abandonment
of the wheat crops in some localities throughout northern New
England. Serious damage was reported as due to this pest
every few years until about 1860, being most severe in 1854, in
which year Dr. Fitch estimated the loss in New York alone at
$15,000,000, and in 1857, and 1858. Since then no widespread
injury has occurred, though local outljroaks are frequent, and

Fig. 106. — Wheat-midge {Diplosif^ tritici): a, female fly; b, male fly; c, larva
from below. (After Marlatt, U. 8. Dept. Agr.)

it has spread south to the Gulf States and westward to Iowa,
Minnesota, and Arkansas.

Life History. — The adult flies are small, two-winged insects,
about an eighth of an inch long, of a yellow or orange color.
They appear aliout the middle of June and lay the eggs " in a
small cavity at the summit of, and formed by a groove in, the
outmost chaff covering the incipient kernel." They hatch in
about a week, according to Dr. Fitch, and the maggots burrow
into the forming kernels. The maggots are of a reddish color,
and when an ear is badly infested give it a reddish tinge, on
account of which the insect is often called the " red weevil."

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 147

When full grown the larvae enter the ground and usually
form cocoons, in which they pass the winter in the pupal stages
though they often hibernate without such protection. Though
doubtless there is usually but one brood in a season, observations
by Professor F. M. Webster and others seem to point to the fact
that there sometimes are two broods, as adults have been observed
from August into November.

Besides wheat, the wheat-midge also sometimes injures
rye, barley, and oats.

Remedies. — Plowing infested fields in the fall so deeply that
the midges will be unable to reach the surface upon developing
in the spring is by far the best means of controlling this pest,
while burning the stubble previous to plowing, and a rotation
of the crop, will also be of considerable aid.

The English Grain-louse *

The most common plant-louse affecting wheat and other small
grains is a large green species which is always to be found on
wheat plants, but which occasionally increases very rapidly, and
clustering on the ripening heads sucks the juices so as to seriously
injure the quality and weight of the wheat.

In the North the first individuals are found on young wheat
in April, though during open winters they may be found on the
plants, and in the South they continue to reproduce during most
of the winter in open seasons. The aphides feed upon the leaves
until the grain commences to head, when they assemble on the
heads among the ripening kernels. The females give birth to
live young, bearing from 40 to 50 each, which become full grown
in ten days to two weeks, and then reproduce, as is the usual
method of reproduction with plant-lice (see page 442) , so that they

* Ma crosiphum granaria 'Bnckton. Family Aphidida. A nearlj' related
species, Macrosiphum ^-erea^is Kaltenbach, has very similar habits, is commonly
associated with the species, and has not been distinguished from it by most
writers. It may be recognized by lacking the blackish markings on the
abdominal seojnents. See Pergande, Bulletin 44, Bureau of Entomology,
U. S. Dept. Agr.

148 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

multiply with great rapidity, and where so few were present as
to be hardly noticeable, in a few weeks they will be swarming
over the heads in myriads. As the small grains ripen they migrate
to various grasses and are not much in evidence during midsummer,
but later migrate to volunteer oats and wheat, upon which they
subsist until fall wheat is available. Owing to the cool weather
of fall and the fact that but few individuals survive the attacks
of their parasites during the summer, they rarely become abundant
enough to do any damage to grains in the fall. So far as known,

they hibernate over
winter among the leaves
of the growing plants,
enough surviving both
snow and cold to infest
the crop the next spring.
Whether true males and
females produce eggs on
the grain is unknown, for
though they have been
reared under artificial
conditions, they have
never been observed in
the field. Professor F. L.
Washburn observed at
least fourteen generations
up to November 8, 1907,
in southern Minnesota.
As with other aphides, both winged and wingless individuals
occur throughout the season. The wingless individuals are
about one-tenth inch long, with black antenna^ as long or longer
than the body, are of a yellowish-green color, often slightly
pruinose, and long black nectaries extend from either side of the
abdomen. The winged individuals are about the same length,
with a wing expanse of about three-eighths inch, with antennae
a third longer than the body, and are of the same general colora-
tion except that lobes of the thorax are brown or blackish, and

Fig. 107. — The German grain aphis {Macro-
siphum cerealis Kah): a, winged migrant;
b, nymph of same; c, wingless partheno-
genetic female; d, same showing exit hole
of parasite — enlarged. (After Riley, U.
S. Dept. Agr.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS

149

the abdomen is marked with four or five transverse blackish

spots in front of the nectaries.

Like the other aphides affecting small grains, this species is

held in check by parasitic insects, aided by predaceous insects and

fungous diseases. Injury by the aphides is usually due to the

parasites having been killed off, thus
giving the aphides opportunity to
multiply unchecked. Among the most
abundant parasites are species of the
genus Aphidius (family Braconidce),

Fig. 108. — Grain aphides
clustered on wheat head,
greatly enlarged. (After
Weed.)

Fig. 109. — Wheat-louse parasite (Aphidius
avenaphis Fitch), and parasitized louse
from which it has issued. (Copied from
J. B. Smith.)

one of which is shown in Fig. 109, greatly enlarged. Cold, wet
weather in spring greatly retards the development of these para-
sites, so that the aphides are always more numerous in such
seasons. It has also been observed that an outbreak is often
preceded by several dry seasons, which may be due to the fact that
such dry seasons check the development of fungous diseases which
kill off large numbers of the aphides and which do not propagate
in hot dry weather, Thus weather conditions are very intimately

150 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

associated with the abundance of the pest. When the parasites
become abundant they will often completely rid a field of the
aphides within a few days. All of the common ladybird-beetles
(Coccinellidce), Syrphus-fly larvae, and lace- winged fly larvae
(ChrysopidcB) are commonly found feeding upon the aphides.
Control. — No practical remedy for this species is known nor
are means of control easily suggested. The suppression of
volunteer wheat and oats in early fall will prevent the multiplica-
tion of the pest before fall-sown wheat is available, and the late
sowing of wheat in the fall will reduce the numbers entering
hibernation. A wise rotation and the thorough preparation
of the seed-bed and liberal fertilization will be of value in avoid-
ing injury in the same way as has been described for other pests
of small grains. Fortunately this species rarely does very wide-
spread injury and its parasites usually soon bring it under control.

The Spring Grain-aphis or Green Bug * ^
Though long known as a serious pest of small grains in Europe,
this aphis has done widespread injury in this country only during
the past ten years. Though it occurs throughout the territory
north of latitude 41°, with the exception of the North Atlantic
States, as far west as longitude 105°, the worst injury has been done
in northern Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, though it has also been
injurious in the Carolinas and Tennessee.

The habits of the insect during the winter have not been suffi-
ciently studied to speak authoritatively, but it seems probable
that it normally passes the winter in the egg stage, the small shin-
ing black eggs, one-fortieth inch long, being laid on the leaves in
the late fall. In the South, however, it often continues to
reproduce throughout the winter, and with a mild winter the
numbers so multiply that unless checked by parasites serious
injury is done by late winter or early spring. Both wingless and
winged forms occur throughout the year. The wingless female
is from one-twenty-fifth to one-fourteenth inch long, yellowish-
green, with a median line slightly darker, eyes and most of the
* Toxoptera graminum Rond. Family Aphididoe.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS

151

antennse black, of the shape shown in Fig. 112. The winged
female is slightly larger, with a wing expanse of about one-
quarter inch, and of the same general coloration, except that the
head is brownish-yelk)w and the lobes of the thorax are blackish.
The aphides hatching from the eggs are all females, which give
birth to live young, no male forms occurring during the summer.
During her life of slightly over a month a female will give birth to
50 or 60 young, which commence to reproduce in the same manner

Fig. 110. — The spring grain-aphis or "green bug" {Toxoptrea gramimum) :
o, winged migrant; h. antemia of same, o, much enh^rged; h, highly
magnified. (From Pergande, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

when about seven days old, so the numbers of the pest obviously
increase with enormous rapidity, and with thousands of tiny beaks
pumping out the sap the young grain plants soon succumb. The
rate of reproduction and growth is, of course, much slower in
colder weather, the above being the average for the growing season.
Thus in an open winter the aphides will continue to multiply, and
by February, in northern Texas, small spots of wheat and oats
will show the effect of their work, by March the injury may become
widespread and serious, and by the middle of April the crops may
be ruined. As the aphides become excessively abundant and the

152 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

food supply disappears, almost all develop wings, and immense
clouds of the winged females are carried northward by the
winds, so that an outbreak in early spring in the South leads to an
infestation farther north, and excessive multiplication will again
carry the pest still northward, progressing in that direction as it
increases during the season, rather than being spread at one time.
Thus in 1907 it became abundant in Oklahoma in April, in Kansas

\h

Fig. 111. — Green bug.s on oat-seedling — enlarged.

in May, and by July it was found in Minnesota, where it rarely
occurs and does no damage. With the maturing of wheat and oats
the aphides migrate to various grasses, being particularly fond of
Kentucky blue-grass, and may subsist on corn, on which they
may feed until oats and wheat are available in the fall. Oats are the
favorite food, and outbreaks of the pest have always been worst
where volunteer oats are generally grown, the aphides increasing
on them in the early fall and winter and later spreading to wheat.
By October 15th in Minnesota and by early November in Kansas
the true winged males and wingless egg-laying females have been

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS

153

observed, but strangely enough they have only been secured in
small numbers by being reared in the laboratory, and have not
been observed in the field, so that although these females laid eggs
freely on the leaves of grain, we do not know whether they are
essential or not to the life history of the insect in the field, for
while the eggs are being produced other females continue to give
birth to live young until the cold of winter, and they have been

Fig. 112. — Toxoptem graminum: a, newly born, and b, adult wingless green
bug, greatly enlarged. (After S. J. Hunter.) #

observed to reproduce with a daily mean temperature barely
above freezing.

Natural Control. — The natural control of this most destructive
pest involves a most interesting relationship between temperature
and the development of the parasites which check its development.
" The ' green bug ' in normal years — that is, when its breeding
begins in spring — is effectively held in check by its natural ene-
mies, and notably by a minute, black wasp-like insect, Lysiphlebus
testaceipes Cress. (Fig. 113), that deposits eggs singly in the 'green

154 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

bugs,' the grubs hatching from the eggs feeding internally on the
bug and destroying it (Figs. 115, 116). Other natural enemies are
the larvae of certain predaceous flies, and the larva? and adults of
lady-beetles. The little wasp-like parasite first mentioned, how-
ever, is the one that keeps the ' green bug ' in control in normal
years, and in years when the latter is most abundant finally over-
comes it, as was the case in 1907 in Kansas, North Carolina, and
other States in the more northern part of the range of the pest."

9

Fig. 113. — Lysiphlebus testaceijjes Cress., adult female and antenna of male —
greatly enlarged. (After Webster, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

"Unfortunately this parasitic wasp — as with the other bene-
ficial insects — is active only while the temperature is above 56° F.,
or at least 10° above that at which the ' green bug ' breeds freely;
and herein is the whole secret of the irregular disastrous outbreaks
of the ' green Ijug ' in grain fields. As accounting for the out-
break in the year 1907, the ' green bug ' had had a whole winter
and the following late spring in which to breed and multiply un-
molested, and it accomplished its principal damage, as in Texas
and southern Oklahoma, before the weather was warm enough
for the parasite to increase sufficiently to overcome it."

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS

155

" As further illustrative of the important bearing of weather
conditions, it is found that in the case of the three important out-
breaks of this insect, namely, for the years 1890, 1901, and 1907,
the temperature for the first five months of each of these years,
including the latter part of the winter and spring, was above the
normal for the winter months and below
the normal for the spring months; in
other words, warm winters and cold, late
springs." .. -

" The little parasitic jvasj? which is so
useful in the control of thisp'ist is native
to this country, widely distributed, and
every year does its work with the ' green
bug ' and with other aphides. It is
always present in grain fields, as shown by
its appearance every year, to war on these
pests whenever the weather conditions

ijiy

Fig. 115.— Dead "green
bugs," showing hole
from which the matu-
red parasite of Lysiph-
lebus emerges. The
top figure shows the
Hd still attached, but
pushed back; the bot-
tom figure shows the

Fig. 114. — Lysiphlebus parasite in act of depositing
eggs in the body of a grain-aphis — much enlarged.
(After Webster, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

parasite emerging.
Enlarged. (After
Webster, U. S. Dept.
Agr.)

make its breeding and multiplication possible, and its rate of breed-
ing is so rapid (there being a generation about every ten days) that
with a wTek or two of favorable weather it gains control over its
host insects and destroys them." * Extensive experiments were
conducted in Kansas in 1907 in importing these parasites from

*From F. M. Webster, Circular 93, Bureau of Entomology. U. S. Dept.
Agr. See also Bulletin of the LTniversity of Kansas, Vol. IX, No. 2, by
S. J. Hunter, The Green Bug and Its Natural Enemies.

156 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

farther south before they had become abundant in Kansas fields
so as to hasten their control of the aphides, but further experi-
ments will be necessary before it can be determined whether such
a method of colonizing the parasites is practically effective or not.
Control. — Most important of all methods of control is the aban-
donment of the growing of volunteer oats and the destruction of
all volunteer oats and wheat in the early fall. Universal experi-

FiG. 116. — Parasitized green bugs— enlarged. (From photograph, after

S. J. Hunter.)

ence throughout the injured area shows that relatively little injury
occurs where volunteer oats are not grown.

Where small spots of grain have been injured by the pest in late
winter, which is the way an outbreak usually begins in southern
localities, the aphides on these small spots may be killed by spray-
ing with 10 per cent kerosene emulsion, or whale-oil soap, 5 pounds
to a barrel of water, by covering the spots with straw and burning,
or by plowing under the infested spots. Were this generally done
before the aphides commence to multiply rapidly, it is entirely
possible that widespread injury might be averted.

CHAPTER IX.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN

The Western Corn Root-worm *

Throughout the corn States of the northern Mississippi Val-
ley, wherever corn is grown upon the same land it is subject to
serious injury by the Western Corn Root-worm, so called because
it first became injuri-
ous in Missouri and
Kansas and gradually
spread eastward to
Ohio, though not in-
jurious south of the
Ohio River.

Though the life
history of the insect
has not been entirely
determined, the fol-
lowing summarizes
it as observed by
Professors S. A.

Forbes and F. M. Webster in Illinois and Indiana. The eggs
are laid in the early fall, wuthin a few inches of the base of the stalk,
and just beneath the surface of the soil. The egg is a dirty white
color, oval in shape, and about one-fiftieth inch long. The winter is
passed in the egg stage, differing from most nearly related beetles in
this, and the eggs hatch in the spring or early summer. At first
the larvae eat the small roots entire, but later burrow under the
outer layers of the larger roots, causing the stalks on rich loam to

* Diabrotica longicornis Say. Family Chrysomelidce .

157

Fig. 117. — The western corn root-worm: a,
beetle; 6, larva; c, enlarged leg of same; d,
pupa — all enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S.
D. Agr.)

158 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

be easily blown over, or dwarfing the plant on poorer land so that
it produces but small ears. The full-grown larva is nearly white
with a brown head, a little less than one-tenth inch long by about
one-tenth inch in diameter. Three pairs of short legs arc found
on the thorax, but otherwise the body appears perfectly smooth
to the eye, though finely wrinkled. Before pupation the color
becomes slightly darker and the body shortens. Leaving the
roots, the larva? then form small oval cells in the soil and in them
transform to pupa*, from which the adult beetl(\s emerge in a
short time. The beetles appear from the middle of .Tul}'^ on
through August, al^out two mor ths being required for development
after hatching from the egg. The beetles arc of a greenish or
greenish-yellow color, about one-quarter inch long, and resemble
the common striped cucumber-beetle (page 379) in form. They
are to be found in the corn-fields feeding upon pollen and silk
until the latter becomes dry, and lay their eggs during August
and September, The beetles are often found feeding upon various
weeds, clover, beans, cucumber and squash vines, and the blossoms
of thistle, sunflower and golden rod.

Control. — As the larvae feed only on corn, if the corn-field be
planted to some other crop, starvation results, and a simple rota-
tion in which corn is not allowed on the same land for over two
years in succession usually prevents injury, though a field in which
injury has occurred should be planted to some other crop at once.
It is imprudent to plant corn on fields in which the beetle has been
observed feeding in large numbers on clover and weeds during the
late fall of the previous year. The liberal use of manure and fer-
tihzers, and thorough cultivation will, of course, be of service in
enabling the plants to withstand attack.

The Southern Corn Root-worm *

Closely related to the last species, but with somewhat different
habits, the Southern Corn Root-worm is frequently injurious to
corn from Maryland and southern Ohio southward.

* Diabrotica 12-punctata Oliv. Family Chrysomelidae.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN

159

The adult beetle is of a bright green marked with twelve black
spots, which have given it the name of 12-Spottecl Cucumber-
beetle to distinguish it from the Striped Cucumber-beetle (page 379) ,
with which it is often associated feeding on cucurbs. It is some-
what larger and more robust, than D. longicornis, and is almost
omnivorous in its food habits, feeding upon the foliage and flowers
of a long list of forage and garden crops, to which it often does

Fig. 118.— The southern corn root-worm: a, egg; b, larva; c, work of larva
at base of cornstalk; d, pupa; e, beetle — all much enlarged except c.
(After Riley.)

considera))le damage. Beans are frequently injured in much the
same way as corn and the roots of melons and other cucurbs are
often so riddled by the larvae as to kill the plants.

Injury to corn is done by the larvse in the spring, when they feed
upon the roots while the corn is but a few inches high, bore into the
crown, and boring into the base of the stalk through the young
leaves eat out the " bud." The latter injury often seems to be
more serious to corn than the injury to the roots, and has given
the insect the common local name of " budworm," which is
unfortunately applied to several other insects which do similar

160 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

injury. Larvae have been found attacking wheat, rye, millet and
Johnson grass in a similar way, the beetles seeming to be attracted
to fields containing Johnson grass before the corn appears, thus
injuring such grassy fields more severel}'. Injury to corn seems to
be worse on low, damp spots.

Life History. — The beetles hibernate over winter and are
among the first insects to appear in early spring, appearing by the
middle of March in the Southern States. Eggs are laid during April
in the Gulf States and from late April to early June in Kentucky
and the District of Columbia. The egg is dull yellow, oval, and
about one-fortieth inch long. The eggs are laid singly just beneath
the surface of the soil and hatch in from seven to ten days, those
laid early in the season requiring considerably longer. The
larvae become full grown and pupate about a month later, the
adult beetles of the first generation appearing during May and
early June in the Gulf States and in late June and early July in the
District of Columbia and Kentucky. Thus the complete life cycle
requires from six to nine weeks in the spring. Eggs are laid by the
first generation of beetles, the larvae being found on the roots of
corn from midsummer until fall, when the second generation of
beetles is found in October and November in Kentucky. In the
Gulf States there are undoubtedly three complete generations,
though they have not been carefully followed.* The beetles
assemble on clover and alfalfa in the late fall, upon which they feed
until winter sets in, and often come out and feed during warm
spells in January and February in the Southern States.

Control. — Although rotation of crops viill not be as effective in
the control of this species as in the case of D. longicornis, ii will
undoubtedly be found of value to avoid planting corn in succession
where injury is probable. By planting late after the beetles have
laid their eggs, injury has been avoided in Georgia. Liberal seed-
ing, using ten grains of seed per hill, will give a sufficient stand
free from attack, so that by thinning a good stand may be secured.

* In the Northern States, where this species is not a pest of com, but is
common on cucurbs and garden plants, there is probably but a single genera-
tion with a life history very similar to that of the striped cucumber-beetle,
seepage 379,

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 161

Fields which are well infested with Johnson grass, or other thick-
stemmed grasses, should be avoided, for as already indicated the
beetles will be attracted to them before the corn is up. Both
on account of the feeding habits of the larvae and the migratory
habits of the beetles no insecticide treatment commends itself as
practicable.

The Corn-root Webworm *

Injury. — When young corn-plants are seen to stop growing,
become deformed, and to die off in such numbers as to frequently
necessitate replanting, upon examination of the roots the injury
will sometimes be found to be due to the work of a small caterpillar.
Two or three, very often five or six, and sometimes as many as
eight or nine will be found at the base of a plant about an inch
below the surface of the soil, and not over 4 to 6 inches from
the stalk, usually being in close proximity to it. If each larva is
covered with a fine, loose wel), to which cling particles of earth
forming a sort of case, it is probably a corn-root webworm.

Where the webworms are present in any number they will
often necessitate a second, third, or sometimes a fourth
planting, making the corn very late and involving considerable
expense. The worms bore into the young stalks just above the
ground, frequently cutting them off entirely. Later on the
larger stalks are gouged out at or slightly above the surface of
the ground, and the larvae burrow into the folded leaves, which
when they unfold have several transverse rows of three to five
holes. On account of this habit these insects are sometimes
known as " budworms." Strong plants will often make a new
start and survive the injury, but remain much behind those not
attacked, while most of the weaker plants will decay and rot off.

The Moth. — As one walks through pasture or grass land,
mam' little white ' and yellowish moths are seen flying about
on all sides, but quickly disappear as they alight on the grass.
If a single individual be watched more closely, it will be noticed
that in alighting upon a blade of grass it quickly rolls its wings
* Crambus caliginosellus C\ein. Family Cramhidce.

162 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

very tightly around its body, and hugs up close to the grass
so that it is hardly distinguishable from it. Projecting from the
head in front is what appears to be a long beak or snout, on

account of which
these moths are
often known as
"snout-moths," but
which really con-
sists of the palpi
or feelers. The
" grass-moths," as
they are sometimes
called, belong to the
genus Cramhus and
include several
common species,
which are marked
with silver stripes
and bands, as well
as golden lines and
markings, so that
they often present
a very handsome
appearance.

Life History. —
These are the pa-
rents of the web-
worms which do so
much injury to the
young corn-roots,
the principal depre-
dators upon corn
belonging to the
species Cramhus caliginosellus. They lay their eggs in grass
land in May or early June, dropping them on the surface
among the rubbish or vegetation, or attaching them to the

Fig. 119. — The corn-root web-worm (Crambui^
caliginosellus): a, larva; b, pupa; c, moth; d,
segment, of larva; e, parasite. (After Johnson.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 163

grass. They are oval in form and of a yellowish color, each
being marked with regularly placed ridges. About two hundred
eggs are laid by each female. In from six to ten days the
eggs hatch. The young larvae soon form their loose silken webs
or tubes at or a little below the surface of the soil, burrowing
among the roots, and feeding upon the stalk and outer leaves,
or killing the plant by attacking the crown. The larvae vary
considerably in color, from a yellowish white, through pink,
to a reddish or brownish shade, and are studded with small
tubercles, each bearing a tuft of bristly hairs. The larvae become
full grown in from five to seven weeks and are then from one-
half to three-fourths of an inch long. During the latter part of
July they form cocoons, sometimes in the larval tubes, in which
they pass the pupal stage and from which the moths "emerge
some twelve to fifteen days later. Eggs are laid for another
brood in grass lands during August and September, the larvae
hatching in September and October and becoming partly grown
before winter. They hibernate in their webs over winter, and as
soon as the grass commences its growth in the spring they are
to be found feeding upon it, becoming full grown early in May.
Preventive. — As the natural food of these insects is grass, it
is not surprising that corn planted on sod land should be worst
injured; and though the injury done the grass may not have been
noticeable, when the available food is so greatly diminished by
substituting for grass the comparatively few hills of corn the
injury becomes much more serious and apparent. Though the
planting of corn on sod land is a most common practice, injury
by this and many other insect pests of corn — most of whose
native food is grass — might be avoided by planting any other
crop than a grain, such as potatoes. Otherwise plowing late in
the fall and harrowing so as to expose the larvae to the weather,
or plowing so deeply that they will be l^uried so that they cannot
regain the surface, will do much to pi-evont injury the next season.
Inasmuch as the moth will not lay her eggs upon plowed land,
if the land be plowed early she will be driven to other fields;
but the exact time of oviposition varies for different latitudes.

164 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Generous fertilization will aid the plants in overcoming
injury very considerably. Dr. J. B. Smith advises " the applica-
tion of all the necessary potash in the form of kainit, put on as
a top-dressing after the field is prepared for planting/' and says:
"Fall plowing and kainit as a top-dressing in spring will, I feel
convinced, destroy by all odds the greater proportion of the web-
worms that infest the sod, and would also destroy or lessen many
other pests which trouble corn during the early part of its life."

The Corn-root Aphis *

Where patches of corn become dwarfed, the leaves becoming
yellow and red, with a general lack of vigor, the grower may well
be suspicious of the presence of the Corn-root aphis. These
little aphides, which cluster on the roots of corn, are a bluish-
green color, with a white waxy bloom, and of the form shown in
Fig. 120. Two short, slender tubes project from the posterior
part of the abdomen which are commonly called honey-tubes,
because they were formerly supposed to give out the honey-dew,
which is so relished by the ants which tend the aphides to secure
it. The winged female has a black head and brownish-black
thorax, with pale green abdomen bearing three of four blackish
marginal spots and small dark specks over the surface. The
antennae are dark and the legs blackish.

The corn-root aphis occurs throughout the principal corn-
growing States, but has been most destructive where corn is
most extensively grown and is often planted year after year
on the same land. Dr. Forbes, to whom we are indebted for
most of our knowledge of this pest,t has observed fields of corn
in Illinois planted in corn for the second season totally rained
by the root-aphis. Broom-corn and sorghum are the only other
cultivated crops which have been injured, but the list of food
plants includes smartweed, purslane, ragweed, foxtail, and crab-

* Aphis maidi-radicis Forbes. Family Aphididoe.

t S. A. Forbes, 17th, 18th, and 25th Reports of the State Entomologist
of Illinois; Bulletin 60, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 29;
Bulletins 104 and 130, Illinois Agr. Exp. Sta. See also J. J. Davis, Bulletin
12, Part VIII, Technical Series, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.,
and F. M. Webster, Circular 86, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN

165

grasses, and many other weeds and grasses which spring up in
the corn-field. In South Carolina Professor A. F. Conradi has
found it injuring cotton.

If the nests of the small brown ant * so common in corn-fields
infested with the root-aphis, be broken open during the winter,
many of the little black aphis eggs, which have been carefully
stored by the ants, will be found. The}' are a glossy black color.

Fig. 120. — The com root -aphis {Aphis maidiradicis Forbe.s): at left, ovip-
arous female; a, hind tibia, showing sensoria; at right, male; a, antenna
— much enlarged. (After Forbes.)

oval in shape, and will sometimes be found in small piles in

the chambers of the ants' nests. On warm days the ants bring

them up to the warmer surface soil and in cold weather carry

them far down into the unfrozen earth. With the appearance

of young smart weed and foxtail-grass in April and May the eggs

commence to hatch. The ants at once lay bare the roots of

these plants and carry their 3'oung wards to them, where large

colonies soon become established. If the field is not planted in

* Lasius niger Linn. var. americanus Emery. See Forbes, Bulletin 131,
Illinois Agr. Exp. Sta.

166 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

corn, the lice will feed later upon the roots of pigeon-grass or
purslane. In early May the second generation of lice commence

4 5

Fig. 121. — ^The corn-root aphis (Aphis maidi-radicis Forbes): 1, wingless
vivaparous female; a, apex of abdomen; 2, antenna of same; 3, pupa;
4, winged vivaparous female; 5, antenna of same. (After Forbes.)

to appear, among them being both wingless and winged forms.
This brood and all of these during the summer are produced by
females known as agamic females, which give birth to live young

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN

167

without mating with a male. As soon as corn plants are available
the ants again transfer the aphides to their roots, and carry any
winged aphides which may have spread over the field down on
to the roots of the corn. All through the summer the ants
attend the lice, burrowing around the roots of the corn, and
carrying them from plant to plant, in return for which the
aphides give off the sweet honey-dew, when stroked by the ants'
antennae, upon which the ants feed. During the summer the
aphides continue to reproduce with extreme rapidity, an aphid
maturingand giving birth to youngabout eight days after it is born.

Fig. 122. — Grass root-louse {Schizoneura panicola); winged vivaparous
female, a, antenna. (After Forbes.)

each generation taking about sixteen days and there being about
twelve generations during the season. Both winged and wingless
agamic females occur throughout the summer, but late in Sep-
tember and in October wingless forms which develop into true
males and females are produced. These mate and the females
lay eggs during October, most of them being carried by the ants
to their nests, where the eggs are laid.

Control. — Owing to the fact that the aphides do not migrate
until the second generation, a rotation of crops will be of great
service in checking their injuries, as corn planted on uninfested
land will not be attacked until it has been able to secure a good
start, and if well fertilized will be able to successfully withstand

168 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Fici. 123. — The corn-field ant {Lastus niger americanus) : 1, worker; 2, larva;
3, winged male; 4, pupa; 5, winged female; 6, female with wings re-
moved. (After Forbes.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 169

whatever injun- may occur. Rarely is corn on land not in corn
the previous year seriousl}" injured, and where infestation has
not been serious throughout a community, it may usually be
grown two years in succession with safety.

The proper fertilization of plants affected with root insects
is always of great importance, enabling the plant to make a crop
in spite of them if the attack is not too severe. Professor F. M.
Webster observes that land which has been fertilized with barn-
yard manure is much less injured by this insect than that where
commercial fertilizers are used.

As the ants not only spread the pest during spring and summer,
but house the eggs in their nests over winter, any means for
destroying their nests will be of importance in controlling the
aphides. Where it is practicable, deep plowing in late fall and
winter, with thorough harrowing, will break up the nests, and
land so treated has shown decidedly less injury the next season.
Similarly plowing deeply and harrowing several times in spring
not only breaks up the ants' nests, but destroys the weeds and
grasses upon which the aphides feed before corn is up, and also
furnishes the best possible seed-bed and soil conditions. This
should be particularly thorough in low spots where weeds are
thickest and where the aphides appear first. Such spring cultiva-
tion has been demonstrated as very effective in the control of
the pest. In recent years Professor S. A. Forbes has conducted
experiments in Illinois which seem to show that dipping the seed
in a repellant such as a lemon oil will render it obnoxious to the
ants, and thus protect the hill. This has not proven successful,
however, when heavy rains followed planting and washed off
the repellant. Lemon oil was used by adding 1 gallon of wood
alcohol to 1 pint of oil of lemon, of which 3 fluid ounces (6 table-
spoonfuls) were stirred into each gallon of seed used, being sure
that all the seeds were well coated. Such a treatment cost about
ten cents per acre and resulted in reducing the number of
aphides 89 per cent and the number of ants 79 per cent, so that
it may well be given a trial, but the chief reliance should be placed
upon rotation and early cultivation.

170 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Corn Leaf-aphis *

Although the corn leaf-aphis is not often very seriously
injurious to corn, in Texas and other Southern States i1> frequently
becomes so abundant on sorghum and corn, and in winter on
barley, as to do considerable injury. This species is also of interest
in that it appears on corn foliage in midsummer at the time when
the numbers of the root-aphis commence to decrease on the roots,

Fig. 124. — The com leaf-aphis (Aphis maidis Fitch): winged female — much
enlarged. (After Webster, U. >S. Dept. Agr.)

and it was for many years thought to be the same species. Care-
ful rearing experiments made under the direction of Dr. S. A.
Forbes have failed to show any connection between the root-
aphis and leaf-aphis, the aphides from the roots being unable to
establish themselves on the leaves and those on the leaves never
migrating to the roots. f *

Dr. Forbes describes the species in his twenty-third report
as follows: " In the latter part of the summer this bluish-green
plant-louse may occasionally be found on the younger leaves,

* Aphis maidis Fitch. Family Aphididce. See Webster and Davis,
I.e., p. 164.

t S. A. Forbes, 13th, 16th, 18th, and 23d Reports of the State Entomologist
of Illinois.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN

171

the tassel, and the upper part of stalks of corn, and more abun-
dantly and frequently on broom-corn and sorghum. Multiply-
ing in place by the birth of living young, which do not wander
from their place of origin, these leaf -lice may become abundant
enough to kill the leaves and to some extent to effect the health
of the plant. The insect is, however, rarely seriously injurious
to corn, Ijut there is some evidence, . . . that it may prevent the
fertilization of the kernel by sucking the sap from the silk and
killing it before it has performed its function. Heavily infested
corn leaves turn yellow or red, and may shrivel and die, partic-
ularly if the weather be dry at the
time. Broom-corn is considerably
damaged by a reddened discoloration
of the brush, due to a bacterial affec-
tion following upon the plant-louse
punctures.

" The wingless form of this aphis
is about 2 mm. (one-twelfth inch)
long and half as wide at the widest
part, the body being somewhat ovate
in outline. The general color is pale
green, with the cauda, cornicles and
the greater part of the rostrum,
antennae and legs black. The head
is marked with two longitudinal

dark bands, and the abdomen with a row of black spots
on each side and a black patch about the base of the cornicles.
The lattei are swollen in the middle, making the outlines convex.
. . . The winged form is somewhat different in color, the head
being i^ack and the thorax chiefly black above. The abdomen
is pale green, bluish at the sides, with two transverse black bands
preceding the cauda, and the segments behind it edged with dark,"
These differences between this and the root aphis are shown in
the accompanying figures. "Aphis maidis has been reported
at various times as a corn insect from New York to Texas,
Minnesota and California. The species makes its appearance

Fig. 125. — The wingless
female of the com leaf-
aphis — much enlarged.
(After Webster, U.S. Dept.
Agr.)

172 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

in midsumjiier, our earliest date (Illinois) being July 9, when
specimens were found on young leaves of corn. We have no
record whatever to show whence it comes or where it lives pre-
ceding this time. Having once commenced to breed on the food
plants mentioned, it continues there until freezing weather over-
takes it, when, with the death of its food plants, it gradually
disappears, leaving neither eggs nor hibernating adults on or
about these plants, and passing the winter we do not know how
or where." Its occurrence on barley in Texas in January may
throw some light upon its wintering habits in the South. " The
latest to develop in the field largely acquire wings, and as the sap
supply in the plant diminishes they fly away. Wingless females,
on the other hand, perish on the spot. Indications are thus
very strong that this is a migrating species whose second ""ood
plant is thus far unknown."

No experiments in the practical treatment of this pest seem
to have been recorded.

The Larger Corn Stalk-borer *

Throughout the South from Maryland to Louisiana and west-
ward to Kansas more or less serious injury is done by large white,
brown-spotted caterpillars which bore into the stalks. In spring
the 3^oung caterpillars bore into the heart of the young plant and
like other insects with similar habits (see page 161) are known as
" budworms." Later the hollo\\"ing out of the stalk so weakens
the plant that it is readily broken over by the wind. Consequently
a. loss of from 25 to 50 per cent of the crop not infrequently results
where the pest is abundant.

Life History. — When the caterpillars become full grown in the
fall they burrow down into the tap-root and there pass the winter
in a small cavity at or near the surface of the ground. About the
time the land is being prepared for corn, from March 15 to April 30,
depending on the locality, the larva changes into a reddish-brown
pupa, from which the moth emerges in ten days or more. The

* Diatraea zeacolella Dyar. Family Cramhidce. See Circular 139, Bureau
of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN

173

moth is a brownisli-}'ello\v color with wings expanding 1| inches,
the hind-wings being darker and bearing faint markings (Fig. 128).
The eggs are hiid at dusk upon the under surface of the leaves of
the young corn, and hatch
in from seven to tenda}'s.
The eggs are flat, scale-
like, and placed in rows
of from two to twenty-
five, slightly overlapping
each other. They are
Vioo inch long, by two
thirds as wide, at first a
creamy-white, but grad-
ually becoming a reddish
brown. The young larva
bores into the stalk, often
destroying the " bud,"
and then at or near the
ground, where it burrows
upward in the pith,
seldom damaging the
stalk above the third
joint. As the borers
grow they become quite
active and frequently
leave and re-enter the
stalk, thus making sev-
eral holes. The caterpil-
lars become full grown
in twenty to thirty
days, and are about one inch long, dirty-white, thickly covered
with dark spots, each of which bears a short, dark bristle.
The mature caterpillar bores outward to the surface of the stalk,
making a hole for the escape of the adult moth, which it covers
with silk, and then transforms to a pupa in its burrow. This
occurs during July, and the moths of the second generation emerge

Fig. 126. — Work of the larger com stalk-borer:
a, general appearance of stalk infested by
the early generation of borers; b, same
cut open to show pupa and larval burrow.
(After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

174 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

in seven to ten days. The second brood of larvae feed on the old

Fig. 127. — a, b, c, varieties of the larva of the larger corn stalk-borer; d,
third thoracic segment; e, eighth abdominal segment; /, abdominal
segment from side; g, same from above — enlarged, (After Howard,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

stalks, tunneling them between the second joint and the ground,

and become full grown about
harvest time when they go
into winter quarters in the
root as above described.

Control. — It has been
observed that late planted
corn is much less injured
than that planted early,
])ut as it is more seriously
injured by some other pests,
late planting may not 1)6
advisable.

Where corn has been
seriously injured, the- old
stalks or butts should be
dragged off the field and

burned late in the fall, thus destroying the over-wintering borers.

Fig. 128. — The larger corn stalk-borer.
a, female; h, wings of male; r, pupa
— all somewhat enlarged. (After
Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 175

When corn is stripped for fodder, the stalks left standing and the
land sown in small grain, the most favorable conditions arc
allowed the borers for safely passing the winter and developing
into moths w^hich will fly to new fields in the spring.

A simple rotation of crops will also lessen injury considerably,
as Dr. L. 0. Howard has observed that where fields which had
been in corn the previous year were damaged 25 per cent, those
planted on sod land were damaged but 10 per cent, though reason-
ably close to land which had been in corn.

Bill-bugs *

Throughout the South and often in the more Northern States,
Canada, and the West the bill-bugs sometimes become serious
enemies of young corn-plants. They are called " bill-bugs " on
account of the prolongation of the head, termed a bill or snout,
peculiar to all the weevils or " snout-beetles," by means of which
they are enabled to drill holes in the corn-stalks. Several species
belonging to the genus Sphenophorus are commonly injurious to
corn. One of these, S. parvulus Gyll., also attacks small grains
and timothy, and is therefore known as the Grain Sphenophorus.
Another species, S. ohscurus Boisd., does considerable injury to
sugar-cane in Hawaii. The adult beetles are from one-fourth to
three-fourths of an inch long, of the form shown in the illustration^
and are of a brown or black color, marked with darker longitudinal
ridges on the wing-covers. The larva is a thick fleshy white
grub, from one-fourth to five-eighths of an inch long, with a
brown head and cervical shield on the first segment, and footless.

Life History. — The life histories of the different species are
but partially known.

S. parvulus hibernates over winter as a beetle, appearing in
March and April. The female punctures the stalk of wheat or
timothy — oats and barley are also sometimes attacked — a little
above the roots, and deposits her egg in the cavity. This is done
in May or June or even up to July 1st. The larvae are to be found

* Species of Sphenophorus. Family Calandridce. See S. A. Forbes,
23d Report of the State Entomologist of Illinois.

176 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

during July, becoming full grown and pupating during the latter
part of that month. The larvae will eat out quite a cavity in the
interior of the stalk or bulb, and then attack the roots, thus often
killing a whole clump or stool of small grain or timothy. The
pupal stage is passed in a small cell in the earth and lasts from two

Fig. 129. — Sphenopknnt^ orhrens, larva, adult, and work in roots of Sdrpus.
(After F. M. Webster, "Insect Life.")

to three weeks, adult beetles emerging from the middle of August
to the first of October.

One of the most injurious species to corn is *S'. ochreus Lee.
The life history is much the same as that of S. parvulus, though
eggs have been found as late as July 30th. The natural food-plant
of this species, however, is the common club-rush (Scirpus fluvia-
tilis), the roots of which consist of bulbs connected by smaller
slender roots. The eggs are deposited in or about the roots of this
rush, never having been found on corn. The bulbs of the rush are
very hard and oftentimes as large as hens' eggs. In them the

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN

177

larvae burrow, becoming full grown and transforming to pupae,
from which the adult beetles appear in August and September.
When the rush becomes too hard for the beetles they often attack
a common reed (Phragmites communis), piercing and splitting

Fig. 130. — Sections of sugar-cane showing work of Sphenophorus obscurus.
a, larva; b, pupa; c, probable points of oviposition. (After Riley and
Howard, " Insect Life.")

lengthwise the unfolded terminal leaves, and eating out the suc-
culent portions within. The injury to corn is done by the beetles
while the corn is still young, feeding upon it in the same manner
as do the other species. " Standing with the head downward and
the feet embracing the lower part of the stalk," says Dr. Forbes,
" they slowly sink the beak into the plant, using the jaws to make

178 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

the necessary perforation. By moving forward and backward
and twisting to the right and left, the beetle will often hollow out a
cavity beneath the surface much larger than the superficial injury
will indicate." As the lower part of the stalk becomes hardened,
they leave it for the terminal portion, and when the ears commence
to form they often penetrate the husk and gorge out the soft cob.
Sometimes the injury thus inflicted is but slight, merely resulting
in a puncturing of the leaves when they unfold, these holes being
in a series across the leaf resulting from a single puncture when the
leaf was folded, and looking much like the work of the corn-root
webworm; but when several beetles attack a young plant, they
will either kill it outright or so deform the foliage and stalk that
no ear will mature.

Several other species have also been known to do more or less
injury to corn, viz., S. scoparius, placidus, cariosus, sculptilis,
and pertinax, but so far as known their habits and injuries are
much the same as of those already described.

Means of Control. — The control of these pests is rather a diffi-
cult task. S. ochreus, as in fact are all of the species, is most
injurious on recently cleared swamp-lands, and usually disappears
as fast as these lands are drained and cultivated. Planting flax,
potatoes, or some crop not attacked by these insects for the first
crop will largely prevent so serious injury to a subsequent corn
crop. The burning over of grass- and swamp-lands infested with
the beetles will also be of considerable value'.

The Maize Bill-bug *

Throughout the Southern States and northward to Kansas
there has been more or less serious injury by a bill-bug which has
rjeen recognized for many years as Sphenophorus robustus Horn.
Recently Dr. F. H. Chittenden has recognized this insect as a new
species and Mr. E. O. G. Kelly has published a complete account of
its life history, from which the following is taken.

As will be seen below this species is known to pass its entire life

* Sphenophorus inaidis Chittn., see E. O. G. Kelly, Bulletin 95, Part II,
Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

INSECTS IXJlHIorS TO CORN

179

history upon tlie corn-phint , .so that the common name given it
appropriately tlistinguislu^s it from the other bill-bugs previously
mentioned. Il has, however, been found feeding and probably
iH-eeding in swamp-grass (Tripsacuni cldcti/loides), which may be
its native footl plant.

Life History. — The eggs were found in southern Kansas during
June, laid in punctures made by the female in young corn- plants.
These egg punctures are mere slits
and do not seem to materially injure
the plant. The eggs hatch in from
seven to twelve daj's, and from
them emerge small footless, dingy
white grubs, with chestnut-brown
heads, of the appearance shown
in Fig. 132. " The}- at once begin
feeding on the tissues of the young-
corn at the bottom of the egg
puncture, directing their burrow
inward and downward into the tap-
root. When they finish eating the
tender parts of the taproot they
direct their feeding upward, con-
tinuing until full grown, allowing
thelower portion of the burrow to
catch the frass and excrement.
This burrowing of the taproot of the

young growing corn-plant is disastrous to the root system; . . .
allowing it to die or become more or less dwarfed." Often the
young larva; burrow into the heart of the plant and cut off
the growing bud, thus killing the top. The larvae become full
grown early in August, when they are about four-fifths of an inch
long. " The larvae, on finishing their growth, descend to the lower
part of the burrow, to the crown of the taproot, cutting the pith
of the cornstalk into fine shreds, with which they construct a cell
where they inclose themselves for pupation." The pupae are to
be found in these cells in late August and early September, the

Fig. 131. — The maize bill-bug
{Sphenophorus maidis Chittn.)
— four times natural size.
(After Kelly, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

180 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

pupal stage lasting ten to twelve days. The adults commence to

emerge by the middle of August and continue to do so until the

middle of September. " Some of them leave the pupal cells, but

most of them remain there

for hibernation." Those

which emerged disappeared

and probably hibernated in

some dense, coarse grass near

by. Those which liibernated

in the pupal cells emerged the

next spring about the time

that young corn was sprouting.

The beetles are from two-fifths

to three-fifths of an inch long,

of a dull shining black color,

and sculptured as shown in Fig.

131. " The beetles are rarely

observed on account of their

Fig. 132. — Larva of the maize bill-
bug — twice natural size. (After
Kelly, IT. S. Dept. Agr.) j

Fig. 133. — Corn plant showing the
result of attack of the maize bill-
bug: a, larval burrow containing
pupa in natural position — reduced
two-thirds; b, egg-puncture con-
taining egg — enlarged. (After
Kelly, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

quiet habits and because they are covered with mud — a condition
which is more or less common among several species of this genus
and which is caused by a waxy exudation of the elytra to which the
soil adheres. The presence of the adults of this species in a corn-
field is made evident by the withering of the top leaves of very

i

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 181

young corn-plants, the plants having been severely gougetl.
After the plants grow 10 to lo inches tall they tlo not kill them,
but gouge out such large cavities in the stalks that they become
twisted into all sorts of shapes. The attacked plants sucker pro-
fusely, affording the young, tender growth for the Ijeetles to feed
upon, even for many days after the non-infested plants have
become hard." Injury seems to be most serious on low land.
Injury by this species somewhat resembles that done by the larger
corn stalk-borer {Diatroea zeacolelhi) . but is easily distinguished
from the work of the other bill-bugs, as the punctures of the latter,
which usually form a row or rows of holes in the leaves when they
unfold, are not always fatal to the plants.

Control. — 'Inasmuch as most of the beetles hibernate in the
corn stubble, they may be readily destroyed by pidling out and
burning the stubble. Care must be taken, however, to pull out
the taproot, as the stalk will be liable to break above the beetle
and leave it in the ground. As the infested stalks have a poor
root sj'stem, the}' are easily pulled.

The Corn Ear-worm *

Practically the only insect injuring the ears of field-corn and
the worst insect pest of sugar-corn, is the ear-worm. In the
extreme South it is almost impossible to grow sugar-corn success-
fully on account of its injur}', while further north it largeh" reduces
the profits of corn grown for the cannery, and destro}'s a consider-
able percentage of the kernels of field-corn. It is a most cosmopol-
itan insect, being found throughout the United States and in many
parts of the world, and has a long list of food plants, being known
as the tomato fruit-worm, tobacco l)ud-woi'm, and cotton boll-
worm (see pages 304, 234, 2o4) when attacking these plants,
besides which it feeds on beans, peas, and many garden crops
and forage plants, such as cowpeas and alfalfa.

Life History. — Along the Gulf Coast the first moths appear in
April, in the latitude of 33° about the middle of May, and in the
latitude of Delaware and Kansas, early in June.

* Heliotki.'s obsoleta Fab. Family Xoctuidce.

182 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The moth is aljout three-quarters of an inch long with a wing
expanse of about If inches and is extremely variable in color and
markings. Some are dull olive green while others are yellowish
or nearly white and with almost no markings. In the most typical
moths the Avings are bordered with dark bands, the wing veins are
black and the fore- wings are spotted with l)lack.

Fig. 134. — Com ear-worm.s at work. The central cob has Ikvu attacked l>y
a nearh^ fuU-growTi worm, wliich has bored through the hu^k near the
middle.

The eggs are semispherical in shape, about one-fifteenth inch in
diameter, light yellowish, and prettily corrugated with ridges as
shown in Fig. 184. Those of the first brootl are laid on corn, peas,
beans, or whatever food-phtnts are available, and hatch in three to
five da}-s, d(>pending upon the temperature.

The caterpillars of the first generation of ten. attack com when
about knee-high, feeding in the axils of the tender leaves, so that

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN

183

when the leaves miroll they Ix'ur horizontal rows of holes. The
raterpillars arc ('xceedingly varial^le -in color, being from a light
green thi'ouuh rose color and bi'owii to almost black, and either

Fig.. 135. — Corn fur-wunn. llu.sk of t-uv uf sugar-corn torn open, showing
worms at work on tip and hole through which a full grown worm has left.

sti'ipcd, spotted or perfectly plain. They l)ecome full grown in
aljout 2^ weeks and are then about 1^ to U inches long. When
done feeeding the caterpillar burrows 2 to o inches into the soil
near the base of the plant. A cell is then constructed which runs
back to within a half inch of the surface of the soil, so that the

184 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

moth may readily push off this surface soil and escape. The
burrow finished, the larva retires to the bottom of the cell and
there molts and enters the pupal stage.

The pupa is four-fifths inch long, shining reddish-brown.
During the summer the moths emerge about two weeks later,
but the last generation in the fall passes the winter in the pupal
stage. Thus the complete life cycle from egg to adult moth
requires slightly over a month in midsummer, and from six to
eight weeks foi- the spring and fall ))roods.

The second generation of moths appears about the middle
of July in the latitude of Delawai-e and Kansas. In the far
South the second generation of moths appears when corn is com-
ing into silk and tassel, upon which the moths always prefer to
lay their eggs. As a result, the caterpillars of the second genera-
tion in the South, and the third further North, do serious injury
to field-corn, gnawing out the kernels at the tips of the ears, and
furnishing favoralile conditions for molds to propagate, which
do further injury. From 2 to 3 per cent of the corn crop of the
country, with a cash value of 130,000,000 to $50,000,000, is th\is
destroyed by the ear worm annually.

The third generation of moths appears the last of August
in Delaware and Kansas and gives rise to the third brood of
caterpillars, which are there the most destructive brood on field-
corn and sugar-corn, frequently causing a loss of from 10 to 50
per cent of the latter crop. The caterpillars become full grown
during the latter part of September and change to pupse, which
hibernate over winter as already described.

In the Gulf States thei-e are four full broods and along the
Gulf Coast there may be five or six, while in the Northern States
there are but two generations, with possibl)' but one in Ontario.

Control. — As the pupse pass the winter in the soil, by all means
the most satisfactory and practical means of control is to plow
infested land in late fall or during the winter, plowing deeply
and harrowing. This will break up the pupal cells, crush some
of the pupse, and expose others to the rigors of winter to w^hich
most of them will succuml).

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 185

The earh' planting of field-corn prevents the moths from lay-
ing their eggs upon it, as it will have passed the silking stage and
other fields which are in silk will be preferred; it being possible
to thus reduce the injury by at least a third by early jjlanting.

Where the caterpillars of the first generation arc working in
the unfolding leaves, they are sometimes poisoned with Paris
green, mixed with flour or corn meal as used for this pest on
tobacco, but as Paris green often burns the foliage powdered
arsenate of lead will doubtless be found equally effective with-
out burnin<r.

chaptj<:k X

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED (iRAINS *

The fanner who stores life grain, awaiting a higher price,
is sometimes sadly disappointed to find that it has l)een so
riddled by " weevil " that it brings no more than had it l)een sold
previously.

The term " weevil " is rather a eomprehensive one, Ijeing
commonly applied to almost every insect infesting stored food-
products. Only a few species are commonly injurious in the
farm-granary.

Grain-weevils

Of these the Granary-weevil f and the Rice-weevil J (Fig.
136), arc the most common and widely distributed. Both of
these insects have infested grain from the most ancient times, so
long, in fact, that the granary-weevil has lost the use of its wings
and remains entirely indoors. They are small, brown beetles,
from one-eighth to one-sixth of an inch in length, with long snouts
which are of great service in boring into the kernels of grain.
By means of them the females puncture the grain and then insert
an egg in the cavity. The larva hatching from this is without
legs, somewhat shorter than the adult, white in color, and of a
very robust build, being almost as broad as long. It soon devours
the soft interior of the kernel and then changes to a pupa, from
which the adult beetle emerges in about six weeks from the
time the egg was laid.

Only a single larva inhabits a kernel of wheat, but several

* See " Some Insects Injurious to Stored Grains," F. II. Chittenden,
Farmers' Bulletin, 45, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
f Calandra granaria Linn.
X Calandra oryzoe Linn. Family Calandridw.

186

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAINS

187

will often he found in that of corn. Not only do the larvie
injure the gi'ain, but the beetles feed upon it, and then hollow
out a shelter for themselves within the hull. The beetles are
quite long-lived, and thus do considerable damage. The egg-
laying period is ec^ually long, and as there arc three or four broods
in the North and six or more in the South, it has been estimated
that the progeny of one pair woukl amount to 6000 insects in a
single season.

Grain-beetles

Another beetle very common in the granary, but of quite
different appearance, is the Saw-toothed Grain-beetle * (Fig- 137).
It is a cosmopolitan
pest and is also nearly
omnivorous. The
beetle is only about
one-tenth of an inch
long, very much flat-
tened, of a dark-brown
color, and may be
easily recognized by
the six saw-like teeth
on each side of the
thorax. The larva is
of a dirty- white color,
and quite dissimilar
from that of the gra-
nary weevil. Having
six legs to carr}' it
about, it is not satisfied
with a single seed, but
runs about here and

there, nibbling at several. When full grown the larva glues together
several grains or fragments into a little case, and inside of this trans-
forms to the pupa and then to the beetle. In early spring this life

* Silvaniis sun'n(uncn><is Liiiii. Family Cucujidw.

Fui. 13(5. — The grain weevil {Calandragranaria):
a, beetle; b, larva; c, pupa, d, the rice weevil
{C. oryza): beetle — all enlarged. (After CMt-
tenden; U. S. Dept. Agr.)

188 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND (3RCHARD

cycle requires from six to ten weeks, but in summer it is reduced
to about twenty-five days. Thus there are from three to six
or more generations during a season, according to the hititude.
The Ked or Square-necked Grain-beetle* is about the same
size as the last species, but is of a reddish-brown color, and the
thorax is almost square, nearly as broad as the abdomen, and
not notched on the sides. It breeds in corn in the field and in
the granary, first destroying the germ, so that it is especially

Fig. 137. — The saw-toothed grain beetle (Silvanus surinatncn.'iis): a, adult
beetle; 6, pupa; c, larva — all enlarged; d, antenna of larva — still more
enlarged; d, the red or square-necked grain beetle {Cathartus gemellatus
Duv.) (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

injurious to seed-corn. It feeds mostly out of doors, though
sometimes infesting the granary.

The Foreign Grain-beetle f i« of much the same general
appearance, but smaller and of a more robust appearance It
'eeds upon a great variety of stored products as well as grain,
but rarely becomes troublesome.

The Cadelle | also has the bad habit of first attacking the
embryo or g(M-m of the kernel, and going from one kernel to another,
thus destroys a large number for seed purposes. It possesses,

* ('atlidiiu.s yondkdiiK Duv.

i Cathartus odvrna Waltl.

I Tenebroides mauritanicus Linn. Family Troyositidce.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAINS

ISO

however, the good trait of R^odiiig on other injiii-ious orain-
insects. Tlie beeth' is oljlong, fhit, nearly black, and about
one-third of an iiicli lon^. Ttic larva is of a whitish color, with a

Fig. 138. — TheCadelle {Tenebroides mauritanicux) : a, adult beetle with greatly
enlarged antenna above; b, pupa; c, larva — all enlarged. (After
C'hittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

brown head, the thoracic segments are marked with brown, and
the alxlomen terminates in two dark horny processes. It is a
fleshv grub, neai-l\' thi'ec-fourths of an inch long when full gi'own.

Flour- and Meal-moths

The lai-vie of several small moths sometimes infest grain
in store, but rarely do it serious damage, preferring the softer
fiour, meal, and food-products.

The most destructive of these is the Mediterranean Flour-

190

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

moth * (Fig. 139). This insect was practically unknown until
1S77, but during recent j'ears it has occasioned the loss of many
thousands of dollars to mill-owners. It occurs throughout

/

Fig. 1.39. — The Mediterranean flour-moth (Ephestia kuehnieUa): a, moth; b,
same from side, resting; c, harva; d, pupa — enlarged; e, abdominal joint
of larva — more enlarged; /, larva, dorsal view. (After Chittenden
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Fig. 140. — The Indian meal-moth {Plodia inter punctclla): a, moth; fe, pupa;
c, caterpillar; /, same, dorsal view — somewhat enlarged; d, head, and e,
first abdominal segment of caterpillar — more enlarged. (After Chitten-
den, U. S. D«pt. Agr.)

Europe, and is found in Mexico and Chili. It was first recognized
in America in 1SS9, and has since done an increasing amount
of damage in California, in New York and Pennsylvania, North
Carolina, Alabama, New Mexico, and Colorado, and has become

* Ephestia kuehnieUa Zell. Family Pyralid'ce. See W. G. Johnson,
Appendix 19th Report State Entomologist of Illinois, and F. L. Washburn,
Special Report of the State Entomologist of Minnesota on the Mediter-
ranean flour-moth.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAINS

191

quite generally distributed. " The caterpillars form exlindrical
silken tubes in which they feetl, and it is in great part th(>ir habit
of web-spinning that renders them so injurious where they obtain
a foothold. Upon attaining full growth the caterpillar leaves
its original silken domicile and forms a new web, which becomes
a cocoon in which to undergo its transformations to pupa and
imago. It is while searching for a suitable place for transforma-
tion that the insect is most troublesome. The infested flour
becomes felted together and lumpy, the machinery becomes
clogged, necessitating frequent and prolonged stoppage, and result-
ing in a .short time in the loss of thousands of dollars in large
establishments."

The life cycle of
this insect requires
ordinarily about
two months, but
may l)e completed
in thirty-eight days
under the most
favorable condi-
tions. The adult
moth measures a
little less than an

inch across the expanded wings. The fore-wings are of a lead-
gray color, with transverse black markings, while the hind-
wings are dirty whitish, with a darker border.

The Indian Meal-moth * (Fig. 140) larvse resemble those of
the grain-beetles in having a special liking for the embryo of
wheat-grains. They spin a fine silken web as they go from s(>ed
to seed, to which they become attached, and to which is added a
large amount of excrement, thus spoiling for food much more
grain than is actually injured.

The moth has a wing-expanse of an inch; the inner third
of the fore-wings being a whitish gray, and the outer portion
reddish-brown, with a coppery lustre.

* Plodia intcrpunctdUi Hbii- Family Pyralidce.

Fig. 141. — The meal snout-moth {Pyralisfarinalu^):
a, adult moth; 6, larva; c, pupa in cocoon — twice
natural size. (After Chittenden, U. S. D. Agr.)

192 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Meal Snout-moth * (Fig. 141) is of a light brown color,
the thorax, base, and tips of the fore-wings being darker brown.
The wings expand nearly an inch and are otherwise marked
with whitish lines as shown in the figure. It is very similar to
the last-mentioned species in its habits, constructing long tubes
with silk and particles of the food in which it is living. The life-
history is completed in about eight weeks, and four generations
may oc-cur in a Vcar. The moisture of " heated " grain is most
favorable for the development of this pest, and it need not be
feared if grain is kept in a clean, dry place.

The Angumois Grain-moth f

By far the worst granary pest throughout the South is the
" fly-weevil," or Angumois grain-moth.

History .—This insect is an importation fiom Europe and receives
its name from the fact that in 1760 it " was found to swarm in all
the wheat-fields and granaries of Angumois and of the neighbor-
ing provinces [of France], the afflicted inhabitants l^eing thereby
deprived of their principal staple, and threatened with famine
and pestilence from want of wholesome bread." The insect
was first noted in this country in North Carolina in 1730, and in
1796 was so abundant as to extinguish a lighted candle when a
granary was entered at night. It is essentially a southern insect,
being very injurious to stored corn in the (iulf States. Of late
years it seems to be moving steadily northward, being reported
as injurious in central Pennsylvania and Ohio. Wheat, corn,
oats, rye, barley, sorghum-seed, and even cow-peas are subject
to injury.

Life History. — The injury is not done l)y the moth, as might
be reasonably supposed from the fact that it is the only form of
the insect usually seen, but is done In- the snuill caterpillars
which feed within the grain, where they may be found during
the winter. The caterpillar eats to the surface of the kernel,
but not through it, thus leaving a thin lid which the moth can

* Pyralis farinalvi Linii. Family Fijralida;.
t Sitotroga cerealella Oliv. Family Gelechiidce.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAINS

193

easily push aside when it comes out in the spring, and then covers
ilself with a fine silken web. At this time the caterpillar is
usually fully grown and is about one-fifth of an inch long, of a white
color, with the head yellowish and harder, and having six jointed
legs in front, a series of four pairs of fleshy pro-legs along the
middle, and another pair of soft legs at the end of the body.
With warm spring weather the caterpillar changes to a pupa
and about the time that the wheat comes into head the adult
moth emerges. As soon as it emerges, whether outdoors or in a

Fig. 142. — The Augumois grain-moth {Sitotrogn cercalella): a, eggs; h, larva
at work; c, larva, side view; d, pupa; e, moth; /, same, side view.
(After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

barn, the moth at once flies to the grain-field, where the eggs are
deposited. The exact time at which the moths emerge varies,
but occurs some time late in May or in June. The moths quite
closely resemble the clothes-moth often found flying about houses.
The wings are quite narrow, and when expanded measure about
one-half an inch from tip to tip, being of a yellowish or buff color,
marked with black. The eggs are laid in the longitudinal channel
on the side of the grain. Each female lays from sixty to ninety
eggs in lots of about twenty each, one lot thus being about enough
to infest the kernels of a head. The eggs hatch in from four to
seven days. The young caterpillars are at first very active
and soon find tender ])laces and bore into the kernels, leaving

194 INSECT PE8T8 OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

^X

A

K

'9

--^ orfo

almost invisible openings. These caterpillars become full

grown in about three weeks, just
about the time the grain is mature.
About harvest-time the second brood
of moths appears. These laj' their
eggs during July, depositing them on
the ripe heads if the harvest be a little
delayed, but on the wheat in stack if
harvest is prompt. Usually the
caterpillars hatching from these eggs
l^ecomc full grown and remain in the
grain over winter, but in warm sea-
sons, especially if warm in September
or when the pest is unusually abun-
dant, a third brood of moths appears
early in September. These lay another
batch of eggs about the middle of
September, depositing them upon the
open ends of grain in stack or mow,
which thus becomes more infested than
that in the centre. In grain stacked
outside, the caterpillars of this brood
become full grown slowly and remain
in the grain over winter, but if in
the barn they grow faster and a
fourth brood of moths appears about
the middle of October, the moths being
noticed in threshing. The insects con-
tinue to Ijreed within doors all winter
as long as any grain remains, though
they become sluggish and cease feed-
ing during cold weather. The number
of broods is entirelj^ dependent upon
the latitude and, weather conditions;
in the South, where they can breed

continuously, there being as many as eight in a year.

!i1

.rjT

-tr^

^)

Y

rv^i

w

t.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAINS 195

Corn is frequently attacked, l)ut not until it is ripe and husked,
and then but rarely when husked in ()etol)er and November and
stored outdoors in slatted cribs. Seed-corn stored in barns, and
in the South in almost any situation, is often badly injured.

Aside from the loss in weight, grain when badly infested
becomes unfit for milling purposes, and will even be refused by
cattle and horses, which should not be urged to eat it, though
hogs and fowls will readily consume it.

Remedies. — Dr. J. B. Smith, in an interesting bulletin upon
this pest, to which we are indebted for nuich of the above, advises
as follows: " Thresh as soon after harvest as possible, and bulk in
tight bins or in good sacks. [By " tight bins " are meant those
which will not permit the entrance or exit of the moths.] If the
grain is dry when harvested, it may be threshed at once; if not, as
soon as it is in good condition. If the sacked grain is infested,
there will not be wormy kernels sufficient to heat the grain. The
moths cannot make their way out and are stifled. Nothing can
come in from outside and the grain remains safe. The threshing
itself kills many of the insects and jars and rubs off many of the
eggs. If binned, the bins should be tight and the grain should be
tested occasionally for any appreciable heating. If it heats per-
ceptibl}', it indicates considerable infestation, and it should be
treated with carbon liisulfide at once, used at the rate of one
drachm per cu])ic foot, or 1 pound for 250 cubic feet bin-space."
Recent investigations have shown that more l)isulfide will often
be necessary. See page 198.

Those having wheat unthreshcd, whether in stack or mow,
should thresh at once, and treat as al)ove directed, except that if
much of it is noticed to be worm}', it should l)e treated with carbon
bisulfide at once, as soon as threshed, which if done thoroughly
will prevent an}- further infestation that year.

Barns and storehouses should be cleaned up and freed from ail
loose and scattered grain — chickens will help in this — before April
1st, so that no moths will be allowed to develop and infest the
grain in the field. Places where grain has been in shock the pre-
vious season should l)e cleaned up l)y the aid of cliickens. Thus if

190 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

there is any probability of grain being infested, it should be kept
tightly covered in the spring so as not to permit the spread of the
moths to the fields.

Prevention of ** Weevil "

Undoubtedly grain-insects can usually be more successfully
combated by a proper housing of the grain. No matter how often
the insects are destroyed in a granary, if the remainder of the barn
is full of dust, sweepings, and refuse, as it generally is, on which
the beetles can feed and in which they will breed, and if the gran-
ary is not absolutely tight, as soon as the gas passes off the insects
from the barn will again enter the granary, and soon it will be as
badly infested as ever.

Cleanliness. — " Cleanliness will accomplish much toward the
prevention of injury from these pests, the cause of a great propor-
tion of injuries in granaries, mills, elevators, and other structures
where grain and feed are stored being directly traceable to a dis-
regard of neatness. Dust, dirt, rubbish, and refuse material con-
taining sweepings of grain, flour, and meal are too frequently per-
mitted to accumulate and serve as breeding-places for a multitude
of injurious insects.

" The floors or corners and walls of the barn or storehouse
should be frequently swept, and all material that has no commer-
cial value burned."

The Gxanary. — " The ideal farmer's granary, from the stand-
point of insect ravages, should be built at some distance from
other buildings, and the rooms constructed of matched floorings
so as to be as near vermin-proof as possible. The doors should fit
tightly, closing upon a rabbet, which may be covered with felt or
packing, and the windows covered with frames of wire gauze to pre-
vent the passage of insects. The floor, walls, and ceilings should
be smooth, so as not to afford any lurking-places for the insects,
and it would be well to have them oiled, painted, or whitewashed
for further securit}^ A coating of coal-tar has been strongly recom-
mended for the latter purpose."

" The value of a cool place as a respository of grain has been

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAINS 197

known of old, and a building in which any artificial heat is
employed is undesirable for grain storage. The ' heating ' and fer-
mentation of grain, as is well known, is productive of ' weevil,' and
this should be prevented by avoiding moisture and by ventilation-
" The storage of grain in large bulk is to be connnended, as the
surface hu'ers only are exposed to infestation. This practice is
particularly valuable against the moths, which do not penetrate
far beneath the surface. Frequent agitation of the grain is also
destructive to the moths, as they are unable to extricate them-
selves from a large mass, and perish in the attempt. The true
granary-weevils (small dark-brown beetles with long curved
snouts, similar to the pea- weevil), however, penetrate more
deeply, and although bulking is of value against them, it is not
advisable to stir the grain, as it merely distributes them more
thoroughly through the mass." — Chittenden.

Destruction of *' Weevil "

Carbon Bisulfide. — " The simplest, most effective, and most
inexpensive remedy for all insects that affect stored grain and
other stored products is the bisulfide of carbon, a colorless lic[uid,
with a strong disagreeable odor, which, however, soon passes
away." At ordinary temperatures it vaporizes rapidly, forming a
heavy gas, which is highly inflammable and a powerful poison.

Application. — It may be applied directly to the infested grain
or seed without injury to its edibleness or viability by spraying
with an ordinary watering-can having a fine rose nozzle. In
moderately tight bins it is more effective, however, as it evaporates
more slowly and diffuses more evenly, if placed in shallow dishes
or pans, or on bits of cloth or cotton waste distributed about on
the surface of the grain or infested material. The liquid volatil-
izes rapidly, and, being heavier than air, descends and permeates
the mass of grain, killing all insects and other vermin present.
The bin should then be covered with boards, canvas, or blankets,
and allowed to remain at least twenty-four hours. If to be used
for seed, it should not be left for over thirty-six hours; but if not,

198 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

leave it forty-eight hours, which will do it no injury for food.
After treating, keep the grain covered to prevent reinfestation.

Amount to Use. — It was formerly recommended that the bisul-
fide be applied at the rate of 1 to 3 pounds to 100 bushels of grain
or 1000 cubic feet of open space. Recent experiments, however,
have shown the total inadequacy of this dosage. Experiments
made by Hinds and Hunter * show that the effectiveness of the
gas is in direct proportion to the temperature. Below 60° F. the
fumigation is ineffective and inadvisable. A dosage which will
kill practically all the weevil at 67° to 70° will kill but 60 to 70 per
cent at 60° to 65°. They recommend the use of 5 pounds per
1000 cubic feet where the room or bin is quite tight and the tem-
perature is 70° or above. For loose rooms and lower tempera-
tures, the dosage must be largeh' increased and may not be profit-
able. The above estimates are based upon the grain being in a
cubical shape; if it is spread out shallow, more bisulfide will be
necessary.

Caution. — " Certain precautions should always be observed.
The vapor of carbon bisulfide is deadly to all forms of animal
life if inhaled in sufficient quantity, V)ut there is no danger in
inhaling a small amount. The vapor is highly inflammable,
but with proper care that no fire of any kind, as, for example,
a lighted cigar, lantern, or light of any kind, be brought into
the vicinity until the fumes have entirely passed away, no trouble
will be experienced."

Hydrocyanic Acid Gas. — Mills and storehouses which needed
treatment were formerly fumigated with carbon bisulfide, which
is still employed to a considerable extent, but this has been
largely replaced by fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas, which
obviates the risk from fire. Directions for the use of this gas
should be obtained from the entomologist of the State experiment
station or from the Bureau of Entomology of the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

Sulfur Fumes. — Professor R. I. Smith (l.c) has made experi-

* Hinds and Hunter, Journal of Economic I'^ntomology, Vol. Ill, p. 47:
R. I. Smith, Bulletin 203, X. ('. A^r. Exp. Sta.

INSECTS INJUHlorS TO sroHKl) (IRAINS 199

ments with sulfur dioxicl, produced by burning sulfur slightly wet
with alcohol, and finds that it will effectively kill grain insects
but injures the germinating power of the grain. " It was found that
the fumes produced l)y burning 2h pounds of sulfur either in a
moist or dry atmosphere of 1000 cubic feet space, for twenty
hours, would kill all exposed adult insects and practically all the
young stages in the grain, l)ut that this also destroyed its germinat-
ing power. . . While this treatment cannot be recommended
for general fumigation, there is no doubt of its being the easiest
and cheapest method of fumigating corn cribs, granaries and
similar places whenever they are being cleaned out and freed
of insects in preparation for the reception of more grain."

Heat. — The heating of grain was one of the earliest means
known of comljating grain insects, l)ut has been little used in this
country. Recently, however, Mr. CJeo. A. Dean of the Kansas
Agricultural Experiment Station.* has shown that by super-
heating mills they ma}'- Ije rid of insect pests nuich more quickly
and cheaply than by fumigation, and witli no risk from fire, or
from cj'anide poisoning. His experiments show that if the
temperature surrounding an insect be maintained above 120° F.,
with a normal amount of moisture, that in a very few minutes it
will be killed. This promises to become one of the most prac-
ticable methods of cleaning mills and may be used for small
quantities of grain, where there ar(> facilities for heating it or
placing it in a superheated room, but prol)al)h' carbon bisulfide
fumigation will be found more practicable for small amounts.
* Geo. A. Dean, Journal of lOconomic p]ntoniology. Vol. IV, p. 142.

CHAPTER XI
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER *

The Clover Root-borer f

The clover root-borer is practically the only insect pest which
seriously injures clover roots. It has long been known as a
clover pest in Europe, but was first noticed in this country in

Fifi. 14-1. — Tlio clover rnol-l)orcr (flijla.^linu.^ oZ>.sr?/;'u.s) : a, ndiilt, natural
size at right; fo, larva or gruli; f , pupa — much enlarged. (After Wei )ster,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

western New York in 1S76, whence it has spread southward to
West Virginia and westward to Illinois and southern Michigan,
and has also been injurious in Oregon.

Life History. — During the winter the beetles may be found
hibernating in their burrows in infested clover roots. They are
not readily distinguishable, for they are scarcely one-eighth
inch long, and are of a reddisli-brown color much like that of the
Inirrow. With the warmer weather of spring they commence

* See The Insect Pests of Clover and Alfalfa, J. W. Folsom, 25th Report
of the State Entomologist of Illinois, p.p. 41-124.

t Hylastiiius obscunis Alar.-^ham. Family ScnlylidcB.

200

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER

201

burrowing and feeding in the I'oots, and during late May and early

June the females deposit their eggs along

the sides of the tunnels. '' The female

gouges out a shallow cavity, more often

in the crown of the plant, sometimes at

the sides of the root even 2 or 3 inches

below the crown, and in this places,

singly, but not far separated, about a

half dozen pale whitish, elliptical, very

minute eggs. These hatch in about a

week, and the larvse for a time feed in

the excavation made by the mother,

but soon burrow downward into the root,

and before the 1st of August, the majority

of them have become full-grown, and

passed into the pupal stage. By October

nearly all have become fully developed

beetles, but they make no attempt to

leave the plant until the following spring."

The spread of the insect occurs veiy

largely in the spring when the beetles

fly from field to field, seeking uninfested

plants in which to perpetuate their kind.

It has been observed that alsike clover
is not so badly injured as the mammoth
and common red clover, on account of
the fibrous roots and the tendency of
its tap-root to divide. In Europe alfalfa
is injured, but no injury has yet been
reported to that crop in this country,
though it may be anticipated.

" While an infested clover j)lant soonc
an attack by tliis insect, \'\iv may be lengthened or shortened by
meteorological conditions. Thus, if [\w spring or early summer
is verj* dry, the plants begin to dr}- in patches late in June, as
soon as the hay crop is removed; but if there is much rain dur-

FiG. 145. — Clover root,
showing work of clover
root - borer. Slightly
enlarged. (After
^^'cbster, U. S. D. Agr.)

or later succumljs to

202

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

ing this period, the weakened plants may continue to live until
winter, dying out before spring. In either case the farmer is
likely to be misled and attribute the loss to the weather."*
Clover is practically exempt from attack the first year as the
roots are not large enough to accommodate the insects, and it is
not until the second year that the plants are destroyed.

Control. — The only effective means of control suggested is
summer following as soon as the hay crop has been removed.
The field should then be plowed up at once, before the larva?
have transformed to pupse, so that the hot sun, and dr}' winds,
will dry out the roots of the clover and thus starve the larvae,
thereby preventing their developing and migrating to other
fields. Clover fields should not l^e allowed to stand over two
years in infested localities. Xo injury seems to be done in
pastures. A system of rotation in which the crop is mowed for hay
and seed the first year, and pastured and then broken up the
second year, should keep tli(> pest under control.

The Clover Stem-borer

Early in June one frequently finds the

I'"iu. 146. — Clover stem-lrorer {Languria niuzardi):
the eggs natural .size and magnified, the
beetle, larva, and pupa — all much enlarged,
and above, a clover-stem with the larva at
work in it. (After Comstock.)

* Quotations from F. M. Webster, The Clover
Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

t Languria mozardi Fat). Family Erotylidce.

t

])eetles of the Clover
8tem-borer here and
there in the clover-
field. They are slen-
(lei-, shining ])eetles,
about one-third of an
iiicli long, Avith a red
head and thorax and
1 )Iuish-black w i n g -
covers. The beetles
themselves seem to
do little or no harm.
Hibernating over
winter, they lay eggs

-root Borer, Circular 119,

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER 203

in the pith of the stems early in June, and the larvtc
emerging from these feed upon the pith of the stem, often
very seriously weakening or killing it. The larvie become full-
grown in a short time, transform to pupa', and the Ijeetlcs appear
by August.

Clover is only one of a dozen food-plants of this insect, which
is widely distributed. It rarely does any considerable injury
where clover is regularly cut in early summer and fall, and need
not be feared when this is not neglected.

The Clover Leaf -weevil *

The clover leaf-weevil is a stout, oval beetle, about one-third
inch long, with a long, thick snout. It is of a brownish color,
with several narrow gray lines above and broad gray stripes
on each side, and with twenty rows of small, deep punctures
on the wing-covers. It is also a native of Europe and made its
first appearance in the same section of western New York as the
last species, about 1S81. Since then it has spread eastward to
Rhode Island and A'ermont, southward to North C-arolina and
West A'irginia, antl westw^ard to Wisconsin and Illinois. Every
few years the weevils and their larvic destro}' nuich of the foliage
in restricted localities, but rarely are they very injurious the next
season. Red clover, alfalfa, and white clover are preferred in the
order named; in Illinois the mammoth and alsike are also eaten.

Life History. — In early fall the female beetles lay their eggs
in crevices among the stems near the base^of the plant, which
hatch in from, three to six weeks. The young larva; which hatch
from them are without legs, but manag(^ to climl) Ijy means of
the prominent tubercles on the lower surface of the body. They
are light yellowish-green, becoming deeper green as they grow
older, the head is Ijrown, and down the middle of the back
is a white or pale yellow stripe ])ordered with reddish. The
larvae become partially grown ]jcfor(> winter sets in, when they
hibernate in rubbish or just ujider the soiI_ until spring, when
they continue to feed upon the foliage and become full-grown
* Phytonnmns pnnciatus Fab. Family Curculionidcr.

204

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

in May and early June. They feed mostly at night and are
hardly noticeable in the day, when they lie protected around
the base of the'^lant, lying curled up head to tail. The injury
to the foliage is quite characteristic, the edges of the leaves being
eaten in a regular manner as shown in Fig. 147. When full grown

Fig. 147. — Clover leaf-weevil {Phytonomu^ punclatu.s Fabr.): a, egg magnified
and natural size; bbbb, larvs; c, recently hatched larva; d, head of
larva; c, jaws of the same; /, cocoon; g, same magnified to show the
meshes; h, pupa; i, weevil, natural size; /, the same magnified; k, top
view of the beetle; I, tarsus and claws of the Ijcetlc; w, antenna of the
Ijeetle. (After Riley.)

the larva buries itself just under the surface of the soil and makes
an oval cell, in which it spins a delicate cocoon consisting of a
coarse network of pale yellow threads, which later turn brown,
as shown in Fig. 147. Occasionally the cocoon is made on the
surface or among the bases of the stems. In this the pupal
stage is passed, lasting two or three weeks; the beetles being
most common in July and August. The damage which the

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER 205

beetles do to the second crop of clover is fully equal that done
b}' the larva* to the first, and is more apparent because the soil
is then di-y and the plant grows more slowly.

That this insect has not become a more serious pest is due to
the fact that as often as it becomes excessively abundant the larvae
are almost completely destroyed by a fungous disease.* When
affected by this disease the larva? climb to the top of a blade of
grass, curl tighth' around the tip, and soon die, first becoming
covered with a white mold and then turning to a jelly-like mass.
The spores of the fungus become scattered to healthy individuals,
which soon succumb, so that before long nearly all are destroyed,
and rarely do enough survive to cause trouble the next year.

Control. — On account of this disease repeated injury has been
so rare that no means of artificial control has been necessary.
" The necessity for the employment of any remedy does not
appear until the clover is well on in its second year's growth," says
Dr. Folsom (I.e.). '' If damage is anticipated, however, it would
seem advisable to pasture the clover lightly or to clip back in the
spring; this does not hurt the clover, is highly desirable as a means
of forestalling the attacks of some other clover pests (see page
214), and might check the larvae of the leaf -weevil somewhat,
though it is possible that they would subsist on the cut stems until
the new growth started ; and in cold weather they can live a long
time without any food. After the second season red clover should
be plowed under to get rid of this pest, as well as for other agricul-
tural reasons."

The Alfalfa Weevil *

In recent years a first cousin of the last species has been intro-
duced into Utah, where it has become firmly established and
promises to become the most serious obstacle to alfalfa culture.
The alfalfa weevil is a native of Europe, western Asia, and north-
ern Africa, where it is common but never very seriouslj^ injurious.

* Empusa spharoperma Fres.

* Phytonomus murinus Fab. Family Curculionidce . See E. G. Titus,
Bulletin 110, Utah Agr. Exp. Sta., and F. M. Webster, Circular 137, Bureau
of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

206 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

It was first noticed in America near Salt Lake City, Utah, in 1904,
and has been increasing and spreading until it now occupies an
area of fully 100 square miles around Salt Lake City.

The beetles are from one-eighth to three-sixteenth inch long,
dark brown, marked with black and gray hairs which gives them
a mottled appearance as shown in Fig. lide. These hairs or scales

are gradually rubbed
off, so that in spring
many individuals are
entirely black with
small grayish spots.

Life History. — The
beetles seek shelter for
hibernation before
frost in the autumn,
either in the crowns
of the alfalfa plants,
or under thick grass,
weeds, rubbish, leaves,
or in hay or straw
stacks. Often they
winter in barns where
the hay is stored, the
floors of which are
often found covered
with the beetles in
winter and spring. It is estimated that fully 80 per cent of the
weevils survive the winter in Utah. In the spring the beetles emerge
and attack the young alfalfa plants as soon as there is sufficient food
for them, usually late in March. The females commence laying
eggs in early April and continue oviposition until early July. In
early spring while the j^lants are small the females often push
their eggs down between the leaves, but the usual method is to
insert them in punctures made in the stem. This puncturing of
the young stems often results in considerable damage in early
spring. A single alfalfa plant which had escaped from cultiva-

FiG. 148. — The alfalfa weevil, adults, clustering
on and attacking sprig of alfalfa — natural size.
(After Webster, U. 8. Dept. Agr.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER

207

tion was found to contain 127 of these punctures, and as each
puncture contains ten or fifteen eggs, this plant probably bore
some 1200 eggs, although it was exceptional.

The eggs hatch in about ten days and the small white larvae
make their way to the leaves, in which they vat small holes. They
soon turn a decidedly green color, and when full grown are about
one-half inch long with a white stripe down the middle of the back
and somewhat curved as shown in Fig. l-idc. They attack the
}-oung leaves and crowai so that a badly infested field will not get
over six inches high; too short to mow. The larvae are most

P'iG. 149. — The alfalfa-weevil (Pliytonomus murinus): n, eggs<: b, cocoon;
c, larva; rf, pupa; e, adult — all much enlarged. (After Webster, U. S.
Dept. Agr.)

abundant in May and decrease through June. A\'hen full grown
the larva' crawl or drop to the ground and spin their cocoons
in the dead leaves or rubbish. The cocoon is globular and
composed of a network of rather coarse white threads, P'ig. 1496.
In it the larva transforms to a pupa, which stage lasts from
one to two weeks, when the adult beetle emerges.

From early to midsummer the beetles become more and more
abundant, and not only feed on the fresh growth, l^ut attack the
bark of the stems so that where excessively abundant they totally
destroy the second crop.

" The entire life of the insect, from the deposition of the egg to
the emergence of the adult, ma}- be anywhei-e from forty to seventy

208 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

days, while the beetle itself may live, including the winter, from
ten to fourteen months." — Webster.

Inasmuch as literally millions of the lieetles have been gath-
ered by machines from a single acre, and as the beetles have been
found in considerable numbers on freight and passenger trains,
it is highly probable that the pest will be spread by the several
trunk-lines of railroad which pass through the infested region, as
in many places alfalfa has escaped from fields and grows as a weed
along the railway tracks. It is, therefore, highly important that
alfalfa growers be on their guard against this pest and take prompt
measures for its destruction wherever it may gain a foothold.
The weevils also spread rapidly by flying in spring and summer,
which migration is aided by the winds. They may also be spread
in articles shipped from an infested region and on wagons or auto-
mobiles.

Control. — The methods of control have not, as yet, been satis-
factorily determined, though the entomologist of the Utah Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, E. G. Titus, has made extensive
experiments with various methods, from whose report the following
summary is taken.

Old alfalfa fields are always worst injured, and fields should
not be left down in alfalfa over about seven years. Thorough
disking in the early spring has proved to be one of the essential
factors in securing a good crop, as it increases the stand and stimu-
lates a quick growth which enables the plants to better withstand
the weevil injury. The use of a brush drag with which a spike-
tooth harrow is combined has been found an excellent means of
killing the larva?, as they are knocked to the ground and large
numbers killed by the fine dust. If the field is very hard it 's
advisable to disk it before using the drag. After the use of the drag,
the fields should be watered where there is irrigation. Several
machines have been constructed for gathering the weevils and
have proven quite satisfactory. These are being perfected and
promise to be of considerable value for the collection of the weevils,
particularly when used in conjunction with the brush drags. In
summarizing the methods of control, Professor Titus recommends;

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER

209

" That alfalfa be disked in early spring to stimulate it to better
orowth. That the first growth be cut when the most of the eggs
have been laid (middle of May) and then brush-drag the field
thoroughly. Fields should be brush-dragged again after the first
crop has been cut. All weeds and rubbish should l;)e cleaned
from the fields, yards, ditches and fence rows so that there will be
less opportunity for the weevils to find winter shelter. Alfalfa
should not be allowed to grow more than seven or eight years in
infested districts."

The Clover-mite *

The Clover-mite is ncarl}' related to the common red spider
of greenhouses, with which it is often confucx-'d, belonging to the
same family of vegetable-
feeding mites. It is
however, about twice the
size of the red spider, being
fully three-tenths of an inch
long.

Though known as the
clover-mite, on account of
its feeding upon that plant,
yet this insect was first
known as, and is still, an
important enemy of fruit-
trees, more especially on
the Pacific coast, but also in
other sections of the country.
The most injury seems to
have been done to clover in
the Central States as far
south as Tennessee, though it has suffered somewhat even in
the East.

When attacked by the mite the leaves of clover or fruit-

* Bryobia pratensis Garman. Family Tetranychidce. See C. L. Marlatt,
Circular 19, 2d Ser., Division of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

Fig. 150.

The Clover-mite
pratensis) .

{Br yob in

210 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND. ORCHARD

trees become yellow and have a sickl}' appearance, as if affected
with a fungous disease. Especially upon the upper sitles of the
tender leaves of clover the juices are extracted over irregular
areas, looking more or less like the burrows of some leaf -mining
larva?. Owing to the small size of the mites they may be doing
considerable damage to the foliage and yet remain unnoticed;
])ut in the egg stage the pest is much more readily detected and
attacked. In the more northern States the eggs are laid in the
fall, and do not hatch until the next spring. Further south,
however, the adult mites hil^crnate over winter. The eggs are
of a reddish color, laid upon the bark of trees, especially in the
crotches, and in the West are sometimes so thickly placed as to
cover considerable areas two or three layers deep.

When the adult mites leave the clover-fields in the fall to
find hibernating c^uarters upon fruit-trees for the winter, they
often become quite a nuisance by invading dwelling-houses which
are in their path. This is more particularly the case throughout
the Mississippi Valley.

Remedies. — When swarming into a house their progress may
be arrested by spraying the lower part of the building, walls,
etc., with pure kerosene as often as necessary. Inside the house
they may be destroyed by the use of pyrethrum powder (Persian
insect-powder), burning brimstone, or spraying with benzine,
care being taken not to bring the latter substance near the fire.

The only practical way of protecting clover from the mite
is by destroying the eggs and hibernating mites upon the fruit-
trees in winter. This may be done by burning all the prunings
and thoroughly spra^'ing the trees with kerosene emulsion diluted
with five parts of water, or with miscible oils or lime-sulfur
mixture. Such a spraying will also protect the fruit-trees from
the mite, and will destroy numerous other insects, such as the
pear-leaf blister-mite, which hil)ernates upon the trees. Sucli
small insects, so minute as to usually escape notice, are often
responsible for a poor growth, ami should be properly checked
whenever known to be injurious.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER

211

The Pea-louse *

Although this aphid is worst as a pest of peas (see page 322
for full account) it passes the winter on reel and crimson clover
which occasionally are seriously injured. In the spring of 1900,
Ijoth red and crimson clover were ])adly injured in Delaware,
Maryland and Virginia, while in DeKalb County, Illinois, con-
siderable acreages were entirely destroyed in August, 1903, and
more or less injury has been done since then. Where peas are
available the aphides migrate to them in the spring, but other-

FlG. 151. — The pea-aphis: 1, winged viviparous female; 2, wingless vivip-
arous female — greatly enlarged. (After Folsom.)

wise they continue to multiply on the clover. In late fall they
return to the clover upon which the eggs are laid, in which stage
the winter is passed, though in open winters many of the viviparous
females live over winter on the clover.

Control. — This is another pest which is usually held under
control by a fungous disease, and as the fungus does not develop
in dry seasons, with dry weather the aphis increases unchecked,
while with a normal rainfall it is usually held in subjection,
Unfortunately we are unable to predict the weather probabilities,
and when the aphides are found present on clover in considei-able

* Macrosiphum pist Kalt. Family ApJiididte.

212 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

numbers, the only thing to do is to cut and cure it as soon as pos-
sible, before serious damage has been done. The drying of the
clover will kill most of the aphides or cause them to migrate.
Spring pasturing or clipping might result in destroying a sufficient
number of the aphides so that no serious damage would result
later.

The Clover-seed Midge * ]/

The Clover-seed Midge seems to occur wherever red and white
clover is grown in this country, and is a pest which must be taken
into consideration in raising see'd, for frequently it is not recognized
as the cause of the failure of the seed crop. Alsike clover, and
probably mammoth clover, is practically uninjured, as it flowers
enough later to escape attack, nor is alfalfa infested.

Life History. — The parent of all this trouble is a small midge,
one-twelfth inch long, with black head and thorax and
reddish abdomen, so small, indeed, that it will rarely be noticed.
The antennas have sixteen or seventeen segments, and the wings
have but few veins, as shown in Fig. 152. The female bears a
slender retractile ovipositor which when extended from the tip
of the abdomen is fully as long as the body, while the tip of the
abdomen of the male is furnished with clasping organs. The
midges appear in late spring just as the clover commences to
head. The eggs are laid among the hairy spines of the clover
head or beneath the bracts around it, are yellowish to orange
in color, of an oval shape, and about y-Qo inch long. Upon
hatching- the maggot works its way into the open end of a floret,
where it sucks the forming seed, and prevents the petals of the
floret fi'om expanding, so that altiiough some of the flowers in
the head will bloom, the field as a whole does not blossom as
usual. The maggot is footless, white to orange-red in color,
and about one-tenth inch long when full grown. Upon becom-
ing grown in late June and the first week of July the maggots
enter the soil and just below the surface make tough, oval, silken
cocoons, in which they pupate. The pupal stage lasts about

* Diusyneiira leguminicola Lintner. Family Cecidomyidir.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER

213

three weeks or more, and the files of the second generation appear
in Central Illinois in late July and early August, being abundant
as the second crop of clover heads appear. The eggs are laid
in the clover heads and hatch in about three da}'s, and the second
generation of maggots do the worst damage to the seed in late
August and early September, in the same manner as did the first
generation. They become full gr()A\ii In' frost and hibernate

Tig. 152. — The clover-flower midge {Dusyneura legiuuinicolo): a, enlarged
side view of female, with scales denuded, to show more clearly the struc-
tiu"e; 6, head, more highly magnified, to show structure of the eye,
palpi, and basal joints of antenn*; c, tip of ovipositor, highly magnified
and showing at end of next to last joint the manner in which it is clothed
with minute hairs; (/, highly magnified antennal joints, their minute hairy
clothing shown on the lower one; 2. a, larva enlarged, ventral view;
b, head retracted, highly magnified, (.\fter Riley.)

either as fidl-grown larva>, in which case they pupate early the
next spring, or pupate l)efore frost and pass the winter as pupa? in
the soil.

Control. — Fortunately this pest may be very readily controlled
by adapting the methods of harvesting so as to destroy the d<?vel-
oping maggots. If clover is grown alone it should l)e cut early,
before the maggots have l)ecome mature. This results in dr}'ing
up the food plant and thus destroying the larvae and hastens the
development of the second crop of clover heads, so that the midges

214 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

of the second generation have but few green heads in which to lay
their eggs. Cutting need not be done until the field is fairly fresh
with bloom, but should not be delayed until the flowers commence
to wither. Where timothy and clover are grown together they
should be j^astured lightly or clipped back in May, which will
result in bringing both the first and second blooming after the
greatest abundance of the midges. As the midges do not travel
far, it would seem advisable to " prevent the sporadic heading of
first-year clover by mowing it back a few weeks after small grains
have been harvested, at a time when growth is vigorous, but yet
sufficiently early to permit considerable growth before frost sets in.
Volunteer clover should always be cut, as it affords a rich nursery
for all kinds of clover insects." — Folsom.

The Clover-seed Chalcid *

Evidence accumulates tluit the shortage of the clover-seed
crop ma}' frequently be due to tlic larva of a little chalcis-fly which

hollows out the ripen-
ing seed, leaving it
brown, brittle and
hollow, so that the
affected hulls are Ijlo wn
away with the chaff in
threshing. As there is
no evidence of the pest
in the appearance of
the heads, ancl as the
worst affected seed are
thus overlooked in
threshing, its work will
often evade detection.
If the seed crop is short it will l^c well to examine seed for the
larvae; many of the seed will be found shriveled and misshapen;
and frequently considerable numbers of the adults will issue from
the seed soon after threshing.

* Bruchoph(tyuN funebria Howard. Family ('lidlcididcB.

I'm. I'y.i. — The clover-seed chalcis {Bruchophaqus
funehris) : adult female, much enlarged ;
antenna of male at left, more enlarged.
(After Webster, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER

215

The adult is a small wasp-like fly one-twelfth to one-sixteenth
inch long, black in color, and with four wings, the hind- wings very
small and the fore-wings with l)iit a single vein. It belongs to a
family almost all of which are parasitic on other insects, and for
many years it was thought to be a parasite of the clover-seed
midge, until its true role was discovered. In recent years exam-
inations of ripening heads from all parts of the country show that
it is probably distributed wherever clover is grown antl that from
20 to SO per cent of the seed is often destroyed. Both red and
crimson clovers are attacked, wiiih^ alfalfa seed is not so badly
injured.

'iG. 154. — The clover-seed chalcis: a, egg — highly magnified; b, larva
and head more enlarged; c, pupa — much enlarged. (After Webster,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Life History. — The winter is passed by the fully grown larvae
in seed on the ground. The adults emerge in the spring, the maxi-
mum appearing about June 10th in central Illinois, according to
Dr. Folsom, to whom we are indebted for the most careful study
of the pest. The females deposit their eggirtn the soft seed, just
as the floret is withering, being unable to penetrate the seed after
it has hardened. The egg is whitish, about yj^ inch long, and
with a peculiar tail-like appendage (Fig. 154). The maggot-like
larva feeds upon the seed, gradually' hollowing it out, and when full
grown is about one-twelfth inch long, stout and footless, with a
small head. The pupal stage is passed within the seed and a sec-
ond generation of adults emerges about the middle of August.

216 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

These lay their eggs in the second growth, and some of the adults
from these appear the same season and the rest not until the fol-
lowing year. There seem to be at least three generations a year in
central Illinois, but the life history is complicated by the irregu-
larity in the time of development, though the greatest numbers of
adults appear about June 10th and August 10th, just as the clover-
seed is green.

Control. — No definite experiments have been made in the con-
trol of this pest, but from the knowledge of the life history as
given above there seems no doubt but that the same measures as
are employed against the clover-seed midge will secure immunity
from serious injury.

The Clover-seed Caterpillar *

" In its ability to diminish the seed crop, this pest ranks with
the seed-midge and the seed-chalcid. Attacking a clover head
that is green or partly in bloom, the little caterpillar eats out a

Fig. 155. — Clover-seed caterpillar {Enar mania interstinctana) : a, caterpillar,
h, pupa; c, moth, all much enlarged: d, moth natural size, (.\fter
Osborn.)

cavity in the head, destroying many of the unopened buds and
some of the tender green seeds, and spoiling the head as a whole.
When no young clover heads are at hand, the caterpillar feeds on

* Enarmonia interstinctana Clem. Family Grapholithidce .

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER 217

tender green leaves at the crown of the phmt." — Folsom. Red
clover is the principal food plant, hut white, alsikc, and probably
mammoth clovers are also affected. The pul)lished records show
that it occurs in the northeastern States southwest to Missouri,
but it doubtless occurs elsewhere where clover is grown, as it
might readily be carried in ha}-.

Life History. — The adult is a pretty little brown moth, with a
wing expanse of two-fifths inch, with silvery markings as shown
in Fig. 155, the most conspicuous marks forming a double crescent
when the wings are closed ou the Ijack. The moths appear about
the end of May in central Illinois, or just as the clover is coming
into bloom, being active in earh' evening, when the females lay
their eggs in the heads. The egg is circular in shape, about Vioo
inch in diameter, yellowish- white in color, and hatches in five or
six days. In first-year clover that has not headed and in second-
year clover recently cut, the eggs are laid on young stems and leaf-
lets at the base of the plant, where the larvse stay.

" Hatching usually at the base of a green clover-head; the
larva eats into the head, destroying the green florets as it goes.
A small green head is often destroyed entirely, before it is many
days old; a larger head is injured only locally at first, remaining
green on one side, while the other and unaffected side may come
into full bloom." Judging from the appearance of the head the
work might be that of the seed-midge, but wdiereas it is hidden
away in a single floret, this caterpillar makes a large dirty excava-
tion involving many florets, and is readily found by tearing open
the head. The caterpillar attacks the bases of the florets, includ-
ing the semifluid oviUes, but does not attack seeds which have
hardened. '' Even when the direct injury is confined to a portion
of the clover-head, the entire head is ruined, for it at length dries
up and loses the rest of the florets, leaving only the dead and brown
receptacle. Less conspicuous, though not inconsiderable, is the
injury at the crown of the plant, done chiefly in September and
October, by caterpillars of the same species feeding upon the
leaves." — Folsom. The total injury varies greatly, but not infre-
quently 20 per cent of the heads are infested, and in Iowa infesta-

218 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

tion has sometimes been exceedingly severe. In an}' event,
every head destroyed means the loss of more than one hundred
seeds.

The larvae become full grown in four to five weeks. The full
grown caterpillar is about one-third inch long and varies in color
from dirty-white tinged with green to orange, according to the
food. The larva spins an oval white silken cocoon, two-fifths
inch long, either in the head or at the surface oT the ground,
which is more or less covered with bits of excrement and floral tis-
sue. The pupa is one-fifth inch long, brown, with the thorax and
wing-cases darker, and with two transverse rows of teeth on the
back of the abdominal segments except the last, which bears six
stout blackish hooks at the tip. The pupal stage lasts two to
three weeks and a second generation of moths emerges about the
third week of July (in central Illinois) . The life cycle is repeated
in the same manner and a third generation of moths appears about
September 1st. The larvse of the last bi'ood feed cither in imma-
ture clover-heads or at the crown of the plant. j\Iost of them
become full grown and transform to pupae, in which stage the}-
hibernate over winter, while others become full grown, but fail to
pupate and hibernate under ruljbish.

Control. — Cutting and storing the hay crop early in June as
advised for the clover-seed midge will kill the larvae while still
in the heads. '' The nay should be handled lighth' and stacked
or stored as soon as possible. Osborn and Gossard * have attested
the value of this method, and have given these further recommenda-
tions: (1) Cut volunteer clover in early June and dispose of the
heads speedily; (2) do not allow clover to run for more than two
years; (3) sow seed on land remote from old fields; (4) pasture
clover in the fall of the first year; (5) plow an old clover-field
under in October or November or in early spring, then harrow
and roll. These practices operate at the sam(> time against
several other clover pests." — Folsom.

* Osborn and Gossard, Insect Life, Vol. IV, p. 254; Bulletins 14 and 15,
Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta.; 22d Report Entomological Society of Ontario, p. 74.
Gossard, H. A., Bulletin 19, Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER

219

The Clover-hay Worm * ^

The clover-hay worm attacks stacked or stored clover, par-
ticularly where it is held over a year or where placed on old hay,
eating much of the lower layers and rendering it unfit for food.

Fig. 156. — Clover-hay worm, greatly enlarged. (After Folsom.)

It has been known to be injurious from Kansas eastward, but
occurs throughout most of North America, as well as parts of
Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Fig. 157. — The clover-hay worm moth, wings expanded (after Folsoni) and
at rest (after Pettit) — enlarged.

" The larvs^ attack the bottom of a clover stack to a height
of 2 feet or more from the ground; similarly, in the barn, they
oc^ur next the floor. They interweave the hay with white silken
webs, intermixed with black grains of excrement. . . ; they

■ Hypsopygia costalis Fab. Family PijraUdidcE.

220 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

reduce much of the hay to chaff, and their webs give the hay the
appearance of being mouldy; in fact, such hay actually becomes
mouldy if it has been lying near the ground. This hay is refused
by horses and cattle and is fit onl}' to Ijc burnt. When the hay
is removed, swarms of wriggling Ijrown caterpillars are left."
The work of the catei pillars is usually noticed in late winter and
spring.

Life History. — The moths appear from the middle of June
until early July in the Northern States and most of the first
generation have disappeared by the end of July. The moths
have a wing expanse just under an inch, with silky wings, tinged
with purplish above, margined with orange and fringed with
golden yellow. On each side of the fore-wings are two large,
golden spots which divide the anterior margin into thirds and
continue backward as narrow lilac lines (Fig. 157). The hind-
wings are marked by tAvo transverse, wavy, straw-colored lines.

As soon as some clover-hay is found the female deposits her
eggs and the caterpillars feed upon it. When full grown they
are about three-cjuarters inch long, of a dull-brown color. The
segments are divided by a transverse groove, and each bears
several shining areas, with a fine white hair in each. White
silken cocoons, one-half inch long, covered with bits of hay
and excrement, are made Ijy the larvaj in the hay or in cracks
and crevices of the barri, in which they transform to pupae, which
are of a honey-yellow color, with the parts clearly defined by the
darker color of the sutures. The moths of the second brood
emerge from the middle of .Vugust until September 1st, but may
be found flying until late October. Caterpillars of all sizes may
be found in Ijarns throughout the winter and pupate in the sjjring.

Control. — Usually no serious injury is done except where
clover-hay is kept over the second year or longer. When it is
fed out each spring, before the next crop is harvested, there is
no food for the young caterpillars, and they perish before the
new crop comes in. Consequently mows should be cleaned
out each spring. New clover-hay should never be placed on
top of old hay, and stacks should be placed at some little distance

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER 221

from the old stacks if possibles Burn up the refuse from old
stacks, or what remains in the bottom of the mow. Stacks
shoukl be raised above the ground on a fountlation of logs or
rails, so as to keep the bottom as dry antl cool jus possible, as the
caterpillars love warmth and moisture. It has ])een found that
salting the hay for 2 or 3 f(>et at the l)ottom will prevent injury,
and many farmers salt theii' (•l()V('i--hay, using about two quarts
of salt to the ton.

CHAPTER XII

INSECTS ix.iiTRrors to tobacco*

7

The Tobacco Flea-beetle f

The Tol)acco Flea-beetle is one of the Important pests of that
plant throughout the Middle States, being particulai'ly injurious
to young plants. The beetles damage the leaves by eating small

Fig. 15S. — Tobacco flea-beetle {Epitri.c parvula): a, adult beetle; b, larva,
lateral view; c, head of larva; d, posterior leg of same; e, anal segment,
dorsal view; /, pupa — a, b, f, enlarged about fifteen times; c, d, e, more
enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. 8. Dept. Agr.)

holes in the upper or under surfaces, or clear through them, so
that when badl}' eaten the leaves look as if they had been peppered
with shot. The little beetles which do this damage-are hardly

* See L. O. Howard, Farmers' Bulletin 120, U. S. Dept. Agr., The Prin-
cipal Insects Affecting the Tol>acco Plant. A. C. Morgan, Circular 123,
Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr; Yearbook, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1910,
pp. 281-296.

t Epitrix parvula Fab. Family Clirysomelidce.

222

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO

223

more than one-twentieth inch long, light brown in color, with
a dark band across the wing-covers. A few of them could do
but little damage, Ijut they soon
increase in niiml)ers, so that they
swarm over the leaves and injure
them badly. Similar injury is done
to potato, egg-plant, and tomato,
and the beetles also feed on horse-
nettle, nightshade, and Jamestown
weed.

Life Ilistonj. — The eggs are laid
in the soil and the larvae feed upon
the roots of common weeds, such
as the nightshade and Jamestown
weed. The larva is delicate, thread-
like and white, except the yellow-
ish head, and about one-eighth
inch long. It pupates in the soil.
When the beetles become very nu-
merous the larva? sometimes de-
velop on the roots of tobacco, but
I'arely do serious damage. The
life history has not been deter-
mined exactly, but the full life
cycle seems to occupy al)Out a
month, SO that there are probably
several generations in a year.

Control. — Inasmuch as the larvae
develop on the roots of the weeds
mentioned, it is evident that the}-
should be kept down by thorough
cultivation. Where the beetles ap-
pear, the plants should be sprayed
or dusted with Paris green, or
probably better, arsenate of lead,
the same as for the horn-worm.

Fig. 159. — Tobacco leaves
damaged liy Epitrix par-
vuln. (After Howard, U.
S. Dept. Agr.)

Dipping the plants in arse-

224 INSECT PESTS OF P^ARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

nate of lead, 1 pound to 10 gallons of water, just as they are
set, has been found to afford very satisfactory protection in
Connecticut. j

The Tobacco Stalk-worm * /

Professor W. (1. Johnson found this species, also known as
the Corn-root Webworni, to be a serious pest to growing tobacco-
plants in southern Maryland, where it seems to have been a
tobacco pest for at least fifteen years, and it has also been noted
in Delaware.

The Injurij. — The injuiy to tol^acco is described by Professor
Johnson as follows: " The uninjured tobacco had a leaf -spread
of from ten to twelve inrh(>s. A few rods beyond, where the soil
was not so gravelly and l)etter, we found the larvie had literally
destroyed the first and second plantings, and were at work upon
the third, damaging it severely, although the groinul had been
replanted before the last planting. Here and there was a young
})lant just beginning to wilt, and invariably we found the larva at
work either in the stalk or at the base of the plant just below the
surface of the ground. So far as 1 could ascertain the attack is
always at the surface or just below. In many instances the
larvae had hollowed out the stalks from the base of the roots to
the branches of the first leaves. Many plants were gnawed
irregularh' around the stalk Ijelow the surface, and some, in fact,
were completely cut off at the surface, the insect always working
from below. In the great majority of cases the larvie were found
in a small mass of web near the plant, and sometimes within
it. In one plant, less than six inches high, we found four larva;
within the stalk, but as a rule only a single one was present."

Professor Johnson concluded " (1) that it is most likely to
occur over local areas in tol)acco following timothy or grass;
(2) that the character of the soil has little or nothing to do
with its ravages ; (3) that the attack upon corn is also a frequent
occurrence in the same section; especially when following grass
or timothy."

* Crunibus cnliginosellu.'i Clem. Family Crambidcp. See p. 161 and
Bull. 20, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 99-101, 1899.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO

225

Remedies. — He recommended " (1) that growers of tobacco
avoid planting upon grass or timothy sod; (2) that where grass
land is plowetl down it woukl be well to put it in wheat, following
with clover, before tobacco. If desirable, corn could follow
the grass and the land could be seeded in crimson clover at the
last working. This would serve a twofold object I)}' revealing
the exact location of larvae in the area under cultivation by their
attack upon corn, when they could be destroyed largely by
frequent harrowing and rolling, and by affording a most excellent
soil crop to turn down the following spring, which would be a
decided advantage to the tobacco; that if it "is found necessary
to have tobacco following grass, it should be broken in the spring
as early as possible, and frequently rolled and harrowed, at the
same time delaying the setting of the plants as long as possible
in order to destroy and starve the larvte within the ground."

The Spined Tobacco-bug *

Professor H. Garman has found a small bug, which he has
termed the Spined Tobacco-bug, doing more or less injury to plants

Fig. 160. — The spined tobacco-hug (Euscliistus variohin'iis) , nymph at left;
aduh at right — enhirged, (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

in Kentucky, and as this insect is widely distributed thi'oughout the
country, it probably does more or less damage elsewhere, though
never a serious pest. Concerning its work, he saj's: '' Occa-

* Euschistu^ punctipes Say {variolarius PaL Beauv.). Family Pentatom-
idce. See Bulletin No. 66, Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 33.

226 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

sional plants in tobacco-fields are at times observed to have become
suddenly wilted, the leaves hanging limp, much as if the stalk had
been severed. After a time they recover again, and, beyond a
temporary check on their growth, appear to have suffered but
little injury. If such plants are searched carefully while still
wilted, a flat, Ijrown bug with each side of the l)ody produced into
an angle, or sharp spine, will 1)C found upon the stalk along the
base of the leaves. It is very shy and keeps out of sight, hence any
brisk movement on the injured plants is likely to cause it to drop to
the ground and conceal itself." These insects are true bugs, suck-
ing their food through a beak, which is bent under the body
between the legs when not in use. They are about half an inch long,
of a drab color above and greenish or yellowish below. Usually
only one bug is found on a plant, so that the best way to pi-event
the injur}^ is to pick them from the plants, and keep down such
weeds as thistles and mulleins, upon which such insects feed, in
the adjoining fields.

The Suck-fly *

One of the worst tobacco pests in many parts of Florida is a
little bug called by the planters the " suck-fly," which fortunately
does not seem to have liecome a pest elsewhere. They insert their
little beaks into the tissue of the leaf and suck the juices, causing
the leaf to become yellowish and wilted, and cracking older leaves
so that they become ragged. As a result it is exceedingly difficult,
if not impossible, to properly cure badly infested leaves.

lAfe History. — The adult is a small bug about one-eighth inch
long, with rather long yellowish-green legs. The upper surface is
black, except the front margin and a central stripe of yellow on the
pro-thorax, while the under side is greenish. The " flies " become
numerous enough to be injurious early in June, usually being
noticed first in one corner of a field near where they have hiber-
nated. They rarely do serious damage to the first crop, but the
second crop and late tobacco is sometimes entirely destroyed.
They have also been noted in the Gulf States as injuring tomatoes.

* Dicyphus minimus Uhler. Family Capsida'.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO

227

The eggs are deposited singly in the tissues of the leaf and hatch
in aliout four days. The young nymphs feed on the foliage, as do
the a<hilts, und after moulting four times transform to adults about
eleven days later. Thus it requires but about a fortnight for the

Fig. 161. — The suck-fly (Diry pints minimus): a, newly hatched; b, second
stage; c. nymph; d, adiUt ; c. head and beak from side — enlarged.
(.After Howard, U. S. Dept. .\gr.)

development of a lirood, so that the pest multiplies very rapidly
and in a few weeks ])ecomes so numerous that hundieds are found
on a single leaf and serious injury is inevitable.

The weather plays an important part iu the control of this
pest, as many of the insects become stuck to the sticky exudation

228 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

given off by the glandular hairs of the tobacco, and if there be fre-
quent rains, this is washed off and the insects develop unimpeded.
The bugs are found in late fall until frost, but the exact number of
venerations has not been determined. Thev evidentlv hibernate
in or near the tobacco field.

Control. — Professor A. L. Quaintancc, who experimented with
remedies in Florida, has found, curiously enough, that the best
insecticide against this pest is its own food, tobacco. A solution
of concentrated nicotine, diluted with sixty parts of water, was
found very effective when sprayed upon the bugs. It should be
applied with a bent-necked nozzle which will throw a fine spray
upon both surfaces of the leaves, as most of the young are on the
lower surface. Home-made tobacco decoction (page 55) was
also used, but did not prove as satisfactory. The spraying should
be done early in the day, when the adult bugs are sluggish and do
not fly readily. Infested areas should he sprayed when the
pest first makes its appearance so as to prevent multiplication
and spread. Thorough cleaning up of rubbish and destruction of
the old stalks in the fall will be of service against this as well as
other tobacco pests. A few plants set early in the spring would
probably attract the hibernating bugs as they emerge, so that,
they might be readih^ killed upon them.

The Hornworms or Tobacco-worms *

Of all the insects feeding upon tobacco, the Hornworms are
the most widely injurious and therefore best known. The cater-
pillars of two species of moths are commonly included under thig
popular name, both species occurring throughout the tobacco-
growing States, the northern tobacco-worm being more common
in the North and the southern tobacco-worm more common in the
South, The differences in the adult moths may be readily appre-
ciated from Figs. 162 and 163, the southern form being darker and
with brighter orange spots on the abdomen, and the white lines on

* Phlegethontius quinquemaculata Haworth (Northern), and P. sexta
Johanssen (Southern). Family Sphingidce.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO

229

the hind-wings being less distinct. The larvae of both species
commonly attack tomato vines and are commonly called tomato
worms where tobacco is not grown.

Life History. — The pupie pass the winter several inches below
the surface of the soil and from them the moths emerge in May and

P'iG. 162. — Northern tobacco-worm, or " hornworm " {Phlcgelhontius quinquc-
maculaia): o, adult moth; fc, full-grown larva; c, pupa — natural size.
(After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

June, according to the latitude and season. The females deposit
their eggs singly, upon the lower surfaces of the leaves, from which
the little caterpillars hatch in from four to eight days. The char-
acteristic work of the larvse is too well known to every tobacco
grower to necessitate description. The caterpillars become full
grown in about three weeks, during which time they moult some
five times. The full grown larvse are three to four inches long, of

230 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

a dark green color with white stripes on the side of the bod\', those
of the northern species having a V-shape, while those of the south-
ern species being simple oblique hands. At the tip of the abdomen
is a stout horn, from which is derived the name of hornworm,
which in the northern species is black and in the southern is red.
The pupae are formed in the soil, are dark brown, about two inches

Fig. 163. — Southern tobacco-worm {Phleyclhontiuv scxta): a, adult moth;
b, full-grown larva; c, pupa — natural size. (After Howard, U. S. Dept.
Agr.)

long, and have a peculiar handle-like process, the sheath of the
proboscis, which somewhat resembles a horn and which may
account for the name of " hornblowers," commonly given them in
Mar3'land and Virginia. The pupal stage lasts aliout three weeks,
when the adults emerge, the whole life cN'cle re({uiring fi'om six to
eight weeks. Usually two generations occur in a season through-
out most of the tobacco belt, but in the North there seems to be

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO

231

'•<«^^««s^-J«**S

Fig. 1G4. — Hibernation of southern tobacco-worm; r, pupa in hibernating
cell in soil, at the depth of which pupation usually takes place in the
stiffer soils; o, cross-section of pupal cell viewed from below; b, pupal
cell showing entrance hole of larva — two-third natural size. (After
A. C. Morgan, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

232 INSECT FESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORC^HARD

but one generation, and in the Gulf States there ma}' be three
generations. Occasionally the worms are overlooked in cutting
the tobacco and are carried into the barn, where they maj' do
considerable injurj^ even after the tobacco is partially dry.

Control. — The most common method of control is hand-pick-
ing, usuallj' termed " worming." In seasons when the worms are
not overabundant this may be the most practical method of con-
trol, but it is both tiresome and expensive, and the planter has no
means of predicting whether the worms will be more or less abun-

FiG. It),'). — Southern tnl).acoo-worm killed by fungus. (After Cirman.)

dant. Large flocks of turkeys driven through the fields will aid
most efficiently in this work.

In many sections the worms are now controlled by spraying
or dusting with Paris green or arsenate of lead. More or less popu-
lar prejudice against the use of arsenicals has existed, as it was
thought the tobacco might be poisonous to the consumer. Careful
chemical examinations have shown, however, that the amount
left on the foliage after three sprayings would be far too small to
have any deleterious effect. The same prejudice formerly existed
against the use of arsenicals on potatoes, cabbage and other crops,
but experience has shown it to be unwarranted. A real objection
to the use of Paris green is that it sometimes slightly burns the
foliage, so that arsenate of lead will doubtless be found preferable.

INSECTS INJURIOUS Tt) TOBACCO 233

By spraying three times, the worms may usually be entirely con-
tro led at much less expense than by hand-picking. The time of
the spraying will depend upon the latitude and season, but it
should be applied as soon as each brood of young caterpillars
appears. Usually one spraying
should be given about July 1st,
a second early in August, and
another in about two weeks to
check the work of the second
brood, which is the most inju-
rious. One pound of Paris green Fig. 166.— Southern tobacco-worm
to 160 gallons of water is suf- with cocoons of parasite. (After

Garman.)
ficient, and it should never be

used stronger than 1 pound to 125 gallons. Arsenate of lead may
be used at the rate of 2 or 3 pounds to 50 gallons or dusted on as
a powder. These treatments' will also aid in controlling the bud
worms.

A method of killing the adult moths has been practiced by
many planters with satisfactory results. It consists of poisoning
the flowers of the Jamestown weed {Datura stramonium) with a
sweetened cobalt solution. The flowers are placed around the
fields in the evening, being set upright in holes in horizontal slats,
or supported by sticks. The cobalt solution is then introduced
into them by means of a quill, or dropper. It is composed of:
cobalt, 1 ounce; molasses, one-fourth pint; and water, 1 pint. In
their search for flowers the moths will be attracted by the odor of
molasses and the cobalt of the solution will poison them, and thus
prevent the female from laying some 200 eggs toward another
brood of worms.

As the pupae hibernate in the soil it is evident that deep plowing
and thorough harrowing in late fall and winter of land which has
been in tobacco will result in destroying many of them. The
destruction of the stalks and cleaning up of refuse leaves after the
crop has been removed is also of importance, as the larvae may con-
tinue to feed in the field and become full grown and pupate
where by the destruction of their food this might be prevented.

234 IxXSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Xatural Enemies. — Very frequent!}' worms are found (•()%■ (M(m1
with what seem to be small, white eggs. These are not eggs, how-
ever, but are the small silken cocoons of a little wasp-like paiasite
(Apanicli's ronf/nydtus) whose larvie feed internally upon the
juices of the worm and thus ultimately kill it befoi-c it transforms
to a pupa. Such parasitized worms should lun-er be d(>sti'oye(l,
as the parasites are of more value than the damage tlu> worm
might do. Very frequently the caterpillars are attacked by a bac-
terial disease which causes them to turn tlark and become shrunken
and flaccid.

The Budworms *

Two caterpillars of the same genus conmionly attack the l)ud
of tobacco and have been distinguisluMJ by l)i'. b. O. Howard as
the true budworm and false budworm, the latter l)eing the same
as the well-known cotton bollworm-and coi'n ear-worm.

Fig. 167.— The true l)udworm (Chloridea rirescens): a, adult moth; b, full-
grown larva, from side; c. same, from al)ove; d, seed-pod bored into l)y
larva; e, pupa — natural size. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

" The true budworm (Chloridea virescens) occurs in the more
southern portions of the tobacco-growing regions," says Dr. How-
ard, t " but has not been noted in tobacco-fields north of Maryland.
The adult insect is a small greenish moth, well illustrated in
Fig. 167. The larva or cat(>rpillar of this moth, also illustrat(>d, is

* Chloridea vinmcina Fah., and Heliothis obsolcta ¥a]). Va.nn\y Xoctnid(r.
t Farmers' Bulletin 120, U. S. Dept. Agr. The Principal Insects Affecting
the Tobacco Plant.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO

235

nearly always fouiul in the hud of the tobacco-plant about the
time th(^ plant is ready to top. In some seasons they oecur in
large numbers and damage the tobacco considerably. In th(>
early part of the season, as a general thing, but few of them are
found, and in ordinary seasons they aic not especially noticed
during the (>arly " worming " of the tobacco. In August they
begin to be more abun-
dant, and genei'ally
leave the plant al)out
the end of the month,
entering the ground,
transforming to pupic
and issuing as moths
toward the end of Sep-
tember. These dates
are for Virginia, but
hold reasonably well
as far south as Missis-
sippi. The greatest
damage done by this
ins(M't is by the August
brood, when it enters
the i'(jll(Hl-up leaves or
bud of the plant. In

September and October p^., kjs.— Fla«- Imdwonu or cotton hollwonn
the n(>xt generation of (Heliotlus obfKolcta): c/, achill moth; b, dark

, .,, • r 1 full-grown larva; r, light-colored full-grown

caterpillars is found larva; d, pupa-natural .size (After How-

boring into the seed- ard, U. 8, Dept. Agr.)

pod and occasionally

into th(> flower-stem. . . . The caterpillars of the last fall genera-
tion enter the ground and hibei-nate as j)upa'. The insect has
several other food-plants aside from cotton, but its most abun-
dant f(jod in the South is the weed known as ground chei-rv
{Physali.s viscosa^." The life history of this species is very
similar, therefore, to the fals(; budwoi-m or bollworni.

The corn ear-worm (see page LSI) ife usually found attacking

236 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

tobacco in Virginia and Kentucky only late in the season after
corn has commenced to harden. It then bores into the buds, seed-
pods, and flower-stalks, in the same manner as the last species. In
Florida, however, Professor A. L. Quaintance states that its worst
injur}^ is done early in the season before corn or cotton are available,
the eggs being laid in the bud an I the young larvte feeding on the

Fig. 169. — Larva of false budworni (Heliothis obsnlela), sliowing work on
seed-capsules of tobacco plant. (After Quaintance.)

unfolded leaves, doing very serious injury. In Florida the corn
ear-worm or false liu(h\orni is more connuou than the former
species.

Control. — Poisoned forn-nical has Ix'en found to be a satisfac-
tory remedy for both species when they bore into the bud. Mix a
half teaspoonful of Paris green into a quart of finely ground corn-
mea and sprinkle into the iDuds from a can perforated like a pepper

IXtSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO

237

can. This should be applied fre(iuently, especially after heavy
rains. Large buds should be opened and a pinch of the poison
placed within. When spraying or dusting with an arsenical is
practiced against the hornwornis it will aid in the control of the
budworms, and may be advisable for them alone where injur}- is
serious. Powdered arsenate of lead has been used against both
these insects with considerable success and will doubtless obviate
the burning which has been experienced when using Paris green
with corn-meal. When the injury by the false budworm occurs
only late in the season, it would seem that the moths might be
attracted to a trap crop of late corn in the same manner as cotton
is protected fi'om it (page 257).

The Tobacco Leaf-miner "^

The larva of a small moth has become quite injurious in parts
of Xorth Carolina and Florida bv mining the inside of the leaf.

Fig. 170. — Tobacco leaf-miner or .split-worm, adult moth above; larva below
at right; pupa below at left, with side view of enlarge 1 anal segment — all
enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

and is thus known as the Tobacco Leaf-miner. This insect occurs
in other parts of the country, but has become injurious only in the
States named and in recent years. The injury is done by the

* Phthorinup operculella Zell. Famib' Tineidce.

238 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

larvae eating out irregular patche.s of the tissue in the leaves, leav-
ing only the upper and lower sui'faces, the lower leaves being
infested the woi'st. The leaves are ren-
dered unfit for wrappers, splitt ng and
tearing very easily on aceount of these
blotches. A larva does not confine its
work to one place, l)ut makes several
mines, and a single larva may thus destroy
the value of a knif for wra})ping purposes.
This migratory habit is of considerable
importance, as in leaving the old and in
making new mines the larva? must
necessarily eat a certain amount of the
surface of the leaf, and can thus l^e killed
by an arsenical spray. The life history of
the insect is not completely known, but as
only aliout twenty days are required for
all its transformations, several broods
probably occur during a season. The
original food-plant of this pest has been
found to be the common horse- or l)ull-
nettle {Solanum carolinense), which fact
further emphasizes the caution already
given, to keep all weeds carefully cut
down around the tobacco-field, especially
those nearly related to tobacco Iwtanicall}'.
Many planters destroy the larvse by simpl}'
crushing them with the hand, and this can
l)e done quite rapidly, and if done before
the mines ])etome numerous should be
sufficient to check the injury. Where
spraying with Paris green is practised
against the hornworm it should be sufficient to destroy most of
the miners, as, if the leaf is thoroughly coated with poison, they
would get a fatal dose in starting a n(>w mine.

Fig. 171.— Work of
split-worm — reducetl.
(After Howurd, V. S.
Dept. Agr.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO

239

The Cigarette-beetle *

The most .serious pest of dried tohaceo is the little brown
Cigarette-beetle^ which also attacks various drugs and stored
food products. The beetle is but one-sixteenth inch long, of a
brownish color, and with the pro-thorax bent down so that the
head is obscured as if under a hood.

" Working as it does in all kinds of cured tobacco and living
in this substance during all the stages of its existence," says
Dr. L. O. Howard, "it damages cigarettes and cigars principally
by boring out of them, making round holes in the wrappers so
that they will not draw. Leaf tobacco is injured for wrapping

CL b C ^

Fig. 172. — The cigarette-beetle: a, larva; 6, pupa; c, adult; d, side view of
adult; e, antenna — all greatly enlarged; e, still more enlarged. (After
Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

purposes by being punctured with holes made both b}' the larva
and beetles, and fillers and finecut are injured by the reduction
of their sul)stance by the actual amount consumed by the larvae."
" The cigarette-beetle is practically cosmopolitan, and probably
occurs in most tobacco factories in the Southern States, as well
as in most wholesale drug stores. In the far South this insect
multiplies rapidly throughout the greater part of the year, and
its development is practically continuous in artificially warmed
factories farther north."

Life History. — In heated factories the insect may be found in
all stages throughout the year. Otherwise it seems to pass the
winter months in the larval state. The larva is slightly larger

* Lasioderma serricorne Fab. Family PtinidcE.

240 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

than the beetle and covered with hair as shown in Fig. 172. When
full grown it spins a compact silky cocoon covered with bits of
whatever it is breeding in and in it transforms to the pupa. In a
warm room the entire life cycle has been passed in forty-seven
days, and it seems probable that in the District of Columbia,
there are two generations a y(-ar. The life is undoubtedly inti-
mately related to the moisture and temperature conditions under
which it lives.

Control. — When a, factory or sloicliouse has l)ecome badly
infested a thorough cleaning is the first step in the control of
the pest, as tobacco fragments and dust are usually present every-
where and ideal conditions for the nuiltiplication of the pest are
afforded.

Infested tobacco should l)e opened up, if packed tightly,
placed in tight boxes or in a tight room and exposed to the fumes
of carbon bisulfide, using it the same as for grain insects (see page
57). The quantity used will depend upon the tightness of the
enclosure, the way in which the tobacco is packed, and the tem-
perature. One pound to every 200 cubic feet will usually be ample.
In factories where the beetle is abundant the tobacco should be
steamed before use, which will kill all stages of the insect. Loose
tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes, should not be left exposed to the
beetles, but should be covered up or placed in tight receptacles
to prevent their access. Badly infested factories and storehouses
may be fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas (see page 57).

Several other insects ar(> more or less serious pests of tobacco
in certain parts of the country or under local conditions. The
Tobacco Thrips * has caused considerable loss to growers of
wrapper tobacco in Florida where it is grown under shade.

* Euthrips nicvtaiiur Hinds. Order Tlujmnopkra. See W. A. Hooker,
Bulletin 65, Circular GS. Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

CHAPTER XIIT
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON *

Plant-lice t

With the formation of the first true leaves of cotton, winged
aphides or plant-Hce appear in hirge numl:)ers on the under side
and on the terminals, the " buds " of the plants often being black
with them. Almost all of them ai'e the common greenish Melon-
aphis I (see page 383), which infc^sts melons later in the season.
It is evident, therefore, that the practice of planting cotton
between rows of melons is undesirable. The aphides migrate
to the cotton while it is ^^oung from various common weeds upon
which they have passed the winter.

Another species, known as the Bur-clover Aphis § occurs on
cotton at about the same time and is not readily distinguishable
from the previous species, but is darker and has a shining reddish
or brownish-black color.

In cold weather these plant-lice often cause considerable
injury to the young plants, and greatly retard their development,
since they multiply very rapidly and feed mostly on the growing
terminals. If there be a few warm days, however, hordes of
small hymenopterous parasites appear and in a few days often
completely rid the plants of the pest.

Control. — Although these aphides may be destroyed by spray-
ing with kerosene emulsion, whale-oil soap, or tobacco water,

* See Hunter and Hinds, The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil, Bulletin 51,
Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; Quaintance and Brues, The Cotton
BoUworm, Bulletin 50, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; Sanderson,
Miscellaneous Cotton Insects of Texas, Bulletin 57, Bureau of Entomology,
Farmers' Bulletin 223, U. S. Dept. Agr.

t Family Aphididcr. X -Aphis gossypii Glov.

§ Aphis medicaginis Koch.

— 241

242 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Fig. 173. — The cotton worm {Alabama argillacea): young and full-grown
larvsp or worms, pupa, cocoons in folded leaves, and inoths, at rest, and
with wings expanded — three-fourths natvu'al size, (.\fter Comstock.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON

243

yet as a rule tlicir use on an}' considerable scale will hartlly be
profitable. Keeping the fields clear of weeds by fall and winter
plowing will undoubtedly have a beneficial effect in reducing
the numbers of aphides and in most cases will be the only treat-
ment necessary.

The Cotton Worm *

Until the advent of the boll weevil, the cotton worm was
much the most serious insect pest of cotton. Since then, however,
its importance has been rather overshadowed in the mind of the

Fig. 174. — Pimpla conquisitor, one of the principal parasites of the cotton-
caterpillar: a, larvae enlarged; b, head of same still more enlarged;
c, pupa; d, adult female enlarged; e, f, end of abdomen of adult male,
still more enlarged. (From Fourth Rept. U. S. Entom. Comm.)

planter by the onslaught of the invading Mexican pest and where
the boll weevil is abundant the stripping of the late foliage by
the cotton worm really aids in the control of the weevil, as will
be explained later.

Life History. — During the winter months the adidt moth
hibernates in the most southern portion of the cotton-belt, in the
rank wire-grass occurring in the more thickly timbered regions.
Only a few of these survive, but thej^ are very capable ancestors.
In early March they lay eggs upon volunteer cotton when it is

* Alabatnu aryillureit IluWn. Family Xoctuidce.

244 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

only an inch or two high. The eggs are laid singly, usually upon
the under surface of the leaves near the top of the plant, and about
500 are laid by each female. The egg is of a flattened convex
shape, bluish-green in color, and with prominent ridges converging
to the apex. In midsummer the eggs hatch in three or four clays,
but in spring and autumn a much longer time is required. The
young larvae are a pale yellow color, but soon assume a greenish
tinge, and are marked with dark spots which become more dis-
tinct after the first moult, when they become marked like the full-

FiG. 175. — Cotton-worm egg parasite {TricJwgramma pretiosa): a, adult
female, greatly enlarged; b, ovipositor; c. female antenna; d, male
antenna. (From Fourth Rept. U. S. Entom. Comm.)

grown caterpillars, being more or less striped witli l)lack. During
the early season the greenish caterpillars predominate, but later
the black stripes become heavier and the darker forms prevail.
The appetites of these caterpillars arc only too well known to
the cotton-grower. At first they are content with eating only
the under surfaces of the leaves, occasionally piercing through.
Then the leaves commence to look ragged, and when they become
scarce the tender twigs and buds are attacked. When they are
excessively abundant the larvae develop cannabalistic tendencies,
like the boll worms, and often feed upon the weaker caterpillars.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 245

The larvae become full grown in from one to three weeks, during
which time they moult some five times.

When mature the caterpillar crawls into a folded leaf, which is
often so eaten away that the pupa hangs exposed, and there
spins around it a thin silken cocoon and transforms to the pupa,
in which state the insect remains dormant for from one to four
weeks, when it emerges as an adult moth.

The moth is a dull olive-gray color with a wing expanse of
about 1^ inches, which sometimes have a purplish lustre, and which
are marked with darker lines as shown in Fig. 173. Like most of
the owlet moths it flies only after sunset, but unlike them, it is
not confined to the nectar of flowers for food, as its mouth is
peculiarly adapted to piercing the skin of ripe fruit and feeding
upon its juices. The moths are strong fliers, those of the later
broods being frequently found as far north as Canada.

The first two generations develop rapidly and in the extreme
South the moths emerge by early April and are carried north-
ward l)y the prevailing winds. Eggs deposited by them give
rise to a brood of moths which in turn fly further northward,
and thus the worms are gradually found throughout the whole
cotton belt, though with a considerable confusion between
the various generations. At least seven generations occur
on the Gulf Coast, and three at the northern limit of the
species. Considering the number of eggs laid by each female
and this number of generations, it may be readily perceived how
such immense numbers of the caterpillars may arise by the latter
part of the season, in a region where practically none remain
over winter. If none was killed, the progeny of a single moth
after four generations would amount to over 300,000,000,000
individuals, or if placed end to end, the third generation would
be enough to encircle the earth at the equator over four times.

Enemies. — It is thus very fortunate that there are many
deadly enemies of the cotton worms, which commence their war-
fare upon them with their first appearance in spring and continue
it with increasing ardor throughout the season. One of the most
effective of these is a minute little insect, Trichogramma pretiosa.

246 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

which develops within the eggs. Mr. H. G. Hubbard once
observed that in Florida from 75 to 90 per cent of the fourth
brood of eggs were destroyed by this parasite, while only three
or four eggs in a hundred escaped in the sixth brood. Another
of the most useful parasites, Fimpla conquisitor, was noticed as
early as 1847 to destroy nearly all of the pupae of the last brood.
The eggs of the Pimpla are laid upon the caterpillar, and the
maggots enter the worm and feed upon its juices. It changes
to a pupa as usual, but the pupa soon dies, and large numbers
are thus killed. Several similar parasites prey upon the cotton
worm, and it is to be regretted that we know of no way of encourag-
ing their valuable work. The common insectivorous birds eat
large numbers of the worms, especially when they are scarce
in early sjDring, and they should be protected 1j}^ enacting and
enforcing most stringent laws against their wanton destruction*

Control. — The most commonly used and effective rcmcd}' is
to dust the plants with Paris green. Dusting machines drawn
by a team which will cover four rows at once are in common use.
The dust may be applied with any of the powder guns, but it is
most commonly applied to two rows at once by means of bags
fastened at the ends of a pole and carried l)y a num on horse) )ack,
who can thus dust 15 to 20 acres per day. These sacks are about
10 inches long by 4 inches in diameter, open the whole length
on one side and firmly sewed at the ends. Eight-ounce Osnaburg
Is the best cloth for the purpose. A strip of oak or strong wood
about UX2 inches, and 5 feet long, has a 1-inch hole bored
through it 5 inches from each end, and to this the sack is tacked,
fastening one of the edges of the opening to each of the narrow
sides of the pole. The sacks are filled through the holes in the pole.
When freshly filled a slight jarring will shake out a sufficient
amount of the poison, but when nearly empty the pole should
be frequently and sharply struck with a short stick or spaces
will be missed. The poison has been found most effective with-
out the admixture of flour, but if it is used, lighter cloth should
be used for the sacks.

Besides the general use of Paris green there have been several

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 247

important factors which have aided in the control of the cotton
worm, so that it is by no means as much of an enemy of the cotton
crop as formerly. Among the most important of these, both
from an entomological and general agricultural standpoint, is
the diversification and rotation of crops, now coming to be more
and more practiced by the progressive agriculturists of the South.
This alone largely prevents the rapid spread of the pest. Since
the seed has become such a valuable product of cotton, smaller
varieties with many seeds and a short fibre are being grown,
in contrast to the rank-growing, long-fibre sorts formerly pre-
ferred. Thus the rows are more open, the work of the worms
is more readily detected and the poison more easily applied.

Other Caterpillars Injuring the Foliage

Several of our common caterpillars which ordinarily feed upon
various weeds frequently attack cotton foliage in restricted local-
ities and do more or less serious damage. They may be readily
controlled by keeping down the weeds upon which they normally
feed and multiply and by dusting the foliage as for the cotton
worm as soon as they are noticed upon the cotton in any numbers.

Among the more common of these leaf-eating caterpillars
is the Garden Webworm* (seepage 40G), which ma}' be recognized
by the fine silken web which it spins over the young plants.
Another is the White-lined Sphinx Caterpillar,! a yellowish-
green caterpillar with black eye-spots and faint stripes, varying
to blackish with yellow spots, and distinguishable from most
other cotton caterpillars by the horn, characteristic of sphingid
caterpillars, at the tip of the abdomen. The Salt-marsh Cater-
pillar X which is one of our best-known " woolly bear " cater-
pillars, covered with black and red hairs, has frequently stripped
cotton of foliage in Texas, as does the Fall Army Worm (see page
118), when it becomes locally overabundant. Many other species
might be mentioned which do more or less local injury.

* Deilephila lineata Fab. Family Sphingidoe.
t Loxostege similalis Guen. Family Pyralidoe.
X Estigmene acroea Drury. Family Arctiidoc

248 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Cotton Square-borer *

Just as the cotton squares commence to form they are often
bored into by a small green caterpillar which many planters
consider a stage of the bollworm and which others have called
the " sharpshooter." This injury is often quite serious on a
small area, as we have seen 10 per cent of the stalks entirely
denuded of squares in small fields in Texas where this insect was
abundant. The little caterpillars hollow out the squares in the
same manner as does the bollworm, often destroying all of those
on a plant knee-high and even boring into the tender stalk. The

Fig. 176. — The cotton square-borer (Uranotes melinus Hbn.): a, aduh;
b, underwing of same; c, larva; d, pupa — natural size. (After Howard,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

caterpillars are bright green, oval, decidedly flattened, covered
with short hairs which give them a velvety appearance, and with
the head retracted under the front of the body, thus being quite
unlike any stage of the bollworm. They are the larvae of a dainty
little butterfly (Fig. 176), of a bluish-black color, with dark red-
dish lustre, and with bright red spots on the posterior border
of the hind wings, common around cotton-fields. The small
yellowish, transparent eggs are laid on the leaves and stems of
cotton, cow-peas, goat-weed, and various weeds, 'and the larvae
have also been found on hops, beans and cow-peas, seeming to

* Uranotes melinus Hbn. Family Lycoenidce.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON

249

prefer the latter to cotton. The eggs hatch in from two to five
days, the larva? become grown in a little over two weeks, and the
pupal stage averages about ten days, so that the whole life cycle
requires about a month in Central Texas, where there are three
or four generations in a season.

Fortunately for the planter the large majority of the cater-
pillars are parasitized, over 90 per cent of the June generation
having been thus destroyed.

Usually, therefore, it is hardly worth while to attempt to com-
bat this insect, as it is not often seriously injurious year after
year. Should remedial treatment be necessary, thorough dust-
ing with Paris green or arsenate of lead would probably destroy
most of them, as the young caterpillars, like the bollworms,
feed to some extent upon the foliage before entering the squares.

** Sharpshooters " *

In late summer reports are frequent that cotton is being
injured by " sharp-
shooters," especially
on low land. These
insects are reported to
puncture the squares
and bolls, causing
them to drop prema-
turely, a small black
speck showing the
spot where punctured.
The insect which has
been most commonly
credited with this
work is the Glassy-

wingedSharpshooter,f

, . , . Fi«- 1"7. — The glassy-winged sharpshooter (^o-

but Wltn It are USU- malodisca triquetra Fab.) : adult at left, last

ally associated several stage of nymph at right, young nymph below

near relatives with Depl. A^rT"^' ^^"'^"'" ^"^^*^"^^""' ^'- ^-

* Family Jamidas. f Homalodisca triquetra Fab.

250 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

similar habits.* Few planters are able to identify the cause
of the supposed injury, but many know these insects as
" dodgers," from their habit of quickly dodging to the opposite
side of the stem when disturbed. Extensive observations and
repeated experiments during two seasons failed to show the
slightest evidence that these insects are ever injurious to cotton,
though they are common upon it, the supposed injury being
undoubtedly due to the physiological condition of the plant which
causes a shedding of the fruit at the season when the supposed
injury occurs.

a b c

Fig. 178. — Three cotton leaf hoppers commonly called sharpshooters:
a, Aitlacizes irrorata; b, Oncometopia undata; c, Oncometopia lateralis —
much enlarged. (Author's illustration, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

The adult insects hibernate in rubbish on the ground near the
food-plants and appear in early spring on the elm, hackberry, red-
bud, Cottonwood, willow, and the tender shoots of other trees,
especially on bottom-land near streams. Here they suck the
juices of the tender leaves and deposit their eggs in them. The
eggs are laid in rows of ten to fifteen, side by side, just under the
surface of the leaf, forming a blister-like mark. They hatch in a

* Oncometopia undata Fab., 0. lateralis Fab., and Aulacizes irrorata Fab.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON

251

few days and the young bugs, or nymphs, are grayish or yellowish
in color and resemble the adults except in the lack of wings. Two
or three generations occur annually in Texas, and the insects are
not common on cotton until midsummer. They are exceedingly
fond of banana trees, sorghum and sunflowers, sometimes doing
considerable injury to the latter, but there is no evidence for con-
sidering them pests of cotton.

The Cotton Leaf-bug *

This insect was the cause of considerable damage in northern

Fig. 179.— The cotton leaf-bug
(Calocoris rapidu.'i): a, adult;
b, c, d, .stages in growth of
nymph; and cotton Ijoll, showing
spots injured liy cotton leaf-bug
all enlarged. (Author's illustra-
tion, U. S. Dcpt. Agr.)

Texas in the latter part of the season of 1904, and had been pre-
viously reported as a pest of cotton, though its injury had never
t Calocoris rapidus Say. Family Capsidoe.

252 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

been general. It punctures the squares and bolls, either causing
them to drop or making the bolls shrivel or decay when punctured.
The feeding punctures in the bolls arc indicated by small black
spots, resembling diseased places, which gradually become larger
and sunken, evidently due to some poisonous substance intro-
duced by the beak of the insect as it sucks the juices of the boll.
The bugs may be readily recognized from Fig. 179, and by the
bright red spots just beyond the middle of the wing. The young
are light green marked with red. Several generations of the insect
occur annuall}', but its life history and hal)its are still unknown,
and no means of combating it been devised.

Other Plant-bugs *

Several other species of plant-bugs cause similar injury by
sucking the l)olls and causing black spots, with shrinking or decay.

Fig. 180. — The green soldier-bug {Nezara hilari.s): a, adult; b, beak; r, eggs.
d, end of egg more enlarged; e, young nymph; /, last stage of nymph.
(After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Among these are the so-called " pumpkin-bugs " or " stink-bugs,"
of which a large green species f is the most commonly injurious,
while the blackish, leaf-footed plant-bugs, J which are more abun-
dant on cucurbs, do similar injury.

* See A. W. Morrill, Plant-bugs Injurious to Cotton Bolls. Bulletin 88
Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

t Nezara hilaris Say. Family Pentatomida;.
J Leptoglossus oppositus Say. Family Coreidcc.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON

253

" Cotton-stainer " * <-

The Red-bug or Cotton-stainer once did considerable damage to
the bolls in Florida, Georgia, and neighboring parts of Alabama
and South Carolina, but of late years has devoted most of its atten-
tion to oranges. Early in the season they stunted the bolls and
made them abortive by sucking the sap; l)ut the most serious
damage was done later, when they entered the open ])olls, " punc-

FiG. 181. The red bug or cotton-stainer (Dysdercus suturellus) enlarged.
a, nymph; b, adult. (From " Insect Life.")

turing the seed and damaging the fibre " by their yellowish excre-
ment. This indelible stain greatly depreciated the market value
of the fibre, and was a vexing loss. Though never of commercial
importance, it was found by experiments that a rich orange dye
could be made from these insects, which could be easily fixed upon
silks and woolens by an alum mordant. In winter these insects
congregate in heaps of cotton-seeds, and by using these as traps
the insects may be killed with hot water.

* Dysdercus suturellus H. Schf. Familj- Pyrrliocoridos.

254 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Cotton Bollworm *

One of the most destructive and uidesprciid pests of cotton is
the bollworm, the same insect as the earworm of corn already
described (page ISl), which should be consulted for the life history
and description. Throughout the cotton l)elt the moths of the
third generation appear about August 1st. At that time the ears

of corn have become too
■ hanl to furnish suitable

food for the larvie and
the moths therefore lay
their eggs on the cot-
ton leaves, though if
any late corn is in silk
it is decidedly preferred.
Thus during the month
of August the cotton is
often seriously injured
by the caterpillars bor-
ing into the bolls, this
injury being most sei'i-
ous in recent years west
of the Mississippi and

,> ,, , , „ , particularly in north

Fig. 182. — Bollwormatworkoncottonbolts.lxH'-

ing into grown boll— slightly reduced. (After Texas and Louisiana.

Quaintauce and Brues, U. S. Dept. Agr.) Tj^^ ^^^^j damage to cot-
ton is estimated at upward of $20,000,000 per annum. Though
more or less damage is done by the fourth generation of worms,
injury is rarely serious, as the numbers are greatl}' reducetl
by parasites and unfavorable weather conditions.

About two-thirds of the eggs on corn are parasitizcnl Ijy
a tiny little insect hardly visil^le to the naked eye,t which

* HeliotJiis obsoleta Fab. Family Noctuidie. See Farmers' Bulletin
No. 200, U. S. Dept. Agr., by F. C. Bishopp and ('. R. Jones and Bulletin 50,
Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., by A. L. Quaintance and V. T.
Brues.

t Trkliugramma pretioaa Riley.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 255

becomes so abundant late in the season as to effectively check
the increase of the pest.

Wasps are effective enemies of the bollworms, provisionin<f
their nests with them. Several species of tachina-flies parasitize
the caterpillars, while not a few are killed by a bacterial disease.
One of the most important natural factors in reducing their num-
bers, however, is their own tendency to cannibalism, the larger

Fig. 183. — Bollworm boring into green tomato. (After Quaintancc and
Brues, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

caterpillars attacking and destroying the weaker with a consequent
marked reduction in numbers.

Control. — As in protecting corn from this pest, the most effect-
ive means is the plowing of the land containing the pupae in win-
ter or late fall.

Early planting of early fruiting varieties of cotton, with a
liberal use of fertilizers, and frequent cultivation, so as to hasten
the maturity of the crop, will result in a good crop being made
before the worst injury by the bollworm occurs. These cultural
measures ensure the best crops even where there are no insects
to be avoided, and as an early crop is less injured by almost all
cotton insects, the planter should adjust his methods to secure
earliness.

256 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

As the eggs are laid mostly on the cotton leaves and the little
caterpillars nibble the surface before boring into the bolls, the
poisoning of the foliage when the eggs are hatching will result in

a very material reduction of the
■ sul)se(iuent injury. Paris green has
been most generally used, but
proljably powdered arsenate of lead
will be found superior to it. Paris
green has been used at the rate
of 3 pounds per acre, applied either
pure or diluted with lime or flour,
using either a bag and pole, hand powder-gun or geared
dusting machine. The dusting should be done while the plants
are wet with dew. When not followed immediately by rain, two

Fig. 184. — Egg of bollworm ; side
and top views. Highly mag-
nified. (From Quaintance and
Brues, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Fig. 185. — Bollworms showing variation in color, upper larva green, middle
rose, and lower, dark brown — twice natural size. (After Quaintance and
Brues, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

applications should be sufficient, the first when the eggs commence
to hatch in numbers, usually between July 25th and August 5th,
and the second about a week later. If rains follow, the applica-
tions should be at once repeated.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON

257

Inasmuch as the moths prefer to lay their eggs on corn-silk,
cotton may be very effectively protected by the use of strips of
late corn and cow-peas, planted through the cotton so as to act as a
trap crop. Leave vacant strips four or five rods wide across the

Fig. 186. — Pupa of the bollworni in its burrow in the soil, showing burrow
made by the larva and filled in, and the exit burrow for the moth also
made by the larva — natural size. (After Quaintance and Brues, U. S.
Dept. Agr.)

fields when planting cotton. About June 1st plant these with
alternate rows of Mexican June corn and cow-peas. This will bring
the corn into silk a]:)Out the first of August and will attract the

258 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

moths to lay their eggs upon it instead of the cotton, while the
cow-peas will furnish both food and shelter to the moths. Corn
should never be planted with cotton when cotton is planted, for
instead of acting as a trap crop it mei-ely furnishes food upon

which the worms
multiply during the
early season and
forces those of the
third generation on
the cotton. The
strips of corn and
peas should be cut
as soon as the worms
on them become
fairly grown and
the land plowed to
destroy any which may have pupated. '' On large plantations the
planting of small areas of coi'n here and there in the fiekls is prac-
ticable. Such early crops as potatoes, oats, or wheat may be
followed by corn and cow-peas with practically the same results."

J

Fig. 187. — The moth of the bollworm or corn ear-
worm — enlarged one-fourth. (After Quaintance
and Brues, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

The Cotton-boll Cutworm *

The larva of this species is a vovy common feeder upon the
foliage of cotton and late in the season bores into the bolls in
much the same manner as the bollworm. Cotton is but one
of a long list of food-plants, however, as it is a common pest
of sugar-beets, corn, wheat, cabbage, potato, asparagus, salsify,
peach, raspberry, violet, cucuml^er, tomato, turnips, pea, rape,
pigweed, cottonwood, and grasses according to Chittenden.
It occurs commonly throughout the States east of the Rocky
Mountains.

The moth has a wing expanse of about U inches, the fore
wings lieing a dark, rich, velvety brown, marked with black,

* Frodenla ornUhogalli Guen. I'^amily Noctuidce. See Sanderson, I.e.,
and F. H. Chittenden, Bulletin 27, n. .s., Div. Ent., V. S. Dept. Agr., p. 64.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON

259

-

W' ^lifc^

8BS8jyiSj^^CTjM|M

liv% ,• ■"

^KjH||^HI'9p|HkJD^Hr^P^t^Ri^

inwS^W^^^B

^^^Q^^^^MflHEiSB|^R^>rg2^^9g{^S|^|

^^^^^^^^^^BP^i6Si^'"*^^^^^^9^^^^M

t ^t^^^s^

S^'^'^

^M^

&#■-'

^■^pk

Fig. 188. — Tip of ear of com showing eggs of bollworm or com ear-worm on
silks. (After Quaintance and Brues, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

260 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

yellow and ochreous as shown in the illustration, while the hind-
wings are a light gray. The grown caterpillar is 1^ to If inches
long, and is quite varial^le in coloration, some being much darker
than others, as shown in the illustration. Th(> three whitish
lines and the double row of triangular ])i'own spots along the back
of the lighter forms will easily distinguish this cuterpillar from
the bollwonn.*

Life Hisloyy. — The life history has not lieen cai-cfully observed

Fig. ISO. — The cotton-lioll cutworm (Prodenin ornithogalU Guen.): dark
form of male moth al ove; pale form, female moth below; a, pale form
of larva; h, dark form of larva; c, lateral view of abdominal segments of
pale form; d, same of dark form. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

in the North, Init fi'om observations made by the writer in Texas
the life history in the (lulf States seems to be as follows:

The winter is usuall}' passed in the pupal stage in the soil,
though possibly a few moths, emerging late, hibernate. The
first brood of moths appears from the middle of May until the
middle of June, mostly early in June. A second brood appears
during the latter half of July, and a third late in August and dur-
ing September. A few of the fourth brood may emerge in Decem-
ber, but most of them do not do so until the very early spring,

* See Chittenden, I.e., p. 3G, for distinguishing characters of related species
of Prodenia.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 261

when the}- lay eggs upon various weeds on which the larvae feed
until cotton appears. The length of time occupied in the dif-
ferent stages is seen to be quite variable, but is approximately
six days for the egg, twenty days for the larva, and thirteen days
(usually ten to fifteen days) for the pupa — making a total of
about forty days for the complete life cycle. Dr. Chittenden
believes that there are two generations in the North and prol^alih'
three in the latitude of the District of Columbia.

Control. — This species has not been sufficiently injurious on
cotton to warrant extensive experiments .in its control. Where
it attacks young plants of cotton or other crops, it may l)e com-
bated with the means suggested for other cutworms on page S5.
Where it becomes injurious to the bolls, it might be controlled
by thorough dusting or spraying with arsenicals, which would
destroy the }-oung larva' while the>- are still feeding on the foliage.

The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil ='= -/

Not since the invasion of the Mississippi Valle}' by the Kocky
Mountain locusts in the 70's has any insect caused such ruin
to any staple crop as has the Ijoll weevil in the territory affected
during. the past ten years, and it is one of the factors in the recent
high prices of cotton.

Like several of the worst insect pests of the South it is a native
of Central America and came to us from Mexico, crossing the
Rio Grande at Brownsville, Texas, about 1890. As early as 1S62
the weevil caused the growers at Monclova, Mexico, to abandon
cotton culture and when the}' again planted it in 1893, the beetle
promptly appeared and destro}'ed the entire crop. It multiplied
rapidly in south Texas, mining the crops, and Ijy 189.5 had spread
northward to a line extending eastward from San Antonio.
Since then it has spread northward and eastward, about sixty
miles a year, until in 1905 it had covered all of Texas and western
Louisiana and is now found throughout the cotton area of those

* Anthcrwmus grandis Boh. Family Curculionidcc . See W. D. Hunter,
"The Boll Weevil Problem," Farmers' Bulletin 344, U. S. Dept. Agr.; and
Hunter and Hinds, Bulletin 51, Bureau of Entomlogy, U. S. Dept. Agr.

262 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

States and in Mississippi, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and South-
western Alabama. There seems to be no reason why it should
not continue to spread throughout the cotton belt.

mmi^^^

Fig. 190. — The cotton boll weevil, natural size, showing variation in
size and color.

In 1904, after an exhaustive study of all available data, the
writer estimated the loss in Texas alone at $25,000,000, and

that the pest had then cost the
State $100,000,000. Owing to
decrease in acreage and the gen-
eral use of methods for preventing
or avoiding injury, the injury
has not increased proportion-
ately to the spread of the pest,
but the total annual loss is at
least as much as in 1904, though
no accurate estimates have been
recently made for the whole ter-
ritory affected.

Life History. — The parent of
all this damage is a small brownish beetle about one-quarter inch
long, varying from one-eighth to one-third, including the snout,
which is about half as long as the body. Recently emerged
weevils are light yellowish in color, but they soon become grayish-
brown and later almost blackish. There are many nearly related
weevils which very closely resemble the boll weevil, and only an
entomologist can identify the species with certainty, but the two
teeth at the tip of the femora of the fore-legs (Fig. 191), are the

Fig. 191. — ^The cotton boll weevil
enlarged.

a tj

264 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

most characteristic structure by which it may be distinguished.
The boll weevil feeds only upon cotton, and weevils found feeding
on other plants are certainly of other sj^ecies.

Fig. 193. — Cotton square with liracts opened to show weevil at work on the
bud, which shows a feeding puncture.

Fig. 11)4. -Tlic cotton lioll weevil; eggs among the anthers at points indi-
cated by arrows, the cross-section at the right showing opening through
which egg was deposited — greatly enlarged.

The weevils commence to emerge from hibernation soon after
cotton is up and continue to emerge until the cotton commences
to sfiuiire freely. During the spring the beetles feed on the foliage,

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 265

particularly in the teiiclcr terminals, and as soon as squares are
formed the females commence to lay their eggs in them. Each
female lays an average of about 140^ eggs, laying four or five a day.
The female drills a small cavity in the s(^uare and in it deposits
a small oval white egg, which hatches in about three days.
The grub feeds upon the embryo flower, which usually fails
to develop, and the inf(>sted square generally falls to the ground.
In from se\^n to t>y(>lve days the larva is full grown and changes
to the pupa, which stage lasts from three to five days. Thus

Fig. 1!I5. — The cotton boll weevil, larva and pupa — enlarged.

from egg to^ adult requires from two to three weeks, though
climatic conditions cause considerable variation in the length
of time. The larva is a footless, white grub, with brown head,
which lies curled up in the square as shown in Fig. 195, where
the soft white pupa is also found. The adult weevils feed entirely
during the da^•. Their length oi^ life depends upon various
conditions, but in the summer season the majority do not live
over sixty days, while during the cooler part_of the year those
which hibernate live five or six months^ Many squares are
destroyed by the feeding punctures of the weevils. " The males
feed upon the squares and jjolls without moving until the food
begins to deteriorate. The females refrain from depositing in
squares visited by other females. This applies throughout
most of the season, but late in the fall, when all the fruit has
become infested, several eggs may be placed in a single square

266 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

or boll. As many as fifteen larvse have been found in a boll.
The squares are greatly preferred as food and as places for deposit-
ing eggs. As long as -a supply of squares is present the bolls are
not damaged to any serious extent. The bolls, therefore, have
a fair chance to develop as long as squares are being formed.
Whenever frost or other unfavorable weather causes the plants
to cease putting on squares, the weevils attack the bolls. A

Fig. 196. — Cotton squares broken open, showing the boll weevil larvte within

— enlarged.

conservative estimate of the possible progeny of a single pair
of weevils during a season beginning on June 20, and extending
to November 4, is 12,755,100."— Hunter. Although the weevil
may develop from egg to adult in two or three weeks, it requires
an average of about forty-three days for a complete generation,
and there are probably not over four or five generations in a
season.

With the first killing frosts, most of the immature stages
developing are killed, though in south Texas they often develop

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON

267

during the winter, and the adult weevils soon go into hibernation.
When seeking places for hibernation the weevils migrate from
field to field, and it is at this season that the principal migration
of the pest takes place. The weevils may hibernate in hedges,
woods, corn-fields, haystacks, or farm buildings, particularly
about seed-houses or similar situations. Experiments have
shown that Spanish moss forms an exceedingly favorable place
for hibernation, and that many weevils pass the winter in it on
trees some distance above the ground. Others may hiber-
nate in the cotton-field, crawling into cracks, under grass,
weeds, and trash, and into the

./"'

^•--^^

empty cotton burrs, while in

the more southern sections

many hibernate in injured

bolls. The weevils which

hibernate most successfully

do so outside of the cotton-

fields. The number which

survive the winter has been

accurately determined under

various conditions for several

seasons, and depends upon

the minimum temperature,

the amount of moisture, and

the kind of shelter. Thus in

central Texas but 2 or 3 per

cent survive in many normal winters, while in the open winter of

1906-07 11.5 per cent survived; in south Texas 15 per cent may

survive, and in experiments made in Central Louisiana in 1908-

09 with rather favorable conditions 20 per cent survived. The

importance of reducing the number whicn survive the winter is

evident.

Natural Control. — If infested squares fall to the ground and lie
on the unshaded, hot soil the larva? or pupse within them are soon
killed. As many as 40 per cent of the immature stages have thus
been found dead in many fields. The importance of wide rows

1 IG. 197. — Cotton lioU weevils hiber-
nating in locks of cotton removed
from old bolls left on stalks over
winter.

268 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

and varieties which produce little shade is therefore apparent, and
it is evident that injury will be nuich less on dry upland soil, and
much more severe in bottoms where the cotton grows rank and
thick.

Over a score of parasites * pie}' upon the immature stages
within the squares or bolls, and they seem to be increasing in num-
bers and effectiveness as they become adapted to living upon the
weevil, as they are all native insects which prey upon nearly

Fig. lUS.Cliain cullivalor for usr in drawiiifi weevil infested squares to center
of row. (After Hunter, V. S. Dept. Agr.)

related species of weevils and other insects. A^ many as two-thirds
of the immature stages have Ijeen destroyed by them in certain
fields, though ordinarily not ovei- o jx-r cent of the total are para-
sitized. Several species of ants also feed on the immature stages,
20 to 30 per cent of those in fallen squares and l)()lls often being
destroyed by them. The ants destroy nuuiy more in the fallen
squares than in those hanging on the plants, so that the dropping
of the scpuires aids their good work as wvll as exposes the st^jtiares
to the heat of the sun.

Usually about 70 per cent of the infested s(iuares drop, and in
these 70 to 80 per cent of the immature stages are destro\-ed by
natural causes. f

* See W. D. Pierce, Studies of Parasites on the Cotton Boll V/eevil,
Bulletin 73, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

t See W. E. Hinds, Some Factors in the Natural (,'ontrol of the Mexican
Cotton Boll Weevil, Bulletin 74, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON

269

Control. — By far the most important measure in the control of
the boll weevil is the destmction of the i)lants in the fall as
soon as the cotton can be picked.
This both destroys the weevils
and prevents their increase. The
< stalks should be plowed out and
burned as soon as possible. Il is
well to plow out all l)ut a row
here and there upon which the
weevils will concentrate, then as
soon as the piles ai'e dry enou,2;li
to burn, cut the remaining rows
aitd burn at once. In this way the
great bulk of the adult weevils
and all of the immature stages
in the squares, and l)olls are
destroj'ed. The few (^scaping wee-
vils will be stai'ved out before tlic
weather liecomes cold enougii for
them to hibernate, or will be so
weakened as to die in hibei'nation
Professor Wilmon Newell, in Louisiana, that whei-e the weevils
were forced into hibernation on October 15th onlj- 3 per cent
survived the winter, but that when the destruction of the stalks
was put off until after December loth, 43 per cent survived, with
proportional numbers at intervening dates. Furthermore, the
development of the late broods which furnish the majority of the
weevils which hibernate is effectually prevented. The removal
of the plants also facilitates winter plowing, which aids in produc-
ing an early crop the next year. Many experiments and the
experience of practical planters have shown that the destruction of
the stalks in the fall is of prinuiry importance in the control of the
Aveevil, particularly upon bottom lands. Experiments made in
Calhoun County, Texas, where the stalks wei-e destroyed on 410
acres, showed an increase the next season of over one-quarter
bale per acre as compared with fields whei'e the stalks had been

Fig. 199. — Solennpsis gemlnaia
Ynh., a native ant which is a
valual)le enemy of the boll
weevil — much enlarged. (After
Hunter and Hinds, U. S. Dept.
Afjr.)

Thus it has been shown bv

270 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

left standing, the benefit being worth $14.56 per acre, or over
twenty-nine times the cost of the work. It is better to plow out
the stalks than to cut them, particularly in the far South, as the
stalks will frequently sprout out in the late fall and thus furnish

Fig. 200. — Bracon mellitor Say, one of the most important parasites of the
l)oll weevil larva> — much enlarged, (.\fter Hunter and Hinds, U. S.
Dept. Agr.)

food for the late weevils, or will sprout in early spring and furnish
food for those first emerging from hibernation. For the same
reasons all volunteer cotton should be destroyed.

It is evident that the thorough defoliation of the plants by the
cotton leaf worm will secure much the same result as the destruc-
tion of the stalks, by removing the food supply of the weevil.
Planters should not poison the leafworms, therefore, when they
appear during the latter part of the season in fields injured by the
weevil, for though formerly much dreaded they are now a great
aid in preventing the increase of the weevil in fall.

It has been demonstrated that injury by the weevil is never so
severe where cotton is planted after some other crop, this being
due to the fact that the weevils do not fly far from their hibernating
quarters in the spring.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 271

By hastening the maturity of the crop, injury ])y the weevils
may be avoided by making the crop before tliey have become
most abundant. Everything possible should therefore be done
toward hastening maturity, and this will be of importance in rela-
tion to the early destruction of the stalks in the fall. Land shoukl
be plowed in the winter and a good seed bed prepared. Cotton
should be planted as earl}' as possible with safety. A liberal use
of commercial fertilizers will hasten the growth of the crop even on
fairly fertile soils, and on poor soils their use will return a hand-
some profit. Early varieties of cotton should be planted, among
the most satisfactory being, Kowden, Triumph, Cleveland Big
Boll, Cook's Improved, King, Hawkins' Early Prolific, and Sim-
kins. Seed should be secured from the originators of the varie-
ties as far as possible. Chop out the plants as soon as possible.
Frequent light cultivation will be found of the greatest importance
in hastening the crop. Deep cultivation and cultivating close to
the plants should be avoided as causing the squares to shed, and
the old practice of " laying by " by running a broad sweep down
the middles should be avoided. The lightest possible cultivation
to keep the surface soil stirred is the best. All of these methods
which aid in hastening the maturity of the crop are commonly
called " cultural methods " of preventing loss from the weevil.
They are not directed against the weevil itself, but are merely the
best agricultural methods for securing an early crop, and on light
upland soils attention to these methods will alone be sufficient to
secure a good crop.

It has already been shown that the immature stages in squares
falling on the hot soil will be killed by the heat. To aid in this
the rows should be planted fairly wide apart, and varieties pro-
ducing a minimum of shade are preferable, as are those which
readily shed their squares when injured. As most of the squares
drop Ijeneath the plants where they are shaded, any means of
scraping them into the centres of the rows will aid in their
destruction. For this purpose a chain cultivator as described by
Hunter (I.e.) (Fig. 198) has proven very efficient for this purpose.
The chains may be attached to ordinary cultivators b}- special

272 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

attaclinieiit«. An arm or projection that will brush the plant
should be attached to whatever cultivator is used so that the
squares will be knocked to the ground, as the effect of the heat is
greater the earlier the squares drop.

During 1909 Professor Wilmon Newell and his assistants demon-
strated at several places in Louisiana that the weevil may be suc-
cessfully poisoned by the use of dry or powdered arsenate of lead,
though previous experiments with dry Paris green and arsenate
of lead as a litiuid spray had not proven of practical value for vari-
ous reasons. ^Vn increase of 71 per cent of the crop was secured
on considerable areas and the results were duplicated by practical
planters. Professor Newell recommends that the poison be
applied first when the first scjuares appear and that five ap})li-
cations l)e given at weekly intervals. Th(> i)oison nuist l)e
applied by hand with a powder-gun so that it is blown into the
squares. The first application recjuires about 2". })ounds per acre
and the last 5 to 7 pounds. The cost for lal)or and nuiterials will
amount to from $5 to $7 per acre, l)ut at this rate the operation
will show a tlecided profit with the alcove amount of benefit as
long as cotton sells at over 8 cents pei- pound. Although the use
of powdered arsenate of lead is still in an experimental stage, it
promises to become one of the most important means of com-
])ating the boll weevil, particularly in the river bottoms of the
Mississippi l^asin, where conditions for the multiplication and
hiljernation of the weevil are particularly favorable.*

* See Newell and Smith, Circular '.VA, Louisiana Crop Pest Commission,
Baton Rouge, La.

CHAPTJOK XIV
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THl-] HOP-PLANT *

The Hop-plant Borer f

The Hop-plant Borer is sometimes the occasion of a consider-
aljle loss to the hop industry, Mr. Chas. R. Dodge having estimated
upon the basis of the census of 1879 that it then amounted to
$600,000 annually in New York State alone. The moths have
been taken from Ontario and New England south to the District
of Columbia, and west to Wisconsin, and also from Colorado and
Washington, ]3ut the larvse have never l^ecome injurious in the
hop-fields of the Pacific Coast. " It is probable that it is a north-
ern form, and confined, as it seems to be, to a single food-plant, it
will be found only where this plant is known to grow."

Life History. — Many of the moths emerge from the pupse in the
fall and hibernate over winter, while othei's do not transform till
spring, passing the winter in the pupal stage in small cells in the
ground near the roots of the plant which the larva? have infested.
The moths appear during Ma}', and the females deposit their globu-
lar, yellowish-green eggs upon the tips of the hop-vines just as the}'
begin to climb. " The egg hatches in a few days and produces a
minute slender greenish larva, spotted with black, which immedi-
ately burrows into the vine just below the tip, and spends a part of
its life in the vine at this point. The vine soon shows the effects of
the insect's work; instead of pointing upward, embracing the pole
readily and growing rapidly, the tip points downward, will not
climb, and almost entirely ceases growing. This appearance is
called by growers a ' muffle-head.' When the insect attains a

* " Some Insects Affecting the Hop-plant," L. O. Howard, Bulletin No.
7, n. s.. Division of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 41.
t Hydroecia immanis Grt. Family Noctuidoe.

273

274

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE HOP-PLANT

length of about half an inch, or slightly less, it leaves the tip, drops
to the ground, and entering the stem at the surface of the vine,
feeds upward, 'nterrupting the growth of the vine and lessening its
vitality; the larva now changes color, and becomes a dirty-white,
with a strong, deep reddish tint, with numerous black spots. The
larva, now about an inch in length, and still slender, burrows down-
ward to the l^asc of the vine at its junctui'e with the old stock, and
eating its way out, completes its growth as a subterranean worker;

Fig. 201. — Hop-plant borer (Hydroecia immajiis Grt.): a, enlarged segment of
larva; b, larva; c, pupa; (/, adult, natural size. (After Howard, U. S.
Dept. Agr.)

it is in this state that it is best and most widely known as the hop
' grub,' and the ravages caused by it are most noted."*

The larvffi have mostly left the stems by the last of June
and henceforth are mainly sap-feeders. Eating into the stem
just below the surface of the ground and just above the old root,
they rapidly grow fat upon the juices of the plant. These openings
are gradually enlarged so that very often the stem is entirely
severed from the root or is so slightly attached that the plant
is badly stunted and yields few, if any, hops. The larvae become
full grown from the middle to the 20th of July and are then

* " Hop-insects," Dr. J. B. Smith, Bulletin No. 4, o. s., Division of Ento-
mology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE HOP-PLANT 275

" about two inches in length, fleshy, unwieldy, and very slow in
their movements; they are of a dirty white color, speckled with
fine, brownish elevated tubercles, each furnished with a single
stout hair; the head is brownish and cornc^ous, as is also \ho top
of the first segment." (I.e.)

The larva' now transfoi'm to pupa' in rough cells, close to the
roots which they have infested, antl the adult moths emerge
during August or September, or the following spring. The
adult moths are found, upon close examination, to be most
beautifully marked, though not of a striking appearance at first
sight. " The general color is a rosy brown, paler at the extremit}'
of the wings. The darker central portion is shaded with dark
velvety bronze and marked with two dull-yellow spots. The fore-
wings are divided into thi-ee areas by narrow oblique transverse
lines, edged outwardly with pink. The hind-wings are paler in
color, crossed in the middle by a slightly darker line." — Howard I.e.

Remedies. — Two points in the life history of the insect afford
opportunity for its control. The first is when the young larva?
are still in the tips and can easily be crushed by the fingers when
tying the vines. '' Muffleheads " should always be picked off
and destroyed.

Early in June when the larva? have left the inside of the vines
it is well to remove all the soil from the jjase of the vine, down
to the junction with the old root. The larva^, which will not
feed above ground, will go to the old roots, to which they will
do but little injury. The roots should be left thus exposed for
about a week. A handful of mixture of coal and wood ashes or
ammoniated phosphate should then be applied to each and the
plants hilled high. The plant will now send out new rootlets
from the main root, and is able to secure necessary nourishment
through them.

The Hop-louse *

Like many another aphid the Hop-louse has a most interest-
ing life history, which has been fully ascertained in but recent
years. During the winter the small oval black eggs may be
* Phorodun hamuli Schr. Family Aphididoe.

276 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

found in the crevices and around the buds of the terminal twigs
of plum-trees near infested hop-fields. From these hatch a

Fig. 202. — The hop-louse (Phorodon humiili Schr.) : a, winter eggs and shrivelled
skin of the sexual female which laid them; b, stem-mother, or first spring
generation, with enlarged antenna above — all much enlarged. (After
Riley, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Fig. 203. — The hop plant-louse, third generation on plum — the generation
which flies to the hop — enlarged; head below at right — still more
enlarged. (After Riley, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

generation of females, known as " stem-mothers," during the
following spring. The aphides of this generation differ in being
stouter, with shorter legs and honey-tubes than those of any other

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE HOP PLANT

277

generation. Three generations feed upon the plum, the third
becoming winged and flying to its favorite food in the hop-field.

Throughout the summer the aphides reproduce partheno-
genetically. They " multiply with astonishing rapidity for
from five to twelve generations, carr}ing us in point of
time to the hop-picking season." " Each parthenogenetic
female is capable of producing on an average one hundred
young (the stem-mother proljably being more prolific), at the
rate of one to six, or an average of three
per day, under favorable conditions.
Each generation begins to breed about
the eighth day after birth, so that the
issue from, a single individual easily runs
up, in the course of the summer, to mil-
lions. The number of leaves (700 hills,
each with two poles and two vines) to an
acre of hops, as grown in the United
States, will not, on the average, much
exceed a million before the period of
blooming or burning; so that the issue
from a single stem-mother ma}', untler
favoring circumstances, lilight hundreds
of acres in the course of two or three
months." *

During September a brood of winged females are produced
which fly back to the plum-trees, and in the course of a few da}s
give birth to three or more young. These never become winged,
but are the true sexual females which lay the winter eggs. The
true winged males are developed during the latter part of the
season and may be found pairing with the wingless females at
that time, these being the only males during the year.

Remedies. — From a knowledge of the above life history
several .methods of treatment have been devised. By spraying
plum-trees neighboring the hop-yard and infested with aphides
while they are laying the eggs, during fall or in the spring

* Riley, The Hop-louse, Insect Life, Vol. I, p. 135.

Fig. 204.— The hop
plant-louse, true sex-
ual female — enlarged.
(After Riley, U.' S.
Dept. Agr.)

278 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

before the winged generation appears, with some substance
which will destroy them, the pest may be pi*e vented from getting
a start the next season. Spraying the trees during the fall is
best, because a stronger or more caustic solution can then be
applied without danger of injury to the tree. A winter wash of 1
pound of concentrated lye to 2 gallons of water may be used as a
spray to advantage in killing a large share of the eggs, but should
not be applied after the buds commence to swell in the spring. To

Fig. 205. — The hop plant-louse, male — enlarged. (After Riley, U. S. D. Agr.)

lessen the number of eggs all wild plum-trees in the neighboring
woods should be destroyed. As soon as the crop is harvested,
the hop-vines should be burned or thoroughly sprayed with
kerosene emulsion, so as to kill off the males before they have
been able to fertilize the females.

For spraying the plum-trees and hop-vines kerosene emulsion
has been found very satisfactory, diluting the stock solution with
15 parts of water.

Fish-oil or whale-oil soap used at the rate of 1 pound to 8
gallons of water will prove an effective spray against the lice.
Also see page 664.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE HOP-PLANT

279

The Hop-vine Snout-moth *

The larvae of the Hop- vine Snout-moth sometimes become
very formidable pests in the hop-field, appearing suddenly in
large numbers and rapidly eating the foliage over a large area.

They are not known to have any other food-plant than the
hop and hence are only found where that plant occurs, though
specimens have been taken from almost all sections of the United
States, southern Canada, and British Columbia.

Fig. 20G. — The hop-vine snoiit-moth (Hypena humuU Harr.): a, egg; 6, larva
c, segment of same; d, pupa; e, cremaster of same; /, adult — a, c, e,
greatly enlarged, others slightly enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept.
Agr )

Life History.— It seems probable that the moths hibernate
over winter, as they emerge in the fall, and lay eggs for the first
brood early in the following May. The eggs are of a pale green
color, and are deposited upon the under surfaces of the leaves,
sometimes several upon a single leaf. The larvae emerging from
them become mature late in June and early in July. When
full-grown the larvae are slightly less than one inch long, and
" of a green color, marked with two longitudinal white lines down
the back, a dark-green line in the middle between and an indistinct
whitish line on each side of the body. The head is green, spotted

* Hypena huniuli Harr. Family NoctuidcB.

280 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

with black piliferous dots, and similar dots occur on each seg-
ment, arranged in two transverse rows." *

Before pupating the larva spins a thin silken cocoon, either
among the leaves, under the bark of the poles, or at or slightly
under the surface of the ground. The pupal stage occupies about
ten days, and the moths emerge fi'om the cocoons early in July.
Another brood follows with a similar life history, the moths
emerging late in August and in 8eptoml)er and probably hil)ernat-
ing over winter.

The larvu' are known as " f;ilsc loopei's," on account of their
bending the back slightly in crcci)!!!,!;, which is due to their lacking
the first pair of pro-legs.

Another species of the same genus {Hi/pena rostmli.s) affects
hop-vines in Europe in the same manner and is very similar to
the one above desciil)ed.

Remedies. — The larvas can l)e controlled by the use of any
arsenical spray, which should ))e applied while they are still young.

Hop-merchants

The so-called "Hop-merchants," which here and there gleam
from the vines are the chrysalids of two common butterflies, whose
larva? feed preferably upon hops. The chrysalids are normally
marked with beautiful gold or silver spots, which sometimes
become so diffused as to tinge the whole chrysalis. " An inter-
esting superstition holds among hop-growers to the effect that
when the golden-spotted chrysalids are plentiful the crop will
be good and the price high, while if the silver-spotted ones are
plentiful and the golden-spotted ones are scarce the price will be
low."— Howard, (I.e.).

The Semicolon-butterfly f

The common names of these two butterflies indicate the most
striking mark of distinction between them. P. interrogationis
bears a silver mark like a semicolon or interrogation point upon

* Howard, I.e.

f Polygonia interrogationis Godart. Family Nymphalidce.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE HOP-PLANT

281

the under side of the hind wings (Fig. 207), while P. comma has the
same mark without the dot, which thus resembles a comma
(Fig. 208).

The Semicolon-butterfly is common throughout the United
States east of the Rockies, and especially in hop-growing regions.
It hibernates over winter and is among the first butterflies to be
seen in early spring, when it is often attracted to the flowing sap

a

Fig. 207. — The semicolon-butterfly (Polyyonia inferrogalionis): a, egg-chain;
b, larva; c, chrysalis; d, adult — all natural size excej)! «, which is
greatly enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

of newly cut trees. The eggs are laid late in May or early in June,
usually upon the under surface; of the leaves of elm. I)hi('kl)erry,
or nettle, either singly or in pendent columns of from two to
eight. They hatch in from four to eleven days and the larva)
grow quite rapidly.

When full grown the larva' is an inch and a t^uarter long. The
head is reddish-black, somewhat bilobed, each lobe being tipped
with a tubercle bearing five single, black-pointed spines, and cov-
ered with many small white and several blackish tubercles. The

2S2 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

body is black, thickly covered with streaks and dots of yellowish
white; the second segment is without spines, but with a row of
yellowish tubercles in their place; the third segment has four
branching spines, all black, with a spot of dark yellow at their
base; and on the fourth segment are four spines, as there are on all
the others, excepting the terminal, which has two pairs, one pos-
terior to the other. The spines are yellow, with blackish branches,
excepting the terminal pair, which are black ; and there is a row of
reddish ones on each side. The under surface is yellowish gray,
darker on the anterior segments, with a central line of blackish,
and many small black dots.

The chrysalis is ash-brown, with the head deeply notched, and
with eight silvery spots on the back; this stage lasts from eleven
to fourteen days and the butterflies emerge in July. These lay
eggs for another Ijrood late in July and throughout August, mainly
upon the hop-plants, where they are to be found. When the cater-
pillars of this brood arc numerous they sometimes do considerable
damage to the foliage, l)ut both this and the following species are
ordinarily prevented from becoming overnumerous by several
parasites of the eggs and larva). Only when for some reason con-
ditions are unfavorable to the development of its parasites does
either species become especially abundant. In fact. Dr. J. B.
Smith, who made extensive observations upon lioi)-insects in 1SS3.
states " that not one in ten of the insects ever attains the butterfly
state."

The chrysalis stage of the second brood is somewhat longer
than the first, sometimes lasting twenty-six days, and the butter-
flies emerge from the latter part of August until the end of October,
and at once seek quarters in which to hil)ernate over winter.

Both this species and P. comma are dimorphic, the winter and
summer forms differing in both sexes in both the upper and lower
aspects of the wings. In the South, where from three to five
broods occur in a season, both forms are usuall}' found in the sec-
ond and third broods, the summer form, var. umbrom, gradually
decreasing until all of the fourth brood are the hibernating winter
form, car. fabricii.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE HOP-PLANT

283

The Comma-butterfly *

The Comma-butterfly is most common throughout the East
from New England to North CaroHna and Tennessee, though occa-
sionally found as far west as Wisconsin, Iowa, Nebraska, and
Texas.

Fig. 208. — The comma-butterfly {Polygonia comma): a, egg-chain; 6, larva;
c, chrysalis; d, adult — all natural size, except a. which is greatly
enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Its life history is practically the same as that of the species just
describ(>d. The larvae of the first brood sometimes seriousl}' dam-
age young elm-trees which have been but recently reset, by eating
them bare of the foliage. The winter form hibernates about a
month earlier, being rarely seen in October. As a rule a similar

* Polygonia comma Harr. Family Nymphalidce.

284 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

dimorpliisin occurs, the hibernating form being known as var. har-
risii and the sunnner form var. dryas, though the distinction is not
as marked in this species..

Tlie half-grown hirva is bhick, with a yellowish s.tripe along the
side from the third segment, and with yellow stripes across the
back, and spots of the same color at the base of the dorsal spines,
which are yellow tipped with black. The mature caterpillar is
white, mottled, or striped with gray or ashen, and with red
spiracles.

The butterflies of both species are of a rich Ijrown color, marked
with l)lack and tipped with lilac aljove, and of a much darker pur-
plish l)rown with the characteristic silver spots beneath, which are
well indicated in the illustration.

Remedies. — Spraying with an arsenical will destroy the larvffi
when such treatment becomes necessary.

CHAPTER XV
INSECTS IXJURIOITS TO POTATOES AND TOMATOES

The Potato Stalk-borer*

In some sections this insect has rivaled the famous Cok)rado
potato-bug in the damage it has inflicted upon potato-vines. It
was recorded as badly damaging the crop in Iowa in 1890,

Fig. 209. — Work of potato stalk-borer in potato-vines. (After J. B. Smith.)

and was found by Dr. Riley in Missouri as early as 1869. The

beetles were first noted in New Jersey m 1895, and have been

injurious in Maryland and most of the Middle States.

Life History. — The grubs, which bore into the stalksof the vines,

* Trichobaris trinotata Say. Family Curculionidoe .

285

286 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

are the larvic of some small ashen-gray beetles which appear early
in spring and into June. These beetles are about one-fourth of an
inch long, with a long, black beak or snout, and are marked at the
base of the wing-covers by three black spots which give the insect
its specific name, trinotata. Each beetle punctures a small hole in
the base of a stem by means of its beak, hollows out a small cavity,
and there lays a single small, oval, whitish egg. From these eggs
some small, white grubs with brown heads hatch in a few days and
commence to bore into the stalk. These grubs keep eating, either
in the main stalk or branches, from August 1st to September 1st,

Fig. 210. — Potato Stalk-borer {Trichobaris trinotata).
adult, (.\fter J. B. Smith.)

Larva, pupa and

when they have become full grown. At this time the grubs are
about one-half an inch long, of a dirty white or yellowish color,
with a yellowish-brown, horny head, and without legs. About the
middle of August, as a general rule, the grubs construct small, oval
cocoons of chips and fibres in the stalk of the vine near the sur-
face of the soil, and there transform to the pupse. During late
August and September the mature beetles shed the pupal skins, in
which they have remained dormant for the last few weeks, but
remain in the vines during the winter, and do not come forth till
the following spring.

Remedies. — On account of its internal feeding habits no poison
can be successfully used against this pest, and the only remedy,

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO POTATOES AND TOMATOES 287

but a good one, is to rake up the vines and burn them as soon as
the potatoes have been dug. As this insect also feeds upon the
Jamestown weed, horse-nettle, and other weeds of the Nightshade
family, or Solanaccoe, they should be kept cut down very closely.
When the grubs are noticed in the plants, a good allowance of fer-
tilizer will do much to quicken growth and thus enable them to
mature a crop.

The Stalk-borer *

This species may well be called the stalk-borer, for it not only
tunnels the stalks of potatoes — being often called the potato stalk-
borer — and tomatoes, but frequently infests corn, cotton and a long
list of garden crops, grains, grasses, flowering plants, and various
common weeds. Apparently the latter, such as ragweed, cockle-
bur and the like, are its normal food plants, and when they are
destroyed or where more tender cultivated plants are near by,
it attacks whatever is available. Two or three nearly related
species have very similar habits.

The adult moth (Fig. 211) is a fawn-gray or mouse color, with
the outer third of the fore-wings paler and bordered within by a
whitish cross-line.

Life History. — The eggs are laid in the fall on the stems of
weeds and grasses, in masses of fifty or sixty, near the ground,
They are about one-fiftieth inch in diameter, circular, grayish
in color, with radiating ridges. They hatch in late May in
southern Minnesota and the young caterpillars at once commence
to mine small galleries in the leaves of the food plants, soon
riddling the leaves. In a few days they work down to the bases
of the leaves and enter the stalks, which they tunnel out and not
infrequently leave one plant and migrate some little distance
before entering another. Infested plants are readily recognized
by the wilting of the parts above the larva, the work in corn
being particularly noticeable and having given the local name
of " heart-worm." The larvae become full grown about the
first of August. They are readily recognized by the peculiar

* Papaipema nitella Gn. Family Noctuidce.

288 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

markings of the body (Fig. 211, b). The hirva is about an inch
long and varies from purplish to whitish brown, and is marked
with five white stripes, one along the middle of the back, and two
on each side. These sides stripes arc absent on the first four
segments of the abdomen, giving the larva an appearance as if
it had been pinched or injured there. As the larva matures the
stripes become fainter. When ready to pupate the larva cuts a

Fig. 211. — The stalk-borer {Papaipenia nitella Gn.): «, adult; 6, half-grown
larva; c, mature larva in burrow; d, side of one of its segments; c,
pupa — all slightly enlarged. (From Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

hole through tlie side of the stalk, and then transforms to the
brown pupa in the lower part of the stalk, llie pupal stage lasts
about two or three weeks, and the moths emerge in late August,
there being but one generation a year.

Usually the injury to crops is only in the outer rows, to whicli
the larvae have migrated from weeds growing along the edges,
or in fields which have been weedy in early spring, or where the
weeds have been allowed to get a start before being culti-
vated out.

IN>SECTS INJURIOUS TO POTATOES AND TOMATOES 289

Control. — From the life history and habits it is obvious that
clean farming is the only method of effectual control. The
destruction of weeds and fall plowing should prevent any general
injuiy. Tsually th(> injury is hut local, and fortunately the
caterpillars are attacked b}- numerous parasites which aid in
their control, sometimes to the extent" of killing 70 per cent of
tlunn. In small gartlens the pi'ompt destruction of infested
plants will prevent the caterpillars from migi'ating to others.
Where weeds are infested in or near a crop they should be destroyed
as soon as cut, for if left on the ground the larvae will promptly
migrate to the neai'est plants. Where fields are kept clean of
weeds there will l)e little trouble.*

The Potato Tuber-worm f

The most serious pest of the potato in California is the Tuber-
worm, which in tobacco regions of the Southern States is known
as the "split worm " or leaf-miner (see page 237). Not infre-
quently 25 per cent of tiie crop is lost in infested i-egions in
California, injury occiu'ring both in the fields and to the tubers
in storage. As the pest is carried in the potatoes and breeds in
storage throughout the warm winters of California, and when
exported across the Pacific, it is necessary to closely inspect
potatoes from infested regions. Although no injury to potatoes
has occurred outside of California, and though the insect pi'obal)ly
could not exist in the Xoi'tli, it nuiy well be guarded against in
the Southern States, where it is a common tobacco pest.|

Moths which have developed from larvte working in stored
potatoes are oh the wing wdien young potatoes are up, and la}'
their eggs at the base of the leaves. The young larva? bore into
the stalks, often causing the plants to wilt and die. On older

* See Forbes, 23d Report State Entomologist of Illinois, p. 44; Washburn,
12th Report State Entomologist of Minnesota, p. 1.51; Journal Economic
Entomology, III, p. 16."); Smith, Report N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. for 1905, pp.
5S4-587.

f Phthorimen operculcUa Zell. See W. T. Clarke, Bulletin 1.3.'), California
Agr. Exp. Sta.

JReoently serious injury by this insect has been rejiorted (o {)o1atoes
near Hallettsville, Texas.

290 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

plants or when the stalks harden, the larvae leave the stalks and
enter the tubers, particularly where they may be exposed. Where
potatoes arc exposed by being insufficiently covered the moths
will lay their eggs directly upon them, as they also do upon
potatoes exposed in the field after digging.

Most of the observations upon the life history seem to have
been made uj^on the insect when l)i"eeding in stoi'ed potatoes.
The eggs are al)Out one-fiftieth inch long, oval, white, and laid
singly or in pairs, al)out the (\ves of the potatoes, or in similar
rough places, where they are seen with difficulty. They hatch
in a week or ten days, and the young larvae are about one-
twenty-fifth inch long of a transparent white color. The
larvae burrow l)eneath the skin and bore into the potatoes,
filling their Inu'rows with frass and excrement, which soon give
rise to various rots which cause the destruction of the tuber,
already rendered unfit for food l.)y the burrows. The larvae
become full grown in al)out six or seven weeks. They are then
about a half inch long. The head is dark brown; the first
segment is an old rose color, with dark brown shield on the
back; the second segment is a similar clouded pink; while the
third and succeeding segments are a clouded white, often becom-
ing yellowish or greenish, according to the food eaten. The full-
grown larva returns to the mouth of the burrow and there makes
its cocoon, or leaves it and forms the cocoon in some depression
of the potato or in some crack of the storage vessel or in a fold
of the bag. The cocoon is constructed quite differently from
that of most moths as described by Mr. Clarke. The larva first
makes a mat of silk and then forms an outer layer to the surface
of which particles of dirt and rubbish adhere so that the cocoon
is well concealed. When this pocket-like cocoon is finished the
larva enters it and closes the open end and in it transforms to
the pupa. The pupal stage lasts about two weeks, so that the
complete life cycle requires from nine to twelve weeks, there being
several generations during the year, according to the temperature.

Control. — As the insect breeds on various common weeds of
the Nightshade family (Solonacece), it is important that they be

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO POTATOES AND TOMATOES 291

destroyed wherever found. Seed potatoes must be free from the

larvae, or they will soon give rise to moths which will infest a

whole field. When young plants are found wilting, the infested

stalks should be cut and destroyed as soon as possible to prevent

the further development and spread of the pest. Care should

be taken in cultivating to hill up the soil, or thoroughly cover

the tubers, so that they are not exposed. After digging, the

potatoes should not be left exposed in the field any longer than

is absolutely necessary and should not be covered with the tops

to shade them, as is often done, as this furnishes a shelter for the

moths and induces oviposition upon the tubers. Infested fields

should have the stalks and all rubbish and refuse thoroughly

raked up and burned as soon as possible, or sheep and hogs may

be turned into the fields to destroy the stages which may be

left in the vines or in the soil. Where fields have been flooded

for two or three weeks after the crop has been dug, they have

been entirely freed of the pest. For the treatment of stored

potatoes, fumigation with carbon bisulfide in a tight room

seems to be the only satisfactory method. This should be done

as described for grain insects (see page 57). The tubers shoul(,i

be fumigated as soon as stored, and the treatment should be

repeated at intervals of two weeks, four or five fumigations

being recommended to entirely free the potatoes of all stages.

Obviously it will be important to sort over infested tubers, and

remove all which are materially injured to prevent the increase

of rot ift others.

I
Colorado Potato-beetle *

First and foremost among the enemies of the potato-grower
stands the Colorado potato-beetle — the insect which in'the early
seventies, on account of our ignorance of it, was made an entomo-
logical bugbear. But " there's no great loss without some small
gain," and we may be thankful that the invasion of this beetle
also brought about the use of Paris green, an insecticide which has

* Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say. Family Chrysomelidce. See F. H.
Chittenden, Circular 87, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

292 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

since saved millions upon millions of dollars to the American
farmer. Thus, with an effectual remedy which is now used where
this pest occurs as regularly as potatoes are planted, " familiarity
has bred contempt," and to-day we have l)ut little fear of its
attack.

Histort/. — iVs is probal)!}' known to most of the older genera-
tion who watched its spread eastward, the Colorado potato-beetle,
as its name indicates, was a native of the Rocky Moimtain region,
and until about 1S55 was satisfied with feeding upon various com-

FiG. 212. — The Colorado potato-beetle {Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say.): a,
eggs; b, larva; c, pupa; d, beetle; e, elytra or wing-cover of beetle;
/, leg of beetle. (After Riley.)

mon weeds of the same genus as the potato-plant, principally
Solanurn datum, and closely allied genera. But with the settle-
ment of this country and the introduction of the Irish potato,
these bugs also began to take advantage of the fruits of civilization
and transferred their feeding-grounds from the roadside to the
potato-patch, and rapidly spread eastward from one to another,
as well as being transported in the shipping of the potatoes.

Thus, in 1S59 they had reached a point one hundred miles west
of Omaha, Neb. ; five years later they crossed the Mississippi into
Illinois; and they advanced steadily eastward till recorded among

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO POTATOES AND TOMATOES 293

the Atlantic States in 1874. Tli-ough slow to be introduced into"
some few sections of the country, it is safe to assert that this pest
may to-day be found almost wherever the potato is grown in the
United States or southern Canada.

Life History. — During October the beetles enter the earth and
there hibernate till the warm sunshine of April or xMa}' Ijrings
them forth. As soon as the young plants appear, the female
beetles deposit their yellow eggs upon the under side of the leaves
near the tips, each female laying an average of about five hundred
eggs during the course of a month. Meanwhile the beetles have
done considerable damage by eating the young and tender plants.
In about a week there hatch a horde of
very small but very hungry larvie, which
fairly gorge themselves with potato-
foliage and increase in size with astonish-
ing rapidity. In two and a half to three
weeks, after having eaten an amount of
food out of all proportion to their size, the pj^, 213 . „ i^p.^]^ yf ,,j.p.
larva become full grown, and enter the daceous bug; h, Podi-

earth, where they form smooth, oval ^^^^ s^nnosus T>-^\\.-, c,
' -^ ' beak 01 iilant-feeding

cells, and transform to pupa). In a week bug. (After Riley.)

or two the adult beetles emerge from

the pupal skins and after feeding for a couple of weeks, deposit
eggs for a second generation, which develops in the same way,
and the beetles from which hibernate as already described.
Throughout the territory where the beetles are most injurious
there are two generations a year, but further south there is evi-
dence of at least a partial, if not complete, third generation, and
in the northern range of the species there is but one generation
a year.

Natural Enemies. — One of the chief agencies to prevent the'
excessive multiplication of this pest is the weather. Thus, Pro-
fessor Otto Lugger records that in Minnesota, late in the fall
of 1894, the beetles were lured from their winter quarters by a
few warm days, and most of them subsequently perished from
hunger or frost. In addition to this during the late summer of

294 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

1894 there was an excessive drouth, so that but few of the
second brood matured. Thus in 1895 there were very few of
the insects to be seen.

Among the birds, the common crow, the red-breasted gros-
beak, and turkeys often feed upon this pest to a considerable
extent.

Probably the most destructive insect-parasite of the larvae is a
Tachinid-fly known to science as Lydella doryphorcB Ril,, which
rather closely resembles the common house-fly, both in size and
color. A single egg is laid on a potato-bug and from it hatches a
small, footless maggot which burrows inside the bug. When the
larva enters the earth, the effect of the maggot's work becomes
apparent, and instead of transforming to a pupa and beetle, it
shrivels up and dies; but the maggot itself contracts into a hard,
brown pupa, from which the fly eventually emerges. Thus in
1868, when first noted by Dr. C. V. Riley, he asserted that in
Missouri fully 10 per cent of the second brood and one-half of the
third were destroyed by this parasite.

Many of our common lady-bird beetles and their larvae check
the pest by feeding upon the eggs. Several predaceous bugs, par-
ticularly the spined soldier-bug (Podisus spinosus Dall.) (Fig. 213)

are of value in destroying the
larvae, into which they thrust
their short, powerful beaks, and
then suck out the juices of the
body, leaving an empty skin.
One or two of these closely re-
semble the common squash-bug
(Aiiasa tristis De G.), but are
really very dissimilar, and whereas
Fig. 214.— Tachinid parasite of Col- the beaks of the predaceous
orado potato-beetle {Lydella forms are short and thick, as in

doryphorce mi). (After Riley.) -c^- oio ^.l. c ^ *. c i

Fig. 213, a, those, of plant-feed-
ers, like the squash-bug, are long and slender, as in Fig. 213, b.

Several species of ground-beetles are often found preying upon
the larvae and beetles, but, unlike the bugs, attack them by means

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO POTATOES AND TOMATOES

295

of their powerful biting jaws. These beetles are also exceedingly
beneficial in feeding upon many other injurious insects, and are
among the farmers' best insect friends (Fig. 215).

Remedies. — As an artificial remedy for this pest, Paris green
has long been proven to be both effectual and practical. For
small areas it may be used dry by mixing it with fifty times
its weight of dry flour, land-plaster, or air-slaked lime, and should
be applied while the plants are still wet with dew, either by a
perforated can, or, better, by one of the improved pow^ler-guns
such as Leggett's, by which two rows of plants may be powdered
at once. On larger areas spraying will be found more satisfac-

2^ "'^ ^

Fig. 215. — Mnrky ground-beetle {Harpalus caliginosus) ; a, its larva; b, head
of larva showing mouthparts. (After Riley)

tory. One pound of Paris green and 1 pound of freshly slaked
quicklime to 50 gallons of water will kill all the larvae, but
often 2 to 3 pounds are necessary to destroy the beetles.

Many growers now prefer to use arsenate of lead at from 3 to 5
pounds to the barrel, as there is no danger of burning the foliage
with it, and it is much more adhesive. Where Bordeaux mixture
is not used the arsenate of lead is much preferable on account of its
superior adhesiveness. Where Bordeaux mixture is used, arsenite
of lime, or arsenite of lime made with soda, may be used, but these
homemade arsenicals should not be used alone, on account of
their burning the foliage.

The vines should be sprayed first when they are a few inches
high, and the spraying repeated once or twice at intervals of ten

296 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

days or two weeks. The larvae are so easily killed by arsenicals
that potato growers no longer fear their work, but large quantities
of Paris green are wasted by careless application, and by dusting
unduly large amounts with poor apparatus, which not infrequently
results in burning the foliage. For small areas a bucket or knap-
sack pump will be found satisfactory, but for over an acre a barrel
pump with a row attachment will prove more economical, and for
over ten acres a geared machine spraying several rows at once will
be needed. Cleaning up the vines and plowijig potato land in the

Fig. 21C. — The convergent ladybird (Hippodamia convergens): a, adult; b,
pupa; c, larva; enlarged. (After Chittenden U. S. Dept. Agr.)

fall after the crop has been harvested will aid in reducing the num-
Ijers of the hibernating beetles.

Flea-beetles *

I/'

While the potatoes and tomatoes are but a few inches high they
are often attacked by myriads of small black beetles, which from
their power of making long quick jumps are known as flea-beetles.
They soon riddle the foliage, of ten so badly that the plants wilt, and
replanting is necessary, particularly with tomatoes.

Several species are known to attack the potato, the two most
common being the potato or cucumber flea-beetle {Epitrix cucum-
eris Harris) and one which Professor H. A. Garman has styled the
Southern Potato Flea-beetle {Epitrix fuscula) . The To-bacco Flea-

* Family Chrysomelid(p.

Fig. 217. — Field sprayer, with modifications, adapted for potato spraying,
by L. C. Corbett, operating at the Virginia Truck Experiment Station,
Norfolk, Va.

297

298 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

beetle (Epitrix parvula) is not uncommonly found on the vines in
sections where tobacco is also grown, and other species do similar
injury in other sections. All of these species are, however, essen-
tially the same in habits and life history, and the same remedies
apply to all. Unfortunately, the complete life cycle of these little
insects has never been carefully determined, so that only a general
outline can be given.

The potato flea-beetle * is the most destructive. It is only
one-sixteenth inch long, jet black, except the yellowish anienna;
and legs, and there is a deep groove across the base of the thorax

Fig. 218. — a, potato flea-beetle; b, egg-plant flea-beetle, both greatly-
enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

(Fig. 21S, a). It seems to occur throughout the United States,
but is more commonly injurious in the North. Eggplant and
tobacco, as well as numerous garden vegetables are similarly
injured. This species has commonly been called the cucumber flea-,
beetle from its specific name, but it is evidently a misnomer, as it
is much more abundant upon the potato and related plants.

During the winter the beetles hibernate under leaves, rubbish,
etc., and in the spring come forth and lay their eggs upon the
roots of some of our common weeds of the Nightshade family,
such as the horse-nettle, Jamestown-weed, Desmoclium, etc.,
in May and June. The larvae mine in the roots of these plants
and transform to pupse in small earthen cells among the roots,
* Epitrix cucumeris Harris.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO POTATOES AND TOMATOES 299

from which the beetles come forth to attack the foliage of the
crops mentioned. There are at least two and probably three
generations a year, but the life history of the species has not been
carefully studied. The larvse are minute, thread-like, white
worms.

Occasionally the larva? mine into the tubers, doing considerable
damage and causing " pimply " potatoes. Such injury was
quite common in New York, in 1894, and in Colorado in 1903.

The principal injury by the beetles is done to the young foliage
just after it is up in the spring, when then swarm upon the plants
and thoroughly riddle the leaves, a badly eaten leaf appearing
as if it had been hit by a charge of fine bird-shot. The complete
life history of the species has not been definitely determined,
but the injury by the adults is rarely troublesome except when
the plants are young, and the larval injury to the tubers occurs
later in the season.

The Eggplant Flea-beetle * so nearly resembles the previous
species that it will not be distinguished from it but by the entomol-
ogist. It is slightly larger, however, with the wing-covers more
hairy, and the groove at the base of the thorax is not so distinct.
It has much the same food-plants, but is particularly abundant
on eggplant, and is more commonly injurious in the South, below
the Ohio and Potomac rivers.

The Tobacco Flea-beetle f has been previously discussed
(page 222), but should be mentioned, as it is commonly injurious
to potato, tomato, and eggplant throughout the South, as well
as to tobacco, and occasionally to corn and other plants.

Control. — It has been found that Bordeaux mixture acts as
an excellent repellant against these little beetles, and that plants
well covered with it are not seriously injured. Inasmuch as
it is always advisable to spray potatoes as soon as they are a
few inches high for fungous diseases and for the Colorado potato
beetle, by applying the spray as soon as possible after the plants
are up they will be protected. Both potatoes and tomatoes
should be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture and arsenate of lead

* Epitrix fuscula Cr. f Epitrix parvula Fab.

300 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

or Paris green as soon as they are a few inches higli. The spray
should be appUed Hberally so as to give the plants a distinct
coating of the mixture. Tomatoes are particularly susceptible
to injury and might be dipped in arsenate of lead when planting,
using 1 pound to 10 gallons of water. The destruction of the
weeds upon which the larvae commonly develop is obviously
important in preventing their multiplication.

Where injury by the larvae is done to the tubers, it is recom-
mended that they be diig as soon as possible, and he left
exposed to the sun for a few hours after digging so as to harden the
skin, before being stored. If damage continues in storage, the
tubers may be fumigated with carbon bisulfide, as recommended
for grain insects (page 57).

1/
Potato-scab and Insects

That certain foi'ms of what is commonl}' ici'nicd " potato-
scab " are due toJhe work of insects has frequently been shown.
In 1895 Professor A. D. Hopkins,* of the West Virginia Agiicultural
Experiment Station, reported some very careful original investiga-
tions upon two species of gnats, Epidapus scabies Hopk. and Sciara
sp., the larvie of which had been conclusi\-ely shown to cause
a " scab " upon the tubers by Ijoring into them. The larvte
or maggots of the Potato-seal) (inat are al)out one-sixth of an
inch long, and are the young of a wingless gnat shown, very
great'y enlarged, in Fig 219. The females deposit their eggs on
the potatoes in storage from autumn to spring, and the maggots
hatching from them enter old scab spots or injured places. Under
favorable conditions a generation nui}- l)e developed in twenty
to twenty-five days. Later in the spring the eggs are deposited
in manure or other decomposing material, on seed potatoes or
on growing tubers to which they may be carried on seed potatoes.
When they become well established in a potato, it is soon des-
troyed if they are not overcome by their natural enemies, or
unless the soil becomes dry, when they soon disappear. In-

* A. D. Hopkins, Special Bulletin 2 (Vol. IV, No. 3) W. Va. Agr. Exp.
Sta., p. 97.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO POTATOES AND TOMATOES 301

fested places look very much like the ordinary scab produced
b}' the scab fungus and nuiy be readily mistaken for it. Such
injury was quite genei'al antl serious in West ^'irginia in ISiU and
1S92. Dr. Hopkins found that " they breed in and are especially
common in barnyard-manure," that " excessive moisture in the
soil has been observed to l)e the most favorable condition foi-
their development," and that " soaking the seed-potatoes in a
solution of corrosive sul)limate previous to planting " will kill all
the eggs and young larva^, as it will also destroy the spores of
the potato-scab fungus.

Professor H. (iarman * has also recorded the injuries of several
species of millipedes, or " thousand-legged worms," ('(iwhaUi

Fig. 219. — Potato scab-gnat (Epidapus saibei Hopk.): a, fly; /, larva; g
egg; /(, egg mass — much enlarged. (After Hopkins.)

annulata and Parajulus imp7'essus, as causing a scab by gnawing
into the surface of the tubers. Though both of these observations
are unc^uestionably true, such injury has not occurred in other
parts of the country, and it is improbable that any large portion
of potato-scab is due to these insects. Potato-scab is a fungous
disease, which, as already noted, may be destroyed by soaking
the seed-potatoes in a solution of corrosive sublimate.

Blister-beetles f

Long before we had made the acquaintance of the Colorado
potato-beetle, several species of blister-beetles frequenth' brought

* H. Garman. Bulletin til, Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. LS.
I Family Meloidoe.

302 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

themselves into notice by their injuries, and, therefore are now
known as the " old-fashioned potato-bugs." The name of
" blister-beetles " has been bestowed upon them because of the
blistering effect which they have upon the skin, they being nearly
related to the Spanish fly, used for that purpose.

One of the most common of these is the Striped Blister-beetle,
which has three yellow stripes upon its wing-covers, while
two other common forms are of a slate-black color. Very often
when these beetles congregate in numbers they are a great
nuisance, not only in the potato-patch, but upon many other
plants of the garden or truck-farm.

Unfortunately, they present to the farmer a very peculiar
problem, for while the beetles are often exceedingly injurious,
the larvse are even more beneficial, in eating large quantities of
grasshoppers' eggs.

Life History. — The life of these insects is unique. The female
lays a large number of eggs in a small cavity in the earth, and
from these hatch some small, long-legged larvae, which run about
searching for the pod-like masses of grasshoppers' eggs, upon
which they feed. As soon as the appetite of one of these little
egg-hunters is appeased, he sheds his skin, and now being sur-
rounded by food and no longer needing his long legs for running,
in the next stage of his existence his legs become very short and
rudimentary, and he remains almost immobile while feeding upon
the rest of the eggs.

Control. — Spraying with Paris green or arsenate of lead, as
advised for the Colorado potato-beetle will kill the beetles, and
where the vines have been regularly sprayed but little trouble
will be had with them. Where they suddenly appear in large
swarms in gardens or on truck land, they are often destroyed by
a line of men and children slowly driving them with branches, as
the beetles move but slowly. If a ditch is available it may be
oiled, and the beetles destroyed like grasshoppers (page 108), or
they may be driven into a windrow of straw, hay, or any inflam-
mable rubbish and burned in it.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO POTATOES AND TOMATOES 303

Three-lined Leaf -bee tie *

Closely related to the Colorado potato-beetle, and very
similar to it in habits, is the Three-lined Leaf-beetle. The eggs
may be distinguished by the fact that they are usually laid in
rows along the midrib on the under side of the leaf, while those
of the potato-beetle are laid indiscriminately in bunches. The
larva?, however, may be readily distinguished from all other
insects attacking the potato by being covered with a disgusting
mass of their own excrement.

Fig. 220. — Three-lined leaf-beetle (Lema trilineala Oliv'.); a, larva; h, pupa;
d, eggs; beetle at right. (After Riley.)

There are two broods during the season, the larvae of the first
appearing in June, and that of the second in August; but the
beetles of the second brood do not emerge until the following
spring. In other respects the life histor}' is practically the same
as that of the Colorado potato-beetle. The beetle is of a pale
yellow color, with three black stripes on its back, and in a general
way resembles the common striped cucumber-beetle {Diabrotica
vittata Fab.), though it is somewhat larger and the thorax is
decidedly constricted.

In case it becomes necessary to destroy the blister-beetles, both
they and the three-lined leaf-beetle may be readily disposed of by
applying Paris green or other arsenite as advised for the Colorado
potato-beetle.

* Lema trilineaia Oliv. Family Chrysomelidoe.

304 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Tomato Worms

The large green horn-worms which attack the foliage of the
tomato are the same as those previously described which attack
tobacco (see page 228). Usually they are not so numerous but
that the}' may be readily controlled liy handpicking, but if neces-
sary the same remedial measures nuiy used as advised for them on
tobacco.

The Tomato Fruitworm

The worms which commonly l)orc into the green and ripening
tonuitoes are the same as the tol)acco Ijudwoi'in and the cotton
bollworm (see pages 234 and 254), under which names their habits
and life histories have been fully described.

Obviously tomatoes should not be planted on land which has
been in corn or cotton infested by this insect the previous year,
unless it has been given thorough winter plowing and harrowing.

It has seemed to the writer that trap rows of sweet corn might
be used for protecting tomatoes as they are used with cotton, but
no experiments seem to have been conducted which show the prac-
ticability of the method. As the young caterpillars feed a little on
the foliage before boring into the fruit, a thorough spraying with
arsenate of lead, 3 pounds to 50 gallons, will undoubtedly protect
the tomatoes if applied as soon as the eggs are laid, and with one
or two later applications at intervals of ten days, the exact time
depending upon the latitude and season, as indicated by the life
history (seepage 181).

PROPERTY OF

P. METCALF

CHAPTER X\I

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO HEAXS AND PEAS*

\y

The Pea-weevil f

The common Pea-weevil occurs in almost all parts of the world
where peas are grown, and is the usual cause of " buggy " peas. It
was the cause of the abandonment of pea growing in the central
Atlantic States as early as the middle of the eighteenth century.
It has usually been regarded as a native of North America, having

a c

Fig. 221. — The pea-weevil {Byuchus pisornm L.): n, adult beetle; h, larva;
c, pupa — all enlarged. (From Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

been introduced into Europe. It does but comparatively little
damage in more northern latitudes and for this reason seedsmen
secure their seed peas from Canada and northern Michigan and
Wisconsin.

The weevil is about one-fifth inch long and about one-half
that width, being the largest of the pea- and bean-feeding weevils
in this country. " Its ground color is black, Ijut it is thickly cov-
ered with brown pul^escence, variegated with black and white

* See F. H. Chittenden, Insects Injurious to Beans and Peas, Yearbook
U. S. Dept. Agr. for 189,S, p. 2:i3.

I Bnichus pixorum Linn. Family BriirliidiF.

30.5

306 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

markings as shown in Fig. 221. The sides of the thorax are notched
or toothed, and the abdomen, which projects beyond the wing-
covers, is coated with whitish pubescence and marked by two black
spots. The hind thighs are thickened and each bears two promi-
nent teeth."

Life History. — The winter is passed in the adult stage, the wee-
„,. vils making their appear-

mv „ ^ A ^ 7 ance in the fields when the

peas are in blossom. The
eggs are laid singly upon
the surface of the pods,
attached by a sticky fluid
which becomes white when
dry. The egg is about one-
twentieth of an inch long
by one-third that width, of
a yellow color, as shown in
Fig. 222.

-The pea-weevil: a, egg on pod; Upon hatching, the

b, cross-section of opening of larval mine; i i ,. i

' , I • ■ A J young larva bores through

c, young larva and opening on inside oi '^ ° °

pod by which it has entered — enlarged the pod and into the seed.

d d, d, eggs on pod, slightly enlarged; ^^ ^j^-g ^^ ^j^^ \^^,^^ ^^^

J, leg of larva; g, prothoracic spurious °

processes— more enlarged. (After Chit- some very small false legs

tenden, U. S. Dept Agr.) ^nd two plates and six

strong spines on the thorax, which aid it in getting through the

pod. Upon entering the seed the skin is shed and these legs,

plates and spines are lost. The larva feeds upon the seed,

growing rapidly. When full grown it appears as at h, Fig. 221.

It resembles a maggot in general appearance, being white,

except the small mouth-parts, which are brown; is fleshy, nearly

cylindrical and strongly wrinkled, with three pairs of very

short stubby legs. It is about one-fourth an inch long and half

as broad. Before its final molt the larva eats a round hole in the

pea, leaving but a thin membrane as a covering. It then lines the

inside of the pea with a glue-like substance, and within this cell

transforms to the pupa.

Fig. 222.-

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 307

The pupa is white, showing the notches at the sides of the
thorax, but otherwise is not dissimilar from many weevil pupae.
The length of the pupal stage varies from nine to seventeen or
more days. In more southern latitudes a large part of the beetles
leave the seed in August, but in the North they all remain in the
seed over winter, and are planted with the seed. There is but one
generation a year and this species does not breed in dry peas.

Injury. — Dr. James Fletcher has stated that this pest is now
doing over $1,000,000 damage in Ontario alone annually, and that
the growing of peas has been abandoned in considerable areas of
that province. In large peas about one-sixth of the food content
is destroyed, while in smaller varieties fully one-half. Not only
this, but in eating canned green peas one frequently devours sev-
eral small larvse in each mouthful, unawares, as but a small dark
speck indicates their presence in the green pea. In the dry seed
the holes made by the larvse can be seen. But 12 to 18 per cent of
infested seed will produce plants, which are later in developing and
do not yield as well as those unaffected.

Enemies. — The Baltimore oriole has been recorded as feeding
on the grubs by splitting open the pods, and the crow blackbird is
said to devour many of the beetles in the spring. Practically no
parasites or predaceous insects are known to prey upon it, so that
it has every opportunity for doing serious injury.

Control. — Holding over Seed. — One of the best means of
destroying the weevils where l^ut a few peas are concerned and cir-
cumstances will permit, is to simply hold them over for a season,
stored in a tight sack or box, before planting. As the weevils will
not breed in the dried peas they die in the sack and are thus caught.
Peas should always he bagged up and sacks tied immediately after
threshing.

Late Planting. — Comparative immunity from injury is claimed
by some growers for late-planted peas. Dr. F. H. Chittenden is
inclined to the belief that in some localities, such as Washington,
D.C., where two crops can be grown in a year, that late planting is
all necessary to secure sound seed stock.

Treating with Kerosene. — The Canadians have found that

308 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

kerosene may be used to destroy the weevils. Dr. Fletcher states :
"A remedy wliich has been used by many farmers with satisfaction
is to drench the seed with coal oil, using about a half a gallon to the
barrel, or five jjushels of peas. While applying the coal oil (kero-
sene)the seed should be placed on the floor, where it can be shoveled
over constantly to insure the treatment of all the grain."

Scalding Seed.- — " When peas are found to contain live weevils
at the time of sowing, these may be destroyed by simply pouring
them into a pot of scalding water. The water should be drained
off at once or the seed cooled by turning in cold water." — Fletcher.

Heat. — Dr. Chittenden states that it has been found that a tem-
perature of 145° F. will kill the weevils in the seed without injure-
to the germinating property of the seed.

Fumigation. — This is undoubtedh' the l:)est means of destroy-
ing the weevils, and is now coming into general use. Dr. Fletcher,
who has made the most thorough studies of practical methods for
controlling this pest, states : " Fumigation with bisulfide of cai'-
bon is a sure remedy. When properly done, either in specially
constructed buildings known as ' bug-houses ' oi' in any tight l)in,
every weevil is surely killed if the seed containing them is fumi-
gated for forty-eight hours with this chemical, using 1 poun,d b}'
weight to every 100 bushels of seed, or, in smaller quan ities, 1
ounce to every 100 pounds. For the treatment of .small quantities
of seed, particularly by farmers, I have found that an ordinary
coal-oil barrel is very convenient. This will hold about 5 bushels,
or 300 pounds of seed, which may be treated with 3 ounces of bisul-
fide of carbon. Care must be taken to close up the top tightly.
This is best done with a cap made specially for the purpose, but
fine sacks laid smoothly on the top, over which boards are placed
with a weight on them, will answer. Fumigation with bisulfide
of carbon is, I believe, the remedy most to be relied upon in this
campaign. It is perfectly effective, is now regularly used by the
large seed merchants, and in future will he much more generally
used."

(For directions for use of bisulfide of carbon and caution
concerning it, see i age 57.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS

309

The Common Bean-weevil *

Throughout the Uiiitrcl States the common Bean-weevil is the
principal enemy of the l)ean. The small, white, footless grubs
feed within the beans, both in the field ami in storage, and trans-
form to the common brown-gray weevils which infest white beans.
In the South its attacks are so serious that it is almost impossible
to secure a crop uninfested, so that most of the beans l)oth for
seed and consumption come from the North. Not until 1870 did
injury by this insect attract attention in the United States, but
now it occurs throughout our borders and is practically cosmopol-

FiG. 223. — The common bpan-weevil {Bruchiia oblectus Say): «, beetle; h,
larva; r, pupa — all greatly enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. D. Agr.)

itan in its distribution. It is probably a native of Central or
South America.

The adult weevil is about one-eighth of an inch long and is cov-
ered with a fine brown-gra}^ or olive pubescence, giving it that
color, while the wing-covers are mottled as shown in Fig. 223, a. It
may be distinguished from the pea-weevil b}' its longer thorax and
by the two small teeth next to the large tooth at the tip of the
thighs.

Life History. — In the field the eggs are laid upon or are inserted
in the bean-pofl through holes made by the female or such open-

* Bruchus obteclus Say. Family Bruchidce.

310 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

ings as are caused by its drying and splitting (Fig. 224, b, c) . In
shelled beans the eggs are placed loosely among them or in the
exit holes of the beetles. The young larva hatching from the egg
has long, slender legs, but with the first molt these are lost and
when full grown it is a fat grub as shown in Fig. 223, b. The pupal
stage is passed in an oval cell made by the larva within the bean.
Experiments have shown that the eggs hatch in from five days in
the hottest to twenty days in cooler weather; the larval stage
requires eleven to forty-two days, and the pupal stage five to eigh-

FiG. 224. — The bean-weevil; a, side view of beetle; b, section of bean pod
showing slit for deposition of egg; c, part of inside of pod showing egg-
mass inserted through slit — all enlarged. (After Riley and Chittenden,
U. S. Dept. Agi-.)

teen days. Thus the whole life cycle will extend over a period of
from twenty-one to eighty days, depending upon the season and
locality. Probably a out six generations occur annually in the
District of Columbia, and a less number further north.

" Unlike the pea-weevil, a large number of individuals Avill
develop in a bean, as many as twenty-eight having beenf ound
within a single seed. It will thus he readily seen that the first out-
door generation or any single indoor generation is capable of
exhausting seed and completely ruining it for food or planting or
any other practical purpose, except perhaps as hog feed."

" The beetles begin to issue from beans in the field in a climate

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS

311

like that of the District of Cokimbia ... as early as October,
when in the natural course of events the eggs for a new brood
would be deposited in such pods as had cracked open, so as to
expose the seeds within."

" Weevilly " seed should never be planted, as but a small per
cent of it will germinate and the vitalit}' of that germinating is
deficient. Professor Popenoe showed in experiments at Manhattan,
Kan., that onl}- 50 per cent of the infested seed used germinated,
that only 30 per cent could ha e grown further, and that even
these would have producied plants of little vigor or productive-
ness. (Quotations and acts from Chittenden, I.e.)

Remedies. — Xo methods are known of preventing injury in the
field, and all remedial measures must be applied to the insects in
the stored seed. As this pecies breeds in the stored seed, it is use-
less to hold it over as for the pea-weevil, and the quicker infested
seed is treated the better. Either heat, or better, fumigation, as
described for the pea- weevil, should be used. When ready to plant,
seed should l)e thrown lightly into water, when that badly infested
will float and can be separated and destroyed.

Other Bean-weevils -
The Cow-pea ireevil* — This species may be readily recognized
by the two large, raised
white lobes at the base of
the thorax and the strongly-
pectinate antennae of the
male as shown in Fig. 225, a.
The cow-pea is the favorite
food-plant of this and the
following species, but peas
and various sorts of beans
are also attacked. This
species is a southern form,
but seems to be spreading,
incident to the more wide-

FiG. 225. — The cow-pea weevil {Bruchus chi-
netisis L.): a, adult male; fe, egg; c, young
larva; d, front view of head of 'same; e,
thoracic leg of same; — a, much enlarged;
b, e, more enlarged. (After Chittenden,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Bruchus chinensis Linn.

312 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

spread growth of the cow-pea. Like the common bean-weevil it is
practically cosmopolitan in its distribution, but i.i xiiost injurious

Fig. 226. — The four-spotted bean-weevil: a, beetle; b, larva; c, pupa — all
enlarged. (After Chittenden, U, S. Dept. Agr.)

in tropical regions. The life history and remedial measures are
practically the same as for the common bean-weevil.

The Four-Spotted Bean -weevil* — The wing-covers of this species

FiQ. 227. — The four-spotted bean-weevil: o, cow-pea showing holes made
by weevils in their escape from seed, also eggs deposited on surface; h,
egg; c, young larva; d, head of same; e, prothoracic leg; /, spine above
spiracle of first abdominal segment — a, twice natural size; b, /, greatly
enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

are covered with gray and white pubescence and four darker spots
from which the species is named. It is more slender than the pi'e-
ceding species and the antennae of the male are not pectinate.

* Bruchus quadrimaculutus Fab.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 313

The markings are quite variable, but the most common form is
that shown \«Fig. 226. This is an exotic species occurring from
Mexico to Brazil and in the Mediterranean countries. In 1885 it
was found at the Atlanta Cotton Exposition in black-eyed beans
from Texas, and has since become acclimated as far north as Iowa.
It seems to breed more readily in fresh and slightly moist seed and,
like the preceding species, its work in stored beans seems to soon
cause decomposition and a consequent rise of temperature. The
life history and remedial measures are similar to those of the bean-
w'eevil.

The European Bean-weevil * was imported into New York and
New Jersey in 1870, at the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in
1893, and has been observed at College Station, Texas, but does
not seem to have become established in this country. It closely
resembles the pea-weevil in aj^pearance and life history.

The Bean Leaf -bee tie t

Small yellowish or reddish beetles, marked with black, as
shown in Fig. 228, and from one-.'<eventh to one-fifth inch
long, are often found eating the foliage of beans, and are commonly
known as Bean Leaf-beetles. The species occurs throughout the
United States east of the Rockies, but has been chiefly injurious
in the Middle and Southern States. Besides beans, the beetles
feed upon cow-peas and various native plants such as beggar-
weed or tickseed, tick trefoil (Meibomia), bush-clover {Lespedeza) ,
and hog-peanut {Falcata). They usually become quite numerous
before they are observed, for during most of the day they rest or
feed on the under sides of the leaves. They are sluggish and
seldom fly, and when disturbed often drop to the ground, though
they soon crawl back to the plant. Large round holes are eaten
in the foliage until finally nothing but the veins and midrib of a
leaf is left, the manner of defoliation being quite characteristic
of this species. Low-growing and dwarf varieties are worse injured,
as pole beans put out new leaves after the injury has stopped.

* Bruchus rufimanus Boh.

t Ceratoma trifurcata Forst. Family Chryxnrnehdce.

314 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Life History. — The adult beetles hibernate in or near the bean-
fields and emerge from April to June according to the latitude.
Minute orange-colored eggs are laid near the stem of the plant,
just below the surface of the soil, in clusters of six to ten or more,
and hatch in from five to eight days. The young larvae feed upon
the stem and roots, becoming full grown in six or seven weeks.
When grown the larva is about three-tenths an inch long,
about one-eighth as wide, cylindrical, milk-white in color, with
dark head and anal segment, as shown enlarged six times in Fig.

Fig. 228. — The bean leaf -beetle {Ceratoma trifurcatn Forst.): a, achilt
beetle; b, pupa; c, larva; d, side view anal segment of larva; e, leg of
same; /, egg — a, b, c, enlarged about six times; d, e, f, more enlarged.
(After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

228. The pupa (Fig. 228, b) is pure white, and from it the beetle
emerges in five to eight days. Thus, in the District of Columbia, the
whole life cycle requires six to nine weeks, depending upon heat
and moisture. In the North there is probably but one generation
a year; in Maryland and Virginia one generation develops in
July and another in September; while in the Gulf States there
are probably three generations, as beetles are numerous in October.
Remedies. — Spraying with arsenical poisons as for the bean
ladybird (page 316) is the most effectual means of controlling
the pest when abundant, but they should be applied early to avoid

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS

;i5

the poison on beans to be eaten green.
Owing to the sluggishness of the beetles
they may be handpicked in small gar-
dens. Clean culture and careful weed-
ing of native food-plants near cultivated
crops such as tick-trefoil and bush-
clover, are most important.

The Bean Ladybird *

The Bean Ladybird is the most
serious enemy of beans in Colorado,
New Mexico, Arizona, and Western
Kansas, whence it migrated from
Mexico. It is an interesting insect in
that onh' two other native species of
this family of beetles (Cocci nellidcF) feed
upon vegetation, the normal food of the
family being plant-lice, scale insects,
and soft-bodied larvse.

Professor C. P. Gillette f describes
it as follows:

" The beetle (Fig. 229, .4) is oval in
outline, nearly one-third an inch in
length by one-fifth an inch in breadth,
of a light yellow to a yellowish-brown
color and has eight small black spots on
each wing-cover. The mature larva is
about the same length as the beetle, is
of light yellow color and is covered with
stout branched spines that are black at
their tips, a larva being shown at C,
Fig. 229. The larva when fully grown
fastens the posterior end of its body to
the under side of a leaf and then in a

Fig. 229.— The bean lady-
bird (Epilachna variveslis
Mills.): a, adult beetle; b,
pupa; c, larva; d, bean pod
showing injury. (After
Gillette, Colo. Agr. Exp.
Sta.)

* Epilachna varivestis Muls. Family Coccinellidce.
t Bulletin 19, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 25.

316 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

few days sheds its outer skin containing the spines and changes to
the pupa state (Fig. 229, B). From these pupae the beetles appear
a few days later. They live over winter, and appear about as
soon as the beans are up in the garden or field and begin to feed
upon the leaves, on the under side of which they deposit their
yellowish-brown eggs in large clusters after the manner of the
'Colorado potato beetle.' The spiny little larva that hatch
from these eggs remain on the under side of the leaves, which they
skeletonize in feeding. The beetles eat through the veins of the
leaves and do not skeletonize them. They also eat into and destroy
the green pods, as shown in Fig. 229, D. There is also one brood
of this insect in a season.

Control. — Paris green dusted upon the plants diluted with
100 parts of air-slaked lime or flour is reconnnended, or it may be
applied with Bordeaux mixture, 1 pound to 200 gallons, but much
care nuist be used not to burn the foliage, which seems to be very
susceptible to the arsenic. Arsenate of lead would probably
obviate this. In spraying, an underspray nozzle must be used
to reach under the leaves. Dilute kerosene emulsion will kill
the larva', but must also be used with caution to avoid injury to
the plant. A\'haleoil soap might be as effective and less injurious
to the plant. Upon small gardens handpicking of the adult
beetles as soon as they appear in the s{)ring will probably be the
surest means of combating them. Cleaning up the old patch and
plowing it under will doubtless aid in preventing successful
hibernation.

Blister-beetles.

Several species of elongate, grayish, black or bright green
blister-beetles feed in large numbers upon bean foliage. The
general life history, habits, and remedies have l^een already
described. (See pages 107, 301.)

The As fi-gni If Blister-beetle.^ — This is the most common species
affecting beans in the East antl westward to Kansas and Nebraska.
The beetle is a uniform ash-gray color and of the form shown in

* Macrohasis unicolor Kby-

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS

317

Fig. 2:30. The luH'tlos attack this and otlior leji;iimo,s in immense
swarms, riddliiiii- tlie forest in a few days if not checked, and
appear from ihe middk' of June to the middle of July.

NuttalCs Ijlishr-heelle.'-^ — rhis species occurs from the Miss-
issippi west to the Rockies, through the region of the Missouri
Valley, and north to the Northwest Territories, where it seems to
})e particularly destructive to beams, though affecting many
garden vegetables. The life history is not known, but is probably

FiG.23(>— Theash-Ki-ay blister-boollo Fro. 231.— Nuttall's blister-beetle

{M acrobasis wi'icolor Kby.): kMnale {Cantharis nuttalli) Say: female

beetle at riglit, twice natural size; beetle, enlarged one-third. (After

male antenna at left, greatly en- Chtttenden, V . 8. Dept. Agr.)
larged. (After Cliittenden, tl. S.
Dept. Agr.)

similar to that of other species, as the beetles appear about Jidy 1st.
in years following severe outbreaks of grasshoppers. Owing to
the rapidity with which this species works and the large numbers,
poisons will be of little avail and mechanical measures must be
employed for their destruction.
Control. — See page 302.

^ The Bean-aphis f

"Crowded together in clusters upon the top of the stalks
and under side of the leaves of the English bean, the puppy
dahlia, and several other plants, a small black plant-louse with

* CnnOiaris nuttalli Say.

t Aphis rumicis Linn. Family AphididfF-

318 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN *AND ORCHARD

pale shanks, the pupae with a row of mealy white spots along each
side of the back." — Fitch.

This is an old European pest of the bean, where it is known as
the black dolphin, collier, and black fly, and has sometimes
caused the entire destruction of a crop. In the United States
it probably occurs wherever beans are grown, having been reported
fi'om New York, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota and Colorado. The
species is probably best known as affecting various species of
dock, upon the leaves of which it occurs commonly in large num-
bers. Shepherd's purse, pigweed, the " burning bush " (Euony-
mus europoeus and atropurpurus), and the snowball bush are also
commonly infested.

Life History. — The life history was first described most inter-
estingly by Dr. Fitch in his 13th Report * and has since been
confirmed by Osborne and Sirrine.f The eggs are laid in the fall
around the buds of the wahoo or " burning bush " {Euonymus
atropurpurus), and possibly upon the snowball. The first gen-
eration or two multijjly upon these plants and then spread to
common weeds such as shepherd's purse, pigweed, dock, etc.
during the latter part of May and early June, from which they
again migrate to beans when that crop is available. During
the summer the aphides multiply upon these food-plants vivipar-
ously, i.e., by giving birth to live young, all being females, as is the
rule with aphides; but about the middle of September, in Iowa,
winged males and females migrate back to the wahoo.

Description. — The wingless females are about one-tenth an
inch long, pear-shaped, sooty black, frequently marked with
pruinose whitish dots along each side of the back. The antennae
are about half the length of the body, yellowish-white, except
toward the tips and the two basal segments, which are black.
Honey tubes short, scarcely half as long as from their bases to
tip of abdomen. Tail half as long as the honey tubes.

The winged females are glossy black, one-twelfth an inch

* Fitch, 13th Report on the Noxious, Beneficial and other Insects of the
State of New York, Trans. N. Y. State Agr. Soc, 1869, p. 495.

t Osborn and Sirrine, Bulletin 23, Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 901, 1894.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 319

long to the tip of the abdomen and twice tliat length to the tip
of the closed wings. The abdomen lacks the white spots of the
wingless females and pupse. Legs are black, except shanks,
which are whitish with dark tips. Otherwise the winged form
resembles quite closely the wingless form. The black color
and white spots on the abdomen of the wingless females and
pupsB will readily distinguish the species from other aphides on
beans.

Control. — Spraying with dilute kerosene emulsion has proven
the best means of combating the pest according to Osborn and
Sirrine, diluting the stock solution fifteen times, or so the spray-
ing mixture will contain about 5 per cent of kerosene. It seems
that the foliage of the bean is quite susceptible to injury from any
free kerosene, and probably whaleoil soap 1 pound to 5 or 6 gal-
lons, would prove safer and equally efficient. As it is frequently
necessary to spray beans with Bordeaux mixture or other fun-
gicides for fungous diseases, the whaleoil soap might be readily
sprayed at the same time.

The Gray Hair-streak Butterfly *

The caterpillars of the Gray Hair-streak Butterfly have been
noticed injuring beans, peas and cow-peas, for a number of years
throughout the United States, but the injury is usually local and
not often serious. The caterpillar is about one-half an inch long,
decidedly flattened, somewhat oval, bright green, with head
retracted in the thorax, and covered with short hairs, which give it
a velvety appearance. The adult butterfly is a handsome bluish-
black butterfly with red anal spots as shown in Fig. 177. The
caterpillar has been a serious enemy of hops, and in the South
attacks cotton squares, being termed the cotton square-borer,
but the pods of legumes seem to be the preferred food. Where
injury recurs, thorough spraying with Paris green or arsenate
of lead as the pods are forming will doubtless hold the larvae in
check, as the eggs are laid upon the foliage and the young larvae

* Uranotes melinus. Hubn. Yamxly Lycaenidoe.

320 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

feed somewhat upon it and will secure enough of the surface of
the pods in entering to effectively poison them if the pods are well
coated.*

The Seed-corn Maggot \

This insect has been termed the Seed-corn Maggot on account
of its frequent injuries to early seed-corn, but in recent years it
has often seriously injured the seeds of beans and peas, on account
of which it has been te'i-med the " bean-fly," while cabbage,

Fig. 232. — Seed-corn maggot {Pa/onn/d J'liscirrjK): a, male Hy, dorsal view;
b, female, lateral view; r, head of female from above; d, larva, from side;
e, anal segment of larva; /, anal sjiiracles; g, cephalic spiracles: /;, pupa-
rium — all much enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

turnip, radish, onions, beets and seetl potatoes are among its
other food-plants.

The species is of European origin, and was first noted in this
country by Dr. Asa Fitch in 1856. Since then it has become
distributed throughout the United States from Minnesota to
Texas and eastward.

The adult flies closely resemble the root-nuiggots affecting

* See " Insect Life,'' Vol. VII, p. .I'yi. Chittenden, Bulletin 3.3, Div. Ent.,
U. S. Dept. Agr., p. lUl; Sanderson, Farmers' Bulletin, U. S. Dept. Agr.,
223, p. 17, and Bulletin 57, Bureau Entomology, p. 40.

f Pegomya fusciceps Zett. Family AnthomyidcB.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 321

the oabbaf!;o and onion and are about one-fifth an inch long.
The male may bo (listino;uislie(l from nearly related species by a
row of ncai'ly e(nial, slioii bristles on the inner side of the hind
tibial or siianks.

The life history of the species has not been carefully observed,
but is probably similar to that of other root-maggots. The
flies deposit their eggs either upon the young seedling just as it
appears above ground, or probably more often on the seed itself.
Injury is called to attention by the seed failing to germinate,
which, when examined, is found to contain one or more small
white maggots, which have destroyed the germ or the young
seedling. Thus in 1895, large areas of l^eans were destroyed in
Minnesota.*

The maggots are about one-fourth an inch long, slightly
smaller than the onion-maggot, from which they may be dis-
tinguished by the tu})ercles of the anal segment.

Control. — It has been noted that injur}- often occurs where
stable manure has been turned under, and it may be possible
that the flies are attracted to it to oviposit or that they are
attracted by decaying seed. In preventing attacks of i-oot-
maggots it would seem advisable to apply stable manure the
previous fall so that it may become well rotted and incorporated
into the soil before seeding. Rolling the seed-bed after planting
might also be of value in pi'cvonting the access of the flies to the
seed.

Applications of commercial fertilizers which will ensure a
cjuick growth of the seedling are advisable. The use of carbolic acid
emulsion and sand and kerosene upon the surface of the seed-bed
after planting and as the seedlings are appearing, as advised
for the cabbage root-maggot (see page 352) , will also be of value.
Inasmuch as the injury is sporadic and affects the seed before it
can be readily detected, reliance must be placed chiefly upon
general cultural methods as outlined above and others which

*See Lugger, Bulletin 43, Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 207 (1st Rept. Minn.
State Entomologist.) See Circular 63, and Bulletin 33, p. 84, Bureau of
Entomology, U. S. Dept. .\gr.

322 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

a better knowledge of the life history of the pest will undoubtedly
suggest.

The Pea-aphis *

Large green plant-lice often become so abundant on the foliage
and pods of garden-peas as to completely kill the plants. Prior

Fig. 233. — The pea-aphis {Macrosiphum pisi Kalt): winged and wingless
viviparous females and young — enlarged.

to 1899 the pea-aphis had not been a serious pest in this country,
but during that and the following season it caused a loss of several
million dollars to pea-growers on the Atlantic coast from Xorth

* Macrosiphum pisi Kalt. Family Aphididoe. See Chittenden, G'ircular
43, Bureau of Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; Sanderson, Bulletin 49, Del. Agr. Exp.
Sta.; Folsom, Bulletin 134, 111. Agr. Exp. Sta.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 323

Carolina to Nova Scotia and as far west as Wisconsin, especially
where peas were extensively grown for canning. During 1901
injury was by no means as serious, and has materially decreased
since then, though sporadic injury occurs almost every year in some
section. General injury occurs only periodically for reasons men-
tioned below. The pest seems to occur throughout the States east
of the 100th meridian and possibly further west. It is an old
enemy of peas in England, where it destroyed the crop as long ago
as 1810, and it has long been known in Europe as an enemy of
peas, clovers, vetches and related plants.

Both wingless and winged aphides occur together throughout
the season, the latter predominating whenever food becomes scarce.
The winged forms are from one-eighth to one-seventh of an inch
long, with wings expanding two-fifths of an inch. The body is a
pea-green color, light brownish between the wings and on the head,
the eyes are red, and the legs, antennae and honey tubes are yellow-
ish, tipped with ])lack. The wingless females are similar in size and
color, but are much broader across the abdomen, and the honey
tubes are somewhat larger. The mouth-parts of the pea-aphis are
of the sucking type, and it secures its food by puncturing and suck-
ing up the juices of the plant. The plant is thus injured by the
large number of aphides sucking out its juices and causing it to
wilt and die.

Life History. — The aphides pass the winter on clover and
vetches, and often increase upon clover so as to do it serious
injury, as described on page 211. Where peas area vailable the
winged females usually migrate to them about the time peas are
6 or S inches high, and give birth to live young, which develop into
wingless viviparous females. These females, as do those of sub-
sequent broods throughout the summer, give bii'th to live young,
and reproduction goes on at a rapid rate. According to the obser-
vations of Mr. R. L. Webster, in central Illinois, an aphid becomes
grown about eleven days after it is born, lives al^out twenty-five
days and gives birth to about fift}' young, though under favorable
conditions over one hundred are frequently born. Sixteen genera-
tions have been observed from March 23d to October 4th. Winged

324 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

aphides develop as often as the food-phmt becomes overcrowded
and it is necessary to migrate to avoid starvation.

By midsummer, with the harvesting of the peas, most of the
aphides upon them have been destroyed by predaceous and para-
sitic insects and disease, and they are not observed during late sum-
mer unless they have been subsisting on clover throughout the
season, when they sometimes destroy the crop in August, as has

i

i

1

a-

\

M

^SBHM

llgl^gl^l^

^^^^^irrf

^ '/

nm^g

iHi

Fig. 234. — The pea-aphis on stems of red clover — natural size. (After

Folsom.)

been obsei'ved in Illinois. In early fall they often become com-
mon again on late garden peas, and late in October they migrate
to clovei'. Fewer young are born as the weather gets colder in
the fall, and the aphides never become numerous enough to do any
injury at that season. Late in October and early November — in
the Middle States — as the aphides are migrating to clover, winged
males appear, and some of the wingless females developing on
clover piTxluce eggs. The winged males are similar in size and color

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 325

to the migratory females, though shghtly darker, and have three or
four dark spots along the sides of the abdomen and a (_l(>ep brown
dash on either side of the back of eacli abdominal segment. The
oval eggs are about one-fiftieth ineh long, jet black, and arc
deposited on the lower leaves or stems of clover, and hatch as it
commences to grow in the spring. In central Illinois they were
observed to hatch March 23d, and the young became full grown
and commenced reprotluction on April 5th, living until May 12th.
In southern Maryland and further south many of the viviparous
females live over winter on the clover and commence to reproduce
again in the spring, no eggs having been observed in that latitude,
but in central Illinois and northward, the females are probably
entirely destroyed by the cold and only the eggs survive.

Natural Enemies. — From 5 to 10 per cent of the aphides are
normally destroyed by little wasp-like flies of the genus Aphidius,
whose larvte live within the aphides. A number of the more com-
mon ladybird-beetles,* syrphus-flies,t and lace-winged flies, | which
commonly prey upon aphides, destroy large numbers of the pests,
but their work comes so late in the season that the peas are seri-
ously injured long before the aphides are checked by them, though
they might prevent a reappearance the next year.

The most important enemy of the pea-aphis is a fungous dis-
ease {Empiisa aphidis) which is undoubtedly the principal factor
in its natural control. The most probable explanation of the
remarkable outbreak of the pea-aphis in 1S99 and 1900 seems to be
that, due to two exceptionally dry springs, the fungus was unable
to develop, as it propagates best in damp weather, and the aphides
increased unchecked. Though occasional individual aphides were
found killed by the fungus early in the season, not until June 11,
1900, were diseased aphides found in any quantity, but after that
so swiftly did the disease destroy them that a week later but few
aphides wei'e lo be found and almost ull werc^ diseased. Probably
this fungus usually destroys the aphides on clover before they have
become excessively numerous or have migrated to peas.

* Family CnccinelUdce. t Family SyrphidiB.

X Family Chrysopidce. Concerning these predaccous insects, see p. 9.

326 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Control. — Inasmuch as the aphides spread from peas to clover,
the latter crop should not be planted near peas when avoidable.
In the spring the aphides should be carefully observed on the
clover and if they become excessively abundant, the only way to
prevent their migration to peas is to plow under the clover deeply
and roll the field.

Highly fertilized land in which the moisture is retained by fre-
quent cultivation very often enables a crop to mature in spite of
moderate injury. Peas sown broadcast or planted in S-inch
drills have been much more seriously injured than those planted
in rows 18 to 30 inches apart and cultivated, and those planted
close together afford no opportunity for brushing or cultivating
as described below.

Early varieties of peas have practically escaped injury where
late varieties have been wholly destroyed, so that it is obvious that
only the earliest varieties should be grown where injury is antici-
pated.

Early in 1900 Professor W. G. Johnson found that when peas
were planted in rows that the aphides could be readih' knocked from
the vines by means of brushing with a branch, and that by follow-
ing the brushes with cultivators, the aphides would be covered with
earth and destroyed, either by suffocation or by the heat of the
soil. Where the air temperature is 95° F. the soil will be nearly
120°, and aphides brushed onto it will be actually roasted to death
in a few minutes. The cultivation should not be repeated for
about three days, as it requires about that time for the d(\struction
of the insects covered with earth, if it is not hot enough to kill
them at once. By this method large areas of peas have been saved
from destruction, but it was found that where the soil was moist
it would form small clods after cultivation and that the aphides
would merely crawl out from under them.

To meet this difficulty Professor Johnson devised a pan into
which the aphides might be brushed and destroyed. This pan is mod-
elled after the hopper-dozers used in the West for catching grass-
hoppers, and consists of a long, shallow pan, the width of the dis-
tance between the rows and 5 or 6 inches deep. A little water is

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 327

placed in the bottom and covered with a film of kerosene. The
pan is drawn between the rows while a boy on each side Inrushes
the aphides into it with a branch as shown in Fig. 235. The pans
are easily made from galvanized iron and may be operated at
small cost.

Though the above methods will destroy ciuantities of the
aphides and thus prevent the destruction of the crop, the>' do not

Fig. 2.3o. — Showing the structure of pan and use of it with brushes against
the pea louse. This field was saved by its use. (After W. G. Johnson.)

dislodge the young aphides in the terminals, and therefore cannot
be relied upon to prevent all injury. Practical field tests have
shown that this may be done bj' spraj'ing with whale-oil soap, 1
pound to 6 gallons of water. In small gardens this may be applied
by means of bucket or knapsack pumps, and on small acreages
with a barrel sprayer with a row-spra}'ing attachment having noz-
zles arranged so that the vines will he thoroughly covered from
each side. The spray must be applied with considerable pressure

328 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

so as to force it into the terminals. For large fields a New Jersey
groAver devised a traction sprayer covering three rows * which
applied the material at a cost of $2.50 an acre for labor and materials.
To be effective spraying should be commenced as soon as aphides
are found generally distributed over the plants. Kerosene emul-
sion may be used on a small scale, if carefully made, l^ut more or
less injury has resulted where it has been used extensively. Prob-
ably many of the tobacco preparations now on the market would
effectively destroy the aphides and would not injure the vines.

The Pea-moth f

The Pea-moth is an old pest in Europe, whence it was imported
into Canada, where it has frequently done considerable mischief.

It is known to occur in the
large pea-growing sections of
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia
and Ontario, where it first at-
ti'acted attention near Toronto
in 1893, and was found in the
pea-growing section of Michigan
in 1908. The wings of the adult
moth expand about one-half

Fig.

236. — Thp pea-moth {Semaaia
/ngriratin Steph.): moth above,
larva below — about three times
natural size. (After Chittenden,
II. S. Dept. Agr.)

rather long innci' fi'in<>e of hair;

an inch, the fore-wings being
" dark, fuscous or dusky, tinged
with darker brown and mottled
with white," the hind- wings
])eing a uniform fuscous with a
as shown in Fig. 36.
The females may be found flying around pea-blossoms soon
after sunset, and deposit one to three eggs on young pods. The
caterpillar hatches in about fourteen days, according to European
observations, and attacks the forming seed. Affected pods usu-
ally ripen early. The larva is whitish-yellow with a pale brown head

* For description and figure, sec l^th Annual Rept. Del. Agr. Exp. Sta.,
pp. 168-172.

f Semasia nigricarin Steph. Family Tortricidm.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 329

and thoracic plate, and about onc-lialf an inch long when full
grown. With the opening of the pod the larva crawls out and
(-nters the earth, where it .spins a very thin silken cocoon. The
length of the pupal stage and the method of hibernation do not
seem to be well established. A'ery early and very late varieties
are but little injured.

Remedies. — This suggests one of the best means of handling
this pest to be the growing of early varieties, such as Alaska,
American Wonder, Gregory's Surprise, Nott's Excelsior, and
McLean's Little Gem. If the crop is known to Ije infested, clean
up the vines and burn them as soon as it is picked. Dr. Fletcher
has made some experiments in spraying for this pest which seem
to promise success. One pound of Paris green to 100 gallons of
water was used, and it is advised to spray three times; the first
when the blossoms begin to fall; the second, a week later; and the
third ten days later than that.

CHAPTER XVn
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH *

The Beet-aphis f

This species was first described ])y Mr. W. R. Doane in 1900
and seems thus far to have been found only in Washington and
Oregon. " Attention was first called to this pest," he says,| " in
1896, when it was found that a field of two or three acres of beets
was generally infested, a strip of twenty-five to a hundred yards
being so badly injured that the beets were nearly all soft and
spongy, and the plants much smaller than the average.

" It has been even more destructive in Oregon than in Wash-
ington, at least a thousand tons of beets having been destroyed by
it in one year in a single valley devoted largely to beet-culture.
Like ver}^ many other beet-insects, this species infests also several
wild or useless plants.

" The smaller rootlets of the Ijeet are first attacked by this
aphis, and if it occurs in considerable numbers these are soon all
destroyed, and the leaves thereupon soon wither, and the whole
beet shrivels and becomes spongy. This wilting of the leaves will
frequently, in fact, be the first thing to attract the attention of the
beet-growei'. The actual injury to the crop will, of course, depend
largely upon the time when the attack of the aphis is made. If the
plants are small they may be readily destroyed, while if they are
practically full grown the loss of the small rootlets will not
materially affect them.

* See Forbes and Hart, Bulletin 60, 111. Agr. Exp. Sin., and F. H. Chitten-
den, Bulletin 43, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.
t Pemphigus betce Doane. Family AphidcB.
X Bulletin No. 42, Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta.

330

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH

331

" No sexual generation of this aphis has as yet been discovered
and no eggs have been seen, viviparous reproduction continuing
throughout the >-ear except when the cold of the winter tempora-
rily suspends the physiological activities of the species. The

Fig. 237. — The beet-aphis {Pemphigus betoe Doane) : «, winged female; b,
wingless female; c, antenna of winged female. (After Doane.)

winged females, appearing from time to time during the summer
and fall, serve to distribute the species generally, new colonies
being started wherever these females find lodgment and food. In
districts liable to injury by this insect it seems inadvisable that
beets should be the first crop on new land, or that ground should

be continued in beets or in any other
root-crop after the pest has made its
appearance in the field."

Another plant-louse, called the beet
root-aphis *, proved injurious to sugar-
beets in Colorado in 1903. They were
found " tjuite generally distributed in
the beet-fields in the vicinity of
Rockyford and attacking the roots of
many weeds." What seemed to be this
species was ver}- abundant upon the
roots of the common garden purslane,
to which it was very injurious. Near
* Tychea hrevicornis Hart.

b o

Fig. 238. — Beet root-aphis
{Tychea brevicornis Hart):
a, aphis; b, antenna; c,
tarsus— all greatly enlarged.
(After Garman).

332 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Fort Collins a badly infested field of sugar-beets was also
seriously damaged.

No practical means for controlling these pests seems to have
been recorded, so that in case of injury the entomologist of the
State should be consulted.

White Grubs, Wireworms, and Cutworms

Fortunateh- for the sugar-beet farmer the worst insect ene-
mies of that plant feed upon the tops, and very rarely do we hear
of serious damage being done the roots. In the East most of the
damage to the roots is done by those familiar old farm-thieves, the
white grub, the cutworm and the wire worm. As a general rule
they will be found to be worse on lands previously in sod, which
should therefore be avoided when known to be badly infested with
either of these insects, as both are difficult to fight after they have
once commenced doing noticeable injury.

The life histories and means of control for these pests will be
found discussed on pages 79, 84, 85.

The Sugar-beet Webworm *

The sugar-beet webworm is very similar to the garden web-
worm (page 406), and is so named because it has developed as a
serious pest of the sugar-l^eet in Kansas, Xel^raska, and Colorado.
It has been noted as injuring tansy in Michigan, and feeds on
cabbage, onions, and alfalfa, as well as pigweed {Chenopodiinn
album) and careless weed {Amarantlms) and will probably feed
on many other crops. It is a native of western and central
Europe, and northern Asia, and was evidently introduced on the
Pacific Coast, as it was noted in Utah in 1869.

The moth is larger than the garden webworm, having a wing
expanse of an inch, and is a purplish-brown color with darker
and paler bands as shown in Fig. 239. The "full-grown larva is
about an inch long, of a dark color with a white stripe down the

* Loxostege sticticalis Linn. Family Pyranstidoe. See C. P. Gillette,
Bulletin 98, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta., and references there given.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH

333

back £111(1 one along either side, and marked with numerous
black and white tubercles as illustrated.

Life History. — The larvas hibernate over winter an inch or
two below the surface of the soil in long silken tubes. In spring
they pupate in these tubes and the moths emerge about the middle
of May. The eggs are laid on the foliage either singly or in clus-

FiG. 239. — The siigar-beet webworm {Loxostege sticticalis Linn.): 1, moth; 2,
eggs; 3, 4, larvie; "), pupa; 6, winter tube of larva, opened at a to show
pupa— 1, 3, 4, 5, enlarged. (After Gillette, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta.)

ters of from three to ten, one overlapping another. The egg
is broadly oval, one twenty-fifth inch long, and of a pale
green color. The first generation of caterpillars feed on pig-
weed and alfalfa in Colorado during June. A second generation
of larvse occurs about the middle of July and sometimes injures
beets, but the third generation al)Out the middle of August is

334 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

the one most injurious in Colorado. Most of these larvae hibernate
over winter, but there is a partial fourth generation in Colorado-
The larvse defoliate the plants, and cover them with a web the
same as the native garden webworm, with which the life history
seems to be practically identical.

Control. — The same means of control as for the garden web-
worm are atl vised.

The Beet Army Worm *

" This caterpillar, which replaces the fall army worm (L.
j'rugiperda—see page 118) in the Western States, differs fi-om

Fig. 240. — The beet army worm (Laphygma cxigua Hi.bn.): a, moth; b,
larva, side view; c, hirva , back view ; (/, head of larva ; e, egg from above;
/, egg from side — all enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

it by its more decidedly mottled ground-color, by a row of white
dots at the lower margin of the lateral dark band, and by the
yellower color of the light stripes. It is an interesting fact that
while the preceding species was doing serious, unusual, and wide-
extended injury in the Eastern and Southern States (1899),
the present one was similarly abundant in Colorado, where,
besides destroying many kinds of weeds and grasses, it com-

* Laphygma exigua Hbn. Family Noctuidce.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH 335

pletely defoliated thousands of acres of sugar-beets. In some
cases where the foliage of the beet did not furnish it sufficient
food, the root was attaekiMl and tiie u{)I)(m- surfaces "was com-
pletely gnawed awa}'. Late {ilantings, of course, suffered most
severely, (»speciall\' when suri-ounded by newly broken ground.
The weeds most generally eaten were pigweed, saltweed, wild
sunflower, and Cleome. Potato, pea, and apple leaves were
also devoured. These injuries occurred about the middle of
August, at which time the larvae and pupse were abundant, and
a few moths laden with eggs were noticed."

This species evidenty hibernates as a moth, and at least
two broods' of larvie may be looked for each year, the first about
June and the second in August. The species has been reported
thus far from Colorado and California, but it doubtless has a
more extended range in the mountain regions of the far West.

^' Professor Gillette's field-experiments showed that it could be
destroyed by dusting or spraying arsenical poisons on the leaves."

Flea-beetles

Several species of fiea-beetles, chiefly Systena tceniata, Systena
hiidsonias, Disonycha triangularis, and PhyUotreta vittata, often
do consideral:)le injury ])y gnawing small holes in the upper and
lower surfaces of the leaves, giving them an appearance as if
affected h\ leaf -spot, or puncturing them full of small holes, and
thus stunting the growth of the plant.

The Spinach Flea-beetle *

Of the numy species of flea-beetles injurious to sugar-beets,
the spinach flea-beetle is one of the largest and most destructive.
The beetle is nearly one-quarter inch long, shining black, with
a greenish or bluish lustre. The prothorax and al)domen are
red or reddish yellow, and the legs and antennae are pale yellowish.
It occurs from New England to Montana and southward to the

* Disonycha .vanthomelatui Dalni. Family Chryaomelidoe. See F. H.
Chittenden, Bulletin 43. Bureau of Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 14; S. A. Forbes,
21.st Rept. State Ent. of 111., p. 116.

336

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Gulf, and is one of the most common pests of beets and spinach,
while its native food plants are chickweed and lambsquartcrs.

Life History. — The beetles hibernate ov(>r winter and emerge
in the spring during April and May. The buff or orange eggs are
laid on end in small masses, "at the bases of the plants infe ted,
on bits of leaf or earth, or even within the earth " according to
Forbes. The eggs hatch from sometime in April to early July,
according to localitv. The larvte usuulh' feed on \hv under side

Fi(i. 241. — The spjiat^h flea-beetle (Disoiiycha xanlhomelmia Dalm.): a,
beetle; h, egg mass; 66, sculpture of egg; c, larva; d, pujia; e, young larva;
/, abdominal segment of same — o, c, d, five times natural size; h, more
enlarged; hb,f, highly magnified. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

of the leaf, keeping together in families which migrate from leaf
to leaf while young, and ilrop to the ground — as do tlie lieetles —
when disturbed. AVliile young they merely gnaw the under
surface of the leaf, but later they eat through and riddle it with
round holes, in which they are aided by the l)eetles. Th(> full-
grown larva is about one-cjuarter inch long, of u dull gray
color, except on nnl and pui'i)le b(>ets, on which it assumes the
color of the plant attacked, is of a cylindrical form, and the seg-
ments are strongly marked by rows of raised tubercles, each of
which bears a black hair at the tip. The larvte become grown

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH 337

in lato .Tunc ;iii<l caily .Tul\- in Illinois, and enter llu' earth to
pupate, the l)eeiles of I he next generation eniei'giui; about a
inoiitii after the eggs were deposited. The beetles of the seeond
generation lay their eggs from July to September and the l)eetles
mature l)efore winter sets in. In the District of Columbia,
Chittenden obsei-ves that tlu> first generation is more abun-
dant on chi('kw(M'(l and the second is injurious to beets and
spinach.

Control. — Thoroughly dusting or spraying the plants with
Paris green or preferably arsenate of lead will readily destroy
the larvae and probably most of the beetles. As in combating
all flea-beetles the destruction of the weeds upon which they
multiply is important.

The Larger Beet Leaf-beetle *

One of the principal pests of the sugar-beet in Colorado and
adjacent States is a rather large brownish leaf-beetle which with
its larvir destroy the foliage or so injure it that the plant dies.
It is often locally known as the " alkali bug " from the fact the
injury is mostly on alkali soil or land near it, and " french bug/'
probably from the " trenching " of the foliage. The beetle is
from one-quarter to one-third inch long, and rather resembles
the elm leaf-beetle, varying from pale yellow to black, with the
wing-covers striped as shown in Fig. 242. Several wild plants,
including blites, Russian thistle, and saltbush f probably furnish
the normal food of the insect.

" The beetles are gregarious, ' sometimes occurring in swarms
like blister-beetles.' Their ])rownish-gray eggs are deposited
in irregular masses, usually on the under sides of the leaves.
They hatch in about six days, and their larvae or j'oung commence
feeding at once, contiruiing for nine or ten days, when they dig
their way into the ground, a few da3^s later coming forth as beetles.
Although the l^eetles do much injury, the principal damage is
sometimes accomplished by the larvae, hundreds being found

* Monoxia puncticollis Say. Family Chrysomelidce.

I Dondia americana and D. depressa, Snlwln tragus, and Atriplex argentea.

338 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

on a single plant, which is either consumed or so injured that it
shrivels and dies. The larva, shown in the illustration, measures
when full grown about one-third of an inch in length. The
general color is nearly uniform dark olive l:)rown, the conspicuous
piliferous tubercles being pale yellow, and the head and portions
of the legs black. The eggs are dull brownish gray, and the
surface, as seen through a lens, is covered with septagonal and
hexagonal areas." *

Fig. 242. — The larger beet leaf-beetle {Monoxia puncticollis Say): a, female
beetle; h, eggs; c, d, larvae from above and side; cf, claw of male; 9,
claw of female — all much enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Control. — Paris green diluted with flour and dusted over the
foliage has effectively controlled the pest, and probal^ly any
thorough application of any arsenical either wet or dr}' would
be effective. Professor C. P. Gillettef has observed that the beetles
accumulate on the " mother " beets early in the spring, so that
if a few beets were left in the ground over winter they might
serve as trap plants for the protection of the younger plants in

* Quoted from F. H. Chittenden, Bulletin 4;^, Bureau Ent., U. S. Depf
Agr., p. 10.

tC. P. Gillette, 24th Report Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1902), pp. 108-111.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH

339

spring. As injury is mostly on or near alkali ground, such soil
should be avoided.

Plant-bugs

The Tarnished Plant-bug {Li/gus pratensis — see page 40 i),
False Chinch-bug (Xt/siiii< angustatus), and several of the com-
mon plant -bugs often l;)ecome so numerous as to do considerable
damage to beets. When present in large numl:)ers, a spray of
kerosene emidsion might be used to advantage. Experiments
in Xew York show that the tarnished plant-bug can be driven
from a field by dusting the rows with wood-ashes, being careful

Fig. 2-13- — The false chinch-hug [Xysius angustatus). (.\fter Riley.)

to work on the same side of each row and thus gradually driving
them into the field adjoining.

The Beet Leafhopper *

Very serious loss to the sugar-beet industry has occurred in
Colorado and Utah from a condition known as " curly leaf "
or "blight." Investigations made by Professor E. D. Ball have
shown that the "curly leaf " is undoubtedly caused by the presence
of immense numbers of small leaf hoppers, from 10 to 100 often
being found on a plant in badly infested fields. The curly leaf
condition does not seem to result, however, except when the soil
has become dry and heated, and where plants are shaded or

* Eutettix tenella Baker. See E. D. Ball, Bulletin 66, Part IV, Bureau
of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

340 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

irrigated the damage by the leafhoppcrs does not seem to produce
the same trouble. Similar injury has been noted in parts of
Oregon, but not of so serious a nature.

The beet-leafhopper is a pale yellowish-green species (Fig.
244), one-eighth to three-sixteenths an inch long, and when

Fig. 244. — The sugarboct loafliojipor {Eiddtix ienella Baker): a, adult; b,
nymph; /, eggs — greatly enlarged; g, sec' ion of beet stem showing fresh
egg.s in place; //, same showing eggs ready to hatch; i, old egg scars on
beet stems; j, small leaf of sugar beet showing characteristic "curly-
leaf " condition; k, enlarged section of back of an extreme case of curly-
leaf showing warty condition of veins. (After Ball, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

flying appears almost white, so that it is sometimes locally called
the "white fly."

Life History. — The hibernating habits of the adults and their
food-plants in the- spring have not been well determined. They
appear in the beet-fields late in June and lay their eggs in tlie
leaf-stems, the eggs hatching in about two weeks. The young

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH

341

nymphs appear in July and are very active, being first found in the
unfolding leaves at the centre and later spreading to all parts
of the plant. The nymphs arc variously colored, but the com-
monest form is a i)ale creamy color with a brown saddle on the
middle of the alidomen and various mottlings on the prothorax
and wingpads. The nymphs become full grown in from sixteen

Fig. 245. — '' Hopperette " designed for collecting leaf hoppers.
Davis, Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta.)

(After G. C.

to twenty-two days and the adults again become abundant
ia August and September; they evidently hibernate as adults,
as no more eggs are laid in the fall as far as observed.

The characteristics of the " curly leaf " are described by Dr.
Ball as follows : " The !irst symptom of ' curly-leaf ' or ' blight '
of the beet is a thickening of all the smaller veinlets of the leaf.

342 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

giving it a roughened appearance on the under side. This is.
followed by a curling of the edge and a final rolling up of the leaf,
the upper surface always lacing rolled in. As this progresses the
smaller veinlets grow still larger and more irregular, knotlike
swellings appear at frequent intervals, and in extreme cases
little nipple-like swellings appear, extending to a height of nearly
one-fourth of an inch. This will be noticed first on a medium-
sized leaf, gradually spreading to the younger ones, while at the
same time the beet almost stops growing and a large number of
fibrous roots are sent out. . . . The beet often continues in this
way throughout the season; in bad cases it shrivels and dies,
while in a few instances there is a partial recovery and a new set
of leaves, though the sugar content remains very low."

Control. — Practical measures of control do not seem to have
been very thoroughly tested. With a better knowledge of the
hibernating habits of the species, it may be possible to reduce its
numbers at that time. After the hoppers have appeared in
numbers they must be dealt with promptly. " A thorough
spraying with kerosene emulsion at a strength of 1 part of the
stock solution to 5 parts of water, would destro}^ most of the
insects that it hit, and by using a drag in front of the nozzles to
turn the leaves over and cause the insects to jump, most of them
would be reached." This would probably need to be repeated
in about ten days. Hopperdozers have often been successfully
used for collecting various forms of leafhoppers. A modifica-
tion of the form used against grasshoppers (see page 108), with
a couple of wings extending out on either side of the row and
covered with a sticky substance such as " tanglefoot " or that
described on page 523, would undoubtedly prove effective in
collecting the adults, particularly before the females have laid
their eggs, when they are more readily caught. A " hopperette "
designed by Professor G. C. Davis for use against leafhoppers on
celery in Michigan, is shown in Fig. 245, and may be readily
attached to the frame of a wheel hoe. The string across the
notch at .4 strikes the plants and causes the hoppers to jump
at the right time. By adding higli wide wings to either side of

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH

343

this machine it should he wrll adapted for beets and similar
crops.

Blister-beetles *

Among those insects attacking the young sugar-beets and
often doing considerable damage after they have l^ecome partly
grown, few are more widespread or do more general injury than
the blister-beetles. They have been especially destructive
in the northern Mississippi \^alley, where they are usually worst
after a period of unusual abundance of grasshoppers. Coming
suddenly in a large swarm, they settle in a field and thoroughly

Fifi. 246. — The striped blister-beetle (Epicuuta I'iltata): a, female beetle;
b, eggs; c, triungulin larva; d, second or caraboid stage; c, same as /
doubled up as in pod; /, scarabaeoid stage; g, coarctate larva — all except
e enlarged. (After Riley and Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

riddle the foliage with holes or strip it bare before going to another
field.

One of the most common forms is the striped blister-beetle,
or " old-fashioned potato-bug " (Epicauta vittaid), which is
shown in the illustration, together with the immature stages.
The ash-gray blister-beetle (Macrobasis unicolor) is also a common
form, shown in Fig. 230. Three or four other forms are common
throughout the country, but are especially numerous in the West,
where grasshoppers are more abundant. The reason for this is
apparent when we come to consider the life history of the pest,
for the blister-beetles are not an unmixed evil.

* Family Meloidoe.

344 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Life History. — In a small cavity in the earth the female l^eetle
lays some four or five hundred eggs, these being deposited from
July to October. About ten days later the eggs hatch, and
from them emerge some small but very active larvff, with long
legs, large heads, and strong jaws.

They at once commence running about in search of the pod-
like masses of grasshoppers' eggs, and as soon as one is found the
larva enters it and commences a hearty meal. As soon as his
appetite has been somewhat satisfied he sheds his skin, and now

being surrounded by food and no lon-
ger needing his long running legs, they
are changed for very short, aborted
legs, and the larva is soft and sluggish.
In another week a second molt takes
place, after which the legs and even
the mouth-parts are still more atro-
phied. After another molt and after
consuming all the eggs in the pod, the
larva now goes deeper in the soil, and
inside a small oval cavity again sheds
its skill, and hibernates over winter as
a sort of semipupa. In the spring the
larva appears again much like the
second stage, Init does not eat much,
and soon goes into the pupal stage, from which emerges the adult
beetle. Altogether the life history is one of the most peculiar and
complicated among insects. Thus the l)lister-)jeetles are one of the
most important factors in holding the grasshoppers in check.

Remedies. — However, when they swarm into the beet-fields,
potato- or gaixien-patches, one cannot afford to allow them to
consume one crop for the good they may do in saving another
from still another insect scourge. '' A ])ii-(I in the hand is worth
two in the bush," is equally true of insects. So l)e ready for them
on their first appearance; give the plants a thorough spraying
with of 1 pound of Paris green, and 1 pound of lime to 125 gallons
of water. It may be well to spray with Bordeaux mixture,

Fig. 247.- The black blister
beetle (Epicauta pennsyl-
lanica). (After Chitten-
den, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH 345

which will pi'cvent various fungous diseases, and with which
Paris green can be used much stronger without danger of burn-
ing the foliage; or it may be applied dry l:)y mixing with from
ten to twenty parts of flour or plaster, dusting it on in early
morning, while the dew is still on the plants. Arsenate of
lead sprayed at the rate of 3 })ounds to 50 gallons, or used as
a dust, will be equally effective, will adhere to the foliage better,
and will be less likely to burn the foliage.

The Beet or Spinach Leaf-miner.*

Frequently beet and spinach leaves will be found with tor-
tuous mines or large blotches which have been mined out by
small white maggots beneath the surface epidermis. This injury
is most commonly due to the maggot of a small fly shown in
Fig. 248. "The ground color is gray with the front of the head
silver white. The body, including the legs, is somewhat sparsely
covered with rather long stiff black hairs. When in action the
body is usually carried in a somewhat curved position, but when
extended measures nearly a quarter of an inch. The maggot
(/) is white, and so nearly transparent that the contents of the
abdomen can be seen through the posterior portion."

Life History. — " The flies, by close observation, may be seen
in flight just above the ground or hovering about their different
food plants. The eggs are placed on the lower surface of the
leaves and arranged in masses of from two to five. When the
young hatch they bury themselves within the leaf tissue, con-
structing a thread-like mine which they afterwards extend in a
curve or semicircle. Transformation to pupae takes place in
most cases in loose soil, which the maggots enter to only a short
distance, or under fallen leaves. Occasionally maggots trans-
form within a leaf if the latter happens to rest on the ground.
Dr. Howard states that the eggs hatch in from three to four
days, and the larval stage is passed in seven or eight days, the
puparium or resting stage requiring from ten to twenty days.

* Pegomyla mcina Lintn. See Chittenden, I.e., from which the quota-
tions are taken.

346 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

" Injury appears to be most frequent in late fall, but
may be due to earlier generations in midsummer. " In many
cases infestation can be traced directly to the insect having
bred in lambsquarters and similar weeds, which if not destroyed
by ordinary methods of cultivation mature and die during
October."

Control. — Where this pest occurs in small gardens it may be
controlled by picking and destroying the infested leaves, and

Fig. 248. — The beet leaf-miner {Pegomyia vidua Lintn.): c, fly; b, head of;
male fly; c, head of female; d, surface of egg highly magnified; e, egg
/, maggot; g, head of same; ./, anal segment; k, anal spiracles — all
enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

even in larger fields such a practice might prevent its mcrease
and consequent injury. Those insecticides which have been
tried as remedies seem to have had no effect. Deep plowing
and thorough harrowing of infested fields as soon as the crop can
be removed should greatly lessen injury the next year. As this
species seems to prefer spinach to beet, Dr. Chittenden has
suggested that spinach might be used as a trap crop in large
fields of sugar beets where the injury warranted such a measure.

CHAPTER XVIII
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS *

The Cabbage Maggot f

Throughout the Middle and Northern States the cabbage mag-
got is one of the most destructive and most difficult to combat of
all the insects affecting cabbage, cauliflower and radishes. Just
as the plants are commencing to make a good growth they sud-
denly appear sick, many are found wilting, and soon die. Exami-
nation of the roots shows that they have ]:)een riddled by small,
white maggots as shown in Fig. 254. Early-planted cabbage,
cauliflower and radishes are particularly affected, and later in the
season the maggots will be found on turnips and wild mustard.

These maggots are the larvae of a small fly, resembling the
house-fly, but distinctly smaller, being only three-sixteenths
inch long, with a narrower body and proportionately larger wings.
It is a grayish color with three dark stripes on the thorax and one
along the middle of the abdomen, and the body bears numerous
stiff hairs or bristles. The flies appear just as early cabbage is set
out, in late April and early May in New Jcrse}-, and in late May in
southern Minnesota. They do not fly far and seem to avoid fields
which are swept by the wind.

Life History. — The females deposit their eggs on the stem of
the plant or in the soil near the stem, at or just beneath the surface

* See Carman, "Insects Injurious to Cabbage," Bulletin 114, Ky. Agr.
Exp. Sta.

'\ Pegomyia brassica; Bouche. Family Anthomniiio'. See Slingerland,
Bulletin 78, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.; J. B. Smith, Bulletin 200, N. J.
Agr. Exp. Sta.; F. H. Chittenden, Circular 63, Bureau of Ent., U. S. Dept.
Agr.; F. L. Washburn, 11th and 12th Reports State Ent. of Minn.; W. J.
Schoene, Bulletins .301 and 334, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Journal of Economic
Entomology, Vol. IV, p. 210.

347

348 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

of the soil, each female laying some fifty eggs. The eggs are most
abundant in late May and early June in central New York. Usu-
ally a female laj's but one or two eggs on a plant and prefers to lay
them in a crevice of the stem or very near it, for if the young mag-
gots have to travel far to reach their food, many will tlie before find-
ing it, and if laid on hard soil the maggots will be unable to pene-
trate it to the soft tissue of the root, as they are unable to feed on

Fig. 249. — Cabbage root infe.stcd with maggots. (Aft(M- SliuKorland.)

the hard stem above ground. The eggs are about one twenty-
fifth inch long, of a pure white color, which i-enders them
easily seen against the soil by one familiar with them, and are of the
shape shown in Fig. 251, having a curious ridge along one side. The
eggs hatch in from three to ten days, averaging five to seven.
The little maggots at once commence rasping the surface of the
tender roots, gradually mine into them, and in three or four weeks
have become full grown. The grown maggot is one-third inch

INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 349

long, white or yellowish in color, tapering toward the head and
obliquely truncate at the tip of the abdomen. From the head a
pair of strong, l)lack. hook-like, rasping jaws project downward,
and just back of the head on either side is a minute, light brown,
fan-like projection (Fig. 253, />), or spiracle, which leads into the
breathing system. Tiie oblique posterior end is surrounded by

Fig. 250. — The cabbage maggot fly {Pegomyia brassicoe Bouche), female
greatly enlarged. (After Slingerland.)

twelve rounded tul^ercles and in the centre are two brownish spira-
cles (Fig. 253, a). When done feeding the larva burrows one-half
to one inch under the surface of the soil, and the outerskin gradually
hardens until it forms a firm brown shell, called a puparium,
within which the larva transforms to a true pupa. Frequently the
puparia are found in the galleries made by the maggot or in crevices
of the roots. During the summer this stage lasts about two weeks,
but in the fall most of the insects remain in this cohdition over win-

350 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

ter. Thus the whole Ufe cycle from egg to adult requires about six
to ten or twelve weeks, according to the temperature and moisture,
and the second generation of flies appear in June in New Jersey or
by mid-July in southern Minnesota. The maggots of the second
generation seem to do but little damage. The life history of the
insect during late summer has not been satisfac-
torily determined, but there is undoubtedly a third
generation and in the South, possibly a fourth, the
work of the last generation being sometimes
noticed in late cabbage in early fall. On Long
Island, N. Y., the larva have been observed as
abundant upon cabbage stumps in September and
October, working above ground, and the adults
and eggs have been common around the ad-
ventitious buds. Rough estimates indicate 300
to 1500 maggots per acre on these stumps. The
puparia of the last, and in the North possibly
some of those of the second generation, remain
in the soil over winter, though there is some evi-
dencethat the flies may also hibernate in the
Middle States.

Control. — The most effective measures of control consist in cul-
tural methods and preventives, Init little practical success having
attended the use of remedies to kill the maggots.

Cultural Methods. — Inasmuch as the puparia remain in the soil
or in the old roots or stumps over winter, it is important for this as
well as other cabbage pests to gather and destroy all the refuse of the
crop as soon as possible and then plow infested land thoroughly in
the fall. Mr. Schoene has shown that by plowing ])adly infested
seed-beds six or seven inches deep that only one-fourth as many flies
emerged as where the soil was undisturbed. A rotation of the crop
will be of value where cabbages are not grown on large acreages.
Cabbage and other cruciferous crops should not be planted after
each other, as all are affected by the same pests. It is evident that
if the crop is planted at some distance from that of the previous
year, and as the flies are known to avoid wind-swept fields,

Fig. 251. -Egg
of cabbage
maggot,
greatly en-
larged ; hair
line at center
of b shows
natural size;
b, outline of
side view. —
(After Sling-
erland).

INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 351

that many of them will not succeed in finding the new plant-
ing.

As the maggots infest wild niustanl and various similar weeds,
they should be destroyed as far as possible and crops affected by
the maggots should not he planti'd on or near land 1 )adly infested
with such weeds if avoidaljle. AVild mustard may be readily killed
by spraying it while }'oung with iron sulfate, 2 pounds to 1
gallon of water.

Late-planted cabbage is
but slightly affected as com-
pared with that planted earlier.
The earliest radishes are often
quite free from the pest, those
planted later and maturing
just as the flies are abundant
are badly injured, and the later
plantings are free from injury.
It is evident, therefore, that
where planting of the main
crop can be delayed until after ii^.

most of the flies have ovi- ..,,,. - , ,i-> - ,- , m
posited, that it will escape ;.'v \T'^->:r^^> r./^.r .^a

serious injury. Furthermore, „ ^^^ ^ ^ ,,

., , ' ... I' IG. 252.— Eggs of cabbage maggot at

either cabbage or i-adishes base of stalk. (Photo by Headlee.)

may be used as a trap crop,

by planting a few rows early and as soon as the flies had laid

their eggson them, plowing them under deeply and then setting

the main crop. All of these methods involve a familiarity

with the fly and its eggs which any observant grower may

soon acquire.

High fertilization with a (juickly avail-dile fertilizer will enable
the plants to make a I'apid growth and will Ije profitable even if
maggots do not occur.

Thorough and freciuent cultivation while the eggs are being
laid destroys many of them. Indeed, one of the best means
of control, which is extensively pi'acticed by many growers, is to

352 INSECT PESTS OF FARxM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

hill up the earth around the young plants when set, and as soon as
eggs are laid, pull the soil containing the eggs away from the plant
into the middle of the row, where they or the maggots hatching
from them will l)e killed by the heat. This involves considerable

hand work, but where carefully
and intelligently followed is one
of the surest means of control.

Preventives. — Where late cab-
bage is grown the plants often
l)ecome infested in the seed-

l)ed. To avoid this the seed-
l)eds should be covered with
cheesecloth. The sides of the
frame are made of 12-inch boards,
across which wires are stretched
to prevent sagging of the cloth,
The cover should be removed

Fig. 253. — Cabbage maggot, side
view, enlarged, hair line repre-
sents natural s'ze; a, view of
caudal segment; b, outline of
spiracle back of head — greatly
enlarged. (After SUngerland.)

as the whole must be fly-tight.

a week or ten days before transplanting, so that the plants may
harden. If eggs are observed in the seed-bed during this time,
transplant at once.

The most successful preventive yet used consists of a tarred
felt card placed around each plant so as to form a collar, lying
upon the surface of the soil and thus preventing the fly from
depositing her eggs. These cards were originally devised by
Professor W. H. Goff, of Wisconsin, and have been extensively
used by large growers in that State for many years, as well as
in New York, and recent 'experiments in New Jersey and
Minnesota have proven them very satisfactor}-. The cards
should be made of one-ply tarred felt, as ordinary tarred paper
or building paper curls up and is not as effective. The cards
are made in a hexagonal shape, with a slit extending from one
corner to the centre, which is slit with a star-shaped cut to
accommodate the stem. The cards are cut Avith a tool sho\An
in Fig. 255, which may be made by any blacksmith, and are
cut out in rows as illustrated, one cut of the tool making
a card. The cards should be placed around the plants when

INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 353

they are set. The earth slum Id be smoothed down and well
firmed by the hand, the card then appHed to the plant, and
pressed down tight to the ground, so that it fits snugly around
the stem and the edges of the slit meet. With a little experience
the cards maybe applied rapidh", and though involving con-
siderable handwork, the testimon}- of those who have used
them for many years shows that the method is entirely practical
and is to be prefei-red to doul)tful remedies.

Fig. 254. — Cabbage roots destroyed by the cabbage maggot. (After
Hlingerland.)

A mixtui-e of lime and carbolic acid has recently been
used by applying it to the surface of the soil around the
plants, so as to form a slight crust, the cai'ljolic acid acting pos-
sibly' as a repellant. The lime is slaked to a thin cream, and
diluted to 3 pints to a gallon of water, to which is added a
tablespoonful of crude carbolic acid. It is applied liberally to
the soil immediately around the plants with a sprinkling can.
This has proven quite effective for cabbage in New Jersey,
but in Minnesota cabbage so treated showed but little benefit,
though radishes were somewhat protected. Kero.sene and sand,
gas tar and sand, tobacco dust and many other substances

354 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

have been used to place around the plant and act as repei-
lants or preventives, but all have some objection or have not
been sufficiently tested to show their effectiveness and" practica-
bility. Dr. J. B. Smith reports, however, that cauliflower-gi'owers
at Richfield, X. J., have ])een using gas tar, 1 part to 25 parts of
sand, for several years with good results. The gas tar costs SI. 25
a gallon and will treat 1000 plants. A greater proportion of gas
tar has proven injurious.

Remedies. — For the destruction of the maggots, both carbolic

acid emulsion and hellebore
decoction have been exten-
sively used with varying re-
sults, but from the evidence
so far submitted, the grower
would hardly seem . war-
ranted in placing much de-
pendence upon them, though
whei-e preventive measures
have been neglected, they
may aid in reducing the
number of maggots and pi-e-
vent a total loss. To make
the emulsion, dissolve 1
pound of soap in a gallon of
boiling water ; to this add 1
})int of crude carbolic acid
and churn thoroughly until
a good ci-eamy emulsion is made. I'^)r use, dilute one part of
the: emulsion with 30 parts of water and appl}- 4 to G ounces
to" each plant. It may l)e conveniently applied with a watering
pot. The earth should l)e pulled away fi'om the»plants so that
the emulsion may be lirought into actual contact with the
larvie on the roots. Application should be commenced as soon
as maggots are observed, repeated in 4 or 5 days, and then
once a week for a month. Well-grown maggots are quite resistant
to the emulsion, l)ut it will destroy the young as they hatch before

Fig. 255. — (i, tarrod felt card in outline
one-thini size; h, tool for cutting
cards, about ono-sixth size; c, show-
ing how tool is used, dotted line
indicating position of edge of tool.
(After Coff.)

INJITRIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 355

the}' become established in the root. Helleliore decoction is made
by steeping 2 ounces of powdered hellebore in a quart of boiling
water for half an hour, and then diluting to make a gallon of liquid.
It may be kept in the concentrated form, but should be thoroughly
stirred before using. It is applied in the same manner as the car-
bolic emulsion. Both these mixtures may also be used against
maggots on radishes and onions l)y making thorough applications
along the rows.

The surest method of destroying the maggots on the roots is by
the use of carbon bisulfide (see page 57). This is entirely practi-
cable on a few plants, but has not come into general use on a large
scale, as no satisfactory tool for its injection into the soil is avail-
able. A small hole should l)e made with a dibble 4 to 6 inches from
the infested stem, and a teaspoonful of carl>on l)isulfide injected and
the hole tightly closetl with earth. If made too close to the plant
the roots will be injured. The fumes kill the maggots by permeat-
ing the soil. \Miere plants are Ijadly infested injection on two
sides may l)e necessary. The material will cost about $1.00 per
1000 plants. Professor Slingerland describes an injector, no
longer made, ))ut similar tools are for sale by dealers in agricul-
tural implements in Fi-ance, and might l)e made l)y any machinist.

The Imported Cabbage Worm "!=

Pi'obably the worst pest of the cabbage and one of the best-
known garden insects is the common cabliage worm, whose parent
is the common white butterfly. It is an old Eui'opean pest and
was imported near Quebec, Canada, about 1860, whence it spread
to New England, reached New York in 1868, Tleveland, Ohio, by
1875, and the Gulf States ))y 1880, and has since spread to all parts
of the country.

The butterflies are among the fii'sl to emerge in early spring.
They are white, mailced with black near the tip of the fore-wings,
which expand nearly 2 inches. The female bears two black spots

* Pontia rapce Linn. Family Pieridoe. See F. H. Chittenden, Circular60,
Bureau of Entcmology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

356 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

on each fore-wing, while the male has only one, and both sexes have
a black spot on the anterior margin of the hind-wings.

Fig. 256. — The cabbage butterfly 'Poniii raptE Linn.) : ^ larva; 6, chrysalis:
c, male butterfly; d, female butterfly. (After CM. Weed.)

Life History.- — The butterflies soon commence to lay their eggs
on whatever food-plant is available. The larvae feed on all of the

INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 357

common cultivated crucifers as well as many wild sorts, so that the
species is never without food. The small yellowish, oval eggs are
laid on end on the foliage, and are marked with prominent longi-
tudinal ridges. They hatch in from four to eight days. The larvae
grow very rapidly, gorging themselves on the foliage, which they
skeletonize in their well-known manner, and become full grown in
from ten days to two weeks. The mature cabbage worm is about
1^ inches long, of a velvety green color, very similar to the foliage,
with a faint }ellow stripe down the" middle of the back and a row
of yellow spots one each side. The surface, when seen under a
lens, is finely roughened and dotted with small black specks. The

Fig. 257 .—Pteroinalus puparion, "a chalcis-fly which jjarasitizes the cabbage
'^worm and many other injurious insects, male and female greatly enlarged —
hair line shows natural size. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

chrysahs is attached to the foliage by a strand of silk around the
thorax and is first greenish and later light brown in color. The
butterflies emerge in from one to two weeks in the summer, but
the chrysalides of the last generation in fall hibernate over winter
among the old stalks and rubbish on the fields. Thus the whole
life cycle in summer requires from three to five weeks. In New
England there are three generations a season and there are prob-
ably five or six in the extreme south, as the butterflies there remain
on the wing all winter.

Enemies. — Fortunately, the parasites of the cabbage worm are
becoming very effective in checking its multiphcation, and in
many sections of New England where it has existed the longest,
it rarely becomes veiy injurious, so well do the parasites control

358 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

it. Most of these are importations from Europe, one of the
most important being a small wasp-like Braconid fly {Apanteles
glomeratus Linn.) which was purposely imported from England
in 1883. During the autumn of 1904 Dr. Chittenden states that
it killed practically every worm at Washington, D. C. The maggots
of these little parasites live within the worms and when full grown
come forth and spin masses of small white cocoons on the foliage,
often attached to the dead or dying worm (Fig. 167). Another
very important parasite is a minute Chalcis-fly {Pteronmlus

Fig. 258. — Apanteles glomeratus, a parasite of the cabbage worm: a, adult
fly; h, cocoon; c, flies escaping from cocoons — natural size, a, b, highly
magnified. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

pupunnn Linn.), aljout one-sixteenth of an inch long, which was
probably imported with its host. These often emerge in immense
numbers, hundreds of them often being secured from a single
worm. Wasps frequently prey on the caterpillars, using them for
provisioning their nests. Various predaceous bugs also attack
the worms as well as ninnerous other internal j^arasites.

Control. — As the chrysalids pass the winter on the old stumps,
foliage, and rubbish on the field, it is evident that they should be
destroyed and the field plowed as soon after the crop is removed
as possible. A few stalks may well be left standing here and

INJURIOUS TO CABRAOK AND f'RUCIFEHOUS CROPS 359

there and ho kept well poisoned, so as to act as traps to destroy
worms from egfis laid liy late females.

The most effective means of control is spraying or dusting
with Paris green or ai'senate of lead. The former is \ised J pound
to the barrel and the latter 2 to 8 pounds per bairel of water.
As the foliage of cabbage is extremely smooth it will be advisable
to add 2 or 3 pounds of resin soap or " sticker " to render the
material more adhesive (see page 46). The arsenicals should
be applied as soon as the plants are set, and they should be kept
well covered until the heads are half formed. If this is done,
the young larva? will be destroyed before they burrow into the
heads, and there will be but little damage after the spraying is
stopped. Although there is some prejudice against poisoning
cabbage, it is entirely unfounded, for it has been shown that a
person would need to eat twenty-eight cabbages at once, if dusted
in the ordinary manner, to secure poisonous effects. It is obvious
that plants should not have large quantities of dust placed on
them after they commence to head, and such applications are
entirely unnecessary.

Various contact insecticides may be used against the worms
on a few plants, but are not pi-acticable for large acreages. Thus
water heated to 150° F., will kill all the worms which it hits.
Kerosene emulsion will kill tlie larva\ but must hit them, and
may leave an odor on the plant. Pyrethrum or buhach has been
used effectively, applying it either dry or diluted with floui-,
or sprayed as a decoction at the rate of 1 ounce to a gallon of
water. Dilute tobacco extract has also proven effective, but
all of these substances have the disadvantage that they
must be brought into actual contact with the worms to kill
them.

HU

360 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Southern Cabbage Butterfly *

Before the invasion of the imported cabbage worm this species
was the cause of considerable injury from the Middle States
southward, but it has now been largely replaced and overshadowed
in importance by the imported species. The male Imtterfly is
very similar in marking to the female of P. rapce, and would not

Fig. 259. — The southern cabbage butterfly; a, male; b, female. (After Riley.)

be distinguished on the wing. The female is more heavily
marked with black, as shown in Fig. 259. The caterpillar is a
greenish-blue color with four longitudinal, yellow stripes, and

Fig. 260. — The southern cabbage butterfly: o, larva; 6, pupa. (After Riley.)

covered with black dots. The habits are very similar to those
of the imported cabbage worm, and the same methods of control
should be used.

* Pontia protodice Boisd. Family Pieridoe.

INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 361

The Potherb Butterfly *

This species is more common in the North and East and is

distinguished from its near rela-
tives by the wings being uniform
white without spots. The larvse
are very simihir to those of the
imported species and the habits
are very similar. Like the south-
ern species, though formerly very
common and often injurious,
this species is now rarely com-
FiG. 261.— The potherb butterfly mon enough to do much injury
and caterpiUar. (After Harris.) ^^^j ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^. ^^^ ^.-^^d plants.

The same remedies as for the imported species should be used.

The Cabbage Looper f

Next to the imported cabbage worm the looper is probably
the most serious pest of cabbage and closely resembles it in the
way it strips the foliage. The name " looper " is derived from
its " looping " habit of walking like a measuring worm, due to the
absence of legs on the third and fourth abdominal segments.
The larvse are pale to dark green in color, marked with several
longitudinal white lines, as shown in Fig. 262, which become
obscure as they become full grown, so that they might l^e easily
mistaken for the common cabbage worms were it not for the loop-
ing gait. The species occurs throughout the territory east of the
Rockies, but is much more commonly injurious in the Middle and
Southern States. Although cabbage and cauliflower are the
favorite food plants, it attacks all of the cruciferous crops, is
frequently injurious to lettuce, peas, celery and beets, and has
been found upon quite a list of cultivated crops and various weeds.

* Pontia napi Linn. Family Pieridoe.

t Autographa brassicoe Riley. Family Noctuidoe. See F. H. Chittenden,
Bulletin 33, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; F. A. Sirrine, Bulletin 144.
N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta.

362 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Life History. — The life history has not been carefully ol)Sprved,
but it seems probable that the winter is passed in the pui)a stage
in the old leaves, stumps and rubbish of the cabbage field. iSirrine
states that the life history is similar to that of the imported
cabbage worm, and it seems probable that there are three genera-
tions a year in the Middle States, and possibly more further
South. Injury to cabbage seems to be worse in late summer.
When full grown the larva spins a very thin, transparent, white

Fig. 262. — Thr cahljiisc Vti^wv {Autogrdpha hrussiar Riley): a, male moth;
h, egg from above and from side; r, full grown larva in natural position
feeding; d, pupa in cocoon — a, c, d, one-third larger than natural size^
b, more enlarged. (Ater Howard and Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

cocoon, attached to the leaf upon which it has been feeding and
in it transforms to the light-brown pui)a. The ])upal stage varies
from a week in midsummer to three weeks in October, and the
pupa? of the last brood liibcrnate over wintei-.

The moth has a wing expanse of about 1{ inches, and the fore-
wings are grayish brown mottled with gray, whitish, and blackish,
as shown in Figs. 262, 263. Just inside of the centre of the fore-
wings is a characteristic white spot. The hind-wings are paler

INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 363

brown, with the outer l)order <hukcr, and th(> margins of both
wings are strongly s(-allopctl.

Control. — The same general met hods as advised for the imported
cabbage worm will ctfeet the control of this species. Sirrine
states that dusting the plants with Paris green has not proved
satisfactory, but found the use of Paris green with the resin soap

Fig. 268. — The cabbage looper moth at rest from side and from above —
natural size.

sticker (page 46) to be very effective. Arsenate of lead is more
adhesive and is therefore superior for cabbage, but will be improved
by the addition of the " sticker."

The Cross-striped Cabbage Worm =•=
Throughout the Southeastern and Gulf States the cater-
pillar of a native moth, known as the Cross-striped Cabbage Worm,

* Evergeslis rimosulis Gueu. Family Pyralidcc. See F. H. Chittenden,
Bulletin 33, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 54.

364 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

occasionally does very similar injury to the imported cabbage
worm. The caterpillar is about three-fifths of an inch long,
of a Ijluish-gray color above, with conspicuous cross stripes of
black, as shown in the illustration. The parent moth is a pale
ochre yellow color; the fore- wings expand about an inch, and are
marked with brownish-black, as shown in the illustration, while
the hind-wings arc nearly transparent except at the outer edge.
Life History. — The caterpillars arc to ])e found on cabl^age in
late May and early June at AVashington, D. C. When full grown
they go just below the surface of the earth and there construct

Fig. 264. — The cross-striped cabbage worm {Everw^stis rimosalis): a, moth;
6, egg-mass; c, sculpt m-e of egg; rf, larva; c, cocoon — a, d, e, twice natuial
size; b, much enlarged; c, more enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S.
Dept. Agr.)

silken cocoons in which the pupal stage is passed and from which
the moths emerge in about ten days. The eggs are laid in masses
of a bright light-yellow color, from twenty to forty Ixnng laid in a
mass on the under surface of the leaf, and hatch in about a week.
The caterpillars become full grown in from two to three weeks,
so that the full life cycle may be passed in thirty days in mid-
summer. It seems probable that at Washington, D. C, there
are three generations each year, and that the winter is passed
in the pupal stage.

Control. — The same means of control advocated for the
imported cabbage worm will prove effective for this species.

INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 365

The Imported Cabbage Webworm *

Sometime in the early 90's another cabbage pest was imported
from Europe, where it is common in the Mediterranean region, and
was first noted as injurious in South Carolina. Later it was found
in Georgia and Alabama, and it is probable that it has now become
more generally distributed through the Gulf and South Atlantic
States.

The imported cabbage webworm is about one-half an inch long,

Fig. 265. — The imported cabbage webworm {Hellida undalis Fab.): a, moth;
b, larva side view; c, larva, back view; d, pupa — three times natural
size. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

of a grayish-yellow color, striped with five brownish-purple bands.
Its name is received from its habit of spinning a silken web,
beneath which it retreats when not feeding, and to which masses
of excreta and frass are attached. Cabbage and turnips have
been most injured, but various other crucifera? are attacked.
The parent moth has a wing expanse of about five-eighths of an
inch and the fore-wings a)'e of a grayish color, mottled with brown,
black and white as shown in the figure.

* Hellula undalis Fab. Family Pyrcdidoe. See F. H. Chittenden, Bulletin
19, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 51; Bulletin 23, Ibid., p. 54; W. M.
Scott, Bulletin 1, Ga. State Board Entomology, p. 17.

366 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Life History. — The life history has not lieen followed for the
whole season, but all of the stages have been observed. Moths
of what seemetl to lje the first summer generation were obtained
in late July. The eggs are about one-twenty-fifth an inch
in diameter, oval, and of a grayish color, turning pinkish in a
day or two. They are laid singly, \isually in the " bud " of the
turnip or cabbage. With a temperature of S0° F. they hatched
in three days. The caterpillars Ijecome full grown in about
eighteen days, and then spin thin cocoons between the leaves
in which they transform to pupie. The pupal stage requires
but about a week in midsimimer, so that the moths emerge just
about a month after the eggs were laid. The most serious injury
seems to occiu' in late summer, particularly to young fall cabbage
and turnips.

Control. — Use the same measures as advocated for the imported
cabbage worm and the cabbage looper.

The Diamond-back Moth +

The larva of the imported diamond-back moth or cabbage
plutella are commonly found on cabbage wherever it is grown,
and as a nUe do l)ut little injury, though occasionally they
become troublesome.

" The larva when full grown measures three-tenths inch in
length, tapers a little to the extremities, and is of a pale green
color. It is active and instable, in this respect being very
different from any of the larger larvae described. " The wings
of the parent moth " are kept folded against the sides of the body,
are a little turned up at the tips, and are provided with a long
fringe. The coloi' alcove on the head, thorax, and upper part
of the closed wings is a light clay-yellow. That part of the
wings that is lowest when they ai'e folded is bi-ouzy brown, this
color terminating aljruptly where it meets the clay-yellow of
the back by a well-defined sinuous margin. The length from

* Plutelii maculipennis Curtis. Family Tineidoe.

INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 367

the front of the head to the tip of the fohled wings is about one-
fourth inch."*

"The .eggs are whitish, very minute, and are attached to the
leaves, though sometimes when very ahunchmt they are, it is
said, placed on the sides of crates holding cabbage." The full-
grown larvse pupate in small cocoons composed of a delicate
lace-work of silken threads through which the whitish, often
brown-striped, pupa may be seen. In winter the cocoons con-
taining pupse are found on old cabbage stalks in the field or
on stored cabbage. Two or three generations a year occur in tlie

Fig. 266. — The cabbage plutella or diamond-back moth (PluteUa maculi-
ppnms Curtis): a, larva; ?>, segment of .same greatly enlarged; rf, pupa;
e, pupa in cocoon; /, adult moth; g, wings of dark variety; h, moth
with wings folded. (After Riley. U. S. Dept. Agr.)

more northern States and four or five generations farther south,
while in the extreme South it may be found active practically
throughout the year. The species has a world-wide distribu-
tion.

" During very dry weather these little insects become exceed-
ingly common, and riddle the cabbage leaves with small holes.
Wet weather, on the other hand, has long been known to be
unfavorable to them," and drenching the plants with water has
been recommended as one of the best means of control, The
same remedies applied for the other cabbage worms will readily
control this little pest, if necessary.

* H. Garman, Bulletin 114. Ky. .\gr. Exp. Sta., p. 29.

368 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Harlequin Cabbage-bug *

Southern truckers have been familiar with the harlequin
cabbage-bug, " calico-back," " terrapin-bug," or " fire-bug," as

Fig. 267. — The harlequin cabbage bug {Murgantia histrionica Hahn.): a,
eggs — enlarged; b, nymphs, more enlarged; (/, adults seen from above
and below — enlarged; e, head and beak of same; /, parasite of eggs —
enlarged; bugs and eggs (a) on leaf, natural size. (After W. G. Johnson.)

it is variously called, for the past generation. A native of
Mexico and Central America, it migrated into Texas about 1864

* Murgantia histrionica Hahn. Family Pentatomidce. See F. H. Chitten,
deu, Circular 103, Bureau Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; R. I. Smith,
Journal Economic Entomology, Vol. II, p. 108.

l^'JURIOl'S TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 369

and then spread eastward along the Gulf Coast, and northward
until it reached Maryland and Virginia, about 1880, New
Jersey in the early 90's, and up the Mississippi Valley to southern
Ohio and Indiana by 1890. On the Pacific Coast it is found in
southern California and Nevada. Although it spread to Long
Island, N. Y., southern Pennsylvania, and northern Ohio, and
Indiana, its advance was checked bv the cold winters of the late

Fig. 268. — Field of oabbngp in Delaw.'xre ruined by the harlequin bug.

90's and it will probal^ly never become very injurious north of
the Potomac and Ohio rivers.

The appearance of the gayly colored bugs, shining lilack or
deep blue, marked with l)rilliant red or orange, as sho^ii in
Fig. 267, is so distinctive that they are readily recognized, and
given them the name of harlequin-bug or calico-back. They
are about one-half inch long, flattened, and the general shape
and markings have given them the local name of " terrapin
bug." The bugs suck the sap from the leaves of cabbage and other

370 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

crucifers, the plants wilting and dying, and turning black as if
they had been swept by fire; hence the name " fire-l)ug." A
half-dozen of the adult bugs will destroy a small plant in a daj'
or two, and as they frequently appear in enormous numbers and
as they multiply rapidly, unless they are fought vigorously they
will soon destroy a large patch of cabbage.

Life Historn. — The adults hibernate over winter in old calj})age
stumps and under the leaves and other rubbish left on the field,
and emerge early the next spring. In South Texas they may
be found at work nearly all winter, being common in Februarj'
and March; in North Carolina they appear about April 1st, and in
Maryland about May 1st. The eggs of the first generation are
deposited mostly on kale, wild mustard or other wild cmciferae,
each female laying about 100. They are placed in a double
row of about a dozen and are white, mai'ked with two black bunds
-and a small spot, which makes them look like small white barrels
with black hoops. The eggs of the spring generation hatch in
about ten days, and the nymphs feed upon the cabbage for from
six to nine weeks before becoming full grown in Xorth Carolina
and the District of Columbia, while in the Gulf States the eggs
hatch in four to eight days and the nymphs l^ecome full grown
in three or four weeks, the development of these stages being
determined by the temperature. The nymphs are much like
the adults in coloration, though differently marked and lacking
wings. They molt five times, some of the different stages being
shown in the figure. From North Carolina northward there
seem to be but three generations of the insect. The summer
generation develops more rapidly, the eggs hatching in four or
five days, but the fall generation requires about the same time as
in spring. In midsummer the whole life cycle may be passed in
about two weeks in the Ciulf States, accoixling to various author-
ities, so that there may be a half dozen generations, though the
exact life history does not seem to have been ol)served there.

Control. — This is an exceedingly difficult pest to combat after
it has become numerous in the cabbage patch, so that every effort
should be made to prevent its appearance. As it hibernates under

INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 371

old stalks and leaves it is obvious that they should be eleaned up
and the field plowed as soon as the crop is harvested. By leaving
a few piles of stalks, leaves and rubbish, the bugs might be concen-
trated and then destroyed.

The most successful method of control yet devised is the use
of a trap-crop, to which the bugs are lured as they emei'ge from
hibernation and on which they may be destroyed before they
attack the cabbage. Kale planted in the fall or mustard planted
early in the spring serves well for a catch crop, and should be
planted in rows through the intended cabbage-field. The bugs
seem to prefer the kale to the young cabbage, and while concen-
trated upon it they should be killed by spraying them with pure
kerosene. The trap-crop may well be planted at different dates,
.so that after one row has been destroyed by spraying, another will
invite the remaining bugs. The nymphs may be destroyed by
spraying them with 15 per cent kerosene emulsion or whale-oil soap,
one-half pound per gallon. Whale-oil soap used at the rate of Ih to 2
pounds to the gallon will kill most of the adult bugs hit by it
without injury to the cabbage, Init dependence should not be
placed upon control by spraying, as its practicabilit}- on a large
scale is yet to be demonstrated.

The Cabbage-aphis *

Wherever cabbage is grown the common '' cabbage-louse "
occasionally becomes abundant enough to do serious damage,
often destroying young plants, which become covered with the
disgusting masses of grayish aphides. They are found commonly
in almost every cabljage -patch, but usually their natural enemies
are so effective as to prevent their increase; otherwise they would
be one of the most serious pests of cruciferous crops. They may
be found on all of tlie cultivated and wild crucifei-a^, ])ut cabbages

* Aphis brassicoe Linn. Family Aphididce. See C. V. Riley, Report of
U. S. Commissioner of Agriculture, 1884, p. 317. C. M. Weed, " Insect
Life," Vol. Ill, p. 289. G. W. Herrick, Journal of Economic Ent., Vol. IV.
p. 219? F. H. Chittenden and C. H. Popenoe, Bulletin 2, Va. Truck Exp.
Sta., p. 22.

372 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

and turnips are injured worst, serious damage often being done to
turnips in the South.

^' The wingless viviparous female has a rather long oval body,
covered with a whitish mealy coat. When this coat has been
removed . . . the body is seen to be a grayish-green color, with
eight black spots down either side of the back, increasing in size
toward the posterior end. The antennae are green with black tips
and are shorter than the body, and the eyes, legs and tail are
black. The young when first hatched are oval, shining, bright
yellow in color, and lack the mealy coat. The winged viviparous
female is yellowish-green, with the eyes, neck and thoracic lobes
black, and the antennae and nectaries dai'k V)rown. The legs are

Fig. 269. — The cabbage-aphis {Aphis brassicce Linn.): a, winged form; 6
wingless viviparous female — Greatly enlarged. (After Curtis.)

dusky brown and hairy; the tail is dark green or brown and also
hairy; the wings are rather short, with stout coarse veins and dark
stigma." (Riley).

Life History. — Though the cabbage-aphis is an old European
species and was oliserved in this country as early as the latter part
of the eighteenth century, its life history has only recently been
carefully worked out by Professor G. W. Herrick and Mr. J.W. Hun-
gate of Cornell University (I.e.), from whose accouiT,t the following
is taken:

The oviparous females appear in the fall and are fertilized by
the males, and deposit their eggs in large numbers on the leaves
of the cabbage, during October and the first days of November,
in central New York. The eggs are laid on rape, turnip, brussels

INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 373

sprouts and kohl-rabi, but are most abundant on cabbage, particu-
larly in the crevices and depressions of the under surfaces of the
leaves. On leaves taken at random from a badly infested patch,
from 177 to 293 eggs were found on a leaf. Two to three eggs are
laid by each oviparous female. When first laid the eggs are a
yellowish-green, but soon turn a shining black. From eggs taken
at random and left under normal outdoor conditions, 76 per cent
hatched the next spring, while all eggs hatched which were laid by
females known to have been fertilized. Eggs hatched about
April 1, 1910, in central New York, the season being an early one.
From the stem mothers which hatched from these eggs, twenty-
one generations of wingless females were reared up to December 3,
1910, the average length of a generation being about twelve days.
During the suninun- generations of winged females are produced,
especially on crowded plants, and these serve to spread the pest to
unaffected plants. The wingless females become full grown in
about thirteen days during the summer and live for about forty-six
days, during which time tliey will give birth to an average of forty-
one young, producing as high as six young in a day. The winged
forms are much shorter lived, living only about ten days and giving
birth to but from seven to thirteen young.

There is no question that in the Southern States the viviparous
females may continue to reproduce all winter, and it is quite prob-
able that some of them survive in pits and cellars in the North,
where eggs also probably occur. Thus Sirrine* states that it " is
certain that this aphid can survive the winter on cabbage stored
in cellars or pits, also that cabbage stored in pits for seed purposes
furnishes the supply of aphides for infesting the seed stalks in early
spring." This being the case it s"hould be an easy matter to
destroy the aphides by fumigation before removing them from
the pits.

^'

Ori€

C/ destro3'ed in the fall. Any of the standard contact insecticides,
such as kerosene emulsion, 1 part stock solution to 15 parts of
* F. A. Sir;rine, BuUetin 8,3, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 6^5.

Control. — From the habits outlined it is evident that, as for
w.ner cab]:)age pests, the refuse of the crop should be cleared up and

374 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

water, whale oil-soap, 1 pound to 6 gallons, or black leaf-tobacco
extract, 1 part to 6-4 of water, will destroy the aphides, but the
spraying must be thorough, as the waxy coating serves to pro-
tect them. According to Professor Franklin Sherman, any good
laundry soap used at the rate of 1 pound dissolved in 3 gallons of
water, will destroy the aphides. Where water under pressure is
available in a small garden, the aphides may be held in check by

Fig. 270. — The spinach-aphis {Myzm persicw Sul^.): which often becomes
a cabbage pest: a, winged adult; b, young nymph; c, older nymph; d,
last stage of nymph — all greatly enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S.
Dept. Agr.)

washing them from the plants with a strong stream from a garden
hose. Plants infested in the seed-bed may be freed from the
aphis by dipping in whale-oil soap solution, 1 part to 8 of water.

Fortunately for the grower, the cabbage-aphis is usually held
in check by numerous parasitic enemies, principally little wasp-
like flies of the family Braconidae, and by several species of lady-
bird-beetles and syrphus-fly larva?, which will often destroy a
colony within a few days.

INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 375

The Spinach-aphis or Green Peach-aphis *

Another species of apliis often liecomes destructive to cabbage,
spinach, celery and lettuce, as well as various greenhouse crops.
In the fall it migrates to peach, and is also known as the green
peach-aphis, as which it is discussed on page 65S.

Flea -bee ties t

A considerable number of small flea-beetles attack cabbage and
other cruciferous crops, and although as a rule only troublesome,
they appear periodically in enormous numbers and do serious
injury. They are mostly small species (there being seven species
of the genus Phi/llotreta alone) not over an eighth of an inch long.
One of the most common throughout the country is the striped
turnip flea-beetle. f It is polished black with each wing-cover
marked with a broad, wavy band of pale yellow. The microscopic
white eggs are laid in a little excavation of the root near the crown
of the plant. The larva? mine into the roots and have ])een
reported to do considerable injury to them, but it seems probal^le
that most of them live upon the roots of cruciferous weeds. The
full grown larva (Fig. 270, a) is about thi-ee-eighths inch long,
Cjuite slender and tapering, yellowish white, with brown head and
anal plate, and with marks on the thorax and transverse rows of
minute hair-bearing tubercles as shown in the figure. The West-
ern cabbage flea-beetle § is the more common from the Dakotas
southward to Mexico and westward to southern California. It is a
uniform deep olive-green, with the surface irregularly punctate,
and '''/loo inch long. Another species almost indistinguishable from
the first species above, is the wavy-striped flea-beetle, ^f whose larvae
mine in the leaves of wild pepper grass {Lepidium virginicum),

* Myzus persicoe Sulz. Bee footnote on page 658.

t Family Chrysomelidce. Refer to pages 296, 335, for other flea-beetles.
See. C. V. Riley. Report U. S. Commissioner Agr., for 1884, pp. 301-308.
X Phyllotreta vittata Yah.
§ Phyllotreta pusilla Horn.
^ Phyllotreta sinuata Steph. {zimmermani Crotch.)

376 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

and is most al^undant in the Middle and Southern States. The
life history has been fully described by Dr. Riley (I.e.).

Control. — Where the plants are sprayed for the cabbage worms
with Paris green or arsenate of lead, there will probably be little
trouble with flea-beetles. Otherwise, spray with arsenate of lead,
3 to 5 pounds per barrel, or Paris green one-third to one-half
pound, adding the resin soap (see page 46) or " sticker," so as to
give the foliage a good thick coating, for the spray probably acts
fully as much as a repellant as a remedy. Where injury is antici-
pated it will be well to dip the plants in arsenate of lead 1 pound

Fig. 271. — The striped turnip flea-
beetle iPhyllotreta vittata Fab.):
a, larva; h, adult — greatly en-
larged. (After Riley, U. S. D.

Agr.)

Fig. 272. — The western cabbage flea-
beetle — much enlarged. (After Riley,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

to 10 gallons of water when planting them. By thoroughly dust-
ing the plants with lime, land plaster, strong tobacco dust, dilute
pyrethrum, or any of the dusts commonly used for such insects,
applying the dust in the early morning while the dew is on the
plants, they may be protected from attack as long as they are
kept thoroughly covered. It is evident that the weeds upon
which these pests develop in the larval stage should be destroj-ed.
Where plants are attacked in the seed-bed, screening as advised
for the root-maggot will prevent injury. Cloth with from 20 to 30
threads to the inch has proven most satisfactory for the screens,
which should be applied early and be made perfectly tight.

INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 377

The Cabbage Curculio *

A small weevil has proven injurious to early cabbage, particu-
larly in seed-beds, in Wisconsin, Ohio, and Missouri and elsewhere.
The cabbage curculio is a native of middle and northern Europe,
where it is not known as doing much injury, and was first noticed
in this country in Massachusetts in 1873. Since then it has spread
over the Northern States and occurs in California.

The adult weevil is of a broad, oval shape, about one-eighth
inch long, and is covered with gra}'ish scales, but is blackish when

Fig. 273. — -The cabbage curculio {Ceutorhynchus rupee Gyll.): a, beetle;
6, same in profile; c, larva; d, head of same; e, pupa in cocoon; a, b, c, e,
eight times natural size; d, more enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. D.

Agr.)

these are rubbed off in old specimens. The weevils appear about
the middle of April at AVashington, D. C, and lay their eggs in the
leaf stalks late in April. The grayish, oval egg is about one thirty-
fifth inch long, and is inserted in a cavity eaten out by the female,
which causes a very noticeable scar. The eggs hatch in about a
week. The white, footless larvae are about one-fourth inch long
and bore into the leaf-stems and stalks. " Larvce are found most
numerous in the upper portion of stems, penetrating frequently as

* C eutorhyncus rupee Gyll. Family Curculionidce. See F. H. Chittenden,
Bulletin 2.3, n. s., Bureau of Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 39, and F. M. Webster,
Bulletin 77, Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 50.

378 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

high as the diameter of the stem will admit them. They also bore
into the branches, and occasionally a short distance into the leaf-
stalks. ... In many cases the leaf-stalks are killed or are so
injured that they part from the stems when the latter are pulled
up; and again, the stems, being so closely tunneled, often part above
the middle, even dropping over, though not handled." The larvse
complete their growth in about three weeks, cut their way out of
the stalks and enter the earth, where they form small earthen
cocoons just beneath the surface. In these they transform to
pupaj, from which the beetles emerge in about a week. The beetles
are common in the middle of June at Washington, Init disappear
late in the month.

A fortunate fact is that " cabbage appears to be one of the last
plants attacked in the field when any other palatable crucifer is
obtainable. The beetles not only greatly preferred hedge mus-
tard (Sisymbrium officinale), and wild pepper grass, but appeared
to attack also, by preference, turnip, horseradish and cauliflower."*

Control.— Th'iH fact of the preference of the beetles for the wild
food-plants might be utilized by using them as a trap-crop, planting
them, if necessary, as advised for the harlequin cabbage-bug
(page 371), and then removing and destroying them as soon as the
beetles had oviposited, which would probably be about the middle
of May in the latitude of Washington, D. C. Although no prac-
tical experiments in its use seem to have been tried, a thorough
application of arsenate of lead at from 3 to 5 pounds to 50 gallons
would undoubtedly destroy many of the beetles when they are
feeding on the foliage in early spring and after they emerge in June.

* Quotations from Chittenden, I.e.

CHAPTER XIX

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCTTMBERS, SQUASH, ETC.=»

The Striped Cucumber-beetle f

Just as the little cucuniber and melon plants appear above the
soil they are attacked b}' hordes of hungry l)laek-antl-yellow-striped
beetles, which feed i-avenously upon the succulent seed-leaves,

Fig. 274. — The striped cucumber beetle (Diabrotica rittata Fab.): a, beetle;
6, larva; c, pupa; d, egg; e, sculpture of egg^a, b, c, much enlarged;
d, more enlarged; e, highly magnified. (After Chittenden, U. S. D.
Agr.)

often killing them entirely so that reseeding is necessary. This
little striped beetle, often known as the " striped-bug " or " melon-
bug," is well known to all growers of cucurbs east of the Rocky
Mountains, and also occurs in Washington.

* See A. L. Quaintance, Bulletin 45, Geo. Agr. Exp. Sta.; J. B. Smith,
Bulletin 94, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta..; R. I. Smith, Bulletins 205 and 214, No.
Car. Agr. Exp. Sta.

■\ Diabrotica vittata Fab. Family Chrysomelidce.. See F.H.Chittenden,
Circular 31, Bureau Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; T. J. Headlee, 20th Report N. H.
Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 499.

379

380 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The beetle is about two-fifths inch long and half as wide, of a
bright yellow color with a black head and three black stripes on the
wing-covers.

Life History. — The beetles hibernate over winter in the ground
where they have been feeding the previous fall, or along the edge of
woodlands, or wherever suitable shelter is obtained, and emerge
in the spring two or three weeks before cucurbs are planted. At

this season they seem to feed on al-
most anything, as they have been
observed feeding on a long list of
food-plants, freque ting flowers whose
petals are eaten. As soon as squash,
melons, or cucumbers break through
the soil, they gather upon them and
refuse all other food. If the foliage is
covered with any offensive substance
they will seek out spot's which have
not been reached and feed upon them,
which fact is of importance in con-
sidering remedies. After feeding upon
cucurbs for a few days the beetles pair
and the fenudes commence to deposit
Fig. 275.— Larva of striped cgg«- The eggs are deposited singly
cucumber beetle at work .^^^^\ .y.^, merely dropped in crevices of
in cucumber stem. (Photo , ., . ,

by Headlee.) t"C soil or m the openmg around the

stem of the plant. The egg is oval,
about one-fortieth inch long, bright yellow, and sculptured with
microscopic hexagonal pits. A female lays about one hundred
eggs during a period of a month, and they hatch in about eight
(-lays at a mean temperature of 74° F. The larva is a slender,
white, worm-like grul), about three-tenths inch long, with dark-
brown head and anal-plate, and lighter brown thorax. The larvse
bore into the roots, often tunneling into the base of the stem, and
sometimes mine into melons lying on damp soil. Rarely does
injury by the larvte become noticeable, though we have observed
whole patches of cucumber and melon vines killed by them, which

INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 381

seems remarkable, considering the immense numbers of the beetles
which must give rise to many times more larva\ The larva
becomes full grown in al)out a month and tluMi foi'ms a delicate
earthen cell just below the surface of the soil and in it transforms
to the whitish pupa, from which the beetle emerges in from one to
two weeks, according to the temperature. In southern New
Hampshire the beetles emerge from the last of August to the first of
October, the complete life cycle requiring from seven to nine weeks,
there being but one generation a j^ear, and this seems to be true
in New York. In Kentucky the complete cycle requires but

Fig. 276. — Wire screen fover for young eucurbs. (After Headlee.)

thirt3'-nine days, and in the District of Columbia newly emerged
beetles are found by mid-July, so that there are undoubtedly two
generations in that latitude, as the l^eetles have been found pairing
and with well-developed eggs in Delaware, August 1st. In the
latter part of the season the beetles feed on the blossoms and
pollen, particularly of squash, rarely touching the foliage. With
the first frost}' nights the}' seek shelter under the fallen leaves and
enter hil^ernation with the first killing frosts.

Control. — For a few plants or where the beetles are unusually
abundant, coverings of netting have always been used to protect
the plants. A barrel hoop cut in two, crossed, and the ends
fastened to another hoop, and the whole then covered with netting,

382 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

makes an admirable cover, often sold by dealers. Two stout wires
bent into arches and crossed, may also be covered with netting,
the lower edge of which is held by earth packed over the edges.
Or cone-shaped covers may be fashioned out of wire screening and
kept from year to year. (See Hoadlee, I.e.)

Many growers ol)viate loss of plants and the necessity of
replanting by sowing the seed in rows rather thickly and then thin-
ning out to the desired distance after the worst injury by the beetle
is passed. Others make several plantings in each hill at intervals
of a week, but the foi-mer plan will ensure earlier growth.
^Fhe-^owing of lows of earl}^ beans to act as a trap-crop has

l)een suggested, as the beetles will gather on them, it is said, and
having an abundance of food will not injure the cucurbits. Squash
may be effectively used in this way as the beetles are peculiarly
fond of the quick-growing squash seedlings. A week or ten da3^s
before the regular crop, plant rows of squash seed around and
through the pi'ospective field, and plant more rows when the regu-
lar ci'op is planted. If the main crop be kept well dusted or
sprayed as advised l)elow, the beetles will concentrate on the trap-
squash and might l)e destroyed upon it by spraying with pure
kerosene.

Liberal fertilization with quick-acting fertilizers will aid the
young plants to make a quick growth and thus outgrow the injury.

Growers have long known that if the plants are kept thoroughly
covered with some sort of dust that the beetles will not molest
them, and various sprays have been used in the same way To be
effective the plants must be dusted in early morning while the
dew is on and all parts of the plant, above and below, must be
thoroughly covered. This must be repeated as often as the dust
is washed or blown off, or the plant outgrows it. Air-slaked lime
mixed with sulfur, tobacco dust, and bug-death have been the most
effective, though similar powders will be found beneficial. Bor-
deaux mixture has been recommended for this purpose, but seems
to have a stunting effect on the young plants. The most valuable
repellant seems to be a spray of arsenate of lead 3 to 5 pounds per
barrel. This not only repels the beetles better than any other

INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 383

substance tested by Dr. Headlce, but undoubtedly kills many of
those which are forced to feed upon it. Professor Gillette reports
that dry pyrethrum dusted on the plants while the dew is on will kill
many of the insects. Sirrine found that in New York the beetles
could be poisoned successfully wdth Paris green, but only while
feeding in the spring before they commenced to pair, and in the
fall, as they refused protected foliage after pairing commenced.
Various repellants, such as kerosene, turpentine, naphthalene or
moth balls, and other similar odoriferous substances, have been
strongly recommended, but careful tests have not demonstrated
their efficiency.

It is evident that the cleaning u|) of vines as soon as the crop
can be gathered and the destruction of all refuse will deprive the
beetles of food in the fall and force them to seek other hibernating
places, thus increasing the mortality.

The Melon-aphis *

Just as the vines conunence to lun, a plant will be found here
and there with the foliage curled up and wilting and within will be
found masses of the greenish " melon lice," which have caused the
injury by their many beaks sucking out the sap of the plant. If
allowed to multiply unchecked and their natural enemies do not
prevent their increase, they will sometimes become so abundant
as 10 completely ruin a whole crop just as the melons are com-
mencing to ripen. It is one of the worst pests of cucurbs and one
which requires constant vigilance on the part of the grower.

The aphides are to be found on various weeds in early spring
and appear on cucurbs soon after they start growth. Both winged
and wingless females occur throughout the year. The wingless
form is about one-fifteenth inch long and varies from light yellow
or tan colored to deep olive-green or deep green which appears
almost blackish, the abdomen being always more or less mottled.
The rather long, tapering, honey-tubes are jet black, and the legs
and antennae pale w^hitish-yellow. The young nymphs always

* Aphis gossypii Glover. Family Aphididoe. See F. H. Chittenden,
Circular 80, Bureau of Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.

384 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

show a distinct 3'ello wish-brown or pale salmon-colored area just
in front of the honey-tubes and a dark transverse band between
them. The nymphs of the last stage, in which the wing pads are
visible, are marked on the back with little flecks of silvery white,
waxy bloom. The winged female is about the same length and the
wings expand one-fifth to one-quarter inch. The color varies as

Fig. 277. — The melon aphis {Aphis gossypii Glov.): a, winged female; aa,
enlarged antenna of same; a6, dark female, side view, sucking juice
from leaf; h, young nymph; c, last stage of nymph of winged form;
d, wingless female — greatly enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. D. Agr.)

in the wingless form, but there are black spots along the sides
of the abdomen, and the head and thorax are dark as shoAATi in
Fig. 277.

The melon-aphis is found throughout the country southward
through Central America, and though it often does serious damage
in the North it is worse in the South. It has a long list of food
plants, among the crops injured by it being all the cucurbs, cotton.

INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 385

okra, orange, and its occasional food-plants include many others,
as it is found on a long list of weeds, most abundantly on shep-
herd's purse and pepper-grass, upon which it nudtiplics in early
spring and probalil}' passes the winter.

Life Histori/. — The lif(^ history is much the same as that of most
of our common aphides, tiiough of some phases we are still in
ignorance in spite of the most careful stud}'. The females give
birth to from four to ten aphides a day, depending upon the tem-
perature and food supply, and these become full grown in from six
to eight days. As the affected leaf becomes non-succulent the
aphides migrate to another leaf and often cluster on the terminal,
which is checked and stunted. As they become more numerous,
winged forms migrate to other plants and within two weeks a
colony of fifty or more will form the progeny of every one born
by the immigrating female. RepVoduction seems to go on this
way throughout the year, being stopped only by the cold of win-
ter, as far as has been observed. No true sexual foi'ms or eggs, as
are known to occur with other nearly related species, have been
ol^served, and the viviparous forms have been found throughout
the winter in Colorado and Texas.

Enemies. — ^Fortunately the melon-aphis is subject to the unre-
mitting attack of many insect enemies, the list including .some
thirty-five species. Among the more important are the common
ladybird-beetles and their larvue, of which the convergent lady-
bird,* the nine-spotted ladybird, f and the spotted ladybird,|
shown in Figs. 1-5, are among the most effective, and the maggots
of various common syrphus-flies, and the aphis-Hons.§ Even
more beneficial are the little parasitic flies whose larva' live within
the maggots and destroy myriads of them with incredible swift-
ness. The most common of these H are the same as the most
common parasite of the green bug (Fig. 1 13) , and they often destroy
the aphides over a whole field in a few days. They are most effect-

* Hippodamia convergens Guer.

t Coccinella 9-notata Herbst.

X Megilla maculata DeG. Family Coccinellidoe.

§ Family Chrysopidoe.

•| Lysiphlebus testaceipes Cress. Family Braconidoe.

386 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Fig. 278.— Melon aphides whifh have been killed by parasites on cotton leaf.

INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 387

ive in bright, warm weather, when tliey n^produce most rapidly,
but in cool, moist weather they reproduce l)ut slowly, and if such
a summer follows similar weather conditions during the spring, the
aphides multiply rapidly without a corresponding increase of their
enemi(>s and serious damage results. Inasmuch as these same
enemies attack (he cal)bage-apliis, Professoi' C K. Saiiboi'n * has
suggested that the cabbage-aphis might l)e encoui'aged to nudtiply
on crops planted near melons or cucumbtM's, so that an abundance
of parasites and insect enemies might be in readiness to attack the
melon-aphis wh(m it aj)pears. This might be done by planting
kale, rape, oi' wild mustard in the fall, upon which the cabl)age-
aphides will pass the winter and will multiply in early spiing.
This trap-crop should be planted in rows around the prospective
melon-field, and if the latter be large, rows should be planted
through it. If the kale does not soon become infested with the
cabbage-aphis, transport some from the nearest cabbage-patch.
The ladybirds and parasites multiply rapidly with plenty of the
cabbage-aphides for food, and as soon as the food supply becomes
scarce they are forced to migrate and will search out any colonics
of melon-aphides.

Control. — The most important factor in the control of this,
as well as man}- other aphides, is constant watchfulness, inspect-
ing the plants frequentl}' and destroying badly infested individual
plants and treating small areas l)efore the pest becomes spread
throughout the crop.

Where a few young plants are affected or ]:)efore the leaves have
become badly curled, the aphides may be destroyed by spraj'ing
with kerosene emulsion, containing 5 to 8 per cent kerosene,
M'hale-oil soap, 1 pound to 5 gallons of water, or tobacco extracts.
Emulsion must be carefully made or burning will result. The
aphides must be hit to destroy them, and it is necessary to use an
underspray nozzle (page 75), or to turn the vines over and then
re-turn them, so that all the aphides may be covered. After
the foliage is well curled it is practically impossible to reach the
aphides by spraying, and fumigation must be used.

* See Bulletin 89, Texas Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 44.

388 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Fumigation is much the most satisfactory method of destroy-
ing the aphides, for it will kill them all even though the leaves be
curled. Carbon l)isulfide was foi-niei'ly used quite extensively
for this puipose. a teaspoonful being applied for each cubic foot
of space under Ihe tul), ])ox, or covei' used. Recently, however, it
has been shown thai 1()l)a('co-pa])er is a nuu'h more satisfactory
fumigant and it lias been extensively used with excellent results.
A light frame is made large enough to cover the size of plants to be
treated and covered witli clieap nnislin which is sized with oil.
The cloth should extend on the gi'ound for about a foot, so that
it may be covei'ed with earth. One man can look after about
ten frames. After the frame; is placed over the plant a sheet
or half sheet of the to])acco-paper (according to the ])rand used
and experience with it) is torn in two and a half placed in
perforated tin cans in opposite corners of the frame, and ignited.
Earth is then heaped over the flap and the fumigation should
continue ten to thirty minutes, according to the strength used,
and other conditions, as experience will determine. This treat-
ment has the advantage that it destroys all of the aphides while
the predaceous and parasitic insects are merely stupefied and
soon revive and feed on any remaining aphides. "Fumigating-
kind " tobacco powder might pro])ably be used instead of paper
and is used ver}' extensively for the same purpose in fumigating
green-houses for this pest. Many tobacco preparations are on
the market for greenhouse fumigation and will usually be found
satisfactoi'v when used as directed.

The Squash-bug *

About the time the vines begin to run a wilted leaf is found
here and there which examination shows to be clue to the common
brownish-black squash-bug. If search be made in early morning,
the bugs will usually l)e found secreted under clods of earth, or

* Anasa tristis DeG. Family Coreidce. See Weed and C'onradi, Bulletin
89, N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta.; F. H. Chittenden, Circular 39, Div. Ent., U. S.
Dept. Agr.

INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 389

Fig. 279. —Squash-bugs and nymphs at work on young plant — natural size.

390 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

whatever rubbish may be near the vines. They are about
three-quarters inch long, and too well known to need other
description.

Life Historij. — For the next month or six weeks the females
deposit their eggs, mostly on the under sides of the leaves. ' They
are oval, about one-sixteenth inch long, laid in irregularly
shaped clusters. When neAjvly laid they are pale yellow-brown,
but this soon grows darker, s^ that the stage of their development

may be told by the color.
In from six to fifteen days,
depending upon tiie tem-

perature, the

hatch.

The young nymphs are
brilliantly colored, tlu> an-
tenme and legs being bright
crimson, the head and an-
terior thorax a lighter ci'ini-
son, and the posterior thorax
and abdomen a bright green,
but in a little while the
crimson changes to a jet
black. The young bugs re-
main near each other, suck-
ing tlie juices from the
foliage and soon causing the
leaves to wither. During
their growth, which requires
four to five weeks, they moult some five times. The adult bugs
appear in August, Ijut in the North they neither mate nor lay eggs
that season, but feed until frosts blacken the leaves, when they tlis-
appear into winter quarters, hiljcrnating along the etlge of wood-
lands, beneath leaves, under logs, boards or whatever shelter
may be available. In the South there are prol^ably two or three
broods a year according to the latitude.

Control. — The eggs are easily seen and should be picked off
and destroyed. The adults cannot be killed by insecticides, but

Fig. 280. — Eggs of the squash-bug — en-
larged. (Photo by R. I. Smith.)

INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 391

the nymphs may be destroyed by spraying with kerosene emulsion.
The adult bugs may be readily trapped by placing small pieces
of board or similar shelter near the vines, under which they will
hide at night and fioni which they may be gathered in the early

Fig. 281. — The squasli-bug: a, ma-
ture female; h, side view of head
showing beak; c, abdominal seg-
ments of male; d, same of female;
a, twice natural size; h, c, d, more
enlarged. (After Chittenden, U.S
Dept. .Agr.)

Fig. 282. — The squash-bug: adult at
left, and different stages of nymphs
— about 1^ times natural size.
(Photo by Quaintance.)

morning. Cucumbers and melons may ho ]ii'otectcd In* planting
early squash among them, as the bugs prefer the scjuash, from
which they may be collected. Cleaning up the vines in the fall
is evidenth' of importance in reducing the munber which will
hibernate.

The Squash Ladybird ='•'

Although almost all of the ladybii'd IxH'tlcs are exceedingly
beneficial, this species, with its near relative the bean-ladj'bird
(page 315,) are the exceptions which pi'ove the rule, being the only

* Epilachna borealift Fab. Family Coccinellidce. See F. H. Chittenden,
Bulletin 19, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; J. B. Smith, Bulletin 94, N. j'.
Agr. Exp. Sta.

392

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

injurious forms with which we have to contend. Both the beetles
and hirvse feed on the foliage of various eucurbs, but prefer that
of the squash. It is an Eastern species, not being injui'ious west
of the Mississippi and l^eing most troublesome in the Middle
Atlantic States. The l)eetle is nearly hemisplieiical in shape,
slightly oval, about one-third inch long, yellowish or reddish-
brown, marked with seven black spots on each wing-cover and
four smaller ones on the thorax as shown in Fig. 283.

Life History. — The life-history, as given by Dr. Chittenden for
the District of Columbia and northward, is as follows: "The

Fig. 283. — The squash ladybiid {Epilachne boreaUs Fab.): a, larva; b, pupa;
c, adult beetle — three times natural size; (/, egg — four times natural
size; e, surface of egg highly magnified. (After Chittenden, U. S.
Dept. Agr.)

insect hibernates in the adult condition under bai'k or other
convenient shelter and appears abroad sometime in May or
June. I']gg deposition has been observed in the latter part of
June, and there is evidence that the eggs are deposited also much
later." The eggs are about three-tenths inch long, elongate-
oval, of a yellow color, and laid in irregular clusters of from 12 to
50. " They hatch in from six to nine days, and the larva? begin to
feed at once on the leaves, causing them to wither and die." The
larva is yellow, with six rows of black branching spines, and is
about one-half inch long when grown. " The larva attains full
development in from two to four weeks, ceases feeding, and attaches

INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 393

itself by its anal extremity to a leaf, and next day sheds its larval
skin, which is pushed down toward the end of the bod}', when the
pupa stage is assumed. The la va matures anytime from the
middle of July to near the mid-
dle of September. In the pupa
state the insect remains from
six to nine days, when the skin
separates down the back and
the perfect beetle emerges,
the new brood appearing as
early as the last of July.
After feeding for some time
the beetles disappear for hiber-
nation, . . . beginning al)out
the middle of September."
The adults have the habit of
marking out a circular area
of the leaf, which seems to
cause the tissue to wilt, and
then feeding within this area.
The larvtE are to be found
feeding on the under surface of
the foliage in July and August.

Control. — Usually hand picking the beetles and eggs will
control th(» pest, but if alnuidant it may be readily destroyed by
spraying or dusting with arsenicals.

Fig. 284.— Work of the squash lady-
bird— greatty reduced. (After W.
E. Britton.)'

The Squash-vine Borer *

In many localities the most serious pest of squash is the
Squash-vine Borer, and although other cucurbs are sometimes
injured, they are relatively free from attack if squash or pumpkins
are present. The larva? bore in the stems, causing them to rot

* Melittia satyriniformin Hbn. Family Sesiidce. See Circular 38, Bureau
of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

394 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

where affected, so that they break off and the plant wilts and dies.
The presence of the borer is indicated by the coarse yellowish
excrement which it forces from its Ijurrow and which is found
on the ground l)cneath, and l^y the sudden wilting of the leaves.
Injury is most severe at the base of the vine, which gradually
decays, so that it is severed and the whole plant dies. A half-
dozen or more larva? are often found in a single stem, and as many
as forty have been taken from one vine, the larvae attacking all

Fig. 285. — The .squaHh-vine horvr {MelUiia salyriniforrnin Hbn.): a, male
moth; h, feniale with wingfs folded a1 re.st; c, eggs shown on bit of stem;
(/, full-grown larva in vine; . r, ])upa; /, i)upal cell — all one-third larger
than natural size. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dcpt. Agr.)

parts of tlu! vin(> and even the petioles and large ribs of the
leaves when abundant. Injury is worst on Hubbard, marrow,
cymlings and late varieties of squash.

The adult is one of the clear- winged moths with a wing expanse
of about 1| inches, the fore-wings l)oing opaque, dark olive-
green in color, with a metallic lustre and a fringe of brownish
l:)lack. The hind-wings are transparent, with a bluish reflection,
and the veins and marginal fringe black. The abdomen is marked
with orange, or red, black and bronze, and the legs are bright
orange, with tarsi black with white bands. The species occurs
throughout the States east of the Rockies and southward into
Central and South America.

INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 395

Life History. — The moths appear soon after their food-plants
start growth, from mid-April along the Gulf Coast to June 1st,
in New Jersey, and late June or early Jul}' in Connecticut. They
fly only in the daytime, and their clear wings and brightly marked
bodies give them a close resemblance to large wasps. The eggs
are laid on all parts of the plant, but chiefl}' on the stems, par-
ticularly near the base. The oval egg is of a dull red color and
about one-twenty-fifth inch long. The moth deposits her

Fig. 280. A squash stem cut open showing borers within. (Photo by Quain-

tance.)

eggs singly, and one individual has been ol)served to la}" as many
as 212. They hatch in one or two weeks. The young larva enters
the main stem and tunnels through it, and often enters the leaf-
petioles branching from it. It is a soft, stout , Avhitish caterpillar,
with a small black head, and about one inch long when full grown.
The larvae reach maturity in about four weeks and then enter
the earth, where they make tough silken cocoons, coated with
particles of earth, an inch or two below the surface. In the
South the larvae transform to pupae from which a second generation

396 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

of moths emerges in late July, but in the North the larvae hibernate
in the cocoons over winter, and transform the next spring. The
pupa is about five-eighths inch long, dark brown, and with
a horn-like process on the head between the eyes. By the aid
of this the pupa cuts open one end of the cocoon and with the
hook-like spines on the abdomen wriggles to the surface of the
earth before transforming to the moth. As indicated, there is
but one generation in the North, a partial second brood in the
latitude of New Jersey and the District of Columbia, and two
full generations in the South.

Control. — As the larvie work within the vines, insecticide
treatment is useless, and the pest must be controlletl liy methods
of culture.

Obviously the vines should Ijc raked uj) and destroyed as
soon as the crop is gathered, so as to destroy all of the borers
within them. As the larvie or pupae hibernate over winter in
the soil, it has been found that frecjuent light harrowing in tlie
fall will bring them to the surface, and that deei) plowing in the
early spring will then bury any sui'viving so that the moths
cannot emerge. Rotation of the crop will evidently decrease the
number of moths. Where the pest is abundant late squash may
be protected by planting rows of early summer squashes as soon
as possi))le. These will attract the moths so that there will be
relatively few eggs deposited on the main ci'o}) planted later. As
soon as the early crop is gathered, or as soon as it becomes well
infested, if it is used only for a trap, the vines should be raked
up and burned so as to destroy all eggs and larvte. It is well
to cover the vines with earth one or two feet from the base
so as to induce the growth of secondary roots, which will support
the plant in case the vine is severed lower down. The old-
fashioned method of slitting the vines with a knife and thus
killing the borers is about the only means of destroying them
after they have become established. The position of a borer
may be detected by the excrement extruded from its bun-ow,
and if the wound be covered with moist earth it will assist the
healing.

INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 397

The Pickle Worm *

The pickle worm is so calkHl bcM'auso it was first noted as
injuriuf;- cucuinlxTs ii;i-o\vn for pickling. ))nt in tlu^ (lulf States,
where it is most injnrious it is more commonly a pest of melons,
and, with th(> following sjxM'ies, with which it is often confused,
is often known as the " melon worm." Injui'v in the Middle
States occurs only j)erio(lically, though it has been noted in
Illinois and southei'ii Michigan, l)ut in the CJulf States it is always
a serious pest of all the cucurbs, destroying the blossoms, mining
the stems, and boring into the lipening fruit.

The moth luis a. wing expanse of al)out 1 \ inches, is yellowish-
brown with a purplish iridescence, and is ivadily recognized by
an irregular yellowish transparent spot on the middle of the
fore-wings, and the basal half of the hind-wings of the same color.
The abdomen terminates in a consijicuous brush of large blackish
scales.

Life Hisfori/. — The moths cmei'ge in late spring and deposit
the eggs either singly or in clustei's of 3 to 8 on the flowers, buds,
or tender tei'minals. The yellowish-white egg is about one-
thirtieth inch long, and rather elliptical. The first larvae
are to be fountl in Georgia by the middle of June. The young
larvae which hatch from eggs laid on the terminals bore into
stems and leaves and later often tunnel out the vines like the
squash-vine borer. Those from eggs laid on the blossoms usu-
ally feed in the l^lossoms, and a half-dozen may often be
found feeding in single scjuash l)lossoms, for which they seem
to have a decided preference. As they gi^ow older the larvae
wand(M' from one plant to another, often boring into several
fruits. The older larvae bore into the fruit, the excrement
being pushed (nit from the orifice and later accumulating in
the cavity within. A single larva boring into the rind will do
sufficient injury to start decay and ruin the fruit, and often a

* Diaphania nUiddlis Cramer. Family Pyraustidce. See A. L. Quaintance,
Bulletin 54, Geo. Agr. Exp. Sta., R. I. Smith, Bulletin 214, N, U. Agr,
Exp, Sta.

398 INSFXT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

half-dozen or more will be found in a single melon. Until half
grown the larvse are marked with transverse rows of black
spots. The full-grown larva is about three-quarters inch long,

Fig. 287. — The pickle worm {Diaphatiin nitidalis Cramer): larva, pupa, and
adult — all enlarged. (Photcs by Quaintance.)

greenish or yellowish-green, with head 8.nd prothoracic shield
brown. The larva reaches maturity in about two weeks, when
a thin silken cocoon is made in the fold of a leaf in which the

INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 399

pupal stage is assumed, which occupies about a week. The pupa
is one-half to one inch long, brown, with wing and leg sheaths
Jighter, and the tip of the abdomen bears a group of sliort curved
spines which hold the pupa more securely in the cocoon. During
July and August the complete life cycle requires about lour weeks
in Georgia, and at least three definite generations have been
recognized, the injury by the
larvae being most severe in
July and August, evidently
by the second generation.
The winter is passed in the
pupal stage in the foliage or
trash remaining on the field.
Control. — As injury is worst
in late sunnner, early plant-
ings and early-maturing va-
rieties are but little injured.
The thorough destruction of
the vines, foliage, and trash
on the field after the crop is
secured is of the utmost im-
portance in controlling this
as well as other pests of
cucurbs, and may probably
be accomplished with this
species by deeply plowing
under the refuse. Professor
A. L. Quaintance, to whom
we are indebted for our knowl-
edge of this pest, has found that the moths greatly prefer to
oviposit on squash and that it may be succ(>ssfully used as a
trap-crop for the protection of other cucurbs. Rows of summer
squash should be planted through the cucumber or melon fields
as early as possible, the rows being planted every two weeks so
there will be flowers through July. The squash bloom , with the
contained larvae, must be collected and destroyed at frequent

Fig. 288. — Squash flower infebted
with pickle worms. (Photo by
(Quaintance.)

400 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

intervals. Otherwise the squash will merely augment the injury, as
the larvae will migrate to the crop. Careful tests of this method
showed almost complete protection to muskmelons. The use of

Fig. 289 — Pickle wnnns at work on a cucumber. (Phulu by (iuainlance.)

arsenicals has been of little value against this pest as far as tested,
but as they should \)v applied to control the next species, may be
of some incidental value.

The Melon Caterpillar *

This species is very similar to the last in life liisloi'v and habits
and is very connnonly confused with it. It sccujs to be injurious
only in the Gulf States, though tli(> moths luu'e l)een taken from
Canada to Central America. The moth is a beautiful in.soct with
wings of a pearly iridescent whiteness, bordered with l)rownish-
black and expanding al)out an inch. The antciioi' half of the
thorax and head is the same color as the wing bord(>r, while the
abdomen is white, tinged with l)i-ownish toward the tip, which is
surmounted by a l)rush of Icnig dark scal(>s. The larva> are very
similar to those of the pickle wonn, and the life history so far as
ascertained seems to he practically the same. The essential differ-

* Diaphania hyalinita Linn. P^amily Pyraustidoe. See A. L. Quaintance,
Bulletin 45, Geo. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 42; R, I. Smith, Bulletin 214, N. C,
Agr. Exp. Sta.

INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 401

ence in the liabits of this species is that the young larvae very com-.',.,
monly feed on the foHagc. Later
on they mine into the stems and
fruit and are I'eadily confused
with those of the hist specie's.

Control.— Tho fad that the
young hirvie feed on tlie fohage
makes it possible to destroy
them -witli arsenicals, and l)y
spraying the young foliage with
arsenate of lead 3 pounds to the
barrel, as advised for the striped
cucumber-beetle, they should be readily controlled. The cultui'al
methods advised for the control of the last species will of course
be equally applicable for this.

Fic 290. — The melon-worm moth
(Diuphania hyalinita Linn.) — en-
larged. ('Photo by Quaintance.)

Fig. 29L — The melon-vorni — enlarged. (Photo by R. I. Smith.)

CHAPTER XX

MISCELLANEOUS CARDEN INSECTS

The Pale-striped Flea-beetle *

Enormous numbers of the Pale-striped Flea-beetles often
appear in late June or early July and nearly ruin the young crops
they may attack before being brought under control. Such out-
breaks occur only periodically, so that usually the grower is unpre-
pared to cope with them, which is true of the appearance of many

Fig. 292. — The pale-striped flea-beetle {Systena blanda Mels.): a, larva;
b, beetle; c, eggs; d, sculpture of egg; e, anal segment of larva from side;
/, s me from above; a, d, six times natural size; e, f, more enlarged;
g, the banded flea-beetle (Systena t(tniata Say) — six times natural size.
(After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agi-.)

of our worst insect pests. These flea-beetles are almost omnivorous
as regards food, for although particularly injurious to com and
tomatoes, they have also injured beans, beets, potatoes, egg-plant,
carrots, melons and other cucurbs, turnips and other crucifers,

* Systena blanda Mels. Family Chrysomelidoe. See F. H. Chittenden,
Bulletin 23, n.s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 22; S. A. Forbes, 18th Report
State Ent, 111., p. 21.

402

MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 403

strawberry, cotton, oats, peanuts, pear foliage, etc., and many com-
mon weeds, so that it may be safely said that when abundant they
will attack almost any crop at hand. The species seems to occur
practically throughout the United States, but injury has been most
common in the Middle States cast of the plains.

The beetle is al)out one-eighth inch long, cream-colored, with
the wing-covers marked with three stripes of dull light-brown,
and the eyes and abdomen are ])lack. A nearly related species,
the banded flea-beetle,* is very similar in appearance, the dark
stripes being expanded until it is a polished ])lack with two
white stripes (Fig. 292/>), and the two species have until i-ecently
been commonly considered as identical. They are similar in life
history and habits so far as known, and may ))c considered as
the same for practical purposes.

Life History. — Very little is known of the life history. The
beetles usually appear in late June and early July, coming out in
enormous numbers, gnawing small holes in the foliage of the plants
attacked, so that when abundant thej' completely defoliate the
plant in two or three days and often necessitate replanting. Dr.
Chittenden has observed the eggs, which were deposited in the
District of Columbia from June 10th to July 8th. The egg is ellip-
tical, about one-fortieth inch long, and light buff-yellow in
color. The larvse feed on the roots of various common-weeds,
including lambsquarter and Jamestown weed. They were
observed to be full grown by the middle of May in central Illinois
and pupated May 26th, from which beetles emerged June 17th.
The larva is a whitish, slender grub much like those of other flea-
beetles. It is about one-eighth inch long when full grown, with
light-brown head, and the anal segment tapers to a conspicu-
ous prolonged process, surmounted at the apex by a number of
stiff, spiny hairs. From the data recorded it would seem probable
that the insect winters in the larval stage on the roots of various
weeds and develops to the adult in early summer when the
eggs are laid. There seems to be no direct evidence of a second
generation.

* Systena toeniata Say.

404 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Control. — The destruction of the weeds on which the larvse
develop is of obvious importance, and it would be well to plow
under deeply any fields grown up in weeds during late summer.
Bordeaux mixture is possil^ly the l^est repcllant for these beetl(\s,
though they will l^e driven off by covering the plants with any
dust which thoroughly coats the foliage. I'sually the best method
will be to spray the plants thoroughly with Bordeaux mixture
containing 3 pounds of arsenate of lead or one-third pound Paris
green per l^arrel. All parts of the foliage must be thoroughly
coated. Good success has also attended dusting the plants with
Paris green and flour and by spraying the l^eetles with kerosene
emulsion. Powdered arsenate of lead dusted over the foliage
while the dew is on would probably prove effective, or it might be
sprayed at the i-ate of 3 to 5 pounds to the liai'rel.

The Tarnished Plant-bug *

The tarnished plant-bug is one of the most common and
troublesome plant-bugs throughout the country from Canada to
Mexico. Seemingly it is nearly omnivoi'ous, as it attacks almost
all of the common garden crops, small fruits, tender shoots of fruit
trees and 3'oung nurseiy trees, many flowei'ing plants, and most of
our common weeds. Both nymphs and adults injure the plants
by sucking out th(> juices, and on many plants a small black spot
appears where the insect has been feeding, which causes a deform-
atifjn of the stem or leaf, as in the " l)uttoning " of strawljerries,
or tends to " l)light " the terminal as in the case of dahlias, pota-
toes, and similar crops.

The adult is nearly one-quarter inch long, of a brassy-
brown color, marked with lolack and yellow, and the thorax with
red. The color and markings are quite varial)le. The n}'mphs
feed upon the same plants as the adults and pass through four
stages, shown in Fig. 293. The first stage is only one-twentieth
inch long and yellowish or yellowish-green. The second stage

* Lygus pratensis Linn. Family Capsidoe. See Stedman, Bulletin 47.
Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta.

MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS

405

is about twice as huge, and similarly colored, except that there arc
two pairs of dark spots on the thorax and one on the middle of the
third abdominal segment, which grow more distinct in the last two
stages. With the third stage the small wing patls become visible
and in the fourth stage they extend halfway down the al)domcn.

Life History. — The adults hibernate over winter under any
shelter available, such as the trash on affected fields, under
leaves, boards, stones, etc., and emerge in early spring. The
eggs are laid in Missouri in April. But little is known of the

Fig. 293. — The tarnished i)lant-bus {Li/i/ns pratru.^is Linn.): (/, l>,r,il, four
stages of nymphs; c, adult bviR— all about four times natural size. (After
Forbes and Chittenden, U. ^J. Dept. Asr.)

places of oviposition, except that Taylor * has shown that
sometimes apples are severcl}- dimpled by the egg i)unctures.
It is evident, therefoiv, that the eggs are insertetl in the sttnns
or leaves of the food-plants. The pale yellow egg is about
one-thirtieth inch long, oval, elongate, and flared at the
outer end, so as to be somewhat bottle-shaped. The first genera-
tion becomes full grown in about a month, after which all stages
* See E. P. Taylor, Journal of Economic Entomology, Yo\. I, p. 370.

406 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

may be found feeding together until September or October.
In southern Missouri Professor Stedman states that there are
three generations, while in northern Missouri only two, but the
exact number has not been carefully determined.

Control. — This is an exceedingly difficult insect to control,
owing to the large number of food-plants and the fact that the
adult takes wing and flies off quickly upon the least disturbance.
As it sucks its food, arsenical insecticides are of course useless,
and some contact insecticide must be used with which the insect
may be hit. The nymphs may l^e sprayed at any time, but to
hit the adult bugs they must he sprayed in early morning, while
still sluggish. Spraying will be profitable where the nymphs
are abundant, but it is doul)tful whether it will ))e found a satis-
factory means of combating the adults. Ten per cent kerosene
emulsion and tobacco extracts have been used successfully.
Where they are abundant the adults may be collected in consider-
able numbers by sweeping the foliage in early morning with a
strong ins(H't net and then dropping them into kerosene. Clean
culture, including the destruction of all weeds, and such vegeta-
tion or trash as may furnish hilxM-nating quartei"s, are important,
as it is observed that injury is always worse where weeds have
been allowed to nuiltiply and the ground has been covered with
weeds and trash.

The Garden Webworm *

The term garden webworm is possibly a misnomer, for although
these little caterpillars frequently do more or less injury to various
garden crops when they l)ecome overabundant and migrate to
them from th(> weeds on which they normally feed, and occasionally
do some damage to sugar beets, they are best known as a pest of
corn and cotton. Though the species occurs throughout the
United States and south to South Ani(>rica, it has been most
injurious from Nebraska southward and east to Mississippi and

* Lozostege Kimilalis Gn. Family Pyraustidoe. See C. V. Riley, Report
U. S. Comm. Agr. for 1885, p. 265; Sanderson, Bulletin 57, Bureau of Ento-
mology, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 11.

MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS

407

Illinois. The larviB feed normally on the pigweed or careless
weed (Amaranthus spp.) from which they sometimes receive the
local name of " careless worm," and only when they become
overabundant on th(>so weeds do they usually increase sufficiently
to migrate from them and attack crops.

The moth is a yellowish, buff or grayish-ln-own color, marked
as shown in Fig. 294, and with a wing expanse of about three-
quarters of an inch. The larva also varies in color from pale and
greenish-yellow to dark j^ellow, and is marked with numerous
black tubercles as shown in Fig. 294^ b, c.

Life History. — The hibernating habits are not known , but from
analogy with the beet webworm, and the appearance of the

Fig. 294. — The garden webworm {Loxoslege similalin On.): a, male moth;
b, c, larvae; d, anal segment of same; e, abdominal segment of same from
side; /, pupa; g, tip of abdomen of same; a, b, c, f, somewhat enlarged;
d, e, g, more enlarged. (After Riley and Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

moths, it seems proljal)le that the winter is ])assod l)y the larvae
or pupae in the soil. The moths appear in Texas liy mid-April
and in Central Illinois in late May and early June. The yellowish
eggs are laid on the foliage in small patches of from S to 20 and
in Texas hatch in three or four days. The larv« of the first
generations feed on weeds or alfalfa, where it is gi'own, and then
migrate to corn and cotton or garden truck, the former crops
being attacked when six or eight inches high. In feeding the
caterpillars spin a fine web, which gradually envelops the plant,
of which nothing is left but the skeletons of the leaves when the
larvae are abundant. The larvae become full grown in about
three weeks in summer, when they descend to the soil and pupate

408

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

in small silken cells on or just below the surface. The moths
emerge about eight days later, so that in midsummer the com-
plete life cycle occupies about a month. In Texas there are
probably five generations a year, and in Nebraska and Illinois
three or four generations.

Control. — The plowing of infested land in late fall or winter,
or thorough disking of alfalfa will be found to largely control the
pest. Where it appears on cultivated crops it may be readily
destroyed by at once spraying or dusting with Paris green or
arsenate of lead. The destruction of the weeds upon which it
feeds is obviously important in preventing the undue multiplica-
tion of the pest.

The Rhubarb Curculio *

Rhubarb is but little troubled with insect pests, but occasionally
the stalks are found with numerous punctures from which the

Fig. 295. — The rhubarb curcuho [Lixus cuncavus Say): o, beetle; b, egg;
c, newly hatched larva; d, full grown larva; e, pupa; /, back view of
last abdominal segment of pupa — all about twice natural size. (After
Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

juice exudes. This has been caused by the feeding and oviposi-
tion of a large rusty-brown snout-beetle, which is usually

* Lixus concavus Say. Family Curculionidoe. See F. H. Chittenden,
Bulletin 23, n. s., Division of Entomology, p. 61.

MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 409

found on the affected plants. It is about three-quarters inch
long, and will be readily recognized from Fig. 295. The beetles
hibernate over winter and feed on dock, in the stalks of which the
eggs are laid in May. Although eggs are laid in rhubarb, they
fail to hatch or the young larva? die. The grubs become full
grown by midsummer and the beetles emerge in late summer
and feed a little before entering hil)ernation.

Control. — As the beetles are sluggish and readily found,
they may be easily destroyed b}- handpicking. Dock plants
near the rhubarb patch should he pulled amd destroyed in early
summer after the beetles have finished laying their eggs.

The Celery or Greenhouse Leaf-tyer *

This little caterpillar has l)ecomc known as the celery leaf-
tyer, for although it damages cabbage, beets, tobacco, lettuce,
cauliflower, parsley, ciu-umber, sweet pea, and strawberry, it
has been specially injurious to celery. It is equally well known
as the greenhouse leaf-tyer, for it is one of the worst insect enemies
of the florist, attacking violet, rose, chrysanthemum, carnation,
and other greenhouse plants. On celery the larvae both bore
in the stems and web up the foliage upon which they feed upon
the surface, skeletonizing the leaves. The usual method of
feeding, to which is du(> the common name, is to fasten together
two contiguous leaves, to curl over the edge of a single leaf, or
to spin a thin silken web within which to feed.

The moth resembles that of- the garden webworm, having a
wing expanse of about three-ciuarters of an inch, the fore- wings
being light clay-ljrown, suffuscMl with reddish or ochreous Ijrown
and marked with blackish cross-lines as shown in the illustration,
and the hind- wings are gray with darker margins. The full-
grown larva is about three-quarters inch long and of a
translucent greenish-white color. Down the middle of the back

* Phlyctoenia rubigalis Guen. Family Pyralidae. See F. H. Chittenden,
Bulletin 27, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; M. V. Slingerland, Bulletin
190, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 159.

410 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

is a narrow green stripe, which is bordered on either side by a
wider greenish-white stripe. The head is dark straw color,
mottled with darker, often purplish dots. The species is widely
distributed, occurring in practically all parts of the United States,
and may be readily introduced into greenhouses upon plants.
Life History. — The eggs are very much flattened, translucent,
broadly oval disks about one thirty-second inch long, laid in clus-
ters of from eight to twelve, several often overlapping. The eggs
hatch in from five to twenty days, according to the temperature.
The larva? feed mostly at night and become full grown in from

Fig. ^y^J. — The celery leaf-tyer {PhlyctcE7da rubigalis Hbn.j: a, moth; b,
same in natural position at rest; c, egg mass; d, larva from above; e,
same from side; /, head of same; g, pupa case; h, chrysalis — one-half
larger than natural size except c, which is twice natural size, and /,
more enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

three to five weeks. They transform to pupa? within the webs
which they have formed betwe.en the leaves, and the moths
emerge one or two weeks later. The number of generations
which occur out of doors and the method of hibernation have not
been determined, but there are probably at least three generations
in the open, while the number in greenhouses will depend upon
the temperature and the food available.

Control. — No very thorough experiments in the practical con-
trol of the pest on field crops seem to have been made. A thorough
application of arsenate of lead as soon as the young larvae are
noticed and before they have webbed the foliage badly would

MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS

411

doubtless destroy them, but after they have become estal)Hshe(l in
their webs, handpicking will prol')al)ly be the only effective remetl}'
on such a crop as celery.

The Celery Caterpillar *

Everyone who grows celery, parsley or carrots is familiar with
the large black-striped green caterpillar which feeds on their
foliage, as it is probably the most common pest of those plants in
all parts of the country, ragging the foliage and attacking the
blossoms and undeveloped seeds. It is the larva of our most

Fig. 297. — The celery caterpillar {Papilio polyxenes Fab.) : n, full grown larva,
side view; b, front view of head showing extended osmateria; c, male
butterfly; d, egg; e, young larva; /, suspended chrysalis — about natural
size except d. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

common Ijlack swallowtail ]:)utterfly, shown natural size in Fig.
297. The wings of the male are velvety black with bands of yel-
low spots. On the inner angle of the hind-wing is a well-marked
eyespot, and the hind-wing terminates in a distinct ''tail." The
female is somewhat larger, the inner row of yellow spots is

* Papilio polyxenex Fab. Family Papilionidoe.

•412 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

wanting, and tlic liiiul-wings are covered with pale-blue scales
on the posterior half. There is considerable variation, however
in the color of Ijoth sexes.

Life History. — In the North the winter is passed in the chrysalis
stage and the butterflies appear in May in New England, while in
the far South the l^utterflics hibernate over winter and appear in
March or April. The eggs are laid on the foliage and are of globu-
lar form, about one-twenty-fifth inch in diameter, at first
pale honey -yellow, but later reddish-brown. The eggs hatch in
from four to nine days. The young larvae are quite dissimilar
from the older stages, locing nearly Ijlack with a white band around
the middle of the body (Fig. 297, e). The larvje feed exclusively
on umbelliferous plants, including besides those mentioned, cara-
way, fennel, parsnip, dill, wild carrot, wild parsnip, and other
weeds of this family. The full-grown larva is shown, natural
size, in Fig. 297, a. It is bright green, sometimes yellowish, and
marked with rings and spots of velvet}' l)lack as illustrated. Just
l)ack of the prothorax is a pair of memljranous yellow horns called
osmateria, which give off a peculiar pungcnit odor, which is cpiite
disagreeable and evidently aids in frightening away enemies.
These osmateria are soft, retractile oi'gans, which ai'e drawn back
between the segments and are extruded only when the larva is
disturbed.

In the fai" South the larva will become grown in ten days, but
in the North it re(iuires thi'ee to four weeks. The caterpillar
then attaches itself to some part of the plant by the anal prolegs,
and fastens a strong loop of silk ai'ouiid the thorax, and sheds its
skin, leaving the chrysalis or pu})a firmly attached to the leaf or
stem as shown hi Fig. 297, /. The chrysalis is a dull gray color
marked with black and brown and a))out \\ inches long. In from
ten days to two weeks the l)utterfiy enicM'ges from the chrysalis.
Thus the complete life cycle may be passcnl in twenty-two days in
the South to eight weeks in the North. In the North tliere are
but two generations a year, while in the South there are probably
three or four.

Control. — The caterpillars are so readily seen, and if not seen

MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS

413

they soon reveal their presence by the pecuHar odor when dis-
turbed, tliat they may usually l)e picked off and crushed, and so
rarely IxH'onie sufficiently lunnerous to warrant other treatment.
Ihey may be i-cadily controlled by spi'ayinii; or dusting' with
arsenicals.

The Celery Looper *

This species is very closely lelated to the cabbage looper (page
361) and occurs throughout the Northern States east of the Rocky
Mountains. According to Forbes and Hart it is moi'e common
than th.e cabbage loopei- in Illinois, wliei'c it is a serious pest of
celery and has been i'eai'e(l on sugai'-beet, l)ut elsewhei'e it is not
as conunon.

The moth has a wing expanse of about two inches, the fore-
wings being ]iurplish In-own with darker shades of velvety l)i'own

Fig. 298. — The celery looper {Plusia simplex Guen.): male moth and larva —
somewhat enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

and with a prominent silvery white discal spot, while the hind-
wings are yellowish, strongly banded with dark fuscous. The
caterpillar or larva is similar to that of the cabbage looper, but the
spiracles are surrounded with black rings, while in the cabbage
looper these rings are indistinct or wanting.

Forbes and Hart believe that there are three broods in a year.
" The caterpillars of the first generation of the year hatch late in
May and get their growth late in June or early in July. The life
of the second generation extends from the first part of July to the

* Plusia simplex Guen. Family Noctuidoe. See Chittenden, Bulletin 33,
Division of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 73.

414 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

middle of September, and the third begins to issue from the egg
early in October. This brood hibernates al)out half grown, attain-
ing full size during the latter part of April."

Control. — No accounts of experiments in control are on record,
but doubtless the same measures as used against the cabbage
looper will l)e found appli(*al)l('.

The Carrot-beetle *

The carrot-beetle is a native species which has l:)een particu-
larly injurious to carrots along the Atlantic Coast from Long
Island through the Gulf States. The species occurs, however,
very generally throughout the country as far north as central
Indiana, and on the Pacific coast. It has a considerable number

of food-plants; in Louisiana
and Mississippi it has injured
the corn crop, the beetles cut-
ting the corn just above the
roots; in Illinois the beetles
injured sunflowei's and sweet
potatoes; in Indiana they at-
tacked carrots, celery and par-
snips; in Texas they have
injured potatoes and shrubs
and vegetables of various
kinds; and in Nebraska they
have damaged sugar-beets.

The damage is done entirely
by the adult beetles, which are
among the smaller of the May-
beetles or June-bugs, measure
one-half to five-eighths of an inch long, and are from reddish
brown to nearly black in color. The beetles gouge into the roots
or stems just below the surface of the soil, often ruining the root
for market without injuring the top. The injury may occur by

* Ligyrus gibbosus Dej. P'amily Scaraboeidoe. See F. H. Chittenden,
Bulletin 33, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 32.

Fig. 299. — The carrot-beetle {Ligyrus
gibbosus Dej.) — much enlarged.
(After Forbes.)

MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 415

hibernated beetles in the spring from April to June or by newly
transformed individuals in late summer or autumn.

The life history has not been studied, but is probably very
similar to that of Lachnostenia (page 79).

Control. — No very satisfactory means of control have l)ecn
tried in a practical way. It is stated that lime scattered over
infested fields has driven the beetles away. It is evident that
after the crop is gathered, infested fields should l^e pastured with
hogs, if possible, or plowed deeply, and plowed again in the spring.
Evidently further study of the habits of the pest is necessary before
satisfactory means of cf)ntiT)l may l)e devised.

The Carrot Rust-fly *

The Carrot Rust-fiy is a luirojx'an species, l)eing a serious
pest of carrots in England and (lermany, which has l)een known
in Canada since 1885 and ajjpeared in New York in 1901 and since
then in New Hampshire. The larva or maggot which does the
injury very much resembles the cheese maggot or skipper in gen-
eral appearance, is a rather dark brown, and a little less than one-
third inch long. The parent fly is about one-sixth inch long
with a wing ex])anse of three-tenths inch, and is a dark blackish-
green color, sparsely clothed with yellow hairs, and with pale
yellow head and legs, except the eyes, which are black.

" Attack on carrots is not difficult of recognition. The leaves
of the young plants early in the spring turn reddish, and the roots
are found to be blotched with rusty patches, pai'ticularly toward
their tips. Th(^ I'oots when stoi*ed for winter, although not always
manifesting any degree of injury on the outer surface, may at
times be perforated in all directions l^y dirty brownish burrows,
from which the whitish or yellowish larvae may be found some-
times projecting." Celery is also attacked, the larvae eating the
thick part of the root when it is half grown, stunting the plant so
as to make it worthies.", for market. The life history of the species

* Psila rosoe Fab. See Chittenden, Bulletin 33, n. s., Division of Ento-
mology, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 26.

416 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

does not seem to have been carefully observed, but from analogy
is probably somewhat similar to that of the cabbage root-maggot,
except that the maggots of the carrot rust-fly develop and trans-
form on carrots in storage if the temperature be sufficient.

Control. — Late sowing has been practiced to advantage, and
the rotation of crops is of obvious importance, as is the deep plow-
ing of infested land. Where carrots have l^een stored in earth, this
earth into which the larva? have entered and pupated should be

Fi(i. ;j()().— The can-ot nisL-Hy (Pt<ila romc Fab.): d", male Hy; 9 , female fly,
side view; a, antenna of male; /j, full-grown larva from si(l(>; r, sjjiracles
of same; a, anal extremity from the end; c, puparimn; /, young larva;
g, anal segment from the side — eight times natural size except a, c, d, g,
more enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

treated, either ])y Ixirying it deeply, spreading it out in thin layers
on the surface, or throwing it into pools where it will l)e frozen.
Kerosene emulsion, 1 part stock solution to 10 of water sprayed
along the rows while the carrots are young, or sand, land plaster
or ashes, to 3 gallons of which 1 pint of kerosene has been added,
sprinkled along the rows, have b(>en of some value in Canada.
These should be applied three or four times, once a week after the
roots begin to form, and particularly after the rows have been
thinned.

MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS

417

The Parsnip Webworm *

The Pursnip Wo1)\v()rm is quite a common jiost of tho forming
seed of the parsnip, but foi-tunatoly it seems to pref(>r wild carrot
as a breeding phmt. It is an imported species, occuri'ing in north-
ern Europ;\ which was first observed in this country in LS73 and
since then lias become generally distributed over the Northern
States and Canada westward to the Mississippi.

The moth is a grayish-buff or pale ochreous color, marked with
fuscous, the wings expanding about three-quai'tei's of an inch.
The larva is a pale yellowish, greenish oi' l)luish-gi'ay, with con-

FiG. 301. — Tlie parsnip webworm (Depressaria hcraclinna De G.): n, moth;
b, r, larvip; (/, pupa; e, anal extremity of jjiipa; /, umbel of i:)arsnip
webbed together by the larva} — natural size, (.\fter Riley.)

spicuous black tul)ercles, the head and prothoracic shield black,
and is about half an inch long when grown. The larvse web the
flower-heads together imtil they are contracted into masses of
web and excrement as shown in the illustration. " After the
larvte have consumed the flowers and unripe seeds and become
nearly full grown, they enter the hollow stems of the plant l)y bur-
rowing their way inside, generally at the axils of the leaves, and
then feed upon the soft, white lining of the interior. Here, inside
the hollow stem, they change to the pupa state. The larvae are

* Depressaria heracliana DeG. Family (Ecophoridoe. See C.V.Riley,
" Insect Life," Vol. 1, p. 94.

418 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

moderately gregarious. They will sometimes eat newly sown
parsnip after the older plants originally attacked have been
destroyed, in such cases eating the tender green leaves, while of the
older plants they oat only the flower-heads and interior lining of
the stems." The moths appear in late July and early August.

Control. — Thorough spraying or dusting with arsenicals will
destroy the caterpillars, accoixling to Chittenden. If the flowers
are destroyed before they are noticed, cut off and burn all infested
stems before the moths emerge from the pupae. Obviously it will
be important to avoid planting parsnips in or near waste places
which have grown up in wild can-ot.

The Onion Thrips *

The small yellowish " thrips " which chafe the epidermis from
the green leaves, causing them to dry out, whiten and die, have
become well known to onion growers in practically all parts of the
United States where onions are raised extensively. It is a Euro-
pean insect, occurring in Germany and Russia, and has also been
imported into the Bermudas.

The adult thrips is about one-twenty-fifth of an inch long, of a
pale 3'ellow color, tinged with blackish. The general appearance,
much enlarged, is shown in Fig. 302. The slender, elongate body
bears two pairs of narrow, bristle-like wings which are of no value
for flight. The fore-wing contains two wing-veins, and the hind-
wing but one, the posterior margin of both bearing a fringe of long
hairs. When at rest the wings lie together along the back.

The thrips belong to a quite distinct order of insects, the
Thysanoptera (or Physapoda) , species of which are commonly
found in the flowers of the rose and clover. The mouth-parts are
quite different from those of any other order of insects, being
intermediate between those of biting and sucking insects, the

* Thrips tabaci Lind. Order Thysanoptera. See Quaintance, A. L.,
Bulletin 46, Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta., " The Strawberry Thrips and the Onion
Thrips." Full account and Bibliography; Pergande, Th., " Insect Life,"
Vol. VII, pp. 292-295; Osborne-Mally, Bulletin 27, Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta.,
pp. 137-142; Sirrine, Bulletin S3, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., pp. 680-683,

MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 419

mandibles being reduced to bristle-like structures. Their man-
ner of feeding does not seem to be clearly understood, though
Professor Quaintance states that the onion thrips frequently
rasps off and swallows pieces of leaf tissue. However, they are
able to destroy the surface tissue of the leaf so that it wdlts,
and fields badly affected become blighted and white.

This species has quite a list of food-plants, cabbage and cauli-
flower often being considerably injured. Among them may be

Fig. 302. — The onion thrips (Thrips (abaci Lind.)— very greatly enlarged.
(Photo by Quaintance.)

mentioned turnip, kale, sweet clover, squash, cucumber, melon,
parsley, tomato, and several common garden flowers and weeds.

Life History. — The eggs are slightly less than Vioo of an inch
long — too small to be visible to the unaided eye — elongate, and
curved somewhat kidney-shaped. They are laid singly just
beneath the surface of the leaf and hatch in about four days.
The young nymphs resemble the adults in shape, but are at
first almost transparent in color and then a greenish-yellow.
They are frequently found feeding in small groups. Both the

420 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

young and adults have a pair of sharp spines at the tip of the
abdomen which they use to drive away enemies by striking them
quickly right and left. Two or three days after birth the skin is
shed and another molt occurs five or six days later. With the
third stage the wing-pads appear. This stage lasts four days
and during it the insects take no food and remain almost quiet,
moving with difficulty. On onions the nymphs have l^een found
mostly on the bulbs in the loose soil. With the next molt, the
insect becomes mature and winged. Thus, the total life cycle as
observed l)y Professor Quaintance in Florida is about sixteen days.
In Russia Dr. Lindeman found that a generation required forty-
seven days. " In Florida there are probably no distinct broods,
as all stages may be found at the same time. Allowing for the life
cycle at sixteen daj^s, a large number of Ijroods could occur during
the year, but unfavorable conditions keep them reduced, except
during the spring and perhaps early summer (the worst injury
occurring in May and June), so that it will probably not happen
that they will develop throughout a year according to their capa-
bilities."

Control. — The pest may be successfully controlled by spraying
with whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 2 gallons of water, rose-leaf insec-
ticide, 1 pint to 4 gallons of water, or kerosene emulsion diluted
8 to 10 times. Tobacco decoction (see page 55) will probably
prove equally effective, using it as strong as necessary. Probably
1 pound of stems to 2 gallons of water will be satisfactory. The
spraying should be done very thoroughly so as to reach the insects
in the axils of the leaves, and the soil around the plant also should
be well wet to destroy the mature nymphs that may be hiding.

The Imported Onion-maggot *

The common white maggot which bores into the roots and

bulbs causing them to wilt and decay, is probably the mo^

important insect pest of the onion. The present species is by far

the most commonly injurious and is termed " imported " because

* Pegomyia cepanim Bouche. Family Anthomyiidoe. See same references
as for cabbage-maggot, footnote, page 347.

Fig. 303. — The imported onion-maggot {Pegomyia ceparum Boiiche): a,
adult; b, maggot; c, puparium; (/, anal segment of maggot showing
spiracles; e, head with mouth-parts — all very much enlarged; / and g
show injury to voung onions. (After J. B. Smith.)

421

422 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

it was early known as a pest in Europe and was imported into
this country probably in colonial times.

These maggots are the offspring of small flies, somewhat
resembling small houseflies and very similar to those of the cabbage
root-maggot (see page 347).* The wings expand about three-
eighths of an inch and the body is half that long. The male is
gray with black bristles and hairs, the face is white with black
hairs, there are three black lines between the wings, and the abdo-
men bears a row of black spots along the middle. The female is a
little larger, inclined to dark yellowish, and with a yellowish face.

Life History. — The flies appear 'n the spring by the time young
onions are up and the eggs are deposited in the sheath and in the
axils of the leaves, from two to six being placed upon a plant. The
eggs are just perceptible to the eye, white, oval, and about one-
twenty-fifth of an inch long. The young maggot works its way
down from the sheath to the root, upon which it feeds until it is
consumed, only the outer skin remaining, and often cuts off the
plant completel}'. Another plant is then attacked and often sev-
eral young plants are consumed before the maggot is full grown.
Later in the season the maggots bore into the bulbs, a number of
maggots usually being found in a single bulb and their presence
being indicated by a slimy mass of soil at the entrance of the
cavity. If such bulbs are not killed outright, they usually rot in
storage. The first presence of the pest is indicated by the wilt-
ing of the young plants, and by the central leaves of the older
plants yellowing and dying.

The maggots become full grown about two weeks after hatch-
ing and are then about three-eighths of an inch long. They are
dull white, with the jaws appearing beneath the skin as a short
black stripe at the pointed end of the body. The posterior end of
the body is obtuse and is cut off obliquely, the margin of the last
segment bearing a number of tubercles by which this species may
be distinguished from the cabbage-root maggot. (See Slinger-
land, 1. c).

* See Slingerlaiid, Bulletin 78, Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 495, for characters
distinguishing these two species.

MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 423

The outer skin of the maggot now becomes hardened and
within it the insect transforms to the pupa, which remains in the
soil at the base of the plant for about two weeks, when the adult
fly emerges. Two or three generations probably occur in the
Northern States. Professor R. H. Pettit states that some of the
flies hibernate while many of the pupaj remain in the soil over
winter and the flies issue from them in the spring. This com-
plicates remedial measures.

Control. — Liberal applications of commercial fertilizers such as
nitrate of soda, which will assist to rapid growth, are of great value
in overcoming injury by all root-feeding pests. Thorough culture
is of value. Rotation of the onion plot to a point far distant
from that of the previous year, the cleaning up of old beds, and
plowing them deeply in the fall, will aid in the control. Pull up
and destroy the young plants affected as soon as noticed, being
careful to dig up the maggots with the roots. The application of
carbolic emulsion as for the cabbage-root maggot has been advo-
cated and will doubtless lessen the injury by repelling the adult
flies. Concerning it see page 354. Apply early in the season and
at intervals of a week.

The Barred-winged Onion-maggot *

The adult flies of this species may frequently be found upon
corn and are readily recognized by the banded wings. They are
similar in size to the last species, but the back is metallic blue-green
except the head, which is mostly hoary, with brownish-black eyes.
The maggots have been recorded as injurious to corn and sugar-
cane and have been recently noted in Michigan associated with
the common onion-maggot, destroying onions. f The maggots
are similar to the onion-maggot but the posterior end is more
rounded and may be distinguished from the illustrations. The
winter is passed in the puparium as far as observed.

Remedies. — In addition to the measures advocated for the last

* Choetopsis oenea Wied. Family Anthomyidoe.

t See Pettit, Bulletin 200, Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 206.

424 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

species, the destruction of the affected onions and the thorough
plowing of affected land in the fall is of prime importance. Stored

Fig. 304. — Th(> barred-winged onion-maggot (('//a/o/j.si.s cenea Wied.): a,
larva, with spiracular opening highly magnified at left; h, puparium;
c, adult fly — all enlarged. (After Riley and^Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

onions which prove infested may be fumigated with carbon bisul-
fide to destroy the maggots and puparia and prevent the emergence
of the adults.

The Asparagus-beetle *

This is a well-known pest of asparagus in Europe and was first
observed in Queens County, New York, in IS()2, where it threatened
to destroy the asparagus, one of the most valued crops of the Long
Island truckers. Since then it has gradually spread northward to
southern New Hampshire, south to North Carolina, and west to
Illinois and Wisconsin, and has been found at two points in Cali-
fornia. There seems no reason why it should not spread to
wherever asparagus is grown, at least in the Northern States.

The beetle is a handsome^ little creature about one-quarter
inch long, blue-black in color, with red thorax, and dark blue
wing-covers, marked with lemon-yellow and with reddish borders.
The markings of the wing-covers are quite variable, the light color

* Crioceris asparagi Linn. Family Chrysomelidoe. See F. H. Chittenden,
Yearl)Ook, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1896, p. 341; Bulletin 66, Bureau of Ent., pp.
6, 93, and Circular 102, Ibid.

MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS

425

sometimes forniiug .^ubniarginal .spots, while in other speciinons it
becomes so diffused as to form the priii('i})al color of the wing-
covers.

Both adults and larvie feed upon the tender asparagus shoots
in the spring and later attack the fruiting plants. Their attacks
render the shoots unfit for market and in many cases their injury
has been so severe as to make it extremely difficult to establish
new beds.

Life History. — The beetles hibernate over winter under what-
ever rubbish or shelter may be available near the asparagus patch.

Fig. 305. — The asparagus-beetle (Crioceris asparagi Linn.): eggs, larva, and
beetle — all much enlarged. (Photos by W. E. Britton.)

About the season that cutting asparagus for market commences
they appear and lay the eggs for the first new brood. The egg is
dark brown, oval, nearly one-sixteenth of an inch long and is laid
on end. The eggs are deposited upon the stems or foliage, usualh'
two to seven or more in a row. They hatch in from three to eight
days. The young larvae at once commence to attack the tender
shoots, and later in the season feed upon the foliage. They become
full grown in from ten days to two weeks. The full grown larva, as
shown in the illustration, is about one-third of an inch long, soft

426 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

and fleshy, much wrinkled, and of a dark gray or ohve color,
with black head and legs. The mature larva drops to the ground
and just beneath the surface forms a little rounded earth-covered
cocoon within which it changes to the pupa, from which the
beetle emerges in about a week. Thus the complete life cycle
may be passed in a minimum of three weeks at Washington, D. C,
where there are possibly four generations in a year, while further
north, six or seven weeks may be required for the life cycle, and
there are probably only two generations.

The asparagus-beetles are held in check by several natural
agencies. Several species of ladybird-beetles feed upon the eggs,
while numerous soldier-bugs attack the larvse which they impale
on their stout ])eaks. The adult beetles are often killed by low
temperature in the winter, which doubtless limits their northern
spread, while the eggs and larvie are sometimes killed by the intense
heat of summer, which will also probably limits the southern
spread of the species.

Control. — One of the best means of control is to keep all shoots
cut down in the spring so as to force the beetles to lay their eggs
on the young shoots, which are cut for market every few days
before the eggs have hatched, and hence no larvae are allowed
to hatch.

Another method which has pi'oven effective is to cut down all
.the seed stems but a few rows here and there, so that the beetles
will concentrate upon them, and then poison these thoroughly
with arsenicals, or they may be cut down and burned and other
I'ows allowed to grow as traps.

Air-slaked lime dusted on the plants in the morning while the
dew is on will destroy the soft-bodied larvae very effectively.
Another way to destroy the larvae in hot weather is to simply brush
them from the plants so that they will drop on the hot soil. As
they crawl Init slowly few will regain the plants, particularly if the
brushing be followed with a cultivator.

Probably the most effective means of controlling this pest,
which was formerly a very difficult one to combat, is spraying with
arsenate of lead. Use 3 pounds to 50 gallons, to which 3 pounds

MISCELLA.NEOUS GARDEN INSECTS

427

of resin soap should he acldecl to render it more adhesive, although
good results have been secured without the sticker. Such spraying
should be given as soon as cutting is over and should be repeated
once or twice at intervals of ten days. Where the young shoots
are kept closely cut and the bed is then sprayed, there should be no
trouble to control the pest, and young beds should be kept thor-
oughly sprayed wath arsenate of lead from the time the beetles
appear until danger from injury is over.

The Twelve-spotted Asparagus-beetle *

The Twelve-spotted Asparagus Beetle is also of European
origin, having been first introduced into this country near
Baltimore, Md., in 1881. Since then it has become almost as
widely distributed as the previous species.

The beetles may be distinguished from the last species by the
broader wing-covers, each of which is orange-red, marked with six

Fig. 306. — The twelve-spotted asparagus-beetle {Crioceris l2-punctata Linn.):
a, beetle; b, larva; c, second abdominal segment of larva; d, same of
c, asparagi — a, b, enlarged; c, d, more enlarged. (After Chittenden,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

black spots. The chief injury by this species is by the beetles

which emerge from hibernation feeding on the young shoots.

Later generations attack the foliage, but the larvae seem to prefer

to feed upon the ripening berries. The larva is of the same gen-

* Crioceris r2-punctata Linn. See F. H. Chittenden, I.e.

428 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

eral appearance as that of the preceding species, but may be dis-
tinguished by its orange color. The eggs are laid singly, and are
attached on the sides instead of on end. They are deposited
mostly on old plants toward the ends of the shoots which bear
ripening berries lower down. Soon after a larva hatches it finds its
way to a berry and feeds upon its ripening pulp, from which it
migrates to another, feetling upon several, perhaps, before ful]
growth is obtained, when it drops to the ground and pupates like
the last species. The life cycle is essentially the same and there
are probably the same number of generations.

Control. — The remedies advocated for the previous species
will be found satisfactory except those which arc directed against
the larvtE, as the habit of the larva of concealing itself in the berry
would make the application of insecticides to the scedstalks of
little use.

The Asparagus Miner *

Occasionally injury by the small white maggots of a fly have
been observed in the asparagus l)eds of Long Island, California,
Pennsylvania, Massachusetts and District of Columbia, but the
damage seems rarely to ])e very serious. The adult is a small black
fly about one-sixth of an inch long and is usually found on the
flowers of the asparagus, and occurs from New England to Ten-
nessee. These flies emerge early in June. The exact manner of
egg-laying has not been observed, but the young maggots are found
mining just beneath the surface of the stalks, especially young
stalks. The maggots are about one-fifth an inch long, pure
white, except the black rasping hooks which project from the heatl.
When full grown the maggots change to puparia beneath the epi-
dermis. The next brood of adult flies emerge early in August.
A second brood of maggots seems to occur and the puparia of the
second brood pass the winter, and from them come the flies early
the next summer.

* Agromyza simplex Loew. Family Agromyzidoe. See Sirrine, Bulletin
189, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta.; Chittenden, Bulletin 66, Part I, Bureau o£ Ento-
mology, pp. 1 and 5, Fig. 2.

MISCELT.ANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS

429

Injur}' froui tlit' mining of the maggots has been most serious
on seedling antl newly set beds, though it may occur on cutting
l)eds, being apparent by the plants turning yellow and dying much
eai'lier than they naturally do.

Pullinii' the old stalks and l)urninu- them in late summer seems

Fir.. 307. — The asparagus miner {Agromyza siitiplex Loew): at left, side view
of fly; a, larva; b, thoracio spiracles; c, anal spiracles; d, puparium from
side; e, same from above; /, section of asparagus stalk showing injury
and location of puparia on detached section — a, e, much enlarged; /,
slightly reduced. (After ( -hittenden, U, S, Dept. Agr.)

to be the best means foi- conti'olling the pest fi'om our present
knowledge of it, which, however, is still rather meiiger. Dr.
Chittenden has suggested that letting a few stalks grow as a trap-
crop to which the flies might be lured, and then destroying these
stalks, might protect the cutting betls.

CHAPTER XXI

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE SWEET POTATO *

V

The Sweet-potato Flea-beetle f

As soon as the sweet-potato plants are set out they are often
attacked by hordes of hungry httle brownish flea- beetles. Small
channels are eaten out of both surfaces of the leaf in a very char-
acteristic manner, quite different from the work of other flea-
beetles (Fig. 309) , and often the whole surface is seared but never
punctured. As a result many of the leaves of the seedling are

Fig. 308. — The sweet-potato flea-beetle {Chcetocnema confinis Leo.): adult
and larva — mueh enlarged. (After J. B. Smith.)

killed outright, turn brown, and decay, while new leaves put
out from below, thus checking the growth. These attacks have
been found to be worst on low land and that previously in sweet
potatoes, and are always first noticed near fence rows or woodland
where the beetles have hibernated. The beetle is bronzed or

* See Sanderson, Bulletin 59, Md. Agr. Exp. Sta.; J. B. Smith, Bulletin
229, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.

t Chcetocnema confinis Lee. Family Chrysomelidoe. See Smith, 1. c, p. 4.

430

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE SWEET POTATO 431

brassy-brown, ahuul uiie-sixteentli inch long, thick set, and the
wing-covers when seen under a lens are deeply striated.

Life History. — The beetles hibernate over winter in rubbish,
under logs, leaves or other vegetation, and emerge early in May.
They mate as soon as they have fed a little, and disappear by the
middle of June- in Xew Jersey. But little is known of the early
stages of the insect and they have never been found on sweet-
potato plants. The larvie have been found, however, feeding on
the roots of bindweed. The larva (Fig. 308) is a slender, white
grub, about one-eighth inch long, and feeds externally upon

Fig. 309. — Sweet-potato leaves injured bv the sweet-potato flea-beetle. (After

J. B. Smith.)

the smaller roots. The beetles appear again in August, but do
not as a rule feed on sweet potatoes, preferring bindweeds and
wild morning-glories, from which they disappear in late September.
Control. By dipping the plants in arsenate of lead 1 pound to
10 gallons of water, as they are being set, the}' will be protected
and any beetles feeding on them will be killed. The plants should
be allowed to dry slightly before being set. Dipping the plants
is much better than spraying them later, as it is practically
impossible to completely cover the plant by spraying, as may be
done in dipping, which is much quicker and less expensive. Late-

432 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

planted sweet potatoes are much less serioush- injured, as the
beetles will seek out their wild food-plants and become established
upon them, so that late planting ma}' be resorted to when neces-
sary or more convenient. Well grown, stocky plants will better
withstand injury, and liberal fertilization will enable them to make
a quick growth even if slightly checked.

Tortoise-beetles or Gold-bugs *

Of all the insects affecting the sweet potato, the brilliant, little
golden beetles which form one tribe {C'a.ssi(l<r) of the large family
of leaf-beetles, are the most common and are -quite peculiar to it.
They are beautiful insects, some of tlie species appearing like drops
of molten gold, which has given them the name of '' gold -bugs,"
while the broad expansion of the thorax and wing-covers gives
them a fancied res(nnl)lance to a tortoise; hence the name " tortoise-
beetles." The species affecting the sweet potato are classed in
three different genera, l)ut are sufficiently alike in their genei'al
habits and life history to be treated together.

Life History. — The beetles hibernate over winter and in the
spring before the sweet-potato plants arc set they feed on their
native food-plant, the nunning^gloiy. As soon as the plants are
set out, the Ijeetles conunence to eat large round holes in the leaves,
and so riddle them that many must often be replanted. The worst
damage, however, is done to the set on which the eggs are laid.
Rarely are the new shoots seriously eaten or are eggs laid upon
them. The laryse hatch during the first half of June in Maryland,
.and require slightly over two wx'cks to become full grown. Though
the larvcC do considerable damage by eating the foliage, it is not
nearly as serious as that done by the beetles. The larvae are almost
as disagreeable as the adult beetles are attractive, but are never-
theless very interesting creatures. Each of them is provided with
a tail-like fork at the end of the body which is almost as long as
the body, and in those species in which it is depressed, entirely

* Family Chryaomelidoe.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE SWEET P(^TATO

433

conceals the insect. Upon this fork is heaped the excr, ment and
cast skins of the larva, and w en covered by this " umbrella " it is
with great difficulty that the larva is distinguished from a bit of
mud or a bird-dropping. The manner in which this fork increases
with the size of the larva is rather interesting. At each molt, the
fiBci-fork of the last stage is held upon the new fseci-fork, and in
this way those of the different stages are telescoped, the one inside
the other, and the stage of growth of the larva may ])e readily
determined by the number of cast skins held on the fork. From
the likeness of this burden to a pack, the larvae are often known
as '' peddlers." In order to more firmly bind the excrement and
cast skins to the fork, the larvae fasten them together by a fine
network of silken threads, which are attached to the spines at the
sides of the body. When fully grown the lar\-a fastens itself to a
leaf, its skin splits open along the back, and from it comes the
pu£a, which is held to the leaf by its caudal fork, which is secureh'
encased in the faeci-fork of the larval skin. About a week later
the adult beetle emerges, eats for a few days and then disappears
from the sweet-potato patch until the following spring, doubtless
feeding on morning glor}^ until it enters hibernation.

The Two-Striped Sweet-potato Beetle *

This is usually the most common of the tortoise beetles attack-
ing sweet potatoes. The beetle is pale or brownish-yellow,

Fig. 310. — The two-striped sweet-potato beetle (Cassida biviUata Say): 1,
larvae on leaf; 2, larva; 3, pupa; 4, beetle — all enlarged. (After Riley.)

striped with black as shown in Fig. 310, and the larva is yellowish-
white, with a longitudinal band along the back, on either side of

* Cassida bivittata Say. Family Chrysomelidce.

434 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

which is a much lighter band. This species differs from the others
in that the larva does not use its fseci-fork for carrying excrement,
but merely covers it with cast skins and holds it at an angle from
the body, instead of close over the back.

The Black-legged Tortoise-beetle *

This species very closely resembles the following one, the gol-
den tortoise-beetle, but it is not so brilliant, is larger, has black
legs, and the three black spots on each wing-cover are larger and
more conspicuous. The larva is a bright straw-yellow, with two
crescent-shaped black marks just back of the head and with the
spines at the side of the body tipped with black. It is considerably
larger than the larvae of the other species and may be easily

Fig. 311. — The black-legged tortoise-beetle. {Cassida nigripes Oliv.): a, b,
larvae; c, pupa; d, beetle. (After Riley.) Eggs at left — all enlarged.

recognized by the characteristic way in which the dung is spread
on the fseci-fork (Fig. 311, a). The larva) of this species also do
more injury than the others, though possibly not as common.
The eggs of the other species are laid singly, so that only one or
two larvae will be found on a plant, or if more occur they are scat-
tered, but the eggs of this species are laid in rows of from three to
a dozen, and upon hatching the larvae feed together, thus making
the injury more noticeable.

* Cassida nigripes Oliv. Family Chrysomelidoe.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE SWEET POTATO

435

The Golden Tortoise-beetle *

This is a very common species and may be found on morning-
glory vines throughout the summer. The ))eetles upon first
emerging are a dull orange color with three prominent black dots
on each wing-cover, but a little later they change to a metallic gold,
shining like the most brilliant tinsel, and the black spots are less
noticeable. All of the tortoise-beetles, and this species in particu-
lar, have the habit of dropping quckly to the ground and feigning
death when disturbed. The eggs are quite different from those of
other species, having three spin}^ prongs projecting from the pos-

FiG. 312. — The gijklen tortoise-beetle (Coptocycla hicoloi' Fab.): a, b, larvae;
c, pupa; d, beetle; egg at right — all enlarged. (After Riley).

terior margin (Fig. 312) . The larva is easily distinguished by being
nearly concealed by the heavy load of excrement which is tri-lobed
in outline. Though usually of a dark-brown color with a paler
shade along the middle of the back, when the fa'ci-fork is raised
the light color extends over the entire upper side. The pupa, with
the loaded fork still held close to the back, is hardly distinguishable
from the lai'va at first glance, l)ut if the foi-k is removed it may be
distinguished from nearly releated pupse by the three dark stripes
on the prothorax and similar m-arkings over the abdomen.

* Coptocycld bicnlor Fab. Family Chry.^tonielidoe.

436 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Mottled Tortoise-beetle *

This beetle is strikingly different from the other species in
being black, marked with six irregular golden spots, and with a
band of black extending across the shoulders to the edge of the
transparent margin of the wing-covers. The larva is a pale
straw-yellow color during the first four stages when it carries
excrement on the fseci-fork in a peculiar branched shape much
like that of the black-legged tortoise-beetle larva, but after the
last moult the color changes to a pea green, and all the excrement
is removed from the fseci-fork, which makes the larva very
difficult to recognize on a green leaf. Inasmuch as the larva
does not feed and remains entirely motionless during this last
stage, this change of color is very evidently of protective value.
The pupa is also a bright green, marked only l)y a l^lack ring
ai'ound each of the first pair of abdominal spiracles.

The Argus Tortoise-beetle t

This is the largest of the tortoise-beetles found on sweet
potato, though not as common as the preceding, and is also
injurious to rasp]:)erry and horseradish, and it feeds on milk-

Fio. 313. — The argus tortoise-beetle {Chelymorpha argus Lii-ht.): a, beetle;
b, eggs; c, larva — all enlarged.

weeds and species of Convolvulus. The beetles are usually a l^rick-
red color, with six black dots on the prothorax and six on each
wing-cover, l)ut they are exceedingly variable in size and color,

* Coptocycla signifera Herbst. Family CJirysomelidce.
t Chelymorpha argus Licht. Family Chrysomelido^.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE SWEET POTATO 437

even from the same lot of eggs. The expansion of the margins
of the wing-covers and prothorax found in the other tortoise-
beetles is almost lacking. The eggs are laid in a bunch, each
supported by a long stalk or pedicle. When the larvie hatch
they huddle together on the leaves and veiy rapidly defoliate a
plant. When full grown a larva is about one-half inch long with
the fseci-fork half as long again, slightly convex above, of a dirty
yellowish color marked with numerous dark-ljrown tubercles
and prominent lateral spines as shown in Fig. 313. The larva
usually stands with the caudal segments elevated and the fseci-
fork slanting backward. The pupa is of a yellowish color,
marked with dark brown, which becomes almost black. The
ground color of the pupa is almost concealed by a bluish bloom
or waxy excretion resembling mold.

Control. — From the similarity of their life history and habits
all of these species may be treated at once. As the beetles do the
most injury just after the plants are set, they should be dipped
in arsenate of lead when setting, as advised for the flea-beetle.
If this has not been done or if the beetles are injurious in the
forcing bed, the plants should be thoroughly sprayed with
arsenate of lead, 3 pounds per barrel, or Paris green, j pound per
barrel with ^ pound of freshly slaked lime.

Saw-flies *

.In 1886, Dr. C. V. Riley described the injury and various
stages of a saw-fly, f the larvie of which had practically ruined a
crop of sweet potatoes at Ocean Springs, Miss. The pest was
somewhat injurious for the next two years, but since then has
not been specially injurious, though adult flies have been noticed
on sweet-potato and morning-glory vines in Nebraska. Doubt-
less its control is due to the effective work of parasites which
were reared by Dr. Riley from the larvae, and which probably
prevent the undue increase of the species.

* Family Tenthredinidce.
t Schizocerus ebenus Norton,

438 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The larvte of another insect of the same genus * \Aas reported
as seriously injuring the crop in Accomac County, \"irginia, in
1891. Concerning this injuiy the grower, C. W. Stockley, wrote,
" Last year (1890) was the first time they made their appearance
in my potato patch. They came the first of J11I3' and deposited
their eggs on the leaves; when the eggs hatched these worms
would eat the leaves to a comb. This continued for about four
weeks. The potatoes where the fly was did not make any yield
at all. This year the fly made its appearance the same time as
it did last year," Since then no injury has been reported b}-
this species, though the adults are occasionally seen.

Control. — An arsenical spray as advised for the tortoise-beetles
will be found effective for destroying the saw-fly larvje and
should be applied as soon as the injury is noticed, or preferably
just as the eggs are hatching.

The Sweet-potato Root-borer f

Since 1890 sweet potatoes have been seriously injured in parts
of Texas and Louisiana by a small white grul) which bores into the
stems and tubers both in the field and in storage, but strangely
it has not spread elsewhere in this country. In Texas the worst
injuiy Ijas been in Calhoun and neighboring counties along the
Ciulf Coast where extensive growing of sweet potatoes has been
abandoned on account of the pest. During recent years it has
spread to central Texas and there seems to be no reason why it
should not spread over the Gulf States. It is a cosmopolitan
insect being reported from China, India, Madagascar, Australia
and Cuba. It was first noticed in the vicinity of New Orleans
in 1875 and has since spread northward along the Mississippi.!
In 1879 it was reported from Florida and was studied by Professor
J. H. Comstock.l

The adult beetle is a rather slender insect, about one-quarter

* Schizocerus privatus Norton.

t Cylas formicarius Oliv. Family Curculionidoe.

t Bulletin 28, La. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 999.

§ See Report U. S. Comm. Agr., for 1879, p. 249.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE SW'jan' POTATO

i3'J

inch long, of a bluisli-bluck color, with a reddish-brown prothorax,
and has received it.s specific name, formicarius, from its fancied
resemblance to an ant.

Life History. — The yellowish-white, oval eggs are deposited
in small cavities eaten out by the mother beetle either at the
base of the vine or at the stem end of the tuberous root, or in
the tubers in storage. The small gruljs commence to burrow
in the vine, sometimes maturing in the vine before any tubers
have developed, but usually they descend to the tubers, which

Fig. 314. — The sweet-potato root-borer (Cylas formicarius): extreme left
hand figure, adult beetle, with enlarged antennae at right; figure at
left center, pupa; at right center, larva; at extreme right, portion of
sweet-jjotato tuber channeled by borer — all figures except the last con-
siderably enlarged; natural sizes indicated by hair lines. (After Far-
mer's Bulletin, No. 26, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

in the course of the season, and with the aid of the beetles, they
thoroughly riddle. The full-grown larva is about one-quarter
inch long, whitish with light brown head, the segments are strongly
constricted, and the legs are wanting, being represented by mere
tubercles. The grub forms a small cavity at the end of the
burrow and transforms to the pupa. In this stage it remains from
one to two weeks, when the adult beetle emerges and after a few
days commences to lay eggs for another generation. The whole

440 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

life cycle requires from thirty to forty clays, so that there may
be several generations in a year, Professor Comstock having
observed three generations. In central Texas the beetles hil:)er-
nate over winter, but in south Texas the}- continue to l)reed in
the bins during the winter.

Control. — The following measures of control are recommended
by Professor A. F. Conradi, who has studied the species in Texas.*

" When the insect is known to be present, tubers should not
be allowed to remain exposed, and should be covered with soil.
Where beetle attack is anticipated, deep planting should be
practiced, and if conditions will permit the planting should be in
flats, because outbreaks will be more readily noticed than when
planted in ridges. Such planting will permit of cultivation that
will keep the cracks in the soil closed during drought, thus shut-
ting up all entering channels by which the adults may reach the
tubers. When the crop is known to be infested, it should ])e
harvested as soon as possible, for every day the infestation will
increase and the value of the crop will decrease. All tubers
showing no sign of infestation should be separated hova the
infested ones. The former should be placed in a weevil-tight
bin [and fumigated with carbon bisulfide if not sold immediately —
E. D. S.], and the latter destroyed absolutely. The vines should
be gathered and burned, and the grower should convince him-
self . . . that no vines or tubers remain in the field." The pest
may be disseminated in sweet-potato sets intended for planting,
and may be spread great distances by the tubers on the open
market, so that seed potatoes or slips should be secured from
localities known to be free from it or should be thoroughly fumi-
gated. The weevils often gnaw the plants, and Professor Conradi
advises thorough spraying with Paris green or ai'senate of lead
while they are feeding. Potatoes in bins should be thoroughly
fumigated with carbon bisulfide, 5 pounds to 100 Ijushels for
thirty hours (see page 57).

* See Bulletin 89, Texas Agr. Exp. ?H;a., p. 40.

CHAPTER XXII

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY *

The Strawberry Root-louse t

If bare spots arc found in the sirawljerry Ijed and the neighbor-
ing phmts are unhealthy, the presence of the root-louse may be
suspected, especially if ants are abundant around the plants.
If present, the small dark green or blackish aphides will be found
clustered on the roots and stems, caus-
ing the plants to wither and die. The
individual aphid is only aljout one-
twentieth inch long, and deep bluish
or greenish-black when mature, the
younger stages being lighter, and
somewhat pear-shaped as shown in
Fig. 315.

Injury by this pest was first noted
in southern Illinois in 1S84 and a few
}'ears later it became troublesome in
Ohio. In the late '90s it ruined
many beds on the Maryland-Delaware
peninsula and became established in
New Jersey. Since then it has become distributed on plants
throughout most of the States east of the Rockies, injury having
been noted in New Hampshire, Michigan, Minnesota, Kansas,
Texas, and Kentucky. Injur}- is riiost se\;we on light sandy

* See L. Bruner, Report Nebraska Horticultural Society, pp. 49-100;
J. B. Smith, Bulletin 225, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.; A. L. Quaintance, Bulletin
42, Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta.; S. A. Forbes, i:3th Report State Ent. of 111., pp.
60-180.

t Aphis forbesi Weed. Family Aphididae. See Sanderson, Bulletin 49,
12th, 13th and 14th Reports, Del. Agr. Exp. Sta.

441

Fig. 315. — The strawberry
root -louse (Aphis forbesi
Weed) : wingless viviparous
female of late summer —
greatly enlarged.

442 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

soils ;ukI the pest rarely becomes very troublesome on heavier
soils. Injuiy is also more or less periodic, the aphides almost
disappearing after doing serious injuiy for two or three yeai"s.
Fortunately the strawberry is the onh' food plant and the j-oot-
lice found on other crops are entirely different species.

Life History. — During the winter the small, shining ))lack
eggs may be found thickly clustered upon the stems and along

Fig. 316. — Strawberry root-lice clustered on small rootlets from crown of
plant — -greatly enlarged.

the midribs of the green leaves. They are mere specks, one-
thirty-fifth inch long and oval in shape. In early winter as many
as sixty-five have been found on one leaf, but many fall ofT and
are destroyed before spring. The eggs hatch early in April in
Delaware, the exact time depending on the season. The young
aphides fged a little on the leaves bearing the eggs but soon find
their way to the tender young leaves of the crown. These

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY 443

aphides of the first g(>ueration become full grown in twelve to
fifte(ni days. The adults soon connnence to give birth to young
aphides, bearing fifteen or twenty within a few days. All of the
aphides of this generation are females, as are all those of the
summer generations, the males appearing only in the fall. The
young of the second generation mature and n^produce in the same
manner and in about the same time as the first generation. Until
the last of April but few ants are seen, but about that time they

Fig. 317. — Eggs of strawberry root-louse on leaf stem.

become active and carry the young aphides from the leaves
down to the roots, where a colony of a dozen or more is estal)lished
on each plant. No aphides are found on the roots until the ants
appear, and they are entirely responsible for the aphides infesting
the roots. The ajtits continue to care for the aphides during the
summer, carrying them to new plants when they become over-
crowded or the plant dies, and so are responsible for the spread
of the pest. The first generations are entirely wingless, but when
the third generation matures a large number are winged. These

444 INSECT TESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

winged females arc common in late May and early June. Their
bodies are somewhat smaller than those of the wingless forms,
and appear to be shiny black, though really a deep green. The
wings expand aljout one-sixth inch, slightly over three times the
length of the bod}'. They are also carried to the roots by the
ants, wherever they are found, and most of them deposit their
young on the roots. Although these winged females aid in spread-
ing the pest in a )jed, they probably do not migrate far unless

Fiu. 318. — Strawberry root-lice which have been killed by parasites, with
one of the little parasitic flies which has just emerged.

carried by the wind from a badly infested bed where they have
become overcrowded. Reproduction continues, one generation
following another about every two weeks, during the summer and
early fall. Part of the fourth generation is winged, but the remain^-
ing generations are wingless. In Delaware the viviparous females
are common on the roots until cold weather, but doubtless further
south they may continue to i-eproduce during the winter. Late
in Oct()l)er and early in November the offspring develop into

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY 445

true males and feinalcs which pair and rcprotlucc l)y ('^gs. Th(!
egg-laying females are very similar to the summer g(Mierations
in general appearance, though of a green color, with often a
yellowish or reddish shade on the middle of the abdomen. The
males are much smaller and are hardly to be distinguished from
the third stage of the female nymphs, and are greatly outnum-
bered by the females. Each female deposits about four eggs,
which are at fli'st a bright orange color, Init turn l)lack in a
day or two.

Were it not for its parasitic enemies this ins(H't would always
be a most formidable strawberry pest, but fortunately they are
very efficient in its control whenever it becomes abundant. The
adult parasites are little wasp-like flies,* nearly related to those
which parasitize the melon-aphis and green-l^ug. They deposit
their eggs in the plant-lice, and the maggots live within the
aphides, usually but one in each. The aphid soon dies from the
effects of the parasitism, the skin becoming dry and inflated,
from which shell the adult parasite emerges through a circular
hole as shown in Fig. 318. Such parasitized aphides are easily
recognized and should never be destroyed.

Control. — To prevent injury care must be taken to secure
uninfested plants and to plant them on land not already infested.
Do not replant berries on infested land until it has been in some
other crop for a year or two. As the aphides and their eggs are
readily transported on plants, it is important that they be securcMl
from sources known to be free from the pest. If there is any
doubt a])Out this or if they are known to be infested, the plants
should be disinfected before setting. This can be done onh'
after all the eggs have hatched, as there is no treatment that will
kill the eggs without injuring the plants. Setting must be delayed,
therefore, until all eggs have hatched. The most practicable
method for disinfecting plants is to dip them for a few minutes in
tobacco decoction or dilute tobacco extract. Other dips will
kill the aphidespbut sometimes injure the plants, while tobacco
water has been found efficient and safe. Plants may be fumigated
* L/yftiphlebus tesUiceipes Cre^t^., and LiicjoccruK stiynuitux Say.

446 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

with hyrdocyanic acid gas by the nurseryman or large grower
(see the author's Delaware bulletin). If a new bed be planted
near an old one it may become infested when the winged aphides
appear in early summer and to prevent their migration it may
be advisable to plow up the old bed some time Ijefore the wingetl
aphides appear, or preferably the previous fall. One of the best

Fif!. 319. — A Delaware strawberry bed in summer of 1900 showing injury by
the strawberry root-louse.

means of inducing the number of aphides in a l)cd is to Inirn it
over with a quick hot fire in early springy Straw or grass should
be scattered over the bed and burned just as the growth of the
plants is commencing. As all the eggs and young aphides are on
the leaves and stems, this will practically clear the bed of the
pest, as well as many other insects and diseases, and if properly
done will result in no injury. This has been found satisfactory
in Delaware, but if farther south, the aphides winter on the roots,
it would not be as effective.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY 447

;--

The Strawberry Crown-borer *

Strawberr}' plants arc often tlwarfcd or killed by a small \ylute
larva which mines out the interior of the crown, hollowing it out
from the bases of tlie leaves to the larger roots. Usually but
one grub is Yound in a plant, and it looks very much Hke a small
white grub as it lies curled in its burrow. It is only alxjut one-
ciuaj'tcr inch long, and legless, the body being white and the head
yellowish brown. The adult beetle in a small snout-beetlc about
one-fifth inch long, of a dark color, with head and thorax nearly
black, and on each wing-cover are three black spots, the middle
one being the largest and separated from the others by pale lines.
According to Professor Garman the wings are too small to be used

Fig. 320. — The strawberry crown-borer [Tyloderma fragrance Riley): a, larva;
b, c, beetle — enlarged. (After Riley.)

for flight and this doubtless accounts for the slow spread of
the pest. Injury has been reported from Illinois, Kentucky,
Missouri, and Nebraska, but as the larvae might l)e readily shipped
in plants, it is quite probable that it has become generally
distributed but has not done sufficient injury to attract attention.
Life History. — The beetles appear during the latter part of
summer and fall and hibernate over winter in the soil, emerging
early the next spring. The eggs have not been observed, but are
undoubtedly laid on the crown between the bases of the leaves
in late spring. The larvie develop in the crowns and become ful}
grown by midsummer or August when they pupate in the cavities

* Tyloderma fragrarice Riley. Family Curculionidoe. See S. A. Forbes,
12th Report 111. State Ent., p. 64; 13th Report, p. 142; H. Garman, Bulletin
80, Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 261.

448 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

formed and the adult beetles emerge in late summer and fall.
There seems to be but one generation a year. Old plants are
worst injured, and runners formed late in the season are usually
free from the pest, as eggs are prol:)ably not laid after June.

Control. — Frequent rotation, plowing up the Ijcd after one
or two crops, will largely prevent the pest becoming established.
Where the insect is well established in old jjcds, it will be well
to secure plants from beds known to be free from the
pest and to plant new beds at some distance from the old ones.
Infestetl Ijcds should have the plants plowed out and raked up
and burned as soon as possible after the fruit is harvested and
before August. Owing to the fortunate fact that the beetle
cannot fly from field to field, if the above measures are consistently
carried out there should be no trouble in controlling the injury.

Strawberry Rootworms *

The larvp of three species of common leaf-beetles often feed
upon the roots of the strawberry and are easily mistaken for the
crown-borer or for small white grubs. They may be distinguished
from the former l)y having three pairs of small thoracic legs just
back of the head, and from the latter by their being much thicker.
These rootworms are from one-eighth to one-sixth inch long,
whitish, with brownish heads, and usually feed on the roots
externally, though sometimes boring into them or the crown.
Dr. Forbes * has indicated the structural differences by which
they may ])e separated and shows that their life histories are quite
dissimilar. " The larva of Colaspis appears early in the season,
and does its mischief chiefly in the months of April and May,
the beetles l^eginning to emerge in June. That the eggs are laid
in the preceding year is highly probable, in which case the species
hibernates in the egg. Typophorus, on the other hand, certainlj^
passes the winter as an adult, doubtless laying its eggs in spring,
and making its principal attacks upon the plants in June and

* Typophorus canellas Fab., Colaspis brunnea Fab., Grnphops puhescens
Mels. Family Chrysomelidce. See Forbes, 1. c, p. 150.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY

449

July, the beetles emerg-
ing in the hitter part of
July and early in August.
Graphops hibernates in
the larval condition, pu-
pates in the spring, and
emerges in May and June.
The eggs are probably
laid in July, and the
larvae make their attack
upon the plant in August
and September. . ." —
Forbes. Thus the larva>
of the three species may
be found throughout the
season where all occur.
The beetles are about
one-eighth inch long and
may be distinguished as
follows , according t o
Bruner: " CoJaspis brun-
nea is usually of a yel-
lowish clay color, l)ut
ranges to y e 1 1 o w i s h -
bi'own. The body is
smootli l)ut not' shining.
Tjjpophoriis r(in('Uus is
usually shiny , black
above, varying to l^rown,
with four black blotches
on tlie wing-covers. The
legs and antenna? are
always pale. Graphops;
puhesreiis is either green
or purple with a bronze
metallic sheen, and has

Fui. 321. — The strawberry root-borer (Typo-
phorus canellus Fab.): adult and larva —
very great'}^ enlarged, hair line at right of
beetle sliows natural .size, {.\fter Pettit.)

450 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

the entire body more or less covered with a gra}' pubescence."
The pupae are all found in earthen cells among the roots of the
plants. The beetles of all three species feed on the foliage and
when numerous will attract attention.

Control. — Whenever the plants are not in fruit, the beetles
may be destroyed by spraying with \ pound of Paris green or
3 pounds or arsenate ofleaxTper barrel, preferal^ly applied with
Bordeaux mixture. Where the plants are customarily sprayed
with Bordeaux mixtvire for leaf diseases, arsenites may be added
and will probably control this and other strawberry pests. Badly
infested fields should be plowed under deeply as soon as the crop
is secured and new beds should be planted at some distance from
them.

The Strawberry Saw-fly *

Occasionally the strawberry leaves are skeletonized by yellow-
ish or greenish " worms " one-half to three-quarters of an inch
long when full grown. The head is yellow with two bro\\'Ti spots

Fig. 322. — The strawberry saw-fly (HarpipJiorus macidatiis Norton): 1, 2,
pupa; 3, 5, adult flies: 4, 6, larva;; 7, cocoon; 9, egg — all enlarged.
(After Riley.)

on the side and one or two on top, and there are eight pairs of
yellowish abdominal prolegs, in addition to the true thoracic

* Harpiphorus maculatus Norton. Family Tenthrcdiniihr. See J. M.
Stedman, Bulletin 54, Mo. Agr. Exp. Sta.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY 451

legs, which ut once distinguish the saw-fl}' hir\'ie from true
caterpillars. The adult saw-flies are about one-quarter inch
long, with two pairs of l)lackish, well-veined wings which are
folded over the abdomen when at rest. The body is ])lack, with
a row of lighter spots on either side of the abdomen. The flies
emerge in late April in Missouri or a])out a fortnight l)efore the
plants flower freely. The eggs are inserted just l^eneath the
epidermis of the leaves and hatch in about two weeks, just as the
plants begin to bloom. The larvae eat holes in the leaves and
" where numerous, they will defoliate the plants to such an extent
as to greatly injure or completely destroy the crop of fruit, and
may even kill the plants themselves." When at rest or disturbed
the larvie coil themselves up in a spiral on the imder side of the
leaf as shown in Fig. 322, but if suddenly disturbed they will often
drop to the ground. By the last of May the larva are full grown
and enter the soil, where they make small cells, lined with a
gummy su])stance, and in them hibernate until the next spring,
when they pupate and the adult flies emerge.

Injury by the saw-fly has lieen reported from the northern and
central States from Missouri and Nebraska to Maine.

A nearly related species * with almost identical habits has done
similar injury in Iowa, Illinois and Indiana. The larvae are a deep
green, much wrinkled, with a blackish stripe along the back and
an ol)sc\u"e blackish stripe on each side, and the head brown.

Control. Inasmuch as the larvae commence to hatch just as

blooming commences Professor Stedman has shown b}' experiments

that spraying the foliage at this time with arsenicals will entirelj'

protect it from the larvae. -If they commence work before their

presence is noticed, the foliage ' may be sprayed imtil the first

berries are about one-third grown without any danger of poisoning

them. Hellelwre 1 pound to 3 gallons of water was also effective,

as was dusting with pyrethrum. Although there nuiy lie some

prejudice against the use of arsenicals, where properly applied

at the right time there is no reason why they should not be used.

* Monostegia ignota Xortou. See F. W. Mally, " Insect Life," Xo\. II,
p. 137.

452 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Strawberry Leaf-roller *

Where leaves are found ft)kled together^ many of them being
dry and l)rown, the small green caterpillars found feeding within
the folds are probably those of the Strawberry Leaf-roller. It
is a European insect, though it is not injurious there, and the
first record of injury in this country was made by Dr. C. V. Riley
in LS69, who stated that in one place in Missouri it destroyed
ten acres so completely as to not leave enough plants to set a
half acre. " Since that time," says Dr. J. B. Smith, " the insect
has been frequently mentioned as injurious in many parts of the
country, but rarely is it troublesome for more than a year or two

Fig. 323. — The .strawberry leaf -roller moth (Ancylis comptana Frohl.) —
enlarged. (After J. B. Smith.)

in succession. It is always inclined to be local and its ravages
do not often extend over wide areas."

Life Historij. The moths appear in the strawberry fields
during early May^ in New Jersey and commence to lay eggs, the
moths Ijeing found in the fields for al)0ut a month. The eggs are
laid on the under suiface of the half-gi'own leaves. They are
broadly oval or round, much flattened, of a pale green color and
aliout one-fifti(>th inch in diameter. They are laid in the fine
netting of the leaf, in which they are seen with great difficulty.
The larvie hatch in from five to seven days. The young cater-
pillar feeds on the upper surface of the leaf for a day or two, eating
into and along the midrib to weaken it. The young larva is at

* Ancylis comptana Frohl. Family Toiiricidw. See J. B. Smith, Bulletins
149 and 225, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY

453

first a light-green color with a largo head and long hair, which
becomes less noticeal)le as it grows.

It soon connnences to draw the edges of the leaf together,
folding the upper surface on the midrib, holding it together by
numerous strands of fine silk. The insect then spins a partia
tube or lining inside, in which it remains until the moth develops.
Unless disturbed the larva does not leave this folded leaf, and all

Fig. 324. — Strawberry leaf folded by the leaf-roller. (After J, B. Smith.)

the feeding is done out of the reach of sprays. The larva becomes
full grown in about four weeks, when it is about half an inch long
and of a dark-green color, until just before puj^ation, when it
becomes more yellowish. The head and thoracic shield are
shining brown, and the small body tubercles are slightly lighter.
The larvae are slender and very active, wriggling violently when
disturl:)ed or taken from their webs.

454 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

" Puputioii uc'c-ur« in the tube made by the hirva. The pupa
itself i.s ])ruwnish-yello\v, without obvious processes or protuber-
ances, and a little more than one-fourth an inch long." The jjupal
stage lasts about ten days, thus giving about forty-two to fif to-
days for the complete life cycle from egg to adult.

The moths of the second brood appear late in June and during
July. This Ijrood is much more abimdant on blackberry and
raspbeiTj: than on strawl^erry plants. The moths of the third
brood appear in Aj^igiist. Tliey are comparatively few in number
and also seem to prefer blackberry and raspberry. Young larva)
are, however, to be found on strawberries in September. " Accord-
ing to the account given by Riley, the larvse change to pupa3
late in September and remain during the winter in that state."
Dr. Smith states that he has not observed this personally. In
Delaware we have found fidl-grown larva in folded leaves in
midwinter, so that possibly some of them at least do not pupate
until spring.

" The aflult moth is small, measuring with expanded wings
about two-fifths of an inch. In general color it is somewhat
reddish-brown, the fore-wings streaked and spotted with black and
white as shown in the illusti'ation. When the wings are folded,
the dark area at the base forms a somewhat conspicuous deeper
brown patch in the middle of the back. The hind-wings are of
a soft, dark smoky gray, and both wings have long fringes. The
insects fly readily during the middle of the day, and run rapidly
on the leaves, diving to the under side or into a fold so quickly
that it requires close watching to follow their movements.
From the fact that newly set fields are often infested, it
is probable that they fly for some distance to seek their food
plant." — Smith.

" A badly infested strawbeixy-patch begins to look scorched
early in June, and before the middle of that month appears as if
a fire had been over it. The fi'uit, deprived of the food prepared
by the foliage, stops growth, ripens undersized or prematurely, or
shrivels up altogether, even before it colors." " Often every
lobe on a leaf will be folded, and occasionally, when infested

1N8ECTS INJinUOlIH TO Til 10 STRAWBP^RRY 1.35

leaves cover or touch, an irregular mass of foliage is huiulled
up in which as many as six or eight larvtc may Ix' found.

" On l:)lackl)(>rry not so large a part of the leaf is involved,
and frequently only the tip of one of the leaflets is webbed up.
F'urthermore, the injury is more local, and only that part that
is actualh' eaten is harmed. The total amount of food really
devoured is very small, and were it not for the manner of feeding
which interferes with the nutrition of the leaf, the strawberry
could easily spare tissue for all these caterpillars that ever infect
it. On the raspberry the habit is yet different. Here the larva
gets into a partly opened tip and webs it together so securel}''
as to check growth. The actual eating shows a rust}- space on
the upper side of the leaf, and not much more harm is done."

Control. — As stated above, the young caterpillar, just after
it is hatched, goes to the upper surface of the leaf and feeds there
exposed for a day or two before folding the leaf. " It must be
the object of the grower to poison the foliage so early in the season
that when the young caterpillar starts feeding, it can find no
foliage it can safely eat. Therefore, as soon as moths are found
fi}'ing in fair nunibers, spray with Paris green, or some other
arsenite (preferably arsenate of lead). As the plants grow
rapidly, spray again a week later, and a third time a week there-
after. This will catch the great bulk of the caterpillars that will
become injurious in June, leaving only a very few that hatch
late and cannot cause much harm. A single spraying will do
comparatively little good, because the moths extend the egg-
laying period over so long a time. The first larva) are almost
full grown before the last eggs are hatched."

" If for any reason no timely applications were made and the
fields become badly infested, nothing practical can be done until
the crop is off. Then mow the beds, rake off all the foliage, and
burn it. You will burn with it all the larvoe and pupa? that are
then unchanged. This lessens the number of moths that come
to maturity and so helps somewhat for the following year."

" On blackberry and raspberiy no remedial measures have
proved necessary so far. If there are many caterpillars present

456 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

late in the suiiiiuer it iiuiy pay to liandpick all infested leaves
or to crush the larva in the folded leaf. This will tend to lessen
the num1:)er that live over winter."

The Strawberry Weevil *

If the buds appear to be " stung " so that they wither, and
if many of the stems are cut so that the buds drop to the ground,
the strawberry weevil is the proljable cause of the damage. This
little weevil is only about one-tenth inch long and so is often
unnoticed, and the loss is attributed to other causes. The weevil
varies from nearly black to dull red, with
a dark spot just l^ack of the centre of
each wing-cover. The head is prolonged
into a slender curved snout, al)0ut half
as long as the l)ody. The species is
found in most of the States east of the
Rockies, but injury has Ijeen most severe
in the Middle and Northern States.

Life History. — The weevils hibernate
over winter and appear in spring a few
days ]:)efore the earliest staminate vari-
eties commence to ])loom. Others emei-ge
during the next month, l)ut the most
injury is done within the next two weeks.
The injur}' is done by the females, which
eat srnall holes through the outer husk
or corolla of nearly matured buds, and in
these little cavities deposit their eggs.
The stem of the bud is then cut so that it

Fig. 325.— The straw-
berry weevil {Antho-
nomus sigaatiis Say) —
enlarged. (After Riley
and Chittenden, U. S.

Dept. Agr.)

hangs by a mere thread and soon falls to the ground. By severing

the stem the development of the bud is arrested, thus preventing

the outer covering from unfolding and holding the eggs and larvae

in the pollen, on which they feed, and by falling to the ground

* Anthonomus signatus Say. Family Ciirculionidce. See F. H. Chittenden,
Circular 21, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; J. B. Smith, Bulletin 225, N. J.
Agr. Exp. Sta.

INSECTS IXJLKiOUS TO THE 8TKAWBERKY

457

the bud rciiuiins moist and will not dry uj) as it would on the stem.
The eggs hatch in from six to seven days and the small whitish
larvie feed on the pollen and later on the harder parts of the buds.
Three or four weeks are recjuired foi- a larva to become full grown.
It then forms a littl(> cell in the bud, in which the pupal stage is
passed in from five to eight days, when the adult beetle emerges
and cuts its way out. Thus the complete life cycle occupies
about a month and in the District of Columbia the new generation
of beetles appears during June*. The>- are frecjuentl}^ found in

Fig. 326. — The strawberry weevil : a, b, spray showing work in bud and stem —
natural size; c, outline of egg; d, larva; e, head of same; /, pupa; g,
bud opened to show egg on left and punctm-es made by snout of beetle
through petals. (After Chiftenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

large numbers on strawberry flowers and on those of the horse
mint (Monarda fistulosa), but the beetles soon seek hibernating
quarters, there being but one generation a year.

Control. — As the larvte feed upon the pollen of the buds of
staminate varieties, the staminate varieties are most injured,
and injury nuiy be avoided by growing as few rmvs^of staminate
varieties as are necessary for fertilizing the rest of the bed. Indeed
the very early staminate varieties might be used as a trap crop
for attracting the weevils, which might be destroyed liy coverino-
the rows with straw and burning, oi- possibly ])y spraying with

458 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND" ORCHARD

arsenicals. By planting rows of early varieties, which flower
freely and produce an abundance of pollen near woods and
fence-rows where th(:' beetles have hibernated and appear first,
they might be effectively trapped, and then destroyed. Although
the larva? cannot be reached with any insecticide, the beetles
feed more or less on the buds and foliage, and further experiments
should be niade in spraying for them with arsenicals. In view of
the recent success in the use of arsenate of lead against the plum
curculio, we would suggest the thorough spraying of badly infested
beds with arsenate of lead 3 to 5 pounds per barrel, applying it
with an under-spray nozzle so as to thoroughly cover every bit
of foliage. This should be applied as soon as the buds commence
to form and probably a week later before they blossom, as it is
then that the beetles are feeding. Spraying at that season can do
no possible harm to the berries, and to spray after the buds are
injured is useless. The destruction of all trash and rubljish in
and around the fields during the winter will destroy some of the
hibernating weevils, and it will be well to avoid mulching the
beds where the beetle is trouljlesome, if the mulch is not abso-
lutely necessary, ^as it furnishes them the best hibernating
(luarters.

CHAl'TER XXIII

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY

The Raspberry Root-borer t

The lar\a' of the Ka.spberr}' Root-borer make tunnels in the
roots and lower stems of raspberry and blackberry, sometimes
completely girdling the stem at the crown, so that the name of
blackberry crown-borer has also been
used. The full-grown larva is from 1 to
H inches long, yellowish -white, with
brownish head, and the tips of the small
thoracic legs also brownish. The parent
insect is one of the clear-winged moths,
which fly by day and closely resemble
wasps, and is nearly related to the peacli-
and squash-borers. The female is much
the larger and is shown natural size in
Fig. 328. The body is black with yellow-
rings, and the legs are yellowish. The
wings are transparent except a bronze-
brown margin and a narrow band across
the fore-wings about one-third from the
tip.

Life History. — The moths appear in
late August and September and the females deposit their eggs
upon the lower edge of the leaves. The egg is oval, about one-

* See F. M. Webster, Bulletin 45, Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta.; J. B. Smith, 12th
Report N.J. Agr. Exp. Sta.

f Bembecia marginata Harr. Family Sesiidce. See J. B. Smith, Bulletin
N, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 9; W. H. Lawrence, Bulletin 63, Wash. Agr. Exp.
Sta.

4r)9

Fig. 327. — The raspberry
root-borer (Bembecia
marginata Harr.) : a,
male moth; b, female
moth — natural size.
(After Riley.)

460 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

sixtcentli incli lung', deep brownish-red in color. \ female lays
about 140 eggs, which are deposited singly. They hatch in Sep-
tember and the young
larva crawl down the
stems and bore under the
bark. Here they may
either make a small blis-
ter-like cavity and hiber-
nate over winter, or if
hatched earlier they may
feed on the sap wood or
occasionally bore into the
stem and become one-
quarter inch or more long
before winter. The next
season the larvae bore
in the lower stem and
roots, but the nature
of the injury differs
as observed in different
places. In New Jersey,
Dr. J. B. Smith states
that the larvae girdle the
stem at the crown, caus-
ing the plants to die. In
spring they abandon the
old wood and attack new
shoots, but he observed
none entering the stems.
In Washington, the in-
fested plants seldom
show any signs of the
presence of the borers
other than a poor
growth, though occasionally a few hills will die where the roots have
been l^adly i-iddled l)y the larvae, the injury being mostly in the

Fig. 328. — Raspberry ' root-borer (Bembecia
marginata Harr.): a, female and male
larvae full grown; 6, male and female pups' ;
c, female, and d, male moths resting on
leaf; e, e, eggs — slightly reduced. (After
LawTence.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO RASPBEIIRY AND BLACKBERRY 4G1

roots. " Tlu> borer," accortling (o Jjawi'ciicc, '' (ii\st enters the roots
and tunnels through them pi-omiscuousl}- until the second spring,
and then directs its course upward, entering and eating the pith of
the cane for a distance of one to five inches." At the end of the
first summer the larva is one-half to three-quarters inch long. B}'
the middle of the second summer the larva is full grown and
bores an exit hole through the wood and bark just above the
crown, leaving the hole covered by the epidermis onl}-. The
larva then descends into the tunnel and pupates.

The pupa is about three-quarters inch long, reddish-brown, the

Fig. 329. — Work of the rasi:)berry root-borer: a, two canes with empty pupa
cases ]>rojectiiig from burrows; b, cane.s showing opening of tunnel
through whieh \m\nv have wriggled out. (After Lawrence.)

head bears a sharp-pointed process, and eac^h abdominal segment
bears two transverse rows of sharp teeth. B}" means of these the
pupa wriggles itself out of the burrow until it projects from the
apertui'e, and the adult moth emerges. This insect occurs througli-
out the Middle and Northern States east of the Rockies, is injurious
in Washington and around ^^ancouver, B.C., and has been
observed in Colorado and New Mexico.

Control. — The only method of control is to pull up tlie infested
canes, root and branch, and destroy them by burning. As this
is the only means of controlling sev(M"al pests of cane fruits, the

462 INSECT PESTS OF l-'ARM, GARDEN AND OIK'UARD

canes should always be gone over in spring and those showing
any injury examined and removed if affected.

The Raspberry Cane-borer *

If the tips of the young shoots of raspberry and blackberry
are found withered and dying they have prol^ably })een girdled
by the cane-borer. The adult beetle is about one-half inch long^
with a slender, cylindrical body and long antennae, and of a deep
black color except the prothorax, which is yellow with two or
three black spots, though these are sometimes lacking.

Life History. — The beetles appear in early summer and the
females girdle the young tips by cutting two rings around the

Fu;. 330.— The raspberry cane-borer {Oberea bimaculata Oliv.): adult, larva,
and larval castings — all enlarged. (After Lugger.)

shoot about an inch apart, causing the tip to wither and droop.
Between these rings will be found a small dark spot where the
female has inserted an egg in the cane. A rather large, elliptical,
yellow egg is placed in the pith of the cane and in a few days
hatches into a small white grub. The larvae burrow downward

* Oberea bimaculata Oliv. Family Cerambycidce. See Comstock and
Slingerland, Bulletin 23, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 122.

INSECTS INJITRIOITS TO RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY 463

through the pitli of the stents, the burrows winding from side
to side and freciuently penetrating the side of the stem, where
openings are made every few inehes, through wliich long strings
of excrement are cast out. B^- fall lhe\- have Ijored to the base
of the cane, in which they hibernate over winter. The full-
grown larva is about one inch long, of a dull yellow color, witli
a small dark-brown head. The l)ody is cjuite cylindrical and

Fig. 331.^ — Egg of the rasj)-
berry cane-borer, showing
girdhng of cane. (Photo
by Headlee.)

Fig. 332. — ^Young grubs and exit hole
of the raspberry cane-borer. (Photo
by Headlee.)

the segments constricted as shown in Fig. 330. The pupal stage is
passed in the burrow during the spring. Although it has been gen-
erally assumed that the life cycle is passed in a single yeai-, there is
some reason for Ijelieving that two years may be required. The
eggs are usually laid only in the young tips, but Comstock and
Slingerland found larvie somewhat over half grown which had made
turrows only two inches long in old canes in late July, and Professor
Webster has secured larvaj over half grown in earl}- June. Possibly,

464 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

therefore, two years may Ijc required for maturing a generation,
and the fact that the pest does not increase may be due to the
cutting back of the injured tips of the young canes.

Control. — As soon as the tips are seen to droop tliey should
be cut otf behjw the point girdled and burned. When the entire
canes die from the effect of being tunneled, they should be cut
in late summer Ijefore the larvie have gone to the base to hiber-
nate. Where such measures are practised the pest may be effec-
tively controlled.

The Snowy Tree-cricket *

^^'llen the canes fail to put out leaves in the spring and are
found to be dead, this often proves to be due to a long ragged
wound like that shown in Fig. 334a. " If the rough surface of
the wound be cut away with a knife, the injury will be found to
consist of a longitudinal series of punctures placed close together.
By splitting the cane tlie nature of the injury can l^e seen even
better. Such a section is shown at b in the figure. The punctures

extend through the woody part of
the cane into the pith, and here
there is in each an oblong, cylin-
drical egg. One of these eggs is
represented enlarged at c. The
insect which thus seriously injures
the raspberry canes in preparing
a safe receptacle for its eggs is
a delicate greenish-white cricket.
On account of its color and its
habit of living among the foliage
of trees and shrul)s, it has received
tlu; popular name of the Snow}'
Tree-cricket. Fig. 3336 represents the male. Its wing-covers are
crossed by oblique thickenings or ribs, which form part of the musi-

* (Ecanthus niveus DeG. Family Gryllidoe. See Comstock and Slinger-
land, Bulletin 23, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 124; H. O. Houghton,
Entomological News, Vol. XIV, p. 57.

Fig. 333.— The fsnowy tree-
cricket {Oecantlms niveus De
G.): a, female; b, male — en-
larged. (After Summers.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY 465

cal apparatus of tJic iii8(>c't. The female, Fig. 333a, differs some-
what ill appearance from th(> fact that the wing-covers are wrapped
closely about the body, making the insect much narrower than
her mate." (Comstock and Slingerland, I.e.) The cry of these
tree-crickets is well known, sounding much
like that of the katy-did, but is less
rasping and more monotonous. They are
heard in early evening until well into
the night, and in the North their chirp
is the most noticeable of all the insect
noises at that time. This species is
(juite widely distributed and frequently
oviposits in the tender twigs of fruit
trees, which are similarly injured, and
in the stalks of cotton and various woody
weeds.

Life Histort/. — The eggs are laid in the
fall and hatch in the late spring. The
nymphs feed mostly on plant-lice and
other insects, as do the adults, and though
they occasionally nibble foliage, they are
never injurious, and both nymphs and
adults must be regarded as beneficial as
far as their feeding habits are concerned.
In the North the nymphs become full
grown late in July, and there is but one
generation a year, but in Texas they
become full grown late in June and eggs
laid in early July hatch in about two weeks ;
nymphs are common in late summer, and
the adults of the second generation in fall.

Control. — By examining the canes as soon as the foliage
starts, those injured may l)e detected and should be cut
out and burned. If not numerous enough to do appreciable
damage thev niav l)e ignored.

Fir,. 334. — Raspberry
stem injured by the
snowy tree-cricket :
a, wovuid made by
egg - pimctures ; b,
longitiulinal section
through same show-
ing eggs in pith; c,
egg enlarged ; d, cap
of egg, more enhirged .
(After Riley.)

466 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Red-necked Cane-borer *

Sometimes the canes of raspberry and blackberry are found
with one or more elongate galls, not over one-third larger in
diameter than the normal cane, and usually with numerous slits,
which have been called the " gouty gall." The infested shoots

Fig. 335. — The red-necked cane-borer (AgrUm i-uficolHs Fab.): beetle,
larva, and gall — all much enlarged. (After Riley.)

may throw out leaves, but they rarel}- ripen fruit and usually die
during the season. By opening the gall it will be found that only
the bark has been injured by a spiral channel which girdles the
stem and causes the gall-like thickening of the bark. Above
the swelling evidence will be found of the borer's work in the

* Agrilliis ruficollis Fab. Family Buprestidce. See J. B. Smith, 12th
Report, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 373; and F. M. Webster, I.e., p. 191.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY 467

pith, and from one to six inclies above the gall the slender white
larva will be found at work.

There seems to be considerable difference in the susceptibility
of varieties, Dr. Smith observing that the " Wilson " and black-
cap raspberries are badly infested, while the " Missouri Mammoth "
and others were unharmed.

Life History. — The eggs are laid in June, but have not been
observed. Whether laid on the stalk or on a leaf, the young larva
enters the bark at the axil of a leaf -stem, and eats around the

Fig. .3.36. — Work of the red-necked cane-borer: a, tracks of young larva\
the bark sliced away to show burrows and forming gall ridges; 6, section
through galls on main cane and lateral showing track of larva through
bark and pith and pupal cell, (.\fter .1. B. Smith.)

stem in a long spiral. By early August the galls commence to
form where the bark has been girdled, though sometimes no gall
lesults from the injury, and the larvae mine into the pith. The
larvse probably become practically full grown in the fall and remain
in their burrows over winter, in which they transform to pupre
in late April, in Xew Jersey, and the beetles emerge in late May
and Jime. The parent beetle is not over one-third inch long,
flattened, with a small wide head, and tapers at the tip of the
abdomen. It has lirownish-black wing-covers with a bronzy
lu.stre, and the neck and thorax are coppery-red or brassy. The

468 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

full-grown larva is five-eighths to three-quarters inch long, with
a small brown head, a much-expanded prothorax which looks
like the head, and a slender, cylindrical, white body, surmounted
by two slender brown horns at the tip of the al)domen.

This cane-borer is a native pest, very common in wild raspberries
and blackberries, and occurs generally throughout the country.

Control. — Obviously it may be readily controlled by cutting off
the infested canes below the galls and burning them. This should
be done any time before Ma3^ Where wild canes arc infested
near those cultivated they should be included in the pruning.

The Blackberry Gall-maker *

The so-called " pithy gall " of the blackberry is an elongated.

Fig. 337. — Tho pithj'-gall of the blackberry : a, gall ; b, sortion of same showing

larv* in cells; r, larva enlarged and natural size; d, pupa. (After Riley.)

* Diastrophii.s turgkhiH Bass. Familj' Cynipidte.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY 469

pithy swelling from one to three inches long and nearly an inch
in diameter, red or reddish-l)rown, with the surface divided by
deep longitudinal furrows into four oi- five ridges or parts. The
gall is caused l)y the larvie of a snudl black gall-ll}-, which is
about one-twelfth inch long, with red feet and antenmc and four
transparent wings, almost lacking wing-veins. The insect passes
the winter in the larval stage in the galls, and if one be opened
at that season, there will be found about the middle a number of
cells about one-eighth inch long, each of which contains a single
larva. The larva " is about one-tenth inch long, white, with the
mouth-parts reddish, and the breathing pores and an oval spot
on each side behind the head of the same color," They change
to pupse in spring and the flies appear a little later. Though
this gall is also very common on wild canes it rarel}' does
much injury.

Control. — The affected canes should be cut and burned during
the winter.

The Raspberry-cane Maggot *

The tips of young raspberry shoots sometimes droop and wilt
in the spring in much the same manner as when affected by the
cane-borer later in the season, and though blackberry shoots are
similarly affected they usually recover, but bear small gall-like
swellings like those shown in Fig. 339. This is the work of a small
white maggot, nearly related to and looking much the same as the
cabbage-maggot (p. 347), which girdles the inner bark of the
stem. Injury has been observed in New York, Canada, Michigan,
Pennsylvania, and recently it has become a serious pest in Wash-
ington, so that it is undoubtedly much more widely distributed
than the records indicate. The parent fly, shown in Fig. 338,
is grayish black, much resembling the house-fly, but slightly
smaller.

Life Hi.story. — The flies appear in April and deposit their eggs
as soon as the shoots are well above ground, continuing until early

* Phorbin rubivora Coquillet. Family Antlwmyidw. See Slingerland.
Bulletin 126, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 54; W. H. Lawrence, Bulletin
02. Wash. Agr Exp. Sta.

470 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

June. The wliite egg (Fig. 33<S, c) is elongate, about one-fifteenth
inch long, and is laid in the axil of a young leaf at the tip of a
shoot (Fig. 338, d). The egg hatches in a few days, and the little

Fig. 338. — The raspljerry cane-maggot {Fhorbia riibivota Coquillet): a, adult
female fly; much enlarged; b, raspberry shoots girdled by the maggot,
natural size; c, egg much enlarged; d, tips of shoots each bearing an egg
in natural position in the leaf axils, natural size. (After Slingerland.)

INSECTS INJUIUOI'S TO RASPBEIUIY AND BLACKBEHRY 471

maggot burrows into the pith of tlie shoot, leaving a conspicuous
entrance hole, which becomes lilackish. It tunnels downward,
making a small tortuous channel, and after boring for a few days
about half way down the shoot, it works its wa}- out to just
beneath the bark and tunnels around the shoot, often in a spiral,
so as to completel}- girdle it, and usually eats a small hole through
the bark at this point. The maggot continues to feed on the
pith at this point so as to nearly sever the shoot, the tip of which
soon wilts and droops, turning a deep blue color. On blackberry
shoots, however, the bark is so thick that although the tip droops

Fig. 339. — Gall-like swelling on living blackberry canes caused by the rasp-
berry cane-maggot. (After Lawrence.)

for a few days, it usually revives and the girdling forms a cii'cular,
gall-like swelling, though even blackberries are often killed.
Affected shoots usually branch from below the girdled point,
making a bushy growth. Lawrence states that later in the
season lateral shoots are also attacked. He also observes that
maggots never develop in living canes. The maggot continues
to burrow downward in the pith and becomes full grown in June,
when it pupates at the lower end of the burrow. The puparia
are to be found in the lower part of the affected stalk in June
and July, but the adult flies do not emerge until the next spring.
Control. — As soon as the }'oung tips are seen to droop they

472 INSECT FESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

should be cut off sevonil inches below the girdled point and
burned. This may be done best late in May or in June after all
the effffs are laid.

-'&&'-

The Raspberry Saw-fly *

Occasionally raspberry leaves, as well as those of blacklierry
and dewberry, are skeletonized in May by small green, spiny
saw-fly larvse, which sometimes quite defoliate the plant. Such
injury has been commonly noted in the Eastern and Central
States. The adult female is a typical saw-fly about one-quarter
inch long and with a wing expanse of one-half inch. The body
and wings are black except the second to sixth abdominal seg-
ments, which are yellowish-white, and the under side is rusty.
The male is somewhat smaller and is entirely l)lack except the
shoulders, which are yellowish-white.

Life History. — The adults appear al)out the middle of May
in central New York, and the females deposit their eggs late in
that month. The eggs arc inserted just under the cuticle of the
under surface of the leaf, and the tissue around them turns
yellowish, so that infested leaves soon become spotted on the upper
surface. The egg is nearly pear-shaped, yellowish-white, about
one-twentieth inch long, and hatches in seven to ten days. As
many as twenty-four eggs have been observed in a single leaf, and
frequently the leaves are so spotted as to be readily recognized.
The 3'oung larva is about one-twelfth inch long, yellowish-white
or pale yellowish-green and well covered with spiny tubercles, the
spines being first white and later dark brown. The young larvse
feed on the soft parts of the leaf, Init as they grow older all but the
midrib and larger veins are devoured. The mature larva is about
three-quarters inch long, from light yellowish-green to dark green,
closely simulating the color of the foliage, and the bod}' is covered
with transverse rows of tubercles, bearing a varj-ing number of
strong, barbed spines, which are dark brown on the back and
pale green or white along the sides. The larva feeds for about ten

* Monophadnus ruhi Harris. Family Tenthredinidce. See V. H. Lowe,
Bulletin 150, X. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta.

Fig 340.— The raspberry saw-fly {Moiiophadnus rtibi Harr.): a, male; b
fenuilc; c, ogg blisters on leaf; d, larva; e, cocoons— all much enlarged.
(After Lowe.) „

474 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

days and then enters the soil for from two to three inches and
there constructs u small oval cocoon about one-third inch lonir
which looks like a pellet of earth, being formed of a brown mucilag-
inous substance, interwoven with coarse strands of silk, to which
particles of earth adhei'e, Tlxe larva then hibernates until the
next spring, when it transforms to the pupa and in a few days
the adult ai)pears, usually early in Ma}'.

Control. — By suddenly jarring or shaking the bushes the
larva; will drop to the soil. On light soils this habit may be
utilized for their destruction by jarring them to the ground and
following with cultivators so as to bury the larva; in the loose soil.
This will be particularly applicable in hot weather, if the soil is
hot and dusty, when most of the larvic will be killed before
regaining the plants. By frec^uent cidtivation in late sununer or
fall the cocoons might l)e brought to the surface and some of the
larvaj might be thus killed during the winter, though this needs
testing, as they are fairly well protected. The larva; may be
readily killed with arsenical sprays, and if arsenate of lead were
applied at the rate of 3 pounds per barrel just as the plants
commence to flower, it would undoul)tedly control the pest with
no possibility of spotting the fruit, or Paris green with Bordeaux
mixture might be used in the same way. If careful watch is
kept for the pest it can probably be detected in time to apply
the arsenicals, which will be much the easiest and most effective
to use, but if not observed until the canes are fruiting they should
be sprayed with hellebore, 1 ounce to 1 gallon of water. Hellebore
may be dusted on the plants mixed with twice its weioht of
flour, but the spraying may be done more thoroughly.

The Raspberry Byturus ""^

The Raspberry Byturus is a small brown beetle belonging

to the same family as the larder and carpet beetles, most of which

feed on animal matter. It is about one-seventh inch long,

reddish-yellow or reddish-brown, and covered with a thick coat

* Byturus unicolor Say. Family Dermestidce. See W H Goodwin
Bulletin 202, Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY 475

of pale, tawny hairs. The beetles appear about the middle of
May in northern Ohio. They feed on the tender foliage and cat
into the flower buds, and
sometimes emerge in such
numbers that the young foli-
age is skeletonizetl and many
of the flower buels do not
develop. Though the eggs are
laid in June, they have not
been observed. The larvie
appear in late June and July
and feed in the fleshy head on which the berry is born, causing
the affected berries to ripen earlier, making them small and unfit
for market. Furthermore the little larvae not infrequently

Fig. 341. — Larva and adult of
the raspberry byturus — enlarged.
(After Goodwin.)

Fig. 342. — Early ripening berries, the smaller ones infested with Byturus
larvse. (After Goodwin.)

remain in the cup of the berry, which necessitates picking teh
berries over and injures their sale. The larva is about one-

476 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

quarter inch long, rather plump and cylindrical, and tapering
at each end. The body is white, but each segment is marked
across the back with a broad, tawny yellow l^and, and numerous
short white hairs. When full grown the larva drops to the
ground and forms an earthen cell just beneath the surface, in
which it transforms to a yellowish pupa, from which the beetle
emerges the next spring. Only red raspberries seem to be affected,
and some varieties are particularly injured. The insect has been
reported as injurious from Minnesota to Massachusetts and in
Ontario.

Control. — Inasmuch as the beetles feed freely on the foliage
before ovipositing they may be destroyed by spraying the leaves
with arsenate of lead. Mr. Goodwin has shown that where
foliage was sprayed with 4 pounds per barrel, that three-fourths
of the subsequent injury to the berries by the larvge was prevented
by the destruction of the beetles, and the injury to the flower
buds was also lessened. Thorough cultivation in the fall close
around the bushes will probal3ly destroy many of the pupic l)y
exposing them to winter weather.

CHAPTER XXIV

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY

The Imported Currant -borer *

One of the worst pests of the currant and gooseberry is the
borer, which tunnels out the canes and where abundant frequently
kills the plants. It is a European insect which has spread to
all parts of this country where these fruits are grown. The
adult is one of the clear-winged moths and with the larva is very

tu,^u.p>^.-:ii^

Fig. 343. — The imported currant-borer (Aegeria tiptdiformis Clerck): moth,
larva, and empty pupal skin left protruding from bin-row. (After
Lugger.)

similar in appearance and habits to the raspberry root-borer
(p. 459). The moth is about one-half inch long with a wing-
expanse of three-quarters inch. The body is black with a steel-
blue lustre, with a bright yellow band around the neck and three

* JEgeria tipuliformis Clerck. Family Semidce. See Lugger. 1st Report
Minn. State Entomologist, p. 1S4.

477

478 INSECT rES'l\S OF FARIM, GARDEN AND ORCIIAUD

yellow bands across the abdomen, which l^ears a large tuft of
long scales at the tip. The wings are clear except for a margin
of blackish scales and a band across the fore-wings al)Out one-
third from the tip.

Life History. — The moths appear in June and deposit their
small globular, brown eggs in the axils of the leaves next the
canes, or under scales or in cracks of the canes. The young
caterpillars bore into the pith of the canes, which they tunnel out,
and are about half grown by winter, when they descend to the
bottom of the burrows and hiliernate. In the spring they con-
tinue their work and become full grown by ]\Iay. The full-
grown larva is slightly over one-half inch long, of a yellowish
color, with brown head, and with numerous small tubercles over
the body. It cuts a hole through the side of the Ijun-ow, which
it closes with small chippings, and then transforms to the pupa.
When the moth is ready to emerge the pupa wriggles itself partly
out of the burrow by means of the strong spines on th(> abdomen,
and the moth comes foi'th. Affected canes can l)e recognized
by the dwarfed and yellow foliage and the general unhealthy
appearance of the plant, and if not removed will usually die during
the season.

Control. — The only method of conti-ol is to keep all tlie old
wood removed and to cut out and l)urn all affected canes in fall
or early spring, whenever the injuiy may best be detected.

The Currant-stem Girdler *

In late spring, after the young currant-shoots have reached
a growth of several inches, two or three inches of the tips some-
times wilt, and fall over and hang suspended or drop to the ground.
If examination shows that the tip has been girdU>d ])y several
sharp cuts, it is proliably the work of the Currant-stem Girdler.
It is a native insect which was first described from Massachusetts,
and has also been found injurious in Rhode Island, Canada, Ohio

* Januft integer Norton. Family T enthredinidce . See Slingorland, Bul-
letin 126, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.; F. H. Chittenden, Bulletin No. -Icj,
Bureau of Forestry, pp. 68-70.

Fig. 344. — The t'urrant stem-girdler (Janus integer Norton): a, female at
work girdling a currant stem — natural size; b, girdled portion of stem
much enlarged to show character of girdle; c, stem cut open to show
egg; (/, egg — much enlarged. (After Slingerland.)

47'J

480 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

and Michigan, but has been most troublesome in New York.
It has also been noted as a pest of willow and poplar in ^lary-
land, and of basket willow in Kentucky, Indiana, and (Jhio, so
that it is doubtless quite generally tlistributed. The adult insect
is a slender saw-fly with shining black body and light brownish
legs, shown natural size in Fig. 344a. The male is smaller and
has a brownish-yellow al)domen, while in the female the first
half of the abdomen is reddish-orange and the rest is black. The
adults are abroad in May, l)ut are very shy and are seldom seen.

Fig. .345. — Currant stem girdled by the stem-girdler. (After Slingerland.)

They are saw-flies in the truest sense of that term, for the female
makes most effective use of her saw-like ovipositor, as has been
very interestingly described and illustrated by Professor Slinger-
land. The ovipositor is thrust into the cane for its whole length,
and through it the egg is deposited in the pith. The egg is an
elongate-oval shape, yellowish-white, and about one-twenty-fifth
inch long (Fig. 344d). Immediately the female moves an inch
or two higher and girdles the stalk by numerous thrusts of her
ovipositor, which is thrust in and then given a twist to one side
so that it comes out at one side of where it was forced in, and
makes a horizontal cut. The eggs are laid in late May and early

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY 481

June and hatch in about eleven days. The young larvie bore
into the pith, l)ut the tunnel rarely extends over six inches below
the point girdled. The full-grown larva is hardly one-half inch
long, of a glistening straw-yellow color, with darker head. The
thoracic segments are wider than the others and bear rudimentary
feet, and from the tip of the stout, cylindrical abdomen projects
a horny, l)rown l)ifid spine. In the fall the borer cleans out its
burrow at the lower end and eats a hole through the woody wall
of the stem to the outer Ijark, which sinks in at this point. The
grub then spins a thin silken cocoon about itself, in which it
hibernates over winter, transforming to a whitish pupa in April,
from which the adult emerges early in May. The girdling of
the stalks is the principal injury, and those which harbor the pest
may be recognized, even in winter, by the characteristic dead
stubs, cut off squarely at the upper end.

Control. — The drooping of the tips in May is soon noticed
and during June they should be cut off about three inches lower
down and burned, or if the pruning is left until winter the infested
stubs should l)e cut off about eight inches below the point girdled,
as the larvse rarely tunnel deeper.

The Four-lined Leaf -bug *

This is one of our most common leaf-))ugs, which has a long-
list of food plants, but is particulaily injurious to the j'oung
foliage of currant and gooseberiy. The adult bug is easily
recognized, as the upper surface is a dark green with four stripes
and the tips of the wing-covers black, as shown in Fig. 346. The
green changes to yellow after death and the body is bright orange-
yellow, and the legs green. The " presence of the pest is indicated
by the appearance of the peculiar brown depressed spots on the
tender terminal leaves " in early summer. " As the attack con-
tinues, whole leaves turn brown, curl up, l)ecome brittle, and are
torn or broken by the wind. The young shoot is checked and
frequently droops and dies. The buds of dahlias and roses are

* Popcilocapaus lineatus Fab. Family Cap.udae. See Slingerland, Bul-
etin 58, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.

482 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

often blasted." Slingerland gives a list of some fifty-seven food-
plants, including all sorts of crops, ornamental plants and weeds.
Parsnip, mint, sage, rose, deutzia, dahlia, and others are often
badly injured. The species has been observed from Canada to
Georgia and westward to the Dakotas, so that it is probably
generally distributed east of the Rockies.

Life History.— The nymphs hatch from the overwintering eggs
in late May and early June and are very largely responsible
for the injuiy to the foliage. The newly hatched nymph is only

Fio. .346. — The four-lined leaf-bug {Puecilocapsits liiiealus Fab.): a, adult;
b, cross-section of stem showing eggs in position and a single egg greatly-
enlarged. (After Slingerland.)

about one-twentieth inch long, but is easily recognized by the
shining vei-milion-red color of the Ixxly, inarked with lai'ge blackish
spots on the thorax and with greenish-black antenna^ and legs.
The nymphs grow rapidly, l)ecoming full grown in seventeen to
twenty days after hatching, during which time they have molted
five times. The full-grown nymi)h is about one-fifth inch long,
bright orange j^ellow, and the black wing-pads extend half waj^
to the end of the abdomen and bear a yellowish green stripe near
the outer margin. The nymjjhs iced on the tenderest young
leaves, sucking out the juices and soft tissue through their tiny

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY 483

beaks, and thus causing tho spots mentioned. " As the nymphs
increase in size the spots are a little larger and more numerous,
until not only hundreds occur on a single leaf, but often nearly
all the parenchyma is taken from the leaf." The nymphs are
very active and dart fi-om one side of the leaf to the other when
disturbed. The adult bugs appear about the middle of June
and are active for a month or more, when they disappear. They
mate and the females commence to lav eggs about a week after

Fk;. 347.

-Currant leaf spotted by the nymphs of the four-lined leaf-bug.
(After Slingerland.)

they first appear. The femiale is furnished with a strong ovipositor
with which she inserts the eggs in slits cut lengthwise into the
stems of the plants extending nearly half way through the pith.
A half-dozen or more eggs are packed together in the small slit,
which ma}" be one-eighth inch long. The individual egg is about
one-sixteenth inch long, light yellow, and shaped as in Fig. 346e,
with the upper third capped by a white, finely striated portion.
" With the growth of the surrounding tissue of the stem, the eggs

484 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

are usually forced out of the slit somewhat, so that about one-half
... of the white portion of the egg projects from the slit."
Most of the slits are made two or three inches, rarely over six
inches, below the tender tips.

Control. — Experiments indicate that the nymphs may be
killed by spraying them with kerosene emulsion containing 10
per cent kerosene. Tobacco extracts should also be tried. The

Fig. 348. — Currant leaves killed by the fovir-liiied leaf-buj^. (After Slinger-

land.)

adults are not susceptible to this treatment, however. Both
nymphs and adults will drop from the foliage when disturbed,
and Professor Slingerland has suggested that they might be jarred
into a pan of kerosene. By drawing pans, such as constructed
for combating the pea-aphis (p. 326), between the rows and
jarring the bugs into them, many might be destroyed. As the
eggs are readily recognized, the tips containing them should be
cut off and destroyed during the winter.

The Currant-aphis *

The young foliage of currants, and sometimes of gooseber-
ries, is often found curled up in late spring with nian}^ l)ladder-

* Myzus ribis Linn. Family Aphididoe. See V. H. Lowe, Bulletin 139,
N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 6G0. Another species, Rfwpalosiphum ribis Linn.,
is also common on currant and is described and figured by Mr. Lowe.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY 485

like galls on the leaves, inside of which are found the numerous
yellowish-green plant-lire whieh have caused thcni. The wing-
less females are about one-twelfth inch long, yellowish-green
or green, mottled with darker shades, and with bright red eyes.
The winged female is slightly longer, with wings expanding one-
third inch. It is bright greenish-yellow, with pale olive head,
thoracic loljes brown, and the abdomen is marked by several dark
transverse bands and latcM-al spots. It is an old European

Fig. 349. — Currant foliage curled by aphides. (After Lowe.)

species and is probably found throughout the United States where
currants are grown.

Life Histori/. — The life history is practically the same as that
of several other aphides previously described and need not be
rehearsed in detail. The small black eggs are found on the stalks
in winter and hatch just as the foliage appears. The aphides
multiply on the foliage, causing it to curl as described, until
midsummer, when they either migrate to some other food-plant
or become greatly reduced in numl)ers through the attacks of
parasites and predaceous insects, which are very effective in the
control of this species. Mr. Lowe states that a few females may
be found on the foliage throughout the summer. In late October

486

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

winged males appear and mate with the true females, wliit-h then
lay the eggs.

Control. — The aphides may be readily killed by spraying with
kerosene emulsion, whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 6 gallons of water,
or tobacco extracts, but the spraj'ing nmst be done before the
foliage becomes badly curled. Ordinarily they may be held
in check by picking off the curled leaves by hand.

The Imported Currant-worm *

" The most destructive insect that attacks the currant," says
Professor Lugger, " is the above-named saw-fly, which feeds

Fig. 350. — The imported currant-worm [Pteronus ribesii Scop.): a, male and
female saw-flies; b, larva?; c, pupa; d, cocoon; e, eggs — all enlarged.
(After Lugger.)

indiscriminately on all kinds of currants and gooseberries. The
imported species is supposed to have been accidentally introduced

* Pteronus ribesii Scop. Family Tenthredinidoe. See Lugger, Bulletin
43, Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 179; C. L. Marlatt, Bulletin 3, Tech. Series,
Div. Ent., p. 61.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CUiUlANT AND GOOSEBERRY 487

into this country about the year 1857, and has since spread over
the greater part of the United States and Canada. The eggs are
glued to the main-ribs of the leaf as shown in Fig. 350, and not
inserted into pockets, as is usually the case with saw-flies. . . .
In from four to ten days the egg hatches into a very small whitish
caterpillar with a white head and ornamented wnth black spots
on each side. This color, however, changes to green as soon as
the caterpillars begin to feed, and after their first skin is shed,
the head becomes black and manj^ black spots appear on the body.
This coloration persists until the last molt when the insect becomes
grass-green. The head, however, retains the black spots on
each side. The length of the worm is now about three-fourths
of an inch. While growing they at first skeletonize the leaves;
later they eat the entire leaf, with the exception of the ribs, and at
last they devour immense quantities of them, often completely
stripping the bushes of their foliage. If this is repeated year after
year, the plants produce less and less fruit and eventually die.
The larvae now descend to the ground, in which they spin a small,
oval cocoon of brownish silk, either just below the surface of
the ground or among the leaves and rubbish that collect below the
plants. Inside these cocoons the}- change to pupa? and later
to adults, which are ready to issue as winged saw-flies diu'ing the
last of June or in July (in Minnesota), sometimes not until the
first of August. They now pair and produce a new generation
of injurious worms . . ., the adults of which do not, however,
issue until the following spring. As the two broods overlap,
we can find larvsB of all stages during the greater part of the
summer." The adult saw-flies are well illustrated in Fig. 350.
The female is about one-third inch long, of a light yellowish color
marked with l)lackish as shown in the figure, while the male is
smaller and rather darker.
Control. — See page 4SS.

The Native Currant-worm *

The native currant-woi'm is not usually so destructive as the
European species, but occasionally becomes injurious and is
* Gymnunychus appendiculatus Hartig. Family Tenthredinidae.

488 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

widely distributed, occumng from New England to Minnesota
and Colorado, in British Columbia, and probably in the
Pacific States. The larva is about two-thirds the size of the
imported species, but is uniformly pale-green except the head
which is black until the last molt, after which it becomes parti}'
green. One generation of larvse appears in late June and another
in August. The cocoons are usually attached to the twigs or
leaves of the bushes. The female saw-fly is dull black with dull
yellow head, and honey-yellow legs.

Control. — While fruiting the foliage should be dusted or sprayed
with hellebore, which is the time-honored remedy for currant -
worms (p. 47). However, before the fruit has set and after it
is picked, spraying with arsenicals will be much cheaper and more
effective, and as it is often desirable to spray gooseberries for
diseases with Bordeaux mixture, by adding arsenate of lead or
Paris green to it, the worms may be easily controlled.

The Currant Span-worm *

The Currant Span-worm is readily distinguished from the other
currant " worms," by being one of the measuring-worms or inch-
worms which loop along as shown in Fig. 351, It is not frequently
very destructive, luit occasionally l:)ecomes a pest, more pai'-
ticularly of black currants and gooseberries, throughout the
eastern half of the country. The caterpillar is slightly over an
inch long when full grown, and of a whitish color with a wide
yellow stripe down the back, another along each side, and several
black spots on each segment. The under side is white with a
slight pinkish tinge, with a broad yellow median stripe, and is also
spotted with black. The moth has a wing expanse of about 1|
inches, is a pale yellowish color, with several brownish spots,
varying in size and sometimes forming one or two irregular bands
across the wings.

Life Histonj.— The eggs (Fig. 351a) are laid in midsummer on

* Cymatophoni ribearia Fitcli. Family Geometridoe.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY 489

the twigs of the infested phiuts and hatch as the bushes come
into full leaf the next sprini;-. The caterpillars become full
gi-own in three or four weeks, when they pupate just beneath
the surface of the soil, and two or three weeks later the
moths emerge.

Control. — Hellebore is not as effective as against the saw-fly
larvie and as the larvie usually appear before the fruit is setting,
the}- may be better controlled by spraying with arsenicals. When

Fig. 351. — The currant span-worm (Cymatoniorpha riberia Fitch): 1, 2, larvae;
3, pupa; a, egg; h, eggs on twig; c, moth — a, much enlarged, others
natural size. (After Saunders. )

the caterpillars are disturbed they drop from the foliage, letting
themselves down iDy a silken thread and remaining suspended in
mid-air until danger is over, when they reascend the thread.
This habit may be utilized for their destruction by jarring the
bush so that they will drop, and then passing a forked stick around
it so that all the threads may be caught and the caterpillars may
be drawn out in groups and crushed with the foot,

490 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Currant-fly *

Currants and gooseberries sometimes turn retl and drop pre-
maturely, due to the injury of small maggots which may be found
within them. The insect has been troublesome in Maine and is
sometimes a serious pest in Colorado. It is a native insect and is
probably generally distributed throughout the northern United
States and southern Canada. The adult fly is abcut the size of
a house-fly, a pale yellowish or yellowish-brown color, with dark

Fig. 352. — The cuirant-flv (Epochra canadensis Loew.) — much enlarged.

(After Gillette.)

bands across the wings, and a tapering abdomen, as shown in
Fig. 352.

Life History. — The flies appear in late spring and the females
deposit their eggs in the older berries. A female will lay about
200 eggs during the period of a month, placing but one in a berry,
so that a single fly may do considerable damage. The white egg
is about one-twenty-fifth inch long and laid just under the skin,

* Epochra canadensis Loew. Family Trypetidce. See F. L. Harvey,
Bulletin 35, Maine Agr. Exp. Sta.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY 491

where it i.s easily seen. The egg hatches in a few clays into a
small white maggot, which burrows around the berry and then
feeds upon the seeds. The location of the larva may be seen, as
the infested currant soon shows a clouded ap])earance and finally
turns red and a black spot appears. The maggot becomes full
grown in about, three weeks and then eats its way out of the berry,
which has usually fallen to the ground. The mature maggot
enters the soil for about an inch and there changes to the pupa,
from which the fly emerges the next spring.

Control. — As the maggots usually remain in tlu; l)erries a few
days after they drop, all fallen berries should be frequently
picked up and destroyed. Poultry running among the bushes
will do this very effectually. Other methods will suggest them-
selves from the above life history, but none seems to have been
carefullv tested.

CHAPTJCH XXV

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE *

The Grapevine Phylloxera f

This insect is native east of the Koclcy Mountains, where it
has always Hved upon wild vines and did not attract attention
until it was imported into France about 1859, as it does practically
no damage to the native American grapes. It soon spread through
the principal wine districts of southern Europe, where it caused

Fig. 353. — The grajievine phylloxera {Phylloxera vastatrix Planchon) : a, true
sexual female, the dark colored area indicating the single egg; b, egg;
c, shrivelled female after oviposition; (/, foot of same; e, rutlimentary and
functionless mouth-parts. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

immense losses and the temporary abandonment of vineyards,
due to the fact that the European varieties are very susceptible
and readily succumb to injuiy by it. It has spread to southern
Russia and the adjoining countries of Asia and Algeria, and has
been carried to New Zealand and South Africa. In this countr}'

* See A. L. Quaintance, Farmers' Bulletin 284, U. S. Uept. Agr.; H. J.
Quayle, Bulletin 192, Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta.; F. Z. Hartzell, Bulletin 331, N. Y.
Agr. Exp. Sta.

f Phylloxera vastatrix Planchon. Family Aphididoe. See C. L. Marlatt
Farmers' Bulletin 70, U, S, Dept. Agr., and Quayle, 1. c.

n>2

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TIIIO CRAPE 493

it is iiijuriou.s only in Calilorniii, wlici'c it was iinj^oricd on I'^rcncli
vines about IS?-!. I-t was fir.st noticed in Sonoma County and
since then has spread to all the principal grape-growing regions
north of Tehachapi and has probably destroyed 50,000 acres.

This aphid exists in several forms, which injure both foliage
and roots. On the kaves irregular spherical galls are produced,
and th(> i-oot-inhabiting form produces galls on the roots. The
leaf-galls are very common on American grapes, but are no
indication of the presence of the root form, as the roots are rarely
injured where the foliage is covered with leaf -galls. On the other
hand the European varieties rarely exhibit any leaf-galls, but are

Fig. 354. — Under side of grape leaf showing galls caused by Pyylloxera.

(After Riley.)

very susceptible to the root phylloxera, which multiplies without
any external indication of its presence until the vine is seriously
injured. The injury to the vine is not due so much to the sap
taken from the vine by the myriads of aphides which may inhabit
the roots, as to their poisonous effect on the root tissue and its
subsequent decay. Wherever the phylloxera attack the roots,
small swellings are produced, composed of soft tissue, which soon
decays. When such a gall is formed at the end of a young root,
its growth is stopped, and on larger roots a decay sets in which
finally girdles the root and all below the injured point dies. As

494 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

all the roots become affected the vine stops growing, the leaves
become sickly and yellowish, and the vine dies, and the phyl-
loxera disappears from the rotting roots, so that the cause of the
injury would be obscure were the nature of the injury not known.
Life History. — The life history of the phylloxera is a com-
plicated one, involving four different forms of aphides; the leaf-
gall form, the root or destructive form, the winged or colonizing
form, and the sexual form. The winter eggs are deposited on the
rough bark of the old wood in the fall and hatch the following:

Fig. .3.5o. — The grapevine phylloxera: n, winged migrating female; h, last
stage of nymph of some; c, moutli-parts with thread-Hke sucking setse
removed from sheatli; d, and e, eggs of male and female, showing sculp-
turing— all enlarged. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agi'.)

spring. The young aphides settle on the leaves, where the irrita-
tion caused by their mouth-parts soon causes a depression around
each which forms a gall projecting on the lower side of the leaf.
" In about fifteen days the louse becomes a plump orange-yellow,
full-grown, wingless female, and fills its gall with small yellow
eggs, dying soon after. The eggs hatch in al^out eight days into
young females again like the parent, and migrate to all parts of
the vine to form new galls. Six or seven generations of these
wingless females follow one another throughout the summer,

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE

495

frequently completely studding the leaves with galls." In
California the young hatching from the winter eggs go directly
to the roots where they give rise to new colonies, there being no
gall forms, according to Quayle. Where the leaf-gall females
occur many of them probably migrate to th(; roots during the
summer, and all do so with the approach of cold weather. In the
spring the roots are attacked and a series of generations of wingless
females multiply on them. As there are five to seven generations
in a season and each female lays from 30 (Quayle) to 100 (Marlatt)
eggs, it is evident that they will soon be numerous enough to
destroy the vine. The root-inhabiting females are very similar

Fig. 356. — Grapevine phylloxera: a, root galls; h, enlargement of same
showing disposition of lice; c, root-gall louse — much enlarged. (After
Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

to those in the leaf -galls, and are about one-twenty-fifth inch long
when mature and half as long when young and active. They are
light greenish-yellow in summer and darker in winter, and when
numerous the infested roots look as if dusted in spots with pow-
dered mustard, according to Quayle. He states that " the newly
hatched insect is fairly active, and at first moves from place to
place on the roots, but finally, when it reaches the egg-laying
stage, inserts its sucking-tube into the root and remains fixed."
During the late summer and early fall some of the root-lice develop
into winged females which escape through cracks in the soil and

496 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCILVRD

fly to neighboring vines. Tlicy lay from two to four eggs beneath
the loose bark on the old wood and soon die. '' The eggs are of
two sizes, the smaller and fewer in number yielding males in nine
or ten days, and the larger the females of the only sexed generation
in the whole life round of the insect. In this last and sexed
stage the mouth-parts of both sexes are rudimentary, and no
food at all is taken. The insect is very minute and resembles the
newly hatched louse of either the gall or root form. After fertili-
zation the single egg of the larva-like female rapidly increases
in size until it fills the entire body of the mother and is laid within
three or four days, bringing us back to the starting point."* The
phylloxera has been distributed over the world by infested rooted
plants or cuttings bearing winter eggs, and is spread locally by
means of the wanged females, by the escape of the young root-
lice through cracks of the soil and their migration to neighboring
plants, or by bits of infested roots being spread in cultivation,
and by the leaf-gall lice being spread to other plants by the wind
or by being carried by birds or insects.

Control. — The principal means of control lies in the use of
resistant vines. These may be varieties which have proven
successful in the eastern United States, where the insect is native,
or more commonly the stocks of grapes from the Eastern States
are grafted with the desired varieties. There is a marked varia-
tion in the resistance of different species and varieties and not all
of them can be successfully used as stocks for the desired scions,
so that the successful use of the method, which is fully outlined
by Quayle, I.e., requires a considerable knowledge of viticulture.

Carbon bisulfide has been used very extensively for destroying
the root-lice, but is expensive and is only applicable on rich, deep,
loose soils. It cannot be used successfully on soils containing
much clay, or on dry rocky hillsides, or when the soil is saturated
with moisture, and is most effective on sandy soils where the
insect is least injurious. It is applied at the rate of 125 to 250
pounds per acre at a cost of $15 to $25 per acre. It may be
applied any time except during the blossoming and ripening of
* Quotations from Marlatt, 1. c.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 497

the fruit, two upplicatiuns, uiu- after vintage and the otlier just
before blossoming, giving th(» best results. It is applied by
pouring one-half to three-quarters ounce into holes a foot deep,
from IS to 24 inches apart, all over the vineyard, Init not nearer
than one foot to the vine. The holes may be made with an iron
rod or dilil)le and are closed l)y packing the soil down with tlie
foot as soon as the liquid is poured in. Where extensively used
special injectors are used. Where the vines are much weakened
they do not withstand the effect of the bisulfide, and treated
vines must be thoroughly fertilized and cultivated.

One of the best methods of destroying the root-lice where
water is available is by submersion. In California the best i-esults
are secured by flooding with at least six inches of water for a
week or ten days as soon as the vines have ceased active growth
in November. A little later two to three weeks' submersion will
he necessary and in winter thirty-five to forty daj'S. Flooding
for a couple of days in midsummer seems to destroy some of the
insects, but its main value is in stimulating a vigorous growth
of new rootlets. Longer flooding in summer, when the aphides
might be most easily destroyed, injures the vines.

On very sandy soils vines are uninjured by the phylloxera. All
sandy soils are unfavorable to the pest and vines on them die
more slowly, but to secure complete immunity there must be at
least 60 per cent of siliceous sand. Sands containing clay or
which form lumps offer less resistance.

The Grapevine Root-borer *

The larva' of the Grapevine .Root-borer feed in the old roots at
some little distance from the base of the vine, and as there are
no indications of the pest, its presence may easily pass unnoticed.
Although not generally recognized as a serious one it has been
known as a pest of the grape for fifty years, and has been observed
to do considerable damage in Kentucky and West Virginia.

* Memythru.t polistiformis Harris. Family Sesiidir. See Fred E. Brooks,
Bulletin 110. W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta.

498 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Although the vines are not killed, they are so enfeebled that they
make but little growth and the crop is much curtailed. All
varieties are affected in West Virginia, including the wild fox
grape, Vitis labrusca. It is stated that in the South the Scupper-
nong, or southern wild fox grape, is immune from attack. The

Fig. 357. — The grapevine root-borer (Memythrus polistiformis Harris): male
and female moths on wild lettuce leaf under grapevine — natural size.
(From Brooks.)

species has been observed from Minnesota and Missouri, eastward
through Ohio and Kentucky to West Virginia and North Carolina.
The parents of the borers are clear-winged moths nearly
related to the peach-tree borer, currant-borer, and raspberry-
borer. The females are seven-eighths inch long with wings expand-
ing IJ inches. They are a dark lustrous brown color, the fore-

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 499

wings being brown and the hind-wings transpai-ent and bordered
with brown. The posterior margins of the second and fouith
abdominal segments are orange or lemon-yellow, and there are
spots of the same color at the bases of the wings. The males
are considerably smaller than the females. The moths fly during
the day and are readily mistaken for wasps of the genus Poliafes.
The males fly in a quick, wasp-like manner, and when they rest
on a leaf will occasionally flutter the wings like an angry wasp,
which is accompanied by a low buzzing sound, which makes the
mimicry verj^ effective.

Life History. — The eggs are laid singly on weeds, grasses or
other vegetation in the vineyard or on the bark or leaves of the
vines, a single female laying some 400 eggs.
The egg is oval, one-twenty-fifth inch long,
of chocolate-brown color, and finely pitted
and sculptured. The}' are very readily washed
off by the rain and drop to the soil, where
they hatch in about three weeks. The little
larvae bore directly into the soil, wherever

they may be, in search of grape roots, and fiq. ,358. Egg of

may survive for several days without an}- grapevine root-
food. Upon reaching a I'oot the larva bores ,, , ' ^
^ ° greatly enlarged.

through the outer bark and then makes an (After Brooks.)
irregular burrow in the softer parts of the
bark, which may encircle the root several times. As the bur-
rows grow larger they run with the grain of the wood, and as
they are enlarged with the growth of the larva, onh- the outer
bark is left on roots of one-half inch or less in diameter, the interior
being tunnelled out and filled with the castings of the larva. Most
of the larvae feed a foot or so from the base of the vine, though one
was found on a root nine feet from the base. The larvae bore in the
roots until the second fall, when they are about full grown and
make cells or hibernacula, thinly lined with silk, in which they
hibernate in the root. The larva becomes full grown the next
spring and is then l\ to If inches long, of the general shape
shown in Fig. 359, yellowish-white, with a small brown head, three

500 INSECT PESTS DF FARM, CLIEDEN AND ORCHARD

pairs of l)r()vvn thoracif logs, and five pairs of alxloniinal prologs.
When ready to pnpate the lai'va comes near the siiifaee of the
soil and thei'o makes a- tough cocoon an inch or so long, conij)osed
of earth and excniniont and lined with silk, and in if transforms

Fig. 359. — Grapevine root-borers at work. Five borens were feeding in thi.s
section when taken from the ground — two-thirds natural size. (Photo
l>y W. E. liuni.sey.)

to a brown pupa with yellow bands ai'ound tlu^ abdomen. In
about four or fi\'(' weeks the pupa wriggles half way out of the
cocoon and the moth omei'gos, leaving the empty pupal skin
projecting al>ove the sui'face of \\io gi'ound. The moths emero'e

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 501

in late July and early August in West Virginia and the eggs are
laid in a few da}-s. Tluis the life cycle requires two full years
and larvae of two sizes may be found in the roots at any time,
except during the pupal period, when all will l^e about half to
two-thirds grown.

Control. — On account of their subterranean habits it is niuni-
festl}' impossible to dig out the borers, as is done with similar
species except for a few valuable vines. If the Scuppernong is
as immune as has been reported, it might be used as a stock
throughout the South, where it will thrive. By recognizing the
parent moths, they may be destroyed by approaching them quietly
when at rest and striking them quickly with a paddle or l^oard and
many might thus be killed during the time they are most abundant.
By thorough cultivation in June and July many of the cocoons
will be thrown to the surface or buried so deepl}- that many of
the pupse will be destroyed, or the adults will be unable to reach
the surface. With liberal fertilization, cultivation will stimu-
late the vine to withstand the injur}'. J3rooks has shown that
in West Virginia the crested flycat(di(>r (Mi/iarchua crinitii.s)
feeds uiDon the moths and may be a factor in the control of the
pest. i^

The Grape Root-worm *

The Grape Root-worm is the larva of a small, hairy, chestnut-
brown beetle which feeds on the upper surfaces of the leaves,
eating out series of patches or holes hi characteristic chain-like
feeding mai'ks which afford an easily recognizable indication of the
presence of the pest in the vineyard. The larva; devour the smaller
roots and eat out pits and burrows in the larger roots, and where
abundant may kill the plants in a yvnv or two, but more common!}-
t-hey cause an enfeebled growth and a consequent failure to pro-
duce profitable crops. Injury has been most severe in the grape belt

* Fidia viticida Walsh. Family Chrjjsonirllda' . See Quaintance, I.e.;
Hartzell, I.e.; M. V. Slingerlaud, Bulletins ISl, 2US, 224, and 235, Cornell
Univ. Agr. p:xp. Sta.; E. P. Felt', Bulletin 10, Office State Ent. of N. Y.;
Fred Johnson. Bulletin 68, Part \T, Bureau Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.;
Johnson and Hamniar, Bulletin SO, ibid.

502 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Fig. 360. — Grape root-worm {Fidia viticola Walsh): beetles feeding on
foliage — natural size, and enlarged. (After Slingerland.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE

503

of western New York, Pennsylvania, and northern Ohio, but the
species occurs generally throughout the Mississippi Valley and
the Eastern States, and has been reported from California. " The
insect thrives l)est in vineyards which are neglected, and in the
absence of cultivation and timely spraying it is likel5^ to become

Fig. 361. — The life cycle of the grape root-worm — enlarged and natural size-
(After Slingerland.)

a serious pest in any vineyard throughout its range of distribu-
tion. This is especially the case in light, sandy soils and in regions
where grape growing is a considerable industry." A nearly
related species,* has been known to seriously injure the foliage
in Texas, but it is not known whether it affects the roots. In

* Fidia can a.

504 INSECT PE8TS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

California, tlic iiiipoftcd (ii-apc root-wonn * is soinetimos dcstruc-
tivo, has pi-actically idt'iitical hal)its, and is conti'ollcd by tlie
same methods.

The a(Udt beetle is about one-quarter inch long, browni.sh in
c-oloi-, and covered with gi'ayish-wliite liairs^ with a stout body
and long legs, as shown in Fig. 8()0. The full-gi'own larva is about

Fic;. 362. — Eggs of the grape root-worm, natural size as seen on grape canes
above — enlarged below. (After Slingerland.)

five-eighths inch long, whitish in color, and usually I'ests in a curved
position as shown in Fig. .3()1. The head is slightly nari-ower than
the body and yellowish-brown, as are the well-maiked spii'acles
on the side of each segment.

* Adoxus vltis Fourcroy. A small shining brown or black beetle, one-
fifth inch long. See Quayle, 1. c.

INSECTS IXJURIOl^S TO THE GRAPE

505

Life Histnri/. — The adult beetles appear abuut the close of th(>
bloomhig period, or in late June and early Jul}- in the latitude
of New York, and live for a niontii or more. They emerge earlier
on warm, light .sandy soils, and later on heavier soils. In a few
days their feeding commences to be noticed on the leaves and the
females may be found laying their eggs. A female will lay from
loO to 900 eggs, averaging about 175, most of which are laid

l'"iu. Sii'S. — Portions of three frnijie roots denuded of their bark and fibrous
roots b}' grape root-worni.s, and i)art of a similar root taken from a thrifty
vine showing its normal bark and i-ootlets. Reduced in size. (After
Slingerland.)

during the first two or three weeks. The eggs are laid in masses
of 25 to 40 beneath the old bark or generally over the canes.
The individual egg is one-twenty-fifth inch long, at first whitish,
l)ut soon turns }'ellow, and tapers at each end. The eggs hatch
in from nine to tAvelve da}'s, when the }'oung larvaj drop to the
ground and secdc the roots. The young lai-vte are only one-
seventeenth inch long, so that they are able to penetrate the soil.

506 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

When established on the roots they feed freely and grow rapidly,
becoming nearly full grown by fall. In the fall they descend
several inches into the soil and make small earthen cells, in which
the}' hibernate. In the spring they return to the roots nearer
the surface, and those not already full grown feed until growth
is completed. They then make small earthen cells 2 or 3 inches
below the surface of the ground in which they transform to pupae.
These cells are easily broken open and the pupse are thus crushed
or killed by stirring the soil in cultivation. The pupa, shown
in Fig. 364, e, is one-quarter to one-third inch long, whitish, with

Fig. 364. — I'he tender pupa of t he gia | » i > m i -wonu in its earthen cell, enlarged
natural size at ii. (After SUngerland.)

the head, thorax and tip of the abdomen pinkish, and with spines
on the head, appendages, and abdomen as illustrated. The pupse
are most abundant in New York during June, the pupal stage
lasting about two weeks.

Control. — Extensive experiments made by several investigators
have shown that the beetles may be very largely destroyed by
thorough spraying with arsenate of lead just as they appear.
By applying the poison when they are first noticed feeding they
may be killed off before many of the eggs are laid, and sprayed
vineyards have shown a reduction of over 90 per cent of the eggs
found on untreated vines. Arsenate of lead should be applied at

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE

507

the rate of 4 pounds to the barrel as soon as feeding marks
are found on the foliage, and again a week or ten days later, and
should be added to the Bordeaux mixture used for the diseases
of the vine. The sprayinj must be done with the greatest
thoroughness, as the beetles dislike the sprayed foliage and will seek
out that which has been missed. The nozzles on traction outfits

Fig. 365. — A geared horse-power vineyard sprayer. This is provided with
a compressed air tank and an extra nozzle on each side directed down-
ward in order to spray the tops of the vines. (After Quaintance and
Shear, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

should therefore l^e arranged so as to hit all parts of the vines (see
Figs. 365, 366) and the pump should maintain at least 100 pounds
pressure. With the machines in common use not over 7 or 8
acres a day may be covered thoroughly, and about 125 gallons
will be required per acre. If the work is hurried to cover greater

508

INSECT PE8TS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

acreage, the treatment will usualh' be less effet'tivc. The beetle
is noticeably less destructive in well-cultivated vineyards, and
it- has been shown that: thorough cultivation in early summer
ijreaks up the jDupal cells and destroys large numbers of the jjupiu.
Most of the pupie are within 2 or 3 inches of the surface and withm
1^ or 2 feet from the Ijase of the vine. In the fall the earth should
be thrown toward the vines to form a ridge along the row,
so that (he larva' will mostly i)upal(' near the surface of this ridge.

B'«««

Fig. 3G0. — A cuniprusscd-uir .sprayer in uperaliuu, sliowiug projitT arrange-
ment, of nozzl(!,s for thoroughly spraying grapes. (After Quaintance
and Shear, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

TIk; iK'xl spring, when most of the lai'vie have entered the pupal
stag(>, tills I'idge should be thrown away from the vines, thus
exposing the pup^e. A " horse-hoe " commonly used in vine-
yards is useful in this work, Init a hand-hoe will need to be used
to throw the earth away from the immediate base of the vine.
The soil should then be kept well stirred by cultivation at frequent
intervals, all of which is merely part of good practice, independent
of the control of the root-worm.

INSECTS IN.lUKlorS To TilM (IIJAPK

509

The Grapecane Gall-maker *

The Crapocaiio (iall-makor is a small i-cddish-brown snoiit-
beetle about onc-cighlli inch lon^-, which lays its eggs in the canes,

Fig. 3G7. — The grapocano gall-makot {Ampeloqhiplcr sesnslris Lee): o,
adult from above; b, same, side view; c, larva, side view; d, pupa; c,
section of vine showing galls — all enlarged. (After F. M. Webster);
/, section of cane showing newly made wound and egg in lower chamber —
natural size. (After Brooks.)

giving rise to galls about twice the diaiuetei' of the cane and 1 or
1| inches long, with a deej) scar in one side. It has been noted

* Ampeloglypter sesostris Lee. Family Ciirculioi^idce. See Fred E. Brooks.
Bulletin 119, W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta.; F.'m. Webster, Bulletin 116, Ohio Agr.
Exp. Sta.

510 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

as injurious in Ohio and West A'irginia, and from the records
seems to be generally distributed over the Eastern States, but is
by no means a serious pest.

Life History. — The adult beetles appear in May and are gone by
early July. They feed sparingly on the vine, making little pits in
the tendrils, in the buds or bark of new canes or in the midribs on
the under side of the leaves. The females soon lay their eggs and
make the egg scars. These cause the galls and constitute practically
the only injury to the vine. The eggs are laid just above a joint and
beyond the outermost fruit, so that the injur}^ does not interfere
with the crop. A female eats out a small hole with her snout,
in it lays a small yellowish-white egg, and fills up the hole with
fibers scraped off from the surface of the cane. She then makes
another hole immediately above this, but merely places a drop of
liquid in it and then fills it up with fibers in the same manner.
Eight to a dozen holes are thus made in a row and filled. Very
soon this wound causes a swelling of the vine, but the gall does
not reach full size for six or eight weeks. On vines producing
dark-colored fruit, the wood about the wound takes on a purplish
color. The galls seem to have but little effect on the growth and
vigor of the vine, except that the canes are more readily broken
by the wind or in pruning. The larva is a little yellowish-white,
footless grub about two-fifths inch long, which feeds about the
egg-chamber and then burrows in the pith. It becomes full
grown in eight to ten weeks, when it pupates within the burrow;
the beetle emerges in late August, and hibernates over winter.

As the scar in the side of the gall where the eggs were deposited
remains open, a very large proportion of the larvae are sub-
sequently parasitized by various chalcis, and tachina-flies, which
will probably prevent the insect ever becoming much of a pest.

Control. — The galls may be cut out and burned during July
or August without any injury to the crop, as they occur beyond
the fi'uit, and at that time will contain the larvae or pupae. As the
beetles feed on the foliage and new growth it is probable that
but little damage will result in vineyards well sprayed with arsen-
icals for other pests.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE

511

The Grapecane Girdler *

This beetle is very similar to the last except that it is black
in color. Its native food-plant is the Virginia creeper, which
it has deserted in West Virginia, and occasionally elsewhere,
to attack grape. The species seems to occur generally through
the Central and Eastern States.

Life History. — The life history is almost identical with that
of the preceding species, the habit of the species differing only
in the manner of oviposition. The eggs are laid in late May and

Fig. 368. — The grapecane girdlei- {Ainpiior/lypterater Lee): a, egg; b, larva;
c, pupa; d, beetle — all enlarged. (After Brooks.)

early June. In la^dng the egg, the female deposits it in the same
manner as does the previous species, and then instead of placing a
series of holes in a row she makes them in a ring around the cane,
only the first one containing an egg. She then goes to the next joint
above and makes a series of holes around it, completely severing
it, so that it hangs by a shred and soon drops. The little larva
feeds in the pith of the joints on either side of the egg puncture,
and these two joints die and drop to the ground. The larva
becomes full grown in about a month and changes to a pupa in

* Ampelogtypter ater Lee. Family Curculionidoe. See Fred E. Brooks,
Bulletin 119, W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta.

512 TN8ECT PESTS OF FARM. GARDEN AND ORCHARD

r

Fig. 369. — Work of the gi-apecane girdler. (After Brooks.)

Fig. o?U. — AN'uik of Ihc grapccane girdler. (After Brooks.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 513

its biiri'ow soon after the dead siH'tion drops, fii'st fillini;- the burrow
with little ])('ll('ts of fibers. Two weeks later the adult beetle
oniei'jies. a])i)eariii,ii' during late summer. The \\hole life cycle
tluis re((uires sixty-fiv(> to seventy days. The beetles hibernate
o\'ei' wiiitei'.

Control. — The iiijui'cd canes are quite consj)icuous in early
summer antl b_\' cutting them off a few inches below the egg scars
the eggs and larva^ nuiy ])e removed and destroyed. Brooks
is of the oi)inion that the ])eetles will be largely destroyed in vine-
yards thoroughly spraye(l with arsenicals for other grape insects.

The Grape Cane-borer *

Diu'ing tlie spring young grape shoots sometimes suddenly l)reak
off or droop and die, and if examined a small hole will l)e found just
above the l)ase of the witheicd slioot, \\\\\\ a ])uri'ow leading
from it into the main stem. In this burrow will 1)e found a small
brown l)eetle, a half inch long (Fig. 371, <t), which is the cause
of the injury. It has been sometimes called the apple twig-l)orer
on account of the similar injuiy which it does to apple twigs,
and it also attacks pear, peach, plum, forest and shade trees and
ornamental shrubs, but it is pai'ticulai'ly desti'uctive to the grape.
Its injury is most noticed in wintei- and early spiing. and fre-
quently results in killing all the new growth and sometimes
the entire vine. Injury lias l^een most severe^ in the States border-
ing the Mississippi from Iowa southward, where it is one of the
most serious insect pests of the vine, and though th(^ beetle occurs
eastward to the coast it rarely does much damage farther east.

" It breeds in dying wood, such as large prunings, diseased
canes, and also in dying oi- drying wood of most shade and fmit
trees. It has also been found by the writei' [Marlatt] breeding
very alnmdantly in i-oots of upi'ootecl maples an<l in diseased
tamarisk stems. In old, di'y wood it will not breed, so far as
known, nor in vigorous live gi'owth, but seems to need the dving

* Amphicerus hicaudafuft Say. l'';nnily I'liiiiiia'. Sf'(> ('. I,. Marlatt,
Farmers' HiilU-tiii 70, \'. ^^. Dcpi. Agr.

514 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

and partially drying conditions mentioned. The insect has l)ut
one brood yearly. The beetles mature foi' the most part in the
fall, and generally remain in their larval burrows until the follow-
ing spring. A few may leave the burrows in the fall and eon-

FiG. 371. — The grape cane-borer {Amphicerus bicaudatus Say): a, beetle,
back and side views; b, pupa; c, larva, with feet enlarged; d, burrow in
apple twig made by adult; e, larval gallery in tamarisk, with pupa in
cell at end; /, injury to young shoot and cane showing entrance of beetle
near/, and the characteristic wilting and new growth — all much enlarged
except d, e,f. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

struct others in the twigs of apple or other plants in which to
hibernate. In the spring, however, they begin their destructive
work early, burrowing into the axils of the grape and occasionally

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 515

also into other plants. This is undouljteclly partly for food, but
seems largely malicious, for it certainly has nothing to do with
egg-laying. . . . The eggs are laid chiefly in May or April in
its southern range, and the larvae develop during summer, trans-
forming to beetles and pupae in the fall. On the Pacific coast
a closely allied, but somewhat larger species {Ainphicerus puncti-
pennis Lee.) . . . probably has similar . . . habits ..."

Control. — All diseased wood and prunings should be removed
in late spring, thus destroying the material in which the larvae
develop. If this is neglected and the beetles appear in the vine-
yard, the only means of stopping their depredations is to cut
out by hand the affected parts and destroy the beetles. On
warm days the beetles may sometimes be collected while running
over the vines.

The Grapevine Flea-beetle *

When the grape buds are swollen in the spring they are often
attacked by numbers of little blue or greenish beetles which eat
out or entirely consume them. When abundant these little beetles
may destroy all the buds on a vine, thus greatly retarding the
leafing out or even occasionally killing the plant. The beetle
is about one-fifth inch long, of robust shape, and possesses the
thick thighs characteristic of flea-beetles, which enable it to jump
a considerable distance when disturbed. It is common through-
out the States east of the 100th meridian and nearly related
species do similar damage on the Pacific Coast. (See Quayle,
I.e.) The wild grape is undoubtedly the natural food-plant of
the species, though it is occasionally found on plum, apple, pear,
quince, blue beech and elm.

lAfe History. — After feeding a few days the female beetles
commence to lay their eggs in cracks of the bark at the base of
the buds, or in any crevice or in the cavity eaten out of the bud
by the beetle, or sometimes on the foliage. The eggs are a long

* Haltica cJtalybea 111. Family ChrysomelidcB. See Quaintance, I.e.;
Hartzell, I.e.; and M. V. Slingerland, Bulletin 1.57, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp.
Sta.

516 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

oval shape, one-fortieth inch long, and of a dark straw-yellow
color. The eggs hatch just as the young leaves are expanding;
and upon them the young larvic feed greedily. The larvae feed
on the upper surface of the leaf, eating out irregular holes through
the skin and into the soft tissue, and become full grown in three
or four woeks. The yolmg larvae are a very dark brown, but
when grown the}' are one-third inch long and a dark yellowish-
brown, marked by regular rows of blackish tubercles each of

Fig. 372. — The grapevine flea-beetle {Hallica chalybea 111.): a, adult with
,hind leg at right further enlarged; 6, larva, much enlarged; c, beetles
and larva; on foliage— natural size; d, beetle feeding on bud; e, diseased
beetles, (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

which bears a small hair. Tlio head, anal and prothoracic
plates and legs are black. The full-grown larva drops to tlie
ground and an inch or two lieneath the surface makes a small
cell in which it transforms to a white pupa, from which the adult
j^eetle emerges in one oi- two weeks. In Xew York there is but
a single generation, but more than one generation may occur in
the Soutli. Upon emerging the beetles feed on the grape and

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE

517

other plants, doing no particular damage, and enter hibernation
in the fall.

Control. — Where vineyards are regularly sprayed with arsen-
icals there will be but little trouble with the flea-beetles, as the
grubs are very easily destroyed on the foliage. In neglected
vineyards the beetles often become very aljundant and may Ijc
quite destructive in such localities. \\'here it is necessary to
combat the beetles to prevent injury to the buds, close watch
should be kept for them and the buds should be thoroughly

Fig. 373. — Eggs of the grapevine flea-beetle, natural size at a, and enlarged
at 6. (After Slingerland.)

spra}'ed at once, using 8 pounds of arsenate of lead per barrel.
Usually this will need to be applied just as the buds are becoming
well swollen, and must be applied promptly and thoroughh-,
as the beetles work quickl}^ and a day's delay may mean the
destruction of the buds. In a small vineyard or on a few vines
the beetles may be collected by hand in the early morning when
they are sluggish, or may be jarred to canvas-covered frames
kept saturated with kerosene placed beneath the vines.

518

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Rose-chafer *

About the time the grape is in bloom, immense swarms of
the common Rose-chafers or Rosc-l)ugs often appear, covering the
plants, feeding on the blossoms, later attacking the young fruit
and foliage, and sometimes eating the leaves quite bare except
the larger veins. The chief damage, however, is done by destroy-
ing the blossoms or newly set fruit, or by so injuring the young

Fig. 374. — The rose chafer (Macrodadylus subspinosus Fab.): a, beetle;
b, larva; c, d, mouth-parts of same; e, pupa — all much enlarged; /,
beetles at work on foliage — natural size. (After Marlatt.U.S.Dept.Agr.)

berries that they are misshapen and worthless. The beetle is
about one-third inch long, of a light-brownish color, covered
with numerous lighter hairs, and has very long spiny legs, which
always seem to be in its way and make it most awkward and
clumsy. It is a very general feeder, being common on roses,

* Macrodadylus subspinosus Fab. Family Scarabceidce . See Quaintance,
I.e.; Hartzell, I.e.; J. B. Smith, Bulletin 82, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.; and
Fred Johnson, Bulletin 97, Part III, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 519

from which the coninion name is received, and also on such orna-
mentals as Spiraea and Deutzia, while it frequently injures the
blossoms of apple, plums, cherries and peaches, and when very
abundant will attack various vegetables, grasses, and grains.
The species occurs commonly from Canada to Virginia and Tennes-
see and westward to Colorado, and in Texas and Oklahoma, but
seems to do but little damage west of the Mississippi, being most
injurious in the Middle States. It is particularly destructive
where there are areas of light sandy soil grown up in grasses and
weeds, upon the roots of which the larvae feed.

Life History. — After feeding three or four weeks the beetles
suddenly disappear. During the middle of June, in New Jersey,
the females la}' from 12 to 20 eggs, depositing them in the soil
singly. These hatch in two to three weeks and the larvae feed
on the roots of various grasses and possibly weeds and other
vegetation. They become nearly full grown by fall, when they
go below the frost line and hibernate over winter. The larva
looks very much like a small white grub, which it closely resembles
in ever}' way, and is about three-quarters inch long when full
grown (Fig. 374, b). In the spring the grubs come near the sur-
face of the soil and enter the pupa stage, which lasts from ten to
thirty days according to the temperature. There is but one genera-
tion a year, and the injury is done by the beetles during the three
or four weeks they are abroad.

Control. — When the beetles are very abundant the only
satisfactory method of control is to pick them by hand or jar
them from the vines onto frames from which they may be
collected. In jarring, an umbrella-shaped frame covered with
canvas or, preferably, oilcloth, which slopes to a can of kerosene
at the bottom, is often used, being somewhat similar to that used
for the plum curculio. This is held under the vines and they are
sharply jarred or shaken, when the beetles will drop to the frame,
particularly in early morning. Handpicking into a can of kero-
sene and water is probably the most common method, however.
Where the beetles are not excessively abundant they have been
controlled in some cases by thorough spraying with arsenate

520 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

of lead, 5 to 10 pounds per barrel, preferably applied with Bor-
deaux mixture, and recent experiments of the N. Y. Agricultural
Experiment Station with 5 pounds of arsenate of lead and 12
pounds of glucose per barrel gave excellent results. The numbers
of the pest may also be much reduced by keeping down the grass
and weeds in the vineyard, and particularly on light sandy soils
adjoining lands should be broken up and cultivated in annual
crops as far as possible, thus reducing the breeding grounds of the
pest. By bagging the grapes as soon as the fruit is set the clusters
may be protected from this as well as other pests and diseases
wherever such treatment is practicable.

y

The Grape Leaf-hopper *

Wherever the grape is grown in the United States and Canada,
the foliage will be found more or less infested with the small
Leaf -hoppers, often locally called " thrips," which feed and breed
on the under surface of the leaves during the season. By late
summer the vines may l)e covered with the hoppers, which will
fly off in clouds when disturbed, and every year there is serious
injury in various localities. The injury is done by the little
hoppers sucking out the juices of the leaves through their tube-
like mouth-parts. A small white spot first appears around the
feeding puncture, due to the loss of chlorophyll in the leaf, and
when the punctures have l^ecome numerous the leaf has a varie-
gated appearance. As the injury increases the leaf yellows and
finally dries up and falls to the ground, ^^'here it becomes
general, this injur}' reduces both the quantity and quality of the
fruit. The pest is an insidious one, as it is not usually noticed
until it becomes very abundant in late summer, by which time
most of the injury has been done and it is too late to prevent it.
For this reason its conti'ol has been very generally neglected by
grape growers with a consequent loss the cause of which is often
unsuspected.

* TypJilocyba comes Hay . Family Jassidoe. See Quaintance, I.e.; Hartzell,
I.e.; Quayle, I.e.; and M. V. Slingerland, Bulletin 215, Cornell Univ. Agr.
Exp. Sta.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE

521

The adult hoppei's are about one-eighth inch long and the
wings are prettily marked with yellow and red as shown in Fig.
375. " In summer the young and adult insects are light yellowish
in color, but before going into hibernation, the eyes of the adults
darken and the peculiar }-ellow spots on the wings change to an
orange red, thus giving the hibernating adults a general reddish
appearance. These darker markings on the adults vary .so much
that nine different varieties are now recognized, two of which are
represented at b and c, in Fig. 375. Often several of the varieties

EiG. 375. — Grape leaf-hopper {Typhlocyba conies): a, adult IViiialc; l>, adult
male; c, another form of the species, showing variation in markings;
d, newly-hatched nymph; e, last stage nymph; /, appearance of injured
leaf; g, cast pupa skins — a, e, much enlarged; g, less enlarged; /, reduced.
(From Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

may be found together on the same vines, but usually one color
form largely predominates." The nymphs are a light j^llo wish-
green color with lemon-3'ellow stripes on each side of the body.
They pass through five molts before becoming adults, the wing-
pads gradually getting larger in the later stages. No vei-y similar
insects are common on the grape, so that the pest is readily recog-
nized.

Life History. — The adult hoppers hibernate over winter under
leaves, grass, or trash in or near the vineyard, in neighboring

522 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

woods, along ditches or fences, etc. They emerge about May 1
in New York and at first feed on whatever succulent foliage may
be available. By the time the grape foliage appears they have
mostly emerged and infest the vineyards. These hibernating
hoppers feed and breed on the lower leaves, disappearing about the
time the first young become adult. After a few weeks the females
commence egg-laying, which continues for about two months.
The eggs are laid just beneath the surface of the leaf in groups
of from six to nine, or singly, and as they are but one-thirty-fifth
inch long and almost transparent, they are scarcely visible save
for the eyes of the embryonic nymphs. The eggs hatch in nine to
fourteen days. The young nymphs feed like the adults, at first
on the lower leaves, but soon spread to all parts of the plant.
In New York they become grown in thirty to thirty-five days,
and there is but one full generation a year, with a partial second
generation, most of the individuals of which probably do not
mature before frost. Feeding continues until cool weather, when
the adults enter hibernation. In Colorado, New Mexico and
California and probably throughout the South, there are two full
generations a year. In California, according to Quayle, the
nymphs from eggs laid by the hibernating hoppers appear by the
middle of May and the following generation of nymphs about
the middle of July.

Control. — Cleaning up all fallen leaves and trash in the vine-
yard during the winter, or plowing it under in the early spring,
will reduce the number of hibernating hoppers, and it has been
observed that they are much less numerous in vineyards where
clean culture is practiced. The burning over of adjacent meadows,
wood lots and fence rows will also be advisable where practicable.

In California, where the vines are not trellised, a hopper-cage,
which has been fully described by Quayle, I.e., is successfully
used for catching the hoppers before they commence to oviposit
in the spring. In the East this could not be used, and Professor
Slingerland has shown that the hibernated hoppers may be caught
on sticky shields before they oviposit. " A light wooden frame
is made 7 or 8 feet long by 4 feet high. To the crosspiece at the

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 523

bottom, which should be up from the ground about a foot, are
fastened several stiff wires of the shape of a hay rake tooth. These
are fastened so that the points curve inward and downward to
the ground at the base of the plants when the shield is held in
place beside the vines. The whole framework, including the
wires, is covered with oilcloth, which is coated with a sticky sub-
stance, made by using melted resin, 1 quart, and castor oil, 1
pint." Tanglefoot might be used instead. The hoppers are on
the lower leaves early in the season, so that the frames need not
be high, and it is at that season that it is important to catch
them. The vines will need to be gone over frequently, a man
carrying a shield on either side and jarring the vines so that the
hoppers will fly off and be caught on the shields. The young
hoppers may be killed by spraying with whale-oil soap, 1 pound to
10 gallons, 10 per cent kerosene emulsion, or tobacco extract.
In California a resin spray composed of 1 pound of resin and one-
quarter pound of lye dissolved in 15 gallons of water is used. This
work must be done with the greatest thoroughness, as the hoppers
must be hit to be killed. Underspray nozzles must be used and
handled by men who will cover the under surface of all the leaves.
This carmot be done by fixed nozzles, unless ver}- high pressure
and many nozzles are used. The work is necessarily slow and
expensive and should be commenced as soon as the young
appear, Avhen they ma}' be more easily destroyed and when there
is less foliage to be sprayed. Several applications will usually
be necessary.

The Grape Leaf-folder *

Xevy frequentl}' grape leaves are found folded or rolled
together, with the interior surface more or less skeletonized,
from which a slender larva will wriggle out and fall or hang
suspended on a silken thread. The Grape Leaf -folder occurs
throughout the United States, and though usually not injurious,
sometimes becomes abundant enough to do serious damage.

* Desmia funeralis Hiibner. Family Pyralidce. See Quaintance, and
Quayle, I.e.

524 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The moth is black with white spots on the wings, and bands across
the abdomen, as shown in Fig. 376. The larva is about an inch
long, of a greenish-white color, with head and prothoracic shield
light brown, and with brown spots on the sides of the first two
thoracic segments.

Life History. — " There are two broods each year in the more
Northern States and three or possibly more in the South. The
insect winters in the pupal stage in the folded and fallen leaves,
the moths appearing in the spring shortly after the foliage puts

Fig. 376. — The grape leaf-folder {Desmia funeralis Hiibn.): a, male moth and
enlarged antenna of same; b, female moth; c, larva; d, head and thoracic
segments of same enlarged; e, pupa; /, tip of pupa — enlarged; g, grape
leaf folded by larva. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

out, and the eggs are placed in small patches here and there
on the vine. Upon hatching, the yoimg larvae attack the
foliage, folding the leaves as stated. Mr. Johnson has observed
that the larvae of the first brood may attack bunches of grape
blossoms and young fruit in a way similar to the grape-berry
moth. In three or four weeks the larvae are full grown and
transform to pupae within the folded leaves, moths emerging
eight or ten days later. By midsummer and fall the insects
become quite abundant, and in badly infested vineyards the
folded leaves are everywhere in evidence and are quite con-

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 525

spiciious from the color of the lower surface. In the fall the
larva^ pupate in the folded leaves and pass the winter in these
on the ground."— Quaintance.

Control. — Where but a few larvae occur they may be crushed
b\' hand, and if this is done with the first brood it will greatly
reduce the numbers later in the season. Vineyards sprayed
with arsenicals will be protected, as the young larvae will be killed
before they fold the leaves. By collecting and burning the fallen
leaves or plowing them under deeply, many of the hibernating
pupae may be destroyed. y

Hawk-moth Larvae *

Several species of Hawk-moth or Sphinx-moth larvae are com-
monly found on the vine. Most of them are widely distributed
throughout the coimtry and feed on wild grape and Virginia creeper.
Usually they are not numerous enough to do serious damage,
and as they strip a branch at a time, they are readily seen and
may be destroyed before much injury is done. Occasionally,
however, one or two larvae may entirely strip a young vine, and
exceptionally the larvae appear in considerable numbers on old
vines, stripping them bare of foliage. They are large, smooth-
bodied larvae, 2 to 4 inches long, and may be distinguished
from those of other families of moths by the strong horn on the
next to the last segment, which has given them the common name
of horn-worms. In many species, this horn is present only in the
first one or two stages of the larva, disappearing with the next
molt and being replaced by a bright eye-spot, as shown in Fig. 377,
c, d. The life history of the various species is much the same,
except that some have only one, while others have two genera-
tions a year in the North, though most all probably have two
generations in the South. The}' hibernate as large dark-brown
pupae, 3 or 4 inches below the surface of the ground, and
the moths emerge in spring. The moths are particularly attracted
to petunias, and may often be caught hovering over them at

♦Family Sphingidas. See O. Lugger, 4th Report State Ent. Minn.; Ida
M. Eliot and Caroline M. Soule, "Caterpillars and their Moths." (N. Y., 1902).

526 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

night. The eggs are laid on the foliage, usually singly, and the
larvae hatch in a few days. They eat ravenously, and will consume
an enormous number of leaves within a few days. Usually the

Fig. 377. — The achemon sphinx {Pholus achemon Dru.): a, moth; 6, egg; c,
young larva; d, mature larva; e, pupa; /, parasitized larva — all natural
size, (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

coloration of the larvge changes more or less as they grow, so
that when full grown they are different from the younger stages.
When there are two generations, the second generation of larvae

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 527

will appear in late July, but whether one or two generations occur,
the larva) maturing in late summer transform to pupa) which
hibernate.

Control. — Usual!}- the work of the larva' is so conspicuous and
they are so easil}- found that they may be controlled by hand-
picking. AVhere the vineyards are sprayed regularly for other
pests there will be but little trouble with these larvoe, as they will
be killed while young.

The Achemox Sphinx.* This is one of the most common
species on the grape. The young larva is a light-green color with
a long reddish-brown horn which becomes shorter as the larva
grows and finally disappears and is replaced by a large polished
eye-spot. The mature larva is about 3^ inches long, and varies
in color from straw-color to reddish-brown. Along the sides arc
six diagonal cream-colored spots, on the second to seventh abdom-
inal segments inclusive. The body is much wrinkled and dotted
with small spots, dark on the back and lighter on the sides. The
head and first two thoracic segments are small and are retracted
into the metathorax when at rest. Just before pupation the
larva becomes a pink or crimson color. The moth has a wing
expanse of 3 inches and is brownish-gray, variegated with light
brown, and deep brown spots; the hind wings are pink, with a
dark shade across the middle, still darker spots below this, and
a broad gray band behind. The body is reddish-gray with tri-
angular brown patches at the base of the wings, which are edged
with white.

The Pandorus Sphinx. f This nearly related species is also
common on the vine, but rarely does much damage. The wings
expand 4 to -ih inches, and are a light, olive color, mixed Avith
gray, marked with patches of darker olive green, and with portions
of a rosy hue, especially on the hind-wings. The body is light
greenish-brown marked with dark olive patches. The larva is
very similar to that of the last species, but has only five rather
oval cream-colored spots on the sides of the third to seventh
abdominal segments.

* Pholus achemon Dm. f Pholus pandoniti Hbn.

528 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Grape-vine Hog Caterpillar.* This is one of the most
common sphinx larvse on grape and Virginia creeper. The grown
larva is 2 inches long, of a green color, covered with small yellow
dots or granulations. Along the sides of the body are seven
oblique yellowish stripes margined behind with a darker green.
A white stripe with a deep green margin extends from behind
the head to the horn, on either side of the back, and along the
middle are a series of seven spots, varying in color from red to
pale lilac and each set in a patch of pale yellow. P'requently,
especially in the second genei'ation, specimens are found which are

Fig. 37S. — The grapevine hog-caterpillar moth {A in pelophaga myron Cram). —
natural size. (After Lugger).

a light pinkish instead of green and arc nuirked with darker shades
of red and brown so that they may easily l)e mistaken for another
species. The wings of the moth expand 2?^ inches and are long
and narrow. The fore-wings are olive green, crossed by bands
of greenish-gray, while the hind-wings are dull red shading to
greenish-gray next to the Ijody. The l^ody is pale green, with
the head and shoulders deep olive gr(>en.

The White-lined Sphinx. f This species has a long list of
food-plants, the larvaj feeding and multiplying on purslane,
chickweed and other weeds, and then attacking various crops,
among which is the grape. (See p. 247). They are about 3^

* Ampelophaga myron C'ram.

t Deilephila lineaki Fab.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE

529

inches long and quite variable in color, some being yellowish-green
with black eye-spots along each side of the back and with faint
blackish stripes, while others are black with yellowish spots, as
shown in Fig. 379. The moth is shown natural size. The fore-
wings are an olive coloi- with a pale buff stripe across the middle,

Fig. 379. — The white-lined sphinx {Deilephilu lineata l'\ib.): a, moth; b,
pale larva; c, dark form of larva; d, pupa — all natural size. (After
Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

and are margined with gray, and the hind-wings are crossed by
a wide rosy band, the remainder being almost black, except the
white margin. The thorax is marked with several white lines
as illustrated, and the abdomen is greenish olive spotted with
white and black.

530 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Abbot's Sphinx.* This caterpillar is 2-^- inches long, varying
in color from dull yellow to recklish brown. Each segment is
marked by six or seven transverse black lines, and longitudinally
with dark-brown streaks. On the next to the last segment is a pol-
ished black tubercle, or eye-spot, ringed with yellow. The moth is
a dull chocolate-brown color, with a wing expanse of 2-^ inches.
The fore-wings are pale beyond the middle
and are streaked with darker brown as illus- ■"'

trated. The hind-wings are yellow with a
brown border. The terminal segments of

Fig. 380. — Abbott's sphinx {Sphecodina abbottii Swain) and its larva — natural
size. (After Lugger.)

the abdomen bear tufts of scales on cither side, making the
abdomen appear truncated instead of pointed, as in most sphinx
moths.

The Grape-berry Moth f

The larvae of the Grape-berry Moth are the most common
cause of wormy grapes. The first generation of larva^ web together
the grape clusters before the l^lossoms open or soon after
the grapes are set, and feed upon the clusters. Later the larvae
bore into the green and ripening fruit, producing purplish spots
resembling the appearance of injuiy by the black rot. The
berries decay from the work of the larvae and from the entrance

* Sphecodina abbottii Swain.

t Polychrosis viteana Clem. Family Tortricidoe. See Quaintance, I.e.;
Hartzell, I.e.; M. V. Slingerland, Bulletin 223, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.;
and Gossard and Houser, Circular 63, Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE

531

of fungous diseases. The insect occurs throughout the United
States, but has been particularly injurious in the Chatauqua, N. Y.,

Fig. 381. — Ameripan grape-berry moth, enlarged. (After Slingerland.)

Erie, Pa., and Northern Ohio grape l^elts. So far as known the
grape is the only food-plant and the species is a native one, though
its habits are very similar to a r ^

nearly related European species.
The adult is a little purplish-
brown moth, with wings expand-
ing not quite one-half inch, and
shaded with brownish markings

l''i<:. r?S2.— Th3 work of the grape-berry moth; infested chister and single
berry opened to show larva at work — enlarged. (After Slingerland.)

as shown in Fig. 381. The ground color is lilaceous or leaden-
blue and the spots are dark brown.

532 INSECTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Life History. — The moths appear in the spring as the shoots
of the grape are pushing out, and continue to emerge for some
weeks. The earlier ones lay their eggs on the blossom clusters,
while the later ones deposit them on the young grapes. The
minute flat, scale-like eggs are stuck to the surface of the stems
or berries, and look like small glistening, whitish spots. The
little larvae hatching from them feed on the blossoms and small

Fig. 383. — Grape-berry moth caterpillars, enlarged. (After Slingerlan<l.)

berries, webbing the clusters together, and might do much more
damage than the later generations were it not that they are much
fewer in number, there being a great mortality of the insects over
winter. The larvie become full grown in about three weeks.
The mature larva is about three-eighths inch long, varying in
color from dark greenish to dark purplish, with a light-brown
head and black thoracic shield. The body is covered with
numerous faintly outlined darker spots, from which arise whitish

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE

533

hairs, as shown in Fig. 383. The larva cuts out a piece of a leaf on
three sides, folds it over and fastens the free edge to the leaf with
silk. The fold is then lined with a thin layer of silk, making a
thin cocoon in which it transforms to a light greenisii-hrown pupa,
from which the moth emerges twelve to fourteen da3's later.
The moths of the second and later generations place their eggs
on the berries and the larvae bore into them and feed on the pulp
and seeds. In New York the moths of the second generation
appear in early July and the second generation of larvae occurs

Fig. 384. — Grape leaf showing cocoons in the making and finished by grape-
berry moth caterpillars — natural size. (After Slingerland.)

during Juh' and August. In New York those larvie of the second
generation which mature before mid-August pupate and give
rise to a third generation, while those maturing later transfoi'm
to pupa^, but hibernate. Often there is ncnirly a complete third
brood in that latitude, and further south there are undoubtedly
at least three generations. The winter is passed in the pupal
stage in the cocoons, which break off from the fallen leaves.

Control. — Infested berries should be picked off both to destroy
the larvae and to prevent the spreading of fungous d'seases. Plow-

534 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

ing under the fallen leaves either in fall or eai'ly spring should
result in burying many of the pupte so as to prevent the escape
of the moths, and is good practice for other grape pests. The
principal relianc(> should be plactnl upon spraying with arsenate
of lead, 3 pounds per l)arrel, or one-half pound of Paris green,
applied with Bordeaux mixtui'e, to which a soap " sticker "
should be added (see p. 46) to nuike the mixture more adhesive
to the berries. The first spraying should be made before the
blossoms open, to catch the early larva?; the second should be
made as the grapes finish blooming; and the third, early in July.
The addition of the " sticker " is most important in the last
spraying, when the berries are partly grown. The spra}' must be
applied with sufficient number of nozzles and pressure to penetrate
the foliage and cover the clusters thoroughly. In a small home
vineyard the clusters might be pi-otected l)y bagging them as
soon as the fruit is set.

The Grape Curculio *

The larvse of the Grape Curculio feed on the pulp and seeds of
the berries, causing wormy grapes, much as do those of the berry-
moth. The larvse may be readily distinguished, for those of the
curculio are white, footless grubs, while those of the berry-moth
are greenish, with well-developed legs, and are quite agile, wriggling
away c{uickly when disturbed. The adult curculio is a small,
brown, rol:)ust, snout-beetle aljout one-tenth inch long, and
nearly as broad. It is very difficult to see, looking like a bit of
dirt or the excreta of some of the larger caterpillars common on
the vine. It is common from Arkansas to Minnesota eastward
to New York and North Carolina. It has been particularly in-
jurious in West Virginia, and seems to be most harmful in that
latitude.

Life Historij. — The beetles hibernate over wiiil cr in cr near
the vineyards, especially along the edge of \\()()il lands. They

* Craponius incequalis Say. Family Curculionidoe. See Quaintance,
I.e., and Fred E. Brooks, Bulletin 100, W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE

535

appear in the spring about the time the grapes blossom and feed
upon the foHage for three or four weeks imtil the berries are about

Fio. 385. — The grape curciilio (Cmponius inceqimlis Say): a, beetle; b, head
of same from side; d, larva from above; e, same from below; /, pupa —
all much enlarged. (After Quaintance, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

one-fourth gi-own. The bccth's rut small characteristic holes in
the leaves, i\nd this habit of feeding on the foliage so long makes
it possible to kill them with ai'senicals before oviposition is com-

&

Fig. 387. — Grape curculio larvae —
natural size. (After Brooks.)

I'^k;. 386. — The grape curculio
in act of egg-laying — natural
size ; e, showing position
of egg in grape — enlarged.
(After Brooks.)

menced. In West ^'irginia the females begin egg-laying late
in June, most of the eggs being laid in early July, but egg

536 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

laying may continue for eighty-one clays, during which time a
female will lay an average of 257 eggs. The female excavates
a small cavity in the berry in which the egg is placed and hatches
in four to six days. Infested berries often show a purplish spot
around the egg-puncture. The larva bores in the pulp and in

:<<:!»-, ^.'.■''•^•■~f v.... j^<^rt<i^V'jvr^\

Fig. 388. — Grapes showing egg-punctures of grape curculios. (After Brooks.)

three or four days reaches the seed, which is then devoured. The
larva ])ecomes fiUl grown in twelve to fifteen days, when it eats
its way out of the berry and drops to the ground in search of a
suitaljle place to pupate. The mature larva is white, about one-
third Inch long, tapering from the middle of the bodv toward
either end, without legs, and clothed with fine short hairs. The

•* ft m^ • #*

Fig. 389. — Showing the resemblance of the grape curcuUos at 2 to excrement
of sphinx caterpillars at 1, and mummied grapes at 3. (After Brooks.)

larvffi make small earthen cells under stones, lumps of earth
or just below the surface of the soil, and in them transform to
pupa?, from which the beetles emerge in eighteen to nineteen clays.
Thus the complete life cycle from egg to adult requires thirty-five
days. The hibernating beetles are still abroad when the new

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 537

beetles appear, and Brooks states that the average hfe of a beetle
is one year and nineteen days. Although the beetles of the new
brood lay some eggs, but few of them develop, and in Wcsl
"\'irginia there is practically but one generation, although farther
south a second generation may occur. The beetles feed until
fall, when they enter hibernation.

Control. — As the beetles feed so long on the foliage in early
summer they may be readih' killed b}' sprajang with arsenicals
as advised for the berry-moth and grape root-worm beetle.
Thorough cultivation in midsummer would doubtless destro}'
some of the pupae in the same manner as in the case of the root-
worm. Infested fruit may be collected and destroyed as for.
the berry-moth Avith equally good results. Where spraying is
regularly practiced there probably will be little need of resort to
other methods.

CHAPTER XXVI

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS

The San Jose Scale *

Probably the most serious of all the insect pests of the orchard
is the San Jose Scale, for it will kill young trees in two or three
•years, and old trees must be sprayed annual!}' to keep it under
control. So insidious is the attack of the pest to those unfamiliar
with it that it has killed many thousands of trees before
the owners suspected its presence. It ma}' be most readily
detected on the fruit, which becomes spotted with small red
circles which form around the scales, but usually the fruit is
not attacked until the tree is badly infested. On the young-
twigs and along the veins of the leaves a similar reddish discolor-
ation appears around the scales. The trunk and branches covered
with scales have a rough grayish appearance, as if they had been
coated with dark ashes. By scraping the surface the soft, juicy,
yellowish insects will be revealed beneath the covering scales.
If a single female insect be examined it will be found that it is
covered by a small, circular scale, varying from grayish to blackish
in color, formed of concentric circles, the centre of which is quite
convex and forms a " nipple," which is yellowish and shining
when the surface is rubbed off. If this scale be raised with a
pin, beneath it may be seen a small, soft, oval, orange-colored,
object, which is the true female insect. She is an almost shape-
less mass of protoplasm, lacking head, legs, and eyes, only
the thread-like mouth parts and anal i)late being distinct. The

* Aspidiotus perniciosus Comstock. Family Coccida;. See C. L. Mar-
latt, Bulletin 62, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., and the numer-
ous publications of many of the experiment stations, listed in his
bibliography.

538

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 539

scale itself is meivly a waxy covering secreted by the insect
beneath. The scale of the male is smaller and somewhat elongated,
the nipple being at the larger end.

Injury by this species was first noticed near San Jose, Cal.,

Fig. 390. — Peach twigs infested with the San Jose scale. On the twig at
the right a scale has been turned back showing the female insect —
enlarged. (After W. E. Britton.)

about 1880, where the scale was most destructi\'c and was investi-
gated by Professor J. H. Comstock, who first described it. About
1887 it was brought east on Japanese plum trees secured by
Eastern nur.series and was distril)uted !)>• them on \oung trees

540

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

so that in ]893 it was discovered in orchards in Maryland and
Virginia. Since then it has been spread on nursery trees to
practical!}" every State. Investigations made Ijy C. L. Marlatt
in 1901 showed that the insect is undoubtedly a native of east-
central China, and was probably brought to this country on flower-
ing peach or some ornamental plant.

Life History. The winter is passed as partly grown insects
under the scales, which begin to feed with the Ijursting of the
buds in spring. In the latter part of April the insects have become
full grown in the District of Columbia, and the males emerge and
fertilize the females. The male is a small, yellowish, two-winged

fly, similar to Fig. 447a. The males
emerge at night and are so small
they are seldom seen unless reared.
About a month later the females
commence to give birth to live
young and continue to do so for
some six weeks. This species differs
from most scales in having no egg
stage, the eggs hatching in the body
of the female. The young insects
are very small, yellowish in color,
and resemble small mites. They
have six legs, a pair of antennse,
and a long thread-like beak through
which the food is sucked, as shown
in Fig. 394. The young insect moves about freely for from twelve
to thirty-six hours, then thrusts its beak into the bark or fruit, and
if a female does not move again. White, waxy filaments soon
exude from over the body, and in a couple of days the insect is
entirely covered by them, and as they mat down a scale is formed
which conceals it. This young scale is whitish with a prominent
nipple in the center. After the first molt, the females lose
eyes, legs, and antennae, for which they have no further use.
Nourished by the sap of the plant the insect develops rapidly and
is full grown in about a month. In the District of Columbia

Fig. ;391. — Pear injured by the
San Jos? .scale .showing the
discolored spots.

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 541

there are four or five generations a year, in the South there are
probably more generations, while at the northern limit of the
species there are two or possibly three generations, as breeding
continues until after killing frosts. As with other small insects, it

'iki>w

Fig. 392. — Peach leaf bearing San Jose scales along veins.

is the remarkable power of reproduction to which the destructive-
ness of the pest is due. Thus it has been estimated that at Wash-
ington, D. C, the progeny of a single female would number
3,210,080,400 by fall, if all were to survive. It is not surprising.

Fig. 393. — Adult female San Jose scale, with scale removed to expose the
insect . (After Alwood . )

therefore, that a tree with but a few scales on it in spring will be
covered by them and the fruit unfit for market in the fall, and that
with these millions of little beaks pumping out the sap and poison-
ing; the tissues a tree soon succumbs.

542 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The pest has been spread mostly by being transported on
nursery trees. Trees infested from the nursery will usually have
more scales on the lower trunk, from which they will spread to
the limbs, while those infested from neighboring trees will have
more scales on the young wood. Where the pest is abundant
the young insects are undoubtedly blown from tree to tree by the

Fig. 394. — Yoims larva and developing San Jos? scale {Aspidiotus perniciosus
Comst.): a, ventral view of larva, showing sucking beak and setse sepa-
rated, with enhirgetl tarsal daw at right; b, dorsal view of same, still
more oontrafted and with the first waxy filaments appearing; c, dorsal
and lateral views of same, somewhat contracted, illustrating further
(leveloi)ment of wax seci-et ion ; <l, later st age of the same dorsal and lateral
views, showing mat t ing of wax seci-et ions and first form of young scale — ■
all greatly eidarged. (After Howard and Marlatt, IT. S. Dept. Agr.)

wind, or tlicy may b(> carrictl on liic feet of birds or insects, or
l)i'iishcd off and cai'iicd by persons oi' teams woi-kiug in the orchard.
The insect has been found on a long list of plants, but on many
of them it is largely accidental. Injury is practically confined
to plants of the Rnmcece, which family includes all our common
deciduous fruits. Of the orchard trees peach, pear, Japanese

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 543

plum, apple juid quince are most injured n the order named,
while cherry and European plum are less injured.

Control. — As yet no spray has been found for use in summer
which will more than check the increase of the pest without
injury to the tree, and summer spraj'ing is resorted to only when

Fig. 395. — One of the most important native enemies of the San Jose scale,
a little black ladybird-beetle {M icroweisea misella): a, beetle; b, larva;
c, pupa; d, beetles, larvae, and pupae, among scales — all greatly enlarged.
(After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

winter treatment has been neglected or has prov^en inefficient.
10 or 15 per cent kerosene emulsion, dilute miscible oils, dilute
lime-sulfur mixture, or whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 4 or 3 gallon^;,
may be used for summer spi-aying.

On the Pacific Coast trees are very generally fumigated with
hydrocyanic acid gas* for th s and other scale insects, but the

* See C. W. WOodwnrlh, l5\iMilins IJJ and 132. Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta.;
R. S. Wogluni, Bulletins 79 and 90, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

544 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

treatment has never come into favor in the East, principally,
perhaps, because of the larger trees and the more scattered nature
of the fruit ndustry.

Practically the only methods now used in the East consist in
spraying the dormant trees with washes which penetrate the
scales and destro}' the insects. This ma}' be done more effec-
tively if the trees are pruned and headed in so as to reduce the
wood to be covered. Rough bark should be scraped off so that
the scales beneath may be reached. Badly infested trees should
be sprayed in the the early winter as soon as they have hardened
up and again in the spring just as the buds commence to swell. The
spring spraying will suffice for trees slightly infested. Every bit of
bark on the tree must be thoroughly wet, so none will escape.
Lime-sulfur mixture seems to be the favorite wash for winter
spraying at present, as it not only kills the scale, but aids in the
control of many fungous diseases (see p. 50). Miscible oils are
also extensively used and have a certain advantage on hairy
apple shoots and on badly infested trees, as they are more pene-
trating and spread better. Kerosene or crude oil emulsion con-
taining 20 to 25 per cent of oil was the first remedy to be used and
.'s still extensively employed. Wha'e-oil soap, at the rate of 2
pounds to the gallon, applied hot, is effective, but is too expensive
for large users. (See p. 50).

The Fruit-tree Bark-beetle *

If the outer bark is punctured by numerous small " worm-
holes " so that it looks as if it had been struck with a charge
of bird-shot, it indicates the presence of the fruit-tree bark-beetle
or some nearly related species (see p. 653). Usually more or
less gum exudes from the holes, particularly on stone fruits.
Diseased or weak-growing trees are most subject to attack, but
occasionally serious damage is done to perfectly healthy trees,
especially when young. Injuiy is largely due to allowing dead
and dying trees to stand in the orchard, thus encouraging the

* Scolytus rugulosua Ratz. Family Scolytidoe. See F. H. Chittenden,
Circular 29, Division of l']ntomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

^^^-i^

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 545

breeding of the pest in thcni and its spread to health}' trees.
" Another form of injury is the destruction at the beginning of
spring of small twigs, together with the leaves which they bear.
The beetles are also reported to destroy leaves by boring into the
base of the buds at their axils." The holes in the bark are caused
by the exit of the small parent beetles and by their subsequent
entrance to deposit eggs. The adult l)eetle is about one-tenth
inch long, by a third as wide, and of a uniform black color, except
the tips of the wing-covers and parts of the legs, which are red.
Life History. — The beetles emerge from the trees in April and
May in the Middle States. The female burrows through the bark,
and partly in it and partly in the sap-wood she eats out a vertical

/ ■/,

a he d

Fig. 396, — The fruit-tree bark-beetle (Sculytu.^ rugulotms): a, b, beetle; c.
pupa; d, larva — enlarged. (After Chittenden, V. S. Dept. Agr.)

gallery or brood chamber, along the sides of which at short inter-
vals she gnaws out little pockets in which she places her eggs.
The larvae hatching from these eggs excavate little side galleries,
which branch out and widen as the larvae increase in size (Fig.
397). The larvae become mature in about three weeks, when they
form cells at the ends of their burrows and transform to pupae,
from which the adult beetles emerge about a week later. There
are probably three generations a year in the iMiddle States accord-
ing to Dr. Chittenden.

Were it not for the effective work of parasitic and predaceous
insects which prey upon it, this insect would be a most serious
pest. One of the most valuable of these is a little chalcis-fly *

* Chiropachis colon Linn.

546 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

of which Dr. Chittenden bred 92 specimens from 72 of the develop-
ing beetles, and we have frequently had twigs in wliich practically
all of the dpveloi)iiig bet^tlcs were parasitized.

Control. — The most important point in the control of this and
similar pests is to cut out and destroy all dead and diseased wood.

Burn all prunings and trim-
mings. Affected trees should be
liberally fertilized in the spring
so that they may make a quick
growth and better withstand the
injury. Repellant washes have
been advised for deterring the
beetles from ovipositing. A
thick soap wash containing a
pint of crude carbolic acid to 10
gallons may be used. Professor
Gossard advises whitewashing the
trees in early spring, again in mid-
summer and lastly about October
1st, adding one-quarter poimd
of table salt or some Portland
cement to make it more adhe-
sive. He also reports killing the
beetles in their ])urrows with
an emulsion of carbolineum.
''Emulsify by dissolving 3 pounds
of naphtha soap in 3 gallons
of water by boiling. While hot,
add 1 gallon of carbollneinn
(arvenarius) and agitate as for
kerosene emulsion with a force
pump. Add four gallons of
water for use and apply with a spray pump. Keep face and
hands j^rolected fiom this spray." The carbolineum is rather
expensive, however, and does not seem to he much more
effective than the whitewash.

Fio. .307.— Work of the fruit-tree
bark-beetlo showing the main
)j;allerips, the side or larval galler-
ies, and the iJiipal cells — slightly
enlarged. (After Ratzeburg.)

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 547

The Buffalo Tree-hopper *

Tho work of tho Buffalo Tree-hopper consists of a series of
cuts or incisions in the hnibs of fruit or shade trees, made b}' the
female in the process of egg-lajung, which i-esult in ver}' character-
istic wounds. This injur}' is somewhat like that done by the
periodical cicada or by tree crickets, but the scars are larger

Fig. 398. — Tho buffalo tree-hopper (Cerefta huhnlns Fab.): n, n, adult, enlarged
and natural size; twig of apjile showing rer-ent egg-punetures at b; c,
bark reversed with eggs in position; d, single row of eggs — enlarged;
e, wounds of two or three years standing on older Uinbs. (After Mar-
latt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

and are placed irregularly. When badly attacked the limbs of
small trees sometimes become so scarred that they are l^adh'
stunted or may be killed. The parent of this mischief is a curious
little grass-green insect, about three-eighths inch long, whose
pronotum is broadly expanded into two sharp horns, which are

* Ceresa bribalutt Fal). Family Membracidce. See C. L. Marlatt, Circular
23, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., and H. E. Hodgkiss, Tech. Bulletin 17, N. Y.
Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 92.

548 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

fancied to be like those of the buffalo, as indicated by the common
name of the insect. They are very common, frequenting all
sorts of rank-growing vegetation, appearing in midsummer, and
being most numerous in August and September.

Life History. — Egg-laying is commenced in August and is
continued until killing frosts. The eggs are laid in two curved slits,
with from six to twelve in each, as shown in Fig. 398, c, d. In
making these slits the female cuts the bark between them entirely
loose, so that the intervening wood soon dies, possibly to prevent

the growth of the wood crushing the
eggs. A large scar is thus formed
which enlarges with each season's
growth, and finally becomes an oval
shape l^y the center dropping out.
After a few years badly infested
limbs become very rough, are easily
FiG. 399. — Nymph of broken 1:)}' the wind and furnish van-
buffalo tree-hopper— ^^gp points for the attack of borers,
enlarged. (After „, i , i ,i , ht

Hodgki.ss.) ^li^ ^-'g^ ^^atch the next May or

Juno. TJke the adults, the young
nymphs feed on all sorts of succulent vegetation, seeming to prefer
the juicy annual plants even to the tender terminals of trees,
the orchards suffering most being those grown up in weeds.

Control. — By keeping young orchards well cultivated and free
from weeds, the nymphs will have no food in early summer and
will st-arve or leave for better feeding grounds. Patches of weeds
near young orchards should also be destroj-ed. When trees are
badly wounded by the egg punctures the}' should be well pruned
and the prunings burned to destroy the eggs.

The Periodical Cicada *

" There is probably no insect that has attracted more general
interest and attention in this country than the Periodical Cicada,
or the so-called Seventeen-year Locust. The earliest settlers

* Cicada septendecim Linn. Family Cicadidce. See C. L. Marlatt, Bulletin
71, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; A. D. Hopkins, Bulletin 68,
W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta.

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 549

doubtless associated its vast noisy swarms with the devastating
invasions of tlic Migratory Locust of the East. Hence the popular
name locust, which has been used so long that it is doubtful if it
will ever be discarded for the proper name — Periodical Cicada."
They are quite different from the true locusts, or grasshoppers,
however, for the latter have biting mouth-parts while the cicadas
are true bugs and siu*k the juices of the plant through a tube-like
beak. Some twenty-two distinct broods of the cicada have been
distinguished, thirteen of which appear at seventeen-year intervals
and seven of them appear at thirteen-year intervals, the former

Fig. 400. — The periodical cicada {Cicada septendecim Linn.): a, adult; b,
young nj-mph — enlarged; c, cast skin of full grown nymph; d, adult
females showing ovipositor at b, and beak at a — natural size. (After
Marlatt and Riley, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

being mostly in the North and the latter mosth- in the South.
Some one or more of these broods appears in every State east of
the Rockies except Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont. Every
year there is a brood emerging in some part of the country, and
the different broods have been carefully mapped so that their
emergence may be anticipated.

Life History. — The adults appear in immense swarms in late
May or early June. '' About four or five days after their first
appearance," says Dr. Hopkins, " the males? begin to sing "

550 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

filling the air with their shrill calls, which are produced by two
drum-like membranes on the under surface of the first abdominal
segment. " About eight or ten days later the sexes begin to
mate, and in about four or five days more the females commence
to deposit eggs. Each female is said to deposit from three to
five hundred eggs in numerous ragged punctures made by her
powerful ovipositor in the twigs of shrubs and treses, and sometimes
in the stems of herbaceous plants. These hatch in about six or
eight weeks from the time they are deposited and the A'oung
cicada larva emerge and fall to the ground. They then burrow

; ■

1

Fig. 401. — Egg mass of the periodical cicada: a, recent puncture, surface view,
h, same, with surface removed to show arrangement of eggs; c, same,
side view; d, egg cavity with eggs removed, and showing the sculpture
left by the ovipositor — all enlarged. (After Riley, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

beneath the surface and enter ui)on their long menial existence
in the ground, feeding on the liquids of roots and possibly sub-
sisting on such nutriment as may be obtained from the soil itself.
They change their position from time to time, and may rarely
enter the earth for a distance of eight to ten feet or more," though
usually within two feet of the surface. " By the twelfth or
thirteenth year the larva attains its full growth and in time changes
to the intermediate or pupa stage.* During the spring of the

* Dr. Hopkins and other writers commonly use the tcM'ms htnui and pupa
in describing the immature stages of the cicada, l)ut there seems no reason
for discarding the term nifmph used for other Hcmiplcra, and which is cer-
tainly useful in distinguishing the immature stages of insects with incomplete
metamorphosis from those with complete metamorphosis which have a true
pupa.

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 551

fifteenth and sixteenth years great nunilnMs ol' tlie pupa? ma}^ be
found near the surface, and a few individuals may enuM-ge during
May and June of the sixteenth year. Earh' in .Vpril of the seven-
teenth 3'ear the pupa? commence to make preparations to emerge
from the ground by excavating burrows or exit galleries to the
surface. These exits are completed by the last of April. Ordi-
narily the}' extend only to the surface, and are kept open from a
depth of a few inches to a foot or more. In some soils these
exit holes are extended four or five inches above the surface by
means of clay cai'j'ied up from the subsoil, and are called cicada

Fig. 402. — Pupal galleries or chimneys of the ijeriodical cicaila: <i, front
view; e, orifice; h, section of a; c, pupa awaiting time of change; d,
j)upa ready to transform — reduced in size. (After Riley, U.S. Dept. Agr.)

chimneys. The pupae come from the ground in the evening and at
night, usually between sundown and ten o'clock, and proceed to
the nearest upright object, which may he a tree, the side of a
building, fence, or weed stem — anything, in fact, upon which they
can climb and expose their bodies to the action of the open air.
In about an hour after emerging the skin on the back splits open
and the adult insect works its way out (Fig. 403). The wings,
which are short and soft at first, rapidly develop; the bod}^
wings and legs harden, and by the following day the adult is ready
to take flight and enter upon its short aerial life, limited to about
thirty days. During this short period they feed but little, if at

552 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

all, the males devoting their time during the day to flying about
and making a noise, while the voiceless females busy themselves
depositing eggs, " If the young nymphs do any injury to the
roots of trees or plants, it is very rarely perceptible. The adult
females, however, are capable of causing serious injury to young
fruit trees in orchards and nurseries by the numerous punctures in
the twigs, limbs and main stems made by them in the act of

Fig. 403. — The full-grown nymphs of the periodical cicada in different stages
of molting and the newly emerged adults with body and wings still soft
and white.

ovipositing. The egg puncture makes an ugly wound, beyond
which the twig dies, and the foliage of large trees on which
hundreds of cicadas have oviposited turns brown, as if the tree
had been scorched by fire. On young trees this results in destroy-
ing the gro-v\i;h of a year or two and misshaping the tree, and the
scars which remain later furnish points of attack for borers and
the woolly apple-aphis. •

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 553

Just before the cicadas leave the ground they are attacked
b}- hogs and also by disease. Upon leaving the ground the}' are
at once assailed by a host of predaceous insects and various animals.
One of the most valuable insect enemies is a large wasp (Spheciim
speciosus Dru.), which ma}- often be seen bearing the adults
to its burrow, where they furnish food for her young. The Eng-
lish sparrow is remarkably fond of the adults and is the most
valuable factor in exterminating them in cities and towns. It
has been noticed that cicadas are much more likely to emerge
from newly cleared land, and with the removal of the forests and
cultivation of the land they are undoubtedly becoming more
scarce.

Control. — There is no means of destroying the adults, but many
of the pupse may be destroyed by allowing hogs to run on land
known to be infested during April and "May of the }'ear the}-
emerge, w-here it is feasible to do so. Injury to young orchards
may be avoided by not planting during the year or two previous
to the emergence of a l:)rood in the particular locality. Budding
and grafting should also be avoided during the previous spring.
Orchards should not be pruned the year before a cicada-year,
so that there may be plenty of young wood in w-hich they may
oviposit and which may then be removed without injury to the
tree. Evidently a knowledge of the time of appearance of each
brood in different sections is of great importance and may be
secured from the maps published (see Marlatt, I.e.). After all
the eggs are laid the affected twigs should be pruned off in July
and burned before the eggs have hatched.

The Fall Webworm *

The conmion fall webworm is so called l^ecause in the North,
where there is but a single generation, its webs are abundant in
August and September, in contrast to those of the tent cater-
pillar, with which they are often confused, which are found in
the spring. The wings of the adult moths expand from one to
* Hyphantria cunea Dru. Family Arctiidos.

554 INSECT TESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

1| inches, and are either a pure milk-white, or more or le^s spotted
with black, the number of spots being exceedingly variable. The
full grown caterpillars are about an inch long, covered with long
black and white hairs which project from numerous l^lack tuljercles.

Fig. 404. — The fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea Dru.): a, light form of full-
grown larva; b, dark form of same; c, pupa; d, spotted form of moth —
all slightly enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) «

They are also c[uite varial)le in color, some being uniformly A'ellow-
ish with black and yellow tubercles, while others have a dark
stripe down the back and are almost black.

Life History. — In the North the moths emerge late in June and

^OME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO DKCHAKD FRUITS 555

Vio. 405. — ^\'(^b of the fftll webwonn on apple, showing t-nclosed foliage and
larva) feeding within.

556 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

in July, and lay the eggs late in July. The eggs are deposited
on the leaves in pale yellowish-green patches of 400 to 500, often
covered with whitish down from the body of the female, and
hatch in about ten days. The young larvae are pale yellowish
with brown markings and appear to be almost all head and hair.
They at once spin a web over the foliage on which they are feeding,
those from one egg mass feeding together and enlarging the web
as necessary. In the North the webs are usually noticed in early
August and are started at the tips of the limbs. Within them

Fui. 406. — Meleorus hyphantrice, a common parasite of the fall webworm;
a, adult female; b, empty cocoon showing cap and suspending thread
— enlarged. (After Riley, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

the surfaces of the leaves are eaten off until they are left dry and
brown. When all the foliage on a limb has been consumed, the
caterpillars leave the web, enclosing the dead leaves, and form a
new web on a fresh branch, and thus the tree soon becomes covered
with unsightly webs, which are often mingled so that the whole
tree is webbed over. The web is easily distinguished from that
of the tent caterpillar, as it is found later, and the tent caterpillar
makes a relatively small web in the fork of a limb and never
encloses foliage in it. The caterpillars become full grown in a

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 557

month to six weeks, and then find secUided places under the bark
or in a hollow of the tree, in the rubl)ish at its base, or in a fence
corner, or sometimes just imder the surface soil, and there spin
flimsy silken cocoons with which they mingle their own hairs.
They then transform to small brown pupa3 about one-half inch
long, in which stage the winter is passed. In the Middle States
and further south there are two g^erations, the moths appearing
in April and May and laying eggs in late May and earl}- June, the
caterpillars from which become full grown by mid-Juh'. The
second generation of caterpillars appear in late August and Sep-
tember at about tiie same season as further north, and their
pupae hibernate.

^^'ere it not for their parasitic enemies these caterpillars would
be much more of a pest, and it is when the parasites become scarce
that injury results. One of their most common and effective ene-
mies is a little Braconid fly,* whose small brown cocoon (Fig.
406) is often found suspended from a twig or leaf. Many
caterpillars are also killed by various predaceous bugs, and fre-
quently they are killed off by fungous disease.

The fall webworm is a common pest of all orchard trees, and
frequently extends its injuries to shade trees. The larva? are noc
uncommon on cabbage, beets and a long list of garden crops.
According to Dr. H. G. Dyar this species is confined to the South
Atlantic States, but it has been confused with another species
{Hyphantria textor Harris) by practically everyone, and it is still
a question as to whether the two species are really distinct and
if so how they are to be distinguished. If the latter form be a
distinct species, it occurs throughout the United States and has
the same habits.

Control. — The insect is readih' controlled by spraying with any
of the arsenicals when the work of the young larvae is first noticed.
Where orchards are sprayed for the codling moth there will be
little trouble with the first generation, and fruit-growers will do
well to make it a practice to spra}' in August where they are
troubled with this and other leaf-eating caterpillars.
* Meteorus hyphantrioe Riley.

558 INSECT PERT8 OF FARM, OARDEX A\D ORCHARD

The Brown-tail Moth *

Although the Brown-tail Moth has hocomo injurious only in
Massachusetts, Xew Hampshire and Maine, it will l^e surprising-
if it does not become generally distril)\it('d, for during the past
three years its nests have been impoited on pear seedlings
from France by nurseries in all parts of the United States
and southern Canada, and possibly some have escaped even the
most vigilant inspectors. It has long been a serious pest in

parts of central and westei-n Europe,
whence it was introduced into
Massachusetts about 1S90, but did
not attract attention until 1897.
The female moth is pnve white
except the tip of the abdomen,
which is golden brown and forms
a lai'ge tuft or l)rush, which gives
the insect its name. The wings
of the fcnude expand 1^ inches,
the males being slightly snuiller,
and l)ear one or two streaks of
l)rown on the under sides. The
full-gi'own caterpillar is 1\ inches
long, daik brown, marked with a
white dash on the side of each
segment. The body is dark brown
or ])lackish, well marked witli
patches of orange and covered with
numerous tu))ercles bearing long
barbed hairs. On the centre of the fifth and sixth abdominal
segments are small retractile I'cd iubei'cl(>s. The tubercles
along the ))ack and sides are thickl}- covered with shoi-t brown
hairs which give them a velvetv appearance. These micro-
scopic hairs are barbed and are the nettling hairs which, when

* Euproctis chrysorrhoea Linn. Family Liparitce. See L. O. Howard,
Farmers' Bulletin 264, U. S. Dept. Agr.; E. D. Sanderson, Bulletin 136, X. H.
Agr. Exp. Sta.

Fig. 407. — Winter web of the
brown-tail mot li — one-half
natural size.

SOiME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS

559

they alight on the skin, produce a dermatitis much Uke that caused
by poison ivy. As t h(> cast skins are carried here and there by the

¥w. 4US. — Winter web of the brown-tail moth cut open to show cells within.

wind and the young catcrpiHars drop from the trees, people
are frequently liadly poisoned where the pest becomes abundant,
so that it is a serious pulilic nuisance as well as a defoliator of

•\

Fig. 409. — Winter wrl) of the brown-tail moth bearing young larvae which
have emerged before the foliage ha.s appeared and are feeding on the
dead leaves of the rest — two-thii"ds natural size.

fruit and shade trees. The caterpillars prefer fruit trees, pear,
wild cherry, and apple being most relished, but become abundant

560 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

on almost all the common shade trees, except the evergreens,
and particularly on oak.

Life History. — The moths emerge in midsummer. They are

Fig. llO.-^Full grown larvae of the brown-tail moth — natural size.

strong fliers and are readily carried b}' the wind for many miles.
They are attracted to lights in great numbers, so that they are

l-iG. 411. — A mass of cocoons of the brown-tail moth attactied to foliage.

more abundant in cities and villages. Late in July the eggs are
laid on the terminal leaves, 300 or 400 being laid in an elongate

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 561

mass and covered with brown hairs from the tip of the female's
abdomen. They hatch in about three weeks and the young larvse
feed on the surface of the leaves, leaving only the brown skeletons,
so that badly infested trees turn brown in early fall. The cater-
pillars hatching from an egg mass feed together on adjoining
leaves, which they soon commence
to draw together with silken
threads, and by the first frosts they
have spun them into a tough
web. This is attached to the
twig by the old leaf stems, which
are bound to it by silk. The
well looks like a couple of dead

Fig. 412.— The brown-tail moth (Eu
proctis chrysorrhopa Linn.): male above,
female below — natural size.

Fig. 413. — Brown-tail lnoth.•^
assembled on electric-light
pole. Maiden, Mass., July
12,1905. (After Kirkland.)

leaves from a distance, but the leaves are merely the outer covering,
and if the silk web be torn open, there will be found numerous
small pellets of silk each enclosing from three to twelve of the little

562 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, CARDEN AND ORCHARD

partly grown caterpillars. Tho caterpillars emerge just as the buds
))urst in the spring and feed on the expanding foliage. Where
abundant they soon sti-ip a tree, foi- each of the nests harbors
400 or 500 little caterpillais. In five or six weeks they have
become full ":i'(»wn and sj)in thin cocoons of wliite silk among

Fig. 414. — Egg masses of the brown-tail moth — natural size; oaterpillars
hatcliing from the mass on leaf at left.

the leaves, in which they transfoi-ni to dark biown ]Mii)a\ Al)out
three weeks latei' the moths eniei'ge.

Several native parasites and jji^edaceous bugs prey upon the
caterpillars, but do not .seem to materially I'educe their nunibers.
In Europe there are .several parasites which prey on all stages
of the insect and which the State of Massachusetts with the
cooperation of the U. S. Bureau of Entomology is introducing

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 563

in hope that they may ultimately be as effective in this country
against both the brown-tail and gipsy moths. The most effective
natural check of the brown-tail caterpillar is a fungous disease
which often completely de-
stroys large coloni(\s. both in
the spring and fall.

Control. — On fi'uit and shade
trees the winter nests may
be pruned off and burned in
winter, thus preventing any
injury the next spring, but
this is impracticable on forest
trees, which as a rule are not
seriously injured. The re-
peated pruning often injures
the trees, as it is difficult
to cut all the nests without
removing more of the new
growth than is desirable. It
is better, therefore, to spray
the trees with arsenate of lead, 4 pounds to the barrel, as soon
as the eggs hatch in late summer, and thus destroy the young
larvae before they have spun their winter webs.

Fig. 41.5. — Young caterpillare of the
browTi-tail moth skeletonizing an
apple leaf in late summer.

The Gipsy Moth *

History. — The Gipsy Moth has been known as a serious insect
pest in Europe from the time of the earliest naturalists, the first
authentic record being in 1662. It extends throughout the
continent of Europe, over much of Asia and into Northern Africa,
but is chiefly injurious in central and eastern Europe. It fre-

* PorOietria dispar Linn. Family TJparid(r. See Forbush and Femald,
"The Gypsy Moth," Mass. State Board of Agr. (1892); L. O. Howard,
Farmers' Bulletin 275, U. S. Dept. Agr.; Annual Reports of the Mass. Super-
intendent for the Suppression of the Oypsy and Brown-tail Moths; E. D.
Sanderson, Bulletin 136, N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta.; Rogers and Burgess, Bulletin
87, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., containing bibliography.

564

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

quently does serious injury tliere by defoliating large areas of
forest and more frequently fruit and shade trees, but its ravages
cease in two or three seasons, not to occur again for several years,
like those of many of our native insects, such as the forest tent
caterpillar and tussock moth. In 1868 the insect was brought
to this country b}- Professor Leopold Trouvelot at Medford, Mass.,
in his experiments in silk producing. Escaping from him into the
neighboring woodland, the insect increased gradually for several
years before being noticed, but in 1890 had become such a serious

Fig, 416. — Gipsy moth caterpillars — natural size. (After W, E. Britton.)

pest throughout this and neighboring towns that the State of Massa-
chusetts commenced the arduous task of its extei-mination. At this
time the insect occurred in some twenty towns. For the next
ten years it was successfully combated by the Massachusetts
authorities, and in 1898 it had spread to but three towns not
infested in 1890 and in many places it had apparentl}^ been exter-
minated. So slight was the inj^ny that legislative appropriations
were discontinued for four vears, during which cime the moth

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 565

spread over four times the area previously occupied and became
so abundant that State action was again necessary. From 1905
to 1910 it spread throughout eastern Massachusetts and southern
New Hampshire and Maine, and was found in two or three local-
ities in Connecticut. Approi)riations for its control have been
increased until now the State of Massachusetts and the Federal
Government are each appropriating $300,000 per annum and

Fig. 417. — The gipsy moth (Porthetria dispar Linn.): male above; female
below — natural size. (After Forbush and Fernald.)

the total cost of combating it in New England must be considerably
over a million dollars per year. As it is gradually spreading,
there seems every reason to fear that it may ultimately invade
other States.

Life History and Description. — The eggs are laid in July and
August, in a mass of 400 to 500, covered with yellowish hairs
from the body of the female. The mass is an irregular oval

566 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

shape 1^ by f inclies, a« shown natural size in the figure, and is
deposited on the bark of trees, but where abundant, on fences,
stones, buildings, etc. The eggs hatch about May 1, and each
mass yields a swarm of young caterpillars, the bulk of w^hich
become full grown by midsummer. The mature caterpillar has a
dusky or sooty-colored body. Along the back is a double row
of five pairs of blue spots, followed by a row of six pairs of red
spots, which readily distinguish this from any other common

Fig. 418. — Egg mass of I lie Fk;. 41!). — Pupa' of (li(> gipwy

gipsy moth on a bit. of niolh, male and female — nat-

bark— natural size. ural size.

caterpillar. The full-grown caterpillar is about '6 inches long.
Sometime in July or earl\' August it spins a few threads of silk
as a support, sheds its skin and changes into a pupa, some-
times enclosed in a thin cocoon, but often hanging pendant fi'om
its attachment. Characteristic light reddish hairs are scattered
over the pupa The pupal stage lasts from ten tlays to two weeks,
when the adult emerges. The moths emerge from the m'ddle
of July to late August. The male is brownish-yellow, varying
to greenish-brown in color, the wings being marked with darker
stripes, has a slender body and the wings expand about 1^ inches.

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 567

It flies by day with a peculiar zio-za<i flight. The female moth
is nearly white with numerous small black markings, is heavy-
liodied and sluggish. The wings expand about 2 inches, but
fortunately the feniale is uiial)le to us(> them for flight. Were it
not for this the sjDi'ead of the pest would have been nuich more
rapid. After mating the moths live but a short time and do no
damage themselves.

The pest is spread mostly in the caterpillar stage. The young

Fig. 420. — Woodland killed by being stripped by the gipsy moth caterpillars.
Arlington, Mass, 1905,

caterpillars drop down on fine silken threads and ma}' alight on
vehicles which transport them to non-infested areas. When just
hatched, the caterpillars have very long hairs, slightly expanded
at the base, and these, with the silk which they spin out, serve
to buoy them up in the air so that they may be carried for a
consitlerable distance by a strong wind. Where they occur in
myriads on high trees, it seems quite probable that the little

568 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Fig. 421. — ^Egg masses of the gipsy moth on the trunk of an apple tree.

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 569

caterpillars may be carried by the wind for considerable distances,
and that this is one of the chief means of spread. The egg
masses may also be transport(>tl on merchandise or ])oxing, and the
pest has undoubtedly become established in several localities in
this way. A few cases of importation on nurscM-y stock have been
known.

The caterpillai's will attack any of the fruit, shade or wood-
land trees, and where they become excessively abundant will
destroy all green vegetation of almost any kind. It is essentially
a pest of forest trees, but where it occurs it defoliates all of the
common fruit trees. Coniferous trees arc killed after being once
stripped of their foliage, and deciduous trees usually die after four
or five defoliations. Recent experiments show that the young
caterpillars when they hatch from the eggs are unable to feed on
conifers, so that growths of soft wood may l^e protected b}' keeping
all hard-wood trees cut out.

Control. — In the orchard the g}'psy moth is readily controlled
b}' painting the egg masses with creosote in winter and by spraying
the trees with arsenate of lead, 5 pounds per barrel, just as the
eggs are hatching in the spring. Where this is practiced there
is very little trouble in controlling it in orchards. Upon shade
and forest trees the problem is much more difficult and the reader
should consult the authors cited (footnote p. 563) as to the best
means and apparatus. Although the pest is still confined to
New England, it is such a serious one and there is so much danger
of its spread elsewhere, that fruit-growers should be on their
guard against it and should submit suspected specimens to the
nearest entomologist. Should it be found in any other States,
no expense should l)e spared to absolutely exterminate it before
it may become established.

570 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Canker Worms *

Since the early colonial
days Canker Worms have
been among the best-known
insect pests of the apple
orchard, but they arc
general feeders and attack several orchard
and shade trees. According to Dr. W . E.
Britton they " seem to have a preference
for the foliage of apple, elm, chestnut, pear,
oak, hickory, box-elder, and maple, in about
the order named," and cherry and plum
are recorded by others. The canker worms
are among the most common of the " loopers "
or " measiu'ing worms," and are the larvae
of two nearly related species of moths, very
similar in both appearance and habits. The
larvse defoliate the trees in early spring,
particularly in old sod orchards which have
not been cultivated or sprayed.

The Spring Canker Worm f

This species is so called from the fact that
its eggs are laid in the early spring instead of
in the fall, as are those of the other species.
It occurs from Maine to Iowa and southward
to Texas, and in Colorado and California, but
has not been rep rted on the Atlantic Coast
south of New Jersey according to Coquillct. It

* Family Geometridce. See D. W. Coquillet, Circular
9, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; W. E. Britton, Bien-
nial Report Conn., Agr. Exp. Sta., 1907-08, p. 777;
A. L. Quaintance, Bulletin 68, Part II, Bureau of
Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

t Paleacrita vernata Peck. Family Geometridce.

Fig. 422.— Canker
worms dropping
from foliage in
characteristic at-
titudes. (After
Bailey.)-

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO OlKniAIU) FRUITS 571

seems to be particularly injurious in the Mississippi Valle}'. The
full-grown caterpillar is from three-quarters to one inch lon<r,
slender, and cylindrical, and has but one pair of prolegs on

Fig. 423. — The spring canker worm
{Paleacrita vernata): a, male moth ; b,
female moth — both natui-al size; c,
joints of female antenna; d, joint of
female abdomen ; e, ovipositor — en-
larged. (After Riley.)

Fig. 424. — The spring can-
ker worm (Paleacrita ver-
iwta): 0, larva — natm-al
size; b, eggs — natm-al size
and enlarged ; c, side view
of segment of larva; d,
dorsal view of same —
both enlarged. (From
Riley.)

the middle of the abdomen. The color varies from ash-gray
to green or yellow, but the predominating color is dark greenish-
olive or blackish, marked with narrow pale lines down the back

ll

Fig. 425. — The female moths of the spring cankerworm — twice natural size,
and pupie — three times natural size. (After Quaintance, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

and a whitish stripe along each side. The wings of the male moths
expand an inch, and are semi-transparent, brownish-gray, with
three rather indistinct dark lines across the fore-winas. The

572 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

females are wingless and at the first glance look much more like
spiders than moths. They are about one-third inch long, of a dull
brown or grayish color with a dark brown stripe down the middle
of the back.

Life History. — The moths emerge from the pupae in the ground
in March and April and the females climb up the trunks of the
trees, where they place their eggs in irregular masses of about
fifty, under loose scales of bark, in cracks in the bark, in crotches
of limbs, etc. The individual eggs are yellowish-green, turning
quite dark just l^efore the larvae hatch, of an oval shape, and
about onc-thirty-fifth inch long. The eggs hatch in about a

IiG. 426. — Eggs of spring canker worm — twice natural size. (After W. E.

Britton.)

month and the young caterpillars commence to feed on the leaves
just as they are expanding, at first eating small holes through
them, but later devouring all but the midribs. The young cater-
pillars have a habit of dropping from the trees and hanging
suspended on strands of silk. In four or five weeks they have
become full grown and enter the soil to a depth of 2 to 5 inches,
where they hollow out earthen cells, which they line with a little
silk and in them change to pupae, in which stage the summer and
winter is passed. The pupa is nearly one-third inch long, light
brown in color, somewhat pitted, and the male pupa bears a
simple spine at the tip of the abdomen.

The Fall Canker Worm *

The Fall Canker Worm seems to be the more common form in
New England according to Dr. Britton and is a more northern
species according to Coquillet, occurring through the North-

* Alsophila pomelaria Harris. Family Geometridce.

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 573

Central States and in Colorado and northern California. As its
name indicates, it differs in lif(^ history in that the moths emerge
in November and December, " often occurring in great numbers
on foggy days during a thaw after the gi'ound has been frozen."
They are most numerous about the middle of November in Connec-
ticut, although Dr. Britton states that when the ground freezes

Fig. 427.— The fall canker worm {AUophila potnetaria) : a, male moth;
b, female — natm-al size; c, joints of female antenna; d, joint of female
abdomen — enlarged. (From Riley.)

in early fall and does not thaw, many of the adults do not emerge
until March, when the life history would be identical with the
last species. The eggs are laid in clusters of about 100, arranged
in rows, each egg fastened on end, and are laid on the bark of the
smaller branches or on the trunk. The egg is brownish-gray,
rather darker than that of the spring species, and is shaped like

Fig. 428. — The fall canker worm {Alsophila pometana): a, b, egg; c, d,
side and dorsal views of larval segment — enlarged ; e, egg mass ; /, larva ;
g, female pupa — natural size; h, anal tubercle — enlarged. (From Riley.)

a flower-pot, the outer end being marked with a dark spot in the
centre and a dark ring near the margin. The eggs hatch in late
April and early May in Connecticut. The larvae are very similar
in general appearance to those of the spring canker worm, but
may be easily distinguished by having two pairs of prolegs on
the middle of the abdomen. The pupa is similar to that of the

574 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

other species, but is somewhat stouter and the spine at the tip
of the abdomen of the male pupa is always forked. The cocoon
is much tougher, contains more silk, and is therefore less easily
crushed. The male moth is slightly larger than that of the other
species, with longer antennae, and the wings are firmer, less trans-
parent and dai'kei' in color. The fore-wings ai"e crossed by two

whitish bands, the outer one being
indented on the front margin so that
it forms a distinct spot, and this outer
band is seen on the hind-wings, though
it is less distinct. The females are a
unifoi'm, ash-gray without markings,
and with longer antenna' than those
of the other species, the segm.ents of
which are about as l)road as long,
and are bare of li;iirs.

Control. — In old sod oivhards whei-c
the pest is always worst, thorough
cultivation will largely destro}^ the
^Hl^ ^^^k pui)u' during the summer. The cat-

^H^^kV^^Hv erpllars may be quickly destroyed by

^^^^■rSI|^^^^ spraying with arsenate of lead, 3

^Bf ^ tHP^ pounds, or Paris green, one-third

pound, per l)arrel. The first spraying
should be applied as soon as the foliage
is fairly expanded and before the
trees bloom, and the second should
ho. given as soon as the blossoms
drop. The first is the more im-
portant and one thorough spraying
will usually suffice, as the young caterpillars are much more easily
killed. Where for any reason spraying is not feasible, the females
may be prevented from ascending the trees by encircling the
trunks with bands of tanglefoot or some other sticky substance
which they cannot cross. These bands should be applied in early
Octol)er and late March, according to the species prevalent. The

Fig. 429. — Wingless fe-
male moth and egg
mass, and winged male
moth of the fall canker
worm — twice natural
size. (After W. E.
Britton.)

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 575

tanglefoot may !x' applit>d dii-uctly to the hark of the tree, making
a band two inches wide by one-quarter inch thick. Printer's
ink, bodlime, and caterpillar-lime (raupen-lime) are often used,
but should not be placed on the bark. A narrow band of cotton
batting should be run around the tree and covertnl with a

Fk;. 4o0. — Canker worm inoths aiul egji ina-sscs cauglit on sticky band. (After

W. E. Britten.)

strip of building paper 4 to G inches wide, on the centre
of which the sticky band should be placed, thus preventing
any injury to the bark by the material. "Where spraying
and cultivation arc customary canker worms rarely become
troublesome.

576 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Plum Curculio *

Throughout the States east of the Rocky Mountains, the Plum
Curcuho is one of the worst pests of the common stone and pome
fruits. Its larva is the common white " worm " found in peaches,
plums, and cherries, while apples and pears are scarred and gnarled
by the feeding and egg punctures made by the adults. It is a
native insect which breeds on wild plums, wild crab-apples and
hawthorns. The adult is a thick-set snout-beetle about one-
quarter inch long, brownish in color, marked with gray and
black, and with four black ridged tubercles on the wing-covers.

Fig. 431. — The plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst.): a, larva; 6,
beetle; c, pupa — all much enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

The larva is a footless, cylindrical, whitish grub, about one-third
inch long, with a small brown head, and usually lies in a curved
position as in Fig. 431.

Life History. — The beetles hibernate under grass, leaves, and
other trash on the ground in or near the orchard, or in neighboring
woodlands, and commence to emerge just before the fi-uit trees
bloom in the spring. They feed somewhat on the buds, unfolding

* Corwtrachelus nenuphar Herbst. Family CurculionidcB. See C. S.
Crandall, Bulletin 98, 111. Agr. Exp. Sta.; S. A. Forbes, Bulletin, 108, ibid.;
J. M. Stedman Bulletin 64, Mo. Agr. Exp. Sta.; E. P. Taylor, Bulletin 21,
Mo. State Fruit Exp. Sta.; A. L. Quaintance, Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr.,
1905, p. 325; Circular 120, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr,

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 577

leaves and blossoms, but mostly on the young fruit as soon as it
is set; indeed, in New England the beetles do not emerge until

1 2

Fig. 432. — 1, young plums showing orescent-shaped egg punctures of the
pkim curcuho; 2, adult curculio on young peach — four times natural
size. (After Quaintance, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a week or two after the apple blossoms fall. The females com-
mence to lay eggs in the young fruits as soon as formed. The

Fig. 433. — Plum curculio on young
apple and egg punctures — en-
larged.

Fig. 434. — The plum eiu"-
culio — enlarged five
times. (After Stedman.)

egg puncture of the plum curculio is shaped like a crescent and
has given it the very apt name of "little Turk." The female

578 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

first eats out a small hole with her stout snout, and deposits a
small oval, white egg in the cavity. She then cuts a small seg-
ment of the skin and flesh aixnind it so that the growth of the
fruit will not crush the egg, the whole operation taking from
fifteen to thii'ty minutes. The life of a female averages about
two months, during which time she will lay 100 to 300 eggs and
prohal)l>- makes as many more feeding punctures. The punctures
made 1)>- the adults of both sexes in feeding are simple round
holes like tliose in which the eggs are laid, but without the crescent

Fig . 43'). — LarvfP of the plum curculio — enlarged five times. (After Stedman . )

marks. Fi'equently gum c^xudes from punctures on the stone
fruits.

The egg hatches in fi-om three to five days and the young
larva l)oi-es into the fruit until grown, usually feeding around the
pit in stone fruits. The larva becomes grown in from twelve to
eighteen days (in peaches) according to C^uaintance, but in central
Illinois in fallen apples it recjuires from twenty to twenty-six
days according to Ci'andall. When full grown the larva leaves
the fruit and enters the soil, where it forms a small cell an inch
or two below the surface, in which it transforms to a white pupa.
Three or four weeks elapse before the emergence of the adult

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 579

beetles; the first emerge about ten weeks after the apples
blossom, the majority appear two or three weeks later, and the
rest continue to emerge until Octobei-. If the w(>ather is dry
the beetles may remain in the c(41s much longer than normally,
while a shower will bring out numbeis of them. Upon emerging
the beetles feed upon the
ripening fruit. In many
sections the injury to ap-
ples by the feeding punc-
tures then made is worse
than the spring injury, as
the surface of the fruit is
injured and entrance places
for rot are furnished. The
beetles average about one
jjuncture a tlay for six weeks
after emergence in central
Illinois and commence to
cntei- hibernation with the
first frosts. In New Ham]j-
shire we have seen no evi-
dence of injury b}^ the
beetles in late summer oi-
fall.

Injury. — Injured plums
and peaches usually drop
to the ground, or if they
remain on the tree, ripen
prematurely, and rot more
quickl3\ Cherries stick to
the tree, but the fruit is
often small and gnarled
from the egg-scars, or eaten
out by the larva. In ap-
ples the larvae only develop in those which drop to the grountl,
the rapid growth of the apples prol)al)ly crushing the eggs. The

m

Fig. 436. — Work of the plum curculio
on apple: d, feeding punctures from
.surface and in .section; e, egg puncture
from surface; e', .same in section —
all enlarged. (After C. S. Crandall.)

580 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

egg-scars and feeding-punctures cause apples to become gnarly,
this ])eing particularly ti'ue of summer varieties, which are often
rendered worthless, and even winter sorts arc lilemished l)y the
scars which also furnish points of attack for rots.

Control. — Frequent cultivation while the pupae are in the soil
in midsummer will throw them to the surface and crush many of
them, and has lieen found to aid materially in the control of the
pest. As the larvse often develop in the fallen fruit, it is well

Fig. 437. — Jarring trees over a curculio catcher, (After Slingerland.)

to gather it every few days and destroy it Ix'fore the larvie have
left it to pupate, which will also aid in the control of other fruit
pests. The beetles have a habit of " sulling," " playing possum,"
or feigning death, when suddenly disturbed, and will drop to the
ground if a limb is jarred. This has given rise to the common
practice of jaiTing peach, plum, and cherry trees and col.ecting
the beetles on frames beneath them. This may l^e done with
simple frames covered with canvas, a frame being placed on either
side the tree and a flap extending from one over the edge of the
other, from which the beetles are picked up, or a regular curculio-

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 581

catcher such as lias hoou commonly used in New York may be
more convenient. This is used as shown in Fig. 437, the frame
being covered with oil-cloth and slanting to a can containing kero-
sene for the destruction of the beetles which slide into it. The
jarring should be done in the morning, as the beetles do not drop
as readily in midilay. During the past two years extensive
experiments have been made in spraying with arsenate of lead
to poison the beetles while feeding, which show that this is much
the most satisfactor}- method of controlling the pest. By spraying
with 2 to 3 poinids of arsenate of lead per barrel just after the
blossoms fall, and again three weeks later on peaches, and with
two more sprayings at intervals of ten days on upj)les, from 60
to 90 per cent of the injury from the curculio has been prevented.
Only neutral, or nearh- neutral arsenate of lead should be used
on stone fruits, as a slight amount of soluble arsenious acid will
burn the foliage badly. Paris green may be used with Bordeaux
mixture on apples, Init does not seem to be as effective as arsenate
of lead, and is not advised for stone fruits.

CHAPTER XXVII

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR

The Woolly Apple-aphis *

The Woolly Aphis is one of the most destructive pests of
}'oung apple oi'chards, and as it works mostly upon the roots it
often escapes detection until the Ircc^ is l)a(lly injured or killed.

.^^5S?52iSCS^3^

Fig. 438. — The woolly apple-aphis (Schizoneura lanigera Hausni.): a, agamic
female; b, young nymph; c, last stage of nymph of winged aphis; d,
winged agamic female with enlarged antenna above. — all greatly enlarged
and waxy excretion removed. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

The aphides will be found clustered in bluish-white, cottony
masses, looking like patches of mold, on the smaller twigs, par-

* Schizoneura lanigera Hausmann. Family Aphididce. See C. L. Mar-
latt, Circular 20, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; R. I. Smith, Bulletin 23, Ga .
State Board of Ent.; Gillette and Taylor, Bulletin 134, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta.,
p. 4; C. P. Gillette, Journal of Economic Entomology, Vol. I, p. 30(3.

582

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR

583

ticularly wator-sprouts, and around wounds or scars on the trunk
or limbs. Their presence in these phices is always an indication
that others are feeding upon the roots, where they cause gall-like
swellings, so that the roots soon become a mass of knots and die
in a year or two if the injury continues. When badly attacked
a tree becomes sickly, the foliage turns yellow, and if not killed
outright by the aphides, it falls an easy pr(>y to borers and otiiei-
pests. Injury seems to ho worse on light soils and not so severe
on heavy soils. Whether the insect is a native or European
species is a matter of dispute. In Europe it is called tiie " Amer-

Fui. 439. — The wooly apple-aphis: at left, apterous viviparous female; 10,
fall migrant; 11, over- winter young. (After Gillette and Taylor.)

ican blight," and was described from Germany in 1801. It has
now become distributed all over the world on nursery stock,
which forms the principal means of its dissemination.

Life History. — On infested trees aphides will be found in all
stages of growth on the roots in early spring. On the trunk,
under bits of bark or under the dead bodies of those killed the
previous fall, will be found numerous small aphides which have
hibernated there, though in the North these may be killed out
during severe winters. As the buds begin to open, the aphides
on the trunk locate on tender new bark and commence to feed,
and many migrate from the roots to the top at about the same

584 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

time. They are not usually detected until they have multiplied
sufficiently to make small white patches on the bark or leaves
which look like mold. During the spring and summer all are wing-
less -females, not over one-tenth inch long, of a reddish-brown
color and covered with a white, waxy secretion, given off in threads
from the abdomcni so as to form a cottony mass over the colon3^
These females pi-oduce from 2 to 20 young per day, which

Fig. 440. — The woolly apple-aphis: at left, colonies on twig and in scar
on an apple Hmb ; at right, crown and root of young apple tree, showing
characteristic swelhngs produced by the root aphides. (After Alwood.)

become full grown in from eight to twenty days according to

Alwood,* 100 or more probably being produced in two weeks.

Reproduction continues on both tops and roots except as checked

by the cold of winter, the aphides becoming most abundant in

midsummer. Early in the fall a generation of winged aphides

* Bulletin 45, Va. Crop Pest Commission, p. 12, Special Bulletin, Va.
Agr. Exp. Sta.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 585

Fig. 441. — Woolly apple-aphides on stem of seedling tree and swellings
made on roots slightly enlarged. (After Rumsey and Brooks.)

586 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

appears, which migrates to other trees. They are about one-twelfth
inch long and have a wing expanse of one-quarter inch. They

Fig. ii'2. — Sexutil I'cnuile of the woolly apple-aphis, showing egg before and
after extrusion — greatly enlarged. (After Alwood.)

appear to be l)la('k, but the abdomen is really a dark yellowish
or rusty brown color when closely examined, and bears more or
less of the waxy secretion on the tip. Each of these winged

Fig. 443. — Sexual female and male of the woolly apple-aphis — greatly enlarged.

(After Alwood.)

females give birth to from four to six wingless males and females,
which are deposited on the trunk of the tree. The sexes are
wingless, much smaller than the summer forms, and are without

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 587

beaks, so tiiat they take no food. The female is a l)rowii-o('hre
color, and the male dark green or greenish-brown and smaller.
as shown in Fig. 443. They ])ecome full grown in about eight
days, when they mate and the female then lays a single large black
egg, which is deposited in the crevices of the bark on the lower
part of the trunk. These eggs hatch in the spring and give rise
to new colonies.

As they multiply large galls are produced on the roots, the
tissue probably being poisoned by the mouth-parts of the
insects. As a result the roots soon die and the aphides then
migrate to the growing roots, so that their absence on the worst
knotted roots does not indicate that they have forsaken the
tree, but that they are on younger roots.

Control. — Nurserymen commonly apply a lil)eral amount of
tobacco dust in trenches along the rows, wdiicli kills the aphides
and acts as a repellant, as well as being worth half its cost as a
fertilizer. This is probably the best practice in the nursery unless
the aphides become abundant, when more vigorous treatment
should be used, but tobacco has not always proven a satisfactory
treatment for orchard trees, though used with apparent success
in some instances. Tlie apiiides may be destroyed on the foliage
by spraying with 7 per cent kerosene cnuulsion, miscible oils
diluted 30 to 40 times, whale-oil soap, 1 jiound to 0 gallons, or
tobacco extracts, " l)lack leaf " being used 1 part in 70 of water.
Whatever insecticide is used must be applied in a strong spi-ay
so as to thoroughly wet and jx-netraie the waxy covering of the
aphides. A winter spray of lime-sulfur wash destroys the hiber-
nating aphides on the trunk, and doubtless kerosene emulsion or
misciljle oils applied in early spi'ing. as for the San Jose Scale,
would be as effective, though the lime sulfur would probably also
destroy some of the eggs. The trunks of trees known to be
infested may be bandcil with tanglefoot or similar sticky
materials as descril)e(l for canker worms (p. 574) to pre^•ent
the aphides from migrating from the roots to the top. ^^'here
the aphides are abundant on the roots, the earth should be removed
for 6 or 8 inches deep over the affected roots and 10 per cent

588 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

kerosene emulsion or dilute tobacco extract should be applied,
using two or three gallons per tree, or enough to thoroughly
wet the soil. Dilute miscible oil might be used in the same way.
Boiling hot water may be similarly applied, but is hardly prac-
ticable for extensive use. Carbon bisulfide injected into the soil
has been frequently recommended, but practical tests do not seem
to demonstrate its efficiency. Badly infested nursery stock should
be destroyed, and it will be a good practiceto dip all trees in hot
soap solution, or lime-sulfur wash, to destroy any aphides as well
as San Jose scale. It has been observed that trees grown on
Northern Spy stock do not seem to be as badly injured, and the
matter of the susceptil)ility of varieties should receive further study.

The Round-headed Apple-tree Borer *

The young apple orchard must be given frecjuent inspection
to detect the work of the round-headed borers, for if they become
established in the young trees it is difficult to kill them and they
soon girdle the trunks. They are most injurious to apple and
quince, less so to pear, and also infest wild thornapple trees and
mountain ash. The species occurs generalh' east of the Rocky
Mountains, but is not commonly injurious in the CJulf States.
The presence of the borers may be detected by the retarded growth
of the trees, with a yellowing of the foliage, and the sawdust like
castings which the larvic throw out from the entrances of their
burrows, accompanied by a discoloration of the l^ark over the
new burrows, and in early spring there is often a slight exudation
of sap. Injury is most severe in neglected orchards, where grass
and weeds are allowed to grow about the bases of the tr^es, as
the beetle, which flies at night, seeks the concealment of the rank
vegetation during the day. The parent beetle is a handsome
insect about three-quarters inch long. The antennsae and legs are
gray, the head and under surface of the body silvery white, and
the upper surface is light brown with two longitudinal white stripes.

* Saperda Candida Fab. Family Cerambycidoe. See F. H. Chittenden,
Circular 32, Division of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; E. P. Felt, Bulletin
74, N. Y. State Museum, p. 23, which gives full bibHography to 1902.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 589

Life History. — The beetles emerge from late May to the middle
of July and the females soon commence to deposit their eggs. The
female eats out a little slit in the l)ark, in which the egg is inserted
and often pushed under the bark and then covered with a gummy
substance. It is a pale rust-brown color, about one-third inch
long, of a broad oval shape, and usually concealed on young trees.
The egg hatches in two or three weeks. The young larva? tunnel
just under the bark on the sap-wood, usually working down
toward the base of the tree, the bark over these burrows often

Fig. 444. — The round-headed apple-tree borer (Saperda Candida Fab.)
larvae, adults, and exit hole — natural size. (After Rumsey and Brooks).

cracking the next spring, and the fine castings and borings sifting
out. At the beginning of the second }'ear the larva is about
five-eighths inch long. The larva continues in the sap-wood
during the second season, and it is at this time the most serious
damage is done, for where several occur in a tree the}^ almost
girdle it. The next season they penetrate into the heart-wood,
and several of them will fairl}^ riddle a small tree with their
cylindrical borrows. The full-grown larva continues this burrow

590

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

out into the bark, often cutting clear across a tree. The upper
part of the burrows are stuffed with fine borings and the lower
part with long wood fibres. The full-gnjwn larva is a light
yellowish, cylindrical grub, about three-quarters inch long. The
head is small, legs are lacking, and the body tapers gradually
from the thorax Imckward, the segments being quite constricted.
The third spring the larvie transform to pupa; and a))out thr(>c
weeks later the adult b(>etles emerge through large round holes.

Control. — The females may Ix^ prevented fi'om laying theii'
eggs by wrapping the trunks w'ith wire netting, l^uilding paper,

Fig. 445. — Work of the round-headed apple-tree borer: a, puncture in
which egg is laid; h, .same in section; e, hole from which beetle has
emerged; /, same in section; g, pupa in its cell. (After Riley. ">

or wood veneer. If non-rusting wire netting is used it may be
left on and will also protect the trees from mice and rabbits.
The paper or wood wrappings should be applied about May 1st,
and removed in late summer. They should be tied to the tree
tightly just below the crotch and should extend an inch or two
into the soil below. Tlie wire netting should be held out from
the trunk of the tree by a layer of cotton batting under it at the
upper end. Various washes have be6n used to repel the beetles.
Thick whale-oil or caustic soft-soap to which a pint of crude
carbolic acid is added to every 10 gallons is often used and should

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR

591

be painted over the trunk so as to form a tliiok coating. Others
recommend a thick coating of whitewash to which a little Port-
land cement is added to make it more adhesive. These should
be applied by the middle of May and as often as no^ed be to keep
the trunk covered until late summer. If the trees are gone over
every fall and spring, th(> egg scars and l)urrows of the young
larvie may be detected and they may be cut out while still in the
sap-wood, without much injury to the tree. When the borers
get into the heart-wood it is almost impossible to dig them out with-
out doing more injury to the tree, ))ut they may sometimes be de-
stroyed by injecting carbon bisulfide into the burrows and plugging
the aperture with putty or clay. Where a tree has been nearh' or
quite girdled, it may sometimes be saved by liridge-grafting.
Orchards kept free of grass and weeds and tr(>es with smooth
healthy bark are much less affected.

The Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer *

This species is more abundant than the preceding, but does
less damage. It prefers trees which have been weakened or are
diseased, and attacks almost all of the common orchard trees as
well as numerous shade and forest trees, so that it is everywhere
common. The species is
found from southei-n Can-
ada to Mexico. The larvie
live just beneath the bark,
where they hollow out
broad flat channels which
extend slightly into the
sap-wood. The infestation
may be detected by the
discoloration of the liark.
Where abundant they will
often completely girdle
young trees, thus causing
their death, and thev are

Fir,. 446. — The flat-headed apple-tree
borer {Chrysobothris femorata Fab.) :
a, larva; b, beetle; c head of male;
d, pupa — twice natural size; (After
Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

frcMjuently found alxuidant under

* Chrysobothris femorota Fall Family Bniirestida. See Chittenden I.e.

592 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

the loosening bark of the (lying limbs of large trees, as they
infest not only the trunks, but the lower limbs. The adult beetle
is about one-half inch long, dull metallic brown above, and the
wing-covers taper sharply at the tip, somewhat like a click beetle.
The wing-covers are ornamented as shown in the figure, and
beneath them, as seen when in flight, the body is a bright metallic
greenish-blue. The male is smaller and the head is green. The
beetles arc active during the heat of the day and may often be
found on logs or injured trees.

Life History. — The beetles emerge from the middle of May until
mid-summer. The eggs are deposited in crevices of the bark,
several often being laid together. The eggs are yellowish,
irregularly ribbed and about one-fiftieth inch long. The species
receives its name from the shape of the larva, the thorax of which
is very broadh^ expanded, so that it looks like the head, which is
very small and almost concealed by it. The abdomen is much
smaller and the whole body is flattened. The larva is about
one inch long, and usually rests in the curved position shown in
Fig. 446. The larva becomes full grown in a single year and in the
South may pupate in November, but in the North does not pupate
until the next spring, when it remains as a pupa aljout three weeks.
The beetle emerges througli an elliptical exit hole, in contrast to
the round hole of the round-headed borer.

Control. — As this beetle is everywhere present, injury may
always be expected if trees are not kept in a healthy condition,
but if the orchard is well cared for it seldom does much damage.
The same measures for preventing oviposition as suggested for
the previous species are advised, l^ut the repellant washes nuist be
applied higher on the trunks and should extend to the lower
branches as high as can be reached.

The Oyster-shell Scale *

Not infrequently young apple and pear trees are encrusted and

killed by the Oyster-shell Scale, as are young poplars and maples.

* Lepidosaphes ulmi Linn. Family Coccidce. See Quaintance and
Sasscer, Circular 121, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., and refer-
ences there given.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR

593

It is probably our most common scale insect, being almost always
found on apple trees, on which it works on the ])ark or the twigs
and trunk, reproducing even on old ti'unks, where the scales will
be found under the loose bark and are undoubtedly a factor in
causing the bark to slough off. All of the common orchard trees
are occasionally infested but rarely injured, as are also maple,
poplar, horse-chestnut, willow and lilac. Quaintance and Sasscer

FiG. 447.— The oyster-shell scale {Lepidosaphes ultni Linn.): o, female
scales on twig; b, female scales from above; c, same from below showing
eggs; d, male scale — enlarged. (After Howard.)

give a list of over 100 trees, shrubs, and plants upon which the
scales have been found. The species is a cosmopolitan one,
being introduced into this country at an early date and now
being found in every State, and occurs throughout the world where
the food-plants exist.

The mature female scale is about one-eighth inch long, of a
dark-brown color, sometimes almost blackish, and shaped some
what like an oyster-shell, as shown in Fig. 447. The male scale is

594 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

much smaller, and with but one cast skin at the anterior end, as
shown in the same figure.

Life History.— If one of the female scales be turned over during
the winter, numerous oval, white eggs will be found under it,
with the shriveled body of the female insect tucked away at the
anterior end. These eggs hatch a week oi' two after the apples
blossom, producing small yellowish insects, which look like mites
as thev crawl over the bark, which they often give a yellowish

Fig. 448. — The oyster-shell scale: a, achilt male; h, foot of same; c, young
* nymph; d, antenna of same; e, adult female taken from scale — a, c,

e, greatly enlarged, b, d, still more enlarged. (After Howard, U. S.

Dept. Agr.)

tinge where very abundant. The young insect is of microscopic
size and is shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 44S, c. It settles down
after a few hours' wandering and begins sucking the sap from
the bark. In a day or two long, white waxy filaments exude
from over the body, which soon mat doAvn and form the
protecting scale, to which the cast skins are added when the

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 595

insect molts. The fcmalo loses Ium' le,<;s, juitenna', and eyes, after
the first molt, and when full <;r()\vn is an elon.^ate, yellow-
ish, jelly-hke mass, being simply a " reproductive sack, with her
sucking mouth parts, through which the food is taken, inserted in
the tissues of the plant," as shown in Fig. 44S, c. The females
become full grown in about eight to ten weeks, when they lay
from 40 to 100 eggs and then di(\ In the Noi'th thei-e is but one
generation a year, but from the District of Columbia southward
there is a partial or complete second generation. When the male
insects are full grown they emerge fi-om the scales as two-winged
flies, as shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 44S, at a, fertilize the
females and die at once.
Control. — See below.

The Scurfy Scale *

" The Scurfy Scale, while infesting a considerable number of
plants (some 35 in number), is a less general feeder than the
preceding species. It occurs principally upon rosaceous plants,
such as the apple, peach, pear, plum, cherry, etc., and also on
currant and gooseberry among cultivated plants, but seldom
becomes so abundant as to cause particulai' injury oi- require
specific treatment." It is especially common on apple and pear
and less so on cherry and peach, though it has been observed as
quite destructive to i^each in the South, greatly stunting the
trees, though none were actually killed. The female scale is a
dirty-gray color, irregularly shaped as shown in Fig. 449, r.
The male scale is much smaller, elongate, snowy white, and with
three distinct ridges, Fig. 449, d. It is an American insect, being
common from southern Canada to the Gulf States. The life
history, as far as known, is practically identical with that of the
last species.

Control. — As the last two species are practically identical in
habits, they may be controlled by the same methods. Where
the trees are sprayed with lime-sulfur wash for the San Jose

* Chionaspis furfura Fitch. Family Coccidce. See Quaintance and
Sasscer, I.e.

596 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

scale, there will be Ijut little trouble with these scales, and where
specific treatment is required for them experiments indicate
that a thorough coating with the lime-sulfur wash while the trees
are dormant, preferably in the spring just before the buds open,
is one of the most effective remedies. The w^ash does not seem
to kill the eggs, but to kill the young soon after hatching, and has
been used successfully on both fruit and shade trees, but if there
be frequent rains in late spring, so that it is washed off, or if the

Fig. 449. — The scurfy scale (Chionaspis farfura Fitch): a, c, females,
b, d, males — a, b, natural size, c, d, enlarged. (Aiter Howard, U. S.
Dept. Agr.)

scales are very thick, it is not alwa3's entirely effective. In
England a 3 per cent caustic soda wash has proven very satisfactory
for killing the winter eggs. Recent experiments made b}^ Professor
R. A. Cooley in Montana * show that emulsions of linseed or
cottonseed oils are very satisfactory when applied either in the
spring or as the eggs are hatching, and were more effective than

* R. A. Cooley, Journal of Economic Entomology, III,^p. ^u] R. L.
Webster, ibid. IV, p. 202.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 597

other insccticicles tested. These einuLsions are prepared the same
as kerosene emulsion (p. 48), using one gallon of the oil, and
i to 1 pound of soap to 10 or 12 gallons of water. When the eggs
are hatching and th(^ }-oung are crawling the trees may be sprayed
with the abov(> or 1") per cent kerosene emulsion, or whale-oil
soap, 1 pound to 4 or 5 gallons of water. The (>ff(>ctivencss of
the last two insecticides seems to vary according to local conditions,
as they have proven satisfactory in certain experiments and of
less value in others. As for the San Jose scale, the trees or shrubs
to be treated should first be pruned of the dead and worst-infested
wood, and loose l:)ark scraped off, so that the Ixirk may be thor-
oughly covered.

Apple Plant-lice *

Several species of aphides or plant-lice conunonly infest the
foliagx! of the apple, and less commonly that of the pear, and
though they differ somewhat in appearance and habits they are
sufficiently alike to ])e discussed together, as the same methods
of control apply to all.

The Apple-aphis f

This is the connnon :\p{)l('-ai)his of hlurope, and was first
noticed in this country late in the last century, when it spread to
all parts of the country within a few years, probably being dis-
triljuted on nurser}- tre(\s. Only }'oung trees are usually much
injured by this and the following species of aphides, old trees
rarely being injured, except that where the aphides are excess-
ively abundant they sometimes injure the young fmit, causing
it to become stunted and misshapen. The foliage of ^'oung trees
soon becomes covered with the vermin, which feed on the under
surfaces of the leaves, causing them to curl up and then drop.

*See Sanderson, 13th Report, Del. Ag^r. Exp. Stti.; A. L. Quaintance,
('ircular 81, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; Gillette and Taylor,
Bulletin 133, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta.

t Aphis pomi DeG. Family Aphididce. See above references, and J. B.
Smith, Bulletin 143, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.; C. P. Gillette, Journal of Economic
Entomology, ^'ol. I, p'. 303.

598 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

This curling of the foliage is more coninionly eaused b\- this
species than any other, though the rosy apple-aphis has a similar
effect. The aphides secrete the sweet honey-dew very profusely
and so attract large numbers of ants, which feed upon it. The
ants are always found associated with them, and the presence of
numerous ants on a tree is a good indication of aphides. The
honey-dew soon covers barlly infested foliage and upon it there

vv / ^ ^^.. J^ IL- .^l

Fig. 450. — The ui)ple-aphis (Aphis pomi DeG.): 1, young stem mother;
2, adult stem mother; 3, adult apterou.s viviparous female; second
generation; 4, young female, second generation; 5, winged viviparous
female of third generation; 6, pupa of preceding; 7 and 8, apterous
malfe and oviparous female — all enlarged as indicated. (After Gillette
and Taylor.)

grows a blackish fungus which gives the leaves a sooty appear-
ance, often visible on the twigs after they drop, and a good
hidication of injury by this species. The full-grown wingless
females are about one-twelfth inch long, and shaped as shown
in Fig. 450. The}' are of a bright green color, though occasion-

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR

599

ally yellowish, and the tips of tlu; iintennio, h()iio3'-tvil)(>s, and tail
are black. The winged female is slightly long(M- and the wings

Fio. 451. — The applc-aijliis, wiiificil viviparous i'ciiialc — jircatly (Milar^cd.

expand about ()n('-([uai'tor inch, the head is deep olive l)rown;
the thorax is l)]aokish, and there are three ])la('k spots on the

^MP^

/ >

,/-;

jM'':i4»

Fig. 452. — Nymjjhs of the apple-aphis, clustered on a leaf, showing developing

wing-pads.

lateral margin of the abdomen, ])ut otherwise it is colored like the
wingless female.

Ldfe HiMortj. — The minute, oval, shining black eggs are

600

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

to be found on the twigs during tlio winter, especially at the
crotches and around buds and scars. Tliev hatch just before
the leaf buds open and the young aphides become full grown in
two or threes weeks, all of them being wingless. During the next
two or three weeks each of these females will give birth to from
50 to 100 young, a few of which develop wings. All of the aphides

Fig. 453. — The apple-aphi.s ; a, young tree partially defoliated by the aphis;
d, winter eggs on twig.

of this second generation are also females, which give birth to
live young without the intervention of males, which do not appear
until fall. Their young develop in a week or ten days and most
of them become winged and migrate to other trees. The develop-
ment and reproduction continues in this fashion throughout the
summer, both winged and wingless females being found in most,
colonies, though the size and coloration differ in the various

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE ANJ3 PJ']AR 601

generations. Those which arc to j^econic winged may be dis-
tinguisiied aft(>r the tliird nio'.t by the Ijhickish wing-pads at
the sides of tiu> body. With tlie first frosts of fall the young
develop into true males and females. Both are wingless, the
male being nuich tht; smaller, has long antemiic, is yellowish or
rusty-brown, and is very active, while the female is larger, moves
more slowly and is lighter in color, l)ut later becomes a very
dark green. The s(^xes mate and the females lay 1 to 3 eggs in the
places mentioned. All of the aphides die by late fall and the
eggs remain to give ris(> to n(nv colonies in the spring.

A\'ith the rapid multiplication above described it is not surj)ris-

FiG. i'A. — The apple-aphis, winged fall migraiita ou leaf — natural size.

ing that the foliage is soon covered with thousands of ai)hides,
and that with so numy sucking the sap the leaves so(jn curl up
antl drop. This is often a serious drain uj^on the vitality of
young trees, stunting their growth, and so weakening them that
they are more liable to be attacked 1)}' other insects and diseases,
while the premature dropping of tlu> foliage prevents the full
growth of the tree and the proper hardening of the wood before
winter. This species shows marked preference for certain varieties
of apples and rarely injures others. Apple, pear and ([uince are
the only fruit trees infested ]jy this species, which lives upon
them throughout the year.

602 INSECT PESTS OP^ FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Rosy Apple-aphis *

Tliis species is larger tlian the preceding, with a rounder )jody,
and is commonly of a rosy color, though the wingless females
vary from a salmon or tan color to slaty gra}', purplish or black.
It has been injurious' only to apple in this country, where it has
become widely distributed, but in Europe its native food-plants
are various wild species of Sorbus and Cratcegus. The wingless
female is about one-tenth inch long, the head, thorax and margin
of the abdomen being dark reddish-brown, and covered with a

Fk;. 455. — The rosy apple-aphis (,l/j/?/.s wrht Kah.): winged viviparous
female greatly enlarged.

I)owdery substance \\hich gives it a deep l:)lue color, the middle
of the abdomen being lighter yellowish. The antennae and legs
are whitish, marked with dusky. The honey-tubes are pale yellow,
tipped with black, and are long and tapering. Between the eyes
are two small tubercles, and on the middle of the two segments
in front of the tail are a pair of similar small tubercles, which
are quite characteristic of this species. When fully developed
the female becomes much darker and distended with young, which

* Aphis sorbi Kalenbach. Family Aphididoe. See Sanderson, and Gillette
and Taylor {Aphis pyri Boyer), cited above; and W. E. Britton, 9th Report,
State Entomologist of Connecticut, p. 343.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR

603

may be seen tlirougli the abdomen. The winged female is about
the same length, the head, thorax and honey-tubes being black,
and the abdomen yellowish-red. The winged fenuUes in the fall
differ from those of the spring in lacking the small tubercles
between the eyes, but both spring and fall winged females have
the two pairs of small tubercles in front of the tail. They also
differ in having a large black splotch on the centre of the abdomen,
bands across the terminal abdominal segments, and spots along
the sides, also black. The male is winged and similar to the winged
viviparous females which migrate back to the apple in fall.

The egg-laying females are
wingless, very much smaller
than the summer forms, and
light lemon-yellow in color.

Life History. — The eggs oc-
cur on the twigs, as do those
of the last species, hatch about
the same time, and the first
two or three generations de-
velop on the app e in the
same manner. Like the last
species, the third generation
is mostly winged females
and migrate from the apple
to some unknown food-plant,
on which the}- pass the summer. The winged females return to
the apple foliage in the fall and then give birth to young, which
develop into the true males and females, which may be found laying
their eggs in company with the last and other species.

This species curls the leaves, as does the apple-aphis, and is
likewise accompanied by ants. Dr. Britton states that " the
rosy apple-aphis . . . seems especially prone to attack the fruit
spurs and inner portions of the tree-tojD rather than the terminal
twigs and exterior part," and that it '' affects seriously the
growth of the fruit," preventing its growth and development,
and causing it to be gnarled and irregular in shape, similar to the
damage sometimes observed b}' the last species.

Fig. 4.56.— The rosy apple-aphis, wingless
viviparous female — gi'eatly enlargefl.

604 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The European Grain-aphis *

This species is found on the apple, pear, quince and plum in the
spring and fall and on the small grains and various grasses during
the summer. Until recently it has been the more common form
on apple in the East, but is not now so numerous a;s the apple-
aphis. It is an old European species and was evidently imported
to this country at an early date, as it is widely distributed through-
out the United States. The wingless females arc distinctly

Fig. 457. — The Euroi>ean grain-aphis {Siphocoryne averue Fab.): wingless
viviparous female, and egg-laying or ovii^arous female — greatly enlarged.

smaller than the jjrevious species, and are of a light green color,
marked with transverse diamond-shaped bands of darker green
across the abdominal segments. The honey- tubes are shorter,
distinctly enlarged at the middle and flared at the tip, which

* Slphocoryne avence Fab. Family Apkididce. See Th. Pergande, Bulletin
44, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 5 and authors cited above. The
author described this species as Aphi.'i fitchii in 1902, and although there
seems to be no question that it feeds on grains and grasses during the summer,
there are several reasons for believing that there are either two species or
that the life history has not been sufficiently observed. Thus in some sections
it is exceedingly common on grain but rare on apple, and in others just the
opposite condition is found. Further observation may solve these anomalies.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR

605

distinguish the species of this genus. The winged female has
the head and thorax bhxekish, and the abdomen yellowish-grcon
or l)ro\vnisli, usvuilly hieking the greenish l)ands of the wingless
form, and the hon(\v-tubes are brown with rusty spots around the
base. The species may be distinguisiied ])y the veiy short second
fork of the median vein at the tip of the fore- wings.

Life Historj/. — The eggs are found on the ap\)\o and peai", and
th(^ first two gen(M'ations in the spi'ing develop as do those of the

Fig. 458. — The Eiiroi)ean g;rain-aphis, migrating winged viviparous female
of the second generation — greatly enlarged.

preceding species. All of the second, or sometimes the third,
generation become winged and migrate to small grains and
grasses, on which they fcefl during the summer. In the fall
winged females return to the fruit trees and give birth to young,
which develop into wingless females and winged males, which mate
and produce the winter eggs. Pergande states that " the species
is biennial and that the progen}' of the spring migrants from the
apple subsist almost exclusively upon various grains and grasses
until the fall of the second year, when a generation of return
migrants makes its appearance." This is certainly true in the
South, where the aphides may be observed on grains throughout

606 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

the winter, but it may be questioned whether they usually survive
the winter on grains or grasses in the North.

Professor F. M. Webster* has observed this species on wheat in
Ohio, and states that in mild winters it remains on the wheat,
going down on the stems to just below the surface of the soil or
to the upper roots, as we have observed it in Texas. '' Here they
go on reproducing when the temperatui'e is favorable," he says,
" the adults being apterous so far as observed by me, until spring,
when they ascend to the foliage, th(^ adults aftei' this being both
winged and wingless. On the stems and roots below the surface
of the ground they are of a greenish color, tinged with i"eddish-
brown, especially posteriorly, the full-grown individuals often
being wholly of a dark brown. It is during autumn that they
do their greatest injury to the wheat by sucking the juices from
the young plants, often, if on poor land and if in dry weather,
checking their growth and causing the foliage to turn yellow."
This species is seldom much in evidence on grains or grasses in
midsummer and rarely becomes very injurious to them. On
the apple it is abundant on the young foliage and particularly
on the flower luids and blossoms, where it is much more common
than the other species. It does not, however, curl the foliage
nearly as severely as the other species, due to its earlier migra-
tion.

The Clover-aphis i

This species is more particularly a clover pest, but is mentioned
because it oviposits on apple and pear and may be confused with
other species in spring and fall. It has been observed in Colorado
and has been injurious to clover in Iowa, but its further distribution
is unknown. The wingless female of the first generation varies
from a dark green streaked and mottled with red to a deep dark
red, with honey- tubes very short and pale yellow throughout.
The second generation are light green or yellowish-green and

* See Bulletin 51, Ohio Agr. Exp. Station, p. 111.

f Aphis bakeri C'owen. Family Aphididoe. See Gillette and Taylor, I.e.;
C. P. Gillette, Journal Economic Ent., Vol. I, p. 364.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 607

the sumiiuT goiu'ratioiis on clover are pink or yellowish, with
a large pale orange sj)()( around tlu> base of eaeh honey-tube.
Concerning this specie's (iillette and Taylor give tlu^ following:
"The clover aphis, A. hakeri, infests the cultivated and sweet
clovers and alfalfa throughout the warmer part of the year where,
apparently, it never occurs in the oviparous form nor as eggs.
In the fall a portion of the winged lice migrate to apple and ])ear
trees, where eggs are dc^posited to li\T ovei- wintei- and hatch into
the red .stem mothers the following spring," hatching a week or
two before the apple-aphis. " The descendants of these stem
females begin in the second generation to get wings and liy the
middle of June nearlv all have left the trees and gone back to the
clovers, though some remain on the apple all summer. In the
fall, many of the lice continue upon th(^ clovers, going down close
to the ground as cold wcnither comes on, and if the wintei' is not
yvry .severe, nuiny will survive and continue to live and increase
upon these plants throughout the yeai'. So far as oui' observa-
tions have gone this louse ranks next to the gicen apple-aphis
[Aphis poitii) in nund)ei's as a knif-infesting species of the api>le,
. . . but we can hardly consider it a serious pest as yet in Colorado
orchards." Evidently the life histoiy closely parallels that of the
previous species. S. (tvetia.

Control. — Recent experiment.s liaxc sliown thai lime-sulfui'
wash applied while the trees ar^ doimant, as foi- the San Jose
scale, will kill nearly- all aphid eggs. I'ure crude i)eti-oleum has
also {)roven elfectiv(> agyjiist the eggs in sevei-al experiments.
Recently Pi'ofessor (iillette has i'e))oi'ted * experiments which
indicate that tobacco extracts will destroy the eggs when used at
various dilutions according to the strength of the exti'act, but
though these preparations may be effective, further field experi-
ments will be necessary to determine the exact dilution best for
orchard use. Spraying for the aphides after they hatch should be
done before they commence to curl the leaves, preferably just as the
foliage is expanding, for after the leaves are curled it is impossil)le
to reach them with the spray successfully. Kerosene emulsion
* C. P. Gillette, .Journal of Economic Entomology, Vol. Ill, p. 207.

608 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

containing 7 per cent kerosene, whale-oil soap 1 pound to 5 or 6
gallons, dilute miscible oils, or tobacco extracts will destroy
the aphides. The spray should be applied with some force, so as
to hit all of the aphides and to penetrate the hairy terminals of
the apple. Where trees are being sprayed with Bordeaux mixture,
whale-oil soap or tobacco extracts may be added to it, to save
separate spraying.

The Tent Caterpillar *

From the earliest times the webs of the tent caterpillar have
adorned the neglected, wayside apple and cherry tJ'ees in all
parts of the country east of the Rocky Mountains. On the
Pacific Coast a nearly related species has very similar habits. The
adult moths are common in July in the North or in j\Iay in the
Gulf States. The}- are stout-bodied, of a reddish-lirown color,
with two nearly parallel white bands extending obliquely across
the fore-wings. The females have a wing expanse of aljout
1^ inches, while the males are smaller and ma}' be distinguished
by their feathery antennic. The sexes soon nuite and the females
deposit their eggs about five or six weeks after apples blossom.
The egg-mass is from one-half to three-quarters inch long and
forms a grayish-brown, kn(jt-like l^and around the twig on which
it is laid, closely resembling tli« bark in color. I'^ach mass con-
tains about 200 eggs, placed on end, packed closeh' together and
covered with a light-brown, frothy glue, which gives a tough,
smooth, glistening surface to the whole mass. The little cater-
pillars hatch just as the leaf buds are expanding in the spring.
Ofttimes they emerge before the leaf butls have expanded suf-
ficiently to furnish any food, in which case they satisfy their
hunger with the glutinous covering of the egg-nuiss, spinning a
thin web over it. Soon they are al)le to bore into the buds and
a web is commenced at the nearest crotch. Wild cherry and

* Malacasoma americana Fab. Family Lusiocompidu;. See A. L. Quaint-
ance, Circular 98, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; V. H. Lowe,
Bulletin 152, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta.; E. P. Felt, 14th Report State Ent. N. Y.,
pp. 177-190.

Fig. 459

Fig. 460

Fig. 461

The Tent Caterpillar.

Fig. 462

Fig. 459. — Egg mass on twig — natural size.

Fig. 460. — Egg mass covered with web of newly-hatched caterpillars.

Fig. 461. — Xewly-formed web.

Fig. 462. — Web bearing half-grown caterpillars — reduced in size.

609

610 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

apple are the favorite footl-plaiits and are often stripped of their
foliage year after yeai', Init all of the common fruit trees are more
or less frequented, and when very abundant the common shade
trees are attacked and occasionally one is defoliated. The
little caterpillars from one egg-mass co-operate in spinning the
tent which furnishes them shelter at night and during cold or
wet weather. This is gradually enlai'ged with new layers of silk,
the caterpillars living beneath the outer layers. The caterpil-
lars are grown in five
or six weeks, when they
become exceedingly
restless and wander
away fi'om the nest
in search of suitable
places for spinning their
cocoons. The full-
grown caterpillar is
about 2 inches long,
deep black in color,
sparsely covered with
yellowish hairs, with a
white stripe down the
midtlle of the back. On
the side of each seg-
ment is an oval pale
blue spot with a broader
velvety black spot ad-
joining it in front, giv-
ing somewhat the effect
of an eye-spot. Having found a suitable place under loose
bark, in a fence, in the grass or rubbish beneath the tree,
or in the shelter of some neighboring building, the caterpillar
settles down and proceeds to encase itself in a thin cocoon of
tough white silk, in which it transforms to the pupa. About
three weeks later the adult moth emerges from the pupa to con-
tinue the life cycle, there being but one generation a year.

Fig. 463. — Tent caterpillars on web — one-
half natural size. (Photo by Weed.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 611

The caterpillars arc held in check b}- numerous parasitic
insects, some 24 species having l)een found preying upon them
by Mr. W. F. Fiske in New Hampshire,* as well as b}- predaceous
soldier bugs (Podisus spp.) and many of our common birds.
Large numbers of the caterpillars are also carried off by a bacterial
disease. When nearl}- full grown the caterpillars become sick
and sluggish, and soon become flaccid and the skin is easily
ruptured, permitting the escape of the body fluids. Several

Fig. 464. — Tent caterpillars, back and side view — \\ times natural size.

species of little chalcis-fiies are parasitic in the eggs and destroy
a large proportion of them. Were it not for these natural enemies
the tent caterpillar would become a much more serious pest.

Control. — The egg-masses may easily be detected and pruned
off during the winter, and it would be well to leave them in a box
covered with netting so that the parasites may escape. Neglected
apple and wild-cherry trees should be destroyed, as they harbor
this and other pests and are usually valueless. The caterpillars
may be quickly destroyed by spraying with Paris green or arsenate
of lead just after the foliage comes out, before the trees blossom.
* See W. F. Fiske. Tech. Bulletin 6. X. H. Agr. Exp. Sta.

Fig. 465. — The tent caterpillar moth. (After Lowe.)

Fig. 466. — Coeocns of the tent caterpillar, Fig. 467. — Web of the tent eater-
natural size. (After Lowe.) pillar riddled by birds. (Photo

by Weed.) 612

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR

613

If there arc but a few nests the caterpillars may be destroyed
in them by spraying the nest on a cloudy or cool day with pure
kerosene. Apply the spray with an extension rod and fine nozzle
so that the nest will be thoroughly soaked, without spraying the
surrounding foliage. Or the caterpillars may be destroyed by burn-
ing the nests with a torch while they are in them, or while young
they may be swal:)bed out with a broom or brush and crushed.

The Yellow-necked Apple Caterpillar *

During late summer the tips of apple limbs are often found
defoliated for a foot or
two and if examined a
mass of caterpillars will be
found huddled together as
if confessedly guilty. Usual-
ly these will prove to be-
long to this or the following
species. The full-grown
yellow-necked apple cater-
pillar is about 2 inches
long, with a jet black head
and the next segment,
often called the neck, a
bright orange yellow, from
which the insect is named.
Down the mitldle of the
back runs a black stripe,
and on either side of the
body are three stripes of
black alternating with four
of yellow and the body
is thinly clothed Avitli
long, soft white haii's.

Fig. 468. — Yellow-necked apple cater-
pillars assembled on ajjple twig in
natural position — from life, much
reduced.

* Datana ministra Drury. Family N otodontidoe . See A. S. Packard,
Memoirs National Academy of Sciences, Vol. VII, p. 106; E. D. Sanderson,
Bulletin 139, N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 213.

614

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

While young the caterpillars feed only on the under
surfaces of the leaves, but as they become larger the whole leaf,
except the stem, is devoured. They feed together in colonies,
usuall}- starting at the tip of a limb, where the eggs were laid,
and stripping the foliage toward the l^ase, and are often found
clustered together in a soHd mass. If the Hmb is jarred or a
caterpillar touched, it at once assumes a position characteristic
of this genus, throwing the head and tail in the air with a jerk

and clinging to the limb by
the abdominal prolegs, as
shown in Fig. 468. The wings
of the adult moth expand
about two inches and are a
reddish-brown color, while the
head and thorax are chestnut
brown. The fore-wings have
three to five transverse lines,
one or two spots, and the
outer margin of a dark color,
and the hind-wings are pale
ye' lo wish without markings.

Life History. — The winter
is passed in the pupal stage

Fig. 469.-The yellow-necked apple i" the soil, from which the
caterpillar {Dalana yninistra Dru.): moths emei'ge from May to

mature larvae and moth — natural size. ^ i im i uv

Jul}'. Ihe round, white eggs

are laid on the leaves in nuisses of 75 to 100, and hatch during

mid-summer. The caterpillars feed during the late summer and

become full grown in four or five weeks, when they enter the

earth for from 2 to 4 inches and there transform to naked

brown pupa\ without making any cocoons. There is but one

generation in the Northern and Middle States.

The species occurs throughout the Northern and Middle States

east of the Rocky mountains, and in the far South there seem to

be no records of th*^ species. Though most common on apple, it

also feeds on pear, cherry, quince, and plum, and on hickory,

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR

615

oak, walnut, chestnut and other shade and forest trees, some-
times defoliating them, as do other nearly related species.

Control. — As the work of these caterpillars is soon noticed,
and as thej^ habitually feed in colonies, it is an easy matter to
hand pick and destroy them, or swab them off the limbs with a
rag or waste saturated with kerosene, or where a colony is clustered
at the tip of a limb, it may be cut off and crushed. If this and
other caterpillars are abundant on the foliage in late summer,
it will be well to spray with arsenate of lead 3 pounds to the barrel
while the caterpillars are small, which will be about six to eight
weeks after the apple blossoms fall.

The Red-humped Apple Caterpillar *

This species is often associated with the preceding in very
similar injury, and has practically the same habits. The
name is given on account of
the prominent hump on the
fourth segment of the larva,
which with the head is a l)right
coral red. The mature cater-
pillar is striped with yellowish-
white, alternating with dark
brown or blackish lines, and a
double row of black spines ex-
tends along the back. The fore-
wings of the moth expand about
1^ inches, nre dark brown on
the inner and grayish on the
outer margin; they have
a dark-brown dot near the
middle, a spot near each angle,
and several longitudinal streaks
of the same color along the
posterior margin. The hind-

FiG. 470. — The red-humped apple
caterpillar (Schizura concinna
S. & A.) — slightly enlarged.

* Schizura concinna Smith and Abbott. Family Notodontidce. See A. S.
Packard, Memoirs National Academy of Sciences, VoL VII, p. 212; E. D.
Sanderson, Bulletin 139, N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 216.

616 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

wings of the male are brownish and of the female dusky
brown, the body is light brown with the thorax of a darker shade.
This species occurs throughout tli(> United States and feeds on
apple, plum, rose, thorn, cherry, blackberry, willow, oak, hickory,
and other trees and shrubs. The caterpillai's become full grown
in late summer or early fall and then spin loose silken cocoons to

which are attached l)its of
earth and ]'ubl)isli, so that
they closely reseml^le their
suri'oundings as the}- lie
on tlie ground beneath
ru])])ish, or just under the
suiface of the soil. After
some time the larvae trans-
form to pupa\ in which
stage the winter is passed.
Otherwise the life liistoiy
is practically the same as
the preceding species, ex-
cept that there is some
evidence of there being two
generations in the South. The larva' of this species are very
frequently parasitized by little ichneumon-flies * which destroy
whole colonies of them while still young, the inflated skins being
found on the under side of a leaf, often perforated by the
round exit holes of the parasites.

Control. — Same as for the preceding species.

Fig. 471. — Eggs of the red-humped
ii])i)le raterpillar — onlarK<'d.

The Apple Leaf -miner f

This is the most common leaf-miner of the apple and makes
small brown trumpet-shaped blotches under the upper surfaces

* Limner ia fugitiva Say, and L. cedemasioe Ashm. Family Ichneumonidoe.

f Tischeria malifoUella Clemens. Family Tineidoe. See A. L. Quaintance,
Bulletin 68, Part III, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; C. D. Jarvis,
Bulletin 45, Storrs (Conn.) Agr. Exp. Sta.; C. O. Houghton, Bulletin 87,
Del. Agr. Exp. Sta.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 617

of the leaves. It has not been regarded as a serious pest until
recently, but during the last few years it has become so abundant
as to do serious injury to apj^le foliage in Xew England and the
Middle Atlantic States, in sonu^ instances largely defoliating the
trees. It is a native insect which is generally distributed east of
the Rock}- Mountains.

The adult is a little moth whose wings expand about one-third
inch and are broadl}' fringed as shown in the figure. Clemens
describes it as follows: " Head and antenna^ shining dark brown,
face ochreous. Fore-wings uniform, shining dai'k l)r()wn with a
purplish tinge, slightly dusted with pale ochreous; cilia of the

Fig. 472. — Trumpet-shaped mine of the apple leaf-miner (Tischeria malifo-
liella Clem.). (Photo by Quaintance, U. 8. Dept. Agr.)

general hue. Hind-wings dai'k gra}'; cilia with a rufous tinge."
The full-grown larva is one-third inch long, somewhat flattened,
and tai)ers from the bi'oad tlujrax to the last segment. It is
light green except tiic l)ack of the prothorax and the anal seg-
ment, which are br()\\n.

Life Hiiitori/. — The moths emerge in late -Vpril 'ii Delawaie and
in May in Connecticut. The small gix^enish-^'cllow, blister-like
eggs are elliptical in outline, about one-fiftieth inch long, and are
attached closely to the surface of the leaf. They hatch in from
eight to ten da}'s and the young larva mine directly into the leaf
from the under side of the eggs. The larvte become full grown in
about three weeks and pupate in their mines, the pupal stage
lasting eight to ten days. Thus the whole life cycle requires

618

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

but about tliirty-tlircc clays in the District of Columbia, where
there are four generations a year, and about six weeks in Con-
necticut, where there are Ijut two generations. The larvae of
the last generation line their mines with silk and in them pass the
winter in the fallen leaves, transforming to pupa^ the next spring.

Control. — As the larvse pass the winter in the fallen leaves, the
insect may be entirely controlled by plowing under the leaves
in late fall or early spring or Jjy raking them up and burning them.
When the larvae become so abundant as to threaten serious injury
in summer they may be killed in their mines l)y spraying the
foliage with 10 to 15 per cent kerosene emulsion, but this is
not satisfactorv in the earlv fall.

The Pistol Case-bearer * and the Cigar Case-bearer f

These interesting little case-bearers have long been known as
apple insects, but only in comparatively recent years have they

Fig. 473. — The pi.sfol case-bearer {('oleophnra malivorella Riley): a, apj)le
twig showing larval cases and work on leaves; b, larva; c, pupa; d,
moth; h, c, d, enlarged. (After Riley.)

done sufficient injury to attract attention. Both species have
done serious damage in New York by boring into the young buds

* Coleophora malivorella Riley. Family Elachiatidce . See V. H. Lowe.
Bulletin 122, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta.

t Coleophora fletcherella Femald. Family Elachistidce . See M. V. Sliiigei-
land, Bulletin 93, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.; A. G. Hammar, Bulletin 80,
Part II, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR

G19

and blossoms, and eating off the surface of the leaves, so that in
some cases orchards have \)cvn practically defoliated. The pistol
case-bearer seems to be generally distril)ute(l over the eastei'U
United States and southern Canada, while the cigar case-liearer
is known to occur in southern Canada from Nova Scotia to British
Columbia, in New York, Michigan, Kansas and New Mexico.
As both insects are readily carried on nursery stock they are
doubtless much more widely distributed than the records indi-
cate.

Life History. — The life histories of both species are very similar

Fig. 474. — The cigar case-bearer (Coleophora fletcherella Fernald): a, adult
female; b, side view of pupa and upper view of cremaster of same;
c, larva ; d, egg ; e, venation of wings — much enlarged. (After Hammar,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

and have been most interestingl}^ described in detail by the
authors cited. The young caterpillars hibernate in their little
cases, which are attached to the twigs usually near or upon the
buds.

Those of the pistol case-bearer are about one-eighth inch long
and resemble the bark in color. A short time before the leaf-
buds burst in the spring, the larvae become active and attack
the growing buds, gnawing through the outer cover to feed on
the tender tissues beneath. Later they feed on the young
leaves, making small holes through the surface and feeding on
the soft tissue within in much the same manner as a true leaf-

620 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

miner. In feeding they do not leave the case, but reach
out as far as possible from it. As they grow they enlarge
their cases, which finally assume the shape characteristic of
the species.

Those of the cigar case-bearer are straight and resemble
a miniature cigar, being of a brown color and composed of
bits of leaf bound together with silk. The cases of the pistol
case-bearer resemble an old-fashioned pistol in shape, the butt

being at the upper end, and
are blackish, being composed
of excrement and silk. As
the caterpillars Ijecome larger
they devour the entire leaf,
excejDt the midrib and large
veins, and also attack the
flower ])uds, flowers and fruit.
The larvffi of the cigar case-
Ijearer become full g r o w n
about the middle of June "n
Xew York, wIkmi they mi-
grate to the twigs, where they
attach their cases firmly to
the l^ark and, turning around
so that their heads are out-
ward, transform to pupw.
The pupal stage lasts ten or
twelve days, most of the moths emerging in early July. The
pistol case-bearers Ijecome full grown and transform about a
month earlier. The adults of both species are little grayish
moths with wings expanding about one-half inch, and broadl}'
fringed with long hairs. The eggs of both species are laid singly
on the under sides of the leaves and hatch in ten days to two weeks.
The young caterpillars which hatch from them feed within the
leaf for a short time as leaf-miners, before they make their
little cases and migrate to the twigs, where they remain until
spring.

Fig. 475.— The erases of the cigar
case-bearer: a, upper view of the
cigar-shaped case; showing the
smooth and the hairy sides and the
three-lobed hind opening; b, side
view of same; c, the case as it
appears in the spring with the tube-
like addition; d, the fall and winter
case — much enlarged. (After Ham-
mar, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 621

Fid. 470. — Apple leaf with cigar case-bearers at work — natural size. (After
Hammar, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Control. — Spraying with Paris greon or arsenate of lead just
before the leaf buds open and again as soon as the foHage is out,
will destroy the little caterpillars.

The Bud Moth *

This is a European species which was first noted in this country
in 1841, and has since spread throughout the Northern and Middle
States east of the Rocky Mountains and to Oregon and Idaho,
The larvse feed on all of the common deciduous fruit trees, and
blackl^erry, l^ut are most commonly injurious to apple. The
adult moth is a dark ash gray with broad yellowish bands across
the fore-wings, which expand about five-eighths inch. The
full-grown caterpillar is one-half inch long, of a light chestnut-

* Tmetocera ocellana Schiff. Family Tortricidm. See M. V. Slingerland,
Bulletin 107, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.; W. E. Britton, 9th Report, State
Entomologist of Connecticut, p. 353.

622 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

brown color, with the head, legs and thoracic shield dark brown

or black, smooth and shiny.

Life History. — The larvse hibernate in small, oval, silken cases

attached to the bark of a twig. About the time the buds begin
to swell in the spring, the caterpillars
l)ore into them, thus early protecting
themselves from insecticides. As the
young leaves and flowers unfold, the
caterpillars form nests for themselves
by tying the leaves together, and de-
stroy the young foliage and flower buds,
but do not leave the nests in feeding.
In New York, they become full grown

during June, and transform to pupse in the silk-lined nests.

About ten days later the moths emerge and lay the eggs

singlv or in small clusters on the under surface of the leaves.

Fig. 477.— The bud moth
{Tmetocera o cellana
Schiff.) — twice natural
size. (After W. E.
Britton.)

Fig. 478. — Young api)le leave.s infested by the bud moth larva. (After

W. E. Britton.)

The egg is disk-like, much flattened, usually oval in shape,
and transparent, resembling a minute drop of water. The
eggs soon hatch and the young caterpillars feed on the under

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 623

sides of the leaves, protecting themselves by a thin silken
web. In the fall they migrate to the twigs and form the small
silken cases in which they pass the winter.

Control. — Dr. Brittou i-(>poi-ts that tJie caterpillars may be

Fig. 479. — Apple leaf injured by the bud moth caterpillar — natural size.
(After W. E. Britton.)

effectively destroyed by spraying with arsenate of lead 1 pound
to 10 gallons, which should be applied just as the buds are bursting
And again before the trees blossom.

624 INSECT PESTS OF J^ARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Codling Moth *

The common apple worm, the larva of the codling moth, is
probably the best known and most generally destructive of all
the apple insects. It is an old European insect and has been
distributed to almost all parts of the world where apples are

d

Fig. 480. — The codling moth {Cydia pomoitella Linn.): a, egg — greatly-
enlarged; b, young larva hatching from egg; c, larva in winter cocoon
on inside of a bit of bark; d, pupa — original; e, moth — after Slinger-
land — all much enlarged.

grown. The " wormy " apple is so well known that the work
of the larva needs no description, but the aggregate loss which
it occasions is not always appreciated, as most of the injured

* Cijdia pomonella Linn. Family Tortrlcidoe. See A. L. Quaintance,
Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1907, p. 435; E. L. Jenne, Bulletin 80, Part I,
Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; C. B. Simpson, Bulletin 41, n. s.,
Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; E. D. Sanderson, Bulletin 143, N. H. Agr. Exp.
Sta.; and bulletins of the State Agrcultural Experiment Stations.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 625

fruit drops and no aceount is kept of the windfalls, and if the picked
fruit is not seriously infesttnl th(^ gi-ower does not notice that he
has lost a large part of the crop, though where the pest is abundant
so much of the fruit is injured that hut little remains to be picked
on unsprayed trees. In 1907 Professor Quaintance estimated
the annual loss due to this
insect in the United States at
about $12,000,000.

The moths fly at dusk and
are rarely seen, as during the
day they rest on the bark
which they closely resemble
in color. The wings expand
about three-quarters inch and
have somewhat the appear-
ance of grayish-brown watered
silk, but when more closeh'
examined are seen to l;)e
crossed by numerous lines of
gray and brown scales. Near
the hind angle of each front
wing is a large dark l)rown
spot marked with streaks of
brown or gold. The hind-
wings are of a lighter grayish-
brown color, darker toward
the outer margin.

Fig. 481. — Cocoons of codling moth as
found attached to a piece of loose
bark — natural size. (After Slinger-
land.)

Life HiMorij. — The winter is passcnl b}- the full-grown larva> in
their small white cocoons beneath or in crevices of the l:)ark.
About the time the apples blossom the larvae transform to small
brown pupie, from which the moths emei'ge in two to three weeks.
If the evenings be warm the females commence to deposit their
eggs within a few days, laying most of them on the foliage. A
female lays from 60 to 75 eggs, and though most of them are
placed on leaves near the young fruit, ofttimes they are deposited
on limbs or trees with no fruit. The individual egg looks much

626

INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

like a small white blister about the size of a pinhead. It is at
first quite transparent, but later a l^rownish or blackish streak
is seen, showing the little caterpillar forming within. The eggs
hatch in from five to ten clays, depending upon the season and
temperature, most of them hatching about three or four weeks
after the blossoms fall.

The young apple worm is at first only about one-sixteenth
inch long, of a whitish color, with a shining black head, and
with distinct blackish tubercles over the body, which become
quite indistinct in later life. Upon hatching the young larva
usually feeds a little on the tender parts of the leaves before
it crawls to the nearest apple, which is probably 8 or 10

Fig. 482. — Pupae of codling moth in roooons — enlarged. (After Slingerland.)

inches distant. About two-thirds of the larva* enter the apples
through the blossom end and feed a little within the calyx before
they bore inward to the core. The others enter at the stem end
or at the side, where a leaf may touch the apple. The seeds of
the apple seem to be most relished, for the larva soon hollows
out each of them as well as the surrounding core, its work being
indicated by the well-known excreta thrown out from the calyx,
showing the " worminess " of the apple. The larva becomes full
grown in from three to four weeks and eats its way out through
the side of the apple, leaving a round exit hole, and seeks a place
to form its cocoon. The full-grown caterpillar is about three-
quarters inch long, whitish or pinkish in color, with a brown head

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 627

and faint tuboreles over the ])0(ly, and witli tlii-oo paii's of thoracic

legs and five paii's of alxloniinal prolegs. The cocoons are found

mostly on the trunks of the trees, as in winter. The pupal

stage of the first summer gen-
eration lasts ten to twelv(^

days, and the moths emerge

aliout eight weeks after the

eggs were laid.

In northern New England

but 2 or 3 per cent of the

larva? pupate, the majority

hibernating over winter, so

that there is l)ut a small

second generation. Further

south a large number trans-
form and in the Middle States

there are two full generations.

In the far South, as in Georgia,

Arkansas and New Mexico,

there are three generations

In any event the larvae leave the apples in the fall and hil)er.

nate in their cocoons, those Init pailly grown usually dying

before spring. The life cycle
of the second and third gen-
erations are essentially the
same as that of the first,
except that a large propor-
tion of the eggs are laid on
the fruit and more of the lar-
va' enter the apples through
the sides or stem end. The
work of the larva? of the
later broods is also some-
what different, as much of

it consists of eating around the blossom end or on the face

of the apple, eating out small holes or tunneling under the

Fig. 48.3. — Pupa skin of codling moth
remaining attached to cocoon — en-
larged.

Fig. 484. — Young larva of codling moth
in calyx cavity of apple — enlarged.

628 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

skin, as shown in Fig. 489. When two or three generations
occur, the injury by them often becoms very severe if the
first generation has not been largely destroyed by thorough
spraying. Yery similar injury is done by the larvae of the lesser

apple worm,* which is very difficvdt to
distinguish, but fortunately the same
treatment will control both pests.

Control. — Scraping the loose bark from
the trees and keeping the bark smooth
removes the favorable conditions for the
hibernation of the larvae. A large pro-
portion of the hibernating larvs are
destroyed by woodpeckers and nut-
hatches during the winter and they
should be attracted to the orchards
by hanging up bones and suet. Pick-
ing up the fallen apples and destroying
them before the larvae have left them to
form their cocoons will do much to
mitigate the numbers and will aid in
the control of other insects. Cellars and
storage houses where apples are kept
over winter should be screened to pre-
vent the exit of the moths in the spring.
The principal method of control, how-
ever, is in spraying with arsenicals,
which, when property done, will destroy
practically all of the larvae. Although Paris green and arsenitc
of lime (p. 43) have long been used for this purpose, arsenate of
lead is now preferred on account of its superior adhesive qualities
and because there is less danger of Ijurning the foliage with it.
Where Bordeaux mixture is sprayed for fungous diseases at th(>
same time Paris green may be applied with it and the Bordeaux

■

\

v

Fig. 485. — Larva of the
codling moth only a
few days old, showing
tubercles — much en-
larged. (After Slinger-
land.)

* Enarmonia pruniimra Walsh. Family Tortricidoe. See A. L. Quaintance.
Bulletin GS, Part V, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; Foster and
Jones, Bulletin 80, Part III, ibid.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR (29

will cause it to adhere as well as arseuate of lead and there will be
little danger of burning with a good quality of Paris green. One-
third pound per barrel of Paris green, 2 or '.] jiounds of arsenate of
lead, or 1 quart of stock solution of arseiiite of lime are ihe jjioper
strengths for general use. The first spraying for the codling moth
should be given just after the blossoms have fallen ami l)efore
the sepals of the calyx close, the object being to place the poison
in the calyx cavity so that the little larva will be jjoisoned when it
enters and feeds in the calvx a few weeks later. In "eneral this

Fig. 486. — Full gro\vn larva of the codling moth — enlarged about three
times. (After Slingerland.)

spraying should Ije given within a week or ten da}'s after two-
thirds of the petals have dropped, but the time will depend upon
the variety and the season.

In the West great emphasis has recently been placed upon
using a coarse spray with a high pressure, 100 to 250 pounds,
which will drive the spray through the bases of the stamens
into the lower calyx cavit}', and though excellent result are
undoubtedly secured in this way, experiments in the East
irKlicate that a mist spray is equally effective if thoroughly
applied, whether the lower calyx cavity is reached or not.
There is no question, however, of the importance of maintaining

630 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

a good pressure, of at least 100 pounds, so that the spray may be
forced through the foUage; for the blossoms point in all directions^
and the spra}' must be forced through the tree to reach those point-
ing inward on the opposite side. To do thorough work the man
spraying should stand on a tower which will place him level with
the middle of the tree, so that with an extension rod all parts may
be readih- reached. An angle on the entl of the rod which will

Fig. 487. — Young apples in right condition to spray for the codling moth
and with calyx .sepals closed too far for effective spraying. (After
Quaintance, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

turn the nozzle at 35 or 45 degrees will greatly aid in reaching
all parts of the tree.

The second spraying should be applied three or four
weeks after the blossoms fall, just as the eggs are hatching
At this time the object should be to cover the foliage thor-
oughl}', so that the young larva) may be killed while they feed
on the foliage. Consequently both the upper and under surfaces
of the leaves should be coated. If the first spraying has been well
done, the second will often be unnecessary where there is but
a partial second brood or where the pest is well under control,
but as it is often necessary to spray for the fungous diseases

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR

631

at this time it is well to add the arsenical, which but slight!}'
increases the cost. Where there is a full second generation, as
in most of the Middle and Pacific States, a third application as

Fig. 4S8. — Work of the first generation of codling moth larvae.

the second generation of larvae are hatching, will lie found advis-
able about nine or ten weeks after the petals fall, and a fourth
two or three weeks later may Ijc necessary. With thorough spra\'-

FiG. 489. — ^Work of the second generation of codling moth larvae.

ing not over 1 or 2 per cent of the picked fruit should be wormy,
as most of the wormy fruit will drop early in the season.

In mountainous districts, or where it is difficult to secure water,
dusting the trees with Paris green blown by a dusting machine
has been quite extensiveh' practiced. Although this treatment

632 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

largely reduces the injury, ejireful experiments have shown that
it is much less effective than liquid spraying, and as it is not
satis actory Tor the control of fungous diseases, the liquid spray-
ing is to be preferred where feasible.

The Apple-maggot or ** Railroad Worm " *

The apple-maggot has long been known as the worst pest of
summer and fall apples in the New England States, and has
extended its injuries to eastern New York and southeastern
Canada. It has been recorded from Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois,
Minnesota, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, but seems to be only
occasionally injurious there, though it has been reared from haws
in Illinois and Wisconsin, which would indicate that the insect
is native in those States. Evidently it is widely distributed
throughout the northeastern United States, but for some reason
is most injurious in New England. The fruit is injured by the
small white maggots, which burrow through the flesh, leaving
discolored streaks through it, often becoming so numerous as to
entirel}' honeycomb the pulp which breaks down into a yellowish
mass mere!}' held together by the skin. An apple quite fair
exteriorly will often be found to be almost completely " rail-
roaded " by the maggots, although brown, slightly sunken
streaks in the skin usually indicate their presence. Sweet and
subacid varieties of summer and early fall apples are worst injured,
but where the pest develops unchecked,, winter sorts, such as the
Baldwin and particularly the Northern Spy, are often seriously
injured.

The parent of the maggot is a little fl}' slightly smaller than
the house-fly, of a blackish color, with yellowish head and legs,
greenish eyes, and three or four white bands across the abdomen.
The wings are marked by four black bands, as showTi in Fig. 490,
which distinguish it from similar flies foimd on apples.

* Rhagoletis pomonella Walsh. Family Trypetidce. See A. L. Quaintance,
Circular 101, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; F. L. Harvey, Report
Maine Agr. Exp. Sta., 1889, p. 190; W. C. O'Kane, Journal of Economic
Entomology, IV, 173.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR

633

Life Hislorij. — The flics emerge during July in New England
and live for several weeks. The females at once commence
depositing their eggs in the early varieties of apples. The eggs
are laid just under the skin in a vertical position, on the cheek of
the apple. The egg is elliptical, about one-thirtieth inch long,
and yellowish in color. A female will lay 300 to 400 eggs, 12
or 15 often being placed in a single apple. The eggs hatch in
four or five days and the little maggots at once burrc^w into the
pulp. By means of a vertical motion of the head they rasp the
pulp with the small, black hook-like mouth parts, and in less than

Fig. 490. — The apple-maggot {Rhagoletis pomonella Walsh): a, adult; b,
larva or maggot; c, funnel of spiracle on head; d, puparium; e, portion
of apple showing injury by maggots; a, b, d — enlarged; e — reduced.
(After Quaintance, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a minute can tunnel their own length. They become full grown
in four to six weeks during the summer, but if only partly grown
when winter sets in, many of them seem to hibernate until spring.
The mature maggot is about one-third inch long, yellowish-wdiite,
footless, much like similar maggots, and distinguishable by the
microscopic characters of the spiracles of the first and last seg-
ments. The mature maggot goes just beneath the surface of the
ground, where its skin hardens to a puparium in which the pupa
is formed, in which stage the winter is passed. In barrels or
storage places the maggots pupate beneath the apples, and
occasionally a puparium is found in the burrow of the maggot

634 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

within an apple. Most of the puparia are within 1 or 2 inches of
the surface. There is but one generation a year.

Control. — As most of the affected fruit drops to the ground,
during summer it sliould be picked up twice a week and destroyed
before the maggots have left to it pupate. AVhere this is carefully
done injury by the pest is greatly reduced. Particular attention
should be given to the destruction of infested summer apples.
Hogs pastured in the orchard will do this work admirably, and
where there are but a few trees on bare or cultivated ground
chickens will destroy the larvte. Plowing the orchard deeply
as early as feasible in spring and keeping it well cultivated in early
summer will bury the puparia so as to greatly lessen injury, which
is always worse in uncultivated sod orchards. As yet no method
of spraying has been used which shows any effect on this pest,
as the maggots inside the apple cannot be reached by a spray,
but experiments are now being made in New Hampshire which
may show a method of killing the adult flies, as has been done with
a similar pest in the orchards in South Africa.

The Apple Curculio *

The apple curculio has been commonly confused with the plum
curculio (p. 576), but is by no means as .common or injurious, and

Fig. 491. — The apple curculio {Anthoriomus quadrigibbus Say): o, b, adult
beetles; c, larva; d, pupa — all enlarged. (After Riley.)

is quite distinct in both appearance and habits. The adult beetle

is about the same size as the plum curculio, but more reddish-

* Antho7iomus quadrigibbus Say. Family Curculionidce. See C. S.
Crandall, Bulletin 98, 111. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 514; F. E. Brooks, Bulletin 126,
W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 113.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR

635

brown in color, the abdomen is more rolnist, and the wing-covers
bear four prominent humps, the anterior being nuich hirgcr tlian
those on the pKmi curcuHo. The snout of the apple curculio is
as long as the rest of the body and is held straight forward from
the head, instead of hanging
down as does the snout of the
plum cui'culio. The work of
the apple curculio is also differ-
ent in that after laying the
egg in a small cavity in the
fruit, no crescent-shaped mark
is made around it. The apple
curculio is a native species
which breeds in wild haw,
wild crab, and wild cherry,
and has been reared in plum,
quince and pear. '' It has
been reported from Connecti-
cut and Ontario south to
North Carolina and westward
as far as New Mexico. It
seems to have been more
troublesome in Missouri, Illi-
nois and other mid-western
States than elsewhere," but
has never done anything like
the injury due to the plum
curculio and can hardly be
regarded as a serious pest.

Life History. — The beetles
commence laying eggs in the
fruit soon after the blossoms drop and continue for a period of sixty
days, an individual female laying about 65 eggs. The eggs hatch
in about five days and the larvae feed on the flesh of the apple
for about twenty days, when they transform to pupae within the
fruit. A week later the beetles emerge, but feed very little during

Fig. 492. — Work of the apple curculio;
a, a', c, c', feeding punctures from
the surface and in section; b, b', egg
punctures from the surface and in
section. (After C. S. Crandall.)

636 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

the late suiiiiuer before tliey enter hibernation for tlie winter,
most of them leaving the trees by the latter part of August.

The larva is a footless, whitish grub a half inch long when full
grown with a hunip-baeked api)earance due to the enlargement
of the anterior abdominal segments, which prevents the larva
from straightening out. The l)eetles injure the fruit l)y puncturing
it for feeding and for the deposition of eggs, causing it to become
dimpled and gnarled as does the plum curculio, and the larvtc feed
within the fruit, mining the flesh, in which they undergo their
complete development.

Control. — Thickets of wild crab or hawthorn trees should be
destro3'ed wherever near an orchard, for the beetles will breed in
their fruit and then migrate to the orchard. Jarring as for the
plum curculio may be practiced on young trees, and spraying as
for that species will doubtless largely reduce the injury. Usually
this insect is not sufficiently injurious to warrant special treatment
where its native food-plants are not overabundant near the
orchard.

The Pear Leaf Blister-mite *

The pear leaf blister-mite has long been known as a pest of pear
foliage wherever the pear is grown, and has similarly aftccted apple
foliage in Europe, but only in recent years has it become a serious
pest of apple foliage in New York, New England, Ontario and
Pennsylvania. Just why it should suddenly become an apple
pest after having occurred in this country for years without
noticeably injuring it is a mystery, though diy seasons may
possibly be accountable for it.

The work of the mites is recognized by reddish blisters forming
on the young foliage, which later turn blackish and have a corky
texture. Badly affected leaves drop, so that a tree is often largely
defoliated, and where the mites are abundant they attack the
young fruit.

* Eriophyes pyri Pgst. Class Arachnida. Order Acarina. Family
Eriophyidce, with which are associated several nearly related species with
similar habits. See Parrott, Ilodgkiss and Schoene, Bulletins 2S3 and 306,
N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAll 637

The mites are not true insects, as they belong to the same cUiss
as the spiders, scorpions, and ticks. One of the more common
larger mites is the red spider of greenhouses, which affects flower-
ing plants, vegetable crops, and fruits of all sorts. These little
blister-mites are of microscopic size, only 1/100 to 1/200 inch in
length, so that they can only be seen with a lens, and must be
examined with a compound microscope to distinguish the species.
One is shown much magnified in Fig. 493. They are elongate,
with two pairs of legs, and slender abdomens, composed of ')()
to SO small rings, frequently marked with rows of small tubercles
and ornamented with a few hairs and bristles.

Life History. — The mites spend the winter in the buds, and

Fin. 493. — The pear leaf blister-mite {Eriophycs pijri Pgst.): highly magni-
fied. (After Parrott.)

as warm weather approaches in the spring they Ix'come active
and move toward the base of the growing bud scales and feed
there. As the young leaves unfold the mites migrate to them.
They burrow through the surface of the leaf and feed upon the
succulent tissue within, setting up an irritation which soon results
in reddish spots on the surface. Within these mines the eggs
are laid, as many as 14 having been found in a single blister.
The young hatch in about a week and burrow around in all
directions, feeding on the tissues and juices. When full grown
they leave the gall through small openings in the under surface
and start new colonies which produce similar galls. The}' con-
tinue to reproduce and migrate throughout the summer, and under
favorable conditions become numerous enough to completely

638 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

infest the new leaves as they appear. In the fall they leave the
leaves to hibernate in the buds as already described.

On pear the l)listers are at first greenish pimples, which become
reddish and later Ijrilliant red blisters, and finally they become
l)rown or black and the tissue corky. When numerous the

Fig. 494. — Old leaf cluster with galls of pear leaf blister-mite on apple fruit
and leaves. (After Parrott, Hodgkiss and Sehoene.)

galls {'oalesce, forming dark l)rown patches over the leaf, which
often break open, particulai'l}^ along the edges of the leaves.
On the 1)loss()m ends of the fmit and on the stems they produce
light-coloi-ed ])imples, which do not seem to injure the fruit.
On apple the blisters are less brilliantly colored than on pear,

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 639

ami becoiiu' a light brown or daik j;r('('ti color on the upper loaf
surface and uniformly brown beneath, looking something like
the work of the apple rust. The young fruit is sometimes attacked^
on which small green pimples, which latei' make l^lister-like spots
or pock marks, are made toward the blossom ends, but which
do not seem to cause nuicli ilamage.

Control. — The mites may be controlled by spraying with
10 per cent kerosene emulsion, miscible oils, or lime-sulfur wash
used the same as for the San Jose scale. Spra^'ing should be
done in October or November as soon as possible after a majorit}'
of the leaves have fallen, as many of the mites are still in the
pubescence of the young wood, where they are more easily de-
stroyed than when under the bud scales. In spring spray just
as the buds begin to break and show the tips of the young leaves;
spraying later than this will injure the foliage, and earlier spraying
is not as effective. By using lime-sulfur in the spring, the usual
treatment with Bordeaux mixture for diseases at that time is
unnecessary. Where infestation is serious both fall and spring
sprayings should be given; otherwise the fall spraying is the
better. The buds and new growth should be thoroughly drenched,
while the rough bark of the trunk and old limbs may be neglected
as far as the mites are concerned. Where pear trees are but
slightly infested, the spread of the pest may often be prevented
by simply pruning out and burning the infested twigs upon the
first appearance of injury.

The Pear Psylla *

Where the pear psylla is abundant, pear growers have come
to fear it next to the San Jose scale, and until recently owners
in eastern New York became so discouraged in their attempt to
control it that orchards were cut down. It is an old European
pest and was first noted in Connecticut in 1832, since when it has
spread southward to Maryland and Virginia and westward to

* Psylla pyricolo Foerst. Family Psyllidce. See M. V. Slingerland,
Bulletins 44 and 108, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.; C. L. Marlatt, Circular
7, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.

640 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

Michigan and Illinois, in which States it has done considerable
injury. The psyllas are nearly related to the plant-lice and are
sometimes called jumping plant-lice, on account of the habit of
the adults of giving a quick jump and flying from the foliage
when disturbed. Like the plant-lice they reproduce very rapidly
and suck the juices from the foliage and fruit. Usually the first
indication of the pest is the presence of large cjuantities of honey-
dew, secreted by the nymphs, with which the foliage becomes
covered, and Avhich attracts numerous ants. When the psyllas
are numerous the leaves and fruit become coated with this sticky

Fig. 495. — The pear psylla (Psijlla pyricola Foerst) : adult, full-grown nymph
and egg — all greatly enlarged in different proportions. (After SHnger-
land.)

substance and it even drops from them like rain and runs down
the trunk. A blackish fungus grows on the honey-dew and is
always a good indication of the presence of the psylla.

Badly infested trees are so injured by loss of sap that they
shed their leaves in midsummer, the lower ones being the first
to turn yellow and drop. The young fruit also drop from Inidly
infested trees, which make but little growth, as the young shoots
are often attacked and wither early in the season.

The adult psylla is about one-tenth inch long, of a reddish-
crimson color with brownish-black markings, bronzy eyes and
dark wing-veins, looking very much like a miniature cicada or
dog-day harvest-fly.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 641

Life History. — The adults hibernate over winter in crevices
of the bark and there la}^ their eggs late in April or early May
on the twigs or around the buds. The egg is about one-
eighteenth inch long, hardly perceptible without a lens, and
orange-yellow in color. It is pear-shaped with the small end
drawn out into a long thread, and the larger end is attached to
the bark by a short stalk (Fig. 495). The later generations
deposit the eggs on the leaves often in rows or bunches. The eggs
hatch in two to three weeks and the young nymphs feed on the
leaf petioles in the axils of the leaves and later on the leaves,
young fruit and tender shoots, from which they suck the sap.
The nymph is a peculiar-looking little bug, broadly oval, flattened,
of a yellowish color, with crimson eyes, but later becomes reddish
with black markings and conspicuous black wing-pads, as shown
in Fig. 495. They move very slowly and are frequently quite
covered by their own honey-dew. After molting some four or
five times, they finally transform to adults in about a month.
According to Slingerland there are four generations in New York
and probably five in Maryland.

Control. — As the adults hibernate over winter in the bark
the treatment advised for the pear leaf ])listcr-mite furnishes the
best means of control for the psylla, and winter treatment is
absolutely essential for its successful control. Otherwise, the
best time to spray is in the spring just after the eggs have hatched
and Ijefore the nymphs have secreted much honey-dew. If
winter or spring spraying has been neglected, the trees should be
thoroughly sprayed with whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 4 gallons,
or 10 per cent kerosene emulsion, or dilute miscible oils. Spraying
should ])e done after a shower, which will wash much of the honey-
dew off, as the chief difficulty in summer spraying is to reach the
nymphs through the thick coating of honej'-dew with which thev
are covered. ()l)viously the spray should be applied with «'on
siderable j^ressure in a coarse si)i'ny.

642 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Pear Slug *

Not infrequently the foHage of pear and cherry, and occasionally
of plum, trees turns brown in midsummer, which is found to be due
to small, slimy, slug-like larvse which have eaten off the surfaces
of the leaves. The Pear Slug is a common pest throughout the
country, having been known here for over a century. It is an
old European pest and has l^ecome distributed to many of the

Fio. 490. — The pear slug {Eriocampoides limacina Retz.): a, adult female
saw-fly; h, larva with slime removed; c, same in normal state; d, leaves
with larvte — natural size; a, h, c, much enlarged. (After Marlatt,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

British colonies in various parts of the world. The parent insect
is a small saw-fly, about one-fifth inch long, glossy black, with
four wings which are iridescent, with a smoky band across the
middle, and which are folded over the back when at rest.

Life History. — The flies are abroad by the time the foliage is
well out, by the middle of April in Maryland and late May or early
June in New England. Like most of the saw-flies the female is
furnished with a strong ovipositor with saw-like teeth at the

* Eriocampoides limacina Retzius. Family TenthredinidcB. See C. L.
Marlatt, Circular 20, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 643

tip, with which she cuts a little blister-liko coll beneath the upper
surface of the leaf, in which the egg is deposited, as shown in Fig.
497. The egg hatches in about two weeks and the little larva
makes its way out of the cell through a crescent-shaped cut.

The young larva is at first nearly white, except the yellowish-
brown head, but very soon a slimy or gluey olive-colored liquid
exudes from over the entire body, giving it the appearance of a
minute slug, from which it gets its name. The head is now dark
bi'own, appearing almost black under the slime, and the body is
also darker. The anterior segments are much swollen, concealing
the head and the thoracic legs. The abdomen is furnished with

*--M>^^^?V ^ iJ^'

Fig. 497. — Illustrating method of oviposition and emergence of the pear
slug: a, cutting of cell beneath epidermis, showing the tip of the ovi-
positor; b, the cell after the egg has been deposited; c, same after
escape of the larva — all much enlarged. (After Marlatt U.S. Dept. Agr.)

seven pairs of prolegs, the usual pair on the last segment being
wanting so that the tip of the abdomen is slightly elevated. The
little slugs commence eating out small bits of the upper surface
of the leaf, which they gi'adually enlarge luitil nearly the whole
upper sui-face is denuded, leaving merely a network of veins,
held together ])y the brown epidermis of the lower surface, which
is nearly intact. Leaves thus injured turn brown, die and drop
so that a tree will sometimes be nearly defoliated, except for the
n&w growth which starts out. The larvae grow rapidly, becoming
full grown in about twenty-five da}'s, when they are about one-

644 INSECT PESTS OF FARM. GARDEN AND ORCHARD

half inch long. When full grown the larva molts for the fifth
time and loses its olive-green slimy appearance, becoming a
light orange-yellow color, clean and dry, with a light-colored
head marked by only the small circular black eye-spots on the
sides.

The larva now enters the ground for an inch or two, where
it forms a small cell, which is moistened with saliva so that the
walls become somewhat impervious to water. In six or eight
days it transforms to the pupa and in about two weeks after
the larva entered the ground the adult fly digs its way out of
the soil. Some of the larvae of each generation, and all of those
of the last generation remain in the soil over winter and trans-
form to pupae the next spring. At Washington, D. C, the first
generation of larvae disappear by the end of June and the second
generation are most abundant in early July, when the principal
injury is done, which is probably followed by a third generation.
Fui-ther north there are but two generations, the second appearing
in August.

Control. — By spraying with any of the arsenicals when the
work of the slugs is first noticed on the foliage they may ])e
quickly destroyed. Whale-oil soap, or other soap, 1 pound to
4 gallons, will also destroy the larvae as a contact insecticide.
Hellebore, air-slaked lime, or almost any finely divided dust,
thoroughly dusted over the trees will also destroy most of the
larvae, which are very readih' killed. In gardens where water
under pressure is available, the slugs may be washed off by a jet
from a hose, as they are frequently washed off by heavy I'ains,
and are much less injurious in wet seasons.

CHAPTER XXVIII

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PEACH, PLUM, CHERRY AND STONE

FRUITS *

The Peach Borer j

Wherever peaches are grown they are subject to the attacks
of the ever-present borers, and if neglected \\-ill soon succumb
to their injur}-. East of the Rocky Mountains the common peach-
tree borer has been known since the earHest settlements, and it
also occurs in Colorado and Oregon. It is a native insect which
probably lived on wild cherry and wild plum, and is known to
attack plum, prune, apricot and nectarine, though chiefly a
peach pest. On the Pacific Coast a nearly related species, the
California peach-tree borer, | does similar injury and has very
similar habits. The lesser peach borer § is commonly associated
with the common peach borer and has done considerable injury
in western New York, Maryland, Virginia and Cieorgia. It occurs
throughout the country and is doubtless commonly confused with
the larger and more common species. Although it is quite different
in its life history and habits, the injury is very similar, and as it
must be controlled by the same methods it need not be separately
considered.

The presence of the borers may be detected by the mass of
gummy, gelatinous material, more or less mixed with soil, which

* See J. B. Smith, Bulletin 235, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.

t Sanninoidea exitiosa Say. Family Sesiidce. See Quaintance, Yearbook
U. S. Dept. Agr., 1905, p. 330; M. V. Slingerland, Bulletin 176, Cornell Univ.
Agr. Exp. Sta.; H. N. Stames, Bulletin 73, Geo. Agr. Exp. Sta.

J Sanninoidea opalescenH Hy. Ed. See C. W. Woodworth, Bulletin 143,
Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta.

§ Synanthedon pwtipea G. & R. See A. A. Girault, Bulletin (58, Part
IV, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

645

646 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

exudes from the crowns of trees injured by them. The injury
is done by the larvse feeding on the soft inner bark of the crown
of the root, the adjacent roots and the base of the trunk. Often
the larva3 will complete!}' girdle a tree and where a tree is infested
by several borers, the foliage turns }-cllow and if not treated will
soon die. Such a tree is much more susceptible to the attacks
of bark beetles and diseases. Probably as many peach trees

Fig. 498. — Peach borer moths {Sanninoidea exitiom Say) — natural size.
The upper one and the one at right are females, the other two males.
(After Slingerland.)

are lost from the work of borers as from any other one pest, with
the possible exception of the San Jose scale.

The adults are clear-winged moths which fly during the day
and might Vjc readily mistaken for wasps. The females are a
deep steel-blue with a broad orange band across the abdomen.
The fore-wings are opaque, covered by the 'bluish scales, and
expand about 1^ inches, while the hind-wings are transparent
except the dark margin. The males are smaller, with the wings

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS

047

clear except the margins and a line across the fore-wings, and
the abdomen is marked with three or four narrow yellow stripes.

Life History. — The moths emerge in New York and New Jersey
from the middle of July to the latter part of August, at Wash-
ington, D. C. from the middle of June until mid-September,
the majority emerging in late Jul};, while in Georgia the majority
emerge in late August and early September. As there is but one
generation a year, the time of emer-
gence in these different latitudes is
decidedly anomalous when compared
with the life histories of other insects.
The females soon lay their eggs, pre-
ferring to place them on the base of
the trunk, l^ut often placing them
higher, or even on weeds or trash,
or on the soil. A single female may
lay from 200 to 800 eggs. The eggs
are about one -fiftieth inch long, and
slightly over half as wide, truncate
at one end, and a light chestnut brown
or reddish-lirown in color, not easily
seen on the l^ark of the tree. They
hatch in about ten days and the
yoinig larva? at once seek out small
cracks in the liark through which they
enter the soft liark of the tree. Their
presence ma}' be easily detected by
the powdery, l^rownish fj-ass whicli
they throw out of their burrows. The
young larva' grow rajiidly and con-
tinue feeding until forced into hibernation by cold weather,
and in the South doubtless feed during warm days in the winter.
Feeding is resumed in the spring, the larvae boring through the
lower layers of the' bark and causing masses of gum to exude as
already described. Larvse of almost all sizes may usually be found
in late spring, and the resulting moths appear irregularly over

Fig 499. — Eggs of the
peach borer : natural size
at n; an egg greatly en-
larged at /; and end of
egg greatly magnified,
showing mirropyle at m.
(After Slingerland.)

048 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

a period of two to three months. It seems probaljle that some
of the larvae which hatch from eggs in late summer or early fall,
tlo not become moths until the second subsequent season, so
that they live in parts of three years, though the life cycle may
occupy two years. The full-grown borer is a light yellowish
larva about 1 inch long, with a brown head and thoracic legs,
and five pairs of prolegs on the abdomen. The body is
sparsely clothed with brownish hairs which arise from small,
smooth tubercles. The grown larva constructs a cocoon at or
near the surface of the ground, usually on the trunk near the

Fig. .wo. — The |)eaoh borer larva, natural size and enlarged.

Slingerland.)

(After

burrow, but often on the soil, which is composed of particles
of excrement and bark, bound together with gum and a thin
lining of silk. In this it transforms to a brown pupa from which
tlie moth emerges in about three weeks.

Control. — One of the best means of preventing injury and
making the removal of the borers easier is to mound the soil
around the trunk as high as possible, j ust before the moths emerge
in the summer. This forces them to lay their eggs high up on the
trunk, where the little borers may later be readily found. In some
way this mounding seems to prevent the establishment of the
young larvae, as several experimenters have found that from half

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS

649

to three-fourths of the borers are kept out of the trees in this
way. In the early fall the earth should be leveled down to
facilitate finding the little larvae. Oviposition on the lower
trunk may also be prevented by wrapping the trunk with building
paper, or any heavy paper, which should extend well into the soil
below and be tied tightly just below the crotch at the toj). Such
wrapping may l)e used to
advantage with the mountl-
ing up of the earth and
thus largely prevent ovi-
position. The wrappers
should be applied before the
moths appear and be re-
moved in the early fall.
^'arious washes composed
of soaps, lime, glue, cement,
carbolic acid, and various
other ingredients have been
commonly recommended
and widely used for pre-
venting the laying of the
eggs and the entrance of
the young larvae, but care-
ful tests have failed to
show their value. Doubt-
less this is due to the
roughness of the bark of
the peach, over which it is
difficult to make a com-
plete coating, and the little
larvae will enter through the

smallest crevice. Some wash which would penetrate the burrows
of the young larvae and destroy them, as does the avenarius car-
bolineum with the bark beetles (p. 546), would seem to be the
most promising line of treatment, and some of the washes which
have been extensively used by practical growers should be critically

Fig. 501. — Work of a single peach
borer, natural size: w, b, burrow of
borer; g, gummy mass; p, pupa project-
ing from cocoon. (After Slingerland.)

650 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

tested on a commercial scale. After reducing the number of
borers by mounding and wrapping the grower must resort to
the old-fashioned method of " worming " the trees, by digging
them out by hand. This should be done in the fall and again in
late spring. Professor Starnes strongly recommends that in
Georgia the chief dependence be placed upon the fall worming,
as most of the young larva are then found upon the surface bark
of the tree, more or less involved in a mass of gum and excreta,
with which they may be readily scraped from the tree, according
to his observations. For this work he recommends a small
curved steel blade or hook about 4 or 5 inches long inserted in
a wooden handle a foot in length. In the North fall worming
seems to be less satisfactory. For spring work in excavating
the larger worms, a sharp knife and a stout wire are commonly
used, although many prefer a blacksmith's hoof-knife or similar
tools which are specially constructed for the work.

The Peach Twig-borer *

On the Pacific Coast the Peach Twig-borer, often known there
as the jDcach worm, is one of the most serious pests of the peach.
In the Eastern States it has been injurious in Delaware, Virginia
and Maryland, but only occasionally. Probably the insect occurs
throughout the country wherever the peach is grown, as it is
an old European insect which was first noticed in the United
States in 1860. On the Pacific Coast the over-wintering larvse
bore into the tender shoots in early spring and during the summer
bore into the fruit, particularly the later varieties. Prune, nec-
tarine, apricot, almond, and pear are also injured.

The adult moth is a dark-gray color, with fore-wings expanding
about one-half inch and marked with darker spots. The full
grown larva is about one-half inch long, of a dull reddish-brown
color with dark brown or blackish head.

Life History. — " The insect passes the winter as a very small

* Anarsia lineatella Zell. Family Gelechiidce. See W, T. Clarke, Bulletin
144, Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta.; C. L. Marlatt, Bulletin 10, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S.
Dept. Agr.; A. L. Quaintance, Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1905, p. 344.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS

631

larva in silken-lined cells or burrows in the spongy tissue of the
bark at the crotches of the limbs. Their presence is indicated
by small mounds of comminuted bark, as shown in Fig. 503, at a
and h. Early in the spring, as the foliage is putting out, the
larvae begin to leave their burrows and attack the tender shoots,
boring into and down the pith, the galleries ranging from about
one-tliird inch to Ih inches in length. The shoot thus injured
soon wilts and dies, as shown in Fig. 504, at a. Many shoots may
be attacked by a single larwa,
which is thus capable of doing
considerable harm. There are
two or thi-ec generations of
lai-vse during the summer in
the West, those of the second
and third attacking the fruit,
the later varieties Ix^ing the
worst injured. According to
Professor C. V. Piper, the
lai'va enters the peach at the
stem end, usually boiing into
the pit, the seed of wliich it
seems to prefer, usually caus-
ing the stone to split as the ^^^\ ^0-- — The peach twig-borer
... -11 {Anarsia lineatella) : adult moth

fruit ripens; or srniply the with wings spread and folded —
flesh may be tunnelled, de- ™^ch enlarged. (After Marlatt, U.

r wi ^ S. Dept.Agr.)

pendmg on whether or not

the stone is hard when the fruit is attacked. In California,
according to Clarke, the larva usually enters the fruit along the
suture at the stem end, and excavates a chamber beneath the
skin, which blackens and shrivels somewhat, affording entrance
to organisms of decay. In the ripe fruit the larvaj fre-
quently make their way to and around the stone, which,
if split, may be entered and the seed fed upon. . . . Early
in the fall, about September 1, in California, the veiy young
larvae from eggs of the last generation of moths construct
their hibernation cells in the soft tissue of the crotches of

652 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

linil).s, where they remain until the following spring, thus

.spending some six months in
this condition."— Quaintance.
Control.— By spraying dur-
ing the winter, or preferably
after the buds have swollen
in the spring with kerosene
or distillate-oil emulsion, the
oil is absorbed by the cast-
ings at the mouth of the

^ , . , . , burrows of the hibernating

Fig. 503. — Peach twig-borer in winter

quarters: a, twig, showing in crotch lai'va?, and thus penetrates

minute masses of chewed bark above the burrows and kills the
hirval chamber; b, same, much en- _ . .. ,

larged; c, larval cell enlarged; and hirviC. Lmie-sultur wash, ap-

d, larva very gi-eatly enlarged. (After plied from the time the buds

Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) , ,, , •, ,,

commence to , swell until the

first blossoms, has also been widely and successfully used.
The wash should be ap-
plied as late as possible
before blossoming. Recently
Mr. E. P. Taylor has shown *
that in western Colorado
the larva; are very readily
killed by arsenate of lead,
3 to 5 pounds per barrel,
applied just as the buds
are beginning to open. The
arsenate of lead must con-
tain no soluble arsenic, or
it may burn the foliage.
This treatment is given at
the same season as tlie
lime-sulfur wash and is
much easier to prepare and apply

Fig. 504. — The peach twig-borer: a,
new shoot of peach withering from
attacks of larva?; b, larva enlarged;
c, pupa, enlarged. (After Marlatt,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

* E. P. Taylor, Bulletin 119, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 8.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS C53

The Peach-tree Bark-beetle *

The peach-tree bark-beetle is very similar in both appearance
and habits to the fruit-tree bark-beetle (consult p. 545), and may
be readil}' confused with it. It is a native insect which attacks
only peach, cherry and wild cherry, and so far has been injurious
only in western New York, northern Ohio, and the Niagara dis-
trict of Ontario, though it occurs from New Hampshire to North
Carolina and west to Michigan.

" When the beetles are present in large numbers their injuiy
to the tree is quickly brought to the attention of the orchardist
by the large amount of sap exuding from the trees through the
many small borings made both in the trunk and limbs of the
tree. . . . The adults or beetles produce the primary injury to healthy
trees, the work of the larvae being secondary. The healthy trees,
by repeated attacks of the adults, are reduced to a condition
favorable to the formation of egg-burrows. When the beetles
are ready to hibernate in the fall they fly to the healthy trees and
form their hibernation cells. These latter are injurious to the
trees, for through each cell there will he a tiny flow of sap during
the following season." When the beetles emerge in the spring
they ])ore into the bai'k of healthy trees and later leave them to
form egg Ijurrows in sickl}' trees. From these numerous Inirrows
the sap issues in large quantities and in many cases forms large
gummy masses around the trees. After three or four years of
such injury the tree is so weakened that the beetles form their
egg borrows Ijeneath the bark and the larva? soon finish its
destruction. There are two generations a year, the summer brood
appearing in the last half of August and the other hiljernating
over winter.

Control. — The same methods are advised as for the fruit-tree
bark-beetle, which see (p. 546).

* Phloeotribus luninaris Harris. Family Scolytidoe. See H. F. Wilson,
Bulletin 68, Part IX, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.

654 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Peach Lecanium *

The presence of the " terrapin scale," as this species is often
called, is usually indicated by the sooty appearance of the branches
and foliage of affected trees. This is due to the fact that the
scales excrete considerable honey-dew, which covers the bark and
leaves, and on which a sooty fungus propagates. It is a common
species throughout the eastern United States and also attacks
the apple, maple, sycamore, linden and birch, but is most injurious
to peach and plum. The hibernating, partly grown, female scale

Fig. 505. — ^The peach lecanium or terrapin scale {Eulecanium nigrofasciatum
Pergande): adults at left, natural size and much enlarged; young at
right, and unfertihzed female at center — much enlarged. (After Howard,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

found on the bark in winter, is about one-twelfth inch long,
hemispherical, and of a reddish color mottled with radiating
streaks of black, particularly about the margin. Sometimes
these streaks coalesce and form a dark band around the center,
while other individuals are occasionally entirel}' red or black.
Frequently trees become badly encrusted with these scales, but
rarely are they killed by them. The fruit on l)adly infested

* Eulecanium nigrofasciatum. Pergande. Family Coccidae. See J. G.
Sanders, Circular 88, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; A. L. Quain-
tance, Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1Q0.5, p. 340; T. B. Symons and E. N. Cory,
Bulletin 140, Md. Agr. Exp- Sta.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS 655

trees is, however, poorly developed, insipid, and covered with
the sooty fungus so as to be almost unsaleable, and the trees are
stunted and rendered more liable to the attack of other insects.

Life History. — There is but one generation a year. In the
winter they are mostly nearly grown female scales. These mature
earl}- in the spring and deposit their eggs in a mass beneath the
bod}", which forms the hard scale above them. In Missouri the
eggs hatch about June 10th, and continue to hatch for a month.
The male scales are much smaller than the females, elongate,
slighth' convex, and greenish-white in color. Late in July the
winged males appear and live about a week. The young female
scales continue growth during the sunmier and hibernate when
about two-thirds grown.

Control. — Lime-sulfur wash is entirely ineffective against this
species. Kerosene emulsion of 20 or 25 per cent, applied during
the dormant season will destroy the hibernating females, according
to Sanders. Spraying with kerosene emulsion 15 per cent, or
whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 4 or 5 gallons of water, just as the eggs
are hatching, is possibly the best treatment. As the eggs hatch
for the period of a month, a second application may prove
advisable.

The Black Peach-aphis *

The black peach-aphis is a native species which has been most
injurious in the Middle Atlantic States, but has become widely
distributed on nursery trees. It attacks the roots, tender shoots
and foliage of the peach. When occurring on the roots, trees are
often seriously injured before its presence is suspected. Young
trees are particularly affected, the injured trees having a yellowish
sickly foliage. Usually, however, the presence of the aphides
on the }'oung shoots and leaves will be an indication of its inhab-
iting the roots also. In the spring and early summer the aphides
cluster on the tender shoots at the crotch of the tree and low

* Aphis persicoe-niger Er. Sm. Family Aphididce. See C. P. CJillette,
Bulletin 133, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 37; A. L. Quaintance, Journal of Eco-
nomic Entomology, Vol. I, p. 308, Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1905, p. 342.

656 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

down on the limbs and soon form a disgusting black mass over
the young leaves, which are tightly curled up from the injur}-.
On young trees in the nursery and on young orchard trees, this
injury to the foliage is sometimes so severe as to kill or severely
check the growth.

Both winged and wingless aphides are found on the foliage,
but only the wingless forms occur on the roots. Both forms are
about one-twelfth inch long and shining deep Ijrown or black
in color when mature. The partly grown aphides, which form
the larger part of most colonics, are reddish-yellow or amber
colored.

Fig. 506. — The black peach-aphis {Aphis persicce-niger Er. Sm.): winged
viviparous female; young female, first instar; apterous -"v^'iparous
female — much enlarged. (After Gillette and Taylor.)

Life History. — The wingless aphides feed and i-epi'oduce upon
the roots throughout the year, all being females and giving birth
to live young after the manner of the aphides. In the spring
some of them migrate to the young foliage, often appearing on the
tender twigs before the buds open. They multiply rapidly, and
as a result of the hundreds of httle beaks sucking out the juices
the shoot soon withers, which causes the young to develop into
winged aphides which migrate to other trees. Honey-dew is
excreted very freely by the aphides, which are therefore attended
by numerous ants which doubtless aid in their transportation

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS 657

from tree to tree and from the roots to the loaves and back.
" During summer the aphides for the most part are to be found
on the roots, though a few may be found on the foliage and the
shoots in badly infested orchards at almost any time during the
growing season. Below ground they occur promiscuously on
roots of all sizes, but the smaller and more tender ones are pre-
ferred. Some of the aphides may retain their hold on the roots
after the trees are dug, and the insect is thus frequently distributed
on nursery stock. . . . Light sandy soils are worst infested,
though they have been found in abundance on stiff clay soils."
(Quaintance, I.e.). Neither the true sexual forms nor the
eggs of this species have ever been observed, and there is
room for a much better knowledge of its life history. It is
stated by some writers that the aphides migrate to the roots
in the fall.

Control. — The roots of young trees suspected of l)eing affected
should be carefully examined and if aphides are found they should
be dipped in strong tobacco water. Nurserymen prevent injury
In- making liberal applications of tobacco dust in the trench and
along the rows. Tobacco dust may also be used against the
aphides on the I'oots of orchard trees by removing the surface
soil and appl3-ing a liberal dressing of the dust, which will be
leached down on to the roots by the rains. It should be applied
over the smaller roots. The treatment for the root forms has
not been sufficiently studied to warrant any conclusions as to
satisfactory methods, but the same as advised for the woolly apple-
aphis (p. 587) are suggested. When the aphides appear on the
young shoots in the spring they may be readily controlled if the
trees are observed for their appearance, for they are very gregar-
ious, clustering on one shoot until it is well covered before spread-
ing to the rest of a tree, and becoming abundant on it before
spreading to others. Often the small infested shoots may simply
be broken off and destroyed. The aphides may be killed by
spraying them with kerosene emulsion, 15 per cent kerosene,
tobacco extracts or whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 4 gallons. The
spray should l)e applied with force so as to penetrate the honev-

658 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

dew and curled leaves, and should be applied early, as after the
leaves are much curled it is difficult to reach the aphides.

The Green Peach-aphis f

This aphid is a European species which has long been known
as a pest of peach foliage in this country, where it has become
widely distributed. Considerable interest attaches to the species,
as it furnishes a striking example of the summer migration of
aphides to different food-plants, and a consequent difference
in appearance in form and color. During the summer this species
feeds upon various vegetables and succulent plants, and is so
different in color and form that it has been well known not only
as a separate species, but as belonging to a distinct genus. Con-
cerning its injury to the peach, E. P. Taylor states: "The
peach-growers of Western Colorado have suffered loss from it,
from its heavy infestation of the leaves of the trees in the spring,
causing them to curl and drop prematurely to the ground, and
fi'om the withering and subsequent dropping of the buds and
forming peaches also infested by the aphides at this time."
Similar injury has been reported from Missouri, and doubtless
occurs occasionally in other sections.

'IJfe HiMort/. — The winter is usually passed in the egg stage
on the peach, plum, apricot, nectarine, cherry or other trees,
though the wingless females sometimes persist on the summer
food-plants where there is sufficient protection to enable them to
endure the cold of winter, as in cabbage pits, or in the South.
The small, oval, shining black eggs are deposited in the axils of
the buds or in crevices of the bark. " The eggs hatch very
early in the spring so that the young stem-mothers from them
are often almost fully grown before the earliest peach or plum
blossoms open. About the time the buds begin to open on these
trees, the stem-mothers are all of a deep pink color and begin to

* Myzus persicae Sulz. Family Aphididce. (Syn. — Rhopalosiplnim dmnthi
Schr.) See Gillette and Taylor, Bulletin 133, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 32;
('. P. Gillette, Journal of Economic Entomology, Vol. I, p. 350; E. P. Taylor,
ibid., p. 83; F. H. Chittenden, Bulletin 2. Va. Truck Exp. Sta.. p. 30.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS

659

give bij-th to living- yovuig. 'J'hesc young instead of being pink
like their mothers are pale yellowish-green throughout their
lives, and usually there is a median and two lateral dark green
stripes passing over the abdomen. Very few of this brood attain

Fig. 507. — The green peach Aphis {Myzus persicce Sulz.): 5, adult stem
mother; 6, young of stem mother; 7, apterous viviparous female of
second generation; 8, spring migrant; 9, fall migrant; 10, egg-laying
female; 11, eggs — all much enlarged. (After Gillette and Taylor.)

wings. The third generation become very largely winged and
begin leaving the trees upon which they were born about the mid-
dle of May in the peach-growing sections of the State (Colorado).
By the middle of June these lice have almost completely left the

660 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

trees and may be found establishing their colonies upon various
succulent vegetables," such as calibage, turnip, rape, tomato,
celery, and a long list of vegetables and flowers grown in green-
houses, where this species is a pest the year round. The list of food-
plants is a long one, the largest of any species known to him, accord-
ing to Professor C. P. Gillette, but it is a common and sometimes
troublesome pest of cabbage (See p. 37-i) and celery and one of
the most abundant of the various sorts of " green fly " of the
greenhouse. The winged females which migrate from the peach
are about one-twelfth inch long, with a wing expanse of one-third
inch. They are a yellowish-green color with head, antennae,
thoracic lobes, honey-tubes, a large spot on the centre of the
abdomen, and small lateral spots in front of the honey-tubes are
blackish. The honey-tubes, or cornicles, are cylindrical, while
those of the winged females in summer and fall are decidedly
swollen toward the tip and constricted at the base, giving them
a club shape, on account of which the}^ were placed in the genus
Rhopalosiphum. Otherwise the winged females of summer and
fall are very similar, except that they are more yellowish and the
markings and cornicles are lighter. The wingless females during
the summer are pale yellowish and lack the longitudinal green
stripes on the abdomen. According to Taylor's observations the
spring generations on peach become full grown in about two
weeks and an individual aphid lives about a month. As repro-
duction is probably more rapid in summer, the aphides ma}^ soon
become very abimdant. In the fall winged females return to the
peach and winter host-plants, and give birth to young which
develop into wingless females which lay the winter eggs. The
true males are winged and migrate from the summer food-plants.
Control. — The trees affected should be sprayed about a week
before the buds open with 5 to 7 per cent kerosene emulsion,
tobacco extract, or whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 5 gallons, or miscible
oil diluted 20 times. If the trees are sprayed with lime-sulfur
for the twig-borer just before blossoming, it should kill most of
the aphides. The same remedies ma}' be used on the foliage of
affected plants as necessary.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS

661

The Plum Gouger *

This is a native species whidi breeds upon wild plums and is
most injurious to native varieties. It is coinnion throughout
the Mississippi Valley, hut seems to be most injurious westward
and occurs in Colorado. The work of the beetles might be easily
mistaken for that of the curculio (p. .")7G). The adult beetle is
readily distinguished from the
curculio, however, by lacking
the humps on the wing-covers.
It is about one-quarter inch
long, with a snout half as long,
the wing-covers are a leaden-
gray color, finely spotted with
black and brown, while the
thorax and head are marked
with ochreous yellow.

Life History. Like the cur-
culio the beetles hibernate over
winter and appear in the spring
as the trees blossom. At first
they puncture the calyx and feed
on the ovary of the flower, com-
pletely destroying it for fruit pro-
duction, and then puncture the
growing plums, both for food
and for egg-laying. In feeding

on the plums the adults gouge out small round holes, from which
gum exudes. Like the curculios, they have the habit of feigning
death and dropping to the ground when disturbed. The eggs
are laid while the pit of the plum is still soft. The female beetle
drills a small hole in the plum, which is larger below, and in it
deposits a small yellowish-white egg, whose outer end lies flush
with the surface of the plum. As soon as the larva hatches it
eats its way into the pit. feeding upon the meat of the seed until

Fig. 508. — The plum gouger {Cocco-
torus scutellaris Lee): a, plum
stone showing exit hole of larva;
b, adult ; r, side view of head of
beetle — enlarged. (After Riley
and Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

* Cuccvtonis xnilelldris Ja-c. Fainilv ('uiridionitlce.

662 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

full grown. It then eats a hole through the outside of the pit so
that the adult beetle may escape, and then transforms to a pupa.
The larva is very similar to that of the cs.irc'ulio, but is a milky
white rather than a glossy white and lacks the reddish tinge on
the lower surface. AfTected plums do not drop as when injured
by the curculio. The pupal stage is passed in the pit of the plum
and the adult beetle emerges through the hole cut for it by the
larva. The beetles emerge a little before the plums ripen and
often practically destroy them, as fruit badly punctured becomes
gnarly and worthless. The beetles feed on the plums a short time
and then seek hibernating quarters for the winter.

Control. — Jarring the trees as for the curculio is the only
method of control which has been successfully used, but where
the beetles are abundant it would be well to try spraying with
arsenate of lead as advised for the curculio (p. 580).

Plum Aphides

Three species of aphides are common on the plum foliage in
spring and fall, and often do serious damage by curling up the
foliage in the spring and causing it to drop prematurely, thus
checking the growth of the tree and preventing proper fruiting.
The life histories of the three species are very similar in that the
eggs are laitl upon the plum in the fall, upon which two or three
generations develop in the spring, but in early summer the}'
migrate to other food-plants, from which they return to the plum
in the fall. The life history is much the same as that of the
apple-aphis (p. 658), and green peach-aphis (p. 597), and need not
be rehearsed in detail.

The Mealy Plum-louse *

This is a light-green species which is covered Ijy a bluish-white

mealy powder. It has a long narrow body, one-tenth inch long,

* Hi/nlopterufi arundinis Fab. Family Apliididce. W. D. Hunter in
Bulletin 60, Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 92, states that Aphis prunifolice Fitch
i.s probably the same species. Certamly H. arundinis and pruni, Aphis
pruni and prunifolice, seem to have been applied to the same species in the
economic literature in America. See Lowe, V. L., Bulletin 139, N. Y. Agr.
Exp. Sta., p. 657.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS

663

marked with tlirce l()n<;itu(limil .sli'iix's of a daikcr givi-n. The
honey-tubes are short, thick, and slightly constricted at the base.

Fig. 509. — The mealy phim louse {Hyaloptenis arundinis Fab.): a, young
nymph; b, last stage of nymph of wiaged form; c, winged viviparous
female — all much enlarged, (.\fter Lowe.)

The winged female is similar in coloration except that the abdomen
bears several transverse triangidar marks of darker green. In

Fig. 510. — Mealy plum aphides clustered on leaf. (After Lowe.)

June the winged females migrate to certain grasses upon which
the aphides reproduce during the summer, though small colonies
are to be found on the plum throughout the summer. In the

664 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

fall they roturii to the plum, where the winter ejigs jire laid. This
species is known to occur in Germany, England, Australia, and
New Zealand, and seems to be widely distributed over the United
States. It occurs here on plum and prune and in Europe is said
to infest grape, peach, apricot, and nectarine, according to Lowe.

The Hop Plant-louse *

This species is best known as a pest of hops (see p. 275) during
the summer and rarely does very serious damage to the plum,
though often quite abundant on it. The wingless aphides are
light green or yellowish green without any noticeable markings.
The winged forms have the same body color, with the head, thoracic
lobes, and a few dashes on the abdomen black. The species
may be readily distinguished by the prominent tubercle which
projects from the head on the inside of the base of each antenna,
and a less prominent tubercle on the basal segment of each
antenna, as shown in Fig. 204. According to the studies of Dr.
C. V. Riley and his assistants, the third generation in the spring
migrates from the plum to hops in late spring and in fall winged
viviparous females give birth to a few young which develop into
egg-laying females which mate with winged males which have devel-
oped on hops, the winter eggs being laid on the plum and other
species of Prunus. In California Clarke has been unable to find
any evidence of the species on plum or other vegetation outside
of the hop yards, where he finds the true sexes occurring in the
fall, but no evidence of eggs. Hops are often seriously damaged
by being reduced in size and weight and from the loss in aroma
due to the presence of the aphides in them. The species is of
European origin, where it is a well-known enemy of hops, and has
become widely distributed in the United States and Canada.

Control. — Where it oviposits on plum it may be best con-
trolled by spraying as for the other plum aphides in the spring.
After it becomes established on hops it may be controlled by

* Phorodon humuli Schrank. Family Aphididoe. See page 275 above.
See C. V. Riley, Report U. S. Dept. Agr., 1888, p. 93; W. T. Clarke, Bulletin
160, Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS 665

spraying with whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 6 gallons of water, or
by the addition of quassia chips, which has long been the favorite
remedy of hop-growers, 6 to 8 pounds of quassia chips are
steeped in cold water for a day or two and then boiled for an
hour, when they are mixed with 4 or 5 pounds of soft soap, whale-
oil soap being excellent, and 100 gallons of water.

The Rusty-brown Plum-louse *

This species is readily distinguished from others common on
plum and prune by the dark rusty-brown color, with the base
of the antennae, tibia:, and tail a contrasting white. This species
has become a very serious pest to plum foliage in the South and
Southwest, and we have observed serious injury in New Hamp-
shire, so that it is evidently widely distributed. The aphides
collect on the tender young twigs, which they stunt or kill, assemble
on the under sides of the leaves, which become corrugated and
curled from their attack, and when abundant they attack the
blossoms and their stems and thus prevent the setting of fruit.
In early summer the winged females migrate to various common
grasses, such as fox-tail, red top, barnyard grass, crab grass, and
others, upon which they breed during the summer, and from which
the winged forms return to plum in the fall. They become
darker in color late in the season and the wingless, egg-laying
female is almost black, as is also the small winged male.

Control. — The treatment advised for the apple-aphis (p. 658)
will be effective for the three species above while on the plum,
and for that and other species, the spraying should be done
early in the season before the aphides have become numerous
and curled the foliage.

* Aphis setarioe Thus. Family Aphididw. See Gillette and Taylor,
Bulletin 133, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 41; C. E. Sanborn, Bulletin 88, Okla-
homa .\gr. Exp. Sta.

666 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

The Black Cherry-louse *

This species has long been known as a cherry pest in Europe
and during the last fifty years has become generally distributed
over the eastern United States, and occurs in Colorado. So far
as known the cherry is the only food-plant. Dr. Weed was of
the opinion that the aphides left the cherry during late July
and migrated to some summer food-plant which he was unable to

Fig. 511. — The black cherry-aphis {Myzus cerasi Fab.): 1, apterous vivip-
arous female; 2, winged viviparous female — enlarged. (After Gillette
and Taylor.)

find, but observations by Gillette and Taylor in Colorado would
indicate that they may remain on the cherry, but become so
reduced in numbers by their natural enemies that onl}- a few
survive during midsummer, and these give rise to larger colonies
in late summer and early fall. Both the winged and wingless
forms are deep shining black, the body is rather broad and flat,
and the honey-tubes are unusually long and are cylindrical.
Small winged males and wnngless females occur on the foliage in
the fall and the latter lay their eggs on the twigs about the buds.
Like the black peach-aphis, this species has the habit of accumula-
ting in large numbers on the smaller sprouts or limbs near the

* Myzus cerasi Fab. Family Aphididce. See C. M. Weed, Bulletin Ohio
Agr. Exp. Sta., Tech. Ser., Vol. I. No. 2, p. Ill; C. P. Gillette, Journal of
Economic Entomology, Vol. I, p. 362.

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS

667

ground before spretidiiig to the rest of the tree or other trees, so
that prompt treatment when first observed will prevent general
infestation.

Control. — Spraying with kerosene emulsion, whale-oil soap,
tobacco extracts, or dilute miscible oils, as for the apple-aphis
(p, 658), will control the pest.

The Cherry Fruit -fly f

The cherry fruit-fly is a native insect whose maggot lives in
the flesh of the cherries, causing them to rot. It is very nearly
related to the apple maggot (p. 632) which it very closely resembles

Fig. 512. — -The cherry fruit-fly (Rhagoletis citigulata Loew.): a, fly; b, maggot;
c, anterior spiracles of same; d, puparium; e, posterior spiracular plates
of pupa — all enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

in both appearance and life history. Injury by it has been
recorded in Massachusetts, New York, Ontario, Pennsylvania,
District of Columbia, Michigan and Iowa, so that it is probably
generally distributed over the northeastern States. Although
its native food-plant is unknown it is probable that it lives on some
wild sour cherry. As cherries are always more or less injured

t Rhagoletis cingulata Loew. Family TrypetidcB. See M. V. Slingerland
Bulletin 172, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.; F. H. Chittenden, Bulletin 44,
Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 70.

668 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD

by the plum curculio (p. 576), it is quite probable, that injury
by this maggot may have been attributed to the cureulio and its
identity passed unnoticed. Sour and sul^acid varieties, such as the
Morello and Montmorency, are worst injured, but black cherries
and indeed all varieties are more or less damaged.

The fly is slightly smaller than that of the apple-maggot, being
about one-sixth inch long with a wing expanse of three-eighths
inch. The body is blackish, the head and legs are pale yellowish-
brown, the sides of the thorax are marked with a longitudinal

Fig. 513. — Section of a cherry, enlarged to show the maggot of the cherry
fruit-fly and nature of its work. The small figures above show the
maggot and parent fly natural size. (After Slingerland.)

yellow band, the abdominal segments are marked with whitish
or pale brownish transverse bands, and the wings are crossed by
four blackish bands. The maggot is about one-quarter inch
long and is indistinguishable from the apple-maggot.

Life History. — The eggs are deposited just under the skin
of the cherry from June until August, or probably during the
whole season of the fruit. The eggs hatch in a few days and the
little maggots penetrate to the pits, feeding on the flesh and
forming a rotting cavity very similar to that made by the grub of
the cureulio, But few of the affected cherries fall from the trees.

INSECTS INJUlUorS TO STONE FRUITS 669

and ji.s (hey ric((U('M(ly sliow hul lilllc clTcct of ilic claiiuige, the
infested fruit may lie marketed and the pest thus spread. When
full grown th(> maggots leave the cherries and form puparia just
beneath the surface of the ground, or in the liottom of l^askets
or in rubbish, wherever the affected fruit may be. The flies
commence to emerge^ from these puparia by the middle of June
in New York and are foiuid during the summer months.

Control. — There is but little evidence as to practical means of
control. Deep plowing in spring should result in burying the
puparia so deeply as to prevent the emergence of the flies. Cultiva-
tion is evidently of little value, as the pest occurs in well-cultivated
orchards, so that shallow cultivation does not seem to affect the
puparia. Chickens have been observed to destroy the puparia,
and will doubtless prove as effective as against the apple-maggot
where they can be confined beneath affected trees on cultivated
soil. The destruction of all fruit, whether windfall or remaining
on the tree will, of course, aid in control. Recently a nearly
related fruit-fly has been successfully controlled in South Africa
by spraying the foliage with arsenate of lead sweetened with
treacle or brown sugar, thus attracting the flies, which are poisoned
by the arsenate, and this method is worthy of trial both for the
cherry fruit-fly and apple-maggot.

INDEX

Abbot's sphinx, .'jno
Acarina, 636

Achemon sphinx, 526, 527
Acrididae, 93
Adalia bipunctata, 10
Adoxus vitis, 504
,'Egeria tipuhformis, 477
Agrikis ruficolHs, 466
Agriotes mancus, 82, S3
Agromyza simplex, 428
Agrom3'zida>, 428
Agrotis annexa, 88
messoria, 85
ypsilon, 85
Air-tubes, 29
Alabama argillacea, 243
Alfalfa weevil, 205
Alimentary canal, 30
Alkah bug, 337
Alsophila pometaria, 572, 573
Alwood, W. B., 584
American frit-fly, 134, 135
Amphicerus bicaudatus, 513

punctipennis, 515
Ampeloglyi^ter ater, 511

sesostris, 509
Ampelophaga mjTon, 528
Anarsia lineatella, 650
Anasa tristis, 388
Anatomy, internal, 30
AncyUs comptana, 452
Angumois grain-moth, 192
Ant, corn-field, 165, 168
Antennse, 22

Anthomyia egg parasite, 106
Anthomyiida>, 320, 345, 347, 420,
423, 469

Anthonomus grandis, 261

quadrigibbus, 634
signatus, 456
Ants and plant-lice, 165, 444
Apanteles congregatus, 234
Ajjhides, plum, 662
Aphidida, 147, 150, 164, 211, 241,
275, 317, 330, 383, 441, 484, 492,
582, 597, 602, 604, 606, 655, 658,
662, 664, 665, 666
Aphidius avenaphis, 19, 149

spp., 325
Aphis, apple, 597

bakeri, 606, 607

bean, 317

brassies, 371

burr-clover, 241

cabbage, 371

clover, 606

corn root-, 164

currant, 474

Enghsh grain, 147

fitchii, 604

forbesi, 441

German grain, 148

gossypii, 241, 3S3

grass root-, 167

hop, 275

maidi-radicis, 164

maidis, 170

medicaginis, 241

melon, 241, 383

pea, 322

persicae-niger, 655

pomi, 597, 607

prunifolia>, 662

pyri, 602

671

672

INDEX

Aphis, rumicis, 317
setarisp, GOo
sorbi, 002

spinage or ^repn-peach, 375,
. 658

spring grain, 150
Apparatus, dusting, 77

spraying, 60
Apple aphis, 579

woolly, 582
rosy, 602
curt'ulio, 634
insects, 582
leaf-miner, 616
maggot, 632
plant-lice, 597
tree-borer, flat-headed, 591

round-headed, 588
worm, 624

lesser, 628
Arachnida, 636
Arctiida;, 247, 553
Argus tortoise-beetle, 436
Army worm, 3, 114

beet, 334
fall, 118
Arsenate of lead, 43
Arsenicals, harmlessness of, 47
Arsenite of lead, 44
Arsenite of lime, 45
Asaphes decoloratus, 83
Asparagus beetle, 424

twelve-spotted, 427
miner, 428
Aspidiotus perniciosus, 538
Atomizers, 60
Aulacizes irrorata, 250
Autographa brassica^, 361

Ball, E. D., 339
Baltimore oriole, 307
Banded flea-beetle, 402
Bark-beetle, fruit-tree, 544, 653

peach-tree, 653
Barred-winged onion maggot, 423
Bean-aphis, 317
Bean insects, 305

Bean ladybird, 315

leaf-beetle, 313

-weevil, 309

European, 313
four-spotted, 312
Bee-fhes, 106
Beet-aphis, 330

army worm, 334

leaf -beetle, larger, 337

leaf-hopj)er, 339

leaf-miner, 345

root-aphis, 331
Bembecia marginata, 459
Bill-bugs, 175

maize, 178
Bishopp, F. C, 254
Blackberry gallmaker, 468
Blackbird, crow, 307
Black cherry-louse, 666
Black-legged tortoise-beetle, 434
Black peach-aphis, 655
Black swallow-tail butterfly, 411
Blissus leucopterus, 89
Blister-beetle, ash-gray, 316
Nuttall's, 317
striped, 343
Bhster-beetles, 107, 301, 315, 343
Blister-mite, pear-leaf, 636.
Blood, of insects, 30
Boll weevil, cotton, 261
BoUworm, cotton, 181, 254
Bordeaux mixture, 56
Borer, cotton-square, 248
hop-plant, 273
peach, 645
Brachymena 4-pustulata, 25
Braconida;, 18, 149, 374, 385, 557
Bracon mellitor, 270
Bran-mash, poisoned, 47
Breathing, of insects, 28
Britton, W. E., 570, 572, 573, 602,

621, 623
Brooks, F. E., 497, 509, 511, 534, 537,

634
Brown-tail moth, 5, 558
Bruchida;, 305, 309 ■
Bruchophagus funebris, 214

INDEX

673

Bruchus chineiusis, 311

obtectus, 309

pisoruni, 305

quadriniacuhitus, 312

rufimanus, 313
Brues, C. T., 241, 254
Bruner, L., 449
Bryobia pratensis, 209
Buhach, 55
Bud-moth, 621
Bud-worm, 159, 1(31, 172, 234

tobacco, 181
Buffalo tree-hopper, 547
Buprestida*, 466, 591
Burr-clover aphis, 241
Burning, for insects, 38
Byturu.s unicolor, 474

Cabbage-aphis, 371

-bug, harlequin, 36.S

butterfly, southern, 360

curculio, 377

flea-beetle, western, 375

insects, 37

looper, 361

maggot, 34, 347

plutella, 366

web worm, imported, 365
-worm, cross-striped, 363

-worm, imported, 355
Cadelle, 1S8
Calandra granaria, 186

oryzie, 186
Calandridff, 175, 186
Calosoma calidum, 15

scrutator, 16
Calico-back, 368
C'alifornia peach-tree borer, 645
Calocoris rapidus, 251
Camnula pellucida, 99
Cane-borer, grape, 513

raspberry, 462
red-necked, 466
Canker-worm, fall, 572

spring, 570
Cantharis nuttalli, 317
Capsidaj, 226, 251, 404, 481

Carabida', 14
Carbon bisulfid, 57
Carrot beetle, 414

rust-fly, 415
Case-bearer, cigar, 618
pistol, 618
Cassida bivittata, 433
nigripes, 434
Cassidae, 432

Caterpillar, apple, red-humped, 615
yellow-necked, 613
celery, 411
clover-seed, 216
hog, grape-vine, 528
salt-marsh, 247
tent, 608

white-lined sphinx, 247
woolly-bear, 247
Cathartus ad vena, 188

gemellatus, 188
Cattle, tick, 6
Cecidomyidi¥, 123, 145, 212
Celery caterpillar, 411
leaf-tyer, 409
looper, 413
Cephida?, 129
Cephus occidentalis, 130

pygma>us, 129
Cerambycida>, 462, 588
Cereals, insect injury to, 2
Ceratoma trifurcata, 313
Ceresa bubalus, 547
Ceutorhinchus rapae, 377
Chalcid, clover-seed, 214
Chalcididaj, 136, 138, 214
Chalcis flies, 19, 545
Cha^tocnema confinis, 430
Chatopsis lenea, 423
Chelymori)ha argus, 436
('herry fruit-fly, 667
Chinch-bug, 2, 37, 89
false, 339
Chionaspis furfura, 595, 596
Chiropachis colon, 545
Chitin, 23

Chittenden. F. H., 129, 178, 186, 197
258, 261, 291, 305, 307, 320, 322,

674

INDEX

Chittenden, F. H. — Cuntmued

330, 335, 338, 345, 347, 355, 361,
363, 365, 368, 378, 379, 383, 388,
391, 402, 408, 413, 415, 418, 424,
428, 456, 478, 544, 588, 658, 667
Chloridea virescens, 234
Chrysalis, 24

Chrysobothris femorata, 591
Chrysomelidaj, 157, 158, 222, 291,
303, 313, 335, 337, 375, 379, 402,
424, 427, 430, 448, 501, 515
Chrysopid«, 325, 385
Cicada, mouth-parts, 28
periodical, 548
septendecim, 548
Cicadidse, 548
Cigar case-bearer, 618
Cigarette beetle, 239
Clarke, W. T., 289, 650, 664
Clover-aphis, 606

-hay worm, 219
insects, 200
leaf-weevil, 203
mite, 209
root-borer, 200
-seed chalcid, 214
midge, 212
caterpillar, 210
stem-borer, 202
Coccid*, 538, 592, 595, 654
Coccinella novemnotata, 9, 385
Coccinellid*, 9, 315, 325, 385, 391
Cocoon, 24

Coccotorus scutellaris, 661
Codling moth, 4, 624
Coelinus meromyzae, 135
Colaspis bnmnea, 448
Coleojilioia fietcherella, 618
malivorella, 618
('olorado potato-beetle, 291
Comma butterfly, 283
Compressed-air sprayers, 62
Comstock, J. H., 129, 438, 462, 464,

539
Conotrachelus nenuphar, 576
Conradi, A. F., 165, 388, 440
Cook, A. J., 133

Cooley, R. A., 596
Coptocycla bicolor, 435

signifera, 436
Coquillet, D. W., 113, 570, 572
Coreida;, 252, 388
Corn ear-worm, 2, 181, 235
-field, ant, 168
insect injury to, 2
insects, 157
leaf -aphis, 170
-root aphis, 164, 170
webworm, 161
root-worm, southern, 158
western, 157
stalk-borer, 37

larger, 172, 181
Cory, E. N., 654
Cotton-boll cutworm, 258

boll weevil, 3, 34, 37, 261
bollworm, 3, 40, 181, 254
insect injury to, 3
insects, 241
leaf-bug, 251
-hoppers, 250
-worm, 4, 243
square-borer, 248
stainer, 253
worm, 243
Cowpea weevil, 311
Crambida?, 161, 172, 224
Crambus ealiginosellus, 161, 224
Crandall, C. S., 576, 634
Crane-flies, 121
Craponius insequalis, 534
Crested flycatcher, 501
Criddle mixture, 113
Crioceris asparagi, 424

duodecimpunctata, 427
Cross-striped cabbage- worm, 363
Crown-borer, strawberry, 447
Cucujids, 187

Cucumber beetle, striped, 159, 379
Culture, 35
Curculio, apple, 634

cabbage, 377
grape, 534
plum, 576

INDEX

675

Curculio, rhubarb, 408
Curculionida', 203, 20r), 261, 28.5, 377,
438, 447, 45(5, 509, 511, 534, 57C.,
634, 661
Currant-aphis, 484

borer, imported, 477
-fly, 490
span-worm, 488
steni-girdler, 478
worm, imported, 486
native, 487
Cutworm, bronzed, 86

cotton-boll, 258,
dark-sided, 85
dingy, 87
glassy, 88
granulated, 88
greasy, 85
well-marked, 87
Cutworms, 84, 332
Cydia ])onionella, 624
Cylas formicarius, 438
Cy'iiiitomorplui ribcria, 488
Cynipidtr, 468

Dasyneura legiuninicola, 212
Datana ministra, 613
Davis, G. C, 342

J. J., 164
Dean, Ceo. A., 199
Deilephila lineata, 247, 528
Depressaria heraeliana, 417
Dermestida;, 474
Desmia funeralis, 523
Diabrotioa longieornis, 157, 159, KiO

duodecimpunctata, 158

vittata, 303, 379
Diamond-back moth, 366
Diaphania hyalinita, 400

nitidalis, 397
Diastrophus nebulosus, 468
Diatraea zeacolella, 172, 181
Dicyphus minimus, 226
Dictyophorus reticulatus, 101
Diplosis tritici, 145
Disonycha triangularis, 335

xanthomelaena, 335

Doane, W. R., 330
Dodge, C. R., 373
Dolerus arvensis, 143
Drasterius elegans, 82
Drone-fly, 13
Dusting ai)paratus, 77
arsenicals, 44
Dyar, H. G., 557
Dysdercus suturellus, 253

Ear-worm, corn, ISl, 235

Elachistida^, 618

Elaterida;, 81

Eliot, Ida M., 525

Empusa aphidis, 325

Enarmonia interstinctana, 216
prunivora, 628

English grain-louse, 147

Ephestia kuehniella, 190

Epicauta^ennsylvanica, 344
vittata, 107, 343

Ei)ida])us scabies, 300

Epihiclma borealis, 391

varivestis, 315

Epitrix cucumeris, 296
fuscula, 296, 299
parvula, 222, 298, 299

Epochra canadensis, 490

Eriocam])oides limacina, 642

Eriophyes jiyri, 636

Eriojihyidtp, 636

Eristalis tenax, 13

Erotylidie, 202

Estigmene acraea, 247

Eidecanium nigrofasciatum, 654

Euproctis chrysorrhea, 558

European grain-aphis, 604

Euschistus i)unctipes, 225
variolarius, 225

Eutettix tenella, 339

Euthrips nicotaniae, 240

Evergestis rimosalis, 363

Exorista flavicauda, 107
leucanise, 107

Extension rods, 74

Fall armyworm, 118, 247

676

INDEX

Fall cankerworin, 572
web worm, 553

False chinch-bug, 339

Farm methods for insect control, 32

Felt, E. P., 501, 588, 608

Feltia subgothica, 87

Fernald, C. H., 563
H. T., 83

Fertilization, 35

Fidia cana, 503

viticida, 501

Fire-bug, 368

Fiske, W. F., 611

Fitch, Asa, 132, 146, 318, 320

Flat-headed apple-tree borer, 591

Flea-beetl*, 34, 335, 375
banded, 402
cucumber, 296
eggplant, 299
grapevine, 515
pale-striped, 402
l)Otato, 296
southern potato, 296
spinach, 335
sweet-potato, 430
tobacco, 222, 296, 299
wavy-striped, 375
western cabbage, 375

Flesh-fly, 107

Fletcher, James, 129, 133, 307, 329

Flour moths, 189

moth, Mediterranean, 189

Folsom, J. W., 200, 205, 214, 217, 322

Forbes, S. A., 79, 123, 157, 164, 169,
170, 175, 177, 330, 335, 402, 413,
441, 447, 576

Forbush, E. H., 563

Foreign grain-beetle, 188

Forest insects, 5

Foster, S. W., 628

Four-lined leaf-bug, 481

Fruit-fly, cherry, 667

Fruits, insect injury to, 4

Fruit-tree bark-beetle, 544, 653

Fruit-worm, tomato, 181

Fungus, grasshopper, 112
pea-aphis, 325

Clall-niaker, grape-cane, 509
blackberrj^, 468
Garden webworm, 247, 406
Garman, H., 135, 225, 296, 301, 347,

367, 447
Gases, 42, 57
Geleehiida;, 192, 650
Geometrida?, 488, 570, 572
German grain-aphis, 148
Gillette, C. P., 47, 315, 338, 383, 582

597, 602, 606, 655, 658, 660, 666
Girault, A. A., 645
Girdler, gi-ape-cane, 511
Gipsy moth, 5, 563
Glassy-winged sharpshooter, 249
Goff, W. H., 352
Goldbugs, 432
Golden tortoise-beetle, 435
Good, James, 47
Goodwin, W. H., 474
Gossard, H. A., 137, 218, 530, 546
Gouger, plum, 661
Graphops pubescens, 448
Grain-aphis, European, 604
German, 148
-beetles, 187

foreign, 188

red, or square-necked,

188
saw-toothed, 187
-moth, Angumois, 192
Sphenophorus, 175
Grains, small, insects of, 121
stored, insects of, 186
Grain weevils, 186
Granary, 196

weevil, 186
Grape-berry moth, 530
cane-borer, 513

gall-maker, 509
girdler, 511
ciu'culio, 534
leaf-folder, 523

-hopper, 520
root-worm, 501

imported, 504
-vine flea-beetle, 515

INDEX

677

Grape-vine hog-caterpillar, 528
phylloxera, 492
root-borer, 497
Grasshoppers, 93. See Locusts.

southern lubber, 101
Grass moths, 162

root-louse, 167
Gray hair-streak butterfly, 319
Green-bug, 150
Greenhouse louf-tyer, 409
Green peaoh-aphi.s, 375, 658

soldier-bug, 252
Ground-beetles, 14, 117
fiery, 15
murky, 16, 295
Gryllid*, 464
Gymnonychus aj)pendifulatus, 487

Hadena devastatrix, 88

Haltica chalybea, 515

Hammar, A. G., 501, 618

Harlequin cabbage-bug, 40, 368

Harpalus caliginosus, 16, 295

Harpiphorus maculatus, 450

Hart, C. A., 330, 413

Hartzell, F. Z., 492, 501

Harvey, F. L., 490, 632

Hawk-moth larva^, 525

Hay, insect injury to, 3

Headlee, T. J., 379

Heart, 30

Hehothis obsoleta, 24, 181, 234, 254

Hellebore, 47

Hellula undalis, 365

Herrick, G. W., 371

Hessian fly, 2, 34, 40, 123

Hinds, W. E., 198, 241, 261, 268

Hippodamia convergens, 10, 296,

385
Hodgkiss, H. E., 547, 636
Homalodisca triquetra, 249
Honey-bee, 22
Hooker, W. A., 240
Hopkins, A. D., 5, 300, 548
Hop insects, 274

louse, 275, 664

merchants, 280

Hopperdozers, 109
Hop-plant borer, 273

plant-louse, 275, 664
-vine snout-moth, 279
Hornblowers, 230
Hornworms, 228
Hose, 75

Houghton, C. O., 464, 616
Houser, J. S., 136, 530
Howard, L. ()., 112, 175, 222, 234,

239, 273, 558, 563
Hubbard, H. G., 246
Hungate, J. W., 371
Hunter, S. J., 155
Hunter, W. D., 3, 94, 198, 241, 261,

266, 662
Hyalopterus arundinis, 662
Hydrocyanic-acid gas, 57
Hydroecia immanis, 273
Hylastinus obscurus, 200
Hypena humuli, 279
rostralis, 280
Hyphantria cunea, 553
textor, 557
Hypsopygia costalis, 219

Ichneumon-flies, 17, 616
Ichneumonida>, 17, 616
Imported cabbage web worm, 365
currant-borer, 477
worm, 486
grape root-worm, 504
onion maggot, 420
Indian-meal moth, 191
Injury by insects, 1
Insecticides, 42

contact, 42, 48
poisons or arsenicals, 42
Isosoma grande, 138
tritici, 136

Janus integer, 478
Jarvis, C. D., 616
Jassida;, 249, 520
Jenne, E. L., 624
Johnson, Fred, 501, 518

W. G., 58, 190, 224, 326

678

INDEX

Jones, C. R., 254
Jones, P. R., B28

Kedzie formula, 44
Kelly, E. O. G., 178
Kerosene, 49

emulsion, 48

Lachnostorna, 79, 41")

arcuata, 80
Ladybird beetle, 9, 543
bean, 315

convergent, 10, 29G
nine-spotted, 9
spotted, 11
squash, 391
two-spotted, 10
Languria mozardi, 202
Laphygma exigua, 334

frugiperda, 118
Larger cornstalk-borer, 172, 181
Larva, 23
Lasiocampidae, 608
Lasioderma serricorne, 239
Lasius niger americanus, 165, 168
Lawrence, W. H., 459, 469
Leaf -aphis, corn, 170
Leaf-beetle, bean, 313

three-lined, 303
Leaf-bug, cotton, 251

four-lined, 481
Leaf-folder, grape, 523
-hopper, grape, 520
cotton, 250
-miner, apple, 616

tobacco, 237
-roller, strawberry, 452
"tyer, celery or greenhouse, 409
-weevil, clover, 203
L(>at her jackets, 171
Lebia grandis, 16
Lema trilineata, 303
Lepidosaphes ulmi, 592
Leptinotarsa decemUneata, 291
Leptoglossus oppositus, 252
Lesser apple-worm, 628
peach borer, 645
Leucania unipuncta, 114

Ligyrus gibbosus, 414

Lime-sulfur wash, boiled, 50

home-made con-
centrated, 51
* self-boiled, 53

Limneria fugitiva, 616

oedemasiae, 616

Lindeman, 420

Liparidse, 558, 563

Live-stock, insect injury to, 6

Lixus concavus, 408

Locust, American acridium, 99

California devastating, 99
differential, 99, 100
lesser migi-atory, 98
migiatory, 93
pellucid, 99
red-legged, 98, 99
Rocky mountain, 93
seventeen-year, 548
two-striped, 99
see also gi-asshoppers.

London purple, 43

Lowe, V. H., 472, 484, 608, 618

Loxostege similaUs, 247, 406
sticticalis, 332

Lugger, O., 293, 321, 477, 486, 525

Lyca?nid», 248, 319

Lydella doryphorae, 294

Lygaeidse, 89

Lygus pratensis, 339, 404

Lygocerus stigmatus, 445

Lysiphlebus testaceipes, 154, 385, 445

Macrobasis unicolor, 316, 343
Macrodactylus subspinosus, 518
Macrosiphum cerealis, 147
granaria, 147
pisi, 211, 322
Maize bill-bug, 178
Malacasoma americana, 608
Mally, F. W., 418, 451
Mandibles, 27
Marlatt, C. L., 1, 7, 121, 143, 209,

486, 492, 513, 538, 540, 547. 582,

639, 642, 650
Maxilla;, 27

INDEX

679

Miiyotiola destructor, 123

Meadow-maggots, 121

Meal snout-moth, 192

Mealy plum-louse, 662

Measuring worms, 570

Mediterranean flour-moth, ISO

MegiUa macuhita, 11, 385

Melanophis atlantis, 98

bivittatus, 99
devastator, 99
different iahs, 99, 100
femur-rubrum, 98
spretus, 93

Melanotus communis, 83
cribulosus, 82

Melittia satjn-iniformis, 393

Meloida^, 301, 316, 343

Melon-aphis, 241, 383

Melon caterpillar, 400

Membracidae, 547

Memythrus polistiformis, 497

Meromyza americana, 132

Metamorphosis, complete, 23
incomplete, 26

Meteorus hyphantriae, 556, 557.

Mexican cotton boll weevil, 261

Microgaster, 18

Microweisea misella, 543

Midge, clover-seed, 212

Migratory locust, 93

Miscible oils, 50

Mite, locust, 105, 106

Monophadnus rubi, 472

Monostegia ignota, 451

Monoxia puncticollis, 337

Morgan, A. C, 222

H. A., 101, 112

Morrill, A. W., 252

Mottled tortoise-beetle, 436

Mouth-parts, biting, 27

of plant-louse, 29
sucking, 28

Murgantia histrionica, 368

Myiarchus crinitus, 501

Myzus cerasi, 666

persicip, 374, 658
ribis, 484

Native currant worm, 487
Nei)helodes minians, 86
Newell, Wilmon, 269, 272
Nezara hilaris, 252
Noctua clandestina, 87
Noctuidse, 84, 114, 118, 181, 234,
243, 254, 258, 279, 287, 334, 361,
413, 613, 615
Nozzles, 72

Bordeaux, 74

disk, 73

Vermorel, 72
Nymph, 26, 550
Nymphahda?, 280, 283
Nysius angustatus, 339

Oberea bimaculata, 462
CEcanthus niveus, 464
Oil-and-water spray, 49
O'Kane, W. C, 632
Oncometopia lateralis, 250
undata, 250
Onion-maggot, barred-winged, 423

imported, 420

thrips, 418
Ophion macrurum, 18
Orchard fruits, insects of, 538
Osborn, H., 218, 318, 418
Oscinis variabilis, 134
Ox-warble, 6
Oyster-shell scale, 592

Pachynematus extensicornis, 143
Pachyrrhinis spp., 121
Packard, A. S., 613, 615
Paleacrita vernata, 570
Pale-striped flea-beetle, 402
Pandorus sphinx, 527
Papaipema nitella, 287
Papilionidae, 411
Papilio polyxenes, 411
Parasites, insect, 17
Paris green, 43
Parrott, P. J., 636
Parsnip webworm, 417
Pea-aphis, 34, 211, 322
insects, 305

680

INDEX

rca-inolli. 328

-weevil, 305
Peach-aphis, black, 655
green, 658
borer, 645

lesser, 645
lecanium, 654
-tree bark-beetles, 653

borer, California, 645
twig-borer, 650
Pear insects, 582

-leaf blister-mite, 636
psylla, 639
slug, 642
Pegorayia brassicse, 347
ceparum, 420
fuscioeps, 320
vicina, 345
Pemphigiiis betir, 330
Pentatoniidte, 225, 252, 368
Pergande, Th., 147, 418, 604
Peridromia saucia, 85
Periodical cicada, 548
Persian insect powder, 55
Petroleum, crude, 40
Pettit, R. H., 423
Phla'otribus liminaris, 653
Phelegethontius quinquemaculata,
228
sexta, 228
Phlycttenia rubigalis, 409
Pholus achemon, 526
pandorns, 527
Phorbia rubivora, 469
Phorodon hunmli, 275, 664
Phthorim;e operculclla, 237, 289
Pliyllotreta pusilla, 375
sinuata, 375
Phyllotreta vittata, 335, 375
Phylloxera vastatrix, 492
Physapoda, 418
Phytonomus murinus, 205

punctatus, 203
Pickle-worm, 397
Pierce, W. D., 268
Pieridaj, 355, 360, 361
Pimpla conquisitor, 243, 246

Piinpla inquisitor, 17
Piper, C. v., 651
Pipiza radicans, 14
Pistol case-bearer, 618
Plant-bugs, 252

tarnished, 339
Planting, time of, 34
Plant-lice, 241, see aphides and aphis.

apple, 597
Plant-louse, hop, 664

mouth-parts, 29
Plodia interpunctella, 190
Plowing, late fall, 38
Plum aphides, 662
curcuho, 576
gouger, 661
louse, mealy, 662

rusty-brown, 665
Plusia simplex, 413
Plutella maculipennis, 366
Podisus spinosus, 293

spp., 611
PcEcilocapsus hneatus, 481
Poisons, 42

Polychrosis viteana, 530
Polygonia comma, 281

interrogationis, 280
Pontia napi, 361

protodice, 360
rapa^, 355
Poi)enoe, E. A., 311
C. H., 371
Porthetria dispai-, 563
Potato insects, 285

beetle, Colorado, 291
scab and insects, 300

-gnat, 300
stalk-borer, 285
tuber-worm, 289
Potherb butterfly, 361
Proctotrypidse, 19
Prodenia ornithogalli, 258
Psila rosae, 415
Psylla, pear, 639
Psylla pyricola, 639
Pteronus ribesii, 486
Ptinidse, 239, 513

INDEX

681

I'uiiips, barrel. (i;{

bucket, (iO

horizontal, 67

knai)sack, 01

power outfits. (iO

see also sprayers.
Pupa, 24
Pu])arium, 2')
IVralidida', 190, 191, 192, 219, 247,

363, 365, 409, ry23
Pyralis farinalis, 191
Pyraustidae, 332, 397, 400, 40ti
Pyrethrum, 55
P>Trhocorida>, 253

Quaintanee, A. L., 78, 228, 236, 241,
254, 379, 397, 400, 418, 441, 492,
501, 523, 570, 576, 578, 592, 595,
597, 608, 616, 624, 628, 632, 645,
650, 652, 655

Quayle, H. J., 492

Railroad worm, 632
Raspberry insects, 459

Byturus, 474

cane-borer, 462
-maggot, 469

root-borer, 459

.saw-fly, 472
Red-bug, 253

Red-humjied apiil(>-caterpillar, 615
Red-necked cane-borer, 466
Red- or square-necked grain-beetle,

188
Reeves, G. I., 139
Repellants, 42, 56
Resin-soap sticker, 46
Respiration of insects, 28
Rhagoletis cingulata, 667

pomonella, 632
Rhopalosiphum dianthi, 658

ribis, 484
Rhubarb eurculio, 408
Rice-weevil, 186

Riley, C. V., 94, 143, 277, 285,
294, 371, 375, 406, 417, 437, 452,
664

Roberts, 1. P., 128
Root -aphis, beet, 331
Root -borer, clover, 200

grapevine, 497

raspberry, 459

sweet-potato, 438
Root-louse, strawberry, 441
Root maggots, 41
Root -worm, grape, 501

strawberry, 448
Rose bugs, 518
Rose-chafer, 518
Rosy apple-aphis, 602
Rotation of crops, 33
Round-headed apple-tree borer, 588
Rustj'-brown plum-louse, 655

Salt-marsh caterpillar, 247
Sanborn, C. E., 387, 665
Sanders, J. G., 654
Sanderson, E. D., 241, 320, 322, 406,
430, 441, 558, 563, 597, 602, 613,
615, 624
San Jose scale, 4, 48, 538
Sanninoidea exitiosa, 645

opalescens, 645
Saperda Candida, 588
Sarcophaga carnaria, 107
Saw-fly, raspberry, 472
strawberry, 450
sweet-potato, 437
western grass-stem, 130
wheat, 142
Saw-toothed grain-beetle, 187
Scale, oyster-shell, 592
San Jose, 538
scurfy, 595
terrapin, 654
Scarabseidae, 79, 415, 518
Schistocerca americana, 27, 99
Schizocerus ebenus, 437

privatus, 438
Schizoneura lanigera, 582
panicola, 167
Schizura concinna, 616
Shoene, W. J., 347, 636
Sciara, spp., 300

682

INDEX

Scolytidse, 200, 544, 653
Scolytus rugulosus, 544
Scott, W. M., 54, 365
Screw-worm fly, 6
Scurfy scale, 595
Seed-corn maggot, 320
Semasia nigricana, 328
Semicolon butterfly, 280
Sesiidse, 393, 459, 477, 497, 645
Seventeen-year locust, 548
Silvanus surinamensis, 187
Simpson, C. B., 624
Siphocoryne avenge, 604, 607
Sirrine, F. A., 318, 361, 373, 418, 428
Sitotroga cerealella, 192
Sharpshooters, 248

glassy- winged, 249
Sherman, Franklin, 374
Slingerland, M. V., 128, 347, 409,
422, 462, 464, 469, 478, 481, 501,
515, 520, 530, 618, 621, 639, 641,
645, 667
Smith, J. B., 164, 195, 274, 282, 289,
347, 379, 391, 430, 441, 452, 454,
456, 459, 460, 466, 518, 597, 645
Smith, R. I., 198, 368, 379, 397. 400,

582
Snout-moths, 162

hop-vine, 279
meal, 192
Snout-weevil, 175
Snowy tree-cricket, 464
Soap, whale-oil, 50
Soldier-bugs, 61 1

green, 252
Solenopsis geminata, 269
Soule, Carolin M., 525
Southern grain-louse, 2, 150
Sphecodina abbottii, 530
Sphecius speciosus, 553
Sphenophorus, 175,

cariosus, 178
maidis, 178
obscurus, 175
ochreus, 178
parvulus, 175
pertinax, 178

Sphenophorus, placidus, 178
robustus, 178
scoparius, 178
sculptilis, 178
Sphingida;, 228, 247, 525
Sphinx, Abbott's, 530
achemon, 526
pandoras, 527
white-Hned, 528
Spinach-aphis, 375

flea-beetle, 335
leaf-miner, 345
Spined tobacco bug, 225
Spiracle, 30
Split-w^rm, 237
Sprayers, see pumps.

compressed-air, 62
gas, 70
traction, 69
Spray rods, 74
Spring cankerworm, 570
grain-aphis, 150
Squash-bug, 388

ladybird, 391
-vine borer, 393
Stalk-borer, 287

potato, 285
-worm, tobacco, 224
Starnes, H. N., 645, 650
Stedman, J. M., 404, 450, 576
Stem-borer, clover, 202
Stigmata, 30
Stink-bugs, 252
Stone, J. L., 128

Stored products, insect injury to, 6
Strainers, 77

Strawberry crown-borer, 447
insects, 441
leaf-roller, 452
root-louse, 441

-worms, 448
saw-fly, 450
weevil, 456
Striped cucumber beetle, 379
Structure of insects, 22
Suck-fly, 226
Sugar-beet weVjworm 332

INDEX

683

Sulfur, .■)!

dioxid, 58
Swallow-tail butterfly, black, 411
Swcot-potalo beetle, two-striped, 433
flea-beellc, 430
root -borer, 438
saw-flies, 437
Symons, T. B., (i54
Synanthedon i)ietipes, G45
Syrphidse, 12, 325
Syrphus americanus, 14
flies, 12, 14
ribesii, 13
Systena blauda, 402

hudsonias, 335
tffiniata, 335, 402
Sj'stoechus oreas, 106

Tachina flies, 107, 117
Tanglefoot, 56

Tarnished plant-bug, 337, 404
Taylor, E. P., 405, 576, 582, 597, 602,

652, 658, 660, 665
Tenebroides mauritanicus, 188
Tent caterpillar, 608
Tenthredinida?, 143, 437, 450, 472,

478, 486, 487, 642
Terrapin-bug, 368

scale, 654
Tetranychida;, 209
Three-Hned leaf-beetle, 303
Thrips tabaci, 418
Thysanoptera, 418
Tineidse, 237, 616
Tipula bicornis, 121
costalis, 121
hebes, 122
Tipulidse, 121
Tischeria malifoliella, 616
Titus, E. G., 205, 208
Tmetocera ocellana, 621
Tobacco, as insecticide, 65

bug, spined, 225

Ij^dworm, 181
- flea-beetle, 222, 296, 299

fvunigation, 58

insect injury to, 4

Tobacco, insects, 222

leaf-miner, 237

stalk-worm, 224

thrips, 240

worms, 228
Tomatoes, insects of, 285
Tomato fruit-worm, 181, 304, see-

bollworni .
Tomato-worm, 304, sec tobacco

worms.
Tortoise-beetles, 432

argus, 436
black-legged, 434
golden, 435
mottled, 436
Tortricida?, 328, 452, 530,[621, 624, 628
Towers for spraying, 77
Toxoptera graminum, 150
Tracheal system, 29
Trap crops, 40
Tree-cricket, snowy, 464
Tree-hopper, buffalo, 547
Trichobaris trinotata, 285
Trogositidse, 188

Trichogramma pretiosa, 244, 254
Trombidium locustarum, 105
Trouvelot, Leopold, 564
Tryi^etida;, 490, 632, 657
Tuber-worm, potato, 289
Twelve-spotted asparagus beetle, 427
Twig-borer, peach, 650
Tychea brevicornis, 331
Tyloderma fragraria>, 447
Typhlocyba comes, 520
Typophorus canellus, 448

Uranotes mellinus, 248, 319

Volunteer plants, 35

Washburn, F. L., 113, 148, 190, 289,

347
Wavy-striped flea-beetle, 375
Webster, F. M., 2, 41, 89, 126, 129,
130, 133, 136, 138, 139, 143, 145,
147, 155, 157, 164, 169, 202, 205,
208, 459, 463, 466, 509, 606

684

IxNDEX

Webster, R. L., 323, 596
Web worm- corn-root, 161
fall, 553

garden, 247, 406
imported cabbage, 365
sugar-beet, 332
Weed, C. M., 371, 388, 666
Weeds, 34
Weevil, 186

alfalfa, 205
destruction of, 197
Mexican cotton boll, 261
strawberry, 456
Western corn root-worm, 2, 33
grass-stem saw-fly, 130
Whaleoil soap, 50
Wheat joint-worm, 37, 136

>\'heat maggots, 132

midge, 145

saw-flies, 142

saw-fly borer, 129
-stem maggot, 132

straw-worm, 138
White grubs, 79, 332
White-lined sphinx, 247, 528
Wilson, H. F., 653
Winthemia 4-pustulata, 117
Wireworms, 81, 332
Woglum, R. S., 543
Woolly apple aphis, 582
Woolly-bear caterpillar, 247
Woodworth, C. W., 543, 645

Ycllow-neckcd apple-caterpillar, 613

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Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis 8vo, 83 00 .

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Frei tag's Architectural Engineering 8vo,

French and Ives's Stereotomy 8vo,

Gilbert, Wightman, and Saunders's Subways and Tunnels of New York.

(In Press.)

* Hauch and Rics's Tables of Quantities for Preliminary Estimates.. . 12mo,

Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy 8vo,

Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors.) 16mo, mor.

Hosmer's Azimuth 16mo, mor.

* Text-book on Practical Astronomy 8vo,

Howe's Retaining Walls for Earth 12mo,

* Ives's Adjustments of the Engineer's Transit and Level 16mo, bds.

Ives and Hilts's Problems in Surveying, Railroad Surveying and Geod-
esy 16mo, mor.

* Johnson (J.B.) and Smith's Theory and Practice of Surveying. Large 12mo,
Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods 8vo,

* Kinnicutt, Winslow and Pratt's Sewage Disposal 8vo,

* Mahan's Descriptive Geometry 8vo,

Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy 8vo,

Merriman and Brooks's Handbook for Surveyors 16mo, mor.

Nugent's Plane Surveying 8vo,

Ogden's Sewer Construction 8vo,

Sewer Design 12mo,

Parsons's Disposal of Municipal Refuse 8vo,

Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering 8vo, half leather,

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Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, $5 00

Riemer's Shaft-sinking under Difficult Conditions. (Corning and PeeIe.).8vo. 3 00

Siebert and Biggin's Modem Stone-cutting and Masonry 8vo, 1 50

Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) 8vo, 2 50

Soper's Air and Ventilation of Subways 12mo, 2 50

* Tracy's Exercises in Surveying 12mo, mor. 1 00

Tracy's Plane Surveying 16mo, mor. 3 00

Venable's Garbage Crematories in America 8vo, 2 00

Methods and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sewage 8vo, 3 00

■Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 00

Sheep, 6 50

Law of Contracts 8vo, 3 00

■^aw of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and

Architecture 8vo, 5 00

Sheep, 5 50

Warren's Stereotomy — Problems in Stone-cutting 8vo, 2 50

* Waterbury's Vest-Pocket Hand-book of Mathematics for Engineers.

2i X5| inches, mor. 1 00

* Enlarged Edition, Including Tables mor. 1 50

Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments.

16mo, mor. 1 25

Wilson's Topographic Surveying 8vo, 3 50

BRIDGES AND ROOFS.

Boiler's Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron Highway Bridges.. 8vo,

* Thames River Bridge Oblong paper.

Burr and Falk's Design and Construction of Metallic Bridges 8vo,

Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof Computations 8vo,

Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. II Sma 4to ,

Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges 4to,

Fowler's Ordinary Foundations 8vo,

Greene's Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone 8vo,

Bridge Trusses 8vo,

Roof Trusses 8vo,

Grimm's Secondary Stresses in Bridge Trusses 8vo,

Heller's Stresses in Structures and the Accompanying Deformations.. . .8vo,

Howe's Design of Simple Roof-trusses in Wood and Steel 8vo.

Symmetrical Masonry Arches 8vo,

Treatise on Arches 8vo,

* Hudson's Deflections and Statically Indeterminate Stresses Small 4to,

* Plate Girder Design 8vo,

* Jacoby's Structural Details, or Elements of Design in Heavy Framing, 8vo,
Johnson, Bryan and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in the Designing of

Modem Framed Structures Small 4to, 10 00

* Johnson, Bryan and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in the Designing of

Modem Framed Structures. New Edition. Part 1 8vo, 3 00

* Part II. New Edition 8vo, 4 00

Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and Bridges:

Part I. Stresses in Simple Trusses 8vo. 2 50

Part II. Graphic Statics 8vo, 2 50

Part III. Bridge Design 8vo, 2 50

Part IV. Higher Structures 8vo, 2 50

Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and

Arches 8vo, 2 00

Waddell's De Pontibus, Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers 16mo, mor. 2 00

* Specifications for Steel Bridges 12mo, 50

V/addell and Harrington's Bridge Engineering. (In Preparation.)

HYDRAULICS.

Barnes's Ice Formation 8vo, 3 00

Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein Issuing from

an Orifice. (Trautwine.) 8vo, 2 00

Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 5 00

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Church's Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels.

Oblong 4to, paper, $1 50

Hydraulic Motors 8vo, 2 00

Mechanics of Fluids (Being Part IV of Mechanics of Engineering) . .Svo, 3 00

Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems ,.16mo, mor. 2 50

Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power 12mo, 3 00

Folwell's Water-supply Engineering Svo, 4 00

Frizell's Water-power 8vo, 5 00

Fuertes's Water and Public Health 12mo, 1 50

Water-filtration Works 12mo, 2 50

Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in

Rivers and Other Channels. (Hering and Trautwine.) Svo, 4 00

Hazen's Clean Water and How to Get It Large 12mo, 1 50

Filtration of Public Water-supplies Svo, 3 00

Hazelhurst's Towers and Tanks for Water-works Svo, 2 50

Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of Large, Riveted, Metal

Conduits Svo, 2 00

Hoyt and Grover's River Discharge Svo, 2 00

Hubbard and Kiersted's Water-works Management and Maintenance.

Svo, 4 00

* Lyndon's Development and Electrical Distribution of Water Power.

Svo, 3 00
Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Stand-
point.) Svo, 4 00

Merriman's Treatise on Hj'draulics Svo, 5 00

* Molitor's Hydraulics of Rivers, Weirs and Sluices Svo, 2 00

* Morrison and Brodie's High Masonry Dam Design Svo, 1 50

* Richards's Laboratory Notes on Industrial Water Analysis Svo, 50

Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and Domestic Water-
supply. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged Large Svo, 6 00

* Thomas and Watt's Improvement of Rivers 4to, 6 00

Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies Svo, 5 00

* Wegmann's Design and Construction of Dams. 6th Ed., enlarged 4to, 6 00

Water-Supply of the City of New York from 165S to 1895 4to, 10 00

Whipple's Value of Pure Water Large 12mo, 1 00

Williams and Hazen's Hydraulic Tables Svo, 1 50

Wilson's Irrigation Engineering Svo, 4 00

Wood's Turbines Svo, 2 50

MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.

Baker's Roads and Pavements Svo, 5 00

Treatise on Masonry Construction Svo, 5 00

Black's United States Public Works Oblong 4to, 5 00

Blanchard and Drowne's Highway Engineering. (In Press.)

Bleininger's Manufacture of Hydraulic Cement. (In Preparation.)

Bottler's Varnish Making. (Sabin.) (In Press.)

Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering Svo, 7 50

Byrne's Highway Construction Svo, 5 00

Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction.

16mo, 3 00

Church's Mechanics of Engineering Svo, 6 00

Mechanics of Solids (Being Parts I, II, III of Mechanics of Engineer-
ing Svo, 4 50

Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering.

Vol. I. Kinematics, Statics, Kinetics Small 4to, 7 50

Vol. II. The Stresses in Framed Structures, Strength of Materials and

Theory of Flexures Small 4to, 10 00

Eckel's Building Stones and Clays. (In Press.)

* Cements. Limes, and Plasters Svo, 6 00

Fowler's Ordinary Foundations Svo, 3 50

* Greene's Structural Mechanics Svo, 2 50

Holley's Analysis of Paint and Varnish Products. (In Press.)

* Lead and Zinc Pigments Large 12mo, 3 00

* Hubbard's Dust Preventives and Road Binders Svo, 3 00

Johnson's (C. M.) Rapid Methods for the Chemical Analysis of Special Steels.

Steel-making Alloys and Graphite Large 12mo,

Johnson's (J. B.) Materials of Construction Large Svo,

Keep's Cast Iron Svo,

Lanza's Applied Mechanics Svo,

Lowe's Paints for Steel Structures 12mo.

Maire's Modem Pigments and their Vehicles 12mo,

Maurer's Technical Mechanics Svo,

Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration Svo,

Merriman's Mechanics of Materials Svo,

* Strength of Materials 12mo,

Metcalf 's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users 12mo,

Morrison's Highway Engineering Svo,

* Murdock's Strength of Materials 12mo,

Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations Svo,

Rice's Concrete Block Manufacture Svo,

Richardson's Modem Asphalt Pavement Svo,

Richey's Building Foreman's Pocket Book and Ready Reference. 16mo, mor.

* Cement Workers' and Plasterers' Edition (Building Mechanics' Ready

Reference Series) 16mo, mor.

Handbook for Superintendents of Construction 16mo, mor.

* Stone and Brick Masons' Edition (Building Mechanics' Ready

Reference Series) 16mo, mor.

* Ries's Clays: Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses Svo,

* Ries and Leighton's History of the Clay-working Industry of the United

States ■ . . Svo.

Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paint and Varnish Svo,

* Smith's Strength of Material 12mo,

Snow's Principal Species of Wood Svo,

Spalding's Hydraulic Cement 12mo,

Text-book on Roads and Pavements 12mo,

* Taylor and Thompson's Extracts on Reinforced Concrete Design Svo,

Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced Svo,

Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts Svo,

Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy. . . .Svo,

Part II. Iron and Steel Svo,

Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their

Constituents Svo,

Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials Svo,

Tumeaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete Construction.

Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged Svo,

Waterbury's Cement Laboratory Manual 12mo,

Laboratory Manual for Testing Materials of Construction. (In Press.)'
Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and an Appendix on

the Preservation of Timber Svo, 2 00

Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and

Steel Svo, 4 00

RAILWAY ENGINEERING.

Andrews's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers 3X5 inches, mor.

Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads 4to,

Brooks's Handbook of Street Railroad Location 16mo, mor.

* Burt's Railway Station Service 12mo,

Butts's Civil Engineer's Field-book 16mo, mor.

Crandall's Railway and Other Earthwork Tables Svo,

Crandall and Barnes's Railroad Surveying 16mo, mor.

* Crockett's Methods for Earthwork Computations Svo,

Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad. (1S79) Paper,

Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard,

Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers' Guide. . 16mo, mor.
Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Em-

bankmen ts Svo,

Ives and Hilts's Problems in Surveying, Railroad Surveying and Geodesy

Ifimo, mor.
Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers 16mo,

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Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers 16mo, mor.

* Orrock's Railroad Structures and Estimates 8vo,

Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers 16mo, mor.

Raymond's Railroad Field Geometry 16mo, mor.

Elements of Railroad Engineering 8vo,

Railroad Engineer's Field Book. (In Preparation.)

Roberts' Track Formulse and Tables 16mo, mor.

Searles's Field Engineering 16mo, mor.

Railroad Spiral 16mo, mor.

Taylor's Prisnioidal Formulae and Earthwork 8 vo,

Webb's Economics of Railroad Construction Large 12mo,

Railroad Construction 16mo, mor.

Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways Large 12mo,

Wilson's Elements of Railroad-Track and Construction 12mo,

DRAWING

Barr and Wood's Kinematics of Machinery ... 8vo,

* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo,

* " " " Abridged Ed 8vo,

* Bartlett and Johnson's Engineering Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 1 50

Blessing and Darling's Descriptive Geometry. (In Press.)

Elements of Drawing. (In Press.)

Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper, 1 00

Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engi-
neers Oblong 4to,

Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo,

Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Application 8vo,

Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective 8vo,

Jamison's Advanced Mechanical Drawing •. 8vo,

Elements of Mechanical Drawing 8vo,

Jones's Machine Design:

Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo,

Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo,

* Kimball and Barr's Machine Design 8vo,

MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometry 8vo,

Kinematics ; or, Practical Mechanism 8 vo.

Mechanical Drawing 4to,

Velocity Diagrams 8vo,

McLeod's Descriptive Geometry Large 12mo,

*■ Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting 8vo,

Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 8vo,

Moyer's Descriptive Geometry Svo,

Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to,

* Reid's Mechanical Drawing. (Elementary and Advanced.) Svo,

Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. .8vo,

Robinson's Principles of Mechanism Svo,

Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism Svo,

Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design Svo,

Smith's (R. S.) Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) Svo,

* Titsworth's Elements of Mechanical Drawing Oblong Svo,

Tracy and North's Descriptive Geometry. (In Press.)

Warren's Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective. .Svo,

Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing Svo,

Elements of Plape and Solid Free-hand Geometrical Drawing. . . . 12mo,

General Probleriis of Shades and Shadows Svo,

Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective of Forms and

Shadow 12mo, 1 GO-

Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing 12mo, 1 50

Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry 12mo, 1 25

Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Hermann and

Klein.) Svo, 5 OO

Wilson's (H. M.) Topographic Surveying Svo, 3 50

* Wilson's (V. T.) Descriptive Geometry Svo, 1 50

Free-hand Lettering Svo, 1 00

Free-hand Perspective Svo, 2 50

Woolf's Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry Large Svo, 3 00

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ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS.

* Abegs's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation, (von Ende.1 12mo, SI 25.

Andrews's Hand-book for Street Railway Engineers 3X5 inches mor. 1 25

Anthony and Ball's Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical Measure-
ments 1 2mo,

Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics. (Magie.) ••• -Large 12mo,

Benjamin's History of Electricity 8vo,

Betts's Lead Refining and Electrolysis 8vo,

Burgess and Le Chatelier's Measurement of High Temperatures. Third

Edition. (In Press.)
Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.).8vo,

* Collins's Manual of Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony 12mo,

Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph 8vo,

* Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.) 12mo,

Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. . . . 16mo, mor.
Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery), (von Ende.)

12mo,

Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.) 8vo,

Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power 12mo,

* Getman's Introduction to Physical Science 12mo,

Gilbert's De Magnete. (Mottelay ) 8vo,

* Hanchett's Alternating Currents 12mo,

Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) 16mo, mor.

* Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery 8vo,

Holman's Precision of Measurements 8vo,

Telescope-Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments, and Tests Large 8vo,

* Hutchinson's High- Efficiency Electrical lUuminants and Illumination.

Large 12mo, 2 50
Jones's Electric Ignition. (In Press.)
KarapetofT's Experimental Electrical Engineering:

* Vol. 1 8vo,

* Vol. II 8vo,

Kinzbrunner's Testing of Continuous-current Machines 8vo,

Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle. ) 8vo,

Lob's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) 8vo,

* Lyndon's Development and Electrical Distribution of Water Power. .8vo,

* Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and II. 8vo, each,

* Michie's Elements of Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light 8vo,

* Morgan's Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers 12mo,

* Norris's Introduction to the Study of Electrical Engineering 8vo,

Norris and Dennison's Course of Problems on the Electrical Characteristics of

Circuits and Machines. (In Press.)

* Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design 4to, half mor, 12 50

Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition.

Large 12mo, 3 50

* Rosenberg's Electrical Engineering. (Haldane Gee — Kinzbrunner.) . .8vo, 2 00-

Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. 1 8vo, 2 SO-

Schapper's Laboratory Guide for Students in Physical Chemistry 12mo, 1 OO

* Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat 8vo. 1 50-

* Timbie's Elements of Electricity Large 12mo, 2 GO-

Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physics Large 12mo, 2 00

Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 00

* Waters's Commercial Dynamo Design 8vo, 2 00

LAW.

* Brennan's Hand-book of Useful Legal Information for Business Men.

16mo, mor.

* Davis's Elements of Law ; . 8vo,

* Treatise on the Military Law of United States 8vo,

* Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure of Courts-martial. . Large 12mo,

Manual for Courts-martial 16mo, mor.

Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo,

Sheep,
Wait's Law of Contracts 8vo,

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Wait's Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and

Architecture 8vo, $5 00

Sheep, 5 50

MATHEMATICS.

Baker's Elliptic Functions 8vo,

Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry. (Bocher.) 12mo,

* Buchanan's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry 8vo,

Byerly's Harmonic Functions 8vo,

Chandler's Elements of the Infinitesimal Calculus 12mo,

* Coffin's Vector Analysis 12mo,

Compton's Manual of Logarithmic Computations 12mo,

* Dickson's College Algebra Large 12mo,

* Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations Large 12mo,

Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Application 8vo,

Fiske's Functions of a Complex Variable 8vo,

Halsted's Elementary Synthetic Geometry 8vo,

Elements of Geometry 8vo,

* Rational Geometry 12mo,

Synthetic Projective Geometry 8vo,

* Hancock's Lectures on the Theory of Elliptic Functions 8vo,

Hyde's Grassmann's Space Analysis 8vo,

* Johnson's (J. B.) Three-place Logarithmic Tables: Vest-pocket size, paper,

* 100 copies,
* Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8 X 10 inches,

* 10 copies,
Johnson's (W. W.) Abridged Editions of Differential and Integral Calculus.

Large 12mo, 1 vol.

Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates 12mo,

Differential Equations 8vo,

Elementary Treatise on Differential Calculus Large 12mo,

Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus Large 12mo,

* Theoretical Mechanics 12mo,

Theory of Errors and the Method of Least Squares 12mo,

Treatise on Differential Calculus Large 12mo,

Treatise on the Integral Calculus Large 12mo,

Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations. . .Large 12mo,

* Karapetoff's Engineering Applications of Higher Mathematics. Large 12mo,
Koch's Practical Mathematics. (In Press.)
Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) . 12mo,

* Le Messurier's Key to Professor W. W. Johnson's Differential Equations.

Small 8vo,

* Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometrfc Tables 8vo,

* Ludlow and Bass's Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic and Other

Tables 8vo,

* Trigonometry and Tables published separately Each,

Macfarlane's Vector Analysis and Quaternions 8vo,

McMahon's Hyperbolic Functions 8vo,

Manning's Irrational Numbers and their Representation by Sequences and

Series 12mo, 1 25

Mathematical Monographs. Edited by Mansfield Merriman and Robert

S. Woodward Octavo, each 1 00

No. 1. History of Modern Mathematics, by David Eugene Smith.
No. 2. Synthetic Projective Geometry, by George Bruce Halsted.
No. 3. Determinants, by Laenas Gifford Weld. No. 4. Hyper-
bolic Functions, by James McMahon. No. 5. Harmonic Func-
tions, by William E. Byerly. No. 6. Grassmann's Space Analysis,
by Edward W. Hyde. No. 7. Probability and Theory of Errors,
by Robert S. Woodward. No. 8. Vector Analysis' and Quaternions,
by Alexander Macfarlane. No. 9. Differential Equations, by
William Woolsey Johnson. No. 10. The Solution of Equations,
by Mansfield Merriman. No. 11. Functions of a Complex Variable,
by Thomas S. Fiske.

Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00

Merriman's Method of Least Squares 8vo, 2 00

Solution of Equations 8vo, 1 00

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* Moritz's Elements of Plane Trigonometry 8vo, $2 00

Rice and Johnson's Diflferential and Integral Calculus. 2 vols, in one.

Large 12mo, 1 50

Elementary Treatise on the Differential Calculus Large 12mo, 3 00

Smith's History of Modern Mathematics 8vo, 1 00

* Veblen and Lennes's Introduction to the Real Infinitesimal Analysis of One

Variable 8vo. 2 00

* Waterbury's Vest Pocket Hand-book of Mathematics for Engineers.

25 X 54 inches, mor. 1 00

* Enlarged Edition, Including Tables mor. 1 50

Weld's Determinants 8vo, 1 00

Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry 8vo, 2 00

Woodward's Probability and Theory of Errors 8vo, 1 00

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.

MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.

Bacon's Forge Practice 12mo

Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings 12mo

Barr and^^ood's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo

* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo

* " " " Abridged Ed 8vo

* Bartlett and Johnson's Engineering Descriptive Geometry 8vo

* Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal 8vo

Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating Buildings 8vo

* Carpenter and Diederichs's Experimental Engineering 8vo

* Clerk's The Gas, Petrol and Oil Engine 8vo

Compton's First Lessons in Metal Working 12mo,

Compton and De Groodt's Speed Lathe 12mo

Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper

Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical En-
gineers Oblong 4to,

Cromwell's Treatise on Belts and Pulleys 12mo

Treatise on Toothed Gearing 12mo

Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making 12mo

Durley's Kinematics of Machines • 8vo

Fland'ers's Gear-cutting Machinery Large 12mo

Flather's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power 12mo

Rope Driving 12mo

Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers 12mo

Goss's Locomotive Sparks 8vo

* Greene's Pumping Machinery 8vo,

Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) 16mo, mor

* Hobart and Ellis's High Speed Dynamo Electric Machinery 8vo

Hutton's Gas Engine 8vo

Jamison's Advanced Mechanical Drawing 8vo

Elements of Mechanical Drawing 8vo

Jones's Gas Engine 8vo

Machine Design:

Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo

Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo

* Kaup's Machine Shop Practice Large 12mo

* Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket-Book 16mo, mor

Kerr's Power and Power Transmission 8vo

* Kimball and Barr's Machine Design 8vo

* King's Elements of the Mechanics of Materials and of Power of Trans-

mission 8vo

* Lanza's Dynamics of Machinery Svo

Leonard's Machine Shop Tools and Methods 8vo

* Levin's Gas Engine 8vo

* Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean). .8vo
MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism 8vo

Mechanical Draw-ing ^to

Velocity Diagrams .■ • 8vo

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MacFarland's Standard Reduction Factors for Gases 8vo, $1 50"

Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 8vo. 3 50

Mehrtens's Gas Engine Theory and Design Large 12mo, 2 50

Miller, Berry, and Riley's Problems in Thermodynamics and Heat Engineer-

inj 8vo, paper, 0 75

Oberg's Handbook of Small Tools Large 12mo, 2 50

* Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design. Small 4to. half leather, 12 50

* Peele's Compressed Air Plant. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, 3 50
Perkins's General Thermodynamics. (In Press.)

Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels 8vo, 3 00

* Porter's Engineering Reminiscences. 1855 to 1882 8vo, 3 00

Randall's Treatise on Heat. (In Press.)

* Reid's Mechanical Drawing. (Elementary and Advanced.) 8vo, 2 00

Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8vo, 3 00

Richards's Compressed Air 12nio, 1 50

Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 3 00

Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 3 00

Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design 8vo, 3 00

Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals 8vo, 3 00

Sorel's Carbureting and Combustion in Alcohol Engines. (Woodward and

Preston.) Large 12mo, 3 00

Stone's Practical Testing of Gas and Gas Meters 8vo, 3 50-

Thurston's Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics.

12mo, 1 00

Treatise on Friction and Lost 'Work in Machinery and Mill Work. . .8vo, 3 00

* Tillson's Complete Automobile Instructor 16mo, 1 50

* Titsworth's Elements of Mechanical Drawing Oblong 8vo, 1 25

Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, 7 50'

* Waterbury's Vest Pocket Hand-book of Mathematics for Engineers.

2iX5i inches, mor. 1 00'

* Enlarged Edition, Including Tables mor. 1 50

Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Herrmann —

Klein.) 8vo, 5 00'

Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Hermann — Klein.) . .8vo, 5 00

"Wood's Turbines 8vo, 2 50

MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.

Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering 8vo, 7 50'

Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 00-

Mechanics of Solids (Being Parts I, II, III of Mechanics of Engineering).

8vo, 4 50

* Greene's Structural Mechanics 8vo, 2 50

Holiey's Analysis of Paint and Varnish Products. (In Press.)

* Lead and Zinc Pigments Large 12mo, 3 00

Johnson's (C. M.) Rapid Methods for the Chemical Analysis of Special

Steels, Steel-Making Alloys and Graphite Large 12mo, 3 00

Johnson's (J. B.) Materials of Construction 8vo, 6 00

Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50

* King's Elements of the Mechanics of Materials and of Power of Trans-

mission 8vo, 2 50

Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50

Lowe's Paints for Steel Structures 12mo, 1 00

Maire's Modem Pigments and their Vehicles 12mo, 2 00

Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00

Merriman's Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 5 00

* Strength of Materials 12mo, 1 00

Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users 12mo, 2 00'

* Murdock's Strength of Materials 12mo, 2 00

Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paint and Varnish 8vo, 3 00

Smith's (A. W.) Materials of Machines 12mo, 1 00

* Smith's (H. E.) Strength of Material 12mo, 1 25-

Thurston's Materials of Engineering 3 vols., 8vo, 8 00

Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering 8vo, 2 00'

Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50

Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their

Constituents 8vo, 2 ^0

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Waterbury's Laboratory Manual for Testing Materials of Construction.

(In Press.)

Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, S3 00

Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an Appendix on the

Preservation of Timber gvo 2 00

Wood's (M. -P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and

Steel : svo, 4 00

STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.

Berry's Temperature-entropy Diagram. Third Edition Revised and En-
larged 12mo, 2 50

•Camot's Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurston.) 12mo, 1 50

Chase's Art of Pattern Making 12mo' 2 50

Creighton's Steam-engine and other Heat Motors gvoi 5 00

Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. .. . Itimo' mor! 5 00

* Gebhardt's Steam Power Plant Engineering gvo, 6 00

Goss's Locomotive Performance gvo' 5 qq

Hemenway's Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy 12mo! 2 00

Hirshfeld and Barnard's Heat Power Engineering. (In Press.)

Hutton's Heat and Heat-engines gyg 5 qq

Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants gvo! 5 00

Kent's Steam Boiler Economj^ gyg' ^ qq

Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector gvo] 1 50

MacCord's Slide-valves gvo' "> 00

Meyer's Modem Locomotive Construction '. . .4to' 10 00

Miller.^ Berry, and Riley's Problems in Thermodynamics gvo, paper! 0 75

Moyer's Steam Turbine g^,,-,' ^ qq

Peabody's Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator 12mo,' 1 50

Tables of the Properties of Steam and Other Vapors and Temperature-

Entropy Table gvo, 1 OO

Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines. . . . 8vo, 5 00

* Thermodynamics of the Steam Turbine gvo' 3 00

Valve-gears for Steam-engines ' gvo' 2 50

Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers gvo' 4 qq

Pupin's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and Saturated Vapors

, (Osterberg.) lOj^o, 1 25

Keagan s Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition.

c- , • . T • T^ • r, ^^'"Se 12mo, 3 50

timclair s Locomotive Engine Running and Management 12mo, 2 00

■Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice 12mo! 2 50

Snow's Steam-boiler Practice gvo' 3 00

Spangler's Notes on Thermodynamics l-'mo' 1 00

Valve-gears W.'.'. ."gvo! 2 50

■t>pangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering gvo, 3 00

Thomas's Steam-turbines gvo' 4 oO

Thurston's Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indi-
cator and the Prony Brake gvo, 5 00

Handy Tables gvo' 1 50

Manual of Steam.-boilers, their Designs, Construction, and Operation 8vo,' 5 00

Manual of the Steam-engine 2 vols., gvo'. JO 00

Part I. History, Structure, and Theory gvo, 6 00

Part II. Design, Construction, and Operation. . gvo! 6 00

Wehrenfennig's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-water. (Patterson )

-nr ■ i_ ... TT r. 8V0, 4 00

Weisbach s Heat, Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois.) gvo, 5 00

Whitham's Steam-engine Design gvo' 5 00

Wood's Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines.'.' .'gvo.' 4 00

MECHANICS PURE AND APPLIED.

Church's Mechanics of Engineering gvo, 6 00

Mechanics of Fluids (Being Part IV of Mechanics of Engineering). . 8vo', 3 00

* Mechanics of Internal Works gvo 1 50

Mechanics of Solids (Being Parts I, II. Ill of Mechanics of Engineering)'.

Kotes and Examples in Mechanics gvo, ' 2 00

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Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for Colleges and Schools .12mo, $1 50
Du Bois's Elementary Principles of Mechanics:

Vol. I. Kinematics 8vo, 3 50

Vol. II. Statics. 8vo, 4 00

Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I Small 4t9, 7 50

Vol. II Small 4to, 10 00

* Greene's Structural Mechanics 8vo, 2 50

* Hartmann's Elementary Mechanics for Engineering Students 12mo, 1 25

James's Kinematics of a Point and the Rational Mechanics of a Particle.

Large 12mo, 2 00

* Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics 12mo, 3 00

* King's Elements of the Mechanics of Materials and of Power of Trans-

mission 8vo, 2 50

Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50

* Martin's Text Book on Mechanics, Vol. I, Statics 12mo, 1 25

* Vol. II. Kinematics and Kinetics 12mo, 1 50

* Vol. III. Mechanics of Materials 12mo, 1 50

Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00

* Merriman's Elements of Mechanics 12mo, 1 00

Mechanics of Materials 8 vo, 5 00

* Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00

Robinson's Principles of Mechanism Svo, 3 00

Sanborn's Mechanics Problems Large 12mo, 1 50

Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism Svo, 3 GO

Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 00

Principles of Elementary Mechanics 12mo, 1 25

MEDICAL.

* Abderhalden's Physiological Chemistry in Thirty Lectures. (Hall and

Defren.) Svo, 5 00

von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.) 12mo, 1 00

* Bolduan's Immune Sera 12mo, 1 50

Bordet's Studies in Immunity. (Gay.) Svo, 6 00

* Chapin's The Sources and Modes of Infection Large 12mo, 3 00

Davenport's Statistical Methods with Special Reference to Biological Varia-
tions 16mo, mor. 1 50

Ehrlich's Collected Studies on Immunity. (Bolduan.) Svo, 6 00

* Fischer's Nephritis Large 12mo, 2 50

* Oedema Svo, 2 00

* Physiology of Alimentation Large 12mo, 2 00

* de Fursac's Manual of Psychiatry. (RosanofI and Collins.) . . .Large 12mo, 2 50

* Hammarsten's Text-book on Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.).. . .Svo, 4 00
Jackson's Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological Chemistry. .8vo, 1 25

Lassar-Cohn's Praxis of Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz.) 12mo, 1 00

Mandel's Hand-book for the Bio-Chemical Laboratory 12mo, 1 50

* Nelson's Analysis of Drugs and Medicines 12mo, 3 00

* Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine. (Fischer.) . .12mo, 1 25

* Pozzi-Escot's Toxins and Venoms and their Antibodies. (Cohn.). . 12mo, 1 00

Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan.) 12mo, 1 00

Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions Svo, 2 00

Whys in Pharmacy 12mo, 1 00

Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Orndorfl.) ....Svo, 2 50

* Satterlee's Outlines of Human Embryology 12mo, 1 25

Smith's Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students Svo, 2 50

* Whipple's Tyhpoid Fever Large 12mo, 3 00

* WoodhuU's Military Hygiene for Officers of the Line Large 12mo, 1 50

* Personal Hygiene , 12mo, 1 00

Worcester and Atkinson's Small Hospitals Establishment and Maintenance,

and Suggestions for Hospital Architecture, with Plans for a Small

Hospital 12mo, 1 25

METALLURGY.

Betts's Lead Refining by Electrolysis Svo, 4 00

BoUand's Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms used

in the Practice of Moulding 12mo, 3 00

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" " Supplement 12mo,

* Borehers's Metallurgy. (Hall and Hayward.) 8vo,

Burgess and Le Chatelier's Measurement of High Temperatures. Third

Edition. (In Press.)

Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects 12mo,

Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book 16mo, mor.

* Iles's Lead-smelting 12mo,

Johnson's Rapid Methods for the Chemical Analysis of Special Steels,

Steel-making Alloys and Graphite Large 12mo,

Keep's Cast Iron 8vo,

Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users 12mo,

Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.). . 12mo,
Palmer's Fovmdry Practice. (In Press.)

* Price and Meade's Technical Analysis of Brass 12mo,

* Ruer's Elements of Metallography. (Mathewson.) 8vo,

Smith's Materials of Machines 12mo,

Tate and Stone's Foundry Practice 12mo,

Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts 8vo,

Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering, see Civil Engineering,
page 9.

Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50

Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their

Constituents 8vo, 2 50

Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 00

West's American Foundry Practice 12mo, 2 50

Moulders' Text Book 12mo. 2 50

MINERALOGY.

Baskerville's Chemical Elements. (In Preparation.)

* Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements 8vo,

Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.) 8vo,

Butler's Pocket Hand-book of Minerals 16mo, mor.

Chester's Catalogue of Minerals 8vo, paper.

Cloth,

* Crane's'GoId and Silver Svo,

Dana's First Appendix to Dana's New "System of Mineralogy". .Large Svo,
Dana's Second Appendix to Dana's New " System of Mineralogy."

Large Svo,

Manual of Mineralogy' and Petrography 12mo,

Minerals and How to Study Them 12mo,

System of Mineralogv' Large Svo, half leather, 12 50

Text-book of Mineralogy Svo,

Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects 12mo,

Eakle's Mineral Tables Svo,

Eckel's Building Stones and Clays. (In Press.)

Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book 16mo, mor.

* Groth's The Optical Properties of Crystals. (Jackson.) Svo,

Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall). ...... . 12mo,

* Hayes's Handbook for Field Geologists 16mo, mor.

Iddings's Igneous Rocks Svo,

Rock Minerals Svo,

Johannsen's Determination of Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sections. Svo,

With Thumb Index

* Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blow-

pipe 1 12mo,

Merrill's Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses Svo,

Stones for Building and Decoration Svo,

* Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy' and Record of Mineral Tests.

Svo, paper,

Tables of Minerals, Including the Use of Minerals and Statistics of

Domestic Production Svo,

* Pirsson's Rocks and Rock Minerals 12mo,

* Richards's Synopsis of Mineral Characters 12mo, mor.

* Ries's Clays: Their Occurrence, Properties and Uses Svo,

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=* Ries and Leighton's History of the Clay-working inausiry of the United

States 8vo, S2 50

"* Rowe's Practical Mineralogy Simplified 12mo, 1 25

* Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks 8vo, 2 00

Washington's Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks 8vo, 2 00

MINING.

* Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions Large 12mo,

* Crane's Gold and Silver. . . : 8vo,

* Index of Mining Engineering Literature 8vo,

* 8vo, mor.

* Ore Mining Methods 8vo,

* Dana and Saunders's Rock Drilling 8vo,

Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects 12mo,

Eissler's Modern High Explosives 8vo,

Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book 16mo, mor.

Ihlseng's Manual of Mining 8vo,

* Iles's Lead Smelting 12mo,

* Peele's Compressed Air Plant 8vo,

Riemer's Shaft Sinking Under Difficult Conditions. (Corning and Peele.)8vo,

* Weaver's Military Explosives. 8vo,

Wilson's Hydraulic and Placer Mining. 2d edition, rewritten 12mo,

Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation 12mo,

SANITARY SCIENCE.

Association of State and National Food and Dairy Departments, Hartford

Meeting, 1906 8vo,

Jamestown Meeting, 1907 8vo,

* Bashore's Outlines of Practical Sanitation 12mo,

Sanitation of a Country House 12mo,

Sanitation of Recreation Camps and Parks 12mo,

* Chapin's The Sources and Modes of Infection Large 12mo,

Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance.) 8vo,

Water-supply Engineering 8vo,

Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses 12mo,

Puertes's Water-filtration Works 12mo,

Water and Public Health 12mo,

Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary Inspections 12mo,

* Modern Baths and Bath Houses 8vo,

Sanitation of Public Buildings 12mo,

* The Water Supply, Sewerage, and Plumbing of Modem City Buildings.

8vo,

Hazen's Clean Water and How to Get It Large 12mo,

Filtration of Public Water-supplies 8vo,

* Kinnicutt, Winslow and Pratt's Sewage Disposal 8vo,

Leach's Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State

Control 8vo,

Mason's Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological) 12mo,

Water-supply. (Considered principally from a Sanitary Standpoint).

8vo,

* Mast's Light and the Behavior of Organisms Large 12mo,

* Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Engineering 8vo,

■Ogden's Sewer Construction 8vo,

Sewer Design 12mo,

Parsons's Disposal of Municipal Refuse 8vo,

Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Refer-
ence to Sanitary Water Analysis 12mo,

"* Price's Handbook on Sanitation 12mo,

Richards's Conservation by Sanitation 8vo,

Cost of Cleanness 12mo,

Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries 12mo,

Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science 12mo,

Cost of Shelter 12mo.

"* Richards and Williams's Dietary Computer 8vo,

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PROPERT

■j_ p, METCAUF