Insect Pests

of THE

esser Antilles

By H. ft. BftLLOU, M.Sc

Entomologist on the Staff of the Imperial
Department of ftgriculture.

Issued by the Commissioner of Agriculture.

1912.

Pamphlet Series,
No. 71.

IMPERIAL
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FOR THE WEST INDIES.

INSECT PESTS

OF THE

LESSER ANTILLES.

By H. A. BALLOU, M.Sc,

Entomologist on the Staff of the Department.

ISSUED BY THE COMMISSIONER OF
AGRICULTURE.

1912.

Price Is. 3d.

Printed by Advocate Co., Ltd., Bridgetown, Barbados.

(Ill)

PREFACE.

This Handbook, dealing with the Insect Pests of the
Lesser Antilles, has been prepared by Mr. H. A. Ballon.
M.Sc, Entomologist on the Staff of the Imperial Department
of Agriculture, with the object, as is stated by the Author,
of giving in plain and simple language, 'a brief general
account of our present knowledge of some of the principal
insect and mite pests of the crops grown in the Lesser
Antilles ; also of the pests attacking man and domestic
animals, as well as of those of the household.' As is stated
further, the scope of the work does not admit of the presen-
tation of detailed accounts of insects, nor of descriptions of
all insect enemies of plants in the West Indies. An attempt
at such a presentation would actually have defeated its
object, as this is outlined above ; whereas on the contrary, a
perusal of the work as it stands is sufficient to show that
this object has been fully and usefully attained.

The arrangement of the subject-matter is such as to
make reference easy, and to bring forward the information
in such a way that each subject falls into its natural place
in the sequence. The large extent to which illustrations
have been employed will add greatly to the usefulness of the
work, particularly in so far as it is employed by practical
agriculturists. Its educational character will doubtless be
found of value in connexion with nature teaching and
lessons in agriculture in schools ; in the hands of the teacher,
it will assist in presenting and formulating the information
to be given, and will aid in providing and identifying the
specimens that are required indispensably for demonstration.

The Handbook presents, to a great extent, a carefully
prepared summary of information contained in a large
number of entomol3gical publications of different kinds, ancj

(IV)

this fact is Ruffi< lent in itself to make it particularly useful
to agriculturists, as well as i<> others by whom it will
doubtless be consulted, who do uol possess the time or the
facilities for reference to entomological subjects that are of
importance to them. My thanks are due t<» Mr. Ballon,
for the careful way in which the work lias been compiled,
and it is due to him, also, to place the 1'act <>n record that
the book derives an additional value, which will be recog-
nized t<> an increasing extent as it comes into general use,
from the circumstance thai it presents information that is
the outcome of Ins special work and observation in the
Wrst Indies— information that in many casfcs relates to
forms of insect life, both injurious and beneficial, that were
not known previously to be of economic importance.

(X/^C^

/lA/cxte.

Commissioner of Agriculture

for the West [ndies.

(v)

Entomologist,
To the Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture.

Sir,

I have the honour to submit, herewith, a manuscript
with illustrations, which I have prepared for publication as
a Handbook of Insect Pests of the Lesser Antilles. This
might be included in the Pamphlet Series of the publica-
tions of this Department.

2. The object of this book is to present, in plain and
simple language, a brief general account of our present
knowledge of some of the principal insect and mite pests of
the crops grown in the Lesser Antilles; also of the pests
attacking man and domestic animals, as well as of those
of the household.

3. It would not be possible, within the scope of a small
work, to include an account of all the insects which are
known to attack plants in the West Indies, nor to give
detailed accounts even of the more important ones without
greatly exceeding the limits of such a volume as this.

4. I can make no claim for originality in connexion
with the information presented herewith, although much of
what is here given has already appeared in articles prepared
by me for publication in the Agricultural News, the West
Indian Bulletin and the Pamphlet Series ; and in so far as
i hese articles have referred to work done by me under the
direction of the Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture, they
were records of original work. This last is especially true of
certain pests which have appeared in these islands during the
past nine years, as new pests unknown in other localities.

5. The recorded knowledge of many of the forms of
insect life which are of common occurrence in many parts
of the world, is distributed throughout entomological publi-
cations, such as text-books and the publications of Depart-
ments of Agriculture and of Experiment Stations. A
considerable amount of such general knowledge has, of
course, been utilized in the preparation of this work, a certain
amount of it having been verified by observation and
experiment.

(VI)

li. Since this book is entirely popular and the informa-
tion has appeared previously in the publications already
mentioned, I have made no attempl to quote references to
authorities.

7. Planters and others who use this book are almost
certain to find many points where the information given
fails to apply exactly to the local conditions. It' these
differences could be reported and recorded, the added
information thereby acquired would be extremely useful in
preparing a revision, it' that should become desirable.

8. The blocks from which the illustrations are produced
are all in the possession of this Department, having been
acquired during the past twelve years from several sources.
which are indicated on another page, where acknowledg-
ments are made. The source from which the blocks have
been obtained is stated also in connexion with the legend
Which is given with each figure.

9. The Rev. N.B. Watson, F.E.S., has been kind enough
to read the proof critically ; for this I desire to express
my thanks.

I have the honour to be,
Sir,
Your most obedient servant,

rsgd.)

H. A. BALLOU,
Entomologist.

(VII)

ILLUSTRATIONS.

The illustrations which appear in the following pages
are 185 in number. They are produced from blocks in the
possession of this Department which have been obtained
from the sources indicated below.

Through the courtesy of the United States Department
of Agriculture it has been possible to obtain duplicates of
electrotype blocks which have been used previously to illus-
trate the publications of that Department.

Blocks from this source are represented by figures 1, 4,
5, 8, 9, 10, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, 28, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39,
48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 62, 76, 77, 81, 87, 88, 92, 93,
94, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 115, 131, 132, 133, 135, 1E6,

137. 139. 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150,
15b 152, 153, 154, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165,
166'. 167, 168, 176, 177, 183, and 184.

Figures 45 and 47 are from blocks procured through
the courtesy of the Secretary of the New York Entomo-
logical Society.

The blocks for figures 170, 171, 172, 173 and 175 have
been presented to this Department by the manufacturers of
apparatus.

The figures 11, 12, 14 and 174 have been redrawn, from
various sources which have been acknowledged in the legend
in each case.

Figures 19. 22, 24, 40, 41, 52. 60, 61. 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69,
73, 74, 75, 78, 79, 82, 83, 85, 86, 90, 95, 96, 97. 106, 107. 109,
110, 311, 113, 114, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 126, 127, 128, 130,

138, 156, 179, 180, 181 and 182 are from drawings made by
officers of the Department or under their direction.

The half-tone block for figure 185 was prepared from
a photograph forwarded by the Superintendent of Agri-
culture, Grenada.

All other half-tone blocks are from photographs taken
by the writer. These are all acknowledged as 'original'
in the legends, even though some of them have previously
appeared in the publications of this Department. Those
which have already been published are shown at figures 25,
42, 43, 44, 05, 70, 91, 108, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125 and 169.

The half-tone blocks which now appear for the first time
are shown at figures 2, 3, 6. 7, 15. 20, 23, 26, 27, 32, 33, 38,
46, 55, 56, 71, 72, 80, 84, 89, 98, 112, 129, 134, 155, and 178.

(vs.)

CONTENTS.

I. Introduction.

II. Insects and their Near Relations.

III. Natural History of Insects.

IV. Orders of Insects.

V. Insect Pests of Crops.

VI. Insects which Attack Man.

VII. Insect Pests of Domestic Animals.

VIII. Insects of the Household and Pests

of Stored Products.

IX. The Control of Insects.

X. Insects and thetr Natural Enemies.

CHAPTER I.
Introduction.

In 1901, the Imperial Department of Agriculture issued
Pamphlet Xo. 5. entitled General Treatment of Insect Pests.
At that time, the Department had recently begun to deal
with the problems presented through the attacks of insects
on crops, and consequently the information then published
was of the most general character. The ten years which
have since elapsed have brought about a much wider knowl-
edge of the insects which occur in these islands.

It may be well to remind readers of this book that the
Imperial Department of Agriculture has-been in direct rela-
tionship with the agriculture of the British islands of the
Leeward and Windward Colonies, and Barbados, and that
references to the Lesser Antilles will be understood to apply
to these Colonies only.

The crops gro<vn in the West Indies are much the same
as they were ten years ago, the principal difference being in
the standing of the cotton industry, which was then enter-
ing upon an experimental trial. It need not be statecb. here
what measure of success attended these trials, nor the
rapidity with which a profitable industry was established.
As a result of the rapid increase in the acreage of cotton,
insects which previously were not recognized as pests, and in
some cases even were not known to science, have assumed an
important position as serious pests.

Further study of the conditions in reo-ard to the culti-
vation of other crops has also led to the recognition, as pests,
of insects which formerly were entirely ignored.

In the following pages an attempt is made to present a
general account, in popular language, of insects and their
allies (mites and ticks) which are of importance. These are
arranged in groups according to the plants or animals
which they attack, and in many instances information is
given as to their natural enemies.

In addition to the remedies and control measures which
are suggested in connexion with the account of each pest

the chapter on the control of insects gives information in
regard to many insecticide Bubstances with directions for
making various mixtures.

The use of insecticides is explained, and descriptions are
given of the machinery and appliances adapted to their
application.

The insects which attack growing crops may he
grouped in three main divisions, according to their manner
of feeding, or their habit of living. These are leaf-eating,
sucking, and boring.

Leaf -eating insects are represented by a great variety of
caterpillars, beetles and grasshoppers, which with their
powerful mouth parts are able to bite off particles of the
plant, which they chew and swallow. Sucking insects are
those which have their mouth parts developed in such a
manner that they are able to puncture the tissues and suck
out the juices of the plant. They are represented by scale
insects, plant lice, white fly, cotton stainers, and bugs of
several kinds. Under this heading, also, might be included
thrips, red spider, leaf-blister mite, red maggot and flower-
bud maggot. The first two of these, thrips and red spider,
are intermediate in their feeding habits between the biting
and sucking types of insect, their mouth parts being adapt-
e 1 to enable them to gnaw away the surface of the tissue
where they feed : after this they obtain their food, probably
by a process of lapping, from the freshly exposed tissues.
The leaf-blister mite probably feeds in much the same way,
concealed among the plant hairs within the blister or gall
which is produced on the plant by the irritation due to its
activities. The flower-bud maggot and red maggot live in
nutritive tissue, and may absorb a certain amount through
the skin.

Borino; insects are those which tunnel out for themselves
galleries within the tissues of plants. Their attacks are made
on the stem, the root, and the fruit of various plants. The
boring is generally done by such insects when they are in
the larval stage. Examples of this group of insects are
to be found in the moth borer and weevil borer of the sugar-
cane, the lime tree bark borer, the cacao borer, the palm
weevil and others which bore into the stems of plants ; the
root borer of sugar-cane, the scarabee of sweet potatoes and
others which bore into the roots. The minute larvae of
certain flies and moths live as miners in the leaves of plants,
forming galleries just beneath the epidermis. The mole

cricket might also be mentioned in this connexion, on
account of its underground habit of life and its manner of
attacking the roots of plants, although it does not actually
bore into the tissues, after the typical manner of borers.

Insects which bore into the fruit are represented by the
cotton boll worm, corn ear worm and the larvae or maggots
of fruit flies.

Insects which are injurious to stored products are the
meal worms, grain weevils and the cigarette beetle. Among
those which are known as household pests may be mentioned
cockroaches, crickets, ants, bed-bugs, clothes moths,
cigarette beetles, silver-fish and house-flies.

The insects which attack and injure domestic animals
and man have come, within the last few years, to be recog-
nized as of great importance, many of them being known to
disseminate some of the most serious of diseases, and others
being suspected as having a possible influence in the same
direction. Among these may be mentioned fleas, flies, ticks,
lice, the mites which cause itch, mange and scab, the screw
worm, mosquitoes, chigoes or jiggers, bete-rouge and the
bed-bug.

In order that readers of this booklet may be better
able to understand the insects with which thev may have
to deal, a short account follows of the group of animals
which includes insects and their nearest relations, and of
the natural history of insects. A brief account of the
orders of insects gives the characters of each Order in such
manner that, in general, there should be no difficulty in
placing the greater number of insects in their correct Order ;
and to aid further in this, a key is included, with directions
for its use.

CHAPTER II.
Insects and their Near Relations.

The animal kingdom is divided into several great groups,
or sub-kingdoms, in each of which the members have some
points in common.

One of these groups has been given the name Arthro-
poda, which means ' jointed feet', or perhaps, better, ' jointed
limbs.'

The arthropods are all alike in having jointed limbs,
and bodies that are jointed, or at least that are easil}r
separable into regions or sections, such as head, thorax (the
middle body) and abdomen ; or head and hind body ; or
cephalothorax (head and thorax fused together), and abdo-
men. Arthropods have an exoskeleton of a hard, firm
substance, called chitin, to which muscles are attached
on the inside ; this protects all the soft and delicate organs

The arthropods in their turn are divided into four
classes as follows : —

Class I. Crustacea— Crabs, Lobsters, Wood-lice etc.
,, II. Arachnida— Spiders, Mites, Scorpions, etc.
,, III. Myriapoda — Centipedes, Millepedes, etc.
,, IV. Hexapoda— Insects.

Among the Crustacea are to be included crabs, lobsters,
shrimps, barnacles, etc., many of which are familiar objects
in most parts of the West Indies. Fig. 1 represents
a wood-louse, or sow- bug, one of the crustaceans. The
crustaceans are mostly aquatic ; a few live in damp situations
such as damp soil or decaying vegetable matter. They
breathe by means of gills, the head is provided with two pairs
of antennae, the abdomen has appendages which are used in
locomotion and the eyes are usually compound, sometimes
stalked. The body generally is divided into two regions, the
cephalothorax and the abdomen. The cephalothorax is
composed of the head and the thorax fused together, and
is often protected by a hard shell, the carapace. The

5

exoskeleton of chitin
quantities of lime.

Fig. i. Crustacean
A Wood-louse.
Enlarged. (From U.
De}it. A<jric.)

S.

is often impregnated with large

The Class Arachnida includes
the spiders, mites, ticks and scor-
pions. These animals breathe by
means of air-tubes (tracheae), or
air-sacs. Certain species, mites,
especially, have the entire surface
of the body adapted for respira-
tion. In the case of most mem-
bers of this group, the head and
thorax are fused to form a cepha-
lothorax, and the eyes are simple.

The scorpions (Fig. 2) are well-
known in tropical countries, on
account of the painful sting they
are able to inflict. They are
mostly predaceous and nocturnal
in habit, living in damp situations.

Fig. 2. Arachnid. A scorpion.
Slightly reduced. (Original.)

The whip scorpions (Fig. 3) receive their name from the
long lash-like development of the first pair of legs. In the
illustration these are the slender appendages which are

0

Fig". 3. Arachnid. A tailless whip scorpion.
About natural size. (Original.)
shown turned to the rear on the back of the animal. They
are not known to be injurious or destructive.

The spiders include many species of varying size and
form. The four pairs of long legs furnish the most promi-
nent character of this group.

Fig*. 4. Arachnid. The cattle tick.
Female cattle tick at the lefts male at the right. Enlarged.
{I rem U. S. Dept. Agric.)

The ticks are parasitic on many forms of animals. The
common cattle tick (Fig. 4) occurs on domestic cattle, while

similar forms attack dogs,
goats and fowls. They often
transmit diseases, and on this
account, in addition to being
parasites they are the cause of
serious loss.

The red spider (Fig. 5) is a
good example of the mites
which attack plants, feeding
on leaves, fruits and bulbs,

The Myriapoda, Class III,

include the centipedes and

the millipedes (Figs, b and 7.)

K ££ JM These are elongate animals

Fig. 5. Aiachnid; A red with segmented bodies and

spider. jointed limbs and appendages.

(a) adult ; {b) palpus ; (c) claw.

Enlarged, (from U. £'. Dcpt. The head is distinct from the

Agric.) rest of the body, but the

thorax and the abdomen do not differ in structure. The hind

body is generally provided with legs throughout its entire
length, one or two pairs to each segment.

The Centipedes (Fig. 6) are predaceous in habit. They are
also venomous, and by means of the strong fangs formed by

Fig. 6. Myriapod. A Centipede.
Reduced. {Original.)

the modified first pair of legs are able to inflict painful
and sometimes dangerous wounds.

8

Fig-. 7. Myriapod. Millipede.
Reduced. {Original.)

^r^^m^m^

Fig.

8. A primitive insect.
The silver -fish.

Adult. Enlarged. {From U. S.

Dept. A^ric.)
pairs of wings is wanting, as in the silver-fish (Fig. 8).

The Millipedes (Fig. 7) are
mostly scavengers, feeding on
decaying vegetable matter,
though sometimes they attack
growing plants. They are not
often pests, however.

Class IV is the Hexapoda, or
true insects. The name Hexa-
poda means having six legs,
and this expresses one of the
most distinguishing characters
of the insect. In addition to be-
ing arthropods having six legs,
insects are to be distinguished
from others of the group by the
following; features. The insect
body is readily separable into
three definite regions— head,
thorax and abdomen, and the
adult is usually winged. The
normal number of wings is two
pairs, but it sometimes hap-
pens that one, or even both,

9

CHAPTER III.
Natural History of Insects.

Structure and Groavth.

As has been stated alreadv, insects are animals which,

in the adult condition, have never more than six legs, and

generally, two pairs of wings (which may be wanting but

are never more in number), and a body made up of three

Fig. 9. Insect with incomplete metamorphosis. A cockroach.
{cu\ (b) (c) (<1) immature stages ; ' fe) adult ; (/} alult with eg? case;
{It) adult with wings spread: (g) egg case. All natural size except
{g) which is enlarged. From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

distinct parts — head, thorax and abdomen. The legs are
attached to the thorax, one pair to each segment ; the fore
and hind wings are attached to the second and third seg-
ments, respectively, The head and abdomen have no organs
of locomotion. To the head are attached the mouth parts,
and the antennae, which are sensory organs. The abdomen
also sometimes has sensory organs. Fig. 9 shows the cock-
roach and the attachments of wings and legs.

In the case of most insects, the adidt deposits eggs from
which the young are hatched. There are instances, however,
among these animals, in which the young are already hatched
from the egg at the time when they are born. That is to say,
they are active and free-moving, having accomplished one
stage of their existence within the body of the parent.

10

A.fter the birth of an insect, or the hatching from the
efffir, ii goes through changes and developments before reach-
ing the fully developed or adult condition. This change and
development is called the metamorphosis. Metamorphosis
may be either complete or incomplete. This does nol mean
that development stops short of the perfect insect, in the case
of insects which have incomplete metamorphosis, but rather
expresses a general difference between these two kinds of
development.

Insects which have an incomplete metamorphosis are
something like the adult when they are first hatched from
the egg. (Fig. 9, young and adult cockroaches.) They are,
of course, much smaller, and without wings, but in general
form they give an idea of what they will be like when they
are full-grown. Insects which have a complete meta-

*4 7SJL

Fig. io. Insect with complete metamorphosis. The bean leaf-roller.

(a) butterfly ; (b) larva, dorsal view ; (c) larva, lateral view ; (-1) pupa in
rolled-up leaf. Somewhat enlarged. (From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

morphosis are very different, when first hatched, from
the adult form into which they finally develop. Such
insects have four distinct stages, or periods in their

11

lives. These are, the egg, the larva, the pupa and the
gianio. The egg is the first stage in the development
of a generation, and the larva is the next. The larvae
of the butterflies and moths are called caterpillars ; of
beetles, bees and wasps, grubs ; and of Hies, maggots. This
is the portion of an insect's life when all growth in size
takes place. The pupa is the state during which the change
takes place, in which the larva is transformed into the final
and adult condition of the insect's life ; the wings are formed
and the reproductive organs become complete. The pupa of
a butterfly is called a chrysalis ; that of a moth is often
enclosed in a cocoon. Fig. 10 shows the bean leaf-roller
(E uclamus rpy^oteus) with larva (6 and c), pupa (d), and
adult (a). In the case of insects which have an incomplete
metamorphosis, there is not the same distinction between
the larva and pupa, as m the case of those in which this is
complete. There is no quiescent stage during which the
insect transforms, as in the case of the chrysalis of the
butterfly. (See Fig. 9.)

The growth of insects is accompanied by a scries of
moults. The chitinous exoskeleton, once formed and hard-
ened, is not capable of growth, and it is natural that it
should be shed at intervals, when the limbs and organs have
increased in size as much as they can. Before the old skin
is cast off', there is formed under it another, which is soft,
pliant and elastic. As soon as the old one is shed, the new
skin is stretched out by the pressure from within, and it
then hardens. The exoskeleton, as it now becomes, is fixed,
and does not grow any more. The size of the insect is
stationary until the next moult, except that the flexible con-
nective tissues between the segments are capable of stretch-
ing a little.

The body of a caterpillar, which may be considered
a typical insect in the larval condition, is composed of
thirteen segments, as follows : the head, which appears as
one; the thorax, three; and the abdomen, nine. The segments
of the thorax and abdomen are chitinous rings, joined
together by means of a flexible connective tissue, which
allows for great freedom of movement, and, asalreadvstated.
tor a certain amount of growth in size. In most adult
insects, it is not easy to distinguish the segments which go
to make up the thorax and abdomen, because these are often
much modified in accordance with the habits or structure of
the insect.

12

The growth of insects always takes place during the
larval portion of the life-cycle. Caterpillars, for Instance,
moult, or shed their skin. Pour or five times during their
growth, from hatching to pupation. Adult insects do not
grow in size. Once tin* wings have been developed, the
insect is full-grown. Small flies do not grow into big flies,
small moths do nut grow into Larse ones, nor small beetles
i nto Large beet Les.

It should be remembered that butterflies and moths,
beetles, Hies, beesand wasps all develop Prom a Larval stage
which is very different in appearance from the adult form,
and that the change in appearance is brought about in the
period of pupation. On the other hand, such insects as
grasshoppers, cockroaches and cotton staiuers, which have
an incomplete metamorphosis, are in the immature stages
somewhat like the adult in general form, but without wings
or with developing wings. In the case of any insect, how-
ever, the winged individual is the adult.

Senses.

Insects have well developed senses of taste, smell,
hearing and sight. They have also well organized digestive,
nervous, circulatory, and respiratory systems.

It is next to impossible to determine exactly the
functions of certain sense organs in insects. The organs for
seeing, hearing and for producing sound can be recognized
by their structures, and by experiment, but there are others,
the function of which it is not so easy to determine.

The sense of taste is probably located in the small
appendages of the mouth parts, the senses of smell and hear-
ing are, in some insects at least, in the antennae, which are
often the most conspicuous appendages of the head. Special
organs of hearing are sometimes (in certain Orthoptera) to
be found on the abdomen and legs. The sense of sight
depends on the eyes, which are of two kinds, simple and
compound. The compound eyes are often made up of many
facets and are located at the sides of the head, while the
simple eyes, or ocelli, are situated between them, either on
the top or the front of the head.

The simple eyes of insects are not always present, but
when they occur, they are two or three in number. The
compound eye is perhaps the most complex and delicate
structure in the insect world.

13

In many instances, the compound eyes occupy by far
the greater part of the entire surface of the head, and the
number of elements or facets which go to make up one of
these compound eyes often runs to many thousands, although
sometimes it is small.

It is not likely that insects have power of vision over
long range, or that they see distinctly. They are all conscious
of light and darkness, and some of them distinguish certain
colours; many of them discriminate moving bodies, and
others perhaps, recognize at greater or less distances those
insects on which they prey, or insects or birds to which they
are likely to fall a prey.

Circulation.

The arrangement of the circulatory, digestive and
nervous systems in insects is a typical characteristic. The
alimentary canal is central in position ; the organ of circulation
is dorsal, and on account of its position, has received the
name of dorsal vessel ; the nervous system is ventral. The
accompanying diagram (Fig. 1 1) represents a median longi-
tudinal section through the body of a caterpillar. The dorsal
vessel, the digestive system and the nervous system are
shown in their relative positions, and are referred to by
letters in the legend lines. The blood of insects is not con-
fined in veins, arteries and capillaries, as is the case in the

Fig", ii. Diagrammatic vertical section lengthwise through
body of insect to illustrate relative positions of some of the
more important organs.

(s), ser/meufs of ho ly wall: (m), muscle layer: (h) heart or da ml vesst I :

(a), alimentary canal : («). nervous system : (»•), reproductive organs.

(Redrawn from Coms'ock's Manna I for the Study of Insects.)

higher animals ; it fills the body-cavity and bathes all the
organs, even penetrating into the legs and wings. It is
usually colourless, but is sometimes tinted yellowish, green,
and even red, but does not derive its red colour from red
corpuscles, and is not red blood in the same way as is the
blood of the higher animals.

14

The organ of circulation is the heart or dorsal vessel. As
has been said, it is called the dorsal vessel because of its
position in the body, lying as it docs along the median line
of the back, just under the body wall. The heart is a
straight, unbranched, tubular organ provided with muscles,
extending from the hinder end of the body to the head : it is
generally closed at the posterior end and open anteriorly.
The portion lying within the abdomen is constricted at
intervals, and at each constriction there is a valve. These
valves divide the dorsal vessel into compartments or
chambers. By means of a rhythmic contraction and expan-
sion of the walls of the dorsal vessel, accompanied by a
regular opening and closing of the valves, the blood is forced
from the rear toward the head, to the long aorta-like
portion of the dorsal vessel lying within the thorax. The
chambers are provided with small openings which communi-
cate directly with the body-cavity, and through which the
blood in the body-cavity is taken into the heart and put into
circulation.

The pulsations of the dorsal vessel and the movement of
the blood in the body-cavity can easily be observed in
certain caterpillars. The arrowroot worm, or canna leaf-
roller (Ctilpodei ethlvus), is the best of our common West
Indian insects for the purpose.

Respiration.

Insects breathe by means of air-tubes (tracheae) which
begin at openings in the body wall, and extend throughout
all parts of the insect structure. The apertures, which are
called spiracles, or stigmata, are valvular, and are capable of
being opened and closed. On the outside, they are also
generally protected by hairs. There are usually ten stigmata
on each side of the insect body; but there are sometimes less,
and they also vary in their position, according to the life-
habits of the insect. They may be distinctly seen with the
naked eye in many insects. In certain large caterpillars,
they are surrounded by fine lines, or are enclosed in spots of
colour, which make them prominent. In the grasshopper,
they may be easily seen — two on the sides of the thorax, and
eight on the abdomen. The tracheae are composed of chitin,
and are continuous with the body wall. The smaller air-
tubes are simple tubular structures, but the larger are
strengthened on the inside by ridges, arranged spirally.

15

The tracheae from the stig-
mata connect with main lines,
which extend the length of
the bodv ; from these the
branches and smaller tubes com-
municate with all parts. In
Fig. 12, the cross-shaded por-
tions are the tracheae, the very
fine cross lines representing the
thickenings mentioned above.

In large insects which fly
long distances, such as pond-flies,
butterflies and moths, some beet-
les, flies, bees, etc., there often
occur large distensions of cer-
tain tracheae to form air sacs,
which are probably of use to
the insect in making the body
more buovant, and in increas-
ing the rapidity of breathing.

Insects are air-breathers,
with few exceptions ; most cf
those which live in the water
must come to the surface from
time to time for a supply of air,
and in many cases the habit of
living in water, in decaying or-
ganic matter, in plant tissues, or
as animal parasites, necessitates
some modification, or special
0f adaptation, in the manner of
obtaining the necessary air.

{Redrawn after Miall & Denny?} Mosquito larvae (Fig. 13)

breathe by means of a special organ at the posterior end of

the body, which is brought into contact with the air.

Maggots of flies which live in plant or animal tissues often

have spiracles at that end of the body, which communicate

with the air. In the accompanying illustration (Fig. 13) the

tracheal tube, at the posterior end of the body, is shown at

right angles to the body. The main tracheal trunks are

indicated by the faint lines which may be traced through the

segmented abdomen into the broad thorax, where they

diverge.

Water beetles come to the surface and carry down,
when they dive again, a film of air held by the fine hairs of

Fig\ 12.

Tracheal system
cockroach.

16

the bodv, while certain insects are provided with tracheal
^ilK. in the aquatic larval stage. In the case of the larva of
the pond-fly and "I ;i few other species, the modifications
of the tracheal system adapt the insect i<> ;i completely
aquatic existence over a certain portion of its life-cycle. In
these instances, which are 'Ik- exceptions rather than the
rule, the in--'''-! derives oxygen Prom the water in .1 manner
exactly similar to that employed by fishes, which breathe by
eills.

Fig". 13. Larva of mosquito.
(Ftom U. S DejH Agric.)

The aeration of the blood is accomplished in a manner
exact ly opposite to t hat in higher animals. The air penetrates
to all pails of the body by means of the tracheae, which are
bathed by the blood, and comes into intimate contact with
the food-substance by means of the minute branches of the
tracheae which envelop the alimentary canal.

Nek vors System.

The relative positions of the vital systems are also
opposite in insects to those in higher animals. In insects
the* circulatory system is dorsal, and the nervous system is

Fig*. 14. Nervous system of an insect.
(Redrawn from Theobald, Agricultural Zoology )

17

ventral, while in vertebrate animals the nervous svstem is
dorsal and the circulatory one ventral.

In insects, the nervous system is not concentrated into
a large brain, but is divided among a series of nerve centres,
or ganglia, arranged in pairs often fused together. The
ventral line in Fig. 11 shows the position of these ganglia
and their connecting nerve cords, and Fig. 14 shows the
ventral nervous svstem, with its small nerve-branches.

The double mass shown at the extreme end, and the
next portion connected by the heavy lines, together form
the brain. The former portion is above the oesophagus, or
gullet, and the latter below, and the heavy lines referred to
are nerve cords which connect the two parts, the gullet
running through the opening thus made. The first portion
of the nervous system is the supra-oesophageal ganglia, the
second the sub-oesophageal ganglia ; these are connected by
the oesophageal nerve collar. Next follow three thoracic
and seven abdominal ganglia, all connected by a central
nerve cord.

The nervous system varies according to general struc-
ture, usually by fusion of ganglia ; but, with the excej^tion of
the supra-oesophageal ganglia, it is alwa}^ ventral in
position. Nerves extend to all the organs and muscles, and
permit the insect to respond to a stimulus of any sort.

The nerve-endings in certain insect structures, such as
antennae, palpi, etc., are very delicate, and enable the
insect to be conscious of very slight stimuli.

Digestion.

The digestive system in insects, in its simplest form,
consitss of a cylindrical tube, extending in a direct course
from the mouth to the anus. In the more specialized insects,
the alimentary canal is very modified, being folded and
doubled on itself in such a way as to give it a length con-
siderably in excess of the total length of the bodv. The
organs which are concerned with feeding and digestion
occupy a very large proportionate part of the entire bodv-
cavity, as may be seen by reference to the drawing at
Fig. 11. Food taken in at the mouth passes by means
of the oesophagus, or gullet, to the stomach. Sometimes
a crop and gizzard are developed — the crop for storing
a portion of food, the gizzard with strong muscles and

18

ohitmous ridges and hooks, by means <>f which 1 1 1 • • food is
reduced to a finer condition before entering the stomach.
In certain insects, at least, ;i larger pari of tin- actual
digestive process is carried on in the crop, and in these
also, the gizzard serves as a strainer through which
the finer portions of the food, with digestive fluids, are carried
id the stomach, in which absorption takes place. The stomach
is a large digestive organ (l^ig« 11) From which the food
passes to the intestine, colon, rectum, and to the anus, where
waste and undigested food is voided. 'he food canal is
composed of three sections, the fore-gut, mid-gut and hind-
gut.

The manner of taking food also varies greatly among
insects. Certain insects with biting mouth parts, such as
grasshoppers and many beetles, eat vegetable food, in both
the larval and adult stages of their development. Others,
such as plant lice and cotton stainers, take plant food by
means of sucking mouth parts also during the whole of the
larvaland adult life. Others, still, feed with biting mouth
parts in the larval stage, and in the adult one either do not
feed at all, or get their food by sucking the juices of plants
and flowers. Many butterflies and moths are examples of
these. Other examples of the variety of ways of feeding are
to be seen in the mosquito, the larva of which is a scavenger
or predator in stagnant water, while the adult male sucks
the juice of fruits and flowers, and the adult female the
blood of animals. Another example is to be found in many
bees and wasps, where the same individual possesses mouth
parts developed for both biting and sucking.

The manner of feeding has a great influence on the
development of the food canal. Larvae, with biting mouth
parts, which feed on vegetable matter have very large ali-
mentary systems, while predaceous insects have smaller ones,
and those which suck the juices of flowers and plants, and
the blood of animals, smaller still. Certain insects which
suck their food, such as Lepidoptera, Dipt era and Hemiptera,
have a development of the gullet which acts as a sucking-
pump, by means of which the food is taken up and forced
back into the stomach, in bees and ants, the region of the
gizzard is occupied by the honey-stomach, into which the
nectar can be taken and kept separate from the actual food
of the insect. The nectar or honey can be disgorged at will.

Attached to, or communicating with, the alimentary
canal, there are two or three different kinds of glands, each

19

kind in pairs or in a number of pairs. The salivary glands
open into the month, and in addition to possessing the func-
tion of moistening foods, they are often developed for quite
different purposes. For instance, the silk glands of the silk-
worm and many other caterpillars, the poison glands of
mosquitoes and of certain Hemiptera are salivary glands, or
portions of the salivary glands specially developed for the
purpose. Other poison glands, scent glands, and glands for
many special purposes occur in insects, but quite apart from
the digestive system. The kidney tubes, or ' malpighian '
tubes, of insects communicate with the food canal, at the,
junction of the mid-gut with the hind-gut, that is where
the stomach and small intestine join. These are often very
numerous, and their function is excretory, similar to that of
the kidneys in other animals. The waste products are
passed into the intestine, and thence voided through the
anus with the undigested food and other waste matter.

Reproduction.

Reproduction in insects is sexual, as a general rule, the
organs of the two sexes being borne in separate individuals.
Hermaphroditism (the two sexes in one individual) does not
occur normally, and it is not known that hermaphrodite
insects ever reproduce. The sexual organs are well devel-
oped, the testes of the male producing the spermatic fluid,
and the ovaries of the female, the eggs. In the female of
many species, the ovipositor is developed with special refer-
ence to the situation in which the eggs are to be laid. In
the case of many bees, wasps, and ants, the ovipositors are
often developed and used as stings, and as such are well
known to most persons. Certain grass] loppers are able to
force the abdomen into the ground for the purpose of egg-
laying ; thrips, the cane fly and others have a saw-like
organ by means of which the eggs are deposited in incisions
in the surface of the plant tissue.

Asexual reproduction occurs in plant lice, during
a portion of the year, and in a few other insects. This
parthenogenesis, as it is called, is a normal feature in the
life-cycle, and the offspring consists of females. The queen
of the honey-bee is able to lay, at will, fertilized eggs which
produce female, and unfertillized eggs which produce male,
forms. Another kind of a sexual reproduction, known as

L>0

paedogenesis sometimes occurs in insects. The larvae of
certain Cecidomyiidae are capable of giving birth fco young,
and in an another group of small Hies the pupa deposits
unfertilized eggs which are capable <>!' hatching.

21

CHAPTER IV.
Orders of Insects.

It has been shown already (see p. 4) that the class
Insecta is one of the four classes of Arthropoda. This is
divided into orders, each of which includes individuals
which have some prominent characteristic in common.
Each order is separated from all the others by the fact
that its members possess characters which are not shared
by the members of any other orders.

The number of orders used in any classification may
vary according to the purpose for which it is intended. In
thepresent instance, for example, ten orders are considered ;
in a more careful analysis for systematic purposes, certain of
these might be divided to form others. Carpenter (Insects.
Their Structure and Life) employs fifteen orders, Comstock
(Manual for the Study of Insects) nineteen, and Sharp (Cam-
bridge Natural History, Insects, Vols. V, VI) carries out
the careful division until thirty-five orders are provided.

When, as in the present case, only ten orders are used
in the classification, some of these must include groups
which differ slightly from the type of the order, bub show
a decided relationship to it.

Order I. Orthoptera. Straight-Winged Insects.

This includes cockroaches, crickets, mole crickets,
grasshoppers, leaf insects, the godhorses, earwigs, and
similar insects. Insects of this order have two pairs
of net-veined wings, the first pair being thicker and
stronger than the second, while the latter are large and

22

more delicate, and when at rest arc folded lengthwise like

a fan. under I lit- lirst pair, which serve as rovers Tor them.
This straight, longitudinal folding of the wings provides
the name of the older, which comes from the two Greek
words orthos, straight, and pteron, a wing. The silverfish
(see Fig. 8) are for convenience included in this order,
although they are wingless. The metamorphosis is incom-

Fi°\ 15. Orthoptera. Grasshopper.
Slightly enlarged. {Original.)

plete ; the mouth parts are formed for biting, in both larvae
and adults.

The silverfish, a common household pest, which is one
of the most primitive of insects, should really be included
in another order — the Thysanura. The members of this order
never possess wings ; their mouth parts are formed for biting,
but are not powerful ; and their metamorphosis is incomplete.
Only one insect of this order is mentioned in this book ;
and for the sake of convenience it has been referred to the
Orthoptera, which include insects most closely related to
the Thysanura.

Order II. Thysanoptera. Fringe-Winged Insects.

This order includes the insects known as Thrips. These
are small, delicate insects with mouth parts formed for
cutting and lapping. The first and second pairs of wings are
similar in size and shape; and are bordered with a fringe of

23

Fig. 16. Thysanoptera. Onion thrips.

(a) adult; (b) antenna of same ; (c) young larva ; id) full-grown larva.
All greatly enlarged. {From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

fine hairs. The name of the order comes from the structure
of the wings, being derived from the two Greek words
thysanoSj a tassel, and pteron, a wing. Fig. 16 shows young
and adult thrip-j, the latter with its delicate, fringed wings.

Order III. Hemiptera. Half- Winged Insects.

This order includes the true bugs, plant lice, scale
insects and several parasitic forms such as the bed bugs and
lice. The name of the order is derived from the Greek
words hemi, half, and pteron, a wing, in reference to the fact
that certain of these insects have the basal portion of the

Fig1. 17. Hemiptera. Leaf footed plane bug.
Tivice haturalsize. (Front U.S. Dept. Agrie.)

21

*,-«&^

Fig". 18. Hemiptera. Melon aphis.
(a) winged female ; (aa) enlarged antenna of same ; (ab) dark female,
side view, sucking juice from surface of leaf; (b) young or larva ;
(c) last stage of nymph ; (d) wingless female. All greatly enlarged.

{From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

25

first pair of wings thickened, and the apical portion mem-
branous. The metamorphosis in this group is incomplete ;
the mouth parts are formed for piercing and sucking in both
the larval and adult stages.

This order includes insects showing great diversity in
structure, especially with regard to wings, and in metamor-
phosis. In the case of many of the plant bugs (Fig. 17)
with the typical structure of fore- wings as mentioned above,
the second pair is membranous, and both sexes are winged.
In the case of the white flies, cicads, leaf-hoppers and
plant lice (Fig. 18) both sexes are winged, the wings
of both pairs are membranous throughout, while in the
scale insects (Fig. 19) the female is wingless and the male
is provided with only one pair of membranous wings.

'5JP-KP* ' '■■■ ■

$m

im

*=

tr.

*3s

/'A^.:

i

t

-i.

£,

I

M

Fig. 19. Hemiptera. Scale insects, showing male and female scales,

and a winged male insect.

All enlarged. (Imperial Dept, Agric.)

20

Order IV. Odonata. The Dragon Flies.

The dragon flies or pond flies are familiar to all residents
in the West Indies bv their swift, darting llijdit. the
apparent delicacy of their structure, and often by their
bright! and irridescenl colours. Thev are insects with biting
mouth parts in both immature and adull stages of growth,
and i hey are predaceous on insects or other forms of animal
life, in both stages. The immature stages arc passed in
standing, or slowly-running, water. Pond-flies (Fig. 20)
have two pairs of membranous, strongly nerved wings, of
which the second or hind pair is often longer than the first.

Fig". 20. Odjnata. Pond-flies.
Both about natural jsize. {Original.)

Tl

'lie origin of the name of the order, which is thought
to have come from the Greek Avoid odous, a tooth, is not
well understood.

27

Order V. Platyptera. Plat-winged Insects,

This order includes several groups of insects which were
formerly considered in the old order Neuroptera. It com-
prises the families containing the Termites, the biting bird
lice and the book lice. The termites, or white ants, are well
known (Fig. 21) ; the bird lice are wingless parasites of birds

Fig. 21. Platyptera. White Ant.

(a) adult mate ; (b) terminal abdominal segments', (c) same of female;
{d) male side view; (e) abdomen of female, side view.; if) tarsus
showing joints and claw; a, d, e, enlarged; b, c, /, greatly enlarged,

{From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

28

both wild and domesticated, while the book lie** arc the

minute, fragile insects often seen in 1 ks and old papers.

The insects of tins order are characterized by the possession
of biting mouth parts in the Larval and adult stages of
growth, and two pairs of membranous wings, the two pairs
being similar in size and shape. The metamorphosis is
incomplete.

Order VI. Neuroptera. Nerve Winged Insects.

In this order are included the Lace-wing Hies (Fig. 22)
and others similar in appearance. The principal distin-
guishing features are the two pairs of membranous wings

«p®ii£3

Fig-. 22. Neuroptera. L^c^-wing- fly.
Enlarged. {Imperial Dept. Agile.)

with many nerves or veins, and cross nerves, the conspicuous
antennae, the biting mouth parts, in both larval and adult
stages, and the complete metamorphosis.

Order VII. Lepidoptera. The Scale-Winged Insects.

This order includes the butterflies and moths. (Fig. 23.)
The chief characters are the two pairs of membranous wings
covered with overlapping scales. The mouth parts in the
larvae are formed for biting, while the adults either are not
able to feed at all, or have mouth parts adapted to sucking
the nectar of flowers or the juice of ripe fruits. The
metamorphosis is complete. The name of the order is
derived from the two Greek words lepis, a scale, and pteron.
a wing. This order includes many pests to agriculture, such
as the moth borer of the sugar-cane, the ootton worm, the
giant moth borer, the potato moth and cut worms. Nearly
all the injury caused by these insects is brought about by
the feeding of the larvae. (Fig. 24.)

29

^w

H^^£

r
■

^^^^H

Hi

■

^^^^^

Fig. 23. Lepidoptera. Potato moth.
Slightly reduced. {Original.)

The adults are often beautiful in their colouring and
the delicate patterns they exhibit. Some of the larger of
them, especially some of the night-flying moths, are known
as bats, molly boobys, etc.

.«s

x t

Fig. 24. Lepidoptera. Full-grown caterpillar of moth borer.
Enlarged. {Imperial Dept. Agric.)

Order VIII. Coleoptera. Sheath- Winged Insects.

The members of this order have the first pair of wings
thickened and horny, to form a sheath or cover for the
membranous second pair, which are the true wings for flight.
When at rest these latter lie folded under the first pair.

The wing covers (elytra) meet in a straight line down
the back, protecting the wings and generally the entire
dorsal surface of the abdomen. The mouth parts are formed
for biting in both larval and adult stages of growth. The
metamorphosis is complete. The name of the order is
derived from the Greek words coleos, a sheath, and pteron,
a wing.

so

The Coleoptera are the beetles, including hardbacks,
weevils and lady-birds Many insects of this order an* in-
jurious to growing crops. Btored grain and household sup-

<y

Fig-. 25. Coleoptera. Root borer of sugar-cane.
Adult beetle, about natural size, {Original.)

Fig. 26. Coleoptera. Lime tree bark borer.
About \\ timzs natural sizz. (Original.)

plies. The. root borer of the sugar-cane (Fig. 25), the
long-hornei borers (Fig. 23), the grain weevils, and the

3f

Fig-. 27. Coleoptera. A large beetle.
About \\ times natural size. (Original.)

Fig-. 28. Coleoptera. Lady-bird beetle.

[a)larva ; (b) empty pupal skin ; (c) adult tilth enlarged antenna

above. All enlarged. {From U.S. Dcpt. Agrie.)

cigarette and drug store beetles, are examples. The mem-
bers of one family, the Coccinellidae (Fig. 28), are usually

32

hicrhlv beneficial from their habit of previnffon other insect a
Buoh as plant li<'«'. Bcale insects and similar forms.

Order IX. Diptera The Two winged Insects.

The chief characteristic of this order is the fact that
the adults never have more than one pair of wings. Tlir'
first pair is developed, the second being represented by small
structures called halteres or balancers.

This order includes the true flies. These insects are
very numerous, and are diverse in habit, but all agree in
the possession of one pair of wings, the complete metamor-
phosis and the mouth parts in the adult formed for piercing
and sucking, or for lapping. The name of the order is
derived from the Greek words dis, two, a,ndpteron, a wing.

Fig. 29. Diptera. House-fly.
Puparium at left; adult next; larva and enlarged parts at right.
Enlarged. (From U.S Dept. Agric.)

Representatives of the order are the house -flv (Fig. 29)
the blow fly, mosquitoes (Fig. 30), and sand flies (merry-
wings). The larvae are maggots, or, in the case of mosquitoes,
water wrigglers.' They live in a variety of situations
according to their manner of life. Some are scavengers,
breeding in manure and decaying organic matter ; others
attack the leaf, flower, fruit or 'stem of plants ; while others
are direct parasites on man or on the lower animals. Some
are distinctly beneficial on account of their habit of preying
upon, or of parasitizing, other insects.

S3

Fig". 30. Diptera. Yellow fever mosquito.
Enlarged. {From U.S. Dept. Agric )

Fig. 31. Diptera. House flea.
(a) larva; (b) pupa ; (c) adult flea. All enlarged.
{From U.S Dept Agric.)

:;i

The fleas (Fig. 31), which are often included in the
Diptera, are sometimes considered as ;i distinct order. They
ditfer from the other Dipttera in being wingless, and in the
structure ofthelarva. They agree in the complete meta-
morphosis an»l in the sucking mouth parts.

Order X. Hymenoptera. The Membrane- winged

Insects.

The order includes such well-known insects as tin* bees,
\v;is|is and ants, and an enormous number of very small and
inconspicuous insects which are highly beneficial from their
habit of living parasitically in or upon other insects. The
members of this order (Figs. 82 and 33) possess two pairs
of membranous wines, and there is generally a distinct con-
striction between the thorax and abdomen ; sometimes, as in

Fig-. 32 HymenDptcra. Carpenter bee.
Slightly reduced. (Original )

Fig-- 33- Hymenoptera. Leaf-cutting1 bee.
About \h times natural size. (Original.)

35

the case of the mason bee, a very long, slender pedicel con-
nects the two. Good examples of this order are the Jack
Sjoaniards, wild bees, cow bees, mason bees, and the honey
bee, as well as the great numb or of ants and parasites. The
name of the order is derived from the Greek words hymen
membrane, and pteron, a wing.

The larvae of the Hymenoptera are in most cases leg-
less grubs with biting mouth parts. In the case of the
adults the mouth parts are adapted for biting and sucking,
both these adaptations sometimes being found in the same
individual, as in the case of the honey bee and other long-
tongued bees.

Key to the Orders of Insects Mentioned in this

Paper.

Directions for Using the Key.

Certain readers of this book will not be accustomed
to using such a key as that which follows. For them, the
following explanation of its working is given.

If you have collected an insect and wish to know to which
order it belongs, compare the insect with headings, successive-
ly as indicated, beginning with the first two. You will find
every time two sets of characters, with the same headings,
to choose between, and the next reference is indicated by the
letters on the right [as, see (b) ] until the correct order is indi-
cated, where its name and number will be found (as, Order
IV, Odonata).

To take an example : suppose you have a dragon fly.
Compare the first two characters ; you may not know the
young form, but as the references are to A and B, you try
the first of these. Examination of the specimen shows that
it has biting mouth parts. Refer to (a) and compare the
wings, and you find the next reference is (c). Here the
choice is between large insects living where they are con-
spicuous, and small and inconspicuous insects. You readily
find the reference to come out at Order IV, Odonata.

It must be remembered that there are many exceptions
to the general rules, and you may find insects that do not
appear to be accounted for anywhere in the key. For hi-
st ance, there are beetles in which the front wings are entirely

ii in li-\ !•]. »| •••■ I. and moths where the females are wingless Tt
would 1"' impossible within the limits of tin- available space,
to adapt the key to include adequate reference t<> the excep-
tional cases, but this will nol interfere with its usefulness m
imexion with the more common forms.

The characters by means of which insects may be dis-
tinguished from ticks arc chiefly the absence of wings, and
the possession of four pairs of Legs, in the case of the ticks.
while the adult insect is, normally, winged and provided with
only three pairs of Ices. (See also p, 5.)

Key.

Insects with incomplete 'metamorphosis, the life-
cycle consisting of three distinct stages of de-
velopment, egg, larva (or nymph), and (imago).
There is no quiescent pupal stage, during
which the wings and other organs characteris-
tic of the adult are developed ... ... See A.

Insects with complete metamorphosis, the life-
cycle consisting of four distinct stages : egg,
larva, pupa and adult (imago.) The pupa is a
distinctly quiescent stage during which occurs
the complete transformation from the grub,
maggot, or caterpillar to the winged, sexually
perfect adult ... ... ... ... ... See B.

A. Insects with biting mouth parts ... See (a)

A. Insects with piercing and sucking mouth

parts ... ... ... ... ... See(b)

(.1) The first pair of wings somewhat thick-
ened and horny, serving as covers for
the membranous second pair, which are
larger and fold longitudinally, like a
fan ... ... ... Order I, Orthoptera.

(a) Two pairs of membranous wings similar
in size, shape and structure, the second
pair sometimes larger than the first. The
wings do not fold See (c)

(b) Small to minute insects, with fringed
wings, living entirely on plants and within
flowers " Order II, Thysanoptera.

(b) Small to moderate-sized insects ; generally
with a distinct proboscis, or sucking mouth

37

parts. Wingless (female scale insects), with
two pairs of membranous wings (white
flies, leaf hopper, etc.), or with two pairs of
wings, the first of which is thickened at
the base and membranous at the tip,
beneath which the larger, membranous
second pair is folded (true bugs)

... Order III, Hemiptera.

(c) Large insects, conspicuous in the adult
condition, strong of flight. The larvae
are aquatic ... ... Order IV, Odonata.

(c) Small insects, living in colonies and con-
structing nests and covered galleries,
winged adults appearing only at certain
periods (Termites) ; wingless parasites,
solitary in habit, living in the plumage of
birds, or in the fur of animals (the biting
lice) ; or minute insects, sometimes wing-
less, which are found in old books, papers,
etc. (the book lice) ... Order V, Platyptera.

B. Insects winged. ... ... ... See (d)

B. Insects wingless : Parasitic insects, with

thin, flattened bodies and much-developed

hindlegs adapted for leaping.

Fleas ... Order IX, Diptera,

(d) Insects with one pair of wings

Order IX, Diptera.

(d) Insects with two pairs of wings ... See (e)

(e) Wings clothed with scales

Order VII, Lepidoptera.

(e) Wings not clothed with scales ... See (f)

(f) Wings of the first pair thickened,
meeting in a straight line down the back,
forming a cover for those of the second
pair, which are membranous and folded
beneath ... ... Order VIII, Coleoptera.

(f) Wings of both pairs membranous See (g)

(g) Wings with many cross veins, larger in
proportion to size of the body

Order VI, Xeuroptera
(g) Wings with few or no cross veins, small in
proportion to size of the body

Order X, Hy menoptera.

38

CHAPTER V.
Insect Pests of Crops.

COTTON.

THE cotton WORM (Alabama argillacea Hiibn.)

Lepidoptera.

The cotton wo: in is an insect native to tropical America,
and lias I een known ever since cotton lias been culti-
vated in these regions. It occurs in all the West Indian
Islands ; but in St. Vincent alone, it has not occurred in
sufficient numbers to canse any damage since the re-estab-
lishment of the cotton industry some nine or ten years ago.
In the other islands, notably Barbados, Montserrat, Antigua,
Nevis and St. Kitts, this pest has been so abundant at times
that fields of cotton have been completely defoliated So
rapid is the feeding by the nearly full-grown caterpillars
that many persons have believed that the attacks develop in
a night ; the caterpillars had not been observed in their
younger stages, and it was thought that they were able
to reach enormous numbers in this short time.

The cotton worm occurs in all the cotton-growing dis-
tricts of tropical and sub-tropical America, and in the adult
stage has been found far outside these limits. No other
food plant than cotton is known, and it therefore does not
breed in any locality where this plant cannot be grown.

The Egg. The eggs are laid on the under side of the

Fig. 34. Eggs of cotton worm.

(a) seen from above; (b) from the side. Greatly enlarged.

(From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

39

' l*l>

tender leaves at the growing tips of the cotton plant. They
are very small, pale-green objects, circular in outline when
seen from above, and somewhat flattened as viewed from the
side (Fig. 34). If one is examined with a magnifying glass,
the surface will be seen to be marked with fine lines or
ridges radiating from the centre, above. The eggs are laid
singly — not in clusters as in the case of those of many moths.
The duration of the egg stage is about four or five days.

The Larva. The larva of this insect is a caterpillar ;
when first hatched this is verv small and of the colour of

%J

the leaf. For the first few days it feeds on the epidermis

and soft tissues on the under side
of the cotton leaf. As it gets
older, the jaws become very strong
and the entire tissue of the leaf
is eaten, except the largest veins.
The full-grown larva (Fig. So)
til 'if measures about 1 \ inches inlength.
The general colour is green, with
a very fine bluish white line
m*y, running along the middle of the
fr"'( back for the entire length of the
bodv. This is bordered on either
side by a broad green band, and
each of these in turn by one of
yellowish green. There are rows
of black spots each surrounded
by a white ring, and each bearing
in its centre a stiff hair or bristle.

The larval stage lasts for
about twelve to fourteen days,
ordinarily, development being
more rapid in hot and moist
weather than in the cooler or drier
seasons.

The Pupa. When the cater-
pillar has become full-grown, it
Cotton worm larva, ceases feeding and transforms
(6) dorsal view into the pupa, within a portion of
Dept leaf folded over and secured by
nivalis of a few silken threads,
forming a scant cocoon. The pupa is at first greenish in
colour soon changing to dark-brown ; it is about J-inch

Fig: 35-
(a) side

Redrawn after US
Aijric. {Enlarged )

10

Fig". 36. Cotton Worm.

{a) Moth with wings spread ; (b) with wings closed. Natural size.
(Redrawn. After U.S Dept. Auric)

m length, nearly cylindrical, and broadly rounded at the
anterior and pointed at the posterior end.

The Moth. The adult insect (Fig. 36) is a small, olive-
grey moth with afspread of wings of about lh inches. The
forewings are marked with several wavy dark lines, and
with one or two small bluish- white spots. The moth flies
at dusk, hiding by day and coming out to feed and deposit
eggs in the late afternoon and early evening. Egg-laying
begins a few days after the moths emerge, each female
laying a large number, with an average of 300.

Remedies. The cotton worm is controlled by the use of
arsenical poisons, of which Paris green and London purple
have given the best results in the West Indies. These poisons
are applied dry, mixed with lime in the proportion of 1 lb. of
the poison to 5 or 6 ft>. of dry air-slaked lime. This mixture
is dusted on to the plants from bags of strong cloth, such as
ticklingburg, which has a fairly close mesh, but one that
allows the poison to pass through with a little shaking.

Fig"- 37. Fiery Ground beetle.
(a) larva ; (b) adult. Natural size. (From tj^s. Dept Agric,)

41

Natural Enemies. The cotton worm has many natural
enemies which exercise a very large degree of control over
its abundance, and it is probable that this pest is often held
in check by these means to such an extent as to render it

quite inconspicuous for consider-
able periods of time. The natural
enemies are of many kinds : birds,
toads and lizards devour both the
caterpillar and the moth. The
caterpillars are also eaten by the
fiery ground beetle (Calosoma
calidum — Fig. 37 ) which is known
to occur in St. Vincent and Bar-
buda, and by the wild bee or
Jack Spaniard (Polistes annu-
laris— Fig. 38) and other related
insects. The caterpillars and
pupae are parasitized by the
hymenopterous parasites such as
the Chalcis Hies (C. annulata), by
certain dipterous flies, and the
eggs are attacked by minute
parasitic insects such as Trichoqramma pretiosa, 'Riley, and
Telenomus, of which there are several species. ' The
accompanying illustration (Fig. 39) shows Chalcis ovata,

Fig. 38. Wild bee or
Jack Spaniard.

About \\ times natural size.
(Original )

Fig. 39. Hymenopterous parasite.
Enlarged, (From U.S Dept. Agric,)

4-2

an American parasite of the cotton worm, which is similar
in appearance to the West Indian Bpeciea

the LBS9EB COTTON worm (Aletia luridula, Guen.).

Lepidoptera.

In habits and appearance, and in its manner of feeding,

this insect is very similar to t he preceding one. In the larval
stage it differs from the cotton worm in being slightly
smaller and, when nearly Pull-grown, in having a reddish or
pinkish tinge of colour. It also hides itself more completely
during the day, and it may happen that in a field where
this insect is abundant no caterpillars will he seen until one
has learned to look carefully into the bracts surrounding the
flower and pod. It differs also in the manner and place of
pupation. The full-grown larva of the lesser cotton worm
enters into the soil at the base of the plant, where it forms
an earthen cell in which the pupal stage is passed. The
adult insect is slightly smaller, with a suggestion of reddish
or pinkish in its dull, greyish colour.

The lesser cotton worm probably occurs throughout the
West Indies, but in only one instance has it been recorded
as being sufficiently numerous to attract attention as
a pest. This occurred in Barbados in one season, and as far
as could be seen, this species was the only cotton worm in
a very badly infested field.

This insect is controlled by the same means as the
cotton worm, and is probably held in check by the same
natural enemies.

COTTON STAIXER3 (Di/sdercus spp.). Hemiptera.

Cotton stainers, of which several species are known in
the West Indies, are small insects with mouth parts fitted for
puncturing the tissues and sucking the juices of plants.
The eggs of these insects are small, ovoid, glistening objects
with a smooth surface, which are dropped loosely in the
opening cotton bolls or upon the ground beneath the cotton
plants or among cotton seed either in the ginneries or on
the ground. The young of all the species mentioned are
reddish in colour, the red being often tinged with yellow or
black. In the adult condition the species are more easily
separated by their colour markings than in the immature
stages gf growth,

43

Fig1. 40. Cotton Stainer. (I), ondreae.)
Three times natural size (Imperial Dept. Agric )

Dysdercus andreae, Linn. (Fig. 40) is found in the
Northern Islands, as far south as Gandelonpe. This species

Fig*. 41. Cotton Stainer. {D. delauneyi.)
Three times natural size. {Imperial Dept, Agric.)

44

is red in general colour, marked with black and white, the
white markings being in the form of a St. Andrew's Cross
on the wings, and white spots on the sides.

Dyadercus delanneyi, Leth. (Fig. 41), is the common
cotton stainer of the Soul hern Islands, extending in its range
from Montserrat to Grenada. The general absence of
white markings on the body of this insect and the presence
of a white band on the base of the apical segment of the
antennae serve to distinguish it from the preceding.

In Grenada, another species (Dyadercus femaldi, Ballon)
also occurs. This species differs from D. delauneyi in having
the red ground colour suffused with j^ellow to such an
extent that the yellowish tinge often predominates.

Barbados is the only island in the West Indies where
cotton stainers are not known at the present time.

The several spacies of cotton stainers, though differing in
appearance, are all alike in habit. They feed on the growing
bolls, the seed, and probably also on the leaf and tender stems
of the cotton plant. It has not often happened that they
have occurred in such numbers as to prove serious pests in
these islands, during the past few years ; but their power of
rapid increase in numbers and the absence of natural enemies
give to these insects considerable importance as possible pests.
It is recorded that cotton stainers were largely responsible
for the downfall of the cotton industry in the Bahama
Islands, some forty years ago.

In addition to feeding on cotton in the field, cotton
stainers swarm about all buildings where cotton seed and
seed-cotton are stored, finding food and opportunities for
breeding. The seed of the silk cotton tree is also a favourite
food, while such plants as the musk ochro (Hibiscus
Abelmoschiis), ochro (H. escidentus), anodyne or seaside
mahoe (Thespesia j)opulneas, and other malvaceous plants are
often found to harbour these insects.

Mention has been made of the injury to the plant from
the puncturing of the tissues and the sucking of the juice.
The name stainer has its origin in the fact that cotton lint is
discoloured by these insects. The staining is brought~about
by the deposition of the excrement of the insects in the
opening bolls, from the crushing of them in the gins, and
probably also from disease in the bolls which gains entrance
through the punctures made by the insects in feeding.

Control. Cotton stainers may be controlled by spray-
ing, collecting and trapping, and much may be done by
removing outside sources of food, as far as possible, during
the season when no cotton is available for them.

Spraying with any good contact insecticide by means of
a knapsack sprayer would be effective, but this is an expen-
sive method that will rarely be employed in the West Indies.
Collecting has proved chenp and effective. This operation is
carried out by means of tins containing water and kerosene,
into which the labourers jar or shake the young stainers.

The insects may be attracted to bits of sugar-cane,
small heaps of cotton seed, seed of silk cotton and ripe
mangoes, where they may be killed while feeding by means
of hot water, kerosene or crushing.

Any useless plants in the vicinity of cotton fields known
to harbour these insects should be destroyed, and great care
should be taken to prevent scattered seed from accumulating
around ginneries and store-houses.

Fig. 42 Fiov^r-bud miggot.
The adult insect. About 25 times natural size. {Original,)

46

THE flower-bud MAGGOT (Contarinia go8sypii, Felt.).

I )ij)i era.

The flower-bud maggol is the larva of a very small II v

a<icr, lii) which lavs its eere in the voune flower buds of

Fig. 43. Flower-bud maggot.
The larva. About SO times natural size. (Original.)

the cotton plant. The larvae (Fig. 43) feed on the develop-
ing essential organs, causing the death' of the bud, and
consequently preventing the formation of the boll. The
bracts surrounding the base of the attacked'flower-bud gen-

iS^Jkii *■■ ■

Fig. 44. Flower buds of cotton, showing flaring of bracts resulting

from attack of flower-bud maggot.

Reduced. (Original.)

47

erally flare back (Fig. 44) instead of remaining close around
the base, as in the normal flower, and this serves as an indi-
cation of attack before the buds drop. The adult insect,
the parent fly, is so very small that it is probably never
observed in the held upon or about the cotton plants. The
length of the body is only about T^-inch and the spread of
the wings is about J-inch. The maggots, which are very
small (about TVinch in length when full-grown), are yel-
lowish, or pinkish in colour, leave the bud as soon as it falls
to the ground and enter the soil, where they pupate.

The flower-bud maggot first made its appearance in
Antigua at the end of i 907, where it caused very serious
losses in the cotton crop at that time. It has been recorded
from Antigua each year since then, but has not appeared as
a pest in any other island. The attacks in 1907-8 and 1908-9
in Antigua lasted about three months —December, January
and February. The attacks in the two succeeding seasons
have been less severe and of shorter duration.

Control. No satisfactory means of
control have been devised. The practice
of early planting, which will allow the
forming of the bolls' before the time for
the attack of the flower-bud maggot to
commence, will enable a crop to be
produced. The time of planting in An-
tigua is influenced very largely by the
weather conditions, which sometimes make
early planting difficult in that island. This
condition, and the habits of this pest cause
its control to be a matter of difficulty.

Natural Enemies. It is likelv that
minute hymenopterous insects prey upon
the flower-bud maggot, but it is not possible
to say how far they exercise any control
over it.

Fig". 45. Leaf-
blister mite of
cotton.

Greatly enlarged.
{From NY.
Entom. Soc.)

THE LEAF-BLISTER MITE (Eriopyhes gossypii,
Banks). Acarina.

The leaf-blister mite (Fig. 45) attacks
all parts of the cotton plant except the
roots. The blisters which are character-
istic of this mite (Fig. 47) are distor-
tions or swellings, which result from its presence, and are

IS

>bablv due to an irritation in the tissues of the plant

are lined with a thick growth

pr< >l>al>l\
caused 1>\

it s feeding. The\

of vci'\

line hairs ( Fig.'

Fig. 46. Section
through gall made by
leaf-blister mite on
cotton leaf.

Great!)/ enlarged.
(From N.Y.
Enlom. Soc.)

16), among which
the mites live. The leaf-blister mite is
almost microscopic in size. It is so

small thai even when very abundant
the individual mites can scarcely be
seen, even with the aid of a good magni-
fying fflasS. The amount
done by the pes
severe, bu1 the loss Prom this cause has
been less since planters and others have
become more familiar with it.

ol injury
is sometimes very

The leaf-blister mite first occurred
as a pest of cultivated cotton in
Montserrat, in 1903. It was soon
afterward found to be attacking cotton,
both wild and cultivated, in all the other islands of the
Leeward and Windward groups. It has not, however, made
its appearance in Barbados.*

Fig. 47. Cotton leaf attacked by leaf-blister mite.
Reduced. {Original )

* Since this pamphlet has been in the press the leaf-blister mite has
been found on cotton in Barbados (Feb. 1912).

49

Control. The leaf-blister mite is best controlled by the
destruction of all old cotton plants immediately after the
crop is reaped, and the picking off of infested leaves as soon
as they appear on the young plants. On every estate and
in every district where the leaf-blister mite is abundant,
there should be a period of several weeks between the
destruction of the old plants and the planting of the next
crop. All wild cotton near the fields should be cut, as
a further precaution. A mixture of lime and sulphur, applied
as a dust on the plants, has been found useful iu checking
the increase of this pest in the case of serious attack on
young plants. The mites are so well protected by the
deformities of the plant in which they live, that they are
practically out of the reach of any insecticide. Lime and
sulphur would only come into contact with them if the mites
left the galls to travel across the surface of the leaf. This
would probably only happen when the full-grown mites left
the old galls in search of young leaf buds in which to deposit
eggs and thus provide for the infestation of the developing
leaves.

THE ROLL WORM (Heliothis obsoleta, Htibn.). Lepidoptera.

This is perhaps one of the most cosmopolitan of all
insects, being found in most parts of the temperate and
tropical regions of the world. It is a very general feeder, for
it attacks and thrives on a great variety of plants, generally
preferring the fruit to the leaves.

Fig". 48. Cotton boll worm.
(a) moth ; {b) larva. Slightly enlarged (From U. S. DejH Agric.

50

As a pest of corn it has caused great losses in tho
Southern States of A.merioa, and it is known as a pest of
tomatoes, tobacoo, peas and beans, and many other crops, as
welL

The parent moth varies from a Light to a dark-grey in

Fig. 49. Cotton boll worm.
Showing mode of attack on cotton boll. Natural size.
{From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

colour, and measures about 1J inches across the outstretched
wings. The female moth, which flies in the dusk of evening

51

and at night, lays its eggs scattered over the food plant. The
larvae vary much in colour and markings. The more common
form is of a greyish green colour on the sides, with two
darker stripes along the back, separated by a narrow light
stripe. The pupa is formed in the ground, 2 or 3 inches
below the surface, in a small earthen cell within which the
caterpillar encloses itself after feeding and growth have
been completed. The life-cycle occupies about six weeks
The caterpillar tunnels into the cotton bolls (Fig. 49), com-
pletely destroying the interior, and indeed often entirely
consuming the contents of them.

The corn ear worn (Laphygma frugiperda, S. and A.)
Fig. 50 — also occurs as a boll worm of cotton in the West

Indies. Neither of these
insects is known as a
serious pest of cotton in
these islands, although
both are known to occur,
and both are pests of
Indian corn.

Control. The des-
truction of infested bolls
containing the larvae wil
result in reducing con
siderably the numbers of
these insects. Measures
for control when they
attack Indian corn should
also be useful for reducing
their numbers as cotton
Fig. so. Corn ear worm. pests. The use of Paris

(a) moth ; (b) forcing; (c) larva ; green or other arsenical
(d) abdominal segment of larva, lateral poison Oil the cotton
view ;(e) pupa, lateral view, (d) twice plants assists in the con-
naturalsize.a 6, c e one fourth natur- r fuaco ^acfc 0;11PP

al size. {From U.S. Dept. Agric.) trol oi these pests, since

the larvae feed on the
leaves for a short time and have to eat their way into the
bolls, and they may be poisoned in so doing.

Trap Crops. It is sometimes possible, when the insects
become numerous, to plant corn and cowpeas near cotton
fields, at a time that they will be attractive to the egg-
laving moths, before the cotton bolls are formed j so that the

52

egrsrs will be mostly Laid in these crops instead of in t lie

OCT » I

cotton, These traps would be of no use unless they were
removed and fed to stock, or otherwise disposed of, before
the caterpillars are full-grown, so as to accomplish I heir des-
truction, [f they are allowed 1<> remain until the moths
emerge, the traps merely provide for increased infestation of
the cotton.

Tim RED MAGGOT {Porricoiulyla Q088ypii, Coquillett).

Diptera.

The red maggot is the larva of a small fly related to
the flower-bud maggot, and like that one, is too small to
be seen and recognized. It was first discovered in Barbados
in 1903, and in one or two seasons since that time has been
fairly abundant. In 1905, a very large proportion of the
cotton plants in certain fields was destroyed. The red
maggot occurs under the bark of the stem of the cotton
plant. The maggots when full-grown are nearly (\-inch
in length and of a reddish colour. They feed upon the
soft tissue of the bark and developing wood. When the
feeding of these insects extends completely around the
stem, it causes the death of all the portion beyond that
spot. The presence of the red maggot is always indicated
by a discoloured and shrunken area of bark. It has not
occurred as a pest in any of the islands except Barbados
although it has been recorded from Montserrat. The
attacks of this insect have been made in rather singular
manner, no field or estate having reported a severe attack
in two succeeding years. For its control it is necessary
that any plants seen to be affected should be pulled
up, or the affected part cut out and promptly burned.
Old cotton plants should be destroyed as soon as the
crop is reaped.

the cotton aphis (Aphis gossypii, Glover). Hemiptera.

The cotton aphis is a small, greenish insect, often to
be found on the under side of the leaves of cotton and other
plants. It has sucking mouth parts, and when it occurs
in extreme abundance causes serious injury to the plant.
The aphis, plant louse or green-fly, as it is commonly
called, is usually more abundant in dry, than in wet,
weather.

53

Fig. 51. Melon aphis.
(a) winged female ; {act) enlarged antenna of same ; (ab) dark female,
side view, sucking juice from surface of leaf; (b) young or larva;
(c) last stage of nynnoh ; (d) wingless female. All greatly enlarged.

From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

54

Control. If it is desired to apply remedial measures
for the control of aphis, spraying with kerosene emulsion
or whale oil soap would he the best treatment. This inseet,
however, is attacked by natural enemies, which often are
able to hold it in complete control. The most important
of the natural enemies are the several species of lady-bird?
which occur in the West Indies. The spotted lady-bird
(Meg ilia metadata, var., De Geer), and the red lady-bird
(Cgcloneda sanguinea, L.\ are shown at (Fig. 52). Certain

mi

<$00

c

Fig. 52. Lady-birds.

(a) Spotted ladybird ; (b) Red lady -bird ; (c) eggs. Enlarged.

{Impe7*ial Dept. Agric.)

species of aphis, are known to be attacked by hymenopter-
ous parasites, and by parastic fungi. The fungi develop
much more rapidly under moist conditions and would
exert more influence in the control of aphis in wet, than
in dry, weather. This fact, and the fact that heavy rains
wash the aphis off the leaves of plants, would explain
perhaps why these insects are more troublesome in the
dry season.

the cut worm {Pvodenia spp.). Lepidoptera.

Out worms are the larvae of certain night-flying moths
There are in the West Indies several closely related
species which are all alike in general habit. These cater-
pillars live in the ground and feed on the roots of plants
and on the stems of young seedlings. One of these,
Pvodenia ornithogalli, is shown in the illustration (Fig. 53).
Cotton plants are often attacked, the second or third day
after they appear above ground. Cut worms can be
controlled by the use of poisoned bait, which is applied on
the surface of the ground or lightly covered with soil at
the time that the seeds are planted.

55

Pig". 53. Cut worm.

Dark form, male, above; pale form, female, below,
enlarged. (From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

Somewhat

(a) pale
(From

A poison bait which has been
used with good success in Barba-
dos, in controlling cut worms in
cotton fields, was made by mixing
25 ft), bran (pollard) and 1 lb. Paris
green to a thick paste with water,
to which a sufficient quantity
of molasses has been added to
sweeten the mixture. This bait
is used by throwing down a
small handful (one or two table-
spoonfuls) at each hole when
the seed is planted. The cut
worms eat the poisoned mixture,
54. Cut worms. an^ are killed before the seed-

, /M , , ' lings come up, and the injury is

form (b) dark form B , , *
of larvae. prevented.

U.S. Dept. Agric.)

56

SCALE INSECTS. Hcmiptcra.

Cotton in the West Indies has been attacked by two

species of scale insects which arc commonly known as the
black scale and the white scale. The black scale (SaisseUa
nigra, Nietn.) has been a very serious pest, especially in

Fig? 55- Black scale en cotton.
Slightly enlarged. {Original.)

Barbados, where in 1905, several fields of cotton were a total
loss owing to the severity of the attack of this pest. At the
present time, black scale attracts very little attention and
has ceased to be regarded as a pest by most planters. This
changed condition has been brought about by the develop-
ment of the parasite of the black scale. This beneficial
insect is now known to occur throughout the West Indies.

It was first reared from the black scale in Barbados in
1907, and specimens were submitted to the United States
Department of Agriculture for identification. Through
the courtesv of Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief of the Bureau of
Entomology, these were studied by Mr. J. C. Crawford,
who found the insect to be a species new to science, to
which he gave the name Zalophoihrix mirum. The insect
is very small (about TV-inch in length), at first glance resem-
bling a small ant with rather short wings. Its general
colour is dark-brown, the head bearing conspicuous
reddish brown eyes ; the transparent wings are crossed
by a broad dark band near the middle. The egg of the
parasite is deposited by the female under the body of
the scale insect, about the time that the latter begins to
produce eggs. The parasite grub hatches in the midst of

57

the scale insect eggs and feeds upon them. Generally, only
one parasite grub is to be found under each scale, but in a
few instances two have been seen.

When its growth is finished, the parasite changes from
a fat, whitish grub to a pupa which, when first formed, is
light -coloured, and later is almost black. At the completion
of the pupal stage the adult Zalophothrix emerges through
a round hole in the back of the scale insect.

An abundance of scales punctured in this way indicates
an efficient percentage of parasitism, but it must be remem-
bered that such scales are dead and that the parasites have
left them. Other full-grown scales on the same plant will
probably contain the grub or pupa of the parasite.

In the event of an attack of black scale occurring
in a field of young cotton, it would be advisable to
introduce the parasite in order that the control of the scale
might be begun as soon as possible. Old cotton plants in
which there is an abundance of black scale should be pulled
up after the cotton is reaped, and piled in the field for two
weeks before they are burned or otherwise destroyed. This
will give the nearly mature parasites an opportunity to
emerge, and being winged, they will be able to fly into
adjoining wild land in search of scales in which to deposit
eggs ; many of the scale insects will die for want of food as
the plants become dry, since they are not able to travel far,
and the few that succeed in establishing themselves on other
plants will in all probability become so severely attacked
by parasites that they will be practically killed out.

Fig-. 56. White scale on cotton.
About lh times natural she. (Original.)

58

The white scale (Hemichionaspis minor) has not often
occurred as a serious pest of cotton in the West Indies.
This is due to the fact that it is held in check by parasitic
insects. The parasites of the white scale are very minute,
almost miscroscopic in size, but their effect is very beneficial.
The presence of these parasites may be determined by the
punctures in the scales, as in the case of the black scale, and
t is likely that in the event of a serious attack of this pest,
parasitized material might be introduced in the same man-
ner as is suggested for the black scale.

RED spider (Tetranyclius gloveri, Banks). Acarina.

Cotton is sometimes, especially in very dry weather,
attacked by a very small mite, the cotton red spider, which

lives on the under side of the
leaves. Enormous numbers of
this mite occur on each leaf, and
the effect of their feeding is to
'cause the leaves to dry up. The
red spider can be distinguished
only by careful examination of
the infested leaves, when it
may be seen actively running
about often under or among the
very delicate threads of a sparse
web. Small patches of a red-
dish colour, in the body of cer-
tain of the mites, will probably
be the first thing to attract the
eye to these small, but very
harmful, organisms.

If it becomes necessary to
$ resort to remedial measures for
the control of the red spider,
the use of any contact in-
secticide, or of sulphur and lime,

_. _, in equal parts, applied dry as a

Fig. 57. The cotton red spider. du^ wilf be effe£five< In mak.

Adult, much^darged. (U.S. ing such an application, it must

be remembered that the red
spider lives almost entirely on the under side of the leaf, and
therefore, it is necessary to apply the insecticides to this
place.

59

Up to the present time, the red spider has not been
sufficiently abundant to render the application of insecti-
cides necessary.

THE BOLL weevil (Anthonomus grandis, Boh.). Coleoptera.

The boll weevil of cotton is not known in the Lesser
Antilles, and it is greatly hoped that it may never be in-
troduced. Since this insect made its entrance to the United
States from Mexico in 1894, it has developed into one of the
most serious pests on record, and there seems to be no
possibility of stopping its steady progress eastward to the
Atlantic Coast.

The accompanying figures (58 and 59) are given
in order to show what the insect is like in its different
stages of growth. The fine line in Fig. 58 shows the exact
length of the weevil.

Fig. 58. Boll weevil. Adult insect.
Enlarged. {From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

Fig. 59. Boll weevil. Larva and pupa.
Enlarged. {From U, 8. Dejptt Agric.)

60

The introduction of ('the boll weevil into the Lesser
Antilles would in .all probability put a speedy end to the
cotton industry.

SUGAR-CANE.

MOTH BORER (Diatraea saccharalis, Fabr.). Lepidoptera.

The moth borer is one of the most serious of all the
pests of sugar-cane in the Lesser Antilles. It is known
throughout the sugar-growing regions of tropical and sub-
tropical America, of which it is probably a native. It also
attacks Indian corn in much the same manner as it affects
sugar-cane. The parent is a whitish or straw-coloured
moth, with dark spots on the wings. The wings, when
spread, measure about 1J inches. The injury done by this
pest to the cane results from the tunnelling of the
larva in the stems.

The larva of the moth borer
is a whitish caterpillar with
scattered dark s])ots, in each of
which there is a black hair or
bristle. When full-grown, it is
about 1 to 1| inches in length.
The pupa, which is formed in the
tunnel made by the larva, is about
f-inch in length, dark brown
in colour, and the abdominal seg-
ments are set with short, stiff
bristles.

The eggs of this insect are flat
and scale-like (Fig. 60). They are
laid on the leaves of the sugar-cane in clusters of twenty to
thirty. The larva (Fig. 61), soon after hatching, travels
down the leaf to its base, which in young canes is near the
growing point. It bores its way into the stem, where
it spends the remainder of the larval and the pupal stages.
When the pupal stage is completed the moth (Figs. 62 and 63)

^ujiTTi —

Fig. 6o. Eggs of moth borer.

Enlarged. (Imperial Bept.
Agric.)

X&

Fig. 6i. Full-grown caterpillar of moth borer.
Enlarged. (Imperial Dept. Agric.)

61

emerges from the pupa case and from the tunnel in the
cane. The time occupied in the life-cycle of this insect is
about fifty days.

Fig. 62 Moth borer.

(a) female moth ; (h) wing of male ; (c) pupa.
{From V. S. Dept. Agric.)

Enlarged.

X2

Fig. 63. Moth borer

Adult in resting
position. Enlarged

Control. No canes should be used
for planting which give evidence of the
presence of moth borer ; all so employed
should be treated with Bordeaux mix-
ture. The dead shoots which occur
owing to the attacks on the young canes
should be cut out ; but in order for the
removal to be effective, it must be done
before the base of the shoot has begun
to decay, since the caterpillar leaves the
decaying shoot and attacks another.
Also, it is necessary in cutting out dead
shoots to make the cut below the borer,
so that it will not be left behind. Dead
shoots should be collected and fed to
stock as soon as possible after cutting.

As the eggs are laid on the surface
{Imperial Dept. Agric.) 0f the leaf, they mav easilv be collected ;
and children can be taught to do this work satisfactorily at
very small cost. At the time of reaping, any canes which
are so badly affected by moth borer as to be worthless for

62

milling should be destroyed, preferably by burning, in order
to prevent the emergence of any immature insects which
may be present in them. The practice of destroying all
rotten and insect-affected canes has an important "bearing
in connexion with otherpests and diseases of sugar-cane.

Natural Enemies. The moth borer is attacked by small
parasitic insects which destroy the eggs. One of these
(Trichogramma pretiosa) is shown, much enlarged, in Fig. 64.
The female parent of the parasite inserts its eggs into the
eggs of the moth borer. When the eggs of the parasite
hatch they produce minute grubs which destroy the develop-
ing moth borer in each egg attacked in this way. Moth

X3&

Fig-. 64. Parasite of the eggs of the moth borer
Much enlarged, {Imperial Dept. Agric.)

borer eggs which contain the parasite can be distinguished
from those which are not parasitized by their darker colour.
When eggs are being collected, those parasitized should, if
possible, be left in the field, but as it is difficult to carry
out this practice satisfactorily, it would be better to
have all collected eggs brought to the edge of the field,
to the mill yard or a similar place, and put into large trays.
The parasites on emerging would be able, in their winged
condition, to fly back into the field in search of fresh eggs
to attack. The newly hatched caterpillars could be pre-
vented from leaving the tray by means of a small trough
containing water, fastened around the top edge of the tray,
or by a band of some sticky substance such as molasses, tar
or tanglefoot, which would prevent the larvae from crawling
out. After three or four days the collected leaves should
be thrown into cattle-pens, where any caterpillars would be
destroyed either by being eaten or by being trampled with
^he manure.

63

THE LARGER MOTH BORER {Castnia liens, Drury).

Lepidoptera.

The eggs of the larger moth borer are elongate and
pointed at both ends. The surface is marked with five or
six longitudinal ridges. They are laid inside the leaf base
near the ground, or on the ground among the canes. The
larvae, on hatching, tunnel into the stem, and work upwards
for a distance of some 2 feet, when they turn and go
down through the same tunnel into the underground portion
of the cane stool. The larva reaches a size of 2| inches in
length, and J-ineh in diameter. The tunnel is consequently
large, and the injury to the cane very severe. The pupal
stage is passed in the cane, or in the soil near the
underground portions. The time occupied in the life-cycle
ranges from twelve to fifteen weeks. The adult insect

Fig". 65. Larger moth borer of the sugar-cane.
Reduced. (Original.)

(Fig. 65) is a large day-flying moth, which in general
appearance is very similar to the large butterflies.

Castnia licus is a native of South America. Its
original food plants were species of the Orchid family and
of the family of plants to which the pine-apple belongs
(Bromeliaceae). It is distributed over a large portion of
the northern part of South America, and extends north-
ward to Mexico ; it has been known in Trinidad for several

64

years. In British Guiana, it lias been a serious cane pest in
certain localities for a number of years, and in Trinidad it
is known to attack sugar-cane and bananas. It has also
been reported, as a pest of sugar-cane, from Surinam. It is
not known at present to occur in any of the islands north of
Trinidad, and every precaution should be taken to prevent its
introduction into any of these islands. If cane plants are to be
imported from any colony or country where this pest occurs,
only the tops should be admitted, and these should be care-
fully examined for any signs of the eggs or larvae at the
base of the leaves. Cane trash should never be imported,
on account of the possibility of introducing the eggs. Any
trash accidentally accompanying imported cane plants
should be rigorously burned.

Control. No satisfactory system of control has yet been
devised for the larger moth borer. Collecting the moths by
means of nets in the hands of children has given better
results than any other direct measure of control that has been
tried. Flooding the fields after the removal of the crop has
had a good effect in certain instances ; but this practice could
not be carried out in most localities in the Lesser Antilles.

Natural Enemies. The larger moth borer, being a day-
flying insect, is largely attacked by many insectivorous birds,
and by lizards and toads. It is likely that the encouragement
of natural enemies in British Guiana will be found to have
a considerable influence in decreasing the numbers of the pest.

THE WEEVIL BORER (SiihenoiihoruH sericeus, Oliv.).

Coleoptera.

The weevil borer has long been
familiar throughout the West Indies
as a pest of sugar-cane. It has also
been known under the name of lady-
bird borer, the term lady-bird
apparently being applied in the
West Indies to a considerable number
of weevils. This is rather unfortu-
nate, since in most other parts of
the world the insects referred to as
lady-birds are generally beneficial in
k2. their habits, while the weevils are

Fig. 66. Weevil borer. a11 distinctly injurious.

Adult. Enlarged. (Imperial The weevil borer has been
Dept. Agric.) sufficiently abundant at times to.

65

cause a considerable amount of injury, a large proportion of
the canes being attacked, and many of these having almost
the whole of the interior eaten out. Young plant canes and
stumps left for ratooning are also subject to serious attack.

The adult weevil (Fig. 66) is about
f-inch in length, dark-brown in colour,
with darker markings on the wing
covers and thorax. The snout, or beak,
is slender and strongly curved. The
larva (Fig. 67) is a footless grub which
makes its way through the tunnels in
the canes by means of the large ventral
hump of the abdomen. The grub, when
full-grown, measures from i-inch to
J -inch in length.

The eggs (Fig. 68) of this insect are

ova], about y^-inch in length, and almost

_. , _„ ., . transparent. They are laid singly, em-

Fig. 67.^ Weevil borer. ^^ {q ^ ^ tQ ft depth 0f|.inch;

Enlarged?1 (imperial generally in cut or broken canes and in
Dept. Agric.) the soft part of the cane above the hard

joints. The beetle appears unable to
penetrate the hard rind of a mature joint of cane. The
larva is a small, white grub which tunnels in the cane, and
when larval growth is completed it makes a rough cocoon

(Fig. 69) out of the fibres of the cane.
The pupal stage is passed in this cocoon,
from which the adult beetle emerges.
Generally, only one grub is found in
a joint of cane. Egg-laying begins soon
after the mating of the sexes, and is
continued for some time. The life- cycle
occupies a period of something over sixty
days, of which four are spent in the egg
stage, about fifty in the larval stage, and
about ten in the pupal stage.

Control. All rotten or infested
canes should be destroyed as soon as
possible. Slumps intended for ratoon-
ing should be covered with mould, as
should also plant canes, when this
insect is known to be abundant, so
as to prevent the access of the weevils for the purpose < f
egg-laying. Cane stumps not intended for ratooning
should be dug up and burned as soon as possible.

Fig 68. Eggs of
weevil borer in cane.
Enlarged. {Imperial
Dept. Agric.)

G<5

Fig* 69. Cocoon or weevil borer.
Natural size. (Imperial ])<'i>t. Agric.)

Natural Enemies. No parasites of the weevil borer
seem to be recorded in the West Indies. It is likely that
birds, toads, and lizards capture and devour considerable
numbers of the weevil. If infected stumps could be dug
out and broken up, the weevil grubs would fall a prey to
birds and ants.

the root borer (Diaprepes abbreviates, L.).

Coleoptera.

The root borer occurs generally throughout the West
Indies, but is known as a serious pest of cane only in

certain parts of Barbados. This

insect (Fig. 70) is also known as
the lady-bird and has apparently
been a common insect in Barbados
for many years, but there seem to
be no records of its occurrence as
a pest until quite recently.

The root borer lays its eggs on
the leaves of a variety of plants,
(Fig. 71) and the young larvae fall
to the ground and immediately
begin feeding on young roots. In
the cane fields, they seem to feed
on the root of the cane for a con-
siderable part of the larval period,
bu t later they tunnel into the underground stem portions
of the plant. Fig. 72 shows the tunnels made by these
grubs. The grubs do not seem to penetrate the canes
above the ground level They appear to be able to emigrate

Fig. 70. Root borer of
sugar cane.

A dull beetle. A bout natural
size. (Original.)

67

through the soil from one stool of canes to another, and
they have been found several inches below the roots of the

Fig. 71. Eggs of root borer of sugar-cane.
Enlarged. (Original.)

cane, in the soil. The life-cycle of this insect occupies
about a year, of which about 10 days are spent in the egg
stage, some 300 in the larval stage (Fig. 73), 15 in the
pupal and about 20 in the adult, during which latter

period mating and egg-laying
take place. The adult is a
large weevil, about f -inch in
length, pale- green in colour,
with dark, bronze stripes
running longitudinally on
the wing covers.

Control. No satisfactory
method of control has been
found. It has been noted on
one estate, at least, that
where canes follow canes in
the same fields in the same
year, the attacks of root
borer are much worse than
in fields that have been
rested ; that is, fields that
have not been returned to
canes for eighteen months or
more after reaping, either with or without an intermediate
crop.13, It seems likely that careful investigation will reveal
points in the life-history of this insect which are
considerably different from those supposed in our present
knowledge, especially as to the length of life in the larval
condition. The present recommendations are that in

Fig. 72. Root borer.
Tunnels in cane made by the grub*
Beduced. (Original.)

08

infested localities canes should not follow canes on
the same land in the same year, and that when intervening
crops are planted these should not be Indian corn, Guinea
corn or sweet potatoes, as the roots of all of these are
readily eaten by the root borer. The second recommenda-
tion is that all stumps in infested fields should be dug
out, broken up and burned, as soon as possible after the
crop is harvested. The breaking up of the stumps exposes
many of the grubs to attack by natural enemies such as

blackbirds and ants, and the burn-
ing of them will have an additional
useful effect in connexion with the
control of the root disease of sugar-
cane. Carbon bisulphide and a
solution of cj^anide of potash have
been tried for the control of the
root borer. These are applied by
injecting them to a depth of 8 or 10
inches in the soil by means of
a special injector. Poisonous fumes
are given off, and are supposed to
soil, killing any grubs with which
they come into contact. The experiments so far carried
out have not given results which justify the recommenda-
tion of the expensive practice of soil injection. As far
as Barbados is concerned, the impervious nature of the
soil in those localities where trials have been made of
carbon bisulphide and cyanide of potash probably very
largely reduces the effectiveness of these insecticides.

During the present year (1011) large numbers of the
adult of this insect have been collected on estates in Bar-
bados, by children, and destroyed. On account of favour-
able rains in February and March, it was possible to plant
Indian corn on an estate in that island, where the attacks
of root borer had been very severe in the ripening cane, so
that fields from which the canes had been reaped were
planted with this crop ; in June it was found that the root
borer weevil was hiding among the leaves of the corn plants
in considerable numbers. Collecting was at once begun,
and during a period of about four weeks some 30,000 of the
insects were captured and destroyed on one estate; on
other estates the collecting was carried out to a much
smaller extent. The beetles were found hiding among
the leaves of the pigeon pea, sweet potato, and bonavist

Fig- 73- Grub of
, root borer.
Enlarged.
{Imperial Dept. Agric.)

travel through the

69

bean, and rarely among the canes. The eggs have not
been found in the field. This suggests the planting of
Indian corn on lands where root borer attacks have been
severe, in order to furnish a hiding place for the weevils,
so that when they emerge they may be collected.
There can be no doubt that the destruction of large
numbers of the adults greatly reduces the number of
grubs which will attack the following crop of canes, and
if there were concerted action on the part of all the
estate managers in any district, the root borer in that
district might easily be reduced to comparatively small
numbers.

Natural Enemies. The adult weevil, the parent of
the root borer grub, is probably preyed upon to a certain
extent by birds, toads and lizards. The grubs, during
the longer part of their existence as such, are very largely
protected from attack by the situations in which they
live, but when they are exposed on the surface in the
operation of hoeing or forking, or when the cane stumps
are dug out and broken up, they are readily attacked by
several species of ants, and eaten by toads and by birds,
especially by the Barbados blackbird (Qiiiscalus forti-
rostris).

the shot borer (Xyleborus yerforans, Woll.).

Coleoptera.

This is a small, brownish beetle about ^-inch in length
It tunnels in the canes like the weevil borer, spending the
stages of egg, larva and pupa in the tissues of the
food plant. It is supposed that the shot borer causes
the chief injury to canes by providing easy means of
entrance for disease-producing fungi. There seems to be
some doubt, however, as to whether healthy canes are
often attacked.

The shot borer has been known for many years
throughout the West Indies. It appears to have been most
abundant during those years when the sugar industry
seemed threatened by the extraordinary attacks of fun-
gus diseases. For several years very little has been
heard of the attacks of this pest in the Lesser Antilles.

Control. The prompt destruction of all infected and
rotten canes, immediately after the crop is reaped, will
have the effect of reducing the numbers of the shot borer,
and checking its development and spread.

70
THE CANE ply (Delphax saccha rivora, Westw.). Hemiptera.

The cane fly lives on the leaves and stems of the cane,
procuring its food by sucking the juices of the plant by
means of its proboscis, with which it is able to penetrate

Fig. 74. Sugar-cane attacked by cane fly.
(Original.)

the epidermis of the leaf and the tender part of the stem
near the growing point. The eggs are deposited within
the tissue of the leaf, in slits which the female cane fly

^@p*«

Fi&- 75- Cane fly adult.
Much magnified. (Imperial Dept. Agric.)

makes with the saw-like ovipositor. The presence of the
cane fly is often first indicated by the black fungus
which grows on the canes wherever these insects occur
in considerable numbers. In fact, the cane fly was

71

formerly called black blight, planters and others not
distinguishing between the insects and the fungus.

The cane fly has not occurred as a serious pest in the
West Indies for a nuinber of years. It is probably of
general distribution and has been known for a long time.
It is mentioned in Schoraburgk's History of Barbados as
occurring in great numbers in Grenada after the hurricane
of 1831. At that time it is said to have caused the loss of
half the entire crop of sugar, in certain sections.

Fig. 76. Lady-bird beetle.
(a) larva ; (b) empty pupal skin ; (a) adult, with enlarged antenna
above. All enlarged. (From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

Natural Enemies. Under ordinary conditions the cane
fly is well held in check by its natural enemies, of which
the lady-birds and the green lace-wing fly are the most

Fig. 77. Lacewing fly, with eggs at right.
{Imperial Dept. Agric.)

important, so far as is known at present. It is probably
on account of the action of these insects that the cane fly
is not often a pest.

THE pink MEALY-BUG (Pseudococcus calceolariae,

Mask.). Hemiptera.

The pink mealy-bug (Fig. 78) doss not oft 311 oocur in
the West Indies in sufficiently large numbers to cause it to

72

mzmm

,: - If

;• ■' i

*.f

Fig. 78. Pink mealy bug
of the sugar cane.
Enlarged.
(Imperial Dept. Agric.)

be classed among the seriou3 pests, but it is capable of
increasing to such an e vtent as to bring about a considerable
irnount of injury. In Louisiana, where it is fostered

and protected by the Argentine ant
{Iridomyrmex humilis), this insect
lias developed into a very serious pest.
It occurs under the leaf sheath, where
it sucks the sap from the cane by
means of its slender mouth parts.
Sugar-cane, especially ratoon canes
suffering severely from root disease,
have been observed to be rather badly
attacked by the pink mealy-bug.
This circumstance may arise on
account of the possible fact that
canes suffering from fungus disease
are more suitable for the development
of mealy-bug than healthy canes, and
it may also result from the planting
of infested cane plants. The insects
introduced at the time of planting
would have had opportunity for development and would be
well established dining the early growth of ratoons.

This insect has a general distribution throughout the
AVest Indies.

Control. It does not often happen that any direct
remedial measures are necessary in dealing with the pest,
but the greatest care should be taken that no cuttings should
be used for planting which are infested by this mealy-bug.

Natural Enemies. It is probable that the pink mealy-
bug is held in check by natural enemies, especially parasitic

Hymenoptera. No definite record of
this parasitism seems, however, to be
available.

THE SUGAR-CANE ASPIDIOTUS
(Aspidiotus sacchari, Ckll.) Hemiptera.

This is a rounded scale insect of
a light straw colour (Fig. 79) which
occurs on sugar-cane, under the sheath-
ing bases of the old leaves, and some-

!•'

'" w mi $

p

HI

Fig. 79. Sugar cane
aspidiotus.
Enlarged.
(Imperial Dept, Agric.)

times underground. It is rarely
abundant, and probably does but little

73

harm to the plant. No treatment can be given plants in the
Held. Care should be taken not to plant infested canes.

THE GREY SUGAR-CANE MEALY-BUG (PseudoCOCCllS
saccharic Ckll.). Hemiptera.

This is a moderately large insect, covered with mealy
wax, and not easily distinguished from the pink mealy-bug.
The grey colour, longer legs, and the less rounded body are
the distinguishing characters. No treatment in the field
is possible, but the grey mealy-bug does not often occur
in sufficient abundance to become a serious pest. Care
should be taken not to plant infested canes.

THE GRASSHOPPER (Schistocerca pollens, Thunb.).

Orthoptera.

Sugar-canes are sometimes injured by attacks of grass-
hoppers (Fig. 80) which eat the leaves, especially of the
young canes. In St. Kitts, grasshoppers are more of a pest
to sugar-cane than in the other islands. These insects may

Fig-. 80. Grasshopper.
Slightly enlarged. {Original.)

be controlled by use of a poisoned bait, and their numbers
may be greatly reduced by collecting by hand. The latter
method has been employed with good results in St. Kitts.
The smaller birds, and turkeys and fowls, feed readily on
grasshoppers, and probably the wild birds exert a consider-
able influence over the abundance of the insects, and on
estates where they are particularly common it would
probably pay to keep large flocks of turkeys and fowls.

74

A satisfactory poison bail may be made by using lib.
bran pollard) mixed to a stiff mash with water and molasses
and Paris green, 25 lb. or an equally efficient and much
cheaper bait may be employed, composed of ]> -barrel of fresh
horse droppings, lib. salt and lib. Paris green, thoroughly
mixed together. This is the Criddle mixture and has given
good results in the United States and Canada.

TERMITES, OR WHITE ANTS. Platyptera.

Termites (Fig. 81) are well known in the tropics, chiefly
on account of the injury they do to the timbers of buildings,
etc., but in St. Kitts, on one estate, they have occurred as

Fig. 8i. White Ant.

(a) queen ; [b) nymph of winged female ; (c) worker ; (d) soldier.
All enlarged. (From U. S.Dept. Agric.)

75

a serious pest of sugar-cane ; when this happens the ripening
canes are attacked, and the entire internal portion eaten out.
No nests of these insects could be found in or near the fields
in which the attacks occurred, and no remedy was applied.

Areas in these fields, including more land than that
actually infected by termites were planted with cotton for
two or three years. The termites do not seem to feed on the
roots of the cotton, and as these fields have since been
replanted in canes and no return of the termites observed,
it would seem that this practice is successful.

CITRUS FRUITS.

Scale Insects. Hemiptera.

Citrus trees in the West Indies are attacked by several
species of scale insects of which the most important is the
mussel or purple scale {Lepidosaphes beckii). The green scale
(Coccus viridis) has in the past few years developed to a
considerable extent, as a pest of citrus, especially of limes.
The white scale (Chionaspis citri) is of general distribution
throughout the islands, and is to be seen on the trunks and
branches of nearly every lime and other citrus tree, except
in districts where the rainfall and general humidity are
especially great. Other scale insects which are found on
citrus trees, but have not become pests except in rare
instances, are the red-spotted scale ( Chrysomphalus aonidum),
the red scale {Chrysomphalus aurantii), the chaff scale
(Parlatoria pergandei) and the Lantana bug (Orthezia
insignis).

the PUKPLE SCALE (Lepidosaphes beckii, Newm.).

This is an elongate insect, tapering from very, narrow
at the anterior to broad at the posterior end ; the colour is
light-brown or purplish. The female scale is larger and
more tapering in outline than the male.

The purple scale (Fig. 82) which has long been known
as a very serious pest of citrus trees in the West Indies,
occurs on leaves and twigs. On the leaves, a number of
these scales will generally be found grouped together on the
under surface. The location of these groups is usually
indicated by a yellowish, discoloured spot. On the twigs,
these insects sometimes occur in such numbers as to form a

76

43fe

Fig. 82. Purple scale.
Enlarged. {Imperial Dept. Agric.)

la}:er several scales thick, or in other cases they may be
scattered almost singly. This scale is attacked by lady-
birds, parasitic Hymen optera and parasitic fungi. The
most active lady-birds in this connexion are small insects
about the size of the head of a pin, or a trifle larger. These
insects are of the typical lady-bird shape, dark-brown,
black, or steely-blue in colour, and may often be seen walking
about amongst the scales and feeding on them. The purple
scale is attacked by two species of fungi, the red-headed
fungus (Sphaerostilbe coccophila) and the white-headed
fungus (Ophionectria coccicola). The former of these is well
distributed throughout the West Indies and probably exerts
a considerable degree of control over the purple scale.
Ophionectria occurs in Dominica only. Parasitic Hymen op-
tera are fairly abundant throughout the West Indies.
Scales which have been attacked b}^ these insects can
generally be distinguished by a small round hole through
which the adult parasite has emerged.

THE OKANGE SNOW SCALE {Chionaspis citri, Comst.).

The orange snow scale (Fig. 83) is probably well
known to all growers of citrus trees, occurring as it does in
considerable numbers on the bark of the stem and branches of
nearly all such plants. It often seems to form a distinct
covering or layer over the bark. The female scale is pear-

77

shaped, of a greyish white colour, with a yellow spot at the
narrow end. The male is smaller, of a clearer white colour,
and is altogether more conspicuous than the female. The

sides of the male are
~^r parallel, and there are

three distinct longi-
tudinal ridges. The
yellow spot at the
anterior end is present
in the male, as in the
female. It is not often
the principal scale in
any citrus cultivation,
but it sometimes hap-
pens that this is the
case, especially in dry
situations, and it is
then very destructive.
Lady-birds and preda-
ceous mites are often
to be found associated
with this scale, and it

Fig-. 83. Orange snow scale.
Enlarged. (Imperial Dept. Agric.)

is likely that they, together with the parasitic Hymenop
tera, very materially affect the abundance of the snow scale.
There will often be seen patches, varying in size, of a black
substance in the midst of the white scale on the bark of
citrus trees. This is the black fungus {MyriancjiumDuriaei)
which is parasitic on this scale, and exerts a great influence
in keeping the pest in check.

the chaff scale (Parlatoria pergctndei, Comst.).

The chaff scale takes its common name from the
appearance of the scales on the bark. The straw-colonred
female scales and the shrivelled males give to a colony of
this insect a strong resemblance to chaff.

The chaff scale is of much more recent occurrence in
these islands than either of the preceding. It is only
recorded from limes in Montserrat, and this record dates
from the end of 1910. The chaff scale has been known in
Florida for some time, and it is there considered a pest
of some importance. It is not known how far natural
enemies may control this scale in the West Indies.

78

the green scale (Coccus riridi.% Green).

The green scale is probably .also of fairly recent
introduction to the West Indies. It was identified in 1905,
and has since been recorded from nearly all West Indian
islands. It is a small, flat, green scale which occurs on
the under side of the leaves of citrus trees, generally
closely packed along the mid rib. It is also seen on the
leaf petiole and on the tender twigs. Young limes are
often severely attacked by the green scale, and this attack
is usually followed by the purple scale. The cause of the
diminution of the green scale after such an attack has
not been determined, but it is probably some parasitic
organism. The green scale is also controlled to a consider-
able extent by a parasitic fungus, the shield scale fungus
(Cephalosporium lecanii).

the red-spotted scale (Chrysomphalus aonidum, L.).

The red-spotted scale is a brownish or purplish scale
insect with a circular outline, more convex than other
scales on citrus. (Fig. 84.) The apex or central boss is

Fig. 84. Red-spotted scale.

Enlarged. ( Original. )

reddish, and it is this feature that gives the common name
to the insect. The red-spotted scale occurs on the under
surface of the leaf. This insect is not often a serious pest,
although it sometimes occurs in considerable numbers on
nursery stock and young plants,

79

the orange red scale {Chrysomphalns aurantii, Mask.).

A 5

Fig; 85. Orange red scale.
Enlarged. (Imperial Dept. Auric.)

This scale is also circular
in outline, but differs from
the red-spotted scale in being
less convex and of a lighter
colour, and without the dis-
tinctive dark central boss.
The scale covering is more
delicate and more transparent
also in the case of the red
scale (Fig. 85).

The insect occurs on both leaves and twigs, often in
sufficient numbers to cause the death of the tree.

the lantana bug (Orthezia insignis, Douglas).

This is a black insect
nearly covered with white
wax ; the back being
partly naked, with two
lines of white wax running
lengthwise (Fig. 86). The
body of the mature
female terminates behind
in an egg sac of white
wax, which is curved up
and may be as long as the
Fig. 86. Lantana bug. insect itself.

Enlarged. {Imperial Dept. Agric.)

Control. The scale insects which attack citrus plants
in the West Indies are largely controlled by natural
enemies. The effect of hymenopterous parasites, predace-
ous insects and mites, and of entomophagous fungi is very
beneficial, and it is not as necessary to apply insecticides
for the control of these pests as in many countries. If,
however, the attack of scale becomes serious and shows no
sign of decreasing in severity, spraying with any of the
recognized contact insecticides will be found of value.

The spray mixtures containing rosin are useful
for the purple, the red-spotted, the red, the chaff and
the green scales, while whale-oil soap is best to use in
connexion with the snow scale and the Lantana bug.

80

THE white FLY (Aleyrodea citri, Riley and Howard).

The white fly is closely related to the scale insects,
although they differ very much in appearance. Tin* imma-
ture forms of Aleyrodea are similar to the scale insects, but
in the adult stage both sexes arc winged, with two pairs of
wings covered with white, mealy wax.

The citrus white fly {Aleyrodea citri) is a very serious
pest of citrus trees in Florida, but in the West Indies white
fly attack on citrus trees has not been very severe. (Figs.
87 and 88.) White ilies are found on citrus in the West

*--jZ3cr^»>3afc<i2tr;

Fig. 87. Citrus white fly.
(a) vringed md'.e ; (b) end of body, male ; (<•) w inged female ; (d, e, f g, h,
and 1), structural details, (a) and (c) enlarged, others much enlarged,

{From U.S. Dept. Jgric.)

Fig. 88. Citrus white fly.
(a) orange leaf showing infestation on under surface, natural size; [b) egg;
(c) same with young insect emerging; (d) larva; (e) foot of same; (/) larval
antenna ; (g) scale-like pupa ; (h) pupa about to disclose adult insect; (i insect
escaping from pupal shell ; (j) leg of newly emerged insect not get
straightened and hirden°.d. All figures except (a) greatly enlarged. J

(From V,S, Deft. Agric,) '

81-

Indies, and these have been referred to as the citrus white
fly, but there is some likelihood that a more careful study of
these insects will demonstrate that the West Indian white
fly is the same as a new species recently discovered in Florida,
and which is much less serious as a pest than Aleyvodes citri.
The new species referred to is Aleyvodes nubifera, Berger.
Specimens of white fly fairly common in Barbados have
recentlv been identified by the state entomologist of Florida

*/ *J CD

as Aleyvodes nubifera. Another species (A. hoivardi,
Quaintance) is also known to occur on citrus plants in the
West Indies, and it may be one of the species found in the
Lesser Antilles.

White fly is attacked by the red-headed fungus,
Sphaerostilbe coccophila,) already mentioned, which occurs in
the West Indies and in Florida, and also by several species of
parasitic fungi. If it becomes necessary to spray for the
control of white fly, a whale-oil soap solution will be found
very effective.

bark borers (Leptostylu* praemorsus). Coleoptera.

Citrus trees are often attacked in the stem near the
ground, and wherever, in pruning, stubs have been left
which have decayed, by grubs which tunnel in the soft wood
underneath the' bark. These grubs are the larvae of
long-horned bet ties, one species of which has been identified
as Leptostylus praemovsus (Fig. 89). The grub is whitish,
with a small brown head, and very much flattened in appear-
ance. The beetle is brownish with long slender antennae.

Fig. 89. Lime tree bark-borer.
About 1£ times natural size. {Original.)

82

It is probable Hint the eggs of the bark borer arc laid
only in dead or dying portions of the trees, but it is also
likely that the grubs, by their feeding, very often increase
the amount of dead wood and hasten the death of the tree.

Bark borers can often be located by the dead and
shrunken patches of bark. They can be dug out with a
knife and the wound thoroughly cleaned and tarred, or th v
may be killed by probing with a wire, or by the use of car-
bon bisulphide, injected into the tunnels of the borers.

A small weevil of the
genus Cryptorhynchus (Fig.
90) has been reported as a
borer in the stems of orange
trees in Grenada. This insect
can hardly be called a pest,
since its occurrence is compara-
tively rare. In the event of
large cultivations of oranges
being established, however, the
possibility of a very rapid
increase in the numbers of the
borer should be kept in mind.

Fig-. 90. Orange bark weevil.
{Imperial Dept. Agn'c.)

the rust mite (Phytopivs oleirorus, Ashmead). Acarina.

The rust mite is not of very common occurrence in
the West Indies. It is a small mite similar to the leaf-
blister mite of cotton. It feeds on the skin of limes
lemons and oranges, producing in the case of the latter a
russet appearance, and in the case of limes and lemons a
silvery appearance of the skin. Dry flowers of sulphur,
used pure or with equal amounts of lime, is the remedy
employed in Florida when it becomes necessary to control
this mite by artificial means. This insecticide would
probably be found satisfactory also in the West Indies ;
it is apx^lied after rain, or in the early morning while the
foliage is still wet, being broadcasted from the hand.

Bengal beans have been much used for the control of
scale insects and the general improvement of lime trees in
Montserrat. The beans were planted, about four to each
tree, and allowed to grow and completely cover the trees.
The accompanying illustration (Fig. 91) shows the
appearance of a field covered in this manner.

S3

M

r

3

-. o

"*■ o

- <

Z- at

P fD

3

£L
CO

in

Good results have been obtained in this way, but it is
not known exactly what is the effect of the Bengal bean.
Generally it is entirely beneficial and much more so than
would be expected merely by the increase of the natural
enemies, which has been supposed to be the chief result of
the use of the Bengal beans.

In a few instances, in a wet season and in damp situa-
tions, harm seems to have resulted from too heavy a cov-
ering of Bengal beans.

84

the fruit flies. Diptera.

In many parts of the world where citrus fruits are
grown, fruit flies are very serious pests. These are
Dipterous insects of several species, possessing very simi-
lar habits and life-histories.

In general, the eggs of the fruit flies are deposited in
or on ripening fruits. The maggots, on hatching from
the eggs, tunnel into the tissues of the fruit and cause it
to drop and decay.

The Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata,
Wied.)— Fig. 92— is perhaps the most widely distributed of

Fig. 92. Mediterranean fruit fly.

(a) adult insect ; (e) larva ; other letters refer to structural details.
All enlarged. {From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

the fruit flies. The Mexican fruit fly or orange worm
(Trypeta ludens, Loew)— Fig. 93 — and Dacus Tryoni, Frog-
gatt, of Australia, are also very serious pests.

85

Fig:. 93. Mexican fruit fly.
Adult female. Enlarged (From U. S. Dept. Ayric.)

In the Lesser Antilles, citrus fruits do not seem to be
attacked to any extent by fruit flies, although other
fruits such as guavas and sapodillas are often found to
be ' wormy ' or infested with the maggot of a species of
Anastrepha. one of which is A. serpentina, Wied.

Fig". 94. Mexican fruit fly.
(«) larva ; (c) puparium ; (b, d and c) structural details
All enlarged {Fro))i U.S. Dept. Agrie.)

80

CACAO.

Fiff- 95- Cacao beetle.
Adult and larva. Natural size.
(Imperial Dept. A gric. )

THE CACAO beetle (Steira stoma dcprcssum.,L.).

Coleoptera.

The cacao beetle (Fig. 95) is perhaps the most serious
insect pest of cacao in the West Indies. The egg- is laid in

or on the bark, often in the angles
formed by the larger branches.
Stubs left in pruning, and any
wound of a tree, seem to attract
the egg-laying females. The
grub reaches a length of about
\\ inches when it is full-grown.
It is whitish in colour with
a small, dark-brown head. The
pupa is formed in the tunnel
made by the larva. The adult
is a black and grey beetle about
f-ineh in length, with long,
slender antennae. The location
of the grubs under the bark of
the cacao tree is often indicated
by a dry, shrunken appearance.

Control. The grubs of the cacao beetle may be dug out,
or killed by probing with a wire. Carbon bisulphide may
also be found useful in this conuexion. When the beetle
grubs are dealt with, all dead bark and wood should be
removed and the healthy Avood which is exposed should
be tarred or painted. The adult beetles may be trapped.
In the early morning they may often be found resting
on the trunks and larger branches of the cacao trees
where they may be collected, and killed by throwing them
into water to which a small amount of kerosene has been
added. In Surinam, the bark of the silk cotton tree is
tied on to the cacao trees to furnish hiding places for
these beetles. These hiding places are examined regularly
and the beetles collected. In Trinidad, trap pieces of the
Wild Chataigne or ' Chataigne Moron ' (Pachira aquatica)
have been found i^ery useful. The freshly cut pieces of
Chataigne which are placed in the cacao tree provide the
female beetles with a suitable situation for egg laying,
and the eggs are laid in the traps instead of in the cacao
trees. In Grenada, branches which are removed from the
trees in pruning are left on the ground for a few days.

87

These branches attract the egg-laying females, and are
afterward collected and burned. It must always be
remembered, however, that when traps of this sort are
provided for insects, it is necessary that they should
be disposed of before the insects have an opportunity
to become mature, and escape. All wounds made in
pruning are carefully tarred or painted, so that they shall
offer no attraction as places for egg-laying.

CACAO THRIPS (Heliothrips rubrocincta, Giard.).

Thysanoptera.

Thrips are small insects which attack the leaves and
pods of cacao, and sometimes occur in considerable num-
bers. The egg is deposited in the tissue of the plant by
means of the saw -like ovipositer with which the female is
provided. The adult insect is ^-inch, or less in length,
and has wings fringed with long delicate hairs. (Fig. 96).

Fig-. 96. Cacao Thrips.
Adult insect. Enlarged. (Imperial Dept. Agric.)

The young (Fig. 97) is distinguished by a bright-red band
across the abdomen. Cacao is injured by the feeding of
the thiips, which have mouth parts adapted for piercing
or cutting the surface and sucking the juice from the
tender tissue beneath. Wherever these feeding wounds
occur, a scar is produced. This is especially noticeable on
the pods, a badly attacked pod being discoloured by this

88

Fig. 97. Cacao Thrips.
Immature insect. Enlarged. {Imperial Dept. Agric.)

means to such an extent that unripe pods often appear
ripe. The young, tender leaves of cacao are also attacked
by thrips.

Fig. 98. Beetle which eats cacao leaves in St. Vincent.
Enlarged about H times natural size. {Original.)

Serious attacks of thrips seem to occur most generally
when some condition of soil or climate is unfavourable,
Careful attention to drainage, the application of manure,
and the addition of humus to the soil will often be found
quite satisfactory in dealing with this pest. If it becomes
necessary to spray, rosin wash will be found effective.

89

Cacao is attacked by aphis, mealy-bugs and scale
insects. These are not often serious pests. The aphis
sometimes is seen in considerable numbers on the
young tender leaves. Mealy-bugs often occur on the pods
where two pods are touching, or where a pod rests
against the bark of the stem. Aphis and mealy-bug
may be controlled, if necessary, by spraying with kero-
sene emulsion or whale-oil soap solution. Cacao is not
often attacked by scale insects, but this has happened in
a few instances. In a mild attack scale insects could be
controlled by spraying, but if a tree becomes thoroughly in-
fested, it may be better to cut the plant down and burn it

The root borer of the sugar-cane has been reported as
attacking cacao in St. Lucia, especially where the crop is
growing on lands formerly devoted to sugar cultivation.

In St. Lucia and St. Vincent, beetles have teen found
from time to time eating the leaves of young cacao, and
they have caused considerable damage. No satisfactory
remedy for the root borer and the leaf-eating beetle
attacking cacao has been discovered. One of these
insects is shown in Fig. 98.

Fig. 99. Corn ear worm.
(a) Moth, grey form; (b) fore wing of the more ornamental form; (<■) larva;
(d) abdominal segment' of larva, lateral view; (e) pupa lateral mew;
(d) twice natural size. Others enlarged one-fourth.
(From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

90

INDIAN CORN.

Indian coin is attacked by the moth borer (Diatrae
saccharalis) in a manner very similar to that in which it
affects sugar-cane.

The com ear worm (Laphygma frvgiperda. S. and A.)
— Figs. 99 and 100— and the boll worm (Heliothis obsoleta,
Hiibn.), both of which have been mentioned as pests of cot-
ton, attack the developing ears of com, and often cause a
very considerable amount of damage. The eggs of the boll
worm are laid singly on the tassel and silk of the corn,
and those of the corn ear worm on the leaves, in clusters.
(Fig. 100.)

c

Fig1, ioo. Corn ear worm
(a) Egg from side in upper figure, from above, in the loiver, (b) egg cluster
(c) newly hatched larva ; (a) and (c) much enlarged, (/>) somewhat

enlarged. {From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

If the caterpillars are present before the ears form,
they begin feeding in the centre or throat of the plant.
The injury to the young leaves is plainly to be seen when
these have developed, in the ii regular holes and ragged
edges which so often appear. Later in the season the
caterpillars attack the cars, entering at the silk end
(Fig. 101). Here they eat the young, tender grain,
sometimes destroying more than half the entire ear. The
caterpillars of both these species are cannibals to a certain
extent, for when two caterpillars come together in the
course of their feeding, especially when in the ear, one is
almost certain to kill and eat the other.

Both these insects have a very wide distribution
throughout the West Indies. The boll worm is known in
nearly all parts of the world, and the corn ear worm
extends its range throughout the warmer parts of America.

Control. Tt is a common practice in the West
Indies to drop a little fine dust or ashes into the throat

91

of a corn plant as soon as the Srst signs of attack are
observed. Paris green and lime have been tried for this
purpose, but they very often injure the leaves of the corn.
A mixture of 1 teaspooonful of Paris green and 1 quart of
corn meal has been found useful. A small quantity of
this mixture is applied in the middle of the rolled-up
leaves : it is eaten by the caterpillars and does not seem to
injure the plant.

Fi.2f ioi. Cotcon boll worm.
Showin 7 mode of attacking ear of corn. {From U.S. Dept. Agi'ic.)

Early planting is said to be of advantage in this con-
nexion, as in this case the corn is very rarely attacked to the
same extent as when it is planted late.

Guinea corn is also attacked by small grey moths which
infest the ripening heads of grain, sometimes completely
spoiling them. This form of injury has been reported from
Nevis in an experiment plot containing a very close-headed
variety of Guinea corn. The only method of prevention in
such a case as this would be the cultivation of a kind with a
very open head.

92

ARROWROOT.

THE A.RROWROOT WORM (Calpodes ethliuSj Cramer).

Lepidopl era.

The larva of this insect, which occurs throughout the
American tropics, feeds on arrowroot and canua. The eggs
are laid on the leaves of the food plant, and the larvae, as
soon as hatched, begin feeding, protecting themselves from
view in a fold of the leaf, which they make by drawing over
the margin of the leaf and tying it down with a piece of silk.
The caterpillars are greenish in colour, and very delicate in
appearance. The skin is so thin that it is possible to distin-
guish a good deal of the internal anatomy. The caterpillar
has a very peculiar appearance on account of the small neck
which is characteristic of the insects of this group. The
adult (Fig. 102) is brown in colour, with angular white spots
in the wings, the under surface being lighter than the upper.

Fig-. 102

Natural size

Canna Moth.
{Original.)

This insect belongs to a group of the Lepidoptera called
skippers, which is intermediate between the butterflies and
the moths. The most prominent characters of the group are
the clubbed antennae terminating in a fine hook in the adult,
and the broad head and small neck in the larva.

Control. The eggs of the arrowroot worm are para-
sitized by a minute hymenopteron (probably Trichogramma
pretiosa), and it is likely that blackbirds, and the predaceous
wasps, such as the wild bee and others attack the larvae.

93

Paris green, applied dry as for the cotton worm, will
be found satisfactory for the control of this insect, when it
occurs in sufficient abundance to render necessary the use
of insecticides.

TOBACCO.

the tobacco worm {Protoparce sextet, Johanssen).

Lepidoptera.

The leaves of the tobacco plant are often eaten by
large green caterpillars, with oblique, whitish bands on
the sides. The adult insect is a hawk moth, grey in colour
with dark-brown or black lines marking wings and body.
The spots, ranged in a row on each side of the abdomen,
are yellow in colour. The northern tobacco worm (Proto-
parce celeus) shown in Fig. 103, is similar in general
appearance to the West Indian species.

Fig. 103a. Northern tobacco worm.
Moth. Natural size. (From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

The female moth deposits the eggs singly on the
leaves and other parts of the plant. The full-grown larva
reaches a length of 2J to 3 inches. The pupa is formed in
the ground. The developing proboscis in its protective
covering forms a sort of handle, which is a characteristic
feature of insects of this group.

94

Control. The tobacco worm may be controlled by the
use of Paris green or lead arsenate, the latter as a spray
in water at the rate of 2 tb. in 50 gallons of water, or
the former applied dry, in a mixture with lime at the
rate of 1 U>. to 5 or G lb. of lime.

Fig. 103b. Northern tobacco worm.
Pupa. Natural size. (From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

Hand picking is very efficient, because the caterpillars
are large enough to be easily seen, and this is not very
expensive in localities where labour is fairly abundant.

Fig". 103c. Northern tobacco worm.

Full-grown larva. Natural size. (From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

95

The natural enemies of tbe tobacco worm probably
exert a strong influence on the abundance of this insect,
although definite knowledge on this point seems to be
lackiug. The parasitic fly (Sturmia distincta, Wied.) is
known to attack the potato worm, and is probably
one of the natural enemiBs of the tobacco worm.

cut worms. Young
tobacco plants are often
destroyed by cut worms
(see Fig. 104) soon after
being planted in the field.
These are the same as,
or similar to, the insects
mentioned in connexion
with cotton and would
be controlled in the
tobacco field by the use
of poison bait in the
same manner as in the
cotton field.

S c

Fig-. 104. Cut worm.

(<i) larva ; (b) moth. Natural size.
(U. S. Dept. Aqric.)

the flea beetle (Epitrix parvula, Fabr.). Coleoptera.

The flea beetle (Fig. 105) is a small bsetle with the
hind legs adapted for jumping : it is from its possession of

Fig. 105. Tobacco flea beetle.
(a) beetle; (/>) larvi; (c) head of larva; (d) posterior leg of larva; (e) ana1
segment; (f)pupa. (a) (b) and(f) enlarged about 15 times; (c) (d) and (e)
more enlarged. {From U. 8. Dept. Agric.)

96

the habit of jumping that the common name is derived
The larvae and adults feed on the leaves, puncturing them
with numerous minute holey.

In some localities tobacco is seriously affected by
attacks of this insect, which by its feeding ruins the
leaf, as far as its use for cigar making is concerned.
Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is sometimes very useful
in controlling attacks of the ilea beetle. It might happen,
however, that the fine hairs on the surface of the leaf
would hold the solid ingredients of the Bordeaux mixture
to such an extent as to impair the value of the leaf if the
application was made only shortly before the time of reap-
ing. Lead arsenate is also useful in this connexion.

SWEET POTATOES.

the scarabee or Jacobs (Cryptorhynchiis bataiae,
Waterhouse). Coleoptera.

In the West Indies
a small snout beetle and
its grub often cause very
serious loss to the grow-
ers of sweet potatoes.
This insect (Fig. 106) is
commonly known in
Barbados as the Scara-
bee, and in the Northern
Islands as Jacobs. The
entire life of the scarabee is passed on or in the potato.
The grub (Fig. 107) is small, whitish and without distinct
legs, somewhat resembling a maggot, which tunnels

<* *..

Fig. 106. Scarabee or Jacobs.
Adult insect. Enlarged.
(Imperial Dept. Agric.)

*#>>

Fig. 107. Scarabee or Jacobs.

Larva. Enlarged. {Imperial Dept. Ayrk.)

97

through the tissues of the potato. (Fig. 108.) Whenever
it is attacked in this manner the potato acquires
a disagreeable odour and will not be eaten by stock.

Fig-. 108. Sweet potato attacked by Scarabee.
Reduced. (Original.)

The eggs are laid in the potato, the grubs and pupae
(Fig. 109) occur there, and the adult beetles mate
when they emerge and the female deposits eggs in the

Fig. 109. Scarabee or Jacobs.
Pupa. Enlarged. (Imperial Dept. Agrir.)

same potato. The first attack on a potato may result in
a slight infestation at one end— the end nearest the
surface of the ground. The generation of adult beetles
from this first attack spreads to a larger portion, and
it may happen that the attack of a third generation
can be traced in the potato. The life-history of the
scarabee occupies a period of about thirty days. The
grubs sometimes occur in the older portions of the stem
just above the roots.

98

Control. The scarabee is a difficult pest to control.
When the attack has once begun, there is no way of reach-
ing the insect with any insecticide. Care should be taken
to plant only strong, healthy slips, which are free from
scarabee, and the potatoes should be dug as soon as they
are ripe. Potato slips for planting may be produced in a
nursery established for the purpose. Small potato roots and
pickings are taken from a field after a crop is harvested,
and planted in some favourable location, away from potato
fields. The roots and pickings used for this purpose should
be carefully examined, and any that show signs of scarabee
attack should be rejected. If such a nursery is maintained
for only six or eight months, it is not likely to become
sufficiently infested for the vines to be attacked. As soon
as any attack of scarabee is noticed in the nursery it
should be abandoned and a new one established.

the sweet potato WORM (Protoparce cmgidata, Fabr.).

Lepidoptera.

The leaves of the sweet potato are often eaten by a
large green caterpillar (Fig. 110) which sometimes occurs in

Fig. no.
About natural size.

Potato worm.
{Imperial Depi, Agric.)

such enormous numbers as to eat all of them, leaving only
the bare vines in the field. This is the larva of the sweet
potato hawk moth. This caterpillar when full-grown

Fig. in. Potato worm.
Pupa. About natural size. {Imperial Dept. Agric.)

99

reaches a length of about 3 inches. The pupal stage (Fig.
Ill) is passed in the ground, and lasts some ten or twelve
days. The moths (Fig. 112) have a spread of wings of about

Fig. ii2. Potato worm.
Adult insect. Natural size. (Imperial Depi. Agric.)

3 inches, and the body is about If inches in length. This is
one of the most abundant of the large moths, in Barbados
at least, and is often attracted to lights in houses. The
moth is greyish or brownish in colour, with five pairs of
pinkish or reddish spots along the abdomen.

Control, It only rarely happens that this insect
occurs in such numbers as to make it necessary to apply
any insecticide for its control. When this occurs, however,
Paris green and lime will be found a thoroughly efficient
remedy.

The caterpillars of the sweet potato worm are attacked
by a parasitic Hy (Sturmja disthicta). These parasitic flies
(Fig. 113) finish their development in the pupa of the
potato moth, and it often happens that in fields where
countless numbers of worms have entered the soil to pupate,
very few moths emerge. Egg parasites are known as
natural enemies of many moths, and it is likely that the-
eggs of this insect are also attacked in this manner.

100

The loaves of sweet potato vinos are often seen to be
injured when no apparent cause is noticeable. The injury
due to the ravages of the caterpillar are plainly to be seen,
and there is no doubt as to the cause of the injury; but

Fig. 113. Sturmina distincta.
Enlarged. {From Imperial Dept. Agric.)

when the leaves merely appear unhealthy and as if the
plants were suffering from drought, more careful observa-
tion is required to enable the planter to distinguish exactly
the nature of the trouble. Thrips, flea beetle and red spider,
any one or all of these, produce an unhealthy appearance of
the leaves, when the minute size of the pests renders it
difficult to distinguish them.

THE flea beetle (Chaetocnema amazona, Boky).

Coleoptera.

This is a very small, steely blue beetle with legs well
developed for jumping. When disturbed the insects jump
from the surface of the leaf on which they are feeding
and take flight. This habit makes the flea beetle rather
difficult to observe. The adult beetles feed on the leaves,
causing them to show small patches where the tissues are
dry or discoloured. The feeding habits of the larvae do
not seem to be known.

thrips (Euthrips insularis, Franklin). Thysanoptera.

Thrips live on the under side of the leaves of the
sweet potato. Several species of these insects are found
on this and related plants ; the most abundant seems
to be the one named above. Their peculiar feeding habit

101

result in injuries to the leaf which cause it to curl slightly
and to show all over the surface fine streaks of a light
colour.

red spider (Tetranychus telarius, L.) Acarina.

Red spider (Fig. 114) also lives on the under surface of
the leaves, and, when very abundant, on the upper surface
as well. The red spider forms a very fine web under which

I a \

Fig. 114. A red spider.
(a) adult; (6) ]]aljnis ; (c) claw. Enlarged. {From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

most of the mites live. The feeding of these mites results
in a considerable amount of curling of the leaves, and in
producing a russet appearance on leaf-stalk and vine.

Thripsand red spiders are both very small in size, but
they can be easily distinguished. Thrips are long and
narrow ; they never have more than six legs, and the
adults are winged. The red spider has a comparatively
short and broad body. The adults possess eight legs,
and are never winged. The presence of a web is also an
indication of the presence of red spider.

Control. Flea beetle does not often occur in such
numbers as to require the application of insecticides
The use of Paris green and lime, or lead arsenate

102

would give good results in controlling the peHt.
Th rips and red spider may both be controlled by one or
two applications of sulphur and lime applied dry, as a

dust, and it. is likely that this would also have a useful

effect in connexion with the flea beetle. These pests arc
more injurious in dry weather, and the ad vent of rains
will often cause great reduction in their numbers.

THE RWBET potato weevil {Cylaa formicariu8, Pabr.).

Coleoptera.

This insect, which occurs in the southern United

States, Jamaica and British (oiiana does not seem to

be known at present in the Lesser Antilles, although it is
reported as having occurred formerly in Barbados. It is
widely distributed throughout the tropics of the world

It attacks sweet potatoes ill a manner somewhat similar

to the scarabee : but the appearance of the insect
is quite different, as will be seen by reference to the
illustration (Fig. 115). This insect is mentioned here in

order that planters throughout the West, Indies may be

able to identify the pest if it should appear.

Fig. 115. Sweet potato weevil.
Larva ■/ pupa ; and adult. Enlarged, {From V. S, Dept, Agric)

103

COCOA-NUTS.

SCALE INSECTS AND WHITE PLY. Ilerniptera.

Cocoa-nuts are attacked by scale insects! which are to
be found most abundantly on the older leaves. The most
important of these is probably the Bourbon Aspidiotus
(A 8pidiotii8 c^estructor , Sign.) This is a, small insect, the
scale covering of which is thin and papery, with a pale
yellow central spot (Fig. 110). Enormous numbers of this

Fig. 116. Bourbon aspidiotus.
Enlarged. (Imperial Dept* Agric.)

insect are often found very closely crowded together ;
badly attacked leaves often have a yellowish or dried up
appearance.

This scale insect is attacked to some extent by lady-
birds, and is probably parasitized by hymenoptcrnus
parasitic insects ; but the extent to which this occurs and
the species which are concerned in it do not seem to be
recorded, in Cuba, the Bourbon Aspidiotus on cocoa-nuts
is effectively controlled by tin; spotted lady-bird {Chilocor-

uh cacti).

The cocoa-nut snow scale (Diaepis boieduvalii, Sign.)

Pig. 117 also occurs on the leaves, causing yellowish

spots. The colonies are generally small ; the female scale

is pear-shaped, and similar in colour to the leaf, while the

104

male is oblong in shape and white in colour, with three
distinct longitudinal ridges.

* 3.

mm

i

1

■3.

Fig. 117. Cocoa-nut snow scale. Fig. 118. Cocoa nut mealy-bug.

"Enlarged. (Imperial Dept Agric.)

The cocoa-nut mealy bug (Psciidococcus nipae, Mask.)
is a small, round insect (Fig. 118) covered with yellowish
wax, which occurs on the leaves, generally in small num-
bers, and not grouped into dense masses or colonies.

The glassy star scale ( Vinsonia stellifera, Westw.) can
easily be distinguished by the projections of wax in the
form of a star, from which the insect gets its name (Fig.
119). This insect does not often occur in sufficient num-
bers on cocoa-nuts to become a pest.

Fig. 119. Glassy star scale.
Enlarged. (Imperial Dept. Agric.)

105

The black line scale (Ischnaspis longirosiris, Sign.)
generally occurs on old leaves and on the fruit (Fig. 120).
It is not a serious pest of cocoa-nuts, but often occurs in
great numbers on other palms. lb takes its common name
from its black colour and its long, narrow shape.

Fig-. 120. Black line scale.
Enlarged. {Imperial Dept. Agric )

The cocoa-nut white fly (Aleyrodicus cocois, Curtis)
occurs as a serious pest of cocoa-nuts in many parts of
tropical America. In Barbados, it has been considered
largely responsible for the decrease in the number of
cocoa-nut trees on the leeward side of the island. It is
often to be found associated with the scale insects

Fig. 121. Cocoa nut white fly.

Immature insects, and white wax on palm leaf.

Enlarged H times natural size. {Original.)

106

already mentioned. It occurs in the same position, that
is on the older leaves, as the Bourbon Aspidiotns.

The white fly colonies are distinguished by the
presence of fine wax filaments, among which may be seen
the immature stages (Pig. 121) which resemble scale insects,
and also the winged adult (Pig. 122). These are delicate
little insects with broad wings covered with a fine dust of
wax, resembling flour.

Fig. 122. Cocoa-nut white fly.

Adult insects and white wax on palm leaf. Enlarged

]^ times natural size. {Original.)

Control. If scale insects and white fly should
occur on young cocoa-nuts in sufficient numbers to render
the adoption of remedial measures necessary, these
insects could be well controlled by spraying with whale-oil
soap or some other oily or soapy spray material.
In the case of older trees it might be advisable to
remove the badly infested leaves and burn them. Both
the Bourbon Aspidiotns and the cocoa-nut white fly occur
on other plants, and where such plants are found har-
bouring these pests near cocoa-nut cultivations they
should be removed.

Natural Enemies. Scale insects in the West Indies
are more or less held in check by their natural
enemies, and it is likely that this is true of the white
fly. These are both parasites and predators, the former
including parasitic Hymenoptera and fungi, and the
latter the lady birds, and lace wing flies.

107

PALM weevil (Rhynchophoras imlmctram,!^.). Coleoptera.

This is one of the largest of the weevils, being about
lj inches in length, and broad in proportion (Fig. 123).
Its larva is well known in some parts of the West Indies
as the gru-gru worm. The gru-gru worm occurs as a
borer in several different species of palm trees, and in some
places is known as a pest in sugar-cane.

Fig. 123. Palm Weevil.
Enlarged 1£ times national size. {Original)

The adult female weevil deposits eggs within the tissue
of the food plant. By means of the strong mandibles situated
at the tip of the long snout, a deep incision is made in which
the eggs are placed. The larva spends its entire existence
as a borer, and when full-grown, changes to a pupa

Fig. 124. Cocoon of Palm Weevil.
Slightly reduced. (Original.)

108

enclosed in a rough cocoon constructed of fibres of the food
plant (Fig. 1-1), without leaving the host plant.

Control. The control of this insect is difficult when
the borers have become established within the tissues of the
plant. The adult weevils may, however, be very successfully
trapped. The stem or trunk of any of the palms commonly
attacked (cocoa-nut. gru-gru, etc.), if cut and left lying on
the ground, will attract the e&^-lavino; weevils. Pieces of
the palm stems can be distributed through a cocoa-nut
cultivation where the weevils are numerous, and examined
from time to time for a few weeks until thev are found to
contain the borers, when they should be destroyed. It must
be borne in mind, however, that any palms which have died
and are left standing will offer the same attractions to the
weevils as the trap pieces on the ground. All such trees
should be promptly cut down as soon as they are found to be
dead. If they are not already infested they may be used as
traps. It is of the greatest importance that all trap logs
and all dead and decaying trees of the kinds attacked by
this insect should be completely destroyed at intervals of
two or three months, so that the larvae in them should not
have sufficient time to mature and emerge as adult weevils.

The larger moth borer of sugar-cane (Cantnia licus,

M ■:.

^^ H|^V ^^^BB^^ lip

1

m

Bite '-'< ifl H) ^1 Hi -! ^H

1

Fig. 125. f Larger moth borer."

{Original.)

109

Drury) is reported as attacking cocoa-nuts in Trinidad (Fig.
125), and a related species (C. daedaliis), causes similar
damage in Surinam.

Leaf-eating caterpillars are known to attack cocoa-nut
palms in certain localities. In British Guiana, Brassolis
sophorae, and in Panama, B. isihmia occur. These are related
lepidopterous insects, the caterpillars of which feed on the
leaves of the cocoa-nut. They form large nests by tying
leaves together. In these nests the caterpillars, sometimes
several hundred in a single nest, live and feed.

These lepidopterous insects do not at present occur in
the smaller islands of the Lesser Antilles, and every precau-
tion should be observed to prevent their introduction.
If they should occur, they might be controlled by spray-
ing with arsenate of lead or Paris green, or the nests
might be cut out and the insects destroyed by burning or
crushing.

RUBBER

The several species of rubber-producing plants cultivat-
ed in the Lesser Antilles are subject to the attacks of scale
insects. Para rubber {Hevea brasiliensis) is less liable to
these attacks than the others. Castilloa is attacked bv the

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Akee fringed scale (AsterolecaniwnpustulanH,Q\s\\.) especially
when it is growing in unfavourable situations. Severe
attacks of this scale (Fig. 126) on the stems of young Castilloa

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Fig. 126. Akee-fringed scale.
Enlarged. {Imperial Dept. Agric.)

110

plants result in checking the growth of tin"1 plant ami
producing ;i very unhealthy tree.

The Castilloa tree sheds its leaves al intervals and on
this account scale insects which attack the leaves are not
injurious to the same extent as those which attack the stem.
The common mealy-bug (Pseudococcus citri, Risso) is very
commonly found (Fig. 127), and sometimes in extreme

Fig. 127. The common mealy bug".
Enlarged. (Imperial Dept. Agric.)

abundance, on leaves of Castilloa. The appearance of trees
attacked in this manner is very unsightly, because this
mealy-bug is accompanied by black blight ; but the injury
resulting from such attacks is not often very great. As has
been indicated, the leaves of the Castilloa fall to the ground
and carry the mealy-bugs with them, and also these insects
are often parasitized to a very considerable extent.

Funtumia rubber is very liable to attacks by the green
shield scale (Coccus viridis, Green). The Ceara rubber, of
which a few trial specimens are now being grown in the
West Indies, are attacked by a flat black shield scale which
may prove to be Sciissetia nigra, Nietn.

If it becomes necessary to spray rubber for the control
of scale insects, any of the standard insecticides would
probably be found satisfactory.

Castilloa rubber is sometimes attacked by a borer which
is the larva of one of the long-horned beetles. Very little
seems to be known of the habits of this insect. It has been
identified as Taeniotes scalaris. The body of the beetle is
about 1^ inches in length, while the slender antennae are
considerably longer. The body is slender, and is distin-
guished by a broad white stripe extending from the head to
the end of the wing covers. The wing covers aie marked
by alternating white and black lines.

Ill

Whenever the larvae of this insect occur as borers in
Castilloa they should be cut out with a sharp knife, or
killed by probing into their tunnels with a stiff wire.

NUTMEGS.

Nutmegs are commonly attacked by the mealv shield
scale (Pulvinaria pyriformis, Ckll.), which occurs on the
under side of the leaves, but does not often become a serious
pest. When young, the scales are very flat, green in colour,
rounded or ovate in outline (Fig. 128 j. The older scales are
brown, and the eggs are laid in a mass of white cottony

Fig. 128. Mealy shield scale.
Enlarged. {Imperial Dept. Agric.)

wax which raises one edge of the scale from the leaf, and
protrudes slightly. If it is found necessary to spray for
the control of this insect, any of the oily or soapy washes
will give satisfaction.

BANANAS.

Bananas are attacked by at least two species of white
fly, the more important of these being the white fly of the
palms (see Figs. 121 and 122), which occurs sometimes in con-
siderable numbers on the leaves of banana plants. It does
not often happen, however, that spraying is necessary, for
the removal of the old plants after the ripening of the fruit
serves to destroy a large number of the insects.

In certain islands, bananas are subject to attacks of the
larva of a beetle which bores into the underground

112

portions of the plant. This beetle is Tomarus bitubercula-
tu8t Beaud— a large, shiny, black beetle of the typical
hard-back form (Fig. 120). Perhaps the only satisfactory
remedy is to dig out affected plants as soon as dis-

Fig'. 129. Banana borer.
About \\ times natural size. (Original.)

covered, and destroy the beetle grubs, taking care
before replanting the hole that all grubs in the soil have
been destroyed.

Bananas are also attacked by a small weevil borer
(Sphenophorus sordidus, German), which is closely related
to the weevil borer of the sugar-cane, but is rather smaller
and of a more uniform dark colour than that insect.
In Trinidad, the larva of the giant moth borer (Castnia
licus) is known as a borer in the stem of banana plants.

YAMS.

The roots of yams will often be seen to be more or less

v 3

Fig. 130. Yam scale.

Enlarged. (Imperial

Dept. A gricr)

covered with a small whitish or
greyish scale insect (Fig. 130).
This is Aspidiotus hartii, Ckll.
Under ordinary circumstances,
this scale does very little damage.
An abundance of these insects
probably hastens the drying
up of the roots and increases
the shrivelled appearance. Scale
infested roots should not be

113

used for planting. Scale insects on stored yams may be
killed by the use of carbon bisulphide.

BEANS.

Beans, bonavist, woolly pyrol and other related
leguminous plants are subject to attacks of leaf -eating
caterpillars and red spider.

Woolly pyrol used as a green dressing is often com-
pletely eaten down by the larvae of the woolly pyrol moth
(Thermesia gemmatalis, Hiibn.). The only practical
remedy seems to be early planting, in order that the crop
may be well grown before the attack becomes severe, in
August and September. If the caterpillars become
exceedingly abundant, it would probably be wise to cut
the woolly pyrol and turn it in, rather than allow it to
be eaten down. Arsenical poisons are of very little use
in dealing with the leaf-eating insects on leguminous
plants, since they very often cause as much injury to the
leaves as that brought about by the insects. The

Fig. 131. The bean leaf-roller.
Natural size. {From U.S. Dept. Agric,)

114

bean leaf-roller {Eudamua proteun, L.) attacks several
varieties of beans. The caterpillar of this insect folds over
an edge of leaf to form a hiding place Tor itself. It is dis-
tinguished by its large head and a very small neck, and the
yellowish and green colour of its body (Fig. 131.)

The bean leaf-roller never becomes very numerous, on
account of the extent to which it is parasitized by a small
hymenopterous iusect, Uror/aster leucostic/ma, Ashm. The
eggs of this insect are laid in the body of the caterpillar,
where they hatch and produce young grubs which feed on
the tissues of the caterpillar. When fully grown these
parasitic grubs penetrate the skin of the caterpillar and
form a mass of white, silky cocoons. Sometimes, these
grubs are so numerous that the mass of their cocoons
completely hides the caterpillar from view. This insect
furnishes an execellent example of parasitism, and it
would be well worth the while of any planter or
other reader of this pamphlet to collect a few of these
caterpillars and feed them in a glass covered with muslin
of order to have the opportunity of observing this example
in nature's method of preserving a balance among the
various forms of life.

MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS AND PESTS.

In addition to the plants Avhich are grown in the
West Indies as field crops, there are many others which
are cultivated in the kitchen garden, and in pots and
beds as ornamental and flowering plants. These are sub-
ject to insect attack, perhaps to even a greater degree
than field crops grown under estate conditions ; and any-
one who has attempted gardening must have been amazed
at the number of pests to be combated, if he has taken
notice of them. Most persons however merely attribute
the death or unhealthy appearance of plants to blight,
or worms, and never attempt any further classification of
the organisms operating to bring about the undesired
results.

Plant lice, leaf hoppers, white fly, scale insects and
mealy-bugs occur on a great variety of food plants. They
are all insects with sucking mouth parts and would best
be controlled by contact poisons. Thrips and red spider
also are of frequent occurrence ; while leaf-eating cater-
pillars, grubs in the soil, borers in stems and roots, mole
crickets, cut worms, leaf-cutting bees, ants and nematodes

115

or eel worms all conspire against the gardener and con-
stantly remind him that eternal vigilance is the price of
liberty.

CUCUMBERS.

Cucumbers, melons, squash and other related plants
are subject to the attacks of a variety of insect pests.
The green fly (Aphis gossypii, Glover) often infests the
leaves to such an extent as to dwarf the plant, if not
entirely kill it. The young plants are often attacked by
cut worms and the leaves and stems are severely injured
by the caterpillars of the melon moth (Diaphania
hyalmata, L.). The pale-green larvae of this very
pretty little moth (Fig. 132) are often to be seen on

Fig. 132. Melon caterpillar.
Moths, larvae, aud pupa. Natural size {From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

the under side of the leaves of these plants. They feed on
the tissues of the leaf between the veins, but they generally
do not eat through the upper epidermis. The result is that
an attacked leaf shows a number of dry, thin spots before
the leaf wilts and entirely dries up.

116

These plants are nol easy t<> protect from the attacks
of the insects just mentioned, because <»t' their susceptibility
bo injury by insecticides. Dilute whale-oil soap or tobacco

Solutions may be used as a Spray, while WOOd-asheS, soot and

\i'i\ Light dressings of lime may be found useful applied in
t lit- form of <lust .

The plants in this group are also frequently severely
attacked by nematodes or eel worms. These are minute, or
almost microscopic, white worms which live in the soil and
penetrate the tissues of the roots of plants of many kinds.
producing swellings and deformities.

The effects of nematode attacks are most noticeable in
gardens, bul it is likely also that these pests cause very con-
siderable losses on estates.

The remedies consist of clean cultivation, rotation of
crops, and the free use of lime in the interval between crops.
Once the worms have penetrated into the root tissues,
they are protected from insecticides to a very large extent.
The use of solutions of whale-oil soap, applied to the soil
about the roots, will often check the increase of these pests
sufficiently to allow a useful plant a longer life than if they
are allowed to go unchecked.

Carbon bisulphide and a solution of potassium cyanide
are also useful for this purpose.

Tomatoes and peppers are attacked by large green
caterpillars, similar in size and general appearance to the
potato and tobacco worms. These plants are also often
infested with white fly, scale insects and mealy-bug. The
egg plant, or garden egg is related to the tomato and
pepper, and is often infested by the same pests. A very
delicate hemipterous insect which is fairly common on the
egg plant is the lace bug. The wings of this insect are
membranous, very thin in texture, with numerous strong
nerves or veins, presenting the appearance of a delicate
pattern in lace.

Onions are attacked by thrips, which destroy the
epidermis of the leaves and seriously interfere with the
growth of the plants. Cutworms also prey upon onions,
severing the young plants near the surface of the soil, or
later climbing up to feed on the leaves at night and
returning to hide through the day in the soil at the base
of the plant, where they may often be found and des-
troyed. Caterpillars are sometimes found hiding inside
the hollow leaf of the onion, where they feed until the

117

leaf is nearly dead. They enter at the base of the leaf by
a small hole which they make by eating away the tissues.
These holes are not easily seen and often the caterpillar
remains hidden, destroying many leaves, perhaps several
plants, before the real nature of the injury is discovered.

The mole cricket is a general pest living mostly under-
ground, where it constructs tunnels near the surface,
eating off all roots which come in its way. There are
several species of mole crickets in the West Indies. but they
are similar in general appearance and iu habit. The one
shown in the illustration (Fig. 133) is Gryllotalpa didoctyla.

Fig"- 133 Mole cricket.
Seen from above and from the side {From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

These insects are pests in the garden, and especially in
lawns. In the latter situations they completelv kill the
grass over considerable areas. Thev often come above
ground at night, and may be destroyed by the use of a poison
bait, or trapped in tobacco tins, concaining a small amount
of water, sunk in the soil with the bop rim level with the
surface of the soil, where they are numerous. The insects
fall into the water, and being unable to climb out may be
removed and killed in the morning.

Ferns are subject to attacks of thrips and mealy-bug.
and certain species are also attacked by scale insects. Palms
are often seen more or less badly attacked by s.-ale insects :
crotons {Codiaeum spp,), by mealy-bug and borers.

lis
Jf-The leaves of palms are, in general, bough, and fairly

strong insecticides may be used without injury 1<> them
Whale-oil soap, Lit). to •'! or 1 gallons of water, or kerosene
emulsion, used as a spray or applied with a sponge or cloth,
\\ ill Vive good results in the treatment of most scales on
palms.

Ferns are more delicate, and care must be exercised in
applying insecticides to them. A solution of whale-oil soap,
1 Hi. to 5 or I) gallons of water, applied in a very line spray,
should be sufficient for treatment of scale insects, mealy-
hue; or thrips. The application, in the case of ferns
and palms, should be repeated after an interval of about
two weeks.

The flower-buds and flowers of roses and geraniums are
often eaten by small caterpillars, the larvae of small moths.
Infested buds and flowers should be picked and the larvae
destroyed. Spraying with an infusion of pyrethrum as the
buds are forming would protect them from attack to some
extent.

Many varieties of lilies are at certain seasons to be seen
with their leaves badly eaten. This is done by the lily
worm, the larva of a moth, Euthisanotia amaryllidis. An
application of Paris green and lime at the beginning of the
attack will protect these plants from this injury.

Ipomoea florsfalliae, a climbing vine grown for its
beautiful clusters of bright-red flowers, is often attacked bv
the larvae of a small moth, Syntomeida syntomoides. This
caterpillar eats the developing buds, a severe attack often
resulting in the destruction of all the buds and the conse-

Fig. 134. Leaf-cutting bee.
About lg times natural size, (Original )

119

quent loss of all the flowers. Hand-picking of the caterpillars
is a satisfactory method of control. Paris green applied as
a dust might be useful, but on account of the fact that a
great part of the feeding is done inside the buds, the action
of poisons is rather problematical.

Roses and many other plants, especially the silk cotton
tree, are sometimes seen with the leaves very badly cut,

small circular, or nearly circular, pieces being removed.

This is the work of the leaf-cutting bees of which
Megachile martindaiei shown in the illustration (Fig. 134)

is one. The pieces of leaf are used by the insects for lining
the interior of their cylindrical nests.

120

CHAPTER VI.
Insects Which Attack Man.

MOSQUITOES. Diptera.

Residents and visitors in the tropics are probably
familiar with mosquitoes. These insects have for many
years been known from the great annoyance which they
cause by their habits of feeding. It is only in comparatively
recent years, however, that the extreme importance of these
small insects as carriers of disease has been recognized.
Malaria, filaria, and vellow fever are all known to be

Fig"- I35- Yellow fever mosquito.
Enlarged. (From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

121

disseminated by mosquitoes, and it has not yet been proved
that any of these diseases can be communicated to human
beings in any way except through the agency of tli< -s< •

insects.

In the West Indies, the filarial parasite, which produces
a disease called fever and ague, often resulting in those
deformities known as Barbados Leg, or elephantiasis, is
transmitted by mosquitoes of the genus Culex. In other
parts of the world other species are transmitters of this
disease. Malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes of the genus
Anopheles, and yellow fever by Stegomyia fasciata, Fabr.
(Fig. 135). These mosquitoes all have a general distribution
t hrougbout the West Indies, with t he exception of Anopheles,
which is not known to occur in Barbados.

So far as is known at present, mosquitoes are able to

breed only in stagnant or slowly running water, on the surface

of which the eggs (Fig. 136) are laid. The Larvae Live in the

water as wrigglers or ' water-worms . and the pupae, which

differ slightly in appearance from the larvae, are also found

Fig-. 136. Mosquitoes.

Egg mass above, ivith enlarged eggs "f left. Young larvat below

Enlarged. (From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

122

in water. The larvae (Fig. 137) and pupae of mosquitoes
breathe by means of air- tubes, and ii is necessary for them
to come to the surface in order thai these tubes may come
into contact with the air above. In the illustration the

Fig". 137. Larva of mosquito.
{From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

breathing organ is shown as a projection at right angles to
the main axis of the body.

Control. In order to get rid of mosquitoes, all stag-
nant water should be done away with as far as possible.
All old tins, bottles, etc., should be removed ; pools should be
filled in or drained. Water tanks should be screened in such
a way as to prevent the entrance of the adult mosquitoes for
the purpose of egg-laying. Many plants are able
to hold water in sufficient quantity for the breeding
of mosquitoes, and these should be destroyed. Ponds and
streams which cannot be done away with should be stocked
with millions (Girardinus poeciloides, De Filippi) or other
small fish, (Fig. 138) and these will also be found efficient

wJJ*^

mm

SfVVOCvS*;

Fig-. 138. Millions.
Enlarged. {Imperial Dept. Agric.)

in the case of garden tubs, fountains, etc., where ornamental
plants are grown, as well as in cisterns and tanks which
cannot be screened. Kerosene, sprayed 011 the surface of
any water in which mosquitoes are breeding, is a very
efficient means of destroying them. When the mosquito
larvae or pupae rise to the surface to breathe, the kerosene

123

comes into contact with their air tubes and causes their
death. It may be mentioned that only the female mos-
quitoes are capable of piercing the skin and sucking the
blood of animals. The mouth parts of the male are adapted
for sucking the juices of flowers.

The attacks of the adult mosquito can be prevented by
the use of mosquito nets over the beds, or by screening doors
and windows of dwellings. The use of citronella oil,
lavender oil, eucalyptus oil, and other strongly scented
substances will often be found efficient in keeping away
these troublesome insects.

It is sometimes desirable to rid a house of mosquitoes
and this can be done by fumigation. The fumes of sulphur
or pyrethrum, or of a mixture of carbolic acid and camphor,
will accomplish this object. In order that fumigation maybe
effective, however, it is necessary to be able to close doors
and windows, so as to produce practically air-tight rooms or
an air-tight house. Strips of paper pasted over cracks and
crevices are very efficient in preventing the escape of gases
during fumigation.

FLEAS. (Pultx spp.). Diptera.

The house-flea (Pule.r irritans) sometimes occurs in
sufficient numbers to cause it to be considered as a pest.

Fig-- I39- House flea.

(a)larva; (b)pupa; (c) adult flea. All enlarged.

{From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

124

The esrers are deposited in corners, crevices in ihe floors and
walls, under carpets and in similar locations. The larvae,
which are minute worm-like maggots, (Fig. L39) live among
the dusl and dirt, and arc said to feed on the particles of
organic mailer Eound in such places. The adults hide in
clothing and bedding and atta,ck human beings, principally at
night. The mouth parts arc especially adapted for piercing
the skin and for sucking up their food, which is the Mood of
the victim attacked. The length of time required for the
complete life-cycle is aboul four weeks.

In order to rid a dwelling of fleas after it has once become
infested, it is accessary to remove the breeding places. In
such a house ii would be advisable to remove all carpets,
rugs and floor mattings, and to have these thoroughly cleaned
by beating and sweeping, out of doors. Floors should be
swept and scrubbed, and greal care taken to prevent the
accumulation of any dust and dirt. Pyrethrum is very
effectual in destroying fleas, and may be dusted in all places
frequented by the adults, or in which the larvae are likely to
breed. Powdered alum is said to be an effective remedy for
fleas. This may be dusted in the same way as is mentioned
tor pyrethrum, or it may be dissolved in water, and the
solution used for wiping floors. When it is found that beds
are infested with adult fleas, the following simple method
will probably prove very effective. Take an old sheet, and
wring it out in a strong solution of alum and water and
thoroughly dry it. Spread this over the mattress and under
the sheet that is slept on.

The cat and dog flea (Pulex serraticeps, Gerv.) also
attacks man, and the methods of control just mentioned will
be found useful for these insects. (See Fig. 148.)

Fleas have long been known as insects which cause
irritation and annoyance, but quite recently it has been
discovered that certain species of these insects play an
important part in the transmission of one of the most serious
of diseases — bubonic plague. It has been found that rats
are the means by which plague is spread. This disease
attacks rats, and is communicated to the fleas which infest
them. When a rat dies of plague, the infested fleas leave
the dead bodv in search of other food, and if these insects
bite human beings the disease is communicated. In addition
to the killing of the fleas, it is necessary to destroy the rats
also, in order to control an outbreak of plague. Most
persons will hardly distinguish between different kinds of

125 ■

fleas : therefore all fleas should be treated with suspicion
and the greatest care exercised to prevent their occurrence.

THE CHIGOE OR JIGGER FL,EA(SarcopsyUa penetrans). Diptera.

This insect is probably a native of tropical America,
and it attacks a great variety of domestic animals, in ad-
dition to man. The ad alt fleas attack their host in the same
way as the house flea. In addition to this, the adult female
burrows into the skin, especially under the toe nails, between
the toes and in any crack or crevice of the skin or flesh of
the foot. As the eggs develop, the body of the female
increases greatly in size until it becomes a nearly spherical
object, sometimes as large as a good-sized pea. This growth
of the body of the flea is accompanied by itching, severe pain
and swelling, sometimes resulting in a very serious ulcer.

The jigger should be removed from the flesh as soon as
its presence is discovered, great care being taken to remove
the insect entire, since the bursting of the body, and tli«
discharge of the eggs in the flesh of the host is likely to
produce a serious sore. To accomplish this, a slight incision
should be made with the point of a sharp, clean knife blade
and the flea carefully worked out by pressure at the sides.

THE bed BUG (Cimex lectularia, L.). Hemiptera.
This disgusting and annoying insect (Fig. 140) is widely

Fig-. 140. Bed bug-,
(a) adult female gorged with blood ; </a same from below. Enlarged.

(From U.S. Dipt. Agric.)

12<>

distributed throughout I he tropics, and probably throughout
the entire inhabited world. It is a Flattened, brownish,
ovoid insect, without wings and with mouth parts well
adapted for piercing ;in<l sucking. It is very easy for a
house to become infested with the bed bug and very difficult
1 1 > live it from t he pest.

Their flattened structure makes it possible for these
insect s to hide in the smallest of crevices, and they secrete
themselves in any cracks or joints in the framework of beds.
They also hide in cracks in the Moors and walls, behind wall-
paper, and in mattresses and pillows. When it is discov-
ered that bed bugs have become established in a hod, the
following procedure should be adopted. The linen, mattress
and pillows should be taken out of doors and carefully
searched for any of these insects. Every possible hiding-
place such as 'seams, hems, and the knots with which 1 lie
mattress is tied, should he carefully examined and brushed
with a stiff brush. Sheets should he brushed and hung up
in the sun, and pillows should be examined as carefully as
the mattress. The frame of the bed should be taken apart,
and every joint and crevice and the springs examined.
If bed bugs have been established for any length of time,
their hiding places will be revealed by discoloured spots
caused by the excrement of these insects, by their cast
skins, and the empty egg shells which are pearly white in
colour. Kerosene and turpentine are excellent insecti-
cides for the destruction of this pest. These should be
applied liberally wherever any signs of bed bugs are seen,
and it would be well to soak thoroughly every joint and
crevice in the structure of the bed and the springs. This
examination and treatment should be repeated three times
at intervals of a week ; and if the insect makes its re-
appearance later, the entire course of treatment should be
repeated. Iron bedsteads are greatly to be preferred to
those made of wood, as they offer fewer opportunities for
bed bugs to hide.

Bed bugs have the power to live for long periods, under
conditions which make it impossible for them to obtain
human blood for food. Old beds which have been stored for
some time, away from any sleeping apartments, have been
found to be infested and those which are used only for short
periods separated by long intervals, have been known to
contain the insects, which in these situations are, as might
be expected, most voracious. The traveller in the tropics

127

would do well always to be provided with a good supply of
pyrethrum or similar insect powder. A little of this
substance, dusted over sheets and pillows, may provide
against attack by both bed bugs and fleas, and aid in
procuring undisturbed rest.

lice. Hemiptera.

There ai^e three species of parasitic Hemiptera known
as lice, which are peculiarly adapted to life on the human
subject. These are the head louse (Pediculus capitis,
De Geer), the body louse (Pediculus vestimenti, Leach) and
the crab louse (Ph thirius inguinalis, Leach). The first two
of these are similar in appearance and in habits. The
former, however, lives only in the fine hairs of the head, the
latter secreting itself in the clothing. The crab louse is
smaller and broader in proportion, than the others, and it
inhabits the coarse hairs of other parts of the body than the
head.

The eggs of lice, commonly called nits, are small,
whitish, ovoid objects attached to the hairs, or, in the case of
the body louse, secreted in the folds of the clothing.

The remedies to be used for the control of these para-
sites are, first, cleanliness, and second, the destruction of the
insects by means of a contact poison, or in the case of the
body louse, by the fumigation of the clothes. The contact
poisons to be used include insect powder, oils and oily
mixtures, mercuric ointments and sulphur ointment.

The bodv louse occurs chieflv among armies and in
prisons. Infested clothing may be subjected to baking or
to treatment with the fumes of sulphur or tobacco. If this
treatment is repeated two or three times at intervals of
a few days, and strict personal cleanliness is maintained, the
attack by this insect will probably be overcome

THE BLOOD-suckixg COXE NOSE (Conorhinits sanguisuga,

Lee). Hemiptera

This insect, which is sometimes called the bi^ bed-bug
(Fig. 141), belongs to a family of Hemiptera which includes

I2S

Fig. 141.
(a) larva : (6) adult.

Blood-sucking cone nose.

Enlarged. (Fi'om U.S. Dept. Agric.)

several forms predaceous on other insects. The blood-
sucking cone nose feeds generally on other insects,
but the winged adult sometimes flies into houses at night,
and if opportunity offers attacks sleeping persons. The
si long sucking mouth parts with which the insect punctures
the skin of its host for the purpose of sucking blood is capa-
ble of inflicting a very painful wound. Cases are known of
fever and severe illness, accompanied by swelling and in-
flammation in the vicinity of the bite, following the attack of
the blood-sucking cone nose. The insect is about f-inch in
length, of the typical appearance of the Hemiptera, the
wings lying along the back, being narrower than the ab-
domen, the edges of which are marked with alternating
areas of red and black, which latter is the general ground
colour of the entire insect.

THE HOUSE fly (Musca domestica). Diptera.

The housefly (Fig. 142) is probably to be considered
.is much a household pest, as a pest attacking man. Within
the past few years, however, the agency of this insect as a
carrier of typhoid fever lias come to be so well known that
it is included in this place rather than among the household
pests.

129

Fig. 142. House fly.
Puparium at left; adult next; larva and enlarged -parts at right.

Enlarged. (From U. >'. Dtpt. Agric.)

The house fly breed in manure and decaying organic

matter. Its life-cycle occupies a very short time and the
females deposit a large number of eggs, thus providing for
very rapid increase in numbers. House flies visit the most
repulsive and unclean situations and, if opportunity offers,
they go from these places directly into houses, mess tents, etc.,
where they walk about over food stuff's, contaminating them
with any disease germs or filth which may have adhered
to the hairs of their legs and bodies. The house fiv is dis-
tinctly a creature of filth and uncleanliness. and the first
step toward ridding a house or locality of these undesirable
visitors is to remove the material and the conditions which
provide them with breeding places.

Under estate conditions and in stables, manure mav be
treated with gypsum or air-slaked lime and thus be ren-
dered unsuitable as a breeding place for flies.

BETE ROUGE (Trombidium sp. ). Acarina.

This small mite occurs in some of the West Indian
Islands in such abundance as to cause it to be considered
a pest. There is a great difference, however, in the degree
of susceptibility to attack, some persons being frequentlv
and seriouslv annoved by these small creatures, while others
will very rarely notice them. The bete rouge is known
as the harvest bug, and in some localities is called a cbigger.

130

They are minute reddish miles which occur in grass and
shrubs. They attack the ankles and wrists ot persons who
are exposed to them, and it' left undisturbed will bury them-
selves in the skin. When they occur in great numbers as
they sometimes do, and swarm over t lie arms and legs,
they cause an extremely painful irritation.

These small mites have been described and figured as
species of the genus Leptus — Leptus irritans, and L. ameri-
cana — but they are probably only the larval forms of some
Trombidium.

Several remedies are in use in the tropics against this
mite. The wearing of thick boots, riding leggings, or put-
ties, will often serve as a preventive, especially in short
grass. The application of rum, whiskey or dilute alcohol
will kill the bete rouge, if this can be made before
the mites have burrowed into the skin. Lime
juice and greasy substances, especially carbolated oil, vase-
line, or tallow candle will generally be found effective. An
effort should be made to prevent mites from burrow-
ing into the skin. They can often be discovered in the
centre of the little red swelling which results from the
irritation caused by them, and if they are removed much of
the irritation may be avoided.

131

CHAPTER VII.
Insect Pests of Domestic Animals.

Domestic animals in the tropics are attacked by insects
and other pests to an extent perhaps greater than is the
case with similar animals in cooler climates. In the small
islands of the West Indies, however, certain of these pests
are less troublesome than in larger tropical countries and in
temperate and sub-tropical regions. The cattle ticks are an
example of such pests. In some parts of the world the
cattle ticks are the cause of great loss to cattle raisers and
estate owners, because of the irritation to the cattle and the
loss of blood taken as food by enormous numbers of these
parasites, and also on account of the diseases which they
transmit from one individual to another. Certain species of
ticks also transmit diseases of goats and of dogs. Other
pests and parasites injure the host animals principally by
feeding on the blood, which they suck by means of the
specially adapted mouth parts.

Fig. 143. Cattle tick.

Female at the left, male at the right. Enlarged.

{From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

132

TICKS. Acarina,

The cattle tick (Margaropus annulatus australis) occurs
throughout the West Indies. It is one of the mites, and not
a true insect. The adull (Fig. 143) is reddish-brown in
colour: the skin or integument is leathery in texture ; the
number of legs is eight. The length of a large female is
about |-inch. The male is smaller and Matter than the
female, which when fully fed is very much distended. The
immature ticks are similar in general appearance to the
adult male, being small and flat with comparatively long
legs. The newly hatched larvae have only three pairs of
legs, the fourth pair being acquired at the first moult.

The replete egg-laying female, as seen from above
appears to be nearly all abdomen, the head and thorax being
represented by a very small area at the anterior end of the
body.

The eggs (Fig. 144) are laid on the ground, each female
producing great numbers — from 1,500 to 3,000. The young,

six-legged larvae cluster upon grass
and low herbage, where they await
the passing of cattle or other ani-
mals to which they may attach
themselves. As soon as these 'grass
ticks' or 'seed-ticks' findthem selves
on a suitable host, they insert the
mouth parts and begin at once to
feed. These ticks do not leave the

rg' 'f4'f ,Cftle..tlck host animal until the life-cycle is

female tick depositing ^ .. ,. , J

eggs. Natural size. complete; they moult, become sexu-

(Fi-om U.S. Dept. Agric.) ally mature, the union of the sexes

occurs, and then the female, ready
to begin egg-laying, drops to the ground.

The time occupied by the West Indian cattle tick in
completing its life-cycle does not seem to have been worked
out, but, in the United States, Margaropus annulatus has
been found to require about 6 or 7 weeks, divided as
follows : —

The first (larval) period occupies 6 or 7 days, the second
(nymph) also 6 or 7 days. The adult remains on the host
another 5 days, during which time mating occurs, and at
the end of this, the impregnated female drops to the ground.
Another 3 days ensues before egg-laying begins, and the
time required for the eggs to hatch is about 21 days.

133

Since development is, in general, more rapid in the
warmest weather, it may safely be assumed that the life
cycle of such a closely related species or variety would not
be longer in the West Indies than in the case of M.
annulatus in the United States.

Control. In the United States, a system of control has
been demonstrated, which consists of enclosing cattle in one
place while the ticks are dropping, and removing them to
another before hatching commences. They are removed
from the second enclosure before the eggs from the dropped
females begin to hatch. If the cattle are by that time tick-
free they may be allowed to range over any pasture on
which there has been no cattle or other tick hosts for
a period of some six months.

Newly hatched ticks are able to exist for about two
weeks without food, after which time they die of starvation.

Where a few cattle are to be dealt with, they may be
sprayed or washed with a good contact insecticide. In
treating larger numbers they may be dipped, in large vats
built for the purpose.

There are on the market several cattle dips and washes,
especially adapted for treating ticks. These generally con-
tain some oil or soap, and may include also arsenic.

The following mixture has been tried on a small scale,
on a cow, and found satisfactory. One gallon of kerosine,
1 gallon of cotton seed oil, and 1 Bb. flowers of sulphur were
thoroughly mixed, and applied with a coarse cloth. The
cow was washed, care being taken to ensure that the
mixture came into contact with every part of the animal's
skin. After an interval of a week or ten daj^s, the applica-
tion was repeated. These two applications were successful
in removing all the ticks, and although the hair came off in
a few places, the animal seemed to suffer no inconvenience.
In adopting this method the animals should be kept on
a tick-free pasture after the first application, in order to
prevent re-infestation.

Cattle ticks also attack horses, goats, and dogs; but not
often in sufficient numbers to be considered pests. Dogs
also are attacked by the dog tick which is probably a species
of Rhipicephalus.

The gold tick {Amblyomma variegatum) which occurs
in Antigua is remarkable on account of its larger size. It is

1 34

Buspected of having an influence in the spread of a skin
disease of cattle which occurs in thai island.

FOWL TICKS. Fowls in the WVsi Indies are often attack-
ed bv the fowl tiek (Argas miniatus) which though fairly
abundant is not familiar to many persons. This is a flattish,
mottled, grey ti<-k which hides in crevices under boards and
similar situations, coining out to prey upon the fowls at
night.

Control. Fowl houses should be built in such a way as
to provide the fewest possible hiding places for the ticks and
other pests of fowls. The free use of lime, or of a mixture
of lime and sulphur in equal parts, dusted in all cracks and
crevices, is a great aid to cleanliness from pests of this kind.
The perches on which the fowls roost might be protected by
means of a band of tar or other sticky substance, applied
near the ends of the perches in such a manner as to prevent
the ticks from Graining access to the fowls at night.

These ticks are able to live for many months without
food, and the fact that a fowl house has not been in use for
a year, even, will not be a guarantee that it contains no ticks.

THE SCREW worm (Compsomyia macellaria). Diptera.

About ten years ago, the screw worm occured in St.
Lucia in such numbers as to cause a very considerable loss
to owners of stock in that island.

The insect is a species of the Diptera, the adult being a
two- winged hV about the size of the house-fly, or a little
larger. In general appearance the screw worm fly resembles
both the blue-bottle and the house-fly, the chief distinguish-
ing feature being three longitudinal dark marks on the
dorsal surface of the thorax. There, are, however, other flies
possessing similiar markings, so that for an exact identifica-
tion other characters need to be studied.

The female fly deposits the white, cigar-shaped eggs in
any wound or open sore of cattle, horses, sheep, goats, and
pigs ; and cases are on record where this insect has even
attacked man. The eggs are fastened together into bundles
by means of a mucilaginous substance secreted by the
parent.

The maggots which hatch from the eggs are white
without legs, tapering to a point at the head and ending
bluntly behind. The hinder end of the body is provided
with breathing pores ; these enable the maggot to breathe,

135

even when it is buried in the tissue of an animal, as long
as the extreme end of the body comes into contact with
the outer air.

The full-grown maggot is about A-inch in length.

The pupa is an oval, seed-like body, brown in colour,
about J-ineh in length.

The life-cycle occupies about 8 or 4 weeks, divided as
follows : —

Egg 1 to 48 hours

Maggot 7 „ 10 days

Pnpa 14 „ 21 days

Egg-laying begins in a very short time after the
emergence of the adult.

The injury to animals attacked bv the screw worm
arises from the amount of irritation to the wounds infested
by the maggots, the loss of blood and the destruction of
tissue, and also from blood poisoning, which frequently
results.

Control. In anv locality where the screw worm occurs
in numbers, great care should be taken to prevent the access
of the fly to wounds, sores or exposed tender tissues on all
domestic animals. This can be done by prompt treatment
with some substance which will repel the fly, or will make
it impossible for the eggs to be laid. After the maggots
have actually infested the animals, the wounds should be
carefully cleaned, all the insects removed and the wounds
dressed.

The following substances have been tried and have
given good results : —

Fish oil, used alone, serves to keep off the flies and pre-
vent egg-laying. It may be used in a mixture with any of
the following, for a dressing.

Carbolic acid. Used to kill maggots, and to cleanse and
disinfect wounds. If used alone, it should be applied with a
feather. Mixed with sweet oil, its action is not so severe,
and it may be used more liberally.

Jeyes fluid may be used in the same manner as car-
bolic acid. It may be diluted with water to make a disin-
fectant wash.

A mixture of Jeyes fluid 3 parts and Friars balsam 2
parts, or carbolic acid 1 part and Friars balsam 2 parts, is
also very efficient.

136

Tar (pino tar) is useful for painting surface wounds,
after the maggots have been removed ; it also prevents
the access of Hies for further infection.

Cotton soaked in any of the mixtures given above may
be used to plug deep wounds, or the mixtures may be
used for bathing shallow wounds. Great care shoud
be taken to remove all maggots and to maintain the
utmost cleanliness of the wounds, in order to promote rapid
healing, and to prevent blood poisoning.

bot FLIES. Diptera.
The bot Hies of horses, cattle and sheep occasionally

mm

6

%

Fig. 145. Sheep bot fly. Fig"- 146- Sheep bot.

Enlarged. (Fiom U.S. Larvae of different ages. Natural size.
Dept. Agric.) {From U. S. Dept. Agric )

occur in small numbers in the West Indies. Since these are
important in other countries they are briefly considered here.

The bot Hies are related insects'
of the order Diptera. The sheep bot
{Oestrus ovis, L.) infests the nasal
cavities and head of the sheep (Fig.
145). The maggots (already hatched
from the egg) are deposited by the
female parent in the nostrils of
the sheep. (Fig. 14(3). The larvae
then make their way up the nasal
passages into the head, where they
grow and develop throughout the
larval period which occupies 8 to
10 months. At the end of this time,
the full-grown larvae are expelled

Fig 147. Sheep bot.

Pupa,. Enlarged. (From

U. S Dept. Agric.)

\

137

by the sneezing of the sheep. They burrow into the
ground, where the pupal stage is passed (Fig. 147). This
occupies some 4 to 6 weeks.

Control. When the sheep bot occurs in numbers,
various plans are adopted to prevent the access of the
adult fly or to dislodge the grub. The latter is considered
the most useful measure to take with this insect. For this
purpose, the animal may be caused to sniff a small quantity
of dry lime, and the sneezing thus induced will dislodge the
maggot if it has not become too well established. The
use of a feather dipped in turpentine will cause the
detachment of maggots in the lower part of the nasal
passages; but when they have become fixed in the
sinus between the bones of the head, to loosen them
is extremely difficult, if not impossible. The use of
some substance, on the nose of the sheep, which is
disagreeable to the fly may prevent egg-laying to a certain
extent, but cannot be depended on entirely, especially
where these insects are abundant. Tar has been used for
this purpose.

The horse bot (Gastrophilus eqai, Fabr.) differs in
several particulars in its life-history from the preceding.
The eggs are not hatched within the body of the female
fly ; they are deposited on the long hairs of the
forelegs and chest of the horse, where they hatch.
The maggots are removed by the tougue of the horse in
licking itself, and carried to the mouth and swallowed.
The larvae attach themselves to the lining of the stomach
of the horse, where they remain for several months.
When fully grown they loosen their hold and are passed out
of the body of the host with the dung. The pupal stage
is passed in the ground like that of the sheep bot.

The bot of cattle is known as the warble fly.
This is Hypoderma lineata, Will., or H. bovis, de G. The
adult female deposits its eggs on the hair of the shoulders,
neck, etc., of the cattle, from which places eggs or newly
hatched larvae are licked off and swallowed by the host.
The maggots penetrate the walls of the alimentary
tract and finally reach the subcutaneous tissues of the
back, where they remain for some months, throughout the
pupal stage. When fully grown, the maggots penetrate
the skin of the host and fall to the ground, and then the
pupal stage is passed through in a similar way to that of
the bots of the sheep and horse.

138

Control. When warble flies are very abundant
they may be prevented from laying eggs on the cattle by
smearing the necks and backs of the animals with a repel-
lent mixture, which may be made by mixing together : —

Flowers of sulphur 4 oz.

Spirits of tar 1 gill

Whale-oil 1 quart

During the egg-laying season, this mixture should be
applied once a week.

Warble flies do not like deep shade, and it is said that
they will not fly over water ; consequently cattle that have
access to deep shade, and pools of water in which to stand
and wade, should be but little troubled by these pests.

When the swellings on the backs of the animals are first
seen, a light rubbing with kerosene will kill the grubs.
This is due to the fact that the oil penetrates through the
holes in the skin of the cattle, through which the maggots
breathe. Later, the insects may be squeezed out of the
swellings and destroyed.

FLEAS.

Cats and dogs are attacked by fleas (Fig. 14S) which

Fig. 148. Cat and dog flea.
Enlarged. {From U.S. Dcpt. ■ Agric.)

in the adult stage live among the hairs of the body, and
obtain their food by piercing the skin and sucking the
blood of the host. The life-history is similar to that of
the house ilea,(Pulex irritans), and the remedies to be used
are also similar (see Fig. 138). The eggs of the cat and
dog flea (Pulex serraticeps) are dropped to the floor, or to
the ground, where they hatch, and where the grub-like
maggots live and develop.

139

The free use of pyrethrum or similar insect powder
will completely free dogs, cats or other animals from fleas,
and cleanliness and the use of pyrethrum in the sleeping
places of the animals will be sufficient to keep them
practically free of these pests,

POULTRY LICE.

The poultry lice belong to the order Platyptera, and
are known as the biting bird lice. The principal of these
is Menopon pallidum. This is an active, yellowish insect,
about ^-inch in length, with biting mouth parts, and
without wings, even in the adult condition. The eggs are
small, elongate-oval, and attached to the feathers of the
birds. The young live on the skin of the fowls, at the
base of the feathers, while the adult insects wander
about actively over the skin and through the feathers.
The food of poultry lice is composed of the epidermal scales
and the fine portions of the feathers. Poultry do not suffer
a loss of blood from the attacks of lice, but a constant
irritation, rather, due to the presence of these pests.

Fowls infested with lice can often be distinguished by
their ragged plumage, and by the fact that they are
constantly dusting themselves.

Control. Dust baths containing wood ashes or
sulphur or tobacco dust are useful in this connexion. An
infusion of tobacco stems is useful for dipping infested
fowls, and tobacco dust or insect powder, thoroughly
applied among the feathers, also gives good results.
Sitting hens may be protected by the use of naphthalene,
sulphur, onion leaves and tobacco, in the nests. Fumiga-
tion of the fowl-house w7ith sulphur, repeated two or three
times at intervals of 10 days, is of value in connexion with
houses that can be tightly closed.

poultry mites. A carina.

The poultry mite (Derma?iyssus gallinae, de Geer),
like the red spider and ticks, is not a true insect. This
pest feeds on the blood of the host, and frequently occurs
in such numbers as to cause the death of young chicks,
and to reduce greatly the vitality of older fowls. The
mites, which are called nimbles in the West Indies, are
entirely nocturnal in their attacks on fowls, hiding in
and about the roosting places during the day, and swarm-
ing out to feed at night.

140

Conirol. Any arrangement which prevents the mites

from gaining access to the fowls during the hours of
roosting will serve as a satisfactory check on these pests,
and this, combined with the use of lime and sulphur, as
suggested for the fowl tick, will give a practical immunity
from their attacks. Of course, cleanliness is a prime
requisite in connexion with all parasites of poultry. All
droppings should be removed every day, or at the very
least twice a week. The use of a sticky substance, or
kerosene, at the ends of the perches, as already suggested
for the fowl tick, is very useful in this connexion

Fowls are often seen with deformed or scabby legs —
a condition resulting from the presence of a burrowing
mite, the itch mite of fowls (Sarcoptes mutants, Robin and
Lang). Fowls suffering from this pest should not be
introduced into a flock where it does not occur.

Badly infested fowls should be killed, but in cases of
mild infection the application of oily ointments to the
scabs will result in their removal and in the death of the
mites. Care must be taken in the use of oils on the feet
of fowls, as an excess might produce an undesirable effect
on the normal scales.

Fig. 149. Hog louse egg which has been hatched, and the hair to

which it is fastened.
Enlarged. (From U.S. De$>t% Agric.)

141

the hog louse (Hacmatopinus siris). Hemiptera.

This [insect is of occasional occurrence in the West
Indies. Like those of the other true lice, its mouth parts
are adapted for sucking. The eggs (Fig. 149) are at-
ttached to the hairs of the animal, and the parasites
(Fig. 150) spend their entire life-cycle on the body of the
host. Severe attacks of hog lice cause animals to lose flesh

Fig. 150. Hog louse.
Adult female. Enlarged. (From U.S. Dept. Agric.

The remedies to be used are such contact poisons as
may be safely employed. Tobacco water, dilute carbolic
acid, kerosene emulsion and similar materials, applied as
sprays by means of a force pump, should give good results.

142

CHAPTER VIII.

Household Insects and Pests of Stored

Products-

cockroaches. Orthoptera.

Cockroaches are very common throughout the tropics,
occurring in houses, buildings of all sorts, and in a great
variety of out-door situations. The species which live in
dwelling houses are offensive and injurious. They impart
their distinctive and disagreeable odour to eatables or
utensils with which they may come into contact, and they
cause serious injury by their attacks on book bindings,

Fig. 151. American cockroach.
Enlarged. {From U, S. Dept. Agric.)

143

clothing, food stuffs, etc. The two principal household
species are very wide-spread in their distribution, occur-
ring in many parts of the world. The larger of these is
Periplaneta americana (Fig. 151) ; the closely related
form P. australasiae (Fig. 152) is slightly smaller. These
are the common brown cockroaches, lj inches to 2 inches
in length, and with a spread of wings of nearly 4 inches

Fig. 152. Australian cockroach.

(a) male icith icings spread ; (b) female; (c) immature form. Xatural

size. (From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

They are very conspicuous on moist, hot nights in the wet
season, when they fly into lighted rooms. The immature
forms are generally to be seen in numbers, if one enters
a kitchen or storeroom at night, carrying a light. The
eggs of the cockroaches are laid in masses, in the form of
a capsule. The young are similar in shape and appear-

144

ance to the adults. The flattened body and spiny legs of
cockroaches make it possible for them to penetrate
into very narrow cracks and crevices, where they hide
(hiring the day.

A small cockroach often occurs in the living rooms of
houses, hiding by day behind pictures and ornaments, and
inside presses, chests of drawers, under tables and in like
situations. The bright-brown egg-capsules may often be
found in the hiding places of these insects ; from such places
these forms sally forth at night, committing depredations
similar to those of the larger species. They are related to,
if not the same as, the German cockroach Ectobia ger-
manica, shown in Fig. 153.

Fig. i53- The German cockroach.

(a. b,c, d) four stages of growth ; (e), adult; (/), adult female with

egg case ; (g), eog-case enlarged ; \h). adult with icings spread.

All natural size except (g). {From Z7, S. Dept, Agric.)

Control. A mixture of boracic acid and sweet choco-
late or molasses, in equal parts, placed where these insects
are abundant serves as a very efficient check. A mixture
of flour and plaster of Paris is also said to be useful in
this connexion. If the supply of these mixtures is re-
peated at intervals of six weeks or two months, or when-
ever it is noticed that cockroaches are on the increase, it
should be possible to keep them reduced to very small
numbers all the time. Cleanliness in kitchens and store-
rooms, and the careful removal of all pieces of food, will
also be found to help in reducing the numbers of these
disagreeable pests.

Natural Enemies. The egg masses of cockroaches are
attacked by hymenopterous parasites of the genus Evania.

145

The common West Iudian species is not definitely known
to be a parasite of cockroaches, but it seems likely that
this is the case. Cockroaches are eigerly eaten by poul-
try, whenever the birds can find them.

SILVER FISH (Lepisma sp.). Orthoptera.

The silver fish (Fig. 154), fish scale or fish moth, as they
are often known, are familiar to most residents in the

tropics. They infest books,
papers and photographs.
Various articles of clothing
such as woollen and silken
fabrics are generally believed
to be attacked by these pests,
and it is sometimes stated
that even cotton and linen are
eaten by them. They seem
to be most attracted, however,
by material in which there

1<J*mW is an abundance of staivh or

**^;£SpJ|^''"< paste. A hook solution, con-

sisting of a mixture of 1 oz. of
corrosive sublimate, 1 oz. of
carbolic acid and 2 parts of
methylated spirit, applied to
the bindings of cloth-bound
books, will generally suffice to
prevent the attacks of both
cockroaches and silver fish.
Bookbinders in the tropics
should use' a paste containing
bluestone (copper sulphate) at
the rate of |-oz. to every pound of the paste, to prevent
the bindings from being eaten by these pests,
dant use of naphthalene in the form of flakes,
known as moth balls or camphor balls, will be
useful in keeping these pests out of drawers,
storage boxes, book-shelves and similar places.

Fig. 154. Silver fish.
Adult insect. Enlarged.
{From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

The abun-

or in balls

found very

wardrobes.

THE HOUSE CRICKET (Amphiacusta caribbea). Orthoptera,

This insect (Fig. 155) is often known in the We«t
Indies as the house or sick cricket. It occurs, sometimes in
great numbers, in houses, sheds, storage rooms, etc. It is

14<)

Fig" I55- House or sick cricket.
Reduced. (Original. )

said to feed on food stuffs generally, and to be fond of moist
situations, but it is known to occur and apparently to thrive,
in drv rooms where the onlv available food material
appeared to be books, papers and similar substances. When
these insects occur as pests in dwelling houses, they arc
generally found in the kitchens and living rooms, where
thev may be controlled by the same means as are recom-
mended for cockroaches.

ants. Hymenoptera.

Several species of ants are liable to establish them-
selves in houses, and cause a great deal of annoyance to
the inmates. The very minute sugar ant (Tapinoma mel-
anocephalum), which is pale-reddish in colour and
attacks sugar, jams, and similar substances, and the so-
called red or stinging ant (Sole)iopsls geminata) which
sometimes becomes very abundant, are perhaps two of the
most common. The mad or crazy ant (Prenolepis longi-
cornis), which is a slender, black insect with long legs and
long antennae is also a well-known form. Another one,
which is a large, stout, dark-coloured ant (Cumponotus sp.)
lives in the timbers, which it sometimes very materially
weakens by its excavations.

147

In order to get rid of ants in the house, it will
generally be necessary to locate the nest : for unless
the nest is destroyed, the egg-laying females continue
their activities, and the supply of the individuals in
the colony is maintained. The nest can generally be
located by putting down a bait and watching to see the
direction taken by the ants that have visited it. The
nest may be destroyed in several ways, the method used
depending somewhat on its location. Carbon bisulphide,
cyanide of potash in solution, and hot water, are all useful
for this purpose.

Two or three ounces of carbon bisulphide poured into
the principal entrances of the nest will evaporate and
produce poisonous fumes which have great power of
penetrating the galleries and killing the ants, both young
and adult. In using this, entrances and exits should be
plugged, to prevent escape of the fumes. Cyanide of
potash in a 2-per cent, solution is used in the same way.
The poisonous fumes are given off more slowly: but if the
openings leading to the underground portions are
thoroughly stopped, the ants will all be killed. Cyanide
of potash is very poisonous, and must be used with great
care : it should not be entrusted to servants.

In using hot water for this purpose, the fact must be
borne in mind that it rapidly cools on coining into contact
with the ground, and that in order to produce any great-
ly increased temperature in an ants' nest at a depth of (3
or 8 inches, a liberal supply must be used.

Most species of ants seem to have an extreme dislike
for corrosive sublimate. Safes, larders and tables may be
protected from invasion by washing with a solution con-
taining corrosive sublimate, or in the case of those which
swing from above, by soaking a portion of the rope by
which they are hung with this poison. Ants will
generally not cross a surface that has been treated with
corrosive sublimate in this manner. The book solution,
which has already been mentioned (p. 145), is useful for this
purpose.

The practice of standing the legs of a table or safe in
vessels containing water and kerosene is well known to all
residents in the tropics, as is also the use of a device which
accomplishes the same purpose in connexion with hang-
ing safes and larders. This is made by using an arrange-
ment like an inverted cone to hold the oil and water ;

148

through the apex of the cone an iron hook passes, which
attaches to the rope above and the larder below in such
a manner that when this is in place ants which attempt
to reach the interior of the larder by travelling down the
rope by which it is hung find their progress impeded by
the water and oil contained in the cone. (Fig. 156.)

Ants may be collected and killed by the use of a
sponge which has been dipped in a sugar and water mix-
ture, or the hoofs of cows, called cow heels, or any bone
such as chicken, beef, or mutton bones. These may be

Fig 156. Hook for hanging safe.
(Original.)

put down where ants are abundant, and when they are
covered with the insects, dropped into boiling water. If this
is repeated frequently for two or three days, a sufficient
number of ants will be killed to afford relief from their
ravages. Some species of ants apparently leave the nest
and establish anew one when they find their numbers rapid-
ly diminishing. It must be borne in mind, however, that
ants are not always attracted to the same food or bait, some
species being very fond of sugar and starchy substances,
while others are fond of meat, and if one form of bait is
not found effective it is necessary to try another.

149

white ants. Platyptera.

The Termites or so-called white ants (Fig. 157), or
wood ants, are not true ants, but get their name from the
similarity of their social organizations to those of the true
ants in the order Hymenoptera. In their structure and
life-history they more nearly resemble such insects as the
pond-flies and the lace-wing flies. They live in large
colonies which generally have an extensive central nest
containing one or more fertile egg-laying queens, and
enormous numbers of workers. These queens attain a
size much larger than any of the workers, because of the

Fig. 157. White ant.
(a) newly hatched larva ; (b) same from below ; (c) egg, much enlarged.

(From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

enormous distention of the abdomen which results from
the development of the organs connected with egg-laying.
(Fig. 158.)

These insects are nearly always blind, and they hide
from the light. When it is necessary to cross an exposed
surface, they build tunnels or covered galleries, through
which they travel from place to place. They feed upon
wood, and are able to excavate timbers and lumber used
in construction, to such an extent as to render them
entirely worthless. They often attack picture frames,
chairs, tables and other furniture, especially in old houses
where these articles come into contact with the walls, or
where they are not often moved.

150

Fig. 158. White ant.

(a)<i)i<j<jn ; (b) nymph of winged female ; (c) worker; (d) soldier.
All enlarged. (From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

Wood ants are very difficult to control, when they
have become established in or about buildings. The nests
can sometimes be located, and if these can be thoroughly
destroyed the numbers of the ants can be greatly reduced.
These nests are often to be seen as irregular woody masses
on the trunks of trees, and where they are thus found
they may be cut down and removed. Domestic fowls and
turkeys are very fond of these insects, and will eagerly
eat them if the nests are broken up so that they are
exposed. Sometimes, however, no nest can be found ; but
if any of their galleries can be located, many of the ants
can be killed by means of poisons, A mixture of arsenic

151

Fig1. 159. White ant.
a) adult male ; id) same side view; b, (t. d, e nil f. structural
details, a, d and e enlarged ; b c,andf\ greatly enlarged,
[From U.S.Dept. Agric.)

and sugar or strychnine and sugar can be put down in
these galleries as a poison bait. The insects which are
killed by this are eaten by other insects in the nest and
the poison becomes widely distributed. A mixture of oak
or spruce sawdust and either of the poisons mentioned
may also be used as a bait. If a small box containing this
mixture is placed in a building where wood ants are

152

known to occur, and is kept slightly moist they will
probably find it and will feed upon it. Sawdust or sheep
manure in boxes, barrels or bags, left standing on the
ground for some time, is attacked by wood ants. This
fact suggests the possibility of successfully using poison
baits in this manner.

the CLOTHES moths, {Tinea spp.). Lepidoptera.

Articles of clothing, especially woollens, furs, and
feathers, when stored for any length of time, are liable to
be attacked by the caterpillars of these small moths, and
housekeepers are generally familiar with the results of
these attacks. When such articles of clothing are taken
out of trunks and packing cases, very minute moths are
often seen flying about, and examination reveals the
presence of many of the larvae.

All such articles of clothing should be thoroughly
aired and brushed at least twice a year. The boxes in
which they are packed should be carefully lined with
paper, special care being taken that there are no cracks
or holes in this. The free use of naphthalene crystals or
moth balls, in the boxes, will generally prevent the
entrance of the moths. Small articles may be enclosed in
tight bags made of paper or cotton, since these insects
will not eat through cotton, even for the sake of reaching
the more attractive contents. Fumigation with carbon
bisulphide is also useful for their control.

the cigarette beetle {Lasioderma serricorne, Fab.).

Coleoptera.

This insect attacks a great variety ofjstored rkfood
stuffs but is probably best known in the West Indies as a
household pest from its injury to books, cardboard boxes,
photograph frames and similar articles, although it has a
wide range of food materials, similar to that of the*]drug
store beetle. Books standing on shelves will often be
found with holes bored through the covers, and even
through the entire thickness of the book. When such a
book is opened, irregular tunnels through the cardboard of
the cover, especially at the back near the binding, may
often be seen, and search will generally reveal one or
more small whitish grubs. These are the larvae of the

153

cigarette beetle. The adult is a small, brownish beetle
(Fig. 160) about TVinch in length. To prevent injury
by this insect books should be treated with book solution,
and should be examined at least twice a year. Wherever
signs of this insect are found in the binding of a book, care-
ful search should be made until the grubs, pupae or adults
are found. If any fine black dust is seen, or any holes
or tunnels noticed, the presence of the cigarette beetle

Fig, 160. Cigarette beetle.

(a) larva ; (b) pupa ; (c) adult; (d) adult, side view ; (e) antenna. All

greatly enlarged, {e) still move enlarged. (From U. S Dept. Agric.)

should be suspected, and search should be continued
until it is certain that all the insects have been found.
Boxes and other articles made of cardboard ought to be
also carefully examined from time to time, and the insests
killed whenever found. Useless and discarded articles of
this sort should always be destroyed, preferably by burn-
ing, as they serve as breeding places for these insects.
Fumigation with carbon bisulphide is an excellent means
of destroying the cigarette beetle.

the drug store beetle (Sitodrepa panicea, Linn.).

This beetle is a very destructive insect, similar in
appearance to the cigarette beetle, when examined with-
out the aid of a magnifying glass, and is much like it also
in the various substances which it attacks.

The insects (Fig. 161) attack cereals, food stuffs and
seeds, and also many articles and materials of greatly
varying nature.

The larvae tunnel into books, cardboard boxes and
picture frames, and roots and seeds, such as ginger and

154

cayenne peper, tobacco and cigars, and even poisonous
substances such as aconite and belladonna. Boots and
shoes, in the manufacture of which cardboard or cloth lias
been used, are often seriously injured if kept in stjck for
any length of time, foi- not only is the cardboard tunnel-
led through repeatedly, but even the leather does not
escape the attacks of the voracious larvae.

The methods of prevention and control are the same
for this as for the preceding insect.

Fig 161. Drug store beetle.

(a) larva ; (b) pupa ; (c) adult ; (d) adult, side view, fularaed.

(From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

THE MEAL WORMS AND MOTHS AND THE GRAIN WEEVILS.

Flour, bran and meal, as well as seed for planting, such
as Indian corn, Guinea corn, peas and beans, are attacked
by a number of minute insects, which in spite of their
small size are capable of causing a considerable amount of
injury.

There are two species of weevils (Calandra granaria aud
C. ori/za), which are almost cosmopolitan in their habitat,
and which are very general feeders, attacking stored grain
of all kinds. The grain weevils (see Pig. 162) are small
snout beetles, dark-brown, or black in colour, about f^-inch
in length. The larvae are legless grubs, very short and
thick, with a much wrinkled skin.

The saw-toothed grain beetle (Silvanus surinamen-
sis, L.) is one of the commonest of the grain insects. The
adult is about -y-inch in length, and brown in colour. The
common name is derived from the presence of toothdike

155

Fig". 162. Granary weevil.
(a) beetle; (b) larva; (c) pupa; (d) Thp rice weevil; all enlarged.

(From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

projections 011 the lateral margins of the thorax (Fig. 163\
The larva is a slender grub with a pair of club-shaped
antennae and three pairs of legs. Both larvae and adults
feed on flour, meal, preserved fruits, nuts, and seeds of
many kinds.

Fig. 163. Saw-toothed grain beetle.

(a) beet e ; (6) pupn ; (c) larva ; {d) antenna of larva, (a), (6) and io

enlarged, (d^more enlarged. (From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

156

The confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum, Dav.)
is one of the most injurious insects to flour and prepared
cereal foods, with even a wider range of food than the
preceding insects of similar habits.

The adult is a reddish- brown elongated beetle, about
T2F-ineh in length, and the larva a cylindrical grub about
J-inch long (Fig. 164).

Fig. 164. Confused flour beetle.

(a) beetle ; (b) larva ; (c) pupa ; (d) lateral lobe of pupa ; (e) head of

beetle s/iotrhig antenna; (f) same of Tribolium ferrugineum ;

all greatly enlarged. {From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

The angoumois grain moth (Sitotroga cerealleUa, Oliv.)

Fig. 165. Angoumois grain moth.
(a) egjs; (b) larva at work ; (c) larva, side vietv; (d) pupa ; {e) moth
(f) same, side view.) _ {From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

157

is a minute insect related to the clothes moths already
mentioned. The adult measures about |-inch across
the spread wings, and has a length of body of about
]-inch. The moths of the family to which these insects
belong are characterized by the presence of a very delicate
fringe on the margin of the hind wings (Fig. 165).

The larva bores into the kernels of Indian corn and
other grains, eating out the interior, and completing the
larval and pupal periods of growth in this place. The
adult emerges through a small round hole which has been
made by the larva.

This insect generally attacks stored grain, but some-
times the eggs are deposited on grain in the field, and the
feeding and breeding are continued after the grain is
harvested and stored.

Control. The control of insects attacking grain, flour,
meal and similar substances is not particularly difficult
when these are stored in rooms or buildings which are
sufficiently tight to be fumigated.

Carbon bisulphide, used at the rate of lib. for each
1,000 cubic feet, or in bins full of grain, at the rate of 1 lb.
to every hundred bushels, is very useful in this connexion.
Very few warehouses in the West Indies are constructed
in such a manner as to allow of their being made air-tight
except at a considerable expense. A special fumigating
room might wTell be maintained in connexion with any
warehouse where a large stock of grain and food stuff's is
kept, in order to facilitate fumigation when necessary.

In the household, however, where small quantities are
to be dealt with, and where supplies are not kept for long
periods, the matter is fairly simple. In the first place, the
stcre-room should be frequently thoroughly cleaned. If
flour, meal, and similar substances are found to I e infested,
they should be passed through a fine sieve, to remove all
the insects, and then placed in an oven and subjected to a
high temperature for 15 or 20 minutes, in order to kill the
eggs.

Seeds for planting, drugs, etc., may be successfullv
treated by means of carbon bisulj^hide.

The pea and bean weevils, though commonly called
weevils, are rather unlike the grain weevils alreadv des-
scribed (Fig. 162), being broader in the body, with a short
thick snout and prominent antennae. They belong to the

159

orenus Bruchus, of which there are several species, very much
resembling each other in appearance, in habit, and in the
plants they attack. They are small insects, usually greyish
m colour, with darker markings. The larvae are short,
thick, almost legless grubs, which live and complete their
development within the seeds of beans and peas (Figs.
Itftf and L67).

166. Cow
weevil.

Enlarged.
(From U. 8. Dept
Agric.)

Fig. 167 Four-spotted bean weevil.

(a) beetle; (b) larva ; (c) pupa. All enlarged.

(From U. S. Dept. Agric.)

The female parent deposits eggs on, or in, the seed
vessel (pod) of the food plant, and the young larvae penetrate
into the developing seed.

These insects often cause much injury to stored peas,
beans and the like, which are intended for planting, by
destroying the germinating power. The adults emerge
later through a round hole in each seed that has been
attacked.

Control. For the control of the pea and bean weevil,
certain rules should be observed. It should be one rule to plant
only uninfested seed, and another to destroy as far as possible
the breeding places of the weevils during the time between
crops of their food plants. When it is known or suspected
that these insects have been abundant during the ripening
of the crop in the field, the seed should be fumigated with
carbon bisulphide soon after being harvested.

The last pests in this division, to be considered, are the
ripe fruit Hies, which are often seen on and about ripe fruit
as numbers of very small insects. If these are examined,
they will seem to be very handsome : the body a pale yellow,

159

the wings a clear^honey yellow, and the eyes reddish with
opalef-c?nt changes. There are many species of these in the
West Indies, belonging to the genus Drosophila. The
parent fly deposits eggs in ripe fruit, where the larvae very
rapidly develop. The life-cycle of these insects is
extremely short, only about ten days being required for the
completion of the entire development, from the laying of the
eggs to the appearance of the adult insects. Fig. 168 shows
Drosophila ampelophila, Loew., which is very common in
the* United States.

Fig. 168. Ripe fruit fly.

(a) adult : {b) antenna of same : (c) base of tibia and first tarsal joint of
s imc; (d) puparium, side view ; (e) puparium, from above ; (f) full grown
larva; (g) oral spiracles of same. Enlarged. (From U. S. JDept. Agric.)

The most satisfactory method of controlling these flies
is to remove over-ripe fruit, and to protect all other
fruit by means of a fine muslin. Fruit on tlie table may be
protected by a sj^ecial dish cover, made by stretching muslin
on a suitable frame, and larders may be equipped with a
compartment enclosed in muslin, in which to keep fruit.

160

CHAPTER IX.
The Control of Insects.

In the preceding pages, insect pests have been con-
sidered in four general groups : the insect pests of crops,
the insects which attack man, insect pests of domestic
animals, and household insects, including those which
attack stored products.

In the matter of control, the same principles apply to
all these groups, and control measures fall under two
heads : one preventive, the other remedial.

In dealing with insects of all kinds, preventive meas-
ures are those which aim at debarring insects, by the
destruction of their breeding places and of their food
supplies, from developing to troublesome numbers,
especially during the breeding season.

Remedial measures are those by means of which the
insects are destroyed after they become numerous. The
use of insecticides comes under this head.

Preventive Measures.

General. Preventive measures are prophylactic and
sanitary. In the case of field crops the methods employed
include rotation of crops, resting or fallowing the land,
the destruction of old plants after the crop is reaped, and
of all dead and rotten portions of plants which are likely
to furnish breeding places for pests. The clearing away
of wild plants in which pests of crops develop is a part of
the clean cultivation which comes under this head.

These dead and worthless parts of plants should be
burned or disposed of in such a way that all insects con-
tained in them will be destroyed. Sugar-cane stumps
often enable enormous numbers of weevil borers to breed
to maturity. Old cotton plants furnish breeding places
and food to scale insects, leaf-blister mite and other pests.

161

Insects in the soil are able to live with very little or
no food over the short interval which often ensues
between two crops, and when these are of the same or
nearly the same kinds the increase in the pests may be
enormous. If, however, a crop which is entirely nnsuited
to the pests is planted between two similar crops, they are
starved out.

Ploughing, forking and hoeing are useful agricultural
practices as preventive measures, because they expose a
large number of iusects to attacks of natural enemies.

Cultivations of tree crops should receive the same con-
sideration in the application of preventive measures as
Held crops. Primings and dead wood of all kinds should
be gathered and burned, or buried deeply enough to prevent
the emergence of any insects which they may contain, and
also to prevent adult insects from gaining access to them
for the purpose of egg-laying.

In dealing with the pests which attack man, the great-
est importance attaches to preventive measures. Mosquitoes
breed in stagnant water which may be accumulated in
swamps, ponds, pools, old tins, bottles, etc., in cisterns and
water tanks, and even in hollows in plants, or in the sheath-
ing bases of leaves of such plants as the wild pines. The
removal of these breeding places, or the treatment of them
to make them unsuitable for the purpose, and the destruction
of the mosquito larvae by the use of kerosene, will have the
effect of preventing mosquitoes from becoming numerous.
Cisterns and tanks may be enclosed with wire mesh, and
they may be stocked with the fish known as millions.
Millions are also useful in ponds and swampy situations.

House-flies may be kept in check by the proper treat-
ment of manure and all decaying organic matter which
would furnish a breeding place for these pests. The occur-
rence of fleas and bed-bugs in numbers can be prevented by
the adoption of the necessary precautions and cleanliness.

With regard to the occurrence of the insect and mite
pests of domestic animals, the same rules in reference to pre-
cautions and cleanliness hold good.

Household pests may also be controlled to a large extent
by similar means

All food materials should be kept from these insects, as
far as possible ; repellent substances should be freely used,
and the utmost regard paid to cleanliness.

1(V2

LEGISLATION AND [MFOBTED PLANTS. Many insects
which have developed into pests <>l' first importance have
done so in countries or localities into which t hev have been
introduced. The admission ol' such pests has generally been

in connexion with imported plants. The insects most liable
to he brought in by this means are probably scale insects and
white fly ; but many others have been known to be intro-
duced in this wa}^. Insects which live as borers, or within
the tissues of plants in any way, may easily lie trans-
ported and become established under new conditions. Grain
and seeds also easily harbour insects, and provide for their
introduction to new localities.

In order to provide against the introduction of insect
pests in this way, legislation has been enacted in all
the West Indian islands, making it possible for the
Governor of each Colony to prescribe the conditions
under which plant material of all kinds intended
for propagation may be imported. The total prohi-
bition of the importation of all such plant material
from any country where diseases and pests are
known to occur, which it may be deemed impossible to
destroy on imported plants, may be ordered ; while it is
provided that all plant material intended for propagation
shall be disinfected in such manner as the officer responsible
for this work shall decide to be the most suitable.

Fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas and carbon
bisulphide, and disinfection by means of Bordeaux mixture,
are the methods most frequently prescribed. In Barbados,
cotton seed imported for the manufacture of cotton seed oil
is fumigated with sulphur dioxide.

Remedial Measures.

INSECTICIDES. These may be divided into four general
groups : stomach poisons, contact poisons, fumigants and
repellents.

Stomach poisons are those substances which are used
in such a manner that they will be eaten by the insect, and
taken into the digestive system. It will be seen that such
poisons are useful only in the case of insects which bite off,
and swallow, particles of food to which poison may be
applied or of those which, having sucking mouth parts, will
take an artificial food to which a stomach poison has been
added.

163

Contact poisons are useful against all soft-bodied insects
which can be reached by an application of substances that
may come into contact with their bodies. It is obvious that
insects which feed by puncturing the tissues of plants and
sucking food from the juices within cannot be killed by the
application of a stomach poison on the surface of the plant.
Contact poisons are especially Valuable in dealing with
insects having this habit of feeding. Soft-bodied insects,
such as some caterpillars and slugs, may also be killed by
contact poisons, when this method is more convenient than
the use of the stomach poisons.

Fumigants are useful for dealing with insects which
cannot be reached by stomach poisons or contact poisons, or
live under such conditions that it is possible to surround
them with a poisonous vapour. Insects of various feeding
habits may be controlled by the use of this kind of insecti-
cide.

Repellents are often useful in situations where the other
insecticides are not applicable, or in dealing with insects
which are with difficulty reached by the other kinds of
insecticides.

As a preliminary to the consideration of the substan-
ces used for the destruction of insects, it mav be useful to
review the structure of the mouth parts of these animals
and the manner in which they obtain their food. In
general, it may be said that insects possess mouth parts
adapted for sucking or for biting.

The jaws of insects are placed at the sides of the mouth
and have a lateral motion. Strong mandibles are provided
for the purpose of biting off particles of food, while the max-
illae aid in chewing and in conveying it to the gullet. This is
the normal condition, which is found in such insects as the
cockroach, grasshopper, beetles, both larva and adult, and
the caterpillars of butterflies and moths.

Insects which obtain their food by sucking it up in a
fluid form possess mouth parts which are modified for the
purpose. The mandibles or the maxillae, or both, are arrang-
ed so as to form some kind of proboscis in which is combined
the ability to pierce the tissues of plants or animals and to
suck up the juices which are reached in this way. Mouth
parts of this description are to be found in plant bugs,
aphids, scale insects and white fly attacking plants; and
in ticks, lice, fleas and bed-bugs, which attack animals.

164

Flics aixl bees combine ail ability for biting and for
lapping or sucking in the same individual ; while butterflies
and mollis arc often able bo suck up the sweet juices
exposed in the nectaries of flowers, without possessing the
ability to pierce any but delicate tissues.

Thrips have remarkable mouth parts, in that one of the
mandibles is well developed, while the other is much reduced
in size. The well-developed mandible is probably used for
tutting or lacerating the surface of plant tissue ; while the
modified maxillae form a lapping organ, by means of which the
soft tissues underlving the surface may be utilized for food.

The larvae of the lace-wing flies have biting mouth
parts, but modified in a peculiar manner. The mandibles
are well developed, and grooved. The small insects on
which these larvae feed are captured and held by the
mandibles, while the body juices are sucked out by means
of the grooves.

As far as the structure of the mouth parts has relation
to the use of insecticides, it is sufficient to classify them as
biting and sucking mouth parts. A knowledge of the
great modifications which have been brought about by the
adaptation to different foods and different modes of life,
will perhaps help readers cf this book to realize the
necessity of exercising some thought in preparing to deal
with insect pests.

stomach poisons. The principal stomach poisons are
those derived from mineral sources, and chief of these are
arsenic and its several compounds. The arsenical insecti-
cides are useful in combating nearly all insects with biting
mouth parts, and may be applied to a great variety of
plants. Leguminous plants (peas, beans, etc.) and the
Cncurbitaeeae (melon, cucumbers, etc.) often suffer severe
injury when sprayed or dusted with this class of poison,
and trials should be made on a small scale before treat-
ing large areas of these crops, in order to determine the
correct strength of the application under the existing
local conditions.

Paris green. Paris green depends largely for its
effectiveness on the amount of arsenic which it contains,
the arsenic being united with copper which is also com-
bined with acetic acid A good quality of Paris green
should contain not less than 56 per cent, of arsenic, of
which only about 5 per cent, should be soluble in water.

165

The soluble arsenic in Paris green, or in any arsenical
insecticide, is liable to injure the foliage of the plants to
which it is applied ; and it has been found that when the
percentage of this is more than the proportion already
mentioned considerable injury to plants is likely to
result.

Paris green may be used either as a spray in a mix-
ture with water, or dry. When applied dry it may be
employed by itself or mixed with lime or any other dry fine
powder. If it is used as a spray, the Paris green mixture
should be applied by means of a very fine nozzle attached
to a fairly strong force pump. When used dry, it should
be very evenly distributed over the surface of the plant
in such a way that all parts are reached by it, and at the
same time, so that there is no thick layer of this substance
on any part of the plant. It has been found in practice, in
the West Indies, that Paris green is best applied as a dry
mixture with finely pulverized air-slaked lime, the
mixture being at the rate of 1 lb. of Paris green to 5 or 6 lb.
of lime. The same proportion will be maintained if the
mixture is made by using one part in bulk of Paris green to
ten or twelve parts of dry air- slaked lime.

Several mechanical devices are available for the applica-
tion of dry Paris green, some of which will be found under
tlie heading of The Application of Insecticides. For use in
cotton fields, and in connexion with similar low-growing
crops in the West Indies, it has been found that cloth bags
of fairly fine mesh are very satisfactory for the distribution
of Paris green.

Paris green is useful in combating a great variety of
insects which have biting mouth parts. It has been most
used in the West Indies in dealing with the cotton worm :
but in other parts of the world it has been employed
against nearly all kinds of leaf-eating caterpillars, grasshop-
pers and cut worms.

Paris green is used as follows : —

As a spray. 1 Bo. to 150 to 200 gallons of water. Mix
the Paris green to a paste in a small amount of water before
making up to the full quantity. Add 2 lb. of freshly slaked
lime to each pound of Paris green. Apply by means of a force
pump, using a nozzle which gives a very fine spray.

As a dust or powder. Mix Paris green and dry air-
slaked lime in the proportion of 1 lb. of the former to 5 or 6 lb.

1(3(3

of tlif latter. Apply by means of a powder gup, bellows
or cloth bag, in such a way that the mixture shall be evenly
distributed over the plants to be treated.

London purple. London purple is also an arsenical
stomach poison, and is a compound oi arsenic and lime, con-
taining a certain amount of colouring matter. The percent-
age of arsenic is smaller than that in Paris green, while a
larger proportion of the arsenic present is likely to be
soluble. It will be seen from this, that while London
purple may be used in a manner exactly similar to
that for Paris green, it ought always to be cheaper than this
insecticide. It, should be remembered, also, that the greater
solubility of the arsenic in London purple requires that it
should be used more carefully than Paris green, on account
of the greater danger of injuring the foliage of plants.

The directions for using Paris green apply to London
purple, both in the form of a spray and a dust.

Arsenate of lead. This is also an arsenical stomach
poison. It is usually sold as a paste, and in this form can
only be used as a spray in a mixture with water. Recently
however, it has been put in the market in the form of
a powder which, it is stated, can be used in the same
manner as dry Paris green or London purple. The
advantage attending the use of arsenate of lead results from
its great degree of insolubility, and consequently the large
comparative safety attending its application to plants
A disadvantage which has been experienced in the West
Indies results from its slower action as a poison. On this
account, it has not been received as favourably by planters
as Paris Green and London purple.

When used as a spraj^, 2 or 3 lb. of arsenate of lead in
50 gallons of water will be found satisfactory for the control
of most caterpillars. The strength of the mixture may be
increased, however, with very little danger of injuring the
foliage of the plants.

The dry form of arsenate of lead may be used without
being mixed with lime, as on account of its white colour it
can easily be seen on plants treated.

White arsenic. This is a stomach poison, but it is not
adapted to general use. Its greater degree of solubility
makes it less satisfactory to apply to the foliage of plants,
since on account of the possession of this property it is liable
to cause burning or scorching.

16"

This poison finds its principal use as an insecticide in
the preparation of poison baits for such insects as grass-
hoppers, termites, cut worms, beetle grubs and crickets.

For use against cut worms, as a poison bait, mix 1 lb.
arsenic with 25 lb. bran or pollard, and stir to a thick mash
with water to which molasses or sugar has been added to
impart a sweet taste. A tablespoonful in each hole at the
time of planting cotton or other seed will be found sufficient
to kill practically all the cut worms.

For use against grasshoppers, take half-barrel of fresh
(or moist) horse droppings, 1 lb. salt and 1 lb. arsenic, and
thoroughly mix. Paris green or London purple may be
used instead of the arsenic. This mixture, put down freely
in small heaps containing a half-pint or less, in any field or
infested pasture, should give good results.

For use against termites, when these appear in buildings,
a mixture of arsenic and sugar in the proportion of one of
arsenic to two or three of su";ar will be found useful in
checking the increase of these pests. The covered gallery
of these insects should be broken away for an inch or two,
and the poison put down on the broken portions. The
poison will be, eaten by a few ants, and these by others, so
that a small amount of poison thus applied will be dis-
tributed through the nest or colony.

Arsenic also has an action as a contact poison and forms
one of the constituents of certain cattle dips and washes for
the destruction of ticks.

Corrosive sublimate. This is a very powerful poison
and it is not used for general insecticidal purposes. It has a
very injurious effect on the foliage of plants, and its extremely
poisonous nature makes it a dangerous substance to put into
the hands of ordinary labourers. It is useful for the purposes
of disinfection, since it has a fungicidal action. It is employed
in the preparation of book solution, which is used to protect
the bindings of books from the feeding of cockroaches,
silver-fish and to some extent from that of the book worms,
which are the larvae of the cigarette or the drug store beetle.
Book solution is composed of the following materials : —

Corrosive sublimate 1 oz

Carbolic acid 1 oz.

Methylated spirits 1 quart

This mixture, applied to the binding of books by means
of a fine brush, is an excellent protection. The carbolic

168

;n i<l .Hid the corrosive sublimate are, on the evaporation of
the spirit, lfH as a very fine covering oF poison <>n tin*
entire treated surface. The poisoning lias t<> be repeated
From time to time, according to climate and the abundance
of insects. Books thus treated are quite safe to handle.

Corrosive sublimate, used tor disinfecting seed for
planting, protects it From subsequenl insect attack by
means of the tine deposit of poison on the surface of each
seed.

Corrosive sublimate also has a strong effect as a repel-
lent for ants. The legs of a table or safe washed with any
solution or mixture of this poison are quite safe from
attacks as long as the poison remains. Ants apparently
will not cross any surface treated with corrosive sublimate.

Boric or boracic acid. This is a specific as an insecti-
cide for cockroaches. Although not a poison in the ordinary
way. this substance seems to have a particularly deadly
effect on these insects, and it is of course especially valu-
able for use in dwelling houses, since cats, dogs, fowls and
even human beings are not injuriously affected by it if it
should be eaten by them.

Equal parts of boracic acid and sweet chocolate, flour,
molasses or sugar, put down in places frequented by cock-
roaches, will be effective in reducing their numbers. When
one mixture has been used for a short time, a change to
another of those suggested will be found of advantage.

Phosphorus. This substance is often used in the pre-
paration of rat poison and in poison, for crabs. Rat poison
containing phosphorus is eaten to some extent by cockroach-
es, apparently with effect.

The insecticides mentioned already are mineral poisons.
Several vegetable substances are useful as insecticides, the
chief of which are pyrethrum, tobacco and hellebore. Vege-
table insecticides lose their power when exposed to the air
for any time, and on account of this tendency, are likely to
deteriorate in the tropics. Pyrethrum is composed of the
finely ground dried flower heads of a plant of the Chrysan-
themum group Pyrethrum roscum. Pyrethrum, Dalma-
tian and Persian insect powder, and Buhach are names
given to this, and to other products from closely related
plants.

169

Pyrethrum. This is a very useful insecticide, possess-
ing qualities both as a stomach and a contact poison.
When fresh and of full strength it is a bright yellowish
powder with a pungent ordour, rather pleasant than
otherwise. In the tropics it fiuds its greatest usefulness
in connexion with fleas, lice and bed-bugs. Applied dry
to the coats of dogs and cats, and to the plumage of fowls,
it very quickly drives out fleas and lice, killing many of
them.

Travellers in the tropics would do well always to carry
a supply of pyrethrum. A little scattered between the
sheets in hotel beds may ensure a good night's rest, which
otherwise might be impossible. For use on house plants,
pyrethrum is of great valne. An ounce of this substance
placed in one quart of hot water and then diluted to make
one gallon, form? an excellent spray or wash for killing
caterpillars and other small soft-bodied insects. A mixture
of pyrethrum with twice its bulk of flour makes an excellent
insecticide, the flour absorbing a certain porportion of the
poisonous quality, and all parts of the mixture becoming
equally effective.

Pyrethrum, burned in a room which can be closed,
will stupify all mosquitoes and flies, and they can be
swept up from the floor and destroyed ; if left to them,
selves, however, they will recover. For this purpose 3 tb
to each 1,000 cubic feet is the amount to be used.

Tobacco. Tobacco has a wide range of usefulness as an
insecticide, and when the stems, broken leaves, dust, etc.,
are easily obtainable they may be put to a variety of uses
both as a contact insecticide and as a repellent.

At the present time, there are several excellent pre-
parations on the market which are prepared from tobacco,
but these are probably not to be obtained in the West
Indies, Tobacco dust, applied dry, has much the same uses
as pyrethrum, and in a decoction also it is useful in the
same way, while it is even more so as an application to the
soil for the destruction of grubs, worms, and small pests
about the roots of plants. Tobacco dust and stems applied
to the surface of the soil about cabbage, melons, cucumbers
and many ornamental plants will often serve to keep oil'
injurious pests.

Tobacco stems are useful in the nests of sitting or laying
hens, as a remedy for poultry lice.

170

Hellebore, Hellebore consists of tl)'' finely ground roots
of Veratrum album, a plant of the order Liliaceae. It is
used intemperate climates for the control <>t' soft-bodied
slugs and caterpillars, on certain plants, but will probably
have only a Limited application in the tropics. Its proper-
ties are similar to those of tlif vegetable poisons already
mentioned, but it is not as strong in its effect.

CONTACT POISONS. Contacl poisons are generally more
difficult in preparation for use than the majority of stomach
poisons, since most of them are mixtures of several sub-
stances, which require care in their preparation.

The effect of contact insecticides is to cause the death
of insects by clogging or closing the breathing openings,
(s1 igniata), by penetrating the stigmata and breathing tubes
and thus causing a fatal irritation, or by forming a thin
coating on the entire insect and sealing it down to the leaf
or bark on which it occurs.

It will easily be seen, then, that for these to be effective,
the insecticide must be brought into contact with the insect,
careful application of the spray, wash or dust being most
essential to successful results.

The materials which are most likely to be found useful
as contact insecticides, either alone or in combination, are
the following : whale-oil soap, fish oil, rosin, soda, soap,
kerosene, sulphur, and lime ; while pyrethrum, tobacco,
hellebore, turpentine and hot water are all to be included
among the insecticides of this group.

Whale-oil Socqj. This is a very useful insecticide,
especially for plant lice, leaf-hoppers, thrips, mealy-bug,
white fly, and certain scale insects. It is also useful for
treating insects at the base of plants, in pots or garden beds,
and it may be used with good results on caterpillars and
other soft-bodied insects which feed in exposed situations.
It has the advantage of being easily prepared for use, and
the disadvantage, or what is considered to be so by many,
of being very foul-smelling.

It is used in solution, in varying strengths. Palms and
other plants with tough leaves will suffer no injury from the
application of the stronger mixtures, while for tender-leaved
plants the strength may be much reduced.

Whale-oil soap is prepared for use by merely being
dissolved in water, the proportions being from 1 lb. in 2
gallons to 1 lb. in 8 gallons, of water.

171

Rosin. The spray mixtures containing rosin are useful
in combating the unarnioured scales (Saissetia, Coccus), and
other scale insects and thrips ; but is of most value in dry
seasons and when the young scales are most abundant.
Rosin is applied in combination with other materials as a
spray or wash.

Rosin compound is made of : —

Powdered rosin 4 ft>.

Powdered washing soda 3 lb.

This quantity is sufficient to make 30 gallons of wash.
It is prepared by mixing the constituents thoroughly, and
dissolving by boiling, in 1 gallon of water, in a vessel with
a capacity of at least 5 gallons. Water is slowly added
to make 5 gallons, the mixture being kept boiling. This is
the stock solution ; when cold it should be of a clear brown
colour. For use, add 5 parts of water to 1 of the stock
solution.

Rosin wash is similar to the preceding, but contains an
oil, which gives it a more penetrating effect.

Rosin wash is thus constituted : —

Powdered rosin 20 lb.
Caustic soda 3 \ lb., powdered fine.

Fish oil 3 pints, which will be suffici-

ent to make 100 gallons of wash.

Mix these materials, and cover with about 2 inches of
water, and boil. When the liquid is clear, add water slowly,
still boiling the mixture, until the whole is made up to 15
gallons. This is the stock solution, sufficient to make 100
gallons of wash. In diluting this, only rain-water or soft
water should be used.

Rosin and Whale-oil Soaji Compound. This is a still
more general insecticide. It consists of : —

Powdered washing soda 3 lb.

Powdered rosin 4 lb.

Whale-oil soap 10 11).

To obtain it, boil the soda and rosin in 1 gallon of
water until they are dissolved, then make up slowly to 5
gallons, still boiling the mixture. In another vessel, dissolve
10 lb. of whale-oil soap in 5 gallons of water, by boiling.
The stock solution is made by mixing these two solutions.
This is sufficient to provide 45 gallons of wash.

172

Kerosene Emulsion. This is one of t lie most useful of
all thecontact insecticides, for spraying plants againsl scale
insects, mealy-bug and all related insects. The difficulty of
getting a true emulsion with the water which is available in
many localities has proved an objection to its use. but with
care and by the use of rain-water, an emulsion oughl to be
obtained. Kerosene emulsion is made from :—

Hard soap J, -lb.

Kerosene 2 gallons

Dissolve the soap in I gallon of water, by boiling.
Remove from the fire and immediately add 2 gallons of
kerosene, and churn violently with a syringe or force pump
until the mixture becomes creamy, and the oil is all held by
the soap. This is the stock solution, and is sufficient for 33
gallons of wash. Great care should be taken to get a perfect
emulsion, as any free oil is likely to injure the plants. If
any considerable layer of oil is observed on the surface of
the stock solution when it has stood for 24 hours or more,
the emulsion is not perfect. If difficulty is experienced in
this respect, an increase of the amount of soap will often aid
in producing the emulsion.

Kerosene Emulsion, with soft soap. This is similar to
the preceding both in its action and in its use. It is made
from : —

Soft soap 1 quart

Kerosene 1 pint

To prepare it, dissolve the soap in two quarts of hot
water and add the kerosene, making the emulsion in the
manner described above. This is the stock solution and is
made ready for use by adding an equal amount of water.

Kerosene. In addition to its application in kerosene
emulsion, this oil may be made to form a valuable insecticide
in other ways. It may be used in a mechanical mixture
with water, by means of a special pump, as a spray for scale
and other insects, and when used by itself produces excellent
results in special cases.

Mosquito larvae, in tanks, water barrels, and similar
situations where it is not desirable to introduce fish, may be
destroyed by an application of kerosene to the surface ot the
water. The larvae are killed by the kerosene when they
come to the surface to breathe, the oil penetrating the
breathing spiracle and causing death.

173

Household insects such as bed-bugs, ants in floors and
termites in woodwork may be destroyed by the free use of
kerosene, and manv flying insects which are attracted may
be caught in a tray of water and kerosene over which a
light is suspended. The insects, flying to the light, fall into
the tray below, where they are killed by the film of kerosene
on the water.

Tobacco and Soap. Tobacco and soap is often a conve-
nient mixture, especially for house plants, where the smell
of whale-oil soap would be an objection to employing that
substance. It is composed of : —

Soft soap 1 quart or

Hard soap ^-tb.

Tobacco refuse I 5>.

Dissolve the soap in 5 gallons of water, steep the
tobacco in 2 quarts of water for 24 hours, strain and add
to the soap solution. This mixture is used without fur-
ther dilution.

Crude OU and Whale-oil Soap. This mixture has a
wide range of application and possesses the valuable
quality of keeping well. It is sold in Barbados under the
name of Lefroy's mixture, Mr. Lefroy being the originator
of the compound.

Whale-oil soap 10 lb.

Crude Barbados oil 5 J pints

Naphthalene 4 oz.

Heat the soap in a metai vessel. Dissolve the naphtha-
lene in the oil by stirring. Add this mixture to the hot
soap, away from the fire, and thoroughly mix the whole
by stirring. A nearly solid soap-like substance is produc-
ed which is prepared for use by rubbing up or stirring it
in water. Use at the rate of 1 lb. to 3 lb. in 10 gallons of
water.

Sulphur. Sulphur may be used either dry or as a
spray. When used dry, it may be applied by itself or in
a mixture with varying amounts of lime. When used as
a spray, I R). in from 2 to 4 gallons of water is a con-
venient strength. Sulphur has a special value in combat-
ing mites of all sorts, including ticks, poultry mites, red
spider, leaf-blister mite and the orange rust mite. It is
also a constituent of many ointments, applied in the case
of mange, itch and similar affections, which are due to the
presence of mites.

174

When used for the control of ticks on animals, sul-
phur is best combined with oils as is suggested on p. 131
Sulphur and lard well mixed and used on setting hens
will prove effective in preventing the attacks of mites and
lice. Sulphur and air-slaked lime, in equal parts, dusted
on the leaves of plants controls plant -feeding mites, red
spider and thrips.

Sulphur dioxide, made by burning sulphur, is useful for
fumigating buildings, holds of ships and similar places,
for the destruction of mosquitoes and of insects in grain
ami seed ; but the tarnishing effect of the gas on metals
requires that care be exercised in using this substance in
houses. Seeds for planting should not be fumigated with
sulphur dioxide, as their germinating power is injured, and
often in face completely destroyed, by this process.

Carbon Bisulphide. This is one of the most useful
insecticides for fumigating purposes, as it possesses a very
wide range of application, and is very effective in the des-
truction of insects.

Carbon bisulphide is a liquid slightly heavier than
water, which volatilizes rapidly at ordinary temperatures.
Its fumes are much heavier than air, and have a very
considerable power of penetration. They are inflammable
and slightly poisonous to man, so that care must be
exercised when this insecticide is being used.

Carbon bisulphide can only be used successfully when
the fumes can be confined in a receptacle which is practi-
cally air-tight. It is especially valuable for the destruc-
tion of insects attacking stored products of all kinds,
such as grain, flour, household stores and drugs, books,
music, papers, clothing and all similar materials. Gran-
aries, store-rooms and dwelling houses may also be fumi-
gated for the destruction of insects, while it is effective
for dealing with ants and grubs in the soil.

Grain, seeds, flour, books and clothing can be treated
in tight boxes, casks or hogsheads. The amount to be
used is calculated in large enclosures at the rate of 1 ft>. per
1000 cubic feet of space ; for grain in bins, 1 lb. per ICO
bushels. For dealing with smaller capacities the amount
to be used is 1 drachm, or roughly a teaspoonful, to each
cubic foot of enclosed space. This can be easily calculated

175

for any rectangular box, and if tbe following doses be
taken as correct, barrels, casks and hogsheads may be used
to good advantage.

For fumigating with carbon bisulphide in a

Hogshead use 5 oz. of the liquid

Cask or puncheon ,, 2 oz. ,, „ ,,
Barrel „ 1 oz. „ „ „

In using carbon bisulphide, it must be remembered
that the fumes are very inflammable, and no fire, pipe, cigar
or other light should be brought near on account of the
danger of an explosion. The fumes are also heavier than
air, and consequently, the liquid to be evaporated should be
exposed, in a shallow dish, at the top of the room, box or
other container. The carbon bisulphide will evaporate, and
the gas descend and penetrate through all the interstices.

If a wooden box with a cover is used as a fumigating
chamber, a hole in the cover, with a wad of absorbent cot-
ton attached below, will provide for the introduction and
evaporation of the insecticide, the hole being closed with a
cork. A blanket or tarpaulin serves well for a cover to a
barrel or hogshead, and a saucer or similar dish will answer
the purpose of a receptacle and evaporator.

The evil smell of this insecticide will quickly disappear
when the fumigated articles are exposed to a free circula-
tion of air.

Ants in lawns or in p;arden beds may be killed by
the use of carbon bisulphide, by merely pouring into the
principal entrance to the nest 2 or 3 oz. of the liquid, and
closing it with soil. AH other entrances and exits should
be closed, and the fumes penetrating to the deepest recesses
and through all the galleries will completely kill out the
nest Nematodes and grubs m ly be treated in a similar
manner.

Carbon bisulphide has a limited application as a garden
insecticide for the destruction of plant lice and similar
insects on low-growing plants. A box of 2 or 3 cubic feet
capacity makes a convenient fumigating chamber when
placed over an infested plant, A hole in the top of the box
will serve for the introduction of the insecticide, while a
wad of absorbent cotton on the inside of the box under the
hole will serve as a receptacle and evaporator. The hole
can be plugged with a cork.

17(>

Cyanide of Potash or Potassium Cyanide. This insecti-
cide can be obi ained by mixing potash with prussic acid.
h is an extremely poisonous substance, which lias in recenl
years come into greal prominence in connexion with the
fumigation of Living plants infested with scale insects In
many pails of the world fruit trees are fumigated regularly
for the control of insect pests, the trees being covered for
the purpose by means of tents of air-tight canvas to confine
the gas made from the potassium cyanide in proximity to
t he parts of the tree.

In the West Indies, fumigation of trees has not become
a regular practice, chiefly on account of the expense of the
process, which is very large in proportion to the value of the
products of the trees.

Imported plants are fumigated, according to law, before
being allowed entry to any colony for the prevention of the
introduction of insect pests.

In using potassium cyanide for fumigating purposes,
hydrocyanic acid gas is produced by the action of sulphuric
acid and water on it, in the following proportions :—

Potassium cyanide 1 oz.

Sulphuric acid lh oz.

Water 2 J oz.

These amounts are suitable for an enclosed space of 300
cubic; feet.

Potassium cyanide can be used with good results for
treating many of the insects for which carbon bisulphide
has been suggested. The very poisonous nature of this
insecticide must be borne in mind, however, and onlv
responsible persons allowed to handle it.

It is probable that food stuffs would not be injured or
rendered poisonous by being fumigated with potassium
cyanide, but many persons would very likely prefer not to
take the risk.

Books, clothing, and grain, however, might safely be
treated with this material, if this is desired.

Ants may be killed by pouring into the nest a solu-
tion made by dissolving 2'07" °^ potassium cyanide in
2 quarts of water. The dissolved poison penetrates the
soil, and gives off fumes which kill the insects.

177

Camphor. Camphor as a repellent, and to some
extent as a fumigant, has a value as an insecticide. Placed
in trunks, boxes and wardrobes, it has a tendency to
keep out moths, cockroaches and similar insects. It is
useful also for keeping the nests of fowls free from
parasites.

As a fumigant, camphor in equal parts with carbolic
acid, is excellent for killing mosquitoes in the rooms of
dwelling houses. Four ounces of this mixture for each
1.000 cubic feet of space in the room, vaporized by being
placed over a gentle heat, will kill all the mosquitoes if
the room is tightly closed for two hours. This is one of
the best fumigants for this purpose ; the fumes are prac-
tically harmless, possess excellent disinfecting qualities,
and leave in the room a pleasant, refreshing odour.

Naphthalene. This is sold in the form of flakes and
crystals, and in moth balls, and in both forms is well
known for its characteristic odour which has the property
of repelling insects. Used in the manner suggested for
camphor for protecting clothing, books, etc., in boxes and
trunks, it is both cheap and effective. A very strong-
atmosphere containing naphthalene is fatal to many
insects.

The flakes seem to be more effective than the moth
balls, no doubt because the former volatilize more
rapidly, and partly perhaps because they can be more
thoroughly distributed throughout the materials to be
protected.

Some persons object to the odour of naphthalene, but in
many cases this is largely due to their not being sufficiently
familiar with it, and at the same time their not realizing the
very considerable usefulness of this insecticide in the protec-
tion it gives from tropical insects.

Naphthalene is one of the constituent parts of Para-
naph, an insecticide originated by the Jamaica Department
of Agriculture, which is said to be of value as a contact
poisun for the destruction of fleas, ticks, plant lice, and cer-
tain scale insects.

Alum. Alum is said to repel or to destroy fleas when
dusted on the floor of an infested room, and when used for
that purpose, to prevent the occurrence in beds of these

178

insects and <>f bed-bugs. An <>ld sheet soaked in a fairly
strong solution of alum in water and then wrung out and
dried, retains a sufficient amounl <>t* alum so that when it
is spread over the mattress and under the sleeping sheet it
keeps away these undesirable insects.

Creosote and Carbolic Acid. These are satisfactory
repellents when used for certain purposes. Creasote, applied
to wood and timber, prevents the attacks of termites for a
time, and carbolic acid, added to lime wash, is said to in-
crease its effectiveness when applied to the trunks of trees
to prevent the entrance of boring insects. Mixed with lime
at the rate of 1 pint of the crude acid to every 100 lb. of
the lime, it forms a repellent which, dusted on the leaves of
certain plants protects them from the attacks of insects.
This method may be employed against weevils and certain
other beetles which are not easily killed by Paris green.
The best way to prepare this material is to slake to dryness
tomper lime with water to which the carbolic acid has been
added.

Carbolic acid is also useful for treating wounds infested
with screw worm, since it cleanses and disinfects them, and
kills the maggots.

Air-slaked Lime. This is sometimes employed as a
repellent, with good results. When it is mixed with Paris
green or other arsenical poisons, its effect is that of combining
with the free arsenic and thus reducing the amount of burn-
ing of the foliage ; it also indicates plainly where the poison
has been applied.

Aromatic Oils. Mosquitoes, gnats, sand flies and
similar insects, which annoy by their persistent attacks, may
be kept away by smearing the hands and face with an
aromatic oil. Citrcnella, lavender, bergamot and other oils
are useful for this purpose. An excellent mosquito repellent
may be made, by mixing eqtial parts of sweet oil and oil of
citron ella.

Turpentine. Turpentine has a limited application as an
insecticide. Applied to infested beds it kills bed-bugs, in
the egg, larval and adult stages. For treating screw worm
in wounds, it is also of value and is applied by means of a
brush or swab in such a manner that the breathing openings
of the larvae will be touchedjbyjthe^turpentine.

179

Price List op Insecticides in Barbados, 1911

Paris green

London purple

Arsenate of lead

White arsenic

Cyanide of potash ...

Corrosive sublimate

Boracic acid

Phosphorus

Carbon bisulphide in 1 lb. tins

„ „ Fuma brand in 5gal. drums
Whale-oil soap
Hard soap
Soft soap
Fish oil
Rosin

Washing soda
Caustic soda

,, ,, in 10 It) tins
Carbolic acid (crude)
Lime, air- slaked
Sulphur (flowers ...
Pyret brum
Hellebore
Turpentine
Kerosene
Citronella (oil)
Lavender (oil)
Bergamot (oil)
Naphthalene, small quantities

,, in large quantities

Camphor
Alum

,, in large quantities

THE APPLICATION OF INSECTICIDES. Within the past
few years, great progress has been made in the development
of pumps, nozzles and other appliances for spraying plants,
and there are also many devices for the dry application of
insecticides.

Spraying apparatus ranges from elaborate power
outfits to portable sprayers carried by one man, and
syringes, atomizers and similar simple machines for the
treatment of house and garden plants.

per lb.

28-30

cents.

55

24-30

55

55

24

55

55

55

72

55

55

$ 1*44

55

55

40

55

55

$ 1-44

55

55

60

»»

LS „

15

55

55

10-12

55

5'

6

55.

5'

12-18

55

per ga

1. 48 60

55

per ft).

;">

55

55

4

V

55

24

55

55

18

51

55

24

55

per ba

shel 6

>•

per ft).

6
72

55

55

55

55

34-48

15

per pin

t 18-21

55

per ga

lion 15

5?

per oz.

12

5'

55

24

51

55

21

15

per ft).

24

55

•5

12

51

per oz

10

55

per ft).

10

55

55

6

55

180

The essentials for spraying arc the pump, the con-
tainer, tli*- host- and the Qozzle. The pump should )»•■ strong
and durable, and is generally besl when the working parts
are of brass An agitator Is also essential ; this is generallv
attached to the pump. Most of the spray mixtures thai are
used require to be constantly stirred in order that the spray
shall he of uniform quality during the entire operation of
spraying. The nozzle is also of first importance. Its
structure should be" such as to produce a very line spray,
thrown with force from the aperture, and an extension
consisting of a suitable length of gas pipe should be used to
connect the nozzle with the hose, in order that the distance
between the nozzle and surface being sprayed may be very
short.

Fig. 169. Spray nozzles.
(1) Bordeaux ; (X), (3) and (4) varieties of Vemorel. Reduced. (Original.)

The Vermorel nozzle is a form which produces such
a fine spray. This is made in several different patterns,
but the essential features are the same in all. The nozzles
shown in Fig. 169, Nos. 2, 3, and 4 are patterns of this type.
No. 4 being merely two nozzles fixed to a single feed pipe,
Nozzles in groups of three or four are also manufactured.

The Vermorel nozzle is especially suited for spraying
solutions, and mixtures containing no solid particles which

181

might cause clogging. A plunger surrounded by a spiral
spring, shown in the illustration, is provided for clearing
the nozzle if it becomes clogged.

The Bordeaux nozzle (Pig. 169, No. 1) is adapted for
spraying Bordeaux mixture and other spray fluids which
are not true solutions or that contain solid particles
which would clog a nozzle like the Ver morel. The Bor-
deaux nozzle is adjustable, being capable of throwing a
solid stream when it is necessary in order to apply the
insecticide at some distance from the nozzle, and also of
throwing a fairly fine spray.

In spraying for the control of scale and other sucking
insects with soft bodies, the object to be aimed at is to get
every part of the plant wet, but not sufficiently so to
cause any dripping from the leaves or branches. Spraying
with a stomach poison is for the purpose of applying the
poison in such a way that, in order to obtain its food,
the insect will have to eat the poison.

The success of spraying depends on the care and
intelligence with which the operation is conducted.

Power Sprayers. These are not likely to be adopted
for use in the West Indies, because of their very consider-

Fig. 170. Fruitall sprayer.
Side of barrel cut away to show pump and agitator.

ls-J

able cost and Large size; the latter renders them unsuit-
able for the large majority of estates, where the ground is
rocky and uneven.

Barrel Sprayers. These are cheap and very efficient.
There arc many good styles of barrel Bpray pumps on
the market, a good idea of which may be obtained from
the accompanying figures. These outiits may be mounted
on wheels, and in fairly level situations they can be
handled easily. (Pigs. 170 and 171.)

Fig. 171. Gem spraying outfit.

Certain of these pumps will easily supply two lines
of hose, with one man to work the pump, while others
are capable of supplying only one line.

The spraying gang will thus consist of either two or
three men who move the outfit from place to place.

Knapsack Sprayers. The knapsack sprayers are more
portable than the barrel sprayers, being adapted for use by
one person to each outfit. The Success knapsack sprayer
and other machines of the same kind consist of a tank
with a capacity of about 5 gallons, with a small force
pump attached. The outfit is carried slung on the back
of the labourer, the spray fluid being discharged by the
action of the pump. The operator works the pump and
directs the spray.

183

Fig. 172. Success Knapsack sprayer and bucket pump.

't

Another form of knapsack sprayer is the Auto Spray
which consists of a tank of about 5 gallons capacity, with
a pump attached. The object of the pump is to force air

Fig- x73- Auto spray.

184

into the cylinder, which is air-tight. When a sufficient
amount of pressure lias been produced, the spray Muni is
allowed to be forced out by the air pressure. In using
this type of sprayer it is not necessary for the operator to
pump and spray at the same time.

Bucket Sprayers. These are small pumps which are
adapted for use in a bucket or other small vessel. They
are very useful in applying a spray to a small number of
plants, in a garden or conservatory.

Garden syringes and atomizers are hand sprayers
adapted for treating small plants or a few of them. Their
small cost and their adaptability to the requirements of
persons having only a few plants to treat, make these
instruments more popular than the more expensive ones,
Many of them, however, get out of order easily if not used
for a time, and others have the disadvantage of not
throwing a fine spray.

A sprayer of this general type that has given satis-
faction in the West Indies, as far as it has been tried, is
called the Abol syringe; it is equipped with a drippreven-

Fig. 174. Abol syringe.
Length slightly reduced . {Redrawn from advertisement.)

ter which saves the operator from becoming wetted with
the drip running back down the syringe, and is provided
with a good nozzle, which produces a very satisfactory
spray, very similar to that formed by the Vermorel nozzle.

For the application of dry insecticides such as Paris
green, lime and sulphur and similar substances, as a dust,
the powder gun, the bellows, or the cloth bag are all of
value for certain purposes, and such insecticides may also
be applied direct from the hand in the manner of a sower
sowing small seed broadcast. This last method should be
generally employed in treating trees, such as the orange
or lime, which are too tall to allow bags or a powder gun
to be employed.

18:5^

In the West Indies, by far the greater part of the
stomach poisons are applied in a dry condition. The
powder gun has been used to a small extent, but on
account of its cost and the number of working parts
planters do not care to put it into the hands of irresponsi-
ble labourers. In this form, the poison is contained in
a receptacle, from which it is forced by an air-current
generated by a revolving fan through a discharge tube, in
a fine cloud of dust. The fan is operated by a wheel
turned by the labourer.

The powder bellows is an instrument of the ordinary
bellows type ; in this is placed a suitable amount of
insecticide, which is forced out as a cloud of dust by
successive puffs. An inverted funnel attached to the out-
let serves to spread the discharge. (Fig. 175.)

Fig-. 175. Acme powder bellows.

The most generally employed method of distributing
dry poisons m the West Indies is by means of the cloth bag.

Ticklingburg bags, of a suitable size held in the hand
of the labourer have given every satisfaction in distributing
Paris green and London purple, for combating the cotton
worm. The bags are cheap, they cannot get out of order,
and a very even application of the poison mixture can be
made with them, a slight shake of the hand producing a
fine cloud of dust which settles down on the plant. Tin
shakers, consisting of a tin vessel with a perforated
bottom have also been used in the same manner as the
cloth bags. These do not generally distribute the poison
in such a fine condition, with the result that a larger
amount of insecticide is used.

186

CHAPTER X.
Insects and their Natural Enemies.

Insects, in the present age, may be said to be the
dominant animals of the world. Not only do they greatly
exceed all other classes of the animal kingdom in point of
numbers of species, but many of these species occur in most
amazing abundance.

Like all other living creatures, they form part of
a complex scheme in nature made up of relationships
between these forms. The relationship of insects to plants
is generally that of an animal to its food ; that is to say,
insects for the most part are plant feeders, and when
this relationship exists between an insect which occurs
in considerable numbers, and plants which are of use to
man, the insect is generally considered a pest. Some
insects also procure their food by sucking the blood, or
devouring the tissues, of animals. These may be parasitic
or predaceous. Other insects, still, derive their sustenance
from dead or deca3'ing organic substances, and are known
as scavengers.

Insects also serve as food for other insects, for birds,
toads and lizards ; these are called their natural enemies,
and there are also certain forms of plant life which are
able to attack and kill living insects, which are also to be
included among their natural enemies. It will thus be seen
that insects play a considerable part in the relationships
which exist in the plan of nature. If it were not for the
effect of natural enemies on insects, the world would in
a short time become absolutely uninhabitable to any other
forms of life, except perhaps the very lowest plants and
animals, and the insects themselves would shortly die off,
killed by starvation.

The natural enemies of insects may be considered under
the following heads :—

187

~. _ f Parasitic.

(1) Insects T, -,

v 7 l.-rredaceous.

(2) Parasitic fungi

(3) Insectivorous birds.

(4) Toads, lizards, etc.

(5) Fish.

INSECTS AS NATURAL ENEMIES OF INSECTS.

Insects attack and destroy other insects in two ways.
When it is natural for one insect to pass all or a part of its
life-cycle within the body of another insect, or within its
protective covering, as in that of scale insects, the first of
these is called a parasite ; while the other is called the host.

The insect parasites of insects are numerous and ex-
tremely useful in reducing the numbers of injurious species.
They very largely belong to two orders, the Diptera and
the Hymenoptera. The parasitic Hymenoptera form a large

Fig. 176. One of the parasitic hymenoptera.
Enlarged. {Front U.S. Dept. Agric.)

group, and vary in size; many of them are very minute, some
of them so small as to be scarcelv visible to the unaided eye.

Not all parasitic insects, however, are to be considered
beneficial from man's point of view, for certain of them

188

attack and destroy other parasitic insects. These are
secondary or hyperparasitic, and they are of ten able greatly

to lessen the good effects of tlie primary parasites.

In the second manner of attack, certain insects
capture and devour Bodily others,; generally weaker and
smaller than themselves. The insect which obtains its food
in this manner is said to be predaceous in habit. Predaceous
insects are to be found in nearly all orders, being perhaps

Fig- i77- Fiery ground beetle.
{a) larva; {b) adult insect. Natural size. {From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

most numerous among the Coleoptera, although pond Hies,
lace- wing flies, certain thrips, many Hymenoptera, many
Hemiptera, some Diptera and Lepidoptera have this habit
of procuring food. Among the Lepidoptera it sometimes
happens when several caterpillars occur together as borers
in a limited space. Among the Orthoptera the predaceous
habit is found in the case of mole crickets, which devour
small insects which come within their reach in their under-
ground tunnels. Under certain conditions ants are of value
as natural enemies of other insects, especially when the
victims are out of their natural situation or are wounded
and thus unable to escape or defend themselves. Insects
which inhabit the soil are quickly attacked by ants
if exposed on the surface, and this suggests the practice
of ploughing or forking fields in which grubs and similar
insects are pests.

PARASITIC FUNGI.

Parasitic fungi of several species are known as natural
enemies of insects. Insects which are fixed in position
for considerable portions of the life-cycle, such as scale
insects and white fly, and those which have but little free-

189

Fig. 178.
Enlarged.

Pond flies.
(Original.)

dom of movement, such as plant lice, mealy-bug and borers,
are most subject to attack by fungi, although flies, cotton
staiuers, moths and grasshoppers are also affected, some-
times in such numbers as to materially influence the
abundance of these insects.

Fig. 179.

Moth borer larva attacked by Cordyceps Barberi.
{Imperial Dept. Agric.)

190

l.N'sF.i TIVOROUS BIRDS.

Several species of insectivorous birds occur in the
Lesser Antilles. The Barbados blackbird (Quisciilus for-
(ifostris), the tick-bird or old witch (Crotophaga ani) and
the loggerhead are conspicuous examples ; while certain
hawks and many smaller birds are largely or partly insect
feeders.

The blackbirds are very keen hunters for insects.
They may often be seen in a corn field, searching the cen-
tres of the plants and the tips of the ears for the boll
worm and corn ear worm, which they are very successful

Fig. 180. Fung-us growing on a moth.

{Original )

in finding and capturing. They also follow the plough, or
labourers forking or hoeing in the field, inspecting the
newly upturned earth and greedily devouring the insects
and worms that are exposed. They may also often be
seen picking ticks off cattle on the pasture, and this habit
is shared by the tick-bird. The loggerhead is swift of
flight and probably captures its prey in the air.

Turkeys, Guinea fowls and the common domestic fowl
are all keen hunters for insects, which they capture and
devour in large numbers,

n»i

TOADS AND LIZARDS.

Toads, called also crapaud or frog (Bufo agua) are
largely insect feeders, and are very valuable in keeping
down the numbers of many insects. They feed largely at
night, and therefore capture many nocturnal insects but
they also feed by day. Toads generally recognize their prey
by its movements and consequently they rarely, if ever eat,
dead or dying insects which may contain fungus or insect
parasites. Toads have often been observed to watch an
insect such as a cotton worm, lying motionless on the
ground, for some time, and at the first movement of the
insect to snap it up with lightning rapidity.

Lizards are largely insectivorous in their feeding habit.
The ground lizards in certain islands, and the small green
species which are to be seen on trees and plants, are always
on the lookout for insects, and if one has the patience to
watch for a few minutes they may be observed when stalk-
ing and capturing their prey. It is generally believed that
in those islands where the mongoose has been introduced,
the abundance of many insects is largelv due to the fact that
lizards, toads and many birds have been killed off by that
animal.

FISH.

Many species of fish attack water insects and are
specially useful in controlling mosquitoes. Millions, on
account of their small size and greedy appetites, are par-
ticularly useful in the West Indies ; but in all localities
there are almost certain to be small fish possessing similar
habits, which exert a considerable influence on the abundance
of mosquito larvae.

Fig. 181. Millions
Enlarged. {Imperial Dept. Agric.)

192

[NSECTS WHICH ARE CONTROLLED BY NATURAL

IAKMIKS.

While all insects ate controlled by natural enemies to
a greater or less extent, a few instances may be given to
show how this manner of control affects some of the most
widely known of our West Indian pests.

THE moth BORER. The moth borer of the sugar-cane,
although it is abundant every year in the West Indies, is
probably controlled to a very considerable extent by
natural enemies. During the time that the eggs of the
moth borer are exposed on the leaf of the cane they
are liable to attack by a very small hymenopterous insect.
(Fig. 182.)

XZ&

Fig. 182. Hymenopterous parasite of eggs of moth borer.
Greatly enlarged. (Imperial Dept. Agric.)

The eggs of this insect are deposited in the eggs of
the moth borer. The parasite grub hatches and begins to
feed on the substance of the moth borer egg, and thus
causes the death of the young moth borer caterpillar.

Probably many, if not all, moths and butterflies which
lay their eggs unprotected in an exposed situation are
subject to attacks of this kind by similar parasites. The
moth borer is also attacked by a parasitic fungus (see
Fig. 179) which destroys a certain number of the larvae.

the cotton worm. The eggs of the cotton worm are
attacked by an egg parasite, or perhaps more than one, in
a manner similar to that already mentioned in the case of
the moth borer. The cotton worm is also attacked by a

193

parasite which deposits its eggs within the body of the
larva or pupa, where the parasite grubs feed and develop
at the expense of the cotton worm.

The larger wasps, the cow bee, wild bee and Jack
Spaniard are very important predaceous enemies of the
cotton worm, in the West Indies. These insects build
nests of paper ; in these they deposit their eggs and the

Fig. 183. Cow bee.
Enlarged. {From U.S. Dept. Agric.)

young are hatched and reared to maturity in them. The
adult insects, of which there are generally several
attached to each nest, go in search of food, which they
bring to the helpless grubs. This food consists largely of
caterpillars, and when the cotton worm is present in large
numbers they are very much sought after by these insects.

The number of caterpillars caught during a season by
wasps is very great, and it is considered in St. Vincent to
be due to these insects that the cotton worm has not devel-
oped sufficiently to become a pest in that island.

It is likely also that many other leaf-eating caterpillars
are controlled to a very large extent by these insects.

Cotton worms are also eaten by toads and birds ; of the
latter, perhaps the most useful is the blackbird.

The ground beetle is known to occur in St. Vincent and
Barbuda, where it has been observed feeding on cotton
caterpillars. It may occur in other islands, and probably
would be a very useful check on these insects if it were
present in sufficient numbers, since both the beetle and its
grub are predaceous in habit.

194

Scale insects. Scale insects are attacked by the para-
sitic Hymenoptera, which have habits very similar to those
of the egg parasite mentioned above. The eggs ot Jhe para-
sites are deposited within the body of the scale insector
under its protective covering, and the young grubs which
hatch Prom these eggs tVr<| upon the tissues of the body of
t lir scale insect. <>r upon the eggs or young.

Only a few species of West [ndian scale parasites are
known; and the exact extent of their usefulness lias not
been determined, in the case of most oi: the scale insects,
t lie amount of control which maybe exerted by an insect
of this kind is well illustrated in the case of the black scale
of cotton, or the Hibiscus shield scale, as it is called.

The black scale of cotton was a very serious pest in Bar-
bados, in 1905 and 1906. About that time its parasite began
to develop very rapidly, and for the past two or three years
the attacks of the parasite on the black scale have so com-
pletely checked its host that no serious outbreaks of black
scale on cotton have been reported.

When'scales are seen with smair "round holes in them
it is a sure sign that the parasites have been present, have
completed their life-cycle, and have emerged. It rn^iy be
taken as a safe supposition that many other scales which do
not have the holes in them are parasitized and that the
holes will appear when the parasites are full-grown and
make their escape.

Scale insects are also attacked by predaceous enemies —
lady-birds, both in the larval and adult stages, attack the
young crawling larvae of many species of scales. The larva
of the lace- wing ny has a similar habit of feeding on the
young of scale insects, and it is likely that these insects play
an important part in the control of scale insects.

The caterpillar of a small moth feeds upon certain of
the larger shield scales, and birds have been observed when
they appeared to be eating scale insects. It is not likely,
however, that these two last-mentioned natural enemies
exert very much control over the abundance of scale insects.

Parasitic fungi are among the important natural
enemies of scale insects in the West Indies. The red-headed
fungus, the black fungus, and the shield scale fungus all
have a wide distribution throughout the West Indies.

195

These fungi penetrate the bodies of scale insects and cause
their death. The red -headed fungus may be recognized by the
small orange-red fruiting bodies which are often to be seen
attached to the purple scale of the orange and other species.
The shield scale fungus forms a fringe of very delicate white
growth which projects from under the bodies of the shield
scales. (Fig. 185.) The black fungus may be most readily
recognized by the small black patches which it forms in the
midst of colonies of the white scales such as the orange
snow scale.

These parasitic fungi exert a very considerable
influence over the numbers of certain species of scale
insects, but like most fungi, they make their best develop-
ment in a considerable amount of moisture, and conse-
quently their influence is greatest in damp localities and
in the wet season of the year.

Fig. 184. Syrphus fly.
(a) fly ; (b) lateral view of head ; (c) larva. All much enlarged.

iFro.n U.S. Depl. Agric.)

plant LICE. Plant lice are attacked by the same kind
of natural enemies as those that attack the scale insect-,
that is by predaceous insects and parasitic fungi. The
predaceous insect enemies of plant lice include the lady-
birds, the lace-wing and syrphus flies. They are also
attacked by the parasitic Hymenoptera.

s

100

Fig« l%5- Mango shield scale attacked by shield scale fungus.
Healthy scales on leaf at left, attacked scales on other leaves*

{Imperial Dept. Agric.)

197

INDEX.

Akee fringed scale, Asterolecanium pustulans
Alabama argillacea, Cotton worm
Aletia luridula, Lesser cotton worm
Alevrodes citri, Citrus white fiv

— howardi, White fly

— nnbifera, ,, „
Aleyrodicus cocois, Cocoa-nut white fly
Alum

Amphiacusta caribbea, House or sick cricket
Anastrepha serpentina, Mexican fruit fly
Angoumois grain moth, Sitotroga cerealella
Anopheles, Mosquito ...
Anthonomus grandis, Cotton boll weevil
Ants, crazy, Prenolepis longicornis

red or stinging, Solenopsis geminata
sugar, Tapinoma melanocephala

— white. Termites
wood or carpenter, Camponotus sp.

Aphis gossypii, Cotton aphis ...

Application of Insecticides ...

Arachnida

Argas miniatus. Fowl tick

Aromatic oils

Arrowroot, pest of ...

— worm, Calpodes ethlius
Arsenate of lead
Arsenic, white
Arthropoda ...
Aspidiotus destructor, Bourbon aspidiotus

— hartii, Yam scale

— sacchari. Sugar-cane aspidiotus
Asterolecanium pustulans. Akee fringed scale
Atomizers ... ... ...y

Auto spray ...

109

38

42

80

81

81

105

178

145

85

156

120

59

146

146

146

74

146

52

179

4, 5

134

178

92

14. 92

166

166

4

103

112

72

109

184

183

198
IB

Bags, ticklingburg ... ... ... .. . 185

Banana borer, Ton^ariis bituberculatus .. . ... ... 112

, pests of ... ... ... ... ... Lll

weevil borer, Sphenophorus sordidus ... ... 112

white fly ... ... ... ... •-- 111

Barbados leg ... ... ... ... ... 121

Bark borers ... ... ... ... ... ... 81

Barrel sprayers ... ... ... ... ... 1 82

Bean and pea weevils, Bruchus chinensis and

B. qnadrimaculatus ... ... ... ... 157

Bean leaf roller, Endamns protens .. ... ...11,114

Beans. Bengal, on limes ... ... ... ... 83

pests of ... ... ... .. ... ... 113

Bed bug, Cimex lectularins ... ... ... ... 125

Beetle, cacao, Steirastoma depressum ... ... ... 86

cigarette, Lasioderma serricorne ... ... ... 152

confused flour, Tribolium eonfnsnm ... ... 156

drug store, Sitodrepa panicea ... .. .. 153

— saw-toothed grain, Silvanus surinamensis ... ... 154

Bellows, powder ... ... ... ... ... 185

Bengal beans on limes ... ... ... ... 83

Bete rouge, Trombidium ... ... ,.. ... 129

Black fungus ... ... ... ... ... 77

Black line scale, Isclmaspis longirostris ... ... 1 05

Black scale, Saissetia nigra ... .. .. ...56,110

— parasite of, Zalophothrix mirum ... ... .. 56

Blood-sucking cone-nose, Conorhinus sanguisuga ... 127

Bodv louse, Pediculus vestimenti ... ... ... 127

Boll weewil, Anthonomus grandis ... ... ... 59

worm, Heliothis obsoleta ... ... ...49, 90

Bonavist ... ... ... ... ... .. 113

Book solution ... ... ... .. ... 167

Bordeaux nozzle ... ... ... ... ... 181

Borer, banana, Tomarus bituberculatus ... ... 111

oarw, ... ... ... ... ... ... oi

— larger moth, Castnia licus ... ... ... 63

moth, Diatraea saccharalis ... ... ... 60

— orange, Cryptorhynchus sp. ... ... ... 82

— root, Diaprepes abbreviatus .. ... .. 66

shot, Xyleborus perforans ... ... .. 69

— weevil, Sphenophorus sericeus ... ... ... 64

-- of banana, Sphenophorus sordidus ... ... 112

Boric or Boracic acid ... ... ... ... 168

199

Bourbon aspidiotus ... ... ... ... ... 103

Botflies, horse, • Gastrophilus equi ... ... ... 137

cattle, Hypoderma bovis and H. lineata ... ... 137

— sheep, Oestrus ovis ... ... ... ... 130

Brassolis isthmia attacking cocoa-nut ... ... ... 109

sophorae ,, ,, ... ... ... 109

Bruchus chinensis and B. quadrimaculatuSj

bean and pea weevils ... ... ... 157

Bucket sprayers ... ... ... ... ... 184

o.

Cacao beetle, Steirastoma depressum ... , ... ... 80

— pests of ... ... ... ... ... ... 86

— thrips of, Heliothrips rubrocinctus ... ... 87

Calandra granaria, granary weevil ... ... ... 154

— orvza, Rice weevil . . ... ... ... 154

Calosoma calidum, fiery ground beetle ... .. ... 4j.

Calpodes ethlius ... ... ... ... ... 14, 92

Camphor ... ... ... ... ... ••• 177

Camponotus sp., wood or carpenter ant ... ... 146

Cane fly, Delphax saccharivora ... ... ... 70

Carbon bisulphide ... ... ... ... ... 174

Carbolic acid ... ... ... ... ... 178

Castnia daedalus, attacking cocoa-nuts in Surinam ... 109

— licus, larger moth borer ... ... ... 63,408,112

Cat, and dog flea, Pulex serraticeps .. ... ... 124

Cattle tick, Margaropus australis ... ... ... 131

Centipede, a myriapod ... .. ... ... 7

Cephalosporium lecanii, Shield scale fungus ... ... 78

Ceratitis capitata, Mediterranean fruit fly . . ... 84

Chaetocnema amazona. sweet potato flea beetle... ... 100

Chaff scale, Parlatoria pergandei ... ... ... 77

Chalcis annulata, Hymenopterous parasite ... ... 41

Chigger flea, Sarcopsvlla penetrans ... ... ... 125

Chilocorus cacti, spotted lady-bird ... ... ... , 10.3

Chionaspis citri, orange snow scale ... ... ... 76

Chitin, exoskeleton ... ... ... ... ... 4

Ohrysomphalus aonidum, red spotted scale ... ... 78

— aurantii, orange red scale... ... ... ... 79

Cigarette beetle, Lasioderma serrieorne ... ... 152

Cimex lectularius, bedbug ... .. ... ... 125

Circulation of insects ... ... ... ... ... 13

Citrus fruits, insect pests of ... ... ... ••• 75

— — , scale insects attacking ... .,. •■• "•>

200

Citrus white fly, Aleyrodes citri • •• ••• ••• 80

Clot hes moth, Tinea sp p. ... ••■ ••• ••• 152

Coccus viridis, green shield scale ... ••• 78, 110

Cockroaches ... .. ... ... .. ... 142

Cocoa-nut mealy-bug, Pseudococcus nipae ... ... 104

— snow scale, Diaspis boisduvalii ... ... ... 103

— white fly, Aleyrodicus cocois ... ... ... 105

Cocoa-nuts, pests of ... ... ... ... ... 103

— , scale insects attacking ... ... ... ... 103

Coleoptera ... ... ... ... ••• ... 29

Common mealy-bug, Pseudococcus citri ... ... 110

Compsomyia macelJaria, screw worm ... ... ... 134

Confused flour beetle, Tribolium confusum ... ... 150

Conorhinus Banguisuga, blood-sucking cone-nose ... 127

Contact poisons ... ... ... ... 163, 176

Contarinia gossypii, flower-bud maggot ... ... 45,46

Control of insects ... ... ... ... ••• 160

Corn ear- worm. Laprygma frugiperda ... ... ... 51,90

Corrosive sublimate ... ... ... ... ... 166

Cjtton, pests of ... ... ... ... ... 38

aphis ... ... ... ... ... ... 52

— scale insects ... ... ... ... ... 53

— stainers ... .. ... ... ... ... 43,44

— worm, Alabama argillacea ... ... ... 38

Crab louse, Phthirius inguinalis ... ... ... 127

Crazy ant, Prenolepis longicornis ... ... ... 146

Creasote ... ... ... ... ... ... 178

Cricket, house or sick, Amphiacusta caribbea ... ... 145

Crude oil and whale-oil soap ... ... ... ... 173

Crustacea ... ... ... ... ... ... 4

Cryptorhynchus batatae, scarabee or Jacobs ... ... 96

— sp., orange borer ... ... ... ... 82

Cucumbers, pests of ... ... ... ... 115

Culex, mosquito ... ... ... ... ... 120

Cut worm, cotton ... ... ... ... ... 54

, tobacco ... ... ... ... ... 95

Cyanide of potassium ... ... .. ... 176

Cylas formicarius, sweet potato weevil ... ... 102

3D.

Dacus tryoni, Australian fruit fly ... ... ... 84

Dalmatian insect powder ... ... ... ... 169

Ddlphax saccharivora, cane fly ... ... ... 70

201

Dermanyssus gallinae, poultry mite, nimbles

Diaphania hyalinata, melon moth

Diaprepes abbreviatus, root borer

Diaspis boisduvalii, cocoa-nut snow scale

Diatraea saecharalis, moth borer

Digestion in insects

Diptera, flies

Dog tick, Rhipicephalus sp. ...

Domestic animals, pests of

Dragon flies, Odonata

Drosophila ampelophila, ripe-fruit fly

Drug store beetle, Sitodrepa panicea ...

Dysdercus andreae, cotton stainer

— dekiuueyi, cotton stainer ...

— fernaldi

5*

130
115

m

103

CO

17

32

133

131

26

158

153

43

44

44

IE.

Ectobia germanica, German cockroach.
Eel worms, nematodes
Elephantiasis, Barbados leg
Epitrix parvula, tobacco flea beetle
Eriophyes gos*ypii, leaf-blister mite
Eudamus proteus, bean leaf-roller
Euthrips insularis, sweet potato thrips
Euthisanotia amaryllidis
Exoskeleton, chitin

144

116

121

95

47

11,114

101

118

4

IF1.

Fiery ground beetle, Calosoma calidum ... ... 41

i liana ... ... ... ... ... ••• i —

Flat-winged insects, Platyptera ... ... .. 27

Flea beetle, tobacco, Epitrix parvula ... ... ... 94

Flea beetle, sweet potato, Chaetocnema amazona ... 99
Fleas ... .. .... ... 123,124,125,138

Flies, bot, Gastrophilus equi, Hypoderma bovis,

H. lineata, Oestrus ovis ... ... 136, 137

— , fruit, Ceratitis capitata, Trypeta ludens,

Dacus tryoni, Anastrepha serpentina ... 84, 85

-, ripe fruit, Drosophila ampelophila ... ... ... 158

Flour beetle, confused, Tribolium confusum ... ... 156

Flower-bud maggot, Contarinia gossypii ... ••• 45,46

Fly, house, Musca domestica ... ... ... ... 128

202

Fly, Warble, Hypoderma bovis
Fowls, itch mite of, Sarcoptes mutans ..
Fowl tick, Areas miniatus
Fringed-winged insects, Thysanoptera .,
Fruit Hies (see Flies, Fruit )

— — ripe, Drosophila ampelophila
Fumigants . .

Fungus, black. Myriangium Duriaei
red-headed, Sphaerostilbe coccophila
shield scale, Cephalosporium lecanii ..

— white-headed, Ophionectria coccicola

1.37

140

134

22

158

163

77

.. 76,81

78

76

G-.

Gastrophilus equi, horse bot

Girardinus poeciloides, Millions

Glassy star scale, Vinsonia stellif era

Grain beetle, saw-toothed, Silvanus surinamensis

— moth, Angoumois, Sitotroga cereallella
weevils, Calandra granaria and G oryza

Grasshopper, Shistocerca pallens
Green fly, aphis

— scale, Coccus viridis

Grey mealy-bug of sugar-cane, Pseudococcus sacchari
Growth of Insects
Gryllotalpa didactyla
Guinea corn
Gun-powder ...

78,

137
122
104
154
15H
154

73

52
110

73

9

117

91
185

Half -winged insects, Hemiptera

Head louse, Pediculus capitis ...

Hellebore, Veratrum album

Heliothis obsoleta, boll worm ...

Heliothirps rubrocincta, cacao thrips

Hemichionaspis minor, white scale, cotton

Hemiptera, half -winged insects

Hexapoda, insects

Hog louse

House cricket, Amphiacusta caribbea ...

■ — flea, Pulex irritans

fly, Musca domestica ...

123,

23

127

170

49,90

87
58
23
4,8
140
115
138
128

203

Household injects

Hymenoptera, membrane-winged insects
Hypoderma lineata, warble fly, or cattle bot

i.

Indian corn, pests of ...
Insecticides .,.
— , application of
— , price list of
Insectivorous birds

Insect powder, Dalmatian, Persian, Pyrethrum
Insects and their near relations
— — — — natural enemies ...
-, circulation of

digestion of ...

growth of

natural enemies of

natural history of...

nervous system of ..

orders of

reproduction of ...

respiration of

senses of

structure of
Ischnaspis longirostris, black line scale
Itch mite of fowls, Sarcoptes mutans

J-

Jack Spaniard, Polistes annularis

Jacobs or Scarabee, Cryptorhynchus batatae

Jigger flea, Sarcopsylla penetrans

142
34

137

90

162

.. 179

.. 179

190

. 168

4

• • •

.. 186

• • • • ■

13

17

9

187

9

16

21

19

14

• • "

12

• • • •

9

• •

105

* • • • «

140

41

96

125

Kerosene emulsion

Key to the Orders of Insects

Knapsack sprayer

172

35

183

Lady-bird, spotted, Megilla maculata

— , Chilocorus cactus
Lantana bug, Orthezia insignia

54

103
79

204

Laphygma frugiperda, oorn ear-worm ... ... ... 51,00

Larger moth borer, Castnia liens ... ... ...03, l'»s

Lasioderma serricorne, Cigarette beetle... ... ... 152

Lead arsenate ... ... ... ... ... 166

Leaf -blister mite, Eriophyes gossypii ... ... ... 47

1 am t - roller, bean, Eudamus proteus ... ... ...11,114

Legislation and Imported Plants ... ... ... 162

Leaf-cutting bee ... ... ... ... ... 119

Lepidoptera, scale-winged insects ... ... ... 28

Lepidosaphes beckii, purple scale ... ... ... 75

Lepisma sp. ... ... ... ... ..... *.. 145

Leptostylus praemorsus, Lime tree bark borer ... ... 81

Leptus americanus, Bete rouge ... ... ... 130

— irritans, B&te rouge ... ... ... 130

Lesser cotton worm. Aletia luridula ... ... ... 42

T.ioe 127

-, poultry, Menopon pallidum ... ... ... 139

Lime trees, Bengal beans on ... ... ... ... 83

Lime, white ... ... ... ... ... ... 178

London purple ... ... ... ... ... 16G

im:-

iXLcvXSvI lJ-l ••• ••• ••• ••- ••• ••• J faCU

Man, insects which attack ... ... ... ... 120

Margaropus annulatus australis, cattle tick ... ... 131

Meal moth ... ... ... ... ... ... 154

— worms ... ... . . ... .. ... 154

Mealy-bug, cocoa-nut, Pseudococcus nipae ... ... 104

— , common, Pseudococcus citri ... ... ... 110

-, grey, sugar-cane, Pseudococcus sacchari .. ... 73

— , pink, sugar-cane, Pseudococcus calceolariae ... 71

Mealy shield scale, Pulvinaria pyriformis ... ... Ill

Megachile martindalei ... .. ... ... 119

Melon moth, Diaphania hyalinata ... ... ... 115

Membrane- winged insects, Hymenoptera .., ... 34

Menopon pallidum, poultry louse ... .. ... 139

Metamorphosis ... ... ... ... ... 10

Millions, Girardinus poeciloides ... ... 122, 191

Millipede ... ... ... ... ... ... 7, 8

Mite, itch of fowls, Sarcoptes mutans ... ... ... 140

— , leaf-blister, Eriophyes gossypii ... .. ... 47

— , poultry, Dermanysus gallinae ... ... ... 139

— , rust, Phytoptus oleivorus ... ... ... 82

Mole cricket ... ... ... ... ... 117

'205

Mosquitoes ... ... .. ... ... ... 120

Moth, Angoumois grain, Sitotroga cerealella ... ... 156

borer, Diatraea sacchari ... ... ... .. 60

— larger, Castnia licus, ... ... ... ...63,108

— clothes, Tinea sp. ... ... ... ... 152

— meal ... ... ... ... ... ... 154

— melon, Diaphania hyalinata ... ... ... 115

wooly pyrol, Thermesia gemmatalis ... ... 113

Musca domestica, house or typhoid fly ... ... 128

Myriangium Dnriaei, Black fungus ... ... ... 77

Myriapoda ... ... ... ... ... ... 4, 7

Natural history of insects ... ... .. ... 9

Naptbalene ... ... ... ... ... 177

Nematodes, eel worms ... ... ... ... 116

Nerve-winged insects, Neuroptera ... ... ... 28

Nervous system of insects ... ... .. ... 16

Neuroptera, nerve- winged insects ... ... ... 28

Nimble?, chicken mite ... ... ... ... 139

Nozzle, Bordeaux ... .-. ... ... ... 181

Vei morel ... ... ... .. ... 180

Nutmegs, pests of ... ... ... ... ... Ill

o-

Odonata, pond flies ... ... ... ... ... 26

Oestrus ovis, sheep bot ... ... ... ... 136

Oils, aromatic ... ... ... ... ... 178

Ophionectria coccicola white-headed fungus ... ... 76

Orange borer, Cryptorhynchus sp. ... ... ... 82

red scale, Chrysomphalus aurantii ... ... 79

snow scale, Chionaspis citri ... ... ... 76

worm, Mexican, Trypeta ludens... ... ... 84

Orders of insects .« ... ... ... ... 21

Orders, key to ... ... ... ... ... 35

Orthezia insignis, Lantanabug .-. ... ... 79

Orthoptera, straight-winged insects ... .. ... 21

Palm weevil, Rhynchophorus palmarum ... ... 107

Parasitic fungi ... ... ... ... ... 188

Paris green ... ... ... ... ... ... 164

206

Parlatoria pergandei, Chaff scale ... ... ... 77

Pea and bean weevils, Bruchus chinesis and H. quad-

rimaculatus ... ... ... ... L58

Pediculus capitis, head louse ... ... ... ... 127

\ est inienti, body lon.se ... ... ... 127

Periplaneta americana, American cockroach ... ... 143

australasiae, Australian cockroach ... ... 143

Persian insect powder .,. ... ... ... 108

Phosphorus ... ... ... ... .. ... 108

Phthirius inguinalis, crab louse .,, ... ... 127

Phytoptus oleivorus, rust mite ... ... ... 82

Pink meal} -bug, Pseudococcus calceolariae ... ... 71

Platyptera, flat- winged insects ... ... ... 27

Poison bait ... .. ... ... ... ... 55

Poisons, contact ... ... ... ... 103, 170

Poisons, stomach ... ... ... .. ... 104

Polistes annularis, wild bee, Jack Spaniard ... ... 41

Polistes bellicosus, cow bee ... ... ... ... 1 90

Porricondyla gossypii, red maggot ... ... .. 52

Potassium cyanide ... ... ... .,. ... 176

Potatoes, sweet, pests of ... ... ... ... 96

Poultry lice, Menopon pallidum ... ... ... 139

— mites, Dermanyssus gallinae .. ... ... 139

Powder gun ... ... ... ... ... 185

— bellows .. ... ... ... ... ... 185

Prenolepis longicornis, crazy ant ... ... .. 140

Price list of insecticides ... ... ... . 179

Prodenia ornithogalli, cut worm ... ... ... 54

Protoparce cingulata, potato moth . ... ... 98

— sexta, tobacco worm ... ... ... ... 93

Pseudococcus caleolariae, pink mealy-bug ... ... 71

citri, common mealy-bug ... ... ... ... 110

— nipae, cocoa-nut mealy-bug ... ... ... 104

— sacchari, grey mealy-bug ... ... ... 73

Pulex irritans, house flea ... ... ... ... 123

— serraticeps, cat, and dog flea ... ... ... 124

Pulvinaria pyriformis, mealy shield scale ... ... Ill

Purple scale, Lepidosaphes beckii ... ... ... 75

Pyrethrum ... ... ... ... ... ... \q$

Red or stinging ants, Solenopsis geminata .. ... 146

— headed fungus ; Sphaerostilbe coccophila ... ... 76, 81

— maggot, Porricondyla gossypii ... ... ... 52

207

Red scale, orange, Chrysomphalus aurantii ... .. 76

— spider, cotton, Tetranychns gloveri ... ... 7, 58

— , sweet potato, Tetranychns telarius ... ... 101

— spotted scale, Chrysomphalns a on id urn ... ... 78

Repellents ... ... ... ... ... ... 163

Reproduction in insects ... ... ... ... 19

Respiration in insects ... ... ... .... 14

Rhynehophorus palmarnm, palm weevil ... ... 107

Ripe-fruit flies, Drosophila spp. ... ... ... 158

Root borer, Diaprepes abbreviatus ... ... ... 66

Rosin ... ... .. ... ... ... 171

Rubber, pests of ... ... ., ... ... 109

Rust mites, Phytoptns oleivorons ... ... ... 82

s.

Saissetia nigra, Black scale of cotton ... ... ... 56

— , parasite of, Zalophothrix minim ... ... 56

Sarcopsylla penetrans, Jigger ... ... ... 125

Sarcoptes mn tans, itch mite of fowls ... ... .. 140

Saw-toothed grain beetle, Silvanns snrinamensis ... 155

Scale insects, cotton ... ... ... ... ... 56

Scale-winged insects, Lepidoptera ... ... ... 28

Scarabee or Jacobs, Cryptorhynchns batatae ... ... 96

Schistocerca pallens. grasshopper ... ... ... 73

Scorpion ... ... .. ... .. ... 5

Screw worm, Compsooyia macellaria ... ... ... 134

Senses of insects ... .. ... ... ... 19

Sheath-winged insects, Coleoptera ... ... ... 26

Sheep bot, Oestrus ovis ... ... ... ... 136

Shield scale fungus, Cephalosporium lecanii ... ... 78

— — mealy, Pulvinaria pyriformis ... ... ... 141

Shot borer, Xyleborus perforans ... ... ... 69

Sick or house cricket, Amphiacusta caribbea . ... 145

Silvanns snrinamensis, saw-toothed grain beetle ... 154

Silver fish, Lepisma ... ... ... ... ... 445

Sitodrepa panicea, Drug store beetle ... ... ... 153

Sitotroga eerealella, Augoumois grain moth ... ... 156

Snow scale, cocoa-nut, Diaspis boisduvalli ... ... 103

orange, chionaspis citri ... ... ... 76

Solenopsis geminata. red or stinging ant ... ... 146

Sphaerostilbe coccophila, red-headed fungus ... ... 76,81

Sphenophorus sericeus, weevil borer ... ... ... 64

— — sordidus, banana borer ... ... ... 112

208

Spider- ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ®

Spotted lady-bird ... ••• ••• ••• ••• 54

Sprayers, auto ... ... ... ••• ••• 183

— , barrel ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• 182

— . bucket ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• 184

-, knapsack ... ... ... ••• ... 183

— , power ... ... ... ... ... ••• 181

Stegomyia fasciata, yellow fever mosquito ... ... 120

Steirastoma depressum, cacao beetle ... ... ... 80

Stinging ant, Solenopsis geminata ... ... ••• 146

Stomach poisons ... ... •• ••• ••• 164

Stored products, insect pests ... ... ... .. 142

Straight-winged insects, Orthoptera ... ... ... 21

Structure of Insects ... ... ... ... ••• 9

Sturmina distincta, parasite of potato worm ... ... 100

Sugar ant, Tapinoma melanocephala ... .... ... 146

Sugar-cane* aspidiotus, Aspidiotus sacchari ... ... 72

— , pests of ... ... ... ... ••• 60

Sulphur ... ... ... ... ... ••• 173

Sweet potato flea beetle, Chaetocnema amazona ... ... 100

, pests of ... ... ... ... ••• 96

, red spider, Tetranychus telarius ... ... ... 101

— —j thrips, Euthrips insularis ... .-• ••• 101
, weevil, Cylas formicarius ... ... ••• 102

, worm, Protoparce ' cingulata ... ... ... 98

Syntomeida syntomoides ... ... ... ••• 118

Syringes ... ... ... ... ... ••• 184

T.

Taeniotes scalaris, borer in Castilloa ... ... ... 110

Tapinoma melanocephalum, sugar ant ... ... ... 146

Telenomus, parasite ... ... ... ... ... 41

Termites or white ants ... ... ... 27,74,149

Tetranychus gloveri, cotton red spider ... ... ... 7,58

— telarius, potato red spider ... ... ... ... 101

Thermesia gemmatalis, woolly pyrol worm ... ... 113

Tbrips, cacao, Heliothrips rubrocincta ... ... ... 87

Thrips, sweet potato, Euthrips insularis ... ... 101

Thysanoptera, fringe-winged insects ... ... ... 22

JL XOxvEs ••• ••• ••• •«• • • « . „ , t * 1 * ) A

— , cattle, Margaropus annulatus australis ... ... 131

— , dog, Rhipicephalus ep. ... ... ... ... 133

— , gold, Amblyomma variegatum ... ... ... 133

209

Ticks, fowl, Argas miniatus
Ticklingburg bags
Tinea spp., clothes moths
Toads and lizards
Tobacco

— and soap ...

— flea beetle, Epitrix parvula

— worm, Protoparce sexta

Tomarus bituberculatus, Banana borer ...
Tribolinm confusum, confused Hour beetle
Trichogramma pretiosa, parasite in eggs of cotton

worm and moth borer
Trombidium, Bete rouge
Trvpeta ludens, Mexican orange worm ...
Turpentine ...
Two- winged insects, Diptera ...

■v-

Yeratrum album, Hellebore

Vermorel nozzle

Vinsonia stellifera, glassy star scale

"W

... 134

... 185

... 152

.., 191

... 169

... 173

95

93

... 112

156

41, 62, 92

... 129

84

178

32

170
180
104

Warble fly, Hypoderma bovis, H. lineata
Weevil, bean and pea, Bruchus chinensis and B. quadri-
maculatus

— borer, Sphenophorus sericeus

of banana, Sphenophorus sordidus

— , granary, Calandra granaria
Weevil, palm, Rhynchophorus palmarum
• — , sweet potato, Cylas formicarius
Whale-oil soap

and rosin compound

and crude oil...

Whip scorpions
White ants, Termites ...

— arsenic

— fly, citrus, Aleyrodes citri
, cocoa-nut, Aleyrodicus cocois

— headed fungus, Ophionectria coccicola

— scale of cotton, Hemichionaspis minor
Wild bee, Polistes annularis

... 137

157

64

112

... 154

107

... 102

... 170

... 171

... 173

... o

', 74, 149

... 166

80

... 105

70

58

41

210

Woolly pyrol moth, Thermesia gemmatalis
Worm, arrowroot, Calpodes ethiius
— . boll, Heliothis obsolel a
. corn ear, Laphygma frugiperda

Worn), cotton

— , cut, Prodenia ornithogalli
— , eel, Nematodes

, lesser cotton, Aletia luridula
— , meal
— , orange, Trypeta ludens

-, screw, Compsomyia macellaria
— , sweet potato, Protoparce cingulata
— , tobacco, Protoparce sexta.

113

1 1, 92
49, 90
51,1*0

38

54
116

42
154

84
134

98

93

Xyleborns perforans, shot borer

69

Yams, pests of

— , scale, Aspidiotns hartii

Yellow fever mosquito, Stegomyia fasciata

z.

Zalophothrix mirum, parasite of black scale

112
112
120

56

14-101

New York Botanical Garden Library

QM479.A5B35

Bal ou. H. A./lnsectpests o

3 5

gen
the Lesser

85 00044 1624