U.S. Forest. Service
Instruction for. making

forest. surveys and maps. Rev.

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NSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING
FOREST SURVEYS
AND MAPS —

1912

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LIBRARY

FACULTY OF FORESTRY
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2010 with funding from
University of Toronto

http://www.archive.org/details/instructionsfoOOunit

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Issued April 11, 1912.

u. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, )

Lt,S .FOREST SERVICE. \
‘HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester.

~~.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING
F. FOREST SURVEYS:
AND MAPS.

REVISED DECEMBER 15, 1911.

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PREPARED IN THE OFFICE OF GEOGRAPHY,

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WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,
1912.

CONTENES:

Elements of surveying and mapping.........................
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Platting
Map making

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4

Fig. 1.
. Standard pocket compass. ........-.2.-..--2--.--4---
. Lines of equal magnetic variation in the United

CONTENTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

ILLUSTRA ELONS:

Forest Service standard compass..........-...-.----

. Positions of Polaris, Big Dipper, and Cassiopeia. - - - - .
. Plane-table method in which the table is set up at all

the sistiongs. 36 cb fio ces een tees esate

. Plane-table method in which the table is set up at

two stations and the remaining three are located
by intersections: . .. 225-4255. 5¢9 a, eee

. Plane-table method of locating points on both sides of

a base line which are to be occupied later and the
suryey extended - 222 isos fedeg sees cre see ae ee

. Plane-table method of finding location from three

. Areas of a section containing a compasserror of 0.25°.
, Ranger-stataon plats: 2.4 52h se ee eee ee pes ee
. Standard plantineter. 2.) - 3% 2. 30 ato) age ee
. Rectangular system of Land Office surveys......-...-
. Names of physiographic features............--.---.-

24

25

32

INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS AND MAPS.

ELEMENTS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING.

These simple instructions are issued to members of the
Forest. Service in order that forest surveys and maps
may be as nearly uniform as practicable. They do not
include directions for the use of instruments of great
precision, and the tables are prepared only to such
accuracy as is attained in careful timber cruising or in
surveying with the magnetic compass. This is $° or 15’
of arc.!

Forest surveys are made for two purposes—to locate
and mark lines or boundaries upon the ground, or to
furnish data for the preparation of maps.

The correctness of a survey depends upon the excel-:
lence of the instruments in use and the skill of the sur-
veyor and his party. A skillful surveyor can do better
work with poor instruments than an unskilled or care-
less one with the best instruments. Small instrumental

1 The “diurnal” or daily change of a magnetic needle, which is one of the variations
for which allowance is made in precise surveying, amounts to 10’ or 15’, and the influ-
ence of magnetic storms upon the needle is frequently unsuspected at the time a survey
~ + ae and clinometer compasses, by which the degree of a slope or a vertical
angle may be measured, are generally read only to the nearest 3° or 1°.

.Members of the Forest Service who are using solars, transits, levels, etc., have
received training and experience in the care and use of such instruments, and can

execute the necessary surveys of precision. They are provided with advanced
manuals of surveying and construction, tables, ephemerides, etc.
5

6 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

errors usually balance themselves, and they are quickly
discovered by the trained operator, who will know how
to make allowance for them, if necessary. The
unskilled or careless man will sometimes read the wrong
end of the compass needle; read the graduated ring
dial from the wrong direction; make a mistake in enter-
ing the reading in his notebook, or perpetrate some
other palpable blunder which will throw doubt over
the whole work and make a resurvey necessary.
Certain fundamental principles underlie all surveys.
We may assume a piece of land the location, extent, and
contour of which are unknown. First of all the survey
should determine its location, shape, and area, and if
necessary its topography, and any other essential
data. As in logic, one should start from something
which is known to determine something which is
unknown. The line which connects an unknown point
with a known point is called a tie, and as soon as the
tie is run the position of the unknown point is estab-
lished. A line run around a tract of land is called a
boundary line, and the angles on this line are called
corners, stations, posts, or stakes, according to the local
or established terms. It is not always necessary to
run the boundaries of a tract to determine its position
and area. A base line might be run across it with ordi-
nates on either side extending to the limits of the tract.
Or if the tract is a small watershed, lines might be
traversed up all of the streams and drainage lines, or
the area might be divided into squares and fractions of
squares, similar to land-survey sections. Still another
way will be described under the head of ‘‘ Plane table.”

INSTRUMENTS USED. 7

The method to be employed depends upon the purpose
of the survey, but no matter what method is used, the
survey will fail in its primary purpose if it does not
show the location, position, form, and size of the tract
surveyed.

INSTRUMENTS USED.

Three kinds of instruments are used in surveying,
viz: For determining azimuth or horizontal angles; for
determining grade or vertical angles; for determining
distances. The horizontal deflection of a line is always
expressed in degrees. The vertical deflection of a line
is generally expressed in per cent. The length of a line
in Government land surveying is always expressed in
chains (66 feet). The altitude above sea level is
expressed in feet.

The principal instrument for determining azimuth is
the magnetic compass, which, although of very simple
construction, will be absolutely misleading to anyone
who uses it without understanding. Suppose, for
Instance, a good compass, manufactured and adjusted
in some eastern factory or in Europe, should be taken
to the Pacific coast. It would undoubtedly indicate
the direction of the magnetic currents at any time and
place that it might be used, but its needle would not
point north and south and probably would not hang
level on the center pivot. The latter defect is quickly
remedied by moving a little sliding weight, which
should be on the south end of the needle.

Sight compasses are constructed so that they may
be sighted upon a distant object and the magnetic di-
rection is determined by reading the degree indicated
on the ring dial by the north end of the needle.

8 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

Vernier compasses are provided with a revolving
eraduated ring dial which may be set according to the
magnetic variation, thus reducing the reading to true
north instead of magnetic north.

Clinometer compasses are provided with a small pen-
dulum hung from the center pivot, which is used to
determine a vertical angle.

Prismatic compasses are sight compasses with a
‘floating’? dial which may be held in the hand. The
sight is taken and the direction is read in the same
operation.

Mirror compasses are provided with a reflecting sur-
face on the inside of a hinged cover, and the reflec-
tion of the reading is noted at the time the sight is taken.

Alidade compasses are provided with at least one
straight edge parallel to the line of sight. The bottom
of the compass is smooth so that the instrument may
be laid upon a map and the straight edge used as a
ruler.

Solar compasses are provided with a special attach-
ment which can be revolved independent of the’ com-
pass for taking observations on the sun and determin-
ing the cardinal direction without using the compass
needle.

Compasses are also used as a part of the equipment
of transits, levels, and plane tables, and in such cases
these instruments should be constructed of nonmagnetic
materials, in order that the needle may not be deflected.
Iron, nickel, cobalt, and manganese are the most mag-
netic substances. .

The instruments for determining grade or vertical
angles are:

STANDARD COMPASS, 9

The grademeter;

The Locke hand level; and.

The Abney reflecting level, which is provided with a
vertical arc, graduated either to per cent, degrees, or
ratio of slope, according to the purpose for which it is
used.

The unit of land measure is the standard surveyor’s
chain of 66 feet. For some classes of work steel band
chains or steel tapes are found more convenient and
economical, because: they are lighter and greater
lengths can be dragged over the ground, thus effecting
a saving in pinning and tallying. Tapes are usually
graduated in feet, and when they are used it is necessary
to reduce the measurements to standard chains, in
order that they may conform with the official land sur-
veys. In some regions the best means for determining
distances are the stadia transit and rod. These in-
struments are used by specially trained men, = are
therefore not described here.

FOREST SERVICE STANDARD COMPASS.

Figure 1 shows the surveying compass which has
been adopted by the Forest Service for the use of field
men in making forest surveys and maps. Very accu-
rate work can be done with this instrument if properly
used, and for this reason requisitions for transits should
not be made unless there is a special need for using a
still higher grade instrument. The principal features
of this standard compass are as follows:

The sights are very tall, and therefore admit of use
on steep hillsides or in taking observations on Polaris.
The hair sight may be repaired easily by threading
through the holes at A and B. If after long use the

10 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

sights work too freely they may be tightened by the
nut C.

Fic. 1.—Forest Service standard compass.

The base of the instrument is an accurate square,
beveled and graduated as a protractor on two sides

STANDARD COMPASS. 11

and to inch scales on two sides. One of these scales is
Forest Atlas standard of 1 inch to 1 mile, and is
divided into eighths, each of which represents 10 chains.
The other scale is decimal. The base supports two
levels, D, set at right angles to each other, each being
adjustable by means of small screws and a center point
on which they rock.

The clamp £ is a milled nut which operates to lift
the needle from the center pin when the compass is not
in use. It works so easily on a screw that the azimuth
of the instrument need not be disturbed when the needle
is unclamped or clamped. The thread is riveted on the
top so that the nut will not come off and be lost.

The needle F' is of blue steel and is provided on its
south end with a small brass weight, which may be
pushed toward or away from the center if it becomes
necessary to make the needle hang horizontal and
counteract the magnetic dip in any locality. Of course
the needle should be removed from the center pivot
when this is done. The base dial is reenforced at H to
hold the center pivot more securely. It is engraved
to show (1) the cardinals, (2) a half circle of degrees
for the clinometer, and (3) 70° of variation, including
east and west. The ring dial / is graduated to degrees
reading from zero°, from north and south, to 90° at
east and west. It carriers a vernier, J, which reads
against the variation graduation on the base dial. The
cover is of heavy plate glass and is held in place by a
graduated and slotted rim, A, which also revolves in
azimuth.

The clinometer consists of a weighted pendulum, Z,
which hangs on the center pivots and is provided with

12 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

a pointer which reads against a graduation on the base
dial.

The edges VM and WN are perpendicular to each other,
and the line O P is parallel to the line of sight and
may, therefore, be used as an alidade.

The above description covers that portion of the in-
strument which is used upon a plane table either for
ordinary compass work or for mapping on the plane-
table sheet. The instrument is, however, provided
with a ball-and-socket attachment so that it may be
used upon a Jacob staff, tripod, or more conveniently
held in the hand if used as a hand compass for rough
cruising. These parts are shown in the illustration; Q,
a cone-bearing containing the spindle, which may be
clamped by the screw #; the ball S is held by the socket -
cover T, which screws upon the mounting U.

When this instrument is used on the plane table the
proceeding is as follows:

The sights having been raised and the instrument
laid on the table, the table is leveled by observing the
bubbles. The variation having been set off, the table
is oriented with the compass needle, which should read
zero at the north end. Then sights may be taken upon
all the objects to be mapped, using the edge O P, or the
opposite paraliel edge, as an alidade. The distances
may be measured with the scale.

When used as a surveyor’s compass the leveling is
done by means of the ball and socket S and 7, and the
compass is revolved in azimuth by loosening the clamp
screw f.

As a clinometer for measuring vertical angles, the
edge .f may be laid upon a slope and the pendulum

STANDARD COMPASS. 13

will show the number of degrees of dip or rise. This
is not the same as ‘‘ percent of grade.”’ The difference
is shown on page 40. Another method is to lay the
edge M on the level plane-table board and, revolving
the rim vertically, take a sight through the slots XK.
The angle of dip or rise may then be very closely ap-
proximated by reading the graduation on the rim. In
some of these instruments the cover of the socket, at
_ the ball joint, is cut away on one side, permitting the
spindle to be tipped over and the compass revolved in
a vertical plane. The sights may then be used in con-
nection with the clinometer. This altered socket will
_ be issued when specially requisitioned.

Right angles may be turned accurately without the
use of the compass by two methods: (1) By drawing a
line on the plane-table sheet on the edges O P and then
turning the instrument 90° until the edge M coincides
with the line, or (2) the slots A may be used without
moving the instrument, as they are placed exactly 90°
apart.

This instrument should give good results if used and
treated with the care which is necessary for any well-
made and carefully adjusted instrument. The cus-
todian should keep it clean, but should not oil it, though
it may be wiped occasionally with a slightly greasy
piece of muslin. The needle should always be clamped
_ when not in use, and the hair sight should always be
closed down first so that it will be protected by the
slot sight. The cover glass may be removed by tak-
ing off the sights and then the surrounding rim, which
is provided with small brass screws which travel in a
channel cut into the outside of the compass box. It is

14 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

not necessary to remove the glass in order to sharpen
the center pivot. This may be done by unscrewing it
from the under side of the compass after the needle
has been clamped, although this must be done very
carefully, so that the clinometer pendulum will not
move out of place; otherwise it will be necessary to
remove the cover glass.

In case of any serious injury to any instrument, it
should be returned to the property clerk at Ogden for
repairs.

The instrument should not be kept near large bodies
of iron, nor exposed to electric motors or generators.
Compass needles are frequently demagnetized by being
carried in a valise in an electric car and being set
down over a powerful motor, because the needle is
clamped (as it should be) while being carried. On the
other hand, the magnetism of a needle may be strength-
ened by laying the compass, with the needle unclamped,
near a direct-current motor or generator or strong
magnet. A better plan is to unclamp the needle, and
after it has found its bearing, to clamp it and leave it
to the influence of the magnetic current. In this way
the continued quiver of the needle will not dull the
center pivot.

Do not allow the needle to be deflected, while being
read, by an ax, jackknife, pencil tip, the metal band of
a hat, or other metal.

THE POCKET COMPASS.
The Forest Service standard pocket compass is a
strong and serviceable instrument for cruising or re-

tracing survey lines. Instructions for its proper use
are engraved upon the base dial, as shown in figure 2.

STANDARD POCKET COMPASS,

STANDARD

QCKET COMPASS

Ons On ONTHE SOUTH
RSS END OFTHE
Ne Ss n

Fig. 2.—Standard pocket compass.

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16 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC,

MAGNETIC NEEDLE.

It is unfortunate that all makers of surveying instru-
ments do not have a uniform method of designating the

north or south end of compass needles, but that the |
surveyor must learn and remember whether the blue or |

white, or the weighted or cross-barred end of the needle |

is the one which points northward. Some small com-
passes also differ in the positions of the E. and W. ac-
cording to the use which is to be made of them. If

they are to be used as sight compasses, they should.

have the E. on the left side of thedial. In good weather,
when the sun shines or where distant features of the
jandscape are in constant view, there is little chance of
error by reading the wrong end of the needle, but there
are many conditions under which the compass alone
must be the guide.

VARIATION.

It will be seen by the map (fig. 3) that only along one
line in the United States, the so-called “line of no varia-
tion,” does the needle point due north. This line is
not stationary, but has a slow movement westward.
At all other points in the United States the north end
of the needle is deflected toward the “line of no varia-
tion.” In the North Atlantic States the variation of
the north end of the needle is to the west, and a sur-
veyor at Augusta, Me., would enter in his field notes
‘variation 16° west.” At Portland, Oreg., the entry
would be “variation 214° east.” The maximum an-
nual change of variation in the United States is only
about 5 minutes. On the Pacific coast it is only 1
minute.

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18 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

If a survey is to be made in a region which has not
been subdivided by Government land surveys or where
the variation of the needle is not known, then the sur-

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Fic. 4.—Position of the Big
Dipper and Cassiopeia when
Polaris is due north. If the
figure is held upside down it
shows the reverse position in
which Polaris is also due
north.

veyor must do one of three things.
He should if possible find the
variation by observing the Pole
Star, of which approximate bear-
ings are given (Table 1) at 9 p.m.
during the year; or he may obtain
the true meridian by observing the
sun atapparentnoon. Ifneither
can be done, a variation may be
assumed after examination of
figure 3, and this assumed varia-
tion should be entered in the field
notes and shown on the map, with
the date when the map is pre-
pared.

OBSERVING POLARIS.

The Pole Star is not exactly
above the North Pole of the
earth, but its bearing is due north
twice a day, and an observation
of it at one of these times will
give a true meridian. Mizar, a
double star in the bend of the

handle of the Big Dipper is either above or below the

Pole Star at these times.
6 (Delta) in the constellation Cassiopeia.

The same is true of the star
(See fig. 4.)

At all other hours the Pole Star has a bearing either

OBSERVING POLARIS. 19

east or west of true north. It is most convenient to
take a sight on Polaris at 9 p. m., and for this reason
the accompanying table was prepared. The sight
having been taken, it will be easy to turn the compass
to true north and ascertain the variation.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

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OBSERVING THE SUN AT NOON. AI

OBTAINING A TRUE MERIDIAN BY OBSERVING THE
SUN AT APPARENT NOON.

In addition to the instructions.given on pages 16 to
19, there is a method of obtaining a true meridian
by observing the sun with a sight compass at the exact
time itis due south. The time of this southing is called
apparent noon and changes from day to day. It is not
the same as local mean noon, nor standard time noon.
It is best to set your watch for local mean time, since
you can then observe a southing at the time given in
Table 2. If your watch is set for standard time, it will
be necessary to set it ahead or back by adding or sub-
tracting a correction, according as the longitude of
your station is either east or west of one of the standard
meridians. These are:

Local mean time at—

‘ Longitude 75°=Eastern standard time.
Longitude 90°=Central standard time.
Longitude 105°=Mountain standard time.
Longitude 120°= Pacific standard time.

The correction for a degree of longitude is 4 minutes
of time; the correction for a minute of longitude is 4
seconds of time. To illustrate: The local mean time
in longitude 108° will evidently be 12 minutes behind
Mountain standard time, or 48 minutes ahead of
Pacific standard time. The local mean time in longi-
tude 114° 35’ will be 21 minutes and 40 seconds ahead
of Pacific standard time. The method is:

Pacific standard time is for longitude 120° 00’

Local mean time is required for longitude 114° 35
The difference in longitude is 5° 25/

Then 5° 25/

Multiplied by 4 4

Gives 20 m. 100 s., or 21 m. 40s.

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INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC. 23

PLANE TABLE.

For making any map the plane table is the best in-
strument in use. Instead of taking notes, as in run-
ning compass lines, the surveyor plats his work in the
field and can thus always see the progress made. Er-
rors and omissions are discovered quickly and rectified.

The paper upon which the map is to be made is fast-
ened to the plane-table board by thumb tacks, and upon
it rests the alidade, a straightedge or ruler with fold-
ing sights like a compass. From a point on the paper
which represents the starting point on the ground over
which the table is standing the surveyor draws lines
on the paper with the alidade to the various topographic
features which are to be mapped. From start to finish
of the survey it must at all stations retain the same
orientation-—that is to say, at every station where the
table is set up its sides must be exactly parallel to its
position at the original station.

There are several methods, all based upon the same
principles. If an isolated block of forest is to be
bounded by a survey, the method would be:

Set up at A with one side of the table bearing ap-
proximately north and south. As A is near the south-
east corner of the tract, begin to draw at the correspond-
ing place on the paper. With the alidade draw a line
from A toward 6. Measure the distance AB on the
ground and scale the proportionate distance on the
paper. Set the table at 6. With the alidade on the
drawn line take a backsight on A. The table will then
be oriented or parallel to its position when at A. Draw
a line on the paper from B toward C. Measure it and

24 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

scale onthe map. Proceed as before, and the result will
be a map which will truly represent the lines on the
ground. (See fig. 5.)

In this case the points C and D were not visible from
A, but if, instead of being a biock of forest, the area were
an open meadow, then a second method, would be used.

Fic. 5.—Plane-table method in which the table is set up at all the stations.

Set up at A. Draw lines to B, ¢, D, and £. Meas-
ure AB. Set up at B. Orient on A. Draw lines to
C, D, and E. The intersections of the line will give
the other three points. The line AB is a base line.
(See fig. 6.)

The third method is an extension of the second and
involves some near-by points which can not be located

PLANE TABLE. 25

from the base line. From A and B the points C, D, E,
and / are intersected, and one sight is taken on G,
which is obviously too nearly in line with the base line
to be accurately intersected. Subsequently the table
is set up at C and oriented by taking sights on A, B,
D, H,and Ff. Itis then easy to intersect G, and also get

Fic. 6.—Piane-table method in which the table is set up at two stations and the
remaining three are located by intersections.

a sight on H, which was not visible before. H may be

intersected from G. (See fig. 7.)

A fourth method is employed when the table must
be set up at an unknown point from which three or
more known points are visible. This is the ‘‘three-
point problem,” in which the suveyor ‘“‘picks up” his

26 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

location. Suppose that C, D, and E were located by
the third method and are high and well-defined peaks.
They form a triangle which can be accurately platted
on the paper, and the best plan is to prick in the points
with a fine needle. The surveyor will then proceed

D

Fic. 7.—Plane-table method of locating points on both sides of a base line which are
to be occupied later and the survey extended.

by setting up the table at the point which is to be
located and from which he can see the three peaks.
Orient approximately by compass. With the alidade

draw lines from each peak toward the point of set-up.
If the three lines intersect, the desired point is located,

PLANE TABLE. pds

except as noted below. If the lines do not intersect, the
orientation may be changed until they do, but an easier
plan is to fasten a piece of tracing cloth on the table
and assume a point from which the lines may be drawn
toward the peaks. The tracing may then be shifted
over the paper to find a position at which the lines will

Fic. 8.—Plane-table method of finding location from three points.

exactly cover the three needle holes on the paper. This
method is reliable when the desired location is within
the triangle, but it is useless when the table is set up on
or near a circle which would pass through the three
peaks. For this reason four or more points should be
used if possible. (See fig. 8.) |

30 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

With the thumb pressing the release, the sight is
taken on the object and the height is read at the same
time; or the thumb may be lifted, and the pendulum
thus being clamped, the height of the tree may be read
through the window.

If the observer stands only 50 feet from the tree the
reading must be divided by 2. If he stands 200 feet
away it must be multiplied by 2, and proportionately
for other distances.

The reading gives the height above the level of the
eye. Allowance must be made if the observer’s eye is
above or below the stump height of the tree.

The notebook and pencil are held in the right hand
while an observation is being taken, and the notebook
is passed to the left hand when the observation is
entered. The hypsometer being on the back of the
fingers allows free play for the thumb, palm, and ends
of the fingers of the left hand to hold the notebook.
In moving from station to station the right hand is
then free to assist in getting through the brush or in
crossing logs.

The circular pendulum is graduated to ianeetie
Therefore it may be used to determine the per cent of
grade of a road or trail. For this purpose sights may
be taken downhill as well as uphill. No conversion of
figures is necessary. If the reading is 10 the grade is
10 per cent. It will not hereafter be necessary to use
pocket levels for this class of work; since the hypsom-
eter-grademeter answers every purpose.

MEASUREMENTS. 31

DETAILS OF SURVEYING.
MEASUREMENTS.
‘\

The most frequent source of error in pacing, chaining,
or steel taping is in counting the tallies—assuming that
the mechanical part of the work is well done. The
memory should not be trusted. The only safe plan is
to enter each tally in the field notes as soon as that tally
is completed and the pins or stakes have been counted
by both chainmen and before the next tally is begun.
When timber is being estimated along the survey line
this error is not likely to occur, as the numbers on the
timber sheets are a check upon the work.

If a pair of amateur chainmen went over some open
level country and reported a distance of 174.62 chains,
an error, if one existed, would probably be found in the
‘“‘tens”’ or tallies, and a resurvey would give 164.62 or
184.62 chains. The standard chain has a length of 66
feet. If any other unit of linear measure is used, it
must be made clear in the notes.

For some classes of work steel tapes or ‘‘ band chains”
are preferable, because, being lighter, they can be longer
and stretched straighter than chains.

CONCERNING ACCURACY.

The field work of the Forest Service extends over
millions of acres of wild, very rough, and frequently
almost inaccessible lands. In the surveying and map-
ping of such lands, it should be understood that the term
“accuracy’’ does not call for the degree of precision
which would be applied to city lots having a value of

32 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS. ETC.

$1,000 per square foot. The surveys of the Forest
Service call for practical accuracy, rather than technical
correctness or precision.

Figure 10 shows the changing areas in the survey of
a square mile in which there is a compass error of one-
fourth degree. When measurements close, but not at
right angles, the result is a diamond, and the lossin area is
about 0.02 of an acre, representing a value of only 5 or
10 cents. In a converging section the loss may be 2.80

80.00 Chs. S, 80.00Ghs.
9 Yo.

640°
ACRES

8000 CAS
8O0.00CAS.

oO
80.00Chs. 2° 80.00Chs

Perfect square. Diamond. Converging quadrangle.

Fic. 10.—Areas of a section containing a compass error of 0.25 degree.

acres, but in either instance such a survey is considered
to inclose a conventional section of 640 acres, and this
will also be the case if there is an excess acreage to the
same extent. Tosurvey a perfect square would be very
expensive and not justifiable in view of the trifling
values involved.

TRAVERSE.

When a survey is run along a road or stream, or fol-
lows the crest of a divide, the line ‘‘meanders” and
consists of a number of short courses and distances.
The courses are read from the north end of the needle
and platted on the map with a protractor, Whenever

TRAVERSE. ao

. the actual change in latitude or departure (longitude)
is desired, it may be computed with the traverse table.

In platting with the protractor care should be used
that all the angles are set off from the same meridian,
otherwise the errors will accumulate. The angles of
all courses in surveying are measured from the north
and south cardinals toward the east or west, and they
should be platted the same. The figures on some pro-
tractors are misleading in this respect.

23682°—12—3

34 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

TABLE 3.—Traverse.

Dist. 1. Dist. 2. Dist. 3. Dist. 4. | Dist. 5.
Lat. | Dep.| Lat. | Dep.| Lat.| Dep.) Lat.| Dep. | Lat. | Dep.

1. 0000 0. 0044/2. 0000.0. 0087 3. 0000 0. 0131/4. 0000)0. ENE 0000, 0.0218) 89 45

015

30) 0000) 0087/1. 9999) 01752 0262/3.9998| 0349 4.9998, 0436 30
45) 0.9999, 0131 9998, 0262 9997 0393) 9997) 0524 9996, 0654 15
1 0 9998) 0175} 9997 0349) 9995) 0524) 9994) 0698) 9992) 0873) 89 0

9962) 1745 9952) 2181 30

3 0 86 0523) 9973 1047 9959) 157 9945 2093) “9931 2617; 87 O
15 9984 0567) 9968) 1134) 9952) 1701) 9936 , 9920 2835 45
20, 9981 0610} 9963, 1221| 9944) 1831] 9925) 2412) 9907) 3052 39
45 8979 0654) 9957) 1308; 9936) 1962) 9914 2616, 9893 3270 15
4 0} $976 0698 9951) 1395! 9927) 2093} 9903) 2790) 9878 3488] 86 0
15 9973, 0741; 9945 1482) 9918} 2223) 9890! 2964 9863 3705 45
30 9969) 0785} 9938 1569 9908) 2354] 9877) 3138 9846 3923 30
45 9966) 0828} 9931) 1656) 9897) 2484) 9863) 3312) 9828 4140 15
5 0 9962, 0872 9924 1743; 9886) 2615) 9848) 3486] 9819 4358) 85 0
15! 0. 9958/0. 0915/1. 9916 0. 1830 2. 9874/0. 2745/3. 9832|0. 3660)4. 9790) 0. 4575 45
30 9954 58} 9908) 1917) 9862) 2875) 9816) 3834) 977 4792 30
45 9950} 1002) 9899, 2004! 9849 9799, 4008) 9748 5009 15
6 0 9945) 1045) 9890) 2091 9836} 3136] 9781) 4181] 9726) 5226) 84 O
15 9941; 1089) 9881) 2177) 9822) 3266) 9762) 4355) 9703 5443 45
30 9936, 1132) 9871) 2264) 9807 3396] 9743) 4528) 9679 5660 30
45 9931) 1175) 9861) 2351) 9792) 3526) 9723) 4701 9653 5877 15
fee | 9925, 1219) 9851 2437) 9776, 3656) 9702) 4875 9627 6093| 83 0
15 9920} 1262) 9840 2524) 9760, 3786) 9680) 5048) 9600 6310 45
30 9914) 1305 9829} 2611) 9743) 3916 5 5221] 9572 6526 30
45| 0. 9909/0. 1349/1. 9817 0. 2697 2. 9726 0. 4046)3. 9635/0. 5394/4. 9543) 0.6743 15
8 0 9903} 1392) 9805, 2783, 9708) 4175) 9611) 5567) 9513 6959; 82 0
15 9897| 1435) 9793 2870! 9690) 4305) 9586) 5740) 9483 7175 45
30 9890} 1478) 9780 2956) 9670) 4434) 9561) 5912) 9451 7390 30
45 9884) 1521) 97 67) 3042) 9651) 4564) 9534) 6085) 9418 7606 15
9 0| 9877; 1564) 9754 3129) 9631) 4693] 9508 6257} 9384 7822; 81 O
15 9870| 1607) 9740 3215) 9610 9480) 6430} 9350 8037 45
30 9863) 1650) 9726 3301) 9589) 4951) 9451) 6602) 9314 8252 30
45 9856) 1693) 9711) 3387) 9567 9422) 6774) 9278 8467 15
10 O 9 1736) 9696, 3473) 9544) 5209) 9392) 6946) 9240 8682; 80 0
15) 0. 9840/0. 1779/1. 9681 0. 3559) 2. 9521/0. 5338)3. 9362/0. 7118)4. 9202) 0. 8897 45

30 9833 1822; 9665) 3645) 9498} 5467; 9330) 7289) 9163 9112 30 ¢
45 9825) 1865 9649; 3730 9474, 5596; 9298) 7461] 9123 9326 15
41.0 9816) 1908 9633, 3816) 9449] 57 9265) 7632) 9081 9540} 79 O
15 9808} 1951) 9616) 3902) 9424] 5853) 9231; 7804) 9039 9755 45
30 9799} 1994 9598) 3987, 9398} 5981) 9197) 7975 8996: 9968: 30
45 9790} 2036, 9581, 407. | 9371} 6109} 9162) 8146} 8952) 1.0182 1
12 0 9781) 2079| 9563) 4158) 9344) 6237) 9126) 8316) 8907 0396) 78 O

15 O72) 2122} 9545| 4244) 9317 6365) 9089} 8487) 8862 0609
30 9763} 2164! 9526) 4329) 9289 6493 9052) 8658} 8815 0822 30
45| 0. 9753)0. 22071. 9507/0. 4414 2. 9260)0. 66213. 90140. 8828]4. 8767; 1.1035 15
13 0 9744, 2250| 9487) 4499) 9231) 6749) 8975) 8998) 8719 1248} 77 0
15 9734, 2292) 9468) 4584) 9201) 6876, 8935; 9168] 8669 1460 45
30 9724) 2334, 9447) 4669 9171} 7 8895) 9338) 8618 1672 30
45 9713) 2377) 9427, 4754 9140) 7131 8854) 9507) 8567 1884 15
14 0 9703) 2419) 9406) 4838) 9109) 7258} 8812) 9677 8515) 2096, 76 0
15 9692) 9385 4923) 9077| 7385) 8769) 9846) 8462 45
30 9681, 2504) 9363 5008) 9044) 7511 8726,)1.0015| 8407 2519 30
45 9670, 2546, 9341) 5092) 9011 7638) 8682) 0184 8352) 2730 15
Waid Fa 9659 2588! 9319) 5176) 8978] 7765) 8637| 0353) 8296, 2941) 75 O
“Dep. | Lat. | Dep.| Lat. | Dep.| Lat.| Dep.| Lat.| Dep.| Lat. Co
Dist. 1. 22. Dist. 4 Dist. 5.

TRAVERSE. 3D

TABLE 3.— Traverse—Continued.

Dist. 1. Dist. 2. Dist. 3. Dist. 4. Dist. 5.
Course. | Tat. Dep. | Lat. | Dep. | Lat. | Dep. | Lat. | Dep. | Lat.) Dep.

a J ay viet

15 15) 0. pe 0. 2630/1. 9296/0. 5261/2. 8944 0. 7891 3. 8591/1. 0521/4. 8239 1.3151) 74 45
30 2672} 9273) 5345} 8909) 8017) 8545) 0690) 8182) 332 30
45 9635 2714; 9249) 5429) 8874) 8143) 8498) 0858) 8123) 3572 15
16 0} 9613) 2756) 9225) 5513) 8838) 8269, 8450) 1025) 8063) 3782) 74 0
15; 9600) 2798) 9201) 5597) 8801} 8395) 8402) 1193} 8002
30) 9588) 2840) 9176) 5680} 8765) 8520) 8353) 1361) 7941) 4201 30
45, 9576] 2882) 9151} 5764) 8727| 8646 8303) 1528) 7879 4410 15
17 0} 9563) 2924) 9126) 5847; 8689) 8771) 8252} 1695) 7815) 4619} 73 0
15} 9550) 2965) 9100) 5931) 8651) 8896; 8201) 1862) 7751) 4827 45
30) 9537; 3007) 9074) 6014) 8612) 9021, 8149) 2028} 7686; 5035 30
45) 0. 9524/0. 3049/1. 9048) 0. 6097/2. 8572/0. 9146 3. 8096/1. 2195/4. 7620) 1.5243 15
18 0} 9511) 3090) 9021) 6180) 8532) 9271) 8042) 2361) 7553) 5451) “72 0
15} 9497} 3132) 8994) 6263) 8491) 9395) 7988) 2527) 7485) 5658 45
30} 9483) 3173) 8966) 6346] 8450) 9519) 7933) 2692) 7416) 5865 30
45} 9469] 3214) 8939) 6429) 8408} 9643! 7877) 2858) 7347) 6072 15
19 0} 9455) © 3256) 8910) 6511) 8366) 9767) 7821) 3023} 7276; 6278) 71 O
15) 9441, 3297) 8882, 6594) 8323, 9891) 7764 3188) 7204, 6485 45
30) 9426) 3338) 8853) 6676) 8279)1.0014. 7706 3352) 7132 6690 30
45] 9412) 3379] 8824) 6758) 8235) 0138) 7647/ 3517] 7059, 6896 15
20 0} 9397) 3420) 8794 6840] 8191) 0261) 7588! 3681] '6985| 7101) 70 0
15| 0. 9382/0. 3461|1. 8764 0. Se 2. 8146)1. 0384 3. 7528 1. 3845/4. 6910) 1.7306 45
30) 9367) 3502) 8733 8100) 0506 7467) 4008) 6834) 7510 30
45) 9351) 3543) 8703) 7 O86 8054| 0629! 7405] 4172] 6757) 7715 15
21 0} 9336) 3584} 8672) 7167) 8007) 0751; 7343) 4335) 6679) 7918) 69 0
15| 9320} 3624] 8640) 7249} 7960) 0873 7280) 4498] 6600) 8122 45
30; 9304) 3665) 8608 7330) 7913) 0995 7217 4660) 6521, 8325 30
45) 9288] 3706) 8576) 7411) 7864; 1177) 7152) 4822) 6440) 8528 15
22 0} 9272) 3746) 8544) 7492) 7816) 1238) 7087; 4984) 6359) 8730) 68 0
15) 9255) 3786) 8511) 7573) 7766) 1359) 7022) 5146} 6277; 8932 45
30} 9239) 3827; 8478) 7654) 7716) 1481) 6955) 5307) 6194) 9134 30
45) 0.9222 0. 3867\1. 8444/0. 7734/2. 7666)1. 1601 3. 6888 1. 5468/4. 6110) 1.9336 15
23 0} 9205) 3907| 8410) 7815) 7615] 1722 6820, 5629] 6025, 9537) 67 0
15| 9188) 3947| 8376) 7895} 7564) 1842 6752) 5790) 5940) 9737 45
30) 9171) 3987; 8341) 7975) 7512) 1962) 6682) 5950) 5853) 9937 30
45) 9153) 4027) 8306) 8055) 7459) 2082, 6612) 6110) 5766) 2.0137 15
24 0} 9135) 4067} 8271) 8135] 7406) 2202) 6542) 6269) 5677) 0337; 66 O
15} 9118) 4107} 8235) 8214) 7353) 2322) 6470) 6429) 5588 0536 45
30} 9100) 4147) 8199) 8294) 7299) 2441) 6398 6588) 5498, 0735 30
45} 9081} 4187, 8163) 8373) 7214) 2560 6326 6746) 5407; 0933 15
25 0} 9063) 4226} 8126 8452 7189} 2679 6252 6905) 5315) 1131) 65 0
15| 0.9045 0. 4266/1. 8099 0. 8531/2. 7034/1. 2797 3. 6178 1. 7063/4. 5223) 2. 1328 45
30, 9026 4305, 8052) 8610, 7078} 2915 6103; 7220' 5129) 1526 30
45) 9007) 4344 8014; 8689) 7021) 3033) 6028 7378 5035, 1722 15
26 0} 8988) 4384; 7976) 8767} 6964) 3151) 5952) 7535, 4940) 1919) 64 0
15} 8969; 4423) 7937) 8846; 6906) 3269) 5875 7692 4844) 2114 45
30} 8949) 4462; 7899) 8924) 6848) 3386) 5797, 7848 4747; 2310 30
45| 8930) 4501) 7860) 9002} 8789) 3503) 5719, 8004 4649) 2505 15
27 0; 8910 4540, 7820 9080) 6730) 3620, 5640 8160 4550, 2700) 63 0
15; 8890, 4579) 7780) 9157| 6671) 3786) 5561, 8315 4451) 2894 45
30} 8870) 4617) 7740) 9235} 6610, 3852) 5480) 8470 4351; 3087 30
45) 0.8850 0. 4656 1. 7700 0. noe 2. 6550}1. 3968/3. 5400 1. 8625 4. 4249) 2.3281 15
389} 6488

15} 8809) 4733 7618) 9466) 6427) 4200) 5236 8933! 4045] 3666 45
y we 9543) 6365) 4315 5153, 9086 3941) 3858 30
45) 8767, 4810 7535 9620) 6302} 4430) 5069, 9240) 3836} 4049 15
29 0; 8746 4848 7492, 9696) 6239) 4544) 4985,

15) 8725, 4886, 7450) 9772) 6175) 4659 4900 9545) 3625) 4431 45

30; 8704 4924) 7407| 9848} 6111) 4773) 4814, 9697) 3518) 4621 30
45| 8682) 4962) 7364) 9924] 6046] 4886] 4728 9849) 3410) 4811 15

30 0 8660; 5000) 7321)1.0000} 5981} 5000 4641/2. 0000 3301 5000) 60 0
Dep. | Lat. | Dep. | Lat. | Dep. Lat. | Dep.| Lat. | Dep. | Lat.

Dist. 1. Dist. 2 Dist.3. | Dist.4. | Dist.5. _ | Course.

36

TABLE 3.— Traverse—Continued.

| Dist. 1. Dist.2. | Dist. 3. Dist. 4. Dist. 5.
Course. Lat. | Dep. | Lat. | Dep. | Lat. Dep. | Lat. | Dep. | Lat. | Dep.

° / ° ’

30 151 0.8638 0. 8633/0. ae 1. 7277 1.0075 2. 5915/1. we 4553/2. 0151/4. 3192) 2.5189) 59 45

30 8616 5) 7233 0151) 5849) 5226 4465) 0302 3081) 5377 30

| $8594 aI 13 _ 7188 0226) 5782) 5339, 4376) 0452) 2970) 5565 15

31 0) 8572) 5150 7142 0301) 5715) 5451, 4287) 0602) 2858) 5752) 59 0

15} 8549) 5188) 7 0375) 5647) 5563 4196) 0751) 2746; 5939 45

30, 8526) 5225) 7053) 0450) 5579) 5675) 4106) 0900) 2632) 6125 30

45, 8504) 5262 7007; 0524) 5511) 5786, 4014) 1049) 2518) 6311 15

32 0 8480 5299, 6961 0598) 5441) 5898 3922) 1197) 2402) 6496) 58 0

15, 8457, 5336) 6915 0672) 5372) 6008 3829) 1345) 2286) 6681 45

30 8434 5373, 6868 0746 5302 6119 3736) 1492 2170) 6865 30

45, 0.8410 0.5410 1. 6821 1.0819 2. 5231/1. 6229 3. 3642/2. 1639/4. 2052) 2.7049 15

33 0 8387, 5446 6773 0893) 5160) 6339 3547) 1786 1934 7232) 57 O

15, 8363) 5483) 6726 0966) 5089) 6449 3451; 1932) 1814) 7415 45

30 = 8339, 5519 +6678 1039) 5017) 6558, 3355) 2077) 1694) 7597 30

45) 8315) 5556 6629) 1111) 4944) 6667 3259) 2223) 1573) 7779 15

34 0 8290) 5592 6581) 1184) 4871) 6776 3162) 2368) 1452) 7960) 56 0

15) 8266, 5628 6532! 1256) 4798 6884 2512; 1329) 8140 45

30, 8241) 5664) 6483) 1328) 4724 6992 2965) 2656! 1206; 8320 30

45) 8216, 5700) *6433) 1400) 4649 7100) 2866) 2800 1082) 8500 15

35 0} 8192} 5736; 6383) 1472) 4575) 7207| 2766) 2943 0958) 8679} 55 0

15) 0.8166 0.5771 1. 6333 1. 1543/2. 4499 1. 7314 3. 2666 2. 3086 4. ete 2. 8857 45

30} 8141 | 5807; 6282) 1614) 4423) 7421) 2565) 3228) 0706; 9035 30

45) 8116) 5842) 6231) 1685) 4347, 7527) 2463) 3370) 057 9212 15

36 0 8090) 5878); 6180, 1756) 4271, 7634) 2361) 3511, 0451) 9389) 54 0

15, 8064 5913) 6129 1826, 4193, 7739) 2258 3652) 0322) 9565 45
30) 8039, 5948) 6077; 1896) 4116, 7845) 2154) 3793) 0193) 9741 30 |

45) 8013, 5983, 6025 1966, 4038, 7950) 2050) 3933) 0063! 9916) 15

37 0) 7986 6018) 5973 2036) 3959) 8054) 1945) 4073 3.9932) 3.0091) 53 0

15} 7 6053, 5920 2106 3880) 8159) 1840; 4212, 9800) 0365 45

30| 7934 6088 5867) 2175) 3801) 8263) 1734 4350 9668 0438 30

45| 0. 7907 0.6122 1. 5814 1. 2244/2. 3721 1. 8367/3. 1628/2. 4489 3. 9534) 3.0611), 15

38 0 7880) 6157) 5760 2313) 3640) 8470) 1520) 4626 9400) 0783) 52 0

15, 7853 6191) 5706 2382! 3560, 8573) 1413) 4764 9266) 0955 45

30) 7826, 6225) 5652 2450) 3478) 8675) 1304) 4901 9130) 1126 30

45) 7799, 6259) 5598 2518) 3397) 8778) 1195) 5037, 8994) 1296 15

39 0) 7771) 6293, 5543, 2586, 3314) 8880) 1086) 5173 8857, 1466) 51 0

15) 7744 6327) 5488) 2654) 3232) 8981) 0976 5308, 8720) 1635 45

30, 7716 6361, 5432) 2722, 3149) 9082) 0865) 5443) 8581) 1804 30

45) 7688) 6394) 5377) 2789, 3065) 9183) 0754) 5578 8442) 1972 15

40 0 7660 5321, 2856, 2981) 9284) 0642) 5712 8302) 2139) 50 0

15) 0. 7632 0. 6461 1.5265 1. 2922 2. 2897 1. 9384/3. 0529/2. 5845'3. 8162) 3. 2306 45

30, 7604) 6494 5208 2989) 2812 9483) 0416) 5978) 8020) 2472 30

45) 7576, 6528) 5151, 3055, 2727) 9583) 0303) 6110) 7878! 2638 15

41 0) 7547) 6561) 5094, 3121; 2641) 9682) 0188) 6242) 7735, 2803) 49 0

15 7518) 6593, 5037) 3187, 2559) 9780, 0074, 6374, 7592) 2967 45

30; 7490) 6626 4979) 3252, 2469) 9879)2.9958) 6505) 7448) 3131 30

45, 7461) 6659) 4921, 3318) 2382) 9976) 9842) 6635) 7303) 3294 15

42 0} 7431, 6691, 4863) 3383 22942.0074) 9726 6765) 7157; 3457) 48 O

15} 7402, 6724 4804 3447, 2207, 0171; 9609 6895) 7011 3618 45

30| 7373, 6756) 4746) 3512 2118 0268) 9491 7024 3780) 30

45) 0. 7343 0. 6788 1. 4686 1. 3576 2. 2030) 2. 0364 2. 9373 2. 7152)3. 6716, 3.3940 15

43 0} 7314! 6820) 7 6568 4100) 47 0

15) 7284, 6852 6419, 4259) 45

30 7254 6884 6269, 4418 30

45| 7224) 6915 6118, 4576 15

44 0| 7193| 6947 5967, 4733] 46 0

15| 7163) 6978 5815; 4890 45

30} 7133) 7009 5663, 5045 30

45| 7102) 7040 5509, 5201 15

45 0) 7071) ue 5355, 5355) 45 0

“Dep. Lat. Dep.| Lat. Co
Dist. 1. Dist. 5.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

TRAVERSE. 37

TABLE 3.— Traverse—Continued.

c Dist. 6. Dist. 7. Dist. 8. Dist. 9. Dist. 10.
oO Lat. | Dep. | Lat. | Dep. | Lat. | Dep. Lat. Dep. | Lat.:| Dep.

0 15) 5.9999 0.0262 6. 9999/0. 0305/7. 9999 0. 0349 8.9999 0. 0393/9. 9999] 0.0436) 89 45
9998) 0524, 9997) 0611) 9997; 0698! 9997) 0785) 9996) 0873 30
45| 9995) 0785 9994) 0916) 9993) 1047) 9992) 1178) 9996) 1309 15
1 0} 9991; 1047; 9989} 1222) 9988) 1396) 9986) 1571} 9985) 1745) 89 0
15; 9986) 1309) 9983) 1527) 9981) 1745) 9979) 1963} 9976) 2181 45
30} 9979) 1571; 9976) 1832) 9973) 2094) 9969) 2356) 9966) 2618 30
45} 9972) 1832) 9967) 2138) 9963, 2443) 9958) 2748) 9953; 3054 15
2 0} 9963) 2094 9957) 2443) 9951) 2792) 9945) 3141) 9939} 3490) 88 0
15) 9954) 2356) 9946) 2748) 9938) 3141) 9931 3533) 9923) 3926 45
30) 9943) 2617) 9933) 3053) 9924) 3490 9914) 3926) 9905) 4362 30
45) 5.99310. 2879 6. 9919/0. 3358/7. 9908/0. 3838 8. 9896 0. 4318'9.9885 0.4798 15
3 0) 9918) 3140; 9904) 3664) 9890) 4187) 9877) 4710) 9863) 5234) .87 0
15; 9904) 3402) 9887) 3968) 9871) 4535) 9855) 5102) 9839) 5669 45
30} 9888) 3663) 9869) 4273) 9851) 4884) 9832) 5494) 9813) 6105 30
45) 9872) 3924 9850) 4578; 9829) 5232) 9807) 5886} 9786) 6540 15
4 0} 9854) 4185 9829) 4883) 9805) 5581) 9781! 6278) 9756) 6976) 86 0
15} 9835) 4447) 9808} 5188) 9780} 5929) 9753) 6670) 9725) 7411 45
30} 9815) 4708) 9784) 5492) 9753) 6277; 9723) 7061) 9692) 7846 30
45, 9794) 4968 9760) 5797) 9725} 6675) 9691) 7453) 9657| 8281 15
5 0} 9772) 5229 9734) 6101) 9696} 6972) 9658) 7844) 9619) 8716) 85 O
15, 5.9748 0. 5490 6. 9706/0. 64057. 9664)0. 7320/8. 9622 0. 8235/9. 9580, 0.9150 45
30} 9724! 5751, 9678) 6709) 9632 7668) 9586) 8626) 9540) 9585 30
45} 9698) 6011); 9648) 7013) 9597) 8015) 9547) 9017; 9497) 1.0019 15
6 0} 9671) 6272) 9617) 7317; 9562} 8362) 9507; 9408) 9452) 0453) 84 0
15} 9643} 6532) 9584] 7621! 9525} 8709} 9465) 9798] 9406] 0887 45
30} 9614) 6792) 9550) 7924) 9486} 9056) 9421)1.0188) 9357; 1320 30
45} 9584) 7052) 9515) 8228) 9445} 9403} 9376) 0578} 9307; 1754 15
7 0} 9553) 7312) 9478) 8531) 9404) 9750) 9329) 0968) 9255) 2187) 83 0
15) 9520) 7572, 9440) 8834) 9360/1.0096) 9280) 1358) 9200) 2620 45 |.
30} 9487) 7832) 9401} 9137) 9316] 0442) 9230) 1747) 9144) 3053 30
45) 5.9452/0.8091 6. 9361/0. 9440 7. 9269)1. 0788/8. 9178/1. 2137/9. 9087) 1.3485 15
8 0} 9416) 8350) 9319) 9742) 9221) 1134) 9124 2526) 9027 3917) 82 0

857, 9480) 763
45| 5. 8521/1. 3242 6. 8274/1. 5449 7. 8027/1. 7656 8. 7781|1. 9863/9. 7534) 2.
13 0; 8462) 3497; 8206 5747, 7950) 7996; 7693 2.0246; 7437) 2495} 77 0
15) 8403! 3752) 8137 6044 7870} 8336) 7604: 0628) 7338, 2920 45
30} $342) 4007; 8066 6341) 7790) 8676; 7513) 1010) 7237) 3345 30
45

15| 8154) 4769) 7846, 7231 | 7538} 9692} 7231) 2154 6923) 4615 45

30} 8089) 5023) 7770; 7527; 7452/2.0030) 7133) 2534) 6815 5038 30

45, 8023) 5276) 7693) 7822 7364) 0368) 7034) 2914) 6705) 5460 15
15 0) 7956) 5529) 7615) 8117) 7274) 0706) 6933) 3294) 6593) 5882) 75 0

Dep. | Lat. | Dep. | Lat. Dep. Lat. | Dep. | Lat.:| Dep. | Lat. c
-6. | Dist.7. .| Dist. 8. Dist. 9. Dist:,10.., [Cue

38 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

TABLE 3.— Traverse—Continued.

Dist.6. {| Dist.7. | Dist. 8. Dist. 9. Dist. 10.
Course. Lat. ; Dep. | Lat. Se Dep. | Lat. { Dep. | Lat. | Dep.
ao vs Or .¢
15 15) 5. 788711. 5782'6. 7535\1. 8412 \7. 7183 2. 1042/8. 6831/2. 3673 9. 6479] 2.6303] 74 45
30} 7818 6034] 7454) 8707| 7090} 1379] 6727| 4051, 6363] 6724 30
45, 7747/6286) 7372) 9001) 6996, 1715) 6621) 4430) 6246) 7144 15
16 0} 7676) 6538) 7288 9295) 6901) 2051) 6514) 4807, 6126) 7564) 74 0
15, 7603, 6790) 7203, 9588) 6804) 2386] 6404) 5185) 6005] 7983 45
30, 7529) 7041) 7117, 9881) 6706, 2721) 6294) 5561) 5882| 8402 30
45, 7454, 7292) 7030.2.0174) 6606, 3056) 6181) 5928) 5757, 8820 15
17 0| 7378| 7542! 6941 6504} 3390! 6067} 6313) 5630) 9237|. 73 0
15] 7301} 7792| 6851 738 6402| 3723! 5952| 6689| 5502) 9654) 45
30 7223) 8042) 6760) 1049) 6297) 4056) 5835) 7064) 5372 3.0071 30
45, 5.7144 1. 8292|6. 6668 2. 1341/7. 6192 2. 4389 8. 5716 2. 7438/9. 5240 3.0486 15
18 0, 7063 8541) 6574 1631) 6085) 4721 5595) 7812) 5106 0902| 72 0
15, 6982 8790) 6479 1921) 5976) 5053, 5473) 8185) 4970 1316 45
30 6899) 9038) 6383) 2211) 5866, 5384 5349) 8557) 4832 1730 30
5) 6816) 9286] 6285 2501! 5754] 5715) 5224) 8930) 4693) 2144 15
19 0 6731) 9534) 6186 2790) 5641) 6045, 5097) 9301) 4552) 2557| 71 0
15) 5 9781 3078| 5527| 6375, 4968| 9672) 4409 2969 45
30 6558 2.0028] 5985 3366) 5411) 6705 48383.0043) 4264 3381 30
5| 6471) 0275) 5882, 3654) 5294) 7033, 4706) 0413) 4118 3792 15
20 2) 0521) 5778 3941) 5175| 7362 4572) 0782) 3969, 4202} 70 0
15) 5.6291 2. 0767/6. 5673 2. 4228/7, 5055/2. 7689 8. 4437 3. 11519.3819 3. 4612 45
30, 6200 1012} 5567 4515) 4934) 8017 4300| 1519) 3667 5021 30
5 6108) 1257] 5459 4800! 4811) 8343, 4162) 1886, 3514, 5429 15
21 0; 6015) 1502) 5351 5086) 4686) 8669 4022) 2253 3358 5837] 69 0
15, 5920 1746) 5241, 5371) 4561) 8995, 3881) 2619, 3201 6244 45
30 5825) 1990) 5129 5655) 4433) 9320 3738, 2985, 3042 6650 30
45, 5729 2233) 5017, 5939) 4305| 9645, 3593) 3350, 2881 7056 15
22 0 5631) 2476] 4903, 6222) 4175| 9969, 3447| 3715, 2718| 7461] 68 0
15} 5532) 2719| 4788, 6505] 33.0292, 3299) 4078) 2554) 7855 45
30, 5433, 2961] 4672) 6788) 3910| 0615) 3149) | 2388 8268 30
45| 5, 5332 2. 3203/6. 4554 2. 7070\7. 3776 3. 0937 8. 2998 3. 4804 9.2220) 3.8671 15
23 0 5230 3414! 4435, 7351) 3640, 1258, 2845, 5166, 2050 9073) 67 0
15) 5127, 3685) 4315, 7632) 3503) 1580, 2691) 5527) 1879 9474 45
30, 5024, 3925) 4194 7912) 3365, 1900, 2535) 5887) 1706, 9875 30
45, 4919] 4165] 4072) 8192| 3995) 2220, 2378) 6247| 1531) 4.0275 15
24 0 4813 4404) 3948 8472) 3084) 2539 2219) 6606, 1355, 0674) 66 0
15, 4706 4643) 3823) 8750) 2941) 2858) 2059) 6965) 1176, 1072 45
30, 4598 4882) 3697) 9029) 2797) 3175, 1897) 7322) 0996 1469 30
45, 4489 5120) 3570) 9306, 2651) 3493, 1733) 7679, 0814 1866 15
25 0, 4378 5357| 3442) 9583) 9505| 3809, 1568) 8036, 0631, 2262) 65 0 |
15| 5. 4267 2. 5594/6. 3312 2. 9800)7, 2356 3. 4125 8. 1401/3. 8391 9. 0446) 4.2657 45
30, 4155, 5831) 31813.0136, 9207) 4441) 1233! 8746, 0259, 3051 30 |
45, 4042) 6067| 3049 0411 2056, 4756, 1063) 9100, 0070 3445 15 |
26 0} 3928 6302) 2916 0686) 1904) 5070, 0891) 94538.9879 3837| 64 0 ,
15) 3812} 6537| 2781 0960, 1750| 5383, 0719) 9806, 9687, 4229 45 ;
30, 3696 6772) 2645 1234) 1595, 5696 0644/4.0158| 9493, 4620 30 |
45 3579! 7006) 2509) 1507; 1433) 6008 0368) 0509 9298 5010 15 |
27 0, 3460, 7239] 2370 1779) 3281) 6319) 0191) 0859, 9101, 5399] 63 0 |
15| 3341) 7472] 2231) 2051| 1121) 6630| 0012} 1209, 8902) 5787 45 |
30, 3221, 7705} 2091 2322) 961) 69407.9831| 1557) 8701, 6175 30
45) 5.3099 2. 7937/6. 1949 3. 2593/7, 9799 3. 7249/7. 9649/4. 1905/8. 8499 4. 6561 15
28 0, 2977, 8168| 1806, 2863 “0636, 7558) 9465| 2252) $295, 6947, 62 0
15) 2853' 8399} 1662) 3132) 947]! 7 9280! 2599) 8089) 7332 45 |
2729| 8630) 1517| 3401) 9395! 8173; 9094| 2944) 7882} 7716 30 |
45 2604 8859] 1371) 3669) 9133, 8479] 8905, 3289| 7673) 8099 15
29 0| 2477) 9089] 1223) 3937\g.9970| 8785| 8716 3633| 7462) 8481] 61 0 |
15, 2350, 9317, 1075; 4203) "9399 8525, 3976, 7250| 8862 45
30 2221) 9545) 0925, 4470) ggos! 9394) 8332 4318) 7036, 9242 30 |
45, 2692) 9773| 0774) 4735) 9456| 9697, 8138, 4659) 6820) 9622 15
30 0 1962/3.0000) 0622) 5000) 9989/4. 7942, 5000) 6603 5.0000} 60 0
Lat. | Dep. | Lat. | Dep. | Lat. | Dep. | Lat. | Dep. | Lat. fete

Dist. 7. Dist. 8. Dist. 9. Dist. 10.

TRAVERSE. 39

TABLE 3.— Traverse—Continued.

Dist. 6. Dist. 7. | Dist.8. |_ Dist. 9. Dist. 19.
Lat. | Dep.| Lat. | Dep. | Lat. Dep. | Lat. | Dep. | Lat.-; Dep.
a eee ed

° ,

5. 1830/3. 0226)6. 0468'3. 5264/6. 9107/4. 0302'7. 7745 4, 5340 8. 2 6384 5.0377} 59 45
0452} 0314! 5528| 8930| 0603| 7547| 5678 0754 30
0678) 0158) 5791) 8753; 0903) 7347, 6016 1129 15
0902} 0002} 6053) 8573) 1203] 7145, 6353 1504 59 0
1126/5. 9844) 6314) 8393] 1502 6942 6690 1877 45
1350} 9685] 6575, 8211) 1800] 6738 7025 9950) 30
1573] 9525) 6835} 8028] 2097] 6532! 7359 2621 15
1795] 9363! 7094) 7844] 2394] 6324) 7693 2992} 58 0
2017} 9201} 7353| 7658] 2689] 6116! 3025 3361 45
2238] 9037] 7611] 7471] 2984} 5905 8357 3730 30
- 2458/5. 8873/3. 7868 6. 7283) 4. 3278|7. 5694 4. 8688/8. 5. 4097 15
2678| 8707] 8125 3571] 5480, 9018 4464] .57 0
2898] 8540| 8381 5266, 9346 4829 45 |
3116] 8372] 8636 5050 9674 5194 30
3334] 8203] 8890 4832 5. 0001 5557 15
. 3552) 8033] 9144 4613! 0327 5919] 56 0
3768] 7861} 9396 4393! 0652 6280 45
3984} 7689) 9948 4171} 0977 6641 30
4200} 7515| 9900 3948] 1300 7000 15
4415] 7341/4.0150 3724] 1622 7358] 55 0
. 4629|5. 7165) 4. 0400 6. 7. 3498|5. 1943/8. 7715 45
G) 6988) 0649 3270] 2263 8070 30
6810) 0897 3042} 2582 8425 15

6631] 1145 9812} 2901 8779] 54 0

6451| 1392 2580] 3218 9131 45

6270| 1638 2347| 3534 9482 30

6088} 1883 2113} 3849 9832 15

5904) 2127 1877| 4163]7. 6.0182] 53 0

5720) 2371 1640] 4476 0529 45

526] 5535) 2613 1402! 4789 0876 30
. 7441)3. 6733|5. 5348) 4, 285516. 3255/4. 8977/7. 1162/5. 5100/7. 1222 15
5161) 3096 0921} 5410 1566] 52 0

4972) 3337 0679] 5718 1999 45

4783| 3576 0435] 6026 2251 30

4592) 3815 0199] 6333 9592 15

4406, 4052 0346|6. 9943] 6639 2932 51 0

4207| 4289] 195 9695} 6943 3271 45

4014, 4525 9446] 7247 3608 30

3819! 4761 9196} 7550 3944 15

3623, 4995 8944} 7851 4279) 50 0

5. 3426 4. 522916 1690|6. 8691/5. 8151/7. 4612 45

3228, 5461 8437] 8450 4945 30

3030, 5693 8181] 8748 5276 15

2830, 5924 7924) 9045 5606} 49 0

2629 6154 7666] 9341 5935 45

2427| 6383)5 7406} 9636 6262 30

2994 6612 7145} 9929 6588 15

2020, 6839 6883) 6. 0222 6913] 48 0

1815! 7066 6620) 0513 7237 45

1609) 7291 6355} 0803 7509 30

4. 4059) 4. 0728)5. 1403 4. 751615 4304]6. 6089|6. 1092/7 . 7880 15
1195| 7740 5822! 1380 8200} 47 0

0986, 7963 5553) 1666 8518 45

0776, 8185 5284) 1952 8835 30

0565, 8406 5013} 2236 9151 15

0354 8626 4741| 2519 9466) 46 0

0141 8845 4467| 2801 977' 45
2055)/4.9928 9064 4193} 3082 7.0091 30
9713, 9281 3917| 3361 0401 15

2496) 9497 9497 3640! 3640 O711] 45 0

Dep. | Lat.} Dep. } Lat. | Dep. | Lat. Dep.| Lat.
Dist. 7. Dist. 9. | Dist. 10, | Course.

40 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

TaBLE 4.—Condensed traverse table for cruising.

De- F De- F
grees. Latitude. | Departure. grees. Latitude. | Departure.
0 1. 000 0. 000 90 23 0. 920 0. 391 67
1 1. 000 - 017 89 24 - 913 - 497 66
2 . 999 - 035 88 25 - 906 - 423 65
3 999 - 052 87 26 . 899 - 438 64
oa 998 . 070 86 27 . 891 . 454 63
5 . 996 . 087 85 28 883 - 470 62
6 - 995 . 104 84 29 875 - 485 61
Z . 992 . 122 83 30 866 - 500 60
8 - 990 . 139 82 j 31 857 - 515 59
9 . 988 . 156 81 32 848 - 530 58
10 - 985 .174 80 33 839 - 545 57
il . 982 -191 79 34 829 . 559 56
12 . 978 - 208 78 35 819 . 574 55
13 . 974 . 220 77 36 809 - 588 54
14 . 970 . 242 76 37 . 799 . 602 53
15 - 966 - 209 75 38 . 788 - 616 52
16 - 961 - 276 74 39 en - 629 51
17 - 956 . 292 73 40 766 - 643 50
18 - 951 - 309 72 41 759 - 656 49
19 - 946 - 326 71 42 743 . 669 48
20 - 940 . 342 70 43 731 . 682 47
21 - 934 358 69 | 44 719 - 695 46
22 927 375 | 68 || 45 707 707 | 45
‘ De- | : De-
Departure. | Latitude. grees. Departure. | Latitude. grees.

TaBLE 5.—Surface measuring on slopes.

[Increase of distance to be added to one 66’ chain of surface measurement to give one
chain of horizontal measurement. Approximate; for use in cruising.)

Increase of
Equiva- distance
Slope. Grade. | lent verti- per 66’
cal angle. | chain (ex-
secant).
Per cent. S Links.
evel. sic e oss Seb Ae esl eee 2 eel eee
5 3.0 0.1
(ene o. Jee eceemos 10 5.5 -5
15 8.5 Tot
20 11.5 2.0
Moderate..........-..--. i 30 | 16.5 4.4
40 22.0 7.8
Ribera: SA sae ee 50 26.5 17
60 31.0 16.6
7 35.0 22.1
- f : 38. 5 :
Very steep.-..--.-----.-- | 50 | 2 0 a6
100 | 45.0 41.4

The per cent of grade is determined by grademeter or hypsometer.

Vertical angles are read by clinometer, Abney level, or transit.

1 The exsecant is a ratio of links per 100 links (=1 chain), and therefore the figures
in this column also show feet per 100 feet, or yards per 100 yards, etc.

BLAZES AND MARKS ON TREES. 41

BLAZES AND MARKS ON TREES.

Trees should never be blazed nor marked upon random
or trial lines nor upon other preliminary or temporary
surveys, where they may be misleading in the future.

A survey line is blazed in order that it may be located
or retraced between corners which are at each end of
the line. Corners and intersections are witnessed by
marks. Thus the ax scars used in surveying may be
either blazes or marks, one term being applied to a
line and the other. to a poimt. In some books on
surveying these terms have been used interchangeably
or carelessly, but it is better to make the distinction in
the Forest Service, where surveying is done for so
many different purposes.

A survey line is blazed in the following manner:
Trees which are on the line are blazed fore and back,
meaning that the surveyor took a foresight when run-
ning toward the tree and a backsight when running
away from it, on the same straight lime. Such a tree is
called a line tree and is spoken of as being line-blazed.
Trees standing near the line, within 50 links on either
side, are blazed on two sides quartering toward the line.

Blazes for roads need not be permanent because the
subsequent construction of the highway fixes the line.
Property lines should be permanently blazed—that is,
through the bark to the wood, leaving a scar which
may be recognized or found as long as the tree stands.
Blazes should be the width of an ax blade, about 6
inches long, and placed breast high. When it is
probable that the blazes will be used when there is
deep snow upon the ground, they should be placed
high enough to be seen, or the trees may be given a

42 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

second blazing at a higher point after the deep snow
renders this convenient.

It is often desirable, as in the case of trails, that
Forest Service blazes should be distinguished from
land office blazes or from private surveys, and, there-
fore, a distinctive blaze has been adopted for the
Forest Service. This is the width of an ax blade,
about 6 inches long, with a horizontal notch at the
top of the scar.

The Forest Service has also adopted a distinctive
mark to indicate the intersection of one of its lines
with a land office line and to show the approximate
distance to the nearest land office corner. Thus,
when a road or trail crosses a section line a tree may
be marked in such a manner that any Forest officer
may recognize it, and will know the direction and
approximate distance to the nearest section or quarter-
section corner. This mark is made in the following
manner: A tree near the point of intersection is
barked to the wood, about 8 by 10 inches, on the
side facing the corner. A letter C with horizontal
crossbars is then scribed upon the sear. <A horizontal
bar will indicate that the distance to the corner is
about 10 chains, and each half bar will indicate a
distance of about 5 chains. For example, the inter-
section marks may read as follows:

Ltt a

About 5 About 10 About 15 About 20 About 25
chains to chains to chains to chains to chains to
corner. corner. corner. corner. corner.

BLAZES AND MARKS ON TREES. 43

It will sometimes happen that an intersection tree
can not be marked facing the corner and at the same
time have the mark visible from the trail or road. In
such cases the mark will face the corner and an x will
be cut, through the bark, on the side toward the high-
way. The letter x is a recognized symbol, indicating
the crossing of lines or to indicate that a trail crosses a
stream at this point. It is often useful in the latter
case when there is snow on the ground, as it shows that
the stream must be forded, and that the trail will be
found on the other side. It will, therefore, be used for
both purposes mentioned, and its meaning will never be
misunderstood. The letter y is often used to indicate
that the trail forks at this point, and is useful when
there is snow upon the ground.

It will frequently happen that a land-office corner
will be accidentally found, and the distance from it to
the point of intersection will be immediately deter-
mined by pacing. This is sufficiently accurate to war-
rant the marking of an intersection witness tree, as
stated above, as the distance is only presumed to be
approximate. Whether the line is paced or measured,
the ranger will make a record in his notebook, describ-
ing the land-office corner and the distance to the inter-
section, and the marks which he placed at that point.
The following is a specimen of such a record:

SPECIMEN RECORD.

October 4, 1912, 10 a. m. I found the quarter-corner between
sections 15 and 16, T. 8 N., R. 21 W. Both witness trees were
standing, but the stake had fallen over. The rotted point was
found in the ground and I reset the stake above it, placing a mound
of stones about it to hold it in position. From this corner I paced
south, following the original blazes, 23 chains, to the intersection

44 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

of the new Forest Service trail between Wild Cat Ranger Station
and Alta Lookout Point. Established for witness red fir 20 inches
in diameter, on north side of trail, 40 links distant from intersection,
marked € on north side and X on south side.

October 4, 6 p. m. Made a record of the above information on

the atlas sheet.
JoHN R. UNDERWOOD,

Ranger.

It is important that any geographic information
which may be used to correct the atlas sheets, and
thus lead to the preparation of accurate forest maps,
should be placed upon the sheets which are kept for
that purpose by each forest officer. All of such cor-
rections or additional data should be transmitted to
the supervisor as he may require them, but certainly
in ample time for him to include them in the corrected
folio which he sends to the Forester on February 1 of
each year.

Other marks used by the Forest Service are described
under ‘‘Ranger station surveys” and ‘‘Forest home-
stead surveys.”’

FIELD NOTES.

Notes of survey should show exactly what was done
in the field, including the errors of courses or measure-
ments. In resurveying lines, it is no reflection on the
survey party if it does not ‘‘check up” exactly, but it
is rather expected that a trial or ‘‘random line’’ will
not strike a corner nor the measurement prove exactly
as ‘‘returned’”’ by the original surveyor. It is im-
portant, however, to know what the error or difference
is discovered to be.

When a notebook contains the field notes of only one
survey, the purpose of which the survey was made
should be plainly marked on the cover as well as on

+e eee... +

FIELD NOTES. 45

the first page. If it contains the notes of more than
one survey, the title of a survey should be written at
the top of each page, and the book should be indexed
on the first page. Each book should be numbered and
paged. When the notes for a survey do not follow in
regular order in a notebook be sure to refer to the page
where the continuation can be found and at that point
refer back by page number to the former notes.

It is a good plan to make numerous explanatory
sketches on the right-hand pages of the notebooks, leav-
ing nothing to the memory, and particularly the direc-
tion of the flow of streams should be shown by arrows.
If the surveyor will always imagine that he might stop
work at any moment, and some one else may be obliged
to continue the survey, and will keep his notes so clearly
that this would be easy, then they are apt to be a re-
iable record. Never erase notes—cross them out and
mark them ‘‘abandoned.”’

Field notes should never be crowded into a notebook
or be written as a continuous recital, but should be
tabulated clearly that they may be readily platted by
any surveyor or draftsman. A good form for keeping
notes is here shown.

SPECIMEN NOTES.
oe See National Forest.
Resurvey of east boundary of sec. 24, T. 19 N., R. 14 E.
June 16, 1912.
Weather clear.

I corrected both aneroids at the benchmark at... . which
has an elevation of . .. . ft.

Made camp 5.30 p.m. Sec. 24, T.19N., R. 14 E.

7 p. m. Camp barometer reads 4,850’.

Field barometer reads 4,860’.

At 9 p.m. observed Polaris and find the variation at camp to

be 19° east.

46 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

June 17, 1912.
Weather clear.
7 a.m. Camp barometer 4,850’.

Field barometer 4,860’.
Resurvey of east boundary of sec. 24, T. 19 N., R. 14 E., in

1 ger et National Forest. The original survey was made in.
1872, with variation 184° east. Allowing for the reported increase,
the variation should be about 19° 057. Elev.

From the southeast corner of sec. 24.....-.....-...--- 4, 780’

Ran north, var. 19° east.
10.00 cli; hear 36°F yellow Pines 202227. . ee ee ee 4, 720
20. 00 it GP ei gs Nis is Sees sas cee ete cee 4, 680’
24. 50 creek, 4. links wide, flows SW........--.---.-..-. 4, 660’
30. 00 at t00L me Heeeny RODS. 2 25 o z: c e ee 4, 740
40. 00 on sleep atgGnll So uah- on 2 cae ae eone ste 4, 920’
40. 23 to a point 15 links west of + corner on east side
sec. 24.

On this line the original blazes were
almost obliterated, and I made new
blazes.

From the } corner on east side of sec. 24.

Ran north, var. 19° east.

10.00 ch: ‘enter turmed afeac 2. 2A 5. ane fst Ce pan rae ee 5, 0507

13. 60 topo Inll NE. and SW 2053. a2 52. eae eee 5, 120’
From this point I take vertical angles on some high points

in unsurveyed T. 19 N., R. 15 E., as follows: Elev..

WN... 244 E. 3 miles, vertical angle 13°.2. 22 2.. ...20. 9 ece 5, 545/

N. 37} E. 2} miles, vertical angle 4°............------.... 5, 17Y

N50” Ei; ? miles; vertical angle 13°55. ac $0 eee

Bay 17-4 miles, ‘vertical angle 1° 2: ....<c2 eed 5, 503/

SAM E:- 34 miles ‘vertical angle 27. so Oe ces oe eee 5, 355’

thence continue north.

mane, # ney Thee oot neste ae ce oe ee ee 5, 0757

27.30 Mave THU oo soe ok one nee eee ee ee

30. 00 in good reproduction yellow pine........-.--..--. 4, 9007

39. 85 to a point 20 links east of NE. cor. of sec. 24. Wit-
ness trees standing, but stake almost destroyed.
Set new stake with the proper marks and
U. 5.°F..S. on SW: side: 5 Ai rea eee: ae 4, 850’
etc., etc.
7 p. m. Camp barometer, 4,870’.
Field barometer, 4,880’.

FIELD NOTES. 47
ROAD, STREAM, OR SUMMIT MEANDERS.

The method of keeping meander notes differs from

the above. Each course begins a new tally, and any
intermediate distances are entered in a third column.
The second column may then be added to determine
the total distance surveyed, viz:

BAe, 2

AA DAA

epee Pi National Forest.
Meanders in unsurveyed T. 19 N., R. 15 E.
June 18, 1912.
Weather cloudy.
7a.m. Camp barometer, 4,880/.
Field barometer, 4,8907.
From a point 13.60 ch. north of $ cor. on the east side of
sec. 24.
Ran along summit, var. 19° east.

pete! 2 Oech. at 6:00 leave burt. 2025s eo. 5, 200”
. 394 E. 17.50 Bia.) Chath IN. MANO. eek 2 et Pe a 5, 125/
SME URE poet pe ee ee it ge 1 ON Ph | 5, 175/

86 E. 14.60 highest point on summit............... 5, 3207

At this point the summit divides; one branch bear-
ing SE. and the other SW.

Continuing the meanders:

Ran down gulch, between the two divides.

Var. 19° east.

mao teen WNP ely. Spine. 5-7 sew ke SLATE Fo Oke 3 Ae 5, 1507
10. ue 3.00 meadow seackes= «525° Foe se ey! 5, 0257
83 E. 4.00 EN EIS CR) <2 Reo Mame AE eae ree ee dei A ae 4, 9757

80 E. 22.20 at 18.00 small tributary from the south .. 4, 900/
86 E. 9.00 at 2.30 the notice of the Morning Star
mining claim bears S. 1.50; at 3.40
mimi eenamey a8). SR ee 4,875
etc., etc,

48 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, £TC.

TaBLe 6.—Difference of altitude between the “ station”’ occupied by the |
surveyor, of which the altitude is known, and a higher distant object
whose altitude is desired.

(Difference of altitude in feet—add to station altitude.,

Verti- Distance to object, in miles.
cal :
angle | |
above
a level 1 2 3 4 5 6 if 8 9. 10
line. |
0°00’ 5 7 10 14 19 25 33 62
15 28 53 79 106 134 163 194 225 258 292
30 51 99 148 198 249 301 356 410 466 523
45 74 145 217 290 365 440 517 594 673 753

Es
8

BS &
=

8

B Ree

8

“

S
a3
SID
s
or
oH
~I

“
mo
oe

145 | 305] 607] 909 | 1,213 | 1,518 | 1,824 | 2,132 | 2,440 | 2,749 | 3,060
30 | 528] 653| 979] 1,306 | 1,634 | 1,963°| 2,294 | 2,625 | 2,957 | 3,201
45 | 351] 699 | 1,048 | 1,398 | 1,749 | 2,101 | 2,455 | 2,810 | 3,166 | 3,523 .
4°00’ | 374] 745 | 1,118 | 1,491 | 1,865 | 2,240 | 2,617 | 2,995 | 3,374 | 3,754| |
15 | 397] 792 | 1,187 | 1,583 | 1,981 | 2,379 | 2.780 | 3,180 | 3,582 | 3,986 .
30 | 420! 838 | 1,257 | 1,676 | 2,097 | 2,518 | 2,942 | 3,365 | 3,791 | 4,217 .
45 | 444| 884] 1,326 | 1,769 | 2,213 | 2,657 | 3,104 | 3,551 | 4,000 | 4,449
5°00’ | 467 931 | 1,396 | 1,862 | 2,329 | 2,797 | 3,267 | 3,737 | 4,208
15 | 490] 977 | 1,466 | 1,955 | 2,445 | 2,936 | 3,429 | 3,922 | 4,418
30 | 513 | 1,024 | 1,535 | 2,048 | 2,561 | 3,075 | 3,592-| 4,108 | 4,627
45 | 537 | 1,070 | 1,605 | 2,141 | 2,677 | 3,215 | 3,755 | 4,294 | 4,836
6°00’ | 560 | 1,117 | 1,675 | 2,234 | 2,794 | 3,355 | 3,918 | 4,481 | 5,046
15 | 583 | 1,164 | 1,745 | 2,327 | 2,910 | 3,495 | 4,081 | 4,667 | 5,255
30 | 607 | 1,210 | 1,815 | 2,420 | 3,027 | 3,634 | 4,244 | 4,854 | 5,465
45 | 630 | 1,257 | 1,885 | 2,514 | 3,144 | 3,775 | 4,407 | 5,040 | 5,675
7°00’ | 653 | 1,304 | 1,955 | 2,607 | 3,261 | 3,915 | 4,571 | 5,227 | 5,
15 | 677 | 1,350 | 2,025 | 2,701 | 3,378 | 4,055 | 4,735 | 5,415 | 6,
30 | 700 | 1,397 | 2,095 ,196 | 4,899 | 5,602 | 6,
; 2. ; 5,790 | 6,
2 5,977 | 6
2 6 6
2 6 7
2 6 7

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8

DIFFERENCE OF ALTITUDE. © 49

TABLE 6.—Difference of altitude between the “ station”’ occupied by the
surveyor, of which the altitude is known, and a higher distant object
whose altitude is desired—Continued.

[Difference of altitude in feet—add to Station altitude.]

Verti- Distance to object, in miles.

10°00’ 936 | 1,869 | 2,803 | 3,738 | 4,674 | 5,611 | 6,550 | 7,489 | 8,430 | 9,372
15 960 | 1,917 | 2,874 | 3,833 | 4,793 | 5,754 | 6,717 | 7,679 | 8,644 | 9,610
30 984 | 1,964 | 2,946 | 3,928 | 4,912 | 5,897 | 6,883 | 7,870 | 8,858 | 9,848 |
45 | 1,007 | 2,012 | 3,017 | 4,024 | 5,031 | 6,040 | 7,050 | 8,061 | 9,073 |10, 087

11°00’ | 1,031 | 2,060 | 3,089 | 4,119 | 5,151 | 6,183 | 7,217 | 8,252 | 9,288 |.-....-
15 | 1,055 | 2,108 | 3,161 | 4,215 | 5,270 | 6,327 | 7,385 | 8,443 | 9,504 |....-.--
30 | 1,079 | 2,155 | 3,233 | 4,311 | 5,390 | 6,470 | 7,553 | 8,635 | 9,719 |.....--
45 | 1,103 | 2,204 | 3,305 | 4,407 | 5,510 | 6,615 | 7,721 | 8,827 | 9,935 |....---

12°00’ | 1,127 | 2,252 | 3,377 | 4,503 | 5,631 | 6,759 | 7,839 | 9,019 |...-..-|......-
15 | 1,151 | 2,300 | 3,449 | 4,600 | 5,751 | 6,904 | 8,058 | 9,212 |....._-].......
30 | 1,176 | 2,348 | 3,522 | 4,696 | 5,872 | 7,048 | 8,227 | 9,405 |.-..-.-].-..---
45 | 1,200 | 2,397 | 3,594 | 4,793 | 5,993 | 7,194 |) 8,396 | 9,599 |.......]...--.-
13°00’ | 1,224 |, 2,445 | 3,667 | 4,890 | 6,114 | 7,339 | 8,566 |......-]...-..-|-.....-
15 | 1,248 | 2,494 | 3,740 | 4,987 | 6,235 | 7,485 | 8,736 |. 2....-}..22---1 22. ---
30 | 1,273 | 2,542 | 3,813 | 5,084 | 6,857 | 7,631 | 8,906 |.-..---|...-..-]....-.-
Sara, fe, 0o8 | a,a00 | Ds las | 654794 7700 0,077 |8 22 ses 5-22 |: sce

This table is corrected for earth curvature, refraction, and the height of the instru-
ment used at the station (43 feet).

23682°—12——-4

50 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

ELEVATIONS FROM VERTICAL ANGLES.

When the distance to a mountain or other object is
known its elevation above the surveyor may be deter-
mined. A vertical angle is measured with a clinometer
or clinometer-compass, and the difference in elevation
can be determined from the table. Information of this
character assists greatly in the preparation of a map,
and this method should be used when a peak is inacces-
sible or not likely to be occupied during the present sur-
vey. If both the distance and elevation of a peak are
known, and the surveyor desires the elevation of the
station which he is then occupying, this process. is
easily reversed. The table is prepared to miles of dis-
tance, and if intermediate fractional miles are needed
the ratio may be interpolated.

The method of determining the distance of a peak or
other salient topographic point is illustrated in the
various plane-table methods. If compass sights are
taken from two or more known points the intersections
may be platted with a protractor or computed.!

1 The following is the method of computing the sides of a triangle when two angles
and one side are known: The angle opposite the known side is equal to 180° minus
the sum of the two known angles. The sine of an angle is the same as its departure
(in the traverse table) for distance 1. A and B represent the two known angles
and their distance apart; C is the opposite angle:

Then: Di ABxXsi f u
istance XsineofangleB ..
> Siete cS ee AC
Or: B
Distance A ine of angl
Distance A Bxsine of angle A _ 4. oe RG

Sine of angle C

The traverse table, distance 1, being the same as a table of natural cosines and sines,
may be used to change a slope measurement to a horizontal measurement, and also
get the difference in elevation. Thus a distance of 10.00 chains up or down a 7° slope
would represent 9.92 chains on the level, and 1.22 chains rise or fall. The same method
is used in reducing stadia measurements.

TYING IN. ae
TYING IN.

It is frequently necessary to make surveys of ranger
stations or for timber sales in areas which have not been
previously surveyed or mapped. It is imperative that
some connection should be surveyed between the near-
est or most convenient established point and the initial
point of the survey which is to be made. Otherwise the
survey will not determine the location of the area under
consideration. The nature of the country and the dis-
tance necessary to be run will suggest which of the fol-
lowing methods may be employed:

(1) Measure a line north, south, east, or west to in-
tersect a Government survey line. Then tie to the
nearest corner, quarter corner, Meander corner, mile-
post, grant corner, or other point which is of official
record.

(2) Or run a traverse (meander) over a road, trail,
open or easy country to such points.

(3) Or if no land office surveys have been made
nearer than, say, 5 miles, but there is a Geological Sur-
vey sheet, then tie to a bench mark, triangulation sta-
tion, forks of a road, forks of a stream which has not
changed its bed, or a house which is shown on the sheet.
Accompany your report with a tracing or description
which will show unmistakably the point used. If you
tie to a mineral monument or to some corner of a pat-
ented mining claim, give a clear description.

(4.) Or if no official surveys have been made within
practicable distance, proceed as follows: Establish
and witness a permanent monument, marked F § M.
This may be at the initial point of your survey. From

52 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

this point run a traverse to some outlook where com-
pass or plane-table bearings may be taken on a number
of peaks or other definite landmarks which may be
visible. Give their estimated distances. State ap-
proximately what unsurveyed section the land would
be in, or its latitude and longitude. The map accom-
panying such a survey should show any divide, stream,
or trail in the immediate vicinity, and particularly the
name of the watershed.

RANGER STATION SURVEYS.

When the lands have been surveyed by the General
Land Office and the corners can be located, the plat
only need be submitted, showing the subdivisions de-
sired for a ranger station. Where lots occur their num-
bers should be shown on the plat. No other descrip-
tion is necessary. The determination of the correct
subdivisions must not be left to conjecture. The land
office corners should be located and the necessary lines
carefully run in every case when there is the least doubt
as to what forties or tens should be recommended for.
withdrawal.

When the lands are unsurveyed, or the corners of the
Government survey can not be located, the actual
boundary lines must be surveyed and marked, and field
notes, description, and a plat must be prepared, all in
accordance with the following instructions: |

Three kinds of permanent points of identification will
be established— Forest Service Monuments, to which the
ranger station surveys, and possibly future homestead
or timber surveys, will be tied by bearing and distance;

RANGER STATION SURVEYS. 53

corners, Which will be set up at each angle in the bound-
ary; and witnesses, to which, whenever possible, each
monument and corner will be tied:

Forest Service Monuments.—The object of these mon-
uments is explained under the subject ‘‘Tying in.”
They will be similar to the mineral monuments of a
mining district. They should, if possible, be immov-
able and durable, and easy to locate at any future
time from the field notes of the survey. A large
bowlder or a built-up stone monument will serve the
purpose, or a sound tree of long-lived species. Where
there are no trees a wooden post may be used. Monu-
ments will be marked F S M The witnesses for a
monument should be permanent objects from which
at least two cross bearings can be taken to locate the
monument in the future if necessary. They will be

ked M
marke W

At each angle in the boundary of a ranger station
a durable corner will be established similar to those of
the land-office surveys. Each corner post or stone
will be marked near its top with the letter R and
below this the number of the angle at which the cor-
ner is set, beginning with the initial post as number 1
and counting on in regular sequence around the bound-
ary in the direction of the survey. Thus the monu-

ment of the third corner will be marked 5

At least two witnesses will be made near each corner,
and will be marked with the letter W and the number

of the cornely thus: af

54 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

If the monument is established at the initial point of
a survey, and is therefore also corner number 1, it
will bear both monument and corner markings, thus:

F's M4 The witnesses will then bear the letters "

with the figure 1 beneath, thus: w
1

The surveyor will depend largely on his common
sense and skill in selecting trees or prominent rocks
in the best positions for witnesses. Frequently the
corners can be established near good witnesses without
diminishing the value of the station. Usually the wit-
nesses should not be more than 3 chains from a cor-
ner—the nearer the better, but they should be inside
the boundary if possible.

Where the boundary line of the ranger station passes
through timber, the line should be plainly blazed in
the manner described on page 41.

The instructions regarding field notes (p. 44) must
be followed. A good form for keeping them is here
shown:

: SPECIMEN NOTES.
Se Saeeees National Forest.
Wiipcat RANGER STATION.

EaedN., HR. 8 E., Sectton::...-- Be ee yo Meridian. Num-

Wetec... Pane 2: Area, 33.63 acres.
June 15, 1912.

Weather cloudy.
Variation.—This survey was made with a Forest Service standard
compass. Variation, 11° 30’ E., was obtained by retracement of
east line of Section 36, T. 25N.,R.7E. The local land office rec-
ommends using a variation of 11° to 11° 40’ in this vicinity.

a i

RANGER STATION SURVEYS. 55

Forest Service Monument.—Consists of a bowlder 7’ 6’ x3’ above
ground, situated on the left bank of Wildcat Creek, 7 chains down-
stream from the juncture of the north and east forks, 70 links from
the water’s edge, at right angles to the stream. F S M cut on the

Cottonwood

Willow and

z2
4 Dw recta dnt
> eee

WILDCAT RANGER STATION
In unsurveyed section..--T.25N. R.6E.
iar ag’ 3 UY NATIONAL FOREST

Scale._____Inches=| Mile.

Surveyed by John R.Underwooa
Variation 11°30’ E.
June, 15™ 1912

Fiaq. 11.—Ranger station plat.

highest point of the rock, whence a yellow pine 16 inches in diam-

eter bears N. 16° E., 73 links distant, marked 4 in blaze.

Lyon
Mountain bears S. 31° 30’ W.

Tiger Mountain bears N. 28° 30’ W.
Rock ledge bears S. 54° W., 47 links distant, marked 4

56 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

Beginning at corner No. 1, a limestone 30’ 9” 5” set in mound

R

of stones and chiseled 1

Forest Service Monument above described bears S. 13° W., 252
links distant.

The SW. corner of the ranger’s cabin, built in 1905, bears N. 18°
E., 180 links distant.

A yellow pine, 12 inches diameter, bears east, 298 links distant

marked “s

Thence N. 58° E.
1.20 chs. road, N. and S.

12.40 ravine, course NW.
17.80 leaning scrubby pinon 16 inches diameter.
25.00 enter scattering juniper and pinon.

26.50 Fast Fork Wildcat Creek flows N. 89° W.
35.00 corner No. 2, a juniper post 5’ 4’” 4” in mound of gravel

and earth, at foot of slope, marked a
A pinon, 8 inches diameter, bears north 10 links distant,

marked yy
A granite bowlder, 4 feet in diameter and 3 feet above

ground, bears S. 82° E., 223 links distant, marked es

Thence N. 15° W.

2.00 ascend slope, through small scrubby pinon.
10.00 corner No. 3, a limestone 3’ X7” X26” in mound of stone,

marked : on SW. slope of a hill, about 150 feet above the

ranger cabin.
Chimney of cabin bears S. 45° 30’ W.
No suitable witness objects within 3.00 chains,

12.60
26.80

28.53
29.00
39.00

2.96
5.00
7.24
10.09

RANGER STATION SURVEYS. 57

Thence S. 58° W.

(There is evidently local atmege ne at this point, since
my backsight reading is S. 14 E. The compass needle
therefore reads S. 59° W. on this course.)

Running down slope.

ravine, course south.

foot of slope. Leave pinon, enter willows and cotton-
wood.

cross north fork of Wildcat Creek, flows 8. 18° E.

enter open yellow pine timber.

corner No. 4. A stake of pine heartwood in hiatal of

earth, marked a

A yellow pine, 2 feet in diameter, bears N. 14° E., 18

aks distant marked om

A fir, 12 inches diameter, standing on right bank of north
fork of Wildcat Creek, bears S. 42° 30’ E., 134 links dis-

tant, marked ‘4

(As my backsight reading is now N. 58° E., I conclude
that there is no local attraction at this point.)

Thence 8S. 15° E.

through open pine timber.
pine tree 24 feet in diameter.
leave pine timber.
cross Wildcat Creek flows 8. 23° W.
corner No. 1, the place of beginning, containing 33.63
acres of land, be the same more or less.
JOHN R. UNDERWOOD.
Ranger Surveyor.

Field notes and plat compared and approved by—

GEORGE A. OVERMAN,
Supervisor.

58 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

FOREST HOMESTEAD SURVEYS.

These surveys will be made in the same manner as
those for ranger stations, but to avoid some confusion
and to distinguish them the following system of marks
should be used:

Forest Service monuments, which are established for

homestead surveys, will be marked F S M H_ Wit-
nesses for these monuments will be marked weit Cor-
ners will be marked with H and the number of the

corner, thus: 5 and a witness to the same corner will

be Hi ov When a monument is also the initial point of
the survey, and is therefore also corner number 1 it
will bear both marks, thus: F Sar H

If a F S M is subsequently used as a tie for a forest
homestead survey its original marks will not be changed.
In like manner a F S M H may be used as a tie for a
ranger station or other subsequent survey without
changing the original marks. The field notes will, of
course, show unmistakably what tie was used.

The type of cover of the land must be clearly shown
on the map accompanying the reports. For this pur-
pose Forest Atlas Legend crayons or color tints will be
used.

The establishment of corners will not be required
where it can be conclusively shown in a written report
that listing of the land should be denied.

The surveyor should be thoroughly familiar with the
instructions under the act of June 11, 1906. Attention

TRAIL SURVEYS. 59

is also called to the circular of the General Land Office,
September 7, 1906, “Regulations Governing Entries
within Forest Reserves.” ‘

A cooperative agreement between the Departments
of the Interior and Agriculture, dated September 19,1911,
to avoid duplication or unnecessary work in surveying
forest homestead claims, provides that instead of two
surveys, as heretofore required, there shall be but one
survey, and that it may be made by a forest officer,
designated by and acting under the direction of the
surveyor general, “who will exercise supervision in
every case as to the manner of the execution of the
survey with reference to the running of lines and the
establishment of monuments to mark the same.”’

Such surveys are for the approval of the surveyor
general and acceptance by the General Land Office.
The instructions of the surveyor general will be fol-
lowed in these cases, even though they conflict entirely
or in part with the methods of the Forest Service.

TRAIL SURVEYS.

In surveying for railways, roads, or trails, the vertical
deflection of the line is always expressed in per cent.
Thus, a 5 per cent grade means a rise of 5 feet in 100
feet of horizontal distance. The horizontal deflection
of the line is always expressed in degrees. Thus, a rail-
way may have a 3° curve, which is a horizontal deflec-
tion of 3° in 100 feet, from chord to chord. or a road
may have a change in direction of 3° at the junction
of two courses. Percentage of grade and degrees of
azimuth should never be confounded, as very serious
errors will result. The terms are never interchangeable.

60 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

The most important thing about a trail is its grade.
Any other feature of its construction may be improved
from month to month or from year to year, but if the
grade is not properly established it must in time be
abandoned. Thus, not only may time and money be
wasted, but the trail, while in use, would be unsatis-
factory. On the other hand, if the grade is properly
located, the trail will be useful as soon as it is passable.

The best gradient between any two points is upon
a line which would have the same percentage of rise
from beginning to end. Often there are ‘“‘salient
points” along the route, above or below which the
gerade must run, and we must then think of the line as
divided into parts, each with its own percentage of rise
between these salient points. If an even gradient is
also a low gradient, it is unquestionably the proper
location for the trail if construction is practicable. The
same is true if the gradient is on the most direct and
practical route and is below the maximum for trails.

Reverse grades should be avoided if possible. This
means that we should never go downhill when the
object is to go uphill, as this obviously increases the
elevation to be climbed, and therefore increases the
grade upon the ascending portions of the trail.

There are three maxima grades for trail construction.
These are: 6 per cent, 12 per cent, and 18 cer cent.
Being multiples of 6, these are easy to remember, as
are also the reasons for having several maxima. A
good grade, having a maximum of 6 per cent, may later
be developed into a first-class road or turnpike. Such
a grade might be called, for convenience, a turnpike

TRAIL SURVEYS. 61

grade. The surveyor should try his very best to get
the trail upon a turnpike grade, but if this is obviously
impracticable, he should keep the grade as low as pos-
sible, and not exceed 12 per cent. This is the limit
for safe mountain roads such as are used for freighting,
and might properly be called a freight grade. When
trails must be constructed upon grades steeper than
this, or to places which roads can not reach for many
years, 1t is simply a case of making the best location
the circumstances permit. However, there is still the
final limit which should not be exceeded. This is the
trail grade of 18 per cent, and is as steep as a loaded
pack animal can ascend without violent and exhaustive
effort. Long steep grades should have breaks at inter-
vals where animals may rest and recover.
_In deciding on a route or location, the following
points should be considered.

(1) A south exposure has less snow, is dryer, often
more open, and has an increased fire hazard.

(2) Slide rock and other unstable material make a
temporary or dangerous tread.

(3) Steep side hills, near the angie of repose, are
liable to landslides or snowslides.

(4) Bridges and temporary structures should be
avoided as far as possible.

(5) The permanence of a trail depends on the material
and its drainage.

It will be seen from the above that the location of a
trail grade is almost wholly a matter of experience and
good judgment.

62 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

The aneroid barometer is often used to determine
the distance in elevation between the ends of the pro-
posed trail, and the approximate distance may be de-
termined by pacing. This furnishes a preliminary
reconnaissance. A “‘trial’’ or ‘‘random”’ line may then
be run from one end of the proposed line to the other
on the approximate average grade, which has been de-
termined by reconnaissance. This may be done by a
grademeter, an Abney level, or a Locke level.

The grademeter is used as described on page 29.
As the circular pendulum is graduated to tangents it
may be used to line in the grade to any desired per cent,
either uphill or downhill. It is unnecessary to consider
the matter of distance, because grade, as thus meas-
ured, is an absolute quantity in itself.

The Abney level is used in a similar manner, but it
contains no swinging pendulum, and must be set to the
desired grade before the sight is taken to the instru-
ment. Some of the Abney levels are graduated to
degrees; others to degrees and slopes, in the proportion
of 1:1 and 1:10; others have graduations for per. cent.
This has led to some confusion, and some bad construc-
tion has resulted. Care should be used to apply only
the per cent when this instrument is in use on trails.

The Locke level is a simple hand level which does not
sight either uphill or downhill; it is used by sending an
assistant ahead with a pole, upon which sights are taken
through the barrel of the level. Allowance must be
made for the height of the surveyor’s eye above the
ground. Thus, if his eye is 5 feet above the ground
he can fix the location of a 5 per cent grade by working

TRAIL SURVEYS. 63

uphill and taking a sight on the ground at a point 100
feet distant, or by sighting downhill at the top of a pole
which is 10 feet high and 100 feet distant.

For running different gradients, of course the height of
the surveyor’s eye remains the same, and the length of
the sight is changed according to the grade. Thus, a
sight on a 10-foot pole, looking downhill, in a distance
of 50 feet, would give a 10 per cent grade; and a sight,
uphill, on the ground at a distance of 50 feet, would give
a 10 per cent grade, still assuming the height of the sur-
veyor’s eye to be 5 feet. In the same manner, if the
sights, both uphill and downhill, were 200 feet, the
grade would then be 24 per cent.

The use of these instruments is to some extent a mat-
ter of individual preference.

In the large majority of cases the grade should be
located by a downhill survey. This is always the case
when a pass or saddle is the salient high point. When
the grade connects two salient points the location may
be run in either direction. The alignment of the trail,
or its meanders, may be determined by a compass sur-
vey after the trail is constructed. It is a matter of sec-
ondary importance and should be given no considera-
tion if it takes any time which might have been spent
in getting the best possible grade. The importance of
alignment should not be entirely overlooked, however,
and where two or more routes would give equally satis-
factory grades, then the one should be chosen which will
have the most favorable alignment, together with short-
ness of distance, and which will require the least number
of bridges and culverts, and in other respects afford the
most favorable conditions for construction.

64 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.
PLATTING THE SURVEY.

When a plane table is used, the survey and platting
progress together, but if other methods are used it is
necessary to “‘plat” the notes. This should be done on
the prescribed forms, using one of the standard scales
which are described on page 66. Be sure that the plat
shows the scale, as well as ‘“‘ what it is, where it is, who
made it, and the date.” If the plat does not “close,”
throw the error into the sides or angles which are most
liable to be inaccurate on account of difficulties in the
field work. If local attraction was encountered at one
corner the error is likely to be in that angle. If offsets
were made, or very rough or steep country traversed on
one side, the mistake is probably in the chaining of that
side. An error of one link to the chain is allowable. If
a larger error appears in platting, the field work must
be repeated.

MAP MAKING IN THE FIELD.

After the salient points of the topography have been
located by plane table, and the roads, streams, or sum-
mits have been traversed by compass surveys, it remains
for the surveyor to sketch in the contours. Some of
this may Le done when the peaks are located and when
the distances are chained, and the result is a skeleton
map upon which it remains to fill in the balance by the
eye. This is a matter of practice. It is an excellent
plan to learn to read contour maps, such as are pub-
lished by the Geological Survey, and the student should
provide himself with a topographic sheet of some
region with which he is well acquainted and learn to

MAP MAKING IN THE FIELD. 65

identify the relief with its contours. When this is mas-
tered a good contour map will be almost as graphic as a
miniature model of the country. ~

In sketching contours it is of great assistance to
imagine the sea level raised. Thus, if the 5,000-foot
contour is being sketched, we may imagine that the
salt waters of the earth are raised 5,000 feet higher than
they now are. It is evident that the true contour
would follow the shore line which is thus imagined and
that bays and harbors, islands, straits, etc., would
result. It is evident that contour lines can not cross
each other or themselves and that they must connect
somewhere, either on the map which is being prepared
or in some other region.

The contour map, when thus prepared, is only a base
map for other data to be collected for the Forest Service.
Some of this data may be collected as the survey pro-
ceeds, such as the classification of the land, timber,
woodland, barren, etc., or the composition and stand of
a forest. When the plane-table map is being made in
the field, the paper is necessarily covered with pencil
notes and lines which give the names of points, eleva-
tions, directions, etc. Thereis no need to encumber this
map with other figures or names which may be confus-
ing or lead to error. A better plan is to cover the map
with a piece of tracing cloth, with the dull side up,
which may be thumb-tacked along one side only, that
it may hang back out of the way when work is being
done on the base map. On this the burns, windfalls,
barren areas, or stand may be sketched either in black
or with colored crayons without smearing the base

23682°—12—5

66 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

map or obliterating any of its topographic data. Some
salient points on the base map should be copied on the
tracing cloth so that the two may be registered at any
time, for the paper may shrink or the cloth may stretch-

THE FOREST ATLAS.

The Forest Atlas at Washington is the central depository
for maps, diagrams, statistics, and history of the National
Forests and forestry in general throughout the world.
Its most important division is that of maps, and the
most important maps are those of the National Forests.

The Forest Atlas now comprises 190 volumes, con-
taining sheets exactly 18 by 21 inches. They are bound
in loose-leaf holders in two ways. Standard binders
have the binding margin on the 21-inch side, while town-
ship binders have the binding margin on the 18-inch side.
No map is made on a sheet less than 18 by 21 inches,
and larger maps are made on two or more sheets which
are always numbered from west to east beginning at
the northwest corner. Borders are omitted. The
title consists only of the name of the forest or the
number of the township. The top of the map is
always north. A binding edge of at least 14 inches is
always left blank on the west or left-hand side of each
sheet. |

The standard scale of the Forest Atlas is 1 inch to 1
mile, and the National Forests have been practically
covered by atlas sheets according to this standard.
Whenever, in special cases, a larger or smaller scale is
necessary for the preparation of any map in the Forest
Service, it must sustain the simple relation of x 2

THE FOREST ATLAS. 67

or + 2. -Thus the scale may be 2 inches, 4 inches, or 8
inches to 1 mile; or 4 inch, } inch, or ¢ inch to 1 mile.
Under no circumstances will sheets be prepared for the
Forest Atlas on the ratio of 3, 5, 7, etc. The scale of
township plats is 2 inches to 1 mile, because that scale
was adopted by the General Land Office, from which
the plats were procured.

The Atlas sheets which cover a National Forest are
called a folio and are assembled, with a legend page, in a
paper cover, on which is printed an index diagram show-
ing the number of-the sheets.

In the office of each district forester is a District
Atlas consisting of 20 or more volumes, containing
duplicate sheets of the Forest Atlas covering the area
of the district. Whenever Forest Atlas folios have
been duplicated by photolithography or otherwise for a
National Forest, the officers have been supplied with cop-
ies, but under no circumstances are copies of any atlas
folio to be sold or given away. They are strictly for the
use of forest officers in the administration of the National
Forests. Copies for distribution are not published.

Forest Supervisors are supplied by the property clerk
with binders for Forest Atlas folios, having the binding
margin on the 21-inch side, and also with binders for
Land Office township plats, having the binding margin
on the 18-inch side.

The folios are the ‘‘mother maps” which furnish the
bases from which further map making will proceed in
the Forest Service. They correspond to the mother
maps of other countries in this respect—that they are
compiled from official data upon a standard scale, 1

68 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

inch to 1 mile,! and upon a uniform legend. They are
not always sufficiently accurate for forest work, and
the sheets must, therefore, be corrected whenever new
data have been obtained in the field. The manner of
correcting sheets is shown on the ‘‘dummy Atlas sheet,”
which has been issued to forest officers. The method
is that used by printers in correcting proof. Bold lines
should be drawn to the margin of the sheet and explan-
atory notes written clearly. Do not make neat cor-
rections without the marginal note, or it will not be
apparent that the sheet has been corrected. Do not
write letters or memoranda telling how a sheet should
be corrected. Do it yourself. Do not be afraid to mark
up any sheet because it is beautifully engraved or col-
ored. Your corrections will make it more valuable.
New data obtained by reconnaissance is _ usually
mapped on a scale of 2 inches or 4 inches to 1 mile.
Such data should not be redrawn to the standard Atlas
scale in the field. The reconnaissance tracings should
be sent to Washington with a requisition, Form 988,
for photoreduction. For this and other reasons recon-
naissance tracings and other base maps should be
drawn with black ink only, and should show only the
drainage, contour, culture, and land lines. Other data,
such as classification, forest or grazing types, or admin-
istration districts, can be shown by appropriate colors
upon two or more prints. By this method the tracing
remains a record which is subject to very little change,
Atlas standard. Those of France, Spain, Italy, Switzerland, and Sweden are nearly
the same, 14 inches to the mile. Those of Bosnia, Herzegovina, Norway, Bulgaria,

Hungary, Russia, and Portugal are on smaller scales; those of Germany, Belgium,
Denmark, and the Netherlands are on larger scales.

THE FOREST ATLAS. 69

CONVENTIONAL SIGNS

Wagon road F Hotel
= = == Secondary road wl Store
pea Trail Il School
+e Railroad We Church
+T+tT Telegraph line TZ Cemetery
“+*+s* Telephone line m TEL. Telegraph office
a—a—tr Power line stip. Telephone office
tt Pipe line I Cabin
=o. Aqueduct f Logging camp
4 Fence -2- Sawmill, portable
== == Ditch _ Sawmill, stationary
*—->—>> Flume —- Grist mill
Sef Bridge “@ Grist and sawmill
Corral A Apiary

Rangers hdars,nohouse [2] Well

c
ENN Supervisors headquarters X Windmill

|

az Rangers hdars,with house 7’ Quarry or gravel pit
aa
=
‘Bal
an

House. ® Mine location, unpatented
Railroad station Pi Mine shaft

Stage station A Triangulation station
Power station x BM. Bench mark

Scale
1 3 Miles

2
————————

(Omit borders
and scale from
Atlas Sheets) T.ISN.

Border for
General Maps

Border for
Forest Maps

R.3W.

70 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

LETTERING:

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPORSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 123456789

(topography)

UPPER CASE USED FOR TITLES MOUNTAIN RANGES, STATE NAMES,
TOWNSHIP AND RANGE NUMBERS, GRANTS, AND RESERVATIONS, ALPHA-
NUMERIC SYMBOLS.

Upper and Lower Case for Peaks, Valleys, Islands, Capes, etc., Meridians and
Parallels, Legends and Scales. i

ABCDEFGHISKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijkimnopgrstuvwxyz 123456789
(culture) , |

UPPER CASE FOR RAILROADS, ROADS, TELEPHONE LINES, AND
OTHER MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.

Upper and Lower Case for Other Culture.

ABCDEFGHIJK LMNOPQRSTU VWXYZ
abedefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1235456789

(settlement)

UPPER CASE FOR CITIES, STATE, AND COUNTY BOUND-
ARIES.

Upper and Lower Case for Towns, Villages, Post Offices.

ABCDEFGHIJ KL MNOPORSTUV WXYZ
abcdefghijkimnopaqrstuvwxyz 1238456789

(water)
UPPER CASE FOR OCEANS, LARGE RIVERS, LAKES, ETC.

Upper and Lower Case for Small Rivers, Creeks, Springs, Marshes,
Glaciers, Canals, Ditches, €tc.

THE FOREST ATLAS. a

and is not obscured by data which is of special rather
than general value. The first reconnaissance of any
area should include the drainage and contour, otherwise
it will not be possible to ‘‘register”’ a second or supple-
mental reconnaissance with it. | ss

General maps, showing an entire Forest or region are
compiled at Washington from data on the corrected
Atlas sheets, and are issued for the use of forest officers.
The usual process is photolithography. Every request
for the issuance of a map should be submitted to the
Forester with a recommendation regarding the data to
be shown or omitted, scale, kind of paper, and number
of copies required. Any project for the issuance of a
‘‘three-color map” with blue drainage, brown con-
tours, and black culture should be taken up by corre-
spondence with the Forester before the final tracings
are prepared, in order that the manuscript may be in
good shape for the engraver.

The Forest Atlas legend page, which has been sup-
plied to all forest officers, shows the standard scheme
of colors and symbols which are used in the prepara-
tion of all atlas sheets.

It should be borne in mind that National Forests are
established in widely different regions; as far north as
Alaska and as far south as Florida and Porto Rico.
On no two forests will the data suggested on the legend
page be of equal importance, and it may be necessary
or convenient to adopt additional symbols or colors to
show unusual conditions. This is quite permissible
providing the marginal notes are made explanatory or
if the sheet is subject to only one interpretation by
forest officers who will have to use it.

72 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, E1C.

An atlas sheet or any other map should show plainly
the information it is intended to convey, and artistic
flourishes, fancy type, or border designs are useless.
It should show what it is, where it is, the scale, who
made it, and the date. It should show also by whom
the field examination or survey was made and the date
of the same. [If it is from an original survey the mag-
netic variation should be given. On the borders of the
map, if the area shown covers more than one township,
the township and range numbers should be given, and
also, if possible, one or more meridians and parallels.
If a degree meridian does not fall in the map, then
some intermediate may be given, such as 10’ or 20’.
Table 7 will be found convenient.

TaBLe 7.—Lengths of degrees on meridians and parallels at different
latitudes on the earth.

Convergence in
one township
At lati- Length of 1° Length of 1° or in two
tude— on meridians. | on parallels. meridians 6
miles long and
6 miles apart.

Miles. Miles. | Links

26° 68. 84 62.21 35.4
7 68.85 61.68 37.0
28 68.86 61.12 38.6
29 68.87 60.55 40.2
30 68.88 59.96 41.9
31 68.89 59.34 43.6
32 68.90 58. 72 45.4
33 68.91 58.07 47.2
34 68.92 57.41 49.1
35 68. 93 56. 72 50.9
36 68.95 56. 03 52.7
37 68.96 55.31 54.7
38 68.97 54.58 56.8
39 68.98 53.83 58.8
40 68.99 53.06 60.9
41 69.01 52. 28 63.1
42 69.02 51.48 65.4
43 69.03 50. 67 67.7
44 69.04 49.84 70.1
45 69.05 49.00 72.6
46 69.07 48.14 Ly
47 69.08 47.26 77.8
48 69.09 46.37 80.6
49 69.10 45.47 83.5

THE FOREST ATLAS. 73

The atlas sheets show the alienation of lands within
National Forests, but it must be understood that data
of this kind can not be accepted as final authority, but
may be regarded as presumptive evidence. It has re-
quired three years to collect the alienation data for the
National Forests, and since their status changes from
day to day, while the compilation and publication of
atlas sheets requires several months, it is evident that a
folio can not be issued to forest officers which will be
up to date in thisrespect. It is only by keeping new
data posted on the sheets that the office record can be
kept up to date.

Maps are never perfect, nor do they approach perfec-
tion unless repeatedly altered and corrected in accord-
ance with dicoveries or changed conditions. Although
the Forest Atlas sheets are compiled in every case
from the best data available, they are often far below
the standard which should obtain in forest maps.
It will not be regarded as a reflection upon the compiler
of a sheet if a large number of corrections are found
necessary, and field officers should never hesitate, for
this reason, about sending in data.

The coloring tints which are used in the classification
scheme may be prepared as follows from standard inks
that will be furnished by the property clerk at Ogden,
upon requisition:

Forest Atlas—Color prescriptions.

Timberland:
Less than 2,000 board feet per acre— Parts.
Rete ie Ge ee ES eye tn eave 2
LOE Sm Oe Ore pC ae fe EME 2 1

74 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

Timberland—Continued.
2,000 to 5,000 board feet per acre—

ST COUs SG Oey eb oe ae eerie toceee eee

5,000 to 10,000 board feet per acre—green ink.
10,000 to 25,000 board feet per acre—

POW GK Ce Eee See ok eee eee eee
Spares with so oe ee Oe ee Loe ee eee
WOHOW S80 oe eee ee = oe eee pee

25,000 to 50,000 board feet per acre—

Pit trie ate ss od. Ae Pie eee

Woodland, cordwood, etc.:

Cree TI Awa ek UE Es eee
eligay wile. sp hoe. bot CU ere Feet) bee re ee

ito ta! Oe. ot cos cold Sues a eo ee

Sagebrush:

Brn ales oe of Jick ee ie ee ee eee

Grassland, parks, etc.:

Welow ak. oc oh Sel ii ae ee ot eee

Barren land:

Bilge tk oc isk ck ot 2 ota oop he eee

Burn, forest cover established:

Greer imk: | #... 22.0821 2 Ae ee eee
Wellow wise es os. Soc ee ce 4A ee eee

oe on eR

bo bo Co

FOREST ATLAS CRAYONS, 75

Old cuttings: Parts.
artes Merete el PE Re es St
Es en Stace Sx 22 Se RE eee ead Se OU ee oe a A 3
Cultivated—tred ink. :
Mineral lands—orange ink.
Open for cattle and horses only:
RE Re IeMII RA RS ots ho oes wok Dea ee 1
A AE RAS ed ela kote d op eke Cate ea rs 3
Open for sheep and goats only:
(0 TET it tel oe et cM Se B's A q
etre ea ire Lie sk Ner od ie Pha 5 ee A eA gee ea 1
Closed for all stock—orange ink.
Driveways for stock:
Pmacenees Re ee aaa hike! iS es esa et an 2 1
(7) 2 ee Ey SN eer ecat Se ee Mere ote URN | fame ae 20

When timber or woodland has been partly burned,
the lining for burns may be used on top of the green.
When partly cut over, or culled, the proper signs may
be used in the same manner.

FOREST ATLAS CRAYONS.

In order to secure uniformity in coloring field maps,
boxes containing 12 crayons are furnished, with a
descriptive label, for use with the Forest Atlas legend.
They are as follows:

COLORED CRAYONS.

General classification.

69. Less than 2,000 B. F. 2. Grassland, parks.
29. 2,000 to 5,000 B. F. (light). 6609. Barren, above timber line,
29. 5,000 to 10,000 B. F. (heavy). etc.
15. 10,000 to 25,000 B. F. (light). 63. Burn, forest cover estab-
15. 25,000 to 50,000 B. F. (heavy). lished.
63. Woodland, cordwood, poles, 72. Old cuttings.
etc. 46. Cultivated.
87. Chaparral or brush. 62. Mineral.

37. Sagebrush. 58. Water.

76 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

Grazing map legend.

58. Administrative divisions. 2. Open for sheep and goats
72. Open for cattle and horses only.
only. 62. Closed for all stock.

87. Driveways for stock.

The property clerk has installed a machine for print-
ing the Forest Atlas legend upon each colored crayon,
and it is expected that this improved method of mark-
ing will lead to greater accuracy in the use of colors on
maps. There have always been some uncertainties,
due to the fact that many men are not good judges of
color, and also because the makers of colored crayons
change the formule for mixing colors or use different
grades of pigment. It has also been found in the case
of some colors that they change materially with age.
Under this new method of marking it will be possible
for the property clerk to obtain in each case the best
grade of a standard color, and, disregarding the manu-
facturer’s number, print the atlas legend upon the
pencil. Thus, the bright yellow crayon will be marked
‘‘Grassland, parks, etc.,” and ‘‘Open for sheep and
goats only.”

On important work a legend showing the colors and
symbols used and their significance should accompany
each map or folio.

MOUNTING MAPS ON MUSLIN.

Slightly dampen the muslin and stretch it over a
table top or other flat surface. Fasten with tacks not
more than 4 inches apart. Wet the map thoroughly by
dipping it in water or with a sponge. Remove surplus

MOUNTING MAPS. 77

water with large blotters. Lay the map face down
upon the muslin, and with a wide flat brush (rubber
bound) apply paste quickly but evenly over the back of
the map. Turn over the map and press it smoothly
upon the muslin, using a blotter and roller. Leave it
to dry overnight. The hands should be wet when
handling a wet map and the surface of the map should
be rubbed as little as possible. It is better for two
persons to work together, holding all four corners of the
map and allowing it to fail upon the muslin from the
center toward the corners, thus avoiding air bubbles.
If any paste gets upon the face of the map it should be
immediately removed with a wet sponge.

Three or four layers of maps may be mounted on the
same board, provided a dry piece of muslin (same size
as map) be placed between the layers.

In some instances, for convenience in folding to
pocket or other small size, the map should be cut into
sections, all of the same size and shape, and mounted
with a slight break between each section, where the fold
will come. In this case, each small sheet must be
placed separately upon the big sheet of muslin, which
has been previously dampened slightly.

One gallon of paste may be made as follows: Dissolve
14 pounds of lump starch in 1 gallon of water. Then
stir constantly while pouring boiling water over it until
the mixture becomes thick. Set aside, and when almost
cold squeeze through a piece of cheesecloth in order to
remove the lumps. :

78 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

METHOD OF USING THE FOREST SERVICE STANDARD
PLANIMETER.

Planimeters are issued to some forest officers and are
used to determine areas platted on maps. They are
constructed to register areas in square inches and deci-

Fic. 12.—Standard planimeter.

mals of 1 square inch and are used in the following
manner:

(1) Place the weighted stationary pin, A, figure 12,
outside of the area to be determined, below and to the
left, in a position which will permit the “‘tracing pin,”

STANDARD PLANIMETER. 79

B, to follow the entire outline freely. If the area to
be determined is too large to permit placing the sta-
tionary pin outside, and thus determining the area as
a whole, the area may be divided and its parts deter-
mined separately.

(2) Place the tracing pin at any starting point onthe
outline of the area and press it in to make a distinct
mark on the surface. Set all the scales at zero with
the hand. Then draw the tracing pin around the out-
line of the area, following it as exactly as possible, until
the circuit is completed and the tracing pin rests at the
starting point. The circuit must be made in the same
direction that the hands of a watch move.

(3) Four figures, representing tens, units, tenths, and
hundredths, may be read after the circuit is completed,
and the reading may be from 00.01 to 99.99. Figure
12 shows a sample reading of 25.71 square inches
because the dial C’ registers 10 square inches for each
numbered division. The roller D registers 1 square
inch for each numbered division. The vernier EF regis-
ters 0.01 square inch to be read against D.

It will be noted that the pointer at dial CO points
between 2 and 3. The area in square inches is, there-
fore, between 20 and 30. The zero on the vernier E
serves as a pointer for the roller D. This reads be-
tween 5 and 6. Therefore the integral area is 25.
Counting the divisions between the figures 5 and 6, it
is seen that the zero on the vernier barely passes the
seventh mark. Therefore the first decimal is 0.7. By
looking along the vernier / it will be seen that one of
the graduations falls exactly opposite one of those on

80 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

roller D. This will happen in every case and the num-
ber of this mark on the vernier will determine the
second decimal. In the diagram the first mark to the
right of the zero falls opposite a mark on roller D and
therefore the reading is 0.01. Thus the total reading
is 25.71 square inches. Use a magnifying glass if
necessary.

(4) The area in acres is found by multiplying the
figure given by the planimeter by coefficient determined
by the scale on which the map is drawn. If the scale
be 1 inch to the mile, 1 square inch will represent 640
acres. If it be one-half inch to the mile, 1 square inch
wil represent 4 square miles and the acreage will be
determined by multiplying the instrument reading by
6404, or by 2,560. If the scale be 2 inches to the
mile, 1 square inch will represent 160 acres; and so on
for any desired scale.

(5) Blueprints and other photographic papers are
never exactly to scale, but a conventional mile on the
print can be planimetered, and the reading thus ob-
tained will be known to represent 640 acres.

(6) On important work the area should be plani-
metered several times and the results averaged.

(7) For practice, a regular figure, such as a square
containing a known uumber of square inches, should
be planimetered until the reading on the instrument
agrees substantially with the known area.

(8) Only an expert should attempt to adjust a
planimeter. If the instrument does not work properly
it should be returned to the property clerk for repairs.

LAND OFFICE SURVEYS. 81

LAND OFFICE SURVEYS.

The rectangular surveys of the United States Land
Office control throughout the 'West‘and divide the land

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Fic. 13.—Rectangular system of Land Office surveys.

surfaces into squares, which may be divided and sub-
divided, quartered, quarter-quartered, etc. The unit
23682°—12_—6

82 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

of the system is the township, which is, conventionally,
6 miles square and contains 36 sections of 640 acres
each, or 23,040 acres.

Inasmuch as meridian lines converge toward the
North Pole, it is evident that townships will have a
trapezoidal form and that they will materially decrease
in area toward the north unless correction lines are
introduced. The system is as follows (see fig. 13, p. 81):

Beginning at the initial points, a base line is run due
east and west with standard parallels 24 miles distant.
From these parallels guide meridians, 24 miles distant,
are run due north and “‘close”’ on the standard paral-
lels. This divides the region into tracts 24 miles
square, except for the convergence mentioned. Then
township lines are run, making tracts which are 6 miles
square. These are afterwards “subdivided” into sec-
tions. The conventional section is legally subdivided
into quarters and quarter-quarters, and by common
usage into smaller subdivisions, but unless otherwise
specified these are all proportionate areas to the quarter
section. A conventional section.is cut into quarters by
straight lines which connect the quarter corners on its
boundaries.

Whenever, as in the case of timber sales, it becomes
necessary to survey and mark a line which bounds some
alienation, it is important that the line should be either
legally correct or should be agreed to in writing by the
private owner for the purpose of the sale, and in case
of a disagreement no timber should be marked for cut-
ting in the disputed strip until the merits of the case
have been submitted to the Forester and his instructions
received. 3

RESURVEYS—MISLEADING MARKS. 83

There are many exceptions to the simple rectangular
scheme as outlined above, and many different anoma-
lous townships and sections result from methods which
have to be employed in special cases.

RESURVEYS.

When a survey is to be made in a township which has
been subdivided, or when the lines of old survey bound-
aries are to be retraced, the prime object is to follow all
of the legal lines and to check up on all of the legal cor-
ners. For this purpose the surveyor should know:

(1) The date when the original survey was made.

(2) The variation used.

(3) The change in variation, increase or decrease,
since the original survey was made.

In any Western State this information may be ob- -
tained from the surveyor general, and usually from the
county surveyor of the county in which the survey is
to be made. In any event the new variation, as deter-
mined by the resurvey, should be entered in the field
notes for future reference.

CANCELLATION OF MISLEADING MARKS ON
FORMER FOREST BOUNDARY POSTS.

Forest officers are cautioned that the agreement he-
tween the General Land Office and the Forest Service in
regard to the cancellation of certain misleading markings
on National Forest boundary posts does not extend to
any of the existing regulations against changing the
markings on any posts other than as herein specified

84 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING FOREST SURVEYS, ETC.

Owing to changes in some National Forests many of
the metal posts used to mark the boundaries, as surveyed
by the Geological Survey and approved by the General
Land Office, have become misleading. As these posts
usually mark section corners, and also furnish valuable
points for reference, they must not be removed, but their
misleading marks may be canceled. This will be done
by cutting, with a sharp cold chisel, a line through any
misleading word or words, the intention being to cancel
them without rendering them illegible.

On no account shall any portion of the markings which
are still true, or partly true, be thus canceled. For
example, in the following cases, the words which, in a
National Forest, may be canceled are shown.

AQUARHES FOREST RESERVE SOUHDARY POST NO. 27.
BLACK HILLS BOUMBARY POST NO. 18. ,
UNITED STATES FOREST RESERVE SAN-JACINTG-SOUNDARY POST NO. 43.

Outside of a National Forest the words which, for
example, may be canceled are shown thus:

UNITED STATES FOREST RESERVE MADISON BOUNDARY POST NO. 37.

In every case when any mark on a post is canceled
the same cancellation must be made on the bearing trees
if their marks are misleading, by cutting a groove across
the word.

A report must be made to the Forester giving the
location and number of each post canceled and stating
which of the markings thereon have been canceled.

85

PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES.

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may be procured from the SUPERINTEND-
ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D. C., at 20 cents per copy.

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SD U.S. Forest Service

* Instructions for making
forest surveys and ma
1912 Rey. 2. ay
[152386 ]
U.S. Forest Service SD
AUTHOR 361
Instructions for making U5
TITLE 1912
forest surveys and maps. Rev.
DALE ISSUED TO

. [152386]

LIBRARY
FACULTY OF FORESTRY
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

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