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INTERNATIONAL LIBRARY OF TECHNOLOGY
A SERIES OF TEXTBOOKS FOR PERSONS ENGAGED IN THE ENGINEERING
PROFESSIONS AND TRADES OR FOR THOSE WHO DESIRE
INFORMATION CONCERNING THEM. FULLY ILLUSTRATED
AND CONTAINING NUMEROUS PRACTICAL
EXAMPLES AND THEIK SOLUTIONS
GAS MAKING
GAS suppCV and distribution
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
SOLDERING AND WIPING
LEAD WORK
PIPE WORK
WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES
BATHS AND URINALS
SCRANTON:
INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY
71
PUBLIC LI3RAliY
591)040
AS'OR. LFNOX 4ND TiLDt.N Fi'.. NOAlloNS.
R '8'3 L
Copyright, 1905. 1906. by Intxrnational TmxTBOOK Cokpakt.
Entered at Stationers' Hall. London.
Gas Making: Cox^i;j^bt. l9Q^.*,bj IfVT^R^/mt)^^ Txxtbook Company. Entered
at Stationers' Hdl?Jlohd<Jn\» •..-.; •::;! • • • • •,•! V V ••• •• •
Gas Supply and DhitPibution: Copyrisrht, 1901^. by Intbrnational Textbook Com- pany. Entered at Statlaj](r8*^4^,*L»i40°- Domestic Uses of Gas: C/H)}ijg&f» jMi^t}y kfTERNATiONAL Textbook Company
Entered at Statinnei^s' |1»U. I*ondoci«** ; t Plumbinsr Materials an(i*'I^l^«*i^q!t]^i%2it.^l|05. by International Textbook
Company. Entered nt *Sfi(tiorfers^ {falf.*London. SoldcrinK and Wiping: Copyright. 1906. by International Textbook Company.
Entered at Stationers' Hall. London. Lead Work: Copyright. 1905. by International Textbook Company. Entered
at Stationers* Hall. London. Pipe Work: Copyright. 1905. by International Textbook Company. p:ntered at
Stationers' Hall. London. Washing and Drinking Fixtures: Copyright. 1905. by International Textbook
Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall. London. Baths and Urinals: Copyright. 1905. by Intkrnational Textbook Company.
Entered at Stationers' Hall. London.
All rights reserved.
1»RIN1F1) I.N niK. rNUKI: .S I A IKS.
//71
HIIRK I'kl.N'riNfJ HOUSE,
FRANKFOK'l AND JAl.OH Vi KKKIS.
.NKW YORK.
PREFACE
The International Library of Technology is the outgrowth of a large and increasing demand that has arisen for the Reference Libraries of the International Correspondence Schools on the part of :tl|(js«. who are nof students of the Schools. As the volumes :i:oi|i]^siitgthi$*;Iyibrary are all printed from the same plate5*its©<J*in pri^iting the Reference Libraries above mentioned, -a'^eMT A^^orpls are necessary regarding the scope and pijirgyse x)i tjae:>nst/uction imparted to the students of — and Irhe* cidS^ of -Jsfijclents taught by — these Schools, in order to afford a clear understanding of their salient and unique features.
The only requirement for admission to any of the courses offered by the International Correspondence Schools, is that the applicant shall be able to read the English language and to write it sufficiently well to make his written answers to the questions asked him intelligible. Each course is com- plete in itself, and no textbooks are required other than those prepared by the Schools for the particular course selected. The students themselves are from every class, trade, and profession and from every country; they are, almost without exception, busily engaged in some vocation, and can spare but little time for study, and that usually outside of their regular working hours. The information desired is such as can be immediately applied in practice, so that the student may be enabled to exchange his present vocation for a more congenial one, or to rise to a higher level in the one he now pursues. Furthermore, he wishes to obtain a good working knowledge of the subjects treated in the shortest time and in the most direct manner possible.
iii
iv PREFACE
In meeting these requirements, we have produced a set of books that in many respects, and particularly in the general plan followed, are absolutely unique. In the majority of subjects treated the knowledge of mathematics required is limited to the simplest principles of arithmetic and mensu- ration, and in no case is any greater knowledge of mathe- matics needed than the simplest elementary principles of algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, with a thorough, practical acquaintance with the use of the logarithmic table. To effect this result, derivations of rules and formulas are omitted, but thorough and complete instructions are given regarding how, when, and under what circumstances any particular rule, formula^ or i)riD08as^,:should be applied ; and whenever posSit^^OnfeVr tUOjfc .IJqjfiiiples, such as would be likely to arise* ih* aqti\af ^acticQ — together with their solu- tions— are given to ^tLisCi^^e.^nd explain its application.
In preparing thy§c» tj5xit|cj(3kfe, \t has been our constant endeavor to view WigrycrattJfet*<fc&>m»the student's standpoint, and to try and anticipate everything that would cause him trouble. The utmost pains have been taken to avoid and correct any and all ambiguous expressions — both those due to faulty rhetoric and those due to insufficiency of statement or explanation. As the best way to make a statement, explanation, or description clear, is to give a picture or a diagram in connection with it, illustrations have been used almost without limit. The illustrations have in all cases been adapted to the requirements of the text, and projec- tions and sections or outline, partially shaded, or full-shaded perspectives, have been used, according to which will best produce the desired results. Half-tones have been used rather sparingly, except in those cases where the general effect is desired rather than the actual details.
It is obvious that books prepared along the lines men- tioned must not only be clear and concise beyond anything heretofore attempted, but they must also possess unequaled value for reference purposes. They not only give the maximum of information in a minimum space, but this infor- mation is so ingeniously arranged and correlated, and the
PREFACE V
indexes are so full and complete, that it can at once be made available to the reader. The numerous examples and explanatory remarks, together with the absence of long demonstrations and abstruse mathematical calculations, are of great assistance in helping one to select the proper for- mula, method, or process and in teaching him how and when it should be used.
This volume treats of gas making, gas supply and distri- bution, and appliances for lighting and heating, and is valuable to all who are interested in the use, supply, and distribution of gas for domestic purposes. It also treats of plumbing materials and tools, soldering and wiping, sheet-lead and lead-pipe work, cast-iron, wrought-iron, and brass pipe work, and plumbing fixtures, such as sinks, wash tubs, baths, wash basins, drinking fountains, and urinals. The entire volume is particularly valuable to those engaged in the plumbing and gas-fitting business, such as master plumbers, journeymen, apprentices, helpers, plumbers' bookkeepers, the employes of gas corporations, etc., and for reference purposes to architects, architectural draftsmen, general contractors, building superintendents, building inspectors, plumbing inspectors, board-of-health officials, sanitary inspectors, and others interested in prac- tical plumbing, or modern sanitation.
The method of numbering the pages, cuts, articles, etc. is such that each subject or part, when the subject is divided into two or more parts, is complete in itself; hence, in order to make the index intelligible, it was necessary to give each subject or part a number. This number is placed at the top of each page, on the headline, opposite the page number; and to distinguish it from the page number it is preceded by the printer's section mark (§). Consequently, a reference such as § 16, page 26, will be readily found by looking along the inside edges of the headlines until §16 is found, and then through § 16 until page 26 is found.
International Textbook Company
CONTENTS
Gas Making Section Page
Uses of Gas 12 1
Manufacture of Gas 12 2
Coal Gas 12 2
By-Products 12 6
A Coal-Gas Plant 12 6
Water Gas 12 8
Water-Gas Machines . . . . , 12 11
Archer Gas 12 12
Oil Gas 12 12
Oil-Gas Plant 12 13
Producer Gas 12 14
Acetylene 12 15
Generators 12 19
Acetylene Burners 12 31
Acetylene for Gas-Engine Use 12 34
Piping for Acetylene Gas 12 35
Acetylene Gasworks . -. 12 36
Acetylene Lamps 12 37
Gasoline Gas 12 40
Gasoline-Gas Machine 12 42
Natural Gas 12 48
Gas Supply and Distribution
Gas Supply 13 1
Cast-Iron Gas Pipe 13 1
Wrought-Iron Gas Pipe 13 10
Lead, Tin, Composition, and Rubber Gas
Pipes 13 11
Laying Out Gas Mains 13 12
iii
iv CONTENTS
Gas Supply and Distribution — Conttmied Section Page
Gas-Pipe Fittinj^s 13 13
Gas Distribution 13 15
Flow of Gas Through Pipes 13 15
Laws Governing Flow of Gas 13 15
Gas Pressure and Its Measurement . . 13 17
Measuring Velocity of Flow of Gas ... 13 22
Measuring Volume of Gas 13 23
Gas Distribution 13 37
Regulating Flow of Gas 13 37
Pressure Regulation System 13 39
Volumetric Regulation System 13 40
Construction of Gas-Pressure Regulators . 13 41
Construction of Volumetric Regulators . 13 42
Piping Buildings 13 45
Size of Pipes 13 45
• Pipe Fitting . 13 47
Drainage of Pipes 13 48
Installing of Piping 13 49
Gas-Fitters* Plans 13 49
Service Pipes 13 55
Connections to Meters 13 58
C)rder of Operation 13 59
Exposed Pipes 13 63
Testing a System of Pipes .13 63
Defects and Their Remedies 13 67
Leaks 13 68
Chokage '. 13 70
Flickering Lights 13 71
DoMKSTic Uses of Gas
(}as Lighting 14 1
Combustion of Gas 14 1
Luminosity of ^las Flames 14 3
Methods of Producing Light 14 6
Gas-Light Burners 14 7
Troubles and Remedies 14 18
Gas Fixtures 14 22
CONTENTS V
Domestic Uses of Gas — Contimud Section Page
Details of Gas Fixtures 14 30
Locating Gas Fixtures 14 37
Light s ... 14 39
Artificial Illumination 14 43
Measurement of Light 14 46
Gas Heating 14 53
Burner Construction 14 53
Bunsen Burners 14 53
Fletcher Burners 14 59
Cooking Appliances 14 62
Hot Plates 14 62
Gas Ranges 14 63
Broilers 14 65
House- Warming Gas Heaters 14 67
Miscellaneous Gas-Heating Appliances . . 14 72
Water Heaters 14 72
Plumbing Materials and Tools
Plumbing Materials 15 1
Duties of the Plumber 15 1
Sheet Metals 15 2
Sheet Lead 15 2
Sheet Copper 15 4
Sheet Zinc 15 8
Sheet Block Tin 15 8
Sheet Iron and Steel 15 9
Solder 15 14
Fluxes 15 19
Miscellaneous Materials 15 20
Rivets 15 22
Lead Pipe 15 23
Tin Pipe . . 15 .25
Composition Pipe 15 26
Wrought-Iron Pipe 15 27
Brass and Copper Pipes 15 29
Wooden Pipes 15 30
Cast-Iron Pipes . 15 31
vi CONTENTS
Plumbing Materials and Tools —
Continued Section Page
Earthenware Pipes 15 33
Gas- and Water-Pipe Fittings 15 34
Soil-Pipe Fittings 15 39
Special Fittings 15 45
Cocks, Valves, and Sundries 15 48
Tools 16 71
Soldering and Wiping
Soldering 16 1
Soft Soldering 16 3
Tinning 16 3
Soft Soldering Seams and Joints .... 16 9
Brazing 16 21
Tools and Supplies 16 21
Operation of Brazing 16 23
Kinds of Joints . 16 25
Wiping 16 26
Wiping an Underhand Joint 16 31
Wiping a Concealed Joint 16 42
Wiping Branch Joints 16 44
Wiping Flanged Joints 16 51
Miscellaneous Examples of Wiping ... 16 52
Holding Pipes While Wiping 16 59
Lead Work
Working Sheet Lead 17 1
Lining Tanks 17 1
Lining Tanks With Copper ........ 17 18
Block-Tin Lining 17 21
Details of Sheet-Lead Work 17 22
Lead-Pipe Work 17 27
Straightening Lead Pipe 17 27
Cutting and Carrying Lead Pipe .... 17 28
Bending Lead Pipes 17 28
Plain Bending 17 28
Sand Bending 17 29
Bending With a Coiled Spring 17 30
CONTENTS vii
Lead Work — Continued Section Page
Bending With Bobbins 17 31
Bossing Out Bends 17 32
Lead Burning 17 84
The Air Supply 17 88
Manipulation of the Apparatus 17 39
Burning Joints and Seams 17 42
Pipework
Cast-iron Pipework 18 1
Cutting Soil Pipe 18 1
Calking Joints . 18 4
Wrought-Iron Pipework 18 12
Cutting Pipe 18 12
Reaming 18 13
Cutting Threads 18 14
Screwing on Fittings 18 16
Bending Wrought-Iron Pipe 18 16
Measuring Piping 18 17
Brass and Copper Pipework 18 19
Holding the Pipes 18 19
Threading Brass and Copper Pipe .... 18 20 ,
Screwing Up Fittings 18 21
Bending Brass and Copper Pipe 18. 22
Earthenware Pipework 18 22
Making Jomts 18 23
Supporting Lead Pipes 18 25
Tacks, Bands, Collars, and Ledges ... 18 25
Supporting Iron and Brass Pipes .... 18 27
Supporting Cast-iron Pipes 18 28
Fastening Devices for Stonework .... 18 29
Washing and Drinking Fixtures
Modem Plumbing 19 1
Kitchen Sinks 19 2
Butler's Pantry Sink 19 16
' Slop Sinks 19 22
Wash Sinks 19 27
Laundry Tubs 19 29
viii CONTENTS
Washing and Drinking Fixtures —
Continued Section Page
Lavatories .19 38
Range of Wash Basins 19 49
Lavatory Details 19 50
Cup Fountains 19 53
Rising-Jet Fountains 19 56
Baths and Urinals
Bathtubs 20 1
Metal-Lined Bathtubs 20 2
Solid Bathtubs 20 9
Special Forms of Bathtubs 20 13
Bidets 20 14
Shower Baths 20 16
Bathroom Arrangements 20 23
Small Bathroom Equipment 20 24
Medium-Grade Bathroom Equipment . . 20 25
High-Grade Bathroom Equipment .... 20 28
Urinal Stalls 20 29
Individual Urinals 20 32
. Urinals With Separate Traps 20 32
Urinals With Combined Traps 20 34
Ventilated Urinals ! . 20 36
Tilting-Tank Urinals 20 37
Treadle Urinals 20 37
Folding Urinals 20 39
GAS MAKING
ENTRODUCTION
USES OF GAS
ADVANTAGES
1. The use of gas for fuel and illumination has increased enormously within the last decade, and there is a general tendency among manufacturers and domestic users to employ gaseous fuel in preference to coal whenever practicable.
The advantages of gaseous fuel overall forms of solid fuel, in way of convenience and freedom from dirt, are so great that its use is likely to become universal. It is now used for a great variety of mechanical and other manufacturing operations, ranging from the delicate work of tempering hair springs for watches to the gigantic operations of glass melt- ing and steel making. In dwellings, it is used to great advantage for cooking, ironing, drying, heating water, and in recent years has been used successfully for house warming. For direct heating, it is burned in gas stoves and firephices, and, for hot-water or hot-air heating, it is used in specially designed boilers and furnaces.
One of the circumstances that tend to increase the general use of gas, is the readiness with which it can, by means of suitable gas engines, be used to generate power. These motors are made in all sizes, from nu-re toys to engines of 500 horsepower; and, owinj^ to their great convenience and remarkable economy, their use is likely lo become general.
For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page. 63—2
GAS MAKING § 13
Knn>S OF GAS
2m Until recent years only one kind of gas was used for illuminating and heating purposes, and that was obtained by the distillation of bituminous coal. The demand for gas for heating purposes, however, became so great, that new proc- esses were invented, and other varieties of gas have been introduced, so that now all forms of gaseous fuel are called by the general name of gras. The kinds of gas now com- monly used are as follows: Coal gas, oil gas, ivatcr gas, producer gas, natural gas, gasoline gas (or carbureted air), and acetylene.
MANUFACTUBE OF GAS
COAIi GAS
PROPEKTIES
3. Introduction. — Coal juras is produced by the destruc- tive distillation of bituminous coal in ovens, or retorts. These are as nearly as possible air-tight and are heated externally by a furnace. A very simple experiment, that may be used to illustrate the production of coal gas in a crude way, is as follows: Take an ordinary clay pipe and, nearly filling the bowl with soft coal such as. blacksmiths use, close the mouth of the bowl with damp clay. Place the pipe in a fire- place or stove in such a way that while the bowl is in the fire the stem will be otitside. In a short time coal gas will begin to issue from the small hole in the stem, and on being lighted this gas will burn with a bright flame in a manner similar to ordinary illuminating gas.
4, Composition. — Coal gas is not a simple gas, but is a mixture of a number of gases the amounts of which, present in a given volume of coal gas, vary somewhat according to
§ 12 GAS MAKING 8
the kind of coal used and the temperature at which it is carbonized.
The following may be considered tp be about the average results found by a volumetric analysis:
Hydrocarbon vapors .6
Carbon dioxide 3.4
Heavy hydrocarbons " 4.4
Oxygen .3
Carbon monoxide 10.1
Hydrogen. 45 . 9
Marsh gas 30 . G
Nitrogen 4.7
100.0
The above is an analysis of purified gas from which the carbon dioxide has not been removed.
6, Impurities. — In the unpurified state, coal gas also contains ammonia, sulphureted hydrogen, and a small per- centage of other compounds, mainly carbon bisulphide. Of these impurities, the two former must always be removed, but the amount of carbon bisulphide present is so small that in most American works no attempt is made to remove that which escapes with the gas after it has passed through the washer. When the gas is driven out of the coal by heat, it contains a certain proportion of hydrocarbons that are vola- tile only at a high heat; these begin to condense as soon as the gas begins to cool, forming tar. The non-volatile part of the coal, which remains when all the gas has been driven off, is called coke. In addition to this, some of the hydro- carbons attach themselves to the hot walls of the retorts, forming retort carbon, which must be removed at intervals of from 2 weeks to 2 or 3 months, according to the conditions under which the retorts are operated. The length of time required to drive the gas entirely from the coal varies according to the heat to which it is su])jecte(l, less time being required as the temperature of the retort is raised.
4 GAS MAKING § 12
It is now almost the universal custom to keep the retorts at such a temperature as is sufficient to drive off the gas in about 4 hours. Under these conditions a long ton, or 2,240 pounds, of good gas coal should produce about 10,000 cubic feet of about 17-candIepower gas, about 1,400 pounds of coke, 12 gallons of tar, and 4 pounds of ammonia. With coal of inferior quality, however, these figures might be very much different.
The term candlepower of a gas defines its light-giving quality. It is measured while the gas is burning in an open burner at the rate of 5 cubic feet per hour, and comparing the light emitted with that of a standard candle. This candle is one that will burn 120 grains of spermaceti per hour.
6, Enrichlngr Gas. — In many works, the gas is enriched to over 20 candlepower either by mixing with water gas, or by the use of oil, or cannel coal. This coal yields gas of high illuminating value, but the coke from it is of poor quality.
?• Gas Coal. — Gas coal, to get the best results, should be broken into lumps from 2 to 3 inches square and should be as free as possible from slack. The following is an analysis, by weight, of fairly good gas coal:
Volatile matter 36.00
Fixed carbon 57.96
Water 1.51
Sulphur 93
Ash 3 . 60
100.00
8. Hpoeltte (wravlty and Odor of Coal (ias. — Ordinary coal gas has a specitic gravity of aljout .45, air being taken as unity. It yields ai)()ut 650 British thermal units per cubic foot.
The well-known pungent odor of coal gas is due mainly to the oleflant «:as, com|>ose(] of what is known as the heavy hydrocarbons, which are present.
12 GAS MAKING
HY PRC>I>UCTS
9. The by products of coal-gas manufacture are coke^ tar, and ammonia.
10. Gas coke is not hard enough for blast-furnace work, but it makes an excellent domestic fuel, as it burns freely with a light draft, gives no smoke, and is clean to handle. Most gas companies find a ready market for all the coke that is not used about the works. Coke is frequently sold by the bushel instead of by weight. It weighs from 23 to 32 pounds per cubic foot, and from 35 to 42 pounds per heaped bushel, averaging about 38 pounds.
11. In the early history of gas manufacture there was little demand for tar, and it was frequently allowed to run to waste or was burned, but modern chemistry has developed the fact that coal tar is a very complex substance, contain- ing more than 600 different products, among which are many different kinds of coloring matters and chemicals of commercial value. Tar is also of considerable value as a fuel and is sometimes used as such in the gasworks. It is usually sold by the gallon.
12. Ammonia is produced during the carbonization of coal by the union of hydrogen and nitrogen. It is readily absorbed by water, which will take up about 700 times its own volume of ammonia gas, at a temperature of 60° F. As the temperature of water is raised, it rapidly loses its power of absorbing ammonia, and at 180° no ammonia can be absorbed. Ammonia is always removed from gas by allowing the gas to come in contact with water, the supply of which is usually so regulated that a weak ammoniacal liquor of about 2° specific gravity, as shown by a Twaddle hydrometer, is produced. This is usually distilled at the works, and either ammonium sulphate or crude ammoniacal liquor, which is from 15 to 20 per cent, ammonia, by weight, is produced. It is then sold on the basis of the number of pounds of ammonia in the material.
GAS MAKING
12
A COAL.-GAS PLiANT
13. Retorts. — In Fig. 1 is shown the general appear- ance of a bench of retorts. The retorts a, a are heated by means of a fire on the grate /. From a, the gas passes up
^^ t^ "^ ^"'^^ y^Jh
Fig. 1
through the stand pipes /;, d and through the hydraulic main r, where tlie greater part of the lar and water vapor is removed. Each pipe ^curves downwards on entering r, and has its mouth beh)w the surface of the tar and ammonia contained in i\ This forms an effectual seal, preventing the gas from flowing back to the retorts when they are opened for charging. The surplus tar and water flows off through the pipe // to the tar well. From the hydraulic main, the gas passes through r, r to an exhauster, or pump, and thence to the condenser.
§12
GAS MAKING
14. General Arrangrement. — A general idea of an entire plant may be obtained from Fig. 2, wherein the exhauster and station meter are omitted. The station meter is a large device used for measuring the gas, and is placed between the purifier and the gas holder. The exhauster is placed between the condenser and the scrubber to avoid back pressure in the retorts. Referring to Fig. 2, the gas passes from the hydraulic main e through c, and down d to the condenser y, where the gas is compelled to pass through the curved pipes. These pipes are sometimes
PIO. 8
cooled by the atmosphere, in which case the number of pipes must be very large. In others, the pipes are sur- rounded by water, and the number of pipes can be made very much less than when cooled by air. After passing through y, and leaving the remainder of the tar water behind in the base of the condenser, from whence the over- flow passes out through the bent pipe /, the ^as goes to the scrubber^. There it pas.sesover large wet surfaces, such as coke or small wood brush. Should any of the tar remain, after passing through the condenser, it is deposited in the scrub- ber. Only a small portion of the ammonia is carried past.
8 GAS MAKING § 12
The gas still contains some sulphur compounds and car- bon dioxide. To free it from these substances, the gas nexfgoes to the purifier/, where it passes through trays of dry or slightly dampened lime. This removes most of the impurities, and the gas, now ready for use, flows through / to the gas holder q, where it is stored. From q it passes through x to the station meter and pressure governor, and thence to the gas mains.
WATER GAS
PROPERTIES
15. Composition. — Water i^fas is a mixture of hydro- gen and carbon monoxide. It is made commercially by the contact of steam with incandescent carbon in the form of anthracite coal or coke. The steam is decomposed, the hydrogen being separated from the oxygen. The oxygen takes up carbon from the coal or coke and forms carbon monoxide, along with a small amount of carbon dioxide. The resultant gases from the contact of steam with incan- descent carbon are then mainly hydrogen and carbon mon- oxide, chemically separate but mechanically mixed together. This is what is called blue, or uncarbureted, water gas. It burns with a non-luminous flame and is consequently useless for lighting purposes except in incandescent lamps of the Welsbach type. In actual practice, this water gas is always enriched with oil gas, which furnishes the hydrocarbons necessary to make a luminous flame. The oil gas was made separately in many of the older forms of apparatus, but it is now commonly produced in the same machine in which the water gas is made.
16. Impurity. — The only impurity found in water gas, which must be removed, is sulphureted hydrogen, which is formed from the sulphur always present in greater or less amount in the coal or coke, and sometimes in the oil. The sulphureted hydrogen is removed by purification with lime
§ 12 GAS MAKING 9
or iron oxide, in the same way that the purification of coal gas is acfcomplished.
Carbon dioxide, which is formed by either imperfect" con- tact of the steam with the incandescent carbon, or because the temperature of the carbon is too low, is not a dangerous impurity, but is merely an inert gas, incapable of combus- tion. However, it absorbs heat when the gas is burned, and consequently reduces the heating and lighting power. It can be removed by purification with lime, but purification is not necessary if the generating apparatus is handled properly, as the quantity made will be very small. No ammonia is produced.
17, Analysis. — The following is a volumetric analysis of a sample of purified water gas:
Hydrocarbon vapors 1.2
Carbon dioxide 3.0
Heavy hydrocarbons 12 . 6
Oxygen .4
Carbon monoxide 28.0
Hydrogen 31.4
Methane 20 . 2
Nitrogen 3.2
100.0
18. Coal and Oil Required. — Water gas requires from 30 to 40 pounds of coal or coke per 1,000 cubic feet of gas made, and from 4 to 5 gallons of oil, depending on the candlepower required. Usually between 5 and 6 candle- power is obtained from each gallon of oil used. There are about 300 heat units yielded per cubic foot of uncarbureted water gas, and about 625 heat units are yielded by 24 candle- power carbureted water gas. The specific gravity of 24 can- dlepower water gas is about .625, air being taken as unity.
Pure uncarbureted gas has no perceptible odor, but the carbureted gas has an odor fully as strong as coal gas. This is mainly due to the hydrocarbons from the oil that is used for enriching.
§ 18 ^ GAS MAKING 11
WATER-GAS^^fACHINKS
19. Almost all the water-gras machines now in use are modifications of the Xiowe type. The Lowe type of machines consist of a generator, where the blue water gas is produced, and a superheater, or a carbureter and a super- heater, where the oil is vaporized and mixed with the blue water gas. The generator is a circular steel sheet, the height of which is about one and a half times the diameter. It is lined with a double lining of firebrick blocks and is provided with grate bars at the lower end and with air-tight doors at the top, where the coal is charged in, and at the bottom, where the clinkers are taken out. There are also connections for the escape of the gas and for the proper supply of steam and air. The capacity of any generator depends largely on the grate area and may be figured at a minimum of 20,000 cubic feet of gas per square foot of grate surface per 24 hours.
20. An example of a water-gas plant is given in Fig. 3. The generator a is first filled, to the height shown in the figure, with clean anthracite, ^gg size. The coal is fed through/, from the second floor, where the coal is stored. The coal in the generator is ignited, and is raised to a very high temperature by means of an air blast. The gases passing through the pipe y in the direction of the arrows again meet with an air blast at^, which blows them in a hot flame through the .superheater /, and out through the valve h to the smokestack. The body of the superheater is filled with loose firebrick, which takes up the heat from the passing gases.
On the bricks becoming sufficiently heated, the air blast is shut off, the valve // is closed, and steam at a very high temperature enters through the pipe c. Coming in contact with the white-hot coal, the oxygen and hydrogen separate, forming water gas with the carbon of the coal. This gas passes through the superheater, where any steam remaining is further broken up, and flowing out through ;/ passes
12 GAS MAKING § 12
through the washer to the scrubber y, and thence to the condensing apparatus.
The water gas, as it now is, burns with a pale-blue flame, giving little or no light. On this account it is necessary, in order to make the gas a good light giver, to add some hydrocarbon. For this purpose oil is allowed to flow in a fine stream into the generator from the reservoir ;//, during the passage of the steam. These hydrocarbons make the gas flame white, and water gas, properly treated in this way, gives a much brighter flame than coal gas. The hydrocarbons are often added after the gas is purified; they are not needed, however, when the gas is to be used for heating purposes or for gas engines.
ARCnER GAS
21. Archer jca** is water gas made from crude petro- leum by a continuous process; it derives its name from the inventor of the apparatus. The oil is pumped in a small stream into a red-hot retort, where it is quickly reduced to vapor by the heat. The oil vapor is then mixed with a current of superheated steam, and the mixture is driven through a l(»ng coil of very hot pipe. The oxygen of the steam unites witli the carbon of the oil, forming carbon monoxide, and the hydrogen is set free. The resulting gas is permanent, autl is of high value for heating purposes. It is produced at a pressure of 8 to 10 pounds per square inch.
OIL GAS
TIIK IMUKESJ.S
!2!2. oil PTiis is made, in much the same manner as coal gas, by the process knc^wn as destructive distilla- tion. This process consists in heating the oil to a very high temperature and causing the heavy hydrocarbons it contains to break up into the lighter or gaseous forms.
§12
GAS MAKING
18
In the manufacture of this gas, not only is petroleum util- ized, but also there are many animal and vege- table fats and oils used as well; among these are to be found the waste fats that occur in the manu- facture of woolens, and ordinary rosin.
OIL.-GAS PLANT
23. An example of an oll-gras plant is given in the accompanying illus- tration (Fig. 4). From the oil-supply tank /, oil is allowed to flow into the pipe /, which has the form CO in order that some of the oil will remain in the curve and prevent the gas from •escaping through the pipe /. The retort b is kept at a bright-red heat, in order that, as soon as the oil strikes it, it may become gasi- fied; it then passes out through the hydraulic main e to the com- bined scrubber and condenser g, and the purifier/. Oil gas is used extensively in lighting railroad trains, under the Pintsch system.
14 GAS MAKING § 12
PRODUCER GAS
PROPERTIES
24. Producer g^as, properly so called, is made without the aid of water in the generator. It is, in fact, nothing more than the products of incomplete combustion of the fuel used. The average quality of producer gas contains 10 to 15 per cent, of hydrogen, and 20 to 30 per cent, of carbon monoxide. These constitute the combustible part of the gas, nitrogen forming about 40 to 60 per cent, of the total volume. This gas burns with a dull reddish flame, and its value for heating purposes is about one-fourth that of an equal volume of good coal gas.
Semi-water gas is a combination of water and producer gas, which, while containing less nitrogen and a larger per- centage of carbon monoxide and hydrogen than producer gas, is made by a continuous process.
GEN KR ATI ox
25, Suppose the generator a. Fig. 3, to be connected
directly to the washer. The air blast being on, the gas is allowed to pass dircclly through y" to the washer. Then, if the air supply is properly regulated, the carbon of the fuel burns to rarbon monoxide, a highly inilanimable gas; the nitrogcMi of the air is carried with the gas, and we have, as a result, a mixture of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen, together with small quantities of marsh gas and hydrogen that were originally combined with the carbon in the coal. Nitrogen forming, as it does, four-fifths of the atmosphere, must necessarily be prestMit in a large (juantity. This gas will neither burn nor assist in burning, but is a nuisance, particularly when the gas is use<l in the gas engine, as it takes up room and carriis off heat. More than half, usually about six-tenths, of the volume of producer
§ 13 GAS MAKING 16
gas consists of nitrogen. As this gas cannot be gotten rid of by any inexpensive process, the vahie of producer gas for gas-engine use is not- very great. It can be used with profit, however, where the gas would otherwise be wasted, as when made in the manufacture of pig iron, or where the gas is made from very cheap coal refuse, as culm. The manufacture of producer gas being a continuous process, has led to the invention of the modern, so-called producer- gas processes, in which water plays an important part.
ACETYIiENB
PROPERTIES
26, Acetylene is a pure hydrocarbon gas; it is repre- sented by the chemical formula C^H^,
Acetylene contains a higher percentage of carbon than any other hydrocarbon, the composition by weight being 92.3 per cent, carbon and 7.7 per cent, hydrogen. The gas is colorless, and the commercial article has a strong odor suggestive of garlic. This odor is mainly due to the pres- ence of small quantities of various impurities; where these are not present there is only a slight, and by no means dis- agreeable, ethereal smell. Acetylene is very readily soluble in water. At ordinary temperatures, 12 cubic feet of water will absorb about 13 cubic feet of acetylene. The specific gravity is .91, air being taken as unity. In burning 1 cubic foot of acetylene, 1,385 heat units are developed. Acetyl- ene burns with almost perfect combustion and no smell is noticeable from the burners. Where an odor of acetylene is discernible, it is an evidence that there is a leak. Acetylene gives a clear white light very similar to sunlight, and all substances show their true colors when illuminated by it.
The candlepower, under the most favorable conditions, is about 240 for a consumption of 5 cubic feet per hour, but it must be noted that it is impossible to get economical results with a flame giving more than 50 candlepower.
16 GAS MAKING § 12
Acetylene is usually burned through half-foot burners, that is, burners that burn ^ cubic foot of gas per hour, each burner yielding in ordinary practice about 20 candlepower. Where more light is desired in one place several such burners are grouped together.
PRODUCTION
27. Iklaterlals. — Acetylene is produced commercially by adding water to a substance known as calcium carbide. This is a stone-like material, usually dark-brown or black in color. It cannot be burned and will keep indefinitely if kept sealed from the air. If left exposed, the moisture in the atmosphere gradually slakes it and it eventually turns to slaked lime. It always gives off an acetylene odor due to the fact that the moisture in the air is constantly decom- posing it and producing small quantities of acetylene.
Calcium carbide is produced by fusing together carbon, in the form of ground coke and lime, in the intense heat of an electric furnace.
When water is added to calcium carbide it is decomposed according to the following formula:
Carbide Water Slaked Lime Acetylene CaC, + Ulfi = Ca{OH\ + C,H^
One pound of absolutely pure calcium carbide will produce about 5.5 cubic feet of acetylene, but carbide as usually sold is not pure, and the yield of acetylene will be 5 cubic feet, or less, per pound of carbide.
/i8. Impurities. — The impurities found in calcium car- bide, and consequently in acetylene, are phosphorus, sulphur, ammonia, and traces of hydrogen and silicon hydride. Any unfused carbon, and the ash from the coke, that may be present in the calcium carbide, will be found in the residue of slaked lime after the ^as has been driven off.
The phosphorus and sulphur, in the- form of phosphurt-ted hydrogen and sulphureted hydrogen, are the only inii)urities
§ 12 GAS MAKING 17
that might prove objectionable, but where good carbide is used the quantities of these are so small that they may be neglected.
!<J9, Puriflcatlon, — The ammonia and sulphureted hydro- gen may be largely removed by the washing that the gas gets in a carbide-feed generator as it bubbles up through the water, or in the case of a water-feed generator, by making the gas bubble through a washer after it is generated. Any considerable amount of phosphureted hydrogen in acetylene will cause burner stoppage and the production of a kind of white haze, which is also produced when acetylene is burned where there is not good ventilation, as in store windows. Where it is necessary to remove the phosphureted hydrogen, it can be done by passing the gas through a chemical scrubber containing some oxidizing agent, such as chromic acid, or through chloride of lime. The latter is perhaps the most efficient purifying agent, but it is difficult to use because it has a tendency to lump together when moist and prevent the easy passage of gas. A substance known as puratylene has, however, been invented, which does the work excellently. It is a mixture of chloride of lime with other lime salts, and is produced in a porous lumpy state. It causes but little resistance to the passage of gas, and removes riot only all the phosphureted hydrogen but also the water vapor, so that the condensation of water in the pipes is avoided. The vessel that contains it is usually placed at the outlet of the gasometer or storage tank, so that the gas after passing through it does not come in contact with any more water but goes directly into the pipes for use. The purifying vessel is usually a small cylindrical tank that is partly filled with the purifying material. The gas is usually passed in at the top of this vessel and out at the bottom.
30, Heat Generated. — In the production of acetylene, a large amount of heat is generated. This heat may be localized so as to be harmful to the acetylene produced, or it may be diffused so as to do no harm, according to the way the water and acetylene are brought together,
03—3
18 GAS MAKING § 12
Thus, if water is allowed to drip slowly on a mass of car- bide, local overheating will occur and the acetylene may be partly broken up into other hydrocarbon compounds of an oily nature; the candlepower will be much reduced thereby and there will be a tendency for the burners to clog and carbonize.
31. Ume Dust. — Carbide, when heated, has a tendency to give off lime dust, which will choke the burners and may even fill the pipes up completely with a deposit of lime. This trouble may be partly overcome by the use of filters of cotton or thin cloth, or by making the acetylene bubble through a washer. Where the carbide is dropped in small lumps into a considerable volume of water, the water absorbs the heat and the gas bubbles out of the water, cool and free from dust.
33. By Product. — The sludge of lime waste that is left after all the acetylene has been evolved should be of a whitish color; if yellow or brown, it is a sure indication that the heat has been too high. This residue is harmless and will not burn. It packs well and makes good walks or drives, and as it consists mostly of the hydrate and carbon- ate of lime, it is valuable as a fertilizer.
33. IIIkIi^ Pressure. — Acetylene is an enclotliermlc eouipouiicl. This nic*ans that heal is absorbed when it is developed and is ^iven off when it is decomposed. If acetyl- ene is compressed, so that the particles of gas are forced together more, by a pressure of 150 pounds to the square inch, or more, it may be decomposed when subjected to high heats and may become violently explosive. The use or possession of liipiid acetylene or of acetylene at high pressure is dangerous and should be avoided, but acetylene at ordinary temperatures cannot be exploded, unless it is mixed with air and ignited. If subjected to high heats at ordinary pressures, without the presence of air, it will merely decompose into other hydrocarbon forms, such as benzine, methane, etc.
§ 13 GAS MAKING 19
34, Explosiveness. — Acetylene, in common with all other combustible gases, is explosive when mixed with air in certain proportions. One part of acetylene mixed with 12.5 parts of air will produce perfect combustion and most violent explosion, but an admixture of from .03 to .82 parts of air will also explode with violence. Moreover, the igniting temperature of acetylene is comparatively low. While ordinary coal gas ignites at about 1,100° F., the ignition point of acetylene is about 900° F., and it may therefore be lighted by a cigar .or cigarette. It will readily be seen from the foregoing statement that acetylene must be handled with care, but as a mixture of 1 part of acetylene in 10,000 parts of air may be readily detected by the smell, leaks may be located and stopped long before there is danger of an explosion.
It is dangerous, however, to look for leaks with a match or candle, and all tests should be made with a little soap and water. The soap suds should be brushed on wherever a leak is suspected; the formation of soap bubbles will indi- cate its location.
35. With properly installed piping and a properly con- structed and placed generator, there is absolutely no danger in the production of acetylene in the cellars or other suitable parts of residences, provided the apparatus is handled by a person who has been properly instructed, and provided good judgment and common sense are used.
This is made evident by the fact that the Fire Under- writers make no objection to the installation of any one of the numerous generators that have been tested and approved by their experts, and are installed in accordance with the requirements of local laws or ordinances.
GENERATORS
36, Types. — There are five general types of generators in use; viz., the spray type, the overflow type, the recession type, the dip type, and the drop, or plunge, type.
20
GAS MAKING
§12
37. The spray grenerator is shown in Fig; 6. It con- sists of a drum, or shell, a, either cylindrical or square, into which a pan b of carbide is introduced thi-ough a removable head c. Water from a spray tube d is allowed to drip on
this carbide, as shown, the supply being usually cut off automatically by the increase in pressure of the gas in the generator, or by the raising of the bell of a small gas holder when gas is produced more rapidly than it is required.
Spray generators are likely to overheat the gas, causing a loss of candlepower, and the choking of the burners.
Steam is frequently generated when the water strikes the carbide and lime dust is thrown off, which will clog the pipes and burners. This type of generator is divided into two subdivisions, the dry and wet. In the first form only enough water is added to produce the gas, the residue being removed in a dry state. These machines are waste- ful because some of the carbide is frequently removed unused, and the unused carbide is sure to give the residue a very strong odor. In the wet machines enough water is run in to flood the carbide before it is removed.
38. On account of the overheating and the lime-dust trouble, the spray type of generator is suitable only for special conditions, such as (^ccur in bicycle lamps, where the spray or drip system is the only practical way to apply the water to the carbide.
12 GAS MAKING 21
39. In the overfloTV grenerator, shown in Fig. 6, the
Pig. 6
carbide pan is divided into a number of small compartments so arranged that when water is turned into the first compart- ment it floods the carbide in that before it overflows and begins the generation of gas in the sec- ond. The compartments are thus successively filled and overflowed, until the carbide has all been flooded. The water feed may be automatically regulated by the gas pressure or by a mechanism on the gas holder.
Generators of this type are open to the same objections as those of the spray type, though perhaps to a smaller degree. Some of them give very fair re- sults in practical use.
40. In the recession gener- ator, shown in Fig. 7, the carbide is held suspended in baskets or perforated pans a, a, and water is allowed to rise in the generator ^^° "
until it reaches the carbide, when the production of acetylene
23
GAS MAKING
§12
begins. Should gas be produced faster than it is needed, the pressure forces the water down, away from the carbide, and back through the water-supply pipe ^, when generation ceases. The water and residue are drained off through a drain pipe provided with a cock r, or valve, at the bottom of the generator. If the water comes up to the carbide and produces vigorous generation and then quickly recedes, the carbide is apt to become so hot as to be incandescent, and great damage to the quality of gas results. Different makes of generators vary in their tendency to cause this trouble.
cw
41. In the dip grenerator, shown in Fig. 8, the carbide is placed in baskets or perforated pans a, a, which are sus- pended from the inside of the bell b of a small gas holder or gasometer. As gas is taken from the holder, it gradually lowers until the carbide comes in contact with the water in the tank. Acetylene is then gener- ated, and if the rate of generation exceeds the demand, the gas accu- mulates under the bell and raises it until the carbide does not touch the water, when the generation of gas soon stops. The carbide in this generator is very apt to become overheated, just as in the recession apparatus.
4:*i. In the drop ^onerator,
s h o WMi in Vv^. '.♦, the c^irbide is ^*^'-" allowed to fall, a small piece at a
time, from a carbide chamber, as at ^^ into a larj^^e volume of water. Since the small piece of carbi<le is dropped into a large (piantity of water, the water absorbs the heat as fast as it is generated, so that the i^as prcKliK^cd is cool, that is, below 'ZVl' F., and is consequently of excellent quality. As
1%
GAS MAKING
23
the gas bubbles up through the water it is thoroughly washed and a large proportion of the impurities are removed. The residue, or lime sludge, drops to the bottom, as at *, and is re- moved from time to time. It has been claimed that a considerable loss of acetyl- ene results in this form of apparatus on account of the fact that 1 cubic foot of water will absorb a little over 1 cubic foot of acetyl- ene. This is true if the gas has access to pure water, but as the water in the gen- erator is constantly taking up lime, the gas absorbed when water is freshly added is largely driven out again and the acetylene loss is very slight.
In theory, the amount of water required to produce all the acetylene from 1 pound of carbide is .56 pound, or a little over half a pint, but 1 gallon to the pound is nearer the usual practice.
43. The granulated carbide is fed into the drop type gen- erator either by hand or automatically. The former method is suitable for large establishments and public lighting plants, where considerable holder capacity is at hand and where an attendant can give regular attention to the feeding.
In the early history of acetylene lighting, great difficulty was encountered in constructing an apparatus that would successfully feed granulated carbide automatically, but the problem has now been solved by many makers of generators.
Pig. 9
%i
GAS MAKING
44. Gas HoMer or HtoreLg:^^ Tank. — All generators
should be provided with a storage tank of the gas-holder type to take up and store the gas that generates after the flow from the machine has been cut off. The storage tank prevents an undue pressure in the generator due to this after-generation.
45. The gas holder shown in Fig, 10 is considered to be the best storage tank, because it not only serves to store the
gas, but also acts as a pressure regulator and maintains a constant pressure in the piping system. Gas enters the gas holder from the generator through a and flows up an inner tube d to the space un- der the floating bell r; it then flows down through another inner tube d lo the gas- service pipes. The bell rises and falls in the water^ thus chan- ging its gas • holding space to suit changes in the volume of gas delivered by the gen- erator without raate- jswpw rial I y changing the o/mf pressure in the gas pipes. The water at e serves as a seal for the mouth of a, while the base of d extends into r to act as an overflow for the lower chamber The rod / is a guide for the bell.
46. Another form of storage apparatus consists of two tanks that are connected together at the bottom and partly
Pio, w
§12
GAS MAKING
25
filled with water, the top of one being open to the atmos- phere. When gas is admitted above the water in the closed tank, the pressure of the gas forces down the water in that tank and correspondingly up in the other tank. This apparatus has the disadvantage of a variable pressure, the pressure increasing as gas is added. Consequently, some form of a reducing valve must be placed on the outlet gas pipe in order to insure a steady pressure at the burners, and hence steadiness of light.
47. Safety Blow-Off. — All generators should be pro- vided with a safety valve, or seal,^ that will open at a pressure equivalent to 6 inches of water, and is connected with a pipe leading to the outside of the building. The safety valve, or seal, is intended to prevent an excess of pressure in the generator.
As no mechanical blow-off valve will work properly at the low pressures usually employed in gas lighting, the best blow-off is formed by a piece of pipe dipping 6 inches into a water seal. Such a seal will re- seal itself when the pressure goes down.
Fig. 11 shows the operation of such a seal. The gas pipe a con- nects the trap to the gas holder, or generator, but no valve or shut- off cocks must be placed between this trap and the generator. The gas passes up through b to the gas fixtures. When the pressure in a becomes great enough, gas blows down through r, rises through the water in the trap, and blows to the atmosphere through d. The pipe e is an overflow to prevent the trap from filling with water and thus increase the resistance to a blow-off.
Care should be exercised that the trap always contains sufficient water. The outlet pipe d should never project
|
5 |
b |
|
|
, "-^ |
rf |
|
|
j- |
I4 |
r" * ^ |
|
Tl |
H |
^ |
Pig. 11
26 GAS MAKING § 12
down far enough to enter the water, since water will then be forced up into t/, in consequence of which the pressure may run up high enough to force the water out of the trap. The pipe e should have a tee with a short vertical piece of pipe at its highest point outside the trap in order to prevent any siphonic action.
48. Number of Jjiiurhts. — Generators should never be connected with a greater number of lights than they are designed to carry, and they should preferably be operated on a smaller number of lights than they are rated for by manufacturers, in order to insure safety.
49. Overheating: In Generators. — Overheating is caused by overloading, and results in too rapid gen- eration; this causes a breaking up of the acetylene into other hydrocarbons, such as acithracene, benzine, stybolene, etc. •
60. Requirements of a Goo<l Generator. — The follow- ing are the points on which judgment was passed in award- ing medals to the acetylene generators at the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo, New York, in 1901:
1. The contact of the carbide should be with the water (in other words, the machine should be of the drop type).
2. The carbide should be fed into the water in propor- tion to the consumption of gas.
3. The j^as pressure at the point of delivery should remain practically constant, irrespective of the number of jets burning, or of the. amount of carbide, or of gas, in the generator.
4. The pressure should be ecjual in all parts of the machine and should not exceed that exerted by a O-int h column of water.
5. When the lights are turned out the generation of gas should cease.
(>. The gas should be delivered to the burners clean, cool, and dry.
7. The heat of generation must not exceed 200° F.
§ 12 GAS MAKING 27
8. When the generator is recharged there should be no escape of gas.
9. If the generator is left idle for a long period there should be no deterioration of the carbide.
10. The gas holder attached to the generator should be of ample capacity and made tight with a water seal.
11. The pressure in the service pipe should never exceed that of a 3-inch column of water, and a provision must be made to blow off into the air at a pressure of G inches.
12. The water capacity of the generator must be at least 1 gallon of water to 1 pound of carbide.
13. There must be a convenient method of getting rid of the slaked carbide without escape of gas.
14. The generator must be entirely automatic in its action. That is to say, after it has been charged it will need no further attention until the carbide is entirely exhausted.
15. There should be a simple method of determining the amount of unconsumed carbide in the generator at any time.
16. The generators should be so simple in operation that they can be tended by unskilled labor without danger of accident.
17. The various operations of discharging the refuse, filling with fresh water, putting in carbide, and starting the generator should be so arranged that it is impossible to do them in the wrong order.
18. The generators must be so arranged that there can be no possibility of mixing air with acetylene gas.
19. Generators must be built of substantial materials well adapted to their purpose.
20. Generators must be so constructed that an addition to the charge of carbide can be made at any time, without affecting the light.
Any generator that is built according to the preceding points may be considered excellent.
51# Materials of Construction. — Generators should not be made of tin, but should be of galvanized sheet iron.
28 GAS MAKING § U
not less than No. 20 gauge, but No. 22 gauge may bensed in bell constructions, where stiffening rings are provided.
Seams should be either locked or riveted, as well as soldered. Seams that are only soldered are liable to open up if a fire occurs near the apparatus, and this, in the case of an automatic-feed generator might result in the lowering of the bell through leakage, and a consequent large pro- duction of gas at a time when it would produce most harm- ful results.
All braces, pipe hangers, etc. should not be secured by bolts but rather by rivets, and the heads of these should be soldered over to avoid any chance of a leak. All pipe con- nections should be of standard galvanized-iron pipe. Where pipes run through the sheet metal, either a flange, with a standard pipe thread tapped into it, should be riveted or soldered on, or malleable locknuts should be soldered on each side of the sheet metal. Pipes should run through sheet metal at right angles to it.
Right-and-left couplings properly made up are better than flange unions or packed unions, ground unions, or long screws.
Where flanges are necessary, the best pure rubber pack- ing, not less than I inch thick, should be used.
The pipe connections should be as simple as possible and the minimum number of valves and fittings should be used.
The height of the gas holder should be about the same as its diameter; the size should be such that when no gas is being generateii and the machine is feeding the maximum number of lights for which it is rated, the bell will descend at the rate of not more than 3 inches per minute. The bell should be guided either by a central guide post or by side cohimns on the same principle as tlie ordinary large gas holder. Just before the bell can reach its maximum height an automatic blow-off should open into the waste pipe that runs to the outside of the building. In this way all danger of the gas holder getting too full and allowing gas to blow out into the room will be avoided. The inlet and outlet
g 12 GAS MAKING 29
pipes should be separate and placed as far apart as possible. Variation of pressure in the house pipes, due to the too rapid production of gas in the generator, will thus be avoided, and the gas will have a better chance to cool and deposit some of its moisture.
The space in a machine that contains air when starting up should be made as small as possible.
No copper should be used in any part of the construction of an acetylene machine.
In the presence of some of the impurities found in acetylene, a substance known as acetyllde of copper is formed. This product belongs to that class of substances known as fiilmlnates, and in common with them it can be exploded by a sharp blow, or by friction.
62. Selecting a Machine. — No machine should be installed that is not approved by the Fire Underwriters. This precaution is necessary to prevent the cancelation of fire-insurance policies on the property in which the machine is installed. The National Board of Fire Underwriters issues a list of acetylene-gas machines approved by them, a copy of which may be obtained from the Board on applica- tion. The address of the Board can be obtained from any reputable fire-insurance agent.
53. To intelligently select a good acetylene-gas machine, it is advisable to first secure the Fire Underwriters' latest list of approved machines, and then to send for the manu- facturers' catalogues of these machines. The construction and operation of the different machines should then be care- fully studied in order to determine which most nearly meets the previously explained requirements of a good machine.
64. Regrulations for Operation of Machines. — The
following regulations should be observed in the operation of acetylene machines:
1. Calcium carbide should be kept in water-tight metal cans by itself, outside of any insured building, under lock and key, and where it is not exposed to the weather.
30 GAS MAKING § 12
2. A regular time should be set for attending to and charging the apparatus during daylight hours only.
3. In charging the generating chambers of water-feed machines, clean all residuum carefully from the containers and remove it at once from the building. Separate from the mass any unslaked carbide remaining, and return it to the container, adding new carbide as required. Be careful never to fill the container over the specified mark, as it is important to allow for the swelling of the carbide when it comes in contact with water. The proper action and economy of the machine are dependent on the arrangement and amount of carbide placed in the generator. Carefully guard against the escape of gas.
4. Whenever charging with carbide, always replenish the water supply.
5. Never deposit residuum or exhausted material from water-feed machines in sewer pipes or near inflammable material.
G. Water tanks and water seals must always be kept filled with clean water.
7. Never install more than the equivalent of the number of half -foot burners for which the machine is rated.
8. Never test the generator or piping for leaks with a flame, ami never apply flame to an outlet from zvhiek the burner has been removed.
\). A'ever use a lighted mateh, eandle, lantern^ or any open light near the maehine.
10. See that the entire installation is in accordance with the rules of the National Board of Fire Underwriters, and obtain a written ij^uarantee that these rules are complied with.
Failure to comply with these regulations is liable to endanger life and property.
55. Machines Subject to Frost. — Since water is used in acetylene generators and gas liolders, they should be installed in places where the temperature* will not go below the freezing point. Where this is impossible, the water
§12 GAS MAKING 31
drawn from the generator with the residue should be allowed to stand in a tank or barrel until the lime has settled out of it. The clear water may then be put back in the machine and will not freeze above zero. Ten per cent, of glycerine added to the water in a gas holder will prevent freezing under ordinary conditions. Stoves or fireplaces must never be permitted in the same room with the gen- erator.
The generator room may be safely heated by hot water or steam pipes.
56. Cost of Acetylene. — Calcium carbide varies some- what in cost, being generally about 4 cents per pound delivered in small quantities on the consumers* premises. Since 1 pound of calcium carbide will produce at least 4J cubic feet of acetylene, the cost may be reckoned at a little less than 1 cent per cubic toot, assuming carbide to be 4 cents per pound. The cost, therefore, for each ordinary half-foot burner, will be about ^ cent per hour for a 20-can- dlepower flame. Ordinary city gas at $1.50 per thousand cubic feet costs J cent for each open flame burning 5 cubic feet per hour. City gas is usually about 20 candlepower, so that it would require one 5-foot burner to give as much light as a |-foot acetylene burner. When used with Wels- bach lights, however, city gas gives about 20 candlepower per cubic foot, so that a light burning the usual quantity of gas, about 3^ cubic feet per hour, would produce about 70 candlepower at a cost of .525 cent per hour.
ACETYI^ENK BURNERS
57. Plain Burners. — Ordinary gas tips or burners can- not be used for acetylene gas, because with such burners an acetylene flame does not get an air supply sufficient for perfect combustion, and consequently smoke will be formed. Moreover, the tip soon becomes so hot that the acetylene is decomposed by the extreme heat, before it is burned, and the candlepower of the flame is lowered, while the tip
32
GAS MAKING
§12
itself soon becomes choked with soot and carbon, which are produced by the charring of some of the more condensible hydrocarbons.
58. A good acetylene burner is made in the form of a Y. The small jets, one from each branch of the Y, impinge on one another and form a flat flame, as shown in Fig. 12. The two jets are at right angles. Each jet is a miniature Bunsen burner, which draws air along with the gas, so that just enough air is supplied to give smokeless combustion.
The flame itself does not touch the tips, which consequently do not become overheated.
FIO. 12
59. Fig. 13 {a) shows a needle burner in perspective; Fig. 13 (d) shows the burner in section. The socket a screws
Pio. 18
on the ordinary gas fixture. Gas flows through the arms *, d and out through a hole drilled in the center of each of the
§ 12 GAS MAKING 33
tips r, r, as shown by the arrows. Air flows in through a number of radial holes in the tips, as shown by the arrows, and mixes with the gas before it ignites. The needle valve d serves to regulate the flow of gas, and can be removed for cleaning purp)oses. The size of the flame is increased by unscrewing the needle valve. Closing the valve tight not only shuts off the gas, but the long needle point also removes any carbon that may have gathered over the mouth of the central hole. Hence, this burner is self-cleaning.
60. As metal tips are apt to warp, even at the low tem- perature to which they are subjected, steatite tips are preferable.
61. It is bad policy to turn ordinary acetylene flames down, as the jets then lose their Bunsen effect and are apt to become clogged with soot. Burners that are supplied with a small needle valve regulating each jet may be regu- lated to burn a very small amount of acetylene with satis- factory results.
62. Incandescent Burners. — The use of acetylene in lamps of the Welsbach type has been frequently attempted and there are several such lamps on the market.
The highest practical efficiency obtained by the use of acetylene burners of the Welsbach type is about 90 candle- power to the cubic foot ; a half-foot burner of this type would, therefore, give 45 candlepower, which is a little more than double the light that can be obtained by the open flame.
It has, however, been found that the intense heat is injurious to mantles, and if the use of Welsbach lights is to be made successful it is necessary to remove every trace of phosphureted hydrogen from the acetylene. Otherwise, phosphates of the earth of which mantles are composed are soon formed on the surface of tjie mantle, and, as these phosphates are readily fusible, the life of the mantle is short.
63. Cooking: Burners. — Acetylene cannot be used in gas stoves or ranges such as are ordinarily used for illumi- nating gas.
63 — 4
34 GAS MAKING § 12
Insufficient air supply from the ordinary stove Bunsen burner leads to the stoppage of the burner by soot and car- bon, which is made worse by the heat of the burner decom- posing the gas. In addition to this, the burner becomes hot, and, in consequence of its low ignition temperature, the mixture of acetylene and air ignites below the burner, or in other words, flashes back.
Suitable burners, however, can be constructed. These have usually a long draft stack below the burner, so that a quantity of air sufficient for proper combustion is added and properly mixed with the acetylene; the area of the burner surface is arranged in such a proportion to the amount of gas to be consumed that the burner does not become hot enough at any point to cause flashing back. Stoves equipped with such burners are on the market, but their operation is much more expensive than that of ranges using ordinary illuminating gas. This is due to the fact that while acetylene gives ten times as much light, volume for volume, than ordinary illuminating gas, the number of heat units developed is only about threefold. Thus, a range burner consuming 15 cubic feet of illuminating gas per hour, at 81.50 per 1,000 cubic feet, costs 21 cents per hour, while an acetylene burner, to develop the same amount of heat, consumes 5 cubic feet per hour, which with acetylene at 1 cent per cubic foot, costs 5 cents. Where acetylene is at hand, however, the convenience of gaseous fuel will in many cases lead to the use of acetylene stoves.
AC ETYI.ENK FOU GAS-KXGTXE I .SE
C>4, (ras engines may be operated by acetylene gas under suitable conditions, but, since the economy of a gas engine depends very largely on the degree of compres- sion to which the mixture of gas and air in the cylinder is subjected before it is exploded, the economy of the acet- ylene-gas engine must be less than that of the ordinary gas engine.
§ 12 GAS MAKING 35
The compression of the charge in the engine generates heat, and, consequently, the compression in the cylinder of an acetylene-gas engine must be so low that the tempera- ture of ignition will not be reached before the proper time for an explosion occurs. For the same reason the cylinder of the engine would have to be water-cooled sufficiently to keep the temperature always below the igniting point.
Supposing, however, the same efficiency in relation to the comparative heating values of acetylene and illuminating gas could be obtained, the operation of the engine would still be more than twice as costly as with illuminating gas for the same reason that makes the use of acetylene stoves more expensive; 20 cubic feet of ordinary illuminating gas will develop 1 horsepower in a gas engine, and at $1.50 per thousand cubic feet this costs 3 cents. An acetylene engine to develop 1 horsepower, according to the relative number of heat units, would use about 7 cubic feet of gas, and with acetylene at 1 cent per cubic foot, this would cost 7 cents. On account of the low igniting temperature, it would be difficult to use a hot tube igniter on an acetylene- gas engine, but an electric igniter could be used.
PrPrN^G FOR ACETYIiENE GAS
66. Size of Pipes. — The pipes used for distributing acetylene gas need not be as large as those used for ordi- nary illuminating gas, because of the much smaller volume of acetylene required to produce the same amount of light. It is not good practice, however, to use pipes smaller than ^ inch nominal diameter. The difference between the cost of this and |-inch pipe is slight, and |-inch pipe is easily stopped by any scale or rust that may be in the pipes. When acetylene gas is piped into a house from the street, the service should never be less than J inch, as J -inch pipes are very easily distorted; the same care should be used, with regard to the drainage of the piping system, that is observed in laying an ordinary piping system for illuminating gas.
36 GAS MAKING § 12
Where acetylene is distributed through mains in the streets, the diameter of the mains may be reduced to one- half that of the mains for ordinary illuminating gas, but no street main should be less than 1-inch pipe.
Drips must be installed at the low points on the mains, just as in ordinary gas practice. The best wrought-iron pipe should be used, and screwed joints should be made in all cases. Th^ mains should be very carefully tested under pressure, for leaks, before being covered.
66. Acetylene Xicakagre. — Leakage in an acetylene system is even more serious than in the case of illuminating gas. If an ordinary illuminating-gas company sending out 1,000,000 cubic feet per month has a leakage of 50,000 cubic feet in the same period, the leakage would be only 5 p)er cent., but an acetylene gas company supplying the same amount of light would send out only one-tenth as much gas, or 100,000 cubic feet, and if the leakage remained the same, that is, 50,000 cubic feet, it would be 50 per cent.
67. Acetylene Meters. — Ordinary dry meters may be used for metering acetylene and should be rated at 15 times their normal capacity. Thus a, three-light meter will sup- ply 45 lights.
ac;etyi.exe gasworks
68. In installing an acetylene gasworks it is best to put in a gas holder and a generator of such size that it will never be necessary to generate acetylene at night. A station meter, which may be of the ordinary dry tyi)e, should always be installed, as otherwise a careful record of the operation of the plant cannot be maintained. Automatic carbide-feed generators are sometimes used for sui:h [)lants, but*^ as an attendant should always he at hand, the simpler hand-feed generators are more frecjuently used.
In this case the production of gas is somewhat intermit- tent^ and it is best to install a small relief holder to take up
§ 12 GAS MAKING 87
the fluctuation so that the gas passes through the meter at a regular rate of speed. The plant should be heated in winter by steam or hot-water coils, and the heater should be placed in a separate building away from the generator house.
ACETYLENE IJLMPS
69. Acetylene Street Ijamps. — Acetylene is very suit- able for street lighting, as the flame is not easily blown out, but suitable globes and wind guards should be placed on all lamp posts.
On account of the compact generating apparatus that may be used, and the fact that a stock of carbide sufficient to produce a large amount of acetylene can be readily car- ried, acetylene is very suitable for the lighting of cars, boats, etc. Car lighting is also accomplished by means of acetylene carried under pressure in tanks in the same man- ner as Pintsch gas, but the dangers resultant from the use of acetylene in this way have prevented its general applica- tion. When such tanks are carried they should always be provided with fusible plugs, so that in case of fire the plugs will melt and the acetylene escape and burn, instead of exploding from overheating.
70. Acetylene Portable liamps. — On account of the difficulty of proper regulation of the production of acetylene and consequent regulation of the pressure, portable lamps have not come into general use.
71. Fire UnclerwTlters' Requirements for Portable Ijamps. — The Fire Underwriters require that a portable acetylene lamp must be made in compliance with the follow- ing rules:
1. Lamps must be substantially made of metal, and the construction must embody no copper, either pure or alloyed, in contact with acetylene.
38 GAS MAKING § 12
2. Lamps must be, in all parts subject to corrosion, thoroughly protected by an effective and durable preventive of rust.
3. Lamps must be designed with a view to stability, the assembly being such that when completely charged and ready for operation, inclination at an angle of 30 degrees with the vertical will not result in upsetting.
4. Lamps must be fitted with not more than one single or multiple burner, and the total rated gas consumption shall not be more than | cubic foot per hour.
5. Lamps must be automatically regulated and uniform in their action, producing gas only as immediate consumption demands, and be so designed that gas is generated without producing sufficient heat to cause yellow discoloration of the residuum (which will occur at about 500° F.) or abnormal pressure at any stage of the process, when using carbide of any degree of fineness.
6. Lamps must have no mechanical or spring relief valves, and must be designed so as to prevent automatically the accumulation of excessive pressure when placed in any position or overturned.
7. No valves or petcocks opening into the room from gas-holding parts, the draining of which would allow an escape of gas, are permissible, and condensation from all parts of the apparatus must be automatically disposed of without the use of valves or mecluinical working parts.
8. Gauge glasses, the breakage of which would allow ' escape of gas, must not be used.
9. The use of mercury seals is prohibited. Mercury has been found unreliable as a seal in acetylene apparatus.
10. Combustible oils must not be used in connection with the apparatus.
11. Water seals, the breakage of which would allow escape of gas into the room, are prohibited.
12. Every lamp must be provided with a permanent marking, stating plainly the amount of carbide necessary for a single full charge, and the manufacturer's name and name of the lamp.
g 12 GAS MAKING 39
13. The generating chambers must be so designed that generation will take place under conditions similar to those that obtain in the best generator practice.
14. Generators must afford ample room for the residuum without containing unnecessary air spaces.
15. Generators must be so designed that the residuum will not clog or affect the working of the device, and be so arranged that the residuum can conveniently be handled and removed.
16. The carbide receptacles must have sufficient carbide capacity to supply continuously the burner for which the lamp is rated during a lighting period of not less than 6 hours.
In determining charges, the yield of gas from the various grades of carbide shall be estimated as follows:
From the 3J" to the 2" grade, 4^^ cubic feet per pound.
From the 2" to the ^" grade, 4^ cubic feet per pound.
From the J" to the J" grade, 4^ cubic feet per pound.
From the J" to the ^" grade, 4 cubic feet per pound.
From the Electrolite grade, 4 cubic feet per pound.
These figures are specified in order that a reasonable allowance may be insured for depreciation after the initial* opening of the package. The gas consumption of burners shall be estimated at 50 per cent, in excess of the rating.
17. Carbide receptacles must be arranged so that the carbide holders, or charges, may be easily and entirely removed in case of necessity.
18. Carbide receptacles may in no case have capacity for more than 2 pounds of carbide.
19. The water supply must be similar in quantity to the allow^ance made in the best generator practice.
20. The working pressure at the burner must not vary more than \% (1) inch water column under all conditions of carbide charge and feed.
21. Lamps requiring pressure regulators or reducers must be so constructed as to withstand without injury a pressure equivalent to four times the maximum pressure obtainable in normal operation.
599
40 GAS MAKING § 12
22. Pressure regulators must conform to the rules for the construction of other acetylene apparatus so far as they apply and must not be subject to sticking or clogging.
23. Pressure regulators must be capable of maintaining a uniform pressure, not varying more than ^^j^ inch water column, at any load within their rating.
24. Where installed, purifiers must conform to the general rules for the construction of other acetylene apparatus and allow the free passage of gas.
25. The means of control must be such as to obviate accumulation of pressure within the lamp or appreciable dis- charge of gas after extinction of the light.
26. The means of control must be so arranged as to necessitate a tight closure of the carbide filling opening before the feed can be put into operation.
GASOI^tNE GAS
PROPERTIES
73. Gasoline gas, or carbureted air, also called air gas, is a mixture of gasoline vapor with air. The pure vapor is so rich in carbon that, in order to burn it success- fully for lighting purposes, it must be given a high pres- sure ; and special burners must be employed, as for acetylene. In order to burn it in the same burners used for illuminating gas and at the same pressure, it must be diluted with air until the proportion of carbon equals that in ordinary coal gas.
The air furnishes a part of the oxygen required for combustion, but it also introduces a large proportion of nitrogen, which is inert and useless material, being incom- bustible; the nitrogen reduces the temperature of the flame and thus diminishes its brilliancy.
Gasoline is produced by distilling crude petroleum. Its specific gravity averages about .75 that of water. It is
§ 12 GAS MAKING 41
really a mixture of a large number of hydrocarbon com- pounds that differ slightly in their chemical proportions. All of them, however, will change from the liquid to the gaseous form, under ordinary atmospheric pressure, at a temperature ranging from 70° to 100°. If a tank contain- ing liquid gasoline is opened to the air, the liquid will all pass away in the form of gas. The rapidity of the evapora- tion will depend on the temperature, being very slow at 40°, quite rapid at 70° and furious at 212°; and, if the liquid catches fire in any way, it will pass into gas with explosive violence. The burning liquid expands enormously and is very difficult to extinguish. Gasoline must be regarded as gas in a liquid form, and it should be clearly understood that it will resume the gaseous form whenever the oppor- tunity is afforded. The eflfect of leaving a can of gasoline uncorked is exactly the same as that of leaving a gas cock open; in both cases the gas will diffuse through the atmos- phere and form explosive mixtures.
It is generally regarded as a dangerous material to use or handle, but the danger arises from the recklessness or neglect of the persons using it. If the same care is taken to keep it shut up as is taken to keep coal gas confined, it is no more dangerous than the latter. A tank of gasoline should be treated as a reservoir of gas.
73. There are different grades of gasoline in the market, which differ in their specific gravities. A gasoline called crude naphtha has a specific gravity of .6, and is used for making illuminating gas. For cooking stoves, for plumbers' torches, and for firepots, gasoline having a specific gravity from .7 to .74, is adapted. For use in gas engines, as in auto- mobiles, a gasoline having a specific gravity of .74 is used. For gas machines the specific gravity should be .8G for the summer and .88 for the winter. The highest grade is sometimes called winter grasollne ; its specific gravity is about .9. This grade will evaporate at ordinary temper- atures and leave nothing behind. The poorer grades con- tain more or less oil that will not evaporate without the aid
42 GAS MAKING § 12
of heat; this oil collects in the gas-generating apparatus, and must be removed from time to time. It is usually thrown away, but it is very similar to low-grade kerosene, and will burn in the same manner in gasoline stoves.
It has become the custom in the trade to designate the specific gravity of gasoline in per cent., water being con- sidered as 100. Thus, when an 86-per-cent. gasoline is mentioned, a gasoline having a specific gravity of .86 is meant.
74. The quantity of gasoline that is required to pro- duce 1,000 cubic feet of gas, and that will give a light of 14 to 16 candles (when burning at the rate of 5 cubic feet per hour), is about 4 J gallons of the best grade but more is required if the gasoline is of a lower grade.
GASOLINE-GAS MACHINBS
75. Generator. — The apparatus used for making illu- minating gas from gasoline consists of three parts: a gen- erator for holding the gasoline, an air pump for forcing air through the generator, and a mixing device for mingling the air and vapor in proper proportions.
The vapor is made by simple evaporation, without the aid of heat. The liquid is spread out in large shallow pans, and the air is compelled to pass successively over its surface in all the pans. The construction of the evaporator, or j<enei*at<)r, is shown in Fig. 14. Three pans a, b, and r, and sometimes more, are employed, and all are enclosed in a gas-tight casing having an opening / in the side for the inlet of air and another opening at ^/ for the outlet of gas. vSome parts of the gasoline evaporate slowly, and it is necessary to have large evaporating surfaces, so that a proper amount of vapor will be given off when the lighter parts of the liquid have been evaporated and only the heavier parts remain. In order to increase the evaporating surface, the pans are partly filled with cotton or similar
1 156
GAS MAKING
43
porous materials which absorb the gasoline, and the air is
forced to pass [>artly througli the mass of absorbent mate- rial. A common practice is to arrange some capiliary
material woven in- to a coarse fabric in
the zigzag manner
shown* so tliat the
air will Ijccompelletl
lo flow through the
meshes of this net-
ti ng, and thereby
absorb the gasoline
that is drawn up by
capillary attraction. The generator is
charged by pouring
the gasoline down
through the pipe r Luito the upper pan c. ^BThe pipe /through ^H^hich t is slipped ^^orms an outlet
tube for air while
the generator is be-
g filled with gas-
jinc. When this
pan becomes full, jb^be liquid overflows ^Blto the next pan ^Helow, and thus they are
I III
Fin. 14
all filled successively. Should e bottom pan become too full, the excess may be pumped jt by attaching a pump to the top of the' tube ^, When the lighter parts of the gasoline have been evapo- rated from any one pan, the remainder is usually dropped into the next pan below by opening one of the cocks //. e waste liquid collects in the bottom pan and may be flemoved from time to time by pumping through the be g.
44
GAS MAKING
§12
l|;''^:|jt]ii|.JHW
mtiMIMIi'}r{:M
'i'\WV\'y'"!TV'" " 1" '" ' " ■"■^Ttj ''"T'-': ■:.';^'!':
ffrnriTT
^^% „■.' ■ ■^■^ ......te
§ 12 GAS MAKING 45
The generator is buried in the earth outside of all build- ings, for fear of possible explosions. It must be buried deep enough to avoid all risk of freezing, because at tempera- tures below 32° the liquid evaporates too slowly to answer the purpose. The handles of the valves and all the pipes needed for testing and filling are extended upwards to the surface of the ground, and are protected from the weather by a suitable water-tight box and cover. It was formerly customary to place the generator in an underground vault. The advantage of this arrangement was that the generator was fully accessible; but the construction of the vault increased the total cost of the apparatus so much that the plan has been nearly abandoned. The buried generators need to be strongly built to stand the pressure of the earth around and above them.
76. Air Pump. — The air pump may be of any suitable design; the kind commonly used is shown in Fig. 15. It closely resembles the wet gas meter in construction and principle, except that the drum is rotated by power so as to act as a force pump instead of as a meter. The drum is turned by means of a heavy weight k and a cord that is wound around the pulley /. It turns very slowly, even when working at full speed. The weight is required to be wound up at intervals of three to four days or more, accord- ing to the demand for gas.
The pump should take air from some place that is never at a freezing temperature, because cold air will check evapo- ration in the generator.
The body of the machine is filled with water up to a cer- tain mark, which is usually visible through a mica bull's eye. The water evaporates slowly, and must be replenished from time to time. The air is driven through the pipe ;// to the generator a^ and returns mixed with vapor through the pipe /.
When the gasoline is cold, or is nearly spent, it is neces- sary to change the proportions of the air and vapor in order to maintain the illuminating power of the gas at the
40
GAS MAKING
§12
standard desired. Otherwise, the gas will be too rich, that is, it will contain too much carbon; consequently, it will smoke in summer time, and will burn pale and blue in very cold weather. This difficulty is sometimes met by using adjust- able burners, but the drawback to that arrangement is that all the burners must be adjusted at intervals to suit the varying quality of the gas.
If a mixing device is used, then all the necessary adjust- ments can be made at one point, and ordinary Batswing burners may be used without any trouble.
77. Mixing Device. — The mixing device consists of a by-pass pipe //, Fig. 15, connecting the air pipe ;// with the gas pipe /. It is provided with a cock r, having an index
and pointer, by which it can be adjusted to any desired amount of opening. The mixing device is not auto- matic, but must be adjusted by hand.
When the apparatus runs very slowly, or stands still for a while, the gasoline va- por, with a direct connec- tion, will diffuse throughout the pipes ;;/ and ;/ and back into the pump. The mixer is then useless. This trou- ble may be prevented by means of the regulator shown in Fig. 10, which is an cnlari^ed sectional draw- ing of the regulator b in Fig. \b.
The gas coming from the
generator is introduced at ^,
Both
gas is
Fig. 1«
and the air from the by-pass pipe is brought in at d. openings are controlled by a slide valve /. The
§ 12 GAS MAKING 47
discharged into the distributing pipe at g. When gas is passing through the machine, the drum a alternately fills and empties, rising and falling in the water tank b.
When it rises, it fills with gas from c and fresh air from d^ according to the adjustment of the by-pass cock. When it reaches the top of its stroke, it moves the lever e and closes the valve/. The mixture within the drum is thus cut oft from all communication with the generator or the pump; consequently, its proportions cannot be changed by standing for any length of time. When the drum sinks to the bottom of its stroke and is nearly empty, it moves the lever e in the opposite direction, and opens the valve/, thus admitting a new charge. The water in the tank gradually evaporates when the machine is in use, and it is necessary to replenish it occasionally.
78. Effect of Poor Gasoline. — When a poor grade of gasoline is used in making the gas, the generator gradually becomes clogged with an oil that will not evaporate freely and that for the purpose of gas making is spent and useless. This is generally pumped out and thrown away. It should not be thrown into a drain or a sewer, because it will fill them with explosive gas. It should not be thrown into a stream of water, because of the danger from fire to everything adjoining the water, and because of the stench to which it will give rise. The whole trouble may be avoided by using a better grade of gasoline.
79. Precautions Agralnst Frost. — All the pipes in the gas apparatus, and the house pipes as well, must be kept out of reach of frost, and if they are exposed they must be well protected. The pipes must be graded and drained, and pro- vided with drip cups in the same manner as with coal gas, etc. A low pressure is generally used throughout the sys- tem of distributing pipes, and, therefore, the pipes are usually made a little larger than for coal ^as.
80. Gas Machines for Miinnnictiirlnp: Purposes.
The apparatus used for making gas from gasoline for
48 GAS MAKING § 12
manufacturing purposes is very simple. The air is supplied by a common steam pump at a pressure of 3 or 4 pounds per square inch. The gasoline is contained in strong ver- tical cylinders, which are loosely filled with cotton or other absorbent fibres, and the air is forced through the mass. The temperature of the air is raised a few degrees by the process of compression, and the warmth aids the evaporation of the gasoline. The quality of the gas is maintained at any desired standard, by pumping fresh gasoline into the generator whenever it is required. In some forms of appa- ratus, the evaporation of the gasoline is aided by the appli- cation of a moderate steam heat.
When gas is formed by the aid of heat, care must be taken to prevent it from cooling to any considerable extent, because a part of it will then condense into liquid form again.
NATURAIi GAS
81. Natiinil ffius is obtained from holes or weMs that are drilled in the earth. It is found in large quantities in the vicinity of deposits of petroleum; and deposits of coal, both bituminous and anthracite, are always accompanied by greater or less quantities of gas of a very similar nature.
It is composed mainly of a compound of carbon and hydrogen, and is called 1 1 jf lit carbureted hydrojcen. This often amounts to 90 per cent, or more of the total volume. Consecjucntly, it will develoj) more heat per cubic foot in burning than any other kind of gas except acetylene.
Natural gas is produced at the wells under great pressure, and in common practice the pressure in the street mains and distributing pipes is allowed to be very much higher than is usual with manufactured gas.
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
(PART 1)
GAS SUPPLY
GAS PIPES AND FITTINGS
C'AST-IUON GAS PIPE
1. Definitions. — The pipes used for the distribution of gas are made of different materials, such as cast and wrought iron, brass, lead, block tin, and composition (which is an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony) ; they are also made of rubber.
The main gas-supply pipes that are laid in the streets are called mains.
Branches that conduct gas from the mains to the house are called service pipes or ser\^ice8.
Pipes that convey the gas from the meter to the various parts of the building are called distrlbutiii^jc pipes.
Vertical pipes are called risei-s or drop pipes, according to the direction of the flow of gas within them. The flow is upwards in a riser, and downwards in a drop pipe.
2. Proi>ertie8 and Hizes. — Cast iron is usually employed for large pipes that are to be buried in the ground, such as street mains and .service pipes. The pipes made of this material are liable to be of uneven density and texture, being close grained and hard in some parts, and coarse grained and spongy in others. They are liable, also, to be
§13
For notice of copyriKht, r«c' pag*i immediately following the title psg*« 6.V-5
2 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION § 18
perforated by blowholes and bubbles, which vary in size from minute pinholes to hollow spaces as large as the hand, hav- ing only a thin crust of metal on the inside and outside of the pipe. To detect these defects, all cast-iron pipe should be thoroughly inspected at the foundry where made. The presence of unsound iron or spongy places, or bubbles of any considerable size, will be revealed by the difference in the sound when tapped with a light hammer. Each pipe should also be subjected to a test by hydraulic pressure, to prove its tightness and strength.
3, If the grain of the iron be coarse and soft, the gas will gradually exude through the metal and leak away, although the pipe may be strong and solid. While this defect can be remedied in water pipe by coating the pipe thoroughly both inside and outside with asphalt um or a mixture of asphaltum and tar, such a coating is useless for gas pipe, as the gas will dissolve the tar or asphaltum and then leak out. Such a coating on gas pipe is of value only in preventing rust; in the case of cast-iron pipe, such a precaution is unnecessary in ordinary soils.
Where coated pipe is used, the proper method of applying the coat in j^ is to dip the previously tested pipe while hot in a bath of melted asphalt or tar. If the metal is not properly heated, the coating will not adhere with sufficient firmness and will fail to penetrate and seal the small defects in the pipe. The standard east-iron gas pipes on the market are usually uneoated.
Wiien eoated pipe is used for gas mains, both the bell and spigot ends should be heated in a fire until all the tar or asphaltum has been burned off; for, if the joint is made up with the coaling on, the gas will dissolve the thin film left between the pipe and the lead or cement used to make the joint; and a leak will occur.
4. The standard sizes and weights of cast-iron gas pipe are given in Table I, taken from Kent's Mechanical Engi- neers' Pocketbook. The standard length of all sizes is
§13
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
12 feet, excepting 2-inch pipe, which is 8 feet long. The size of cast-iron gas pipe is designated by the actual internal diameter.
TABL.E I STANDARD CAST-IUON GAS PIPE
|
Size in Inches |
Weight Per Foot Pounds |
Weight Per Length Pounds |
Thickness Inches |
|
2 |
6 |
48 |
i |
|
3 |
I2i |
150 |
tV |
|
4 |
17 |
204 |
i |
|
6 |
30 |
360 |
iV |
|
8 |
40 |
480 |
tV |
|
lO |
50 |
600 |
tV |
|
12 |
70 |
840 |
i |
|
14 |
84 |
1,000 |
A |
|
i6 |
100 |
1,200 |
A |
|
i8 |
134 |
1,600 |
H |
|
20 |
150 |
1,800 |
U |
|
24 |
184 |
2,200 |
i |
|
30 |
250 |
3,000 |
i |
|
36 |
350 |
4,200 |
} |
|
42 |
417 |
5,000 |
H |
|
48 |
542 |
6,500 |
'i |
|
60 |
900 |
io,Soo |
li! |
|
72 |
1,250 |
15,000 |
'J |
|
. |
-— jz^ — .. |
.^r ...zr— |
_ . |
6. Trenches and Drip Pot. — Gas mains and service pipes are generally placed in trenches dug to receive them. In order to afford room for working at the joints, holes must be excavated wherever a joint occurs, that is, at intervals of \'i feet for all sizes of pipe above 2-inch, and S ft-et apart for 2-inch pipe. These holes are known as boll holes.
The ground between the bell holes should be leveled smooth to carry the weight of the pipe evenly; where the s<jil is soft or marshy, pieces uf board should be placed across
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
§13
the ditch to help carry the weight of the pipe. If it is necessary to fill the ditch any in order that the pipe may be firmly bedded, the earth under the pipe should be tamped thoroughly. If the above precautions are not taken, the pipe may settle and broken mains or leaky joints may result; also, the pipes may sag so as to form a trap in which water will collect and partially or entirely shut off the flow of gas.
6, All gas mains must be laid truly level, or else sloping
definitely in one direction or the other, and at every low point a drip pot must be set. Fig. 1 shows an ordinary drip pot. This is composed of a large iron vessel a about the size of a barrel. A small pipe b is run from the top of the ground down inside the pot,
Fio. 1 so that the condensation
that is sure to accumulate can be pumped out.
7. Joints. — Cast-iron gas pipe is jointed either by lead joints ox cement joints, lead joints being most commonly used.
A lead joint in a gas main lying in a trench is shown in Fig. 2. To make the joint, the spigot end of the pipe is
Fig. 2
lifted up after it has been placed into the l>cll, as the socket is often called, of the next length of pipe. A i)ie( e of twisted hemp, about J inch in diameter and a little longer than the
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 6
circumference of the pipe, is pushed into the bell in such a way that it completely surrounds the spigot end. The spigot end is then pushed home in the bell and the hemp is driven back solidly around the pipe with a yarning iron or staving tool. More yarn is then driven in around the pipe until only about 1 J inches of the bell is left clear. A joint runner is now clamped around the pipe close to the bell, and any openings between it and the bell are closed up with clay. An opening or pouring gate is left at the top, through which melted lead is poured until the bell is completely filled. The lead should be just hot enough to run freely and should be poured in from an iron ladle large enough to run the whole joint at one pouring. When two ladlefuls are required, a second ladle should be held ready to begin pouring the instant the first one is empty, to insure a proper adhesion of the lead in the bell. If no joint runner is at hand, a piece of yarn coated thickly with tough clay forms a very good substitute. Such a joint runner is frequently called a snake. Where the pipe is a little wet, some oil, such as machine oil, should be poured into the joint before it is run. This will prevent the spattering of lead and will insure a good joint. The lead will cool in 2 or 3 minutes. The joint runner should then be removed and the joint examined carefully, especially at the under side. If the lead has not run in evenly all around and filled the joint properly, it should be cut or burned out and a new joint run.
If the joint has filled out nicely, the lead should be cut with a cold chisel where it may have run out in small leaks, and at the top, where a large block will be left at the point the lead was poured in. The lead should then be driven back all around at the junction of the pipe and lead with a cold chisel and a short heavy hammer, and then the whole surface of the lead joint should be driven up evenly and smoothly with a hammer and a calking iron. Calking irons are made with faces of different sizes, to facilitate the calk- ing of joints of different widths.
Great care should be taken in calking to make thoroughly tight joints, as bad joints are a prevalent cause of leakage.
6 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION § 13
8. Cement Joints are made as follows: After placing the cast-iron gas pipes in the trench, and tamping the ground around them thoroughly so that they cannot settle or be moved out of alinement, as much of them as possible is covered without allowing dirt to fall into the bell holes, and after the pipe layers are far enough ahead of the joint makers, the making of cement joints can be begun.
The cement is made by mixing Portland cement with water, making up just enough cement for two or three joints at a time if there is but one man making joints. The mix- ing should be done by a helper, who should keep the mixture stirred constantly to prevent initial setting. No sand should be used, only the clear cement, and it should be used in a plastic condition.
In making the joint, the yarn should be first soaked in thin cement and then driven back in the bell and followed up immediately with the cement, which is placed in the bell and pushed back with the right hand. The hand should be protected by a rubber mitten, because cement is injurious to the hands. Cement cannot be pushed back successfully with a trowel or other such tool.
It is useless to put on more cement than is required to just fill the bell, and it should be fac ed perfectly smooth with a trowel. The joint shoukl be immediately covered with a wet cloth to supj)ly the cement with moisture to prevent it from setting too quick, and to kvvp the temperature low. By covering the pipes with dirt previous to making the joints, and by boarding over the joints, the temperature of the pipe line does not changes sutlicienlly t<> injure the joints. If the day is hot, and the sun shines on any part of the pipe or joint, l)oar(ls should be placed over the joint to intercept the sun's rays.
9. Tests for leaks should not be applied until at least 3 hours after the j«)inls have been made. The test should be made with an air j)ump; the [)ressure need not exceed I pound, as leaks might be made l»y a greater pressure. After the joints are thoroughly set, they will stand a higher
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 7
pressure. If the joints are carefully made, as described, the practice which obtains in some localities of having a lead joint on every fourth or fifth pipe to allow for expansion and contraction, need not be followed, as there is little variation of temperature if the pipe is buried under at least 3 feet of cover. If lead joints are used, the leaks will generally be found at these rather than at the cement joints.
The bells of pipes for cement joints should be made at least I inch larger than usual in inside diameter to per- mit of using the hands in manipulating the cement when placed in. The dirt should not be rammed in around the joints until the next day, and the utmost precaution should be used so as not to strike any part of the pipe, as jarring will make new cement joints leak.
Properly made cement joints are absolutely tight, and are so strong that if the pipe and joint be submitted to pres- sure, the pipe will break rather than the cement joint.
10. Air Test. — New mains should always be tested in short sections by pumping in air until the pressure is I pound or more. The air pressure is supplied by a portable' air pump. The pressure gauge should be watched closely, and if it indicates any leak by the gradual lowering of the pressure, the leak or leaks may be found by washing the suspected parts with soapy water. The air pressure will blow soap bubbles over the leaks. All leaks must be closed before the trench is filled. The section of main to be tested must be plugged tightly at each end witli temporary plugs.
11. Sleeves. — Where two spigot ends have to be con- nected together, a sleeve is used. This is a short piece of pipe large' enough to slip ^^ ^y^^r; _ over the pipe on which it is ^f'^fLEt^S used, leaving space enough F^ for making a lead or cement f joint at each end. "^m^^g^fSM
Fig. 3 shows an ordinary L^^ — "■■''"""" "sZJ
sleeve in section, covering ''*' '^
the spigot end n of a pipe and the cut end ^ of another
8
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
§13
pipe. After the ends a and b are laid face to face, the sleeve is slipped back and calked in place, care being taken to have the same amount of lap over each pipe.
Where a main has cracked, it may be repaired temporarily by winding canvas, painted with white lead, tightly around the cracked pi{)e. A permanent repair is made by the use of a split sleeve. A split sleeve is made up of two halves that are bolted together, as shown in Fig. 4. A gasket of
Fig. 4
lead, rubber, or pasteboard is put in at a to make the flange joints tight. After the split sleeve has been bolted together around the pipe, lead or cement joints are made at each end in the ordinary manner.
12. Mjilii l^ii^s. — Where it is necessary for any reason to cut mains on which the j^as pressure must be kept up, main ba^s, or main stoppers, must be used to hold back
the ij;as when the main is cut.
l.^. A main ba^ is shown at a. Fig. 5. It is a round
rul)l)er ba^ with a rubber tube leading out of one side. The
!)aj4;s are made of dilYerent sizes to ij fit the different sizes of pipes in use. Thus, a 4-inch bag, when fully intlated, will entirely fill up a 4-inch main.
The bag is used as follows: A hole is tapped in the main, as at ^, V\g. 5, a few feet from the place where the main has to be cut,
with the regular tools used for tapping the main for services.
Ki(
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DIST^CBUTION
The hole must be carefully insji6cted after it has been tapped, and any slivers of met.il around the inside edge removed. The bag, which should be fitted with a small cock c at the end of the tube, is then folded up and intro- duced into the hole, the end opposite the tube being pushed in first. The bag should be pushed well into the main, in the direction from which the gas comes, and then inflated either by blowing into the tube, or by the use of a small pump, such as a bicycle pump. In the latter case, care must be used not to burst the bag. When the bag is fully inflated, the cock in the end of the tube is shut. The main will then be shut off so that it may be cut. When a main is so con- nected that gas may come from either end, a bag must be put on each side of the part to be cut.
If the main to be bagged is larger than 4 inches, two bags should be put in, one ahead of the other, so that if one bag breaks the other will hold. A good plan is to put in a main stopper first, and then a bag nearer the cut.
14. The following table gives the size of the hole to be tapped for main bags in different sizes of mains:
TABL.E II SIZE OF TAPPING FOR MAIN BAGS
|
Sire of Main Inches |
Size of Pipe Tap Inches 1 I 2 |
Size of Main Inches |
Size of Pipe Tap Inches |
|
3 4 6 8 |
lO 12 14 i6 |
2 3 3 |
15. Main Stoppers. — A diaphragm of canvas or leather mounted on a wire frame, and that may be collapsed and introduced through a hole into the main in a manner
10
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
§13
similar to that employed with a main bag, is known as a
main stopper. Fig. G shows such a main stopper in posi- tion inside of a pipe. The frames is expanded after the stopper has been pushed inside the pipe, and the diaphragm then shuts off the main.
Main stoppers are not as liable to burst as bags are, but as a rule, they cannot be made to shut off the gas as completely as bags.
It is usually necessary to tap a hole one size larger for a
main stopper than is tapped for a main bag.
Fio. c
AVKOrGIIT-IHON GAS PIPE
16. Wrou^ht-irou pipe may be used underground if it is thoroughly coated and protected against rust. It cor- rodes faster than cast-iron pipe under the same conditions, and its dural)iliiy will depend mainly on the care taken to protect it. The smaller sizes of pipe, such as those employed to coniuTt. the house pipes with the street mains, should always be galvanized if they run through damp places, and if buried in the giound, they should also be protected by an external coatini; of asplialluni or tar, generous in thickness.
When the pipe runs through cinders or coal ashes, the protective eoating must be made of extra thii'kness to resist the corrosive aetion of the water that filters through the cinders, 'i'he pij)e slumld not niily be coated with asphaltum in the iistial manner, but should also be wrap[)ed with two or more layers of roarse cloth, wound on spirally, and an outer coating <»f asj)haltiim applied hot, in sufficient quan- titv to thoroughly saturate the eloth and cover it.
(laivanizing alone i^. not a surticient protertion for pipes laiil through ashe^, <»r in i;r<»umi that is permeated with salt oi sea water.
\Vto\jLiht iron pip^' has an advantaj.;*' over cast-iron pipe, •/\^>nuuh .is the number «>1 joints reijuired in a given distance
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 11
•
is much less. Plain black wrought-iron pipe may be used without hesitation for all the interior piping of a build- ing, except where its appearance would not be desirable. Long lines of wrought-iron pipe of large size should not be laid at a depth of less then 3 feet unless expansion joints are provided at intervals. Otherwise, changes of tempera- ture will cause such strains from contraction and expansion that fittings and couplings may be broken and threads stripped.
LEAD, TIN, COMPOSITION, ANI> RUBBER GAS PIPES
17. I/ead pipe has been used for conveying gas both underground and in buildings, but it is so easily distorted and kinked that iron pipe is now usually preferred. Lead pipe mu.st be protected against corrosion wherever it comes in contact with cement or mortar, by wrapping it with building paper and coating it with asphaltum or hot tar.
18. Pipes that are made of lead, block tin, or compo- sition have a very smooth interior surface, which favors the flow of gas through them, and they are also capable of being easily bent to suit any position. But, owing to their flexi- bility, they must be supported on shelving when extended horizontally, to prevent them from sagging and thus form- ing low places that are liable to accumulate condensation.
The labor of making the necessary connections between soft pipes and the fixtures is greater than with iron pipe, and the first cost of the material is also greater; conse- quently, the use of soft metal piping is usually dispensed with as far as practicable.
Soft metal pipes are liable to be damaged or ])unotured by nails that may be driven through the woodwork near them, and sometimes holes will be gnawed into tliem by rats and mice. These little animals seem to like to use their teeth on the soft metal, and they will occasionally gnaw a pipe without any other apparent reason.
In the United States of America, neither lead, block tin, nor composition pipe is today used in any service work or
12 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION § 13
for gas-fitting work inside of buildings, except for meter connections, where lead pipe is generally used.
19. Pure rubber is not a suitable material for holding gas, because the gas will ooze through it and escape, just as water will ooze through wet paper. When rubber is used for the construction of gas bags and flexible tubing, it must be specially prepared in order to be gas-tight.
liAYIXG OUT GAS MAINS
20. In laying out a system of gas mains, a careful esti- mate should be made as to the probable growth of the locality to be piped, and the mains should then be laid large enough to furnish a proper supply for a long period in the future. The most efficient and best, as well as the cheapest, way to pipe a locality is to lay a large main through it in the direction of its greatest length and to lay smaller lateral mains from the large main on the streets at right angles to it. The streets that parallel the one in which the large main is laid may be supplied by still smaller mains connect- ing the lateral mains. Then, in case the system is to be extended lengthwise, it is only necessary to extend the large main and put on more lateral mains, while if the locality builds up to the right or left of the large main another large main can be run parallel to the first and at some distance from it and tlie ends of the lateral mains connected into k.
This system is better than the usual one of beginning with a lar^e main and reducing it in size as the various branches are taken off, thus forming a main system similar to the braniMies of a tree. In the first place, it is the cheaper in the end, as it obviates the necessity of taking up mains that have become too small and laying larger pipe, and in the second place, it allows a more even pressure all over the dis- trict supplied and ol)viates the necessity of carrying a high pressure near the works.
Where it is necessary to increase the supply in a street, the main that is too small should be taken up and a larger
§13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 13
one laid. The small main may then be relaid in some suit- able locality. It costs but little more to dig up the old main and lay the new one in the same ditch than it does to dig a new ditch for the new main.
Parallel mains should not be allowed in the same street except in cases where, on account of paving or other reasons, the mains must be laid under the sidewalks. It costs much less to lay one large main of a given capacity than it does to lay two small mains of the same capacity; and, as in the latter case the number of joints will be doubled, the leakage will be greater for the same amount of gas supplied and the cost of repairs and maintenance will be nearly doubled.
Where it is necessary to lay mains on both sides of a street, the best practice is to lay a large main on one side and a small one on the other, connecting the two together at frequent intervals. This is because it is cheaper to lay a large main and a small one of a given capacity than it is to lay two mains of equal size of the same capacity. The small main in the first case, being reenforced at frequent intervals, suffers but little loss in carrying capacity by reason of friction and can therefore be made quite small in proportion to the volume of gas that it is to supply.
GAS-PIPE FITTINGS
21. The fittings employed in gas piping in buildings are generally similar to those made for steam and water, except that some of them are provided with lugs or flanges by which they can be firmly fastened to the walls and ceilinjrs.
They should be made of malleable iron for all sizes up lo 2 inches diameter; for larger sizes, cast iron may be used. Galvanized fittings are to be preferred to plain iron fittings, because the coating of zinc will usually penetrate into any small pinhole that may exist, and will effectually seal it against leakage.
Defective fittings should not be employed in any case, and when one is discovered in use, it should be promptly
u
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
13
removed, if possible, and be replaced with a perfect one. The practice of patching holes or defects in fittings or pipes with wax cement is dangerous, and should be condemned. The cost of replacing defective fittings with sound ones is so small in proportion to the damage that may be done by a leak, such as vitiating the air or suffocating some person, or causing an explosion or fire, that the gas-fitter is not justified in risking anything on the durability and permanency of a cement patch. Such patches are especially unsafe if they are in the vicinity of steam or hot- water pipes or hot-air flues, or are near a hot chimney. The heat will soften the wax, and the gas pressure will slowly force it out of the hole.
F\<. 7
2'i, A niunher <»f fittings cspcM'ially designed for gas piping is shown in Fig. 7. Tlicy arc made of malleable iron, and arc known in the trade by the f(>llowing names;
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 15
{(i) Quarter elbow; (d) tee; (c) street elbow; (d) cross; (t) elbow with side outlet; (/) right and left coupling; (.i,'^) reducing coupling; (//) cap; {t) male and female exten- sion piece; (J) plug; (/') waste nut; (/) drop elbow, female thread; (///) drop elbow, with male thread; (;/) drop tee, with female thread; (o) drop tee, with male thread ; (/>) drop elbow, with male thread, left flange; (g) male chandelier loop; (r) drop elbow with long outlet piece; (s) chandelier hook, female; (/) pipe strap, tinned; (//) locknut; (t') long screw. The flanged fittings can be had either right or left, and also with male or female threads.
GAS DISTRIBUTION
riiOW OF GAS TIIHOUGII PIPES
LAAVS GOVERNING FLOW OF GAS
23. The flow of gas is governed by the same laws that govern the flow of other fluids. The rate of flow depends on: (1) the area of the pipe; (2) the length of the pipe; (3) the pressure of the gas; (4) the density of the gas; (5) the number and kind of fittings in the length of the pipe.
The volume delivered in a given time by a pipe of given area, the pressure and density of tlie gas remaining the same, will be inversely as the square root of the length of the pipe.
If the length, area, and density remain the same, the volume delivered will be directly as the scpiare root of the pressure.
The pressure, length, and area remaining the same, the volume delivered will be inversely as tlic scjiiare root of the density.
24. If the rate of flow through any certain length of pipe is known, the volume that will be delivered by a
16 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION § 13
longer or shorter pipe of the same diameter, in the same time (the pressure and density of gas remaining the same), may be found by the following rule :
Kule. — Multiply the volume delivered by the pipe of given length by the square root of that length, and divide the product by the square root of the proposed length. The quo- tient will be the delivery at the proposed length.
Example. — A certain pipe 50 feet long delivers 100 cubic feet of gas per hour; how much will it deliver if it be made 150 feet long? Solution. — Applying the rule, we have
, ,. 100 X f'50 _^, . .
delivery = — = 57.71 cu. ft. Ans.
I'M 50
25. The volume that will be delivered under different pressures may be computed by the following rule:
llule. — Multiply the .volume delivered at the given pres- sure by the square root of the proposed pressure, and divide the product by the square root of the given pressure. The quotient "will be the delivery at the proposed pressure.
The pressure to be considered in each case is the excess of the pressure of the gas when it enters the pipe, above the pressure existing in the chamber into which it dis- charges; or, in other words, it is the difference in pressures at the inlet and discharge end of the pipe.
KxAMPLK. -A certain pipe discharges KM) cubic feet of gas per hour from a reservoir havinic ^i'^ internal pressure of 1.6 inches of water, into the atmosphere; what volume will be discharged per hour if the pre>sure he increased to 5 inches of water?
SoLi'TioN.— Applying the rule, we have
(leliverv - ^ — 170. 7 cu. ft. Ans.
V'l.O
^ii\. The pressure that must be put on a main to dis- charge a given volume, when the delivery under another pressure is known, may he computed by the following rule:
Kule. — Square the drsirid volume and multiply it by the given pressure. Pivide this product by the square of the known volume. The quotient ivill be the desired pressure.
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 17
Example. — A certain pipe delivers 80 cubic feet of gas per hour, from a main having an internal pressure of 2.4 inches of water; what pressure must be put on the main to cause the pipe to deliver 150 cubic feet per hour ?
Solution. — Applying the rule, we have
pressure = ^ = 8.44 m. Ans.
27. The effect of variations in the density of the gas on its flow may be computed by the rule in Art. 24, by merely substituting the word density for the word length.
The foregoing rules apply only to the theoretical floiv of gas under perfect conditions. In practice, perfect condi- tions are never attained; consequently, the actual flow of gas in pipes is less in volume than that computed by the rules given. The deficiency varies according to the amount of friction and other resistances within the pipe.
28. The actual volume of gas discharged from a pipe may be calculated quite closely by the following empirical rule due to Mr. King:
Rale. — Multiply the diameter of the pipe in inches four times by itself^ and the final product by the pressure in inches of water. Divide this product by the product of the specific gravity of the gas (air being taken as 1) and the length of the pipe in yards. Extract the square root of the quotient and multiply the square root by 1,350. The product will be the number of cubic feet of gas discharged per hour.
Example. — How much gas per hour can be discharged by a pipe 1.760 yards long and 10 inches diameter, the pressure being 3 inches and the gas having a specific gravity of .4 ?
Solution. — Applying the rule, we have
A r A /fO"x 10 X i0"x 10 X 10 X 3 ^ , ^^- ^^ ^^. . . delivery = y 4 v i "60 X 1,350 = 27,864 cu. ft. Ans.
OA8 PBESSUUE AN1> ITS MEASUREMENT
29. Influence of ITelf<lit on Pressure. — If the specific gravity of a gas is less than that of air at the same tempera- ture, the pressure will always be greater at the top of the
6^—6
18
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
13
pipe or chamber that contains the gas. If the gas is heavier than air, the j«;rcater pressure will be at the bottom of the chamber that contains it.
The upward pressure of gas having a less density than air is caused by the deficiency in its weight and its consequent inability to balance the pressure of the atmosphere.
For illustration, let us consider a column of gas 1 foot square and 100 feet high, having a density of .5, or one- half that of air, its temperature being the same as that of the atmosphere, say 60°. Now, air at 60** weighs .0764 pound per cubic foot, and a column containing 100 cubic feet will weigh .0704 X 100 = 7.04 pounds. The gas having a density of .5 will weigh only half as much, or 3.82 pounds, and is, therefore, unable to balance an equal volume of air. Con- sequently, it is pressed upwards with a force of 7.64 — 3.82 = 3.8*^ pounds against the top of the chamber that contains it. Whatever the actual pressure of the gas may be at the bottom of the column, it will, in this case, be increased at the top to the extent of 3.82 pounds per square foot.
30, The increase of pressure in each foot of rise in pipes with gas of various densities, is shown in the following table:
TABIiE III INC HE ASK IV U\H PRESSURE PER FOOT OF RISE
I )t'nsity of j^as. . . " i Iiurcasi' in prc'S- j
Mirr (imlies «>f waUT)
|
•9 |
.S |
.7 |
.6 |
.5 |
.4 |
.3 |
|
(X)i47 |
.(XJ293 |
.oo.^4 |
.0058 |
•0073 |
.0088 |
.0102 |
KxAMPLE.— Till' i)rtssure in the basement, at the meter, is 1.2 inches of watt-r; what will Ik: the pressure at the sixth story, 70 feet above, the density of the jifas bi-ing .4 ?
Soutidn. -By Table III. the increase per foot of rise is .0088 in.; hence. f..r TO ft. it is .(M)NS x 70 - .Cir> in. of water. Then, pressureat sixth story is 1.2 f- .fJUJ ■_: I.SIO in. Ans.
Hi, M<*jisuroiiient of Cia,s l*rc*s8iiiv. — Since the pres- sures dealt with in gas supply and distribution are quite
§13
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
19
small, it is the custom to use a unit of measurement of the pressure smaller than the pound per square inch used for steam work. The universally adopted unit is the pressure per square inch exerted at. its base by a column of water 1 inch high, which is .0361 pound. For the sake of brevity and convenience, the pressure is not reduced to pounds, but is expressed by simply stating the height of the water column in inches that the pressure will balance. Thus, if there be a pressure in a gas main sufficient to balance a column of water 4J inches high, the pressure is said to equal, or to be, 4^ inches of water.
The pressure of gas is measured by the same instruments used for air and other fluids. The construction of the instruments, however, is varied somewhat for convenience in handling.
32. The most common form of gas-pressure gauge is shown in Fig. 8. It is known by different names, being respectively called a water ^aug^e, siphon graugre, or U sraagre. The tube a is made of metal and is provided with a socket d that will screw on any ordinary gas fixture in the place of a burner. The tubes b and c are made of glass and are filled with water up to the zero of the scale. The scale is graduated in inches and convenient frac- tions of an inch. The tube c is open to the air at the top. When pressure is admitted to the tube a, the water will sink in the tube b and will rise in c. The difference in the height of the water in the two tubes, measured in inches, is the measure of the pressure exerted in inc/ies of water. The depression below zero in b should be added to the rise above zero in c. The fall in one tube will not exactly equal the rise in the other, unless the tubes are of exactly equal bore.
Water gauges are sometimes made with sialcs that are graduated to one-half of actual sizes, so that only the rise in one tube need be noted. An instrument that is graduated
Fig.
20
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
§13
in that way must be held exactly plumb, and the water must stand exactly at zero at the start ; otherwise, it will be found that the rise and fall will not be equal, and must be averaged to get the true pressure.
33. The Arch, or Kiiigr^ gauge, shown in Fig. 9, con- sists of a cylinder a that runs down through the top of the
tank h and dips its open bottom into the water with which the tank is partly filled, as shown by the dotted lines. The tank is also open at the top and contains a float, shown by dotted lines, which rests on the water inside the cylinder. This float is connected by the cord r, which runs over a wheel, to the weight d, ^waftrUn» When gas under pressure is admitted through e to the space above the water in the tank h the pressure forces the water in the tank down and the water level in the eyliiuler a is corresj)()n(liii^iy raised. The float is raised alonj; willi the water level in the cylinder. This slacks the cord r, whieh allows the weij^ht d to pull the wheel toward it. The pointer, whieh is on the same axis as the wheel, turns toward the rit^ht at the same time and indicates in inches of water the amount of pressure applied. The pet- cocks /, /'are us(!(l to drain (;ff water from the tank until the pointer is exai^tly at the zero mark, when the pressure in the tank is etjual to that of the atmosphere.
The amount of movement of the pointer depends on the sizf of the wheel. Tin; proportion of the apparatus may therefore he so arranjj^ed as to j^ive anv dei^ree of sensitive- ness rrtjnired, and vaiiations of pressure that could not be observed on the water gau^^e shown in Fig. 8 may be satis- factorilv noted.
q5^
Fig. u
13
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
21
34, It is readily seen that if comparatively heavy pres- sures arc to be measured, the water gauge will become so large as to prove inconvenient as a portable instrument. By substituting a heavier liquid for the water, the bulk will naturally be greatly reduced. The liquid generally used is mercury, which is 13.6 times heavier than water, and the gauge is then spoken of as a mercurial graiigre.
Mercurial gauges for gas-fitters* use are commonly made as shown in Fig. 10, and are known as cup gauges. They are always graduated to give a reading in inches of water ^ and not in inches of mercury.
In Fig. 10 the mercury is contained in an iron cup /^, and the air or gas under pressure enters through the tube /. The glass tube k is packed or cemented air-tight at /, and is protected by a tubular brass casing m. When the mercury rises in the glass tube, it sinks in the cup, but to a much smaller extent. The graduations on the brass casing indicate the difference of level that exists between the mer- cury in the tube when standing at that height, and the actual surface of the mercury in the cup.
To indicate correctly, this gauge must contain exactly a certain quantity of mercury, no more or less. It can be tested, or calibrated, at any time by comparing it with the gauge shown in Fig. 8, adding or taking out mercury from the cup until they agree. If they agree at some points and not at others, then the scale is defective and should be regraduated.
When in use, the glass tube must always be open to the air at the top.
Fig. 10
35. Pressures that have been measured- in inches of water or mercury may be changed into pounds i)er square inch or square foot by multiplying the reading by the
■i-2 GAS SUPPLY AXD DISTRIBUTION § 13
:■:■'. Iv' wing f.gures: 1 inch •»: water a: *j'V = 5. '2 pounds per square : ••:: 1 ir.Lh •■: wa:er ar ''ri =■ .'>3»jI pound per s«:uare ir.;h: 1 inch *A mercury at ^j'V = .4917 pound per square inch.
Pressures rcr square inch ■: r square t.-jt may be converted in: ■ inches -i-r fe-rt or water, or inches «jt mercury, by mul- tir'.vin^ the iressurrs by the f:'". win;:: rigures: 1 pound j>€r s.:-are rict = .l.^*2o iry.h :-: water at »5'2': 1 pound per s.:.:^r-: inch = 'JT? inches t" water at ^"2": 1 pound rer -quare int.h = -J. "4-2 inches ^f mercury at 6'2''; 1 inch of mercurv c .iumn = 13. f> inches A water column.
^J are sec
MEA^miyfi vELocmr or flow or gas
36. Thr: v-'. .city f Cii5 n 'wini: thr-.vjgh a pipe may be :easurr.: by means •:: Pltofs tube« which is shown in
Fi^. II. It consists of tubes tJ and ^, which ^ secured in a suitable p.U|C t'. The lower end '. : J is straij^ht. but the md oi d is curved to race the current, as sh wn. The upper ends of the tubes are c.nnected to a water ^auge i/. The pressure that affects the gauge is due to the momen- tum of the gas that strikes the open end
J of the tube d. The
_ vr. vity that co r re-
st-nds to any certain ;.r •.v..:rr ^.iu^r may be found by refer- .r> :'.:..: ..re :u: :::>-:rd bv the maker of the
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 23
The volume of gas passing through a pipe in a given time is computed by multiplying the velocity, as found by Pilot's tube, by the area of the pipe.
t{7. The actual quantity of the gas, or the staudartl volume, is computed by correcting the volume for tempera- ture and pressure, reducing it to a volume at standard tem- perature of :j2" and standard pressure of 1 inch of water. The correction for temperature and pressure is made by the following rule:
Rule. — Multiply the volume by 1.206 and by the sum of the pressure in inehes of water and Jfil. Divide the produet by the sum of the temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit^ and J^tjO. The quotient will be the standard volume,
ExAMPLK. — A certain gas pipe passes 2,252 cubic feet of gas per hour at a temperature of 94 degrees under a pressure of 8 inches of water. What is the standard volume ?
SoLUTiuN. — Applying the rule just given, we have
standard volume = j — ^ = 2,034.5 cu. ft. Ans.
In dealing with gas it is necessary to keep in mind a clear distinction between the apparent volume of the gas and the actual quantity. The former is the volume as measured at the actual temperature and pressure, while the latter is the volume of the same gas at standard temperature and pressure.
MEA.SU11ING VOI.UME OF GAS
38. Inti-oductlon. — For ordinary purposes, the volume of gas passing through a pipe is measured by an apparatus called a ffiis meter. A gas meter measures the volume only. It does not give any indication as to the pressure under which gas is being metered, but as most meters are adjusted at a pressure of less than 2 inches of water column, and as that i)ressure is usually the minimum used in the
24
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
§13
street mains, the error possible from variations in pressure is very slight. For example, if a meter registers 1,000 cubic feet of gas at the pressure for which it is adjusted, say 2 inches of water, it will actually pass 1,004.9 cubic feet at 5 inches pressure, and yet register but 1,000 cubic feet. It is thus seen that the error is less than one-half of 1 per cent, for an increase in pressure of 3 inches, and in favor of the customer, and not of the gas company, as is commonly assumed.
The maximum pressure at any meter is seldom more than 5 inches; the average maximum pressure of the total number of meters in use on any system of mains is probably not more than J3 inches. Wherever gas is piped under very high pressure, as in the case of natural gas, or where illu- minating gas is pumped from one district to another, a governor or reducing valve is always placed on the service, so that the pressure is reduced before the gas reaches the meter.
39. Construction of Gns Meters. — Meters for meas- uring the volume of gas have been constructed in many
ways. The kinds that are most in use at the present time are shown in Figs. 12, 13, and U.
The wet meter is shown in Fig. 12. The gas enters __ through a pipe a, which opens just above the surface of the water. The meas- uring is done by means of a revolving cylinder that is divided by partitions into four chambers b, c, //, and e. The inner ends of the parti- tions are curvtrd so that they dip under the water and pre- vent the inr<»niin«^^ gas from entering into any other chamber than thi! one that is rising out of the water. In the figure,
Fig. 12
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 26
gas is beginning to fill the chamber b^ and it is discharging freely from the chamber d into the outer casing to which the discharge pipe is attached. The outlet of the chambers is still under water, and no gas can escape from it until the cylinder turns over a little farther. The filling and empty- ing of the chambers continue as long as any gas is passing through the meter.
The capacity of each chamber depends on the level of the water within it; consequently, the water must be kept exactly at a proper level at all times to enable the meter to measure accurately. The axis of the cylinder must be exactly horizontal ; otherwise, the capacity of the chambers will be increased and the meter will indicate less than the true volume passing through. Also, the water will evapo- rate and pass off as vapor along with the gas, and, unless replenished, the meter will become more and more inaccu- rate, until finally the gas will pass through without register- ing at all. Many dishonest persons have taken advantage of the fact that by tipping the meter so that one end of the cylinder is considerably higher than the other, the water may be made to uncover the inlet and outlet openings of a chamber at the same time, thus permitting the gas to pass through without turning the cylinder or registering.
The best forms of wet meters are provided with a float attachment that automatically closes the gas inlet when the water-line is too high or too low, thus obtaining a reasonably uniform measuring capacity in the meter, and preventing a passage of gas without a corresponding move- ment of the drum.
The wet meter is sufficiently accurate if kept in good order, but owing to the defects mentioned, it is now but little used for measuring the amount of gas supplied to consumers. It is still employed at gasworks, in preference to all others, to measure the total amount of gas produced. For this purpose it is made very large and is provided with glass gauges by which the level of the water may be observed and accurately controlled. It is then called a statlou meter.
26
GAS vSUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
§13
40. An ordinary design of dry meter is shown in Fig. 13. The measuring is done by means of two bellows a
and by which are alternately in- flated and emptied. The meter case is divided into three cham- bers, the upper one containing the valves c and rfand the* registering mechanism. The body of the case is divided by a partition e into two equal chambers, each of which con- tains one of the bellows. Each bellows consists of a large circular plate / attached to and supported j!;J^ 1 .f\\ by the vertical rock shaft g^ and
a flexible ring or diaphragm//, hav- ing one edge secured to the plate / and the other to the middle par- tition i\ The rock shafts g^ g 2ive, connected at the top by arms and links to a central crank k. The throw or stroke of the plates f is
\i , ,, thus limited to an exact distance,
|; ' [ i; ^^"<^^ ^'^^' relative movements of the
Vy w .■■'■. I ^^^(j I Hallows are so timed that the i*'»^'- I'J niovenu-nt of. gas through them is
steady and nearly uniform. The interior and exterior spaces of tile two bellows constitute four measuring chambers, ii\\(\ the jj^as is admitted to and released from them in rotation, by the movement of the slide valves c and (L These valves are movoi^ by means of links con- nected to the crank on the lower end o{ the central shaft /. The amount of j^as passed through by each bellows at one revolution of the shaft nearly ecjuals the area of the circle filled by the leather rin^ // multi|)lied by the actual distance throujj^h which the plate /is moved, or twMce its stroke.
The cai)acity of the meter is regulated by adjusting the radius of the crank X', and thus changing the length of the stroke of the bellows. The rotations of the shaft are
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
37
recorded by the registering mechanism at ///. and the volume passed through is indicated in cubic fuet.
The rings or diaphragms // are usually made of fine leather. After long service these rings arc liable to become bard and stiff, and to crack. To keep them in good service- able condition, they must be oiled at intervals. When the meter is used for gas that has not been properly purified, the leather rings are liable to becomt; coated with tarry matter and thus bd spoiled,
41. Dry meters are also made with three diaphragms, and the diaphragms are sometimes made square. An external view of a dry meter designed especially for natural
mis,
TC
(1M)
ay
PlO, 14
and high pressures is shown in Fig. 14 (n), and an side view of the working part in Fig, 14 (^), in which hew two of the diaphragms and the cover-plates have been removed.
Three diaphragms, as <i, are employed, each one being connected by a link to the central crank b. The dia- phragms arc single-acting, that is, they displace gas only
28 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION g 13
when they move outwards into the chambers enclosed by the covers d. The central or main chamber is filled with gas at full pressure at all times. The gas is admitted and released from the measuring chambers behind the dia- phragms by means of a hollow circular slide valve c that is attached to the crank on the lower end of the central shaft. When gas is admitted to a measuring chamber, the diaphragm is balanced, having an equal pressure on each side, and it moves inwards in obedience to the crank, with- out resistance, thus filling the chamber behind it. But when the valve cuts off the fresh gas and opens a duct into the delivery pipe, the pressure in the central chamber exceetis that in the delivery pipe, and the diaphragm is driven outwards, expelling the gas from the measuring chamber. Thus the measuring chambers are filled and emptied in regular rotation. The shape of the meter being spherical, it can endure high pressures without distortion or any imj)airment of its accuracy.
43. All gas meters require a certain small amount of power to operate them; consequently, the pressure of the gas will be slightly reduced in passing through the meter. In the ordinary size used in dwellings, the reduction of pres- sures usually amounts to about ."I inch of water, sometimes nior(*. When ^as is supplied at very low i)ressure, it becomes (lirticult to use a meter, because the resistance that it offers (liniinishes the pressure at the burners to such an extent that the j^as will not burn well.
Thus, it" i^as is furnishetl at a pressure of .h inch and the resistance of the meter is /2, then the j^as passing to the burners will have a pressure of only .'-S inch, and will burn in such a hmj^uid way that it will be very unsatisfactory.
\\\n .Size* of (ias Mc'tcM'.-— The numbers usually affixed to gas uieters indicate the number of gas burners consuming 5 cul)i<* f<'et each j)er hour, which the meter will supply with ease and certainly. In practi("e, the niuiiber of burners may be increased to double the number on the meter.
§13
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
39
Gas meters should not be exposed to a lower temperature than 40**, nor a higher temperature than liX)®, since the oiled leather in the diaphragms will be injuriously affected thereby.
Some knowledge of the internal condition of a meter can be ascertained by noting the difference in pressure in the supply and delivery pipes. A water gauge should be attached to each pipe as close to the meter as practicable. If the gauges show a difference greater than .'2 inch in pres- sure, the meter should be removed and examined. The accumulation of water in the meter may cause the trouble, in which case it must be emptied. Or, the meter may be out of order, in which case it must be repaired.
44. Reading: Gas Meters. — Fig. 15 is a diagram of a meter dial of the ordinary type. When the pointers all point to the zero mark on their respective dials, the meter is said to be at zero. If the meter is ai zero and a certain
volume of gas is allowed to pass through it, the number of cubic feet of gas passing through the meter will he indicated on the dials. . If the meter is not at zero, however, the number of cubic feet of gas that has actually passed through during the time specified is equal to the difference between
30 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION § 13
the number indicated on the dials before the gas was allowed to flow through the meter and that indicated when the gas has flowed through.
The top dial is marked two feet, which means that when 2 cubic feet of gas have passed through the meter the pointer of this dial will have made one revolution.
When 1,000 cubic feet of gas have passed through the meter, the pointer of the dial to the right, which is marked 1 tJiOHsand, will have made one complete revolution, and the pointer of the middle, or 10 thousand, dial will have moved from 0 to 1. When the pointer to the right has made another revolution, the pointer of the middle dial will have moved from 1 to '^, which means that two complete revolu- tions of the pointer to the right have been made. Wheft the middle pointer has made one complete revolution, the pointer to the left will have moved from 0 to 1 on the 100 thousand dial, which means that iV of 100,000, or 10,000 cubic feet, have passed through the meter.
To read a meter dial of this description, first write down the figure that the pointer has just passed on each dial; then annex two ci{)hcrs to the riglit; the number so obtained will be the amount of gas in cubic feet that the meter has measured. The dials sliould be read from left to right.
Thus, the pointers on the diagram indicate that 14,200 cubic feet of i;as have passed through the meter. When the pointer to the left has made one complete revolution, the process of indit atini^ is repeated. The pointers all move from the smaller to the larii^er iij^nires, just like the hands of a clock.
(las meters are not read in practice to a smaller amount than 100 cubic feet. P>y watching the top dial it can be seen, at a very small expenditure of gas, whether the meter is working, by opening S(»me outlet on the house side of the meter.
45. IVstln^ (ias Met tM-s.- Meters are tested by means of a motor provcM'. This is principally composed of a metal cylinder or gas holder a^ VW. if,, usually capabh- of holding either 5 or 10 cubic feet of gas. The holder is open at the
§13
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
31
bottom, and is placed inside a slightly larger cylinder or tank b^ which is open at the top and nearly tilled with water. There is a pipe in the center of the water tank, the upper end of which pipe terminates above the water level, the lower end connecting to the pipe c. This pipe gives an inlet and outlet to the space between the top of the water and the
Pig. 16
under side of the top of the gas holder. The holder is free to rise up out of the water, and its weight is partly counter- balanced by a cord or chain that runs over a wheel set above the tank and that has a weight or counterbalance d on the other end. The counterbalance is usually such that a pres- sure of more than \\ inches of water column under the tank
32 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION § 18
will raise it. The tank is guided while it is raised by guide wheels that are set at three points on its circumference and run against the guide posts i\ e, A scale is attached to the outside of the holder and shows in subdivisions of a cubic foot how much air or gas is required to fill the space above the water at any height the tank might be in the water. As the results are the same with either air or gas, air is gen- erally used in the prover for the sake of convenience. The pipe c that comes from the inside of the prover is provided with a valve for the admission of air and with another valve leading to a connection, usually on the end of a rubber hose, for the attachment of meters. A U gauge is always pro- vided near the outlet of this valve, as shown at g,
46. The j)rover is operated as follows: A meter is connected to the coui)ling end /of the rubber hose, and the ( ock r is closed. The air valve at // is then opened and the tank is raised a little by pulling down on the counter- balance. Air thereupon enters the inside of the tank through the air valve, which is closed before the counter- balance is released. The outlet of the meter is closed either by \\\r. hand or by a suitable cap, and the cock admit- ting air to the meter is opened. The gauge will at once show a pressure of 1 .1 inc'hes. The cock c is then closed and the })ressiire t;aii«^(? ol)serv<'cl. If the gauge remains at l|-inch pressnic, tin* test may be proceeded with, but if the pres- sun* falls, there is a leak somewhere in the connections; this leak must be found and sto[)ped and the above leak test rcj>c:it('(l before anything elstr is done.
All connections being gas-tight, the cap is removed from the meter outlet, the cock c is opened, and air is allowed to pass through the niett^ until the 2-foot hand just points toward one of the side marks on the 'i-foot dial. A meter lest should never be started from either the bottom or top UKiik. When the hand reac^hes the side mark, the cock c is closed. The air valve is then opened and the j)rover tank is raised until the zero mark on the scale is 'i or \\ inches above a pointer that is si't on the water tank ly just above the
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 33
water-line. The air valve is then closed and the prover tank released. The prover tank will come to rest, supported by the air that has been drawn inside it,^ and the zero mark will be a little above the pointer. The air valve is then opened a little and air is allowed to escape until the zero mark is just level with the pointer. The air valve is now closed and the meter cock c is opened. The air will pass out through the meter and the small hand on the meter dial will at once begin to move. The small hand should be care- fully watched, and when it has made one complete revolu- tion and returned to the side mark from which it started, the meter cock c should be quickly closed.
The pointer will be found to point exactly at the 2-foot mark on the prover tank scale if the meter is exactly right. If the pointer points at a point on the scale that is y^^ of 2 feet above the 2-foot mark, 1 per cent, more air has gone through the meter than the meter has registered, and the meter is accordingly 1 per cent. slow. If the pointer points at a corresponding position below the 2-foot mark, the meter has registered 2 feet when only ^^^^ of 2 feet of air has left the prover, and the meter is 1 per cent. fast. The sub- divisions on the prover scale are usually arranged so that the direct reading shows the percentage fast or slow, each subdivision being equal to 1 per cent. ; hence, no calculating is necessary. On large meters the small hand may register 5 or even 10 cubic feet at one revolution, and a proper subdivision for directly reading a 5-foot and 10-foot test will usually be found on the prover scale.
47. The test described in the preceding article is called the open test, because the meter has been open, or rather, blowing with a full opening, to the atmosphere. After the open test has been made, the same process should be repeated with a cap, in which a small hole has been drilled, placed on the outlet of the meter. The hole in this cap should be of such a size that the number of feet of gas passed per hour will be equal to six times the number of burners the meter is rated for. Thus, a 3-light meter cap has a hole large enough
ea— 7
34 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION § 13
to pass about 18 cubic feet per hour. This test is for the pur- pose of placing the meter more nearly under the conditions of average use ; it is.called the slow test. The slow and open tests should agree within 2 per cent., and if they do not, there is something wrong with the meter and it should be opened and repaired. The slow test should be taken as the correct test of the meter. Suitable caps are always pro- vided by the manufacturers of meter pro vers. In proving meters, it is necessary to have the temperature of the air in the room and of the water in the prover tank as nearly the same as possible, and two thermometers should be provided for observing this.
As each difference of S'' will make a difference of about 1 per cent, between the registration of the meter and that of the prover, the necessity of an even temperature may be readily seen. The water in the prover tank may be readily brought to the temperature of the air in the room by adding cold water if it is too hot and hot water if it is too cold. Meters, for the reason above stated, should be allowed to remain in the proving room for some time before being tested, and if they have been brought in from outdoors on very cold or very hot days, several hours should be allowed to elapse before proviiij^ them. If the meter, the air in the room, and the water in the prover are all at the same tem- perature, it makes no pra(nical difference what that tempera- ture may be. In many shops it is considered better to allow the '2 -foot hantl on the meter to make two revolutions instead ot one (luring a test. In this i\ise each division on the prover scale tluit would be 1 per cent, in a single revolution will be I per cent.
48. When very large meters are to be proved, the test dial frecjuently re(juires more air for one complete revolution than the capacity of the i)rover will allow. In this case the prover must be filletl twice or more. Supposing a meter, the test dial of which registers 20 cubic feet, is to be tested on a 10-foot prover. The prover is set at zero and the test hand at one of the side marks, and exactly 10 cubic feet by
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 35
the prover scale is allowed to pass to the meter. No atten- tion being given to the position of the dial hand when it stops, the prover is refilled with air and brought to zero again and once more allowed to descend. This time the hand on the meter is watched, and when it gets around to the point from which it started, the meter cock is again shut and the reading on the scale taken. In this case it will be readily seen that each difference of ^j^ foot above or below the 10-foot mark amounts to 1 per cent, slow or fast, as the case may be.
49. Accuracy of Gas Meters. — Meters that are within 2 per cent, of being correct are regarded as right, whether fast or slow, this being the range generally allowed by law in places where laws governing the registration of meters exist. Notwithstanding the prejudice of the public to the contrary, the tendency of all meters is to run slow rather than fast. Indeed, every dry meter, if left in use long enough, will run slow, as sooner or later the leather dia- phragms begin to rot and small holes appear that allow gas to pass without registering, and these holes grow larger and larger until the meter ceases to register any of the gas that passes through it. For this reason it is good practice for gas companies to make a routine test of some of the meters in use in any district each year, so that every meter will be tested once in 3 or 4 years.
The life of the diaphragms may be very much prolonged if the meters are opened up and the diaphragms oiled with neatsfoot oil.
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
(PART 2)
GAS DISTRIBUTION
BEGUIiATIKG FliOW OF GAS
INTRODUCTION
!• The pressure in gas mains and services is mainly artificial, being created by the weight of the holders in which the gas is stored at the works. This pressure is regulated by a governor at the works to a day pressure of about 2 inches, as the ranges and other fuel appliances in use work best at about this pressure. At night, when there is a very heavy consumption of gas, it is frequently neces- sary to increase the pressure at the works to 4 or 5 inches in order to deliver gas with sufficient pressure to the con- sumers at the far ends of the mains. On this account the consumers near the works have more pressure than is necessary, which is very undesirable. Here it may be mentioned that any increase in gas pressure means an increase in the leakage of gas mains, and for this reasc^n, contrary to the usual belief, gas companies rarely carry more than just enough pressure to supply the more distant points of their main system properly.
A burner that is designed to consume, say, 5 cubic feet of gas per hour, will work most efficiently when it is supplied with just that quantity — neither more nor less. If only 4 cubic feet are supplied, the flame will be dull and smoky,
§13
For notice of copyright, see paj^e immediately foll(»winR: the title pRf^e.
38 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION § 13
and the amount of light will be considerably less than that normally produced by a 4-foot burner using the same gas. If G cubic feet be forced through the burner, the flame will flare and jump, and the light given off will be less than that pro- duced by the same amount of gas going through a 6-foot burner.
If the volume of gas passed through a burner consider- ably exceeds the amount it was designed to burn, some of the excess will pass through without being burned, and will vitiate the air of the room in which it is used.
3. The pressure that should be given to the gas at the burners, in order to secure the best results, varies greatly in different forms of apparatus. The following are the pressures generally used: Argand burners, .2 inch of water; common batswing burners, .5 inch of water; Welsbach incandescent burners, 1 inch or more; Wenham and Lebrun lamps, .5 to 1 inch or more; atmospheric burners, I inch or more.
For the sake of economy it is important that both the vol- ume and pressure at the burners should be closely regulated. The amount of gas wasted by overpressure is much greater than generally known. A good new lava tip burner con- suming 5 cubic feet per hour at .5 inch pressure will con- sume about .5 cubic foot more for each increase of .1 inch in the i)rcssure. Thus, an overpressure of .1 inch will increase the gas l)ill about 10 per cent.
The variation in the gas pressure in the mains, even in the best regulated systems, is usually much greater than .1 inch, frecjuently being 1 inch and more.
3. The pressure of gas is regulated by a device known as a ^as-prc»ssiiiv regulator and also as a jaius grovernor.
The objects sought in the use of pressure regulators or governors are (1) economy in the consumption of gas, and (2) steadiness of the lights and the most effective operation of the burners.
There are two systems of gas regulation now in use, called, respeetively, the pressure ri'L^nliition and the volumetric regu- laiion systems. In the first system, a governor is attached
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 89
to the service.pipe at the meter, and the house distributing pipes contain gas at a constant pressure; in the second sys- tem, each burner is supplied with a governor, and the pres- sure in the house pipes is not controlled, being about the same as in the mains.
PBESSURS IIKGUI-ATION SYSTEM
4, For the successful working of the pressure re^ula-
tlcui system it is necessary that the house pipes be of such size as to permit an adequate supply to all burners without loss in pressure between the burner and the governor. Where the piping system is very extended, or the pipes are small, the governor should be adjusted to the minimum pressure of the gas in the street mains, and either volu- metric burners or suitable check-burners applied. A cheek- burner is a gas burner supplied with a suitable device for regulating the size of opening through which the gas flows to the tip. Ordinary burners can be converted into check- burners by stuffing cotton into the pillar, and where gas that has been properly scrubbed and purified is used, this form of check is fairly satisfactory, but the cotton must be put in with good judgment so that the proper sized flame for the tip is developed. It must be noted that the differ- ence in specific gravity of coal gas and water gas makes an appreciable difference in the amount of gas that will flow through a given burner under the same pressure. As coal gas is much the lighter, it will require a smaller check- opening than water gas. Where Welsbach lights and fuel appliances are to be used on the same system of piping as open burners, the governor on the service pipe should be adjusted to the minimum street pressure, usually about 2 inches, and check-burners should then be applied to the open lights. Both Welsbach lights and fuel appliances give best results under high pressure. Thus, a Welsbach lamp adjusted to burn 3^ feet per hour at a pressure of 2 inches will give considerably more light than the same lamp adjusted to burn the same amount of gas at a pressure of 1 inch. In very high buildings the pressure on the top floors
40 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION § 13
will be much higher than on the lower floors. In this case it is necessary to install a separate governor for each floor.
5. The ordinary practice is to put the governor on the house side of the meter. This is the proper place for the governor in most cases, as the governor will respond more quickly with an increase or decrease of volume when lights are turned on or off, and it also has a tendency to cushion any slight jumping motion to the gas that the meter may give if it works a little stiff. There is a use, however, for a pressure regulator on the service pipe that may be of impor- tance in some situations. Thus, where services are tapped into mains used for pumping gas from one point to another and where accordingly very high pressures are used, a gov- ernor of the diaphragm type should be placed in the service pipe in order to reduce the pressure at the meter to a reasonable amount.
VOI.UMETRIC REGULATION SYSTEM
6. The system of volumetric reflrulation is free from
all the difficulties experienced with the pressure regulation system. No governors are required on the house pipe or service pipe; the pressure in the house i)ipes is about the same as in the street main, and it may fluctuate to any extent, provided that il never falls too low to supply enough gas. Under this system every burner has its own governor, and, if the regulators are ])roperly adjusted, each burner will have the proper amount of ^as at just the right pressure to enable il to produce li^l^t in the most economical manner. While the system of pressure regulation is far more econom- ical than the use of check-burners without other regulation, yet it cannot regulate the pressure and volume with the nicety recpiired for really successful lighting, and given by a properly adjusted volumetric reguhition system. In order to make the volumetric system more efhcient than the use of governors with pro{)er check-burners, it is necessary to adjust the volume supplied to each individual tip with the utmost care, so that just the proper amount of gas is burned.
13
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
41
As tips frequently become more or less clogged with an accu- mulation of dust or carbon in a short time, the adjustment is usually far from perfect, and it will then be found in actual practice that the use of check-burners with a gov- ernor will give almost as good results. This shows the impor- tance of proper periodic adjustmerft in order to realize the inherent benefit of a volumetric regulation system.
CONSTRUCTION OF GAS PRESSURIS REGULATORS
7. Pressure regulators for gas are designed to receive gas at a high and variable pressure, and to deliver it at a lower but steady pressure. In principle, they belong to the general class of devices known as automatic reducing valves.
A regulator suitable for large pipes or mains is shown in Fig. 1. It consists of a hollow cylinder or drum a that floats in water within the tank b. The drum is guided by means of a rod c at the top ^\ ^"""^ and rollers ^/, d at the bottom. , j \ The gas is brought in through the pipe c and is discharged at /. The passage of the gas is controlled by the valve g, which is attached by a chain to the top of the drum a, A very slight increase in the pressure of the gas within the drum and pipe / will cause the drum to lift and reduce the opening between the valve g and its seat, thus checking the inflow of gas. Similarly, if the pressure should fall, the drum would sink
42
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
13
and increase the opening of the valve until the pressure in the delivery pipe rose to the point for which the regulator was adjusted. The pressure in the delivery pipe may be determined by increasing or diminishing the weights at ;/.
The pressure in the delivery pipe is not exactly constant with this regulator ; but, the variation is confined within such narrow limits that the purpose of regulation is accom- plished with sufficient accuracy for all ordinary purposes.
Small regulators for domestic use are constructed on the same principle as the regulator just described. Water is unsuitable for small regulators because it evaporates so easily. In many instances glycerine is used in place of water, since it will not evaporate at any ordinary temperature. Mercury is also used with complete success.
8. In another type of gas pressure regulator the float- ing drum is replaced by a flexible diaphragm a, as shown in
Fig. 2. This diaphragm rises and falls with the varia- tions in pressure in the deliv- ery pipe, and operates the valve d in the same manner as the floating drum in Fig. 1. This kind of regulator is called a (/rf governor^ and such governors are used on the gas pipes within the house. Both types of governors illustrated are also made of sufficiently small dimensions to control single gas burners, and are frec|ueiuly united with them in the same structure.
Fig. 2
C ONSTUI ( TION OF VOLI METUK REGULATORS
()• A very successful burner containing a \vet volu- metric ^oNernor is shown in l^'ig. \\. The gas passes
upwards through the valve seat it into the interior of an inverted cup b, which lloats in glycerine //, contained in
§13
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
43
FlO. 3
the lower part of the shell c. It escapes from the floating
cup through two small holes, which are made of a size
that will pass the desired quantity of
gas that the burner is intended to
consume per hour, at a pressure of
.5 inch of w^ater. If the pressure
within the cup exceeds that amount,
the cup will rise and partially close
the valve. It thus maintains the
pressure at the tip very close to
.5 inch at all times, and insures a
steady rate of consumption, although
the pressure in the pipes may fluctuate
through 20 inches or more.
10. One of the most improved forms of dry volumetric governors
for single gas burners is shown in Fig. 4r. The flow of gas to the burner tip is controlled by a tubular valve a, which closes against a seat b, and which is attached to a very light disk d. This disk moves up and
down freely, like a piston, in the cylindrical chambers, being guided also by the central post. Gas is admitted freely to the under side of the disk, and a cer- tain quantity is permitted to pass around to the upper side through the hole e. The volume of gas passing through this hole may be changed by means of the regula- ting screw /. The weight of the disk and valve is made such that it will require a certain excess of pressure on its under side, say \ inch, to lift it. When it begins to rise, there is nothing to stop its upward movement or to prevent the valve a from closing the outlet, except the
Pig. 4
44 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION § 13
circumstance that as the outlet becomes choked, the pressure above the disk increases until it approximates or equals the pressure below it. The excess of pressure on its under side is thus diminished and is no longer sufficient to hold it up; consequently, it will gradually drop and increase the outlet opening until the pressure above the disk becomes | inch less than that below it. Thus, the pressure of the gas escaping past the valve to the burner will always equal the difference in pressure on the upper and lower sides of the disk, in this case about .6 inch; and the volume will depend on the size of the orifice as deter- mined by the screw/. By adjusting this screw, the gov- ernor can be arranged to deliver gas in any volume within its scope.
11. It should be observed that there is a radical differ- ence in the effect produced by the two classes of governors described. The governors shown in Figs. 1 and 2 operate only to regulate the pressure in the delivery pipes; they do not limit or control the volume of the gas passing through. They will pass cnouj^h gas to maintain the pressure, jig matter wlicnhcr the amount be 10 feet per hour or 1,000 feet per hour.
Tlic governors shown in Figs. 3 and 4 not only control the pri'ssnrc of the ^'a<> that is delivered to the burner, but they detenniiu^ the voluni(\ also, with great exactness. The gas is eomjx-lled in (^aeh (\'ise to pass through fixed orifices, which will, ()( course. {)ass only a certain volume per hour at the ])ressure for which they are adjusted. Any attempt to increase or diminish the volume passing instantly changes the internal pressure and causes the regulating valve to move.
13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 45
PIPING BUILDINGS
INTRODUCTION
SIZE OF PIPES
12. The capacity of each pipe must be great enough to supply all the burners that receive gas through it, when every burner is in full operation. Allowance must also be made for all heating and cooking apparatus, not only for that which is decided on, but for all that is liable to be required.
Service pipes should never be less than J inch in diam- eter, because of the liability to chokage, and it is advisable to make the diameter at least 1 inch if the pipe is of iron. For small cook stoves, the supply pipe should be at least I inch in diameter, and larger stoves should have pipes from 1 inch to 1^ inches in diameter.
The quantity of gas burned by gas burners varies not only with their construction but also with their condition, and may be as low as 2J^ cubic feet per hour and as high as 7 cubic feet, or more. Nothing short of an actual test will give the amount of gas really burned per hour. In installing a gas-lighting system, it is obviously necessary to compute the required size of the piping on the assump- tion that each burner consumes a certain number of cubic feet of gas per hour. Practical experience has shown that the average consumption of various gas burn- ers is about 5 cubic* feet, and hence it is customary to install piping systems in accordance with the assumption that each burner consumes 5 cubic feet of gas per hour, unless the specifications under which the work is done specify otherwise.
46
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
§13
TABIiB I
CAPACITY OF «A.S PIPES
|
Diameter of Pipe |
Maximum Length Feet |
Cai)acity Per Hour Cubic Feet |
Number of Burners Acetylene Gas |
|
|
Inches |
Coal Gas |
Gasoline Gas |
||
|
i |
6 |
10 |
||
|
i |
20 |
* |
4 |
|
|
1 |
20 |
15 |
lO |
|
|
1 |
40 |
7 |
||
|
i i |
30 60 |
30 |
20 |
15 • |
|
i |
50 |
100 |
75 |
|
|
i |
100 |
50 |
||
|
I I |
70 |
175 |
125 |
80 |
|
'i |
100 |
300 |
200 |
|
|
n |
250 |
150 |
||
|
4 |
150 |
500 |
350 |
|
|
2 |
200 |
1,000 |
700 |
|
|
2l |
300 |
1,500 |
1,100 |
|
|
3 |
450 |
2,250 |
1,500 |
|
|
4 |
600 |
3*750 |
2,500 |
Having asccrlaincd the probable maximum quantity of gas required in cubic feet per hour, the necessary nominal diam- eter of the pipe can be found from Table I. If the length of the proposed pipe exceeds the maximum length given in the table, then the diameter chosen should be the next size larger. If the pressure of gas exceeds t> inches of water, the prin- cipal pipes may be reduced in diameter one size. If the pressure is less than 1 inch of water, then all the pipes must be made one size largxT, and in case of very long pipes, the diameter will recjuire to be increased still more.
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 47
When carbureted air, which usually is gasoline gas, is used, no distributing pipe should be less than J inch in diameter. For acetylene gas no distributing pipe smaller than J inch should ever be used.
Some gas companies issue rules governing the installation of piping systems in buildings supplied with gas by them. Wherever this is the case, the installation should conform with the prescribed rules, copies of which can generally be had free on application at the office of the company issuing them.
The pressure of the gas is assumed in the foregoing table to be about 2 inches of water column. It should be under- stood that the quantities given are those that the pipes will deliver at the burners without objectionable fall of pressure.
The use of the table is shown by the following example:
Example. — What diameter of pipe should be used to supply three ordinary coal-gas burners, the length bfeing 60 feet ?
Solution.— The quantity consumed will be 3 x 5 = 15 cu. ft. per hour. The table shows that f-inch pipe can be depended on to deliver that quantity of gas at a distance of 20 ft. only; therefore, it will not serve properly to carry 60 ft. The }-inch pipe is evidently too large; therefore, the intermediate size — J-inch in diameter — may be used.
Ans.
PIPB FITTTNG
13. The methods of cutting, bending, threading, and jointing gas pipes within buildings are exactly the same as those employed in installing wrought-iron and steel [)ipe sys- tems for plumbing and heating purposes. It should be borne in mind, however, that the tightness of all screw joints should depend on the perfection of the screw threads, and not on any red lead or cement that may be used in closing the joints. Therefore, all threading tools should be kept sharp, and in strictly good order at all times.
In cutting threads at the pipe vise, the pipe should not pro- ject any farther than is necessary to give elbow room while
48 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION § 13
working the dies, because the farther away the dies are from the vise, the greater is the torsional stress upon the pipe, and the more liable it is to be strained or split in the butt- welded joint.
It is customary to cut and thread all the pipes required for an ordinary building on the premises where they are used, and to do the work exclusively with hand tools. On large jobs, however, where the gas pipes are larger than 1 inch, a great saving in labor and time can be effected by cutting and threading the large pipes with suitable power-driven machines in the shop, cutting and threading only the smaller pipes and doing the special fitting on the premises where the gas-lighting system is being installed. If the working plans are made with reasonable accuracy, there will be no difficulty in preparing the pipes and fittings at the shop, so that they may be put into their places in the build- ing and screwed together with entire success.
In screwing pipes together, or into fittings, the pipe should be gripped as close to the fitting as practicable so as to prevent the pipe from being split by twisting.
After pipes are cut and threaded, each piece should be carefully inspected to see whether it is free from cracks or splits, and to sec whether its length conforms to the drawing.
I>KAIN.V(n: OF 1»IPKS
14. Illiiniinatin«:i^ j^as nearly always contains a small per- centage "f watery vapoi", and this condenses on the interior of the pijx'. The ((Mulensed water will flow to the lowest ])'Miu in the jHpe, and if no provision is made for its removal, it will accinnulate to such an extent as to close the pa^.-aj^e and sioj) the How of gas. Therefore, all horizontal pi[)e>, unless v<;ry short, must be so inclined that they will drain ]»r'»|)»-rly. All the branches of a riser must be ineljned to drain back into it. or, if the branch be very lon*^. it may he inclined so as t«> drain into a drip cup at Some intermediate point. Usually the wliole system of
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 49
house pipes is arranged to drain back into a drip cup at the meter.
Drip cups must always be located at some point where they can be got at and emptied without difficulty. It is considered good practice to place a plugged T at the base of a riser at the cellar ceiling instead of a 90° elbow. Should the riser sag and make a trap at the base, or should rust fall down the riser and choke the base, it can easily be cleared after unscrewing the plug.
Gas pipes composed of lead or other soft metals should not be used in ordinary buildings. If such gas pipes are specified for special work, they must be protected against sagging by running them on a ledge or shelf. Every sag operates as a pocket to collect water, and if the depression of one of the sags equals the diameter of the pipe, the accumulation of water will eventually choke the pipe and stop the flow of gas.
in&tatjIang the piping
GAS-FITTERS' PLANS
15. The location of gas fixtures is generally indicated on the architect's plans by a star, thus ♦, and the number of burners on each fixture, together with the height of the fix- ture above the floor, is stated in the specifications.
To facilitate the work of running the pipes and of estimating their proper sizes, the gas-fitter should make plans of the piping on ^ach floor. An outline tracing should be made of each floor of the building from the architect's plans. On these should be noted the position of each fixture and its height from the floor, and the number of burners required for each one.
The number of burners and the kind of fixture may be conveniently indicated by the symbols shown in Fig. 5, where A, B, and C represent side lights or brackets having 1, 2, and 3 lights, respectively, each large dot representing
«3— 8
50
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
§13
one burner. In a similar manner, />, E^ F^ G^ //, and / represent drop liji^lits having 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 burners, respectively.
The horizontal piping should be indicated by plain black lines, and each floor plan should show only those pipes that
J/// ■....:•■'•'» -//^y, ....r»f,, "^/f////fy^'/// • r f/////y :*/, ' V ■
T
F ^
^
Fig. 5
arr lo be ariually run in the floor of that story or on the under side «»t" it .
TIk- jx-ints :ti wliich risers or drop pipes are to be con- nected !•> the horizontal pipes may be indicated as shown
in i
a' I
T-rn ¥r-
JiO -
)(■ — Twj
'<j
k
Fir. C
(if)
0-3"
■S
s^-^
ill I-'iii. •!. 'I'liiis, ;iii ■ ;il / iniiicaics that a drop pipe (l<s<(ii(lh from that |)i)iiit, and a Q at i- indicates that a
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 61
riser ascends from that point. A O ^"^ X combined, as at /, indicate that the vertical pipe extends both above and below. At ;// is indicated a drop pipe leading to a bracket or side light having two burners.
The length of each pipe should be figured from center to center of fittings, and the diameter should be written close to the figures indicating the length. Thus, the pipe between / and k is shown to be l^J^ inches in diameter and 6 feet 3 inches between centers of fittings.
The length of each riser or drop pipe should be similarly indicated by figures placed near the symbol, and connected to it by a light line; thus, at/ we have a drop pipe \ inch in diameter, descending 4 feet 6 inches to center of fitting; at k we have a riser \ inch in diameter, ascending 8 feet 2 inches; at / we have a riser 1^ inches in diameter, ascend- ing 3 feet 4 inches, and a drop pipe 1 inch in diameter, descending 8 feet 2 inches.
In order to show which figures belong to the drop pipe at /, it is necessary to place an X before them, as shown. Where figures are crowded, it is advisable to draw a Q around the figures indicating diameters of pipes, in order to clearly distinguish them from all others.
If any of the vertical pipes require to be offset or bent to pass around obstructions, etc., or a horizontal pipe requires to be run along a wall at a height between the floor and the ceiling, a reference letter should be placed conspicuously at that point, and a corresponding note made on the margin of the drawing. A diagram of the special pipe required should be made and attached to the drawing.
Gas-fitters' plans are sometimes made in perspective; but if the work is at all complicated, the drawing is likely to be very confusing, especially if the draftsman is a little unskilful.
The plan recommended above has the advantage that several sets of piping for various purposes may be indicated on the same drawing. Thus, pipes for gas, steam, and water, and tubing for electric wires, nuiy be shown by using differently colored inks for the various systems of pipe.
62
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION § 15
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 63
62
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION §«
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBl'TIOX
64 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION § 13
16. Fig. 7 shows the first-floor plan of a common two- story and basement dwelling house. The second-story plan is shown in Fig. 8. These figures are supposed to represent tracings from the architect's drawings, with the gas piping drawn in.
The meter a is placed in the basement, and all the piping shown on this plan is run along or under the basement ceil- ing, except b, which is a J-inch horizontal branch to supply the lavatory bracket from a |-inch riser r, run from the basement to the brackets on the stair landing above. \ distributing main ^/ runs directly from the meter outlet to the ri.ser t\ and all the branches that supply gas to the brackets of the first floor, also the basement lights, are taken from this pipe.
The chandeliers or pendants that illuminate this floor are supplied with gas from the pipes shown in Fig. 8. These pipes run under the floors and across or between the joists. They also supply all brackets that illuminate the second floor.
The pi])es are all proportioned to give an abundant supply of gas to the entire building when all the jets are burning at the same lime. Tliey are also all laid to pitch back toward the meter, where a drip eu]) may be placed. The piping in Fig. S is so arraiit^ed that no floor joists will be cut at a greater distance than *l feet from a ])oint of support. The joists all run from fr«)nt to rear of the building.
There are many other ways of running the pifKiS for this work, but the drawings show a method probably as good as any.
17. If th(^ location of the pipes is not shown by the archite( t, then the gas-fitter must use his own judgment in determining their })osition. He should be governed by the folbjwing considerations: (1) The pipes should run to the fixtures in the most direct manner practicable; (•^) The pipes must be graded to secure proper drainage without excessive cutting of floorbeams, or otherwise damaging the building; (3) pipes that run crosswise of
§13
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
55
floorbcains should be laid not more than I foot away from the wall, so as to avoid serious injury to the floor by weakening the beams; (4) fixtures should l)e supplied by risers rather than by drop pipes, as far as practicable; (5) all pipes should be located where they can be got at for repairs with the least possible damage to the floors or walls.
SERVICE PIPES
18. The pipes that convey the gas from the mains into the building should be connected to the top of the street main, as shown in Fig. 9, and not to the sides or bottom. The hole in the cast-iron main is tapped with a drill and ratchet, held in place by a tapping machine or a clamp, often called a crowfoot, or old man. The best forms of tapping machine are now arranged with a saddle with a rubber gasket that clamps down on the pipe, and through which the drill or tap works. The escape of gas while the work is being done is thus avoided. The drill or tap is a combined drill, reamer, and pipe tap, so that the hole is tapped out in one operation ready for the fitting to be screwed in. Soap is used on the tap to prevent the escape of gas where machines that have no special device for this purpose are employed. Ser- vices should always be connected to the main by two street elbows, one being screwed into the hole in the main and turned in the direction of the run of the pipe, and the other being screwed into the first and turned toward the house. A form of universal joint is thus made, and there is no danger of straining or breaking pipe or fittings when the ditch is filled.
PlO. 9
19. Where it is desirable to run two services from the same tap to opposite sides of the street, a street tee a,
m
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION | U
Fig. 10, and two street elbowF ^ and c are used, the street tee being screwed into the pipe so that the two ends look up and down the run of the main.
KlG. 11
20. A tee should be placed on the service at the first
turn it makes after it comes through the cellar wall, as shown in Fig. 11, the fitting being so placed that the plug a can be removed and a wire or rod run into the pipe toward the main for clearing purposes.
aterS
81, Services should never be laid in a ditch above watei
or sewer pipes, as such a ditch is almost sure to settle'
enough to trap the service pipe. Where it is desirable to lay the service in the same excavation with other pipes, a shelf of solid ground should be left on one side of the ditch and the gas service laid on this, as shown in Fig. 12.
SS. Great care should be^ taken to lay service pipes with an even inclination toward the street main, if possible; but, if this cannot be done, then they should incline toward
■? ». ;%.i.:/»^-
i^^:}^
F[G. IS
I 13
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
67
Fio. 1^
house, in which case a suitable drip cup must be provided on Ibe house end, as shown at a^ Fig, 13. Services should be c^iref uHy bedded on firm ground » so that there will never he any chance of the pipe settlings and forming a trap.
23, A shut -off cock should be placed in every service pipe at the curb, and this should be enclosed in a suitable box extending upwards to the surface of the pavement, and closed against the entrance of dirt, water, or snow by a tight cover.
A curb box is shown in Fig, 14. A round*way stop-cock a is placed in the service pii>e b\ The service pipe is properly lined up and a brick support c is built under it, the pipe at each side uf the stop-cock resting on the bricks. The rod ti is made of such a length that its top end is about t inches below the surface of the sidewalk. The lower forked end
of the rod is bolted to the key of the cock. The rod casing tube ^, made usually of 1-inch or l^inch pipe, is cut to such a length that, with the cast- iron cock casing f resting on the brickwork^ the flange of the cast-iron curb box g fiu- ishes flush with the surface of the sidewalk. The square end of the rod d should pro- ject inside the box at least 1 inch, so thai the rod may be turned by a box key. The cover of the curb box should be hinged, and preferably be The casing ])if)e e should be the cock casing.
€
FIG, Vi
capable of Ijei ng locked ^
screwed both into the curb box and
i
58
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
18
24:. The hole in the wall through which the service pipe enters the cellar or basement should be larger than the pipe, so that the settlement or shifting of the ground out- side will not cause the pipe to bind or strain in the hole.
CONNKC^TIONS TO METERS
25. The connection from the meter to the service pipe and also to the house pipe should be made with lead or other soft-metal tubing, as shown at u, a, Fig. 15. These connec- tions will bend and relieve the couplings on the meter from
Fio. 15
injiiri«.ns strains in (^as<- the pifH-s expand or contract, or arc displaced l)v the s<-ttl(Mnenl of the buildinjj^, (•t(\
Mftci-^ arc usually set on a shelf, but this is not necessary unless the meter is lari^e and heavy. If the meter is of the wet ty])e, then it must be supported on a shelf, and the
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 59
shelf must be carefully leveled both lengthwise and cross- wise. The dry meters now in common use do not require leveling in order to work properly, but they should always be set plumb for the sake of appearance and as a matter of good workmanship.
26. A single service pipe may supply two or more sys- tems of distributing pipes, as shown in Fig. 15. Each meter must be provided with a shut-off cock, as at b and r, and drip cups should be attached to each line of house pipes, as at ^/and e. The service pipe should also have a drip cup, unless it is inclined so as to drain into the street main. A drip for the service pipe is shown at/". If several meters are used in the same building, they should be placed on a shelf, in one group if practicable, and all the connections should be made exactly alike, so as to present a neat and orderly appearance. When gas is used for fuel in addition to light- ing, it is often required that the two supplies be measured separately, in order to determine the actual expense for each purpose. Some gas companies furnish gas for fuel at reduced rates, to induce consumers to put in cooking apparatus, and also to increase the sale of gas. If the price of gas is the same for all uses, and it is not desired to keep a separate account of that used for fuel, then one meter is sufficient to measure the entire supply.
ORDER OF OPERATIONS
27. The proper way to pipe an ordinary building for gas is as follows :
The gas-fitter should visit each floor of the building with the plans in hand, and should mark the location of each drop for a hanging fixture, and of each side light or bracket.
Having thus acquired a clear idea of the location of each fixture, the next thing to be decided is tlie best route for the distributing pipes. If there are other pii)es in the building, for water gr steam or drainage, care should be taken to
60 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION § 13
avoid conflict with them, and the risers for gas should be placed along with the other risers, unless they are an incon- venient distance away. Pipes for the various purposes of heating, lighting, etc. should not be scattered promiscuously over a building, but they should be kept together as much as practicable.
The matter of drainage should next be considered. Each branch must drain back into its riser, and the whole system should drain back to the meter. Long branches which run crosswise of the floorbeams should be avoided, because the notches that must be cut in the beams to give the necessary drainage become too deep and are then very objectionable.
Working plans of the piping on each floor should next be made for use at the pipe vise. The proposed route for each pipe should then be inspected to see whether the pipes can be got into place without difficulty, and whether right-and- left connections are required, and if so, where they must be placed.
The roads for the various pipes should next be marked off, taking the carpenter along and explaining to him the depth to be given to the notches, etc., and he should be fully instriKlfd where and how to build the su})ports for the hang- ing fixtures. If the walls are of brick, the necessary pockets for risinjj: i^ipes, if any, should be marked off, and the proper places for (nittini; holt^s through the walls, etc. should be carefully marked and shown to the mason.
'^S. Leavin;j: the carpenter or mason to pre[)are the roads for the i)ipes, work may begin by setting up the pipe vise and getting the tools ready.
Each })iecenf pipe should then be inspected to see whether it is free from ohstruc^tion and dirt. The several pieces of pipe livtt next ( ut and threaded according to measurements on the working })lan, and the fittings screwed on while the pil)e is in the vise. Tlu^ various ])ipcs should then be carried to their resi)ective floors and laid in convenient places.
Ertrction may begin by fitting up the main riser. The various branches should then be extended, working always
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 61
from the riser toward the outlets. Cement or red lead should be used very sparingly, and care should be taken that no lumps or clots of it run down into the inside of the pipes.
Elbows, tees, and other fittings should stand clear from the studding and joists, whenever practicable, so that all the joints may be accessible for the purpose of testing.
Changes in the direction of small pipes should be made by bending the tube, if practicable, instead of using an elbow. Elbows and other fittings to which side lights or brackets are attached should be provided with flanges or lugs and should be firmly secured with screws to solid woodwork, or, in case of brick walls, to wooden plugs driven into holes drilled in the wall, or to wooden blocks imbedded in the wall for that purpose, so that the fixture will be rigid.
The nipple for a side light or bracket should project from the wall at right angles a distance of not less than I inch, and not more than 1^ inches. The nipple should be screwed tightly into the fitting, and a cap should be screwed on the outer end of it. This cap should be screwed up with only a moderate force, so that it can be easily removed at anv time without danger of loosening the nipple from the fitting.
Drop nipples that are to support chandeliers or other hanging fixtures should hang perfectly plumb, and in case of a flat ceiling should project from f inch to 1^ inches from the surface. If ornamental center pieces of plaster, etc. are to be used, the necessary extra length of the nipple should be ascertained from the architect or contractor.
29. The proper manner of supporting a hanging fixture is shown in Fig. 16. The weight of the fixture is carried by the wooden block a, which must be made strong and be well secured to the joists ^, d. The lower block c serves to guide the drop piece //and prevent it from swinging in any direction. Care should be taken to make the drop piece per- fectly plumb.
G2
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
§13
30. When the nipples or drops for the fixtures are all in place, they should he tested to find whether they are scpiare or plumb. This may be done by attaching a straight piece of pipe a foot or so long to which the square and level may be applied, or a plumb-bob may be used alongside of the piece of pipe.
•^1, The gas pipes should be placed in a new building as soon as the walls are up and the rough timbers of the floors and partitions set, but before the floors are laid or the lathing done. When a gas pipe runs parallel with the floor boards, as shown at i\ Fig. 10, the board that covers it should have the lower flange of the groove removed, so that it can be
Fig. ig
readily taken u]) when desired. If the pipe runs crosswise of th<' tl<M)r i)o:ir<]s, a loo>e piece should he provided in the floor over every princi|)al elbow or tee, so that they can be got at easily in (ase of repairs or leakage. The loose boards and Covers should be fastened in place with *^}-inch screws. Brass snrw^ arc frtMjuently used for that j)ur])ose, as they will not rust fast.
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 63
EXPOSED PIPES
32. Gas pipes should not be exposed to the weather, if possible to avoid it, and care must be taken to protect them from freezing winds or air-currents. Moisture in the gas will condense on the interior of the pipe and form ice, and the deposit will increase in thickness until the pipe becomes choked. Exposed pipes should be covered with hair felt or other good non-conducting material, which should be made thoroughly waterproof by a covering of painted canvas. Goixl protection is especially necessary if the pipe contains carbureted air, which is usually gasoline gas.
Iron gas pipes should not be allowed to touch lead pipes or electric wires that run crosswise or near them, because the continual shifting caused by changes in temperature will ultimately wear a groove or thin spot in the softer pipe, and the insulation of the electric wire will be cut through, thus making a ground or short circuit.
If a metal pipe runs within 2 inches of an electric wire, they should be separated by a non-conductor of some description. For example, the pipe may be wrapped with four or five layers of rubber tape.
TESTING A SYSTEM OF PIPES
33. As soon as the pipes are all in place and are properly secured, the system should be tested to find whether it is perfectly gas-tight. The instruments used* for this purpose are di proving pit ffi/>^ ^ pressure gaugt\ and an ether cup.
The proving: pump is shown in Fig. 17. It is a single- acting piston pump having an inlet valve at the bottom that admits air under the piston, and an outlet or check-valve at b. The socket ^ of a special bracket is attached to a nipple on the pipe system that is to be tested. The pump is connected to the bracket by means of a stout rubber hose r, which must be wired to the coupling tails to prevent it from being blown off by the air pressure. The cock e serves to connect
64
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
§13
or shut off the pump from the pipe system, but does not shut off the gauge.
The ether cup consists of a small funnel on the bracket at d^ which is closed by a thumbscrew. This is for the pur- pose of introducing ether to make a pungent odor in the interior of the pipes.
The pressure is shown by a mercurial gauge/*, or by a common steam gauge g. The mercury column is to be
Fig. 17
preferred to the steam ^aiiij:e, because its operation is positive at all times, and it always iiulieates the true pressure in the system.
vSteam t^aujj^es, or similar contrivances, are not perfectly reliable pressure indicators, their moving parts being liable
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 65
to stick fast, so that slight pressure variations are not always indicated on the dials.
34, To make the test, a convenient nipple should be selected for making an attachment to the proving pump; and every other nipple and open end should be tightly closed by screw-caps. Plugs driven into the ends of pipes will not answer the purpose.
The pump and pressure gauge may then be connected to the system and made tight. Air should be forced in until the gauge indicates 15 or 20 inches of mercury, or from 7 to 10 pounds per square inch. The pump should now be shut off, leaving the gauge under pressure. The pressure should be continued in the pipes for about an hour, and if the gauge shows a falling off in pressure of more than ^ inch of mercury, or ^ pound per square inch, the system cannot be passed as perfect.
The extent of the leak may be judged by the rapidity of the fall in pressure, but its location must be found by the sense of smell. For this purpose, a small quantity of ether should be introduced into the pipes. The pressure gauge is usually provided with an ether cup especially for testing purposes. If none is at hand, a cap must be taken off some- where near the pump and the pressure let off. The ether may then be poured directly into the pipe and the cap replaced as quickly as possible. The pressure should now be pumped up as before. The odor of the ether will diffuse throughout the system of piping and will escape from the leak; thus the location ot the leak will be revealed by the smell of ether.
To locate the leak, it is necessary to go over the pipe sys tern, carefully smelling each joint and suspected pipe or fitting. When a suspicious place is found, it should be daubed over with a thick solution of soap, and if any air is escaping at that point it will show itself by making soap bubbles.
Every leak that can be detected should be marked with chalk, and the pressure may then be let off. All defective
66 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION § 13
pipes or fittings should be removed and replaced with per- fect ones. Patching should rarely be permitted. However, if the defective fitting is a large one, and its removal will be very difficult and expensive, and the leak be but a small sand hole, it may be patched. Gas-fitters* cement, which is only a coarse grade of sealing wax, is not proper material for that purpose. The hole should be closed with solder; or, better still, the hole may be drilled out and tapped to receive a small screw plug. The drilling of the hole will reveal the character of the metal as to whether it is solid or porous. If it appears porous or spongy, the fitting should be thrown out and replaced with a sound one without further delay.
If fittings are cracked, they should in all cases be removed. Cracked or split pipes should always be removed; it is useless to try to patch them.
Aft(.^r making all required changes, the pressure should again he applied, the test being repeated until, with a pres- sure of at least lo inches of mercury, the gauge will show not more than i-inch loss per hour, as before described. If tlu' systnn of ])iping is extensive, only one-half of that fall of pressure may be allowed. The gas-fitter should aim to have none at all, and on a really high-class piece of work, the men ury column slioukl stand all night without showing any apj)reeial)le fall in the morning.
In c^ase of lari;e buildings, it is advisable to test the piping in sections, say one floor at a time, since in this way it is much easier to locate leaks. After each section is tested, they may he ( onnected, and then subjected to a final test.
The ])ipes should not he covered until the tests are com- pleted. Usually the j^as companies o|- the city authorities re(iuire that the testini;' he done in the presence of their inspector. If no such rei^ulations arc in force, then the owner or architect siiould witness the tests, so as to avoid any possible disputes.
35. Ether is a dan<^erous fluid to handle, especially if there are any tires or lights in the vicinity. Cigars and
g 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 67
pipes must be banished, and great care must be taken to avoid spilling any of it, or getting it on the hands or clothes, because if the odor is thus set free in the building, it will be difficult to detect leaks in the pipes. Other substances may be used that are free from the danger of fire, such as the essential oil of peppermint (not the essence), but they are not so volatile and do not diffuse throughout the pipes so readily.
DEFECTS AND THEIR REMEDIES
rNTRODUCTION
36. The troubles experienced with gas-piping systems, and that gas-fitters are commonly called on to remedy, may be broadly divided into troubles occurring in the gas supply pipes and troubles with the fixtures, as the burners. Mainly those occurring in the gas supply pipes will be treated of here.
The most prevalent source of trouble are /eaks, which may occur in any part of the pipe system or in the fixtures, and manifest themselves by a strong odor of gas. Leaks are liable to occur in the most unexpected places, and often require a careful, painstaking, and systemj^tic search of the whole piping system within and without the building to discover.
Chokagc of the supply pipes is another fruitful source of trouble; it is caused by foreign matter being carried into the supply pipes, and manifests itself by a reduction of the gas supply, as shown by the burners giving a steady but very small light.
Water in the gas supply pipes manifests itself by a flicker- ing and jumping of the lights, which at times may be so bad as to render them almost useless. In e^ftremely cold weather the water collected in sags and bends in the pipes may freeze and thus partially or entirely shut off the gas supply either from part or the whole of the building. The gas supply is then said to be frozen up.
68 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION § 13
L.KAKS
37. Repairing gas leaks is dangerous business, because any mixture of common illuminating gas with air in the })r()portion of i;5 parts of air or less to 1 of gas will explode if it comes in contact with fire of any kind. If the explosive mixture be richer in gas than 1 to 13, it will explode with proportionately greater violence.
Before entering a room that smells strongly of gas, all lanterns or torches must be extinguished, and cigars or tobacco pipes must be left beliind. All matches should be laid aside, l)ecause the workman is liable, in a moment of thoughtlessness, to strike a light to **see where he is,*' and thus produce an explosion. '
If the place is very dark, and a light is required, a coal- miner's safety lani}) should be used. Even these lamps must be used with caution. The necessary instructions for handling tluMU are furnished witli the lamps.
Occasionally there is a risk of being suffocated or over- come by the gas, and the gas-fitter should always have an assistant within sight who can help him out in case of acci- dent. If he begins to fe(*l dazed or queer while breathing the vitiated aii", he should drop to the floor and make his way out on hands and knees. The air near the floor is lik'ely to be nearly free of gas, thtis giving him a chance to breathr.
In beginning a search for a leak, the first thing to do is to shut oiV the i;as at the meter, or, if that cannot be reached safely, it may be shut off at the cmi). Then the windows and doors sli.'uld be openecl, and every effort made to free the prruii^rs iroin the prot-nct! and odor of gas.
All places that cannot W. rt^adily ventilated, stich as the upper parts (»f closets, small hallways, space under stair- ways, etc., sh"nld be thoroughly faiuied out, driving out the vitiatt'd air into the air-currents that will carry it off. The space between the floors may be filled with gas, and some- times it is necessary to make o{)enings and circulate air througli them to clear out the gas.
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 69
If the apparent proportion of gas in the air does not plainly diminish when the supply is shut off at the meter, then the leak is probably in the service pipe outside the building. It may be that the leak is in the main, and that the escaping gas follows the service pipe and enters the premises through the pipe hole in the cellar wall. In loose or made ground, the gas from a leak in the street will sometimes follow a water pipe into the cellar.
After the premises are cleared of the odor, the gas should again be turned on at the meter.
Ordinarily the leak can be located approximately by the odor of the gas that again escapes from it. If there is no plain indication of its source, then a systematic search must be made. The first point to be examined for leakage, in the system of house pipes, is at the meter. Leaks may occur in the meter casing or around the glass cover over the register dials. If a* defect is found here, the meter should be removed and a sound one put in its place. A small leak may be stopped temporarily by the use of hard soap as a cement, but this cannot be depended on to remain tight for more than a few days. The meter connections should then be examined, and if the coui)lings are found to he leaking, they should be supplied with new j)a( king washers. The gas fixtures should next be examined, taking care to ascer- tain positively the tightness of every cork or key. Leaks may occur at the swing joints and at the base of the burners, but these will be perceptible only when the fixture is in use. Chandeliers and pendants should be examined at the con- nection to the drop nipple overhead, and at the ball joint, if there be one.
All stuffingboxes on sliding or extension fixtures should be closely examined. Leaks may also be looked for at either end of the nipple at bra( kcts or side lights.
If no leak is found at the nu-ter or fixtures, then the defect is evidently in the pipes or fittings, and the only |)ractical)le method of finding it is to prove the pipe system, as directed in Art. 34.
70
GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
§13
The use of matches to detect small leaks of gas is a dangerous practice ; they should never be used in any place where there is a chance for escaping gas to accumulate and mix with air. Smearing the pipe with thick soapsuds is more certain to reveal small leaks, and is free from danger.
If no leak can be found on the premises, and the odor of gas still exists,' it is probable that the leak is in some other pipe system, and that the gas is conducted into the premises through some unsuspected channel, such as accidental pas- sageways between floorbeams, rat holes, loose spaces around water pipes, etc.
C'lIOKAGE
38. When gas pipes become choked, they may be cleared in most cases by blowing them out with compressed air
An ordinary air pump is used to compress air into a strong storage tank, and when a sufficient pressure has been accumulated, the tank is connected to the choked pipe, and the air is discharged into it as sud- denly as possible, th^s bUnving oiii all obstructions before il. The air pump and storage tank are gen- erally eombined into a p o r t a b 1 e hand-operated apparatus, one form of which is shown in Fig. 18, and is known as a service clcani^r. The bul^-ed |)art, or base, forms llie air storage tank and has a hand piini|) atlaeluHl to it by which air is pumped into the base. The stoj) eoek at tlir bottom is con- nected by means of a rubber hose to the .i;as-pipe system. Air having been compressed into tlie base, a sudden opening
Fk;. is
§ 13 GAS SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 71
of the stop-cock results in blowing suddenly a large volume of air into the gas-pipe system.
When a service pipe is choked, or trapped with water, it is disconnected from the meter, and air is quickly forced through toward the main. If the pipes in the building are choked, the gas fixtures affected by the chokage are taken down, and air is rapidly forced through their supply pipes, so that the obstructions will be blown out at the open ends of the drops.
FlilCKKRING LIGHTS
39. The flickering and jumping of gas lights is caused by the presence of water in the pipes. The liquid accumulates in sags and low places, and fills the bore of the pipe, forcing the gas through it in a series of bubbles. As each bubble escapes, the water is agitated, and the lights jump in response to the momentary fluctuation of pressure. This trouble can be remedied by emptying the drip cups and taking care to thoroughly drain all parts of the pipe sys- tem. Sometimes the deposit of water will be found in the fixture instead of in the supply pipes, especially if it be a pendant or chandelier. A water trap will frequently be found in the service pipe.
A similar effect is caused by a w^et meter that is drowned or flooded by too much water. In this case the trouble may be overcome by drawing off the excess of water.
Dry meters that are stiff and need cleaning and oiling, or in which the arms have not been connected to the rock shaft at the proper angle, may cause the gas flames to flicker.
Dry meters are sometimes troubled with the water con- densed in the pipes; they are usually provided with trap screws^ so that the water can be easily removed when necessary.
The apparent freezing up or choking of the gas supply in extremely cold weather is due to the exposure of the pipe at some p6int to a draft of very cold air or to a freezing wind. the consequences of which were described in Art. 3J2,
COMBUSTION OF GA9
1. Ordinary illiiminatin£ gas is a mixture of several com* poonds qI carbon and hydrogen, which vary somewhat in their composition. The process of combustion consists in the decomposition of these compounds by means of heat, and the formation of new compounds by combining the car- bon and hydrogen separately with oxygen. The carbon and oxygen unite and form carbon dioxide (also called carbonic acid), which is indicated by the symbol TO,. The hydro- gen and oxygen uaite and form water, indicated by the symbol f/^O, Ihe %vater being in the form of vapor* A large amount of heat is given off during the formation of these compounds; but» owing to the mL^e4 composition of ordinary ilium inatingr gas, it is somewhat difficult to calculate the heat developed by its combustion.
2. If the composition of the gas is known, and the actual weight of a given quantity can be ascertained, then the heat in British thermal units may be computed by assigning to each pound of combustible substance the following amounts: Hydrogen, burned to water, //,0, 62,000; carbon, burned to carbon dioxide, CO,, 14,600; carbon, burned to carbon monoxide, CO, 4,400; carbon monoxide, burned to carbon dioxide, CO,, 10,200,
/«>r n&tfU of soi^righi, sa ^ant immtdiatih fcitowtn£ ihe titti Jkigt
i
2 DOMESTIC USES OF GAS §14
Before gas can be burned, its temperature must be raised to the point of ignition. A part of the heat produced by combustion is always absorbed in thus preparing the cold gas and air for burning. Combustion is not instantaneous in any case, because an appreciable interval of time is always required to bring the gas and air up to the required temperature. •
3. The temperature of a gas flame depends on the amount of gas burned within a given space and time, and also on the temperature of the gas and air at the moment of entering the burner. Thus, if the size of a flame be reduced, the amount of gas burned remaining the same^ the temperature will be correspondingly increased.
If a jet of gas be ignited in the ordinary atmosphere, the flame will spread out, until the surface presented to the air becomes large enough to take up the oxygen required for combustion with sufficient rapidity to consume the gas as fast as it issues from the burner. The surface of the flame thus extended is so large in proportion to the quantity of gas actually burning that the heat is radiated and imparted to the surrounding air with great rapidity, and the temperature of the flame is low in consequence. If the flame be a large one, some of the gas will become cooled below the point of i<,niition before it can secure the oxygen necessary for com- bustion, and will fail to burn. The gas unbumed is not only wasted and lost, but it mingles with and poisons the air of the room in which the burner is used.
4. The temperature of a gas flame may be increased by placinj^ a chimney over or around the flame. The supply of oxygen is increased by the draft thus created, and the size of the tlame is reduced; or, if the supply of gas be increased, a greater amount may be burned in the same space. Another method that is very effective is to mix the gas with the air needed for combustion before burning it. Each particle of gas is thus supplied with all the oxygen required, and it burns as fast as the temperature can be raised to the point of ignition. The volume of the flame is thus reduced to a
minimutB^aad consequently the temperature is raised almost to the maximum. The burners employed for this mode of combustion are called atmospbcric burners. These bumers are often called Bunsefi burners, after the name of the inveotor, A modification of the Bunsen burner is known as the FieUher, which also is an atmospheric burner.
The proportion of air that must be mixed with gas to secure g^ood combustion varies with the kind of gas used and also with the quality of the gas. Ordinary illuminating gas requires from six to twelve volumes of air lo one of gas.
When the air or gas, or both* are healed before they are burned, the heat thus imparted is added to the ordinary heat of combustion, thereby increasing the temperature of the flatne. If the preheating of the air or gas is accomplished by means of the waste heat of the gases of combustion, the process is called regeneraiion. This process is extensively used for producing high temperatures, and for lights of great intensity.
i
4
1-UM1N08ITT OF GAS FLAMB8
5. The lumlnoBlty of flames depends on the manner in which the carbon is burned. Thus, when gas is burned in a good bat*s-wing or Argand burner, light is emitted profusely; but when it is burned in an atmospheric burner, the flame appears pale blue and almost destitute of light. In order to understand the cause of the great difference in luminosity in these cases, it is necessary to examine the structure of the flames and note the different conditions under which the car- bon is burned. Hydrogen, in burning, gives off an enormous amount of heat with very little light. It serves to produce light, however, by heating to incandescence the carbon that accompanies it. if any be present.
4
6* If the flame of a candle be observed, it will be seen to consist of four parts, as shown in Fig. 1. The lowest part a is of a bright blue color, and emits very little light* The central part of the flame, marked CH, is composed of gas generated from the material of the candle by heat, and it
DOMESTIC USBS OP GAS
S14
is dark colored and transparent. It is surrounded, hf a shell or envelope of yellow luminous flame, whidi is marked C and IfnO, Outside of this is anoAer lajer marked CO., which consists of hot eas« and is almost invis* ible. The s^reater part of the oxygen, whidi moves from the sorroondins: atmosphere toward the interior of the flame, is intercepted in the outer layer of hot gas, and is united with the carbon that escapes out- wards from the luminous layer, thus form- ingCO.. The remainder of the oiysen passes inwards into the luminous layer of the flame. Here it encounters the hot hydrocarbon gas that is passing outwards from the central space. The quantity of the oxygen is not sufficient to combine with both the hydrogen and the carbon. It combines with hydrogen easier than with carbon; consequently, the hydrogen is taken from the compound, leav* ing the carbon free and uncombined. The intense heat generated by the burning hydro- gen raises the temperature of the free car^ bon so high that it becomes brilliantly incandescent. ' This is the only part of the process of combustion that generates light of any consequence. This incandescence endures only while the carbon is passing from the central part of the flame to the outer layer — a very minute interval of time,
The luminosity of the flame is thus seen to depend on the momentary existence of the carbon in a state of entire free- dom, at a high temperature, under circumstances that deprive it of oxygen. The moment that it receives enough oxygen, it passes into carbon dioxide and ceases to be luminous. Thus, the carbon is burned only in the outer, non-luminous part of the flame, and only hydrogen is burned in the luminous part.
Fig. 1
7. When gas is mixed with air and is burned in an atmospheric burner, each particle of carbon is accompanied with enough oxygen to convert it into carbon dioxide, and the hydrogen is similarly provided for. They bum
simiiltaiieoiislyt the hydrogen iorming water, //,€?» and the carbon passing directly from the original hydrocarbon com- pound into a new combination, Cd. It is not for a moment detached and maintained as free carbon, as in the candle flame; consequently, the opportunity to become incandescent and luminous never occurs. Therefore ^ the flame of an atmospheric, or Bunsen, burner emits very little light,
8, An open gas flame will lose much of its luminosity if its surface is made too large* When the pressure is too high, the gas is projected so far into the atmosphere that a considerable part of it finds enough oxygen to burn its carbon and hydrogen simultaneously, as in a Bunsen flame. That part of the gas which burns in this manner fails to emit light of any consequence*
A gas flame will smoke when the area of its outer surface is so small that it cannot take up oxygen from the atmosphere with sufficient rapidity to oxidize the carbon as fast as it arrives at the outer surface of the flame. Only a part of the carbon can then be oxidized; the remainder cools below the point of ignition and passes off into the air as suspended carbon or smoke. The trouble may be remedied by increas- iog the area of the flame* This is usually accomplished by increasing the pressure of the gas* An artificial drafts such as made by a chimney or a fan* will also cure the smokiness by increasing the supply of oxygen to the flame.
9. The intensity of the light emitted by a flame of any certain kind of gas depends on the area of the surface of the ilame, and on the temperature developed by the combustion. Thus* on comparing two burners that produce flames of different sizes while using the same pressure and volume of gas per hour, it will be found that the smaller flame will emit the most brilliant light. This result is due to the decrease of luminous surface from which light is radiated, which simply means a more rapid surface combustion per unit of area. Again, in comparing two flames that are alike except in temperature, it will be found that the hotter flame will emit the larger volume of light.
6 DOMESTIC USES OF GAS §14
In comparing: the lig^ht produced by bumins: sfases of different compositions, it is found that the g^reatest lis^ht is afforded by the g^as that has the largest amount of carbon in proportion to its hydrogen. Thus, acetylene, which has twelve times as much carbon as hydrogen by weight, gives about fifteen times as much light as an equal volume of average coal gas.
10. When gas is mixed with air before burning, the color and brilliancy of the flame undergo a great change. If com- mon illuminating gas is used, and the maximum proportion of air is supplied, the flame will be very small and pale, hav- ing a bluish top and a greenish center. But, when the air supply is scant, the flame will burn with a dull yellqw light, and will tend to smoke. As long as the yellow flame can be seen, it is certain that the proportion of air is too small.
Other gases give characteristic colors when burned. When free carbon is burned to carbon monoxide, COy the flame is of a bright blue color, and when carbon monoxide is burned to carbon dioxide, CO., the flame shows a charac- teristic pink or rose color; but when the carbon is burned to carbon dioxide directly, the flame is nearly colorless.
METHODS OF PKODUCING I^IGHT
<iENKKAI. l>ES<'RIPTION
11. All methods of producing: light from gas or oils that are now in use depend on the incandescence of some substance that is exposed to the heat of the flame. In the tlame of an ordinary j;as burner, the liffht depends on the incandescence of the carbon, which exists for a moment in a free state. There are other materials, notably lime, mag- nesia, zirconia, and the oxides of several of the earthy metals, that emit far more lijjht than carbon when they are heated to incandescence. These materials are used in the calcium Iii^ht, the oxyhydroji^en lii^ht, and in the incandescent gas lamp.
Id the ealclttm ll^ltt, a block of lime is raised to a very high temperature by means of a strong blowpipe ihat is supplied with a mixture of common illuminating; gas and air* The lime becomes incandescent and emits light of great brilliancy*
In the oxyhydroi^en ll^ht, pure oxygen aod hydrogen are burned at the blowpipe ^ instead of ordinary illuminating gas and air. The heat of the flame thus produced exceeds an other known temperatures, and it causes the lime to glow with the most intense brilJiancy-
Ineaiiileseeut irfts lamps are variously constructed, but all operate on the same principle. Any kind of combustible gas, or even oily vapor, is mingled with air and is burned in an ordinary atmospheric^ or Bunsen, burner, with the object of producing the greatest practicable heaL The flame is directed against the inside of a fine circular netting* which is composed of platinum wire, or of threads of magnesia, sirconia, or similar oxides of the earthy metals. The netting becomes incandescent, and emits light of high intensity.
I
4
i
0A9-I^I6HTtNO BURNERS
12. Plain Burners,— A gas burner consists of two parts: the itfi and the pillar , The tip is the part having the orifice or orifices from which issues the gas to be burned; the pillar is a socket threaded at the bottom with a standard thread to fit gas fixtures, and carrying the tip al the top. In the very cheapest and poorest burners the pillar and tio are one piece of metal; in the better and more satisfactory burners the pillar is of brass and the tip of some refractory substance, generally steatite. The combination of the tip
|d pillar is known as a plain g^as burner. There are two [IS of plain burners, known in accordance with the shape of the f!anie produced by the tip, as iUh-tail btimen and bats-tt'ing burners,
13. The tip of a common flsli^tall burner, which is also known as a nn Ion-Jet burner, is shown in Fig, % The gas issues from the orifices shown, in two round jets, which
8
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
collide and spread out into a flat two-pointed flame o; general shape shown at A. This shape is not so favo to the development of light as that given by other fon burners. When the holes become fouled by deposits of the light becomes dim through the redaction in gas su
Fio.2
' 14. A very satisfactory form of fish-tail burner i IJray special burner, shown in section in Fig. 3. Il sists of a brass pillar a, a union-jet steatite tip *, a st< gas check c with a small central hole, and woven screens, four or more in number, at d. The si2:e of the : of the different screens varies, the coarsest mesh being i bottom and the finest at the top. The volume of gas is chc at r, and the flow is steadied by the screen. The amou ^as that this burner will consume under ordinary pressure to the best advantaj^e is marked on the outside of the p
15. A <rood form of a plain burner is the bat's-i; Imriier, shown in F\^. 4. The head of the tip is I spherical, and the j^as issues throuj^h a single straight that spreads it out into a thin flat sheet of flame of the era] shape shown at /?. These burner tips are somet made with two curved slots, as shown at --/, but the] necessarily so thin and the slots so narrow that the tip; very easily clogged and broken.
§14
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
9
Pig. 4
The capacity of these burners, in cubic feet of gas per hour, is marked either by figures stamped on them or by means of grooves cut around them — one ring for each cubic foot. These marks serve to show the capacity only in the most general way, and cannot be relied on for accuracy.
16. Argrand Burners. — The particu- lar design of burner shown in Fig. 5 is called an Ar^raiid burner, from the name of its inventor. The burner consists of a hollow ring «, which is attached by two hollow arms ^ to a socket c, threaded to
Fig. 6
screw on to an ordinary burner nipple. The gas issues from the interior of the ring through a series of small holes, as aid, and the jets all unite to form a complete circle of flame. A plentiful supply of air passes through perforations in the chimney holder e and also through the central hole of the burner. The volume of the gas passing through it is regu- lated by a screw ^, which has a very quick pitch, requiring only about one-third of a revohition to nearly close the valve A. In order to secure the best results with this burner, the gas pressure should be about .2 inch of water, and the
6.1—10
10
DOMESTIC USES OP GAS
§14
chimney / must be of such diameter and leng^th that the draft will supply the proper amount of air to completely bum the gas — no more nor less. This amount will vary somewhat with different qualities of gas.
Every Argand burner should have a volumetric regulator. Without it they are liable to be wasteful, while if they are properly regulated and adjusted, they will bum gas very economically.
1 7. Fig. 6 shows a large compound Argand burner, having two burner rings k and / and a single jet m in the center.
Fir.. (;
Pio.7
Tliis kind of burner is made with three, and even four, burner rinj2:s, the latter size serving: to produce a light of -ion candlepower. All compound Inirners are supplied with a volumetric pressure regulator, as shown. The gas passes Ihroui^h fixed orifices ;/ in the floating: gfovcrnor disk p. The movement of this disk opens and closes the throttling valve j, and thus controls the volume and pressure of gas passing to the burner.
18* Ke^cnerallve Burners. — The regenerative lamp^ or burner is made in many forms, the object in every casa being to heat the air or gns, or both, before the gas is' bnraed. This principle has been applied also to gasoline burners and common petroleum lamps. The simplest appli- cation of the regenerative principle is shown in Fig* 7. Two or more small batVs-wing boraers are supplied by a pipe that descends close to the flames and that is heated by them. The gas is thus heated before it is burned, and the tem- perattire of the flame is increased accordingly* Even this crude applica- tion of the principle of regeneration produces a perceptible increase in the brilliancy of the lights.
19* In the IVtuAam lamp, shown in Fig. 8, both the air and gas are heated before combus- tion. The burner a is an inverted ordinary Argand ring* that is, having the lets of flame on the bottom end. The flames t are turned outwards by a de- flector f , and they curve
over the rounded surface of a porcelain ring d, thus fomjini a broad horizontal ring of flame of great brilliancy, lamp is closed tightly against the entrance of air below the name by means of the glass hemisphere^. The hot products of combustion pass upwards around the tube e through a [Stunber of tubes A and up the chimney k. The gas passing
PlR. 8
14
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
814
frag^ile crust. This buming-out process is accomplished by applying a lighted match to the mantle when it is in place. The fragility of the mantles is at the present time the chief drawback to this mode of gas lighting.
The Welsbach lamp is not limited to the use of illuminating gas. Any kind of combustible gas, oil vapor, or gasoline may be used, by pro- viding a burner capable of heating the mantle to the proper degree.
Fig. 11 shows a Welsbach incandescent lamp adapted to burn gasoline. Lamps sim- ilar in construction are made to bum common kerosene.
23. The candlepower of mantles depends,
of course, on the quantity and quality of the
gas, the manner in which it is consumed, and
also on the size and quality of the mantle. The
mantle commonly used is estimated to produce
ab<»ut ()() candlepower when new, using about
.'> rubic feet of jjas per
Inmr. Small mantles of
;ihinit 20 candlepower are
hiniishcd for small burn-
fis that consume about
I rubic foot per hour.
I .uj:r mantles jr^ving
mIimiiI KM) candlepower can
.il :o br obtained. Some
,.i iIh- b«";t mrmtles on the
III. II I . I .Mr rstimatcd to
, u , . wh'-n new, from
Ml I., in I .iiidlc|)owcr per
..I.I. i.i..i III jjas con-
,i.,...i ,.. I Ihnn. if a mantle is located in a dusty atmos- I I. . ,1 I...T -s Ml lijihtiu}^ power by the dust that clings to it,
.1. I .1 III. ii . .MMiiii be removed without injuring the mantle.
Fig. n
§14
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
16
24, The actual saving eflfected by the use of incandescent burners can only be found by replacing the common plain burners with incandescent burners and keeping a record. If the total amount of illumination is the same in a given build- ing with incandescent burners that obtained previously with plain burners, the gas bill should be reduced to at least one- fifth the previous ones per month. This condition, however, may be said never to exist in practice » since people prefer
fiore light, as a general rule, than is obtained from ordinary tsumers. A saving of fyO per cent* may in practice be con- iidered to be a fair average for all ordinary cases.
25. The life of an incandescent mantle depends on its
composition and the usage it receives* Cheap mantles may be estimated to give a good light for about 2(X) hours, while the more costly mantles may be estimated to give a good tight for 600 hours* If they born at an average rate of 3 hours per night, then the cheap mantles should last at least 7 weeks and the more costly ones at least 20 weeks. Owing to defects in manufacture, and carelessness iii han- dling tliem* or accidental jarring of the gas fixture, many mantles will not last the time specified; but, on the other hand^ a number will last longer,
26» The gas pressure for incandescent burners should
I isot be less than 1 inch. If the pressure is much higher than
^his» it must be regulated either automatically or by hand.
Some of the modern burners are provided with gas checks
that are adjusted to suit the pressure in such a manner that
the exact amount of gas will flow into the Bunsen tube of
the burner. Fig, 12 (a) shows in elevation and Fig* 12 id)
in section a Bunsen tube with ao adjustable gas check. The
lower end of the socket & is tapped, and screws on to the
gas fixture. The check is located at if and is formed by a
perforated shutter, as shown, that rotates on a central pin, and
is moved by moving the lever c. If the gas pressure is low,
the check is fully opened so that gas is passing through each
perforation, but if the pressure is high, the lever is slowly
I moved so that the shutter will close some of the holes. This
16
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
§14
is done while the gas-cock is open fully. When the gas sup- ply is thus checked, the proportions of air and gas consumed are such as should insure a good light so long as the pressure in the pipes remains nearly constant; this also overcomes the necessity of the operator checking down the gas-cock every time the burner is lighted.
If the gas supply is too great, a yellow flame will be visible at or over the top of the mantle. The gas supply should then be checked down and the air supply increased until the exact proportions are obtained. If the gas supply is too small, and the air supply sufficient to prevent a yellow, cap on the flame, the upper part of the mantle will be dull, perhaps red, and the lower part only will be incandescent. The air supply to incandescent burners must be carefully adjusted so that the exact amount of air will mix with the gas in the Bunsen tube. If too little air enters the tube, the top of the mantle will become blackened by a deposit of carbon and only the lower part of the mantle will become incandescent. The carbon will, however, slowly disappear when more air is ad- mitted. If the air supply is too great, the flame will become co(^led and the incandescence of the mantle will be reduced. The best ligfhtinjj result is secured when the supplies of air and ^as are adjusted so that the mantle is brilliantly incandescent from top to bottom, while there is no noise, nor any fiame visible on top of the mantle.
Fk;. 12
27. Economy In Ijl^htiii^. — The lij^dit emitted per cubic foot of gas consumed per hour by burners of different types varies with the type and also with individual burners of the same type, the variation in the lij^htine: effect in the latter case being: due chiefly to lack of care in the manage- ment of the burners. Union-jet and bat's-winjj burners will
§14
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
17
average from 2 to 3 candlepower per cubic foot of gas per hour; regenerative burners will avera<re between 5 and 8 candlepower; and incandescent burners will average between 10 and 30 candlepower.
28, Many persons waste gas by turning on too much of
it, in cases where the gas is delivered at a high pressure.
This is clearly shown by an examination of Table I, which
gives the results of experiments conducted with a 4-foot
union-jet burner.
TABIiE I
CANDLEPOWER OF 4-POOT UNION-JET BURNER AT DIFFERENT PRESSURES
|
Gas Pressare Inches of Water Column |
Gas Consumed per Hour Cubic Feet |
Light Emitted per Cubic Foot in Candlepower |
Candlepower of Flame |
|
-5 I.O 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 |
3.90 5.60 7.00 8.45 9.60 10.50 |
3.00 2.40 1.90 1.50 1.35 I. II |
11.70 13.40 13.30 12.67 12.96 11.65 |
The table shows that, with the burner tested, the highest eflBciency was obtained with .5-inch pressure. Experience has shown that this pressure proves satisfactory for other burners. If the gas pressure in the pipes is higher than this, the pressure at the burner must be reduced either by a gov- ernor or by closing: the gas-cock until the desired pressure is obtained.
The correct pressure for a gas burner can be determined quite closely by the shape of the flame. When the pressure is too high, the flame will flare, show a ragged edge, as illus- trated in Fig. 13 (a), and make a hissing noise; the key in the gas fixture should then be turned slowly to check the gas pressure until the flaring disappears. When the gas pressure
has been properly checked, the flame will he silent j brighi, and steady, assuming the form shown at (^). When the flame thus appears^ the greatest amount of light is obtained
for the least gas con- sumption; that is J the bimier is then burning the g^as at the point of a\ maximum efficiency.
Fio,lS
TROUBLES ANO REMKUIE^
29, When the gas- fitter is requested to in- spect the gas-lighting apparatus -in a dwelling or other premises and to put in good order every- thing that appears to re- quire improvement* in the hope of reducing the ^ consumer's gas bills, he ■ should begin by ascer- taining whether the vari* ous burners are supplied with gas at a sufficient pressure* This can be done by lighting all the burners that are ever in use at the same time» including all cooking and heating burners, if any. The appearance of the flames will show whether the supply pipes are large enough; if still in doubt« the water gauge should be applied.
If the pressure appears to be too low, it may he due to the fact that there is a pressure reducer or governor at the meter that is improperly adjusted. Sometimes these gov- ernors become fouled^ causing considerable resistance to the passage of gas* By opening the governor valve to its full widths or by removing the governor temporarily, it can be quickly ascertained whether the lack of pressure is due to fl the smallness of the pipes or to the resistance of the gov- ernor. Sometimes the trouble is due to a defective meter.
I
I
§14
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
19
I
The condition of the meter can be judged by applying^ two water gauges— one on each side of it* Then, If the gauge on the house side of the meter shows a much smaller gas pressure than the gauge on the service side, the meter ts defectiv^e and should be replaced or repaired.
Each burner may be supplied with a volumetric regulator if the pressure is irregular* These regulators save much more gas than a pressure reducer, and it is generally advis- able to attach them*
If any atmospheric burners are used for cooking and
beating purposes, the governor at the meter should be
adjusted to give the pressure most suitable for their use,
having the volumetric regulators to take care of the
^Huininaling burners.
If there is no governor on the system, the pipes leading
*o the stoves should be supplied with one. The burners
should be closely inspected and cleaned. Each burner
"^iottld be provided with a compound cock that adjusts the
^'r aiid gas inlets at the same time» and the cock should be
*o a^djusted that the proportions of air and gas are at all
^Jiji^s the highest that can be used without snapping back.
^^^^tteotjon should be given to the condition of the illumi-
^5 ting burners. The flames should be as large as practi-
^fc^^e and perfectly steady, without flickering or hissing,
Tfc*.^ outline of the ilame should be smooth and free' from
*^^*-^^eriiig tongues or deep notches. The color should be as
^^^ ^ly white as practicable. If the flame is yellow or dull,
^^-^^^estjng smokiness, it shows that it is not spread out
^"^^^^^ciently; the tip should then be replaced with a new one
'^^ving a thinner slit*
The smoking of open gas flames, as given by union-jet
^►ud bat's-wing burners, may be due to defects in the burner
^^r to excessively rich gas. Smoke is produced when the
Supply of air is too small to burn the carbon in the gas-
If the tip fails to spread the flame sufficiently to secure
tlie oecessary oxygen for good combustion, the burner will
smoke. The defect may be in the tip, or it may be that the
pressure U reduced too much by a check in the Interior of
20 DOMESTIC USES OF GAS §14
the burner. The proper remedy is to provide a new tip having a thin, clean slot, and if that does not properly spread the flame, then the check should be readjusted or removed so as to increase the pressure.
If the gas smokes because it is extra rich, the trouble may sometimes be remedied by providing the burner with a glass globe, or by using a burner having a chimney, or by using incandescent burners.
The question of illumination should also receive attention. Frequently several small burners are used to light a room, when one or two large burners would give more light with a smaller consumption of gas.
Gaslights that are used only a few minutes at a time and are turned down during the intervals, as in bathrooms, water closets, cellar stairways, etc., are usually very waste- ful of jras, and a saving can be made by employing self- lip^hting burners in all such places.
The gas-fitter should advise the removal of all open-flame burners and the adoption instead of incandescent burners with ^ood mantles, except in places where the mantles are liable to receive rouvrh usage. Some persons, however, are prejiuliei'd aj^ainst mantle burners on account of the appar- ently ^'reenish eolor of the liji^ht, and also because a breaking of the mantle leaves them without light until the mantle is rei)laeed. In the latter ease it is advisable to recommend replaeiii^i one-half of the oi^cn-fiame burners in the living rooms with mantle burners, keei^in^r the open-flame burners in reserve, to be used in ease of breakage of mantles.
It is to the interest of the consumer that all the lighting and heatin*^ Inirners on his premises be thoroughly inspected and jnit in ^^ood order at least once every year. When the inspection is made annually, it recjuires but little time, and the cost is small compared with the saving that will usually be made in the j^as bill.
iU>. Where the ceilinjT:s are low, and consequently near III,' iMirner. they may become discolored, although not i« \\\ \\\\ scorched. ICach gas tlanic causes an upward current
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
21
of hoi air, which ascends until it reaches the ceiling. This produces a ctirulattoa of ihe air within the room, and particles of dust in the current will be carried to the ceiling at a point directly over the burner; consequently, that pari of the ceDini: soon becomes discolored by the dust that adheres to ii. The discoloration is usually charg^ed to smoke from the gas, but it is mostly due to the stream of dust. If the gas does actually give off smoke, it will aggravate the trouble, but that can be easily remedied by providing a proper burner.
The trouble may be mitigated, although not wholly cured, by using a deflector, as at a, Fig. 14, or by hanging an
ordinary s m ok e- be 1 1 over the flame. By spreading out the cur- rent, its velocity is checked, the amount of dust that strikes the cell- ing within a given area is reduced* and the dis- coloration is lessened.
The only effectual method of preventing the discoloration of walls and ceilings in this manner is to inter- cept the current of hot ^^* **- air arising from each
burner, and to conduct it to a chimney or ventilating flue t>y means of a hood susi:>ended over each flame, or set of flames, and suitable pipe connections. This plan is valaable ^or another reason: Not only are the products of combus- t^ion removed from the room, but a considerable amount of ^tr is carried along also, thus aiding ventilation. The hot ^as that is discharged into the ventilating 'flue raises the temperature therein, and thus increases the draft and improves the operation of the flue*
^
22 DOMESTIC USES OF GAS §14
GAS FIXTURES
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION
31. Nomenclature and Classification. — The term fixture is applied to the apparatus that supports the g^as burners and serves to connect them to the supply pipes. Fixtures divide into three general classes: brackets, or side lights, which project from the walls; pendants, or chandeliers, which hang from the ceiling; and pillar lights, which stand on a base, such as a mantel, a table, or a newel post.
Brackets made without joints are called stiii brackets, and those having flexible joints are called swing brackets.
All fixtures that hang from the ceiling may properly be called pendants; but, as commonly applied, this name is restricted to fixtures carrying one or two lights, and that are of plain construction. If the number of lights is greater, or the construction is decidedly ornamental, the term chandelier is used instead. This name is applied to the fixture without regard to the variety of lights that it carries, whether can- dles, kerosene lamps, gas burners, or electric lamps. The terms iiasolicr and elect rolicr have been devised to distinguish a chandelier bearing gaslights from one carrying electric lamps, but these terms have not come into general use.
There is another class of fixtures called sunlights and con- structed in a great variety of ways. They are used chiefly to produce a great amount of light near the top or ceiling of large audience rcjoms, and also to furnish copious illumina- tion for show windows, etc. A sunlight consists of a large group of small gas burners attached directly to the supply pipe and a reflector that is adapted to throw the light down- wards as much as possible. The group is made up in a circle, or sometimes in a rectangle or in parallel lines. The burners are usually set so close together that when one is lighted it will ignite the adjoining jets, and thus light up the whole group. The flames, however, should not touch one another when burning.
§11
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
S3
Omametital fixtures are usually built over a frame or skeleton of plain brass or iron tubing. The ornamental part consists of thin tubes, or shells, of brass, which are slipped over the main tubing, aud are bound in place by screwiii|£ the various fittings tightly together.
32. Ga^Cock* — The most important part of any fixture is the key, or coek, by which the gas is turned on or off. The safety of the inmates of the rooms from poisoning or suffocation, or from injury by explosions of gaSj requires that the key of every fixture be properly constructed, and also that it be properly adjusted. If a key is loose in Its socket, it is very liable to be opened accidentally, or to be reopened unintentionally in the act of removing the fingers after closing it* A loose key is so dangerous that it should not be permitted to remain thus under any circutpstances,
The proper construction of a key is shown in Fig. 15. The plug a should be tapered* and should be ground into its seat until it has a perfect bearing through- out the whole length of the socket. It should be held in place by means of a washer t and a screw r. The washer should have a central hole, as dr with one or two straight sides, and it should fit over the flat-sided end of the plug without looseness or play, so that when the plug turns the washer will turn with it. If there is any play at this point, it will tend to loosen the screw c and thus spoil the tightness of the key. It is a very common mistake to make the dimensions of the washer and screw too small, causing the washer to wear loose quickly when the screw is properly tightened up* The head of the screw^ should always be made large enough to afford a good hold for a screwdriver. Keys having small thin washers, or screws with small shallow slots, should be rejected. There should always be some
w M
Fm, lis
24
DOMESTIC USES OP GAS
S14
Pig. 16
clearance under the washer and under the screw head, so that
when the screw is tightened up they will never come to a
bearins: on the end of the plus:. An important detail of a key is the tiap-pm L This pm
projects from the side of the plus: and encases shoulders cot
on the body of the socket, thus limiting the motion of the plug to one-half turn, always stopping the plug when the key is fully dosed. This pin should be strongly made, so that it cannot be broken easily. A key that has no stop-pin is dangerous, since it is tiuite likely to be left open a little when it is believed to be dosed. Such a key, when discovered, should not be permitted to remain in use, but should immediately be repaired or replaced.
The plug should be lubricated with mutton tallow, the excess
of tallow being carefully removed from the passages for gas. The diameter of the hole e should never exceed one-third
the diameter of the plug at that point. If the hole is made
larger, the bearing surfaces
are so reduced that the key
is likely to become leaky in
a short time.
33. Swlvel-Jolnts.
The construction of swlvel-
Joliits is shown in Figs. 16
and 17. The mode of secur-
injj the plugs in the sockets
is the same as in Fig. 15.
Each socket is provided with
a groove .iT, which permits the
gas to pass freely into the
bore of the plug, in all positions. Fig. 16 shows an ordinary
5/wc/^ swivel-joint, and Fig. 17 shows the arrangement of a
double s7vivel-joini or universal joint. The plug h^ Pig. 17,
turns in a socket k, formed in the head of the plug m, whidi
Fig. 17
f^t^/yes in the socket /. The pipe n can thus swing around
Ijje a^is ^^ either phig, or both, at the same time.
This construction is not suitable for an apparatus that j^quires a large supply of gas» because the dimensions become so 0^^^^ sts to be clumsy. When the full capacity of the pipe is j.gqtiired to carry the desired amoont of gas, the swivels may y^ constructed substantially as shown in Fig. 18; this is called ^ fuli-hant su^ivei. The sections a and b are fitted together ^vttb » conical joint (, which permits complete rotation* The joint b tightened by means of the ^It ^ and nut €\ and if it becomes
leafey a^ sny time, it can be readily
^^^round. The passag^eway for gas
js m€\m\ to the full area of the pipe
,11 all points; therefore, it offers very
lif tie obstruction to the flow-
34* Fig* 19 shows the construe- ubo of a ball Joint, which permits Fig. if*
the tube to swing to a limited extent in any direction, and tl^^ to turn on its own axis. The tube b is attached to a ' tall ^ that is confined in a socket d by means of a screw- cap €, Packing material^ usually a cup leather, is J^ employed to make the con- nection gas-tight from a to b. The swing of the tube is lim- ited by the size of the hole in the cap e. This class of a joint is often used at the top of swinging chandeliers, a being the iron-pipe drop piece extending through the ceiling.
DOMESTIC USES OP GAS
»14
one a, which serves to conduct gas to the bnmers. and an outer one d, which has a cup c at the top end. The qwce between the tubes a and 6 is filled with a liqnid, and the supply pipe d dips below its surface at all times, thus pre- venting: the gas from escaping. The pendant is held ap by chains e and weights /» and can be raised or lowered at desired.
Pio.20
The chains are provided with stops to prevent the pendant from being lowered so far that the liquid may uncover the end of the pipe d. Instead of the chains and weights, coiled springs (like sash balances) are frequently used to sustain the fixture. The liquid may be either oil, glycerine, or mercury; water is unsuitable because it evaporates rapidly.
S 14 DOMESTIC USES OF GAS 27
36, The design illustrated in Fig. 20 was formerly much in use, but in recent years it has given place to that shown in Fig. 21. The liquid seal is replaced by a stuffingbox g attached to the top of the sliding tube k, and that slides gas-tight over the supply tube h. The outer tube m is provided with a collar n that guides the draw-tube k and prevents dust from enter- ing the interior and settling on the surface of the tube h. The lubrication of the tube and stuffingbox can thus be maintained for a long time. As the tube h has to supply gas only, it can be made quite small in diameter. The devices used for balancing or sustaining this fixture in position are of many kinds. One of the best of these is a friction clutch that permits the draw- tube to slide upwards without resistance, but that grips it and prevents it from moving downwards, except when pulled down by force.
37. Another design of chandelier that serves a similar purpose is provided with a small sliding tube that usually carries only one burner. All the other ^'^•21 burners are carried on rigid
arms in the ordinary manner and are not adjustable. The sliding tube, however, is usually so slender that it lacks the strength to properly support the weight of a good shade, and it is difficult to keep the stuffingbox gas-tight. The surface of the tube being somewhat oily after sliding through the packing, becomes coated with dust, and the dust soon spoils the tightness of the packing.
38. The drop ll^ht shown in Fig. 22 is to be preferred for ordinary uses, such as for reading or for sewing tables. It consists of a tube of suitable length havir> « b^irner and
28
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
S14
shade at its lower end and a socket or cap at its tipper end; this socket is lined with rubber and is adapted to fit £as-tight over the body of an ordinary burner. The socket should always be quite close to the tube, so that it can be passed up throug^h an ordinary sflobe rins: or holder. The tube should be offset so that the center of gravity of the shade, etc. will come directly under the socket without tendins: to bend the burner
to which it is attached. The tip should be removed from the burner before attachins: the socket to it. Many chandeliers are provided with a small stiff bracket made especially for use on drop lisfhts.
39. Gas Are Iiamps. — ^A
certain form of gas lamp, par- tially because it is designed as a substitute for the electric arc lamp and also because its gen- eral appearance is similar to that of the electric arc lamp used indoors, is known to the trade as a gas arc lamp.
The gas arc lamp, like the electric arc lamp, is used exten- sively for lighting large stores, halls, auditoriums, and other large rooms. It has been found to give a more steady and. more satisfactory light than the electric arc. Fig. 23 shows a gas arc lamp used for indoor service. It is substantially composed of a cluster of incandescent burners a supplied with gas through a tube d suspended from the ceiling. The tube d is screwed into a distributing socket that feeds the arms c to which the burners are attached. The air and gas checks are located at the base of each burner below the gallery d that supports the globe ^ and shade /. The air
Fig. 22
lU
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
29
supply to the globe is obtained through the gallery and lower neck of the globe; the products of combustion escape to the atmosphere through the top of a sheet-metal chimney j^^ as shown by arrows. If the top of the arc is within 4- feet of the ceiling, it is advisable to place a shield on the tube ^ that will diffuse the current of hot air and reduce its temperature before It reaches the ceiling j otherwise, a shield is seldom used. -
40, The candlepower of gas arc lamps can be arranged
to suit the requirements* Ordinarily, they are made from 400 to 6iXJ candlepower, and are built up of four or six 100- candlepower burners, as required. A very powerful lamii can be made up of ten 120-candlepower burners, giving
80 DOMESTIC USES OP GAS Sl4
1,200 candlepower in all. Pis:. 28 shows a lamp that wiU emit about 400 candlepower, which is nsnally sufficient for gfeneral illumination. The lamp should be suspended at least 8 feet above the floor. The s:as is turned on by pulling down the ringfs in accordance with printed instmctions ffiven with each lamp. In the lamp shown, all the burners are lig^hted simultaneously by pullins: on the lower rinsf. By pulling: on the ring: at the rig:ht, which has a di£Eerent color from the ring: at the left, all the burners are shut o£E except one. By pulling: the other ring: the burners are all shut off.
41. Gas arcs should always be provided with a pilot liprlity which should bum nig:ht and day. Since this ligrht con- sumes only about 1 cubic foot of g:as in 24 hours, the cost of the pilot light need not be considered. The pilot ligrht makes the g:as arc as convenient as the electric arc, while the feature of being: able to leave one burner lig:hted while all the rest are shut off is a decided advantag:e over the electric arc which can only bum at its full candlepower. To renew mantles on this form of fixture, the g:lobe, shade, and chim- ney can be raised on the rod b\ and to clean the gflobe, it can be lowered.
DETAILS OF GAS FIXTURES
42. Igniters. — The object of an i^zruiter is to automatic- ally ij^nite the g:as as soon as it is turned on. This is accomplished in two ways: (1 ) by allowing a small quantity of gas to burn constantly inside the lamp; and (2) by pro- ducing a flame or spark that will automatically ig:nite the gas when it is turned on. The former is the simplest, cheapest, and most common plan. Igniters are used for lighting gas burners either singly or in groups, and are designed to save the time and labor that would be required to light them by hand.
43. A seir-lfMflitinfjT gas burner is shown in Pig:. 24. The key is so made that the gas can never be entirely shut off, and when it is turned to extinguish the light, a small amount of gas is still allowed to pass — enough to maintain
82
t)OMESTIC USES OP GAS
S14
draft of air against the air openins^s of the Bnnsen tube may dilute the fifas and air mixture to such an extent that the small flame, or pilot lififht, will be extinguished.
A yellow-flame pilot light is more positive than a blue- flame light, because it cannot be extinguished so easily. The yellow flame is obtained by a small tube that supplies the pilot light with gas taken directly from the by-pass cock. or the gas space below it.
There are two general types of yellow pilot lights: one is fed by a small pipe extending up from the by-pass through the Bunsen tube and into the space within the mantle; the other is fed by a small tube a, Fig. 25, led up from the by-pass cock outside of the burner to a point near the mantle. A small yellow flame burn^ at the top of this tube constantly and immediately ig- nites the gas when the by-pass cock is opened. The glass globe* b protects the pilot light from drafts. The construction of the by-pass may be such that the pilot light is extinguished only when the mantle is incandescent.
45. There are numerous igniting de- vices that operate by means of electricity. Two methods are in use: (1) an electric spark is caused to flash through the stream of gas issuing from each burner, thus igniting it; (2) a small piece of platinum wire is heated to incandescence near the tip of each burner, the electricity being turned on after the gas issues from the burners, and shut off as soon as the lights appear. They are useful chiefly for lighting burners that are but infrequently used, as in churches; also, for burners that are exposed to the weather, as on porches, piazzas, and driveways. They are usually attached to the burners and wired by electricians.
Pig. 2&
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
3S
46. Safety Burners. — A device that is desi^^ned to auto- matically close a valve and shut off the flow of gas from the burner when the flame is accidentally extinguished, is known as a safety biirnei-. Numerous devices of this kind have been patented, btit few of them will operate with sufficient certainty to be worthy of confidence. Nearly all safety burners employ bars of metal or other substances that are expanded by the heat of the flame, and while in that condition hold the gas valve open. When the flame goes out, the expanding body contracts by cooling and permits the valve to close.
One of the most simple automatic safety burners is that shown in Fig, 26, It is simply an ordinary bat's- wing or other form of a burner tip fitted with a disk a and a coiled platinum spring A. When the spring is cold, it draws a to its seat and shtits off the gas. When it is heated the spring expands and pushes down the valve, thus opening a passage for the flow of gas. The edge of the gas flame touches the spring and keeps it heated, but the moment the gas is extinguishedp whether shut off at the gas-cock or blown out by accident or ignorance, the valve will quickly take its seat.
Safety burners are particularly valuable where there is a liability of the gas flames being extinguished by drafts or otherwise. If the gas supply is interrupted or shut off, every burner i% extinguished, but the keys are not closed* When the gas flows again into the house pipes, it streams out of each open burner, and in many instances does great damage by causing explosions or by suffocating the inmates of the building*
Vm. 26
47* CliImtieyB*— Cylinders made of glass or other transparent material, such as mica, are used on gas fixtures to increase the velocity of the air moving around a gas flame, and are known as elilniiieys- They also steady the flame and are much used with Argand burners. Chimneys are
34 DOMESTIC US£S OP GAS 8 14
nsed to enclose incandescent mantles, and are dmaUe when made of sfood glass. In places where s^lass chimneys are subject to side drafts of cool air they are liable to crack because one side of the chimney becomes cooler than the other. In such cases it is advisable to use cfainmeys made of mica.
48. Globes.-^The primary object of enclosing a gas burner within a griobe is to protect the flame from interfer- ence by drafts of air. A globe, however, also acts as a chimney and causes a strong upward current of air to flow through it. If the dimensions of the globe are not suited to the size of the flame, the air-current will cause the flame to flicker badly, and the globe then becomes ft detriment instead of an advantage.
The opening at the top or bottom of a globe should never be less than 4 inches in diameter for an ordinary 5-foot bat* s- wing or union-jet burner, and a larger size is still better. Much smaller openings can be employed satisfactorily for incandescent burner globes.
Globes are often required to serve the purposes of shades, to modify and soften the light. For this purpose the outer surface of the glass is etched; or ground or colored glass is employed. These globes obstruct the light, the loss being about as follows: Ground glass globes, 10 to 30 per cent.; opal glass globes, 30 to 40 per cent.; colored glass globes, 40 to 60 per cent.
Globes of clear glass obstruct the light somewhat; but, if the globe is properly proportioned, the intensity of the light will be increased by the draft that it creates, and the increase of light will counterbalance the loss by obstruction. There is a great variety of globes in the market, differing chiefly in shape and ornamentation. Their selection is purely a matter of taste, and can advantageously be left to the lady of the house.
49. Diffusion flTlobes are such as are constructed to diffuse the light advantageously throughout a room and reduce the apparent intensity of the flame. The class known
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
35
as the H^hphane giabts is characteristic of this type. These globes are made in many shapes, but the feature essential in all is a prismatic form of the glass» which gives the globes a corrugated appearance. The prismatic projections bend the rays of light and guide them toward the parts of the room that require the increased ilJumination. Fi^. 27 shows a Holophane globe a attached to an incandescent burnen The beams of light from the incandescent mantle are bent in all directions, both by reflection and refraction, particular care being taken to bend a large number of them downwards, as
^' f
'::'.^-^r
--'M
//I
,\-<
III, »- \, — '<-2^.fc_
^V
\.
\
\
Fig. 27
shown, to Ulnminate the space that would otherwise be shaded by the burner and gallery.
A properly constructed globe of this class will diffuse the Ught so perfectly that the flame cannot be seen; the globe wilJ apparently become incandescent, but not be so intense as the actual flame inside.
50» Bhades. — In order to prevent the light from passing upwards, and to reflect a considerable part of it downw^ards, a fijcture known as a shade is used. It is therefore desir- able Uiat the under side of the shade should have a good
Fio. 28
f
through the shade to prevent a dark shadow on the ceilingf; a large portion of the light is reflected downwards, however, and pre- vents a shadow being cast by the burner-
The color of globes and shades is a mat- ter of soine impor- tance. It translucent shades are used, they should be either white oropaL Red. green, and blue shades should not be used, because of the bad effect of the colored light on the eyes; red light, especially, is very tiresome to sensitive persons.
The central opening in the top of the ordinary shades permits a considerable portion of the light to pass upwards to the ceiling. When it is desired to prevent this, top reflectors, as shown at a^ Fig, 14, may be used to intercept the light and throw it downwards.
51. BhfoldB. — The distance between an ordinary gas burner and the ceiling should be not less than 3 feet* If a less distance is unavoidable, the ceiling should be protected by a metal shield to prevent its l>eing scorched or burned. The shield should be separated from the ceiling by a clear space of at least 2 inches, to permit air to circulate between it and the ceiling. Even when a shield is provided, a gas
I I
§14 DOMESTIC USES OF GAS 37
flame should not be permitted at a distance less than 18 inches below the ceiling.
If a gas flame is liable to come into accidental contact with inflammable materials, such as curtains or drapery blown by the wind, or hay and. straw in stables, etc., it should be pro- vided with a glass globe, and should ^Iso be enclosed within a stout wire cage at least 10 inches in diameter. The only safe way to determine the proper size of the wire guard is to test it by holding pieces of cloth or paper against it. If the material can be set on fire, the guard should be made larger.
liOCATINQ QA8 FIXTURES
52. The chief considerations that govern the location of gas fixtures are: (1) that they shall light the rooms to the best advantage, and (2) that they shall cause no danger from fire.
In lighting bedrooms, the fixtures should be located so that the bed, wardrobe, dressing case, mirror, etc. may be placed in desirable positions without interfering with the light. The positions of the closets should be noted, and, if practicable, the light should be arranged to shine into them, so that the contents may be easily seen.
Dressing mirrors should be provided with two stiff bracket lights, one at each side. They should be placed as high as they can conveniently be reached, in order to properly illu- minate the head and shoulders of the person using the mirror.
In bathrooms, the lights should be set high, so that a per- son will not be liable to strike them in taking off or putting on clothing. A light should not be located over a bathtub or a wash bowl, or anywhere near them, because of the liability to accident.
Stairways should be provided with a light at the top, whether there is one at the bottom or not. A light on the newel post alone is not sufficient to properly illuminate the steps. People having defective sight are especially liable to accident on stairways, and the light should be arranged so as to avoid all shadows that might prove deceptive.
88 DOMESTIC USES OP OA8 |i4
A kitchen or laundry should be lighted by pendants whea* ever practicable. If side lights must be used, they should not be placed over the sink or near enough to it to be liable to be struck, or be splashed with water. A side li^ should not be placed over a set of tubs if it can be avoided. The stairway leading from the kitchen to the basement Or oeDsr should be lighted by a burner that is located some distance away from the foot of the stairs. If the light is near the foot of the stairs, it is very apt to be struck when liurge articles are carried past it.
Hallways are best lighted by a pendant; if a side light is used, it should be placed where it will not interfere with th^ coat rack, mirror, or other hall furniture. A pendant in a hallway or vestibule should be set so high that the globes will not be liable to be knocked off by a person who is patting on an overcoat, etc.
Chandeliers should be hung from the center of the ceiling. as nearly as practicable. If several side lights are n^ed in the same room, they should be placed at the same height.
Swing brackets should not be used for lighting hallways, stairs, vestibules, or other passageways, because of the danger from fire. The light is very liable to be swung too close to the wall, and to be overlooked until the building is set on fire. Swing brackets are always a source of danger when they are located within reach of woodwork or drapery, and therefore are not to be recommended for general use. It is preferable, in most cases, to use instead two single lights on stiff brackets, or else a bracket having two or more rigid arms with fixed lights.
A gas fixture should never be placed in a closet or other very small room, if there is any chance that the door maybe closed and the light left burning. If that should happen, the temperature would rise rapidly, and there would be great danger of setting fire to any combustible material that might be in the room.
Care should be taken in locating side lights to make sure that wooden doors cannot be swung back against them, and be scorched or set on fire. Lights should not be placed
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
I
where they may be blown out by strong drafts of air, or by the sudden slamminir of a door, A gas burner when extin- guished with a full head of gas on is very dangerous*
Hot*air registers in the floor or wall should be carefully avoided in locating gas fixtures. If a light is over or near a register, it will flicker incessantly, and will be a great annoyance.
The proper height of gaslights above the floor depend<i somewhat on circumstances* in ordinary dwellings having a ceiling 9 feet high or more, side lights should be placed from 5i to 6 feet high. Pendants may be hung from 6a to 7 feet from the floor. If the rooms are large and high, the lights of chandeliers may be placed at a height of from 7 to 8 feet, or even more* Of coursei all lights above 7 feet high will require the assistance of a torch or step ladder to light them.
Side lights in hallways and vestibules of churches and similar buildings should be placed at a height of at least 7 feet.
Low lights should be avoided, because they are tiresome to the eyes. If they must be used, they should be provided with opaque shades.
h LIGHT
P FBOPEHTtES OF LIGHT
53- Light diminishes in intensity as it recedes from the luminous body, the law governing the diminution being: ih€ iniensiiy varies inversely as (he square of the distance from the smtrce of iigki.
Thus, if the two equal surfaces A and B, Fig. 29, be ilhi- minated by the same lamp, A being 2 feet away from it and B 4 feet» then B will receive less light than A^ in inverse
40
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
S14
proportion to the squares of their relatiTe dJHtiHy, or in the
2* 4 1
proportion ^* 4: = jg = J-
That this law must be true is evident from an inspection of the fissure. The ligfht that is intercepted by ^p if permttled to proceed, will illuminate an area at B that is twice as hisfa and twice as wide as A. The same amount of light is thus spread over four times the area of surface, and oonaeqaently it can have but one-fouith the brilliancy.
54. Light proceeds from a luminous body equally in all directions. It always moves in straight lines unless the medium through which it passes varies in density. Thus, if it passes through a body of air that is warmer in one part than in another it will be deflected, and the ol^ject viewed will appear out of its true position.
55. When light falls obliquely on a plate of fflass* its direction is changed within the interior of the glass; this change of direction is called refraction. When the light emerges from the opposite surface of the glass, its direction is again changed. If the surfaces are parallel, the light will resume its former direction, as shown at A^ Pig. 80; but, if
Pio.SO
they are not parallel, the ray will be permanently deflected from its course, as shown at B in the same figure. - On entering the glass, the ray of light a will be bent or refracted to the line dy thus making a larger angle with the surface of the glass than the original ray. When it leaves the glass, it will be again bent, but to a smaller angle with the surface
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
41
I
I
from which it emerges. If an object at the point c, in either case, be looked at from the point a, it will appear to be located at ^,
The refractive powers of glass, ice, crystals, water, oil, and gas dii^er greatly. Any of these substances may be employed, in the form of lenses, to concentrate or disperse light. A certain kind of crystal called Iceland sf>(ir refracts light twice simultaneously, causing objects seen through it to appear double.
56, Light that is scattered in many directions is said to be fllsperscHK Thus, light is dispersed by reflecting it from a roughened or corrugated surface, or by transmitting it through a shade or screen of glass having a frosted or comi* gated surface. Light that is transmitted through white or opal glass is not dispersed, but is merely reduced in intensity. Usually, however, the surfaces of such shades are corrugated, and more or less dispersion is produced thereby. One of the best materials for dispersing light is frosted or ground glass.
5 7, When light falls on a mirror, part of it will be turned back or turned aside from its original path, This change of direction is ealled reflection. The proportion of light that will be reflected varies with different materials, with the condi- tion of the reflecting surface, and with the angle at which the light strikes the reflector.
The ray of light that proceeds from the source of light to the mirror^ as a if. Fig, 31, is called ^^ the imideni ray^ and the ray that is reflected^ as b c, is called the rtfiecied ray.
The law that governs the direction of the reflected ray is as follows: TTte angle made hy the rtileeted ray wUk iht surface of the mirror will always equal that made by the htci- deni ray: that is, the angle / always equals the angle e. If the mirror is curved, as in Pig, 32, the
113—12
/
Pig. ai
4a
DOMESTIC USES OF OA8
il4
FIO.S
angles are measured to the line k /» whidi is a true tangent
to the carve at the point ^» where the ray strikes the mirror.
58. Reflectors should be made of brightly polished metal, or of sil- vered glass attached to a metal frame or backing. The silvered glass will not endure much heat; consequently, the polished metal should be used if the heat from the burners is likely to be excessive. The most effective reflectors are those having the ontUne
of a parabola, with the flame at
the focus. All the rays that are
received on the reflector are then
reflected in parallel lines, as shown
in Fig. 33. The angles formed by
the dotted lines a 1, a 2, a 3^ etc. are
all equal; consequently, the volumes
of light reflected through the spaces
enclosed by the dotted parallel
lines are also equal.
Fig. 34 shows a parabolic re- flector designed for a sunlight. It is ^^* ••
made in halves that are separated a distance equal to that
between the centers of the gas flames a and b.
Large and expensive reflectors are often erected with very
unsatisfactory results. The trouble usually arises from the
Pio. 84
fact that no effort was made to adapt the shape of the reflector so as to produce the effect desired.
U DOMESTIC USES OF GAS 43
ARTIFICIAL ILLUMINATION
59, CJenerat Cans^iltlenttloiis. — The Ideal condition in Wifidal illumination is to have the light coming from over- Wad, and to have it so thoroughly diffused that no object in the Toom shall appear conspicuously brighter than any other. While it is impracticable to attain this ideal con- dition with the means at hand at the present time, yet this principle should be kept always in mind so that mistakes in lighting may be avoided.
Lights of i^reat brilliancy, such as electric arc lights, Dot only da^de the eye but frequently produce blindness, Oculisis strongly condemn these lights, because they impair tee vision of persons using them. The trouble is due a inly to the brilliancy of the light. In using artificial lits for illumination, the aim should be to illuminate all i^crts within the ordinary field of vision to about the same ee of brilliancy as that afforded by diffused daylight* ^J^^ts that are lit up by direct sunlight are usually too lit to look at continuously*
Tie flames of gas burners or lamps are much too bright '^rae looked at directly: therefore* they should be screened, ^hat whatever light reaches the eye shall be reduced to a ^ iterate intensity.
"Ihe physiological effect of a light that shines in the eyes a person that is looking at something else, is to produce ^siderable nervous irritation and fatigue, if long con- itiTied. Thus, if a gas burner or kerosene lamp, or any tight object* comes within the ordinary field of vision Tille a person is listening to an address, and is looking >ward the speaker; it will cause a great deal of uneasiness. L few lights thus misplaced will fatigue an audience to a 'eater degree than is generally supposed. Therefore, all ights located in die vicinity of a person addressing an iOdience, either above or behind, or at either side, should fully covered by opaque screens that will prevent any iight from passing toward the audience* While the irritating Tjtilliancy of such lights may be mitigated by means of
i J
44 DOMESTIC USES OP GAS 1 14
Cflobes of white or opal elass, they oontlaiie to be con- spicuously brisrht and are very objectionable. The best result is obtained by using opaque screens that reflect the lisrht back on the platform. For similar reasons, all chan- deliers or pendants should be hune so ingh that the lisfats will not come within the field of vision of any person look- ins: toward the platform or speaker.
Large audience rooms, such as churches and lecture rooms, can be illuminated to best advantage by means of groups of small burners located near the ceiUng and pro- vided with proper reflectors to project the light downwards. These sunlights may be arranged in various forms and can be adapted for almost any kind of service. Their light is more agreeable than that from a- single burner of equal PQwer, because it proceeds from a large number of flames and 1$ thus so diffused that the shadows are very soft or indistinct
This method of lighting is correct in principle, and it should be employed for domestic lighting to a much greater extent than at present. While there are some difficulties in carrying out the plan on a small scale, yet these should act as a stimulus to invention rather than as a bar to improve- ment. The introduction of the modem high-power lamps, such as the Wenham regenerative and the Welsbach incan- d?scent lamp, makes it necessary that great improvements he made in the methods of distributing and diffusing light. There is great need of such improvements for domestic illumination.
Flat jjas flames, when turned horizontally, give a brighter illumination to objects below them than when burning in the ordinary erect position. The gas flames in overhead sun- lights should always be horizontal.
60. ATiioiint of Jjlffht Ileqiilroil. — Rooms having
dark-colored walls, or having much colored drapery, will require more lijrht than they would if flnished in white. The white walls reflect and disperse the light, thus aiding the general illumination, while colored walls reflect less in proportion to the brightness of their coloring.
46 DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
The foregoing rule refers to the use of high-grade mai that will give a light equal to at least 60 candlepower.
Example. — How many incandescent burners will be required
store 20 feet wide and 60 feet long?
Solution.— By the rule just given,
. . 20 X 60 -, o . N = ^gQ— = 7i = 8. Ans.
MBASUREMENT OF LIGHT
63. Definitions. — Light can be measured only b; illuminating effects. As it cannot be absorbed and stc as may be done with heat, quantitative measurements impossible. The capacity of the human eye for the pei tion of light is comparatively small. It is unable to perc very faint lights, and it is dazzled and confused by lighj great brilliancy. Photographic plates are affected by lights that are invisible to the eye; thus, photographs o: sky reveal a multitude of stars that are not visible even the aid of the strongest telescopes. The unaided ey unable to judge of the relative intensity of various li with any reasonable approach to accuracy.
The art of measuring the comparative intensity of li is called photometry. There are several methods of ma these measurements — chemical, electrical, and mechanic each of which is peculiarly suited to special cases. method employed for j>:eneral purposes is to compare illuniinatinj^^ power of the li^ht under examination with of a li^^ht of standard intensity.
The unit used for all ordinary measurements is the 1 jriven by a sperm candle Inirnin^ at the rate of 120 gr per hmir. The candle is burned in still air, and car taken to avoid all drafts that mig^ht accelerate the com tion and thus vary the brilliancy of the lijjht. The 1 thus obtained is made the unit for comparison, an< called 1 <•all(llol)o^ver.
A larger unit is sometimes used for measuring very \\ lig^hts. This is the flaine of a certain kind of oil lamp C2 the Carcel lamp, and the unit thus derived is called 1 Car
§14
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
47
64- iiistruiiiejits« — All insiruinents that serve to meas- ore the comparative brilliancy of lij^hts are properly called photometers, but only those that are suitable for measuring ordinary gaslights, etc- will be described here.
One of the oldest of these instruments^ called the Rumhrd photameier^, is shown in Fig. 35, It consists of a table having a black wooden post c, standing erect as shown, and a screen g, which receives the shadows of the post that are cast by the lights a and b. The candle a is the standard lights and ^ is the light whose intensity is to be measured*
FlO. ^
T\%m lines he and ic must be at exactly equal angles with the screen, and the lights are moved back and forth along these tLd^cs until the shadows e and / appear of exactly equal black- »^^^s* The powers of the two lights are then computed by ^^.i^iding the square of the distance be by the square of the distance a c, the quotient being the candlepower of the light h* This method is very inaccurate, and is not to be recom- ^^^i^ended, because the eye is unable to compare the shadows^ ^.Tid / with the requisite accuracy,
65. The Bunstn photomeitr^ shown in Pig. 36, operates
^^n a different principle than the Rumford. A diaphragm €
is illuminated on its opposite sides by the light h and the
standard candle a. The observer looks down through the
tube € into mirrors / and g^ and thus sees the reflection of
l>oth sides of the diaphragm at the same time. If they
appear of uaequal brilliancy, the sight- box d is moved along
66, The two constructions of the diaphragm are called the spot diaphragm and the star diaphragm* The spei diaphragm is shown in Fig. 37. The center a is a disk of opaque white paper. The ring b is made of white paper saturated with paraffin and is translucent. The outer part c is blackened. When this diaphragm is unequally illuminated on its opposite sides, the ring b looks darker, or brighter, than the center a, but when the illumination is exactly equal, all dif- ference disappears and the spot a becomes indistinguishable.
Ftr,. SI
Pic. SI
The star diapkmj^m is shown in elevation at A^ and in section at B, Fig. 38. It consists of a piece of white writing paper a of moderate thickness, having a star- shaped figure cut out of its center, and a sheet of thin white writing paper c, of best quality, which is doubled so as to enclose the piece a. The diaphragm is lightly squeezed between
I
§14
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
49
two pieces of glass b, b. Care is taken in cutting the star to make every point and line clear and sharp. When the reflection of the diaphragm is seen in the mirrors, the images will vary in distinctness if the lights are unequal. The sight-box d in Fig. 36 is then moved along the bar until both images of the star appear equally sharp and clear.
67. It will be observed that the methods of testing employed in the photometers described are quite different. In the Rumford method, the observer judges the equality in blackness of the shadows produced; in the Bunsen method, using the spot diaphragm, he judges by the equal brightness
TABIiB II GRADUATIONS OF BUNSEN PHOTOMETER BAR
|
C. !>. |
X |
C. P. |
X |
C. P. |
X |
C. P. |
X |
|
:x |
50.00 |
II |
23.17 |
21 |
17.91 |
31 |
15.22 |
|
2 |
41.42 |
12 |
22.40 |
22 |
17.57 |
32 |
15.02 |
|
2 |
36.61 |
13 |
21.71 |
23 |
17.25 |
33 |
14.83 |
|
4 |
33.33 |
14 |
21.09 |
24 |
16.95 |
34 |
14.64 |
|
5 |
30.60 |
15 |
20.52 |
25 |
16.67 |
35 |
14.45 |
|
6 |
28.98 |
16 |
20.00 |
26 |
16.40 |
36 |
14.28 |
|
7 |
27.43 |
17 |
19.52 |
27 |
16.14 |
37 |
14.12 |
|
8 |
26.12 |
18 |
19.07 |
28 |
15.90 |
38 |
13.96 |
|
9 |
25.00 |
19 |
18.66 |
29 |
15.66 |
39 |
13.80 |
|
10 |
24.04 |
20 |
18.27 |
30 |
15.43 |
40 |
13.65 |
^:^f the opposite sides of the diaphragm, and when using the "^tar diaphragm, he judges by the equal clearness and dis- tinctness of the two images of the star. The Rumford method has been discarded for the more accurate Bunsen method. Both the spot and the star diaphragms are widely used, but the star diaphragm is preferred because of its superior accuracy.
68. In practice, the distance between the centers of the lights is usually made 100 inches for a Bunsen photometer. The bar is graduated in accordance with Table II, where the
50 DOMESTIC USES OF GAS §14
abbreviation C. P. means candlepower, and x the distance, in inches, between the standard candle and the disk of the sight-box.
69. The distance x in Table II, equal to a ^ in Fig. 36, may be computed for any distance between the centers of the lights and for any candlepower by the following rule:
Kiile. — Divide the distance between the centers of the lights^ in inches, by the sum of 1 and the square root of the candlepower.
Or, X = — ^
1 + V^
where d = distance between centers of the lights; c = candlepower.
Example. — If the distance between the flames of the light to be tested and of the standard candle is 150 inches, what should be the distance between the diaphragm and the standard candle for (U candlepower?
Solution.— Applying the rule just given,
150 distance = = 16.67 in. Ans.
1-h V64
70. In testing^ high-power lights at the standard distance of 100 inches, such as incandescent gaslights, it is advisable to use two or more standard candles instead of one. The candlepower readings corresponding to the graduations, as given in Table II, must then be multiplied by the number of standard candles used to get the candlepower of the flame being tested.
71. Any good mechanic can construct a photometer like that shown in Vig;. 'M\, which will be sufficiently accurate for all ordinary purposes. By its aid he can investigate for him- self, and can accjuire much valuable information. In using the i)h()t()meter, care must be taken to prevent the entrance of li^lit into the sij^ht-box from any other source than the lights that are to be compared. A screen of black velvet should be suspended behind each light to prevent any light from being reflected toward the sight-box. It is advisable to have a dark room to operate in even if the instrument is protected with curtains and screens of black cloth.
§ 14 DOMESTIC USES OF GAS 51
In testing gas, the pressure must be kept uniform, and the rate of combustion should be carefully measvured.
72. The candlepower of ordinary illuminating gas is measured while burning at the rate of 5 cubic feet per hour, under a pressure of .5 inch of water column. To secure very exact measurements, small corrections must be made for the temperature of the gas and for the moisture contained in it. The candle should always be weighed before and after each test, and allowances must be made in computing the candlepower of the light under examination, if the rate of consumption of the candle varies either way from the stand- ard rate of 120 grains per hour.
EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE
1 . How many 5-foot bat's-wing burners should be placed in a parlor measuring 14 feet by 20 feet? Ans. 7
2. How many incandescent burners are required for a hall measur- ing 60 feet by 80 feet? Ans. 30
3. Suppose that the standard candle and the light to be tested are 120 inches apart, how far should the diaphragm be* from the standard candle for 16 candlepower? Ans. 24 in.
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
(PART 2)
GAS HEATING
BURNER CONSTRUCTION
BUN8EN BURNERS
1. Portable Bunsen Burner. — All burners that are designed to produce heat rather than light, are constructed to mingle the gas with air before burning. They, therefore, belong to the class known as atmospheric burners. The most commonly used design of atmospheric burner is named a Bunsen burner, after* the name of its inventor. A port- able Bunsen burner is shown in Fig. 1. It consists of a gas tube a that projects part way into a larger tube b, which is called the mixing tube, or mixing chamber. Air is admitted through holes Cy which can be partly or entirely closed by means of the collar or slide d to regulate the amount of air admitted. The gas issuing from a and the streams of air from the holes c mingle in the upper part of the tube b and form a mixture that will bum over the mouth of the tube. The flame will be quite large and unsteady, and if illuminating gas is burned, it will show a pale blue color with a tendency to green. If the proportion of air admitted through the holes c is too large, the flame will flash back with a sharp puff or explosion, and will then bum at the orifice of a with
Fcr notice of copyri£ht, see page immediately following the title page il4
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
regulating the air supply, so that the mixture of air and gas may always be in the best proportion for economy. In the figure, the air iolet is at d; the si^e of the opening is then controlled by a slip collar on a^ similar to the collar d shown tB Fig- 1, In many cases the air-inlet openings are In the conical part of r, Fig. 2, the size of opening being controlled by a perforated sheet-metal cone that can be locked in posi- tioo by a setscrew.
Ring burners are frequently made with two or more rings of jets, the rings being concentric and in the same plane, A two-ring burner is called a dtmbie ^t/nt^r; a three-ring: burner 3. triple hirfter^ etc. Each ring should have its own mixing tube and gas-cock, so that one or all of them may be used as desired.
The amount of gas consumed by a burner varies with the size; usually it is between 10 and 18 cubic feet per hour.
4. Inverted Burners, — For some purposes burners are '^made to work in an inverted position; that is, with the flame on the under side. They are thus enabled to radiate heat over the top surface of materials exposed below them. This feature is of g^reat value in cooking operations and for certain manufacturing purposes. Of course, the air inlet must then be at a lower level than the bottom of the burner.
5* Silt Burner, — There are many different shapes of *1sumers on the market, but the principle of combustion is the same in all; their chief difference is found in their adapta- bility to the different makes of stoves. Generally speaking, those that are least liable to foul with grease or lampblack* or that can be most easily cleaned by the cook or other operator, are the best. Ease of cleaning is a prominent
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I
se
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
feature of the so-called slit burners; they differ from those havioif small circular perforations only in that they have sHis at which the mixture is burned, the slits being large enough to be easily cleaned with a thin knife blade.
6, Perrcciloii Burner. — The burner shown in Fig- 3 has the jets arranged in the form of a star, whence this type derives the name of star burners^ The desig:n illustrated is known to the trade as the Perfection burner. The perfora- tions are in the arms, as a, of the star; the gas-supply pipe is connected at ^. The valve c is used to turn on or shut off the gas supply to the burner, A setscrew needle valve d forms a gas check, which, when adjusted to suit the gas pressure and the requirements of the burner, prevents the operator from having too large a flame » even when c is opened fully, A shutter e can be revolved until it screws up tightly against the funnel-mouthed inlet of the mixing tube,
when the air supply will be entirely shut off; it may be" adjusted so that the exact air supply required wiU be admit- ted, when it is secured in position by a locknut. The principal feature of this burner is the cleaning attachment. It is com- pused of a lever / and a star-shaped cleaner^ provided with a number of small rods or prongs. projecting upwards. They are located in such a position that when the long arm of the lever is pressed down, the prongs are pushed up through the burner holes, as shown, and the burner holes are thus cleared of lan>ph1;H'k or cither obst met ions. When the pressure is Femoved from the lever the weight oi j^ will hold the prongs down inside the burner and gas can freely flow through it.
§14
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
6T
T, eimmerlii^ Burner* — The ordinary large ring burner gives too much heat for the method of cooking known as simmering, and hence a small single-flame Bunsen jet or a very small ring burner, as a. Fig, 4, is supplied for this purpose to gas cooking: stoves and is placed within an ordinary-sized ring or star burner. The gas supply to tbe siminering burner is controlled by the cock b. The illus- tration shows comnion practice not only in locating several
Fid. 4
6rLrners on a gas stove, but also in the location of the mixing cii^ju tiers f , ^r. The gas header or branch pipe d is usually
ioc
lo<
seated in front of the cooking stove. Double burners are >c^ted at £, €, and single burners at i\ /. A simmering burner ^ t^laced in every good gas stove, partly for convenience ^*^<3 partly as a means of saving gas» as a simmering burner *^^\i^lly consumes only from 2 to 5 cubic feet of gas per hour.
f ^, Oven Bnroer. — For the purpose of heating the
^^'Vens of gas ranges many different forms of burners are
^^^^d. The best oven burners are those that distribute the
*^^at iiniformly. Oven burners are located beneath the ovens,
^ad should be capable of being lighted from the outside by
Xmeans of an igniter. Fig. f5 {a) shows how an igniter a may
l>e attached for two oven burners b,b. It is simply a tube J
kading from the igniter cock c to the burner holes. The
tube is split on both sides, as shown in detail in Pig. 5 (^)i
the openings d extending uninterrupted from c to the burners. '
To ignite the burners, therefore, the cock is turned on full
B3— 13
58
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
14
while a light is held dose to the slot at the point e outside of the oven, when a flame will travel aloa^ the slots and reach the bumers. The hurner cocks /, / are now opened
and the buroerii become ignited; the cock c is then closed. The igniter is not an atmospheric burner and therefore bums with a yellow flame. This makes the igniter more certain and more safe than one that bums on the Bunsen principle.
T6>
fW
Fio.5
9, Vaporizing Burner,— Devices for generating gas
from oil by means of heat, and combined with atmospheric burners proportioned to properly burn the gas thus produced, are called vaporlzliii^ burners. They are commonly used with gasoline, but other and heavier oils may be used by modi* fying the vaporizer and burner to suit* Oil vapors have such an abundance of carbon that the quantity of air required to burn them properly is much greater than that required with ordinary illuminating gas. j
The liquid is vaporized only as fast as it is used, and the heat required for vaporization is taken from the flame; usually some of the waste heat is thus utilized. The general method of construction is to have the oil reservoir elevated above the burner, so that the liquid will flow down to the vaporizer by gravity. The gas produced may be burned in any properly proportioned atmospheric burner.
10, Care of AtmoBplieirle Burners, — The atmospheric
burners used in cooking stoves, etc. seldom give any trouble if they are properly proportioned and adjusted. If the
§14
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
59
mixing ttibe is too smalU the supply of air is apt to be insuf- ficient, md to be imperfectly mixed with ^as, thus causing the burner to smoke- The burners frequently become foul, and sometimes become clogged with burnt grease, etc* Each hole or jet should then be cleaned by inserting a wire, md the mixing tube should be inspected and cleared of all liat and dirt.
The trouble with gas grates, gas logs, and similar gas heaters is that they will sometimes blow and snap md or extinguish the Aame, when the pressure in the supply pipe becomes unusually low. The reason for this is the air supply remains nearly unchanged, while the gas supply diminishes; thus the relative proportions are altered until the mixture becomes explosive- This trouble may be remedied by adjusting the burner and air inlet to work properly at a certain minimum pressure, which is assumed to be the lowest that will occur, and using a pressure reducer or governor to maintain the supply of gas to the heater at that pressure.
11. The Fletcher^ or solid flame, burlier^ is shown in Fig* 6, That part of the apparatus that serves to mix the gas and air is similar in principle to that used in the Bunsen burner » but the method of burning the mixture is quite different. The top of the chamber a is covered with stout
Fm, i
wire gauze b^ and the gas bums as it issues through the meshes of the gauze. As the gas is already provided with nearly or quite all of the oxygen that it requires for combus- tion, it burns close to the gauze with a small compact flame of great intensity. The color of the flame* when using
i
60
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
P
ordinary illuminating gas, is a bright gfreeo with a few traces of blue* If a larger anfl more diffused flame is dejilred» it can be obtained by diminishing the air supply. The flame then spreads out in order to secure from the atmosphere the oxygen that is lacking, and it becomes less intense, appearing more like the flame from a Btinsen burner. When the large flame is used, the central air tube r» which passes entirely through the chamber a, supplies air to the middle of the flame* The Fletcher burner is able to develop a higher heat from the gas than the Bunsen burner, because it permits a larger proportion of air to be mixed with the gas* If an attempt
is made to burn, in a Bunsen burner, a mixture having the full proportion of air necessary for combustion, the flame will blow back. The same mixture will, however, burn perfectly in a Fletcher burner, because the flame is prevented from blowing back by the wire gauze ^* Usually one or more partitions of wire ^auze are provided in the interior of the burner, to act as fire-checks in case the main gauze should become broken.
12, The Bunsen burner may
be transformed into a Fletcher
burner to great advantage by
^'•^ ' providing it with gauze, as
shown at a and If, Fig. 7. With this arrangement the flame can
be turned down exceedingly low without danger of blowing
back or snapping out,
PIRK-CHKCK8
13, In burning explosive mixtures of air and gas, it is necessary to employ some device, called a flre-elic*ck, for the purpose of confining the flame to a certain place, and
I
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I
thtis prevent it from spreading backwards into the mixing chamber or reservoir.
Before combustion can take place^ the temperature of the gaseous mixtare must be raised to a certain degree, called the paint 0/ igniiimt. Now, il the mixture can be separated from the flame by some kind of a screen that will not become heated to the point of ignition, it is evident that it cannot be set on fire by contact with the screen.
The device most frequently employed as a fire-check is a partition o£ wire gauze through which the mixture of air and gas is forced to pass. As the gas passes through the meshes of the gauze, it is carried some little distance beyond the surface before it burns; consequently, the ftame does not actually touch the gauze. The heat radiated from the flame rapidly heats the wires, and would soon raise them to incan- descence if no cooling influence were brought to bear on them. But, the stream of cold air and gas that passes through the meshes absorbs the heat from the wires and keeps them at a moderate temperature. If there is no cur- rent through the wire gauze, and if fire be maintained on one side of it and an explosive mixture on the other, then the safety will depend entirely on the rapidity with which the czold mixture can absorb and carry oflf the heat from the wires. XJsually the conductive power of the air and gas is not ^sufficient to keep ihe temperature of the wires below the lK>iut of ignition for any considerable length of time, and an explosion consequently results.
An explosion on one side of a gauze partition will not set fire to an explosive mixture on the opposite side, unless the force of the explosion bursts a hole in the gauze and thus pcnnits fire to pass, because the temperature of the fiame will fall rapidly, and it will die out before the gauze becomes heated to the point of ignition.
Devices other than a wire-gauze screen are sometimes used for fire-checks. The explosive mixture may be passed through metal tubes having a small bore and considerable length* or it may be passed through narrow passages lietween flat metal plates; the essential point is that the heat that is
i
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
^14
received from the. flame shall be conducted away or dissipated so rapidly that the temperature of the metal cannot be raised to the point of ignition at the end where the mixture enters.
The raesh and the size of the wire composing the gauze are matters of great importance. The wire should be of brass or copper, woven with twenty-eight or more wires to the inch, the gauze having not less than 784 meshes to the square inch.
Gauze made of iron or tinned wire is very liable to be spoiled by rust holes ^ and the metal does not conduct the heat away fast enough. It should not be used for fire-checks.
I I
COOKUiG APPI-IANCES
r
HOT FLATEB
14, A hot plate is a small stove arranged to be set on a box or table. It may have one, two, three » or more atmos- pheric burners set side by side, and is called accordingly a one^hoied, iwo-koied, or ihree-holed hot plate, as the case may be. A two-holed hot plate is shown in Fig. 8- Each burner, as a, a, is supplied with a separate air mixer and cock, as h,6. Hot plates are usually connected by means of a rubber hose,
Pio, S
to a conveniently located hose cock on the gas-pipe systetn» and connected to a hose coupling c. The hot plates may there- fore be moved about or set aside as occasion requires. No oven is attached to the hot plateji, but portable ovens may be set over the burners antl excellent results in baking obtained. The supply of air and jjas should be adjusted so that the flame bums at a without any appearance of white tips. If
I
the flame shows white in spots, like the flame from an ordi- nary illummating burner, it indicates that not enough air is being supplied, and the flame will consequently smoke any cooking utensil that may be placed over it. If too much air is supplied, the flame will flash back through the burners, btim inside the mixing chamber, and thus become useless for cooking purposes.
GAS ra:£4oes
15, ConBtritctlon. — A gas range has usually four burners on top, as a^ a. Fig, 9, and below them an oven b, usually 16 to 18 inches square, which is heated by one or
4
64 DOMESTIC USBS OP <3AB %U
Below the oven a broiler / is usually placsed. ThiB may be heated by the same burner or burners that heat the oven.
Gas ranges are sometimes made with only three bnmers on top, and sometimes with six or more bomerB. as in the ease of hotel ran^^es. A s:ood style of raaiife in common use has four burners, and a small simmerinfi; burner inside of one of the four, so that there are then five cocks on the front of the stove. The simmering burner consumes but little gas and produces a flame just large enough to keep the food simmering. The same result can be obtained by very care- fully turning down the ordinary atmospheric burner, if it is properly designed. Since the flames have to be turned down very low, however, there is danger of even a very slight draft of air extinguishing them, in which case Ae gas may mix with the atmosphere of the room to an extent sufficient to form an explosive mixture. To obviate this danger, all good gas ranges have a regular simmering burner. The burners used under the ovens should be so constructed as to distribute the heat uniformly to the oven and yet be capable of being checked down. It is always best for convenience and to prevent explosions to have a pilot light arranged to light the oven burners. The burners on the top of the range are of cast iron and are usually circular or star shaped.
16. Operation. — When range burners refuse to operate properly, the trouble usually arises either from the spilling of grease, etc. into the burners, in which case they get stopped up, or else from the burners being allowed to flash back and then left burning, in which case they soon fill with lampblack. In either case the burners should be taken apart and cleaned.
In advising a beginner how to operate a gas range, it should be impressed on the party that the oven burner must never be turned on unless it is lighted at once. If the oven burner is turned on, and the gas is not ignited before an explosive mixture is formed in the oven, when a light is applied to the oven burner the gas in the oven may also ignite and produce an explosion that will frighten people
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
^adly and that may possibly wreck the ran^e. There is however, little actual danger from such an explosion, because] ^0 burning oil is thrown about, as in an explosion of gasoline stove,
To operate a gas range with economy, it is necessary
to turn off the gas entirely when the heat is not actually
needed, [n baking, however, the oven should be lighted
a few minutes before it is to be used. It should also
6e remembered that after a vessel of water has been
brought to the boiling point it may be kept boiling by a^
very small dame.
1 7, lu^tallatlcm. — The size of meter connections, i. e,, tb^ P'P^ through which gas flows from the gas-pipe system to the range, is a matter that must not be slighted. Many ^as ranges and heaters do not give satisfactory results, tieeause the connections are too smalL A five-light meter is the smallest size that should be used when a gas range >is to be iJistaned.
Ordinary-sized gas ranges may he connected with i-inch pipe if the distance to be run is not more than 20 feet* If the distance is greater than thts^ ?-inch pipe should l>e run, ^ ^*iiich pipe should always be run if there is any chance of a ^water beater being also installed. For ranges with more ^an four holes in the top, the supply pipe should be f inch ^^ larger- It is usually best to run the pipe line directly from the meter to the stove. A plug cock with a suitable handle should always be installed in the pipe line, and the stove should always be connected to the pipe line by means ^f a union or long-screw nipple, so that the gas may be shut oS and the stove disconnected at any time.
I
BROILERS
I
18. The best appliance for broiling steaks and chops is a vertical broiler in which the steak is placed edgewise in a gridiron and broiled on both sides at the same time. By this tneans a large quantity of the juice is kept in the meat.
F1G.U
each side of the gridiron. Most of the broilers on the market have asbestos fibers placed between the burners* fl These fibers become hig^hly incandescent and heat both sides of the meat by radiation. The doors c, c can be closed over the handles of the gridiron* The products of combustion, etc, are led to the chimney through d.
UOUSS-WAHMINQ GAS HEATERS
19. Gas Stoves. — Fie:. H shows the interior constrtic- tion of a common desigfQ of heating stove. The gas is burned in an ordinary atmospheric ring burner a in the base of the stove. The hot products of combustion are diluted with a quantity of air that enters through the small holes ^, and their temperature is reduced correspondingly. They pass upwards through the interior of the drum c and escape to the chimney through the flue d. Baffle plates e and / are intro- duced to impede the flow of the hot ga^es, and to deflect them against the surface of the drum c and the central flue jf. This cen- tral flue gives a very effective heating surface* The air enters at the bottom and becomes highly healed during its passage by con- tact with the surface of the hot metal.
20, Fig, 12 shows a reHeet- Uis «a» Btove, The gas is burned in an atmospheric burner connected to a, which occupies the upper part of the stove. The gas burns in a number of small
jets, and the reflector b, which occupies the back and lower part of the stove^ reflects heat from these flames into the room; being comigated, it reflects irregularly, and thus diffuses the radiant heat. To give a cheerful appear- ance to the room in which such a heater is placed, the gas is sometimes burned without the addition of air before combustion.
FlQ. 11
68
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
21- Many gas heaters for house warming are built in accordance with the assumption that air can be heated by means of radiant heat. This assumption is erroneous, because radiant heat passes through air without affecting it, except in a very slight degree* It should be borne in tnind that air can be heated only by contact with hot surfaces.
Nearly all the heat radiated from a stove falls on the walls or furniture of the room and is expended in warming them. The air in the room is gradually wanned by contact with the
surfaces thus heated;
4
V^fi^K^ — ' ■■
some of it is heated by contact with the stove
it self I but none of it is warmed by the direct action of the radiant fli
^flll
5^>;^
heat* The stove shown in
Fig, 11 is well adapted for heating air because it has large heating surfaces over which the air may travel. The prime requisite of an air-heating apparatus is an abundance of hot surfaces*
No gas stove or heater should be per- mitted to discharge its products of combustion into the air of a small, closed room, because it will vitiate the air with great rapidity* Every heater in such a room should be connected by a pipe to a chimney, or should have a hood over it, which should have a free discharge into the outer atmosphere* The ordinarj^ large rooms of dwelling houses are usually so well ventilated that small gas stoves may in many cases be used without being connected to chimney or vent fine.
Fig. 12
\u
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
22, 0|>eii Fireplace Heaters. — Fig, 13 shows a prH» f^rate desigfned to occupy an ordinary open fireplace. The back plate is covered with loose bunches of asbestos fibers, and is perforated with a number of fine holes. The gas is ' mixed with the necessary air in a chamber in the rear, and the mixture passes through the small orifices and burns
fi
Fin. IS
CO the front face of the plate among the loose fibers. The asbestos becomes incandescent, and glows like an open fire of coal, emitting both light and heat. Stoves are also con- structed on the same plan, but for the reasons mentioned in Art. 21 are not very efficient in heating air.
23* The Fl reside Eleetrtc henter for open fireplaces is shown in Fig, 14. It can be built into a brick wall or set
in an open fireplace and thus become a stationary fixture. An atmospheric burner having asbestos fiber attached all over its face at a emits radiant heat direct to the room and gives a cheerful appearance. The products of combustion pass sigzag over heating tubes d, before they enter the
1
70
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
§14
chimney c. The space d is provided with an air-inlet opeaiog of grine-work at e, and an air-outlet opening, also of ^lie- work, at / to allow a circulation of air over the heated sur* faces and thfough the tubes, as shown by arrows. By this
arrangement a lar^e amount of beat is absorbed from the hot products of com- bustion before they enter the chimney* and this heal is util- tEed in warming the air in the room. To prevent the products of combustion from passing too quickly to the chimney* the draft through the zigzag outlet flues should be checked down by a damper in the collar g^ which may be operated by a rod passing through the front and tenninating with a knob, as at h.
24. A ptas lofr is shown in Fig. 15, The log is made of fireclay, and is per- forated with a large number of small holes, through which the mingled gas and air, or the gas only, passes out and bums* The log is hollow* and its interior serves as a chamber in which the gas and air are mixed before combustion. The
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§14
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
71
leat is radiated directly from the small flames that nearly cover the surface of the log.
Gas logs formerly were not provided with atmospheric burners, hut they had such a tendency to smoke and become covered with soot that now a mixing chamber is almost always provided. A cock or valve cantrolling the log should always be placed near one comer of the fireplace* Plug cock&i with special long handles having a small wheel on top, are better than valves* as they are less apt to leak.
)>
Fjc.
When logs are set on the first floor of a house, the cocks should be placed below the ceiling in the cellar, so that they are readily accessible. Where it is necessary to place the cock between the floor and the ceiling of the room below, as in the case of logs set on second floorSi a pocket should always be left in the floor above the cock in order to make it accessible for inspection and repairs. Half-inch pipe should be used to connect logs 18 inches long or less, Larger pipe should be used for larger logs,
25. Asbestos-backed gas fireplaces are more efficient heaters than logs. They are frequently provided with a
72 DOMESTIC USES OF GAS §14
(;as valve at the bottom of the heater, but it is best to also place a cock on the pipe line in the same position in which a cock would be placed for a gas log:.
MISCELLANEOUS GAS HEATING APPLLANCE8
26. A largfc number of small gas heating appliances are in common use, such as coffee urns, oyster stewers, confec- tioners* gas stoves, waffle stoves, cake griddles, iron heaters for tailors and for laundry use, etc. Irons heated by a burner inside of them are frequently used in large laundries. By their use, considerable time is saved, as the iron is always at the ri^ht heat and the operator does not have to stop to change irons. The best irons for this use have an air-hose connection as well as a gas-hose, and an air blast is supplied to the burner. These special appliances differ only in form from the appliances described; they employ the same principle of oper- ation, which is the burning of the gas in atmospheric burners.
In the mechanic arts, gas heating appliances are being largely used for melting metals, annealing, soldering, har- deniii}^ and tempering, case hardening, and similar manufac- turing operations.
WATER IIEATEKS
27, (Massiflcatioii. — Watcrbacks, i.e., water heaters of
the form used in coal-burning cooking stoves for heating the water for kitchen ])oilers, cannot he used economically in con- nection with .i,^as ranj^es because the amount of heating surface tlicy contain is too small. Hence, special gas-burning water heaters overcoming the defect of the waterback are made.
(ias-l)urninij: water heaters may be divided into two general classes: kitihoi-boilir heaters and instantaneous heaters,
KIt<*li(Mi-hoil<'r h(»at(M's, as implied by the name, are used in connectir)n with a kitchen boiler, serving as a storage reservoir for the hot water.
InstaiitaiK'oiis lu^ators have no storage reservoir; they are put in oi)eration whenever hot water is required, and tli-rive their name from the rapidity with which they will heat
§ 14 DOMESTIC USES OF GAS 73
the water. There are two types of instantaneous heaters: (1) those in which the gases of combustion do not come into contact with the water; (2) those in which the gases of com- bustion come into contact with the water. The first type of instantaneous heaters may be called closed heaters, and con- tain water under pressure; the second type may be called open heaters^ and the water in them is not under pressure.
28. Kltchen-Boller Heaters. — The heaters that are used in connection with boilers are usually formed either of a collection of drop tubes, or of an iron casting made with hollow flanges, which gives a large heating surface, set over an atmospheric burner. A common design of kitchen-boiler heater employs a vertical cylindrical coil of copper pipe, through which the water may pass, and uses an atmos- pheric burner at the base of the coil, passing the hot products of combustion up the interior of the coil and between its con- volutions. A heater of this kind, suited to a 50- or 60-gallon boiler, usually contains about 35 lineal feet of l-inch copper tubing, and the burner is made to consume from 20 to 25 cubic feet of ordinary illuminating gas per hour.
29. The inlet for the water is always at the bottom and the outlet at the top when the heater is connected to a boiler. There is usually a pilot light for lighting the atmospheric burner. The pipe leading to the bottom of the heater should always be connected to the pipe from the bottom of the boiler, and the outlet of the heater should be connected in at the top of the boiler. A good heater so arranged will heat up a 30-gallon boiler in 15 minutes.
30. The same boiler may be connected both with a gas heater and with an ordinary range waterback, and either or both may be used, as is desired. Fig. 16 shows a gas heater a connected to a kitchen boiler b. The heater is connected to the boiler independently of the connections from the kitchen- range waterback r, so that each may be operated separately and without interfering with the circulation of the other. When water is heated in a, it rises in the A^^ P^P^ ^ ^"^ enters the top of the boiler, while a corx'j^^f)onding quantity
6;j— 14
Pio. Ifi Fio* 17
3-inch or 4-inch smoke pipe, or, if the kitchen is well venti- lated, may be discharged directly into it, as is done in the case illustrared in Fig^, 16. The construction of the gas heater shown connected up in Fig:, 16 is illnstrated in Fig* 17, It is composed of a number of hollow cast-iron or cast-brass
I
§14
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
75
sections a, a, each having a number of flues, as 6\ passing through them. The sections are connected together by nip- ples, the lower nipple c being attached to the water-supply pipe, .A double-ring atmospheric burner d is supplied by a ^s pipe tr. The gas-cock for d is located at /» whiles is the pilot-light cock. The sheet-metal cylindrical casing k is shown raised over the flow pipe: this shows how easily the beater can be inspected and cleaned. The hole i is for the pilot light, which, when lighted, throws a long thin flame through this hole and over the atmospheric, burner. To start the heater, the pilot light is ignited first; the gas is then turned on to the ring burner, and as soon as this is lighted, the pilot light is shut off.
.A'r_io<#i*»«
31. Gas water heaters will fait to give satisfaction when they are wrongly connected, and hence the points to be
rded against are
liere given. It is
^%^ron^ to connect a
^tieatcr to the side
tapping of a boiler,
Tjecause the entire
\joiler must then be
lieated before hot
water can be drawn
from the hot-water
faucets. The proper
place to make the
connection is on top
of the boiler to the
hot -water pipe, as
shown in Fig, 16.
It raust never be
made as shown in
Fig. 18. An air lock
is formed at a; and
the heater is then said to be air bound. The air is liberated from the water while it is being heated and will continue to
Pio, li
il
76 DOMESTIC USES OF GAS §14
accumulate in the pipe a even though drawn off period- ically by a petcock. The air will prevent a circulation between the heater and the boiler. The heater will generate steam and produce a disagreeable noise by water hammer. The principal object in connecting the heater to the top of the boiler is to give hot water at the faucets before the boiler is warm.
It is also necessary to prevent mud or sediment that natu- rally gathers in the bottom of the boiler from choking the lower or return pipe to the heater. A chokage here will prevcht circulation and thus produce water hammer in the heater by the generation of steam. It is therefore necessary to provide a sediment cock to allow the boiler and heater to be blown off, that is, emptied, occasionally.
Stop-cDcks and valves should never be placed on the circu- lation i)ii)es between a gas heater and a boiler, or between a rauj^o waterback and a boiler, because some person through ignorance may close these valves while the gas is burning in the heater and thus cause an explosion.
( Jas water heaters for boilers should preferably be provided with a flue eonneetion to a chimney to carry off the gases of i-omhiistion. This should always be done where the venti- Litioii (»t the kitchen is poor, as usually is the case in city
'V\\c ehief trouble experienced in the use of water heaters is tine to the accumulation of soot and lampblack caused by the l»ni iiti biMuj^ allowed to blow back and burn in that way l(»r ^t»ine time. The soot forms an insulating covering on ihr luMlin-' surfaces, which prevents the water from being luMitil properly. To remedy this, clean the heater thoroughly uiMilc and adjust the air mixer to admit the proper proportion ut ail lo the ^as. Ilenters should never be lighted unless ihi' w.itiT is free to circulate throug^h them, since otherwise I hi' r\iicnie heat may burn or warp the parts and thus cause (lu liratcr tt> leak.
I1u ir 1 > usually a small amount of drip from water heaters, * \i u wlu u a\\ water connections are ti^ht. This comes from \\u w \\\ \ \ apoi, produced in the combustion of the gas, which
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
is cundeosed by the cool surfaces of the heater when the water has oot yet been raised to near the boiling point. Small pans are often provided to catch this drip.
In some cases, thermostats are set in the boiler and con- nected by the gas supply cock to the heater, in order that when the temperature of the water in the boiler Teaches a certain point, the gas will be auto- matically turned down, being turned on again automatically when the femperatnre begins to drop.
h
32. Closed lu- tantaiieous Water
^leati^rti, — A special €Qrm of heater that does -not employ a boiler or other storage reservoir, is used for heating small quantities of water to the boiling point in the least possible time. The heater is usually placed in the kitchen over the sink, or at the bath- tub or bowl where the hot water is required, Owing to the rapidity with which heaters of this kind will heat water, they have been given the name of instantaneous water heaters, Fig» 19 shows the interior construction of one of these devices. The water is heated in the coiled pipe a. It enters at the bottom, passes gradually upwards, and is dis- charged at the top through a faucet, not shown in the
Fro. JO
78 DOMESTIC USES OP OAS %U
figure. The burner ^ is an ordiiiary Banien bonier, and tiie chimney c is made just laree enough to admit the air neces- sary for perfect combustion. The pipe coil is sommnded by acasingi/and^of firebrick, which prevents loss of heat. The hottest part of the flame plays on the upper part of the ooiL and the hot gases pass between its convohitioiia and escape downwards, as shown by the arrows, pft«^"*g out flirough holes in the base ring /. The heat is thus applied to the coil in a very effective manner, and a moderate stream of hot water can be obtained continuously.
In heaters of this kind there is danger that an explosive mixture of gas will remain in the top of the fire chamber when the burner is shut off, and blow badly when a light is applied. This is prevented by means of a damper^, which is connected by a rod A to the handle of the gas valve, so that it will remain open as long as the gas is shnt off.
33. Automatic instantaneous heaters in wliidi the water does not come into contact with the products of oomfaostion are designed to take the place of both heatldr and boiler. Such heaters consist of one or more very large burners under a water coil or casting having a very large surface exposed to the heat. They are usually placed in the cellar, and the hot-water pipes run from them to all parts of the house, just as from an ordinary house boiler. A yahre is placed in the cold-water inlet pipe of the heater and con- nected to another valve on the gas supply pipe in such a manner that when a hot-water faucet is turned on in any part of the house, the g:as is automatically turned on at the heater by the opening of the cold-water valve there.
Fig. 20 (a) shows a heater of this type set up and con- nected. In Fig. 20 (d) the upper half is tilted over to show the ct>nstruction of the interior. The atmospheric burners Ml n nre supplied with gas through an automatic gas valve •*. A nhut-oll valve c is also placed on the gas pipe, but this is li»h open when the heater is in use. A pilot valve d controls \\\^ \^iM burner r. The pilot light is allowed to bum all the WW^ CoM water enters the heater through a special valve /,
514
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
TO
fiows through the heatini: coil £-, over which the flames from the burners play, becomes heated, and leaves the heater through ^, and flows to the open faucets.
The form of heater illustrated by Fig. 20 can be used to supply a number of hot- water faucets located throughout a building. The nearer it Is located to the faucets the quicker will the hot water be drawn, since with a faucet located a long distance from the heater considerable time is spent in waiting for the cold water to be drawn from the line before the hot water reaches the faucet.
i
f^
(h)
Pio.«
The proportions of the burner and heating surface are such that the water is heated nearly to the boiling point] as fast as it goes through the heater* As soon as enough hot water has been drawn, the faucet is closed. The water pressure in the house pipes at once rises to that of the street mains, and the water valve on the heater closes and Jhe gas valve is shut off at the same time. These heaters* while they bum a large amount of ^as when in operation, are very
M.iMi^TIC USES OF GAS
il4
c :\'j sjas other than the >r-.i".". .r zi: !i;jht is burned when hot witt- t i.: actually be:::,; _ t t :. The pas s'::;c .7 : :^ : : such a he^ttr -i zl: never be sr-.i"tr :Jiir I4 inches, ar:-: 1 : -ir:- tion to the lztt-zJ should always :r= ?::- vided to carry .f :!-* products of cT'Tr/riir:: '.. At least a 2^'^::z''': r.t:r: should be eiDr-' yt: :: measure the i;2> -fef by the heater.
S\ ..N
34, The auiOTTi::: jjas and water v^'.ve
shown at f* and :'.
Fi^^ 20. is shown :n
section in Fi;;. 21. The
end (t is screwed t*'- the
CO Id- water supply piye.
and the tappin;^ i*^ c^fn-
nc(!ts to the heater c.-i].
W'licn no water is bein?
drawn at the h(»t-w:iter
friin«'t^, the water pres-
'.nre.' in the space r is
i.'O'i'd to that in the
^l;:tcc 7, ])C'cattse a small
/ .-• allows the ]i!( -.suTL'S to equalize.
t.iiiCL't is '.p./iM-'l, the i)rcssure falls
w. ./ will iii^iaiitly raist* the piston /
>' {\\c s]M-in;; .:;. wlii< li brars down on
.vis lluMi tl'/ws fr«'(;y ilirnn;;h the j;as
I'.v- hcatLM", whrrr it in^>iantly becomes
^i'.i When tliu i»lun«^cr is raised, the
DOMESTIC USES OF GAS
81
I
valve I is opened to admit a reasonable quantity of water to enter € from d and to regulate the flow and the difference in pressure betwet:n c and d, A vohime regulator or check is sometimes located at /\ as shown, when the pressure is high* Stuflfinghoxes are placed at k, k. The adjustment of the valve is made by regfulating the tension of the spring j^ by means of the nut shown on top*
35 » 0|>en Instantaneoui* Wnter Henteis- — Low-pres- sure automatic instantaneous water heaters may be con- sirxicted in different
ways, a popular form being that in which the iRrater comes in contact
Erith the products of ombnstion. Such heat- ers are designed for ise in bathrooms, etc*, (There the water is used It once and for external ase only. Fig* 22 shows la heater of this type. It Us composed of an outer casing, a set of atmos- , pheric burners at the fbase^ and specially ar- ranged heating plates, both perforated and
(plain. The water flows o%^er one side of the plates, while the flame and hot gases come into contact with the other side* hence, the water is ■ quicklf heated as it flows toward the outlet
II
Fio,aa
nots&le. Gas flows to the heater through a valve a, feeds the I burners at b, and heats the internal plates c.d, and €. The
82 DOICBSTIC USES OF GAS %U
flames strike directly against the snriaoe of c; die gases of combustion impinge against the onder side of the thin bdl iL Their course is then diverted, and the gases rise dixongfa the perforations in the plates forming the diamber ^, escaping to the chimney through a vent flue /• Water enters fbe heater through the valve ^, which is hooked to tiie gas valve in sndi a manner that when the gas valve a is open the water vahre must also be open. This prevents the heater from being lighted while the water is not flowing through it, and thus prevents the burning of the plates, which are very thin. The water valve ^ is furmshed with a checking-down valve A by which the flow can be regulated to that best adapted for the successful operation of the heater.
When the gas-cock is turned on, the cold water immediately flows through the tube i, and is distributed by the spreader at J over the upper surface of the upper perforated plate of the chamber e. The water then percolates thnmgfa the perforations at the top and bottom of ^, and falls by gravity on the top of the bell d, from which it flows into the funnel i^ which guides it against the upper neck of c. The water then runs down in a thin sheet over the outer surface of c to the water-collecting chamber /, from which it flows by gravity, quite hot, through the outlet nozzle m that projects over the fixture to be supplied with hot water. The tube n supplies a small pilot light in the center of the burners, which is used to ignite them and may burn all the time. Since this is an open heater, and hence cannot be used under pressure, it must always be located above the fixture to be supplied with hot water. This type of heater is the most economical in the use of gas, but it has the disadvantage of not being able to supply more than one or two fixtures, which must be close together.
36. A 4-inch gas supply pipe, if short, should be run to the heater. If longer than 25 feet, a 1-inch pipe should be used if the gas pressure is 2 inches or less. A flue connec- tion should be made in all cases, as the products of combus- tion generated by such a large consumption of gas in a
§ 14 DOMESTIC USES OP GAS 83
room the size of the ordinary bathroom renders it dangerous to use the heater without a flue pipe. In common with all other gas appliances having large chambers in which gas may accumulate, these heaters are liable to explode if the gas is turned on for some time before it is lighted.
Generally, these heaters are set on a shelf in the bathroom between the bath and basin. One outlet may then be made to the bath and another outlet to the basin, a valve being placed on the nozzle that delivers water to the bath and a gooseneck bend on the nozzle that delivers w^ater to the basin. Then, if the bath valve is open, the hot water will flow to the bath only. If the bath valve is closed, the water will rise in the chamber / until it overflows through the gooseneck to the basin.
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
PLUMBING MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
DUTIES OF THE PIATMBER
1. It is the duty of the plumber to provide dwellings and other buildings with systems of piping that will (1) sup- ply and distribute water to convenient points; (2) receive and conduct away all dirty and refuse water; (;]) conduct away and dispose of all filth, excreta, and other sewage matter, and remove all noxious odors arising therefrom. He also provides apparatus for heating, pumping, storing, and measuring water, as well as lavatories, baths, laundry tubs, sinks, water closets, urinals, cesspools, drains, etc.
The comfort and healthfulness of dwellings, especially in towns and cities, depend in a great measure on the adequacy and thoroughness of the plumbing. As the health of the inmates is seriously affected by defective drainage, it is necessary that the work of the plumber shall be thoroughly and conscientiously performed. The general public is pro- foundly ignorant of the importance of thorough drainage, and in many cases the plumber must protect people against the evil consequences of their own ignorance. In many
g 15
For notice of copyright, see page iitmiediately following the title page.
2 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
communities laws have been made that greatly aid hi constructing drainage systems as they should be.
To do his work properly, it is necessary that he si possess a complete knowledge of the nature of the mat< that may be used for his purp)oses. He should also be< familiar with the mode of performing the necessary o tions upon them, both the shop work and the outside v and he should acquire a clear comprehension of wh necessary to constitute an efficient and satisfactory sy of water supply, a safe and reliable system of drainage a complete and convenient outfit of fixtures and done apparatus.
PLUMBEI18* SUPPLIES
2, The supplies needed by the plumber consist oi classes — plumbing materials and plumbing fixtures.
Under the heading of plumbing materials it is cus ary to classify the raw materials, as sheet metals of va kinds, solder, oakum, asphaltum, plaster of Paris, pip various kinds, pipe fittings, cocks and valves, and simila terials that are cither worked, by the plumber, into a i suitable for the purpose, or are used for connection t plumbing fixture's, or directly form part of the connec
The general term of plumbing flxtiiro« is applied to manufactured articles as sinks, tubs, lavatories, drir fountains, baths, urinals, water closets, etc. that are inst in residences and public buildings.
811 EKT MKTAIJS
SIIKKT LKAI>
•J, Shoot load is commercially pure metallic lead has been rolled into sheets by passing blocks of the met and fro between heavy rolls until it has been rolled oi the desired thirkiiess. This product is known as ml shoot loiul. It is the only kind that can be obtained
\in PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
a
plumhers* supply houses (i, p// material to plumbers),
\ \h. per sqft
mftep€rsq.ft
23ilb&pefsq,ft
^■^ inch. 4 lbs. per sq.ft
e., the firms or stores that siip- unless special orders are given to
This latter kintLis made by first leveling a bed of fine muldtng sand, having the size and shape of the sheet desired, the sides and ends being formed into Httle era bank men ts to preveat the molten lead running out of the bed, then pouring clean molten lead on the bed, and before it has set drawing a straight-edged board over it to give the lead a uniform thickness. Milled 1 e a d is much cheaper and stronger than cast lead, but it is not as soft nor so easily worked into different shapes. Cast sheet lead is so seldom used nowadays that manufacturers and dealers always assume that milled lead is wanted by their customers when no particular kind is specified.
4, Sheet lead is very malle- able and can be worked into almost any shape. Its tenacity is low, and it is apt to tear if stretched very much. It becomes hard and brittle if subjected to much bending or beating. Sheet lead is always specified and des- ignated by its weight per square foot: thus, sheet lead w^eighing fl pounds per square foot is called 6-p*iiind jstheet lead. U iti manufactured in any thickness, weighing from 1 to [32 pounds, or more, per square fr")t- Fig, 1 slniws the actual Ihickness of sheet lead of the several weights* Sheets
!/i# inch, blbspersqfr
H#mch.
6fb&persqft.
Ht rnch. fliba.persq.fr.
V% inch . J6lfaaperaq.f1;
4 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS § 15
weij^hing less than 21 pounds per square foot are too light to be used in the plumbing trade. The kinds in common use vary from 4 to 8 pounds per square foot. The weights gen- enilly carried in stock by merchants are '2, 2J^, 3, 3i, 4, 4J, 5, Ti, T, and 8 pounds'per square foot. Sheet lead is shipped to plumbers in rolls, similar to that shown in Fig. 2, varying in width from 3 feet 0 inches to 9 feet, according to order. Owing to the fact that sheet lead is easily cut and bruised by rough handling, it is advisable to have it shipped in
Fig. 2
!)oxes. Special sheets for use in chemical manufactories, oil refineries, etc can be had by special order. Sheet lead is used !>y plumbers in the United States of America chiefly for lininv^ watt-r tanks, safes under the plumbing fixtures, roof flasliini^s, etc. lUit in Great Britain and other foreign countries it is u>K-i\ extensively by plumbers for covering llat rn(;fs, an<l ba* ridges, valleys, gutters, and flashings of pitched roofs.
slIKKT < ()1M»KK
/>• Sheet (•i)piK'r is made from coj)p(.T r(dled into sheets
when hot by heavy steel rolls. It is supplied so//, or annealed, and r/'///-;'/V/<v/, or with a mirror finish. Both kinds are tinned on one or both sides, or are left in the natural (N)ndition. Sheet copj>cr is desiMi-iicd by its weight in ounces j)er scpiare fool. The sheets in common use range from in to 'io ounces i)er scpiare foot; the largest sheets of lO-oimce (N)j)j)er usually kej)t in stock are 4S in. X 90 in. The heavier sheets arc made jIO in. v '.h; in. Rolled copper has a specific gravity of s. '.♦:;. One cubic* foot weighs
§15
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
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6 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS § 15
558,Jy**,y pounds, while 1 square foot, 1 inch thick, weighs 4(j j^V pounds. The weights and dimensions of the standard sizes of sheets are given in Table I, which has been adopted as the official table by the Association of Copper Manufac- turers of the United States.
6. Soft-rolled copper coated with tin on one side is gen- erally used by plumbers for lining tanks, safes, etc. Nearly all water-closet flushing tanks are lined with sheet copper- All sheet copper furnished by some of the best manufac- ^ turers is numbered, according to its thickness, by th^^ Stubs's gauge; all sheet brass is numbered according td:^ Brown & Shar[)e's gauge. When the name of the gaug^^^ is not given with an order for sheet brass or copper, order^^^ are usually filled to correspond with the gauges namecE^^^^ above, lii ordering sheet metal, where gauge number or:^^ *^ weight is unknown, the difficulty may be overcome by'^'^P enclosing a sample piece with the order. In ordeHng sheet -^^ metal, always state the t^'inper desired, that is, whether '""^ ^ hard, seini-annealcd, or soft; also state the surface finish -^^ desired, that is, wlicther plain, tinned, cold-rolled and tinned and polished, (V)ld-rolled and tinned and not polished, or jihuiished eopper tinned on one side. Be careful to specify the sizes of tint slieets that are best suited to your purposes. The t'old-rolled eopper is smooth and clean, being carefully biiHed to a hii;h {)olis]i, which, however, will tar- nish, l)<*c:iiise the polished .surface is not protected from the aclinii of the weather. rianishod cH)p|>er is highly polished and coated with au elastic enamel, which prevents its tarnishint;'. All unj)rotected copj)er will tarnish rapidly.
Copper becomes hard if it is ham- mered.
^d
7. Sheet copper is shipped in rolls, as shown in Fig. 3, and may or may not he boxed. Table II shows the sizes and weights of copper sheets in most common use:
Fig. 8
8 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
TABIiE II
STOCK SIZES OF SHEET COPPER
Kind of Copper
Size of Sheet
Inches
Weight per Sq. Ft.
Ounces
Plain
Plain
Plain
Tinned
Tinned
Tinned
Tinned
Ti nned
Tinned
Tinned
Tinned
Cold-rolled and tinned, polished
Cold-rolled and tinned, polished
Cold-rolled and tinned, polished
Cold-rolled and tinned, polished
Cold-rolled and tinned, polished
Cold-rolled and tinned, polished
Cold-rolled and tinned, polished
Cold-rolled and tinned, polished
Cold-rolled and tinned, polished
Cold-rolled and tinned, not polished . . Cold-rolled and tinned, not polished . .
Cornice copper
Cornice copper
Cornicfe copper
Cornice copper
Cornice copper ,
Cornice copper
Cornice copper
Cornice copper
Planished copper, tinned on one side . Planished copper, tinned on one side . Planished copper, tinned on one side . Planished copper, tinned on one side . Planished copper, tinned on one side Planished copper, tinned on one side. Planished copper, tinned on one side.
24 30 48 10 12 14 24 30 X 36 X 48 X 48 X 10 X
12 X 12 X
14 X 14 X 14 X 14 X
! 24 X
i 30 X I 24 X
I 30 X
I 20 X ! 24 X i 24 X
' 30
48 60 72
48 48 48
48
60 72 72
96
48 48
60
48
52 56
481
()0 I
48 1 60I 01 48 I </>!
|
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|
30 X 9(y |
|
3(y X 72 |
|
36 X (/) |
|
12 X 48 |
|
14 X 52 |
|
14 X 56 |
|
14 X (m |
|
14 X 4S |
|
24 X 48 |
|
30 X ()o |
14
10 to 40
9 to 154
20 to 100
14 14
12 to 20
10 to 18 10 to 20
16 16 16 14 14 14
14 and 16
14
14 and 16
14 and 16
14 and 16
16, 18, and 20
14 and 16
14, 16, and 20
16 and 18
14 and 16
14 and 16
14, 16, and 18
14, 16, and 18
16, 18, and 20
16 and 18
16. 18, and 20
14
14
14
14
12 to 20
14 and 16
16 and 20
SITKKT ZINC
B, HUeet asluc? is designated tiy its weight in ounces perl square foot, Ii is furnished in casks or rolls as ordered. Ai cask of zinc is shown in Fig, 4; this cask weighs about 600 pounds^ The weights and thicknesses of the sheets are as follows:
TABIii; lU
BmKH Ann wmiowm of hh^ct zckc
Wciglit in iiuncea per square fool Thickness tn inches , , . .
19
0457
16 .0611
Znic is a bluish-white metnl and is highly crystalline. It] is hard and brittle at the ordinary temperature and also at] iW F. But at intermediate temper-! atures, between 212^ F. and 3t)2** F.J it is malleable and ductile* and can* then be rolled into thin sheets.
NoTK.— Th(? initiiil letter F* is iin ali-
brevbti*m i*f ihv word Fahrenheit* Thus, J 400' F, me^ins a u?mji^ rat tire of 4'XI" on ihal Fahrenheit thermonycler, the one ordina-j rily iisciJ in ihit* c**imtry and Great Britain, Unless oiherwisK! liitatea, all degrees t>f tcm* peratures will l>e according 10 ihe Pah re n- 1 he it thermometer, whether indicated a«J such or not.
Zinc is seldom used by phunbers] in the United States, except for] waterproofing stich chambers as tcef chests, or for lining corn bins in 1 stables, or small water tanks. Thej
weights most commonly used are VZ, H, and I^) ounce, thej
latter being used chiefly for tank linings.
ifiG i
SHKET HI.OtK TtK
9. Tin in sheet form, like sheet lead, is made from soUd blocks of the pure metal by lire rolling process. It can be h;id in sheets having the same length and breadth as sheet leadj
id
15 PLUMBING ilATERIALS AND TOOLS
and, like lead, is known by its weight in pcninds per s(|uare foot. Owing to its lower specific gravity, tin sheets are thicker than lead sheets of the same weight per square foot.
Fig. 5 shows the thickness of the
MM common grades usual ly kept in
stock by manufacturers. The
sizes mostly used liy plumbers are
^ front Ij to 3 pounds, inclusive,
the latter beinj^ nsed chiefly for
tanks and the former for flashing
^ around pantry sinks, etc. To
distinguish this sheet metal from
tin-coated iron sheets, it is called
^ sbeet bloek tin.
V40 inch,
Vtr inch.
gJb<s^rsq.R Vtg inch.
£Mm&persq.a
attemper sq.ft.
Ha Inch*
3^lb5.per5q.ft- Hf inch,
4lbspaf3q.ft Vioinch.
H inch.
5lb&persq.n._
Vtinch. 10)b6.perS£T.ft.
ninch.
FIG. 5
SHEET IRON AND STEEL
10. ItliR^k^ r;jilvaii!zi*d, and RuNSlu lron,-^Iron ami steel In the form of sheets, called slice t Iron and sheet steel, respect- ively, can be obtained eolcl- rolled and hard, or annealed and s(.ift. Either kind can be had in the natural state, when it is called hUn-k, or coated with zinc, when it is called f^iiivan- Ized, Sheets range in size from :i4r in. X 7'i in. for the thin sheets, to 30 in. X 84 in. or larger for the heavier ones* Sheet iron h designated hy its thickness as measured by a wire gauge. There are many varieties of
jjau^es used for this purpose, which differ greatly in their
measurements- The gauge in most common use in the United States of
America is given in Table IV, which has been adopted as a
10 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS |U
TABUB IT
UJIATJB1> 8TATB8 gTAXllAliP GAUOB ANO T»LATK tnOK AND
|
Appro* fin ale |
ApproKim&te ThkkneH m |
Wftlfflii per Sqiinre |
We%ht per Sqnmli |
|
|
Ntunber |
Thickness |
FtMjit in Pounds |
Foot in Pottii4« |
|
|
of Gau^ |
in Frac- |
Dttiimiil Part* |
Avoirdupoia, |
Avoirdapoliu |
|
liottflof |
tif «n Inch |
Iroo ' |
Sted |
|
|
an Incb |
||||
|
J |
so.oooooa |
|||
|
OOCX>000 |
||||
|
OQOOQO |
il |
.468750009 |
r$, 710000 |
f^.tdsoooo |
|
ocynoo |
Tf |
,437500000 |
17.500000 |
tj^^^xsom |
|
oooo |
if |
.406250000 |
16.350000 |
16.5750000 |
|
ooo |
f |
.37SOQOOOO |
15.000000 |
15^3000000 |
|
. oo |
§ |
.3437SOOO<> |
i3*75tM>«> |
14.0250000 |
|
o |
.1I35POOOO |
la.SOQooo |
IS. 7500000 |
|
|
I |
A |
,3Sl35O0Q0 |
11,350000 |
II 4750000 |
|
3 |
)} |
.36563 5000 |
10.635DOP |
10.8575000 |
|
3 |
^ |
.350000000 |
10.000000 |
|
|
4 |
u |
,334375000 |
9375000 8,T5000O |
9.5^5000 |
|
5 |
n |
.218750000 |
8.g35ooOO |
|
|
6 |
{| |
.303125000 |
8.135000 |
8.3875000 |
|
7 |
J |
.187500000 1 |
7.500000 |
7*6500000 |
|
8 |
.I7IS75000 |
6.875000 1 |
7,0115000 |
|
|
9 |
/i |
,156250000 ! |
6,250000 |
6.5750000 |
|
na |
A |
,140635000 |
5.625000 |
1^7375000 |
|
ir |
j[ |
.125000000 |
S^ooooou |
5*1000000 |
|
13 |
.109375000 |
4 375O0O |
4.4^5000 |
|
|
13 |
A |
.093750000 |
3.750000 |
5.8250000 |
|
H |
j^ |
.078125000 |
3,125000 |
3.1875000 |
|
15 |
tIi |
.070312100 |
2.813500 |
a. 8687500 |
|
16 |
Ti |
.0625^*0000 |
3 500000 |
2.5500000 |
|
17 |
iJlf |
.056250000 |
2.35000a |
2.3950000 |
|
la |
.0500013000 |
2.000000 |
2.0400D00 |
|
|
19 |
rh |
,043750000 - |
I . 750000 |
I , 7850000 |
|
20 |
^0 |
.037500000 |
1.500000 |
1.5300000 |
|
ai |
rfo |
.o34375two |
1.375000 |
1.4035000 |
|
22 |
,03125*3000 |
1,350000 |
1,2750000 |
|
|
23 |
it<r |
.028135000 |
r. 125000 |
I. 1475000 |
|
24 |
vv |
.0250iJOoOO |
t .000000 |
r. 0200000 |
|
25 |
tu |
.021S75000 |
,875000 |
,8925000 |
|
36 |
'In |
.olB75iJnoo |
.75.xxx> |
.7650000 |
|
a; |
iv |
.ui 7187500 |
.687500 |
* 701 2500 |
|
3H |
A |
.015(125000 |
.635000 |
.6575*500 |
|
2M |
vV |
.014062500 |
.562500 |
5737500 |
|
:ifi |
,012500000 |
,500000 |
,5100000 |
|
|
31 |
• Iff |
.010937500 |
.437500 |
.4^3500 |
|
3^ |
tH. |
,010156350 |
,4of(25o 1 |
4143750 |
|
n |
il« |
.009375000 |
^375000 |
.3825000 |
|
:n |
ill* |
.008593750 |
* 343750 |
.3506250 |
|
:i^ |
Vrv |
.007812500 |
.312500 |
.3187500 |
|
Mi |
X |
.007031250 |
,2St250 |
.2868750 |
|
37 |
All ■ ■ID |
.00664'J*>25 |
,365625 |
2709375 |
|
3^* |
tIi |
.00^50000 |
.350000 |
.2550000 |
§ 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 11
standard by the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association and also the Association of American Steel Manufacturers,
11, Since there are different gauges in use by the differ- ent manufacturers, and as the thickness of a sheet stamped with the same gauge number varies according to the kind of gauge used by the manufacturer of that sheet, it is advis- able lo specify the weight per square foot, or the thickness in thousandths of an inch when ordering sheet metal.
/
FiG. 6
Sheet iron is shipped in flat bundles put up as shown in Fig. 6, being firmly clamped together with strap*iron bands. _Each sheet should be stamped with the maker's trade mark ad the gauge number, •
13. HiLssta Iron is a class of sheet iron having its sur- face especially prepared to resist corn>sioa by a covering of flexible, transparent enamel, Gemune Russia iron is made in Russia, but American made Russia iron can now be obtained which is fully equal to the imported product.
13. ^lieet TUi< — The article of commerce known as sheet tin, and also as rooflag tin, is not tin in the true sense; it is simply a thin steel ur wroiight-in>n sheet coated on both sides with block tin. Tlie strength is given by the iron or steel bt:>dy, and the durability by the tin coating, rhich especially prut(*cts the shect:i when ex[iosed to the leather Sheet tin is generally ustd for roofing purposes. City plumbers seldom use it, for tinsmiths do all tin work
12 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS §15
there; but in country towns and villages the plumbers should have a fair knowledge of tin work, as they are called upon to do it. When plates are coated with tin alone, they are known as tin plates ; when coated with a mixture of lead and tin, they are known as terne.
14. The original method of manufacture was to dip the plates into the melted covering material, the sheets being allowed to take on all the coating possible. Many of the best grades of roofing tin are still made by this process. Another process is known as the patent roller process, by which the plates are put into a bath of molten covering material and then passed between iron rolls. The pressure on the rolls leaves on the plates a thickness of coating that is determined by the distance the rolls are apart and the thickness of the sheet steel. The rolls can be adjusted to scjueeze off nearly all the coating, or to leave it on, just as the manufacturer sees fit, and just as the trade will accept or reject the material.
F\r.. 7
l.%. There arc (lifTcrcnt l)ran(ls of r..(.flni>- plates in the -•.'Iv.l M present. Sonic are calkMl <loiil)li-c<>ale<l, some
I 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 13
nHll|i|>e€lt others doiible-clIi>|>etl, etc* ; but these terms are somewhat miskading, forihey seem to imply that the sheets have been dipped twice in tin.
To lest tin plates, take a knife, run it over the surface and peel off the covering^ as shown in Fig. 7* in order to disco vt^r its thickness. It is very important that the thickness of the coating should be tested before the tin is allowed to go on a roof.
16, To avoid trouble, the best manufacturers have an assorting department, where the defective sheets are picked out and separated from the good ones. In the manufacture
20'
/^
.^^^
A
FIG. S
y( roofing plates, imperfect sheets, such as sheets with
Jisters, broken corners, cracks, and other flaws, occur* All
~thc!se sheets are called waslers. These are packed by them*
selves, the boxes containing IC sheets being marked ** ICW/*
and those containing IX sheets, •* IXW/' Wasters are
14 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND T0OL8 | U
always sold at prices considerably lower than the or perfect sheets, of the same brand. Tin and terne plates for roofing and other purposes are shipped in boxes, as shown in Pig. 8.
17. There are two regular sizes of roofing plates, namely, 30 in. x^S in«, and 14 in. X SO in. The larger size is generally used on common work, from the fact that it requires fewer seams on the roof and, consequently, cheapens the cost of laying. A third sise, namdy, 10 inches by 20 inches, is also supplied, and is used generally for gutters and leader pipes.
Two thicknesses of roofing plates are commonly recog- nized; one is the IC, which is No. SO gauge and weighs 9 ounces to the square foot ; the other is the IX, or No. S7 gauge, and weighs 10 ounces to the square foot. Sometimes a still heavier plate is called for, and it is therefore kept in stock by the best manufacturers. This plate is known as IXX, or No. 26 gauge, which is used for specially heavy work.
The standard net weight per box of IC 14 in. X SO in. roofing tin used to be 112 pounds, or 1 pound per sheet, making 112 sheets to the box, but now it is reduced to 108 pounds. The old standard for IX plates was 140 pounds, but very few brands now weigh more than 135 pounds per box. The most reliable manufacturers guar- antee the weights for the different boxes, and if the boxes do not come up to the guaranteed weight, they can be shipped back.
The best sheets on the market today are stamped with the mark of the brand, and with the designation IC or IX of the thickness.
SOIiDER
18. Solder is an alloy of two or more metals which, when melted, will adhere strongly to the cleaned surfaces of other metals that are less fusible. Solders are classified as Aard or so//^ according to their relative fusibility. Any
§ 16 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 16
desired fusing point may be obtained by varying the pro- portions and kind of ingredients. Table V shows the composition and fusing points of the various solders in common use:
TABLE V
SOLDERS
Variety
|
Hard |
Soft |
||||
|
Zinc |
Cop- per |
Silver |
Tin |
Lead |
Bis- muth |
|
I |
2 |
||||
|
2 |
3 |
||||
|
I |
I |
||||
|
2 |
2 I I I |
i 4 3 2 |
I I 2 I 3 |
3 2 3 I 2 |
|
|
4 |
4 |
I |
Pusinfi:
Point
Dc-
grrees
P.
Spelter, hardest
Spelter, hard
Spelter, soft
Spelter, fine
Silver, hard
Silver, medium
Silver, soft
Plumbers', coarse. . . Plumbers', ordinary
Plumbers*, fine
Tinners*
For tin pipe
For tin pipe
700
550
480 441 400 370 330
19. Hard solders are not used by plumbers, except in the exceptional cases where brass, copper, or iron tubes or other work requires to be brazed for strength. Soft solders are known to plumbers as strap solder, which is used for soldering with the
copper bit, and Aviplnia: solder, which is used for making wiped joints. Fig. 9 shows a bar of strap solder of the brand known as /la// and half. Each bar weighs about 1 pound.
Fig. 9
16 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS § 15
Fig. 10 shows a bar, or ingot, of wiping solder. Each bar weighs about 5 pounds. Solder should always be purchased
from the most reliable supply houses, for it is false economy to use low-grade solders.
20. Making: Soft Solder.— To
make good solder, it is necessary to secure pure materials. The lead and tin of commerce vary
FIG. 10 . , , , . . A r
considerably m purity. After deciding on the proportions of lead and tin that are required to make the desired kind of solder, the lead should be melted first, care being taken to avoid overheating the metal. The melted metal should be stirred thoroughly and the dross that floats on the surface removed. The tin should then be added, and as soon as it is melted the metal should be stirred so as to secure the thorough mixture of the lead and tin. While stirring, a small quantity of black rosin should be added. When the metal becomes hot enough to ignite a piece of newspaper, it .should be skimmed and then poured into molds, care !)eing taken that the molds are clean and dry.
The two metals will separate if the melted solder is allowed to stand without stirring, because of the difT^^rence in specific gravity of tlu' lead and tin, their weiglits being in the pro- portion of al)f)iit 11 to T. Therefore, thorough stirring is indispensable.
*il. Soft solder is ([uickly spoiled by overheating. Both niclals oxidize rai)idly at a low, red heat, but the tin oxidizes fa>itr than the lead. A thick, yellow crust will form on the surface of the molten metal, which will exclude the air and thus retard t he oxidization. If this crust is left undisturbed until the metal cools to the })roper working temperature, which is not over c.oo , and is then removed, the solder may he restored to j)roj)er (piality by the addition of a little tin. The molten metal should not !)e stirred while any oxide remain.s upon its surface.
§ 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 17
32. Soft solder becomes impure and useless by the gradual accumulation of oxides, or iron and brass filings, and also by contamination with zinc.
A common method of purifying impure soft solder is as follows: The metal is heated to about 800°, which is a very dull-red heat, just visible in the dark, but not visible in day- light. A quantity of sulphur is thrown upon the metal as soon as it is melted, and the metal is then well stirred, in order to bring all parts of it into contact with the sulphur. The sulphur combines with the zinc and brings it to the surface as dross. The oxides will also come to the surface ; sometimes they will cling to the sides of the pot. The metal is then thoroughly skimmed (the crust being taken off whole, if possible) and allowed to cool to low working heat, about 480**, after which a little tallow is stirred into it. This will remove the last of the sulphur and the metal will appear very clean. It will probably require the addition of a little ' tin to restore the proper quality.
Sometimes a batch of soft solder will work well for about a dozen heats and then become unworkable. This is usually due to impurities in the tin, it being contaminated with antimony or bismuth.
As a proof that the tin will separate from the lead when the solder is in a plastic state, dig a hole in the nearly set solder in the pot, and the tin will filter down and settle in a little pool at the bottom of the hole, leaving a chalky-looking and porous metal above.
23. Testing the Quality of Soft Solder.— Having the melted solder at a temperature of about 000' (which will scorch paper, but will not ignite it), pour, as shown in Fig. 1 1, a little of it upon a stone that is perfectly dry, clean, and level, and form a cake as large as a dollar and about | inch thick. Good solder will show a number of clear spots, from four to six to the inch, upon the top surface of the cake. If the cake turns white and chalky, the solder is prob- ably too coarse; that is, the percentage of lead is too great. If it cools with a bright top surface, with, perhaps,
20 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS § 15
MISCKLLANEOirS MATEMAT^
/i6. Oakum is composed of fibers of hemp, which are made to adhere strongly together by moistening them with pine tar. It can be obtained in bales, either loose or slightly twisted.
27. Asphalt u 111 is a native mineral pitch or bitumen, and is found in several localities in the United States, but the greater part of the supply is obtained from European sources. It is i)lack or dark brown in color, and has a high luster on its fractured surfaces. Its specific gravity is about l.l. It melts and burns, leaving no residue, and dis- solves completely in petroleum or turpentine. For the pur- pose of making waterproof coatings on brickwork, etc., it is mixed willi coal tar and is put on hot. It is used for coat- ing all kinds of ironwork that is exposed to dampness or is buried in soil. Pipes, etc., that are to be thus coated should be heated to the melting point of the asphaltum before they are dipped.
'iS. IMastcr of Paris is used in the plumbing trade
(^liiclly for heddiiii,^ or setting marble work, making joints ;il»<.iii wasli basins, eo( ks, etc. It should be mixed in small (liiaiililies with water to the consistency of thick cream, and shonM Ix- aj»i)lit(l as (juic^kly as possible, for it sets ra|)i<lly; it ^honl(l not be disturbed while setting. Plas- ter ot" Paris i^ v<-i-y poions and, tlierefore, is not suitable for making; joints nnJrr water. If plaster of Paris begins to '.rt while it is Ix'inu; ai)j)h"e(l, throw it away and mix up a li.-.li hateh. I)o not attenii)l to thin it out with more w 1 1 • • I .
*!\K Tortlan*! ccnicnt is used by phnnbers for many
|. Ill ]...., ,, ( hiell)' for jointinj; earthenware ])ipes. It should
M .1 he II .ed in the pnre stat«", but slionhl be mixed with an
,,. ,1 ,|n.iniit\- of clean sharp sand, and then tempered with
I ,n \>.ii.i nito a thiek inoitar. If too much cement is
.1 .1 > lime, it will l)e.L;in to set Ix'fofe it c"an be applied.
I ..iin..l . . Mient ^lionlti not be /<•////»<■; <•</ ///>, that is, thinned
I 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 21
«^ith water when it has begun to harden, for any purpose except for bedding or supporting the firechiy pipes. This cement will set under water; a barrel of it weighs about 400 pounds.
30. Roseiidale cement is similar to Portland cement, but is not so strong and is of an inferior nature. It should be mixed with sand, the same as Portland cement, before being tempered with water. It is not suitable for jointing fireclay pipes or other work under water. A barrel of this cement weighs about 300 pounds.
31. Glaziers' putty is made by mixing about 7 parts of whiting with 3 parts (by weight) of boiled linseed oil. It is used for bedding woodwork around fixtures, and for bedding cast-iron sinks, etc.
355. Ked lead is mainly oxide of lead, and is sold in kegs in the form of a heavy powder. It is prepared for use by mixing it in small quantities with boiled linseed oil just before using. It becomes very hard in setting, and is used to bed fixtures, and to set slate slabs, etc., but must not be used with marble.
33. White lead is a carbonate of lead ground to a fine paste with boiled linseed oil. It is the l)asis of nearly all good house paints, and is used for the same purposes as red lead.
34. Plumbers' soil is made of lampblack, water, and glue. Most plumbers prefer to buy the already prepared soil from plumbers' supply houses; some, however, choose to make it themselves. To make plumbers' soil, take a package of lampblack and mix it in a mortar with water. While you are doing this, have a kettle with about a quart of water and a tablespoonful of good glue heating on the fire. When the glue is melted, pour in the lampblack and stir the mixture while boiling for about 1 hour. Try the mixture by painting a piece of sheet lead with soil and then letting it dry; if it cracks when the lead is b(Mit back and forth, there is too much glue; if it rubs oflf with the hand, it needs
22
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS §15
more glue. When the soil is cold, it should have the consis- tency of gelatine. Always melt the soil with heat before applying it with the brush.
35. ri umbers* paste is a mixture of water and flour that has been cooked until it has the consistency of jelly. During summer a little alum, blue vitriol, or carbolic acid can be added to prevent the mixture becoming sour. If the paste is allowed to freeze, it will lose its adhesive qual- ities. This paste is used for pasting paper around joints. Si»me plumbers even use it instead of soil for painting the pipes.
RIVETS
l\i\. Kl vots for plumbers' use are made chiefly of wrought nv«n aiul eopper. Iron rivets without coating are called bhirk, .iiul wlien coated with tin are known as tinned rivets.
Ihe button head, or eup, rivet a. Fig. 12, is used for iv»imnii lelatively thick sheets, particularly if they arc
Fin. i-j
.nt-h^u^l I'' inlernal j)ressure, or where the riveted seam niu i I'v \\aU'r-iii;hl, as in an ordinary kitchen boiler.
I I,, m.-^i ioinni(»ii f-.rin of rivcl used in the trade is the
. ..nnn...' nui-heiul rivct, /f. This form is used on all classes
• ■ i:.'. .'ivvi iioiiwork. 'I'he counitM-sunk-head rivet r is
1 .,:y\s -n ivHiiini; thick sliccis or phites, or other work,
,, , iS, Mwi hrad is desired in h(^ finislied Hush with the
I ., iM.i/.iei-^' iivrt ,/ IS niadrof copper and is used chiefly
■ , •■ ,.-. .M shm iM>pj)rr w.,rk. 'I'hc Imriw is gener-
: u,:'. ihv iv^ppcr rivrt, the burr bein^ placed on
. ... . u.- the iivrt lu-ad. The ol)jrct of using the
§15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 23
burr is to distribute over a large surface the stresses due to the riveting, and thus avoid cracking the sheet and prevent it from bulging between the rivets.
Small rivets are put up in packages containing 1,000 rivets. Their size is designated by the weight in ounces or pounds per package.
PIPES
I^EAD PIPE
37. Lead pipe is composed of metallic lead that may or
niay not be commercially pure. The purer the lead, the
^ore soft and more pliable it is. The smaller sizes of lead
Pipe, i. e., the sizes used for water supply, were always made
Seamless by being pressed through the dies of a lead-pipe
press. The larger sizes, such as those used for waste or
^rain pipes in buildings, were in the pioneer days of plumb-
^^S made from sheet lead. But the large field for seamless
lea.ci pipes for drainage work induced manufacturers to pre-
P^r-^ special dies, and now they produce seamless lead pipe
^^ ^11 required sizes and weights, as shown in Table VII.
Lead pipes of any size differing from the weights there S^>?^en are made to order.
The smaller sizes of lead pipe are known as lead tubing ; ^ We sizes and weights per foot, the sizes being inside diameter, ^t*e ^ inch, J ounces; \ inch, l\ ounces; 5V inch, 2^^ ounces; 'V inch, 5, 6, 8, or 13 ounces.
38. Lead pipe is shipped in coils, which are protected 'With straw rope if there is much danger of the pipe being injured during shipment; or, it is coiled on a wooden s[)ool, like thread. This is a convenient method that effectually protects the pipe during shipment, and also while the coil is being unrolled.
39. The length of a coil of lead pipe from \ to 1 inch in diameter is about 60 feet, and the length of a bundle of lead pipe from l^to 2 inches in diameter about 30 feet.
24 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS |U TABUB Tn
WSIGHT PKB FOOT OF'UBAD
l.TCATl i*fl*ie
PIPB AND Tnr-UKSD ■bb
|
Inside Diameter. |
AAA Brooklyn. |
AA Bxtra Stronsr. |
A Strong. |
B IfAdium. |
C Light. |
D Sstn UKbt. |
1 tsU. |
|
Inches |
lb. OB. |
lb. OS. |
lb. OB. |
lb. OS. |
lb. OB. |
lb. OS. |
Ibu OS. |
|
1 |
I 12 |
I 8 |
I 4 |
Z O |
» |
* xo |
7 |
|
A |
3 O |
2 O |
I 12 |
I O I 4 |
X 0* |
■W |
9 |
|
I |
3 8 |
2 12 |
2 8 |
3 O |
I 8 |
X 0 |
IS |
|
I |
4 12 |
3 8 |
3 o |
2 4 |
X X9 |
I 4 |
I « |
|
I |
6 o |
4 12 |
4 o |
3 4 |
a 8 |
9 o |
X |
|
I* |
6 12 |
5 12 |
4 12 |
3 xa |
3 o |
a 8 |
a |
|
I* |
8 8 |
7 8 |
6 8 |
5 o |
4 4 |
3 8 |
3 |
|
If |
lO o |
8 8 |
7 o |
6 o |
5 o |
4. ® |
|
|
2 |
II 12 |
9 o |
8 o |
7 o |
6 o |
4 " |
ft
0 0
The larger sizes of lead pipe, commonly called pipes, are much thinner in proportion to their diamet than the smaller ones. This is due to the fact that the si pipes are intended to convey water under pressure, wh waste pipes convey water at atmospheric pressure on The weights and standard sizes of lead waste pipe are giv in the following table:
TABLE Tm
er,
11 lile
en
|
L.KAD \VA Weight Per ' Lineal Foot. |
.STE PIPB |
_^ |
|
|
Inside Diamt-ter. |
Inside Diameter. |
Weight ?«»' Lineal Foot. |
|
|
Inches |
Pounds 2 to 3 3 to 4 4 to 6 4i to 6 |
Inches |
Pounds |
|
2 3 |
4 4j ■ 5 6 |
5 to 8 8 to xo 8 to xa I a and up |
IS PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
25
Fig, la
Owing to the thinness of waste pipes, compared with their iiameters, they can nut be coiled upon reels likt; the water pipes; and as they are easily injured, it is necessary 10 box them and ship them as straight litbes. Their len^^h is usuaHy about 10 feet.
40, In ordar to properly protect lead pipe in coils against injury in the shop or store, and also as a con- venient raethcxl of storage^ it should Ik kept in a rack, which may be con- structed in any suitable manner, A very satisfactory form of a rack is shown in Fig. 13. Straight, thin, lead pipe is best kept in long boxes.
IF TIN prFE
41. Tin pUx" i^ made in a manner similar to lead pipe, but is compf>sed of commercially pure tin. To distinguish it from common tin pipe (iron or steel covered with tin), such as is used for furnace pipes or speaking: tubes, it is commonly called bUick-tln pipe. There are many inferior grades of this pipe, the tin in them being alloyed with cheaper metals, such as lead and zinc, A high grade of tin pif>e should shine like silver, if polished, and even the coil, no matter how old, should be white, but not of a bluish tint* If a piece of genuine tin [>if>t^ in bent, it produces a crackling sound; lead pipe or tin pipe heavily alloyed does not make this noise,
12* Block-tin pipe is used principally for conveying beer, S, and spirituous liquors; also rain water, condensed
26 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS |U
water, or other pure waters, etc., which oxidue lead or otherwise affect it. The standard sixes and wd^ti d block-tin pipe are given in Table IX; other sixes and weights are only made to order. The comparative weights of blod^- tin pipe are designated by A A and AAA, the latter mesn- ing the heavier pipe.
TABIA IX
|
PUKB BLOCK-mr PIPS |
^ |
||||
|
Kind of |
Diameter. |
Weight Per Foot. |
Kind of |
Diameter. |
Weill.* |
|
Pipe |
Incli |
Ounces |
Pipe |
IndMs |
|
|
AAA |
i |
5 |
AA |
i |
|
|
AA |
i |
3i |
AAA |
t |
|
|
i |
8 |
AA |
t |
||
|
AAA |
A |
6i |
AAA |
I |
|
|
AA |
A |
4 |
AA |
I |
|
|
AAA |
i |
7 |
AAA |
'1 |
|
|
AA |
i |
4 |
AA |
il |
i8 |
|
AAA |
i\ |
7 |
AAA |
«i |
36 |
|
AAA |
i |
lO |
AA |
li |
«4 |
|
AA |
i |
6 |
AAA |
a |
40 |
|
i |
8 |
AA |
2 |
36 |
|
|
AAA |
6 A |
II |
COMl»OSITION PIPE
43. Composition pipe is made from a mixture of block
tin, lead, zinc, and presumably other similar materials avail- able that can be used without materially injuring the pipe. It is often used by mistake for block-tin pipe. It can be distinguished from block-tin pipe by the absence of the sharp, crackling sounds when it is bent ; also by its bluish tinge. In color it usually appears about midway between lead and tin. It is shipped in coils like block-tin pipe.
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
%7
TrN'-XpINED PIPE
44. Tln-Hued pipe is simply a lead pipe with a black- lin lining, as shown in Fig, 14. The lining is not separate from the pipe, but fused to it. Tin-lined pipe has the advantages of block-tin pipe, but is miich cheaper* This pipe can be tlistinguished by two ribs #f, a that run the full length* It is more easily soldered and h more popular than bltHrk-tin pipe. The thick- ness of the tin lining largely determines the value of the pipe^the thicker the better, A thickness of about -^ inch of tin lining is commonly used,
TIn-llne<t Iron pipe is plain iron pipe coated inside with bb»ck tin. The best kind is that in which the lining is fused to the iron* The pipe fittings^ such as couplings, tees, elbows, etc., are also lined with block tin. In making up joints in a line of this pipe, the cut ends should be heavily tinned with solder so that no bare iron will be exposed to the fluid in the pipe.
l^rQ. 3*
WTlOFGnT-ntON PIPE
45. Wi*ouirht-lix>« pipe is made either d/ark or galva- nizi'd^ and all American manufacturers conform the dimen- sions of the pipe to a standard given in Table X.
Wrought-irun pipes are made in lengths of about 15 to 20 feet. All pipe that is \\ inches or less in diameter is lnitt-%velded ; that is, the edges are joined as shown in Fig. 1 5, AU sizes above 1 \ inches are lap-welded, the edges being lapped as shown in Fig. 16. All butt- welded pipe is tested at the mills to a pressure of 300 pounds per square inch. Lap- welded pipe is similarly tested to 500 pounds pressure per square inch. Wrought-iron pipes having a
28
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS § 15
greater thickness of metal than those mentioned are made and are known as extra strong: and double extra strtnig. The extra thickness of metal reduces the bore of the pipe ; the
PIO. 16
Pig. 16
outside diameter of each nominal size is never changed. Thus, all grades of iron pipe will connect properly with standard fittings.
TABIiE X
STAl<rnARD DIMENSIONS OF WROUOHT-IRON PIPE
|
Nominal |
Actual |
Actual |
Thickness |
Area of |
|
|
Internal |
Internal |
External |
of |
Internal |
Weight in |
|
Diameter. Inches |
Diameter. Inches |
Diameter. Inches |
Metal. Inches |
Diameter. Square Inches |
Poundti I'er Lineal F<»<»t |
|
i |
.270 |
.405 |
.068 |
.0572 |
.243 |
|
i |
.3^4 |
.540 |
.088 |
. 1041 |
.422 |
|
1 |
.4tM |
.675 |
.091 |
.1916 |
.561 |
|
1 |
.()23 |
.840 |
.109 |
.3048 |
.845 |
|
f |
.H24 |
1 . 050 |
.113 |
.5333 |
1. 126 |
|
I |
1 . 04^ |
1. 315 |
.134 |
.8627 |
1.670 |
|
u |
1.3!^ |
1.660 |
.140 |
1.4960 |
2.258 |
|
il |
1. 610 |
1.900 |
.145 |
2.0380 |
2.694 |
|
3 |
2.067 |
2.375 |
.154 |
3.3550 |
3.667 |
|
ai |
2.468 |
2.875 |
.204 |
• 4.7830 |
5.773 |
|
3 |
3.o(.7 |
3.500 |
.217 |
7.3880 |
7.547 |
|
^. |
3.548 |
4.000 |
.226 |
9.8870 |
9055 |
|
4i |
4 . 026 |
4.500 |
.237 |
12.7300 |
10.728 |
|
4.508 |
5.000 |
.246 |
15.9610 |
12.492 |
|
|
5 |
5.045 |
5.5f>3 |
.259 |
19.9900 |
14 564 |
|
6 |
6.065 |
6.625 |
.280 |
28.8890 |
18.767 |
§ 15 ^ PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 29
46. Owing to improved processes of making steel, nearly all the pipe sold as iron pipe is now made of mild steel. Its composition is such that analysis by experts can scarcely define a difference. The mechanic, however, can easily dis- tinguish a difference when cutting the pipe. It wears the pipe tools more than wrought-iron pipe and rusts out more quickly. Wrought-iron pipe rusts more uniformly than steel pipe. The latter pits seriously; that is, corrodes in spots. Wrought iron is the better material, but steel has the market because it is the cheaper metal. The smaller sizes of wrought-iron and steel pipes are threaded on both ends, and tied up in bundles and shipped without covering, but a coupling is screwed on each pipe. Large pipes are shipped singly, the threaded ends being protected. If the plumber has no power-threading machines in his shop, it is customary to order large pipes cut and threaded to given measurements. The pipes should be stored in pipe racks near the pipe-fitter's bench.
47. IJead-lined iron pipe is simply ordinary iron or steel pipe lined with lead. The lining should not be less than \ inch thick for ordinary pipes, and the lead should be fused to the iron. If it is loose from the iron there is a lia- bility, particularly if hot water flows through the pipe, of the lead collapsing and restricting or entirely choking the bore. The cut ends of the pipe should be protected in a manner similar to that specified for tin-lined iron pipe, and the fittings should also be lead-lined.
BRA.<^ AXD COPPER PIPES
48. Brass and copper pipes, or tublnp:, as they are often called, are made in all diameters and thicknesses. The size by which they are designated is always the outside diameter; the thickness of the metal must always he speci- fied, in order to secure tubing that is suitable for the pur- pose in view.
30 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS § 15
Brass and copper tubes are made by two methods, and are accordingly designated as seamless-drawn and brazed tubing.
Seamless-drawn tubing is made from a solid block of metal and hence is without a joint; it is much superior in strength to brazed tubing. Bi-azed tubing: is similar in structure to butt-welded wrought-iron pipe, except that the joint is secured by brazing.
Iron-pipe size brass and copper tubing is made in sizes that correspond in external diameter with the sizes of wrought- iron pipe, in order that it may be threaded with the ordinary iron-pipe dies, which every plumber has in his shop, and so that it can be screwed into the same kind and sizes of fittings that are used for wrought-iron pipe. It is seamless-drawn. Tubing of this kind should always be specified as iron-pipe size. It is the kind commonly used by plumbers. The market sizes and weights are given in Table XL
49. Brass and copper pipes tinned inside should always be used when they are recpiired to convey water for drink- ing;' or (M)()king' purposes, otherwise the water may become p(MsoiK'<l to a serious extent. Brass pipes should always be annealed or seniianneakMl, otherwise they will split and leak. Nearly all brass tul)es used in exposed plumbing work are nickel -plated, whic^h j^ives them a fine finish. Niekel-{)lale(l or polished and lacquered pipes are always carefully wrapped and shipped in l)()xes. Plain pipes may be shipixMl like iron i)ij>e. Brass pipe, iron*pipe size, semi- annealed and tinnetl insitle and outside, is used extensively on the verv fniest (dass of work.
\V(>()I>J:N IMPKS
50. Wo()(Umi ])iiK»s are usually made from solid square
timber. 'IMie bore is made by an auger, which is forced throu'^h the center of the piece. Another kind is made by windinj^- spirally a llexible wooden strip or ribbon upon a
§ 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 31
TABI.E XI
SEAMLESS-DRAWN BRASS AND COPPER TUBES- IRON-PIPE SIZE
|
Size |
Outside Diameter. |
Thickness. Stubs*s |
Weight Per Lineal Foot |
|
|
(Nominal). |
Brass. |
Copper. |
||
|
Inches |
Inches |
Gauge |
Pounds |
Pounds |
|
H |
15 |
.27 |
.29 |
|
|
a |
15 |
•37 |
•39 |
|
|
a |
13 |
.60 |
.64 |
|
|
H |
12 |
.76 |
.80 |
|
|
»tV |
12 |
1 . 22 |
1.28 |
|
|
I |
»A |
II |
1.63 |
1-74 |
|
li |
'1 |
9 |
2.52 |
2.65 |
|
i^ |
iJ |
9 |
2.94 |
3.12 |
|
2 |
*i |
8 |
4.28 |
4.53 |
|
2j |
'I |
7 |
558 |
592 |
|
3 |
3i |
5 |
8.35 |
8.84 |
|
4 |
4i |
3 |
12.24 12.96 |
mandrel in such a manner that the layers overlap one another, and then securing them together with cement. It is made in all diameters and lengths up to 20 feet. Still another kind is that made of staves, which are hooped together. Wooden pipes are commonly used for con- veying salt water and other liquids that are detrimental to iron.
CAST-IRON PIPES
51. Cast-iron pipes used by plumbers are of two gen- eral kinds, viz., those used for house-drainage purposes, which are known to the trade as cttst-iroii soil pipes, and those used for carrying gas or water, and known,
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS g U
respectively, as oast-iron gas pipes and oast-ixan water pipes.
Soil pipes are made in two grades known as standard and extra lieavy, the former being the Ugliter of the twa In practice it has been found that the standard pipe soon corrodes, and the sockets are so weak that they easily split when the joints are being calked. It hasabio been observed that many flaws exist in standard pipe which prevent its being gas-tight. Health departments, therefore, do not allow its use; and hence extra-heavy pipe is q>ecified in the codes that govern plumbers.
52. Cast-iron plain soil pipes are made as shown in Fig. 17; they are 5 feet long, exclusive of the, socket, and
PIO. 17
may be from 2 to 12 inches inside diameter. They are sold
by the lineal foot.
53. A donble-liub pipe is shown in Fig. 18. It dijffers
from the plain soil pipe in that it has a socket at each end.
Fio. 18
In making connections with cast-iron pipe, it is often neces- sary to cut a pipe to the required lenji^th. If plain pipe is used, the cut-off end without the socket can rarely be used for anything, and hence is wasted; but if double-hub pipe is cut, both pieces can generally be used ; hence it is the most economical pipe for cutting up. Double-hub pipes are sold
8 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 33
by the piece; that is, it is necessary to order the desired number of lengths.
54. The best pipes, generally speaking, are those that are cast vertically, because their thickness is more uniform all around and the iron is easier to cut. Pipes cast horizontally have a rib on opposite sides running full length. This shows where the two halves of the mold come together.
66. Cast-iron pipes may be had either plain, i. e., as they come from the mold, or coated with some particular material, such as asphaltum. In ordering this kind of pipe, it should be stated whether plain or coated is wanted.
BARTnKNWARK PIPES
66. Earthenware, or terra-cotta, pipes, as they are often called, are made of various kinds and qualities of clay. They are made in 2-foot and 3-foot lengths, and are provided with a socket on one end, while the other end is plain. These pipes are baked hard and are made impervious to water by a coating of salt glaze. They are also known as vitrified, or tile, pipes.
67. Vitrified earthenware pipes are commonly used for underground drainage, but never for inside drainage. The sizes usually kept in stock by dealers are 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 inches inside diameter. Perfect pipes are straight, cylin- drical in form, smooth inside, and have no kiln cracks back of the hub, or elsewhere. The inside of the sock- ets and the outer surface of the other end should not be glazed, for these surfaces must be cemented together in making the joints, and cement does not adhere prop- erly to a glazed surface. The pipes in common use, how- ever, are glazed all over because it is cheaper to make them thus, and because there is little demand for the kind above described.
34 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS § 15
PIPE FITTINGS
GAS- AND WATER-PIPE FITTINGS
68. Figs. 19 and 20 show an assortment of malleable- iron pipe fittings. These can be had beaded or plain,
and some of either kind are shown. The beaded fittings are the strongest and best, for the bead, which will be noticed around the outside edges of the threaded openings, is a reenforcement that prevents the fitting from being split when the tapered thread is screwed into it. Their use is
(a)
(h)
(d)
<•)
(f)
Q&Q^
(h) (i)
0)
m
Fig. 19
MM.. in mended. The plain litlini;s have about the same tini Knes^in every [)ari. The names of the diflerent fittings, .dl ih<»sr here shown bein^ for i|-ineh pi])e, arc given below.
M^. V'\\\. 11> ((J) shows a J-ineh plain T, or tee ; that is to M II Ij.r. .1 l in(di straight rufi and a J-in(^h branch. The ,1111 .■! .1 ler is ilie line through the largest oj)posite open- mi ^ III. vithei openings arc called the bmiiclies. In the
§ 1$ PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 86
case oi crosses^ the run is always considered to be the line through the largest opposite openings* In ordering tees and crosses, always give the sizes of the run first, then the branches; this will prevent confusion in filling the orders.
Fig. ly {*) represents a J" x J" beadle*! t<?e ; that is, it has a |-inch run and a |-inch branch. An illustration of a }** X J*' X i" retluclniyr plain tee is showQ in Fig, 19 (c). This is used to connect two l-inch pipes and a |-inch pipe, the run being reduced from j to J inch.
A j'' X f X 1" reducing plain tee is shown in Fig. Ui (*/). Fig. 19 {e) shows a f X |" X J ' bull tee. Fig. 19 (/) illustrates a J" X } ' plain bull tee- In Fig. 19 (g) is shown a f " X i*' drop tee which has two lugs, one tin each side of the run, by which the fitting is screwed to the walK It takes the name of drop from the drop fittings so com- monly used in gaspipe work.
A i" X I'* plain erose-over tee, used where a branch has to cross over the top of another pipe, is shown in Fig 19 (A). Fig. 19 (i ) shows a }" X V plain bull tee, used to screw on the end of a l-inch pipe, which supplies two |-inch branches at right angles. Fig. 19 (/) represents a |" x |" plain cross for a j-inch run and two |-inch branches. If it had a |-inch and a j-iuch branch, it would be known as a |" X f X I" X i*' reducing plain cross.
In Fig. Vd (k), a plain exten^lua piece is illustrated. The upper end is tapped | inch, and the other end is threaded | inch. It is used to extend a piece of pipe just about the length of the thread.
An illustration of a f inch plain cap, used to close the end of a pipe liy stTewing over it, is given in Fig. !9 (/). A J-inch plalu diHjpL, commonly used over a sink at the back of the faucets, the lugs being screwed to the wall to secure the faucets, or fur other work, is shown in Fig. 19 (///). Fig. 19 (n) shows a boiler cou pi loi^^ the male end screws into the boiler, and the female end attaches to the piping. A washer is used between the faces of the union, to make a light joint when the hexagon couph'ng ring shown is screwed up. Fig. 19 (t?) represents a |4nch bcuded quaitier L, called
36
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS g ^5
\
a quarter because it is a right angle, or the fourth part oi ^ circle. In Fig. 19 {p) a l>oa<led street L, of which one et\d is threaded male and the other female, is illustrated.
(K). A J" X I" plain reducinftr L is shown in Fig. 20 C^O- An illustration of a J-inch ei|?hth l>eaded L, called cig^ith because it bends 45°, or one-eighth of a circle, is giw=^en in Fig. 20 (b). Fig. 20 {i) shows an offijict formed by scrt^rr w- ing two J-inch beaded eighth L's together with a close nip "g^le
W (b) I ( (d)
(9)
U)
(k)
(U <^>
Fui. '.HJ
g
a
(o)
hi'iwrcn. A close nipple is a pit^cc of pipe with two threads run so (^l(>s(.'ly to'^i^rlu-r as to toiu^h cat^li other. This allows the tiltin^^s to conu- to^uiluT, shoulder to shoulder, as sliown. A ^^-inrh l)oa(h'<l straight tToss-over for use on a stiaii^ht liiu- ol" pip<r u Iktc it crosses over another pipe is sliown in V\'^. \*n {it ).
In Fig. \>() (<■), ( /"). and (,v ) arc shown parts of a |-inch plain union, which is shown assembled in (//). Fig. 20 (c) shows the ihrendcd half of \\\r union, \s\\\\k\ (^i^') shows the half having a shoulder. The hexagonal eoupllnj^ rliifir shown in (/) is slipped over ihe j)art shown in (^), and screws on the thread of the part shown in (<') when the
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
37
^*<^» Italvcs arc put togetbcn A rubber washer, shown T^fiijath ihe coupling ring, which fits over the shoulder, *^ I*bced between the two halves and is compressed by ^^'ftwmg up the coupling ring; thus making a tight joint.
^ig, to (f) shows a I" X J" plain Fediu-ing socket » used
^*^ retitice f inch pipes to | inch on a straight run. A f-inch
**'Va^iml lock lint is shown in Fig. 30 (J); it is used for
^'"t? wring over a long thread and making tight connections
'^ 3 tank, one locknut being outside the tank, and one lock-
'^^ ifL^ide* with gaskets between them and the sides of the
^^k; and for other work.
-^Ji illustration of a j" X J" biislitngr, which has a hexag-
/^ai slifjulder, is given in Fig; 30 (k). The male thread
f tT>ch and the female thread ^ inch, used to reduce a
Pp^^ opening so as to adapt it to fit a smaller pipe.
I '^'Sr^ 20 (/) illustrates a {-inch pliigr that has a square
^ad * jj jg ^jg^^ f^j^ closing a tapped opening. In Fig. ^0 (m)
®^"*^wn a }-inch shoiilder nipple, which is a piece of
^^^"^^ht pipe having a tapered thread on each end, with a
|,^5^^ space between the threads; it is used for joining two
^"^^gs together at close quarters. A common }«inch
^ . ^^^fc»le, which is only a little ionger than the shoulder
^^ tale, is shown in Fig. ^0 (;/). I ^^^ig- '^*J W shows a J-inch plain couplltii;* which is tapped «^^ ^ruith openings, and is used for joining two |-inch pipes ^^ ^^t are on a straight line,
^1. Cast-Iron fitttnjes threaded for wrought-iron and
"" ^^el pipes are generally used for steam-heating and hot-
^^'^ater heating systems. They are provided with especially
*X^avy beads or bands^ because cast iron is a much weaker
*Vsetal than malleable iron when subject to tension » as is the
^asc with the beatis of fittings.
G2, ITnlons are made in many forms. Their duty is to join together the ends of two pipes where it is not pos* siblc to turn either one, or In places where it may at some bedesired to disconnect the pipes without cut-
38
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
63, There are two kinds of union!^, l\\^ Ranged and the scnwid. The naiigred union, shown in Fig. 21, is used prin- cipally on wroughi- iron pipes having a
diameter of *i inches or more. The pipe ends a, a are screwed into the flanges ^ and t. The leather washer € is placed in position be- tween the flanges, and then compressed by the nuts //, d being screwed up. This draws the flanges to- gether and makes a watertight joint. Care must be taken to have the nuts screwed up
equal all around, so that the pressure upon the washer will
be uniform.
64. The Sfr^wed untans are of two kinds, the grmnd,
shown in Fig. 22, and the packed, which is shown in
Fro. It
jj;^...v.,:iv^
KiZP'
rio. m
Fig. 20 {e), (/), {^), and (//). In the nrrouiid imlons the cone a and the socket b are ground to a perfect fit, and are drawn together by the nut c. The collar d must be
I I
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
turned true with the axis of the cone, and the axis of the screw thread must also coincide perfectly with that of the cone, otherwise it will be difficult to draw the joint together with sufficient accuracy to make a tight joint. The joint is made by the fit of the parts rather than by the pressure put upon them. Therefore, if the joint is not tight, do not attempt to make it so by straining the nut c^ but rectify the fit of the parts.
eoii>prT»E piTTrNGS <»ii. SoIl^pi]>e llttlogfs are made of cast iron, and are
either provided with spigot and socket ends for connecting to cast-iron pipe by means of calked joints, or they are pro- irided with threaded ends for connecting the wrougbt-iron or steel drainage pipes by means of screwed joints. Com- mon fittings that are kept in stock by plumbers' supply ^ houses are shown in Figs, '^3 tt* 26. The names printed under the fittings are their trade names. The abbrevi- |lion D. H. means double hub; R. H. means right hand; 1 P; means iron pipe. 66, In Frg, 23, the quarter bend shown, which is more commonly caUed an elbow, makes a bend of &0° and is the * fitting most commonly used. The elbow with side inlet receives a branch in the curved portion, but makes a con- neciion inferior to that made by a Y branch. The quarter- bend heel outlet should only be used when the branch can be ^m placed vertically on top. The long bend is rarely used. H The une*fifth, one*si%th, one-eighth, and one-sixteenth bends H are occasionally called obtuifsc bemls* Bends are designated H by a common fraction in which the numerator ahvays is 1, H and the denuminator shows the number of bends that, when ^1 placed together, form a complete circle. Thus^ lone-quarter ^ bends, or 6 one-sixth bends, joined together complete the , eirde. The one-eighth bend is the most commonly used obtuse bend. The tee and long tee are useful for vent branches, but should not be used for pipes conveying liquid waste matter. The sanitary T Y is a fitting which is half T
40
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
15
and half Y; it often proves very useful in drainag^e work. It requires less space than a Y fitting, but the latter is su|^* rinr from the sanitary standpt>int. The sanitary T Y with side inlet has a t- or 3- inch socket, to which a bath or basin waste pipe may be connected, while the larger branch takes
'^ i9 iD^
I
i9€ftd,icn:ii^k^
iSatid.mvf Sitfttt
Co^l
i r»v^T£lt
%^i^firm^M
FiQ. »S
the water-closet waste pipe. The onedialf Y branch is rarely used. In the Y branch, the branch makes an angle - of 45"^ with the run. It is one of the best branch connec- f tions. The Y side inlet is used for the same purpose as the sanitary T Y, but is superior to it from the sanitary stand- point.
67. In Fig. 2i, the long Y branch shown is used for the J same purpose as the Y branch illustrated in Fig- 23. The cross is one of the most undesirable fittings and should never be used- The double sanitary T Y, the double one-half Y, and ■ the double Y have two branches located opposite each other, as in the cross, but are far superior fittings, the double Y
§ 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 41
being the best. The inverted Y is used in vent pipes (where the direction of the current is upwards) for receiving a vent branch. The ventilating branch serves the same purpose as the inverted Y, but its lower end is more easily made tight by calking. The return bend is used on top of fre.sh-air inlet pipes, or ventilating pipes, to prevent the admission of foreign matter to the drainage system. The offset is often needed to offset a soil pipe at the top of the cellar wall of
CroM. Oetib/03mna^rr. ootMiti r
f/fyerfe^ y. VrnfUafitf Btwdk fith/rm 30/nA
ly^^
Ar Qt0noitt, or
orfutmMlnkt.
Flo. 34
frame buildings. The offset with inlet is used for the same purpose as the offset; it has a 2-inch socket to receive the waste branch from a sink, etc. The double hub is used for joining two pieces of pipe having no socket; it is never employed in good work. The reducer is often used in underground drainage work for reducing to a smaller size pipe. The increaser is used for increasing, and is often employed on soil pipes where they pass through the roof.
L
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
The tee clean-out, or handhole T, permits the line of pipe to which it is attached to be cleaned out. It should ne%^€r be used inside of a building, since the joint between the cap and fitting is liable to leak sewer gas, as it is intended to he made with putty.
68* The sleeve shown in Fig. t5 is used to join the end of two pieces of pipe that come together without a socket^
J
S
s
9
r s^^^fg fifrng.
***'"^ <^ M^fffmtof
sm^
^s^^
AJMa^iMmh^.
A#t^^^^iWt
tSP^^
ifitff SI>m^
i i rnv^ s*^ /if^.
iSliv^mf^m^Matt^
m happetiH when a drain pipe is cut that a branch may pUccd in it. The thimble and cover is calked into a socM i*f a driiin pipe in give admittance to the4atter for cleaning" out, bill sUoiiltl never he used inside of a building. Th^ thinibli% or bushing, is placed into a socket to reduce itfl Ventilator i^aps are placed on the ends of frcsh~afr
mKC,
Inleti* and ventilating stacks to keep out foreign matter-
I 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 4S
The T saddle is placed over a hole cut into a drain pipe to receive a branch. As the joint is made with putty, it should never be used inside a building. The plug is used for dosing the end of a pipe. The band is used for repairing a broken pipe or dosing up a hole in it. The band with saddle, the Y saddle, and the one-half Y saddle are used for making branch connections, but should never be used inside of buildings, as the joint between them and the pipe to which they are attached does not remain gas-tight. The S trap» the S tr^ip with heel inlet, the three-quarter S trap, and the one-half S trap with side inlet here shown have a cleaning cap. As the joint between the cap and trap, which is made with putty, does not remain gas-tight^ these traps sh*>uld not be used inside buildings. The S trap with top inlet and the one-half S trap without the handhole here shown have no putty joints about thera, and are hence suit- able for use inside buildings.
5^ c^a taa
^mtwm^ Tf^ff^ Qjf Mmf*
^^Mtm ftoaf /roA. fSpt i
rr
*fim§i»* K
Liimf imtv JH f.
^fwmMmm
{*\^. m
Ij9. The running trap shown in Fig. 26 has a clean*out inlet and is suitable only fur outdoor work. The running
44 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS (11
traps with hub vent and double-hub vent are suitaUe for inside work, the trap with double-hub vent beingr the most sanitary. The pipe rest is used to support pipes in a brick wall. The roof iron serves to make a neat joint where the soil pipe passes through the roof. The pipe hook is used fo support soil pipes running along walls. The upright Y» long sweep T Y, T Y with vent, and T tapped for iron pipe in the branch are fittings especially made to conform to the sped- iications of* modern plumbing codes.
70. Malleable-Iron dxalnas^ llttliicii» in a general
way, are similar in form to those made of cast inm, but the ends, instead of having a spigot and socket, are provided with threaded sockets into which the iron pipe is screwed. The ordinary pipe fittings used in steam fitting have a larger internal diameter than the pipes that are attached to them.
Fig. 87
as is shown in Fig. 27; on account of the pocket thus formed, they are suitable only for vent-pipe work, but not for drainage work. The bands a^ a around the sockets strengthen the fitting against the bursting strain that arises from the screw- ing of the pipes h, b into the sockets.
71. Drainage fittings must be free from pockets when connected up; for this reason their internal diameter is made the same as that of the pipes to which they are attached, and in order that there may be very little space between the end of the pipe and the slioulder at the inner end of the socket, it is necessary to so regulate the dies that each
§15 PLUMBING MATERIALS. AND TOOLS 45
thread will be cut just so long that when the pipe is screwed up tight, the end will almost, but not quite, butt against the shoulder of the fitting, as shown in Fig. 28. These fittings can be had in all sizes, and are made either of cast iron or malleable iron.
72. Fig. 29 illustrates how con- nections are made with malleable-iron fittings and wrought-iron pipe. It will be observed that the interior surface of the fittings \s flush with that of the pipe; from this fact the name flush flttlnj^s is derived.
Fig. 88
73, Earthenware pipe flt- tlni^ are made chiefly in the forms of bends, branches, and traps, and are very similar in appearance to the cast-iron drainage fittings. In order to obtain a good earthenware pipe drain, it is necessary to care- fully select the fittings, for many of them are defective.
SPECIAL FITTINGS
, 74. Straddle PMttln^s.
I V^^ Fig. 30 shows stnuldle tlt-
V^ ^^1 tln^ a^ a screwed in place.
^^^ B They are commonly used in
places where two water pipes
FIG. 89 \ . ,
that are quite close together have branches that must cross the main lines. They are simply elongated tees, so constructed that the branch arm of each one will snugly and wi^wxX^^ straddle, or cross over the adjoining pipe, as shown. One of these fittings accomplishes
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS g 15
the same object as five of the ordinary fittingSj thus saving considerable labor and material.
75* Lauiidry-Tub Supply Connection.^To avoid the
hot and cold supply pipes at the back of a set of laundry tubs i forming traps between the faucets, and thus becoming liablej to freeze and burst when the w^ater is shut off and the pipes supposed to be drained empty, the special fitting shown in Fig. 31 has become quite popular The faucets inside the
Fig. si
tubs of course must he in line, which prevents the two ptpSSl from bting run level with and imuR-diately back of the faucets.
§ 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 47
With this special fitting, however, the pipes are located above the line of the faucets and are run straight, so that they may be drained empty when the water is shut off. This fitting is par- ticularly valuable in country homes that are not occupied during the winter, for it prevents frost bursts at the back of the wash tubs.
76. Back-Vent Fitting:. — A spe- cial fitting for back-venting plumbing
>l ^ fixtures is shown in
] ^ Fig. 32. It is really a
^^ part of the vent stack and a back-vent branch combined in one cast- ing. The vent branch is dropped down and a socket is cast on its lower end, for connect- ing to the back-vent pipe of the fixture. The object of this fitting is to avoid a multiplicity of calked joints, and at the same time prevent waste water from back- ing up and flowing into the vent stack, if the waste pipe should become choked. These fittings are especially adapted for use on vent stacks in recesses and other^^placcs where there is but little space; they form a neat, compact, and durable method of connection. Fig. 3:3 shows the back- vent pipes for the traps of several fixtures connected to a vent stack by means o( vent fittings. These fittings are made in different and sizes, and with single- or double-drop branches.
Pig. 83
38
Special shapes
■''^tSr^^^^sra^''**^
48 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS | U COCKS, VAIiYBS, AND 8UKDBIBB
COCKS
77. Pins Cocks. — In Fig. 34, the construction of an ordinary ping <^ock, also called a svoimd-key oock, is
#■&#»
i«l
FIO. M
shown. The plug a. Fig. 34 (a), is turned truly circular, and is also tapered to fit the conical socket i^ which ia bored or reamed in the body of the cock. Formerly the pluff and socket were fitted to each other by grinding with emery, and they thus became known as ground-key cocks. The phig is held in place by means of a screw r and the washer 4/. The washer fits over a squared shoulder on the small end of the plug, so that they turn together, as otherwise the screw would loosen itself every time the plug was turned. The waterway through the plug consists of a rectangular slot e\ the corresponding openings in the side of the socket should also be rectangular and of the same width. The tightness of the cock will depend on the perfection of the fit of the plug and socket at the points /, /, Fig. 34 (b). If these surfaces are narrow, the cock will soon wear and become leaky.
The plug being of larger diameter at the top edge of the slot than at its lower edge, it follows that there is a differ- ence of area between the top and bottom of the slot; con- sequently, the pressure of the water within the pipes tends to drive the plug out of the socket. Thus, if the area of the
§ 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 49
bottom surface of the slot were 1 square inch and that of the top surface of the same were IJ^ inches, the difference in area would be ^ square inch. Suppose the water pressure is 100 pounds per square inch; there is then a pressure of 100 pounds upo^ the bottom of the slot tending to hold the plug in place, and a pressure of 112^^ pounds upon the upper end of the slot, tending to drive the plug out of the socket. Thus, there would be an unbalanced pressure of 12 1 pounds tending to lift the plug, and which must be resisted by the screw c. This is a matter of small account in common sizes, but in large cocks it becomes a matter of importance.
Some manufacturers core out the body of the plug, as shown at g and //, to economize metal. Cocks having these cavities should not be used, if possible, because they greatly obstruct the flow of water. The best kind of plug cock is that in which the waterway through the plug is round. This prevents unnecessary resistance to the flow of the water.
Plug cocks are either constructed with a handle, as shown in Fig. 34, or the top of the plug is shaped to receive a wrench.
78, Stop-and-waste cocks are a kind of plug cocks having a small hole /, Fig. 34 (r), drilled through the side of the plug and another through the side of the socket at j.
The plug of the ordinary ground cock can be given a complete turn, but the plug of the waste cock can only be given a quarter-turn, the rotation being limited by a pin attached to and projecting from the plug, and moving in a groove cut in the top of the socket.
The groove only occupies the space of one-fourth of the circumference, and as the plug cannot travel farther than the pin, the cock must be open when the handle is in one position and closed when in the other.
Care must be taken when placing stop-and-waste cocks upon a system that the draining hole /, Fig. 34 (^), is
^^Z'
so PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS § M
on the proper side. For instance, in jdacing a stop- and-waste cock on a branch from a street main for the purpose of shutting off water from a building, the cock must be so .attached that when shut the opening i will be towards the building, so that the pipes therein may be drained at that point. The end i of the stop-and- waste cock would be connected to the main, and / to the house pipes.
79. Tliree-way cooks are constructed as shown in Fig. 35. The key, or plug, a has a thiree-way channel t
passing through it, which can be made to communicate with the openings r, • df and e for the pipe connections* By turning the key, or plug a, communica- tion can be made between c and 4/, while e is shut off; between d and e while c is shut off; between c and e
while d is shut off; or they may all be open to one another,
as shown in the illustration.
80. Swlnj? eocks, one of which is shown in Fig. 86, are a special type of plug cock. The plug a is stationary and receives the water through the lower end. The socket i is provided with a suitable nozzle or discharge r, and can be turned on the plug.
The waterway is opened or closed by swinging the nossle. The form of swing cock shown is called a basin swlOiT cock. It is attached to the basin top in such a manner that when the nozzle c points toward the center of the basin, the cock will be open, and when tangential to the circumference of the basin the cock will be closed.
§ 16 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 51
81. Fig. 37 (a) shows a common lever-handle ground- key plain sink bibb for lead pipe. This has a plain tail a, which is intended to be soldered to a lead supply pipe. It
Fig. 36
is called a plain bibb because the nose b is plain. Fig. 37 (b) shows a i^round-key lever-handle sink hose bibb for iron pipe. The nose is threaded to fit a common J-inch garden-hose coupling, and the tail is threaded to screw into an iron-pipe fitting. Fig. 37 (r) shows a pUiln lever-liandljp stop-cock for lead pipe. A stop-cock is always closed when the handle points across the pipe. Fig. 37 (ci) shows a plain «:round- key wash tray or tub bibb for lead pipe. It is closed when the handle a points down. Fig. 37 {f) shows a lever-handle stop-and-^i^aste cock threaded for iron and having a waste tube a. When the stop-cocks are buried in the ground and have to be operated by a rod, a socket head is attached to the plug instead of a lever handle. The rod is slipped into the socket and secured there by a setscrew ; or, a crosshead may be cast on the plug, a rod and socket being used to turn the key. Fig. 37 {/) shows a three-way g^round
^^
PLCMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS |V^
I9IMA •» ^mm\ pipe. The barrel is large, which shows ih^^ tkm loUenwy^ iii the plug are round. This is often used c?^ ,
(^
f^
m
FlO. >7
v4 A |Himp that raises water from a well \ K!^ ^M^V ^ i^iii Elected to a, while i'and € connect i *Ukj v»i%Wrn. respectively.
»^ . . ^- < tHiriJomtlon cock and ring cmip-i k^ aded to screw into an ordinary cast-
svi, Tht^ barrel around the key is made] ^Di;% Ml**^' **i^ ^'^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ fi^ tile jaws of a(
§ 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 53
certain make of tapping machine. After the coupling b is soldered to the lead service pipe that supplies water to the
Fig. 38
building, the coupling ring c is screwed on to the cock, a ground joint being used to make the coupling water-tight.
83. Regrliidin^ Lieaky Plug: Cocks. — When a ground plug cock begins to leak, it is usually cheaper to replace it with a new one. If this cannot be done, it is customary to grind it ; that is, to grind down irregularities existing between the external surface of the plug and the internal surface of its socket, so that these surfaces will be in equal contact throughout their area and thus prevent water from passing between them. The grinding process may be done as follows: Take out the plug of the cock and examine it for the part that does not come in contact with the socket. This part will be dark in color and the bearing parts bright and polished. Then sprinkle ^\\^ emery or powdered bath brick on the polished parts and insert the plug in its socket. Next, with the hand, partly turn the plug first to the right and then to the left, pulling it out a little and pushing in again at the points where the niotic)n is reversed. The turn- ing motion will grind down the j)rominent parts of the plug and socket and the pulling-out ancj pushing-in motion, although slight, will cause a uniform film of grinding mate- rial between the surfaces. The plug shcnild be occasionally dip[)ed in water and rcsprinkled with emery.
84. Compression Cocks. -Plug cocks are well adapted for situations where it is not necessary to turn the water on or off frequently, but when used where they must be moved
03—18
54
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS § 15
VtG. 89
very often, they give considerable trouble by leaking. For such service, compression cocks, also called bibbs, are much
superior. A com- mon construction is shown in Fig. 39. The water passes through the orifice a^ which is closed by means of the valve disk 6. This disk is made of some elastic material and is held in a block r, which is attached by a swivel joint to the end of the screwed stem d. If the block c is al- lowed to turn with the screw, the disk d will soon be injured and become leaky. The water is pre- vented from flowing out around the top of the stem (/ by pla- cing lampwick or other suitable pack- ing in (\ which is pressed against the stem by screwing down the nut / on the bonnet ^^
86, Compression cocks are also con- structed in other ways, one of which
is shown in Fig. 40. ^'^- ^
The block a is prolonged upwards and constitutes a nut that receives the screw thread of the stem d. The stem
§ 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 55
is provided with a solid collar t, which bears against the cap rf, the joint being ground, Thus» the spindle does not rise as the valve opens.
The block ti is made either square or round. When round, it has two lugs placed diameLrically opposite each other, which, upon turning the stem, slide up or down in grooves pnn'ided for them in the casting of the cock. This is done to prevent a from turning.
86* A rapid *e!o!siln'ef conipi^^Hlon Cfiek^ known to plumbers as the Fuller ccjiek, is shown in Fig. 41. The
i/'t.
L ,;.-
Pig. U
lower end of the stem ^ is offset and forms a crank ^ of suffi- cient radius to move the valves to and from its seat. A half turn «jf the handle will open t1ie valve to its full extent, and the other half turn will close it* The handle may be turned in either direction*
In this form of cock the water pressure is on the back of the soft conical rubber valve r, and pushes the valve against its seat* The stem is made water-tight by screwing down tlie nut or cap tf^ which forces down the bushing i\ and thereby compresses the packing at /around the stem. The valve is guided to its seat by prongs cast on the stem jf, to which the valve <: is fastened, These cocks are used chiefly on low-pressure work where the water is free from gritj etc
m PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS § 15
87< Fii^, 4"^ O?) shows a common iM>itipi*ewsion i>ltilti Wbb ^vi(h eiist flanicts thrtnMlecl for iitm lUpe, This is used chiefly where the supply pipe comes through the wall, or through a si ah at the back of a ^ink. In Fig. 4"^ 0) is shown a eoinpiX'!§wloii host* lilblj ^vitli ^ttifflngflKix, hav- ing a cast flange, bent coupling, and locknut attachment. This IS used where the supply p^pe comes up back of a slate or marble slab. The locknut a at the back of the slali d when screwed up tightly makes the cock rigid. The tail of
(9}
(h}
m
Fid. m
the coupling is intended to be soldered to lead pipe. Pig* 42 (r) shows a plain sink Fuller hlbU with east flfumfe, threaded for iron pipe. It is intended to be scrtfwed into the socket M a fitting that is located flush with the wall, or back slab of a sink. Fig, 42 {*/) shows a solid flange Fnller tub t'ock threaded for iron pipe. This cock Is closed when the handle points down*
58
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS § 16
coupling (1 for lead pij^e. This is the kind most commonly used on ordinary wash basins. The valve seat is located at /'. Fig:. •*•'> shows a Fuller basin cock intended to be set on the marble slab o( a wash basin. The valve seat is located at tj. The valve should be closed when the handle is down. It sht>uld be attached to the slab in the same man- ner as the ciK^k shown in Fig. 44.
1H>. Fij^. 4»» shows a conipression pantry sink cock.
This is tlie kind in common use on ordinary butler's pantry
Fig. 47
'.V A -l->i)«' valve nil«-d with a long s>van-
;:m y>v, :«»pand a tlani^r and locknut attach-
•^i .■.'. k^ ran !■(• had uiili ijround keys.
roniprr>sH)n conibiiiat ion liath cock.
V- .-M att<". at ,f and /'. ii«»lh valves dis-
. . •. 'yh'\< .'"k i- nr-'vitled with lock-
■•;■'. 'n.«'i .m-l i«.ld ronnrri ions to secure
§ 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 5fl
91, Helf-elo«IiiK eonipresteiou eoekB diflfer from the common kind in having a stout coiled spring under the cap^ or some other contrivance, to close the valve, instead of the
usual screw and handle.. The handle is always a lever of some kind, which is so arranged that the valve may be opened by it^ but as soon as it is released the spring, or other contrivance, automatically closes the valve. The chief objection to the self-closing or spring cocks is that they close tt>o suddenly, and cause a shock upon the pipe system. The nature of the shock is similar to that received by a hydraulic ram when the large valve is sud- denly closed. The best self- closing cockSj therefore, are those that close slowly. Self- closing cocks are only used where water is scarce, so that none may be wasted by careless persons leaving the cocks open.
fbi
93. Fig. 48 (a) shows a slngfle-lever plain b |» r i n ^f sink bibb for lead pipe. The! cock opens by pressing dowttl on the lever handle a^ and closes^ by the force of a spring when the pressure is removed J Fig. 4H {b) shows a plaln^ mbblt-ear spHii^ s^ink bLbb for lead pipe. By sijueezing the eai^, or lev^ers, a, a together the valve is opened against a strong spring, but it instantly closes when the ears are released. In Fig. 48 {c)
60
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS § 15
a crosHlieiul spring plain sink bibb for lead pipe is shown. By turninj^ the crosshead a, the valve is raised against the force of a strong spring, which automatically closes the valve when the crosshead is released.
i)li* A common form of ball eock, which is chiefly used for supplying water to tanks, is shown in Fig. 49. The body (I is bored to receive the cylindrical stem 6, to which the valve c is attached. The water enters through the pipe f/ and escapes through t\ A cup leather /" is secured
Ix'i \v<Tii /' .iinl (, uiiich i.i«'\i-iit< uat(.'r from passing the i^iiiilr sicni /'. The hall ,:; is ii'-il-'U' and its buoyancy in uatri- i> niili/.rd i<) clt.^r ilic valve li is attached to the \i\rv //, llu- sh,,ii. cikI i'l" wliirli cniia-o ihr stem /; of the \al\r. As ihr wairi" iis<s in iIm- lank t«) which this valve is .m; .1. h«il. \hr hall ll'.al^ ni.wai<1< and lii-adually pushes the \ .i\. ii« lis xc.ii ;nnl >tn|)s the inll'>u <>: walor.
W h.n till' \val<T in tlu- lank i^ (iixlKn-Mt.,], i^ drops and •'•,■. I'N .'iH-n-^ 1 hr \al\r .-, whiih pn inii «^ waicr to flow into ■ ■• •. ink
' ■. '•.;;. -w hall :;, allli'di-li ia]-r!;:'iy ma<k\ will some- ■ •n-.:\ nil with wai<-i-. This (.i^,. >, liic hall to sink ■ w . in, w.jti'i t«) run and cvni'i'.w llu- lank.
§ 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
GI
VALVES
94. Globe Valves and Gate Valves. — The ordinary j;^lobe valve shown in Fig. 50 and the au^le valve shown in Fig. 51 belong to the compression class. The waterway through a globe valve is so contorted that the flow of water is obstructed to a serious degree.
Globe valves should be attached to the pipe system in such a manner that the valve will close against the pressure,
Fig. bo
Fig. 51
as otherwise when the valve is on its seat the water will work up along the valve stem and leak. I'hc same applies to the angle valve. The ordinary j^lobe valve is used on straight pipe, while the angle valve is used at the junction of two pipes at right angles.
95. The j^te valve shown in Fig. 5*2 serves the same purpose as the globe valve, i)Ut furnishes a freer passage- way for the water. By turning the stem ii, tiie wedge- shaped disks b and c are moved across the seats d, ^ and the orifice is opened or closed gradually. The disk c has cast on its lower side a projection i\ which rests on a corresponding
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
c
^^
3
v;
projection / cast to the valve body. These projections
prevent the disk r from moving down too far. " The disks are wedged apart and pressed tightly against their seats by turning the stem a in the proper direction- Gate valves are made quick acting by substituting a lever and sliding stem for the screw stem shown.
90, Clieek-yalves< — A form"
of valve that permits the flow of a fluid in one direction only and pnsi lively prevents a reversal of the flow is called a cheok-valve* There are two kinds of check- valves in common use — -the ^/adi" chtrk and the swin^ check.
97, The globe check is shown in Fig. 53. The valve « is a solid disk of metal having a beveled edge to suit the seat b^ and is guided by the wings r, d^ as shown* The fluid passes in the A cap c gives access to the valve.
98i An improved form of check, known as a fiu-lng check, is shown in Fig. 54, The valve disk a is attached to an arm that swings on a pin, _ as shown. The passage of fluid through this valve is more direct thun in the globe check, and the pres- sure required to open the valve is much less. The fluid passes through the valve as
FIG. sa
direction of the arrows.
ie\n. aa
§ 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
63
shown by the arrows, that is, from b toward c. In case of a rapid flow of water, the projection d on the end of the arm to which the valve is attached strikes against the bottom of the screw ^, and is thus pre- vented from going too far.
99. A check- valve espe- cially adapted for drainage purposes, and called a back- i;vater valve, is shown in Fig. 55. It is used to prevent water in the street sewers from backing up into the house drains, as is liable to occur during a heavy rainfall if the sewers are too small or have too little fall. This valve should never be used on a system of house drainage unless it is absolutely impossible to avoid it, as it is liable to cause a chokage in the house drains by
Fig. 54
Fio. 55
allowing the liquids to pass, and retaining the solids. This is likely to happen if the house drains have little fall toward the valve.
Referring to the figure, it will be seen that the valve a swings on a pin b\ the inlet is indicated by the arrow.
The valve and its seat c should l)c made of brass, so as not to corrode. For facilitating tiie cleaning out of the valve, a handhole and cover ^/ are provided in the body €\ the cover
1
64 PLUUBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS S U
is held in place by bolts /on each side of it. To prevent leakage, packing should be placed under the cover.
100. Another form of a back-water valve is shown in
Fig. 56. This is used chiefly to drain water from the basement floors, etc., where there is danger of water backing up from the sewers. The valve is composed of a hollow copper float a, en- circled by a soft-rubber ring b. A rest, or stop, r, for the float is attached to ^'''- " the brass valVe Seat d by
four arms. These arms also act as guides to lead the valve to its seat when the sewage water rises in the drain pipe e and buoys up the valve. When the waterfalls inr, the float will fall from its seat and descend with the receding water until it reaches its stop, as shown, when it will be i^in open for surface water. A bell-shaped casting / suspended from the perforated cover g dips into water and forms a seal to pre- vent drain air from entering the building. This form of check-valve is commonly called a baek-"water trap.
lOl • Safety Val ves. — A certain kind of valve is designed to open when the pressure within the vessel to which it is attached becomes p:reater than that for which the valve is set; it then permits the fluid to escape until the excess of pressure is relieved, when it closes. Such a valve is known as a siifoty valve.
103. One form of safety valve in common use for plumbing work is the lever safely valve, shown in Pig. 67. The valve a is held down on its seat ajj^ainst the upward pressure acting on the bottom of it by a lever b and weights. Instead of holding down the valve in this manner, it is held down sometimes by meaivs of a weight placed directly on the valve stem «/, and is then known as a dead-wei|rlit safety
§15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
65
valve, or by means of a strong spring acting on the valve stem, and is then known as a spring, or pop, safety valve.
Fig. 57
103. Vaemini valves are similar to safety valves, except that they operate in the reverse way, the internal pressure acting upon the top of the valve and the external, or atmospheric, pressure acting on the under side. Thus, if a vacuum is being formed within a boiler, so that there is danger of its collapsing from the external pressure of the atmosphere, the valve will open and will allow enough air to enter to destroy the vacuum. Safety valves and vacuum valves for plumbers* use are commonly combined in one structure. Such an arrangement is sMown by Fig. 57, in which c is the vacuum valve.
104. The action of the lever safety valve and the vacuum valve is as follows: Suf)i)ose the nozzle /"to bt^ attached to a vessel under pressure, so that coinmnnieation is made between the vessel ancf the chamber^'". Then the fluid contained in
66 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS §15
g, being under pressure, tends to raise the valve a off its seat and force the valve e downwards to its seat. When the pressure of the fluid per square inch in ^ multiplied by the area of the bottom of the valve a is greater than the weight of the valve a and stem d plus the force due to the weight c and lever b acting on the valve seat, the valve a will rise and the fluid will pass out of // into the atmosphere. After the pressure of the fluid in g and in the vessel has fallen a- pound or so below that required to raise the valve a off it^ seat, the valve will again close.
Should the pressure in the vessel to which the safety" valve is attached become less than that of the atmosphere, a partial vacuum would exist in the chamber g^ and the atmosi)heric pressure would force upwards the valve e and thereby open it to admit air, which will destroy the vacuum and prevent the vessel from collapsing.
The pressure at which a lever safety valve will blow off depends on the weight of c and on the distance it is placed on the lever h from the fulcrum /. The nearer it is placed to the fulcrum, the less will be the blow-off pressure; and the farther it is placed from the fulcrum, the higher will the pressure rise before the valve will blow off.
The lever <A lever safety valves should be periodically raisecl by the hand, as the valve is liable to stick to its seat.
1 ();■>. riTssiiiH'-Ili'diifln*^: A'alves. — In order to decrease
th<" pi'essure t)f a lluid, a deviee known as a pressure- red ii<-in^ valve is employed. Such valves are made for i((hirin;j. ihf i)ressure iA leases or iitpiids; the form used for irdiicini; the [)ressure of liquids will be considered here. ri;.\ are chielly used in cities where ihe street water pres- -.ni.' is too j^reat lor the plumbing systems in the buildings I., .iirjv witiistand. Their duty is to rcnluce the pressure ^^lt)lln I he buildiuu' to a safe and suitable point.
I'm ..iim reducing valves are i>enerally attached to th'e ,.,|.. ih.ii • iii'l»ly the buildings from the street mains whose ,... n , . .11,- lo he reduced, and are usually located in the . . II M ,.| ihe buildings.
by a plunger d. When the pressure on top of d is dimin- ished, the water lifts c and escapes over into the pipe e. The water in t also fills the chamber/, which is dosed by the flexible diaphragm g. The plunger // rests upon the top of the diaphragm g^ and its motion is transmitted by means of the lever / lo the plunger d.
Owing to the large area of g and the smaller area of r, a lower pressure per square inch is required in V* than in a to cause an equal upward force upon the plungers d and /i. If the fulcrum /is equidistant between the plungers d and k^ and if the tension of the rubber diaphragms and the ttpward pressure upon the annular ring of the diaphragm c around the orifice of b be omitted, the areas of the orifice of b and of the diaphragm g will be inversely proportional to the pressures per square inch in e and a^ respectively; that is, the area of b when multiplied by the pressure per square inch in m should equal the area of g when multiplied by the pressure per square inch in £. The pressure in e can be adjusted, however, by shifting the fulcrum y of the lever i along up<jn the tube r, it being provided with a suitable clamp for that purpose. Thus, if 7" be set nearer d^ a lower pressure m t\ antl therefore under ^^, will balance the pres- sure under r, and vice versa.
: : ^•T'
68 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
Whenever the pressure falls in <*, the water from a will liftc and pass until the presBore in r is re- stored. Should the pressure in a be re- moved by shutting oflF the service water or otherwise, the diaphragm c will be closed by^, its area being much greater than that of f , and no water can escape back through the apparatus. It thus acts as a check-valve.
«90UP"
^"^ "^ 107. Pig. 59 shows a teller
llnir and spud screwed together by a coupling ring a. The end 6 of the spud is threaded iron-pipe size for screwing into the tapping of an ordinary iron kitchen boiler. The coupling may have a washer, or may be ground. The latter is preferable.
108. Ki^. r»() {(i) shows a chain stay Commonly used on wash- basin slabs. The basin i)lug is atlaclu-d to a eliain, which in turn is liookcd to tlie ring of the chain stay. A nut <r on the luider sick- ot" the basin slab holds the iliain stay lij^ht. Fig. (JO {/?) shows a (•<H*k-li<>lo cover com- monly used to close a cock hole in a marblt! wash-basin slab. It is held tight by the nut under- neath.
KM). iMg. r,l (fj) shows a slnii^lit bni.Ks lc»iTiile. The
part d is finished smooth to a Hi<;. flO
distance of about 1 inch,* while the remainder is left rough.
15 PLUM RING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
m
Phis is ust'il tM cniinect a k-ad pijie to a cast-iron pipe, the ead pijK; being 'siitdcred to the crul a^ while thti other end is calked into the pipe socket. Fig. CI (6) is a t>ent brass fennile recessed on ti*p at a to receive lead pipe, and beaded at the Imttoin fur ealking into a cast-iron pipe socket. The surface at a i^ finished for soldering purposes. Fig. Gl («*)
W
w
m
(dj
Fig, fit
(ifiws a rpduHiiK bnu^ fVrrtile, commonly used to connect
[* nr l|-int'h lead was^tc pipe to a ti-inrhsocket. Fig. 61 (d) bows a bi'ass* siet^ew-eiui riTrule for calking into the L*kel of a cast-iron pipe, or trap. It is used for a handhute Or rieaning-ont pnrposcs. The top can be unscrewed by pplying a wrench to the hexagonal projection. The cap
of the male nipple is threaded to screw into an iron-pipe lilting, and the other end of the female nipple to screw over an iron j>ipe. Fig. Gi (t*) shows a common |ilu^ and Boc'ket, The plug it is shovirn set in the socket ^. Brass plugs are ground lo fit the sockets; rubber plugs, however, are cominonly used. The plug and socket shown are gen- eraliy used in bathj^ lined with sheet metal, A strainer is cast on the bottom. Fig. fl'^ {4/) shows a -was^te iiUi|? and socket coupling^ with locknut a, straight coupling A, and rubber plug c. The flange //sets in a countt-rsuuk part of the bath or sink to make a flush botium. A strainer, generally cross-bars, is Jocated inside the opening about { or ( inch below the plug.
§ 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 71
TOOLS 111, The hand saw shown in Fig. 03 is used for cutting lead pipe, wood, etc.
It should have a blade about 16 inches
Pig. 68
long, with coarse teeth upon one edge and fine teeth on the other.
1 12. A back aaw is a special saw with fine teeth. It is used for cutting brass and iron, but is not much used by plumbers.
113. RaspB are used for beveling sheet lead and pipe when preparing them for soldered joints. A convenient size is the 12-inch. Coarse rasps are used on heavy lead; fine rasps are used on thin or light lead.
114. Files are used for shapinj^ l)rass and iron, and fnr clearing the oxide from the solder bits. A convenient size is a 1 2-inch bastard-cut file. To prevent the teeth of a filje from filling with lead chips, first rub chalk on the file.
116, Dividers, < )r com passes,
are used for describing arcs and circles and dividing.
1 16, The tap lH>rer shown in Fig. 64 has a short conical hit a, sharp on both edges, l)y which holes may be made and opined out in lead pipes or sheets. The bit should be quite short,
Fl«.. i\\
}
72 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS g 16
so that the point will not strike the back <rf a pipe when making a hole in the front side of it.
117. The bendlnif pin shown in Pig. 6ff is made of
FlO. tt
Steel, and is used for curving small pipe, and for working up the edges of holes that have been bored with the tap borer, etc.
118. The tarn pln^ or tun pin,
shown in Fig. 66, is a cone . made of boxwood, and is used for expanding the ends of lead pipe. A convenient sise has a diameter of %{ inches at the large
end.
119. The shave book, shown in Fig. G7, consists of a steel blade a bev- eled to^an ed^e all around and secured
Shave hooks are made in many
to a convenient handle, shapes; that shown in the illnstration is good for j^eneral work.
r^O. SohleriiijT bits
are made in two forms, the
IH>iiit(Ml l)It, shown in
I'^ig. (is, and the hatcliot
bit. They consist of a
block (I of copper, which is
secured to a coiivenient
handle. The shape and weij^ht of the bit are varied to suit
difterent kinds of work. A convenit^nt size is that which
weighs about -i pounds per pair; heavier bits are requir^.
FIG. 67
§ 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
73
however, for heavy work. In the hatchet bit the copper is given the general form of a hatchet blade.
Fig. 68
1 21m The dresser, shown in Fig. 69, is made of boxwood. It is used for working sheet lead and lead pipe. Iron being
harder than lead, tools made of this metal mark and bruise lead ; consequently, wooden tools are used instead of iron ones for hammering or beating lead into various shapes.
Fig. 70
122. The tank iron shown in Fig. 70 is of assistance in maintaining the heat recjuircd in making large wi[)ed joints, and in wiping the seams in lead-lined tanks, etc. It is made
74 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS § 15
of wrought iron. The tank iron was extensively used before gasoline torches were placed on the market. Up-to-date American plumbers do not use tank irons if a torch is available.
123, The hulle is shown in Fig. 7L . It should have
Fig. 71
three lips, so that its contents can be poured to the right, left, or ahead, and thus work readily in all situations.
I*i4. Tin- sohlor i>ot is made of iron, and for ordinary
j()l)s it should hold 15 pounds of melted solder.
1*^5. Willing floths are made of moleskin cloth or bed
ticking, of all .sizes and thi<^knesses. They may be made by the workiiicii, (»rmay hv purchased from dealers in plumbers* supplies. The sizes (( »inni« Mily used for underhand joints
arc L^ivcii in the f<»ll(»\vi!i;^- lablc:
lAiu.i: XII
-il/J.N OF WIlMNi; (LOTUS
^i/f "I Pij)c Si/.c of Ch)th. I Thickness of Cloth.
IiKiu-s Inches ' Layers
|
\ to ; |
Si |
X |
4 |
1 |
6 |
|
|
I |
4 |
/' |
4.1 |
8 |
||
|
I 1 IM l\ |
4l |
< |
4i |
8 |
||
|
2 |
4-1 |
'V |
5 |
8 |
||
|
s |
5 |
u |
1 1 |
8 |
||
|
4 |
h |
y |
7 |
! '"^ |
or lo |
|
|
- - |
. __ |
§ 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 75
By practice, the plumber soon decides upon the size of cloth best adapted to his own methods of solder manipula- tion. Many plumbers use smaller cloths than those given in the table. The sizes there given are suitable for begin- ners, who can reduce the size as they become more expert in handling the solder.
126. Fire-pots are made of various forms, to suit dif- ferent fuels. Large iron chaffers are especially designed for burning soft coal. Fire-pots for charcoal fuel are commonly made of sheet iron, but they do not last long. A cast-iron fire-pot with a flaring top is the best for burning charcoal.
187. Gasoline fire-pots especially constructed for plumb- er's use are made in various ways. In general, they are composed of a gasoline storage chamber surmounted by a burner and a support for a solder pot and copper bits. Air is pumped into the gasoline chamber, which forces the gas- oline up to the burner, where it flows through a heating coil and is vaporized before it is ejected from the burner. Instructions are furnished with each gasoline fire-pot. Since gasoline is a highly volatile liquid, it is advisable to light gasoline fire-pots outdoors, so that there will be no danger of the building taking fire in case of an accident to the fire-pot.
128. There are several kinds of pluinl>ers^ torches. The most common are the gasoline hand torch, which operates on the same principle as the gasoline fire-pot, and the alcohol torch, which is simply a flask containing alcohol and a cotton wick. This is used with a mouth blowpipe. Some of the improved forms have an adjustable mouth blowpipe attached to the torch.
129. A yarning tool is shown in Fig. ^72. It is made of steel. The face a
is about \ inch thick and about \ or \ inch wide. It is used for driving yarn or oakum into iron-pipe sockets. fig. 72
70
PLUxMBIXCi MATERIALS AND TOOLS § 15
Fk;. 73
\l\0. A (*ulkln^ tool is shown in Fig. TIJ. It is made of steel. The face is about | inch thick and about I or J inch wide. It is used for staving or calking lead into cast-iron pil>e sockets. Yarning and calking tools are made in different forms to reach around the back of pipes in confined places. Those shown are uscnl'for open, that is, readily accessible, work.
1,^1. A cold chisel is shown in Fig. 7^ (a). It is used chiefly for cutting cast-iron pipes, brick, stone, etc. A eai>e chisel is shown in {/f). It is similar to the eold ehisel, only narrowiM* at the cut- ting edge, being <5 about { ineli wide. It is used for cutting Y iron, brii k, or stone ' and foi" j)ickinL; lead ■ onl of .MJkcd
(rj
m c;i^l-ii..ii I»ij)('. etc. A hjilf-roiiiHl nos<', <>!• ('<>al-tVM>t <-his('I i^ similar lo the cape chisel, the
chief tlirf'-iciicc ix'iii;^ liial ihr fa<"c <»f the chisel is ground to th<' f'»ini of a colTs h"<'f. Il i^ r.^cl chietly for gouging a L;r(...\.- m li. av\' ii-'>n picvi- 'U- \>> rntling il with the (*old chisel .\ dbimoiKl-TioM' ehist'I is rhe same as the foal- foot c'ni^'l, '-xt «|)i tha: I he iio^c i> LM'oniul to the form of a (liainoiKJ. li ;^ ;iM .1 \.,y ; in- sain<- |)in"p< »srs as the foal-foot chis.-l.
lo*i. A Moor <-hi^<'I ;-><:;..\\;. a ^l«-c! .' il'l ( iii^.-'i w •: ■; a \ ci \- w ;«i' <ii"i \ i!il; into i1< .' ,!• j. .;'ii ->. .lit 1 ;i--' • l)o.ir<i^ without iiijuiin'^ the w ■ m phiiiil M-r-' ii-<- iiia\ l>r j)i . .\ i(h-(l w
rna\- in-
ma«i<- < )Ut <»f bai- sUtI.
l-^'.:. ] 1 (r). It is simply
•.;:■ ta.c. It is used for
t'li^.a-, and raising the
A v><>«>(i c*lils(^l for
a w o. ..i.n handle, or it Lit irr i> i)icferable. A
15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
77
wouy^t? is similar t<* a common wood chisit'l^ but curved at the cutting end. It i^i used chietly for <'tit Ung roads [for pipes.
ItiH* Plnral>ei*R* hammei's should have straight peens, for conveJiiej)ce in driviag in wall hooks, etc. A ht^avy hammer, weighing about 2^ pounds, should be used for cut- ting iron pipes, holtis in stone walls, etc. A light liammer, weighing about 1 pound, should be used for ordinafy work* The handles should be about 10 or 12 inches long, over all,
■ 134, Fig, 75 shows an atiibestos Joint nmner attached
^■'to a pipe and ready to receive molten lead. It is held in I^Bposrtion by a special ^Pdamp, which is con- nected permanently to the runner by a chain. The asbestos runner a^ ^krbtch Is square in sec- ^"tion, is placed around the pi[>c and drawn up light against the hub fi and pipe tr by the clamp ti, which is ^klosed in on the runner ^by a spiral spring. The lead is poured pnto the hub at the gate i% as shown j to prevent the lead owing between the ends of the j<iint runner, a little putty i& sometimes placed into the space. The lead ring then ast is thus without a projection.
135. A Kpirlt level is a wooden or iron bar having a
small j^l ass lube secured near the middle. The tube is nearly Ifilled with alcohol or some other fluid and sealed at both
ends, an air bubble being allowed to remain in the tube. It Jis so arranjjed that when the bar is level the air bubble will
locate itself in the middle of the glass. This is used chiefly
lor grading Irenchcs, dniins, etc.
Fig. 75
7S
PLUMBFNG MATERIALS AND TOOLS §15
130. A rosin dleh quite popular among plumbers has ,three compartiueiits, as shown in Fig. 7t>^ the one is for
»
■ft /^^^"^^ §^
FlO. 7«
rosin, another for flour paste, and the middle one for tallow, The end compartments are closed with caps a, a^ and the center one is closed by a revolving cylinder i.
137- The sic iH^wt! rive 1* may be of the ordinary kintL A 0-inch one and a Ti-inch i^r 15- inch one are very useful. They must be strong and the steel must be of good quality.
138. Brace and Tilt« are required in a plumbers* kit to
bore holes in woodwork for pipes to pass through. A ratchet brace and an extension bit are most suitable — the ratchet » because it enables holes to be cut in close corners^ and the extension bit, because it can be adjusted to cut the hfdeaiiy convenient size.
139. A coTiipa^^ saw is necessary in cutting roads for pipes. It has a handle like a common saw, but has a very narrow blade that can make a cut in any direction* It is used for cutting holes in floors, etc., that are too large for an extension bit,
140* A pipe bender is shown in Fig, 77. It is simply a slightly tapering spiral-steel spring provided with a hook
Flij>
at one end and rounded off at the nthen It is used for bei ipg thin lead pipes having a diameter less than % inches.
I
I
§ 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
79
141. Plumbers often have occasion to thaw out frozen pipes underground, and in other inaccessible places, by means of steam injected 6
into the frozen pipe by a small lead tube. Fig. 78 shows a portable steam generator for this pur- pose, which may be set on top of an ordinary plumbers' fire-pot, the steam being generated by the heat of the fire. This device is called a tha>vlngr steamer. It is simply a plain cylin- der a provided with an ordinary equipment of boiler connections for filling and safety pur- poses. Water is supplied to the boiler through a combination funnel and safety valve d, A gauge glass c shows the water-line in the boiler. The safety valve is used to allow steam to escape to the atmos- phere if an excess of pressure is raised in the boiler. A |-inch lead pipe d is attached to the steam space of the boiler to convey steam to the frozen pipe. When steam is up, the open end of this lead pipe is pushed inside the frozen pipe until it strikes the ice, and steam is allowed to blow against the ice, thus melting it. When the pipe is entirely thawed out and the water begins to flow, the lead pipe is withdrawn and the stop-cock, through which it has been inserted, is closed ; the water connections are then made up again. In thawing frozen pipes by this method, care must be taken to withdraw the steam tube when the steam ceases to flow, otherwise the lead tube may become frozen inside the water pipe and serious trouble will arise if the water pipe is not large enough to allow another steam tube to enter and thaw out the first one.
Fig. 78
80
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS § 15
143. Plici's are so well known as to require no illus- tration. They are used for quickly holding things that can- not be ht'kl by hand. An 8-inch or 10-inch size is popular.
14^^. A nionkoy^vreiich of any strong make is suitable for i)liinibcrs' use. A lo-inch wrench is a handy size.
144. A basin wrench is shown in Fig. 79. It is used for screwinji^ up locknuts on the under side of a basin slab
Fir.. 79
when I he slab is in place. Jl is a convenient tool for repair work. The jaws <?, a arc set ai^ainst the locknut.. The 1( •<)><•• p:iit A is then j)iishc(l np tii^lit and secured by a thunil)- S( icw (' Ixini^ screwed ai^ainsi i Ik- shank. This prevents^, </ from ^picadinL;-.
1 !.">. A pipo \\ rciM'h is sh<»wn in V\^. -^0. It is used
foi^ i;ripi>iiiL; ii-"ii pipes ^^v ()th<'r rountl bodies, such as bolts,
h -"^
rt(\. and l""i-nis ,i i, \( r |)y u hirh tl'.c woi-knian can turn the pipe "T I'.'i; iiii.. liiiiii^s. .-t,-. The- jaws ^^ and /-> of these wrciM iic^ !ia\-r i<<tli. as sh«»wn. wiiirh arc caused to grip a r'>nn<] h.xly plac.-d Ixiutcn ihcm, by Inrninii' the nut c. The wrench is turned in the direcii.^n ^hown bv the arrow,
§ 15 PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS 81
and the more the force required to turn it, the tighter will the jaws grip the body placed between them. This form of wrench, called a StiUson, is most suitable for pipes having diameters less than 3 inches.
146. The chain toii|2rs shown in Fig. 81 is generally used for pipes larger than 3 inches. This consists of two
Fig. 81
jaws, as a^ having sharj) teeth' on both sides and firmly secured to one end of a long bar of iron or handle /f, as shown. 35etween the jaws at c is fastened one end of a chain c/. "When the tongs is to be applied, the chain is passed round the pipe, as shown, and its loose end is slipped into a link socket at c. The handle /? is then pulled ^n the direction of the arrow, which causes the pipe to turn with it.
147. A friction wrench especially adapted for screw- ing up nickel-plated brass pij^e is shown in Fig. 82. It can
Fk;. x2
be handled in a mannt^r very similar to the common Stillson wrench. It is made from forged steel and is so formed that it cannot crush an ordinary pipe. The clamps dj a dtQ made
overc onu (lijjcrtitins, LliL- nttjiisitiltlc%ur »i>llf, tlWn have been devi These dies arc cunipi»%fd nf two nr more parti* sn arrat tluit ihey can be f>peiietl nr cli^stil t<> rtit a thread on a mini- her of different sizes of pipe, also lu tut «nii a Irttle uf the thread at a lime or lu cut a threiid by a rnmiber of opera- tiuiiJi instead «if by one, as dues the sobd die.
15!2. Tlu! ilk* tfl€*c-k shijwii in perspeelivc m Fig. Hfi (r77 an<i in seetmn in (t/ ), h Ihal part which h(»ldsthe diesoHd and at right angle?* to the axis of the pi|)e on the end of whieh a lhrea<l is iti f»e citt. It cnnsistti of two iron l)ars, or handles, l> and c stTcvved into a malleal»le*rnin ea^stinji; */, in whit h the che ii is plaeed, m shown in theseetional view. That part of the easting 1/ that is sh'pped over the end of the pipe is sii|)* piled with a guide r, which innves in a threaded stK^ket, the
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
85
iritads of which have thi; same jiitch an lliosc of the ihread be cut by tlie die. Tht* jfuitlc is provided with two or tllore setscftfws as/, ^% which wht^n screwed down on the pipe rigidly clamp it and {irevent the guide from turning; ?hen tht; stock is revolved, tht^y at the same time pull Ihe die against the end of the pipe on which the thread is to be rut, arid thus give it a start Ui cut the thread. It is evi- dent that the largest diameter pipe on which a thread can be cut with a sttjck is one whose ontside diameter is eijual to the j_diamcter of the hole in the guide. To facilitate the thread- Eig of smaller pipes than this, a bushing // is used, whose Ptiside diameter is etjual to that of the pi [IT, and whose outside diameter is equal to the inside diameter of the guide, the bushing l^eing held in place by the irtscrews /, jf. The bushings and dies Ire changed according to the diameter "of the pipe to be threaded.
153* Hand stocks like the onci^hown
■ in Fig* 85 arc rarely used for pipes larger
than 2 inches. Larger sizes of pipe
|re usually cut in threading machines,
rhich generally work with a crank.
The power on the handle of the crank
multiplied by gear-whecls and the
H>eed of the dies is correspond i ugly
Jccreased. In cutting threads on
irrought'iron pipes, machine oil should
freely pfjured on the pipes at the
>uits where the dies are cutting. This
cools the pipe and the teeth of the dies,
and also lubricates the parts. It pre*
vents tlie pipe from overheating and ex-
landing, and the dies from hising lht.-ir
^emper antl becoming soft and dulL
154. A mteliot h£lot*k is i\ very handy t<x»l for threading the end of a pipe where it is
03—20
86
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS § 15
impossible to swiiij>^ common dies, as, for example, in a trench, or in the corner of a cellar where a pipe projects too far and retpiires to he cut off close to the wall and threaded in place. A ratchet stock is shown in Fig. HCt. The lever handle a with the crosshcad, when screwed down tightly, is used to hold the pipe steady between the jaws ^, i, while the die is turned by working the long handle c backwards and forwards. After the thread is cut, the die is reversed by shifting a pawl (/ near the base of the long handle, which pawl operates the ratchet i\
155. Plumbers are sometimes called upon to do a little lead l)urning, but the demand for this class of work may be so small that they may not be warranted in pur- chasing a special lead-burning machine. In such cases it might be advisable to do the lead burn- ing with an air-and-gas compound blowpii)e, which is convenient also for other, work, such as light brazing operations, ordinary illuminating gas being used for the flame. Fig. 87 shows the Walmsloy cM>ni pound blowpliK*. This tool enables i)hnnbers to burn tra[)s, bends, and the seams in small tanks and sinks, by using illu- minating gas for tlie flame and Yager's salts for the flux. The blowpipe when properly regu- lated burns with a non-oxidizing flame; the valve (I gives perfect control of the flame. Two rubber tul>es are necessarily attached to the blowpipe; the small one /;is for air and the larger oncf for gas. The holes shown in the side of the gas pipe ^/are for admitting air to the gas before it reaches the mouth of the blowpipe. The air pipe I' when adjusted is clamped in position by the thunibsc rew /. A nii)ple having a small o|)ening is srr<\vr(l ov< r tlu- nose of the air pipe at the mouth of tlir i;.is i»ij)c. Difl'erent sizes of nipples are pro- vided t"«)r (litlVicni kiiuN «>r work and are interchangeable on the bl<nvpipc. TIhi.- aie several sizes of these blowpipes,
§15 PLrMP>IN(; MATERIALS AND TOOLS
87
but that known as ilu- Xo.' 1 hand blowpipe is most conve- nient for phinil)ers and h-ad burners. Th(r bhist is furnished by blowing into the rubber tube h, which is phiced into the mouth.
150. Si[)hon jet closets, and f)arlicularly wash-down siphon closets without tht- jets, are liable to become choked, because of the crooked outlet passaj^es in them. These {)assaj^es are often very much contracted, and beinj^ inac(x*ssil)le except
from the closet bowl or from the closet out- let at the floor, are not easily cleared. To re- move such <>bst ruc- tions, a splml iiii^cM% shown applied in Fip;. 8S, is very conve- nient. It is composed essentially of a lonj^ spiral spring ix^ with an au^er-like point and a handle, which, when revolved, turns the auj^er and works it down throujj^h the crooked passajj^es of the closet, as shown by the illustra- tion. The rotary movement of the au^er dislodges the obstruction and the water in the bowl forces it through into the soil pipe, f)rovidinj»^ the obstruction is of such a charac- ter that it can be thus removed.
157. Wlien a new washer applied to a comj)n!SsiQn bibb, or valve, lioes not make it water-tight, the valve seat is usually found to be irregidarly worn away. It is then necessary to fa( e the seat down until the irregularities ilis- appear and a new, uniform, ami smooth seat is formed.
88
PLUMBING MATERIALS AND TOOLS
A special tool, known a^ ii valve ref*eater^ is used for this purfXise. It is constructed with a bon- net a. Fig 89, that may be screwed on the valve after the valve bonnet is rtMnoved. A stem b passes down through the center of the bonnet, A facing tool r, shaped as shown, is attached to the end of the stem inside the valve and a wheel or lever handle is attached to the other ^mh The cutter c is pressed down on the valve seat and revolved, which causes it to cut down the valve seal true and smooth. There are many different kinds of reseatcrs on the market, Every pi urn her *s shop should contain a set of the different common Pjo. m sizes from | inch to % inches.
158. To facilitate the work of expanding lead*pipe ends, also fur expanding the edges of the metal around holes tapped in lead pipe, etc^ where branches are to be wiped, a special tool, known a*^ eximiid- lnil i>llei**i, may bt^ used. Fig. yo {a) shows a pair of ex- panding pliers. The conical end is pushed into the iiules and turned alternately to the right and to the left, pressing on the handles to open the conical ends of the pliers as the hole in the lead pipe grad- ually becomes larger and the collar amund it thus formed. In {b) are sh*^wn ihive open- ings in the hody of a lead bottle trap, expanded with the
4 4
§ 15 PLUMBING MATERIALvS AND TOOLS 89
pliers preparatory to wiping branch pipes into them. In {c) is shown a short piece of pipe; the upper end is expanded for a straight joint, and the hole shown in the sides is expanded for a branch joint. An advantage of this tool is that it does not kink or distort the pipe, like the turn pin.
SOLDERING AND WIPING
SOLDERING
INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFK; ATION
!• The process of joining metals by means of melting other metals having a lower fusion point than the metals to be joined, and where the parts to be joined are heated prin- cipally by either a copper bit or a blowpipe flame or by some equivalent means, is called sohlerinAJ:. The process of soldering is divided into two divisions — soft soldering and hard soldering.
In soft solderingr, which is frequently called soldering, for short, the solder is composed of lead and tin and is very soft. In hard soldering, which is best known by the name of brazingy the solder is quite hard, beinii^ an alloy of copper, zinc, tin, silver, etc.
52, The process of soft soldering- is divided into two classes, known respectively :i<>cop/^er-l)it work and bUncpipe ivork. In eopper-bit work, a (^o{>pcr bit is used for melting the solder and heating the metals. The eopper bit, it may be mentioned here, is in some localities misealled the soldering
For notice of copyright, j»ce pa^e im mediately following the title page.
^
ft SOLDERING AND WIPING ( It
Iron. In blowpipe work the wcAder is melted, and the parts to be joined are heated, by means of a blowpipe flame. In the copper-bit work, and also in the blowpipe work, there is a preliminary operation known as Hmrning^ in which the metals to be united are properly prepared for the final oper- ation of soldering.
OKMEBAii nfsrrBiTCKiGira
3. Melted solder exhibits a strong tendency to auere to the surface of the ordinary metals, and to unite soBdly with them while cooling. However, the least film of oxide, or of grease or dirt, upon the surface of the metal will usnally prevent the adhesion ; therefore, the surface must be thor- oughly cleaned, or it must be coated with some aubstanoe that will reduce the oxides to the metallic state, or that will destroy the grease and will deposit a thin film of dbc upon the surface to be soldered.
The kind of solder known as half-and-lialf is suitable fdr joining lead, copper, brass, zinc, and iron to metals of the same kind, or for joining any of them to any other named. Block tin, however, requires a more fusible solder. Care must be taken that the temperature of the bit is not high enoujrh to melt the tin. Rosin is the proper flux.
Copper, brass, or ir<Mi not galvanized may be prepared to receive solder by cleanini>: the surfaces and applying chloride of zinc. A stronger joint is insured by tinning the metal before soldering, in which case rosin is the proper flux.
Galvanized iron or sheet zinc should be cleaned with muriatic acid before the solder is applied. All metals, except htad and tin, should be tinned previous^to wiping. Lead and tin only \\i'.in\ to be shaved clean.
4, The temperature of the metals must be raided, at the point wher<i<he solder is applied, to the fusing point of the solder. In solderinj^^ metals whose temperature of fusion is but slightly greater than that of the solder applied*
§ 10 SOLDERING AND WIPING 3
such as lead or tin, care is necessary to avoid melting them and thus making a hole where it is not wanted.
Solder flows best at high temperatures, provided the tem- perature is not so high as to oxidize it. Solder will flow into a joint until it is chilled; therefore, it will flow farthest when it possesses a large excess of heat above that which is necessary to maintain it in the fluid condition. Soldering should not be done with bits that are barely hot enough to melt the solder, because the solder will unite only at the edges of the metal and will not flow into the joint properly.
6. The bits used for soldering must be of sufficient weight to contain .the heat that is necessary to heat the metal and fuse the solder during a reasonable length of time. If they are too light, the soldering is apt to be very uneven in quality, and the bits will require such frequent reheating that they will be troublesome. If they are too heavy, then the work of handling them will be too laborious.
The metal to be soldered may be heated by mere contact -with the hot bit, but the heating is done more effectively and much quicker by melting a little solder at the [K>int of the bit. This body of solder increases the area of the con- tact and conducts heat from the bit to the metal with great rapidity.
In working with the blowpipe, the necessary heat is ap- plied directly to the metal by the flame. The flame must be handled in a manner that will avoid overheating or oxi- dizing either the metal or the solder.
SOFT SOJ^DERING
TINXrVG
6. Purpose. — The operation of tinning consists in spreading a thin layer of solder for sometimes of pure tin) upon the surfaces n{ other m*'tals ;ir:d <ausing it to adhere and make a firm metallic union tlicr^rwith. The object of
SOLDERING AND WIPING
§16
the tinning is to so prepare the surfaces of the metals that they will readily unite with the melted solder that is applied to them in the process of soldering joints. All the common metals become tarnished when exposed to the atmosphere, and it is necessary to remove the tarnished surface and thus expose the bare, clean metal to the influence of the solder; otherwise the solder will not, under ordinary circumstances, atihere to the metal.
Fi'i. 1
7. Tiiiiiinp: a ('oppor IJlt, — Copper bits must be tinned before they can be used for soldering purposes. To do this,
heat the bit until it melts solder (but not red hot), then lay it on a brick or other suitable material and file one of the flat sides at the jK>int to a distance of about 1 inch. When' thor- oughly clean, rub the filed surface on a piece of strap solder over which some pulverized rosin lias previously been will (juirkiy melt the rosin, the • roppcr from tarnishing before in also facilitates the adhesion of .iiic<i <.>|.()(i. Now clean and tin one hl: I hat alrrady tinned, as shown in li< ;. r'.'a'lx" lor \\>r. If the bit is red !.'■ ;'i-:ant that the file leaves it, and I'M'- with r<.>iii \'>v a flux. Rosin is r'-i'.; i'iis foi" pi 11111 luTs' use. !!!■ Ml way <'f linnini^- a bit that is to be •'". r :ii(iaN iliaii lead, (^r tinning sur- < ' i ' I . • ( I with w i 1 k < •( ^al ainin* \ cr iis Mir face.
Thr h.ot
s|)rinkl('(l. l Ik funics. < >f wliich ihr >'.hh-i- mrlt>. th<- ^ol.ltT 1.. ih. of tli<- -i<lcs a<l_ ]<i- I : ihr !•:: i> hot. il "Alii '.\i(l'/.'
nt ' t '■ > l; , 1 ,'^ (il II 'it
thr !.( -.1 iliix I..!- : i A (piick aii'l <■< )*i Used f. .1- ^. .M. '"ir.- fa<x-s that 111 i!^t 1" while li«>l. lip' ''1 a h! solder ^patt erei"
[>r«'\-rni Till' 1
in
Ml
. j.in- solder, is to rub it,
)'iia( having a few drops of
he sal ainm(.)niac reduces
§16
SOLDERING AND WIPING
5
the oxide, and the clean copper seizes the solder instantly on coming in contact with it.
Another quick way, which is particularly adapted for bench work, and which is quite popular with cornice makers and tinsmiths, is to dip the point of the bit, while hot, in a saturated solution of sal ammoniac and water before rubbing it on the solder. This, however, tins all four sides, which is not always desirable. *■
When a bit is overheated, the coating of solder, or the tiiinlui^, as it is called, is reduced to a yellow powder and is destroyed. The tinning must be restored before the bit can be again used.
8, Tinnini^ Solder Xlpples. — Solder nipples are made of brass; they must be tinned before they can be properly soldered to lead pipes. In order to hold the nipple during tinning, a block of wood a is whittled down at one end, and driven into the threaded end of the nipple, as shown in Fig. 2. The plain end is then filed perfectly clean,
Fig. 2
all the outer surface being filed off to a suitable distance, which for wiping purposes is usually from 1 inch to \\ inches. The cleaned surface is then rubbed with pulverized rosin, and the nipple is {>aintcd witli bku^k soil, as shown. The cleaning b is now ready to be tinned. The heated copper bit is then used to melt a little solder off the strap of Si^lder
g h;
SOLDERING AND WIPING
plumber to wipe the joint easily and prevents the joint from being weak by a lack of scjkier at tht; place where it should be strongest.
tO» Tlniilrii? Ilrasi? Ferrules. — Brass fcrniles are filed and tinned the samt: as solder nipples, except that the edge *f. Fig. 5, and inner surface b, which extends insrcJc the fcrrtik about | inch, are tinned as well as the outside clean- ing c. All cast-brass ferrules are liable to haveblowhulcs in them. It is advisable, therefore, to examine for blowholes and s«:>lder thera while tinning the ferrules.
11, Thitiliijy: Cirouiul Key Cocks,— Ground key cocks are tinned with the keys left in, since it has been found, by practical experi- ence, that if the tinning is done with the key re- moved, the heat to which the body is subjected dur- ing tinning will cause the body lo warp and remain warped when cooled. This destroys the ground fit lie- twccn the key and body, and consequently the cock will leak in service. The parts that arc not to be tinned are painted with black soil, as shown in Fig. H,
F10. 0
l'4t Tlnuini^ Compi-eeslon Cocks, — Compression cocks
usually have rubber washers and packings. To prevent these being injured by the heat, it is advisalile to remove the lionnet, valve stem, etc. during tiiming, when the cock will appear as Fig. ? shown in Fig. 7.
SOLDERING AND WIPING
le
Thijilnt^ II Umit C'oiipltniBC* — Bent, couplings arc ralher awkward to tin. The stick a^ Fig. 8, must be cut to fit snugly, because it c;iimot be driven in far. The coupling ring A must be tied up to the stick, or otherwise secured to prevent its slipping tlown or w*f*rking toward the cleaning while the joini is being wiped. A good plan fnr securing the ring is to pack thin paper in between the ring and the stick, as shown at c,
14. Tin 111 n|? Bheet Copper.— Sheet coiii>er usually requires to have its edges tinned before they are bent up for lock seams* This is best accomplished by laying the sheet on an inclined plane surface and tinning the edges by working from the top down, as shown in Fig, 9* If the sheets are
Flfi. s
FtG. y
new and moderately clean, the edges will nnt require tu be scraped, and can then be tinned with chloride of tine as a flux; if they are much taniished, they must be scraped plean before the flux is applied.
§ 10 SOLDERING AND WIPING 9
15, PriH'autloiis. — In tinning metals, great care should be taken to give the tinning a uniform thickness and have it free from imperfections. Small lum[)s or ridges of solder in the tinning coat will interfere with the proper closing of joints and seams, and care must always be taken to remove them. Any superfluous solder can be shaken off or wiped off with clean waste or a clean cloth.
IG. Dip Tlniiiii^. — Many articles can be tinned all over after they have been cleaned and coated with a flux by dip- ping them into melted solder. This process is known as dip tliinlu^. It is bad practice to dip brass into a pot of molten solder that is to be used for wiping purposes, because some of the zinc (of which the brass is partly composed) will melt out and alloy with the solder, and will spoil it.
Articles that are composed wholly of copper may be dipped in the solder pot without injury to the solder, provided they are perfectly clean and free from filings, etc.
Iron articles may be tinned by thoroughly cleaning the surfaces and treating them with chloride of zinc or sal ammoniac before the solder is applied.
17. fck>lllii|<. — The object of soiling is to prevent the sohler flowing upon those surfaces that are protected by it, or from adhering to them. It thus enables the wcjrkman to keep the S()lder within proper limits and to produce clean, nice-looking work, free from all unsightly splashes or irregularities.
For work that is to be done with the bit or with the blow- pipe, a width of soiling from J to 1 inch is usually enough.
The solder should not be applied until the soiling is dry. In fair weather it will dry quickly; but if it dries tot) slowly, the drying jnay be hastened by applying a moderate heat. Strong heat will spoil it.
SOFT .S<>I.I>KKIN(>^ SKAMS AND JOINTS
18, Kinds of Hotiiiis and Joints. — The soldering done with the copper l)it is principally inxjiat and locked svaffts ; on Ihiui, ov floated J seams ; on eup joints ; and on overcast joints.
10
SOLDERING AND WIPING
The flat seam, which is also called lapfleam^ is used only for joining thin sheets of tin (tinned sheet iron), copier, or zinc. In this seam one plate simply laps over the other and the. two plates are soldered together in this foAn. It is not suitable for work requiring a strong seam. The lock memm, is made by doubling over an edge of each dieet and hooking the sheets together. In the bea& wmmok^ which can only be used for comparatively thick pieces of metal, tbft edges to be joined are beveled and butted together, thuft; leaving a V-shaped space that is filled with solder applied &opbydropL The solder is afterwards given a smooth finish by melting it with the bit and drawing the latter slowly along the seam, thus causing the solder to flow. The term Jhw has been corrupted to float by mechanics, and thift cqmsptioa has caused the seam to be known as a floated enaiii The onp Joint and the overcast Joint are used in joining pipes and similar objects by soldering.
19. Soldci-ingr a liock Seam. — A completed lodk seam
is shown, in section, in Fig. 10 (a). When start&lg to make
the seain, all of those surfaces that come into contact in the inside of the seam must be thorouj^hly cleaned before the foldinj; is done. When the melal is tinned upon one side, as in the case of tinned copper, the folds are turned sothat
§ 16 SOLDERING AND WIPING 11
the tinned surfaces will face each other. If the copper is without tinning, it is advisable, although not strictly neces- sary, to tin the surfaces that will come inside of the seam. The solder will flow easier, and there is more certainty of securing a perfect joint throughout the entire seam than without it. After the sheets have been secured in place, so that they cannot shift or get out of place while soldering, the seam should be closed with the mallet. A proper flux is then applied, and the hot soldering bit a is held against the head of the seam, as shown in Fig. 10 (b). The point rests upon the seam, and a little solder is melted from the bar b, and flowed to the point of the bit. As soon as the metal becomes hot enough, the solder will* s^veat, i. e., run freely, into the interior of the seam; the manner of its dis- appearance, or soaking, into the seam will indicate to the experienced eye whether or not the work i^. being properly performed.
When the temperature of the bit falls to nearly the fusing point of the solder, that is, when the bit is too cold, the solder will not flow into the interior of the seam, but will adhere at the edges only. The result is called skin solder- Injar; this should always be avoided. Cold bits should not be worked back and forth over the seam. If the interior is poorly soldered, nothing but a hot bit will cause the solder to flow and spread properly.
20, Soldering: yertlcal Seams. — Vertical seams are very difficult for a beginner to solder properly, as owing to want of practice the solder falls down off. the seam and it appears almost impossible for him to make the solder soak in. Vertical seams should be avoided as much as possible. They are likely to be skin-soldered, or skinned, as it is often called for short, in spite of all care bestowed upon them. If any vertical seam viust be soldered in place, the following is one of the best methods of procedure: First solder the flat seam thoronjj^lily : tlu'ii commence at the vertical seam and work upwards. Melt off some solder on the point of a very hot and well-tinned bit. Press this 6a— 21
I
the bit and run down, remove the bit in- stantly, thus allowing the solder to set. Re* peat this operation drop by drop. The scam, if properly s a I d e r e d , should resemble that shown at a, Fig. IL This figure also sltows the position of the bit ^ and the way in which it is fed by the solder stick c. An incotnpe* tent mechanic will in- variably allow the sol- der drops to fall and accumulate at r/, when the vertical seam will be skinni'd and very weak. Ta make a strong vertical seam, tt is necessary to leave a body of solder on it, as shown.
21* Solderinyr a Flat Ileail 8eam. — When two com- paratively thick sheets of mclal^ as sheet lead, are to be joined, a bead seam is generally made, as shown in Fig, 1:^. The edges of the sheets a, a are straightened by rasp- ing or planing, and are afterwards bev- eled with the shave hook, so that when the sheets are laid as shown, a V groove exists between" them. The angle of this groove should be sufficient to per- mit the edge of the hatchet bit to penetrate nearly to the
/^
wxa. J«
§ 16
SOLDERING AND WIPING
13
bottom of it- Soil i^ then apijUetl in u strip about f inch wide along both edges, and on the top and bottoni sides of the sheets, as shown at ff, ^, and this slinuhl bedded before proceeding to solder. The joint shoukl be laid upon a board; if it resL«i on a metal surface, the heat will be con- ducted awa>% <*r rfiljIitaU as it is called, from tht^ edges to be joined, so rapidly that good soldering eanr^cjt be dune. If the work must be done on a metal surface, lay two or three layers of thick paper under the seam.
After the sheets are securely fastened in position, the edges of the joint may be tiicktHl together with a drop of
"^T,
m
0}
i^G. n
solder at intervals of 3 ur *i inches. The hatchet bit, shown enlarged in Fig. 13 {a), must be well tinned upon the sides, as at a. Solder is fed to tlic seam by nibbing the end of a bar ^against the tinned side of the bit, as shown in Fig. IH(^). The groove is lllled with solder during the first operation, and the ^oaimj^ or smoothing and finishing, is performed afterwards as a second operation.
*i*i. As there is ivniy a comparatively small margin of iiilTcreuce in the melting points of tlie sokle r and the lead^ great care must be taken to regulate the tem|jeratnre of the
U SOLDERINC; AND WIPING § 10
bit and avoid burning holes in the lead. If the bit is too hot, the work must be touched very lightly and the solder must be feci very rapidly, but as it reaches the lower limit of heat it may be allowed to bear its weight upon the seam and lo pro( eed sl<nvly. The seam should be filled uniformly with solder thnnighout its length. Then, while it is still warm, proceed to floixt it. Sprinkle it with rosin, then take the hatchet bit, sink it into the seam and draw it along slowly and steadily at a speed varying with the heat of the bit. This floating operation levels off the solder, and should leave a smooth and shining beaded seam, as shown at c^ Fig. VI.
*Z\\n vSoldcrinjr a Circular Bead Seam. — Lead pipe is
v^iicn joiiud by means of a bead seam. The ends are bcvrKd a:ul are butted solidly together, care being taken •v'nai no vitvice exists between the ends through which >. Mri K\\\\ \-\\\\ into the interior of the pipe. The parts are iluii lackcvi in [H>siiion, and the groove is filled with solder,
Fi.;. 14
> -!:-u • ■■ ^ ■•■..;. ; 1 Tl:.- ll-MiitiL:- is (l.)ne while the pipe is
. -u.x . -. i: i!:'- i'-mi i^ i>.i carrruliy fitted, or if it is
,::••■.■ •■: - . m ! -Ir Id j]. .\\ insidr, as showu at ^/, and
. : :.• i.ii;^>'- <-! a chokai^i. ii\ llu- pipe, should it be
*'l. I • ciiiijoini, ^'i"\\ :i ill I-jm j ;, i>^ -^ cheap form of
.1- •■■;■'- It i- -uii.il'lr ..i;l_\ t'..r light pipe that
■!',■ i •'!'»•■■>. liiipcd wi! h I hi- t urn pin, as shown ■ . i -1, .Midi iii« Diini end /■ IS sliavrd and beveled
§16
SOLDERING AND WIPING
to fit n. The fitting must be carefully done, so that no crevice exists between the ends fiy which sukler may run through lo the interior of the pipe. The beveled end mnst be cleaned tn at least J inch above the edge of the cup a\ and soil should be applied to about | inch above the cleaned
fh>
m
no. IB
face, Sprinkle powdered rosin in the cup» and pro- ceed to fill the cup with solder, being careful to avoid burning either the side of the pipe or the ^dge of the cup. Fill the cup a little more than full of solder, sprinkle a little more rosin upon it, and then float it by means of a long pointed bit c. Fig, 15 {b), as shown. Sink the point deep into the solder, and move it slowly around the cup. The solder should be left smooth, bright, and curved, as shown at d.
10
SOLDERING AND WIPING
§ 1«
*>.
>» Fig. 10 nhow^ a had job. The fit between the ends
was so bad tliat solder ran through
r y
/
r joint and formed beads and sharp-pointed drops, sometimes called soldiers, on the inside of the pipe. These catch lint, hair, etc., and thus choke the pipe. By bear- ing against the side of the pipe with the hot bit, a hole has been burned through at a and nearly through at /^ while the edge of the cup has been burned at c.
Fig. ifi
30* No I d e r i n jf an Overfost Joint, — The overcast joint, shown in Fig. 17, is, commonly
used to connect a lead pipe to a very short and small nipple
or half coupling a, as shown. The lead pipe if is beveled at
the ^nd, and is cloSi;ly
fitted to the brass
nipple. The s<jlder is
first applied near r,
and is floated by
moving the bit from
r toward //, thereby
overcasting the metal
upon the lead pipe.
The outer surface of the solder will be more or less rough,
according to the skill with which the bit is handled. Care
must be taken to ihoroughly tin the metal& to be joined
before applying the so I den
5J7» Cl<t«In|j Knils.—When the end of a lead water pipe
subject to low pressure (about 50 pounds [>er square inch oi
ptg. n
I
■
I
■
I
§16
SOLDERING AND WIPING
1?
less) must be closed water-tight, it is customary to ham- mer the end flal and solder the edge, as shown in Fig. 18. This^ however, appears rough and should not be used on exf>osed work. If used on high-pressure work, the flattened surfaces wiU bulge out; the end will thus crack and leak.
FIG, 18
Klo. 19
PlO. m
A better plan is to scrape the inner surface of the pipe a disitaoce equal to about its own diameter and to push a tissue- pa pi: r pkiga^ Fig, Hi, into the pipe; nexL^ sprinkle some rosin in the cud, and then fill it up with solder and sweat it thor- oughly with the copper bit until feeling assured that the solder adheres to the cleaning all the way down to the paper.
5f8, The best way to close the end of a water pipe is shown in Fig. 20. The end is first squared with the rasp, ad then hammered in to form a hemisphere, A hole, >wever^ exists at the center, which when soldered over, as shown at a, makes the end watertight.
/ /
\.
/
/
PlO. 21
2t>. Closet bends and nther large lead waste pipes that project through the floors of a building before the fixtures
18
SOLDERlXi; AND WIPING
16
are set, can have tlieir ends closed, as shown in Fig. 21, by
a flat disk a soldered over the opening. This keeps dirt out
of the pipes and pre- pares the ends for the usual water test. But as a flat end on a 4-inch pipe will not resist a heavy pressure, it is advisable to taper the end of the bend with the dresser, as at a^ Fig. 22, and then solder the point before secur- ing the pipe in place, when it is known that
a lu-avy pressure test is to be applied. This end is stronger
than tlic ])ipc ilsclf.
•$0, SoldiM'iny: J.oad Tacks to Pipes. — Lead tacks are
soldered witli the eoppcr hit to the back of lead pipes, as
Fio.
sh< )\v!i in |- iL
Mil:
Till- |)ijK' is ^'n.ivcd (scraprd with the shave r/. //, .iii<l tlir .i;r<>«)V('s formed when the
§16
SOLDERING AND WIPING
19
tack b is placed in position are filled with solder and thor- oughly sweated. In soldering on pipe tacks, it is necessary to hold the bit on the pipe rather than on the tack, in order to heat the pipe properly. If this is not done, the solder will not adhere strongly to the cleaning of the pipe and the tacks will break away at this place. Tacks must be thor- oughly sweated to the pipe, or they are useless.
Fig. sm
31. Repairing? Frost Bui-sts. — In very cold weather, the water contained in lead pipes will often freeze and burst the pipes. The best
method of making the pipe serviceable again is to cut out the burst portion and fit in a new piece of pipe. But in the rush of work that often accompanies se- verely cold weather, it is frequently necessary to make temporary repairs. A section through a frost burst is shown in Fig. 24 {a). To repair it, the metal around the burst is hammered in to close the opening. The pipe is soiled as far as necessary and shaved to a distance of at least | inch all around the split; it is then sprinkled with rosin. The cleaning is now thoroughly tinned and finally soldered over, leaving on a heavy body of solder, as at rt'^Fig. 24 {b), to strengthen the pipe against the pressure. A section through the soldered portion is shown in Fig. 24 {c).
32. Blowpipe Soldering. — Blowpipe soldering is done chiefly on small tubing and other small articles. The tube is prepared in the same manner as a cup joint. The solder is applied by holding a thin strip of it in the flame close to the joint, so that the molten part will fall into the cup. When the cup is full of solder, it is sweated by heating the joint all around, and eausing the solder to flow, which makes a clean and strong joint.
20
SOLDERING AND WIPING
16
In Fig. 25 is shown the manner of making a blowpipe joint, in which a is the blowpipe blown by the mouth, b an
alcohol lamp, and c the pipe in which the joint is to be made.
By means of the blowpipe, the alcohol flame d is blown against the sides of the pipe as shown. To obtain the best results, the blowpipe should be held in such a position that the portion c of the flame d when blown against the pipe will be noiseless. The wind pressure should be steady and its point of apj)licati<)ii lo the flame should he constant. This manner of solderinj^ is best adapted for thin tubes of block tin or tin alloys \vhos(; temperature of fusion is low, as the heat can be apj)lie(l to the j)ipe or to the solder at will. The pipe can Ix' iinit'<«i-mly hcatt'<l lo ihr fusion point of the solder with h'n!<- (hm^'T of burniiii;' it. Care must be taken to keep the llanu' ^hifliiii; ahciit so as to avoid too much heat at one >i)'>l, as otherwise iii^ly holes are apt to result.
FlC. 25
Mi:i/n\(. iN)i\rs of mktals
|
M. '..1 |
! .. ■:o-.- 1 .\ I ( ; .: 2. I .■'-. I . :> ■-:•■ 1 .<r- " 1 . c |
Mttal Zin. |
! Tempcra- ! ture. 1 Degrees F. |
|
|
(\'i-^l ii"' 'U , . . |
68o |
|||
|
CoplKM" |
L.a.l r.i^iniith Tin Sulphur |
626 |
||
|
Silver |
505 446 228 |
|||
|
]*ra>s, conun* .A 111 i 111* »P \' |
>n. . . |
|||
§ 16 SOLDERING AND WIPING 21
33. Melting: Points of Metals. — The average temper- atures at which different metals melt, which temperatures are said to be the melting: points and also the fusing: IK>ints, are given in Table I. The fusing point varies with the purity of the metal, and the fusing points of alloys vary according to their composition.
BRAZING
TOOLS AND SUPPLIES
34. Brazing: is a process of joining two or more metals by a solder known as liard. solder, whose temperature of fusion is much higher than that of soft solders, and whose tenacity is greater. Hard solders are composed of alloys of copper, zinc, tin, silver, etc. Only those metals whose tem- perature of fusion exceeds tliat of hard solders, such as iron, copper, and brass, can be brazed. In this class of soldering the temperature required to fuse the solder is so high that soldering bits cannot be used.
35. The heat is usually applied to the parts to be brazed by means of an intensely hot blowpipe flame.
Small articles may be brazed with a mouth blowpipe, but the sizes of pipe usually handled by plumbers require a com- pound blowpipe, which uses common illuminating gas for fuel and is blown by a blast of air from a bellows. Larger jobs, having a considerable weight of metal to be heated, are executed in a forge fire. For brazing collars, etc. upon 2- or 3-inch tubing, the fire is arched over with coke, thus making a hot chamber in which the work may be uniformly heated.
36. In Fig. 20 is shown a very convenient form of blowpipe to be used in cionnection with a bellows. This is composed of a gas pipe a having a lever- handle controlling
22
SOLDERING AND WIPING
§10
cock attached; an air or blast pipe /', also havinjj: a levcr- handlc controlling: cock attached; and an iron-pipe nozzle r joined by a special casting to the pipes a and d.
FIG. «6
37. In Fiji:. '-^7 is shown a form of blower suitable for supply in«^ air lo the blowpipe. It is composed of a single- acting bellows having an air inlet check-valve in the bellows, situated on the in- side of the bottom board a, and another on the upper side of the pressure board h and within the rubber stor- aj^c bag (\ which is enclosed by a network to prevent its ini^: inflated too much. 'IMic bellows are operated a^ tollows: The top board. <'\v»i- ciKJ aiiil Mipj)orted by a spring Ixi'iL;' piwhcd (l'»wn with the foot coin- ih" l)r]I«'\v>^ and f«>nH'S a portion of it ■« k-\alv iiit.> the riib])rr bag. When 1 i> irli.-vrd I'lMin the pressure board. a;;j.aiii tilicd with air by the spring irc-^nrr <>t' the foot of the lly ap|'li«-d 1" i!ir j)ressure board, in.iiii:* r hll tlie niliiMi l-.i^ with eonipressed air, ^ '•' ' i:«- I'i- -u pipr ili'-Mi:^li [\\r rubber tube t/ when ■'■'■• k ai !!•'• !'i< 'Wpipc is « .p<-n. Tin- dast i(^ity of the •r Iml: sc: v<v, f* cijiiaii/e the i<ics>iir«' of the blast.
§ 16 SOLDERING AND WIPING 23
This form of blower is capable of furnishing a strong and nearly continuous^ blast through a jet | inch in diameter.
38. The blowpipe should be connected by rubber tubing to a gas burner^ or other supply and to the blower, care being taken that the bore of the tubing is large enough to avoid excessive friction.
Air is mixed with the gas before it is consumed for several reasons, but chiefly because an all-gas flame is low in temperature and gives off products of combustion that not only tarnish the metal, but also cover it with a coating that separates the flame from the metal being heated.
The gas should be turned on first and should be lit at the jet; air is then admitted gradually until the flame is brought to the proper size and color. If too much gas is admitted, the flame will be yellow and will blacken the work by deposit- ing a film of carbon upon it. If too much air is admitted, the flame will be short, ragged, and noisy and the tempera- ture will be too low to properly heat the metal. The flame is at its greatest heat and best condition when it burns with a pale-blue or bluish-green color, without any white or yellow parts.
THE OPERATION OF BR^VZFNG
39. The article to be brazed must be well supported, and the seam should be well bound together with iron wire to prevent the edges warping out of place when heated. Spelt-er or hard solder is placed over the seam in such a manner that when it fuses it will flow, by gravity, into the seam. Powdered borax is then sprinkled over the seam for a flux, and the blowpipe flame is applied chiefly upon the thick parts of the metal at first, the idea being to heat the mass uniformly to the temperature of fusion of the spelter.
The heat of the metal is then increased, care being taken to avoid giving much more h(^at to the speller, otherwise it may be burned or spoiled. As soon as the metal is hot enough, the borax will fuse and flow over the parts; and as
24 SOLDERING AND WIPING § 16
the lu-at risrs a liltle higher, the spelter will melt and How into the (Tevice and adhere to the faces of the joint. The spelter will sweat into a crevice for a considerable dis- tance, if the metal is clean and is hot enough.
4(K Tile melting point of the spelter and of the metal to which it is ai)pliecl may not differ more than 300° or 400°; consetpiently, great care must be exercised to avoid over- heating the metal. The heat must be applied uniformly, otherwise the work is liable to warp; and if the flame is directed upon one spot too long, a hole is likely to be burned at that i)()int. When brazing metals that have a low melt- ing point, the bl(>wi)ipe flame should be promptly with- drawn as soon as th<i s{)elter flows.
Sometimes the composition of brass tubing and sheet brass is so uneven, or they are so contaminated by chemical im|)nrities, that brazing cannot be satisfactorily performed ui)oii ihcm. Sucii material may be used, however, for jobs that ictiuiie only soft soldering.
I^ra^s tuMuLC is very brittle when hot; consequently, it should r.oi lie moved until it has cooled. The process of brazini; sottt-ns t}i«- paits that are heated, and these do not rctui'u t-t tlu-ir ori-iual hardness on cooling.
4 1, Siuall aili<K'^ may be lu-atrd in a charcoal fire with- out tii<- l'l"\vi):pr. A Ma^t may \)v. used to urge the fire, if iiccd.d. Lar-r Ml :ira\y ]'>\>> may be heated in a forge fire, t"->i uii!* h < i<au <■"}<(' free tr<.m sulphur is commonly used. T-. i)!.i/'- su. vrs^i i;l!\ . ilwrr tilings are required: first, a |.i'.i'ci- .;. ;^-.M- ..1 i:.-at. mil her t". . l..\v nor too high; second, uii;t-'rm !i'-al in;.: ; tiiir'i. |>i-"i)ci- fluxing-.
I:i ><l<'.t in- ih' s] ..h .-r i< > b.- n^rd, 1 hat which will melt at a trmpriMi i:r'- i-»\vrr liian ihr hk liiii- point of the metal to be l)ra/<d nri^! l-c < !'■ .^.-i;
\Vli<-n l);-;t/.Mi- \>u'^'('> i-. i.ra-^^ irLc^ that are made with a braz«-d ^cam, it i> un^;if< !•' u<-r sih-Ii.t. because of the liabiliiv <>j" ..pcniii.^ ili-- -.-am A moi-c t"ii-;il)le solder, such a^ sii\<-r soldrr. should Ix- used.
§1H
SOLDERING AND WIPING
KTXDS or JOlKl>!E
42, la Fig. 28 is shown a numlier of joints, suitable for different jobs. The joint shown in Pig. ^8 {a} is called a butt Jiitnt; the lumps of spelter at a are placed in jwsitioii ready fiir fusion. The strenj^th of thi!^ joint is small, being in |>roportioii to the actual itrea of the edg^es that are united by the speller. The strength is greatly increased by ln|»- pinir the plates, as in Fig, 2H {S), An equal amount of strength raay be secured and the appearance greatly
7
r«i
(aj
thj
m
idj
improved by bc^vellnir* or splaying, the edges, as In Fig* %^ (/), provided the plates are thick enough to permit the beveling to be extended to a suffK-ient width.
The strongest joint for sheet metals is made by dt^ye^ tailing the edges together before brazing, as in Fig. %>^{d).
Thin tubing may bt* joined by a slip joint, as shown in Fig* '•Zi^ (v)^ by first annealing one of the ends and forming it into a socket. The end is flared out by means of a drift
2<; SOLDKRIXG AND WIPING g 10
p\u^, (are beinj^ taken not to split the pipe, after whieli the metal is expanded by hammering until the other end will enter properly.
Circular butt Joints may be strengthened by means of a band |)ul on exlirrnally, as in Fig. "iS (/), or by an inter- nal ferrule, as in Fig. "v^'^ (^i^).
A knob brazed to the end of a rod is shown in Fig. 2S (//). To do ibis joi) properly, the spelter must be made to flow into the socket and serine the shank of the knob. A good job cannot be made by merely securing the edges at rt. The rod should be held vertically in a charcoal fire until the socket is well heated, at the same time heating the knob also. l)«»rax and spelter are then placed in the socket, and as soon as the spelter is melted the shank of the knob should |)e inserted and i)ressed into place. The spelter will flow outwards by being dis|)lace(l by the shank ami will make sure ot' lilbuii' ilie entire joint; or the space ^ at the end of the shank may be tilled with sj)elter, as shown, and the knob inserted. If the knob and socket are then heated in an inverted ])o>iti.)n the sj)elter in /> will flow, by gravity, arouihi I lie sliaiik and ^weat down to the rim a.
W IIMNC;
I N riM>i)r( I lox
« I. \^^ll M V rioN
ill. 'I''i' .. =-':'-i . ! :.i iv ;:>1<- inv. -U'mI in the processof joint wipiii'^ ; ;:; ' ■ • !.■■ j: ;j. i::-- ]>av\-> t'»''<- joined by the metal • •uij'i' ';. ' ■ ; ' i ■••! : .- '.. .■,'! ■■!' \\::i:^ 1 hat metal (solder) i'.;" '•■ .^i' - ,— ;i: !;.< •■ •:)«;■ j>la<-es by means of a . ' * . V. ■■' :■.■;,■'.,. ■ ■■ .1 : I-; iiditi'Mi.
'! .::-'■ - :.■.■-■■; wi:-- .i I'-iiiiv may be classified as
A'/.-/ :■/. •' • .■'■/.' . ../■/•/./ / y::.^, .nnl sr.n/.'s. The first and
§ 16 SOLDERING AND WIPING 27
second classes may be subdivided into ^/rr?/]|^/// joints, branch joints, and flange joints. The third class may be subdivided into countersiiJik, raised^ and corner seams.
GENERAL. INSTRUCTIONS
44. The process of making joints, which is called -vvipinff, is used for joining lead to lead or to brass or cop- per. In making these joints, the metals to be joined should be heated to a temperature equal to that of the fusing point of the solder applied. Care should be taken that they are not heated to their own melting point. The parts are heated by pouring over them a quantity of molten solder, the proper temperature of which varies with different classes of work. The solder usually employed for wiping is com- posed of 2 parts of lead to 1 part of tin and melts at a tem- perature of about 441°. When used for wiping lead, it should be heated nearly to, but not much over, 626°, which is the fusion point of lead. This allows a margin of about 185° that is available for heating the metals to be joined. The solder pot should be kept as nearly as possible at that temperature, judging the temperature by the appearance of the molten metal. At this temperature no yellow crust will form on the surface, and the metal will not show even the faintest reddish roloi in a perfectly dark room.
46. In W' yg joints on lead pipe, the parts to be joined are scribed, yfled, shaved, beveled, and cupped, as shown in Fig. 29. fhe parts must be carefully fitted together, so that solder cannot run throur.li to the inside of the pipe. To prevent Mie shaved portions i h from tar- nishing before wiping,
they shou.iLi be rubbed with mutton tallow, which also forms the flux / The part c should also be shaved and greased.
^i
-♦'■>
28
SOLDKRING AND WIPING
§16
46, Fig. 30 shows a wiped joint in section after the pipes a and b have been pressed tightly together and a joint wiped over their cleanings.
Fio. 80
'V\\v ItiiMth of the joint, that is, the distance between rand ^/, slioukl l)c about c(iual to that given in the following table:
TABLK II
IJ:N<.riI <H IVDEHHAND WIPED JOINTS
i >: \k r Lcntclh of Diameter ' Length of
:':i Joint. of Pipe. Joint.
! :■.'. Iiii^lu-^ ' Inches \ Inches
|
I . "A ; ! : 1. 1 |
■^ |
2 waste ' |
2} |
|
1 : w ,!■-. ■• |
J |
. 2\ waste |
A |
|
1 '. '-\ :i! <•;■ |
"> , |
^^■^•waste |
A |
|
1 . \\a-i<- |
" 1 |
., vaste |
3 |
!■■■; ;■■;-■ - !..r-'-r ti.aii I i'l.. i;,s thr wiru niav be from 3 to I ::: M- :.'ii'j\ i i" il is ni^nir ji; •= 1:, .'"i/. .;:;-! [)(»«^ition. Joints 1''..' ..:■ ''i.i-:- ^iioric;- \'\a\, -'vt: \\\ \\\c aln^ve table are 'ia'';- : ' !■' wrak ..;.;! tl.-c n^:i.i.- l-';'^.;:- i^iv. .1\ e a waste of -■;■:<'• \'\:\ '.\:\ i..;'v.. .:r! \v;i>,!;' j)i}»os UMially leed not be
IT. Tia !-,--is -!...':!<! i.-- •• arcfiilly ^eiaircd /in place, ihal tlicv '.aniK't shji: uJiik- llu* ioiiii i> l»rinL^\ wiped.
so iped. A
16
SOLDERING AND WIPIxNG
«ft
"space of at least 4 inches must be had below and on both sides of the joint, to provide room for the movement of the hands and the cloth.
48* To make a joint in an ordinary J-inch lead water pipe, about 10 pounds of solder should be melted in the pot and heated to the proper temperature. Warm the wiping cloth until it becomes pliable, and hold it in the left hand, steadying it with the thumb, as shown in Fig< 31. The
FIO. SI
cloth should form a dish, or hollow, to receive and retain the solder that falls from the joint, in order to heat the under side of it. The parts that are to receive solder having been rubbed with mutton tallow and securely fastened, the solder in the pot is thoroughly stirred and taken up with a ladle* The solder is then slowly poured over the joint, taking care to heat the parts unifurmly all around. When a quantity of the solder has been caught in the cloth, it should be worked aruund on to the top; jnore solder is then poured on this, catching the surplus with the qloth, as before, and heating
SOLDERING AND WIPING
U
the under side with it- When the solder on the pipe has become so hot as to be plastic, and is inclined to slide or drop off, and if it is certain that the surfaces are thoroughly tinned and that the pipe is sufficiently hot to maintain the solder in a plastic condition long enough to perform the necessary work, and also that there is enough plastic solder to make a good joint, pouring should be stopped and the wiping begun. The colder pieces of solder that ha%^e set, or are beginning to set^ are first thrown off the joint; then the edge of the cleaned parts that limit the ends of the joint are found, and the solder is formed into the shape desired, hol- lowing the cloth for that purpose. At the time of forming the joint, all the superfluous solder should Ije thrown off. The joint is then finished by working the cloth around from bottom to top on both sides, and by finally drawing the cloth lightly across the top* This movement frequently
leaves some solder projecting over the soiling, as shown at a in Fig. 32* This should be broken off as soon as formed^ by lifting it with a knife blade. It should not be cut off with a knife* since the lead pipe is still quite soft and the blade is very apt to cut into and weaken it- Some workmen finish wiping with a very quick motion of the cloth, which throws the surplus solder tangeutially from the joint and leaves the line of finishing hardly visible. This method scatters the solder over the floor^ where it picks up impurities.
When the wiping is completed, the joint should be cooled quickly by blowing a spray of water on it to save time, because the joint must not be handled until it has cooled Rapid cooling also chills the surface and prevents the tin from separating from the lead la coaling and scuttling to thi
J
,.^4.jx%rti^ ihc joint the parts will form a neat Ht,
vH^f l^wmber squaring the end of the pipe with
1^ l#^ cuts deepp he must hold the pipe very
§ 16
SOLDERING AND WIPING
33
51 ♦ Having squared the ends of the pipe, the plumber lakes the turn pin and drives it into the end of one of the pieces with a hammer, as shown in Fig. 35, thus swaging the end into the form of a funnel raouth. Here it will be noticed that the pipe does not' rest on the bench while the pUitnber is hammering on the turn pin. If it did, the force
f*r-
Pig. 8&
of the blow would bend the pipe and the swaging would not be made central. To prevent the thickness of the pipe around the swage from occupying too much space, it is rasped off to a thin edge. The swaged end is called the feinato end. and the end of the other piece of pipe, which fits into the swaged end, is called the ninle end* The bevel on the male end should be very neat and true, and the
t 34
SOLDERING AND WIPING
16
rough tooth marks of the coarse rasp should be smoiJthed down with a hue rasp. The male end should slip into the female end J inch, at least; it must fit closely all around, and be solcler^tight: <»therwise, molten colder will flow into the pipe when the joint is being wiped and mak« what plumbers call a sol hi joint,
;V^. 'rhc next part of the work is soiling the ends that arc to be joined together, as is shown in Fig. 3H, the object
Pig. m
being not to m^ike the joints **look pretty," as some laymen | jtuggest, but to prevent solder from sticking to the pipe] where it is not wanted. To make the sciil take hold of the |>il>e» the ends arc iiriit ruhbed with chalk to a distance of 4 *^r ft inche;;. Then the ends are painted with the soil, «hown» and allowed to dry.
§ 16
SOLDERING AND WIPING
53. In Fig. 37 the plumber is shaving the male end of
the pipe. The female etiil is set up on a brick so that the s*>il may be dried by the heat of the tire. The total length of the joint when finished is supposed to be about 2} inches, and, as the male end slips in { inch, the length of the clean-'
ing that the plumber is shaving^ in Fig, 37 should be -^
= 1| inches. Great care must be taken to avoid skipping
any part and leaving streaks uncleaned, for the solder will not adhere to these streaks and they will ultimately become small channels for leakage when the joint is subjected to water pressure. After the male end is shaved, the plumber j' takes a little tallow and rubs it over the newly cleaned I surface to prevent its tarnishing before he is ready to wipe,
^^
30 SOLDERING AND WIPING g 16
and also to act as a flux when he is wiping the joint. If there is a fin inside the nose of the male end, it is now cut off with a pocket knife or with the blade of the shave hook. By the time the male end is shaved and greased, the female end is dry, so the plumber proceeds to clean this in the same way, making it only 1 J inches long, instead of If inches. This brings the edge of the female end in the center of the exposed total cleaning and thus in the center of the pro- posed joint. After the female end is shaved and shines all around, the plumber places the shave hook inside the swaged opening and deftly whisks it about once or twice, thus clean- ing the cup to a depth of about J inch all around. This allows the solder to sweat into the cup to the extreme tip of the male end. The female end and the inside cleaning arc now greased, and the two ends are ready to be joined lojj^ethcr by a wiped joint.
54, To fac ililate wiping, the plumber places four bricks as shown in Fig. 38. The two pieces of pipe are laid in a straight line on these bricks in such a way that each piece is siipjxntcd by two i)ri(ks, which, of course, brings the joint sonirwlicir about midway between the two inner bricks. 'I' he i.bjrri of ])la(^in.i^- the bricks on edge is to allow a space <'t' 1 inches under til*' joint, which is plenty of room for -an "Miiuary liaiid. if th«' bricks were laid flat, there would be a -j)a(c oi . 'uly 'i inchts under the joint, and this is too small. ri'iunvMi t-i!t^k> are S in. < 1- in. x 2 in.
r^r^. Att, r the ])ij)es are bned up true, and the cleaned cn.i^ ar«' j.ir^srd i«»-«tlirr so t ightly that they form an almost w iicr-i iuht . .'niH-ciir-n wiiliout solder, the plumber imme- (iiau Iv tixi's tlic joint, which means that he fastens the j)art>^ to b(> jojnnl ^o iliat they will not move while he is \vil)in:^ ilie joint. ICxprrienced ])lumbers always fix their joints j)ert"eetly i-i«^i(]. and when they are wiped they never leak. In order to su;.i<;esi means of fastening the pieces of j)ij>('. lw«' (litTcrcnt nn-tlKKlsare illustrated in Fig. 38.
.\fler the |)lumb<*r underpinned the brieks with slivers of wood t(.) prevent their roeking, he weighted the pipe next to
in at each side. The other pipe, however, he steadied by pouring two bands of solder over it in such a manner that the abutments of these two Httle bridges might bear on the two bricks at the left, as shown. This is a quick, lazy, inefficient plan of fixing, which nearly always injures the pipe when the bands are removed.
56p Now the pipe is fixed. The plumber tries to shake
it^ but it does not move, %o he lays an old newspaper under
I the joint, warms his wiping cloth by the fire, and stirs up the
and ai there ■ off W,i % til.
end i>
way.
This
ex]>«.
pose
arcM.
ope:
fnj^
all.:
of
arc
as
sr
■■'.i/'/\-.i/» t ::)c/f .1 /»]e
" "^« .y /ours
,;;;:'"^^'^'^ ^vitiuh.
.\>
^'A- sold,.,.
•:''^^'^^i nmlrr
-t-T SH
• .■Ticr.il •■■*'■ '"y lit-.,;
..'""''"'-/ makes ■'" ^'-'y ti.ere.
'■' :" '" l"'uri„j,
• '■;'"( a„.I,lu.s '"'y"ii)ii)j^ (,,
'■'""•^'O'letaJu,,
SOLDERING AND WIPING
39
0 properly form and finish with. The plumber, therefore, is compelled to lift up the surplus metal periodically and ■ place it on the Lop, as shown in Fig, 39; otherwise, the top would soon be bare and overheated, while the bottom would be overloaded with cold solder- This action rubs the plastic metal against the cleaned surfaces and tins them, besides producing a nearly uniform temperature all over the joint,
^^
S.
Pia. 9»
When enough heat has been applied to cause the solder to slide down and tend to fall off the joint in spite of the , operator, and when there is mi>re than enough metal to form the joint, the plumber immediately lays down the ladle and commences h> shape the ji>int with his cloth. He mu*^t move his hand quickly^ for the metal slides down rapidly and will nut wait for him. He must work it up, and at the same time
40
SOLDERING AND WIPING
find the edges of the cleaning and form a rough outline of the joint. He must knock off all solder that has set on or near the wiping, so that it will not interrupt his movements. He must guard against the metal falling off the bottom while he is working at the top. In fact, he must look out for a dozen or more things at the same time that are all liable to happen during the few seconds he has to wipe the
Fig, 40
joint after he lays down the heat-giving ladle. Then, when everything is **just so/* he curves the cloth and swings it around the joint— ^first one way, then the other, as shown in Fig. 40, Before you can realize that the joint is now formed, he draws his cloth neatly over the top, as shown in Fig. 41, to remove any mark left by the swing. . With a sharp twitch of the cloth at] surplus material is whisked neatly off^ and the joint is finished^
1*)
SOLDERING AND WIPING
41
59* But this is not all, for if he left it to cool oflF slowly, the tin, whose temperature of fusion is much lower than that of the lead, would percolate through the joint and fall off the bottom in drops, leaving a coarse, chalk-like porous joint, with a deep hole in the bottom and a long, sharp-pointed teat hanging from the side of it like a miniature icicle. The hole in the bottom will finally cause a leak. To avoid this, the plumber instantly drops the cloth after making the cross- draw shown in Fig, 41, seizes a looking glass, holds it under
(the joint to see how it looks on the bottom, and at the same time blows a strong, fine spray of water all over the joint, as shown in Fig. 4^, before a single drop of tin has had time to form at the bottom. This spray rapidly chills the joint and instantly solidifies its outer surface. The wiping of the joint is now finished, but it must be allowed to cool for a few minutes before disturbing it; otherwise it may crack or break apart , and the whole operation would have to be repeated.
mo. 41
§ Ifi
SOLDERING AND WIPING
43
and // so as to reflect the image *if the pipe. The formation of the joint must he governed mainly by the fettling of the solder while working.
Care mtist be taken in doing this kind of work to spread the solder well over the soiled parts of the pipe, as other-
■N.
^
f
r^
Flo. 44
wise a hole may be burned through the top of the joint. Solder will then enter the pipe, as shown at f. Paper should be spread underneath the pipe to catch the surplus solder that is sure to fall off in such work, as shown at/l
63. Joints in large horizontal pipes may be wij>ed in several heats, or two men may operate simultanetaisly, one on each side. The open ends of the pipe are first closed to prevent a draft of air through it, so as not to convey heat from the joint to the outer atmosphere. Molten solder is then carefully poured on the shaved ends until enough adheres to form the joint. The temperature of the pipe near the joint and the sr»lder on it is then raised to the melt- ing point of the solder by a gasoline torch. The torch flame is then suddenly withdrawn, and the now plastic solder is easily formed into the proper shape. Should the solder begin to set before tlic joint is entirely wiped, more heat can be applied by the torch. Joints over 4 inches in diam- eter are seldom ftaind in modem house plumbing.
Ipni
03t Wlplriif iL T Bmnrii Jul nt,— The manner of tm^ g a commQU T branch joint is shown in Fig«. 45 to 54 A
huk shoulcl first be bofeJ ill the main pipe with the tap borer, a^ sshown m _ Fig. 4d| care being taken H not to pierce the opix^iu side of the pipe with the point of the tool* Tlic hole should be mucli smaller than the branch pipe. The edge of th« hole is then turned out- wards, as at a^ Fiij. 4ii, with a binding pin A, care being taken not to form ;\n edge r projecting in- w a Tils. The outwardly
na. 45
i
turned edge should then hv shaped with the turn pin intc* a C[lp to rO( cive iht^ tn)d of tht liirun }i pipr. u hJch shniilJ he
beveled and shaved as for an ordinary straight joint, as
PIO. 40
shown in Fig. 47. This figure also shows the proper form of the cleaning. In describing the boundary line of the clean- ing, it is customary to make the distance a from |" inch tP
SOLDERINCr AND WIIMNG
45
I inch on ordinary pipes. .The inside of the cupping b should be shaved about ^ inch down. If possible^ clamps should be used to draw the joint together.
FtG. *7
64, To wipe a liorlzoiital branch Joint, proceed as in the case of a plain underhand joint, but finish it at the bottom instead of at the top. The finishing is dtme by drawing the cloth from a toward b, as shown in Fig. 48, and then immediately cooling the joint with a fine spray.
C5* The proper form of a well -shaped branch joint on a lead water pipe is shown in Fig, 49, As an inspection of the illustration reveals, the solder is placed so as to give strength to the Joint.
66* In Frg. 50 are given two sections of a branch joint in which the coi:rect and incorrect forms of preparing and wiping these joints are shown.
At a the cup in the lead pipe projects too far, and the solder is also misplaced, too much of it being under the cup,
The side b shmvs how the cup should lie fitted, and the fonn of the solder when finished.
§10
SOLDERING AND WIPING
47
At c too much solder is applied, and, consequently, some of it is wasted. This form of wiping conveys the idea of poor workmanship.
The side d shows the proper curve that should be given to the solder at this part of the joint. It is stronger than the pipe and has a neat appearance.
At c is shown the edge of the lead that has been driven into the pipe during the preparation of the joint. This
Pig. 60
should have been cut off before the pipes were put together and wiped. At /is shown a bead of solder that has flowed inside the pipe through a bad fit in the cup. These should be carefully guarded against.
C>7. wiping n Vertical Unincli Joint. — The process of wipiii;^ a verti(*al branch joint is more simple and more sure than that of wiping a horizontal branch joint. After the parts are prej)ared and fi.Ked rigidly, the main pipe, if small, is raised on a small, narrow stri[) of wood a^ Fig. 51; molten solder is then splashed on the joint with a splash stick l\ as shown. It is sj)lashcd on gently and in small (juantities at first, to avoid burning a hole in the pipe. The speed and (juantity is increased, however, and a body of solder
51®
SOLDERING AND WIPING
49
is soon piled upagfainst the cleaning. The splashingf is con- tinued, or metal may now be thrown on the joint from the ladle until the joint is thoroughly and uniformly heated and the mass of solder so soft that it cannot stay up, but slides down on the bench. As the cold pipe conducts heat away from the parts r, c, r, it is necessary to lift the plastic metal on to these places to keep them hot. When the solder per- sists in sliding off the parts c, c, c and when considerably more metal is on the cleaning than is required to finish the joint, the plumber takes a wiping cloth and wipes the metal into the proper form, as shown in Fig, 52. A joint of this description is usually finished by drawing the cloth down the concave curve d. Fig. 50, on to the top of the horizontal pipe.
I
68. On large pipes, if the operator cannot accomplish the wiping before the solder begins to set^ a tank iron is often used, as shown in Fig, 53, to maintain the proper
-j«*i
K-
FiO. SS
heat. The iron and the cloth are used alternately, the former to melt the solder and the latter to work it into shape before it sets again, or a gasoline torch may be used instead , of a tank iron.
50
SOLDERING AND WIPING
iu
69.
The male end of a large branch jciint is liable to
slip into the opemng when
9 the joint is heateil To pre-
vent this, it is advisable to slit the edge, as at a m Fig- 5-4, in two or more places and then in drive these projections down out- side the cupping, as at ^, when it is feared that the weight of the branch may cause it to slip into the horizontal pipe.
Fig. m
TO. W I pin if a TY Brunch jroint,^-In Fig. 55 is shown a T Y branch joint.
This form of joint should always be wiped on waste pipes.
The arrows show the direction of the flow of the water. A
Fig. 5S
common right-angled branch joint does not permit the waste water to flow away with sufficient freedom, The waste
SOLDERING AND WIPING
51
^ater is apt to back up and leave deposits of grease and refuse that eventually choke the pipe* Joints like this are
I usually wiped upright, care being taken to fit the pipe a so that it cannot slip into b while being wiped. In wiping this Joint, particular care must be taken tu get up a good heat at the acute angle to the left of the joint. This angle should be wiped first with a small cloth ; then a large cloth may be used to wipe the remainder*
WTFIN-G Ft-ANGi: JOIKTS
71* The flansce joints shown in Fig. 56 are made by flanging the end of the lower suction of pipe over the board a.
m
(^
(0
Fjc. 5G
The upper section is beveled and prepared as for an ordinary joint. The solder is applied with the ladle and is wiped to I the shape shown with a thick cloth.
The section {a) shows a square corner at i that should be ivoided; the corner should be rounded, as shown in sec- 'tion (b) at r.
When a heavy weight is to be borne by the flange, it should be reen forced by means uf a kad ring or flange d^ as showti
52
SOLDERING AND WIPING
16
in section (c). This shf^iild be shaved on the top and soiled on the outer edj^e and bottom, and must be laid on the board before the pipe is flanged over. Care must be taken that the flanged part of the pipe is thoroughly tinned before proceeding to wipe. When making flanged joints against finished walls or on floors, the woodwork should be protected by sheets of thick paper, as otherwise the hot solder will scorch or disfigure it. The flanges of sections (a) and {/») are liable to be thinned too much or even split in flanging them over on the board, and on account of this these joints are usually made too narrow. When a separate flange or ring, as shown at (r), is used, a wider and much neater joint is obtained. Only this latter form of flange joint should be used.
MTS<'KI.LANKOrs KXAMPI.ES OP WIPING
7 '4. Wiping a Ferrule to a Bend. — A 4-inch brass ferrule is usually wiped on the end of a 4-inch lead closet ^^^^^_^_^ bend, the wiping being
/!^^~^~^-- ■ Vlr ..:J^ done on the bench in
an upright manner; "i-inch and 3-inch fer- rules are more com- monly wiped in a hor- _. - -- ---:Zr: izontal position. To
- ' -^ ^ prci)are a 4-inch lead
bend for being wiped oil a straight brass fer- rule, til'- !• ri'.i'c (? ']< :.ii'l .il')n;.i^i(lc <»t tile bend, as shown in I'i\;. ."»;, jiliiwinL: idf md «•! tlir. bi-nd t«> project fully \ ill' li l.ry"r.«i ii. Tin- lini^s/' and <■ arc then scribed around tlir Im.ikI, /' JiriiiL^- ;. iiiih ])t'l«)W and r 1 inch above the end of ihc li-rrnlc. 'JMu' s])a((' lu-twt'cn /'and c is then shaved (dt-an. and ;hr j'aiM iM-twrcn .• ami ^ is coated with soil. This dislanri- is al"»ut :) in(dn">. Tlic (Meaning is then greased with niultnn tallow tn [)reVL'nt oxidation, and the
SOLDERING AND WIPING
63
ferrule a is slipped over the end of the bend, like a sleeve. The ferrule is now held in such a position that the width of the exposed cleaning on the lead bend plus the width of the ejEfKJsed part of the tinning on the ferrule is about 2 inches. The end of the lead bend is then flanged over the end of the ferrule to keep it firmly in its place. The joint is now ready for wiping*
It is not as necessary to have this joint rigidly secured as it is with many other forms of joints, because there is no
A-
n
^M^^
V!
Z-X
/</
^^t^-^
Fia. 58
danger of cracking the joint if the pipe should wabble dur- ing the process of wiping, or even after it is wiped and beff>re the solder has become hard.
The molten solder is usually poured on this joint direct from the ladle, but if its temperature is higher than, say, f>5(r F., it is advisable to commence by splashing the metal on the cleaning with a splash stick. At a temperature of tJ50° F , molten lead will have a very dull red color, just visible in a pt^rfatiy dark roomy and will just char a dry
54 SOLDERING AND WIPING § 16
pine stick without igniting it. When sufficient metal has been splashed on to entirely cover the cleaning, the heat may be got up by pouring the remainder from the ladle. When the heat is up, that is to say, when the ferrule and the lead bend are so hot that the metal slides off the cleaning, the plumber takes the wiping cloth in his left hand and draws up the plastic solder so as to obtain a good body on the joint, and then he begins to wipe.
Since the top of the joint usually sets before the bottom, it is customary to wipe all around the top edge first, then all around the bottom edge, finishing as shown in Fig. 58. Care should be taken n )t to leave too much solder at a^ since it will interfere with the calking operation when joining the brass ferrule to an iron drain or soil pipe. The waste solder at /; should be detached from the work before it becomes set. If it sets before it can be removed, a hot iron may be used to melt it. A sheet of paper should be laid under the joint to catch the solder and prevent its being fouled by any foreign matter on the bench.
73, There are other ways of securing brass ferrules on lead pipes or bends, but they differ with the shape and size of the ferrule. The method described and illustrated here is recognized as the best when straight cylindrical ferrules are used.
74. Wiping rprlKht Joints. — When wiping large upright joints, the heat may he applied by a tank iron, a blowpipe, or a gasoline torch, as circumstances may require. Two or niort; men may be emi)loyed on the same joint at the same time in order to finish it in ont^ heat, or one man may do it in several heats. If the means at hand for heating the joint are suHieient, there is no more difficulty in wiping large joints than small ones.
7i>. When joints are to be wij)e(l c)n upright pipes that are already in position, a collar should be attached tempo- rarily to the pipes directly under the joints, so as to catch
SOLDERING AND WIPING
55
Stildtr and to raise the temperature of that part of the under the joint. In Fig. 511 is shown a j)iece of lead pipe with a collar a in Fposition, whicli is suj)ported by a cord b tied around the pipe. The colhir should be cut to a pattern similar to r, so that wlien it is formed around the pipe, the points d^ ^/can be doid)led over and locked together, as at r, to prevent its spreading apart when the solder falls into it.
FIG. 69 ^
These collars are best made of sheet lead, as this metal is very j)liable and has no spring to it. The inner surface of the collar should be coated with soil to prevent the solder adhering to it. The same collar can be used repeatedly by simply soiling its inner surface on each application. Paper collars are sometimes used, but they are not so satisfactory.
7(J. Wiping a Cross. — A cross is the name given to a combination of two branc^hes wiped to the same pipe and oi)j)osite each other, as shown in F'ig. GO. The main line a is tapped and cupped, as shown in {a), to receive the two branc hes /;, b. This joint is wiped in a horizontal position and is as easy to wij)e as a common T branch, provided the solder is of the best working quality and that the soiled
SOLDERING AND WIPING
heated before
§1(5
wipmg is coramenced. The method of prepEring the parts Is shown in Fig. 60 {it), while the proj^er form of the finished joiiU is shown in (If) and (f). This cum • bi nation joint is wiped with one heal.
77- If the main pipe is much larger than the branches, the latter are wiped separately. If the wipings are quite close to* gether and there is a liability of molten solder run- ning on to the joint already wiped, it should be protected with paper pasted over it, as shown at a in Fig. 61. This figure also shows a simple method of fixing the pipes. The main pi|>e is fixed down on the bench and pre- vented from shift- ing by a pair of
SOLDERING AND WIPING
57
dividers h. The branch pipe about to be w!i>ed is held steady by a piece of pipe c bridging over and resting on
Fig. m.
its crest, A sheet of paper should be placed on the floor to ! catch all solder that drops while the branch is being wiped.
78. Wlplnfif i\ Holder Nipple. — Connections between pipes that are united by solder to other pipes joined by screw threads may be made by means of a solder nipple, as shown in Fig. 6^. The nipple a is made of brass and is
j^<?$W\_/-
^o^ tit
joined to the lead pipe b by a wiped joint c, as shown; the opposite end is provided with an internal or external screw ihat is adapted to connect with a threaded pipe or to a fit- ling, as at ti. A square or hexagonal shoulder e is cast on the nipple to faciHtate screwing up. The joint should be wiped before the solder nipple is screwed to the pipe, if pos- sible, because the iron conducts heat away from the nipple
'JS* Wiplnir on Ti"up 8c re i«^^— Brass trap screws^ or serew-eaps, are wiped on lead pipes, traps, etc, by first
boring a hole with the tap borer and working it up %vith the bending phi, and then cup- ping it with the turn pin until it fits the ring a of the trap screw, as shown in Fig, 63. The ring being tinned outside^ soiled on top and inside the thread, a tissue-paper plug h is packed in to close the opening. The lead is then soiled, shaved, and greased. The ring is now tightly driven in so that it will not work loose while being wiped, and yet not far enough in to form an obstruction to the flow of water in the pipe. The joint is then wiped
Fig. eta
§16
SOLDERING AND WIPING
69
in. It should be removed after the loose solder is picked up and remelted. This lapse of time will give the wiped joint an opportunity to set before the paper plug is pulled out.
HOLDING PIPES WHILE WIPING
81, Fig. 65 illustrates a good method of fixing lead pipes to wipe on a stop-cock. The pipes are laid on bricks and
PlO. 65
weighted with pieces of old pipe, solder ingots, or any other convenient heavy bodies. To prevent the cock from turning while the joint is being wiped, some melted solder is poured over each joint, as shown. One joint is wiped, and after it has set, but before the cock has cooled off, the other joint is also wiped. Straight valves are fixed in the same way.
Special joint-fixing clamps can be purchased for the pur- pose of fixing joints, but plumbers appear to prefer bricks and weights. They can be found on any job and are more rigid than most joint-fixing clamps.
82. Fi^. 66 shows a simple method of fixing: a common sink bibb previous to wiping it on to a lead water pipe>
p
p
secure fasietiing^ but if care is exercised in wiping, there will be little danger of the hibb falling down, for the brass shank expands and tightens itself in the pipe when heat is applied. The end c ot the pipe a h cut on the bevel, sailed outside, scraped and greased inside, and a soft paper plug is pushed into the pipe about i inch to prevent solder from running too far in the pipe when the end is being w^ped over.
83. When the bibb is too short to allow hand room, if a lead weight like i. Fig. 66, is used, it is a good plan to file a notch or groove around the shank% as shown at a^ Fig; B7. The lead edge of the cup is tightly driven into this groove with a chisel and holds the bibb steady without a support.
I
PfG> 07
§16
SOLDERING AND WIPING
61
84. Fig. 08 shows a quick and simple method of fixing a spud or solder nipple. The brick a holds down the wooden plug b and pushes the spud toward the pipe. If a were
FlO. 66
placed on top of ^, the brick c might rock and allow the joint to open a little, which would permit solder to flow in.side the pipe.
II
II
LEAD WORK
WORKING SHEET LEAD
L.INING TANKS
INTRODUCTION
!• The inside of a house tank intended to contain water for domestic purposes is usually lined either with sheet copper or sheet lead. In small tanks the bottom and two sides can usually be formed from one piece of sheet lead ; the two ends are separate. In the corners where the seams must be made, the edges of the lead are usually butted together and a seam wiped. These corner seams are easily wiped when the tank can be turned up on its ends, because then the seams are horizontal. In large tanks that cannot be turned over, more difficulty is encountered, as the corner seams must be wiped in a vertical position. If large tanks are carefully made and free from irregularities and angles, the ends of the sheets may be butted at the seams; but if the corners are irregular, it is customary to lap the seams, allowing ^ inch for lapping at tlie back, and to shave the sheets in position.
For notice f)f copyri^jht, sec pajfc immediately f<>Ilo\vin>f the title p&ge.
8
LEAD WORK
817
2. Blmensloiis.— The fdlowing ss ilhistntioiis show ^^^^^wy hrvi«aj» tank of about l.iwin <mi1i^«. «^_
7Q. jjuaenmons. — a»« w.«#wa.*|j «« unisixatioiis show how. a common house tank of about 1,000 gallons capacity may be lined with sheet lead. The inside dimensions of the tank we will assume to be approximately 8 feet long, 6 feet 1 inch wide, and 3 feet 6 inches deep. Pig. i diows the tank,
Fig. 1
which is of the ordinary rectangular form. We will assume that the carpenters have just finished the woodwork; for the sake of convenience in lining the tank, the tie-rods sht>\vn on the floor at a and the end braces i, b have not been phiced in position.
II. TryliiK the Corners. — First of all, the comers of the
tank arc tried with a steel scjuare, to see if they are at right au^»lcs. Instead of using a steel square, the two diagonals mav be compared; if they are the same length, the tank is nvjuaic A convenient means of doing this is to employ l\\o ihiu wooden rods, holding them together with the hands, a?» ?»lu»\\ It in I'^ij;. :)^ and applying them to the inside corners,
LEAD WORK
§17
the lining to fold over the top, which is 2 inches wide; this permits the lining to be folded down ^ inch on the outside. In order to keep a record of the measurements,
it is advisable to make a small sketch on a shingle or other con- venient material, and to write on it the dimensions, as shown in Fig. 3. In this sketch, the rect- tangles marked a and b represent the ends, and those marked c and d the sides, of the tank lining. The dimensions should be measured as accurately as possible.
5, liaying: Out. — The sheet of lead is now unrolled on a smooth, flat surface, and the best mode of cutting it up carefully considered. In this particular case. Fig. 4 shows a t^ood ])lan of cutting up the sheet, the lining being laid out so that SL-anis will come in the corners and alonj^ the center of the bottom, and having; the j)ieces small enough to l)c handled easily. A piece of sheet lead lai\L(e enough to cover the bottom and the two sides of this t a n k would ])e too heavy to handle. The arrangement shown allows the tank to be lined ^ in four |)ic-(:cs, as follows: Two end pieces a and l\ a side piece c and 1 a side j)ieee <i and the other half
half of the bottom, an( of the Ix.ttoni.
(>. ('ullintr. I'i.^'. '"> ^how^ how the sheet lead is cut up with the knif<'. The plumber runs the point (^f the knife
LEAD WORK
8
along the lines made on the sheet, and tears off the small pieces^ as shown; the big pieces, however^ cannot be thus
KP^^i^
Fto, fi
"turn off. They are bent forwards and backwards a few times, when they break off at the knife cut. The sheets are now ready for being prepared (nr the tank. While the phniiber is ^ 9^
preparing the sheeLs, the carpenter should be at work gouging out a i^roove a, Fig. B, IJ indies wide and I inch deep, along the center of the tank bottom » also hiiir^ eye«, or lmtU>nH, ft on the sides, each % inches in diameter and | inch deep.
FtG, fi
7. Pi'ciMirlnir the H beets. — To prepare the sheets, the edges first t)f ah are rasped or planed straight and true. The [lie! per then heats the soil pot, while the plumber sets Ithe compasses to 4 inches and scribes a line parallel with the edges of the lead, as shown in Fig. 7. The edge, how- ever, that will fold over the top of the tank is not scribed.
The helper follows up behind the plumber, chalking the surface with one hand and rubbing it with the other.
The plumber next neatly paints the chalked surface to the line with soil, as shown in Fig. 8, while the helper dries it by heating the sheet on the under side, as shown. This dries the soil as fast as the plumber can put it on, ' Too much heat or too sudden an application of the heat will blister the soil. It is necessary, therefore, to distribute the heat by swinging the flame backwards and forwards.
Fig. 7
8. The next step in the preparation is shaving the lead. The compasses^ set to about J inch, are used to scribe a straight line parallel with the edges to be soldered- This shining line is scratched on the soiled surface and forms the boundary line for the cleaningf or in other words» the edge of the wiping. The dirty skin of the metal is then shaved off to give a bright, clear, metallic surface between the edge
17
LEAD WORK
of the soil and the ed^e of the sheets as shown in Fig. 9, which shows the helper rubbing the surface with mutton tallow before the metal has time to tarnish. If the metalis allowed to tarnish after shaving it, defective seams may be expected in the tank. In shaving the cleaning, it is neces- sary that no unclean streaks exist j the solder will not adhere
to these streaks and a leak may be the result. The edge of
I the sheet should be beveled with the shaving hook to an imgle of about 45"" while the cleaning is being performed, so that the edges will be mitered when the sheets are set in position in the tank. I 9* The first part of the lining to be prepared is the pheet </, Fig, 4, with half the bottom, because there is an kllowance of J inch made on the bottom for folding into the groove in the bottom of the tank. The next piece to bepre- fxtred is the piece c, and then the two ends are prepared
ind init in the tank after e and ^/ are secured in position, n bending r and d {before placing them in the tank)^ it is lecessary to bend them so that the proper amount will fold gainst the sides and the proper amount on the bottom. Thus, the pieces marked r and i/ laid off on the big sheet are o be bent up on the dotted lines shown. These dotted ines represent a chalk line mark that is struck to mark the
■
^
position. This being done satisfactorily, the plank is removed^ and the sheet is rolled up both ways toward the bend^ when it is ready for lifting into the tank. The proc- ess of handing is quite generally known to the trade as hi*i*tvk1n^ up.
lO, riacinjur the Hhefts.^ — A convement way to raise
the sheet to the top of the tank is to place two planks against the side of the tank, and then slide the sheet up, removing' the planks when it fs on top. The men now get into the tank, one at each end, put their arms around the roll, as shown in Fig. 11, and lower it gently into place, pushing it hard against the side as it descends* so that fric- tion will take its share of the load. It is necessary to keep
LEAD WORK
9
the lead !evel duringf lowering, because it is a tight fit, and otherwise may jam against the ends. The sheet being on the bottom, the men push the bi^ak, as the sharp bend is called, closely into the angle and unrull the bottom part, flattening it. Next, they unroll the side lining upwards and bend it over the top to keep it in place. The lead is then
k
FIG. n
un
r
gently beaten against the woodwork with a dresser or flat board, to make a perfect fit. The other large sheet, which forms the other side and the other half of the bottom, is unrolled, prepared, raised, lowered, fitted, and dressed ugly into place in the same manner.
11# The end pieces are squared, trimmed to accurate 'dimensions, chalked, scribed, soiled, dried, beveled, shaved, and greased in just the same manner as the first sheet and are put in place and dressed into the corners. There is a difference, however, in the handling of the end sheets, not because they only weigh one-third as much as the large pieces, but because the edges of these end sheets must be a
lose and tight fit against the edges of tiie other sheets.
or this reason the end sheets are not rolled up and then unrolled in plac^e (unless, of course, they arc too large and
umsy to handle), hiii are simply laid in place flat or nearly
10
LEAD WORK
8"
sa To facilitate matters, however, and let the end piece go in quite easily, the plumber breaks Itss back^ that is, bends it, over a plank, asshown in Fig. 12, before trying to put it in place. This curves the piece in the middle and consequently shortens the distance between its edges and enables it to slide in easily. When in place, the edges are guided into
the angles, and the bulge is pressed back against the wood- work. The other end is inserted in the same manner. The helper now dresses the surplus 24 inches neatly over the top of the tank, a |-inch margin being bent down, over the out side surface. Then he nails down the top with 1-ineh or l}-inch flathead brass nails, placing them about iS inch
apart. The plumber meanwhil cuts a piece about fJ in. x 14 in, off the scrap lead and makes a fla shown in Fig- 13, and proceeds flap, with the flat part, the linin very closely against the wood alt over the tank, which smooths the surface. The seams are now securely nailed to the woodwork, with J-inc] tinnctl cl*>ut nails, to prevent their l>ulging forwards when the lead is expanded by heat during the wiping process.
m
Pit;. 1»
§17
LEAD WORK
11
r 12, Wiping the Bctams. — In wiping this tank, the helper should start two fires, put on two metal pots, and heal three tank irons. About ^20 pounds of solder are required for the work. It is customary to figure the aaiouot of solder required for lining a tank by allowing 1 pound to &very 2 feet of seam. The length of seams to be wiped in* this tank are:
Upright corners, , 4 x 3' 6" = 14 Hneal feet
Horizontal corners 2x5' =10 lineal feet
Flat seam 1x8' = B lineal feet
Total , * 32 lineal feet
Theweightof solder actually required = ^ =^ 16 pounds, ^or fully three bars, but as it is necessary to have more solder
the pot than is actually re- __- — - rquired for wiping the seams, four bars, at least, should be melted. The tacks used for the seams should be driven in about 2 inches apart, and in such a .,
manner that the edges of both r|||| sheets will be snugly and tightly Jllillll held back against the wood, as shown in Fig. 14. The tack heads must be punched in beyond the surface of the lead; otherwise they may project so far that the solder will barely cover them when the wiping is finished. This precaution of punching takes a little time to perform, but it is time well spent, for the majority of leaks that occur in wiped seams are traceable to carelessness in punching m the tack heads. If the seams are not properly tacked, the hot metal during the wiping process will work in between the lining and the woodwork, where it ^ill cause much annoyance, besides pre- venting the j^heet lead from being beaten back into place after the seams are wiped.
W 18» After the corner seams are nailed, the countersurrk scam on the bottom is secured in a similar manner. This
^mi'i;
Flo. 14
Fig. 15
seam^ however, is different from the others, because the
edge of one sheet overlaps the edge of the other abont i inch, as shown in Fi^. 15, and 1-inch tacks are used in preference to j*inch tacks, for there are two thick- nesses of lead for them to go Lhrough. Sometimes the corner seams are lapped in a manner similar to this, but the majority of tanks
are lined with butted corners, which give perfect satisfac-
tion if closely fitted and properly wiped.
14. The next step is to find the bulTs eyes, or cavities, in the sides and ends of the tank, and then to dress the lead into them. In order to find these cavities now that they are covered with the lead lining, their location should have been taken and the measurements marked dttwn pre- vious to putting in the lining. The lead can easily be driven back into the cavities with an ordinary round- htiaded hammer or mallet* The lead Is secured to the bull's eyes, as shown in Fig. 10, with l^^-inch brass screws having tinned heads. These support the lining and prevent Its bulging inwards> In this tank there is one bull's eye in the middle of each end and two in each side, making six in alL After the huirs eyes are soiled, scraped, and greased the tank is ready for wiping.
15. The helper brings up the fire-pots, solder pots^ and tank irons, and then opens the atiic windows fur ventilation.
Fio. m
j-fc 1
LEAD WORK
13
A pouring: Btick is made by cuttinjr a piece of soft pine
to the shape shown in Fi^. 17, The phtmber picks out his
wiping cloth, which is about *Zi inches square and the
thickest one in the bag, and lays
it on a brick by the fire to soften,
for, being soaked with mutton
tallow, it is quite hard when
cold. Being satisfied that the
metal is good, he enters the tank.
The helper hands him the ladle,
cloth, shave hook, a piece of
paper, the pouring stick, two bricks, and finally the metal
pot, which the plumber stands on the bricks, the wiping
cloth being laid by its side*
na. 17
16p With the pouring stick in his left hand and ladle in his right, the plumber pours molten solder into the
^1
0
k"^
Fl6, tS
angle, as shown in Fig. 18, ihe stick being used to guide the ^rcam to the desired parts, IW dues not pour it all on on
ua— £5
the vertical cleaning, pouring on more and more until the &eam becomes so hot that the solder becomes plastic, and
Fig. 10
tends lo run down. The helper then pulls a red-hot
?17
LEAD WORK
15
iron out of the fire, cools the handle in a pail of water, and rubs the scales off the red*hot head with the edge of an old file ; he then hands the iron to the plumber, who is now busy keeping up the plastic solder, as shown in Fig. 19. The tank iron is rubbed up and down the seam to keep the solder plastic and to thoroughly tin the cleaning. The cloth is used to keep up the viscous mass and push it into the seam, as shown in Fig. 20. This operation must be continued until the seam is thoroughly tinned, which can be determined by the plastic solder clinging to the cleaning,
17. The seam being properly heated and thoroughly tinned, and having a good thickness of plastic solder all over its length from the top of the tank to nearly the bottom, the plumber immediately proceeds to form and finish the seam by
0
lG»^
wiping down from the top, as shown in Fig. 31, with his middle finger bearing heavily on the center of the cloth to curve it. The tank iron and cloth are alternately applied to the seam, ^be former to melt the solder and the latter to work it into
16
LEAD WORK
UJ
shape, until the bottom is reached, when the plumber receives another hut iron and reiurns the cold *>nti to the helper for reheating. The surplus metal from the vertical seam (now wi}>ed) is [uished into the htjrizontal angle, where it is melted by molten solder being poured on it. The tank iron liithen
m
wiQ.m
used to keep up the heat, and the cloth to press the solder into the seam and to wipe it into proper shape. The plumber stops wiping when he reaches the intersection of the hori- zontal cud seam with the countersunk seam, where he pastes on a piece of paper, as shown at a in Fig. %2,
18. The helper picks up the loose solder and takes away the pot to reheat it ; he then hands in the other pot, and the plumber wipes the other corner seam in precisely the same manner as dt^scribcd. But, when he joins the new wiping Iti the old one, he finds the piece of paper at a. Pig, 22, to be \-erv convenient. ft*r it prevents the snider from overlapping the wiping and adhering to it. A neat connection is there- hvre obtainable. This time he finishes wiping somewhere kcm the countersunk seam. The other end of the tank
m^i
^m^cAand finished in a
similar manner;
I
19. The countersunk st^am is easily wiped. Molten solder h poured into it until the grrKjve overflows* The tank iron and cloth are used in a manner similar to that already explained. The chief difference lies in the fact that this seam is wiped flush with the tank liottom. The seams being all wiped, the helper picks up the surplus metal all over the tank and melts it again for use in wiping the buirs eyes. Fig. 23 shows how this is done, A newspaper.
FTC 23
is pasted to the lining below the bulPs eye to catch anj falling solder. The plumber splashes the solder into the cavity with a splash slick. When the bull's eyes are thoroughly tinned, they are wiped flush with the face of the lining, and the screw heads are thus protected from the water, This Hnishes the wiping of the tank, which is now swept clean: the lining is then beaten back with the lead flap previously used until it is against the woodwork.
80, The coi'iier pleees on top of the tank are now put in; they are soldered on with the copper bit, and the tank is ready for its braces, which are put in place and careful ly bolted up tight; the tank is then ready for its connections.
its bottom, as previously meiuioned, and then to wipe along toward the right hand about 6 inches or 1 duit^ as shown at a. Wiping is then commenced at A and continued ttsward the left until the seam is wiped all around the bottom, finishing^ at a.
mHINCJ TANKS WITH COPPHH
32, While it seems somewhat illogical to consider the lining of tanks with sheet copper under the heading of Lead Work, nevertheless, the similarity of the work to that done in lead lining warrants it being considered here in order to avoid repetition*
Tn lining house tanks with sheet copper^ the seams that can be made in a horizontal position are usually soldered
§ 17 LEAD WORK 19
with a bit, but all upright seams that must be made in position should be wiped in a manner similar to that already described, with this difference, that no soil is used. If a tank iron is used to maintain the heat of the seams while wiping them, a strip of paper should be pasted on the copper for the same purpose that soil is used on lead. If a gasoline torch is used to raise the heat of the seam, the tinned surface of the copper is left uncovered.
23. The seams of copper linings should always be locked, or double seamed, in such a manner that the tinned sur- face of the copper will come together in the lock. If the copper sheets are not tinned, the edges must first be tinned to a suitable width with the copper bit, using chloride of zinc as the flux. The upright seams are secured to the tank with tinned nails to prevent their bulging while being wiped.
The application of the solder to the seams and the wiping of them are the same as for those in lead-lined tanks, except that the solder must be worked ahead, as otherwise it will adhere to the tinned surface of the copper sheets. If a tank that is lined with tinned copper is properly wiped, the seams will be smooth and almost invisible.
24. The thickness of tank linings should vary with the depth of the water. For a tank about 4 feet deep, 16 or 20 ounce copper or 6 or 7 pound sheet lead is con- sidered the proper weight. If the tank is deeper, heavier material should be chosen. The size of the parts into which the lining is divided is governed by their weight and the facilities at hand for lifting and handling them, etc. In the case of large surfaces, bull's eyes, or solder dots, as they are often called, should be located from 2 to 3 feet apart for lead linings and from 3 to 4 feet apart for copper linings.
25. In laying out the copper lining, it is advisable, if possible, to arrange the sheets so that no wiped seams are
20
LEAD WORK
JH
necessary. This can always be accomplished in tanks that
can be turned over on their sides.
FIO. 25
be bent. The miter cut at a forms the miter seam b in Fig.
Other tanks will have at least one ufxight seam that should be wiped instead of soldered. All copper-bit seams should be on hori- sontal surfaces, as on the bottom in large tanksy and away from angles, as shown at tf , b^ and c, Pig. 25, and they must all be locked seams to give satisfac- tion. In making the seam b^ Fig. 25, the sheet should be cut as shown in Fig. S6. The dotted lines show wliere the sheet should
when closed and locked
25.
^(>. In lining tanks with copper, the sides and ends are lined first, the base of these sheets being lapijed over on the bottom of tile tank, as shown at i' and /' in Fig. "^/i. After the sides are finished, the bottom piece i^ is laid in place and locked all around, as at a. All ^'°- ^
the seams are then thoroughly flattened with a mallet and soldered.
§17
LEAD WORK
21
bixx;k-tin lining
27. Block tin is seldom used by plumbers except for making solder or in the form of pipes. The pipes are bent and otherwise worked in a manner similar to lead pipes. For covering the top boards of pantry sinks, etc., sheet tin rolled from pure block tin is preferable to lead, zinc, or copper. It tarnishes very slowly, is easily kept clean, is durable, and easily receives a high polish that makes it resemble silver.
28. In Fig. 27 is shown the manner of cutting the block-tin sheet to cover the wooden top of a pantry sink, which is shown by the dotted lines. The sheet is cut at a
Fio. 27
and d larger than the top, and at c and ^ smaller than the hole in the top, so that it may be bent around thi; edges and nailed underneath, as shown in the section at the right. Sufficient metal is left on at e and / to form upslands or splash plates, e being of such a shape that when the plates are turned up, the part ^ can be bent around /to form a lap joint in the corner. This joint is then neatly soldered with the blowpipe.
The sectional view shows the top covered and r and / brnt up in position. The tin can Ik- bent neatly ov*'r the cintsidc corner // by smoothing it down with a hot flatiron. Th<:
2S LBAD WORK |1T
margin of tin allowed at c and dcku be worked down and
PIO. »
under the cover by means of a warm, smooth round bar a in Fig. 28, which shows the manner of applying it.
BETAIIiS OF SnCETET-USAI) WOBX
MAKrXG TT1»STA2«>8
29. Angles, or iipstancls, in sheet lead may, if the
sheet is smaH, be bent over the edge of a plank, as shown in Fig. V,^, the dresser being used to flatten the lead against
FlO. 59
the plank and thus make a neat corner. It should not be bent over a sharp iron e(lg(\ because this edge will cut into
17
LEAD WORK
^3
the lead and weaken it at the corner, as shown at a. Fig. 30.
Sheet lead should always be t^ent over a rounded edge, and the
dresser should not be applied to the
edge, but only to the flat surfaces.
This will leave the edge as strong as
the sheet; the edge will have the
appearance shown at Ik
Care must be taken to bend up the sheet so that it will be a tight fit when put in place. Inexperi- enced sheet-lead workers usually put the lead in too small and then drive the comers back, which ^'^* ^
stretches the lead at the corners and often tears it, A good plumber never stretches sheet lead. He rather works to P thicken it.
FORMING COnNl£It«l
30, Pifi^-EarlniQf Corners, — A simple method of form- I ing the corner in an upstand, as occurs for instance in
i^sates on cheap jobs, is known to the trade as pl^-efirtn(r comers. The upstands are bent up, as at a and b^
u
LEAD WORK
§17
Fig. 31, folding the corners c, c into a shape like a pig's ear. This ear is then flattened and bent around, as shown in Fig. 32, to form a water-tight corner. On the better
FIG. 82
class of work, however, these corners are worked up and I lie surplus metal is cut off instead of being bent
around.
IH^^: life
31 . Workinp: Corners. — The working of corners requires
more skill than pi^ earing, but it is better and neater and
indicates the work of a ' skilled mechanic. Sup-
pose a safe is to be laid on the floor of the re- cess shown in Fig. 33. The lead is cut to the pr(>])er size, allowing 3 inclies for upstands around the sides a, l\ and i\ and also for the front, which permits tlic lead to be fnhled 1 inch over the t<>p of the strip of wood d that is -l iiu^hes high. All foni- npstand^ ;ii-r Ix-iii up. pi- carin- each corner, as shown in 1m-. :'. 1. 'riu-ii i!i<- l>'.ti<'in near ra. h corner is bulged up wit li t l;c niaiN't i« • si itTcii t he shrct . The pi<^ ear is made up of casx- ( nr\c>. A Mot k of \v..(.<l ..r the head of a mallet is held nito the corner and the surplus metal in the pig ear
LEAD WORK
817
the sheet. If the fillet, or strip, d^ Fig. US, is bevekd inside, the front corners can be woiAed in place. If it is square inside, the comers should bi^ worked up 9 inches and then finished and trimmed in place. Fig. 85 shows & neat method of finishing at the end of the fillet There is no joint or seam, the lead being neatty worked into the corners. The edges of the safe are aaikd all around to the wall with brass or copper flat- or ronad- head tacks, as shown. The comers shown in Fig. 84 are called out8l<le comers, and are more oommcm than inside corners.
3!3. A good way to work up an Inalda oomar is to first cut the lead so that a surplus will b^ allowed at 4c, Fig. 86, sufficient to compensate for the stretching that naturaUy occurs. In Fig. 36, b is the body of the sheet and the parts r, c, c are to be bent up at the dotted lines: The inside corner is located at d. The upstands are bent up as dose
Fit;. 36
to the corner as they will go by hand. The sheet is then bulged up at c and /*, to stiffen it. A mallet is now used to drive the sur[>lus uniformly into the corner, so as to thicken rather than thin the metal. It must be worked in easily, uniformly, and steadily, without distorting the general form of the sheet, and great care must be taken to avoid tearing the lead. If the outside corner is dose to the inside corner, as shown in Fig. 'M\, some of its surplus metl|l can be worked toward the inside corner.
17
LEAD WORK
87
IiBAD-PIPE WORK
HAKXILIKO liEAD PIPE
STRAItJHTENIXG LEAD PIPE
33* Thtr &ti*alKliteiita|Ei: of leacl pipe is usually accom* plished by strctciuiig, rolling, or by drift plugs. If the pipe is long and of small diameter, it can be stretched out straigiit like a rope. If, howeverj it is short and of considerable thickness, as water |>ij>e, for- instance, it can be straightened by roiyng on a flat surface and by driving down the irregu- larities with a l)lock of soft wood and a hamnien Thin waste pipes, however, if l»adly bruised and flattened, must be first straightened in a general way and then a drift plug should
FtG. S7
be driven through to push out the kinks and give the pipe an equal and full bore throughout its length. Ftg. 37 shows how the kinks at a are removed. A small drift plug A, well greased, and followed by a drift plug f, which fits the full bore of the pipe snugly, is forced through the pipe by repttaied blows from a wooden rod or piece of iron pipe d. Occasionally, it is necessary to help the plugs through by beating or dressing the kinks around the plugs, and thus easing them.
38
cuTTniTo Ain> cAHBrnre IiBAd :
34. Small sizes of lead pipe, called taMn^, arte cat with a pocket knife ; larger sizes are cut with a saw. In cutting pieces off a coil, care should be taken to leave the eai straight for a few inches. While cutting lead waste pipe, it is necessary to be careful not to kink it.
35. Coils are usually rolled from place to place, but when it is necessary to carry one, the weight should be taken on the shoulder and the back should be kept straight, otherwise the back may be strained. The propdr way to carry a length of waste pipe is' to spread out the arms so that the hands will be about as far apart as half the length of the pipe; the person should be in the center of the length.
BEKDIKG liBAD PIFBB
36. Fig. 38 shows how water pipes are bent by hand.
Fig. .38
The left hand i)iishes down on the place where the pipe should be biMit, and the ri^ht hand pulls up the pipe and
§ 17 LEAD WORK 29
forms the bend, as shown. If the pipe a is too short, a bend- ing pin is pushed in the end and used as a lever for pulling it up. It is not necessary to fill the bore, of water pipes before bending, because the lead is thick enough to prevent the pipe from flattening at the bend.
37. Lead pipe of the grades A A A, A A, A, or B is frequently bent over the knee or over a rounded block with- out materially distorting the circular section of the pipe unless the bend is a very sharp one, in which case care must be taken to prevent the pipe from kinking or flattening side- wise.
SANn BENDING
38. Large pipes and those made of thin material may be bent and kinking avoided by filling them with dry sand and thoroughly ramming it. There is an objection to bending pipes in this manner, however, in that metal forming the outer curve, or heel, of the bend is stretched and made thinner, while that forming the inner part, or haas, a is compressed and thick- ened, as shown in Fig. 31^. The gain of metal in the hass is slight compared with ^'°' ^
the loss of metal at the heel. The heel, con.sequently, is the weakest part of the pipe. To avoid this, the bend should have as easy a curve as possible. Lead waste pipes having a diameter greater than ^l inches should not be bent wilh sand unless the bends are very easy.
39. Fig. 40 shows an ofl"sel made on a piece of 2-inch lead waste pipe. The bend a shows that the sand
;d by filling them with dry sand and
80
LEAD WORK
has not been properly packed ami th&t ii hsis jicUed and been displaced. At ^ is shciwn a bend In m weB- packed pipe. The heel of 5 will be much thinner th%ti that of a.
4
The wooden sand plugs c, c are driven intd the ends of the pipe, not only to Iceep in the dry sand, bat abb. to give
PIO. 40
more levcrapfe in bending the pipe; the bend can also be made nt-arcr the end, which is often desired. By heating thr sand imnu-diately before pouring it into the pipe, the
bends can be made more easily.
liKNDINC; WITH A COILKD SPBIKG
•to. vSoint-iinu's a close-coilcd steel spring is used for l)i;n(linj^^ This is well greased and placed inside the pipe where the bend is reciuired; the pipe is then bent over the knee like a water i)ipe. This, however, makes a very thin heel and is no l)etter than sand l>ending. It is often nsed, however, for 1], U, and :l ineh waste pipe. To remove, llie sprinj^ after the pipe is !)ent, simply unscrew it, i. e., twist it to tlie hdt, if the sprinj^ is coiled right-handed, which makes it smaller in diameter. By pulling and twist- ing, it will come out.
§ 17 LEAD WORK 31
BENI>ING WITH BOBBINS
41. A much used method of taking out the kinks in lead waste pipes is by means of wooden balls called bobbins. Fig. 41 shows the manner of doing this. After the pipe has been bent in the usual way (over the knee or block) dif- ferent sizes of bobbins are inserted, after having been well greased, beginning with the smallest one and following it up in regular order with the larger ones, as shown irf the illustration. After the bobbin a, whose diameter is the same as that of the pipe, has been inserted, a number of bobbins b, b, called the followers, are inserted. These are
PIO. 41
of smaller diameter than the pipe, so that when the largest bobbin a is driven through and out of the pipe by ramming the bobbin with a rod f, the followers will drop out easily.
If heat be applied at the throat, as at d, it will soften the lead at this point and thereby cause it to yield more easily to the outward pressure of the bobbins and cause less thinning of the heel, particularly if the heel be kept cool with a wet cloth. The superfluous lead on the sides can be dressed back to the heel. This will somewhat make up for the loss in thickness of this part, which is caused by the pressure of the bobbins as they are driven around the curve.
§17
LEAD WORK
33
head, is applied to the kinks, which are heated from the out- side with a gasoline torch to soften the lead; the kinks are then easily driven out. Care must, of course, be taken not to melt the lead.
43. If the pipe is too small to work the hand freely, a long bending pin, made out of ^ or J inch pipe, is used, as shown in Fig. 43. The point should be rounded off with a file. The kinks can then be driven out by hammering on the pin, as shown.
44. If the bend is quite far from the end, say 18 inches or more, it is advisable to use a long dummy and a fulcrum,
FlO. 44
as shown in Fig. 44. A sudden jerk downwards on the end a will throw up the loaded end b with great velocity and will drive the kink c in the pipe outwards.
45. In all these methods of driving out the hass, the
operations of bending up and bossing out are applied alter- nately until the bend is worked up to the desired angle. In bending the pipe, tlie sides bulge out a little, as shown in Fig. 4.5; these bulges should be driven in with the dresser in such a manner that the Fio. 45
^^
u
LEAD WORK
17
surplus metal at ^i will be worked over to the heel i of
the bend. The mx- tows show the dircc- tinti of the blows of the dresser, A gciod mechanic can i h u s make t b f^ hc«?l the thii:keat part of the
46, Fig* 46 shows a well-made lead bend. In which the heei is thickest. U is found U> l>e s^uiie- nor in every respect
Pig. •
to a sand-made bend, but it is also moite costly.
LEAD BURNING
APPARATUS
THE PROCESS
47. The process called l)urniii^ is used for joinin^^ the
edges of lead sheets or pipes without solder. The edges are fused to an extent that permits the parts to unite and form one solid piece when cooled. This process is known as tile autoKc^iious process, and although it has been prac- ticed for centuries, it is used far less at the present day than it should be. It affords a quick and cheap method of making lead joints of the most durable character, and it may be used with i)rofit in many cases instead of the solder- ing process now commonly employed.
Solder cannot be used for joints that are exposed to con- tact with acids, because most of the ordinary acids will dis- solve the tin, of which the solder is in part composed.
§17
LEAD WORK
35
Tanks that are used for the manufacture or storage of acids, or acid salts, or for the storage of mineral oils, petroleum, etc., are usually lined with lead. The joints in these linings and in all of the lead pipes that are used for the same purpose, must be made by burning.
The operation is performed by melting the edges to be joined, a drop at a time, by means of a blowpipe. It is essential that the flame used shall not oxidize or tarnish the metal. If the drop of melted metal does oxidize, it will not unite with the solid parts, and the joint will be a failure.
The most certain and convenient way to secure a non- oxidizing flame is to use hydrogen gas mixed with air to supply the blowpipe. Other methods may be employed, but none are so convenient as the hydrogen-gas process.
TIIK GENEIIATOK
48. The apparatus required for lead burning consists of a /^(is ^rcnerator, an air pump and storage tank, or holder, and a compound bloicpipc. The internal construction of a generator and gas holder is shown in Fig. 47. The ^\\^ jarenorator consists of an open chamber a, which is lined with lead, and a lower chamber /;, also lined with lead, which is made air, or gas, tight. A perforated pan, or tray, c is suspended 1 inch or more above the bottom. The upper and lower chambers are connected by a lead pipe d that extends below the pan c, as shown. The chambers are protected by a stout wooden casing against injury or accidents; the casing also st- rves to retain the heat that is general(Ml in b while making gas. The gas pass<*s upwards thr(nigh the bent pipe, which dips about I inch below the water that is contained in the chamber c. Thus the gas is com fuelled to bubble upwards through th(* water before it passes out of the cock /to the
Pig. 47
1
LEAD WORK
blowpipe. This arrangfcmcnt (.nnstitutcs a fire* trap that will prevent an explosion hi thti husti ftotu tiring the ^n^ in the machine. In order to regulates the height of the water in e, a small petcock, or phig^ g is provided.
49. To make gas, a quantity of commercial zinc m lumps from 1 to 2 inches long is placed in the copper pan £. The plug A is then screwed into plaoe and made i^Las-tigbt, and the gas-cock /is opened. Having previausly ascertained by experiment the quantity of water that will exactly fill the chamber *, a mixture of 5 pans of water and 1 part, by volume, of commercial snlphuri*; acid is prepared, A qtian> tity of this mixture that will jusH fill the chamber fi h then poured into the upper chamhrr n and allinve<l u> flow \uUi h
The generation of gas will begin as soon as the acid mixture encounters the lumps of zinc in the pan c^ but as the eodcf is open, the liquid will all flow into and entirely fill b^ thus
forcing the air in b to the atmosphere.^
When b has been entirely filled, that is, when all the liquid poured into a has flowed into by and gas and liquid spurt out of the cock/, the cock is closed, and the rubber tubing that is to conduct the p:as to the blowpipe is then attached to/ The gas generated in b will now rise to the surface, and l)y accumulating there will force the liquid up the tube d and into<'?. The pressure of the gas will increase with the lieiji^ht of the liquid ( ohnnn in d and a. As soon as the . li(jiiid in b is forced below the perforated pan, the formation of jj^as will cease, and, of course, at this point the maximum pressure of the jj^as will be obtained. The machine will then be ready for use.
The ol)ject of blowing the air out of /; before allowing gas to accuniulale is to i)revent a mixture of air and gas, which is exj)losive, and which, if iirniied, may blow the machine to pieces and injure or probably kill the workman.
50« The machine should not be allowed to stand over night with a charjj^e of liquid in it, because it will clog up with a deposit of sulphate of zinc. As soon as the workman
§ 17 LEAD WORK 37
is finished for the day, the drain plug / should be removed and the apparatus emptied of liquid. Two pails of clean water should be run through it to remove the deposits and cleanse it.
The utmost care must be taken to keep the chamber b perfectly air-tight. Its tightness should be frequently tested by shutting the cock /and filling the upper chamber with clean water, allowing it to stand for at least 1 hour and taking note of the exact height of the water. If the water sinks during the test, a leak is surely indicated, and if a leak exists, the machine must be examined until the leak is found and repaired. A very slight leak may cause a dis- astrous explosion.
The zinc tiiat is used for making gas should be of the ordinary commercial quality. Pure zinc works very slowly and is not satisfactory. About 3 ounces of zinc will furnish 1 cubic foot of gas. The charge of zinc should be about 20 to 25 pounds for a machine that is intended to run all day.
51. A generator of convenient size is about 10 inches square and 33 to 30 inches high. A larger machine would be advisable for heavy work. If the amount of liquid con- f tained in a generator is small in proportion to the amount of zinc, it will soon become saturated with the sulphate of zinc that is formed during the process of making gas, and the evolution \>f the gas will cease. Considerable heat is liber- ated while the gas is forming, and the generator works best while hot. As soon as the temperature falls, the sulphate will begin to crystallize and will form a coating all over the pieces of zinc; it may clog up the holes in the pan r, or it may even choke up the inner end of the delivery pipe d. This clogging may occur while the workman is away at • dinner. . If the liquid is not nearly saturated with sulphate, ^. *r spent, as it is called, it should be driven back into the •upper chamber by attaching the air pump to /and pumping air into />; by inserting a wooden i>lug in the top of d, the liquid can be held in a as long as desired. Then the zinc can be taken out and washeil clean with hot water. Care
38
LEAD WORK
§17
must be taken to force the air out of the machine, as pre- viously directed, before resuming work.
Exj)losi()ns of hydrogen gas mixed with air are very violent, and care must be taken at all times to keep away all lights or fires from the vicinity of the generator while oj)ening it or while blowing out any gas. This danger is probably the chief drawback to the use of the machine, but in the hands of careful workmen no trouble is likely to happen.
/;*>
may
TIIK AIR SUPPLY
. The air supply necessary to operate the blowpipe be furnished by a bellows or a blower, or almost any kind of a pump, but to operate the blow- pi j)e to the best advantage, the air blast should be perfectly steady and smooth. A ^^(xkI way to obtain a proper blast is to isr the air holder shown in Fig. 48. This onsists of a hollow cylinder a of galva- 1" ni/.(*(l iron, open at the lower end, which is iinnRTscd in a tank of water. The outer i.ii.k /' should be about 1 inch larger in (!i.iinri<r 1 ban ^/. The cylinder a should |)e cotiiinrd l)y suitable guides, so that it 'cninot ii|. sidewise and bind. The air ro.l^s may l)e atta(4ied to the top of d. Tilt* j'lrs^nre of the blast may be regu- ]:ii' 'I '•>■ i»lai-in<^ more or less weight on liM- I'.j) '.1 ilu- lloating cylinder. One Ih- < onnccird l)y rubber tubing to til'- air pump. In practice the •^ !<• iis hi^Oiest limit, and the Ki"^ sunk nearly to the bottom I'lMMi.-il. Continuous pump-
.1-
at": : int.> I
. w '•■.]•■• and \ h
is t ii'ii -hill r:i!i-'-, w l:«-i i:..l i-.(ii-:r
'>; i;<-i \vi^< . 1
, J 1
1 li'-r I. lUilii ,f V • iT II [ir! / ;'nni!-;nL:
C.iir iinisi !»•■ takrn that the pressure aUT liiaii ili.it '.I I he ^.,s from the gener- «;tirnKi\ \\..;k hack t hr« »Uirh the gas tube \r i;»-nrr.iioi and < an^c an cxpl. t-^i. »n of the apparatus.
17
LEAD WORK
B9
ma:nipflation of xhe appabatus
53, Fig. 49 shows the general arrangeitient of the appa- ratus. The gas from the generator and the air from the holder are not mixed until they reach the mixing pipe a. The proportions of air and gas are determined by adjusting the cocks to which the rubber tubes are attached, and the force of the jet is also adjusted in the same way. This mixing pipe should be as closely behind the blowpipe as convenience will permit. The mixture of air and gas Is very explosive, and the fire may flash back from the jet to the
■t==>-'
Fia. 10
H
mixinji pipe, spoiling the tubing, if nothing worse. In some forms of blowpi{>c the mixing cocks are attached to the blow* pipe. The hlnvvpipe should be provided with several sizes of jets, or nozzles. A jet of ^-inch bore is of proper size for working on 4-pound lead. The diameter of the bore of
he nozzles used for heavier lead will increase slightly with 'the thickness of the sheet. About ^-^'inch bore will be required for 12 to %Q pound lead
The rubber tubing that connects the blowpipe to the
as generator and the air holder should be uf ^ to | inch
40
bore, and of extra heavy rubber, so that it wfll not kink. It should be connfeeted by means of screw c oypluiga. If the tubes are merely flipped over nipplc^s atid are not wired, they are liable to be pulled off while working.
Vapor is liable to condense in the tubes j cl*jts uf water are liable to be blown into the blowpipe and extinguish the flame. In that event, the tubes should be dtsc'f>rmected niul hung up to drain until thry are dry. The tubes should be detached from the generator and ihe air holder at the end of each day's work, and be hung up to drain and dry out.
The cock on the j^^^enerattir sliould be kept closed while the blowpipe is not in use, but should be opened wide when ready to proceed with work. The regulation of the gM flow should be done by the gas-cock on the mixing pipe.
To start the blowpipe^ the air cock is first shut; then the gas-cock is partly opened, and as soon as gas flows from the jet it is ignited. The flame at first will be long, noisy, and unsteady, with very little color. The gas-cock is theib grad- ually closed until the flame is reduced to about 8 inches in length. The air cock is then slightly opened and air is admitted to the flame. The supply of aij is gradually increased until the flame i.s shortened to about 1| inches, or until the flame is sharp-pointed, compact, rapidly darting, noiseless, and divided into two well-defined flames, one inside of the other. The inner flame should be very dis- tinct, and its apex, which is the point of greatest heat, should be blue. The outer flame is of a pale reddish color, and its temperature is much lower than that of the inner flame. The two flames differ greatly in their effect on metals. 1'he outer flame will oxidize the metal that it touches, but the inner flame will melt the metal and keep it hot as lonj; as desired without oxidizing it. Consequently, the inner flame is used exclusively in the operation of lead burninji:, and the contact of the (niter flame with the metal is avoided as much as jK)ssible.
54. rig. 50 exhibits the various forms of the flame as the proportions of air and gas are changed. The clear gas
§17
LEAD WORK
41
makes a flame as shown at the extreme left. As air is intro- duced in increasing quantities, the flame takes, in succession, the shapes shown toward the riji^ht, until it reaches the cor- rect working shape shown in the third view from the right. The second view from the right shows the effect of too much air, and the view on the extreme right shows the
Fig. 60
flame on the point of going out from excess of air or lack of gas.
It should always be borne in mind that the gas must be turned on and ignited before air is admitted, and when it is desired to extinguish the (lame, the ;iir must be shut off before the gas-cock is touched. To increase the flamt*, increase the gas first, then increase the air; to dimin- ish the flame, check the air first, tlien reduce the supply of gas.
4-2 LEAD WORK § 17
m:Kxix<s JOINTS and se.vms
35. To k-arii the characteristics of the flame, and how to hantlle it, a person should practice on a piece of sheet lca(i that has been cleaned with the shave hook. Quickly briiij^ ilown on tlu- (lean lead the point of the inner flame. Almost instantly a disk of melted lead will be formed; then quirkly remove the flame. The melted metal will cixjl bright, showing that it has not been oxidized. Now bring the t lul of the outer flame to bear on the clean lead, keep- ing the inner llame about J or | inch away. The lead will (juic kly lainish, and although it will melt, it will be covered with a r(»al of gray oxide.'
Again l»ring tlie point of the inner flame to bear on the clean leail, nu-h a little, and then withdraw the flame slowly, allowing the oult-r flame to act on the molten part; a film of gray oxide will spread over the molten metal, and it is then sptMJfd for joining purj)oses.
Ii will also be found that unless the flame is withdrawn with pr«»j)er ipiirkness, ugly holes will be made in the sheet nu'lal.
JMutli' '■ ( \i»<r:n.' nt will disclose the fact that if a bi»rtd, ■••■ ■''.'■ 'I. ■•: i. ;id. i> :n.iint ained in a state of fusion, and if a -'1 ."^ .ii: •>: :!:. ^.:' • ^^iitcl on ^r against which the lead ■-1- i'- I.:-.'!. •' ^\.d will (piirkly flow to and unite w':! • T.-lic'ii.. : ■ ' .. ^Iirci, and will upon cooling form a ,■■ : . ' ■ ::.■•;:' ■ - vi.i^^^ with it. The union will be
;■ .■ ■. .':'<; i::;". ■ \ii;aii.)n is avoided. • This is the
' -^ ■■;... t.i • • ' 1' •.. -- ..| K.^d burning. The attrae- li"' • ■ ■'■.'■ ' . ;■■ - ■ : :i'.« ii<! ii-a<l for each other is so
: " ■. .'c' :•. . : ■; •; \ \ ■; at :- 'U nj)on the bead is appar-
'•'''■} : , . . ' V •, ■;. im!'!. (.-Nient, and it is found
\\' .'. •■■ '•■ ■ .I'.- !'..!'; :• I !\!\ •■! i:; almost any direction. '1: = ' - •■ - :- .:■;-: ,■■ \.i'--'(i ;.>^nit the thickness of
\]\'- y ■■■ '' •'..: ■.{■■■w ■(■ i',. ■!. a".; a!-«> ;.) suit the direction -■I ;■• I".-'. ^^ '<';■'! i:'-i '. ■ ■•.lal > -v x'crtical, inclined or
III V I I ! '•<!
Tin aii:'::!'. "i i i- .-i .-i .i.:.- i'\ biiinini; drj)en(ls a good dial ^^\i llu --i/t .•! liM JM-aji niadr by tlie l)lowj)ipe flame;
§17
LEAD WORK
43
therefore, it is important that the bead should not be made too small. If the bead is too large, the joint will present a very uneven surface, as the weight of the bead will overcome the attraction of the melted metal near it, so that it will fall away from "the desired place and be unmanageable. Care must be taken to avoid fusing too large a spot in the sheet at any one time, because the sheet will be thinned- out and weakened by it.
Fig. 51 shows two sections of lapped joints, of which the left-hand one is properly made, while the right-hand one has been badly weakened by too much fusion.
Pig. 51
56. A person is advised to begin practice on a butt seam on the bench. He should first prepare two pieces of sheet lead by planing the edges to be joined straight and square, and shaving the top surfaces clean about ^ inch wide on each side of the butt joint ; then butt the edges together and secure the sheets firmly to a board. The extra lead that is necessary to mak^ a butt joint, that is, to supply the beads, must be obtained from a lead stick. This should be ^ inch or more thick, tri- angular in section, and shaved clean.
The blowpipe flame being regulated to the proper shape and size, the burning is begun at the nearest end of the joint, as a in Fig. 52. With the point of the inner flame melt off a drop of lead from the end of the lead stick and allow it to fall squarely on the seam. Follow it up instantly with the flame, placing the point of the inner flame exactly over the edges of the scam, which are under the bead. Thry will qui( kly melt and unite with the bead. The flame must be withdrawn before the fusion proceeds any farther than necessary to secure that one bead in j)lace. If the operation is proj)erly performed, a .section through the bead will appear as at b in Fig. 52. Now procee<l to drop
44
LEAD WORK
§i:
an<Hhf*r head on the seam, hut lappings about one-third of its dianu'ter on the previous head, and secure it to the seam in the same way. Each suceessive hea(i fuses into and unites with the preceding one and witli the edges o[ the sheets, thus forminj^ a continuous joint. A person will soon learn to make tlie heads follow one another in rapid succession.
M, \
llu::- I
ni^ •! !:i' !•!' w r)ij)f' in mcltini^ off the bead,
■ :: ' -■ ;:i'. iii.^iii- the cdi^rs ot the seam, and
■'1! '.'■ . ■ I'jit.iir-l ill i}ui<'k succession, the
■;':.'■•" :•: -^ I'l; i'l a tirrular patli and ^radu-
.■:■''•'■.• - :i' • ; 'iiil pro^ircsscs.
'.; -':; 'i! he |)ra«'ticed until pcr- -■' ■ *■•',■ •- -'-■.:;;<] iiiid the operator k-arns ■' • '; •■ '■ a; ;;■• -• .■> i • ^(■<iire the beads in -.:.,■ . ;M.-..'-;!:iv .i;-.! im:.-1;v.
hip|>o(l Join I . .:
t- !•■• ;- ;ir'M!l •- ii'.w t«> make a flat
'. ri;^ ."»:'. Tiif sheets should be
..i\''l \\!i''« !!uv iMuch each other.
ainl tii«: iiji[»ri- ^'.iiia' V - >;:.''i'! !»(■ --li.ixi-d clean about | inch
Sn
LEAD WORK
45
They
each side of the edqfe of the upper sheet, as shown, should lap about ^ iuch for ii-pnund lead.
In lapped joints no lead stick is required, the beads being melted off the edj^es of the upper sheet, Beg^inning at a^ the flame is first brought to bear on the upper edge d of the top sheet, and a bead is melted off* The flame is then quickly moved backwards and downwards so that it will bear on the lower sheet. The bead will follow the flame^
FIO. 5A
W
and as soon as the lower sheet begins to fuse, the bead will promptly unite with it. The flame must be instantly lifted away and returned to the edge of the sheet for the next bead. Each successive bead is similarly secured a little in advance of, but lapping on, the preceding one. In perform- ing the successive movements required to fix each bead, the hand of the operator travels continually in small circles^ and slowly advances as the joint progresses,
A skilful operator will fix each bead firmly and evenly in place, and never deviate from the proper line of the seam.
58. The hoi-fzontal lap Joint in vertical sheets is shown in Fig* 5'k, Tiie bead is melted from the top edge a of the 53—27
flame is lifted away.
The bead instantly takes hold of the back sheet, and if properly managed, forms a joiiii like that shown in sec- tion at the left hand o! Fig. 5L
59. The Tertieal lap joint h shown in Fig. 55. The joint is begun at the bottom of the seam, and is grad^ ually worked upwards.
The bead of lead is melted oflf at tf, and is flowed downwards
to ^, where it is united to the back sheet as in previous
operations. However, the
bead dues not flatten out
so much as in horizontal
seams^ but cools in the
form of a split pea.
In making vertical and
inclined joints, the size of
the bead becomes a mat- ter of great importance.
The operator is advised
to make vertical seams
for practice, noting the
size of the bead employed ]
and then to cut squarely
across the joints so made,
and ascertain the extent
and apparent strength of the joints
on that point can be obtained in any other way,
No reliable knowledge
LEAD WORK
47
^
Fig, m
The knowledge gained by experimenting with vertical joints will enable a perstm to make inverted juints, that is, joints having the lap on the under side. These joints cannot always be avoided, and while they reqiiire a little more patience and skill than the ordinary horizontal joints, the art of making them can be readily acquired.
0<). The mode of burning Joints In vertical pli>es is shown in Fig, 56. The end of the lower section is first cupped as for an ordinary solder joint, and is then dressed into a socket, as shown, and is shaved on the inside, on the top edge, and down over the outside about ^ inch. The upper section is rasped to fit snugly within the socket, and is scraped clean about | inch above the edge of the socket. The blow- pipe is then applied as for making a horizontal seam in a vertical sheet.
01. Fig. 57 shows the mode of burniug a T Joint. I Care must be taken to preserve a proper thickness of metal
at a when opening out the hole to fit tlie branch. If the metal is thinned out, there is great liability of burn- ing a hole through at that point or in being c< impelled to feed the flame with a lead stick. In making joints in horizontal pipe, the [ ^^^ -'*" angle of the seam
Taries from the horizontal at the top to the vertical at the sides, and to the inverted position at the under side* Tho
4$
LEAD WORK
Si:
j'H'Tt >h'H:Id be begun at the bottom and be worked iH.th way< : .nvard the top.
t?i. When the sheet-lead lining of tanks is to be burned, the lir'.ir'.ij: <h'»iild l)e rut so as to require the least possil)le :i.i:* Ver dr.a extent of joints. As many of the joints as may :^e pra^::caMe should be made in the bottom, because it is easiest : > burn them there.
Fv^ ."»> sh'ws the arrangement of the joints for a tank, say •;; ::. \ 4 tt. x '21 ft. deep. The bottom and two sides
Ai:i< h <\irnils to within ahriut 3 inches -' rt!..n is t'ornit'il with a 4-inch tlanv;e
j.!i«i ra« h side, ilnis lappini^ 1 inch :r ^lut'l. The comers formed hv the <:[]] a initrr j«»int lapped, as at r/, or '". 'V]\r lop <(]i^cs (»f all the vertii al ■\rr I ill ((i-r ( >t the wooilcii tank sidrs : '•:■ i;a;l^ in I lie u>iial manner. When
:.ir:^r. the sheet h'a<] lining must l)e \'\ nxans ..t" liiittons. that is. brass -.-:> i»ioi(it((l 1»\- burning over them.
:^ ai-e pr(j)ai((l foi" the tank in a
IMTviously (lcs< rilxMJ, due allowance
»:i;os that air lunt up on the end
§17
LEAD WORK
49
sheets. The body of the tank lining should first be set in place, care being taken that the bent corners should fit the angles between the sides and bottom, so that the lead will not be stretched when set home. After setting the lead well into the angles, it should all be flapped to a smooth surface with a sheet-lead flap, and be nailed over the edge of the tank. The ends of the tank are then carefully measured and it is found whether the width of the tank is the same at the top and bottom, whether the angles are right angles, and whether the sides are square with the bottom at both ends. If this measuring and testing are neglected, some very annoying misfits are likely to occur.
Fig. 59
64. The flanges are then formed up, as shown in Fig. 59, and the corners lapped and scraped to make proper corner joints. The flanges are scraped clean on the edges a^ and \ inch down on the outside all the way around, and simi- larly about \ inch down on the inside. The end sheets are then lowered into
place and set home snugly into the angles, should overlap the bottom and side sheet i inch or more at each end. Tlie edges of the flanges are then scribed on the under sheet, and the flanges are raised to facilitate scra- ping the border of the under sheets so that the joint may be properly burned. The flanges are now dressed down again and the process of burning the seams begins. The flat bottom seams should be burned first, then the vertical seams, commencing from the ends of the horizontal seam and working ui)wards, as before described. Great care must be taken when burning the corner seams a and b, Fig. 58, that the burning is continued fully into the corner, so that no small pinliole can remain.
The flanges
PIPEWORK
lUOT^ PIPEWORK
CAST-IRON PIPEWORK
CUTTING SOIL PIPE
1. Standard cast-iron soil pipe may be cut by first filing a groove around it and then deepening the groove with a cold chisel. If the filing of the groove is omitted, and an attempt made to cut the pipe by using only a hammer and cold chisel, there is a strong probability that the standard pipe will be split. When a soil pipe is to be cut to fit, a length of double-hub pipe should be selected in preference to single-hub pipe, since with double-hub pipe the end not desired may be used on some other job.
8. Extra-heavy soil pipe can be cut with the hammer and chisel. To cut it, draw a line neatly around the pipe at the place where it is to be cut. Lay the pipe on a solid block of wood or on a mound of earth, and, following the chalk line, cut into the pipe with a hammer and chisel, as shown in Fig. 1. A groove is thus made all around the pipe, which weakens it. Continue driving the chisel into the
§18
For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page.
PIPEWORK
a
3. It sometimes happens that a pipe Is defective and will not cut square, breaking crooked, as shown in Pig. 3 Such a piece should not be used^ but may be cut again when a shorter piece is required. Or, if circum- stances permit the pipe to be shortened, say to the dotted line a, the end may be ehlpped down, as shown in Fi^, 4. The piece of pipe is rested against the edge of an iron beam, or any other convenient hard edge, so that the line to which the end of the pipe is to be chipped comes on the edge, A piece is then broken off and the pipe revolved a little, when another piece is broken off. This operation is repeated until the
Fig. 3
.JiJ
FIG. 4
"end is square. The edge nl>tained by chipping is rough, but if well done, the irregnlariiies nt'cd not be more than ^ inch deep. A break like that shown in Fig. 3 is usually due to an unskilful tnanipulatftm of the tools; it does not neces- ^rily indicate a dcfi iljve pipe.
CAl^KrXQ JOINTS
5, C a 1 k 1 n 8^ It Tertlcol Joint. To calk a spigot- and-socket joint id
soil pipes, push the spigot end tightly ioto the socket: thep,
with the yarning tool, drive twisted oakum into the socket,
as shown in Fig. C. Do not
cut the oakum with the
edge of the tool; simply
push it down. Do not bunch
it at any place; set it in
uniformly. When two or
three strands are in (a
strand being one thickness
of the oakum), drive them
down soHdIy with the ham
mer and a thick-faced yarn- ing tool. Continue to insert
the oakum, driving it home
with the hammer period- ically, until there is a space
of about 1^ inches to
1| inches between the
oakum and the face of the
socket. Then, to insure
that the oakum is packed into a thoroughly compact mass,
give it a final driving with heavy blows of the hammer on
the yarning tool.
6. After the oakum has been packed in, the space above it is filled with molten lead, as shown in Fig, 7, the face of
.S18
hub being held perfectly level so that the lead will not ow on one side
^■before the other is entirely fi! led. A large enough ladle should be used to allow the joint to be made in one pour-
H|fig. If the socket is only partly filled at one pouring', the lead will set before more can be ob- tained from the pot, and the result will be an imperfect joint. ^Only soft pig lead ihould be used for this work ; hard lead obtained from 3ld wiped joints, or
PIPEWORK
Iki
Q
-^»^-.j
s>}
Fio. T
lead impregnated with impurities, should not be used*
7p Afterthe joint is run
up, that is, filled with lead, take a thick-faced sta%*ing tool and drive the lead ring uniformly into the socket, as shown in Fig. %. This compresses the lead and makes it 611 the inter- stices of the socket so closely that the joints will be air- and water-tight, even if subjected to high pressure. If this staving is omitted or carelessly done, the joint may not
6
PIPEWORK
S18
be water-tight. It certainly will not be strong enough to resist the wear and tear of service.
S. If the oakum is not thoroughly packed and driven home with a yarnuig tool before the molten lead is p<^ured
into the socket, the lead will drive it too far when it is calked, and the work will be defective. In a joint of an upright pipe the lead should be poured into the socket until it stands about J inch alxne the rim, when it is just on the verge of overflowing, as shown at ii in Fig. 9. The object of the excess of lead is to obtain a flush finish with the edge of the hub when the lead is calked ; this result (obtains if the oakum has been packed in solid. The stiffness and ilurability of the joint depend on tho perfect and complete filling of :":.c S'H^ket to the extreme edge.
*>.
w t ■ ' :
;i.i'
load or oakum should he ccssible parts of the jc»int, r parts will he Compressed liio JMiiu arc being calked. ' 1 .'. l-'ii;. \K shoidd be run ti.m a roll ml again with 'irivr the lead uniformlv :;:^.- Mil the socket. l-Zach :r i-rcsMire inside of the iscii li» avoid cracknii> the '.'T t:u- hri^inner to calk a ]:r Sockets hurst, to deter-
•■ :■•• tajKTf'i. hct^iiise then it is ;'.;i» and |»ip«", ii' ilu' lead is Ixdow viiii the hub so tiiat it will crack
§ 18 PrPEWORK
when the calking of the lead is about completed. A cracke<3
socket should always be removed and be replaced by a" new pipe.
lO, ralklujgc a Tlorlmtmtul Joint, ^ In making hori-W zontal joints^ or juints on iiielinecl pipes, the outer end of the socket must be closed by a hand or juint runner, aSH shown at <i, in Fig. 10 (a). If a special joint rujiner is notW at hand, the band is usually made of clay and strengthened by a piece of rope embetlded in the ckiy. A m^te^ or pour- ing notch, is left at the top, and moltt'u lead is poured into it from the ladle, as shown. The working face of the clay is
"ll
Flo. 10
shaped so that the lead will take the form shown in Fig. 10 (3) if, the projection r being the gate. Pouring should notfl e stopped until the gate is full anil remains so. Harticu- lar care shouhl be taken before pouring tliat the socket be holly free from moisture: otherwise, an explosion is very Ikely to occur while the It-acl is running in. by the moisture being suddenly converted into steam. To guard against this danger^ the workman should always stand behinr
%:^
8
piPBwdRB:
|M
hub, 8o that if an explosion does occur, tlie hot lead will be projected away from him. If it is necessary to poor kad into a damp socket, some powdered rosin shoold first be thrown into the socket. This will help to prevent a violent explosion. The joint runner must be tightly secured, because the pressure of the melted lead in sockets of laige diameter is considerable; if it starts the band a little, the lead is liable to run out and thus spoil the joint.
11. Calkins Inverted Joints. — When a joint is inverted, it is advisable to do the calking before placing the pieces thus joined in position, arranging the connections in such a manner that the pieces joined by the inverted joint can be readily ooimected. Fig. 11 shows how this may be done, taking for an example the junction of a vent stacks with a soil-pqie stack B. The soil-pipe stack is erected ready to receive the Y-branch fitting a. • The latter fitting, the 45*" elbow A, and the short length of pipe c are calked together before being placed into the position shown in the illus* tration, as the joints between them can then be placed upright for calk- ing. When the three combined pieces are placed on the soil stack and vent stack, their joints with these pipes art^ upright, and consequently easily calked.
I'i. Ii is inadvisable to try to calk an inverted joint in place unless special provision is made for air to escape from the socket, since otherwise an air lock will occur, as shown at ti in Fig. l'>. If the oakum h is calked solidly home, it will be practi(^ally air-tight. The air at a, therefore, can- not escape freely, and hence the lead will set before the space is filled. After the clay band c is removed, the lead is
§ 18
PIPEWORK
9
calked, but it will be found that the lead at d cannot be
driven up into a to fill
the socket entirely at
this place. This part
of the joint will hence
be defective.
13. If it is nec- essary to calk an in- verted joint in place, a special fitting should be used that has a pouring gate cast on the socket, as shown at a^ in Fig. 13. The air es- capes through this
pouring gate, as shown by the arrow, while the molten lead
is running into the joint. This joint can be entirely filled with lead and pour- ing is stopped when the gate is entirely filled. After this joint is calked in the ordinary manner, the gate is also calked, and a solid job is thus obtained. Plumbers sel- dom have occasion to use inverted joints, however, because permission is generally granted in plumbing ordinances to connect vent pipes to stacks at right angles.
14. Defective Calked
Pic 13
Joints. — If a pipe having
no spigot ring on the end is calked into a socket, there is a
ijff-r*^
10
PIPEWORK
lis
liability of the oakum being driven into the pipe, wfaidi tends to catch solid matter in the sewage and thus finally
choke the pipe. To guard against this, make a mark on the pipe flush with the socket wheti it is solidly home, and before calking in tlie oakum; then^ after calking in the oakum examine the mark before running the joint with lead to see that the pipe has not slipped out. This is most liable to occur when calking horiaontal joints on the floor. Another defective joint is that in which a poorly cut fnpe like that shown in Pig. 8 is used. The oakum is then driven through the irregularities, as shown in Fig. 14. This tends to choke the pipe, and is a common source of trouble due entirely to careless work.
PlO. 14
15. The crooked joint shown in Pig. 16 is a common
defect (hie to carelessness, and should he condemned on general [)rinciph'S. 'I'he work should he rearranj;ed and a proper joint made; if the crooked joint is due to a defective fitting, a good one should he suhstituted. In a crooked joint, the oakum is liahle to he driven through, as shown at d, and the lead is liable to run through, as at /', owing to the ditliculty of introducing the oakum into the base of the socket. wo. IS
1(J. lnst*rtal)le Soll-lMiK* Joint. — Plumbers often have occasion to cut a line of cast-iron soil pipe for the purpose
§18
PIPEWORK
11
of inserting a branch. If ordinary fittings are used f^r this work, it is necessary for the plumber to melt or pick out two or three joints on the soil-pipe line so as to get the fitting in position in the man- ner shown in Fig. 16 (a). This method is often very inconve- nient, and always tedious. To overcome the objections, the insertable joint shown in Fig. K) {/;) was designed. It is simply a short piece of pipe with an extra-long hub having a collars cast inside, as shown. To insert this fitting, it is only necessary to cut out of the line a piece having a length equal to the sum of the lengths of the branch fitting and the in- sertable joint. The latter is then slipped over the end of the pipe, as shown at d, Fig. 10 {c). The branch c is next inserted, and the insert- able joint is slipped back into the socket of the branch. This brings the collar a down near the end of the pipe d, but not below it, when the fitting d is sent home into c. The joints can then be calked in the ordinary manner. As shown, the branch is thus inserted without disturbing the rest of the soil-pipe line. A loose lead ring, shown at ^', is sometimes slipped over the pipe before the insertable joint is applied, and is slipped down on top of the collar a before the oakum is calked into the joint. This is intended to positively pre- vent oakum from being driven down beyond the collar a^ which cdllar may fit the soil-pipe line rather loosely. C3— 28
Pig. 16
» PIPEWORK (18
WBOUOHT-IBOK FIFJBWOKK
nrxBODiTcnaar
17. Wrought-iron pipes form a ooosidermbfe part of modern plumbing systems. For instaiice, water-supply pipes in many localities are chiefly galvanued wrought iron or steel. Drainage and ventilation pipes^ aho* are frequently of wrought iron. Hence^ the plumber must be fewwH^ar ^th wrought-iron pipe work.
To facilitate the work, the pipe-fitter's bench must be made solid by braces or bolts. A flimsy bench or loose pipe vise prevents the fitter from doing good work, besides com- pelling him to exert considerably more energy than is other- wise necessary for cutting and threading pipeSb
CUTTUNO FIFB
18. Wrought-iron pipe up to i inches in diameter is commonly cut by means of the ordinary wheel cutter. The pipe is placed in the vise, and the cutters are applied at the proper place. The wheels are then squeezed into the pipe little by little as the tool is revolved around the pipe, until the piece falls off. In applying three-wheel cutters, care must be taken to hold the tool square with the pipe; if this is not done, the wheel will cut several grooves instead of i»ne, and if the wheels slip from one groove to another/ their edges are likely to break. Single-wheel cutters are free from this liability, but do not cut the pipe as fast. Three- wheel cutters are particularly convenient for cutting pipes in close places where it is impossible to swing the tool oniirely around the pipe. The cut ends should be examined Ix^ see whether any cracks or splits have been started by the cuuing operation.
UK ripes that are to be screwed into flush fittings, .4i»sl (here make butt joints, must have their ends squared SfAiSvi »u a lathe or in a suitable cutting-off machine, after
§ 18 PIPEWORK 13
they have been cut. Unless the end is perfectly square with the axis of the screw thread, it will be impossible to make a good joint against the shoulder of the fitting into which it is screwed.
20. When cutting pipe that is coated internally with enamel or glass, great care should be taken to avoid chip- ping or cracking the coating or lining. The wheel pipe cutter should never be used in cutting this kind of pipe. The only kind of cutter that may properly be used is one that cuts like a lathe tool, leaving the end of the pipe square and true; if carefully used, it does not crack or peel off the brittle lining.
81. The larger sizes of wrought-iron pipe should be cut off either in a lathe or by a cutting-off machine. Oil should be used freely in cutting pipe, and the wheels of the cutter should be kept sharp, since, if their edges are dull, they will not wedge apart the metal forming the pipe, but will force a large part of it inwards, thereby reducing the bore of the pipe at this point by forming a large burr, as shown at a in Fig. 17, which will reduce the flow of water through
it. Even if the wheels are kept perfectly sharp, a burr will be formed, but it will be much smaller than in the case of dull wheels. On all good work the burr should be removed.
REAMING
22. Beaming is the process of removing the burrs from the cut ends of pipes. The tools used for this purpose are called reamers, and are conical in shape; if properly pro- portioned, the length of the reamer, or the altitude of the cone, will be about twice the diameter of the base, as shown in Fig. 18, which represents a hand reamer. The convex surfaces of reamers are formed into a series of sharp teeth
"'«??f".
14
PIPEWORK
(IS
converging toward the apex. By preariag the i
the orifice of the pipe and revolving it, the teeth cvt off the
burr and form the internal surfaoe of the orifioe into the
frustum of a cone. There are reamers on the market for attaching to the stocks or dies so that the pipe may he reamed while the thread is being cut.
CUTTINO THRBADe
2S. The tightness of a screwed joint depends largely on the accuracy with which the thread is cut. A good thread
is shown in Fig. 19. The part a
^■r ■ — MtlklHt' contains the leading^ threads.
If 111 1 which are perfect in form. These
\ / II I are depended on chiefly for ma-
y 11 I king a close contact with the
f I ll I thread in the fitting, and thus
I I'lll ll i^^^^^'i^^J^*'^ water-tight joint. The
mffff threads at //are imperfect. Their
'" ^'' tops are ilat and they only serve
to niakr tlu* joint rij^id, unless ilurir form be changed by the presMiii' i'\citcil in scrcwinjjr tlic pipe into a socket or fitting.
*i I. ( >cc;i^i»»n;illy a i^roove runs lengthwise in a wrought- iron i>i[)e; I his pn-vrnts a j)erft*ct thread being made. Such pipes shonKl not W iiseil on high-pressure work. On low- pie.vsure work, however, tlu-y may be used, provided that they
§18
PIPEWORK
15
are screwed up with red-lead cement and hemp wrapped over the thread. These materials will fill the interstices, and usually make them water-tight.
25. When it is necessary to thread a piece of pipe that
is too short to be held in the vise, a nipple chuck, or nipple
holder, is used. This is simply a pipe coupling screwed
over the end of a piece of pipe long enough to be held in the
vise. The short piece, or nipple, should be screwed into the
coupling until it butts against the end of the longer pipe, as
this prevents swelling and splitting of the coupling. After
a long nipple has been cut, it can be unscrewed with a pipe
wrench ; to remove a close nipple from the nipple chuck, the
coupling should be unscrewed a little from the piece held in
the pipe vise, when the nipple can be screwed out with the
fingers. When close nipples are to be cut, the threaded end
should enter the coupling a little less than the length of the
perfect threads, and then butt against the piece held in the.
vise.
TABIjE I
SCREW THREADS FOR WROUGHT-IRON PIPE
|
Nominal |
Number |
|
Internal |
of |
|
Diameter |
Threads |
|
in Inches |
Per Inch |
|
i |
27 |
|
i |
i8 |
|
i |
i8 |
|
i |
14 |
|
i |
14 |
|
I |
Hi |
|
'i |
iij. |
|
'1 |
Hi |
Length of Perfect
Thread in Inches
.19 .29 •30 •39
.40
•51 •54
•55
|
Nominal |
Number |
Length |
|
Internal |
of |
of Perfect |
|
Diameter |
Threads |
Thread |
|
in Inches |
Per Inch |
in Inches |
|
2 |
Hi |
•S8 |
|
H |
8 |
.89 |
|
3 |
8 |
•95 |
|
3j |
8 |
1 .00 |
|
4 |
8 |
. I -05 |
|
4i |
8 |
I . 10 |
|
5 |
8 |
I. 16 |
|
6 |
8 |
1.26 |
All pipe ends arc made conical, the taper being J inch of diameter per foot of length.
■ _- .::.iciurers of wroiight-iron pipe
. <aii4laml system of screw threa >
:r.v ::^..iniifacturcrs. however, d •
": ::>.v use 1*2 threads per ivxh
- :a".lec.i ft>r in the table.
-:::i standard fittings, the perfect
^ certain distance only from the
■-lance is stated in Table I.
^ : '.vint; on FITl'IVGS
xr sure of having a water-tight j<^int, ■: the perfei^t threads (seldom nu-re :.'.e pipe and in the fitting with red-
■: before entering the male thread. - ...pering, tlie pipe or the fitting starts >Mys wliere put. If the red lead is .. if any, will show outside, or be ■ rati«>n of srrrwing up. Care must .: the b'liialr thread with red leatl. .: "iiis l<"» li.Lilil, for they may split.
V :• sir«\vi-i; lip can only be clt-ter-
;•: <vrt wi' 'J -n valves or other brass
■■".i^b.c'i, ' :• 'M kcl j)late(l. the wrench
. ,'. :«' I'ni li« \,i-')n shoulder [)r«)vided
^ will }'!• ',■ •». ;lu' l)rass fitting fr«»m
|
WHOl (;il 1 il |
I.ON I»|I»K |
|
.::v, <!u!; .:. |
i inch or less, are nsu- |
|
.^k «'!* II'-- ■ •' |
Larger pipes, how- |
|
.><anil ; ; ■ |
■ ■V'T a curved block. |
|
r^^^lv■ ■■■• |
.'. J r< >« »ve to recfi v«* |
|
> .i.K- -.-. |
.'!;• .\ hilc being bent. |
|
•0 pipt- >::■ :' |
■ \. .i\ - be kept on the |
|
. iMVVcir. -]•'. |
■ •'•' ; ;'!«• pipe. ( )nly |
§18
PIPEWORK
1»
black pipe should be bent. If galvanized pipe is bent cold, the zinc coating often breaks or chips off, and if bent hot, the zinc is vaporized by the heat and the protective coating thus spoiled.
ME.VSURIXG FOR PIPING
29. When taking measurements for piping, the
center-to-center distances of the different pipe lines are measured first, and then allowance is made for the fittings. Fig. 20 {a) shows a sample of pipework composed of four
3E
m
i^
«•— I
/-^
m^^
(•J
/-9i
I
■^
(P)
Pig. 90
elbows, one tee, two valves with wheel handles, and seven pieces of pipe. Where a valve is placed in a pipe, it is cus- tomary to consider the two pieces of pipe to which it is attached, and the valve, as one piece; this accounts for the statement that there are seven pieces of pipe. The dimen- sions marked a, by r, d^ and e are measured, and transferred for reference purposes to a sketch similar to that shown in Fig. 20 (b). In locating the valves, it is customary to use a ready-made nipple on one side, and then to cut a piece for the other side sufficiently long to obtain the proper length oi b ox c when the whole is screwed up.
Id
ttPSWORK
|U
90. In measuring for 46® fittings, .the plnmbcfer niiiit
exercise considerable care. He may place the fittmgfe m
position and measure between them, osmg
try pieces a^ a^ as shown in Fig. SI, which
point straight toward each other, thus
obtaining the measurement d, whidi will
be the length of pipe required. In case,
however, that, it is inconvenient to do
this, the exact measurement across at e
may .be taken, which if multiplied by
1.4142 will give the length ci the diagonal
line from center to center of the 4ff* fit-
tings. Prom the length thus fotmd must
be subtracted the distances between the
ends of the diagonal pipe and the center
of the fittings.
Exam PLK.— What length of pipe is required at #• Fig. SI, ■asnuilng that 1 inch is allowed l>etwcen each end of the pipe aad tha centiera of
the fittinfrs. and that the distance r is 4 feet 9 inches ?
Solution.— 4 ft. Din. X 1.4142 -(1 + 1)= 67 X 1.414S-S = 78.Sin.,
or Vt ft. «i in., fullv. Ans.
Fig. tl
81. A simple method for finding the diagonal length is
as follows: Strike two parallel chalk lines on the bench or
Fi«;. ifcJ
floor to rei)rosent the i<*iiter lines of the pipes to be joined by the diagonal piece, as ad and c (/^ Fig. 22. Lay a steel
§ 18 PIPEWORK 19
square against one of these lines, as shown, and draw a per- pendicular e f. From the intersection at /on r^ lay off a point g^ making fg equal to cf. Draw a line through e and g. Then lay a 45° fitting over each of these intersec- tions and measure with a rod //, as shown, the length of pipe required.
BRASS, COPPER, AND EARTHENWARE PIPEWORK
BRASS AND COPPER PIPEWORK
HOLDING THE PIPES
32. Brass and copper pipes of iron-pipe size are handled the same as iron pipe, excepting that more care is exercised in preserving the surface of the pipe from being damaged by the jaws of the pipe vise or the pipe wrenches. While pipe tools used for gripping iron pipe have teeth that cut into the pipe, the tools used for brass or copper pipe should grip the pipe only by friction, so that the pipe will not be marked by the vise or the other tools.
33. Friction clamps made as shown in Fig. 23 are used for fixing a pipe in the pipe vise. The clamps a and b are made to fit the jaws of an ordinary vise, and the curve is formed to fit a standard size of pipe. The curve is lined with rubber or some other soft body. The pipe-vise jaws com-
press a and b and
the pipe then cannot slip. The clamps are made long so as
to spread the pressure over a large area of pipe and thus pre- vent its flattening. Fig. 24 shows how a plumber can make
his own friction clamps, A com- mon iron-pipe coupling is sawed into equal parts a and *, and then lined with thick sheet -lead pieces r, rf. They grip the pipe like a and ^, in Fig. 'IS, but witb hea%^y pressure from the pipe vise these clamps are liable to spread. Powdered rosin is usu- ally sprinkled in these clamps to prevent the pipe sltppini^; This can be washed off the pipe with kerosene oil after the threads are cut. If the pipes are nickel plated, care must be taken to prevent their slipping in the clamps; other- wise ugly rings will be scratched around the pipe, which indicates careless workmanship.
Fifi M
TnilKATITN« BHAS8 AND COPl»ER flFE
34* In tliri-^i4lliiic liroHH or copper pipe, particular
care should be taken to revolve the dies with a uniform
motion. This prevents splitting
the pipe, and allows the dies to cut
slowly and evenly, which helps to
prevent the thread from being
ragged or chewed away in places.
Particular care should be taken, in
threading nickel -plated pipe, to
ninke the threads just long enough
to be all hid in the fitting, as shown
nt ft in Fig. 25, instead of having ihem too long and allow-
in^ n few threads void of plating being visible, as at k The
(nvnun indicates neat, skilful workmanship.
Tht^ nriU Hnish shown at a. Fig. 25, is readily obtained hi \\w iiKc of n*oe*e*t*cl tltthtir^, which allow some of the
§ 18 PIPEWORK 21
plain part of the pipe to slip into the socket, as shown at a in Fig. 26. The liability of hav- ing threads show when the fitting is screwed up is thus avoided.
36. Thin brass tubes, such as are commonly used for flush pipes, waste pipes under wash basins, etc., are cut with a hack Fio. «
saw, and then threaded with special dies having a larger number of threads (27 to the inch) than ordinary iron-pipe dies. Special flue thread flttlngps are used for such tubes.
36. In threading nickel-plated pipe, a wrapping cloth or paper should be placed between the guide and the pipe, in order that the guide will not mark the pipe as it revolves.
SCBEIVING UP FITTINGS
37. The best way of screTvlng up such fittings as elbows and tees, is to screw a short piece of pipe into the fitting and to use it as a lever. After the fitting is screwed home, the piece of pipe is removed. As brass fittings yield quite easily, owing to their comparative softness, there is a danger of seriously distorting them if they are screwed home by the aid of a pipe wrench or monkeywrench.
38. Fittings that are furnished with hexagon shoulders should be screwed up by applying a monkeywrench to the hexagon, placing a piece of cloth between the jaws of the wrench and the nickeled surface. A wrench with teeth should never be used for nickel-plated brass or copper work. The joints of brass and copper pipes are usually put together with red or white lead in the threads. When they are to be soldered, or s^veatetl, as it is called, the threads should be tinned with half-and-half solder, and while hot screwed up tight before the solder has time to set. A torch flame is used for heating the work, which is tinned by rubbing it while hot with a strap of solder.
92 • PIPEWORK 818
MUtnuTNB WRAHH AKD OOiPFSB 71FB
39* Before attempting to bend bnws or copper pipe,
it should first be annealed, that is, made red hot, and then plunged into cold water. This softens the pipe and makes it easier to bend. Common water pipes (iron-pipe size) having diameters less than 1 inch are bent cold over a grooved block, in the same manner as iron pipe. Larger sizes, however, after annealing are filled with mdt6d rosin and then bent over a form when cold. The roein having solidified in the pipe, prevents its collapsing while being bent. After the proper shape is obtained the pipe is again heated to melt the rosin, which is allowed to run out. Some- times the pipes are filled with melted lead, while some people ^ use sand for filling the pipe.
40. Nickel-plated pipes should not be bent after t]iey are plated. They should first be bent to suit their respective positions and then nickel plated, since nickel plating usually cracks at the bends when an attempt is made to bend nickel- plated pipe. In bending brazed tubing, the seam should always ])c on the inside of the bend, because it is more brittle than ili(* other parts, and being weaker, it may open out if phioed anywhere else.
>:aimiikn\\are pipework
LOCATION AM> CUTTIXG PIPB
41. Knrth(»nwarc pipes should never be used inside
of or niidrr buildings; in fact, all plumbing ordinances pro- hibit iJK'ir list* in such places. They should only be used for unckr^round work outdoors, and then only in ground that will not settle. Made jj^rourtd, that is, groimd made by filling- in with ashes and earth, is sure to settle, and in doini»; so, break the pipes.
42. To cut earthenware pipe, lay it on a mound of soft earth and then cut a groove all around the pipe with a sharp cold chisel and a light hammer.
IS PIPEWORK 23
MAHXKil JOINTS
43, To make good joints in earthenware pipes, place some cement (half Port- land cement and half clean sand) in the bottom of the socket, as shown in Fi^, :^7. Then enter the spigot end of the pipe about to be laid into the socket, as shown in Fig. 28. When the spigot end is pushed hard against the socket shoulder at a, let it down on the cement. Beat it down gently with a wooden tool, the hammer
handle, for instance,
¥XQ.m
until it IS in the center of the socket. This presses the super flu* ous cement out of the socket and insures the bottom, which is the most important part of such a joint, being tight. The entire joint should then be carefully cemented water-tight. When this is done, a wooden scraper is pushed inside the pipe, and any cement that may have worked inside is
FtG. 28
r^
Scii^
Fig. 39
scraped out, as shown in Ftg. 2Vr Thfs figure shows a well- made joint that will be perfect after the Innse t ement a is removed.
34
PIPEWORK
§18
44. Fig. 30 shows a very common defective joint, where cement projects on the inside, as at a. This defect gen- erally occurs when a whole line of pipes is first laid in a trench and then jointed. The proper method is to cement and finish each length of pipe as soon as laid. If joints
|
"^^'^^^Hl |
1 >•'■■■■ |
||
|
mmmmm |
|||
|
^^^^9 |
|||
|
Jt". -■ " |
s |
||
|
L:^^^--^ |
.-. _ z.- |
||
|
V |
. , Ml |
||
|
'^^i^vf;iYi^;i7r" ■ |
|||
|
m^-^^^^'- |
:^^Si |
H|HH|0HB^^V i^^xrA;-^ |
|
|
■■ |
■I |
Pio. ao must be cemented after the entire line of pipes is laid, it is advisable to calk two strands of oakum into the socket before the cement is applied. This will prevent the cement from running into the pipe. It will also help to center the spigot in the socket.
|
8PA( |
TABIiE U |
^CKS |
||
|
;ING FOR TJ |
||||
|
Distance Apart in Inches |
||||
|
Size of Pipe in Inches |
Vertical Pipe |
Horizontal Pipe |
||
|
Hot |
Cold |
Hot |
Cold |
|
|
3 '8 |
i8 |
24 |
12 |
16 |
|
I |
19 |
25 |
14 |
17 |
|
1 |
20 |
26 |
15 |
18 |
|
i |
21 |
27 |
16 |
19 |
|
I |
22 |
28 |
17 |
20 |
|
•1 |
23 |
29 |
18 |
21 |
|
4 |
24 |
30 |
18 |
22 |
§18
PIPEWORK
25
PIPE SXJPPOKTS
SUPPORTING liKAD PIPES
TACKS, BANDS, COLLAItS, AND LEDGES
45. Lead pipes 2 inches in diameter and less, which run against walls, etc., are usually supported by means of flanges, or pipe tacks, which are soldered on to the pipe at convenient intervals, and are fastened to the walls with
common wood screws, as illustrated in Fig. 31, which shows a |-inch lead pipe a secured to a wall or pipe board b by molded pipe tacks r, c and 1-inch wood screws d^ d^ etc. The tacks are made of old lead, slightly hardened with a few old wiped joints l:;^^ III ^^~/^ mixed in. They
V— \ 'lU— Y are cast in brass
molds and can be bought from dealers of plumb- ing material.
The approxi- mate spacing for tacks on lead
|
1 1 |
||
|
o |
J I \ \ |
io |
|
O ; |
i |
lo |
|
o |
jCi |
ilo: |
|
o |
u |
V |
|
A |
M |
Pig. 81
pipes IS given in Table II.
Fig. 38
46. Pipes over 2 inches in diameter are best supported by means of broad bands, such as are shown in Fig. 32, which are attached at intervals of about 3 or 4 feet. The width of the bands, along the line of the pipes, measured for pipes of 2, 3, or 4 inches diameter, should be about 6, 8, or 10 inches, respectively. An oblong hole c is cut in the front
26 PIPEWORK § 18
of the band and is filled with hot solder and wiped to the face of the pipe. The side flanges of the band are wiped to the face of the pipe, as shown at b. The band is shown secured to a stone wall by flathead spikes n, driven into wooden pings d^ which have been previously driven into holes cut in the stonework.
47. Vertical pipes of lead are usually supported, where they pass through floors, by means of a flange, or csollar,. which is wiped to the pipe ; or a flange joint is made at that point. The diameter of the flange should be about 2 inches larger than that of the pipe, to give room for wiping.
48. When a hot- water pipe runs horizontally, it is best to support it upon a continuous ledg^e, or shelf. It should have room enough laterally to bend and creep, and should be kept from working off the shelf by a suitable rim or flange along the edge of the shelf.
49. Lead pipes should not be supported by iron wall hooks or similar supports, unless they are protected by an extra thickness of sheet lead between them and the iron, because the edges of the iron will gradually cut into the lead and thus weaken the pipe.
IXFLl^ENCE OF TEMPERATURE
50. If the temperature of a lead pipe that is supported by ri^id fastenings is maintained nearly uniform, as in the case of the cold-water supply pipes, the pipe can only be changed in form by its own weight, the jarring of the building, etc.
If, however, the temperature of the pipe is variable, as in the case of the pipes that supply hot water to the plumbing fixtures, the pipes will expand as the temperature increases, which causes them to bulge between their supports. If the pipes are vertical, they will bulge either from the wall against which they are secured or parallel to it. If they are horizontal or inclined, they will always bulge downwards and form ])ockets or sags. Lead is so very low in elasticity that when the pipe becomes cool, the sags are not entirely taken up by contraction, and upon every application of heat
18
PIPEWORK
27
the sags will increase in size, particularly on horizontal pipes, until the lead becomes so thin near the points of sup- port as to cause a leak. The leak generally occurs in a crack that is formed around that part of the pipe near the tacks. Suppose that a lead waste pipe 2 inches in diameter, secured in a vertical position against a wall by hard metal tacks or lead bands, has a kink in it, and that hot water passes through the pipe periodically. It will be found that since the kink is the weakest part of the pipe, it will take up most of the expansion between the tacks on each side of it. This action subjects the kink to a cross-strain, repeti- tions of which will soon overcome the cohesive strength of the lead and cause the metal at that point to crack. Kinks should be carefully avoided in all lead pipework. A kink in a lead waste pipe is a positive sign of slovenly, careless, or ignorant workmanship,, and should not be tolerated.
SUPPORTING IRON AND BRASS PIPES
IKON AND BRASS PIPK SUPPORTS
61. Wrought-iron pipes may be fastened in place by common drive hooks, but where a good appearance is desired, they should be fastened with bands, which are secured to the walls by screws, as shown in Fig. 33. The band, or strap, a should be made of wrought iron tinned.
Brass pipe may be similarly sup- ported, making the bands of brass. It is usually supported, however, by spe- cially made clamps or pipe hangers, which are first attached to the walls, the pip)e being afterwards laid in them and locked tlu-rr by closing the outer half of the clamp, which is hiiij^^cd lo iIk: main body. Such supports usually hold tlu- pipe at a little distance from the walls; this prevents vennin from hxl^inj; around it, and also allows it to be polished conveniently.
88
SUPPORXIXQ CA8T-1IION PIPKS
02. Cast-iron soil and vent pipes should be strongly secured in place.. Vertical stacks shmild rest on a solid
□ support at the bottonh If an elbow
occurs at the base of the stack, it should be provided with a flat foot, or heel rest, as shown at iJ in Fig. ;U.
*The weight of the pipe should be borne entirely by the base support. The pipe should be held in place by means of hooks or bands, which arc placed at intervals of 6 feet or less, according to the nature of the work.
PIO. 86
ff3» The pipe may also be secured against the face of stone wall by means of a wrought^iron band n, as aho in Fig/ 35. Two holes ^, *
are cut in the stone, and pljf^^^^li the ends of the band are >?^^>ltf^?^^^^^^i^ps^^^j^J calked in the holes with "^M^r^r^^f^^^fK^^^iiM lead. This style of fasten- ing is neat and reliable.
All hooks or bands should clasp the pipe close under the hub, or around it, and should not be placed midway between the joints, if it is possible to avoid it.
54. If the pipes stand in a chase, or groove, in the wall, they may be fastened by means of clamps, or pipe rests, ^, which are secured in notches d, b cut in the wall, as shown in Fig. 36.
Care must be taken that the fastenings are so arranged that the pipe will be free to contract and expand with the changes of temperature without loosening itself, or tearing the fastenings loose from the walls. Buildings are always liable to settle, and this must be kept in mind when locating the pipe fastenings.
i
%
,^^^^
§18
PIPEWORK
29
Iron drain pipes that run inside of basements or 'cellars should be thoroughly supported by wrought-iron straps fas- tened to the beams overhead, or else they should be sup- ported at short intervals on brick piers or iron standards, or by wall hooks driven into the brick or stone walls.
T
m.ai
±
FIO. 36
A substantial pier should always be placed under each stack. In all cases a firm support, such as a brick pier or iron corbel, should be placed under the junction of the stack with the inclined drain pipe. All stacks should be sup- ported independently of the main drain, so as to relieve the inclined pipe of the weight of the stack.
FASTENING UKVICKS FOR STONEWORK
55. In pipework, as well as in other work connected with plumbing, it often occurs that pipe hangers and other apparatus are to be fastened to stonework by means of bolts, or rods are to be fastened to stonework for various purposes.
A hole about ^ inch larger than the rod is first cut or drilled in the stone to a suitable depth, which will vary with the nature of the work, a common deyth being from 4 to 6 inches. The end of the rod is notched or roughened in some way; it is then inserted in the hole, and the space around it is filled with a suitable cement, such as melted sulphur. If the connection is exposed to the weather, the expo.sed part of the iron should be coated with asphaltum or Qther waterproof compound.
PIPEWORK
§18
FlO. 87
The rod may also be secured by filling up the hole with molten lead and finishing by calking the lead. Care must be taken in calking to avoid splitting the stone. The junction of the lead and iron generates a chemical action that corrodes the iron and gradually eats it away. This may be prevented by coating the exposed part of the iron with asphaltum.
56. Bolts may be secured to marble or slate slabs by the method shown in Fig. 87.
A hole is drilled in a dab a to the required depth, and is enlarged at the ' inner end, as shown, by means of suit- able chisels. After the bolt is placed in the hole, molten lead is poured around the bolt. The lead is then gently calked. If the lead is calked too much, the marble will break away, as shown by the lines s. Plaster of Paris is also used to fill the space around the bolt in cases where but little strain is likely to be put on it.
67. Attachments may be made to stonework by means of expansion holts, as shown in Fig. 38. These bolts are provided with a loose ring a^ having^ its lower edj^e heveled, and a notched ring /; of soft metal. A hole is drilled in the stone large enough in diameter to fit the holt clo.sely, and the bolt is pushed in to the depth required. The nut c is then screwed down and the ring (r is forced into the end of the soft ring b, which is thereby ex- j)anded against the sides of the hole. These holts are less liable to sj)lit the stones than those that are calked with lead, because the liircctions of the forces exerted in securing this bolt are mainly in directions parallel with the surface of the slab and in the middle of its thickness, as shown bv the arrows.
r ^,,,1,
< y • ■ r '• -:
Pio.
WASHING AND DRINKING
FIXTURES
CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION
INTRODUCTION
MODERN PLUMBING
1. In modern plumbing all work as far as feasible is open, that is to say, the pipes and fixtures are exposed to view as much as circumstances permit. In places where the piping cannot be exposed, it is made accessible by easily removable pipe boainls, which allow repairs and changes to be made in the piping without damage to the building. As the fixtures are not boxed in with woodwork, they can be easily kept clean and repaired ; hence, they are better from the sanitary standpoint in every respect.
Formerly it was the common practice to encase all fix- tures in woodwork finished and ornamented in various ways; this practice, however, has been abandoned in favor of the more sanitary and more sightly open work.
2. Plumbing fixtures consist of all kinds of sinks, laun- dry or wash tubs, lavatories or wash basins, drinking foun- tains; bath tubs, urinals, water closets, and latrines. All plumbing fixtures in buildings are or should be connected with water pipes that supply them with either hot or cold water, or both, and should be connected to waste pipes to
§19
For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page.
2 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES § 19
drain the water or other refuse matter from them when necessary. The pipes supplying the water are known as the supply connections, and the pipes draining the fixtures as the waste connections. In combination with water closets, latrines, and urinals that receive their water supply from a tank overhead, the supply or inlet connections are known as flush connections, and the outlet or waste con- nections as soil connections.
SINKS
CI^ASSIFICATION
3. There are several varieties of sinks, viz., kitchen sinks^ butler s pantry sinkSy slop sinks^ and ivash sinks. They are made of wood, cast iron, steel, enameled iron, brown-glazed earthenware, porcelain, soapstone, slate, etc. All sinks should be provided with a strainer and waste pipe. The waste pipe should be trapped if it extends to a drain pipe or cesspool; even if it is open to the air at the end, it should be trapped to prevent the wind from blowing foul odors back into tlie house.
KITC HEN SINKS
4. Conoral Instriu'tions. — Sinks that are placed in a kitchen are known as kitchen sinks. They sliould be sit- uated wliere tliere is plenty of light, and as near to the pantry as possible, so as to save steps for the persons using them. They should be such a distance from the range that the persons using- tliem will not be subjected to the heat of the fire, and should be set near a window, if possible, to secure plenty of lii;ht and ventilation. Sinks should not be encased in woodwork, but left exposed all around, so that no danij) places can be maintained. Care should be taken to avoid leaving- any (^-cvice or cranny where dirt can lodge or where vermin may i)rccil. If the sink is furnished with a back of any material, the space behind it should be
§ 19 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES 3
thoroughly filled with cement or plaster of Paris, or it may be left open for access to, and ventilation of, the parts.
Kitchen sinks should be supported by legs, or placed upon substantial brackets, at a height of about 30J inches above the floor; i. e., from the floor level to the top or rim of the sink.
5, Wooden Sinks. — Wooden sinks are made of well- seasoned, first-class quality, heart-stock wood. It should be free from knots, splits, sapwood, and other imperfections. The best quality of white pine about 2 inches thick is pre- ferred, and the entire woodwork should be thoroughly soaked in boiled linseed oil and permitted to dry before water is allowed to run into the sink. The oil will preserve the material, close the pores, and prevent their becoming filled with organic matter, such as grease, which will decompose and emit offensive odors.
6. Fig. 1 shows the genera/ construction of a wooden sink. The bottom boards a and side boards h are let ^ inch into the end boards r, as shown at d, d. The bottom is also let into b. The joints are all painted and bedded with red- or white-lead putty, and the boards are securely spiked
together with 4-inch galvanized-iron or brass nails. In constructing this style of sink, the carpenter should cut the \^aste hole in the bottom near one end, as shown, making the countersunk part at least 4 inches in diameter and J inch deep, and the hole just large enough to fit the trap.
PlO. 2
^T* A detail of a common fnrni of waste connection is shown in Fig. 2, The -waste pipe a h made of lead^ and is
flanged over and se- cured Willi copper tacks. The K^tralner d is made of sheet cop- per, and is snnk flush with the bottom of the sink. The con- nect ioti is made water- tight by settings the fiang^ed end of the pipe in red or white lead. This connection can be strengthened by wiping a flange around the pipe at c^ and fastening it to the wood- work.
Although wooden sinks and the waste-pipe connection to tliem are illustrated and described, their use is not recom- mended, because the wood absorbs foul matter that soon decomposes and evolves disagreeable odors. Wooden sinks also tend to propagate vermin.
Wooden siaks may be lined with sheet metal, preferably copper, weighing 16 to 20 ounces per square foot. The bottom must be secured at several points by solder dots, to prevent bulging when heated.
8, Pressed-Steel Sinks. — Of late years there have been placed on the market sinks pressed into shape from one piece of steel, all the corners being rounded and the top edge flanged over about 1 inch. They can be obtained painted or galvan- ized. They are used only on the very poorest class of work, as they corrode rapidly, and owing to the extreme thinness of the metal, they become use- less. These sinks are not to be recommended, unless
FIO. 8
§ 19 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES 6
they are made of metal at least J inch thick. Fig. 3 shows the common form of pressed-steei sink having the strainer at one end. The bottom pitches down about J inch to the strainer when the flange is set level,
9. Fig, 4 shows how a suitable frame support for a pressed'Steel sink may be made and seen red in place. Cleats *?, <?, 17, 3 or 4 inches wide by *Z\ inches thick, are nailed to the wall at a htfight of 2 feet 6 inches above the floor, to support the back flange of the sink. The cross-pieces ^, d' support the end flanges, and the strip c
FtO. 4
supports the front flange. The strips d, d^ d^ b\ support a drain boiirtl at the left-hand end of the sink. These pieces just mentioned are constructed with a pitch toward b\ of at least \ inch to the foot, so that water may drain from the board into the sink. All the strips except a^ a^ a are about 1| inch thick. Strong iron brackets i\t\^, secured to special blocks at the back of the wainscotingp support the
M
m
6 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES 8 1»
sink frame. The spaces/, /and the holtB.^f^BTe for the hot- and cold-water supply pipes, if they come ap through the floor. The hole k is for the sink waste pipe; the coup- ling I, which projects through the wainscot about ^ inch, is for a back vent oonneotion.
10. The common form of waste connection for a pressed-
_^^^^^ steel sink is shown in Pig. 5. fc^ J ^^3^P A brass sleeve a passes down
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ through a hole in the sink. A ^^^^HR^^^^^^^ locknut *, when screwed up on I ** SB^^ m * ^^^ threaded end of u , squeezes
■ WT — '^^ ^ leather or other gasket
I lu^^tf^ against the bottom of the sink
I llJ^P ^^^^^1 and makes a. water-tight joint.
^o-B A brass coupling r, shown
screwed up, can be unscrewed and the coupling tail ^soldered to the sink trap. This coupling joint is usually made tight with a leather gasket. The strainer is held in place by a screw e screwed into a cross-piece cast in a.
11. The first cost of a pressed-steel sink is less than that
of a cast-iron sink, but the cast-iron one is much more durable, and is cheaper in the end. Iron or steel sinks can be obtained with porcelain enamel llning^s ; they are quite reasonable in price and appear well when new, but the enamel cannot withstand very rough usage; it chips off easily. Enameled iron is quite suitable for sinks that are not supplied with hot water, and particularly so for sinks that do not receive rough usage. Iron pans, pails, and cooking pots are frequently scoured in kitchen sinks; their sharp edges easily chip the enamel coating and thus expose the iron, which mars the appearance of the sink.
13. Cast-Ii"on 81nks. — There are sinks in the market made of cast iron. These are made generally as shown in Fig. 3, that is, with a flat-flanged, square-cornered top about 1 inch wide, square or rounded inside comers, sloping sides, and a slightly sloping bottom, the strainer opening
§ 19 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES 7
being from ^ inch to J inch deeper than the opposite end.
They are usually made
with lugs or sockets on
the side to receive the top
of sink legs, as shown in
Fig. 6 {a), A section on
the line ^ ^ is shown in
Fig. 6 (6), The sockets
are slightly wider at the
bottom than at the top,
and the top of the sink
leg c is tapered to fit
the socket. This makes a
strong sink support, and
is preferable to brackets;
it is especially recommended for common cast-iron sinks.
FIO. «
13. The strainer connection to a cast-iron sink is usually made as shown in Fig. 7. The lead waste pipe a is flanged over the conical nozzle 6 of the sink, and is held in place by the clamp ring c and the bolts rf, d. To prevent
PlO. 7
water from leaking past the heads of the bolts and trickling down on the outside of the pipe, washers of rubber or leather are set up tight by the nuts r, e. This strainer waste con- nection is usually employed for kitchen sinks, because it is
WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES
customary anaong cooks and scullery maids, or dishwashers, to use portable tin dish pans for washing dishes, the sinks being used only as receptacles to receive, and drain aw^ay as quickly as possible, the w*ater poured into them.
14. Should it be necessary to arrange a sink to hold
water, a pltiif sink strainer^ shown in Fig. B, may be used
instead of the plain perforated strainer shown in F\g, 7* The strainer is made of brass, and the plug may either be of brass ground to fit the socket » or of rubber. The flange should be bedded down with putty made of red and white lead in order to be water-tight*
15- The clamp ring c In Fig. 7, also called sink eoap- llugt or sink rlns, is intended for a lead^pipe connection. Should it be desired to connect the sink to iron pi[jc, ;t heavy screwed slnJc catip- Ungj, shown in Fig. 9» should be used. This is tapped IJ inches or % inches to suit the size of waste pipe required.
> -^^
Fig, b
Fig, 9
'T"' \^\ Tf
T-
16. Cast-iron kitchen sinks can be purchased from
plumbers' supply houses either plain, painted, galvanis&ed, or enameled, and with plain flat rims or roll rims. Fig. S shows a iJlaln nat-rliu Bliik, so called because the rim is flat and plain. This form of rim is usually surmounted by a wood cap, as shown in Fig. 10. The cap a^ preferably made of ash 1] or 1 1 inches thick, is bedded down with red-lead putty ^ and is held in place by This arrangement.
2J* or 3-inch brass screws, as shown
howeverj has too much woodwork^ which should be avoided.
^
g 19 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTU'RES 0
17. The fixture shown in Fig. 11 is a plain cast-iron sink with a cast* iron sink bat*k^ which is secured against the wall. This back piece acts as a splash plate, and helps lo protect the wall. Here it may be mentioned that sink backs are only necessary when the walls against which the sinks arc set are made of porous materials^ as plaster or wooden wainscoting, which will rot. If the walls are tiled or wainscoted with marble or other such material^ the sink
L
no. u
back may be omitted. The sink is supported behind by strips of wood nailed to the studs, as at tt, a, a in Fig. 4; tlic feet uf the cast-iron legs are screwed to the floor* The hot- and cold' water pipes run up at the back of the splash plate, which makes a plain, neat finish,*
A simple trap ^1 is set on the floor The drain board is fluted with a series of |-inch grooves cut t^uite closely
10 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES B 1*
together. These grooves all run toward the sink, and drain the drippings from the newly washed dishes into it. The window sill is about 4 inches higher than the drain board, which makes a good support for the dishea to rest against when standing on edge to drain, as shown in the figure. The grooves in the drain board prevent tl^e lower edges of the dishes from sliding out, and the strip across the lower end prevents them from rolling into the sink. The drain board is shown supported at the high epd by a bracket b^ which is quite proper if the bracket is heavy enough. This shelf should be strong enough to" safely suppcMt a load of 800 pounds, and the joints should all be made perfectly water-tight by being fitted close and bedded in red or white lead. The drain board should be made of well- seasoned ash about l\ inches thick. The lower end should be bedded on the sink rim with red lead, and securely held down to the iron with not less than four l^inch brass screws, which are screwed up into the board from the under side of the sink rim.
18. Cast-Iron Enameled Sinks. — A cast-iron, roll- rlm, enameled kitelien sink of a simple, substantial, and sanitary design is shown in Fig. 12 (//). It is furnished with a back 12 or 15 inches high, which has a quarter-round edge, as shown in Fig. 12 {b). The roll rim of the sink is half round, as shown in Fig. 12 (r). The back plate rests on the sink with a lap joint, made either as shown in Fig. 12 (d) or {e). The under side of the sink has two circular sockets about \ inch deep, into which the upper ends of th^legs fit, as shown in Fig. 12 (/). To prevent the feet shifting on the floor, each has a prong at the bottom of the ball, which is let into the floor about ^ inch, as shown in Fig. 12 {g). If the back flange of the sink is flat, it may be supported on wooden cleats, or better still, on angle irons, and fastened by screws or bolts. A simple attachment for supporting the back is shown in Fig. 12 (//). The back flange has a vertical flange that can be fastened to the wall. If the space at the back of the splash plate a is filled with plaster of Paris, and
t2 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES § 14?
TABLE I CAffr-moN KITCHEN i^lNlCft
|
Length |
, Width |
Depth |
Length |
Width |
Depth |
|
Inches |
Inches |
Inches |
Inches |
Indies |
Tnches |
|
i64 |
I2i |
5 |
30 |
ao |
6 |
|
18 |
12 |
6 |
3»4 |
18 |
6 |
|
16 |
16 |
6 |
3n |
at |
6 |
|
i'3 |
14 |
6 |
3<S |
iS |
6 |
|
«5 |
6 |
36 |
atj |
6 |
|
|
»5J |
'54 |
6 |
38 |
20 |
6 |
|
30 |
I2i |
6 |
4a |
32 |
6 |
|
so |
14 |
6 |
48 |
JO |
6 |
|
34 |
M |
6 |
48 |
23 |
6 |
|
»4i |
16 |
6 |
«4 |
M |
a |
|
»4 |
18 |
6 |
30 |
34 |
s |
|
»5i |
I7i |
6 |
SO |
34 |
H |
|
«7 |
«S |
6 |
50 |
26 |
6i |
|
'4 |
so |
6 |
6i |
22 |
a |
|
a8 |
»7 |
6 |
76 |
22 |
7 |
|
38 |
20 |
6 |
sfi |
32 |
9 |
|
30 |
16 |
6 |
60 |
28 |
10 |
|
30 |
18 |
<i |
78 |
28 |
10 |
20, Solid-Porcelain Sinks.— Fig. 13 shows a solid- porcelain roll-rim sink with two drain boards a and b fitted up complete in a corner. It has a roll rim ^n front and at the ends. The back, through which the faucets protrude, is also made of solid porcelain, and is bedded down with white-lead putty on the flat rim of the sink. The back is set against the wall in plaster of Paris, and is held in place by the flanges of the sink faucets. The sink is supported by a wrought-iron frame, the back of which is fastened by screws or bolts to the wall, and whose front is supported upon the legs, which are offset to give ample room
this respect are desirable. Porcelain sinks are 2 inches thick j glased both inside and outside, and made in one piece, which dispenses with the joints so objectionable in soap- stone or slate sinks.
21* The drain boards shown in Fig. 13 are especially devised for roll -rim sinks and fulfil all practical and sanitary requirements. One end of each is supported by the sink, and the other by brass brackets; otherwise they are entirely free from the wall. The corner drain board a swings upwards on the hinges at the right. The end drain board ^ swings on hinges at the back; the supporting leg or bracket c is telescopic and lengthens as the board is raised. Automatic catches should be attached to the wall to hold up the boards when they are raised. The boards can be swung up out of the way to allow cleaning around the sink or walls. The boards are made of selected ash, the pieces being tongued and grooved together. Brass rods are run
63—30
14 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES § 19
through them to insure non-warping. The rim along the three edges of the board prevents dishes from falling off and water dripping to the floor. The part of each board coming in contact with the roll rim is supplied with a row of rubber fenders to prevent the roll rim from being dam* aged by the boards falling. Where the board drains intC the sink an additional projecting nickel-plated nosinj^ is affixed.
23* The sink arrangement shown in Pig. 13 is thor-1 oughly sanitary, particularly so when the walls and floor arc made impervious by using tiles, as shown, or some other non-absorbent material. Sinks of this kind, especially those with porcelain legs, are recommended for the finest class of work.
33* Fig. 14 shows a recessed stand In lor ^raste Bliik that
is intended to be used without a back plate. The recess a, which contains a stRudinfjT \va!<te /\ is set against the back wall. The hot and cold supply pipes may come up one on each side of the recess. This and all other earthernware,
FlQ.H
and porcelain sinks should be set solidly on an iron frame, and supported in front by metal or porcelain legs, All^ experts agree that sinks intended to be filled with water should be litted with a standing waste, which positively'
prevents overflowing.
§ 19 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES 15
24, The common sizes of porcelain sinks are given in Table II.
TABIiE n DIMENSIONS OF PORCKLAIN SINKS
|
Length |
Width |
Depth |
|
Inches |
Inches |
Inches |
|
28 |
18 |
9 |
|
30 |
20 |
9 |
|
36 |
23 |
7 |
|
42 |
24 |
7 |
|
48 |
24 |
7 |
85, Slate Sinks. — Some sinks in the market are com- posed of slate slabs or slabs of other materials joined together; such sinks are undesirable because grease and filth collect in the sharp corners, whence it cannot be cleaned out. This matter decomposes and emits offensive odors. Besides, slate is more or less porous, and its pores become clogged with filth.
26. Soapstone and Cement Sinks. — Sinks made from s<)ai>stone and cenient are porous and hence should be avoided, even though they have rounded inside corners. These sinks are simply put on the market as a cheap substi- tute for glazed earthenware, porcelain, or other vitreous g<x)ds.
87. Earthenware Sinks. — A special clay is used in the manufacture of earthenware sinks, which are molded to the required form. The clay may be burned to vitrifaction, and thus made impervious throughout its thickness; or it may be burned porous . like ordinary firebrick, and either salt glazed or enameled on the surface. A cheap quality is known to the trade as brown i^lazed earthenware, which makes a good, plain, durable sink, but owing to its color, filth cannot easily be seen on its surface. A better
16 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES § 19
earthenware sink is that which is enameled in white on the inside and glazed brown outside; but the best grade of the earthenware class m enameled white all aver and appears like a solid-porcelain sink. Earthenware sinks, like por- celain sinks» can be had with plain or roll rims, and in different styles.
BUTUBB^S PASTBT SEHXS
28. Copper Pantry SlnlDS. — Sinks intended for biitier*8
pantries are made of various shapes and materiah^ The most common are made of -sheet copper tinned on the inside. They are either struck up from one piece of sheet copper or are built of two or more pieces.
An oval copper pantry sink a^ composed of one piece of sheet copper, is shown in Fig, 15. It is oval in plan and
PIO. 15
semioval in section. It is supported by a flange *, which is nailed down to the board or frame c before the hard-wood top d is bedded down and secured in position. This form of pantry sink is always provided with an overflow horn, as shown at e, and a plug-and-socket waste connection in the center of the bottom, as at /.
29. A flat-bottomed eopi>er pantry sink is built from flat pieces of tinned sheet copper. Its seams are locked and sweated with soft solder. The bottom is flat, and the sides are usually slightly rounded at the corners. It is also fur- nished with a flange a. Fig. 16, around the top, and nailed to a wooden frame d, in order to stiffen the sides and preserve
§ 19 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES 17
the shape and position of the sink. The hard-wood top c is bedded on the frame b with red- or white-lead putty and
^^x^m^
FIG. 1«
secured with brass screws. The bottom of this sink should be supported by a shelf d^ which is scooped out in the center, as shown, so that the bottom may be perfectly drained.
30. Either galvanized-iron or lead pipe is generally used for the hot- and cold-water supply connections to copper pantry sinks, while the waste pipe, vent pipe, and trap are usually made of lead. Waste and overflow horns made of copper should be connected to their respective pipes by means of soldered joints; there is no objection, however, to the use of cup joints. On the best class of work, the waste horn is wiped to the trap. The pipe from the overflow horn, which is usually \\ inches, should join the trap on the house or sink side of the water seal.
31. The usual dimensions of copper pantry sinks are given in Table III.
32. Glazed Earthenware and Porcelain Pan try SI nks.
Sinks for pantries made of glazed earthenware and also of porcelain can be obtained. They are made in various styles to suit different tastes and requirements. Fig. 17 shows a popular and thoroughly sanitary arrangement. The sink is made with a recess a in the back, which affords room for a standing overflow b. This overflow tube is removable from the socket, and serves as a plug that can be
i
$ WASHING AND DRINKTNG FIXTURES § 19
pulled up to let out the water. The waste connection is made tight with a locknut and washer tinder the siuk* The trap is joined to the waste connection with a ring coupling.
Fio, 17
Earthenware and porcelain sinks are usually fitted with a marble slab c and marble splash or wall plates d, d. A dish drainer e, made of wooden slats, or rubber, is used to pro* tcct crystal or china dishes from contact with the ^Jab^nd thus prevent their being broken.
TABIiE m
DIMENSIONS OF COPPER PANTRY SINKS
|
Length |
Width |
Depth |
|
Inches |
Inches |
Inches |
|
12 |
i8 |
5 to 6 |
|
12 |
20 |
5 to 6 |
|
14 |
i6 |
5 to 6 |
|
14 |
20 |
5 to 6 |
|
14 |
24 |
5 to 6 |
|
i6 |
24 |
5 to 6 |
|
i6 |
30 |
5 to 6 |
|
i8 |
30 |
5 to 6 |
19 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES 19
Wk
I
20 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES §19
33. Fig. 18 shows an excellent pantry sink of the most approved class. The sink is made of solid porcelain 2 inches
thick, and is recessed at the right-hand end for a standing waste plug - and - socket at- tachment that allows the sink to be filled with water when de- sired. The sink is supported by a 2-inch pipe post a placed di- rectly under its cen- ^'°-'® ter of gravity. An
iron shelf or crowfoot support ;r, Fig. 19, is screwed to the top of the post to form a solid bed for the sink ; the base of the post has a floor flange ^, Fig. 18, which can be bolted to the floor. The hot- and cold-water pipes come up at the back of the sink. The top, or sink slab, c is Italian marble and countersunk. The countersinking is so arranged as to drain water back into the sink. The slab has ogee curveii edges in front and at the ends, and should be IJ inches or \\ inches thick. It is supported at each end by a nickel-plateti i)rass bracket or apron holder d^ Figs. 18 and *20, fastened to the wall, and two nickel-plated brass legs L\ L\ Fig. IS, in front. Marble aprons /, f, 7 inches deep, and between the points of support, f to 1 inch thick, reenforce the marble slab and give the sink a solid, neat appearance. The aprons are held in position, at the cor- ners, by the legs, the tops of which are recessed to receive them, as shown at // in Fig. '^1. The dowels /, Fig. '20, and /, l^^ig. '21, are let into the slab. The dowel / pre- vents the slab from working away from the wall, and j prevents the leg from falling forwards. The slab is usually bedded on the sink with plaster of Paris. Some plumbers, however, seem to think that a more w^aterproof job is accomplished by first painting the under side of the slab, just over the sink, with shellac varnish, and then
WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES
bedding the slab on the sink with a cement composed of shellac and powdered white lead. The back, or splasK plate^ g is 18 inches high and from J to 1 inch thick. All the marble should be polished and made impervious to
FiQ. 90
Fio.21
water on its exposed surface. The back may be secured tu the wall wnth plaster of Paris, but if there is danger of vibration, it should be additionally secured with three or four nickel-plated, round-headed screws and washers.
To prevent splashings of water from saturating^ the sur- roimdings of the sink, it is advisable to tile the walls and
floors as shown, so that __
they may be non-absorb- - ^^T^ ,^^'_ ~^ . " i _^
[ ent and easily cleaned. "— -^ ^ — -^^"-^ — -^ . ,^ i
34. To lessen the risk of glass and chinaware being broken while being handled on porcelain, marble, or other hard- substance sinks, it is * advisable to provide a wtK)den or rubber sink mat^ which may be laid on the bottom of the sink or placed on the top.
nrr
^i
Fig. as
1
^2 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES | 19
Fig. tH shows a good wooden mat very suitable for a kitchen ur pantry ^iiik. It is made of hard -wood slats held together by brass rods and will effectually prevent the scratching and discoloring of the sink when puts, etc, arc handled thereon. These mats are somewhat flexible and therefore not very liable to chip the sinks should they slip and fall in.
35, The common sizes of earthenware pantry sinks are given in the following table:
TABLE TV
DIMENSIONS OF KAliTIIBNWAILE glA^SB
|
Length |
Width |
Depth |
|
Inches |
Inches |
Inches |
|
20 |
14 |
4i |
|
23 |
t6 |
Sk |
|
*5 |
n |
Si |
SLOP SINKS
36. Purpose. — A special form of sink is used for the purpose of receiving slops, chiefly from bedrooms, and is called a slop sink. It diflfers from a kitchen sink chiefly
in dimensions, being shorter and narrower, but deeper. A slop sink is usually set so that its rim is about 20 inches above the floor.
37. Cast-iron Slop Sinks. — In
Fig. 23 is shown a form of slop sink known to the trade as a slop hopper sink. The sink bowl a is provided with a strainer d that can be removed to clean the trap c below. It is supported
PIO. 28
§19 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES
23
directly upon c, which is a 4-inch trap. The outlet end i/ of the trap is flanged so that it may be attached to a lead waste pipe. The trap maybe had without this flange; it is then calked into the socket of an iron pipe. A '2-inch back- vent connection e is made to the trap. This fixture, which is east iron, is shown with a plain rim, but can be obtained with a roll rim.
3S* Fig; 24 shows a modern enamel €?d -Iron roll -rim slop sink a supported by a flange bolted tu the trap d. The
Ft6, m
"imk Is set a few inches clear of the back wall and the hot- and cold-water supply pipes come up at the back c)f the sink.
U WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES § 19
The faucets are attached at a height of about 10 or 12 inches above the roll rim.
39. The usual dimensions of cast-iron slop sinks are given in the following table:
TABIiE V DIMENSIONS OP CAST-IJION SLOP SINKS
|
Length |
Breadth |
Depth |
|
Inches |
Inches |
Inches |
|
i6 |
16 |
10 |
|
20 |
14 |
12 |
|
20 |
16 |
12 |
|
24 |
20 |
12 |
|
30 |
20 |
12 |
|
36 |
18 |
12 |
|
36 |
21 |
12 |
|
23 |
15 |
15 |
|
36 |
21 |
16 |
|
48 |
20 |
12 |
|
48 |
20 |
17 |
|
60 |
2a |
12 |
40. rorcclaln Slop Sinks. — Fig. 25 shows a solid roll- rlin porcelain slop sink with a nickel-plated hinged brass guard (f over the front rim; this guard protects the rim against rough usage from pails, etc. This sink is cleaned oulv hv water from the faucets and hand labor.
41. Slop sinks that receive chamber slops and sewage matter are usually provided with flushing rims and flush tanks, ami are cleansed in a manner similar to water closets. They are constructed with large traps, and are connected to the drain pipes in a manner similar to the
WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES
m
connections of water closets. Slop sinks are often supplied with hot- and cold-water faucets similar to those used for
^y
Pia. SB
sinks, and thus do service as housemaids' or chamber- maids* sinks. They should be set in a well-lighted and well-ventilated closet^ or other small apartment^ convenient to the bedrooms.
42. A porcelain fluHhlnpr-i-lfn slop sink of highly approved make is shown in Fig, 2C. This fixture is well adapted for use In hotels, dweUings, etc. It is a solid- porcelain sink having a bronzed cast-iron trap serving as a standard; a cherry, ash, or oak copper-lined flushing tankrf overhead; a nickel-plated brass flush pipe *; nickel-piated brackets under tank; a nickel-plated guide rodr; a porcelain pull *:/; a nickel -plated combination faucet r; and hot and cold supply pipes / and ^, A slight touch of the pull d
The flushing rim n molded in one piece with the sink.
If a flushings r I iij slop sink is to be sub- jected to very rough tretitmcnt, it is ad- visable to IBOUlll ii with a special nickel- plated brass ritn ibal will also act as a flushing rim. The trap being set on a broad base, ant! St ro ng I y sec u red to J the sink by the strainer, forms ihc only support fo the sink. It is back vented with a 24nch pipe.
43. Good flushing^ rim slop sinks may be fitted with faucctn like a kitchen sinfl and flushed through them instead oj thrtutgh a flushin| tank, but the flush- ing'tank arrangement, shown in Fig. 2G, is recommeiidccj fur high -class work. Tfie most jHjpular sisse of the style sink shown in Fig. M is about 20 inches long by 20 inches
WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES
27
wide aad 11 inches deep, but other sbes are on the market, as shown in the foUowing table:
TABI.E VI III MENSION8 OF I^IRCBUUN SLOP !^tNKi»
|
Length |
Width |
Depth |
|
Inches |
Inches |
Inches |
|
20 |
16 1 |
tt |
|
3Q |
20 |
] t |
|
21 |
t8 |
12 |
|
34 |
20 |
12 |
I
IV ASH SINKS
44, Lon^ Troufc^hs, — A class of sink that is specially adapted for use in mills, factories, and other places where a large number of people are liable to use ft at the same time is known from its form as a loiigr-ttxiu^h wii^li sink. As implied by the name, it is simply a long trough supplied with cold water and occasionally with hot water, from a number of faucets. Such a sink should be enameled inside and have a roll rim,
45. Fig, 27 shows a form of wash sink that is used in many industrial establishments. It is composed of a num- ber of sections a', a, a, with flanged ends that are bolted together, red-lead putty being used between the faces of the flanges to make the joints water-tight. The water pipe A runs between the troughs and supplies them through faucets placed about 2 feet fj inches apart. The space I jet ween the troughs is from ^ to 3 inches wide, and is closed nn top by an enameled cast-iron cap c^ The trough h supfiorted an cast-iron standards d that are screwed to the fl(K>r. The sections a\4i' are ^^ 'niddlc sections of the double trough,
§ 19 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES 29
and each middle section is furnished with a waste connec- tion e^ e having a strainer. Sometimes a plug-and-socket waste outlet is used. The bottom of the trough has a pitch from the ends to the outlet.
Any length of trough can be obtained by inserting sec- tions, but in ordering these wash sinks the exact length should be given, so that the manufacturer can ship sections of the proper depth and pitch.
46, The capacity of wash sinks is proportioned to the number of people who will use them at the same time. To avoid excessive loss of time by people awaiting their turn, it is considered good practice to allow 30 inches of length of trough and one faucet for every six or eight people who are supposed to use them.
•
47. The sinks shown in Fig. 27 stand back to back and are set in the middle of the wash-room floor. If it is desired to arrange them against the wall, a cast-iron enameled back plate is placed at the back of each section, and the faucets are attached to pipes coming through the back plate.
The width of wash sinks is generally 18 inches; the depth of the middle section is 8 inches; the depth of the end sec- tion is 5 inches. The greatest length that can be obtained without necessitating a change of the manufacturers' pat- terns is about 55 feet.
I^UNDRY TUBS
WOODEN LAUNDRY TUBS
48. Construction. — The tubs used in laundries for washing clothes, etc. are known as \vash tubs, laundry- tubs, or trays in different localities. The cheapest varieties are made of wood, the ends and partitions being rabbeted into the sides and bottom. The joints should be well painted
63—31
30 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES § 19
with white lead, and should be drawn tight by means of iron bolts. Repeated drying and wetting soon spoils the joints and rots the wood. When they become leaky past repair- ing, they may be lined with tinned copper, galvanized iron, or zinc.
49. Disadvantagres. — Wooden tubs are very unsanitary. They are out of date and should never be installed for laun- dry purposes, chiefly because of their tendency to absorb organic matter, which decomposes in the pores of the wood, and emits disagreeable, if not dangerous, odors. It is advisable to replace them, where possible, with sanitary fixtures.
CAST-IRON LAUNDRY TUBS
60, Cast-iron tubs, either galvanized or porcelain enameled, are cleanly, durable, and generally satisfactory. The corners are all rounded, and no crevices exist in which dirt may accumulate or which will harbor vermin. The only drawback to enameled tubs is that the enamel will eventually crack and chip off. When the enamel is chipped off and the iron body is consequently exposed, the rust formed by the iron may discolor the water and spoil it for washing purposes. They are therefore not to be recommended for first-class work.
CEMEXT I.AUXDRY TUBS
51. Tubs made of cement are often used on the cheap- est work, and have been found to serve the purpose well when made from the i)est Portland cement, but they are porous and consequently have the disadvantages of the old wooden tub. The common dimensions of cement tubs are given in Table VII.
§ 19 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES 31
TABIiE VII DIMENSIONS OF CEMENT TUBS
|
Number |
Length |
Width |
Depth |
|
of Parts |
Inches |
Inches |
Inches |
|
2 |
48 |
21 |
16 |
|
2 |
48 |
24 |
16 |
|
2 |
53 |
24 |
16 |
|
2 |
60 |
24 |
16 |
|
3 |
72 |
21 |
16 |
|
3 |
72 |
24 |
16 |
|
3 |
80 |
24 |
16 |
|
3 |
90 |
24 |
16 |
PORCEIiAIN AND EABTHENWABE LJ^UNDRY TUBS
62. Advantagres. — Tubs made of porcelain or brown glazed earthenware are very heavy and require a substan- tial iron frame to support them. They are very durable and are easily kept clean. The corners are all rounded off to prevent accumulations of dirt. If finished flat on top, they are usually supplied with wood rims of ash to protect their edges. The rims should be set in red-lead putty before being bolted down tight. Porcelain tubs of the finest grades are usually finished on top with a roll rim; no wood rim is then required.
63. Positions of Faucets. — Laundry tubs are some- times fitted with wooden covers- that are hinged at the back. When these are used, the faucets must be placed within the tubs, the connections being made through holes in the back. This arrangement is objectionable, because the faucets occupy too much of the interior space of the tubs. The fabrics will catch and tear on the nozzles of the faucets, and the laundress is likely to bruise her hands on them.
§ 19 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES 33
three wash tubs may all be connected to one waste pipe. One 2-inch trap is sufficient for three tubs. Each tub should have its own hot- and cold-water faucets. The faucets should, if practicable, be placed above the tubs. In fitting up a set of tubs, provision should be made for attaching a clothes-wringer to the right-hand end of the right-hand tub, with a space of at least 2 feet between this tub and any wall to the right for a clothes basket.
55. In Fig. 28 is shown a set of two porcelain or glazed earthenware wash tubs a^ a. They are set upoti two cast- iron stands. An ash frame c is bolted to a hardwood strip d by long bolts e^ e. Branches are taken from the hot and cold lead water pipes /, /, to supply the tub cocks g, g. The waste water from the tubs passes through a lead S trap //, which is connected as shown. The trap is protected against siphonage by a Ij^-inch lead back vent pipe /. One of the tubs has part of its inner surface corrugated, as at j\ this is often used as a scrubbing board.
56. A superior set of modern laundry tubs is shown in Fig. 29. It is composed of three solid-porcelain roll-rim tubs 2 inches thick set on three iron frames, the fronts of which are supported by iron or porcelain legs and the backs by brackets bolted to the wall. The tubs are fitted with porcelain backs through which the hot- and cold- water pipes pass, and are connected to special tub cocks, as shown.
A well-seasoned, brass-bound ash board ^, called a wiingrer base, is secured by long bolts to the roll rims over each space between the tubs. A wringer base is an excel- lent feature, since all tubs should have accommodation for a clothes wringer. The waste pipe ^ is a IJ-inch or 2-inch brass pipe, and a 2-inch trap is used. A special fea- ture in the trap shown is its trap screw c, the location of which makes access for cleaning-out purposes easy. A trap screw is also placed at the highest point d (the right-hand
d6 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES g 19
57* Fig. 30 shows «an' excellent arrangement of laun- dry fixtures for buildings without a laundry. The fix- tures used are a porcelain sink and two laundry tubs in combination; the arrangement is therefore adapted for use in kitchens of apartment houses, etc., becaflse it economizes space. Tht combination 'drain board and cover a and the coyer i can be turned up against the wall when it is desired to use the tubs. A wringer can be used . between the ttibs if desired, and can be attached easily and quickly by tightening a thumbscrew. In this case the tub cocks are attached to the back of the tubs under the covers. -.
80APST0KB AND SUkTX liAUNDBT TUBS
58» Advantafires and Dtsadvantaflres. — Some tubs are made of soapstone or slate slabs, which are joined by red- lead cement and are held together by rods and iron frames. Inferior soapstone will crack if subjected to hot water. These tubs are liable to permit grease and dirt to accumu- late in the sharp corners unless carefully cleaned. This is a bad feature, which, combined with their liability to be porous, makes them unsuitable for use in good buildings. It is common practice, however, to use them in small build- ings where the owners cannot afford glazed earthenware or porcelain tubs.
59. Installation. — Fig. 31 shows a set of two soapstone or slate tubs fitted up complete in the cellar of an ordinary small six- or eight-room dwelling. Two tubs are usually enough for such a house. For this class of buildings they must usually be cheap, and the tubs shown are therefore adapted to the work. Each tub is provided with a plug- chain-and-socket attachment for the waste outlet in the bot- tom. The tubs are supported on three cast-iron stands, one at each end and one in the middle. As these tubs are liable
§ 19 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES 3? to crack, they should carry a guarantee for at least a year.
t
Fl©. 31
The pipes and connections show how such tube may be fitted up to the best advantage.
OO, The usual dimensions of slate tubs are given in the fDlIowlng table;
TABLE Vm
I>IM£N.HIC>:VS OF SLATE TtrHS
|
Nuttiber of Parts |
Length Inches |
Width Inches |
Depth Inches |
|
I |
U 1 |
24 |
16 |
|
t |
4S |
21 |
16 |
|
3 |
54 |
24 |
t6 |
|
J |
78 |
24 |
16 |
88 IWASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES §19 I^ATATORIES
OITAIa AJffO UOirNl> WASH BASIKS
61. Hixee ami Materials* — Wash bnsins are either round or ovaL The oval basin affords more space for the free use of the arms than a round one of the same capacity, and is, therefore, to be pieferred.
Basins are measured over the outside of the top flange. Round basins vary in diameter from V^ to 16 inches. Oval basins are usually made hi three sizes, 17 in. x 14 in., 19 in, X 16 in., and %l in. x 1*5 in. The term bowl is now often used instead of biisln. Both terms refer only to that part of the fixture which holds the water. The term lavatory is commonly used to specify the combinatioti of the basin, its slab, legs, back, aprons, waste, vent, and water-supply connections.
Basins are made of iron, {galvanised or enameled, and also of porcelain. The porcelain basins are made in plain white color, or they are decorated to any degree of elegance that may be desired. Wash basins are constructed in many ways. In the most common vaViety, the bowl is separate from the slab, or top ; the splash plate, or back, is also separate from the slab. In other varieties, the bowl, top, and back are made in one piece of metal or porcelain. Wash basins are supported on substantial wall brackets or on metal frames or pedestals. They should never be cased in with cabinetwork, because such enclosures cannot be
kept clean and vermin will find lodgment in the crevices of the woodwork.
63. Kxamples of
Wash Basins. — Bowls
^'°- ^ are made with and
without overflows, and the latter are constructed in diflfer-
ent ways. In Fig. 32 is shown a common round bowl
§ 19 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES 39
with overflow horn attached. The overflow consists of a strainer a and a nozzle, or horn, b to which a waste pipe • is attached by a cemented slip joint, or by a rubber cone connection. The latter is preferable, providing the rubber is of good quality.
This form of a bowl necessitates the use of a separate overflow pipe to connect the horn to the waste pipe. In all such connections, the overflow connection must be made to the waste pipe between the basin and the trap, or to the trap itself and under the water. This is an objectionable fotm of overflow, because it cannot readily be cleaned.
63. In Fig. 33 is shown a combined bowl and overflow.
The overflow duct a^ which is molded on the basin, leads
into the waste outlet b ,
through holes c in the
connection under the
rubber plug d. This also
is objectionable, because
it cannot be easily
cleaned.
The connection b e - tween the waste pipe and the discharge outlet of ^
the basin is commonly ^'°- ®
made by means of a plug and socket having a screw coup- ling, as shown. Great care must be exercised in screwing up this joint, because the bowl is very liable to crack or break at the joint. A thick gasket of soft rubber should be used between the locknut e and the porcelain.
64. In Fig. 34 is shown a basin with a standing: over- flow inside a recess a in the porcelain bowl. The standing overflow b also forms a waste plug, and is perforated at its base, as shown, to form a strainer, which can be easily cleaned by lifting out the entire waste plug and overflow arrangement. The top of b slides in a guide that is secured
§ 19 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES 41
65. A combined stand pipe -waste and overlloTr is
shown in Fig. 36. The stopper and standing overflow are contained in the stand pipe a. The surplus or overflow water escapes through the holes at b. The bowl c is made plain, without even a stopper, and has a strainer only.
66. Bowls are also made with flushing ritns^ and the faucets are placed below the top, having only the handles in sight. The rim of the bowl is thus freed from all obstruc- tions, and the hands of the bather cannot be injured by the nozzles of the faucets.
67. Inventors and designers have spent much time and thought in improving wash basins. The overflow, it would appear, has received more consideration than the other parts. This, no doubt, is due. to the fact that the old-time overflows on becoming foul cannot be conveniently cleaned, and there- fore emit disagreeable odors. From a hygienic standpoint, the changes incorporated in modern basins are excellent.
Pig. 86
68. Fig. 36 shows how an overflow a is formed at the back of the basin. A strainer b lies over the opening and
4S WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES § 19
can be lifted off at any time by first unscrewing the chain stay; the overflow can then be con veniently cleaned. Other improvements over the old forms of conunon basins are the placing of the chain and plug as far back and out of the way as possible, and an extra thick bottom, which makes the basin less liable to break.
The basin shown in Pig. 36 is oval, and is made either 17 in. X 14 in. or 19 in. x 15 in. ; this class of basin is in general to be recommended for plain, substantial work.
69. Fig. 37 shows, in section, a heavy, all-porcelain wash basin, especially adapted for use in hospitals, schools, etc. The bowl ^, top ^, and aprons c are all in one piece, while the back plate d is separate. Owing to the fact that marble
PlO. 87
tops often crack and break, and that the joint between a porcelain basin and a marble top is weak and often leaks water, all-porcelain basins of this class are to be recommended for places where they are liable to receive rough usage.
WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES
*?0, Lavatory Inj^tallatlotiB-^— Fi^. 38 shows an all- porcelain eut-ntn* lavatory i supporLed at each end by a strongs iron bracket and at the back corner by an iron bar let into the wall. The hot- and cold-water supply pipes and the
I
PlO. 38
waste pipe pass through the wall under the basin. The back plates are cemented to the wall with plaster of Paris. This form of lavatory gives the bather ample elbow room and is preferable to small corner slabs with round basins.
71- Fig. 39 shows a neat and compact form of basin, or open lavatory, as it is commonly called, composed of a 33" X M" X li" Italian marble slab a, with a 16-inch back i, 5-inch aprons c^ c, nickel-plated brass legs d, d, a 19" x 15" oval basin ^, a hot- and cold-water supply combination shampoo/, nickel-plated supply pi pes ^, g, a waste pipe k, and nickel-plated brass apron holders i.
The class of lavatory shown in Fig. 39 is recognized as one of the finest and most sanitary on the market. In the highest grade work the slab, back, and aprons may be made
48 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES | 19
back into the bowl. The holes for basin cocks and other attachments should also be surrounded by raised rims, for the same purpose. The holes for ordinary basin cocks should be made square to receive the square shank of the
cock and thus prevent it from
turning.
Pia4l
77. A cheap waste conneeti*m can be made by means of :t short rubber sleeve a^ Fig. 44, which k tied or wired to both basin and pipe* This allows the fixtures lo settle and shift without danger o(
rupture, but, nevertheless, this method of making basin
connections is not recommended for good work; the rubber
soon decays, becomes
brittle, and breaks
away. The seat, or
socket, 6 to receive
the plug, when molded
in the porcelain, is
always more or less
imperfect; con se-
qiienily, a soft- rubber
pi u j^ is used. The
space between the
sfilash plates and
the wall shou I d be i
completely filled with
plaster of Paris, so
that no crevice or
hole is left for vermin.
78* In situations where space must be
economized l o t h e
utmost, a folding washstand or basin may be employed
The bowl of such an ap[)aratus is hung on hinges, and when
Pig. IA
1 19 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTCRES 40
not in use may be turned up into a pocket in the wall, as shown in Fig. 45. Two swing cocks at a supply hot and cold water to the basin when their nozzles are swung around until they are over it. The water in the wash IkjwI d is emptied into a receiving tank or chamber r when the bowl is raised and the apparatus closed, and is carried away by a waste pipe whose trap is immediately under the tank.
h
R.\NG£ or WAsa BAsrxs
79- Fig. 46 shows a range of basins very suitable for use in the employe's toilet rooms of large tndtistrial estab- lishments and in public institutions. It oonsists of a
60 WASHING AND DRlNl^ING FIXTURES § 19
which are braced by cross-rods b^ b. Each standard has a wide flange cast on top. AH the standards, except the two end ones, are set exactly under the joints between the basins, so that the end of each basin is supported on a standard fiange. The basins shown are each supplied with a hot and cold spring cock. The wheel handles shown on these cocks are not as desirable as cross- or tee-head handles, because ihey slip when the hands are soapy. The basins _ shown are all furnished with standing wastes. One trap is fl generally used for a range of basins. This arrangement is to be recommended for mill and factory use in preference to wash sinks or cast-iron enameled basin ranges.
I
X-AVATORY DKTAHiS
80» Marble Baslo Slabs. — The slabs, or rather com- binations of two or more slabs, used for wash basins are
generally made of marble and are known to the trade
as follows:
1. Rouml-eomer slab ^nrlth two ba<?ks, as shown |
in Fig. 47. This style is commonly used in small bathrooms. It is usually supported by cleats nailed under both of the straight
ledges of the slab. This basin faces diagonally across the
room. The common sizes
of these slabs are 18, 19, 20,
21, 22, and 24 inches long
at each straight side. Thc^
backs are 8, 10, or 12 inchs. s
high. The slabs are IJ^ to
1^ inches thick. The backs
are | to 1 inch thick.
2. Slab with s i n gr I e
back, as shown in Fig. 48.
FiO. 47
This style is intended to be set
WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES
51
Pto. ii
*
against a wall and away from corners. It is preferable to corner basins, becaiise it gives the bather ample space at the fixture. This slab is generally supported at the back by a cleat and in front by legs or brackets. ' ^ "T^^l
3. lUght-hancl corner Rial), or slab ^wlth back and rlgrlit-liand end* as shown in Fig, 49, It is designated right band be- cause the side wall is at the right of the person while using the fixture. The back and right-hand end are usually supported on cleats, and the corner by a leg or bracket
secured to the wall
4. Tjeft-haiid corner slab* or slab ^vltb liacic and left-liaiid end, as shown in Fig, 50. What has been said with reference to the right-hand corner slab is applicable to this slab. The common sizes of slabs shown in Figs. 48, 49^ and 50 are 19" X 24", 20" X 24", 20" X 26", 20" x 28", 20" X 30", 22" X 28". ^2" X 30", 22" X 36". The thickness of these slabs is from l|to l^ inches, and the thickness of the backs is from f to I inch. The smaller size in each case is most commonly used.
5. Recess slab, or slab with Iwck and t^vo ends, as shown in Fig. 5L It is called recess because it is usually set snugly into a recess in the room. Only the front edge of the slab is molded. This slab is sup- ported by cleats under the ends and back; or, the ends
I
Fto. m
m WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES 1 19
and back may be let into the wall about I J or '2 inches^ The sixes of recess slabs depend on the dimensions of the recesses into which they are to be set. These vary so much that it is customary to get slabs especially cot to fit the recesses.
81. Moldings, — There are several forms of moldings
employed in the manufacture of marble slabs^ the most
(a)
m
fe}
ma. m
popular being the ogree molding shown in Fig. 52 (a) Fig. 52 (^) shows the fillet and eliamfer molding. Fig. 62 {€) shows the chamfer molding. Fig. 52 {{/) shows the triple bead inoldlngrj the three beads being cut into the exposed edges of the slab, as at a^ a^ a.
82. The style of molding used should be selected to
match the interior trim of the toilet room. The ogee mold- ing is commonly used when no preference is indicated by architect or owner.
I
83, Basin Safes,— A special pan of marble or other raaterial is often piaced in the floor under a basin for the
purpose of receiving
drips or leakage from the lavatory. Such a pan is called a ba^tn ^'^ ^ safe. If made of mar*
ble, slate, or other kind of stone, or cement, they are countersunk or dished out on top. If made of metal, such as sheet copper or lead, they are provided with a raised rim all around, so that the water falling on the safe will not readily escape to the floor. The safe thus becomes a
L
I I
§ 19 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES 53
receptacle to hold a small amount of leakage. A marble floor safe is shown at j in Fig. 39. In setting a safe, it is advisable always to sink it in the floor, as shown in Fig. 53, so that the raised portion a will be about \ inch above the finished floor line; the safe must be set level.
DRINKING FOUNTAINS
TYPES
84. Drinking: fountains are used extensively in schools, hotels, large office buildings, barracks, and other buildings where a large number of people congregate. They are seldom used in private residences. There are two kinds of drinking fountains; in the one kind a cup is used to drink from, while the other is provided with a jet from which people may drink without the use of a cup.
86, Objections have been raised by sanitary authorities to the ordinary public drinking-cup method of distributing water. It is stated that the saliva from diseased people adheres to the cup, and is a source of spreading disease among healthy people who drink from the same cup. The question of a hygienic method of distributing pure drinking water to the people is a question worthy of grave considera- tion. The public-cup fountain certainly is unsanitary, yet a large number of them are in constant use and many more are being installed daily. To overcome the danger of spread- ing disease by the use of the same cup by all people, it is recommended that each individual carry and use his own cup. The individual-cup method is applicable, however, only for schools, etc., where it is convenient for people to carry their own cups.
CTTP FOITNTAINS
86. Marble-Slab Fountains. — Fig. 54 shows a marble- slab fountain, a large number of which are in use. It is composed of a countersunk marble slab a^ usually about
54 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES § 1^
24 inches long by 12 inches wide. This slab is generally countersunk about 1 inch, and grades down to a waste strainer that is located in the center of the slab. The back
slab b is about 1ft inches high, and is usually ornamental. One or more cold-water ^-inch supply pipes are brought through the back, from which drinking water is drawn
Fio. H
through suitable spring cocks. The height of the cocS should be about 10 inches above the slab^ and the flow of the water should be restricted by a valve or stop-cock on the supply pipe^ or by a restricted orifice in the cock, so that the water will flow in a slow, solid, and steady stream. which, when falling on the slab a^ will not splash over on the floor.
87. The height that a fountain should be set above the floor depends somewhat on the average stature of the people who will use it. For the use of school children, the height
I l^ WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES
55
from floor to spring cock shotild be about 3 feet 6 inches. For the use of adtilts, the height may be fmir feet.
88. Poreelafti Foiiti tains. — Stolid -porcelain roU-rim fuun tains are often used. They are composed of a bowl and back pi a t e m ol d ed i n o n e piece, the cocks being" attached to the back, as shown in Fig. oo. Such fountains are usually secured to the wall with nickel -plated, round- liead screws and nickel- plated washers, or by nickel-plated lagf- screws, or expansion bolts.
89* Ileeessecl Fono- —
tains, -^Recessed foun- tains are setinthe walls, and hence do not
project as much as the P'**- "
ordinary fountains, which makes them especially desirable for use in narrow passages or halls. They may be made of marble, porcelain, or other such material. Fig. 5fi shows an excellent recessed sol id-marble fountain that is simple and substantial. It is cut out of a solid block of marble, the bottom being dished out to a depth of about 3 inches* A waste strainer (i is located at the (owest point. A marble apron it let into the wall and secured with nickel -plated expansion bolts at the corners can be readily removed to give access to the trap. The glass holder c and the spring cock for this class of work should preferably be made of first-quaHty white metal. This metal, when polished, resembles silver and is the same color all through its body. The cocks and glass holders should be frequently scoured and polished to keep them perfectly clean j if they are made
PlO. M
is not desirable. White-metal goods may be scoured and polished without affecting their appearance until holes are worn through the metal.
90. Fountains, like the one shown in Fig. 56, are appro- priate for massive construction work, i. e., for buildings that not only are strong but must also appear strong; they look particularly neat when set in white-enamelled brick walls.
RISIKG-JST FOUNTAINS
91. A cupless, or rlslngr-Jet, fountain is a modern
fountain, especially constructed to distribute drinking water without the use of drinking cups or glasses of any
description. The distribution is effected simply by jet of water like a live springy from which people may sif directly from the jet.
Fig. o7 shows such a fountain fitted up com- plete on brackets secured to a wall. It has a coun- tersunk marble slab, and is fitted with a trap and waste pipe a, and a |-meh water-supply pipe b. The valve on B is operated by a loose socket key, shown at c^ which the attendant keeps in his possession. This valve is adjusted to allow a jet of water to rise about 2 inches, as shown at </; this is the point where a drink is •libtained by stooping aver and sucking up water from the jet.
93. A detail of the jet ^^^' ^*
and waste connections is shown in Fig; 5H. A waste cup a is countersunk into the marble slab i^ and is held in place by a special hollow locknut c screwed up to the under side of the marble slab. The trap rf is attached to the waste cup a by a coupling joint as shown, and the water pipe is continued up through the inlet end of the trap, terminating with a nozzle below the water in the inner cup e. This inner cup is located about J inch below the level of the waste cup and remains filled with water, as shown. The water flows into the cup and overflows through the waste cup into the trap. A few small holes drilled through the side of the jet cap on top of the water
§ 19 WASHING AND DRINKING FIXTURES 59
The cupless fountain prevents the spread of infectious diseases; as the person using it drinks from the flowing water, the lips do not come in contact with any part of the metal, and any impurities from the lips are imme- diately washed into the waste pipe.
BATHS AND URINALS
BATHS
BATHTUBS
INTRODUCTION
1, The general term batli is applied to any fixture in "which a person can bathe, but in accordance with either the shape or purpose the different fixtures are given specific names by the trade. The fixture generally installed in bathrooms has the form of a tub, whence it derives its name of bathtub. Since a person can plunge into the contained water, it is also spoken of as a plunge bath.
2, Bathtubs are made in three general styles, which are the ordinary^ French^ and Roman, the difference being in the shape.
The ordinary style has a round bottom, with a sloping head and a vertical foot. The French style has a flat bottom and flat parallel sides, with rounded corners. The head sloj)es and the foot is vertical. The Roman style is rectangular, the sides, bottom, and ends being flat, with round corners. Both the ends and the sides are nearly ver- tical. The ends usually slope more than the sides.
The ordinary style requires the least water; but, the bot- tom being semicircular in form, it is of inconvenient shape to stand on. The French tub affords more room for the bather, but requires more water.
§5J0 For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page.
ea— 33
%
BATHS AND URINALS
20
The Roman bath gives the most room for the bather. It is designed chiefly to overcome the unbalanced appear- ance that the other forms present when fitted up elsewhere than in a corner. In this style, the Jaucets are neariy always located outside the tub, and the hot and cold water enters through a single opening. The ititerior space is thus free from all obstructions or projections on which the bather might be injured.
ivn:TAi>Liifi;D batittitiis 3. Construction, — The cheapest grade of baths are made of wood and lined with zinc or tinned copper. The latter is the most common lining for metal-lined tubs; such a bath is known to the trade as a <*opper-nned hath. Copper-lined bathtubs are from 4^ to G feet long, 24 to 26 inches wide, and 20 to 22 inches deep. Such a bath is shown, in Fig. 1. It is simply a wooden box lined with
Fig. 1
tinned copper^ the tinniDg being inside the bath and highly polished. An overflow horn is Ifjcated at a^ Thits bath should be encased with wood finishings and have a special top made to fit the bath and the position in which it is placed, fl
4. Bteel*clad batbs are copper-lined or aluminum-lined,
the casing being steel They are supported on four cast- fl iron feet, have a top rim 3 or 4 inches wide all around, " attached to the bath, and have no woodw^ork around them,
20
BATHS AND URINALS
being open, and hence are more sanitary than tubs that are enclosed. A sheet of non-conducting material, such as asbes- tos, is placed between the lining and metallic casing of cop- per-lined steel-clad baths. The tin coating soon wears off and exposes the copper. A harder and more durable coat- ing is secured by nickel plating.
6, Waste CJonnections. — The -waste pipe is always connected to the bottom of the tub, and should be provided with a strainer to prevent the passage of soap, rags, etc. into the trap. The mode of connecting the waste pipe to a common copper-lined bath is shown in Fig. 2. The wooden bottom a is countersunk, and the copper lining b is also countersunk to suit. The waste pipe r, which should not
PlO. 2
be less than IJ inches inside diameter, is flanged over, as shown. The brass socket d is provided with cross-bars e that serve as a strainer, and is ground to a water-tight fit with the plug /. The space g is filled with solder, flush with the lining.
6. All tubs should be provided with an overflow pipe having a perforated plate or strainer over its mouth to keep out soap, etc. A common form of a coi)i)er-liiied tub connection is shown in Fig. 3. The bath empties through the H-inch waste pipe a and through the H-inch half S
[20
BATHS AND URINALS
over the top of the standing tube a, and when the tub i is to be emptied, the tube is pulled upwards, thus uncovering the perforations at the bottom of the inner tube c, as shown. The outer tube is provided with a rubber ring J, which makes a water-tight joint with the seat when it is dropped down on the bottom. A bent coupling e is shown attached to the waste outlet. Jf desired, a straight coupling may be used. This coupling connects with the bath trap, which is not shown,
8. The waste connection shown in Fig, 4 is most com- monly used with the earthenware, porcelain, or cast-iron .baths. A combination that is especially suited to copper- ' lined baths rs shown in Fig. 5. The stand-pipe overflow a is arranged at the top so that it passes through a sleeve in
FiO. 6
the miictng pipe of the conn bl nation bath cock ^. The valve is opened by pulling up the cup handle r. This arrangement steadies the standing waste and makes it positively secure. Fig. 5 shows a cross-section through a copper-lined French bath.
6
BATHS AND URINALS
§30
9, A stand-pipe crmiblnatioii of i^aste and overflow is shown in Fig. 6. The tube a Is provided with a rubber ring h that shuts water-tight upon the seat c. The water riaes between the tubes a and ^Z to the same height that it does in the bath until it reaches the perforations r; It over- flows through these and passes down the interior of ^ to the
FIG. 0
waste pipe. The inner tube is provided with a handle /
having a suitable slot and catch, commonly known as a bayooet catcli, by which it can be lifted and sus{>ended, as shown. Combined waste and overflow devices are adapted to all kinds of bathtubs, whether of wood, metal, or porcelain.
10. Bathtubs that are to be cased in are, in good work, set un a copper or lead safe. Those thai are to be left
§20 BATHS AND URINALS 7
open, in the best practice, are set on marble safes or on a floor of some impervious material. In either case, the bathtub should be set on the floor with a slight pitch toward the waste outlet. Marble safes are usually dished out to a depth of J or | inch, and have a brass strainer con- nection to a waste pipe. They should always be set at a small inclination, so that the water will drain properly toward the waste strainer.
11, Supply CJonnectlons. — The hot and cold water may * enter the bath through separate faucets. The water is, how- ever, generally delivered to the bath through a single bath
.cock composed of the hot and cold shut-off valves joined together into one discharge nozzle. Such a fixture is usually nickel-plated and is known as a combination bath cock. The valves of the cock may be inside or outside the bath. Ground key cocks are seldom used as bath cocks, Fuller and compression valves being mostly used instead. An outside Fuller combination bath cock is shown in Fig. 4. An inside compression combination bath cock is shown in Fig. 5. The faucets that are used to control the water supply are either of the Fuller or compression type; plug cocks are used only on very low water-pressure work.
In the best grade of fittings, angle valves with brass screw -joint connections are employed, and they are arranged to deliver water into the tub through the same nozzle. All the valves and pipes are thus located out- side of the tub, and the whole interior space is free from obstructions.
12, It is quite common practice to arrange the bath cocks so that they will supply the bath from points near the bottom, as shown in Figs. G and 9. This method is certainly less noisy than that in which the nozzles are always above the water in the bath, but it nevertheless has a disadvantage that should prohibit its general use. For instance, suppose the bath to be full of foul water and soap, etc. ; a heavy draft is then made on the main by somebody opening faucets at
8
BATHS AND URINALS
20
lower levels. The bath water will immediately be sucked^ as it were, up through the combination cock (if it is open) and then be siphoned down through the supply pipes, thus con- taminating them.
13. Sometimes the hot-water and cold-water faucets are connected to deliver into the outer shell of the standing waste, so as to supply the tub through the waste-pipe strainer. This is a bad plan, because when the tub is emptied the water passes out first and all soap or refuse goes last. This refuse tends to lodge in the waste pipe, and will be washed back. into the tub when fresh water is introduced in that way.
14, Fig. 7 shows the arrangement of the connections to a Roman bathtub a. The standing waste b, the hot-water faucet r, and the cold-water faucet rt^are placed at the side of the tub, between it and the wall. The mingled hot and cold water enters through the single nozzle e^ which is usually
Fig. 7
made in the form of a slicll, as sliown in the section to the left of the figure. The hol-water circulation pipe /", the waste pipe^i,^, the tra{> //, and the trap vent /are connected as shown. The standing waste b was shown to an enlarged scale and in section in Fig. G.
SOLID BATHTFBS
15, Farm of Rims. ^ Metal and porcelain tubs are made with two styles of rims-
The plain rim a. Fig. 8
{ii), needs a wooden top
or rail & to cover the
square edges, protect the
bather, and improve the
appearance. The wooden
top may be secured to the
rim of an iron tub by
clamps r, as shown. The
roll rim, shown in Fig. 8 (A), requires no other finish,
will not decay, and does not harbor vermin.
16, Cast-Ii-oii Kmimeled Ilatbttib. — Fig. 9 shows an excellent cast-iron roll-rim enameled bath, with nickel- plated standing waste, hot and cold combination, and low- down supply, all open and quite accessible for cleaning and
Pm. 9
repairs. The bath is supported by four ornamental cast-iron feet and is set on a countersunk marble safe. This bath is
10
BATHS AND URINALS
painted outside with enamel paint; the interior surface and the roll rim are coated with porcelain enamel.
Cast-iron bathtubs are usually about the same leogth as metalJined bathtubs; that is, they range from 4| to 6 feet In length; they are generally shallower, being as a rule about 19 inches deep.
The bathtub and connections here shown are commonly used on plain substantial work where economy is an important feature. They are to be recommended for places where the city pressure is constant. If the pres- sure is intermittent, and if there is lia- bility of the water in the house-supply pipes being drained back to the street main, it would be advisable to dispense with the low-down inlet a and place it above the bath water-line.
IT- Bath 8 apply and Waste CoiuMuatlon* — Fig, 10 shows a balh supply and waste combination that will prevent the water in the bath from draining back into the supply ^**^- *^ pip^s. The inlet opening to the bath
is at a, which, being higher than the overflow perforations
in the standing waste tube of the stand pipe ^, is always above
the water in the bath. The
waste grating is at c. In this
combination a slip joint is made
at d, which allows the waste
pipe ce to be adjusted in length
to suit the hole in the bottom
of the bath.
18. Fig. 11 shows a sectional view of the slip joint. The Fm. ii
waste pipe a is first attached rigidly to the waste hole in the boltom of the bath; the ring coupling if is thea screwed
rmade of solid porcelain, and glazed both outside and inside. This is known as an nll-poix^elaln roll -rim Imtli, and
has a low-down supply combination a and a standing waste k The crosshead handles of the valves are ivory mounted and marked ** Hot " and **CokL" A special
IS BATHS AND URINALS §20
feature of the 'equipment of this bathtub is the combination spray c and shower d^ a white-rubber curtain e^ and a nickel-plated brass curtain holder /that is attached to the mixing pipe g of the shower. In this combination, it is only necessary for the bather to draw the curtain forwards and operate the handles of the valves that come through the back of the curtain. This enables him to govern the volume and temperature of the water as he stands within the curtain. The valves at the foot of the bath supply the plunge, i. e., they fill the bath. The two valves at the back of the curtain control the hot and cold water both to the shower d overhead and the spray tubes c inside the curtain. The inverted valve h to which the spray tubes are joined controls the volume of water to the spray from the mixing tube g that runs up back of the curtain and supplies the shower d. A special shower spring cock pro- vided with a chain-and-ring pull is attached to the top of the mixing tube, as shown. Therefore, to obtain a shower, it is necessary to pull the chain.
To prevent the bather from being scalded by turning the hot valve full open by mistake, a mixing chamber, pro- vided with a tfiermometer, is sometimes attached to the mixing tube at the point where the hot and cold cocks join. The thermometer bulb must be in the current of the water, but the graduated stem is secured inside the curtain so that the bather may know the temperature of the water before it strikes him.
To complete the equipment, a soap dish /, sponge rack y, and towel rack k are usually provided. These the plumber will secure to the tiled walls with brass expansion bolts, except the soap dish, which may hang on the roll rim, as shown.
Porcelain bathtubs are usually about 30 inches wide at the head, 24 inches wide at the foot, and about 22 inches deep. They are quite heavy, a tub 5^ feet long weighing alwnit COO pounds. In Fig. 12 the waste pipe / has a slip joint between the bath and the stand pipe; a support is let into the porcelain and made fast to steady the stand pipe and the supply pipes. ^
g^o
BATHS AND URINALS
i:i
SFEriAL TORMS OF BATIlTtrflS
20« BItas, or Seat, Haths,^ — A special form of bathtub that is of smaller dimensions than the pUmge baths pre- viously described, being from :J4 inches to 27 inches long, 23 inches wide, and 1!^ inches to 17 inches high at the front edge, when set up, is known as a sltz, or seat, bath. The back is usually G inches, or more, higher than the front.
The shz bath is fitted up with hot- and cold-water and waste connections in a manner similar to those already shown and described for plunge baths. The hot and cold water mixes and enters by the tube a^ Fig, 13. The waste
FIG. 18
water leaves the bath through i, A base c supports the bath J but legs may be used if desired. Sitz baths are fitted up in bathrooms that contain the usual other fixtures, such as baths and lavatories, in order to make the equipment more complete,
31* Foot-Baths. — A bathtub intended to be used only for washing the feet is known as a foot-bath. Such tubs are of about the same dimensions as seat baths; some, however, are only 17 in. x 19 in., and lu inches deep.
provided with the same M fittings as the full-size ■ baths. Fig. H shows a foot-hath of approved make. It is furnished i with hot- and cold-water I supply fittings and a combination stand-pipe _ waste at the back, the ■ knob a being the top of the standing waste and ^ a hollow shell through which water enters the foot-bath. This style of fixture is usually fitted ■
up in bathrooms intended to be very complete in their
appointments*
BrDm^ 22» Btdet», — A pan having a seat like a water closet J and a jet of water that is projected upwards, as shown inj Fig. 15, is known as a bidet. The pans are made of porce- lain or copper, and are also made in one piece with the support, as shown in the illustration. They are usually fitted with hot* and cold-water connec- tions and with a mixing pipe thai
should have a ther- *'***■ '*
mometer attached to indicate the temperature of the water.
BATHS AND URINALS
15
I
Sometimes the pans are fitted with a standing overflow an# waste plug, by which water may be retained in the pan. In Fig. 15 the bowl, or pan, a^ is fitted with an open waste connection ^, through which projects a small jet nozzle r. The force of the jet of water ejected from c is governed by the valve d.
as. To have the use of a bidet jet without a special bidet bowl, as in Fig. 15, a bidet cock can be attached to an ordinary water-closet seat a. Fig. If;, by means of a
i clamp d secured to its under side. The ground cock c to which the jet arm d is attached works on a swivel in such a manner that when the handle e lies in the cup, and the
Pig. 10
jet arm d is consequently raised to a horizontal position at the back of the closet bowl g; as shown by the dotted lines, the water will be shut off and d will be concealed imder the seat. This attachment is usually supplied with cold water only. A small drip*pipe coupling A is generally connected to a | inch waste tube to carry off any drippings from c.
16
BATHS AND URINALS
SHOWER BATHS
CONBTRTTC-riOH
34* Deflnltton and Ad van tildes, — A bath in which a
person can subject liim-
self to a shower or spray of water from overhead is known as a shower tMitb. Shower baths, also sometimes called ruin bathSf are espe- cially adapted for public bathing establishments. They have an advantage over plunge baths for such places in that they occupy but little floor area: furthermore, they are thoroughly h y g i - enic, as the same water never coraes in contact with the body twice.
Some people make a distinction between shower baths and rain baths» applying the for- mer term to a bath delivering the water in large drops at a low velocity, and the latter term to one in which the water is delivered downwards in minute jets at a high velocity*
¥ia. 17 25, Bimple Shower
Batiis.— Fig. 17 shows a simple form of shower bath. It is
I
§20 BATHS AND URINALS 17
composed of a hot-water supply pipe a, a cold-water supply pipe by a hot-water valve r, a cold-water valve d, a mixing pipe e, a plain spun-copper shower /, and a marble safe g with a strainer and waste connection at the center. The pipes, valves, and showers are usually nickel-plated. The valves should always be marked ** Hot " and ** Cold."
26. Fig. 18 shows the inside construction of the shower/ in Fig. 17. Water enters the shower through a, which has holes drilled through the side, as shown. The air collecting in the top of the shower escapes through b\ the water flows uniformly out of the numerous small tubes and thus produces artificial rain, or a shower.
The body of the shower ^'''- ^®
should be in two parts and connected with a thread at the joint Cy so that the lower part may be removed and cleaned should the small tubes become clogged. There are cheaper forms of showers, some being similar to the sprinkler or rose of an ordinary watering pot for sprinkling flowers, but that shown in Fig. 18 is one of the best.
27. The common sizes of showers are, in diameter, 8 J inches for a |-inch supply pipe, 10 J inches for a J -inch pipe, 14 inches for a 1-inch pipe, and 16 inches for a l^-inch pipe.
28. Shower and Shampoo Baths. — Fig. 19 shows a shower and shampoo combination with a brass-tube ring from which a white rubber curtain is hung by means of curtain rings and hooks. The ring a is perforated at the under side to form the shower; it is supplied by the mixing pipe b. The spray nozzle c is called a shampoo. It is fed by a J-inch rubber tube d from the lower end of the mixing pipe. The shampoo head is hung on the key of the cock
03—34
be made of porcelain or enameled cast iron. The bottom is slightly graded down- to the safe waste strainer or grating / in the cen- ter. It is a roll-rim fixture, and is sup- ported, a few inches above the floor, or fcmr legs. It may, or may not, be furnished with a standing waste and combination sup- ply cucks.
29. Keedle Bath.
A combination shuwer and spray, or tieedle ba t h V is shown in Fig, 20. The hot. water pipe is shown at *i, and the cold- water pipe at b. The tubes € are perforated and form tlie spray or needle bath. The ^^^^ *^ volume of the spray
from all these pipes is controlled by the valve d. The three lowt-r pipes c are supplied direct from the vertical pipe or standard to which the valve d is attached* The supply to the upper pipe e* passes up through the inside of the front standards, as shown by the arrows, blind washers being inserted at the two unions below the valve/ The volume of the spray from the shower r is controlled by
temperature ot tMi: spray egulated by adjusting the flow oi the hot and cold water through the supply
P valves on a and d. k soap holder Is shown at ^, ^« T h i s' is a nice, ^piimp]% combination that is often used in private residences.
teIf the bathroom or is tiled, the mbination Is usu- Ially set on a marble iafe, as shown. If It is not tiled or p t h e r w i s e made patertight, a re* «eptor is commonly used to protect the flui>r. If the walls are tiled, the cur- tain may be dis- pensed with or it may be used simply for privacy.
" 30. CnmbI na- tion Sho we 1- Ba th . ^o «
Ki combination shower, douche, spray, bidet, and liver*spi ath is shown in Fig, '^1, as set in a right-hand corner, marble slab a forming a partition at the left. This is a very complete and efficient appliance. It is designed chit^fly m for use in Turkish and Russian bathing establishments and " hotels, but it is, nevertheless, well adapted for use in bath- rooms of fine residences, ■ Five different forms of halhs can be had from this fixture. " By opening the hot and cold supply valves * and c, a mixture
§20 BATHS AND URINALS 21
bather, who stands directly under it. The douche throws a full-bore stream that is not broken by perforations. If the valve on /is open, the water in d will flow to the shower k, from which it will fall on the bather in the form of rain. If the valve on the pipe g is open, the water in d will flow from the spray tubes /, / against the sides, back, or front of the bather. These tubes are perforated with numerous small holes, each of which throws a stream of water about as thick as a needle ; hence the term needle bath^ which is often used instead of spray bath. The tubes should be detachable, so that they may be easily uncoupled and cleaned out should the holes become clogged. If the valve on the pipe // is open, water will flow from d \.o the liver sprays, or roso sprays, w, w, which are supplied through the horizontal tube «. These roses throw a strong spray against the sides of the bather. If the valve on the pipe i is open, water will flow from d down through a ^-inch or |-inch tube o to a batli bidet/, which is a small sprinkler or jet that ejects water vertically upwards. When it is desired to use the bidet, the arm q is swung around by means of the handle r to about the middle of the safe. It swings on a swivel joint at s. A floor douche is similar to a bidet, but throws a large stream instead of spray.
The header or branch manifold d is secured to the wall at the top and bottom by special brass-flanged caps /, /'. Check-valves «, u are placed on the supply pipes to prevent hot water from entering the cold-water pipes and cold water from entering the hot-water pipes, if the hot-supply and cold- supply valves are open and all the other valves closed. The valves may be at the right, as shown, or at the left, or in any convenient place to suit the arrangement desired or the shape of the room.
31. Mlxlns: Chamber. — In all spray, needle, shower, or rain baths, and shampoos, it is advisable to use not (^nly a mixing pipe, but also a mixing chamber, so that the hot and cold water will become thoroughly mixed before it reaches the bather and thus avoid danger of scalding. A
ig
BATHS AND URINALS
W
thei'mometer, with ittj bulb in the chamber, should be atuehed, to indicate the temperature of the water before it IS ejected against the bather.
3S. A mixing chamber in combination with a shower h<tad and a shampoo is shown in Fig. 22. Cold water
entering through a and hot water entering through d are admitted to the chamber c in small jets and thoroughly mixed before passing into the discharge pipe tf^ the top of which discharges through the shower or the shampoo attach- ment, as desired. A thermome- ter f has its bulb extending into a fl circuit or current of mixing water to indicate the temperature of the mixture-
33* Multiple Rain Batli,
Fig, 23 shows a simple method of connecting up multiple rain baths and a mixing chamber, such as is frequently used in hospitals, asy- lums, etc. A galvanized-iron cylinder a is used for a mixing chamber. Hot and cold water enter this chamber through the pipes 6 and c. The pipe rt^ is a waste pipe through which water may be run off to regulate the temperature of the water before it is allowed to go to rain baths e^ e, etc. The thermometer is located at /. Each rain bath is sup- plied separately from a header ^, and the controlling valves // are placed within reach of the attendant. The rain baths shown can be made to discharge at any angle desired, because they work on a swivel with ground ball joints. For five rain baths, as shown, a convenient size for the mixing chamber is about 25 gallons, or 5 gallons to each rain bath. The height of a shower, or rain, bath is 7 feet 6 inches from the floor. If they are constructed
Fio. 22
r^o
BATHS AND URINALS
2S
in stalls, L e,, wiih partitions between them, they should be about 3 feet apart. The mixing chamber may be
HlO, ^
drained through the drain pipe i that is connected to the waste pipe d.
BATITKOOM ABKAHOEHENTS
iNTRODtrcTION
34. Most modern bathrooms are provided with tiled floors and often, also, with tiled walls, and the plumbing appliances are all open and accessible in every part, thereby insuring not only practical usefulness, but cleanUness, beauty, and convenience. Tiled wails, porcelain fixtures, nickel-plated brass pipes, and open work arc the main fea- tures of strictly modern bathrooms in high-grade work*
§20 BATHS AND URINALS 25
copper. The supply pipe c and flush pipe d are made of lead or nickel-plated brass. The closet is operated by the chain and pull e. The bath / may be either steel and copper-lined, with a wooden frame on top, or it may be a second-quality cast-iron enameled bath. A combination cock, a plug and socket, and an overflow attachment are placed at the foot of the bath. The basin g is oval and has a patent overflow, plug socket, and chain. The basin cocks are of the common compression class and have crossheads. The basin trap, waste pipe, its vent connection, and hot and cold supply pipes above the floor may be lead or nickel- plated brass. The basin legs are simply pieces of 1-inch black iron pipe, bronzed, and let into the marble basin slab about |-inch on top, and screwed to the floor with flanges at the bottom. This bathroom is shown equipped with two convenient cases, one on each side of the window, at such a height that the mirrors that form the doors for these cases can be conveniently used while shaving or for other toilet purposes. A chute closed by the cover h leads to the laundry below; soiled wearing apparel is thrown into this chute.
If porcelain goods are used in bathrooms of this class, they may be of the grade known as C, if purchased from a first-class supply house; otherwise, they should be of class B.
MEDIUM-ORADE BATHROOM KQUIPMENT
36. The equipment of a bathroom suitable for a $10,000 house is shown in Fig. 25. The bath a is of enameled iron and has a roll rim. It is painted outside and furnished with a nickel-plated combination faucet b, overflow and waste, a chain, and a rubber stopper inside (rubber is preferable to brass for a stopper, as it does not chip the enamel). The basin c is all porcelain with a porcelain back; it has low- down compression faucets d^ d, with name plates marked **Hot" and *' Cold," and an adjustable brass l|-inch half S trap e. The legs /may be enameled iron or nickel-plated brass. A good size for this basin is about 27 in. x 22 in.
BATHS AND URINALS (M
HieH-dBABB BAIHBOOIC XQITlPMXBnr
87* A high-class bathroom fully equipped and %Mvmg the fixtures excellently arranged is shown in Vig. M. • An all-porcelain bidet a with flushing rim and nidcel-^ted supply and waste fittings is shown at the extreme Yight of the illustration, and a porcelain bathroom seat i is located under the window at the extreme left. The bath ^ is all porcelain and of the Roman type. It is set out from the back wall a few inches to allow space for the supply valves and standing waste and also for cleaning purposes. The W Ater closet d at the right of the bath is ornamental and of the snphon-jet type. The flushing tank e is enameled white to match the closet seat, or it may be of porcelain to match . the closet and other fixtures. The basin / located at the left of the bath is of the latest pattern; it is in the form
\^^~ of a pedestal, being independent of the wall. The lavatory
^ fittings shown are composed of a glass towel rack ^
;/w 34 inches long, a porcelain shelf A with brackets, a china
vase I serving as a tooth-brush holder, a cut-glass tum- bler and holder /; a china soap dish and holder k, a comb- and-brush rack /, a sponge rack m, a rack n for soiled towels, etc., a glass towel rack o 30 inches long at the back of the bath, a recess paper holder /, the body of which is let into the wall, and a soap dish g for the bath. The floor is tiled and should be water-tight. The walls also are tiled to a height of about 5 feet. The bevel-edged mirror r with white enameled frame and the two gas or electric lights J, s over the basin are conveniences that should not be omitted.
In bathrooms of this class all the porcelain goods should be of the finest grade, known to the trade as A, particular care being taken to purchase from a reliable supply house in America. There is no need of sending to Great Britain, Germany, France, or any other foreign country for fine plumbing fixtures, because the American goods are the finest. They are even shipped to, and installed in, the homes of foreign nobility.
20 BATHS AND URINALS 29
UBINALS
UllINAIi STAJLUS
CONSTRUCTION
38. Purpose. — Urinals form a class of plumbing fixtures that is used extensively at places where men congregate, such as hotels, office buildings, railroad sta- tions, etc. They are seldom used in private residences, for the modern closet with a hinged seat is a substitute for a urinal.
39. In public places, where urinals are liable to receive improper usage, it is customary to construct simple urinal stalls of slate, porcelain, or marble, providing each stall with means for being flushed down from the top, and with a drain at the bottom to remove the flushing water and urine.
40. Flat-Slab Urinal Stalls. — Fig. 27 shows a common cheap set of flat-slab urinal stalls. The floor slab, or safe, a is one piece from end to end. It should be thick enough (3 or 4 inches, according to its length) to allow a gutter b to be cut the full length. At the lowest point of this gutter, a brass strainer connection allows the waste water to flow through a 4-inch trap and waste pipe to the sewer, a screw-cap being placed at c for access to the waste pipe, should it become choked. A f-inch brass perforated pipe d'\s used to flush the backs of the stalls. A stop-cock or valve is placed at e to control the supply of water to the stalls. The janitor in charge should have a key in his possession for operating this valve.
J^f o. %
20
BATHS AND URINALS
31
This arrangement not only wastes too much water, but also is not a sanitary fixture, because the corners become foul and the joints are liable to leak and saturate the build- ing with a weak solution of urine. The slab a also becomes foul and is not cleansed by the flushing.
41. D-Shaped Porcelain Urinal Stalls.— Fig. 28 shows in perspective, and Fig. 29 in section, a D-shaped porcelain urinal stall. The sides, back, and bottom, or sill, of each stall are molded in one piece. The sill is dished out, and forms an excellent receptor, permitting thorough flushing. Each stall has a separate waste connection a and a sep- arate flushing inlet b. Each stall may also be trapped sep- arately, the trap being located directly under the floor strainers. If it is convenient to local vent the stalls, one trap may be used for all the stalls, and the local-vent pipe may connect to the highest end of the untrapped waste- pipe line under the stalls. This ventilates each stall from the floor. The flushing inlet shown at b is of the fan type. It spreads the water over the urinal surface, and is superior to the perforated pipe attach- ment shown in Fig. 27, be- cause the perforations in the latter frequently become choked, which spoils the distribution of the water. The fans are made adjustable, so that they can be regulated to suit the pressure and volume of water required. This style of urinal stall is to be recommended for public use where a constant flush of water can be obtained.
PIO. 89
3S
BATHS AND URINALS
20
IKBlVIBUAlr URINAl^
inUKALS WITH SEPARATE TRAPS
4S. Constrtietlon- — ludivtduii! itrluals are made of
porcelain and are piovided with at least two openinj|S, one ,being the flushing inlet and the other the discharge. The best class have perforated flushing rims and overflow open- ings inside. Urinals that are fastened against the side of the room are known as flat urinals, while those placed in a corner are spoken of as comer urinals,
43- Fig, 30 shows a plain Hat urinal, with a flush
supply horn a^ a waste horn b^ a flushing rim r, an overflow d, and lugs t\ t% by which the urinal is secured to the wall with screws or expansion bolts.
FtO.W
PtO. u
44* A flat llpptHl iirlnul is sho^tt in Fipf. 31. It is^ substantially the same as the plaiii uripaH Ug that a
lip a is provided. This is the best ff nu wi >.■ ^^1, because the lip protects the floor.
45, Urinal Conneetians, ^ — Fig. 32 shows a compres- siun urinal valve that may be attached at a in Fig, 3U to
20
BATHS AND URINALS
33
give the urinal a continuous flushing from the cold-water supply pipe in the building. A locknut a on being screwed
up tight makes a rigid connection to
the marble slab b.
46. Where urinals are flushed from an overhead flushing tank, a much simpler form of urinal inlet con- nection than that shown in Fig. 32 can be employed. Such a connection is shown in Fig. 33, and is seen to be similar to the one except that the valve
Pig. 88
shown in Fig. 32,
FIO. 33
is omitted.
47. A urinal trap connection is shown in Fig. 34. The horn a oi 2L cast-brass trap b is slipped over the outlet horn of the urinal, and is made water- tight with a red-lead joint. A brass T piece c, the lower open- ing of which joins the waste pipe, and the upper opening joins the vent pipe, is secured by locknuts to the marble slab d. A slip joint with a rubber gas- ket is made at r, which allows the trap to be adjusted to suit the urinal. A byBlter ( onnection
the trap joint obta;
FIO. w
however, is that in which
to the T piece and a metal-to-metal
48. If the trap can be set behind the wall or slab against which the urinal is set, the waste connections may be made as shown in Fig. 35. This shows a bend a under the urinal,
84
BATHS AND URINALS
.S«0
a clean-out screw-cap being located at b for cleaning out purposes. A lead trap c is shown wiped to the bottom of
the T piece; a local-vent pipe is wiped to the upper opening. This makes a good connec- tion if the draft of the local- vent can be relied on.
UBINAIiS WITH COM- BIKBD TRAP
49. Advantasets. — It
has been found by prac- tical experience that no brass work of any de- scription should be exposed near a urinal, because it soon becomes coated with verdigris and cannot be kept clean and bright. The nickel-plated brass wasio connections so often used in connection with conuuvui urinals s^>on become corroded, green, and unsightly. To avoid ihis trouble, a special urinal with porcelain trap may Ih'^ used.
Fio. «
iMK IMrtH^lalii Trap Urinal. — An objection to common urinals ihai arc provided with a trap under them, and which aiY dry Iviweon flushings, is that the interior surface of the urinal and the space between the urinal and the trap seal K\\nucs foul and emits disagreeable odors. In the best urinals ihis fouling surface is reduced to a minimum. Ki^. ;U» shows such a urinal. It has a porcelain trap a com- binevl in one piece with the bowl, and is arranged to be c\>nnccted withi>ut any metal parts being exposed. The section b of the trap on the sewer side of the waste seal is made of brass; it is encased by the earthenware and screwed
§20
BATHS AND URINALS
35
into a special brass waste-pipe T fitting r. This section forms the inlet to the waste pipe and is provided with a flange and bolts for making a perfect junction with the porcelain. The joint between the brass connection and the earthenware being submerged, or below the water-line; is gas-tight. This is equivalent in security to an all-metal trap, and has the additional cleanliness of a porcelain one. A neat little drip is attached under the lip of this urinal at d^ which prevents drops of urine from trickling along the under side of the urinal and fouling that surface.
Pig. 88
Pig. 87
51. 8Iphoii-Jet I'rliials. — To reduce the urinal fouling surface to a minimum, ami to insure the urinal being partly tilled with water at all limes, a i^iplion-Jot urinal shown in Fig. 37 may be usrd. It is constructed on the siphon- jet principle, and porcelain only is exposed to view. The urinal proper contains a body of water about 9 inches long by 8 inches wide.
86
BATHS AND URINALS
§20
This urinal is furnished with a flushing tank and operates in a manner similar to that of an ordinary siphon-jet water closet. When the tank is discharged, part of the water cleanses the interior of the urinal, the other part being diverted to the jet that starts the siphon and ejects the contents of the urinal. The joint between the brass and porcelain is under water and, of course, is quite safe.
VENTILATED tTRINALS
52. A ventilated urinal that is especially valuable in places where it is necessary to positively ventilate the urinal
and the floor under the urinal, which incidentally means the ventilation of the entire toilet room, is shown in Fig. 38. A large vent pipe a is con- tinued to, and above, the roof. If it cannot be run in a hot place, to insure a strong draft, it is necessary to place a fan in the vent pipe to constantly draw in air through the openings b and c. The inside of the pipe a is likely to be- come coated with a foul- sniell i ng slime, and if the ventilation is not per- fect, the odor will escape into the toilet room through b and c. The lower opening b is espe- cially valuable for removing wash water while the floor is being washed.
Fio. 88
20
BATHS AND URINALS
37
Sometimes men throw cigar stumps into urinals, which choke the ordinary forms. The urinal shown in Fig. 38 cannot be choked very easily, because the outlet c is straight and the drainage pipe large.
TTLTTNG-TANK URINAI^
53. A low-down tiltlngr-tank urinal is shown in Fig. 39. A porcelain exten- sion box a is molded on top of the urinal. In this box is located a tilting tank b that is supplied by a small stream of water from a stop-cock c^ serving to check the stream down to the desired size. The tilting tank automatically flushes the urinal through a flushing rim and perforations in the bottom of the exten- sion box. A loose cover d can be removed for access to the tank. This form of urinal is adapted for loca- tions under windows, etc., where it is impossible to place an overhead flushing tank. They are seldom used. y fio. »
TREADLE TRTNALS
54. If water is so scarce that a continuous flush cannot be permitted, a treadle urinal having an automatic arrangement similar to that shown in Fig. 40 may be used. The supply valve a is of the self-closing ty[)e, and the valve stem projects upwards against a hinged platform or treadle b.
BATHS AND URINALS
?o use the urinal, a person must stand on the treadle, which
^Ids sufficiently under his weight to open the valve. TheJ
ftf flows as long: as the t readier is depresf^ed, and ceases]
r n as the weight is removt^d from it, A small part of
i water is used to flush the treadle box and remove the
ppinjijs that may fall into it. Tht* waste pipes r nml d
the trap e should be not less than 1^ inches in diameter.
> nryi
The waste and trap from the treadle box should be at least 1^ inches in diameter. The waste pipe from the treadle box should be vented by a 1^-inch or l^-inch pipe/, which should join the principal vent pipe g. The diameter of ^ should be not less than 1^ inches. The local vent or ventilating pipe h should be 2 inches in diameter, and care must be taken to get a good draft of air through it. The stop-cock i is used to shut off the water supply.
§20 BATHS AND URINALS 39
55. Attachments that open the supply valve and allow the water to run are sometimes fastened to the door of the stall in which the urinal is enclosed, so that a given quantity of water will be discharged into the urinal every time the door is opened. Consequently, the urinal will be flushed before and after use. The door is closed by a spring or weight.
FOLDING TTBJNAXS
56. Folding: urinals made of iron or porcelain, opera- ting in a manner similar to a folding wash basin, are some- times used. They are flushed by a cock being opened with the cover of the urinal. The cock is shut when the cover is raised and closed. This apparatus is usually set in a recess of the wall, and is provided with a local-vent pipe, as it is often fitted up in rooms where the least smell would be disagreeable, such as doctors* offices.
INDEX
NoTK.-All Items In this Index refer first to the section and then to the page of the sec- tion. Thus. "Ammonia 12 5" means that ammonia will be found on page 5 of section 12.
A Sgc.
Accuracy of sras meters . ..... 13
Acetylene 12
burners 12
By-product of 12 -
Cost of 12
Explosiveness of ... . 12
for sras-enRine use ... 12
(ras. HipinsT for 12
•' Purification of . . . 12
sras works
irenerators ....
Types of Heat generated by .
lamps 12
leakasre 12
machine 12
Manufacture of 12
meters 12
overflow srenerators . . 12
portable lamps 12
street lamps 12
Acetylide of copper 12
Actual quantity of fas 13
Adjustable dies 15
Advantasres of shower baths ... 20
Air, Carbureted 12
" pump 17
•• supply. The 17
•• test 13
Ammonia 12
Analysis of water sras 12
Ansfle valve 15
Annealed iron 15
Apparatus. Lead-burning 17
Apparent volume of sras IS
Appliances. Cookins: 14
Apron holder Arc lamps. Gas Arch srausre . . Archer g&B . . Ar^and burner
19 14 13 12 14
85 15 31 18 31 19 34 35 17 36 20 26 19 17 37 36 29 16 36 21 37 37 29 23 84 16 40 35 38 7 5 9 61 9 31 23 62 20 •28 20
Src. Page
Arransrement of coal-sras plant . . 12 7
Arrangements. Bathroom .... 20 23
Artificial illumination 14 43
Asphaltum 15 20
Atmospheric burners 14 3
14 53
Care of ... 14 58
Autofifenous lead bumins: 17 34
Back. Sink
Slab with sinfirle
" vent fittinsrs
" water trap
valve
Backs. Round-comer slab with
two
Basfs. Main
Ball-cocks
** joints
Bands
Basin safes
slabs. Marble
wrench
Basins, Ranjrc of wash
Sizes and materials of . .
Bath cock, Combination
Combination shower ....
*• Multiple rain
" Needle
" Plungre
" Porcelain roll-rim
" supply and waste combina- tion
Bathroom arransrements
equipment
Baths and urinals . Rain . . . . Shampoo . . Shower . . . Sitz or seat .
9 50 47 64 63
50 8 60 25 25 52 50 80 49 38 5 19 22 18 1 11
10 23 24 28 1 16 17 16 13
IX
INDEX
Note. -All Items In this index refer first to the section and then to the pure of the *e/ •
tion. Thus. "Ammonia 12 5" means that ammonia will t>e found on page h of section \2.
A Sec. Page V/ I'ng^
Accuracy of gas meters 18 35 Arrangement of coal-gas plant .1.' 7
Acetylene 12 15 Arrangements. Hathroom '31 ^.
burners 12 31 Artificial Illumination ... If \''.
Byproduct of 12 18 Asphaltum \% St
Cost of 12 31 Atmospheric burners ... .14 %
Explosiveness of ... . 12 19 " " . . M 'A
for gas-engine use ... 12 34 " " Care *>f jl V
gas. Piping for 12 35 Autogenous lead burning . Yl Zi
" Purification of ... 12 17
gasworks 12 36 **
generators 12 20 Back. Sink I> V
12 26 " .Slab w:»h »iBg> . JV 'A
Types of . . 12 19 *' ven' fi'timrft :.' f^
Heat generated by ... 12 17 wat^ trap ;'. M
lamps 12 37 " r*:v«r ^'. ^
leakage 12 36 Backs. K'/3?yS-">rMr» waJ> •*Jt
machine 12 29 two yt K
Manufacture of 12 16 Bags, Maia Jt *
meters 12 96 Bal^c'y.kt 'J. ¥.
over:!ow generators . . 12 21 " y/x,'% 'A 'A
portab'.e lamps 12 f7 Baa^s > 'A
street :ai:ps 12 f7 Batis tA?t» » W
Acctylide of c.p^^ 12 29 " sIavi K*--.ut .•'* 'A
Actual qnanr:ry^f gas 13 23 " wres.'-i _: -*.
Adjustable diti 15 M B&sis«. P'ar.jr^ '.' vaa-i «r
Advantages '.f shower baths ... 20 16 S x/t • *=/C r. > .•!? *^i v* *
Air. Carburete-i 12 40 Bach c->,« ','..«: v.. t-'^-.* f
pump 17 S ' ,f,-nL'x'.JA^j9, \,w.*^r' f ■'*
" supply. The H M *" MsI^rsMt rsM / r
test 13 7 " XtaefSft / ^
Ammonia 12 S ** Kaace ^
.\nalysis of wa:er gas 12 9 ~ frfr'.«^ass f vU^w /«
Angle valve 15 fl " siBpS^y m«C »**» witiviti*.
Annealed iroo B f ^j« {
Apparatus. Lea.j->:T::rctac H M ^w^rvim, sttm^mumt^ .^ ;
Apparent vo:::=< 'A gas IS 3 ' ^4ttc««nr r
Appliances. Ccck^ar M C
Apron ho'der S9 30 ISi^^fsuk uut v^u^A
Arc lamps Gai ^ a • Jjarr ^
Arch gaT::ge 3 JO »-, -?>** . . - , m
Archer gas 2 lil - ■ v*^ » j*
Azvuid bcracr U > "^- '" '•^ "* =»
INDEX
Sec. Pagt
Bathtnb. Cast-iron enamel .... 20 9
Steel-clad 20 2
Bathtnbi 30 1
** Coppor-lined 20 2
Solid 20 9
** Special formi of .... 20 18
Bat*i-w1nff bnraer 14 8
Bead leam. Soldering a 16 12
** teams 16 9
Bell holes IS 8
Bend. Wiping a ferrule to a .... 16 62
Bendinff brass and copper pipe . . 18 22
lead pipe 17 28
pin 15 72
Plain 17 28
Sand 17 29
with bobbins 17 81
" cofled sprinff .... 17 80
wrouflrht-iron pipe .... 18 16
Bends. Bossinff out 17 82
" Heel-rest 18 28
Bent coupling, Tinninff a 16 8
Bevelinff 16 25
Bibb, Holding a common sink . . 16 69
Bidets 20 14
Bit. Tinnlnff a copper 16 4
Bits AUd brckt-x 15 78
Black, ffaWanized. and Russia
iron 15 9
Block-tin linJngr 17 21
pipe 15 25
Sheet 15 8
Blow-off. Safety 12 25
Blowpipe 15 ST)"
ir, 21
Compound 17 35
soldcrinKT 10 19
work 16 2
Bobbins. Bending' with 17 31
Boiler couplinK: and spud 15 f»S
Bosslncr out bends 17 ^1
Bowl and overflow. Combined . . 10 30
'* with overfiow horn. Round 10 38
Brace and bits 15 7H
Brackets 14 22
Branch joint, WipinR: a horizontal Ifi 45
•• WipinjraT Y . . . H'» 50
Wiping a vertical . Ifi 47
joints If. 27
•• Wiping: 1»» «
Brass and copper pipe, Bendin« 1*< 22 •* Thread- ing . . IS 20
pipes 15 20
tubes 15 31
** ** iron pipes, Supporting: 18 27
Sk. An* Brass, copper, and eartheowate
pipework 18 19
** (ermles 16 68
•• Tinninff 16 7
pipes. Holding 18 19
Bray special burner 14 8
Braced Joints, Kinds of 16 26
*' tnblnff 15 10
Brasiers' rivet 15 22
Brasinff 16 21
Brinrs* standard screw thread . . 18 16
Broilers 14 66
Brown ffiased earthenware sfaika 19 15
BuikUnffS. Piping IS 45
Bunsen burners 14 S
photometer 14 47
bar. Gradua- tions of . . 14 49
Burner, Arsand 14 9
Bat's-whiff 14 8
" Bray special 14 8
construction 14 58
PishtaU 14 7
Needle 12 82
Oven 14 W
Perfection 14 56
Ring 14 54
Self-lifllithiff ffas . . . . , 14 10
'* Simmering 14 57
Slit 14 55
SoHd-flamc 14 59
Union-jet 14 7
Vapori/ingr 14 58
Burners. Acetylene 12 31
Atmospheric 14 3
14 53
Bunsen 14 3
Candlepower of 14 17
Care of atmospheric . . 14 .58
Cooking 12 33
Fletcher 14 3
14 .511
(tas-lightinsr 14 7
Half-foot 12 16
" Incandescent 12 33
14 12
Inverted 14 .%5
Plain . . '. 12 31
14 7
Regenerative 14 11
required. Number of . . 14 45
Safety 14 33
Burning a T joint 17 47
joints and seams 17 42
in vertical pipes . . 17 47 17 84
INDEX
XI
Sec. Paze
Bursts. Repairinsr frost 16 19
Butlers' pantry sinks 19 16
Butt joints 16 25
" seam 17 43
*• welded iron pipe 16 27
Button head or cap rivets 15 22
Buttons 17 5
By-product of acetylene 12 18
By-products of a sras 12 5
C
Calcium carbide 12 16
lisrht 14 6
Calked joints. Defective 18 9
Calkins: horizontal joints 18 7
inverted joints 18 8
joints 18 4
tool 16 76
vertical joints 18 4
Candle. Standard 12 4
Candlepower of a sras 12 4
" burners 14 17
" lisrhts 14 46
Capacity of sras pipes 13 46
Carbide. Calcium 12 16
Carbon. Retort 12 3
Carbureted air 12 40
Carrying and cuttinsr lead pipe . . 17 28
Cast-iron enameled bathtub .... 20 9
•• " •• sinks 19 10
" fittinsrs 16 87
" " Kas pipes 18 1
•• •• kitchen sinks 19 12
" " laundry tubs 19 80
" " pipes 16 81
Supporting .... 18 28
•• pipework 18 1
•• " sinks 19 6
'* slop sinks 19 22
" soil pipes 16 81
Cement and soapstone sinks ... 19 16
joints 13 6
laundry tubs 19 80
Portland 16 20
Rosendale 16 21
tubs. Dimensions of ... 19 31
Chain stay 16 68
tonsrs 16 81
Chamber. Mixinsr 20 21
Chamfer and fillet moldinsrs ... 19 62
Chandeliers 14 22
14 25
Check-burner 13 39
valves 15 62
Chimneys. Lamp 14 83
Chloride of zinc 16 18
Sec. Paxe
Chokaare 13 70
Chuck. Nipple 18 15
Circular bead seam. Solderinsr a . 16 14
butt joints 16 26
Classification of sras fixtures ... 14 22
" sinks 19 2
Cleaner, Service 13 70
Closinsr ends 16 16
Coal and oil required for water sras 12 9
" sras 12 2
•* 12 4
•• •* plant. A 12 6
Cock. Corporation 15 52
" Puller 15 66
" Ground-key 15 48
" Stop and waste 15 49
Cocks. Ball 15 60
Compression 16 53
" Lever-handle 8T0und-key . 15 51
" Plus: 15 48
•* Three-way 15 50
Tinnins: compression ... 10 7
Tinninsr 8TOund-kcy .... 16 7
" valves, and sundries ... 15 48
Coiled sprint:. Bendins: with ... 17 30
Coke 12 8
*• Gas 12 6
Cold chisel 15 76
•• rolled iron 15 9
" sheet copper 15 4
Collars 18 25
Combination. Bath supply and
waste 20 10
bath cock 20 6
" shower bath .... 20 19
Combined bowl and overflow ... 19 39 stand-pipe waste and
overflow 19 41
trap. Urinal with .... 20 84
Combustion of sras 14 1
Compass saw 15 78
Compasses 15 71
Composition gas pipes 13 11
of coal sras 12 2
" water sras 12 8
pipe 16 26
Compound blowpipe 17 85
Endothermic 12 18
Compression cocks 15 63
*• Self-closinsr . . 15 59
" Tinninsr .... 16 7
** Tjrpes of ... 15 56
Concealed joint. Wipinsr a 16 42
Connection strainer 19 7
Connections. Flush 19 2
Laundry-tub .... 16 46
xii
INDEX
Sec. Paze
Connectioni. Soil 19 2
Supply 19 2
20 7
to meters 18 58
Urinal 20 82
Waste 19 2
Construction and installation of
fixtures 19 1
** Burner 14 63
of sras fixtures ... 14 22"
•• *' '* motors ... 13 24 •• i. •. pressure resr-
ulators . . 13 41
** '* " ranges ... 14 63
•• *• shower baths . . 20 16
*• urinals 20 29
** " volumetric regu- lators 13 42
Cooking appliances 14 62
*' burners 12 83
Copper. Acetylide of 12 29
and brass pipe. Bending . 18 22 Thread- ing .. 18 20
pipes 15 29
** " " tubes 15 81
bit. Tinning a 16 4
'* *' work 16 1
" pipework 18 19
lined bathtubs 20 2
tub connection ... 20 3
Lininfir tanks with 17 18
pantry sinks 19 16
Sheet 15 4
Sizes and welRhtsof
sheet 15 5
Stock sizes of sheet . . . 15 7
Tinning sheet 16 8
Corner lavatory 19 43
seams 16 27
slabs 19 51
urinals 20 32
Comers. ForminRT 17 23
Pig-earing 17 23
Working 17 24
Corporation cock 15 52
Cost of acetylene 12 31
Countersunk head rivets 15 22
seams 16 27
Coupler and spud. Boiler 15 6S
Couplinsr. Sink 19 8
Tinnin^r a bent 16 8
Cover. Cock-hole 15 68
Cross. Wiping a 16 5.5
Crude naphtha 12 41
Cup. Ether 13 64
Sec. PoMt
Cup fountains 19 53
•* joint 16 14
*• joints 16 9
Cutting and carnring lead pipe . . 17 28
soil pipe 18 1
the sheet lead 17 4
threads 18 14
D
Defective calked joints 18 9
Defects and their remedies .... 13 67
Definition of shower baths .... 20 16
Details. Lavatory 19 50
of gas fixtures 14 80
** sheet-lead work .... 17 22
Device. Mixing 12 46
Diamond-nosed chisel 15 76
Die stock 15 84
Dies and stocks 15 83
Diffusion globes 14 84
Dimensions of cast-iron slop sinks 19 24
" " cement tubs .... 19 31
•* " copper pantry sinks 19 18
" ** earthenware sinks . 19 22
** " porcelain sinks . . 19 15
" ** " slop sinks 19 27
" " slate tubs 19 37
** ** standard wrought-
iron pipe .... 15 28
*• tanks 17 2
Dip acetylene generator 12 22
" tinning 16 9
Dispersion of light 14 41
Distributing pipes 13 1
Distribution and supply. Gas ... 13 1
of gas 13 Ti
Gas 13 15
Dividers 15 7
Domestic uses of gas 14 1
14 .S.*?
Double-coated tin plate 15 12
dipped tin plate 15 l:i
extra-strong iron pipe . . 15 2S
hub soil pipe 15 rrj
seam joints. Locked ... 17 19
Dovetailing 16 25
Drainage fittings. Malleable-iron 15 44
of pipes 13 4S
Dresser 15 73
Drinking and washing fixtures . . 19 1
fountains 19 5:j
Drip pot and trenches If? 3
Drop acetylene generator 12 22
•■ light 14 27
pipes 13 1
Dry governor 13 42
INDEX
Xlll
Sec. Pa£€
Df7 meter 18 26
Dost. Ume 12 18
Duties of a plnmber 15 1
£
Earthenware and porcelain laun- dry tubs 19 81
'* brass and copper
pipework 18 1»
pipefittiuffs .... 15 45
pipes 15 88
pipework 18 22
sinks 19 15
Dimensions of 19 22
Bconomy in liffhtinfir 14 16
Effect of poor irasoline 12 47
Electric heater. Fireside 14 69
Enameled bathtub. Cast-iron ... 20 9
iron slop sink 19 28
sinks. Cast-iron .... 19 10
Endothermic compotmd 12 18
Ends. Closing 16 16
Enrichinsi^as 12 4
Equipment, Bathroom 20 24
20 28
Ether cup 13 64
Examples of joint wiping 16 31
" wash basins 19 38
" wipinsr 16 52
Expanding pliers 15 88
Ezplosiveness of acetylene .... 12 19
Exposed pipes 13 63
Extension chandelier 14 25
Extra heavy cast-iron pipe .... 15 S2
strong iron pipe 15 28
F
Pasteninsr devices for stonework 18 29
Faucets. Position of 19 31
Ferrules. Brass 15 68
TinninfT brass 16 7
to a bend. Wipinsr .... 16 52
Piles 15 71
Fillet and chamfer moldinirs ... 19 52
Fire-checks H V)
" pots 15 75
Fireside electric heater 14 69
Fishtail burner If 7
Fitting. Pipe 13 47
Fittings and pipes. Gas 13 1
Back-vent 15 47
Cast-iron 15 37
Earthenware pipe 15 45
Flush r, V>
** Gas- and water-pipe !*' 'A
" pipe .... \y. j;;
Sec, Page
Pittinffs, Malleable-iron drainafife . 15 44
Pipe 15 34
Recessed 18 20
•• Screwinsr on 18 16
up 18 21
Soil-pipe 15 39
Special 15 45
Straddle 15 45
Fixtures, Construction and instal- lation of 19 1
Gas 14 22
Plumbinsr 15 2
Washing and drinking . . 19 1
Flames. Luminosity of sras .... 14 3
Plansre joints 16 27
** Wiping: 16 51
Planned unions 15 as
Plat bead seam. Soldering: a ... 16 12
*' bottom copper pantry sink . . 19 16
** head rivets 15 22
" lap joint 17 14
" rim sink. Plain VJ 8
" seams 16 9
•* slab urinal stalls 20 20
" urinals 20 82
Fletcher burners 14 3
14 59
Flickerinsr lights 13 71
Floated seams 16 9
Floor chisel 15 76
Flow of gas. Laws Koveminif ... 13 15
.Measuring vel DC ity
of 13 22
Regulating 13 37
Flush connections 10 2
fittings 15 45
Flushing-rim slop sink. Porcelain 19 25
Fluxes 15 IH
Folding urinals 'if) :yj
Followers 17 31
Foot-baths . . 20 13
Form of rims Of) 9
Forming i.orn'rr* ... 17 23 Formula int nuriififrr of burnem
rt-jiwui-A 14 45
Fountains ... 19 .'/{
Pram*: Mipj/ort 19 5
Vr-.urh p;it»«-rn bathtub . 'jfi \
FrkMon -Muwh , ... 15 HI Vt*>%y. A' *-.iy]*'U*'. rriS', hine4 ex-
l/0*«rrl to .12 y}
>/ irnU, Ufwltlttie . . ]r, \u
\'t* < nni\hn% unik\u%X . 12 47
F-j;>f ".• u J5 y,
F ..w.lf»«i»«-ft J2 29
Vu%\UH V't\u*% M 2]
XIV
INDEX
GmlYMilied, blAck, and Russfa
Iron .....«....,,*.. 15
anft. Arcl]«r ,..,,...,,,. 12
arc lamps U
bum&r, SelMfffbtinff ..... 14
By-products of a ! . ..... 12
Candlcpower of a ...,,. 12
Coal . 12
" 12
QQtk , p . , . , , U
cokB la
CombiiMlon of . U
Compofiidon of coal ..... 12
dlfltrCbutloo . , IS
Doni«s[ic uacs'of .14
cnffino tiso* Acetylene tor . . 12
Enrichfna; . . , 12
fltteirs' plans 13
fiKturea .14
DistatlsoE ..,.,. 14
'* Locating ....... 14
Haines, LutuintiAUy of ... , 14
Ga«olmf . . , .12
Oi;neratlati of producer ... 12
jjfeflefatof , The . .... ... IT
Bovcmor , 13
heaters, Houfie-wartnlnr . . U
lieatioir 14
appliances* MlAceUa-
neous 14
holder or ^tornf e tank .... 12
Impiiritk'ii in coal ...... 12
Kinds of 12
lamp. Incandescent 14
light mantels 14
lighting 14
burners 14
trouble and remedies 14
log 14
machines for manufacturing
purposes 12
mains 13
Laying out 13
making 12
Measuring volume of .... 13
meter 13
meters. Accuracy of 13
Reading 18
Testing 13
Oil 12
Olefiant 12
pipe fittings 15
13
'* Capacity of 13
'* Cast-iron 13
•* Standard cast-iron ... 18
Pttgf
12
SB
10 b i 2 4
29
t
•2 15
I 34
4 10 22 30 37
B 40 14
67
72 34
a
2 6 13
1
7 18 70
47
1 12-
1 23 28 85
12 4
34 13 46 1 8
5V. f^^
Gas pipe, Testing ....,,,, t^l <S
" Wrooght-iroo ...... II 10
" plaot. Oil 12 ia
'* pre&sure and it* me&Bnre^
mBnt .11 IT
'* per foot ol rise. In- crease to ..... 13 IS
" " regulator ..... 13 38
** Producer ........... 12 14
" E^opertiei of ......... 12 2
*' '' " watar ..... 12 §
" ranges ,.,.., 14 63
*' Regulotlti^ flow of .IS 37
" Semiwator ..,......, 12 14
" Speciac gravity aad odor of
ooal 12 4
** Standard volume of ..... tS 23
** stovefl . 14 67
"* supply and dJJifcrlbytioD ... 13 1
. . XS 37
** through pipes. Flow ol . . . IS ifi
*' Use* of 12 1
** Water ............ 12 3
Gasoline, Effect of poor ...... 12 4T
tas 12 40
" Winter 12 41
Gasworks, Acetylene ..>,.,. 12 31
Gate ralves lA O
Gauiie, Arch ,..,..,...... 13 30
for sheet metal . . . ^. . . 15 10
King .18 20
SIpfaoD .13 19
•• U 13 13
Water 13 19
General instmctlons 16 2
Generation of producer gas .... 12 14
Generator, Acetylene-gas 12 20
Gas 17 86
Overheating in acety- lene 12 21
Ratio of lights to ... 12 26 Glazed earthenware pantry
sinks 19 17
Glazier's putty 15 21
Globe check-valve 15 62
valves 15 61
Globes 14 34
Governor, Dry 13 42
Gas 13 88
Volumetric IS 42
Graduations of Btmsen photom- eter bar 14 49
Ground-joint unions 16 38
key cock 16 48
•* cocks. Tinning .... 16 7
*' lever handle cocks . . 15 H
"I
INDEX
XV
H Sec. Page
Hack saw 16 71
Half-and-half solder 15 15
16 2
*■ foot burners 12 16
" ronnd nose chisel 15 76
Hammers 15 77
Hand reamers 18 18
" saw 15 71
Hard solder 16 14
16 21
" solderinfi: 16 1
Hatchet bit 16 72
Heat (generated by acetylene ... 12 17
Heater. Kitchen-boiler 14 72
Heaters, Open-fireplace 14 69
Water 14 72
Heating: appliances 14 67
Gas 14 63
Heel-rest bends 18 28
Holder, Apron 19 20
Nipple 18 16
brass pipes 18 19
Holdinfi: common sink bibb .... 16 69
pipes while wipinsr .... 16 69
Holes, Bell 18 3
Holophane srlobes 14 85
Hopper sink. Slop 19 22
Horizontal branch joint. Wiping a 16 46
joints. Calking .... 18 7
lap joint 17 46
Hotplates 14 62
House-warm in? sras heaters ... 14 67
I
lUnmination. Artificial 14 48
Imparities in calcium carbide ... 12 16
" coal sras 12 8
Impurity of water sras 12 8
Incandescent burners 12 88
14 12
** sras lamp 14 6
Increase in ffas presstire per foot
of rise 18 18
Individual urinals 20 32
Insertable soil-pipe joint 18 10
nstallation and construction of
fixtures 19 1
of sras ransres ... 14 65
" laundry tubs ... 19 32
** " soapstone tubs . . 19 36
Installations, Lavatory 19 43
Installinsr the pipins: 13 49
Instantaneous water heaters ... 14 72
•* Closed 14 77
" Open 14 81
Instruments. Light measuring . . 14 47
Sec. Page
Inverted burners 14 55
joints. Calking 18 8
Iron and brass pipes, Support- ing 18 Zl
" steel. Sheet 16 9
" Annealed 15 9
•*. Black 15 9
" Cold-rolled 16 9
** pipe .15 27
" pipework 18 1
•• Russia 16 11
J
Joint. Burning a T 17 47
" Butt 16 25
" Calking horizontal 18 7
" Cup 16 14
•* Plat-lap 17 44
Horizontal lap 17 46
" Insertable soil-pipe 18 10
** runners 15 77
•• SUp 16 25
" Soldering an overcast ... 16 16
•• Solid 16 84
" Vertical lap 17 46
Wiping a concealed 16 42
*• " horizontal branch 16 45
** " an underhand .... 16 31
" aTV branch .... 16 60
*• " vertical branch . . 16 47
** " Examples of .... 16 81
Joints and seams 16 9
Burning 17 42
" Branch 16 27
" Calking inverted 18 8
vertical 18 4
" Cement 13 6
•• Circular butt 16 26
•• Cup 16 9
•* Defective calked 18 9
'* Flange 16 27
in vertical pipes. Burning . IT 47
" Kinds of brazed 16 25
*' Lead 13 4
Length of underhand
wiped 16 28
Locked double-seam .... 17 19
Overcast 16 9
" Pipe 13 4
" Straight 16 27
" to earthenware pipe .... 18 23
•* Underhand 16 26
** Upright 16 26
Wiping branch 16 44
flange 16 51
•• upright 16 64
XVI
INDEX
K Set:. Paxe
iCcy cock I. TLnninj;; ^omad . . 16 7
Kiiiil« of bra£c4 joints 16 2&
" " lEAfl ,,....... la ft
" Kanis uid jolnti .... IS 9
Klnir gauirci .,.....*, t ^ - IS ao
KitolK'H botler heater ,,..,». II 73
slnka 19 2
LA4le ................ IS 74
T'JiinTi chimney B ....«..>.. N SH
*' IiiciuKleBcenteAK , , . . , . H 6
" Lebnm ,..,,. U It
'" Wclabiich IJ 13
" WrohAxn ....*...., H U
Lamps, Acptjflcno .... ^ ^ ... 12 S7
" HequiremeDts of part able 12 SI
IJip JoiiitR ........... 37 U
" wcMod trim t^Jpe ....,,, 15 37
Lapping ..,..*.. H 1ft 26
Latmilry trayi . , 19 3D
'' tub supply connect Jon . , ]& 4A
tlih* . , , . 19 n
" , . . . 19 ^
Li^vstnrlei , . . . , . , i . . 19 m
Lavatory 4eliiiJ* , . . , . 39 SO
in«tHniitlofi« 19 4Sl
LfiWM ifoviirnlnic (low cif gM.m * ... IS 15
Lciytnf out fCai mebnii 13 la
" *' tUe sheet k*4 . .... 17 40 Lead bumine ...-.**..,. J7 M " ** apparatus. Manipu- lation of 17 39
** gas pipe 13 11
•* joints 13 4
" lined iron pipe 15 29
" pipe 16 23 c
" work 17 27
'* pipes. Supporting 18 25
Weights of 15 24
•* Red 15 21
•• Sheet 15 2
" tubing 15 23
*' waste pipe, Weights of ... 15 24
" White 15 21
•' work 17 1
Leading threads 18 14
Leakage. Acetylene 12 36
Leaks 13 68
Lcbrun lamp 14 12
Left-hand corner slab 19 51
Length of underhand wiped joints IG 28
Lever-handle ground-key cocks . . If) 51
Light II 30
" Amount of, required .... 14 41
•• Calcium 14 6
Ltffht. Di^pf^rsion of ...,-...» 14 4|
MeaBUFement of II 4i
mea<iur{ng infilrumenta . . II 47
** Mcrbodii of producliur - > > It i
Oihydrogen ..,..,.. 11 i
" ReftectioDof U *1
Lij^hting. Economy ha ..,..,« 14 14
Gas . 14 1
LIghtE. Candlcpowor of ...... 14 44
Plickerine 13 71
" to generatom, Ratio of . . 13 Si
Lime dust , , li 18
LtDin^, Bloek-tio 17 n
tasks . . . , , 17 1
*' ** wUb copper ..... IT 18
Lipped udnal 20 SS
Locatiug gas lixtur** ,..,... 14 fT
Lock double-seam jointa , , . . .^ 17 If
Locked scatQ« 14 9
Log. Gaa . . , . 14 70
Lock trf'ugh wa.Hh Hlnks JO 37
LumlnosJiy of g&& flamos . .... 14 1
Machmcs. Water-gaa ...*...
Maia baga ,....,....*<.
** stapiKra . , . .....,,
lAtdm. Gas ...........
Making Gas <.......... .
tjpstaoda . . ,
Malleabie-iron drainage fittings . . Manipulation of lead-burning
apparatus
Mantels. Gas-light
Manufacture of acetylene
" gas
Manufacturing purposes, Gas ma- chines for
Marble basin slabs
slab fountains
Material and sizes of pipes ....
Materials and sizes of basins . . .
** ** tools. Plumbing . .
for acetylene generators
Plumbing
Mat. Sink
Measurement, Gas pressure and
its
of gas pressure . .
" light
Measurements. Taking
Measuring for piping
the tank
velocity of flow of gas volume of gas ....
19
11 H 0
I 1
22 44
|
17 |
39 |
|
14 |
IS |
|
12 |
16 |
|
12 |
2 |
|
12 |
47 |
|
19 |
SO |
|
19 |
58 |
|
13 |
1 |
|
19 |
88 |
|
15 |
1 |
|
12 |
27 |
|
15 |
2 |
|
19 |
21 |
|
IS |
17 |
|
13 |
18 |
|
14 |
44 |
|
13 |
59 |
|
18 |
17 |
|
17 |
8 |
|
13 |
22 |
|
U |
21 |
INDEX
XV11
Sec.
Meltins: points of metals 16
Metal-lined bathtubs. 20
Metals. Precaution in tinninsr ... 16
Sheet 15
Meters, Accuracy of g&s 13
Acetylene 12
Connections to 13
'* Gas 13
** Reading: firas 13
Size of gas 13
Testing: g:as 13
Methods of producing: lig:ht .... 14
Mixing: chamber 20
device 12
Modem plumbing: 19
Moldings 19
Monkeywrench 15
Multiple rain bath 20
N
Naphtha. Crude 12
Natural gSLS 12
Needle bath 20
burner 12
Nipple chuck 18
holder 18
Nipples. Tinning: solder IS
Nomenclature of g:as fixtures ... 14
O
Oakum 15
Odor of coal sras 12
Og:ee molding: 19
Oil and coal required for water s:as 12
" gras 12
" •* plant 12
Olefiant g:as 12
Open-fireplace heaters 14
lavatory 19
Operation of acetylene machines . 12
" brazing: 16
" g:as ranges 14
Oval and round wash basins ... 19
" copper pantry sinks 19
Oven burner 11
Overcast joints 16
Overflow acetylene fi:enerators . . 12 and stand-pipe waste
combined .... 19 ** " waste pipes. Stand- ing: .... '20 •* '* " Stand-pipe . 20 " Combined bowl and ... 19 " horn. Round bowl with 19
pipe 20
• Standing: 19
Piaxe 20
2
9 •
2 35 36 58 23 29 38 30
6 21 46
1 52 80 22
41 48 18 32 15 15 6 22
20
4 52
9 12 13
4 60 48 29 28 64 88 16 57
9 21
4 6 39 38 3 39
Sec. Page Orerbeatinfi: in the acetylene sen*
erators 12 26
Ozhydrosen li^bt 14 6
Pantry sinks 19 IS
Paste. Plumbers' 15 22
Patent roller tinningr process ... 15 12
Pendants 14 22
Perfection bnmer 14 56
Photometer bar. Graduations of
Bunsen 14 49
Photometers 14 47
Photometry 14 46
Pig:-earingr comers 17 23
PiUar 14 7
" lifi:hts 14 22
Pipe t>ender 15 78
" Bending: brass and copper . . 18 22
wrouffht-iron .... 18 16
** Composition 15 26
" cutters 15 82
" Dimensions of wrong:bt-iron . 15 28
" ends. Reaming: 18 13
" fitting: 13 47
" fitting:s .• 15 34
•• joints 13 4
" Lead 15 23
** Unediron 15 29
" Overflow 20 3
*• Pure block-tin 15 26
•• Size of 12 35
** Standard cast-iron 15 32
" supports 18 25
" Threading: brass and copper . 18 20
"Tin 15 25
•' •• lined 15 27
" vise 15 82
" work, I^ad 17 27
" wrench 15 W)
" Wrought-iron 15 27
Pipes 15 23
** and fittings, (las 13 1
Brass and copper 15 29
" Capacity of gas 13 46
•• Cast-iron 15 31
" gas 13 1
*• Distributing 13 1
'* Drainage of 13 48
" Drop 13 1
" Earthenware 15 33
" Exposed 13 63
Holding brass 18 19
" Service 13 1
13 55
•• Size of 18 46
xvm
INDEX
Sar. /^^
PIpei. Suppoitlog . . , 18 a&
,. 18 a»
*' Terr*-cottn Ifi S3
" Toatfuffijfts . ,18 es
" Woo(5cti , . . 16 m
Fipcwnrk, lirasB tmd copper , . . tS 10
*' Ca&t-jron ,,.,,»,. 18 1
EnHbeowftre IB £2
Iron. .......,,. 18 I
WrouEht'lron ♦ . , . . 18 IS
HptiMt bi3llainff& IS 4fi
** fur acetylene j^ai ...... 12 39
" rnatmUlo^ Ibc 13 4fi
■■ BleasiirimE lor .18 17
FftorAbibe IS 32
Plain heaains 17 2a
*' bumcri , .12 31
14 7
" fl»t-rtni link 19 8
" rimi .20 9
Plfttibb^ copper Ifi fi
PlADB, Gfli'fiUerK* ......... II 44
PIkhIi a coa]-£H« ......... 13 <
Haster of Padi . IS 20
Plfttes. Hoi 14 412
Pliers , . , 1& BO
nvK cQcki . , . . IS 48
** Rtt^da^itmUiaky ... 15 m
*' Sin^ It 8
PlttiiibcT, Dutle* oe tlM ^ ..... IS 1
Plumber** paile ...,...,.,16 22
IB 21
supplies 15 2
Plumbing fixtures 15 2
materials and tools ... 15 1
" " Miscellaneous 15 20
Modern 19 1
Plnnirebath 20 1
Pointed bit . .^ 15 72
Poor gasoline^ Effect of ...... 12 47
Porcelain fountains 19 55
laundry tubs 19 81
pantry sinks 19 17
roll-rim bath 20 11
sinks 19 16
•* Solid 19 12
slop sinks 19 24
19 27
trap urinal 20 84
urinal stalls 20 31
Portable lamps. Acetylene .... 12 37
Portland cement 15 20
Position of faucets 19 31
Pouring stick 17 13
Precautions against frost 12 47
*' in tinning metals ... 16 9
Sor. f^M
Presied-steel sJnki 13 4
Pretsui^ and Its measufciiieDt,
Gm . . . 13 11
" rtMSuctpg valiret .... 15 M
" r^nilf^tfon system ... 18 39
Pritn**, Tlti'pJate Ifi It
Producer gai ........... 13 It
PropertJes of acstylette gai .... 12 IS
■■ gas ......... 12 2
'* Ifgbt It SV
" '* producer gus .... 12 U
*' " water gas ...... 12 4
Pno^ng pump 18 48
PuriAcaUou of acctyleoe gas ... 12 IS
Parpoie of slop sinks ....... 19 '32
Putiy. Giatter** IS 21
Q
Quality of toft solder ....... IS 17
Qutntity of gas, Actual ...... 18 21
B
RaiG baU3, Multipii 20 23
*' bathi 20 la
Rflised scams ^ . . . . 3fl 27
Rang« at wash ba«{i]j| ....... 19 49
Rattgen. Gas . , U fiS
Rasps ,..,.... .is 71
Ratchet stock , . . . .IS aS
Rfttio of lighti to genei-Ato^rft ... 12 38
Reading eas meters ........ IS IB)
Rcamem . , , , . IB II
Reamfng pipe ends 18 17
Receptor 20 18
Recess slab 19 51
Recessed drinking fountains ... 19 55
fittings 18 20
Recession acetylene generator . . 12 21
Redipped tin plate 15 13
Red lead 15 21
Reflecting gas stove 14 67
Reflection of light 14 41
Refraction 14 40
Regeneration 14 3
Regenerative burners 14 11
Regrinding leaky plug-cocks ... 15 53
Regulating flow of gas 13 37
Regulation system. Gas-pressure IS 39
Regulator, Gas-pressure 13 38
Remedies and defects 18 67
'* ** troubles. Gas- lighting 14 18
Repairing frost bursts 16 19
Requirement^ for portable lamps . 12 87 ** of acetylene gener-
mtor 12 96
INDEX
XIX
Sec.
Retort carbon 12
Retorts 12
Rigrbt-hand corner slab 19
Rims. Form of 20
Rinsr burner 14
Risers 18
Risincr-jet fountains 19
Rivet burrs 16
Rivets 15
Roll rim 20
" " bath. Porcelain 20
" " enameled kitchen sinks . 19
slop sink ... 19
Roman pattern bathtub 20
Roofine tin 15
Rosendale cement 15
Rosin dish 15
Round and oval wash basins ... 19
bowl with overflow horn . . 19 corner slab with two
backs 19
Rubber sras pipes 18
Rule to determine number of bnm>
ers required 14
" find standard volume of
eas 18
Rules for the flow of sras through
pipe 13
Rumford photometers 14
Russia iron 15
8
Safes. Basin 19
Safety blow-oflf 12
burners 14
" valves 15
Salt-firlazed sinks 19
Sand bcndinsr 17
Saw. Hack 15
•' Hand 15
Screwdriver 15
Screwed unions 15
Screwinsr on fittinfifs 18
up fittings 18
Scam. Butt 17
Soldering a circular bead . 16
flat bead ... 16
lock 16
Seamless-drawn tubing 15
Seams 16
and joints 16
Burning .... 17
" Soldering vertical 16
" Wiping the 17
Seat or sitz baths 20
Selecting an acetylene machine . . 12
8
6 51
9 54
1 56 22 22
9 11 10 23
1 11 21 78 88 88
50 11
45
23
16 47 11
25 88 64 15 29 71 71 78 88 16 21 48 14 12 10 80 26 9 42 11 11 13 29
Sec. Fa£€
Self-closing compression cocks . . 15 69
Self-lighting gas burners 14 80
Semiwatergas 12 14
Service cleaner 13 70
pipes IS 65
18 1
Shades 14 85
Shampoo baths 20 17
Shave hook 15 72
Sheet block tin 15 8
" copper 15 4
" Stock sizes of .... 15 7
Tinning 16 8
" iron and steel 15 9
•• lead 15 2
" Cutting the 17 4
•• in tank 17 8
" Laying out the 17 4
" Preparing the 17 5
•• Working 17 1
** metal. Standard gauge for 15 10
'* metals 15 2
" tin 15 11
•• zinc 15 8
Shields 14 86
Shower bath. Combination .... 20 19
baths 20 16
Sidelights 14 22
Simmering burner 14 57
Sink back 19 9
** bibb. Holding a common . . 16 59
" coupling 19 8
" Enamele*i*iron slop 19 28
" Flat-bottomcd copper pantry 19 16
** Long-trough wash 19 27
" mat 19 21
" Oval copper pantry 19 16
" Plain flat-rim 19 8
" plug 19 8
" Porcelain flushing-rim slop . 19 25
" Recessed standing waste . . 19 14
*' slab 19 20
•* Slop hopper 19 22
Sfaiks 19 2
" Butlert' pantry 19 16
•• Cast-Iron 19 6
enameled 19 10
kitchen 19 12
slop 19 22
" Copper pantry 19 16
*' Dimensions of cast-iron slop 19 24
*• copper pantry 19 18
** " " earthenware . 19 22
** porcelain . . 19 15
slop 19 27
" Earthenware 19 15
%3L
INDEX
Set. Avv
porcelain patitry , ... 10 17
" Kttcben 10 2
** forcelaiQ slop ....,.., 19 SI
" i*reisi?d-«te«l * * 1* I
" Htill-rimenAmel«<11t(tf^lttci , 1» 10
" SmtrelftEAd ,..,_.!& lA
■* Slate , II 15
** Sftapatone and cement ... 10 US
** Sdlfd porcelafii .....,.!« 11
" Wash , _ . li »
** Wooden , , . . . 19 I
!^|p}inn k:iluj£C^ _ . - ^^ « * . , , 13 W
'* jet uTinnl .....,, ^ . 3D SS
Bltft«r««Atb9ths K ........ 3D 13
Site of ff^a meters ..,..*...!] m
"* pipe ......,,._. 13 85
" " pipes 13 lA
"" '* tJippfQETS for raaJti bnv4 , IS 9
SJiie« and matv^riali ut ba«]n» . , W S9
** Pfpcs _ . la I
** *' weieht of sheet i:inL4 . . lA «
" " welsrbts of sheet cappor 15 S
'^^ Of sheet copper ....... U V
■* *• wipiiiSfi.lorhs . W 1i
Skin solderinir ........... W U
Slab, UlE-hand corner ...... 19 ^1
" Recess 19 hi
" Rlabt-band comer .,.,,, 19 51
" Sink . , * 19 3D
■* with »ina:lc back 19 60
" " twn I'hArii'i Krmnd-corner 19 SO
Slaos. JMaroie oasin Id 60
Slate and soapstone laundry tubs 19 36
" sinks 19 15
" tubs 19 87
Sleeve. Split 13 8
Sleeves 13 7
Slip joint 16 25
Slit burner 14 55
Slop hopper sink 19 22
" sinks 19 22
•* 19 24
Soapstone and cement sinks ... 19 15
" slate laundry tubs 19 36
Soft sheet copper 1ft 4
•• solder 15 14
*• 15 17
*' solderins: 16 1
scams and joints 16 9
Soil connections 19 2
** pipe. Cutting: 18 1
•• Double-hub 15 32
•• " fittinjrs 15 39
•• joint. Insertable .... 18 10
•* pipes. Cast-iron 15 31
Sec. Piagt
Soil. Plomhtrs' US 21
Soiling . ,...,.. li i
Sdldef ..,.,.. *. 15 H
" dott .17 19
" llalfftBd-btK *.,..-.. Ifi l§
" . ie a
" Hartl .*....!* H
" Making soft .,.,.,.. Ifi If
•* nipples ........... Ifi »
TJnalnr 16 5
" pot , _ , . , lb 74
" SIfAp , . 16 15
Boldexine a elrtntlar beai) fiCftm . . 16 14
" Aft( t)c»<l «eam . . . , 16 13
'* " lock t.eiim . 16 10
" an o vet east Jofot .... IS it
And fvlping: 16 - I
*"' bit 15 73
Blowpipe ........ 16 19
tlojies u 19
Skin .♦..,......!« 11
Soft ..,...._..!« ■
vertte«l Mtma * .... 16 11
Solid bathtubs ..,,.29 9
*' flame burner .,,«,*»». 14 M
" joint 1« 14
** pott'eUin sinliA ..,.«.. 19 13
Spiftcinif UiT tacks , . IS 3i
Special miiniEit IS 45
foimis of bathtubs ..... 20 lit Specifiic etnvlty and o<lor of coal
e^^ 12 4
opener 16 23
Spiral aturer 15 87
Spirit level 15 77
Splayinir 16 2S
Split dies 15 84
" sleeve IS 8
Spray acetylene srenerators .... 12 20
Sprinir. Bending: with coiled .... 17 30
Spud and coupling 15 68
*• Tinninc: 16 6
Stalls. Urinal 20 29
Stand-pipe waste and overflow . . 20 6 ** ** ** and overflow
combined ... 19 41
Standard candle 12 4
cast-iron s:as pipe .... 13 t
" " pipe 16 S3
** s:aufi:e for sheet metal 15 10
** volume of gras 13 20
Standing: overflow 19 S9
and waste pipes 20 4
waste sink. Recesses . . 19 14
Steel and iron. Sheet 15 9
" clad bathtubs 90 S
INDEX
XXI
Sec. Page
Stnison wrench 15 81
Stocks and dies 15 8S
Stonework. Fastening devices for 18 29
Stop-and-waste cock 15 49
Stopper. Main 18 9
Storage tank 17 35
** or eras holder .... 12 24
Stoves. Gas 14 67
Straddle fittinsrs 15 46
Straight joints 16 27
Straigrhtening: lead pipe 17 27
Strainer connection 19 7
Strap solder 15 15
Street lamps. Acetylene 12 87
Sundries, cocks and valves .... 15 48
Supplies and tools. Brazinir .... 16 21
** • Plumbers' 15 2
Supply and distribution. Gas ... 18 1 of sras . 18 87 *' Bath and waste combina- tion 20 10
" connection. Laundry-tub . 15 46
connections 19 2
20 7
Support. Frame 19 5
SupportinfiT iron and brass pipes 18 27
lead pipes 18 25
Supports, Pipe 18 26
Swing check-valve 15 62
Swivel joints 14 24
System, Gas-pressure regulation . 13 89
Volumetric gas regulation 18 40
T
Table of brass and copper tubes 15 81
** candlepower of burners 14 17
" capacity of gas pipes . . 13 46
" cast-iron kitchen sinks 19 12 " dimensions of cast-iron
sinks 19 24
" dimensions of cement
tubs 19 81
" " dimensions of copper
pantry sinks 19 18
" dimensions of earthen- ware sinks 19 22
" dimensions of porcelain
sinks 19 16
** *' dimensions of porcelain
slop sinks 19 27
'* " dimensions of slate tubs 19 37 ** " dimensions of wrought-
iron pipe 15 28
'* " graduations of Bunsen
photometer bar .... 14 49
** *' increase in gas pressure 18 18
Sec. Page Table of length of underhand
wiped joints 16 28
" ** melting points of metals 16 20
•• " pure block-tin pipe ... 15 26 *' ** screw threads for
wrought-iron pipe . . 18 15 *' *' size of tappings for main
bags 13 9
" " sizes and weights of
sheet copper 15 5
" sizes and weights of
sheet zinc 15 8
** '* sizes of wiping cloths . . 15 74
" soklering fluxes 15 19
" " solders \h 15
** *' spacing for tacks .... 18 24 '* " standard cast-iron gas
pipe 13 3
standard gauge for sheet
metal 15 10
** *' stock sizes of sheet
copper 15 7
** " weights of lead pipes , , 15 24 " '* weights of lead waste
pipe 15 24
Tacks IH 21
Taking measurements 13 59
Tank iron 15 73
Tanks 17 1
" Lining, with copper 17 18
" Storage 17 35
Tap borer 15 71
Tappings for main bags 13 9
Tar 12 3
Telescopic or extension chandelier 14 25
Terra-cotta pipes 15 33
Test. Air 13 7
Testing gas meters 13 30
" pipes 13 63
** soft solder 15 17
Thawing steamer 15 79
Thread. Briggs* standard screw , 18 16
Threading brass and copper pipe . 18 20
Threads, Cutting 18 14
" for wrought-iron pipe . . 18 15
Three-way cocks 15 50
'* wheel cutter 15 83
Tile pipes. Vitrified 15 83
Tilting-tank urinals 20 37
Tin gas pipes 13 11
" lined pipe 15 27
" pipe 15 25
" plates 15 12
Tinned rivets 15 22
Tinning 16 3
a bent coupling 16 8
TbmJas: » copper bte ,.,.,,. is 4
'* brass ferrtilea ,,.... 16 7
*' cotnjjr^saJon cMkl ... If 7
Dip » , , » , 16 B
** sTtmnd-ker ciMjk* ..»,!• 7
** m«t«]n^ PrccitiitlotiA In . . H 9
•• ffoc^fii. Vaunt (t>JJcr . . IB 13
" «heflt copper ...«<« f II i
** ftold^T ulppUM . . * * 4 , 10 A
'* Apoda. .,.,.,.,,< le e
Tip. M 7
Tool* .,....,...._>. IS 71
*' ftnd tnailerfAls, Plumbing , . 16 t
" " iQpp]iea, Bm«ln* . . Ifl 21
Torches .-....,♦..,,,. 15 ^
Trap. Back'W«t«r lA fil
itrew, Wiploff on a ..... 16 68
Trapv, Urinals with i^eparAte . . . 20 ft2
Tr«yf ♦ Uftiiodfy ,,,....... W 39
Treadle urinali ,,..,..,.. SD fT
Trent^bvs ii£kS drip pot ..... ^ . It 3
Trfpletwad molding. ....... W 52
Troubles and r«tD«lJed« GkHlgbt-
toir . , M 14
Trytnu the cDmen ot tftnka . « ^ , 17 3
Tab comjcqtrow, Coppcr-Iin^Kl ... 30 33
Tab*. Htol's n n
Tubc'it, Bra^B and eoppw ..... Ijk 31
Tubtna:. Brated 1« SO
Lead IS 35
Se(imle»«-dr«wu ..... IS iO
Tub*. Dinncnslons of cement , , Ifl SI
" Blntp . 10 37
** Latindry 19 29
19 36
" Wash 19 29
Tnrnpln 15 72
T V branch joint. Wiping: a .... 16 50
Types of acetylene generators . . 12 19
" compression cocks ... 16 66 ** *' lever-handle grround-key
cocks 16 51
U
U ffaugre 13 19
Underhand joint. Wiping an ... 16 31
joints 16 26
wiped joints. LeniTth of 16 28
Union-jet burner 14 7
Unions 15 87
Upriarht joints 16 26
" Wiping 16 54
Upstands. Making: 17 22
Urinal connections 20 32
'* Lipped 20 82
** Porcelain trap 20 34
Urioa]<Siphoa-j«| ..,,>,,.« 30 i^
'■ RUUs . . , , , a> 'js
** Veotilflted .,,*,,*,, 30 U
Uri»aii . 30 29
,...,...*.,,,♦ 3ft W7
'* and batha . t ...... 30 1
" Poldini ...***..,. 3D m
with combined ti«p ... 30 31
'* " lepwate iNpi , . « 3U m
Uacm o! i^as 13 %
Dometdo* . . 4'» - - M U
Vacuum Talve* . ^ , . . . ^ . . . 15 tf
Valine* Back-wat«T . ^ . 11 63
" Globe - . . 3A 61
" reseaier , . . . 15 m
Valirefi * ^ ..... 15 01
cocks, ^nd stiTtdrr«» .... 15 l^
Presflure^reducloff ..... 15 M
•* Safety . - 15 «4
VaeuutB . . .. , 15 m
VaportBlag burner ....<.... 14 53
Velocity of daw of fag, Mcasarinr 1» 33
Ventilated unnals ........ 3D 36
Vertical branch joint. Wtplng a . , 1« 47
*' joint!!, Calktnir . . . . , , 13 4
lap'joim .17 46
pipe St Bvtraitis joints itt , 17 47
'* senmB, Soiderina' ..... t« 11
Vitrified tOis pipes ......... 15 SS
Voluttie of gas. McattiHiur .... 13 S
Voltimctric govercorft 13 43
regulation system . . 13 40 '* regulators. Construc- tion of 18 42
W
Wash basins 19 88
Range of 19 49
" sinks 19 27
" tubs 19 29
Washing and drinking fixtures . . 19 1 Waste and overflow. Stand-pipe . . 20 6 ** combination and bath sup- ply 20 10
** connections 19 2
20 3
*' pipe. Weights of lead ... 16 24 " pipes and standing over- flow 20 4
stand-pipe and overflow,
Combined 19 41
Waster. Tin-plate 15 18
Water- and gas-pipe fittingi .... 15 34
gas IS 8
INDEX
ZXlll
Sec. Page Water fas. Coal and oU reqaired
for 12 9
•* machines 12 11
ffansre 13 19
•• heaters 14 72
** ** * Open instantaneous 14 81
^^eiffhts and sizes of sheet copper 15 5
zinc . 15 8
** of lead pipes 15 24
" •* ** waste pipe .... 15 24
WeUbach lamp 14 18
Wenham lamp 14 11
Wet meter 18 24
" volumetric srovemor 18 42
White lead 15 21
Winter gasoline 12 41
Wiped joints. Lensrth of underhand 16 28
WipiniT 16 26
a concealed joint 16 42
"cross 16 65
** ** ferrule to a bend 16 52
** ** horizontal branch joint . 16 45
•• vertical branch joint . . 16 47
" T Y branch joint 16 60
** an underhand joint .... 16 81
** and solderins: 16 1
branch joints 16 44
cloths 15 74
Sec. Page
Wiping. Examples of joint .... 16 31
flansre joints 16 51
Holding pipes while ... 16 59 *' Miscellaneous examples
of 16 52
on a trap screw 16 58
solder 15 15
the seams 17 11
uprifirht joints 16 54
Wooden laundry tubs 19 29
pipes 15 80
sinks 19 8
Work. Details of sheet-lead .... 17 22
Lead 17 1
WorkiufiT comers 17 24
shestlead 17 1
Wrouffht-iron ^as pipe 13 10
" pipe 15 27
Bending .... 18 16
Threads for . . 18 15
'• pipework 18 12
Y
Yamlnartool 15 75
Z
Zinc, Chloride of 15 18
" Sheet 15 8
THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY RBPBRBNCB DEPARTMENT
Thii book k und^r no oiroumttaaoet to bo
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