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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT,
' AN INTRODUCTION TO
AGRICULTURE
AN INTRODUCTION
AGRICULTURE
BY
eae A. UP AM
TEACHER OF SCIENCE, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL
WHITEWATER, WISCONSIN
NEW. Y OF
DD 2c Pie CON AND. COMPANY
1910
CopyriGutT, 1910, By
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
€ 0lLA261091
Pik BA CE
Tuer author’s thought in preparing this book has
been to provide an elementary text on agriculture suit-
able for use by children of the seventh and eighth grades,
and by pupils of a corresponding advancement in un-
graded schools. It is hoped, also, that the book will
not be found unsuited to the needs of Reading Circles
and of individual students.
The author, of course, makes no claim to complete-
ness, nor is the book offered as a guide to farming. The
effort has been, however, to touch those matters which
would be most useful to pupils in our rural schools, and
especially to give the underlying theory for many farm
processes and practices.
It is believed that teachers and students will find
the summaries and questions at the end of each chapter
especially helpful in reviewing and making definite the
information which the chapters contain. One of the
most important reasons for teaching agriculture in
schools is to prepare pupils to read and understand
\
vi PREFACE
agricultural literature. Lists of such literature and
directions for obtaining it will be found at the end of
the book.
Acknowledgment is gratefully made for the use of
material found in various Farmers’ Bulletins and re-
ports, especially those of the United States Department
of Agriculture, and of the State Experiment Stations of
Wisconsin, Vermont, and Minnesota. The author is
also grateful to those whose names appear in connection
with various illustrations for the use of the same.
A. A. UPHAM.
WHITEWATER, Wris., 1910.
C@NTENTS
CHAPTER PAGES
- I. Tur Nature or PLANTS ‘ : : : . 1-9
The Science of Agriculture, 1; The Parts of a
Plant, 2; How a Plant Grows, 4; How the Plant
Gets Its Food, 5; Conditions of Growth, 7; Plant
Food Must Be Usable, 8; Summary, 9; Ques-
tions, 9.
een SOLime : : d 10-19
The Composition of Soil, 10; Kinds of Soil,
Formation of Soil—Rock Weathering, 13; ae
Action in Formation, 16; Uses of the Soil to the
Plant, 17; Good Farm Soil, 18; Summary, 18;
Questions and Problems, 19.
Ill. Water IN THE SOIL : ; E : 20-29
The Importance of Water to Plants, 20; The Move-
ment of Water in the Soil, rs Amount of Water
Used by Different Plants, 22; Effect of Too Little
Water in the Soil, 22; Effect of Too Much Water,
22; How the Soil May be Made to Hold More
Moisture, 25; The Benefits of Underdrainage, 26;
Methods of Drainage, 27; Summary, 28; Ques-
tions and Problems, 29.
IV. TrimimNeG tHe Som . : . l 30-39
Tillage, 30; Objects of Tillage, 30; ihepivetion of
the Seed Bed, 32; Regulation of Moisture, 32;
Other Uses, 33; A Risk in Tilling, 33; Importance
of Good Tillage, 34; Tillage Implements—The Plow,
34; Harrows, Plankers, and Rollers, 35; Dry
vil
Viil
CHAPTER
Ve
vid.
VET.
VIE.
CONTENTS
PAGES
Farming, 37; Summary, 38; Questions and Prob-
lems, 38.
ENRICHING THE SOIL ; ; \ ; : 40-53
Elements and Compounds, 40; The Source of the
Three Kinds of Plant Foods, 42; How These
Foods Get Into the Plant, 43; The Use to the
Plant of Each Kind of Food, 45; Barnyard
Manure, 46; Other Ways of Enriching the Soil,
48; Commercial Fertilizers, 48; Amendments, 49;
Nitrification, 50; Summary, 51; Questions and
Problems, 52.
LreGuMINoUS PLANTS AND RoTATION oF Crops 54-62
Clover and Its Relatives, 54; Fixation of Nitrogen,
55; Legumes as Nitrogen Gatherers, 55; Other
Uses of Legumes, 56; Rotation of Crops, 57; Rota-
tion Is a Weapon Against Pests, 57; Rotation
Destroys Weeds, 58; Rotation Practically Enlarges
the Farm, 58; Rotation Regulates the Food Sup-
ply in the Soil, 59; The Norfolk System of Rota-
tion, 60; Summary, 61; Questions, 62.
Tue Uses THE PLANT Makes or Its Foop 63-70
The Factory of Nature, 63; Oxygen, Hydrogen,
and Carbon, 63; The Products of Plant Growth, 64;
How the Plant Digests Its Food Elements, 66;
Changing Starch to Sugar, 66; Changing Sugar to
Starch, 67; The Composition of Certain Vegetable
Products, 68; The Production of Heat, 68; The
Production of Seeds, 69; Summary, 69; Questions
and Problems, 70.
Piant Enemies: Weeps, INSEcTs, AND PLANT
DISEASES. . : ; ‘ ; : : 71-89
What a Weed Is, 71; Why Weeds Are Enemies, 71;
Classes of Weeds, 72; Annuals, and How to Kill
Them, 72; Biennials, and How to Kill Them, 75;
Perennials, and How to Kill Them, 75; Descrip-
tion of an Insect, 77; Life History of Insects, 78;
CHAPTER
IX. Tue FARMER’s Frrenps: Birps, Toaps, Insects 90-102
X. PROPAGATION OF PLANTS BY SEEDS
XI.
XII.
XIII.
Farm Crops
CONTENTS
Classification of Insects, 79; Some Common Cut-
ting Insects, 80; Some Common Sucking Insects,
83; Insect Control, 84; Nature of Plant Diseases,
85; Some Common Diseases and Their Treatment,
85; Summary, 88; Questions, 89.
Birds and Their Food, 90; Useful Birds, 91; At-
tracting the Birds, 96; Toads and Frogs, 99; Useful
Insects, 99; Summary, 101; Questions and Prob-
lems, 101.
Seeds, 103; Flowers, 103; The Parts of a Flower,
103; Pollination, 106; Cross Pollination and
Hybrids, 107; Propagation of Plants, 108; Quality
of Seeds, 109; Age of Seeds, 109; Maturity of
Seeds, 110: Selecting Seeds, 110; Testing Seeds,
115; Conditions Affecting Germination, 116; Sum-
mary, 117; Questions and Problems, 118.
PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS AND OTHER
MEANS ; : : . 119-126
Other Methods of Bie iaton: 119; Growth from
Buds, 119; Cuttings, 120; Layering, 121; Grafting,
121; The Necessity for Grafting, 124; Budding,
125; Summary, 126; Questions, 126.
Tue Farm GARDEN . : . 127-13
The Importance of the Farm Gees, 127; Position
and Soil for the Garden, 127; The Care of the
Garden, 128; Desirable Plants fcr the Garden, 128;
Summary, 131.
Hay and Grass Crop, 133; Alfalfa, 134; Clovers,
135; Corn, 135; Wheat and Other Grains, 137;
Field Peas, 141; Potatoes, 141; Root Crops, 142;
Cotton, 143; Sugar Cane, 145: Rice, 146; Tobacco,
146; Summary, 149; Questions and Problems, 149.
103-118
133-149
xX
CHAPTER
XIV.
XVI.
mov iL,
XVIII.
CONTENTS
PAGES
THe ORCHARD. ; : ; bi ite . 150-158
Apples, 150; Pears, 152; Peaches, 153; Cherries
and Grapes, 154; Merkotine Fruit, 154; Transplant-
ing and Pruning, 154; Summary, 158; Questions
and Problems, 158.
JATTLE : 3 ; . 159-169
The Usefulness of the Cow, 59; The Dairy Cow,
159; Beef Breeds, 164; pe eithas in Raising
Cattle, 166; The Importance of Good Cattle, 167;
How to Improve the Herd, 167; Summary, 168;
Questions and Problems, 168
MiLk AND Irs Propucts : : : . 170-180
. The Composition of Milk, 170; The Food Value of
Milk, 172; The Souring of Milk, 172; The Milk
Tester, 174; The Separator, 174; Cream, 176;
Skimmed Milk, 177; Butter, 177; Cheese, 178;
Summary, 179; Questions and Problems, 180.
THe Horse : i sy ts Se
Antecedents and Types: 1st. Dadrable Character- _
istics, 181; Speed Horses, 183: Draft Horses, 185;
Coach Horses, 187; Ponies, 187; Use and Care of
Horses, 188; The Intelligence of Horses, 189;
Summary, 190; Questions, 190.
SHEEP AND SwINE . : : ‘ . . 191-201 ©
Advantages of Sheep Rae 191; Breeds of
Sheep, 191; Advantages of Raising eae 194;
Breeds of Swine, 195; Where and How to Raise
Swine, 198; Summary, 199; Problems, 200.
PouLTRY AND BEES : : . 202-213
Benefits of Poultry anne 202: Breeds of
Chickens, 204; Ducks, Geese, and Paieese. 207;
Raising and Care of Poultry, 207; Summary, 212;
Questions and Problems, 212.
PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING AND CARE OF ANIMALS 214-225
Importance of Animal Food, 214; Classes of Feeds,
216; Balanced Rations and the Nutritive Ratio,
CHAPTER
CONTENTS
217; Kinds of Feeding Stuffs, 220; Profit and
Loss in Feeding, 222; Care of Animals, 223; Sum-
mary, 225; Questions, 225.
XXI. Goop Roaps.—ForEestry.—HoME AND ScHoon
GROUNDS . : 3 : . 226-241
INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES
TABLES
REFERENCES
The Farmer’s Interest in ened Roads, 226; How
to Make and Keep a Road Good, 226; The Burnes
of Forestry, 229; Some Advantages of Forests, 230;
What Other Nations are Doing in Forestry, 231;
What Our Government is Doing, 232; How a
Forest May be Perpetuated, 233; Home and School
Grounds, 234; Trees and Shrubs, 234; Vines, 236;
Flower Garden, 237; Hardy Perennials for the
Farmer’s Flower Garden, 239; Hardy Flowering
Shrubs Best Adapted to the Farmer’s Garden and
Lawn, 239; Conclusion, 240; Summary, 240.
APPENDIX
Bordeaux Mixture for Blights, 243: How to Treat
Seed Oats to Prevent Smut, 244; How to Treat
Seabby Seed Potatoes, 245; Kerosene Emulsion,
245; Paris Green, 245.
xl
PAGES
243-246
246-259
Table Ie ao Constituents Gantanad's in Average
Crops per Acre, 246; Table II.—Fertility Removed
by Different Crops 246; Table III.—Space and
Quantities of Seed Required, 247; Quantities of
Seed Required to the Acre, 247; Table IV.—
Amount of Nutrients for a Day’s Feeding, 248;
Table V.—Dry Matter and Digestible Food In-
gredients in 100 Pounds of Feeding Stuffs, 250
Fuel Value, 252; Table VI.—Rations Actually
Fed to Horses and Digestible Nutrients and
Energy in Rations, 253; Table VII.—Pounds of
Total Dry Matter a Digestible Ingredients
(Protein and Carbohydrates, Including Fats x
25) in Varying Weights of Fodders and Feeds, 254
259-261
AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
CHAPTER I
THE NATURE OF PLANTS
1. The Science of Agriculture.—Agriculture or farm-
ing consists primarily in raising plants and animals. The
farmer aiming to have a profitable business must under-
stand many things about the plants and animals he
raises, for without a knowledge of their.nature, their
habits, and their needs he may labor year after year
making only a halfway success of his work. It is easy
to waste the good things that Nature has provided for
the farmer. It is easy also to increase greatly the or-
dinary production from the land—if one only knows how.
How to get the best results in agriculture is a ques-
tion that men are studying all the time. Agriculture is
a science—one of the most useful of all the sciences.
Wherever agricultural science improves farming it bene-
fits mankind. Human beings everywhere are depend-
ent on farming for food. This food in great variety
comes from plants and from animals. Animals them-
selves are dependent on plant growths for food. So we
see that the growing of plants by farmers is one of the
fundamental occupations of human kind.
The farmer, first of all, should be interested in study-
ing the fundamental facts of his science. He must
1
2 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
understand how plants grow and what kinds of soil are
best suited to the growth of the various plants. He
must have a scientific knowledge of the diseases and the
enemies of plants and how to overcome them. He will
wish to know also many facts about cattle, poultry,
sheep, and other farm animals. Such fundamental facts
we are to study in this book.
2. The Parts of a Plant.—In speaking of plants now
we are thinking of all kinds of things growing out of the
earth that provide food—trees, grains, grasses, vines,
roots, and all the others. Most plants have roots,
stems, leaves, flowers, and
fruits or seeds. Some of the
lower plants, which are used
for food, such as mushrooms,
do not have all of these parts.
Some are dependent on other
plants for their support and
for theirnourishment. These
parts or organs are concerned
with the two functions of
\
ia a sy plants—growth and_ repro-
TER oD. oan duction. The growth organs
yt Aris x4 are the roots, stem, and
yi i Nex leaves; the reproductive or-
| (i gans are the flowers, fruits,
and seeds.
Roots.—The roots reach
out through the soil, hold-
TypicAL PLant (COLUMBINE). ; ;
Showing a, flower; b, leaf; c, ins the plant m place and
stem; d, roots. gathering food for it. They
THE NATURE OF PLANTS 3
arise from the stem, and branch or divide into smaller
roots, until they become fine, delicate rootlets. Except
at their tips, the tiny rootlets are covered with still finer
root hairs. These root hairs take in food for the plant.
They may increase the absorptive or feeding surface of
the root seven to seventy-five times.
Stems and Leaves.—The stem is the supporting organ,
the framework on which the leaves and flowers are
borne. It may be very short and thick as the ‘‘crown”’
of turnips and beets; it may be very slender and light as
in the grains and grasses; or it may be large and strong
GOOSEBERRY. Showing a, flower; b, fruit; c, seeds.
as in the trunks of trees. The food absorbed by the
root hairs passes through the larger roots and the stem
to all parts of the plant. On the stem and generally in
the axil of a leaf, buds are borne which produce branches
bearing either leaves or flowers. The leaves help gather
food by absorbing gases from the air. And it is in the
leaves that the food elements gathered by the roots and
leaves are made ready for the use of the plant.
4 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
Place the stem of a plant (balsam) in water colored with
red ink and watch the passage of the water up the stem and
into the leaves.
Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds.—The flowers on a plant
produce the fruit and seeds. The seed, as you know,
contains the young plant. The parent plant stores food
in the seed, and this food the young plant uses in send-
ing out its first shoots and getting
ready to glean its own living.
Lima Brean. a, cotyledons opened to show hypocotyl and plumule;
b to e, successive stages in germination showing development of
hypocotyl, roots, cotyledons, stem, and plumule.
3. How a Plant Grows.—You may have seen how a
plant begins to grow from the seed. It sends a shoot
upward toward the light and another shoot downward
as a root. The upward shoot becomes the stem. It
branches out and has leaves, and so makes the full-
grown plant which we see. The root, as it grows, also
divides into many branches which run through the
ground,
THE NATURE OF PLANTS 5
If you put some beans or other large seeds in water
or damp sand, you can see how they sprout. On the
outside will be found two coatings. Beneath these are
two leaves, thick and yellow. They contain the nour-
ishment on which the young plant begins its life. These
leaves are called cotyledons.
Place some large seeds, such as beans or peas, in water over
night. Then take out some of them and study their structure.
Place the others in damp sawdust or sand. Continue for sev-
eral days the study of the little plants.
Lay the first leaves apart and you will find between
them two tiny leaves supported by a minute stem.
These inner leaves are called the plumule and the stem
is called the hypocotyl. The hypocotyl grows and lifts
the leaves above the ground. From the hypocoty! also
the first root starts in its downward growth. In some
plants the plumule develops into the first real leaves; in
others the cotyledons become the first leaves above
ground. Corn and certain other seeds have only one
cotyledon.
4. How the Plant Gets Its Food.—The plant starts its
life by feeding on the food stored in the seed. But as
soon as its leaves have reached the sunlight and its roots
begin to spread out through the soil, the plant must find
and make its own food. Air, water, and mineral salts
_ in the soil are the plant’s food materials.
Sprout grains of corn, wheat, barley, etc., between two
pieces of damp cloth inclosed between two plates. Place two
or three matches with the seeds to prevent mold, and set the
plates in a warm place. In a few days study the seedlings, ex-
6 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
amining the parts. Notice the hairs on the roots. Compare the
different kinds of plants.
The plant can take in nothing in solid form. All its
food from the soil comes to it dissolved in water, which
can pass readily from the soil through the root hairs
into the tiny rootlets. The soil water contains carbonic
acid derived principally from decaying organic matter
which helps it to dissolve the mineral compounds in the
soil. The water passing into the root hairs takes with
it the mineral salts
that are necessary to
the plant’s health and
growth. These min-
eral salts are really
several substances
mixed together, but
all are called salts.
While the salts are
Cross Section or a Roor Suowmsa tHE lissolved in water,
Roor Harrs. a, bark cells; b, duct for
passage of Grater we cannot see them.
Their tiny invisible
particles are mixed with the particles of water in what
is known as a solution. If we boil some water until it
has all evaporated, we shall generally find in the bottom
of the kettle a white substance that looks like common
salt. This is the mineral salt which was in the water
but which did not evaporate with it. When we burn
plants the mineral parts are left in the form of ashes.
The plant feeds from the air as well as from the
water in the soil. Its leaves absorb gases from the air,
and these gases, especially the carbon dioxide, are used
THE NATURE OF PLANTS 7
in preparing the food for the plant. In some way that
we do not wholly understand, a plant has the power to
combine the water, the mineral
substances from the soil, and
the gases from the air so as to
make food for itself. This can
take place only in sunlight. In
this process the leaves return to
the air through the stomata a
gas which we call oxygen and
more or less water.
- 5. Conditions of Growth.—In
order to grow well, the plant
must have the proper conditions
of heat, water, air, light, and
food. Until the weather is warm
‘most plants do not even sprout. UnperSiprorLear. Show-
Light is very essential to the life Ls ay lis Sea
of plants; in the dark they stop B, a cross section show-
growing or grow only a little te eae cece
and weakly. :212 4 cao SO rc
Gre@Nn: 8786855 At. oe oe eee 85 43
But the plant actually needs much more water than
is shown by such a table. To keep healthy, a plant
must constantly have a great quantity of water passing
through its stems or branches to the leaves. The water
evaporates from the leaves into the air. Experiments
have shown that, for each pound of dry grain to be
harvested, three hundred to five hundred pounds of
water should pass through the plants producing the
erain. :
16. Effect of Too Little Water in the Soil.—A plant
will quickly starve if it has not enough water. Water
itself is the most important plant food, and it is the
medium for the transmission of plant food, for the plant
gets its mineral food in the water which its roots absorb.
Herbs and other plants that have little woody tissue
in their stems wilt and droop if they have not sufficient
water. The water is needed to fill out the stems and
keep the plants stiff and upright, as well as to bring
food from the soil.
17. Effect of Too Much Water.—Plants may suffer
from too much water in the soil as well as from too little.
WATER IN THE SOIL 23
Air is needed in the soil in order that the plant may get
its proper food (Sec. 5). If the soil is very wet, so that
water fills all the spaces among the grains of soil, there
will be no room for the air. You may understand better
how the soil holds both air and water if you think of a
wet sponge. The substance of the sponge holds water,
and all through the sponge are tiny open spaces, or pores,
filled with air.
Too much water may injure the plant in another way.
The roots of most plants will not go down into water.
If they find the ground too wet, they will spread out
near the surface instead of going deeper. Later, when
the weather becomes hot, the roots, being near the sur-
face, will dry up. Too much water at first results in too
little available water later.
Still another thing we must remember about water-
soaked soil. Ground that is very wet is cold. More
heat is required to warm water than to warm soil. Then,
too, from wet ground water is all the time evaporating.
As it passes off into the air, the water takes with it some
of the warmth in the ground. This warmth is needed
for the growth of plants, and especially of seeds. Rapid
evaporation from wet soil wastes it. When the sun is
warming the land in spring, wet soil is not made ready
for seed planting so soon as soil with only a moderate
amount of moisture. A wet soil is likely to be over-
acid or sour, and not well suited for crop growth.
Thus we see that for many reasons it is important
that the soil for most plants should not be water-soaked.
The soil is a storehouse for water. One of the chief
problems of the farmer is how to regulate the sup-
24 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
ply and give his crops neither too little nor too much
water.
For this and some other experiments a small spring balance
weighing by ounces up to four pounds is desirable. Provide five
pint bottles with the bottoms cut off as follows:
To cut off the bottoms of the bottles, saturate a string with
kerosene or alcohol; let it drain and then wind it two or three
times around the bottle near the bottom. Tie the string tightly
and cut off the ends. Light the kerosene and let it burn, hold-
ing the bottle bottom upward. As soon as the kerosene is
nearly or quite done burning, dip the bottom of the bottle into
water, if the bottom has not already cracked off. Cork the bot-
tles with corks having notches cut in the sides so as to allow
water to enter when the necks are immersed in water. Tie a
string around the neck of each inverted bottle and bring the
string up near the bottom of the
bottle so as to make a noose
around the bottle. Make a loop
in the end of the string into which
the hook of the balance may be
placed. Weigh each bottle, and
record the weight. Place in each
bottle a pound (or other known
weight) of some kind of soil, as,
for example, gravel in one, sand
in another, poor soil in the third,
loam in the fourth, and leaf mold
in the fifth. Stand the bottles
bottom up in old tin cans, each
can containing the same amount
EXxrrRment SHowina Ansorp- Of water. Cover the open ends of
TION oF Water By Sous. — the bottles with a piece of rubber
sheeting to prevent evaporation.
After two or three days weigh each bottle to see which soil has
gained the largest amount of water.
Empty the remaining water from the cans, replace the bot-
WATER IN THE SOIL 25
tles, and uncover the ends to allow the water to evaporate from
the soil. Note which kind of soil loses water rapidly.
18. How the Soil May Be Made to Hold More Moisture.
—Let us see what the farmer can do to make the soil
hold more moisture. You will remember that water in
the soil finds its place in the minute spaces between the
particles of soil (Sec. 6); and you have learned that by
capillary attraction the water creeps up along the sur-
faces of these particles of soil (Sec. 14). By breaking
up the soil into finer pieces the farmer may increase the
total surface and also the total space for the water to fill.
This will be clear if you think of cutting a cube of
cheese into pieces. If the cube is one inch square, its
surface contains six square inches. By three cuts with
a knife the inch cube can
be made into eight half-
inch cubes. The surface
of these eight cubes to-
gether is twice that of the
inch cube. The inch cube
y X EXPERIMENT SHOWING INCREASE OF
offered no space into which CEG RO PS eek SEr
a liquid could be poured,
but the eight smaller cubes thrown together offer many
little cracks and crevices. ‘This illustrates why the
farmer should make his soil fine by tilling, the meth-
ods of which we shall study in the next chapter.
The soil is made more porous and able to hold more
moisture, without becoming cold or soggy, by adding
humus (Sec. 7) to it. Barnyard manure or plowed-
under crops, of which we shall learn in Sections 35 and
26 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
36, increase the humus in the soil. Humus can hold
more than seven times as much water as the same
amount of sand (reckoned by weight) can hold. A little
humus mixed with soil increases the ability of the soil
to hold water to a degree equal to nearly twice the
weight of the humus.
Get three examples of garden soil, one from a depth of six
inches, one from a depth of twelve inches, and one from a
depth of eighteen inches. Weigh as accurately as possible
eight ounces of each and thoroughly dry each sample in a warm
place. Weigh each dried sample. Divide the loss in weight by
the original weight, to find the percentage of water that each
contained.
19. The Benefits of Underdrainage.—The best way
to regulate the amount of moisture in the soil is by
drainage. Farmers have various methods of draining
land, that is, of carrying off the superfluous water that
falls or seeps into the ground. From ‘what you have
just read (See. 17) about the effect of too much water in
the soil, you will understand some of the benefits of
drainage. If the water is carried off, there is more
room for air in the soil. The roots will grow deeper.
The soil will be warmer. Excess soluble substances in
the soil, which may be injurious to crop growth, will be
removed and the soil will really provide more available
moisture during the season.
The fact that in drained land the roots can go deeper
is beneficial in several ways. These roots will feed in
the deeper soil and will take less water from the surface.
So long as the water is not drawn from the surface layer
of soil, the moisture below will not rise by the force of
WATER IN THE SOIL 27
eapillarity (Sec. 14). It will be stored up until needed.
Later in the season when a dry time comes, this store of
water will rise toward the surface as the moisture there
evaporates. Thus you see that drainage improves the
condition of the soil in such a way as to increase its
capacity to hold available water without the evils that
attend the presence of superfluous water.
Deep-growing roots also open up places for the air
to penetrate farther into the soil. As underground
water is drained off, clay in the soil shrinks and cracks,
and these cracks offer another means by which air gets
into the soil. It is important to provide drainage for
a clayey soil; for a sandy soil this generally is not
necessary. |
When land is drained, the water from rains can sink
into the ground. Otherwise the rains may wash away
the surface soil and i injure plants.
20. Methods of Drainage.—The best method of
underdrainage is by trenches, with hollow tiles at the
, pe
Law) o ce |
rn su i ith
eS Sree SSS
= 5 wv vi cen ha nv 7 ii
seen aye
i( ne
mati vi
i Sia
Mili hfe 7
ih
= “SS
A Tite Drain.
bottom. The trench is dug two and one half feet to
four feet deep. The tiles are one foot long or more and
two to eight inches in diameter. They are placed end
28 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
to end, without cementing, on a gradual grade, and the
trench is filled with earth. The water from the soil gets
into the tiles through the small spaces where the ends
join and flows through the pipe of hollow tiling. The
rows of tiles are placed through the field at distances
apart varying from thirty to one hundred feet. Some-
times stones are used instead of tiles. They are laid in
the ditch so as to form a channel for the water.
Farmers sometimes drain their land by open ditches,
but it is hard to work a field cut up in this way. When
such ditches must be had, it is best, if possible, to make
them so broad and gently sloping as to permit their
being kept in grass and readily mowed with a machine.
Sometimes the ditches are filled with stones or brush,
and it is then more difficult to keep the weeds down.
Such an arrangement is much less satisfactory than tile
drains, which are less expensive to keep up, are more
permanent, more effective, leave no obstructions on the
surface, and waste no land.
SUMMARY
Water exists in the soil as free water and film water.—Water
moves through the porous soil by the force of capillarity.—Dif-
ferent crops use 300 to 500 pounds of water to produce one
pound of dry matter.—The water serves the plant as food, to
carry food, and to render the plant stiff and rigid.—Too little
water robs the plant of its food and allows it to wither.—Too
much water in the soil injures the plant by keeping air out of
the soil, by preventing the roots from penetrating the soil, and
by making the soil cold.
The moisture-holding capacity of the soil may be increased _
by tilling, by adding humus, and by drainage.—Underdrainage
WATER IN THE SOIL 29
allows the plant to root deeply, opens up the soil for the ad-
mission of air, deepens the feeding ground of the plant,
increases the capacity of the soil to hold water, and lessens
washing by rains. Draining by tiles is the best method of
underdrainage.
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
1. What kind of soil allows the free water to pass through
most readily?
2. Give illustrations of capillarity, or capillary attraction.
3. Which would be better, to water a lawn or garden a little
and do it often, or give it a thorough soaking once in a while?
Why?
4. Would you pick lettuce early in the morning or in the
middle of the forenoon? Why? (Sec. 16.)
5. Can every piece of land be drained? What conditions
are necessary in order that it may be drained?
6. It is said that wheat uses 453 pounds of water to produce
one pound of dry matter. At 30 bushels to the acre (60 pounds
per bushel), how many tons of water per acre would be required?
7- One inch of water over an acre weighs nearly 100 tons.
Can you find what is the weight of the annual rainfall in your
vicinity? How many inches would be necessary for the number
of tons found in Question 6? The wheat straw will weigh one
and one half times as much as the grain. How much water will
it require?
8. Why will a crop on well-drained land have more time to
mature than on undrained land?
9. If a cube an inch on each side is divided into cubes one
eighth of an inch on each side, how many cubes will there be?
10. How many times as much surface will the little cubes
have?
CHAPTER IV
TILLING THE SOIL
21. Tillage.—Tilling the soil is one of the means by
which farmers improve their land. Plowing partly in-
verts the soil and grinds the particles together. Culti-
vation stirs and loosens the surface soil and thereby
makes it finer. These operations change the texture of
the soil, as we say.
When an entire field is tilled, the operation is called
general tillage. This is done usually to prepare the soil
for the planting of seeds or to mix with the soil manure
that has been spread over the surface.
Sometimes after the plants have come up the soil is
tilled between the rows of plants. This is called inier-
tillage.
In its larger sense the word cultivation means the
same as tillage. More narrowly, it means the use of
the cultivator to stir the surface soil.
22. Objects of Tillage.—Briefly, the object of tillage
is to put the soil in such a physical condition that it
makes an ideal home for plant roots. There are many
reasons why plants need a loose, fine soil. If the soil is
in lumps, the tiny roots cannot enter it easily, and it
will neither support the plant nor give it food. Tillage
30
PLOWING WITH A FouR-HORSE TEAM ON A RANCH IN OKLAHOMA.
SreAM PLow AND SEEDER AT WoRK ON A RANCH IN CALIFORNIA.
ol
32 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
gives depth of soil so that there is ample living room, a
large feeding area, an abundant storage for moisture, and
available plant food. A lumpy soil and a hard crust
covering the surface will keep out the air, which is neces-
sary to soil activities. We learned in the last chapter
(Sec. 18) that a fine soil gives more room for water
among the particles of earth. In a fine soil this moisture
can circulate better and tillage is a great help to certain
very important soil organisms that make plant food
available, which we have not spoken about yet.
23. Preparation of the Seed Bed.—Seeds especially
require a good soil for their growth, and tillage helps to
prepare the proper seed bed. In the spring the soil is
turned over so that the sun may warm it and is har-
rowed down into a fine smooth bed. The soil must be
fine and loose, so that when the seed sprouts its delicate
stems and rootlets may easily get through the soil and
close to the soil particles. In some cases it is desirable
to till the ground just before the young shoots come up, »
so as to break the crust for them.
24. Regulation of Moisture.—Tillage helps to regulate
the amount and movement of moisture in the soil. When
a few inches of the surface soil have been loosened, the
rain water will sink in instead of washing off the land
and being wasted.
This loose soil on top makes what is called a sur-
face mulch. In loose earth the particles of soil are more
separated, so that there is more space between them,
Water does not readily pass through dry, loose soil by
ceapillarity, for, in the loose soil, the capillary pores are
broken up. So this surface mulch prevents the ground
TILLING THE SOIL 33
from drying out by making it impossible for the deeper-
lying moisture to reach the surface.
When possible, the land should be tilled after each
rain to keep the soil loose. By repeating this so that
two or three inches of soil on top are always loose and
dry, the farmer can keep most crops alive even in the
driest weather. Tillage, then, accomplishes two im-
portant things: it carries rain water to the roots, and it
prevents moisture stored deep in the soil from coming
to the surface and evaporating.
25. Other Uses.—Soil is often tilled to cover barn-
yard manure and green manures, that is, green crops
intended to be mixed with the soil to form humus.
These are all plowed under so that they may decay and
enrich the soil. They provide valuable food for the
plant and in many ways improve the physical condition
of the soil.
Still another use of tillage, and one that farmers
count of much importance, is the destruction of weeds.
The plow, or cultivator, uprooting them, hinders their
growth. The best time to kill weeds is just as they
come up, and before they are large enough to do any
damage.
26. A Risk in Tilling.—In tilling between the rows
of growing crops, great care must be used not to disturb
the roots. Corn and some other plants send their roots
out between the rows and near the surface of the ground.
While tillage is very beneficial to the corn crop, which
needs plenty of moisture, the farmer must watch that the
cultivator does not go deep enough to break the fine
roots.
34 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
27. Importance of Good Tillage.—It is evident that
one of the most important things for the farmer to con-
sider is the tillage of his soil. Even though there may
be plenty of plant food in the soil and plenty of water
and sunshine, all these will not produce a good crop
unless the texture of the soil is right. This is obtained
chiefly by good tillage. Moreover, a lack of the proper
amount of plant food, water, and air may be largely
remedied by tillage.
1. Raise plants in two boxes of soil; let the soil in one box
be undisturbed and keep the other thoroughly tilled. See
whether one plant thrives better than the other.
2. Raise a plant in a porous flowerpot and another in a tin
ean. Otherwise treat them just alike and note whether one
thrives better than the other.
In 1731 Jethro Tull, in England, discovered the value
of tilling the soil. He learned that he could get better
crops by thorough tillage. Knowing that the plants got
more food in this way, he thought that plants took in
fine particles of soil as food. He wrote a book to show
the value of tilling the soil for this purpose, and though
his reasons were wrong he did much good by showing
farmers everywhere the value of tillage.
28. Tillage Implements—The Plow.—The most im-
portant tools used in tillage are the plow, harrow,
planker, roller, rake, and hoe.
The plow is the most important tool. Its work lays
the foundation for the use of the other tillage tools. It
consists of a standard to which the other parts are at-
tached, the beam, by which it is drawn; the share, which
cuts the furrow slice at the bottom; the mold board,
TILLING THE SOIL 39
which turns and pulverizes the furrow slice; the land-
side, and the handles, by which the plow is held. Be-
sides these chief parts
are the clevis, by which
the plow is attached
to the doubletree, and
the coulter, which is
sometimes used to cut
the furrow slice.
§ ‘as ‘ w
lj
.
ue i
;
ie. :
¢ ho \
- ay hy i Ph
4 Tey, ’
7 Ee ®
OA et as 7”
A Par ae “Se if o>.
APPENDIX
INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES
BorpEAux Mixture FoR BuLicHTs
The following directions for making Bordeaux mixture
should be strictly followed. to obtain the best results: Dissolve
four pounds of copper sulphate (bluestone, blue vitriol) in
twenty-five gallons of water, suspending it in a coarse gunny
sack near the surface of the water. In a. wooden pail slack
six pounds of fresh quicklime in sufficient water, then add
enough water to make twenty-five gallons and then slowly
pour the two solutions simultaneously into the barrel from which
it is to be used. If a larger tank is used, proportionately larger
quantities of materials should be taken. Before pouring the
lime solution, it should be strained through a coarse gunny
sack, otherwise particles of rock and undissolved lime will get
into the mixture and clog the nozzles in spraying. It is very
important that the two ingredients be mixed as described, other-
wise the proper combination of copper sulphate and lime does
not take place.
The mixture should never be made more than a few hours in
advance of application. It cannot be kept over; and if any is
left in the spraying machine after the day’s work is done, it
should be emptied.
243
244 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
How to TreAT SEED Oats TO PREVENT Smut!
Formaldehyde Solution
If the desire is to sow forty bushels of seed oats or less, se-
cure from your druggist one pint of formaldehyde. Put into a
barrel or tank thirty-six gallons of water and pour in the pint of
formaldehyde liquid and stir thoroughly; next fill a gunny sack
with the seed oats and submerge it in the solution for ten min-
utes; then lift the sack from the barrel and allow it to drain for
a minute or two in order to save the solution. Empty the oats
on a thrashing floor or on some outside platform to dry, and
repeat until all is treated; shovel the treated grain over at in-
tervals until dry or nearly dry before sowing.
If a large quantity of seed is to be treated the work will
be facilitated by having several barrels or a large tank which
will hold a number of sacks of oats, so as to treat several
bushels every ten minutes. The time saved by having an
abundant supply of the solution in the tank or barrels will
more than repay the extra expense of the formaldehyde pur-
chased. The oats must always be completely submerged for ten
minutes.
It is well to treat seed grain several days before sowing
in order to give it ample time to dry, or difficulty may
be experienced when sowing with seeder or drill. If sown
while damp the seeder or drill should be set so that it will
sow about one bushel more per acre than when sowing dry
oats.
The formaldehyde solution here recommended is not poison-
ous to farm animals and will not injure sacks or clothing coming
in contact with it. Oats treated with formaldehyde solution
and not used for seed may be fed to stock, but when so fed should
be mixed with other oats.
The treatment of oats here recommended facilitates the
1 From “Oat Smut in Wisconsin,” Bulletin 98, Wisconsin Agri-
cultural Experiment Station.
APPENDIX 245
sprouting and gives the grain a healthy appearance, readily
distinguished by any observer. It is possible that the treat-
ment kills other disease germs of which we as yet have no
knowledge.
How to TrEAT ScaBsBy SEED PoTATOES
“Make the proper solution by pouring one pint of formalde-
hyde into twenty-five gallons of water. Distribute the liquid
into several casks and into these casks put the uncut seed po-
tatoes. The potatoes should be placed in gunny sacks and
completely covered by the liquid and left for two hours. If
the potatoes are very scabby leave for two and a half hours.
The potatoes should then be planted in ground that has not in
previous years grown scabby potatoes.”—Wisconsin Hxperi-
ment Station Bulletin.
KEROSENE EMULSION
Kerosene emulsion contains the following ingredients:
DIGHIN sts SONS eek eee ea cet es OUT
Washer ae Pey sek ees. te Pe gatewag as, toes oucange eh 1 gallon
IWerosene sete oe eras eee pe tee hee 2 gallons
The soap is cut into thin shavings and dissolved in hot soft
water, and this is then thoroughly mixed with the kerosene by
being pumped back on itself with a force pump. Small quan-
tities, as a quart or more, may be mixed with a “ Dover” egg-
beater. This emulsion is to be diluted fifteen to twenty times
its bulk in the growing season, but in winter it may be used
very strong for scale insects. If the emulsion sets it must be
heated before dilution. Any good hard soap may be used.
Paris GREEN
Paris green is used for all biting and chewing insects, the
mixture being in the proportion of one pound of Paris green to
150 gallons of water. Paris green is frequently added to Bor-
17
246 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
deaux mixture. In this way plant diseases are prevented, and
the ravages of insects are lessened by one spraying.
TABLES
TaBLE I.—Sort CONSTITUENTS CONTAINED IN AVERAGE
Crops PER ACRE
(From Tables of A. D. Hall, Director of Rothamsted Experiment
Station)
J
CROP sts . WaHeat BaRLEY | SweEepDES | MANGELS Hay
Tons: 2.2 Zs 30.1 30.1 1e5
Nitrogen zi: Lubes 5050 49.0 98.0 149.0 49.0
SOG ca tree Lbe.256 570 32.0 118.7 9.2
Potashy 20a Lb.: 28.8 35.7 79.7 300.7 50.9
Magnesia....... Dis geek 6.9 9.2 42.5 14.4
Phosphoric Acid.| Lb.: 21.1 20.7 21.7 52.9 12.3
Salphurse2.. += Eb) 47.8 6.1 17.8 14.0 5.7
Chlonne 5. oe ibis a2S 4.1 Sl 83.1 14.6
Sili¢as osc0. 5. . cel) dobss, 496.9 68.6 6.7 17.9 56.9
TaBLeE II.—Fertimity REMOVED BY DIFFERENT Crops !
Removes Per Acre, Lp.
ASSUMED |_
KIND oF Crop = bay eee,
ER ACRE : osphoric
Nitrogen mold Potash
Corn (grain and stalks) .. . 60 bu. 84 32 34
Wheat (grain and straw)... 30 bu. 62 20 26
Oats (grain and straw)... . 60 bu. 60 22 50
Glover hayics. fase 2m ae 2 tons 82 18 88
aimothy haven. cca. sce 2 tons 50 20 60
Tobacco (leaves only).....} 1,600 Ib. 70 8 91
Sugar Ee pores at 15 tons 42 8 65
Cabbages. . $e dr 15 tons 100 35 135
IPOS foe is sss ets ee oz. to L50iteet ob row.
Celery................-1 0z. plants 2,500 plants, and requires 40 sq. ft. of
ground.
@ucnmberis.- see aes oe 1 oz. for 150 hills.
Cress..............-..-1 0z. sows a bed 16 feet square.
ge Plantiaccsetste.s ca hy 1 oz. gives 2,000 plants.
LOGIN BAB Re eG moe ».1 oz. gives 3,000 plants, and requires 80 feet of ground.
GEKA ier i ie. eek 1 oz. gives 2,000 plants, and requires 60 feet of ground.
TEGEtMCE ass aut aise + cron 1 On ares 7,000 plants, and requires a seed bed of 120
eet.
IMG ON re eee 1 oz. for 120 hills.
INSShlintinicnceceaies ss. 1 oz. sows 25 feet of row.
COMMON eae cee ns ere 1 oz. sows 200 feet of row.
RO) erate. Cee coe ee sae 1 oz. sows 200 feet of row.
IRarsleve, ences eck 1 oz. sows 200 feet of row.
IBArSoIpBeer ccc e ete 1 oz. sows 250 feet of row.
IBEDPElS see ane cates 1 oz. gives 2,500 plants.
OAS oie veral slash ies areas 1 quart sows 120 feet of row.
Bampkine A.os—. cca oe 1 oz. to 150 hills.
RAGIN it a aera 1 oz. to 100 feet.
PSAASEEW 5) Sols Grenslewaveke Oise 1 oz. to 50 feet of row.
DPN ache ie ae ee cee 1 oz. to 200 feet of row.
SCUIASHSe Peta sion oo. aoe 1 oz. to 75 hills.
BUOMATOM este tajec sensersot 1 oz. gives 2.500 plants, requiring a seed bed of 80 feet.
DTM pS) Ss oe ores 1 oz. to 2,000 feet.
Watermelon........... 1 oz. to 50 hills.
QUANTITIES OF SEED REQUIRED TO THE ACRE
QUANTITY QUANTITY
NAME or SEED NAME OF SEED
Wihteate cies csevaiess 13 to 2 bu. Broom Corn...... 1 to 14 bu.
IBArIOVse ne. te 13 to 23 bu. Potatoes..... ..5 to 10 bu.
Onis, ..2to4 bu. Timothy Tie tte eased bores. ate
VGN eee Glaskict ere 1 to 2 bu Mustard=. -- aso 8 to 20 at.
Buckwheat.......... # to 14 bu. HerdiGrass; 30545. 12 to 16 at.
Miulletess cera cs eto s bus Hlat)/ DLirnipy t25% o2..2:toroub;
OM pear aice cea + to 1 bu Red Clovertc eres. 10 to 16 lb.
1312012 nt epee es ae 1 to 2 bu. White Clover.........3 to 4 lb.
Peas ; . -24 to 3} bu. Blue Grasss 20.) eens 10 to 15 |b.
eM es tthe 1 to 13 bu. Orchard Grass........ 20 to 30 Ib.
Flax 2.0% tOlZ bus Carrotaincce. on... ork eto ob:
Rice ..2 to 2h lb. IParsnipsitise sic OutOls Ibe
248 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
TaBLeE IV.—AmounT oF NUTRIENTS FOR A Day’s FEEDING
STANDARD
Wolff-Leh-
mann
Wolff-Leh-
mann
vr
“a
Wolff-Leh-
man n
“a
Wolff-Leh-
mann
Wolff-Leh-
mann
a
W olff-Leh-
mann
“
ANIMAL
Oxen
At rest in stall......
Fattening Cattle
First period: ....%. -
Second period......
Third period.......
Dairy Cows
Milch cows, produc-
ing 16 lb. of milk
Perdeq ye, es choke
Light work.........
Growing Cattle
Dairy breeds
(Age in months)
Zo
3-6
6-12
12-18
18-24
Beef breeds
2-3
3-6
6-12
12-18
18-24
Growing Sheep
Wool breeds
4-6
6-8
8-11
11-15
15-20
Mutton breeds
4-6
6-8
8-11
11-15
15-20
Live WEIGHT
lbs.
1000
1000
Torat Dry MATTER
NNR e
Nomen
WNmNNe
WORD
ooo
Rhonon
wonton
ooo
DIGESTIBLE
NUTRIENTS
=] 1 ©
B12 ~
2 ao rea
Ay OF
Ibs. lbs lbs.
O87 8.0 | 0.1
Pas 15:0) 0.5
| 3.0 L420, |e One
PEK 15.0 | 0.7
2.0 11.0 | 0.4
1b 9.0 4
2.0 11.5 | 0.6
wero TSS uROLS
0.60 1.95) 0.300
0.90 3.84) 0.300
1.00 6.25) 0.250)
1.26 | 8.75] 0.280)
1.35 | 10.80} 0.270
0.67 | 2.08] 0.320
1.16 | 4.22) 0.495!
1238 7.26) 0.385)
1.50 9.38) 0.375
1.71 | 11.40} 0.380
0.20 0.92) 0.042
0221 1.04 0.045
| 0.17 | 0.92) 0.040
| 0.16 1.01 0.036
0.15 1.08, 0.030
0.26 0.93, 0.054
0.28 1.20 0.056
| 0.30 1.43 0.050
0.26 1.51) 0.060
0.30 1.80, 0.060
1 See note on page 249,
Norritrve Ratio!
1:11.8
———s
et eee td RR Ree nd
eee
ee ee oe oe oe
Aoi
SIN Orr NOORS DNA aon
NNonnh ono
Nooro
OOo &
KwnNaoe
tomo
CrO100 on
APPENDIX
TABLE IV.—Continued
249
| 2 a
a DIGESTIBLE °
3 a NuTRIENTS a
ic) < <
a = = fon}
STANDARD ANIMAL S B = ,2 =
Q A oS Sas 2 2
> A Ss me s S
a3 < g 3u e a
& ay On D
° Jj
a Z
Growing Swine
Breeding stock lbs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs. Ibs
(Age in months)
Wolff-Leh-
mann 2-3 50 2.2 | 0.38 1.40) 0.050} 1: 4.0
¥ 3-90 100 seo |) OF 50 Zak} OL080)s 2275.0
a 5-6 120 3.8 | 0.44 2.56) 0.048} 1: 6.0
A 6-8 200 5.6 | 0.56 3.74) 0.060} 1: 7.0
a 8-12 250 6:3 | 0.53 3.83] 0.050} 1: 7.5
Growing fattening
Swine
Wolff-Leh-
mann 2-3 50 221° 0.388 1240) 05050), E3420
i 3-5 100 S50) |) 0250 2.31} 0.080) 1: 5.0
ox 5-6 150 5.0 | 0.65 3.00) O-090|. e5s5
- 6-8 200 6.0 } 0.72 4.10) 0.080} 1: 6.0
=! 9-12 200 GI) |) (lator) 3.66) 0.060) 1: 6.4
Bare
»ohy-
Human beings NG drates
and
Fats
Children, 6-15 yrs. 0.16 0.93 sea
Students 0.20 ical 1:°5.5
Professional Men 0.27 eo ba Say 6
Man with moderate
work 0.28 1.62 1558
Man with hard work 0.39 2.67 1: 6.9
1 The nutritive ratio is obtained by multiplying the number of pounds of fat
by 2}, adding the product to the number of pounds of carbohydrates, and divid-
ing this sum by the number of pounds of protein for the second term of the
ratio. The first term of the ratio is 1.
250 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
TABLE V.—Dry Matrer AND DIGESTIBLE Foop INGREDIENTS
IN 100 Pounps or FEEDING Sturrs '
ToTaL
FreEpDING STuFF yor, PRorern Baap ae Far i
Green fodder: Pounds | Pounds | Pounds Pounds | Calories
Corn fodder ? (average of
all varieties)......... 20.7 1.10 12.08 0.37 26,076
Kafir-corn fodder.......| 27.0 0.87 13.80 0.43 29,101
Rye fodder: +5... .scas 23.4 2.05 14.11 0.44 31,914
Oat fodder tes... + 2062s 37.8 2.44 17.99 0.97 42,093
Redtop, in bloom....... 34.7 2.06 21.24 0.58 45,785
Orchard grass, in bloom.} 27.0 1.91 15.91 0.58 35,593
Meadow fescue,in bloom.| 30.1 1.49 16.78 0.42 35,755
Timothy,? at different
BUGREStAt eres ts oes 38.4 2.01 21222 0.64 45,909
Kentucky blue grass....| 34.9 2.66 17.78 0.69 40,930
Hungarian grass........ 28.9 1.92 15.63 0.36 34,162
Red clover, at different
StALCSsccrantas ereae ae 29.2 3.07 14.82 0.69 36,187
Crimson clover......... 19.3 2.16 9.31 0.44 23,191
Alfalfa,4 at different
Stagess.6 ter eee 2802 3.89 11.20 0.41 29,798
Gowpeas viiek cg fees anes 16.4 1.68 8.08 0.25 19,209
Soy, Deane senses week 28.5 2.79 11.82 0.63 29,833
Rape. oakaic:csistas se ee 14.3 2.16 8.65 0.32 21,457
Corn silage(recent pene) 25.6 PAL 14.56 0.88 33,046
Corn fodder,? field cured. . 57es 2.34 32 534 1.15 69,358
Corn stover, field cured.. 59.5 1.98 33.16 0.67 67,766
Kafir-corn stover, field
clired. 2428 .% acme ces 80.8 1.82 41.42 0.98 84,562
Hay from
Barley....ce. seeemetee 89.4 5.10 35.94 1.o5 82,894
OMte os tesa a cebertote 84.0 4.07 30.00 1.67 76,649
Orchard grass: 2.0. a. sae 90.1 4.78 41.99 1.40 92,900
Redtop. . ia! 4.82 46.83 0.95 100,078
Timothy 3 (all ‘analyses).. 86.8 2.89 43.72 1.43 92,729
Kentucky blue grass....| 78.8 4.76 37 .46 1.99 86,927
Hungarian grass........| 92.3 4.50 51.67 1.34 110,131
Meadow fescue......... 81.0 4.20 43.34 is 95,725
Mixed grasses.......... Sire 4.22 43.26 1.33 93,925
Rowen (mixed). . 83.4 7.19 41.20 1.43 96,040
Mixed grasses and clover| 87.1 6.16 42.71 1.46 97,059
Red clovers: acces sce 84.7 7.38 38.15 1.81 92,324
Alsike clover........... 90.3 8.15 41.70 1.36 98,460
Wihite clovers cess... < 90.3 11.46 41.82 1.48 105,346
Crimson clover......... 91.4 10.49 38.13 12 95,877
Alfalia 2 2. cope cieisde 91.6 10.58 37.33 1.38 94,936
COWDEN. a6 escine aa wae 89.3 10.79 38.40 1.51 97,865
SOVADEAING oo s.5 eset wee ere 88.7 10.78 38.72 1.54 98,569
Wheatstraw: <0 ac-> ao) SOle 0.37 36.30 0.40 69,894
Ryestraw 92.9 0.63 40.58 0.38 78,254
Oat straw 90.8 1230) 38564 0.76 77,310
Soy-bean straw 89.9 2.30! 39.98 1.03 82,987
1 From Farmers’ Bulletin No. 22 [Revised Edition].
2 Corn fodder is entire plant, usually sown thick.
3 Herd’s grass of New England and New York,
4 Lucern,
APPENDIX 251
TABLE V.—Continued
TOTAL
FrEDING STUFF aa PROTEIN Canoes, Fat “8 Pet
Rootsandttubers: Pounds | Pounds | Pounds Pounds | Calories
PROT bOCSerercrate ctece cv edonase: os: 2a 1.36 16.43 eit 33,089
Beets. . thane 13.0 120 8.84 0.05 18,904
Mangel- wurzels. . ae hs 9.1 1.03 5.65 0.11 12,889
MOTHS cheat oa oka 9.5 0.81 6.46 Ont 13,986
UGA -pAg asec ls Score us 11.4 0.88 7.74 0.11 16,497
WATEOUS tas ous on token ees 11.4 0.81 7.83 0.22 16,999
Grains and other seeds:
Corn (average of dent
ciate lMalteh pin dere eee clone 81.1 7.14 66.12 4.97 157,237
air SCOLM.... oe nn nthe el 87.5 5.78 53.58 133 116,022
Barley . seele ap aaeetadee 89.1 8.69 64.83 1.60 143,499
Oatst em oo sect Se eee 89.0 9.25 48 .34 4.18 124,757
IRN One UE D AOE OOe 88.4 OF 12, 69.73 1.36 152,400
Wheat (all varieties)... . 89.5 10.23 69.21 1.68 154,848
Cotton seed (whole)..... 89.7 11.08 Sole 18.44 160,047
Mill products:
Corn meals ssa oe 85.0 6.26 65.26 3.50 147,797
Corn-and-cob meal 84.9 4.76 60.06 2.94 132,972
Oatmeal. . EH Cae 92.1 ia} 52.06 5.93 143,302
Barley meal. . 88.1 4.30 62.88 1.96 138,918
Ground corn and ‘oats,
CQUAINANLS: 2- celts as 88.1 7.01 61.20 3.87 143,202
Peasmenlan.. 52 seen ce 89.5 16.77 51.78 0.65 130,246
Waste products:
Gluten meal:
Buralote tacts e212); 91.8 21756 43 .02 11.87 170,210
Chicago. . aasanaarel | MOORS 33.09 39.96 4.75 155,918
Hammond. a Ara ee 91.9 24.90 45.72 10.16 174,228
Ranges ie ect 92.8 30.10 35.10 15.67 187,399
Grane gluten (recent
Bnalyses))<2..). sce 90.4 30.45 45.36 2.47 151,420
Gluten feed (recent
analyses)! <:./5.'|(2-38| .18) 5.87/2.34/1.76] .05/3.58| .92| 11,855
Carriage horse....... 1,050 eo ig reese \>.06| .76/10.42/3.87|1.40] .40/6.97|1.44 19.935
PAST CT AIEGR vase Wc aes clare kelp ee ee Re eg. (2,99 -47| 8.15)3.10}1.58) .22/5.27/1.18] 15,895
Fire company horses:
Ground grain,
Boston, Mass...... 1,400 9.38. 1.65} .68) 9.57|4.57| .87] .41/6.14/1.73] 18,000
El siye SUS eee
Chicago, Ill.....:.. 1,350 Poe e y i .00) .43) 6.77/3.50] .42] .24/3.70]1.45] 11,365
Average of 6, in- hi aa
ChudingyaAbovere | te als es ee ot «.| 1.35) .56 7 .95)3.20 .78 _.35 4.99]1 .26 (14,555
General average
for light work...)... wes[e eee eceeeeeee 1.57 -54| 8.00/3.18| .99 -32/5.06)1 .24| 14,890
Horses with Moderate
ork ©
Iixpress horses: .
Corn, 4.67...
Rich ay bed ee
ichmond, Va., ran, 0.83... = ” . ~ 9
Be NaH 1,400) Bran 83 ---/\1.79] .78)11.78/3.64] .97] .45)8.19]1.46) 21,650
4.16.
ELA 12 6-4
COIN icc. \
Jersey City, N. J... 1,325) Bars 49s*-+-])2.45/1.03/13.45/3.57/1.66, 67)/9.37|1.32/ 25,800
inv 22 rater aire
ON selene ete
Boston, Mass......| 1,325 (Oats Oreos. ok ia 1.04/14.96/5.32|1.28) .60.9.75/2.12, 27,000
i ; Hay. 4 EW
verage of 4, in- [| J | |_| |]
CLM AONE: |: ett ool tenn scree. 2.15) .93/13.27/4.13]1.26) .55)/9.06/1 a 24,550
1 Nitrogen-free extract consists of the carbohydrates minus the crude fiber, i.e. sugar, starch, and gum,
253
modified from Bulletin 81.)
AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
Fats X 2.25) In VARYING WEIGHTS OF FopDERS AND FEEDs.
INGREDIENTS (PROTEIN AND CARBOHYDRATES, INCLUDING
54
(Used by courtesy of Professor J. L, Hills, of the Vermont Experiment Station,
TasBLeE VII.—Pounpbs or Tota Dry MATTER AND DIGESTIBLE
~
.
‘0790 ‘say Bip
-Ayoqiy
ule}O1g
19}4 BY
Aig [210.L,
“oJa ‘seyeBip
-AYyOqiey
ula}O1 gq
19}, BY
Aig, [®39,.L
‘ojo ‘sayBip
-Ayoqiey
ula}01g
Jaz BV
Aiq [8191
‘oja ‘seyeip |
-AYOoqiey
ule}O1g
I2}}BI
Arq [810], |
Pounps OF
FoppER
Grass, 1:9.2
1:14.6
1:14.3
Pasture Grass, Timothy Grass, Red Top Grass,| Kentucky Blue
11:4.8
1D DW Pe er tO HOD
SCOMNM HINO
ri=)
2OoOooocSseocosS
SCmNMHINOMmO
ieee Se
oooooooSeo
AOHASOKRINAS
COnMMOrnondt
pelo!
DOPAOOrNO
CmRNMHMHOON
DISMODHIAON
SOMNN OD OD HD
sosssossso
OSMmNnartHa
Snmmowcaicn
een!
sH 019 09 © 19 09 ©
SOMA OD HID
sosssosso
CONHMHrOINGH
Pt OD LD Dh a OD LD
|
MORI~NDM OH
COMMON OO HH
ONMDIDO Orin
SAND AWINOWOO
cooeososoosoo
mnOoSoSooCoSooO
Grasses
Ss COPS Het re Het OO oH
=> OF°E-2.6: 230) Ree oe
215 SCORN N CD HID
SH ONHODON HO
Q -SAHNMTORDD
ES Sosccsdcs
MM tee~teot
+ COMNNM HHO
72 MONWHOOND
COMMA OD sH st
o*
coal
Soni
ie NA
2 5 WOR RAIA CO OD =H
o
SCAN MHINCrO
& COOMAONAGION
SM Soden ts
Sx MOA NDMO +H
Se COOMANNM OD tH
8S COSSOSOSS59
2 5 MOR AANANOD
BO connnmdmorw
TAN AOAHHO
SOMNN OM Hid
MMA MAtoo
Ce ee SO rae
SAAS SRaS
ecooococoer
1D aD 09 HDD
Oats and
Peas, 1:4.
MONOSHOOND
Ss COM AN MOO Ht Ht
er
2
SIRIBEESS
Soscsssonn
Dein NOI DO
Ey wr ei Estee Tie ec
SANMINOMOS
Rowen, 1:4
Green Clov
SCOMmNMHIDOO
1:8.7
- COMIN HINO O
mwooooeocoso
MITA DOA -
wMOANVIOasN.
-OMANMIONOMOOS ;
my T1809 SMINS
Se OOM Nene wiles
G4 gaoaaaess
2 _ SANDTON OMD
88 socossssso
5 ON MIN AHON Ht
ics CMAN HINO
NOMAAANNOOD |
Tete reer re ee
og CNM HINO
32
On SNHOHONHO
2 SHAM HONDO
88 scssoosss5
big CONCH HIS |
-OnmNTOMDOe
AS it Poi eas nae oe ie
i
my § Coooooons
et ee a
QT LHATOOEAS
o
————
AMAADOMO~NS -
WA SOSH ANAC
3”
SO SCSonR RAMS
"Sc ANHODONH
oyococoOnnraAT
GS WOBAAWDDON
Cn N OHNO
Es
as)
a
ag
mO ne
Ok NWMOWMONWONS
ag MAN OD 0) tH
So
iD
Or
1)
&y DOWr~OIMNMAS
R OnMMIr Oroi
Soe ie oe!
Green
Fodders
255
APPENDIX
TABLE VII.—Continued
C95 09 O26 OY O19 st
AEA ON, 9 ie cote se saben
-Ayoqiey COnANO ON H10
SNS Rte tonto
ujeiorg. “| Sey Sano eaS
Seu Sesscsessoon
5 N
19} B]Y Pe TTT Sadeles
Aiq [®1OL SANTO OOM
“39 ‘sayBIp BIOWOMSWS
-Ayoqieg 5 COTA COCO tH
ae NADOANIOTH
Rog | AIS Seaonm AN
FAY SeesooooS
19738] S NOAARNHOE
Aq [8391 © OmN OO HIN OD
‘Ojo HOVBID | erage ee
-AYOqIeD Sm, to Ealeigaeeh sie)
sso —
3S. DWORWOSK ANG
TISFONT |) ae See eee
£ 8h oogooooooo
———__§_§|_§|_o— ——
1038 So SEAN SS
Aig [®10.L Sm N OD Hid r~00
toga ‘seyeip | sa hel ro
-AYOqley Span SOMNH HINO t
i. DONDATOOAH
Omioiy Ny) see ere eos
FE Seooooooe
Toye se ROO AMOAAID
Aig [®}0L SCHANMNOrRAS
fy
ne 3
a nan
BA a mMMoNOMONS
HO | ANN 0D 00 SH
5 wn
om
a
OD © HO HO HO
COnRANANOD OD
MINSMOWSHO
5 COnmmNN OD
4“ oosocosceceso
Carrots,
1:9.6
Sugar Beets,
1:6.8
Potatoes,
i (ass
Roots
MI AOMNAHOO
SonnnantsH
OID I IS OD OH
SOnANN MH OOH
HOOSOHNOWOH
5 OCOmAN MA Hiao
4 Sooscesssse
NrtOnataRH
SCOMAN OD Ht HD
1D > sH 00 619 Es YO
SOSnHANM ED
Te HHOMONDS
SOnNN YM Ht
4“ oooooscocse
MONO DIDOO
SOnnNAN OHH
ASHOOMAOM~MAAN
SCOMN MOO HIN
AW QAaHoor~no
SOOM ANN MOD
oesoosssssco
IDA AAD OOH
a? Ker WEIN O nies ne ret ate
Skimmed Milk
12-0
MOOANOOR H
COCO R ReABANN
RNAHOHEANOS
COnNtSe DOOR
Sddcddcnn
A219 Oo tH Co HOON
COCR RNNM OD
Turnips;
Ur hers
Ruta-bagas,
1:8.6
ATONM AMY
COCnmRAANNS
MINOWOWSWS
SSRRANM OOH
ooocooeceso
AMOHAAHH OO
SCM ANNO OD
NATAOOMmMAOSH
COORMANN MOD
11D O19 O19 O10 9
5 COmAANN MO tH
4“ ocooooscosocs
Cid OM OtOwo
SOnrNN OD tH oH
Mangel
sae 1:4.9
Roots and
Milk
OID Mr HON
COSOnrinnA
HOARADMOT
SSmaAARSS
esoossssa
AHO HOO OD I~ NO
Whey,
1:8.7
Buttermilk,
ila NS r¢
Milk
Pr es We ic teas
on wise [he uy leae sinew ©
CNC il Vial pio ml awe aL LL
S) ehh teace eae he
s Venda loan ae es as
@ Ys ye, Ve SS (6) 10 fe) ©
Cid aa) 6) Shah, 0) od ae
COCOA NAN
NOHO DAD Oe
, COSSMAAAN
; cooooocoso
NAMOAANIOM ALD
COCO RAANN
NAMOOMOANO
COCOA ARANANN
SODROMTNHA
8 ODL IS ODL
, Cooooonrn
ANowowonwo
ae Te 20 6 ay eae ore
SCOMANAN OO Ht
al
WOwmowse
’
v
"0990 ‘so]Bip
-AYoqieg
ulajo1g
19}, BY
Aiq, [B10],
1:10.6
Kentucky Blue
Grass Hay,
SOSOSAAAAAR
B= eels 8 eh om te kal
PON OD OD SHLD COI OD
BO Di~O O19 =H 09
Sm TID OM
ocoocoececoo
Or-ONNROOW
ODDO HOD HOO
Ceieeniioesioel
TABLE VII.——Continued
56 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTUI
Fi
~
*0J9 ‘sayeip
-Ayoqieg
ulajo1g
etait
Aid T30L
Hay,
1:10.3
Red Top
AHOAN HOC
TANG SIERO ROO GN
AADDHONHSO
ANMHORLOAN
cooocecoorn
MOD a HAOONBD
NAMOMAMOON
Seno |
“O30 ‘soqBip
-Ayoqiey
ulojo1g
19}4BV
Aly [BO],
‘038 ‘sajeap |
-Ayoqueg
u1ajO1 J
1977 BI
Aq IS30L |
PouNDS OF
FoppER
Timothy
AMIN OWASHNO
PIANO TID OOO 4
re
> FAH DOADOO
SmNA OD tH hid ht
- Oooooeocecoe
AWDNASCASE
NATOWMDOMMY AS
See ae hee A |
rt ON OD Has cr COO
TACO 1 Ob OO et
7 PNM HOOR DO
PAN OD SHLD Or Or
BAHN OSOROON
Seen
114.3
Corn Fodder,
Hay Aljalfa Hay,
1:4.7 1:3.8
Rowen
(fine),
Rowen Hay
eo P30
Hays and
Dry Fodder
AWDMmOMHNAH HD
CMAN Hid Or
OMOWMWNANOAHSOD
SmAN 0909 HIN
ococooocosco
HOMANM~ HOW
FN HO OOr st
cee
SAANM HTS
TAINED MILO SO B= 00
Minconinenow
AIQDAMOAAM~
SOosssAnNnA
MOANIN~OMG
AMOOGMMOON
eT |
MOON OMmMOOm sh
T AIM HIN ODO
=
HOMRAOOHH
NT QO OH
ooo onrrrrnnN
AMON AONHE
AMODOMM yet
ae OI
MOTI OMmOAN
soaoosdas
NHODONAHOS
Soconseun
MNO TINO
AMODONANOS
S|
Hungarian,
1:10.0
Oat Hay, Oat and Pea
1:23.6 1:9.9 es 1:4.9
Corn Stover,
Dry Fodders
and Hays
AMOANAHOOM
TIN CO SE OPS Oey
AW ANAHOWND
ANMOHOMDAN
ococsosson
AAO HHINORG
AAPMODONMWOS
eT
NOMDODRAANO
TAC OO HID 00 Cries
DOMNSOWOMS
AMO HOOND
SOO ANNA
AHO AM
NAHOnRIONA
ion hon hen ien |
SCOSCOonRaAN
TAIN 069 HID CO I~ OOO
(fh ehashenienl > i h> or)
FNC HID Om OO
ecooocecor
MOD Hr-OND
NAMOMMAMOWON
eet RO)
Dr~MmMrowoo
SmNMAHININCAwO
HRA HHA HI
SOs ANNAOD
Mm MAHOMAOAID
ee
im ae
BiaioniMnow
SSS MOAN
Barley Straw,
1:61.0
Alsike Clover | Clover Rowen
Hay, 1:4.9
Res 1:5.5
Red Clover
Hay, 1:5.9
Hays and
Straw
Oe
ret rt NOD 09 SHLD ILD
TIPO SUID Os O
NTO AQaat oO
SCOoooOonannr
ecooooececo
MOO HOMmMAONID
AANOCDONM Ys
eee HON
CmANA OD OD 00 19
MINE SHINO OS
0D HO OOOO
ATMODOANTY
Sooo ARAN
MOANINDOCOD
AMOAAMOON
rte
NAMIDODRAANO
FLU CON C00 O) emt
ANM TINO DO
AHSHOAHOR
Sooo sAnN
MINDOMINDAO
AMOAAMIOON
aa Ol
Oran A109 o2 09 1D
TACOS SHO CO I~ 00
SOD es Oo = ONO
MOI DONNY
SoooonnaH
ANION DON
eT
APPENDIX
257
TABLE VII.—Continued
FOMEMSeWnyaL|P 4 ay | RAR Ugo eS EDO ODO 19 FANON OWKND AMMmOON MOO
-Ayoqieg petiole GIOLG S ee SOORRAM HS ag SSOORANN OH Zi SCOSMNAIORS
ea cen Poon ere oe 4 s
TE AO Bo AtnOM ROO Sw tate ton cE Axvanosznns
U8) Ci (oyifs pes) Oia ema homeo! DRC §7 Soonamair A'S 65 SOAANTHrat PE! SOSKAMHSD
POOL, Ol Gee alte ever eon Daa ORAL uber Rene < (WC! Taenle Rue sake ee Sits: Simran es
Sarna Sq CcoocoooooS Oka SOSOSSSORnM BS COOSSOSSSS
TOU ete |) ee ee eee ee c AtOnonsion : NIN AGM ODO 3 AHO O19 HOO
Foe eS ETN teal | Olean tc Recetas tae re jo Leelee co aiget whit ait Oo bg 5 ee Mila invntay cinta erage i a EY yeaa eerie aa a
ATU TBIOT |) yee ts okks) ae Oe TS Scot ticn x SSOOHNMHOD SOOHNMHOD
‘990 ‘s9}vIp pie eS Peer Sema eh aNd = Sper leet i
-Ayoqieg FS ANNMHONWS SOOHRANN TO & COCHRAN CNIO “COSHANMING
8 :
ee ee Boos eee 4 ee ae AS me
© NOM SORA SN CURDODNMOOA O BAAN SoS AYOnoosor
ulajO1g Bo SSSSSSHHA B65 SSSANMHOGD Tis SSANGHINdOS Le SOSHNAM TOA
ex SSsssssss 65 Sccdddcso ska COoocooooer gn eessssoscs
2 DT MOOMOAMDON NATOOM~OOKR aD 5 NDAOOMOAN ATODr~OWKRA
10}, BI] PSs, cus Teaetcagarreresn sare aaj 3 Moke Ree eee S| OEMs itera si, | ab Shar ea auras epee
AI [840], CU sHIS o r 2900 0008 SOOHNM H5.00 ° SOSHNAMHOR SOOHNM HOM
bce oe oe |
"09a ‘saywip |. ~SSOHRCSMI 5 AORASRAGK AQWATANOL OATS
-Ayoqieg S SHNMTHOONG Sen SOCAN MINS an SCOCOnMANO H 2 SOC ANNTHH
ee! SS ——————— Ra ———.-- = = Ss ——
A BAMHI OR DO TS BAB OPAHOO 3. PNMNDOOMSS + Quonnroan
ulajo1g Re SSSSSSSSS an SSonnmaces BH SSSSSAAAN RS SOSMAMTSS
ae Peg Chi elle an Sree aies orrer ce erate ets Fah! SEMELTS Boe ase reba Le SASHES Pe ae oe Nomar ory tse, sta
3e oeoooooesss by Goosoosooso wi =~ OSSSS00009 ou coescosooooo
Tae 2 MIDOOMINOHO gS NTA otans 5 AIHAARD~ OOM é ANISH OWNS
Ald [810 J, EE Atco ON CoonnMdH000 SSOSOHAMHRE x SOSCHNAMHOD
Loniion iene) |
“O90 ‘Sayeap ATA S DAMON Ate NOOtIs AHOMSAntT MOMMA
-Ayoqreg SF NM HINOW TF SOSMANCON S85 SOCRHNM HO £3 SOORHNM HO
Or
7 a SCO emia es GO ics ico) SCY a hie PVR CSTR ER GS OS eps SE Rey. “Rien co oe Gs Ee
© DOADNIOOAH QUOC OID 0009 AMRHSORH4GOH OF. AMoOMaMaAnRa
ulejo1g bak SSSASARNAR SH SSshFnnS3 Beko SSOHANMES RES CSSMAAM TS
Dahan tghs O04 2) Raion} Go Se a a teh aS SAA Onc SS Ol ater aide cates 6, | UES: sp otiee Ic eee
wo SSossosss &T ooososese S84 coooosoesS 80% soooooscss
yey | 6 ROMAWaony SF" Awanownwe S8q AvowheteD sy" quag own
Aig, [B10 AHOBAMOON GS SccHaidsicn A % SOOTHING HO0 § COSOTNAMHOR
8 23 $
fe
n n al =
ge Boone na nin in SB rtertes na Zo renin oes TS tants ea
We SB Ankonnkton ‘Ss ACO TIO 22 FAM HINO 63 ANH O
is) | Ree ANN & es 6 nm oe ei
= o) ig m
yes a) ss ES
Ay On ra
AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
258
TaBLE VII.—Continued
‘ajo ‘seqyeip ies PION OM OWN s AAMNONOOOS mop TN HOMNR RA TODO I OD OOD
Seer Que ie aber e eel Weal eS ue eae een ron yg ateneny ea: eae Md a Sy ibe Hgts
-Aqoqieg Sod COCRRANMH B- coconnNod Me SOSCCHHNM + 8 COORRANTIO
a ee > ess 2 ys Yt ee ON Se. eee Ee a * ~ ay
{ OEOrOMron fu SoooSessscSe = DONDROANMS Be Ew
ulaqyo1g ~—T* SSHRATHSSH e" mAFDNDSOSOO Bo SIM SAMOGA x32 Sao G aaa
: me) aatie, BAEC ae Genwi aear ba ies hae esriabertar cee a the nee Af Demag tb abe
te 3s ocoooooorn = Cooonnnnmdt SA, SOSCCOMNMOD $25 COSSCOCHAANN
10}} 8 8S AHAOROOKRG SL NIAHHNOAN i » AMHHOMOMOKD S- NHAADKROAM
Aq [8}0y, | BH oocnamdcw S COOKIN QZ SOSHAM HOH S SSSOHAMTOR
‘Oj ‘sayuIp ; ANHONSNHA NAMDOMHNA OD mig MNMONDOMHO SANSOM ROS
Sip Ri naciiics setae pan emia Soa ary SGA ea Th Saka aa ty ad Teh A ) ae eS
MP MONTONSOSO Sa TRWHOMAAHO Roy AHOOMNNSCAD wh WONAHOWSOR
apiog | wp SOMANTSAA TP LH OSMMRea pT Seon Neer a4) Sma ome
Sa CoooSooooN Bs cooocooors Sy coooooosso 84 cococoRAANnM
JVB Sf NTHAOOMHOHO RS nnan~oonn SS ATAHNwHOH = ATADK OWRD
AId [oL EF SOSA MHO00 BR SOOnNM HOD BR SoSHNMHO0 COSMNM HO
& n on n n
Se Ei 8 E 3
fa TF tens OS twee Do rtertes me z dose Po
ZA £ ANM HIOI~O 2s FNM tOMr~O © AN HOS © FINCHES
po
om ce - ay m
Ry Gal > >.
= ~Q ~Q aa)
259
APPENDIX
TasBLE VII.—Continued
THON OD 1 OO 1 OD I
MOM sO On
NOVO ABOVBID || eer) byl ie een eaters Pe gw aoe leas Solent EG eo
-AYyoqieg y SCOCCORnmAAN — COCOnRANA IS
cy ae eee 3
ee, . Pe aco en SN womeieieaie a
ule}01g ey et) SIS elses te Sy COnMMSINS
: ea) BA SSSSooonT
IOI = eee ATSHROBRS
AIT [10], 2 SSOSOnRANGD SOSHNMHOS
‘O39 ‘saqyuip ee Spa Sern aN Se ae
-AYOqIEy = SOSMNM HOW By Ssocoonnnwmsd
oe - i)
aN aAtOrKoONATORN EN DOORSMNMOO
ula}01g 88; ADS SiGe Coes Soy COTM ONAN
: Shu eooseceso au S80C0SC6eRns
1aBI = Se roo oe Cee on 3 NTOOrCHro
AIq, [®10L, SOSAAMAOM SS SOOHNMHOD
“aya ‘sa}BIp es ee Ceara Boek pe IIE)
-Ayoqizg | BS 2 COOMAANMHS §2 SocHnan ic
rainy apa es Se =H
RESS WOSmRRAND Si ONMWAHOMINS
ureyo1g eae See ws OT SAATRANDH
SSS cooscoonnAn Bs COSSCCORnHN
104}8 J She WeRAnNoonn See eos
sig roy, | OX SOOCHNAMHOR NS COSHAMHOR
‘oye ‘soqeip hae Mi ee ape bel OS De
-AYyoqIey B58 SOORRANH19 Sy SCOCOnANC dH
—_. | RSS SAnmRomnrine S54 SH OOO 4 > 09 DCO
Uuld}OIg SUA ee ana ae (Seat et OOS ae
_ | S85 copocsnna we osossosnn
1a}eW SHS NAtonoronno SS AIAHHROaN
Aiq yeyoy, | OWS Sconinnas BS csonandc]e
Mm n
& ~ ~
Oo 3 5
ae go} rte eer is tt re
Ba ° FACTORS © AAO HIDIO
sae) 5 = a —
OR at Gal
pa fa x
REFERENCES
CHAPTER IV
Without Irrigation.”
(Farmers’ Bulletins may be obtained free by application to
The World To-
the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.)
The World’s Work, August, 1906, p. 7885, “Desert Farming
Without
“Farming
862,
, 1906, p.
August
day,
Water.”
260 AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
CHAPTER V
Farmers’ Bulletins: No. 192, Barnyard Manures; No. 245,
Renovation of Worn-out Soils.
Cnuapter VIII
Farmers’ Bulletins: No. 28, Weeds and How to Kill Them; No.
27, Canada Thistle, Circular 27, Division of Botany; No.
132, The Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat; No. 38, Spray-
ing Fruit; No. 6, Bordeaux Mixtures, Division of VEGETABLE
ParnoLocy; No, 247, The Control of the Codling Moth and
Apple Scab; No. 19, Important Insecticides.
Apply to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Madison, Wis.,
for the following Farmers’ Bulletins: No. 111, The Pre-
vention of the Oat Smut; No. 135, The Spraying of Potatoes.
CHAPTER X
Farmers’ Bulletins: No. 157, The Propagation of Plants; No.
229, The Production of Good Seed Corn.
CHAPTER XII
Get seedmen’s catalogues and read and study the directions.
Farmers’ Bulletins: No. 61, Asparagus Culture; No. 154, The
Home Fruit Garden; No. 94, The Vegetable Garden; No.
198, Strawberries; No. 220, Tomatoes; No. 254, Cucumbers.
CHAPTER XIII
Farmers’ Bulletins: No. 25, Peanuts; No. 35, Potato Culture;
No. 47, Insects Affecting Cotton; No. 52, The Sugar Beet;
No. 81, Corn Culture in the South; No. 91, Potato Diseases;
No. 110, Rice Culture in the United States; No. 129, Sweet
Potatoes; No. 132, Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat; No,
199, Corn Growing.
APPENDIX
bo
o>
_—
CHAPTER XIV
Farmers’ Bulletins: No. 113, The Apple and How to Grow It;
No. 33, Peach Growing for Market; No. 62, Marketing Farm
Produce; No. 80, The Peach-Twig Borer; No. 175, Home
Manufacture and Use of Unjermented Grape Juice; No. 203,
Canned Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies.
CHAPTER XV
Farmers’ Bulletins: No. 148, Conformation of Beef and Dairy
Cattle; No. 106, Breeds of Dairy Cattle.
CHAPTER XVIII
Farmers’ Bulletins: No. 96, Raising Sheep for Mutton; No. 104,
Food Requirements of Pigs, Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, Madison, Wis. Study them and try to make some
experiment suggested, by these Bulletins on feeding sheep
and pigs. ”
CHAPTER XIX
Farmers’ Bulletins: No. 51, Standard Varieties of Chickens;
No. 64, Ducks and Geese; No. 182, Poultry as Food; No.
200, Turkeys: Standard Varieties and Management; No.
287, Poultry Management; also Watson’s Farm Poultry,
Macmillan Co.; Comstock’s How to Keep Bees, Doubleday,
Page & Co.
CHAPTER XX
Farmers’ Bulletins: No. 96, Raising Sheep for Mutton; No. 100,
Hog Raising in the South; No. 142, Principles of Nutrition
and Nutritive Value of Food; No. 151, Dairying in the
South; No. 170, Principles of Horse Feeding.
18
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INDEX
Aberdeen-Angus cattle, 166.
Absorption of water by soil, ex-
periment, 24.
Agriculture, defined, 1.
Air, experiment to show neces-
sity for plant growth, 8; in-
creased in soil by under-
drainage, 26; in soil, 23;
made up of oxygen and ni-
trogen, 63.
Alfalfa, 54, 134; several crops,
69.
Amendments, defined, 49.
Animals, 69-72; care of, 223.
Annato, for coloring butter, 178.
Apples, 150; Baldwin, to pro-
duce, 124.
Ashes, 49; wood, for apple or-
chard, 151.
Asparagus, in garden, 131.
Babcock milk test, 174.
Bacteria, 43; cause of plant dis-
ease, 85; in roots of leg-
umes, 55.
Balanced ration example, 219.
Barnyard manure. See MANURE.
Baswood, for planting, 235.
Bean, Burpee, 113; in garden,
130.
9
~
Bees, 209.
Beets, in garden, 129; sugar in,
uli tSy-
Berkshire swine, 196.
Biennials, 69, 72.
Birds and their food, 90; at-
tracting, 96; feeding, 98;
houses, 96; number of, 90;
useful, 74.
Blight, Bordeaux mixture for,
243; peas, 153.
Bluebird, 92.
Bordeaux mixture, 84, 86, 243.
Brahma chickens, 206.
Bronco, 188.
Budding, 125.
Buds, 3; growth from, 117.
Bulbs, defined, 238.
Burbank, Luther, 108.
Butter, 177.
Cabbage worm, 81.
Calcium carbonate, 51.
Calories, defined, 218.
Cambium layer, 123.
Canada thistle, a perennial, 72.
Canker worm, 81.
Capillarity, 21.
Capillary attraction, 25.
Carbon, defined, 64.
63
264
Carbonic acid, in soil water, 6.
Carbon dioxide, composition of,
64; absorbed by leaves, 7;
used to make starch, 64.
Carbohydrates, in various foods,
250-254; use in feed, 216.
Care of animals, 223.
Carrots, 143.
Casein, in cheese, 179; in milk,
170.
Casterilius, picture of, 161.
Caterpillar, stung by ichneumon
fly, 100.
Cats, enemies of birds, 99.
Cattle, chapter on, 159; advan-
tages in raising, 166; beef
breeds, 164; importance of
good, 167.
Celery, in garden, 131.
Chaleis fly, 100.
Chalk, an amendment, 50.
Cheese, 178.
Cherries, 154.
Cheshire swine, 196.
Chester white swine, 195.
Cheviot sheep, 194.
Chicken, breeds of, 204; coop,
208.
Chinch bug, deseribed, 83.
(churn, 178.
Clay, 12.
Clover, 54; crimson, 135; roots
showing nodules, 55.
Clovers, 135.
Clydesdale horses, 187.
Cochin chickens, Buff, 206.
Codling moth, 80.
Colostrum, 171, 172.
Composition of foods, table, 68.
Compounds, defined, 40.
INDEX
Corn, 135; composition of, 216;
effect on soil, 59; sweet, in
garden, 130.
Cotswold sheep, 194.
Cotton, 143.
Cow, dairy, 159; usefulness of,
159.
Cream, 176.
Cucumbers, in garden, 130.
Cuttings, 117, 120.
Dairy farm, rotation for, 61.
Dan Patch, 184.
Danzenbaker hive, 211.
Delaine sheep, 192.
Diseases. See PLANT DISEASES.
Dorset Horn sheep, 193.
Dragonflies, 101.
Drainage, methods of, 27.
Dry farming, 37.
Dry matter, in various foods,
250.
Ducks, geese, and turkeys, 207.
Duroe Jersey swine, 196.
Elements, 40.
Elm, American white for plant-
ing, 235.
English Shire horse, 186.
Ensilage, 220.
Essex swine, 197.
Evaporation, 20; carries away
heat, 23.
Factory, of nature, 63.
Farmer, work of, 1; knowledge
required, 1, 2.
Farmer's friends, chapter on, 90.
Fat, in various foods, 250, 254;
use in feed, 216.
INDEX
Feeding stuffs, kinds of, 220;
table of, 250.
Feeds, classes of, 216.
Feeds and fodders, constituents
of, table, 254.
Feldspar, 12; source of potas-
sium, 41.
Fermentation, in tobacco, 149.
Fertility removed by crops, 246.
Fertilizers, commercial, with
root crops, 143; for hay,
133; licensed, 48; commer-
cial, 48.
Finches, 95.
Fire blight, 85.
Flowers, 103; part of, 103; use
of, 4.
Flower garden, 237.
Food, digestible ingredients,
table, 250, 254; for birds, 97.
Food, animal, importance of, 214.
Food elements, how the plant
combines, 66.
Forest, how it may be perpetu-
ated, 233; some advantages
of, 230.
Forestry, the purpose of, 229;
what other nations are do-
ing, 231; what our govern-
ment is doing, 232.
Formaldehyde solution for oats,
244.
Frogs, 99.
Fruit, marketing, 154.
Fuel value, 252; in various foods,
250.
Fungicides, 88.
Garden, care of, 128; desirable
plants for, 128; farm impor-
265
tance of, 127; farm, chapter
on, 128; flower, 237; posi-
tion and soil for, 127.
Germination, conditions affect-
ing, 116.
Glaciers, action of, in soil forma-
tion, 16.
Gluten, to prepare, 66.
Good roads, forestry, home and
school grounds, chapter on,
226.
Good roads, farmer’s interest in,
226; how to make and keep,
226.
Grafting, 117, 121; necessity for,
124.
Grafting wax, formula, 123.
Granite, 12, 13.
Grapes, 154.
Growth, conditions of, 7.
Guano, source of phosphate, 41.
Guernsey cattle, 161.
Gypsum, an amendment, 50.
Hackney horses, 187.
Hambletonian horses, 154.
Hampshire sheep, 193.
Hampshire swine, 197.
Harrows, 36.
‘Hay and grass crop, 135.
Hay, curing, 134; for horses, 133.
Heat, production by plant, 68.
Herd, how to improve, 167.
Hereford cattle, 166; cow, pic-
ture of, 165.
Hodge, Prof., report on honey,
211.
Holstein cattle, 160.
Home and school grounds, 234.
Houdan chickens, 204.
266
Horse, chapter on, 181; anteced-
ents and types, 181; desir-
able characteristics, 181;
external parts of, 182; for
speed, 183; coach, 187;
draft, 185; intelligence of,
189; rations fed to, table,
253; use and eare of, 188.
Humus, defined, 11; holds
water, 26,
Hybrids, 107.
Hydrogen, defined, 64.
Tchneumon fly, 99.
India, forestry in, 232.
Indian corn. See corn.
Inoculation, to supply bacteria,
56.
Insects, classified, 79; common
cutting, 80; description, 77;
life history, 78; scale San
José, 83; control, 84; useful,
99.
Tron sulphate, for killing weeds,
97.
Jersey cattle, 162.
Johanna, Colantha Fourth’s,
picture and record, 160.
Justin Morgan, 185.
Kerosene emulsion formula, 245.
Killdeer, 95.
Lactie acid, in milk, 172.
Langshan chickens, 206.
Langstroth hive, 211.
Larvie, in soil, 57.
Layering, 117, 121.
INDEX
Leaves, use of, 3.
Leghorn chickens, 204.
Legumes, 54; as deep feeders,
56; as forage, 57; as nitro-
gen gatherers, 55.
Leguminous plants, chapter on,
54,
Leicester sheep, 194.
Lettuce, in garden, 129.
Lichens, 16.
Light, essential to growth, 7,
experiment to show need
of, 7.
Lime, an amendment, 49; as an
aid to nitrification, 50;
phosphate of, 41.
Limestone, 12; weathering, 13.
Lincoln sheep, 194.
Loam, defined, 11.
Locust tree, a legume, 54.
London purple, 84.
Mambrino Chief, 184.
Manure, barnyard, 46; care of,
47; value of from horse,
etc., 47.
Marl, an amendment, 50.
Massachusetts, rotation in, 61.
Meadow lark, 95.
Merino sheep, 192.
Messenger, Imported, 183.
Metamorphosis, explained, 78.
Mica, 12.
Mildew, 87.
Milk, Babcock test outfit, 175;
composition of, 170; food
value of, 172; pails, 173;
separator, 174; skimmed,
177; tester, 174; souring of,
172.
INDEX 267
Milk and its products, chapter
on, 170.
Milk of different breeds of cattle,
171.
Minor Heir, 184.
Moisture, how the soil may hold
more, 25; regulation of, 32.
Morgan horses, 185.
Mosses, 16.
Muck, an amendment, 50.
Mulch, surface, defined, 32.
Mushrooms, 2.
Nest building, materials for, 97.
' Nitrate, defined, 41.
Nitrification, defined, 50.
Nitrogen, defined, 40; effect on
plant, 46; in manure. 46;
fixation with legumes, 55;
removed by crops, 60;
source of, 43; with barley,
138.
Norfolk system of rotation, 60.
Nuthatches, 95.
Nutrients, table of, for day’s
. feeding, 248.
Nutritive ratio, defined, 217;
how found, 249.
Oats, a farm crop, 137; smutty,
illustration, 86; to prevent
smut in, 244.
Ohio, rotation in, 61.
Oil, made in plants, 63; where
found, 65.
Oriole, Baltimore, 95.
Osmosis, 43; experiment, 44.
Oxford sheep, 194.
Oxygen, 63.
Pandora, Lady, picture of, 163.
Paris green, 84; formula, 245.
Peaches, 153.
Peanut, a legume, 54.
Pears, 152.
Peas, field, 141; in garden, 129.
Percheron horses, 186.
Perennials, hardy, 239; for farm-
er’s flower garden, 239.
Phosphoric acid, in ashes, 49;
removed by crops, table, 60;
with barley, 138.
Phosphorus, defined, 41; effect
on plants, 46.
Phylloxera, grape, 83.
Plankers, 36.
Plant, decayed, help make soil,
11; how it grows, 4; parts of,
2; the nature of, chapter on,
ile
Plant diseases, common and
treatment, 85; nature of,
85.
Plant enemies, chapter on, 71.
Plant food, chapter on, 63; dis-
solved in water, 6; from air,
7; how it gets into the plant,
43; locked up, 9; must be
usable, 8; source of, 42;
stored in seed, 5; use of each
kind, 45.
Plant lice, 83.
Plover, 95.
Plow, described, 35.
Plowing, successful, 35
Plum, Kelsey, 108; Wickson,
108.
Plumcot, 108.
Plymouth Rock chickens, 206.
Poland-China swine, 195.
Polled Durham cattle, 166.
Pollination, 106; cross, 107.
Ponies, 187.
Pony, Northern Indian,
Shetland, 187.
Porosity of soil, 21.
Potash, 42; amount in wheat, 45;
experiment to obtain, 42;
in ashes, 49; in manure, 46;
muriate of, 134; removed by
crops, table, 60.
Potassium, defined, 41.
Potato beetle, 82; blight, 88;
scab in soil, 57; scab, 88.
Potatoes, 141; grown from cut-
tings, 121; seabby, how to
treat, 245.
Poultry and bees, chapter on,
202.
Poultry, raising and eare of, 207;
benefits of, 202.
Products of plant growth, 64.
Profit and loss in feeding, 222.
Propagation, of plants, 108;
other than by seed, 119.
Proteid, described, 65; made by
plants, 63.
Protein, deseribed, 65; in various
foods, 250, 254; use in feed,
216.
Protoplasm, 44.
Pruning, 154, 156.
Pulse family, 54.
188;
Quartz, 12.
Radishes, in garden, 129.
Rainfall, amount necessary for
crops, 37.
Rambouillet sheep, 192.
INDEX
Ration, balanced, 217; for horse,
example of, 221; actually
fed to horses, table, 253.
References, 259.
Rena Ross, picture of, 164.
Rice, 146.
Robin, 91.
Rocks, decayed, helps make soil,
10.
Rollers, 36.
Roots, 2; open up soil, 26.
Root crops, 142.
Root hairs, 3; absorb water, 6°
take nitrie acid, 41.
Rotation of crops, chapter on,
54; defined, 57; destroys
weeds, 58; enlarges farm,
58; regulates food supply,
59; a weapon against pests,
57; Norfolk system, 60.
Rust, wheat, 85.
Salt, common, an amendment,
50.
Saltpeter, source of potassium,
41.
Salts, mineral, 6.
Sandstone, 12.
San José seale, 83.
Seab, in potatoes, 141.
School and home grounds, 234.
Scion, 121; for grafting, 150.
Seeds, 103; age of viable, 109;
table, 110; description, 5;
maturity of, 110; produe-
tion, 69; quality of, 109;
selecting, 110; space and
quantity required, 247;
testing, 115; use of, 4.
Seed bed, preparation of, 32.
INDEX
Sheep, breeds of, 191.
Sheep and swine, chapter on,
191.
Sheep raising, advantages of,
LO
Shells, contain phosphate, 41.
Shorthorn cattle, 166.
Shrophsire sheep, 193.
Shrubs, hardy flowering, 239.
Silo, 220.
Smut, corn, 85; oat, 86.
Soil, chapter on, 10; constituents
in average crop, 246; de-
fined, 10; enriching, chapter
on, 48; formation of, 13;
good farm, 18; kinds of, 11;
porosity, 21; uses of, to
plants, 17.
Soil enriching, chapter on, 40.
Southdown sheep, 193.
Sparrow, 95.
Sporges of fungi, ete., 85.
Spraying, potatoes, 141.
Spruce, Colorado blue, for plant-
ing, 235.
Stable, filthy, illustration, 224.
Starch, changing to sugar, 66;
changed to sugar, 67; de-
seribed, 64; made in plants,
63; stored-up, 66, 67; test
for, 64.
Stems, 3.
Straw, burning, 45.
Strawberries in garden, 131.
Subsoil, 10.
Sugar, 65; amount in beets, 115;
changed to starch, 67; made
in plants, 63.
Sugar cane, 145.
Swarming of bees, 210.
269
Swine, advantage of raising, 194;
breeds of, 195; where and
how to raise, 198.
Switzerland, forestry in, 231.
Tamworth swine, 197.
Tanager, scarlet, 92.
Thoroughbred horses, 183.
Thrushes, 92.
Tillage, for two reasons, 33; im-
plements of, 34; importance
of good, 34; object of, 30;
to cover manure, 33.
Tiles for drainage, 27.
Tilling, a risk in, 33.
Tilling the soil, chapter on, 30.
Toads and frogs, 99.
Tobacco, 146; effect on soil, 59.
Tools, care of, 36.
Topping, tobacco, 147.
Transplanting, 154.
Trees and shrubs, 234.
Tubercules on legumes, 55; on
roots, 43.
Tull, Jethro, 34.
Turnips, 143; in rotation, 60.
Underdrainage, benefits of, 26.
United States, rotation in, 60.
Victoria swine, 197.
Vines, 236.
Water, amount used by different
plants, 22; effect of too little
in the soil, 22; effect of too
much, 22; freezing breaks
rocks, 13; importance of, to
plant, 20; movement of, in
the soil, 20; in soil, 7.
270
Water in the soil, chapter on, 20.
Water on surface of soil parti-
cles, 25.
Weather, effect on rocks, 14.
Weathering, 13; agent, 16.
Weeds, annual, how to kill, 72;
biennial, how to kill, 75;
classes of, 61; defined, 71;
perennial, how to kill, 75;
to kill, 33; why enemies, 71.
Wheat, extensive root system,
58; Fultz, produced by se-
lection, 113; macaroni, 37;
wheat and other grains, 137.
Whey, 179.
Winter wheat, 59.
Wind, effect on rocks, 15.
Wolf-Lehmann, standard table,
248.
Woodpeckers, 93.
Wood tissue, 65.
Wrens, 96.
Wyandotte chickens, 206.
Yeksa Sunbeam, feed of, during
test, 216; picture of, 162.
Yorkshire swine, 197.
qd)
THE END
THE APPLETON ARITHMETICS
TWO-BOOK SERIES THREE-BOOK SERIES
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AN ELEMENTARY UNITED STATES HISTORY
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NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE
Practical Nature Study and Elementary
Agriculture
A Manual for the Use of Teachers and Normal Students,
By Joun M. Coutrer, Director of the Department of
Botany, University of Chicago; JoHNn G. CouLreEr,
Professor of Biology, Illinois State Normal University ;
ALICE JEAN PaTTERSON, Department of Biology, in
charge of Nature Study, Illinois State Normal University.
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similar to those of the average school.
Part I is devoted to presenting the principles of nature study,
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and how to avoid them. It is practically a guide to the teaching of
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school at the Illinois State Normal University. Its definite outlines
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The aim is to provide a scientific point of view of the materials and
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D. APPLETON AND COMPA
NEW YORK CHICAGO
44le
Ds OATS We eae RAG mara Via Meda bio cae
APR 11 1919
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00025863951