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ANTHROPOLOGY  OF  PRIMITIVE  PEOPLES. 

W  A I T  Z. 


VOLUME    THE    FIRST. 


INTRODUCTION 


TO 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


DR.   THEODOR  WAITZ, 

PROFESSOR  OF   PHILOSOPHY   IN   THE   UNIVERSITY  OF  MARBURO,  HONORARY  FELLOW   OF  THE 
ANTHROPOLOGICAL   AND   ETHNOLOGICAL  SOCIETIES   OF   LONDON. 


EDITED, 

ttfj  Numerous  Muttons  fcg  tfje  &utfjor, 

FROM     THE    FIRST    VOLUME    OF    "  ANTHROPOLOOIE    DER    NATURVOLKER." 


J.  FREDERICK  COLLINGWOOD, 

P.B.8.L.,    F.O.S.,    P.A.S.L.i 
HONORARY    SF.CRF.TARY    OF    THE    ANTHROPOLOGICAL    SOCIETY    OF   LONDON. 


LONDON: 

PUBLISHED   FOR   THE   ANTHROPOLOGICAL   SOCIETY,   BY 

LONGMAN,    GREEN,    LONGMAN,    AND    ROBERTS, 
PATERNOSTER  ROW-.  I 

1863.  V^O^Xl    I  H 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  I. 


Dedication      .........  xi 

Editor's  Preface         ........  xiii 

Author's  preface         ........  1 

Introduction  ........ 

DEFINITION  AND  SCIENTIFIC  POSITION  OF  ANTHROPOLOGY. 

Definition;  Naturalist's  view;  Theologian's  view;  Philosopher's  view; 
Position  of  Anthropology  in  Germany ;  Division  of  Anthropology 
into  two  parts ;  Physiology  and  Psychology  of  Man ;  History  of 
Civilization ;  Scope  of  Anthropology ;  Question  of  Species ;  Po- 
sition of  Ethnology ;  Latham's  definition  of  Anthropology  .  3 

ON  THE  UNITY  OF  MANKIND  AS  A  SPECIES,  AND  ON  THE 
NATURAL  STATE  OF  MAN. 

Man  to  be  studied  in  aggregate ;  Individual  and  social  life  of  Man ; 
Unity,  or  Plurality  of  Species ;  Limited  view  of  Mankind ;  Plu- 
rality of  Species  and  Race- Antagonism ;  Parallelism  of  physical 
and  psychical  qualities  of  Man ;  Psychical  life ;  Cuvier's  view ; 
Bory  de  St.  Vincent  on  the  Negro  type;  Division  of  the  ques- 
tion 10 


PAET    I. 

PHYSICAL  INVESTIGATION. 

The  notion  of  Species ;  Its  application  to  the  organic  and  inorganic 
kingdoms  of  Nature ;  Definition  of  Species  discussed ;  Cuvier's 
definition  ;  Prichard's  definition ;  Unity  of  Species  resulting  from 

b 


CONTENTS. 

Unity  of  Origin;  Agassiz,  Vogt,  Giebel,  and  De  Candolle,  on 
Species  in  Animals ;  American  School ;  Fecundity  as  a  criterion 
of  Species,  Buffon ;  Hybridity  as  a  criterion  of  Species,  F.  Miil- 
ler;  Desmoulins  on  Hybridity  among  Cattle;  Fecundity  of  Hy- 
brids; Nott  and  Gliddon  on  definition  of  Species;  "Race"  as 
applied  to  Mankind  and  Dogs;  Inferences  from  the  foregoing; 
Eeversion ;  Cases  of  Mongrels,  Mestizoes,  Mulattoes,  etc.;  Opinion 
of  Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire ;  Blumenbach  on  Eeversion ;  Geographical 
distribution  of  Species ;  Eange  of  Variation ;  Species  and  Eace ; 
Application  of  these  terms  to  domestic  animals, — Nott ;  Applica- 
tion to  Mankind ;  Variations  peculiar  to  each  Species ;  Agassiz's 
application  to  Man  and  Ape;  other  Writers  referred  toi  Eetro- 
spect  .........  17 


SECTION  I. 

ON   THE    MOD!-:    AND    MAGNITUDE    OF    THE    PHYSICAL    CHANGES 
TO   WHICH    MAN    IS    SUBJECT. 

1.  Climate. — Influences  of  Climate  stated;  Correspondence  of  Climate 

with  physical  organization;  Effects  of  the  hygrometric  state  of 
Atmosphere ;  Effects  of  the  barometric  state ;  Mailer's  explana- 
tion of  black  skin  of  Negro;  Berthold's  explanation;  Foissac's 
explanation ;  Godron  on  climatic  influences ;  Heusinger's  observa- 
tions ;  Facts  by  D'Orbigny ;  Volney  on  Negro  physiognomy ; 
Blumenbach's  views ;  Influence  of  Climate  on  stature ;  Views  of 
Lauvergne,  Zimmerman,  Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire ;  Influence  of  Climate 
on  the  sexual  organs ;  pn  the  intellect ;  on  fecundity ;  on  colour 
of  skin,  hair,  and  eyes;  Influence  of  geographical  conditions  on 
the  human  frame ;  Different  Eaces  compared ;  Pruner-Bey  on 
climatic  influence ;  Complexion  in  different  Climates ;  Effects  of 
American  Climate  on  German,  English,  etc. ;  the  genuine  Yankee ; 
Australian  Climate ;  Influence  on  Character  .  .  .34 

2.  Aliment. — Effects   on   Body   and    Mind   undoubted;     Influence   of 

Wealth  and  Poverty;  Degenerate  Irishmen  of  Ulster ;  the  Bosjes- 
mans ;  Eice-consuming  peoples ;  Flesh-Eaters ;  the  Fiji  Islanders 
and  other  Vegetarians ;  American  tribes  and  their  various  dietary; 
the  Yakuts  ;  the  Arabs,  Bedouins,  etc. ;  Milne-Edwards  on  Nutri- 
tion; French  military  standard;  Effects  of  mode  of  life  on  the 
skeleton;  Hunters  and  Fishers;  Malay,  Japanese,  and  Chinese 
women,  effects  on  them  of  sedentary  or  active  habits ;  Social  rela- 
tions and  castes,  how  they  act  on  the  Body ;  Change  of  habit  and 
its  effect  on  the  Portuguese  settler ;  the  Barabra,  Kordofanese,  etc.  57 

3.  Mental  Culture. — Mental  influence  favourable  or  unfavourable  to  the 

physical  development ;  Low  development  subject  to  external  influ- 


CONTENTS.  Ill 

ences ;  Uniformity  of  uncivilized  peoples ;  Old  Germans ;  Abori- 
ginal Americans ;  Uniformity  of  Character  among  the  Negroes ; 
Individuality  of  the  Fijians ;  Effects  of  imitation ;  in  Clans  of 
Scotland;  on  the  individual  resident  abroad;  The  free-born  and 
slave  Negro ;  asserted  change  of  features  in  the  former ;  Superi- 
ority of  Creole  Negroes ;  Causes  of  this  difference ;  Effects  of  social 
intercourse  on  American  Negroes ;  Greatest  change  in  the  Northern 
States ;  Mental  Culture  in  the  physiognomy  of  all  nations ;  Effects 
of  Cultivation  on  the  English  and  German  physiognomy ;  on  the 
Sikhs ;  Change  in  the  Magyars ;  the  Finns  and  Lapps ;  Shape  of 
Skull  no  criterion  of  Race ;  Skull  varies  most  in  civilized  peoples  ; 
Modification  in  the  same  people;  Abbe  Frere  and  Huschke  on 
cranial  development ;  the  slow  change  of  physical  peculiarities ; 
Importance  of  the  mental  influence ;  Retrospect  .  .  .67 

4.  Hereditary  Transmission. — Spontaneous  origin  of  new  peculiarities; 
how  rendered  permanent ;  Breeding  of  domestic  animals ;  Breed 
of  Otter  Sheep ;  Hungarian  cattle ;  Mental  peculiarities  heredi- 
tary; Transmission  of  accidental  peculiarities;  Mutilation;  Change 
in  the  dog ;  Origin  of  Races ;  Morbid  peculiarities  ;  Family  pecu- 
liarities ;  House  of  Hapsburg ;  Lambert  family ;  Six -fingered 
peculiarity ;  Albinism ;  White  Negroes ;  White  individuals  among 
the  Blackfeet  and  Mandans ;  Hereditary  deformities  cited  by  Gosse 
and  Wagner ;  European  and  savage  Children  compared ;  Psychical 
peculiarities  transmitted ;  Children  of  Polynesia ;  of  South  Ame- 
rica, Arabia,  South  Africa,  etc. ;  Evidence  of  Incas ;  Nott  and 
Gliddon  on  innate  and  inherited  instincts ;  Mechanical  and  artistic 
talent  transmitted ;  Hereditary  aristocracy  of  the  Mind ;  Trans- 
mission of  innate  and  organic  individual  peculiarities ;  Retrospect 
and  results  80 


SECTION  II. 

THE    CHIEF   ANATOMICAL   AND    PHYSIOLOGICAL    DIFFERENCES 
WHICH    DISTINGUISH   THE   VAEIOUS   RACES. 

Man  and  Ape  compared ;  Traditions  in  India  of  ape-like  Men ;  Nott 
and  Gliddon  on  Negro  and  Orang-Utang ;  the  Negro  type  of  the 
Soudan,  Kordofan,  etc. ;  their  thickness  of  Skull ;  Duncan,  Som- 
mering,  Pruner-Bey,  Tiedemann,  Blumenbach,  Lawrence,  Morton, 
Huschke,  and  others,  on  Negro  Anatomy ;  Negro  features  de- 
scribed; Hair  of  the  Negro,  Hottentots,  Bushmen,  and  Austral 
Negroes ;  The  beard ;  Vrolik  on  the  limbs  of  Negro ;  The  hand  and 
foot  of  Negro,  according  to  Burmeister,  Sommering,  and  Duten- 
hofer ;  The  blood  of  Negro ;  His  skin  described,  and  the  effects  of 
age  and  climate  thereon;  Peculiar  exhalation  from  the  Negro 
skin ;  Skull  of  Negroes,  Australians,  Americans,  New  Zealanders, 


IV  CONTENTS. 

and  other  types  described ;  Teeth ;  Proportions  of  the  limbs ;  De- 
ficiency of  calf;  Burmeister  on  the  feet  of  Negro  and  Ape;  Use  of 
the  foot  among  jugglers  of  America ;  Disagreeable  odour  of  the 
Negro  and  other  Eaces  ;  Differences  between  African  and  Austral 
Negroes ;  the  head  of  the  Negro  type ;  the  Hottentot  Venus ;  Cir- 
cumcision of  Women  in  Egypt,  in  Abyssinia,  in  the  countries  of 
the  Nile,  among  the  Hottentots,  etc. ;  Cranial  deformation  ;  Situ- 
ation of  the  Ear ;  Egyptian  Mummies ;  Abnormities  of  anatomical 
structure ;  Physiological  peculiarities ;  Animal  heat ;  Rate  of 
pulse ;  Age  of  puberty  and  marriage ;  Proportions  of  male  to 
female  births ;  Congenital  deformities ;  Mortality ;  Signs  of  age ; 
Sustentation  of  pain ;  Physical  endurance  ;  Amount  of  food ;  Bodily 
strength;  Results  of  Freycinet's  experiments  with  the  dynamo- 
meter ;  Results  of  Buckton ;  Endurance  of  savage  nations ;  Mus- 
cular weakness  of  the  Americans ;  Endurance  of  the  Negro ;  of  the 
South  Americans,  etc. ;  Duration  of  life ;  Diseases ;  Vital  energy 
of  savage  and  civilized  peoples  compared ;  Healing  power ;  greater 
among  savage  than  civilized  nations ;  Human  parasites ;  Acclima- 
tization ;  Superiority  of  the  White  Races  in  this  capacity ;  Cause 
thereof;  the  English  in  India;  Whites  in  West  Indies;  Negroes 
in  West  Indies;  conflicting  evidence  on  Acclimatization;  Capa- 
city of  blushing ;  not  confined  to  the  White  Races ;  Formation  of 
speech-sounds ;  Use  of  the  hands ;  Perfection  of  the  senses ;  Sense 
of  sight  in  savage  nations ;  its  cultivation  by  Europeans ;  Sense 
of  taste ;  Effects  of  music ;  Sense  of  smell ;  in  Negro  and  other 
savages ;  Negro  music ;  Retrospect  ..... 


APPENDIX  TO  SECTION  II. 

ON    THE   ASSERTED    INVIABILITY   OF   THE    AMERICANS,    POLYNESIANS, 
AND   AUSTRALIANS. 

Rapid  decay  of  American  tribes ;  by  small-pox  and  fevers ;  by  tribal 
wars ;  by  spirit  drinking ;  by  loss  of  territory ;  by  scanty  prolifi- 
cacy ;  by  abortion  and  infanticide ;  through  early  marriages ;  Pro- 
lificacy of  North  American  women ;  of  South  Americans ;  Decrease 
of  population  in  Polynesia ;  Statistics  thereon ;  Causes ;  Drunken- 
ness ;  Infanticide ;  Abortion ;  Sexual  excesses ;  Internal  wars ; 
Human  sacrifices ;  Cannibalism  ;  Famine ;  Venereal  diseases ; 
Sterility ;  and  psychical  causes ;  Decrease  of  the  Australians ;  Dis- 
eases; Drunkenness;  Sexual  excesses;  Infanticide;  Negligence; 
Want  of  nourishment ;  Invasion  of  Europeans ;  Injustice  done  to 
the  natives  bv  the  English  official  .  144 


CONTENTS.  V 

SECTION  III. 

THE   RESULTS   OF   INTERMIXTURE   OF   DIFFERENT   TYPES,   AND   THE 
PECULIARITIES    OF   THE    MONGRELS. 

Difficulties  of  the  question ;  Influence  of  the  parents  on  the  offspring ; 
Conflicting  opinions  ;  Burmeister ;  Buffon's  views ;  Mestizoes ;  * 
Mulattoes ;  Quadroons ;  Quintroon ;  Tschudi  and  Poppig ;  Danes 
and  Hindoos ;  Opinions  of  Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire,  Nott  and  Gliddon ; 
American  Mongrels ;  Castelnau's  statement  of  various  cross-breeds ; 
Zamboes  and  Cabourets  ;  Different  degrees  of  constancy  in  inter- 
mixture ;  Effect  of  different  impregnations ;  Tertroon,  Quadroon, 
Quintroon ;  Transition  of  Mongrels  to  higher  races ;  Value  of 
Mongrels  in  the  States;  Qualities  of  Negro  in  the  Quintroon; 
Mental  and  physical  characters  of  the  Mongrels ;  Gobineau  on  the 
effects  of  crossing ;  Nott's  theory  objected  to ;  Mongrels  of  Euro- 
peans and  Australians;  Effects  of  intermarrying;  Nott  on  ste- 
rility of  Mulattoes ;  Inviability  of  Mulattoes ;  Nott  on  the  confu- 
sion of  terms ;  Cross-breeds  of  Mexico  and  the  Phillipines  ; 
Permanence  of  type ;  Mixed  populations  of  Europe ;  Evidence  in 
favour  of  unity .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  167 

SECTION  IV. 

REVIEW    OF   THE    PRINCIPAL    THEORIES    REGARDING   THE    UNITY    OF 
MANKIND. 

Great  improbability  of  permanence  of  type ;  Wide  limits  of  variation 
in  Man ;  Views  of  Blumenbach  and  Prichard ;  Views  of  Hamilton, 
Smith,  and  Lawrence ;  Hombron's  theory  of  centres  of  creation ; 
Human  fossils  ;  Wilson  on  antiquity  of  Man  in  Scotland ;  Theory 
of  Agassiz  ;  His  Zoological  provinces ;  Difficulties  of  his  theory ; 
Hi  a  change  of  opinion ;  New  division ;  Objections  raised,  and  his 
theory  discussed ;  Latham  on  original  migrations ;  Descent  from 
a  single  pair  improbable ;  Unity  of  Indo-Germanic  peoples ;  The 
most  probable  theory  of  descent ;  Climatic  influence  on  Man  and 
Animals ;  Natural  origin  of  Man ;  Affinity  between  Man  and  Ape ; 
Fossil  Apes ;  Relation  of  Negro  to  White  Race  and  Apes ;  Negro 
type  described  at  length ;  Forms  intermediate  between  White  and 
Negro ;  LUCSB  and  Pruner-Bey  on  race  characters ;  Other  devia- 
tions from  typical  forms ;  Hair  and  eyes ;  Grounds  for  Classifica- 
tion; Type  unchanged,  as  shown  by  Egyptian  monuments  j  The 
Jews,  "  white"  and  "black"  ;  Jewish  crania ;  Cranial  variations ; 
Blumenbach,  Retzius,  Weber,  Engel,  Desmoulins,  and  others  on 
Classification;  Lesson,  Pickering,  Hamilton  Smith,  Hartmann, 
D'Omalius  d'Halloy,  W.  F.  Edwards,  on  Constancy  of  type ;  Re- 
trospect and  results  .  .  .  .  .  .  .190 


VI  CONTENTS. 


SECTION  V. 

ON    THE    CLASSIFICATION    OF    MANKIND. 

1.  Anatomical  View. — Division  of  the  section  into  three  parts  ;  Natural 

division  according  to  external  variations ;  D'Omalius  D'Halloy's 
basis  of  division ;  Blumenbach's  cranial  division ;  Lacepede  and 
DumeriTs  addition;  Cuvier's  three  types;  Pickering,  Prichard, 
Latham,  Bory,  Desmoulins,  Agassiz,  Nott  and  Gliddon  on  Classi- 
fication ;  Hombron  on  Australian  and  Negro  type ;  Vater,  Morton, 
and  Tschudi ;  Retzius'  system  of  Craniology ;  Zeune's  cranial 
types ;  Disagreement  of  Authors  on  Classification ;  Difficulties  of 
the  Cranial  Classification  exposed ;  Value  of  Phrenology ;  Quetelet's 
measurements  of  the  skeleton ;  Reference  Table  of  measurements 
of  various  parts  of  the  human  frame  ....  230 

2.  Linguistic  View. — Importance  of  Philological  investigations ;  Insuffi- 

ciency of  the  comparison  of  vocabularies ;  Importance  of  gram- 
matical structure  in  the  transmission  of  a  Language ;  Analysis  of 
a  sentence  in  illustration ;  The  structure  of  a  perfect  Language ; 
American  Languages  Polysynthetic ;  Agglutinated  Languages  of 
Asia ;  Inflected  Languages ;  Monosyllabic  and  Polysynthetic  Lan- 
guages compared ;  Change  in  Structure  of  a  Language ;  Original 
Unity  of  Language  improbable ;  View  of  Humboldt ;  Max  Muller's 
theory ;  Balbi's  Summary  of  the  Languages  of  the  Earth ;  Arbi- 
trary division ;  Crawford  on  the  Malay  Languages ;  Relative 
value  of  the  Physical  and  Philological  investigations  in  determining 
the  Unity  or  Plurality  of  Origin;  Positive  principles  of  Philology  and 
negative  principles  of  Naturalists ;  Objections  to  Nott  and  Grliddon ; 
Philology  alone  inadequate  for  the  determination  of  Race;  Loss 
of  Languages  in  American  Races ;  Change  of  Language :  instances 
cited ;  Absorption  of  small  by  greater  Nations ;  Romans,  Arabian, 
Normans,  Longobards,  Greeks,  etc.;  Parallelism  between  loss  of 
Language  and  the  Extinction  of  a  People;  Preservation  of  Lan- 
guages .  ......  238 

3.  Historical  View. — Reason  given  for  this  division;  History  founded  on 

traditions ;  Tradition  of  the  Noachian  Deluge ;  Analogies  between 
Mongolian  and  American  Peoples ;  Delafield,  Humboldt,  Squier 
hereon  ;  Tradition  of  destruction  of  the  Earth ;  Zodiacal  signs  of 
the  old  and  new  worlds ;  Conformity  of  Customs  in  Nations  widely 
separated ;  Examples  cited ;  Conformities  of  Customs  no  basis  for 
Classification  254 


CONTENTS. 


PAET    II. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL  INVESTIGATION. 

Introduction ;  Importance  of  Psychology  to  the  study  of  Mankind;  Our 
fragmentary  knowledge  of  uncultivated  Peoples ;  Tendency  to  un- 
dervalue such  knowledge ;  Too  much  reliance  put  upon  Cranial 
development;  Morton's  theory;  Views  of  Engel,  Lawrence,  and 
Prichard  on  Cerebral  structure  and  Cranial  form;  Parchappe's 
measurements  of  the  various  types ;  Tables  of  Tiedemann ;  Dis- 
crepancy between  his  theory  and  his  facts;  Morton  on  Cranial 
capacity ;  Nott  and  Gliddon  on  Peruvian  Skulls ;  Morton  on  North 
American  Tribes;  Huschke's  measurements  and  comparisons; 
Size  of  Skull  no  criterion  of  mental  power ;  Meaning  of  mental 
"capacity";  No  grounds  for  Psychical  specific  directions  among 
Mankind ;  Gist  of  the  Psychological  question ;  Method  of  investi- 
gation to  be  pursued  in  following  sections  ....  259 


SECTION  I. 

THE    SPECIFIC    CHARACTERS    OF    MAN. 

The  psychical  differences  between  Man  and  Brute  not  apparently  so 
great  as  the  physical ;  Importance  of  this  inquiry  ;  "  Perfectibi- 
lity/' and  its  application ;  The  Brute  capable  of  improvement ; 
Teaching  of  experience,  and  its  limit  in  the  Brute  creation ;  In- 
stinct :  its  intellectual  nature ;  Cases  of  its  cultivation ;  Its 
cultivation  in  Man;  Language  a  specific  human  peculiarity; 
Language  in  the  lowest  Races ;  Grammatical  structure  the  distin- 
guishing feature  between  Man  and  Brute;  Homogeneousness  of 
human  nature ;  Obscurity  of  psychical  life  of  Animals  ;  Characte- 
ristics of  Man;  External  psychical  manifestations;  Personal  or- 
namentation; Social  character  of  Man;  Ethical  importance  of 
property ;  Human  society ;  Sensuality  of  the  Negro ;  Religious 
notions  universal;  Religion  in  the  lowest  Races;  Moral  ideas; 
Distinct  sources  of  Religious  and  Moral  ideas ;  Origin  of  Religions 
explained ;  Superstitions ;  Distinctions  between  Man  and  Brute ; 
Use  of  the  senses;  Power  of  speech  wanting  in  Brutes,  and 
reason  thereof;  Individuality  of  Man ;  Language  a  test  of  Civiliz- 
ation ;  Sense  of  the  beautiful ;  The  lower  senses  of  Animals,  and 
their  limited  influence  on  character;  Psychological  value  of  the 
action  of  the  senses  269 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

SECTION  II. 

PRIMITIVE    STATE    OP    MAN. 

Value  of  psychological  facts  in  determining  the  Unity  of  Mankind ; 
Differences  in  Mental  Development  among  civilized  and  savage 
nations;  The  possible  high  Antiquity  of  Man  as  indicated  by 
Geology ;  Man  nowhere  found  in  a  Primitive  State  :  Slow  growth 
of  Language  discussed;  same  argument  applied  to  Physical 
Changes  in  Man ;  Parallelism  of  Infancy  and  Savage  Life ;  Diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  a  Scientific  Investigation  of  the  Primitive 
State;  the  Primitive  State  cannot  now  be  represented;  First 
Efforts  of  the  Primitive  Man  dependent  on  External  Nature; 
Natural  Indolence  of  Man  ;  Indolence  characteristic  of  all  unedu- 
cated persons ;  Vanity  and  ambition  the  levers  of  Civilization ; 
Peyroux  de  la  Condreniere,  Klenim,  and  Wuttke  on  the  Psychical 
Superiority  of  the  White  Races  ;  Psychical  effects  of  Cultivation ; 
Self-control  an  acquired  faculty ;  Barbarism  not  Degeneracy  ;  At- 
tachment to  country  among  uncultivated  nations  ;  Inhabitants  of 
the  Darfur;  Congo-Negroes,  Kru-Negroes,  Fuegians,  Hottentots, 
etc. ;  Motives  for  action  and  physical  indulgences,  social  enjoyment 
and  habit ;  External  life  of  Primitive  Peoples ;  Individuality  of 
character  not  so  common;  Vices  of  Primitive  Peoples;  Cannibalism; 
Revenge ;  Social  relations  :  marriage  among  the  barbarous ;  Poly- 
gamy ;  Polyandry ;  Chastity ;  Sense  of  shame ;  Examples  quoted ; 
Marital  rights ;  Influence  of  habit  and  custom ;  Social  conditions  ; 
Societies  :  clanship ;  Primitive  religions ;  Uniformity  of  religious 
conceptions ;  Note  on  "  Le  Peuple  Primitif "  of  Rougemont ;  the 
Symbolism  of  Colour  among  Primitive  Peoples ;  their  ideas  of  hu- 
man beauty ;  Courtesy  and  manners ;  Uncleanliness  of  Primitive 
Peoples  ;  Man's  nature  unchangeable ;  Uncultivated  White  races  ; 
Compared  with  savage  races ;  Degenerate  Irish ;  White  settlers  of 
Buenos  Ayres;  Creoles  of  La  Plata,  of  California,  of  Brazil,  of 
Goyaz ;  Portuguese  in  Africa ;  White  people  in  Banda  Islands,  of 
the  Mauritius,  etc. ;  Objections  met ;  Cases  of  relapse  into  savage 
life ;  Atrocities  committed  by  Whites,  by  Hindoos  against  English, 
by  American  settlers;  The  slave  trade;  Moral  sense;  Drunken- 
ness ;  Position  of  woman  :  among  savage  peoples,  among  the  old 
German,  in  Greece,  in  Rome,  among  Chinese,  Hindoos,  Moham- 
medans ;  Habits  of  so-called  savages  to  be  found  among  civilized 
nations ;  Differences  of  mental  power  in  individuals  of  same  races; 
Asserted  relapse  of  some  savage  nations  from  an  ancient  civiliza- 
tion ;  Natural  state  of  man  not  that  of  original  purity ;  Psychical 
unity  of  mankind ;  original  disposition  and  external  circumstances, 
and  their  influence  on  the  development  of  a  people ;  Inconstancy 
of  mental  power ;  Civilization  the  work  of  individuals,  not  of  the 
whole  nation ;  Mental  endowment  changes  with  the  history  of  a 


CONTENTS. 


people ;  Obstruction  to  civilization  among  Fuegians,  Australians, 
etc.;  Among  the  Berbers,  Guanches,  Abyssinians,  Egyptians; 
Race  ascendancy ;  Retrospect ;  Theories  of  KLemm,  Wuttke,  Eic- 
thal,  and  Nott  and  Gliddon  "  On  Psychical  Distinction"  .  .  284 


SECTION  III. 

ON   THE   VARIOUS   DEGREES   OP    CIVILIZATION,* AND  THE    CHIEF 
CONDITIONS  OF  ITS  DEVELOPMENT. 

Further  arguments  necessary  to  maintain  the  theory  of  the  specific 
unity  of  mankind ;  Influence  of  surrounding  nature  on  develop- 
ment of  man ;  Effects  of  climate ;  Reluctance  to  labour  in  hot 
climates ;  not  confined  to  natives ;  Physical  precocity ;  Abundance 
of  natural  food  in  torrid  zone  :  its  paucity  in  the  frigid ;  Effects 
thereof  in  the  development  of  man's  civilization ;  The  tempe- 
rate zones ;  Temporary  energy  exhibited  in  the  tropics ;  Endurance 
of  Negro ;  Mental  characteristics  of  tropical  peoples ;  Americans 
of  the  States ;  Obstructions  to  progress ;  Hunting  life ;  Character- 
istics of  the  hunter ;  The  fisher ;  Agricultural  life ;  Reasons  for  the 
stationary  position  of  the  Negro ;  Nomadic  life ;  Pastoral  life  in 
North  and  South  America ;  Cattle  breeding  in  America,  in  Africa ; 
Influence  of  climate  on  the  temperament ;  Influence  of  geographi- 
cal conditions ;  Coast  line,  tidal  rivers,  mountains,  etc. ;  Negroes 
of  the  interior  and  of  thd  coast ;  Advantages  of  a  long  coast  line 
in  the  progress  of  civilization ;  the  Polynesians ;  Migrations,  and 
their  effects  on  progress;  Great  importance  of  migrations  in 
creating  competition ;  Effects  of  intermixture ;  War,  and  its  civil- 
izing power ;  Intermixture ;  Density  of  population :  its  influence 
on  progress  of  civilization ;  Agassiz ;  Morton  on  the  mission  of  the 
"  higher"  races  ;  their  doctrines  opposed ;  Humboldt  on  the  unity 
of  man  kind;  The  theological  view  of  the  origin  of  civilization ;  Im- 
pediments to  the  progress  of  a  nation ;  Effects  of  agricultural  pur- 
suits; their  influence  on  the  national  character;  Political  conditions; 
Law  and  government :  Barthez  and  Passy  thereon ;  Acquisition  of 
private  property,  and  its  retention  among  primitive  peoples ;  Ad- 
vantages of  a  despotism ;  Brooke  on  Chinese  and  Malay  peoples ; 
Necessity  of  despotism  to  the  progress  of  primitive  peoples ;  Ab- 
sence of  free  governments  in  tropical  climates ;  Unequal  distribu- 
tion of  property :  its  importance  to  progress ;  Comparison  of  the 
various  classes  of  society ;  Greater  psychical  differences  among  the 
cultivated;  their  importance  to  progress;  Highly-gifted  indivi- 
duals ;  Genius  existing  in  every  race ;  Productive  countries,  and 
the  stimulus  they  give  to  civilization ;  Importance  of  trade ;  Value 
of  international  commerce ;  injurious  to  the  savage  people ;  Excep- 
tions quoted ;  Creation  of  new  wants ;  Barter ;  Religion — condi- 
tions of  its  advantage  or  disadvantage ;  The  origin,  development, 


CONTENTS. 

and  nature  of  primitive  religions;  Eeligions  of  savage  nations 
impede  their  progress ;  Intensity  of  religious  convictions  in  Ame- 
rican tribes  ;  Erection  of  temples ;  Meaning  of  immortality  among 
primitive  religions ;  Hero-worship;  Legend  of  Fohi;  Great  founders 
of  religions ;  their  influence  an  element  of  civilization ;  Natural 
religions  inadequate  for  progress ;  their  superstitious  tendency  ; 
Religion  the  work  of  individuals ;  The  greater  success  of  religions 
of  native  origin ;  JVEohammedan  religion  :  its  limited  usefulness ; 
Influence  of  art  on  civilization ;  The  power  of  knowledge ;  its  in- 
fluence on  religion;  Knowledge  the  chief  lever  of  civilization; 
Motives  for  its  development ;  Tendency  to  progress  not  innate  in 
man 


Civilization  dependent  more  on  historical  events  than  on  original 
mental  endowment ;  National  character — not  determined  by  Race 
alone;  nor  by  Religious  or  Political  institutions;  Differences  in 
state  of  Civilization  only  those  of  degree ;  The  general  value  of 
Civilization;  Enjoyment;  Labour;  Happiness  without  culture — 
Cases  cited ;  Improbability  of  a  uniform  Civilization ;  A  high  state 
of  culture,  morals,  and  religion  incompatible  with  a  tropical  life ; 
Christianity;  Conclusion  ......  380 


DEDICATION. 


3Tijc  jFounfccr  of  tfjc  ^ntijropological  Sotietg  of  ILonUon, 

JAMES    HUNT,   ESQ.,  PH.D.,  F.S.A., 

F.B.S.L.,    F.A.S.L., 

FOREIGN      ASSOCIATE      OF      THE      ANTHROPOLOGICAL      SOCIETY      OF      PARIS, 

HONORARY   FELLOW    OF    THE    ETHNOLOGICAL    SOCIETY   OF   LONDON, 

CORRESPONDING   MEMBER   OF  THE   UPPER   HESSE   SOCIETY 

FOR   NATURAL  AND   MEDICAL   SCIENCE, 


UNDER   WHOSE    ABLE    PEESIDENCY    THE    AFFAIRS    OF    THE    SOCIETY 
HAVE    BEEN    CONDUCTED    WITH    UNEXAMPLED    SUCCESS, 

THIS    WORK    IS    INSCRIBED, 

WITH    FEELINGS    OF    THE    HIGHEST    REGARD    AND    ESTEEM, 
BY    HIS    SINCERE    FRIEND, 

J.  FRED.  COLLINGWOOD. 


EDITOR'S    PEEFACE. 


THE  ANTHROPOLOGICAL  SOCIETY  OF  LONDON  was  founded 
early  in  the  present  year,  and  in  its  first  general  Circular 
announced  that  it  contemplated  publishing  the  present 
volume  as  the  first  of  a  long  series  of  standard  works  on 
Anthropological  Science.  After  the  preliminary  arrange- 
ments had  been  made,  the  Council  and  Publishing  Com- 
mittee of  the  Society  conferred  on  me  the  honour  of 
entrusting  the  superintendence  of  this  work  to  my  hands. 
My  duty  is  accomplished,  and  I  have  now  the  pleasure  of 
introducing  DR.  WAITZ  to  the  English  reader. 

It  will  be  advisable,  in  the  first  place,  to  record  here 
the  object  of  the  Society  in  undertaking  to  publish  trans- 
lations of  works  on  General  Anthropology.  The  publica- 
tion of  a  series  of  works  on  the  Science  of  Man  forms  an 
integral  part  of  the  object  for  which  the  Society  was  es- 
tablished :  as  its  programme  sets  forth,  "  The  publication 
of  a  series  of  works  on  Anthropology  will  tend  to  pro- 
mote the  objects  of  the  Society.  These  works  will  gene- 
rally be  translations ;  but  original  works  will  also  be 
admissible."  The  Society  regards  this  measure  as  an 
important  means  by  which  it  proposes  to  encourage 
"  all  researches  tending  to  establish  a  de  facto  Science 
of  Man." 

The  responsibility  of  recommending  Dr.  Waitz's  An- 


XIV  PREFACE. 

thropologie  der  Naturvolker  for  translation  rests  with  the 
Council  and  Publishing  Committee  of  the  Society.  I 
may  briefly  explain  the  reasons  which  tended  to  its  selec- 
tion. The  question  arose,  "  what  continental  work  best 
represents  the  present  state  of  Anthropological  Science  T 
The  unanimous  reply  of  the  Council  was,  that  no 
modern  work  has  so  well  epitomised  the  present  state 
of  our  knowledge  on  the  subject  as  the  first  volume  of 
Professor  Waltz's  Anthropology  of  Primitive  Peoples. 
The  President  of  the  Society  thus  spoke  in  his  Intro- 
ductory Address  :  * 

"  In  selecting  works  to  be  translated,  we  shall  be  guided  by  a  de- 
sire to  introduce  books  into  this  country,  which,  while  being  useful 
to  the  student  and  teacher,  will  at  the  same  time  help  to  give  the 
reading  public  a  better  appreciation  of  the  object  and  extent  of  an- 
thropological science.  The  Council  will  not  simply  favour  the  trans- 
lation of  works,  in  the  opinions  of  which  they  agree,  but  will  aim  at 
introducing  those  works  which  best  represent  the  prevailing  opinions 
respecting  Anthropology  on  the  Continent.  The  importation  of 
foreign  ideas  and  modes  of  treating  our  science  cannot  fail  to  pro- 
duce beneficial  results." 

It  is  not  necessary  to  insist  here  on  the  unsatisfactory 
nature  of  every  systematic  work  on  Anthropology  that 
has  yet  been  published,  for  the  infancy  of  the  Science  of 
Man  is  a  sufficient  explanation.  It  is,  however,  advisable 
to  have  the  latest  authorities  collected  in  a  handy  volume, 
which  may  serve  as  a  basis  for  future  research.  The  per- 
sonal opinions  of  an  author  are  only  of  secondary  value 
in  all  systematic  works,  for  the  facts  are  not  yet  collected 
so  as  to  enable  anyone  to  pronounce  decisively  on  some 
of  the  vexed  questions  of  Anthropological  Science.  To 
the  student  of  the  Science  of  Mankind  this  work  will  be 
invaluable.  Nothing  can  better  illustrate  the  present  con- 

*   Seo  "Anthropological  Review,"  i,  p.  15. 


PREFACE.  XV 


dition  of  the  science  than  the  contradictory  statements 
contained  therein  ;  but  in  the  hands  of  travellers  it  may 
greatly  help  to  rectify  much  of  our  present  confusion. 

There  has  hitherto  been  no  work  in  the  English  lan- 
guage on  Anthropology  which  could  be  recommended  as  a 
text-book  for  travellers  and  students  generally.  Since 
the  time  of  Prichard  no  work  has  issued  from  the  press  of 
this  country  of  general  utility.  There  have  been  many 
special  treatises,  but  none  at  all  comparable  to  the  present 
volume.  In  America,  the  important  and  comprehensive 
works  of  Nott  and  Gliddon  have  helped  to  supply  a  want; 
but  they  are  so  violent  in  opinion,  and  there  is  such  a  uni- 
versal impression  that  they  were  written  "with  an  object," 
that  their  value  as  text-books  is  very  much  lessened. 
Dr.  Waitz  shares  with  many  authors,  a  suspicion  that 
these  works  were  written  to  prove  the  distinct  origin  of 
superior  and  inferior  races  of  mankind,  and  at  times, 
perhaps,  he  fails  to  do  the  American  authors  justice. 

The  present  work  has  rarely  been  noticed  in  this 
country  ;  but  in  France  it  has  been  freely  criticised.  It 
has  also  been  well  received  in  Germany,  and  Dr.  Waitz's 
firmest  theoretical  opponents  have  willingly  admitted  the 
zeal,  immense  research,  and  erudition  he  has  shown  in 
the  collation  of  his  materials.  Neither  is  it  written 
in  a  narrow  party  spirit,  but  the  author  is  candid  and  im- 
partial, and  the  whole  tone  of  his  work  is  characteristic 
of  a  truly  philosophical  mind. 

With  regard  to  my  own  duties  as  editor,  I  have  only 
to  explain  that  the  original  has  been  followed  as  closely 
as  possible  consistently  with  rendering  a  readable  trans- 
lation of  language  so  thoroughly  idiomatic  as  are  the 
writings  of  Professor  Waitz.  The  great  number  of 
references  which  the  work  contains  has  led  me  to  depart 


XVI  PREFACE. 

from  the  original  in  their  arrangement :  for  the  greater 
comfort  of  the  reader  I  have  placed  them  at  the  foot, 
whereas  in  the  German  they  appear  in  the  text. 

The  present  edition  has  been  enriched  by  numerous 
additional  notes  and  references  from  the  pen  of  the 
author,  the  former,  as  a  rule,  having  been  incorporated  in 
the  text.  I  have,  partly  on  that  account  and  partly  from 
the  character  of  the  work,  refrained,  with  two  or  three 
exceptions,  from  encumbering  its  pages  with  additions  of 
my  own.  But  this  course  will  be  no  precedent  for 
the  editors  of  future  publications  of  the  Society.  In 
many  cases  it  may  be  the  special  duty  of  the  editor  to 
bring  the  work  of  which  he  has  charge  up  to  the  science 
and  knowledge  of  his  day. 

The  table  "of  contents  has  been  somewhat  amplified, 
and  a  copious  index  added.  This  was  required,  inas- 
much as  the  time  when  the  work  will  be  continued  has 
not  been  determined  on  by  the  Society,  and  the  pre- 
sent volume  is  complete  in  itself,  forming  one  of  the 
most  valuable  contributions,  that  has  yet  appeared,  to 
general  Anthropology. 

J.  R  C. 

4,  St.  Martin's  Place,  London, 
October  14th,  1863. 


AUTHOK'S    PREFACE. 


THE  questions  raised  in  this  work — which  have  for  a  consider- 
able time  been  discussed  in  America  rather  as  party  questions, 
but  have  in  England,  since  the  emancipation  of  the  negroes, 
become  subjects  of  unprejudiced,  serious  inquiry, — have  been 
scarcely  touched  upon  in  Germany,  until  recently  a  contro- 
versy arose,  the  politico-theological  rather  than  the  scientific 
tendency  of  which,  created  for  them  a  transitory  attention, 
without,  however,  leading  to  an  exhaustive  treatment  of  the 
subject,  or  exciting  that  deep  interest  which  it  deserves.  Sci- 
entific problems,  which  seem  to  lie  between  or  to  embrace 
the  several  branches  into  which  we  are  accustomed  to  divide 
human  knowledge,  are,  amongst  us,  not  favoured  by  fate.  If 
formerly,  philosophy  took  charge  of  such  orphan  problems, 
they  are  at  present  no  longer  considered,  since  philosophy  is 
gone  out  of  fashion ;  and  consequently  in  our  universities 
there  is  neither  a  faculty  nor  a  professor  who  takes  charge  of 
them. 

I  have,  nevertheless,  ventured  to  treat  upon  this  subject, 
though  I  cannot  justify  my  act  by  the  consciousness  of  pos- 
sessing a  competent  knowledge  in  all  the  sciences  bearing 
upon  its  investigation.  Led  to  it  by  psychological  studies,  I 
had  from  the  beginning  no  hope  of  arriving  at  a  perfect  solu- 
tion of  a  question  which  it  were  desirable  should  be  treated  by 
the  united  powers  of  the  zoologist  and  geologist,  the  linguist, 
historian,  and  psychologist.  But  as  such  a  happy  combination 
may  be  long  in  occurring,  there  remained  but  the  alternative 
either  to  leave  the  question  in  abeyance,  or  to  try  its  solution 
with  insufficient  means. 


2  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

I  may  be  blamed  for  having  chosen  the  latter  course ;  the 
more  so,  as  with  my  limited  means  and  the  want  of  useful 
authorities,  there  was  no  hope  of  an  exhaustive  employment  of 
existing  materials.  I  must,  under  these  circumstances,  leave 
the  book  to  answer  for  itself.  If  it  succeed  in  arousing  an 
interest  for  general  questions  concerning  man,  in  advancing 
the  knowledge  of  human  nature,  of  which  still,  here  and  there, 
curious  notions  prevail,  and  thus  laying  the  foundation  for 
future  and  better  works,  its  object  will  be  attained. 

With  regard  to  the  plan  of  the  work,  I  have  only  to  say, 
that  the  succeeding  volumes  will  contain  ample  proofs  in  sup- 
port of  the  general  principles  advanced  in  the  first  volume. 
These  proofs  will  be  found  in  the  special  descriptions  of  the 
life  of  the  peoples  inhabiting  Africa,  America,  and  the  South 
Sea.  The  description  of  their  external  life  will,  as  being  less 
characteristic  and  important,  and  also  from  being  better  known, 
be  treated  less  prominently ;  whilst  greater  attention  will  be 
devoted  to  the  description  of  the  psychical,  moral,  and  intel- 
lectual peculiarities  of  these  nations. 

An  accurate  citation  of  authorities  seemed  to  me  indis- 
pensable, both  for  control  and  for  my  justification.  I  have 
therefore  added  the  year  of  publication  to  the  titles  of  the 
works  quoted,  so  that  there  may  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  editions 
I  have  consulted.  Where  Prichard  is  mentioned,  without  any 
addition,  the  third  original  English  edition  of  his  large  work 
is  alluded  to. 

TH.  WAITZ. 

Marburg,  30th  October,  1858. 


INTRODUCTION. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  as  yet,  occupies  but  an  uncertain  and  indefinite 
position  among  the  various  sciences  relating  to  man.  Accord- 
ing to  its  name,  it  aspires  to  be  the  science  of  man  in  general ; 
or,  in  precise  terms,  the  science  of  the  nature  of  man.  To 
the  zoologist,  and  to  naturalists  in  general,  Man  seems  to  be 
neither  more  nor  less  than  the  most  organized  parasite  of  the 
earth, — the  highest  mammal ;  to  the  theologian  he  appears  as  a 
being,  by  his  mortal  body  belonging  to  nature  ;  by  his  spiritual 
endowment  rising  far  above,  standing  in  strict  contrast  to  it, 
and  occupying,  by  the  Divine  breath  which  has  animated  him 
only,  a  privileged  position  between  God  and  nature.  Whoever 
acknowledges  in  nature  a  spiritual  power  and  an  inconceivable 
wisdom  to  which  he  turns  with  a  certain  religious  worship, 
might  feel  inclined  to  designate  one  part  of  the  conflict  be- 
tween these  two  views  as  a  mere  logomachy,  but  only  one  part 
of  it ;  for  the  question,  whether  man — at  least  in  one  aspect  of 
his  nature — stands  beyond  and  above,  and  not  in  nature,  would 
still  be  left  in  doubt,  as  well  as  the  other  question  allied  to  it 
with  reference  to  the  priority  of  spirit  or  of  matter. 

A  third  view,  which,  in  a  certain  sense,  endeavoured  to  re- 
concile both  the  above  theories,  has  only  contributed  to  expose 
the  conflict  between  them, — it  is  the  theory  according  to  which 
the  spirit  of  humanity  is  the  spirit  of  God  himself,  the  same 
one  and  absolute  spirit  which,  unconscious  of  itself,  creates 
the  world,  and  only  reaches  the  end  of  its  development  in  man 
as  the  sole  agent  of  divine  self-consciousness.  A  self-evident 
sequence  of  this  conception  is,  that  knowledge  of  God  and 

B2 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

knowledge  of  human  nature  (Anthropology)  are  identical,  since 
God,  according  to  this  theory,  can  have  no  other  attributes 
than  those  which  present  themselves  in  the  history  of  the 
mental  development  of  man  as  purely  human  attributes,  acting, 
at  the  same  time,  as  divine  powers  in  the  history  of  civilization. 
We  thus  perceive  the  striking  contrast  between  these  three 
conceptions  relating  to  the  human  being  ;  for  the  first  places 
man  altogether  in  nature ;  the  second  does  so  in  part ;  the 
third  places  him  entirely  above  nature. 

In  this  conflict  of  opinion — one  side  of  which  humbles  the 
self-esteem  of  man  as  much  as  another  flatters  him — and 
considering  the  intrinsic  interest  of  the  subject,  one  might 
expect  anthropology  to  be  an  industriously  cultivated  field,  and 
that  especially  the  faculties  of  those  who  assign  to  man  so 
peculiarly  sublime  a  position,  not  merely  upon  the  earth,  but 
in  the  whole  universe,  should  be  zealously  directed  to  it.  Yet 
such  is  not  the  case.  In  Germany  it  is  at  present  a  common 
case,  that  in  the  fields  of  various  sciences,  and  even  within  the 
same  science,  opposite  theories  grow  up,  without  their  respec- 
tive propounders  taking  any  notice  of  each  other,  or  even  en- 
deavouring to  consolidate  their  doctrines.  The  strength  of  party 
supplies  the  strength  of  argument;  the  trouble  of  giving 
scientific  proofs  seems  unnecessary  where  such  value  is  attached 
to  the  judgment  of  those  who,  by  agreeing  in  some  funda- 
mental points,  represent  each  other  with  the  instinctive  force 
of  an  esprit  de  corps.  With  the  same  kind  of  tact,  all  that 
has  grown  upon  a  foreign  stock  is  silently  passed  over  or 
eliminated,  whilst  that  which  seems  homogeneous  is  assimi- 
lated; and  thus  scientific  life  moves  in  individual  separate 
small  spheres,  whilst  the  more  comprehensive  and  fundamental 
questions  are  no  longer  discussed. 

This  applies  also  to  the  question  of  the  nature  of  man ;  but 
here  another  circumstance  occurs  which  has  essentially  con- 
tributed to  prevent  Anthropology  from  acquiring  its  rights, 

this  is,  the  peculiarly  limited  conception  formerly  attached  to 
it.  The  old  treatises  on  this  subject  make  it  appear  merely  as 
an  aggregate  of  materials  which  already  belong  to  other 
branches  of  science,  and_are  in  Anthropology  only  arranged 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

and  popularly  expounded.  The  most  important  and  interesting 
-  which  comparative  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Psychology 
have  pointed  out  with  regard  to  the  differential  character  of 
man  from  the  Animals  nearest  to  him,  constituted  the  chief 
portion  of  Anthropology.  Some  other  subjects  were  added,  of 
which  either  nothing  is  known,  or  which  do  not  admit  of  a 
scientific  exposition,  such  as  investigations  into  the  origin  of 
mankind,  animal  magnetism,  mysterious  solar,  lunar,  terres- 
trial influences,  partly  a  heritage  of  the  old  philosophy  of  na- 
ture which  has  succumbed  to  the  progress  of  natural  science. 
Thus  Steffens  distinguished  a  geological,  physiological,  and 
psychological  anatomy.  Latterly,  this  mode  of  expounding 
Anthropology  has  been  abandoned;  for  though  the  present 
time  is  by  no  means  quite  adverse  to  the  belief  in  the 
supernatural  and  improbable  reciprocal  relations  between  na- 
tural objects,  admissions  of  this  kind  are  very  sparingly 
made;  hence  works  on  Anthropology  in  this  direction  have 
disappeared.  Moreover,  they  could  not,  as  mere  aggregates 
of  materials  belonging  to  other  sciences,  claim  an  indepen- 
dent interest;  and  the  superficial  phrases  in  which  they  in- 
dulged on  a  variety  of  subjects,  such  as  dancing,  declamation, 
poetry,  and  love,  for  the  purpose  of  embracing,  according 
to  the  German  custom,  every  human  peculiarity,  were  not 
calculated  to  supply  the  requisite  interest.  One  great  reason 
why  Anthropology  could  not  sustain  itself  in  thia  form,  is 
owing  to  the  awkward  position  in  which  it  was  placed  by 
being  considered  and  treated  at  one  time  as  an  empirical,  and 
at  another  time  as  a  philosophical  science ;  thus  assuming  an 
undefined  and  fluctuating  character :  here,  it  appeared  with 
abstract  deductions,  without  any  experimental  basis;  there, 
as  a  mere  collection  of  interesting  experimental  details,  arbi- 
trarily changing  the  mode  of  treatment.  In  opposition  thereto, 
it  is  requisite  to  declare  in  this  place,  once  for  all,  that  Anthro- 
pology is  to  be  considered  as  an  empirical  science,  because  its 
subject,  Man,  is  only  known  to  us  empirically,  and  hence  it  is 
requisite  to  study  man  by  the  same  method  which  is  applied 

lie  investigation  of  all  other  natural  objects. 
In  attempting  to  limit  the  sphere  of  Anthropology,  and  to 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

assign  to  this  science  a  proper  and  well-defined  position  among 
other  allied  branches  of  human  knowledge,,  our  attention  is 
first  directed  to  two  departments  of  study,  differing  greatly  in 
matter  and  method,  but  which,  nevertheless,  in  spite  of  their 
external  dissimilarity,  possess  this  in  common, — that  they  both 
make  Man  the  exclusive  subject  of  their  consideration,  in  the 
investigation  of  his  nature ;  we  allude  to  the  Anatomy,  Physio- 
logy, and  Psychology  of  man,  on  one  part ;  and  to  the  History 
of  Civilization,  on  the  other.  Our  task,  therefore,  is  to  inquire 
into  what  has  been  accomplished  in  these  fields,  as  regards  the 
nature  of  man,  and  whether  the  results  obtained  form  such  a 
complement  that  from  their  combination  the  desired  knowledge 
may  be  obtained. 

Anatomy,  physiology,  and  psychology  consider  man  as  an 
individual  being,  not  indeed  (like  the  practical  physician  and 
pedagogue),  as  an  examplar,  but  as  the  representative  of  a 
genus  :  not  with  regard  to  particular  accidental  peculiarities 
by  which  he  is  distinguished  from  other  individuals  of  the 
same  genus ;  but  in  so  far  as  the  common  or  generic  character 
of  all  similar  individuals  is  represented  in  him,  and  the  laws  to 
which,  externally  and  internally,  all  these  individuals  are  sub- 
ject, appear  manifested  in  him.  But  the  consideration  of 
man,  in  his  social  relation,  is  foreign  to  these  sciences ;  the 
whole  sum  of  mental  performances,  which  proceed  only  from  a 
multifarious  reciprocal  action  of  individualities,  and  which  in 
the  course  of  centuries  essentially  transform  the  external  and 
inner  life  of  society,  lies  beyond  its  sphere.  And  if  Psycho- 
logy does  not  altogether  desist  from  casting  a  glance  at  this 
sphere,  it  feels  obliged  to  remain  at  the  gate,  and  to  rest  satis- 
fied with  an  historical  description  of  certain  facts,  as  the  con- 
catenation of  the  acting  causes  is  too  great  to  enable  it  to 
reduce  the  course  of  events  to  psychological  laws,  thus  finding 
its  progress  obstructed  just  where  the  proper  field  of  the 
History  of  Civilization  commences.  The  latter  directs  its  atten- 
tion exclusively  to  social  life  and  its  development ;  and  the  con- 
tribution which,  from  this  point  of  view,  it  renders  towards  the 
knowledge  of  human  nature,  is  doubtless  as  essential  as  that 
contributed  by  the  natural-  sciences.  There  remains,  un- 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

fortunately,  a  considerable  gap  in  our  knowledge;  for  these 
different  branches  of  science  stand  yet,  side  by  side,  uncon- 
nected, whilst  they  should,  by  combination,  assist  each  other. 

This  is  first  shown  by  the  relation  of  Physiology  to  Psycho- 
logy. Both  these  sciences  are  usually  so  limited  that  the  first 
treats  of  physical,  and  the  second  of  psychical  life ;  hence,  the 
reciprocal  actions  of  the  physical  and  psychical  organization 
remain  unexplained,  for  an  investigation  of  this  subject  fits 
neither  in  the  frame  of  physiology  nor  of  psychology.  And 
yet,  as  regards  the  question  of  the  nature  of  man,  the  modes 
and  peculiar  form  of  this  reciprocal  action  are  of  the  greatest 
importance.  The  obscurity  as  regards  the  essence  of  the  soul, 
and  its  connexion  with  the  body,  is  not  a  sufficient  excuse. 
The  disputed  points  might,  without  any  great  loss,  remain 
untouched,  if  the  task  proposed  were  merely  to  investigate  the 
amount  of  the  influences  of  the  physical  organization,  with  its 
peculiarities  and  periodical  changes,  upon  psychical  life ;  and 
the  kind  of  reaction  the  body  experiences  from  psychical 
activity;  to  what  extent  they  take  place,  and  what  are  the 
proximate  and  remote  results. 

Still  larger  than  the  gap  subsisting  between  physiology  and 
psychology,  is  that  obtaining  between  the  physical  and  histo- 
rical parts  of  our  knowledge.  The  History  of  Civilization  is 
unquestionably  developed  by  the  collective  action  of  four 
connected  groups  of  causes.  The  first  is  the  physical  or- 
ganization of  man.  The  second  presents  itself  in  the  form 
of  the  psychical  life  peculiar  to  each  people,  which  appears 
developed  in  all  individuals  belonging  to  it  in  a  world  agitated 
by  various  interests,  views,  and  feelings.  Surrounding  nature 
forms  the  third.  The  fourth  is  the  sum  total  of  social  relations 
and  connexions  of  individuals  and  circles  of  society,  inter- 
nally and  externally.  The  History  of  Civilization  by  itself  has 
only  for  its  object  the  representation,  to  the  fullest  extent,  of  the 
origin  and  the  decline  of  each  civilization,  and  the  ascertain- 
ment of  their  causes.  Here  it  becomes  evident  how  uncon- 
nected the  physical  part  of  the  science  of  man  stands  beside  the 
historical  part ;  for  we  are  as  yet  very  far  from  being  able,  by 
a  philosophy  of  history  growing  out  of  physiology  and  psycho- 


8  INTEODUCTION. 

logy,  to  indicate  why  and  wherefore  the  history  of  one  people 
has  undergone  a  different  process  of  development  from  that  of 
another  people ;  why  one  people  has  no  history  at  all,  and  in 
another  the  sum  of  mental  performances  never  exceeds  a  cer- 
tain limit ;  and  yet  in  every  case  it  is  the  aggregate  of  the 
physiological  and  psychological  facts  alone  which  contains  the 
essential  conditions  of  the  historical  facts. 

In  assigning  to  Anthropology  the  task  of  mediation  between 
the  physical  and  historical  portion  of  our  knowledge  of  man,  it 
will  not  merely  be  delivered  from  the  reproach  of  being  a  mere 
collation  of  borrowed  materials,  and  thus  unjustly  claim  the 
position  of  an  independent  science ;  but  it  will  acquire  a  better 
right  to  its  name,  inasmuch  as  the  nature  of  man  mainly  rests 
upon  this, — that  he  steps  out  of  his  individual  life,  and  enters 
into  a  social  connexion  with  others,  by  whom  he  himself  arrives 
at  a  higher  and  truly  human  development.  It  is  at  the  point 
of  his  transition  from  isolation  into  social  life  that  Anthropology 
must  lay  hold  of  man,  and  investigate  the  conditions  and  results 
of  his  further  development. 

Let  us  endeavour  more  closely  to  examine  this  task  of  An- 
thropology in  its  relation  to  history.  In  the  historical  con- 
sideration of  man,  the  differences  of  physical  organization  and 
the  influences  of  surrounding  nature,  stand  in  the  background ; 
the  former,  because  the  development  of  civilization  is,  with 
some  few  unimportant  exceptions,  limited  chiefly  to  the  Cau- 
casian race ;  the  latter,  because  the  conformation  of  the  human 
race,  however  dependent  it  may  originally  in  pre-historic  times 
have  been  on  surrounding  nature,  has  gradually,  with  progres- 
sive civilization,  by  division  of  labour,  intercourse  and  trade, 
art  and  science,  greatly  emancipated  itself  from  this  depend- 
ence. Whilst  History  endeavours  to  represent  the  various 
phases  of  civilized  life  to  the  fullest  extent,  the  interest  of 
Anthropology  rests  chiefly  upon  the  general  features  and  the 
greatest  differences  in  the  various  forms  of  human  life ;  for  as 
regards  the  latter  science,  these  diversities  form  the  most  im- 
portant and  characteristic  part,  and  we  should  have  but  a  one- 
sided conception  of  man,  if  our  notion  of  him  were  only  derived 
from  the  history  of  civilization  without  taking  into  consider- 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

ation  the  requisite  supplement  arising  from  the  study  of 
uncivilized  nations,  and  of  man  in  a  primitive  state.  It  is  just 
this  point  which  anthropology  has  to  keep  in  view.  History 
only  begins  where  reliable  traditions  or  writings  exist, — where 
a  beginning  of  civilization  has  been  secured, — where  certain 
objects  are  rationally  pursued, — where  a  people  by  the  force  of 
historical  conditions,  either  influenced  by  the  genius  of  indivi- 
duals arising  among  them,  or  by  external  causes,  arrive  at  a 
certain  development.  Anthropology,  on  the  other  hand,  em- 
braces all  the  peoples  of  the  earth,  including  those  who  have 
no  history,  in  order  to  acquire  the  largest  possible  basis ;  and 
endeavours  partly  to  sketch  an  ante -historical  picture,  and 
what  may,  in  contrast  to  the  historical  development  of  peoples, 
be  termed  the  natural  history  of  human  society,  namely,  its 
necessary  natural  formation  upon  a  given  soil,  and  under  given 
stationary  external  conditions. 

As  man  appears  in  history  neither  as  a  living  body,  such  as 
physiology  describes  him,  nor  as  a  spiritual  being,  as  conceived 
by  psychology,  but  as  a  combination  of  physical  and  psychical 
life,  he  must  be  considered  as  a  whole  in  the  reciprocal  action 
of  his  physical  organization  and  his  psychical  life ;  for  it  is 
only  as  a  whole  that  he  appears  as  the  elementary  basis  of 
history.  There  arises  in  the  interest  of  history  another  ques- 
tion, as  to  the  extent  to  which  the  notion  of  man  should  be 
applied, — whether  all  individuals  and  peoples,  usually  compre- 
hended under  that  term,  are  of  one  and  the  same  nature, — 
whether  they  belong  to  one  species,  or  whether  there  be  not 
such  specific  differences  in  the  physical  and  psychical  en- 
dowments of  individual  stocks  as  would  justify  history  in 
excluding  them,  assigning  them  to  zoology,  and  defending 
their  employment  as  domestic  working  animals  by  higher 
organized  beings,  properly  called  men.  To  this  question  there 
is  another  closely  allied,  which  attracted  considerable  attention 
during  the  last  century,  but  which  seems  now  almost  neglected; 
namely,  the  question  as  regards  the  primitive  or  natural  state 
of  man  (Naturzustand) .  On  glancing  at  the  mode  in  which  it 
was  formerly  treated,  its  present  neglect  can  scarcely  surprise 
us ;  for  in  the  absence  of  empirical  materials  requisite  for  the 


1 0  INTRODUCTION. 

solution  of  this  problem,,  recourse  was  had  to  mere  rhetoric  of 
a  political  and  religious  nature,  in  order  to  establish  certain 
favourite  notions  with  regard  to  the  primitive  man.  Yet  it  is 
this  point  which  is  of  such  great  importance  to  the  student  of 
the  history  of  mankind ;  and  it  is  the  very  last  which  should 
be  neglected  in  laying  a  foundation  for  the  history  of  humanity, 
bearing  always  in  mind  that  this  investigation  must  be  con- 
ducted in  an  empirical  method,  and  not  by  a  deduction  from 
abstract  notions. 

The  fourth  theme  of  Anthropology  is  that  of  Ethnography 
or  Ethnology,  the  object  of  which  is  an  investigation  into  the 
affinities  of  various  peoples  and  tribes.  Closely  allied  with 
it  is  the  History  of  Mankind ;  and  it  seems  arbitrary  whether 
this  branch  of  knowledge  be  considered  as  a  separate  part  of 
Anthropology,  or  belonging  to  Ethnology.  The  important 
results  to  which,  in  modern  times,  German  philology  has  led, 
caution  us  against  the  errors  still  committed  in  determining 
affinities  of  nations,  and  grouping  them  in  families  or  races,  by 
viewing  them  exclusively  from  an  Ethnological  stand-point, 
and  neglecting  the  historical  and  other  evidence.* 


ON     THE    UNITY    OP    MANKIND    AS    A    SPECIES,    AND    ON    THE 
NATURAL    STATE    (NATURZUSTAND)    OF    MAN. 

Whosoever  would  arrive  at  a  just  conception  of  Man  must 
not  consider  him  exclusively  as  an  individual  being,  for  man  is, 
as  was  well  observed  by  Aristotle,  a  social  being ;  as  an 

*  That  the  definition  which  Latham  ("  Man  and  his  Migrations,"  London, 
1851)  has  recently  given  of  Anthropology,  is  confined  within  too  narrow 
limits,  requires,  after  what  has  been  stated,  no  elucidation.  He  distinguishes 
the  natural  history  of  man  from  the  history  of  civilization :  the  first  considers 
man  as  an  animated,  the  second  as  a  moral,  being.  The  natural  history  of 
man  he  divides  into  Anthropology,  treating  of  the  differential  characteristics 
of  man  in  contrast  with  the  brute ;  and  Ethnology,  the  doctrine  of  races  or 
varieties  of  mankind.  By  the  first,  the  peoples  are  to  be  classified  according 
to  their  physical  resemblances,  and  hence  Hottentots,  Esquimaux,  the  popu- 
lation of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  are  to  be  grouped  together,  in  order  to  deduce  the 
effects  of  external  influences ;  in  Ethnology,  on  the  other  hand,  the  peoples 
must  be  grouped  according  to  their  affinities. 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

individual  being  lie  cannot  be  fully  understood.  Anatomy  and 
physiology  have  therefore  by  themselves  no  claim  to  deter- 
mine the  nature  of  man;  nor  can  they  do  so  in  combination 
with  psychology,  which  being  chiefly  founded  on  self-contem- 
plation, carries  us  but  a  few  steps  beyond  the  individual  man. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  social  life  into  which  he  enters,  con- 
tributes much  towards  teaching  the  individual  what  passes 
within  him,  as  in  a  mirror,  and  exhibits  to  him  sensually  what 
he  would  never  have  been  able  to  comprehend  by  mere  self- 
contemplation.  Nevertheless,  this  enlarged  field  of  observation 
is  still  too  confined  to  enable  us  to  deduce  from  it  alone  the 
notion  of  Man. 

In  order  to  extend  our  horizon  we  must  direct  our  atten- 
tion to  the  history  of  a  people,  and  from  it  to  the  whole 
history  of  civilization.  Yet  even  this  basis  is  not  sufficiently 
comprehensive.  We  require,  in  order  to  have  a  just  conception 
of  the  nature  of  man,  a  knowledge  of  all  mankind;  but  this 
knowledge  cannot  be  obtained  nor  even  thought  of,  if  it 
is  not  preceded  by  defining  the  limits  of  mankind,  and  deter- 
mining the  question  whether  all  men  are  of  one  species,  or 
if  not,  within  what  limits  the  notion  of  species  is  to  be  con- 
fined. 

The  question  whether  the  individuals  which  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  call  human  beings,  are  all  of  one  stock,  or  whether 
there  are  ^between  them  permanent  specific  differences,  is  im- 
portant to  all  sciences.  Whether  the  knowledge  of  which  man 
is  capable,  is  absolute  for  all  thinking  beings,  or  is  only  rela- 
tive to  his  peculiar  stand-point,  still  all  his  thinking  and  know- 
ing is  specifically  human,  and  his  only  concern  is  that  it  should 
be  universally  valid  among  human  beings ;  for  every  endeavour 
in  our  researches  to  rise  above  the  sphere  in  which  nature  has 
confined  us,  resembles  the  attempt  to  fly  with  imaginary  wings, 
when  it  is  inconvenient  to  put  the  legs  in  motion.  All  the 
truths  which  are  brought  to  light  necessarily  relate  to  the 
nature  of  man,  partly,  since  all  knowledge  comes  of  him,  and 
partly  because  all  recognized  truths  lay  claim  to  general  assent, 
requiring  confirmation,  not  by  individual  and  merely  subjective, 
but  by  universal  human  conceptions  and  notions.  We  may, 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

therefore,  as  a  necessary  pre-supposition  of  all  sciences,  assume 
that  there  is  a  universal  and  unchangeable  human  nature ;  un- 
less we  place  ourselves  upon  a  purely  empirical  stand-point, 
from  which  ' '  universal"  signifies  nothing  more  than  a  relatively 
high  degree  of  probability,  because  at  different  times  and  under 
different  circumstances  it  is  acknowledged  as  true  by  men  of 
different  degrees  of  civilization. 

The  question  of  the  unity  of  species  and  the  nature  of  man 
specially  belongs  to  those  branches  of  knowledge  which  treat  of 
the  intellect.  These  sciences  usually  make  the  abstract  ideas 
on  mental  life,  its  signification  and  connection  which  they  find 
prevalent  among  peoples  of  different  degrees  of  culture,  the 
basis  of  their  deductions.  And  whence  should  these  sciences 
take  their  starting  points  for  logical,  psychological,  ethical, 
religious,  and  83sthetical  considerations,  if  not  from  the  ideal 
sphere  of  the  people  from  which  they  have  proceeded  ?  The 
inquirer  will  certainly,  in  the  reception  of  these  ideas,  not  pro- 
ceed without  discrimination,  but  he  will  compare  the  history 
of  the  development  of  one  people  with  that  of  his  own  people. 
This  leads  him  finally  to  draw  all  mankind  into  the  circle  of 
his  investigations,  since  having  once  entered  the  wide  field  of 
the  history  of  the  development  of  human  conceptions,  he  can- 
not avoid  the  conviction,  that  a  too  limited  notion  of  man  and 
his  intellectual  nature  must  obstruct  many  of  his  scientific 
views. 

Though  it  has  hitherto  not  been  doubted  that  the  same  laws 
of  thought  are  applicable  to  all  men  (which  is  only  rendered 
certain  by  the  assumption  of  their  specific  unity),  it  has  been 
frequently  discussed  whether  all  of  them  are  capable  of  the 
same  intellectual  and  moral  development,  whether  conscience 
speaks  to  all  in  the  same  manner,  whether  the  same  religion  is 
adapted  to  the  intellectual  and  moral  conception  of  all.  Who- 
soever denies  both  this  and  the  unity  of  the  human  species, 
generally  acquires  his  notion  of  human  nature  from  the  study 
of  the  Caucasian  race,  and  places  his  theoretical  views  on  right, 
morality,  and  religion,  upon  quite  a  different  basis  from  the 
disciples  of  the  opposite  theory.  He  obtains  thus  a  code  of 
laws  and  morals  which  is  only  binding  for  one  part  of  humanity; 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

for  whether  among  the  other  species  of  man  which  he  assumes, 
there  are  conditions  analogous  to  our  ideas  of  justice  and 
morality,  and  if  so,  of  what  quality,  would  require  a  separate 
investigation,  which  would  also  apply  to  religious  and  aesthe- 
tical  notions,  etc.  If  there  be  various  species  of  mankind, 
there  must  be  a  natural  aristocracy  among  them,  a  dominant 
white  species  as  opposed  to  the  lower  races  who  by  their 
origin  are  destined  to  serve  the  nobility  of  mankind,  and  may 
be  tamed,  trained,  and  used  like  domestic  animals,  or  may, 
according  to  circumstances,  be  fattened  or  used  for  physiolo- 
gical or  other  experiments  without  any  compunction.  To 
endeavour  to  lead  them  to  a  higher  morality  and  intellectual 
development  would  be  as  foolish  as  to  expect  that  lime  trees 
would,  by  cultivation,  bear  peaches,  or  the  monkey  would  learn 
to  speak  by  teaching.  Wherever  the  lower  races  prove  useless 
for  the  service  of  the  white  man,  they  must  be  abandoned  to 
their  savage  state,  it  being  their  fate  and  natural  destination. 
All  wars  of  extermination,  whenever  the  lower  species  are  in 
the  way  of  the  white  man,  are  then  not  only  excusable,  but 
fully  justifiable,  since  a  physical  existence  only  is  destroyed, 
which,  without  any  capacity  for  a  higher  mental  development, 
may  be  doomed  to  extinction  in  order  to  afford  space  to  higher 
organisms. 

To  such  or  similar  conclusions,  the  theory  of  specific  differ- 
ences among  mankind  leads  us.  Thus  there  are  different  and 
more  comprehensive  interests  attached  to  the  question  of  the 
unity  of  the  human  species,  than  to  the  probably  unsolvable 
problem  of  descent  from  one  pair  or  several  pairs,  or  the  con- 
test about  permanence  or  mutability  of  races. 

On  these  grounds  it  would  be  an  erroneous  conception, 
which,  however,  is  not  rare  among  naturalists,  to  think  that 
on  physical  considerations  alone,  for  or  against  the  permanence 
of  types,  we  can  decide  on  unity  of  species  j  for  whatever  side 
we  take  on  the  question  of  the  mutability  of  the  external  man, 
we  should  have  to  declare  against  specific  differences,  if  it  were 
to  turn  out  that  they  all  possess  the  same  qualities  which 
arrived  at  different  degrees  of  development,  determined  only 
by  external  circumstances  and  mode  of  life.  Though  some 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

external  and  internal  differences  may  in  certain  tribes  present 
themselves  as  constant — which  can  scarcely  be  denied  even  in 
people  originally  of  the  same  stock — if  it  cannot  be  shown  that 
there  is  a  difference  in  the  form  and  mode  of  development  of  in- 
tellectual life,  if  it  cannot  be  shown  that  some,  under  equally 
or  still  more  favourable  external  conditions  of  development, 
are  detained  in  a  lower  scale  than  others  by  original  weakness, 
the  proof  of  specific  difference  is  not  complete.  We  do  not 
mean  to  assert  that  whatever  great  and  constant  external  diver- 
sities may  prevail  among  mankind,  it  still  would,  from  a 
similar  mental  endowment,  follow  that  they  belong  to  the  same 
species :  we  acknowledge  in  this  respect  the  equal  rights  of 
physical  and  psychological  proofs,  but  we  cannot,  as  is  often 
done,  deem  the  latter  of  less  importance  than  the  former,  as  a 
mere  secondary  consideration  of  not  much  account.  The  ques- 
tion whether  we  have  to  decide  for  or  against  unity  of  species, 
where  there  is  a  considerable  constant  physical  difference  com- 
bined with  equal  mental  endowments,  or  physical  equality 
with  psychical  dissimilarity,  may  be  left  in  abeyance,  as  it  has 
no  practical  signification.  Nature  has  seemingly  relieved  us 
from  this  embarrassment,  in  combining  almost  everywhere  the 
same  pyschical  endowment  with  the  same  physical  characters, 
without,  however  (in  individuals  as  little  as  in  whole  nations), 
adopting  a  strict  parallelism  of  external  and  internal  develop- 
ment as  a  fixed  law.  If  such  a  parallelism,  as  some  modern 
authors  have  indicated,*  cannot  be  shown  to  obtain  generally  in 
the  animal  kingdom, — since  the  development  of  the  organization 
does  not  always  correspond  to  that  of  the  intellect,  and  though 
even  in  the  human  race  it  is  still  doubtful  whether  the  degrees 
of  intellectual  development  correspond  to  those  of  the  body, 
and  specially  of  the  brain, — there  has,  as  yet,  neither  in  animals 
nor  in  man  been  found  an  instance  of  a  combination  of  specific 
physical  equality,  with  a  specifically  different  psychical  endow- 
ment. 

Though  we  may  be  justified  in  classing  animals,  of  whose 
psychical  life  we  know  so   little,  according  to  their  external 

*  Compare  Volkmann,  Art.  "Gehirn,"  in  "Wagner's  Handworterb.  der 
Physiol." 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

organization,  we  cannot,  in  man,  make  our  ignorance  of  his 
inner  life  the  ground  for  considering  him  merely  in  his  physical 
aspect.  It  is  a  distorted  view  which  Cuvier  takes*  in  order  to 
keep  psychological  arguments  at  a  distance  in  the  classification 
of  animals,  when  he  says  that  all  vital  manifestations  which 
occur  only  periodically  are  useless  in  classification.  The  psy- 
chical life  of  every  species  of  animals  is  no  doubt  as  constant  as 
physical  life,  though  certainly  less  accessible  to  investigation. 
This  should,  however,  not  make  us  forget  that  all  classifications 
of  animals  which  rest  exclusively  on  their  organic  peculiarities 
are  only  provisional,  and  can  have  no  absolute  and  universal 
value,  since,  owing  to  our  necessarily  imperfect  knowledge, 
they  cannot  be  subjected  to  exhaustive  investigation.  But  with 
regard  to  man,  the  mere  physical  organization  and  its  muta- 
tability  is  insufficent  to  enable  us  to  decide  the  question  of 
unity  of  species,  since  the  character  of  humanity  consists,  first 
and  foremost,  in  the  specific  development  of  psychical  life,  and 
only  secondarily  in  the  physical  organism  as  the  embodiment 
of  this  spiritual  essence.  Hence  it  is  inappropriate  to  treat 
man  merely  as  an  object  of  natural  history,  and  to  divide  man- 
kind into  races  or  species,  according  to  external  forms,  without 
taking  into  consideration  that  the  most  striking  distinctions 
between  individuals  and  peoples  are  to  be  found  in  mental 
qualifications.  When,  for  instance,  Bory  de  St.  Vincent  f 
considers  it  as  undoubted  that  the  Negro,  in  spite  of  his  com- 
paratively smaller  brain,  possesses  the  same  mental  capacity  as 
the  Austrian,  whom  he  foolishly  enough  calls  the  Boeotian  of 
Europe,  and  the  same  capacity  as  four-fifths  of  Frenchmen; 
and  when  he  ascribes  to  all  his  species  of  mankind  the  same 
degree  of  perfectibility,  and  attributes  to  nine  Europeans  out 
of  ten  no  higher  mental  endowments  than  to  the  Hottentots,  it 
may  be  considered  as  a  complete  recantation  of  his  theory  with 
regard  to  specific  differences  existing  among  mankind.  Van 
Amzingej;  appears,  up  to  this  period,  to  have  been'  the  first 
author  who  considered  a  classification  of  mankind,  founded  on 

*  Thierreich  ubersetz  (Animal  "Kingdom,  translated),  by  Voigt,  1,  p.  5. 
t  "L'Homme,"  2nd  edit.,  1857,  ii,  p.  62, 

j  « Investigation  of  the  Theories  of  the  Natural  History  of  Man,"  New 
York,  1848. 


16  INTEODUCTION. 

mere  physical  character  and  irrespective  of  psychical  endow- 
ment, as  unscientific. 

For  the  above  reasons  our  investigation  respecting  the  unity 
of  mankind  is  divided  into  two  parts ;  the  first  has  to  examine 
whether  all  human  beings  are  to  be  considered  of  the  same 
species  on  physical  grounds ;  the  second,  whether  or  not  they 
are  so  on  psychological  grounds. 


PAET    I. 


PHYSICAL  INVESTIGATION. 

THE  notion  of  species  is  founded  upon  the  fact  that  the  typical 
similarity  of  natural  objects  is  preserved  throughout  all  their 
changes.  Between  the  inorganic  and  organic  kingdoms  of 
nature,  there  obtains  in  this  respect  only  this  difference  : — that 
the  sphere  of  action  is  larger  or  more  manifest  in  the  organic 
world,  the  natural  laws  leaving  a  wide  margin  for  the  produc- 
tion of  individual  varieties,  and  further  that  the  preservation  of 
types  can  only  be  effected  by  the  propagation  of  individuals 
belonging  to  them.  Apart  from  this,  the  signification  of  the 
term  species  applies  equally  to  organic  and  inorganic  objects ; 
it  designates  the  constancy  of  the  assemblage  of  characters  oc- 
curring, regularly  combined,  in  nature. 

Without  entering  into  any  details  with  regard  to  the  abuse 
made  of  this  term  in  philosophy,  it  may  be  sufficient  to  observe, 
that  species  are  neither  mere  subjective  abstractions  formed 
only  to  classify  the  innumerable  natural  objects,  nor  are  they 
exemplars,  which,  as  active  principles,  form  the  foundation  of 
all  natural  objects.  They  are,  in  fact,  nothing  else  than  empi- 
rical laws  of  natural  production ;  for  the  constant  coincidence 
of  similar  characters  must  have  as  its  fundamental  cause  a  cor- 
responding constant  assemblage  of  natural  conditions. 

So  long,  therefore,  as  by  the  term  species  nothing  more  is  desig- 
nated than  the  typical  similarity  of  natural  phenomena,  the  regu- 
larly recurring  complex  of  characters,  and  the  regular  recurrence 


18  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION. 

of  the  same  complex  of  causes  by  which  that  typical  similarity  is 
maintained,  the  term  expresses,  to  the  exclusion  of  every  hypo- 
thesis, merely  the  fact  as  observed,  and  presents  no  difficulty 
whatever.  But  if  it  be  requisite,  since  differential  characters  be- 
tween individuals  are  nowhere  wanting  in  nature,  that  in  the 
notion  of  species  there  should  be  included  a  criterion  accord- 
ing to  which  we  might  decide  as  to  the  range  of  variation  for 
each  type — that  is  to  say,  to  determine  the  limits  of  each,  or  what 
magnitude  or  qualities  of  the  differences  between  individuals 
might  justify  us  in  including  them  in  the  same  type  or  not — 
then  the  definition  of  the  term  species  becomes  difficult,  or  rather 
not  the  definition  itself,  but  the  laying  down  of  a  rule  as  to  the 
extent  of  the  variation  for  each  type  to  which  the  term  is  to  be 
applied.  The  only  positive  and  valid  proof  that  a  certain  num- 
ber of  individuals  belong  to  the  same  species,  proceeds  from  the 
demonstration  that  they  have  descended  from  the  same  original 
stock ;  and  in  all  doubtful  cases,  the  question  of  unity  of  species 
can  only  be  decided  by  analogy  with  those  cases  in  which  unity 
of  stock  has  been  amply  demonstrated.  But  as  the  extent  of 
this  range  of  variation,  and  consequently  unity  or  diversity  of 
descent  can,  in  comparatively  few  cases,  be  decided  by  direct 
evidence,  there  remains  a  wide  room  for  doubt  as  regards 
unity  or  difference  of  species.  This  is  the  more  the  case,  as  on 
the  one  hand  within  the  very  same  stock  later  generations  ex- 
hibit considerable  deviations  from  the  preceding,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  these  deviations,  arising  in  the  course  of  time,  may 
be  so  constantly  transmitted  that  it  cannot  with  any  certainty 
be  maintained,  that  they  do  not  possess  the  same  absolute  con- 
stancy as  that  attributed  to  specific  characters.  These  actual 
phenomena  are  designated  by  the  term  varieties,  which  are 
partly  individual,  or  merely  transitory,  or  more  or  less  perma- 
nent, in  which  case  the  term  race  is  used.  The  difficulty 
consists  in  determining  the  difference  between  species  and  per- 
manent variety,  or  race. 

We  purpose  reviewing  the  principal  attempts  made  in  this 
direction,  in  order  to  pave  the  way  for  our  investigation  of  the 
specific  unity  of  mankind,  and  learn  what  weight  is  to  be  at- 
tached to  arguments  derived  from  natural  history. 


DEFINITION    OF   SPECIES.  19 

The  definition  of  species,  as  given  by  Cuvier,1  seems  to  have 
been  generally  accepted  in  natural  history.  "  To  the  same 
species  belong  all  such  individuals  which  have  descended  from 
each  other  or  from  common  parents,  and  from  those  who  re- 
semble them  as  much  as  they  resemble  each  other." 

Prichard's  definition  that  the  term  species  includes  separate 
origin  and  constant  transmission  of  organic  peculiarities,  is 
identical  with  that  of  Cuvier.  Though  this  definition  is  theo- 
retically unquestionable,  it  contributes  little  or  nothing  to  the 
solution  of  the  practical  question  with  regard  to  the  characters 
by  which  individuals  of  the  same  species  may  be  distinguished 
from  others  belonging  to  a  different  species  ;  for  the  difficulty 
to  be  solved  is,  to  establish  a  decisive  character  for  the  great 
majority  of  cases  in  which  we  know  nothing  of  descent,  and  in 
which  the  resemblance  of  the  individuals  is  less  than  that  gene- 
rally subsisting  between  parents  and  children,  and  individuals 
of  the  same  stock.  For  such  a  character,  definitions  are  re- 
quired which  can  be  confirmed  or  refuted  by  experience ;  but 
this,  as  regards  common  descent,  excepting  individual  in- 
stances, is  not  the  case,  for  in  respect  to  remote  generations 
more  or  less  probable  suppositions  are  only  possible.  To  this 
defect  may  be  added  another  of  still  greater  importance. 

Though  we  may  readily  grant  that  unity  of  species  results 
from  unity  of  descent,  and  though  in  the  study  of  zoology  and 
descriptive  natural  science  unity  of  descent  is  chiefly  con- 
sidered, as  it  treats  of  the  propagation  and  history  of  organ- 
ized beings,  still  it  is  a  confusion  of  terms  to  identify  the  notions 
of  unity  of  species  and  unity  of  descent,  which  according  to  the 
above  definition  is  frequently  done  even  by  Prichard,  who  con- 
siders separate  descent  and  original  differences  of  character  as 
convertible  terms.  In  spite  of  this  frequent  confusion  of 
terms,  he  observes,  very  justly,  that  the  term  species  should 
only  be  applied  to  an  aggregate  of  individuals,  where  nothing 
intervenes  to  consider  them  as  the  descendants  from  the  same 
stock  :  that  is  to  say,  when  we  are  not  obliged  to  reduce  them 

1  "  La  reunion  des  individus  descendus  Tun  de  1'autre  ou  de  parents  com- 
muns,  et  de  ceux  qui  leur  ressemblent  autant  qu'ila  se  ressemblent  entre  eux." 
— K£gne  Animal,  2nd  edit.,  i,  p.  16. 

c2 


20  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION. 

to  different  stocks,  although  for  these,  we  must  add,  it  remains 
as  yet  undecided  whether  they  have  descended  from  one  or 
several,  and  in  the  latter  case  again,  whether  from  perfectly 
similar,  or  not  perfectly  similar  pairs.  Should  we  be  inclined  to 
assume  or  consider  as  possible,  that  all,  or  but  a  few  species  of 
animals,  have  descended  from  several  protoplasts,  we  are  already 
cautioned  not  to  confound  the  notions  of  unity  of  species  and 
unity  of  descent.  If,  then,  the  notion  of  species  and  the  whole 
sphere  of  its  applications  is  not,  at  the  outset,  to  be  placed  on  a 
fluctuating  basis,  it  will  be  requisite  to  keep  the  reference  to 
unity  of  descent  separate  from  it,  which  is  necessary  in  order 
that  every  thing  merely  hypothetical  should  be  excluded  there- 
from. The  notion  of  unity  of  species  of  a  number  of  individuals 
rests,  as  we  have  seen,  in  the  organic  and  inorganic  world, 
solely  upon  the  similarity  of  their  external  and  internal  nature, 
upon  the  regular  coincidence  of  the  same  essential  characters, 
by  which,  however,  nothing,  either  in  animals  or  plants,  is 
yet  decided  as  to  community  of  origin.  This  community  of 
origin  is  merely  a  probable  deduction  from,  the  actual  similarity 
of  their  nature,  because  propagation  and  transmission  seem  to 
be  the  only  way  of  its  preservation.  It  is  on  this  ground  alone, 
that  organic  beings,  belonging  to  the  same  species,  should  not 
exhibit  greater  differences  than  such  as  can  be  traced  in 
individuals  of  the  same  stock ;  and  yet  there  remains,  in  spite 
of  this,  a  possibility  that  individuals  whose  differences  do  not 
exceed  the  limits  of  variation  of  the  same  stock,  are  not  de- 
scended from  the  same  parents,  nor  from  perfectly  similar 
parents ;  notwithstanding  which  there  would  be  a  sufficient 
justification  for  including  them  in  the  same  species. 

We  shall,  therefore,  adopt  the  first  proposition  that  unity  of 
species  results  from  proved  unity  of  origin ;  but  not  the  second, 
which  has  often  by  zoologists  been  considered  as  inseparable 
from  it,  namely,  that  separate  descent,  wherever  it  can  be 
traced,  is  a  sufficient  proof  of  difference  of  species.  In  cases  of 
the  latter  kind  the  process  in  modern  times  has  usually  been 
to  declare  similar  types,  which  hitherto  had  passed  as  mere 
varieties,  to  be  different  species,  if  these  types  belonged  either 
to  certain  definite  regions,  or  if  apparently  unsurmountable 


SPECIES. UNITY.  21 

obstructions   prevented   their   migration  from  one  region   to 
another. 

Thus,  Agassiz  and  others  cite  the  Asiatic  and  African  lion  ;* 
Vogt,  the  chamois  of  the  Pyrenees  and  of  the  Alps ;  the  mouflon 
in  Sardinia  and  Asia  Minor,  which  though  they  differ  very 
little  from  each  other,  cannot  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the 
same  stock,  and  are  consequently  not  of  the  same  species. 
Giebel,2  especially,  has  quoted  a  large  number  of  examples 
which  seem  to  prove  that  the  assumption  of  single  prototypes 
for  individual  species  of  animals,  is  in  many  cases  untenable, 
partly  because  an  existence  in  masses  is  in  many  cases  requi- 
site for  the  nutriment  of  others,  partly  because  the  migratory 
capacity  of  many  is  too  limited  to  admit  of  their  gradual  pro- 
pagation over  the  whole  regions  which  they  at  present  occupy ; 
such  is  the  case  as  regards  the  mole,  the  beaver,  many  snails, 
and  most  fresh- water  animals.  Gregarious  animals  can  scarcely 
be  considered  as  having  descended  from  a  single  pair.  Hence, 
several  centres  of  creation  have  been  assumed,  at  least  for  some 
genera.  Here  it  is  especially  necessary  to  distinguish  unity  of 
descent  from  unity  of  species.  This  may,  perhaps,  be  done  by 
assuming,  whenever  the  facts  require  it,  that  a  species  consists 
of  ' '  homogenous  species/'  ' '  sub-parallel  species,"  or  "  stocks," 
namely,  where  in  individuals  of  an  ascertained  or  strongly  pre- 
sumptive different  stock,  the  usual  limits  of  variation  within 
the  same  stock  are  not  passed,  and  the  physical  and  mental 
development  is  essentially  the  same ;  so  that  according  to  Pri- 
chard's  expression,  "  there  is  nothing  in  the  way  to  consider 
them  as  the  descendants  of  the  same  stock ."  And  when  he 
further  agrees  with  De  Candolle,  that  it  does  not  unfrequently 
occur  that  two  individuals  who  really  belong  to  the  same  spe- 
cies, whose  common  descent  is  incontestable,  yet  differ  more  in 
their  external  aspect  than  others  of  a  different  species,  we  are 
reminded  of  the  uncertainty  of  all  conclusions  as  regards  unity 
of  stock  if  inferred  alone  from  similarity  of  type. 


1  Swainson  ("  Treatise  on  the  Geography  and  Classification  of  Animals/' 
p.  284,  1835)  is  inclined  to  assume  five  distinct  species  of  lions,  and  quotes 
other  similar  instances. 

8  «  Tagesfragen  aus  d.  Naturgesch.,"  p.  69,  1857. 


PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION. 


In  itself,  it  is  of  little  importance  what  signification  is  given  to 
the  term  "  species";  but  so  much  depends  upon  it,  that  unity  of 
descent,  which  requires  a  separate  proof,  should  not  be  in- 
cluded in  the  notion  of  typical  equality  of  beings.  The  con- 
ception of  species  does  not  merely  belong  to  zoology  and  botany, 
but  to  all  sciences ;  the  former  must,  therefore,  if  necessary, 
give  it  a  more  precise  definition ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  should 
keep  it  free  from  theoretical  assumptions,  as  it  is  merely  in- 
tended to  designate  the  actual  facts.  If  in  modern  times  there 
prevail  an  inclination  to  designate  every  variety  as  an  original 
species,  ' '  which  despite  of  all  external  influences  remains  per- 
manent," and  to  consider  this  character  of  permanency  of  type, 
even  under  unfavourable  circumstances,  as  the  sole  criterion  of 
species,1  a  definition  is  then  given,  which,  in  itself,  is  not 
objectionable ;  but  there  is  then  danger  to  overlook  or  alto- 
gether deny  the  actually  existing  variability  of  type,  so  that  the 
conception  of  species  (as  is  the  case  in  Morton  and  his  disci- 
ples, of  the  American  school),  is  in  fact  a  mere  definition  pre- 
pared in  order  to  arrive  at  the  intended  result  of  a  plurality  of 
the  human  species. 

Like  separate  descent,  so  also  has  fecundity  been  considered 
as  a  criterion  of  difference  of  species,  founded  chiefly  upon  the 
following  facts  : — 

In  a  state  of  perfect  liberty,  and  under  normal  conditions, 
animals  of  the  same  type  not  only  pair  with  each  other,  but 
usually  select,  by  preference,  such  individuals  of  the  same  type 
as  resemble  them  most,  especially  as  regards  colour.  Cross- 
ing of  different  types  and  the  production  of  hybrids,  occur  in 
the  free  state  only  under  abnormal  circumstances,  and  if  inten- 
tionally occasioned  by  man,  they  succeed  only  by  the  agency 
of  artificial  means.  The  mare  must  be  blindfolded  if  she  is  to 
be  covered  by  the  male  ass ;  the  ass  must  be  painted  over  like 
a  zebra  to  couple  it  with  that  animal,  and  even  such  means 
succeed  only  when  the  individuals  belong  to  nearly  allied 
species.  The  produced  hybrids  are  in  most  cases  sterile,  or  if 

1  So  Agassiz,  in  Nott  and  Gliddon,  who  defines  species  as  the  sum  of  indi- 
viduals which,  since  it  has  been  known  to  man,  has  always  retained  the  same 
peculiarities. — Desnioulins,  "  Hist.  Nat.  des  Races  Huniaines,"  p.  194,  1826. 


HYBRIDITY.  23 

not,  as  frequently  is  the  case  with  sheep  and  goats,  the  cross 
breed  is  not  permanent,  like  the  original  types.  This  equally 
applies  to  plants,  though  in  them  the  return  to  the  original 
type  may  only  occur  after  a  series  of  generations,  namely  by 
intermixture  of  the  hybrids  with  individuals  of  the  original 
type.  Induced  by  these  phenomena,  Buff  on1  includes  in  the 
same  species,  all  individuals  which  in  the  free  state  produce 
young  possessing  between  themselves  an  unlimited  prolificacy. 

This  criterion  of  species,  although  approved  of  by  F.  Miiller 
and  others,  has  recently  been  much  canvassed.  It  was  already 
contested  by  Rudolphi,2  who  asserted  that  not  only  were  there 
many  hybrids  produced  in  the  natural  state,  but  that  prolifi- 
cacy was  the  rule  as  regards  the  hybrids  of  mammals.  Though 
this  assertion  is  manifestly  far  beyond  the  truth,  still  there 
stands  the  remarkable  fact  that  crossings  between  remote 
species,  and  even  between  different  genera,  are  frequently  pro- 
lific, (ass  or  horse  with  horned  cattle,  stag  and  cow,  bear  or 
buck  with  a  bitch,  dog  and  cat,  roe  and  sheep,  swan  and 
goose),  whilst  the  hybrids  of  more  proximate  species  are  not 
so  :  jackal  and  dog,  ox  and  buffalo,  hare  and  rabbit,3  (as  asserted 
by  some),  resist  all  attempts  at  crossing  them.  We  are  certainly 
yet  a  long  way  off  from  concluding,  from  the  above  individual 
phenomena,  the  unlimited  prolificacy  of  cross-breeds;  they 
serve  only  to  draw  our  attention  to  the  fact  that  we  are,  as 
yet,  entirely  ignorant  of  the  law  upon  which  the  success  or 
failure  of  cross-breeding  depends ;  but  this  has  not  deterred 
some  writers  from  the  attempt  to  clear  this  gap.  Thus,  Bory 
assigns  to  the  hybrids  of  the  sheep  and  wild  ass  (onager),  of 
wolf  and  dog,  siskin  and  linnet,  unlimited  prolificacy,  though 
he  cannot  assert  the  same  as  regards  the  mule. 

Desmoulins  declares  the  herds  of  cattle  of  the  United  States, 
beyond  the  Alleghanies,  to  be  the  progeny  of  the  American 
bison  and  European  cattle,  the  former  having  a  differently 
formed  skull  and  two  ribs  more  than  the  latter ;  and  he  con- 

1  (Euvres  in  4to,  iv,  p.  386 :   Succession  const  ante  d'individus  semblables  et 
qui  se  reproduisent. 

2  Beitrage  zur  Anthropol.,  1812. 

3  The  Leporine,  a  hybrid  of  hare  and  rabbit,  may  now  be  seen  in  the  gar- 
dens of  the  Zoological  Society. — ED. 


24  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION. 

siders  that  the  hybrids  form  a  new  permanent  species.1  This 
is  said  also  to  apply  to  the  domestic  dog  in  relation  to  the  wolf, 
fox,  jackal ;  and  also  to  the  mulattoes,  who  always  preserve  the 
same  type,  and  should  therefore  be  considered  as  a  new  spe- 
cies ;  whilst  mongrels  of  tribes  of  the  same  stock  (for  instance, 
of  different  Indo-Germanic  peoples),  preserve  no  fixed  type, 
but  exhibit  variable  forms.  In  opposition  to  this,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  state,  that  no  reliable  instance  can  be  adduced  of  the 
permanency  of  a  hybrid  race  by  in-breeding,  least  of  all  in 
mammals;  that  the  production  of  new  independent  types  in 
this  manner  is  as  yet  extremely  doubtful ;  and  that  the  adduced 
examples,  so  far  as  they  have  been  confirmed,  can  only  be  con- 
sidered as  individually  extraordinary  facts,  which  have  but 
little  value  in  the  attempt  to  lay  the  foundation  of  a  new  theory 
of  the  laws  of  nature  in  the  preservation  of  types,  and  so  to 
place  the  conception  of  species  upon  a  different  basis. 

All  the  examples  which  are  usually  adduced  to  prove  un- 
limited fecundity  of  hybrids,  admit  of  a  twofold  interpretation. 
If  (according  to  Vogt)  wolf,  dog,  and  fox  are  prolific  among 
themselves,  and  if  propagation  is  so  much  easier  the  nearer 
we  approach  the  highest  animals,  it  may — apart  from  the  pro- 
blematical second  part  of  this  proposition  and  of  the  doubtful 
cases  of  dog  and  fox,  the  successful  pairing  of  wolf  and  dog, 
the  hybrids  of  which  propagated,  in  one  instance,  during  four 
generations — (A.  Wagner) — be  maintained  that  dog  and  wolf 
do  not  belong  to  different,  but  to  the  same  species.  R. 
Wagner  accordingly  lays  down  the  proposition,2  "that  where 
an  intermixture  of  hybrids  is  observed  (which  can  only  with 
certainty  be  asserted  of  wolf  and  dog,  camels,  goat,  and  sheep,) 
the  specific  differences  of  the  parent  animals  is,  at  least  with 
regard  to  mammals,  doubtful."  From  his  collection  of  hybrid 
cases  in  the  animal  kingdom,  it  appears  that  in  point  of  fact 
there  is  no  certain  example  of  fecundity  (not  to  speak  of  un- 
limited fecundity)  of  hybrids  between  themselves,  and  only 
individual  instances  of  prolific  intermixture  with  one  of  the 

1  Morton  ("  Hybridity  in  Animals  and  Plants/'  p.  6,  New  Haven,  1847)  con- 
siders this  as  doubtful. 
»  Prichard,  Uebers,  i,  449. 


HYBEIDITY. — FECUNDITY.  25 

parent  stock.  What,  indeed,  would  be  the  signification  of 
specific  differences  in  nature,  and  how  objectless  would  be 
their  permanence,  if  their  obliteration  were  rendered  possible 
by  continued  production  of  hybrids  ! 

Morton,  the  predecessor  of  Vogt,  in  this  respect  has  endea- 
voured to  show  that  hybrids  of  different  species  are  the  more 
prolific  between  themselves,  the  greater  their  capacity  to  be- 
come domesticated.  His  examples  refer  chiefly  to  the  hprse, 
the  ass,  the  zebra,  the  wolf,  dog,  jackal,  fox,  the  swine,  fowls ; 
and  it  cannot  be  denied  that,  according  to  his  examples,  the 
phenomena  of  hybridity  possess  a  greater  extension  than  was 
formerly  admitted.  He  concludes  therefrom  that,  as  regards 
man — pre-eminently  a  domestic  animal, — the  inference  from 
unlimited  fecundity  to  unity  of  species  is  not  applicable ;  and 
his  successors,  Nott  and  Gliddon,  distinguished  accordingly, 
among  the  various  species  of  animals,  those  which  by  intermix- 
ture produce  none,  or  unprolific,  or  prolific  hybrids  as  remote, 
allied,  and  proximate  species.  The  so-called  races  of  mankind 
are  said  to  stand  in  the  latter  relation,  as  the  permanence  of 
their  organic  peculiarities,  as  well  as  those  of  the  races  of  dogs, 
is  ascertainable  from  the  ancient  Egyptian  monuments.  As 
this  last  assertion  leads  us  to  the  notoriously  erroneous  pro- 
position, that  there  is,  properly  speaking,  no  alteration  of  type, 
the  question  of  hybridity  itself  is  placed  upon  very  slippery 
ground,  since  the  majority  of  domestic  animals  have  ever  been 
subjects  of  contention  as  regards  unity  or  difference  of  species, 
and  are  consequently  least  adapted  to  lead  to  a  decisive  solu- 
tion. 

There  certainly  prevails  in  modern  times  an  inclination  to 
assume  a  plurality  of  species,  where  formerly  races  only  were 
distinguished;  and  in  proportion  as  this  has  been  done, 
fecundity  alone  as  a  decisive  mark  of  unity  of  species  has  lost 
its  weight.  We  must  not  omit  to  state  that  this  is  especially  the 
case  if  unity  of  species  is  considered  as  identified  with  unity 
of  descent,  in  which  case  fecundity  affords  no  absolute  proof 
for  common  origin,  if  stocks  originally  distinct  prove  themselves 
productive  between  each  other.  The  question  would,  however, 
still  remain,  whether  by  distinguishing  stock  from  species 


26  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION. 


there  may  not  have  been  originally  distinct  parallel  stocks 
the  same  species,  which  in  their  essential  character,  as  well  as 
in  respect  of  the  range  of  variation  through  which  they  pass, 
may  exhibit  an  unlimited  fecundity  between  each  other. 

However  decidedly  we  may  oppose  a  theory  of  the  origination 
of  new  species  by  the  production  of  hybrids,  this  much  must 
be  admitted,  that  from  unlimited  prolificacy  alone  the  unity  of 
species  can  hardly  be  inferred.  On  the  other  hand  we  can 
scarcely  agree  with  Holland,1  when  he  asserts  that  the  theory 
that  individuals,  however  much  they  may  differ,  belong  to  one 
species  if  they  prove  to  be  of  unlimited  prolificacy,  moves  in  a 
circle,  and  assumes  what  remains  to  be  proved :  for  it  is  an 
empirical  fact  that  a  really  unlimited  prolificacy  nowhere  oc- 
curs where  important  differences  of  organization  prevail ;  and 
an  essential  feature  of  the  character  of  fecundity  as  a  mark  of 
species  lies  in  this,  that  it  does  not  involve  the  unsolvable  doubt 
of  common  or  separate  descent,  but  ignores  it. 

Notwithstanding  the  variety  of  objections  which  may  be 
raised  against  unlimited  fecundity  as  a  decisive  character  of 
species,  it  cannot,  as  has  recently  been  said,2  be  considered  as 
of  merely  secondary  importance.  It  retains  its  importance, 
though  it  is  not  ascertained  how  many  generations  have 
proved  prolific  in  order  to  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  they 
belong  to  the  same  species ;  and  further,  sterility  not  only 
occurs  between  individuals  of  the  same  stock,  but  the  extinc- 
tion of  some  races  is  as  clearly  demonstrated  as  the  extinction 
of  whole  species.  If  recent  experience  has  shown  in  the 
breeding  of  domestic  animals  that  different  races  are  some- 

1  "  De  FHomine  et  des  Races  Humaines/'  p.  213,  1853. 

2  Giebel  (loc.  cit.)  has  misrepresented  this  point,  by  stating,  what  no  one 
has  asserted,  that  fecundity  has  been  considered  as  the  only  criterion  of  spe- 
cies ;  hence  he  requires  from  the  adherents  to  this  doctrine  that  they  should 
only  count  such  individuals  to  be  of  one  species  whose  unlimited  fecundity  is 
experimentally  proved.     It  is  a  further  misrepresentation,  when  he  says,  that 
difference  of  species  cannot  be  inferred  from  sterility,  for  however  correct 
this  may  be,  it  does  not  follow  that  fecundity  should  be  neglected  as  a  cri- 
terion ;  for  it  is  only  contended  that,  where  minor  differences  of  organization 
exist,  the  specific  nature  of  which  is  doubtful,  sterility  or  prolificness  may 
afford  important  assistance  in  deciding  the  question;   though  it  may  be 
granted  that  the  decision  obtained  in  this  way  is  not  absolute  and  final,  it  is 
certainly  not  valueless  and  unimportant,  unless  the  capacity  of  reproduction 
is  not  considered  as  an  essential  character  of  the  animal  world. 


Of 

a  a 


PROLIFICACY.— -REVERSION.  27 

times  not  indefinitely  prolific,  or  produce  malformed,  defec- 
tively organized  young — parallels  of  which  are  found  in  the 
intermixture  of  different  human  races — the  objection  is  not  of 
any  weight  against  unlimited  prolificacy  as  a  specific  character; 
for  whenever  this  is  held  out  as  a  criterion  it  is  not  asserted 
that  it  occurs  without  exception  among  all  individuals  and 
races  of  the  same  species,  but  expresses  only  the  fact  of  a 
merely  limited  prolificacy  between  individuals  of  specifically 
different  types.  It  may,  however,  be  considered  as  an  un- 
avoidable defect  in  this  criterion,  that  it  cannot  decide  whether 
there  be  within  the  same  species  varieties  which,  between 
themselves,  possess  only  a  limited  prolificacy,  or  none  at  all. 

On  casting  a  retrospective  glance  at  our  investigations  we 
arrive  at  the  important  proposition,  that  inferences  from  com- 
mon descent  to  unity  of  species  have  an  absolute  certainty, 
those  from  unlimited  fecundity  have  a  high  degree  of  proba- 
bility, whilst  the  conclusions  as  to  differences  of  species  from 
separate  descent  or  limited  prolificacy  are  less  safe. 

A  further  mark  of  distinction  between  race  and  species  is 
also  afforded  by  the  so-called  reversion;  that  is  to  say,  by  the 
return  of  individuals  prolific  between  themselves  to  the  original 
type  of  the  parent  stock,  which  thus  proves  itself  permanent. 
As  the  hybrids  perish,  the  mere  varieties  revert,  under  certain 
circumstances,  to  their  original  types,  and  thus  show  that  they 
have  no  specific  existence.  In  cases  of  mongrels  of  two  doubt- 
ful types,  though  proving  indefinitely  prolific  (e.  g.  Mulattoes 
or  Mestizoes),  should  they,  by  continued  intermixture  with 
each  other,  return  to  one  of  the  parent  stocks  (Negro,  white, 
or  American),  one  would  feel  inclined  to  assume  a  difference  of 
species  of  the  latter,  because  the  transformation  into  a  different 
type  failed ;  we  should  then  have  obtained  a  better  definition 
of  one  of  the  criteria,  fecundity  ;  but  such  a  case  seems  not  yet 
to  have  occurred.  There  would  still  remain  some  doubt  as  to 
the  correctness  of  the  conclusion,  whether  new  characters 
arising  in  the  course  of  time  may  not  under  circumstances 
become  so  fixed  as  to  acquire  a  permanence  equal  to  specific 
characters,  though  it  is  a  probable,  but  by  no  means  proved, 
supposition  that  all  characters  arising  in  the  course  of  time 


28  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION. 

possess  but  a  small  degree  of  constancy.1  Where  mongrels 
intermix  not  among  themselves  but  with  one  of  the  parent 
type  (e.  g.  Mulattoes  with  Negroes),  and  revert  to  it,  it  is  no  proof 
for  the  specific  difference  of  the  parent  stocks,  since  it  is  a  well 
known  fact  that  in  the  intermixture  of  races  the  more  numer- 
ous race  absorbs  the  less  numerous. 

This  reversion  represents  only  a  special  application  of  the 
general  rule,  according  to  which  Blumenbach  has  endeavoured 
to  determine  the  distinction  between  species  and  race,  namely, 
that  all  differences  between  individuals  or  groups  of  individuals 
which  may  be  considered  as  having  been  produced  by  external 
influence,  or  have  arisen  in  the  course  of  time,  do  not  consti- 
tute specific  differences. 

Though  the  general  validity  of  this  rule  may  be  readily 
admitted,  still  its  application  is  often  very  difficult  and  uncer- 
tain. When,  as  mentioned  by  Wagner  (in  Prichard),  the  same 
species  of  animal  is  met  with  in  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  Timor, 
Celebes,  and  even  in  the  Philippines,  or  in  the  Asiatic  conti- 
nent, exhibiting  in  all  these  countries  constant  variations,  it 
might  be  difficult  to  decide  whether  in  such  cases  we  should 
assume  different  species  or  races.  The  fact  is,  that  the  axiom 
that  all  individuals  which  only  differ  in  variable  pecularities, 
belong  to  the  same  species,  is  only  a  different  version  of  the 
notion  of  species  as  an  assemblage  of  constant  characters,  and 
presents  nothing  new  in  relation  to  the  distinction  between 
species  and  race.  This  conception  of  species  possesses,  never- 
theless, the  advantage  of  fixing  our  attention  on  the  point 
from  the  investigation  of  which,  the  definition  of  species,  in 
doubtful  cases,  may  be  expected,  namely,  the  range  of  variation 
for  every  species. 

It  may  also  be  observed  with  regard  to  this  last  mark  of 
distinction,  that  the  inferences  drawn  therefrom  to  unity  of 
species  have  greater  value  than  when  applied  to  difference  of 
species.  The  former  must  be  considered  proved  as  soon  as 
it  is  demonstrated  that  the  greatest  variations  in  the  respective 
individuals  are  still  within  the  limits  of  those  differences  which 

1  I.  Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire  thinks  that  the  characters  of  a  race  are  the  more 
constantly  transmitted  the  older  the  race  is. 


SPECIES   AND    RACE.  29 

arise  and  disappear  in  the  course  of  time,  or  which  may  be 
found  in  several  generations  of  the  same  stock.  The  argu- 
ment, on  the  other  hand,  for  difference  of  species  in  any  case, 
has  but  little  to  support  it,  if  the  variation  of  the  respective 
types,  leading  to  an  alteration  of  type,  cannot  be  demonstrated. 
The  proof  would  only  be  perfect  if  we  succeeded  in  positively 
demonstrating  the  immutability  of  the  pure  types  after  they 
have  for  a  sufficiently  long  time  been  subjected  to  the  most 
various  external  influences,  and  have  given  rise  to  a  relatively 
large  number  of  mongrels  of  these  types  and  their  varieties,  to 
establish  the  fact  that  the  hybrids  ultimately  revert  to  their 
respective  original  types.  If  they  prove  prolific  between  them- 
selves without  the  mongrels  exhibiting  a  tendency  to  reversion, 
the  fixity  and,  consequently,  the  specific  difference  of  the  latter 
can  only  be  considered  as  doubtful.  In  the  same  manner  the 
continuance  of  the  pure  types  under  unchanged  external  cir- 
cumstances, even  if  it  has  lasted  for  several  thousand  years,  as 
the  Negro  type  in  north-eastern  Africa,  is  by  itself  alone  in- 
sufficient to  establish  them  as  specifically  different. 

The  last  argued  criterion  of  species  and  race  has  been  used 
by  Blumenbach  (and  by  Prichard  after  him)  to  found  upon  it  a 
long  series  of  conclusions  drawn  from  analogy.  They  chiefly 
directed  their  attention  to  the  question,  whether  the  greatest 
differences  exhibited  by  human  beings  are  only  so  great  and  no 
greater  than  those  presented  by  known  races  of  animals,  so 
that  we  might  be  justified  in  considering  them  as  differences  of 
race,  or  whether  they  are  analogous  to  specific  differences 
among  animals.  Blumenbach,  who  may  still  be  considered  as 
a  chief  authority,  and  a  cautious  observer,  shows  plainly l  that 
if  the  same  laws  determine  the  variability  of  types  in  animals 
and  man,  the  latter  necessarily  constitutes  but  one  species, 
since  animals  of  the  same  species  exhibit,  as  regards  colour, 
hair,  size,  cranial  form,  no  greater  differences,  produced  by 
climate,  food,  etc.,  than  are  presented  by  human  beings. 
Essentially,  Blumenbach  has  never  been  refuted,  though  he  is 
now  ignored  by  those  who  find  his  arguments  inconvenient ;  for 

1  "  De  generis  humani  varietate  nativa/'  3rd  ed.,  p,  75,  1795. 


30  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION. 

it  cannot,  for  instance,  be  refuted  that  the  domesticated  swine, 
in  spite  of  the  different  cranial  form,  belongs  to  the  same 
species  as  the  wild  boar,  since  in  many  parts  of  America  the 
imported  swine  have  again  returned  to  the  type  of  the  wild 
boar.  The  considerably  larger  alimentary  canal  of  the  domestic 
cat,  compared  with  that  of  the  wild  cat,  has,  by  some,  been  con- 
sidered as  a  probable  consequence  of  their  food  being  more  of 
a  vegetable  kind,  whilst  others  claim  it  as  a  proof  of  difference 
of  species.  De  Salles1  expresses  the  argument  of  Blumen- 
bach  in  the  following  terms  : — ' '  La  domestication  de  Phomme, 
oscillant  perpetuellement  entre  les  extremes  de  la  civilisation 
et  Petat  sauvage,  doit  avoir  modifie  Phomme  encore  plus  pro- 
fondement  que  les  autres  animaux  domestiques."  Man  is 
certainly,  zoologically  considered,  pre-eminently  a  domestic 
animal,  and  we  cannot  escape  the  conclusion  that  if  the  laws 
of  variation  in  animals  also  apply  to  him,  the  changes  ex- 
hibited by  domestic  animals  in  the  torrid  and  frigid  zones 
must,  by  analogy,  extend  to  man. 

On  account  of  this  analogy  Nott  and  Gliddon  (and  recently 
Giebel),  following  Morton,  have  endeavoured  to  prove  that  the 
various  canine  races  must  be  considered  as  specifically  distinct : 
and  if  this  be  conceded  (as  proved  by  the  ancient  Egyptian 
monuments,  in  which  the  permanence  of  character  is  exhibited,) 
the  prolificacy  of  these  between  themselves  weakens  the  dogma 
of  the  unity  of  the  human  species ;  for,  ' '  zoologically  speaking, 
mankind  and  canidce  occupy  precisely  the  same  position." 
Although  this  proof  can  hardly  be  deemed  sufficient  to  shake 
the  conclusions  from  the  great  number  of  examples  adduced 
by  Blumenbach,  it  has  this  opposed  to  it : — that  others  include 
all  the  canidce  in  the  same  species  because  there  exists 
between  them  no  fixed  line  of  demarcation,  the  transitions  of 
their  characters  being  manifold  and  perceptible,  and  their  pro- 
lificacy increasing  by  cross-breeding.2  Nott,  moreover,  weakens 
his  own  argument  from  analogy,  by  observing  :3  te  Again  and 
again,  in  previous  publications,  I  have  alluded  to  the  fallibility 

1  "  Hist.  Generate  des  Eaces  Humaines,"  p.  265,  1849. 

2  Godron,  "  De  FEspece  et  des  Eaces/'  p.  64,  Nancy,  1848. 

3  Loc.  cit.,  p.  402. 


SPECIES   AND   RACE.  31 

of  arguments  drawn  from  analogy  alone,  while  insisting  that 
no  true  analogies  can  be  said  to  exist.  Every  animal  f  from 
null/  ti>  tin-  ii'orm,  is  governed  by  special  physiological  laws.  .  .  . 
The  rules  current  among  breeders  of  domestic  animals  have 
been  considered  as  applicable  to  man,  but  the  notion  itself  is 
very  unphilosophical  and  could  never  have  originated  with  any 
intelligent  naturalist  of  thorough  experience ." 

This  analogy  has,  nevertheless,  been  generally  recognized  as 
a  legitimate  mode  of  argumentation.  Even  in  the  same  work 
from  which  we  have  quoted,  Agassiz  declares  that  it  must  be 
considered  as  proved  that  the  laws  which  govern  the  variation 
of  type  in  animals  are  "in  the  same  limits  and  the  same 
degree"  applicable  to  mankind.  If  we  were  to  ask  for  the 
proofs  of  this,  and  why  the  inferences  of  Blumenbach  are 
rejected,  it  may  be  long  before  we  receive  an  intelligible 
answer. 

However  clearly  it  may  be  demonstrated  that  the  differences 
between  the  various  types  of  mankind  are  not  greater  than 
those  produced  in  animals  by  the  influences  of  climate,  food, 
etc.,  this  circumstance  in  favour  of  the  unity  of  mankind  should 
not  be  over  estimated,  because  the  justification  for  such  a  parallel 
is  doubtful.  Not  only  is  the  comparison  of  differences  found  in 
specifically  different  individuals  uncertain,  but  it  is  inadmissible, 
because  it  includes  the  assumption  that  the  range  of  variation 
for  all,  or  not  very  remote  species,  is  nearly  the  same.  De 
Candolle,  as  quoted  above,  has  shown  that  sometimes  indivi- 
dual varieties  within  the  same  species  exhibit  more  considerable 
diversities  than  different  species  themselves ;  to  which  may  be 
added  the  remarks  of  Swainson*  on  the  diversities  which  esta- 
blish specific  differences,  that  there  are  constant  specific  differ- 
ences which  seem  much  less  marked  than  many  diversities  of 
race.  If  the  latter  were  really  confined  to  narrower  limits  than 
specific  differences,  we  might  possess  a  pretty  certain  and  con- 
venient distinctive  mark  between  race  and  species ;  but  such  is 
not  the  case  :  e.g.,  the  variability  of  the  ape,  so  closely  approx- 
imating man,  is  far  from  being  so  extensive  as  that  possessed 

1  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  275,  35. 


32  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION. 

by  domestic  animals  and  man.  The  range  of  variation  of  evei 
species  seems  to  be  peculiar  to  each,  and  governed  by  specii 
laws.  Hence,  it  proves  nothing  when  Agassiz  says,  the  chim- 
panzee and  the  gorilla  differ  no  more  from  each  other  than 
Mandingo  and  the  Gruinea  Negro,  and  both  do  not  differ  more 
from  the  orang  than  the  Malay  or  European  from  the  Negro : 
if  the  former  are  to  be  considered  as  belonging  to  different 
species,  the  latter  should  be  considered  equally  so.  That  par- 
ticular laws  of  formation  govern  individual  species  of  animals 
is  indicated  by  their  different  capacity  for  the  production  of 
hybrids.  This  would  be  certain  if  Desmoulins  were  right  in 
his  assertion  that  the  diversities  of  various  species,  and  their 
sphere  of  variation,  diminishes  the  more  they  approach  man. 
The  fallaciousness  of  drawing  conclusions  from  the  analogy  of 
one  species  to  another  has  recently  been  pointed  out  by 
Lucas,1  who  proves,  by  many  examples,  how  extremely  differ- 
ent, quantitatively  and  qualitatively,  is  the  power  of  resistance 
in  different  races  to  external  influences  in  regard  to  the  trans- 
formation of  races.  Some  other  instructive  examples  are 
furnished  by  Giebel.2  They  show  that  similar  deviations  in 
different  genera  of  animals  are  of  very  variable  importance,  e '  as 
in  one  family  or  genus  one  or  another  organ  has  obtained  a 
particular  significance  for  the  whole  organism,"  so  that  fre- 
quently characters  or  groups  of  characters  which  are  essential 
to  one  constitute  in  the  other  no  fixed  specific  characters,  but 
vary  greatly. 

In  condensing  the  results  of  our  investigation  regarding  the 
definition  of  species,  we  have  found  that  it  designates  those 
types  permanent  which  are  transmitted  by  propagation.  We 
were  induced  to  separate  the  questions  of  unity  of  species  and 
unity  of  descent  on  the  ground  that  the  same  assemblage  of 
constant  characters  may  belong  originally  to  distinct  stocks ; 
and  we  could  not,  therefore,  consider  unity  of  descent  as  neces- 
sary to  our  definition  of  species.  If,  thus,  separate  descent 
was  no  valid  proof  for  difference  of  species,  unlimited  prolifi- 

1  "Traite  philosophique  et  physiol.  de  1'heredite  naturelle,"  ii,  p.  116, 1857 ; 
and  Nusard,  ibid.,  ii,  p.  452. 

2  Loc.  cit.,  p. 


SPECIES   AND    RACE.  33 

cacy  proved  an  important,  but  not  a  decisive  mark  of  distinc- 
tion between  species  and  race,  and  could  only  be  considered  as 
a  probable  sequence. 

Finally,  reversion  and  its  allied  phenomena  appeared  insuffi- 
cient to  furnish  an  undoubted  criterion  of  species  and  race. 
And  as  it  became  apparent  that  such  a  criterion  could  not  be 
established,  we  hoped  that  the  defect  would  be  supplied  by  the 
conclusions  of  analogy  furnished  by  the  comparison  of  various 
species.  This  expectation  was  also  doomed  to  disappointment, 
as  the  limits  of  variation  in  different  types  seem  to  be  of  a  greatly 
diversified  extent.  The  result,  therefore,  of  our  investigation 
(which  is  scarcely  surprising  in  an  entirely  empirical  subject), 
is  this  :  that  the  general  question  as  regards  a  decided  mark  of 
distinction  between  race  and  species  can  only  be  answered  by 
the  particular  study  of  the  extent  of  variation  in  individual 
types ;  that  is  to  say,  that  in  every  question  of  unity  or  differ- 
ence of  species  we  are  referred  entirely  to  the  study  of  the 
individual  phenomena  themselves. 

The  investigation  of  the  unity  of  mankind  as  a  species  can 
only  be  finally  completed,  when  the  results  of  long  continued  in- 
fluences of  all  possible  external  conditions  in  which  man  is  able 
to  live,  are  as  fully  and  clearly  ascertained,  as  the  results  of 
all  possible  crossings  of  various  human  types  after  a  long  series 
of  generations.  But  as  our  experience  in  this  respect  is  very 
far  from  being  perfect,  we  are  compelled  to  stop  at  some  more 
or  less  probable  propositions,  which  must  proceed  from  the 
solution  of  the  question,  whether  a  gradual  alteration  of  types 
belonging  to  the  same  stock  can  be  proved,  and  whether  it  be 
sufficiently  extensive  in  order  to  show  that  the  greatest  differ- 
ences prevailing  among  mankind  are  merely  variations.  Next  to 
that  the  question  will  be,  whether  the  cross-breeds  of  the  various 
types"  by  limited  prolificacy,  or  by  constant  reversion  to  the 
parent  type,  resemble  more  the  hybrids  or  mongrels  of  different 
races. 


34  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  PART   I.] 


SECTION    I. 

ON    THE    MODE    AND    MAGNITUDE    OF    THE    PHYSICAL 
CHANGES   TO   WHICH   MAN   IS   SUBJECT. 

ALL  permanent  changes,  apart  from  morbid  phenomena,  pro- 
duced on  man  in  the  course  of  time,  may,  with  regard  to  their 
origin,  be  divided  into  four  classes.  I.  Climate;  n.  Aliment 
and  mode  of  life ;  in.  Psychical  influences,  growth  and  decline 
of  mental  culture ;  iv.  Deviation  from  the  original  type,  result- 
ing from  unknown  causes  and  transmitted  more  or  less  per- 
manently. 

In  many  cases  it  cannot  with  any  certainty  be  determined  to 
which  of  these  four  classes  certain  phenomena  belong,  and 
whether  they  may  not  be  the  results  of  a  combination  of  causes. 
It  is  still  less  possible  exactly  to  ascertain  in  what  manner  such 
causes  have  produced  these  changes;  which  is  specially  the  case 
with  regard  to  climate. 

What  is  termed  the  influence  of  climate,  consists  of  the  direct 
and  indirect  influences  of  the  temperature  of  the  air,  its  degree 
of  moisture,  pressure,  and  chemical  composition  (malaria) ;  the 
frequency  and  variations  of  winds ;  rains,  their  periodicity,  etc. 
Though  it  is  undoubted  that  a  long  continuance  of  such  in- 
fluences produces  certain  changes  in  the  human  organism,  but 
little  is  known  in  what  mode  they  are  effected.  Nothing  re- 
mains then,  but  to  state,  as  an  ultimate  fact,  the  coincidence  of 
climatic  influences  with  certain  differences  in  the  corporeal 
organization.  The  reason  of  this  uncertainty  is,  that  the  effect 
of  the  climate  cannot  easily  be  separated  from  that  produced  by 
alimentation  and  mode  of  living,  which  generally  act  in  com- 
bination. It  is  known  that  the  hygrometric  state  of  the  at- 
mosphere influences  respiration  and  perspiration,  and  that 
the  absorption  of  oxygen  by  the  lungs  is  in  inverse  proportion 
to  the  temperature  of  the  air,  and  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
barometric  state  ;  it  is  further  known  that  the  barometric  state 
reaches  its  maximum  under  32-33°  lat.,  and  is,  under  the 
equator,  subject  to  daily  regular  oscillations ;  but  all  this  only 


SECT.  I.]  CLIMATE.  35 

enables  us  to  say  that,  in  consequence  of  such  circumstances  in 
different  climates,  various  changes  are  produced  in  the  animal 
economy,  without  our  being  able  exactly  to  trace  out  their 
origin. 

These  circumstances,  in  combination  with  other  causes  which 
J.  W.  de  Miiller1  has  treated  of,  lend  at  first  sight  a  certain 
probability  to  the  explanation  of  the  black  skin  of  the  Negro, 
namely,  that  in  hot  climates  the  amount  of  oxygen  inspired  is 
insufficient  to  change  the  carbon  into  carbonic  acid,  and  that 
the  unconsumed  carbon  is  deposited  in  the  pigment-cells  of  the 
skin.  Berthold2  gives  a  similar  explanation,  namely,  that  in 
spite  of  the  great  development  of  the  liver  in  hot  climates,  and 
a  diminished  activity  of  the  lungs,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  car- 
bon is  not  removed  from  the  body;  hence  the  vessels  carry  a 
large  quantity  of  carbon  which,  with  an  increased  perspiration 
is  retained  beneath  the  epidermis.  It  is,  however,  difficult  to 
admit  that  the  browning  of  the  skin  in  our  climate  in  summer, 
is  produced  by  the  same  causes  as  the  black  colour  of  the 
Negro,  and  that  it  would  only  require  a  greater  intensity  and  a 
longer  duration  to  become  so  entirely.  Nor  can  it  be  admitted, 
that  the  tawny  skin  of  many  pregnant  women  and  the  examples 
quoted  by  Blumenbach,3  of  the  black  spots  on  certain  parts  of 
lying-in  women,  as  well  as  the  tawny  colour  of  such  women 
who  have  never  menstruated,  prove  in  any  way  that  the  colour 
of  the  Negro  is  not  owing  to  specific  causes  ;  for  the  objection 
would  still  remain,  that  under  the  tropics  in  East  India,  South 
America,  and  one  part  of  Africa,  there  live  no  blacks,  and  that 
neither  as  regards  Negroes  nor  other  peoples,  the  colour  of  the 
skin  is  exclusively  determined  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen. 
Those  who  insist  upon  an  explanation  must  rest  satisfied  with 
that  given  by  Foissac,4  who  attributes  the  colour  of  the  Negro 
to  the  predominant  vegetable  diet  containing  much  more  carbon 
than  animal  diet.  This  explanation  offers  the  same  difficulties 
as  the  former,  and  is  open  to  similar  objections,  as  is  also 


'  "  Causes  de  la  Coloration  de  la  Peau,"  p.  24,  Stuttg.,  1853. 

2  "  Lehrb.  der  Physiol."     2  Aufl.,  ii,  p.  325. 

8  "  De  generis  humani  var.  nat.,"  3rd  edit.  p.  156. 

*  "  Ueber  den  Einfluss  des  Klimas  auf  den  Menschen,"  p.  67,  Gott.,  1840. 

D  2 


36  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART 


. 


another  opinion  of  Foissac,  which  attributes  the  tawny  colour 
of  the  Polar  nations  to  the  diminished  absorption  of  oxygen,  their 
blood  being  charged  with  carbon,  owing  to  the  hot  summers  and 
the  heated  and  smoky  winter  habitations.  Though  some  of  these 
circumstances  may  have  their  share,  it  cannot  be  ascertained  to 
what  cause  the  colour  of  the  Polar  tribes  is  chiefly  due.  Hence, 
the  assumption  of  specific  peculiarities  is  still  permissible.  We 
are,  therefore,  obliged  to  rest  satisfied  with  a  mere  probability 
regarding  the  causal  connexion  of  climatic  influences  and  ali- 
mentations, with  physical  peculiarities  ;  and  frequently  even 
probability  fails  us. 

It  is  this  impossibility  to  analyze  the  effects  of  climate  and 
nutrition  which  has  induced  Grodron2  to  assert  that  climate  has 
but  a  superficial  influence  on  plants  and  animals  and  could  have 
contributed  but  little  to  the  differences  of  human  races ;  and 
that  the  causes  of  the  latter  lie  rather  in  the  differences  of 
nutrition  and  modes  of  life :  for  whilst  some  plants  and  animals 
thrive  unchanged  in  different  climates,  the  wolf  and  the  fox  retain 
the  same  characters  in  the  torrid  or  the  frigid  zone,  like  the 
wild  horses  in  South  America  which  possess  the  same  charac- 
ters as  those  of  the  Crimea  and  Ukraine. 

The  influence  of  climate  as  a  general  agent  cannot,  however, 
be  called  in  question.  We  may  quote  the  well  known  facts 
mentioned  in  detail  by  Heusinger,2  that  in  cold  climates,  the 
size,  growth,  sexual  development,  and  prolificacy  of  animals 
diminish,  whilst  hair  and  feathers  grow  more  abundantly ;  fatty 
deposits  are  found,  and  the  colour  becomes  white,  whilst  the 
contrary  occurs  under  the  tropics.  Many  of  our  domestic  ani- 
mals which  thrive  in  different  climates,  present  the  most  evident 
examples  of  these  influences. 

How  much  the  human  economy  can  adapt  itself  to  climatic 
conditions,  is  proved  chiefly  by  climatic  diseases  and  the  morbid 
predispositions  peculiar  to  every  climate ;  and  though  the  con- 
sequences are  not  always  a  visible  change  of  the  external  form, 
the  modifications  in  the  vital  process  are  undeniable.  It  fre- 


1  "  De  I'Esp&ce  et  des  Races,"  p.  16  and  70,  Nancy,  1848. 
a  "Grundziige  der  Vegl.  Physiol.,"  p.  211,  1831. 


SECT.  I.]  CLIMATE.  37 

quently  occurs  that  strangers  rapidly  die  in  a  country  where 
malaria  prevails,  whilst  the  natives  live  and  apparently  thrive — 
facts  we  shall  presently  mention — and  it  seems  to  make  no 
difference  whether  the  strangers  belong  to  the  same  type  or  not 
as  the  natives.  We  may  instance  the  fact  that  the  native 
Peruvian  thrives  and  remains  free  of  pulmonary  complaints  at 
an  altitude  from  7000  to  15000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
which,  as  in  Quito,  is  frequent  destructive  to  the  white.1  Set- 
ting aside  extreme  cases,  such  as  a  sudden  change  of  all 
essential  conditions  of  life,  nothing  justifies  the  assertion  that 
man  transplanted  into  a  foreign  clime  must  either  die  or  remain 
as  he  is.  If  man  can  bear  the  transportation  into  an  essentially 
different  climate,  his  organism  will  experience  certain  modifica- 
tions, and  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  change  should 
not  be  as  externally  perceptible  as  it  is  in  many  animals. 
D'Orbigny2  goes  so  far  as  to  assert  that,  in  Peru,  at  the  alti- 
tude above  mentioned,  the  trunk  is  changed  by  the  influence 
of  respiration,  the  body  is  short  but  compact,  whilst  the  in- 
habitants of  the  damp  lowlands  are  more  slender  in  form. 
Without  entirely  assenting  to  this  view,  we  must  admit  that 
external  conditions,  especially  such  as  approach  the  limits  be- 
yond which  man  could  not  exist,  considerably  alter  the  physio- 
logical process ;  and  we  must  not  wonder  if,  in  the  course  of 
several  generations,  a  corresponding  change  is  effected  in  the 
external  form.  It  is  as  yet  uncertain  whether  such  alterations 
occur  within  a  comparatively  short  period  and  are  arrested  at  a 
certain  point,3  or  whether,  like  some  wild  plants  changed  into 
varieties  by  cultivation,  the  change  proceeds  at  first  slowly  and 
afterwards  with  great  rapidity — both  may  possibly  occur  under 
different  circumstances. 

Volney4  says,  that  the  Negro  physiognomy  resembles  a  face 
acted  upon  by  the  light  of  the  sun  and  heat,  exhibiting  over- 
hanging eyebrows,  half-closed  eyelids,  raised  cheeks,  and  pro- 
jecting jaws.  We  cannot  subscribe  to  the  explanation  given 

1  "  Stevenson,  Kr.,  in  Arauco/'  ii,  p.  174,  1826. 

2  "L'Homine  Americain,"  i,  pp.  96,  113,  1839. 

3  "  Lyell,  "  Elements  of  Geology/'  7th  ed.,  ch.  37. 

4  "  Voyage  en  Syrie  et  en  Egypte,"  i,  p.  70. 


38  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

by  Stanhope  Smith1  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  Tatar,  namely, 
that  severe  cold  had  the  effect  of  contracting  the  eyebrows  and 
eyelids,  closing  the  mouth,  and  raising  the  cheeks,  which  has 
produced  the  short  broad  face,  and  the  harshness  of  features. 

Blumenbach2  has  cautiously  admitted  an  influence  of  climate 
upon  the  features  but  not  upon  the  facial  bones,  and  maintains 
that  the  latter  become  modified  by  the  activity  of  the  facial 
muscles,  as  shown  lately  by  Engel.3  We  do  not,  therefore, 
agree  with  the  censure  pronounced  on  this  work  by  Barthes.4 

Much  less  doubtful  is  the  influence  of  climate  on  stature,  and 
the  more  rapid  or  slower  development  of  the  body.  Many 
travellers  have  compared  the  Esquimaux  with  the  inhabitants  of 
Tierra  del  Fuego  and  found  them  resembling,  though  they  live 
at  such  a  distance  from  each  other.  This  external  resemblance 
has  induced  many  to  assume  a  special  race  of  "  Hyperboreans/' 
which  includes  all  the  Polar  nations  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere.5 We  must,  from  the  as  yet  unproved  relationship  of 
many  of  these  peoples,  infer  a  certain  levelling  influence  of 
climate,  as  all  of  them  are  of  short  massive  stature.  This 
applies  also  to  the  Peruvians  inhabiting  high  altitudes,  who 
are,  moreover,  distinguished,  as  has  been  often  observed  in 
other  nations  inhabiting  cold  climates,  by  a  considerable  size  of 
the  head.  Thus,  the  Hindoos  inhabiting  the  hot  plains  are 
distinguished  from  those  of  the  mountainous  regions  by  smaller, 
less-projecting  foreheads,  without,  however,  exhibiting  any  in- 
tellectual inferiority.6  Lauvergne,7  on  the  other  hand,  incor- 
rectly asserts,  that  in  families  who,  from  mountainous  countries, 
migrate  to  the  plains,  the  head  becomes  after  a  few  generations 


1  "  On  the  Causes  of  the  Variety  of  Complexion  and  Figure,"  p.  106  :  New 
Brunswick,  1810. 

a  "  De  gen.  hum.  var.  nat.,"  p.  212. 

3  "  Das  Knochengeriist  des  Menschlichen  Antlitzes,  1850 ;  Untersuch.  uber 
Schadelformen,  1851.     L.  Fick  ("The  Causes  of  the  Forms  of  the  Bones," 
1857),  has  endeavoured  to  prove  that  muscular  activity  has  no  such  influence 
upon  the  shapes  of  the  bones,  though  the  growth  of  the  bones  depends  upon 
the  forms  of  the  soft  parts  surrounding  them. 

4  "  Nouv.  Elemens  de  la  sc.  de  1'Homme,  ii,  p.  132,  1806. 

5  Lacep&de,  Dumeril,  Virey,  Bory. 

6  Broc.  in  Lucas,  ii,  p.  465. 

7  "  Les  Forcatf,"  p.  315. 


SECT.  I.]  CLIMATE.  39 

more  developed,  which  is  generally  the  case  with  the  progress 
of  civilization. 

Zimmermann1  concludes,  from  the  high  stature  of  the  Pata- 
gonians  and  the  old  Germans,  whose  country  was  then  colder 
than  now,  that  the  highest  stature  belongs  to  the  colder  regions 
of  the  temperate  zone,  whilst  Blumenbach2  thinks  stature  in- 
creases on  approaching  the  tropics.  To  both  these  assumptions 
it  may  be  objected,  that  the  short  inhabitants  of  Tierra  del 
Fuego  live  very  near  the  Patagonians,  the  Laplanders  near  the 
Fins  and  Swedes,  and  similar  examples  shew  that  in  this  re- 
spect all  that  can  be  asserted  is,  that  the  greatest  development 
of  man  and  domestic  animals  seems  to  occur  in  the  temperate 
zone. 

I.  Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire,  who  shares  Zimmermann's  opinion,3 
mentions  as  a  known  fact,  that  the  peoples  possessing  the 
shortest  stature  inhabit  nearly  all  the  most  northern  part  of  the 
northern  hemisphere.  His  own  tables,  however,  which  must 
not  be  altogether  confided  in,  as  is  plainly  shewn  from  his 
numerous  exceptions,  indicate  the  nature  of  this  assumed  fact. 
Since  (as  he  himself  observes)  near  such  peoples  of  high  stature 
there  live  other  peoples  of  short  stature,  we  must  admit  that 
descent  is  of  more  decided  influence  than  climate,  though  the 
latter  is  not  without  its  due  effect.  The  animals,  about  the 
size  of  which  4n  relation  to  climate  Greoffroy  lays  down  a  series 
of  axioms,4  differ  in  this  respect.  Some  species  grow  smaller 
in  warm  climates,  others  in  cold  climates.5 

A  sufficiently  well-known  and  constant  effect  of  climate  (in 
support  of  which,  we  shall  quote  a  number  of  facts),  is  the 
rapid  or  tardy  development  of  the  sexual  organs.  This  develop- 
ment is,  like  stature,  also  dependent  upon  nutrition  and  mode 
of  life;  whence  many  deviations  may  be  explained  from  the 
rule  that  sexual  maturity  occurs  earlier  in  warm,  and  later  in 
cold  climates.  This  influence  also  extends  to  the  intellect. 

1  "  Geogr.  Gesch.  des  Menschen  und  der  vierftiss.  Thiere,"  1778. 

2  "  De  gen.  hum.  var.  not.,"  p.  93. 

3  "  ATin.  des  Sci.  Nat./'  p.  702,  1832 ;  Froriep's  Notizen,  No.  818,  p.  54,  775 
1833. 

4  Froriep's  Notizen,  1832. 

5  Swainson,  p.  275. 


40 


PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 


Among  the  Arabs,  the  boys  exhibit  the  same  demure  behaviour 
as  adults.1  Little  children  are  more  intelligent  than  those  of  the 
same  age  amongst  us,  though  probably  not  for  the  reason  given 
by  Brehm,2  that  they  are  entirely  left  to  themselves  and  that 
in  their  helplessness  they  learn  early  to  use  their  physical  and 
mental  powers.  Negro  children  learn  to  run  about  much  earlier 
than  the  children  of  Europeans.3  The  children  of  the  natives 
of  Nukahiwa  swim  alone  in  the  water  when  they  are  scarcely  a 
year  old  ;4  and  in  Tahiti  they  often  learn  earlier  to  swim  than 
to  run.5  R.  Schomburgh  equally  found  that  the  children  of  the 
Zuramatas  in  Guiana,  learn  to  use  their  physical  and  intellec- 
tual powers  much  earlier  than  European  children.  That  this 
precocity  is  no  peculiarity  of  the  race  is  proved  by  its  being  also 
found  among  the  white  Creoles  in  the  West  Indies,  and  among 
the  Brazilians.6  In  the  same  latitude  and  climate,  the  time  of 
puberty  occurs  earlier  among  Negros  and  Mongolians  than 
among  Europeans  ;7  this  is  partly  the  result  of  mode  of  life,  and 
partly  an  inherited  peculiarity  which  changes  but  slowly  in  the 
course  of  several  generations.  A  well-known  instance  of  the 
permanence  of  race  peculiarity  is  afforded  by  the  Jewish  girls 
in  Central  Europe.  They  arrive  at  maturity,  and  grow  old,  at 
an  earlier  period  than  the  daughters  of  the  peoples  among 
whom  they  live. 

A  similar  influence  of  climate  is  assumed  with  regard  to 
fecundity.  That  it  must  be  very  great  among  the  Negroes  in 
Africa,  may  be  inferred  from  the  enormous  losses  which  Africa 
has  suffered  (without  any  perceptible  diminution  of  its  popula- 
tion) by  the  agency  of  the  slave-trade.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
extinction  of  the  aboriginal  Americans  has  been  attributed  to 
delicient  fecundity  of  the  race,  a  subject  we  shall  treat  of  in  the 
sequel.  In  this  place  we  may  observe,  that  Quetelet8  has  some 


1  Hoskin's  "  Travels  in  Ethiopia,"  p.  179,  1835. 

2  "  Eeiseskizzen  aus  Nordost  Africa,"  i,  p.  56,  1855. 

3  Des  Marchais,  "  Voyage  en  Guinee,"  p.  282,  Amst.,  1731. 

4  "  Wise  Los  Gringos,"  p.  138,  1850. 

5  Tyermann  and  Bennett,  "  Journal  of  Voyages  and  Travels,"  i,  p.  360, 1831. 

6  Rendu,  "  Etudes  sur  le  Bresil,"  p.  19,  1848. 

7  Lacepede,  "  Hist.  Nat.  de  THomme,"  p.  109,  1839. 
*  "  Ueber  den  Mftnsclien,"  p.  67,  1838. 


SECT.  I.]  CLIMATE.  41 

doubts  whether,  under  similar  circumstances,  the  North  or  the 
South  is  more  favourable  to  fecundity.  The  greatest  fecundity 
known,  combined  at  the  same  time  with  great  demoralization, 
is  that  of  Guanaxuato  in  Mexico, — in  the  year  1825,  it  exhibits 
the  proportion  =  1  :  16*08. 

Macauley1  speaks  of  a  Negress  at  Santiago,  in  Haiti,  who 
produced  seven  children  in  three  years,  and  thirteen  in  six  de- 
liveries. Twice  she  gave  birth  to  triplets,  and  three  times  to 
twins.  Another  Negress  was  surrounded  by  two  hundred  de- 
scendants. To  have  one  hundred  grandchildren  is  not  con- 
sidered extraordinary. 

The  influence  of  climate  upon  the  colour  of  the  skin  is  not 
contested,  but  in  many  respects  is  yet  unexplained.  That  it 
does  not  alone  depend  on  geographical  latitude  and  the  mean 
temperature,  has  been  often  observed  and  proved  by  Humboldt 
as  regards  the  population  of  America;  nor  are  the  blackest 
people  of  that  continent  found  under  the  equator.2  This  holds 
equally  good  with  regard  to  the  Polynesians,  of  whom  Beechey 
says,  that  the  blackest  people  inhabit  the  Vulcan,  and  the 
lighter  the  Coral  Islands.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Marquesas, 
Navigation,  Friendly,  and  Society  Islands  form  a  series, 
varying  from  light  to  dark  shades.  The  inhabitants  of  New 
Zealand  and  the  Sandwich  Islands  are  still  darker;3  also  the 
inhabitants  of  Easter  Island.4  But  in  the  same  latitude  with 
the  Polynesians  as  well  as  at  a  little  distance  from  them,  there 
live  large  numbers  of  tawny  dark-brown  peoples,  among  whom, 
again,  the  natives  of  Van  Diemen's  Land  are  darker  than  the 
New  Hollanders,  who  live  nearer  the  equator  (Peron) .  The  in- 
habitants of  the  East  and  West  coast  of  South  Africa  are  very 
dark.  Three  hundred  English  miles  in  the  interior,  there  are  on 
both  sides  of  this  part  of  the  world  two  regions  inhabited  by 
lighter  coloured  peoples.  The  natives  of  the  central  part  are, 

1  "  Haiti,  ou,  Renseignements  authentiques  sur  1'abol.  de  1'esclavage,"  pp. 
167,  171,  176,  Paris,  1835. 

2  This  had  already  been  noticed  by  Columbus,  who  was  surprised  to  find 
the  colour  of  the  native  Americans  under  the  equator  lighter,  than  in  the 
northern  regions. — Herrera,  Hist.  General,  xiii,  p.  12,  1730. 

8  Hale,  "  Ethnography  and  Philol.  of  the  United  States  Expl.  Expedition," 
p.  9,  Philadelphia,  1846. 
4  Forster,  "  Bemerk.  auf  seiner  Keise  urn  die  Welt,"  p.  211,  1783. 


42  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

however,  again  perfectly  black.1  The  dark  colour  of  the  Ainos 
on  the  .Kurile  Islands,  is  in  remarkable  contrast  to  the  climate 
they  inhabit. 

From  these  and  similar  facts,  it  may  be  inferred  that  the 
colour  of  the  skin  is  not  so  much  owing  to  climate  as  to  descent. 
Humboldt,2  who  found  no  difference  in  Peru  among  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Cordilleras  and  those  of  the  hot  plains,  ascribes 
to  it,  like  Ulloa,  great  durability  among  the  Americans,  and  con- 
siders the  influence  of  climate  in  this  respect,  as  trifling.  This 
is  also  the  case  with  regard  to  the  colour  and  the  quality  of 
the  hair ;  and,  although  less  constantly,  as  regards  the  iris,  be- 
tween which  the  parallelism  is  unmistakable,  inasmuch  as  the 
dark  tint  of  the  skin  is  accompanied  not  merely  with  a  dark 
iris  and  dark  hair,  but  also  with  a  proportionate  tendency  in 
the  latter  to  curl,  which  circumstance  had  already  been  pointed 
out  by  Blumenbach.  The  white  race  alone  contains  peoples  of 
florid  complexion,  light  hair  and  iris,  and  in  this  lies  a  prool 
for  the  greater  influence  of  descent  over  climate.3 

One  of  the  most  interesting  examples  of  this  kind  is  exhibited 
by  the  Berbers  in  North  Africa — blue  eyes,  fair  skin,  and  red 
beard,  are  very  common  among  some  Kabyles  ;4  high  stature, 
white  skin,  and  light  hair,  are  especially  found  among  the 
Chaouias  in  Auras.5  These  characters,  by  which  they  were  often 
considered  as  the  descendants  of  the  Vandals,  are  possessed 
by  them  chiefly  in  the  mountainous  parts;  it  therefore  again 
becomes  doubtful,  what  in  this  case  belongs  to  climate  and 
what  to  the  purity  of  blood.  Several  instances  in  favour  of  the 
theory  that  the  colour  of  the  skin  is  more  determined  by 
descent  than  by  climate,  may  be  found  in  Humboldt.6  The 


1  Livingstone,  "  Missionsreise  u.  Forschungen,"  1858. 

2  "  R.  in  die  Aequinoctialg.  ed.  Hauff,"  ii,  p.  55. 

3  The  author  of  an  interesting  article  on  "  Human  Hair  in  Morgen-Blatt, 
1855,  No.  14,  says, — "  The  dark  colour  of  the  hair  of  the  Irish  and  Celts  must 
long  ago  have  vanished,  in  consequence  of  intermixture  with  the  neigh- 
bouring fair-haired  tribes,  or  the  dark -coloured  Celts  must  have  become  fair, 
since  they  inhabit  parts  of  Europe  which  contain  the  light-haired  nations, 
namely,  those  north  of  48°  latitude. 

4  Prevost,  "  Nouv.  Ann.  des  Voy.,"  i,  126,  1848. 

s  Guyon,  ib.,  ii,  p.  390,  1848;  compare  also  M.  Wagner,  "Reisen  in  Algier," 
ii,  p.  56, 1841. 
6  "  Neu  Spanien,"  i,  p.  117. 


SECT.  I.]  CLIMATE.  48 

Mexicans,  for  instance,  are  much  darker  than  the  aboriginals 
of  the  hottest  parts  of  South  America ;  and  the  Gruaicas1  are 
much  lighter  than  the  Indians  by  whom  they  are  surrounded, 
although  they  seem  to  share  the  same  mode  of  life.  Maehlen- 
pfordt2  observes  with  regard  to  the  Mexican  Indians,  that  they 
are  as  brown  in  the  cold  mountainous  regions  as  in  the  south 
and  hot  valleys,  and  that  the  covered  parts  of  the  body  are  fre- 
quently of  a  darker  colour  than  the  unprotected  parts.  The 
only  parts  which  are  constantly  of  a  lighter  colour,  are  the 
palms  of  the  hand,  and  the  soles  of  the  feet.  Desmoulins3  sup- 
ports his  theory,  that  the  pure  races  retain  their  peculiarities, 
by  the  Kohillas,  a  colony  of  the  Affghans  north  of  the  Granges, 
who  are  said  even  now  to  possess  the  same  physical  characters 
as  the  Icelanders — white  complexion,  blue  eyes,  fair  hair, 
European  physiognomy.  His  authority  for  this  is  Niquet,  who 
adds,  that  they  see  badly  in  bright  day  light,  which  creates  the 
suspicion  that  he  speaks  of  Albinos.  Moreover,  the  Affghans 
exhibit  all  shades  of  colour;  in  the  western  table-land,  they  have 
an  European  clear  complexion ;  in  the  east  of  the  Indus,  they 
are  darker,  and  even  black.4  The  colour  of  the  skin  cannot  in 
some  cases  be  satisfactorily  explained  either  by  reason  of  descent 
or  the  influence  of  climate ;  it  must  then  be  dependent  on  other 
influences.  The  Portuguese  Creoles,  in  Java,  i.  e.,  the  cross- 
breds  of  the  Portuguese  and  natives,  who  have  propagated  on 
the  Island  for  centuries,  are  much  darker  in  colour  than  the 
Javanese  themselves.5 

Uncivilized  nations  preserve,  at  least  under  common  condi- 
tions, not  only  the  type  generally,  but  also  the  colour  of  their 
skin  and  hair.  This  is  specially  shown  by  the  Fulahs,  who, 
though  of  a  different  stock,  have  preserved  their  peculiarities 
among  the  Negroes.  Thus  Burckhardt6  was  able  to  recognize 
the  descendants  of  the  Bosnian  soldiers,  who,  sent  by  Sultan 
Selim  (1420),  settled  in  Nubia,  and  who  by  their  brown  colour 

1  Humboldt  and  Bonpland,  «  Reise,"  iv,  p.  495. 

2  "  Schilderung  der  Rep.  Mejieo,"  i,  p.  204,  1844. 

3  "  Hist.  Nat.  des  Races  Humaines,"  pp.  21,  162, 168. 
*  Pilchard,  iv,  p.  91. 

5  Pfyffer,  "  Skizzen  v.  d.  Insel  Java,"  p.  67,  1829. 

6  "  Reisen  in  Nubien,  p.  194,  1820. 


44  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PAET    I. 

and  features  betrayed  their  northern  origin.  Rafalowitsch1 
also  asserts  that  he  recognized  them  by  their  fair  skin  in  Derr, 
lower  Nubia.  But  when  Duprat'  asserts  that  Berbers,  Arabs, 
Turks,  and  Jews  in  North  Africa  have  perfectly  preserved 
their  characters  in  spite  of  the  perfect  equality  of  the  condi- 
tions in  which  they  live,  we  must  observe  that  this  is  scarcely 
correct,  and  that  there  is  no  general  equality  of  conditions,  in 
as  much  as  Duprat  considers  the  Moors  who  chiefly  inhabit 
cities  to  be  unmixed  Arabs.  That  upon  the  Mauritius,  as 
D'Unienville  asserts,3  the  Creole-  and  Mozambique-Negroes, 
Malgasches,  Malay s,Telingas,Malabars,  and  Bengalese,  are  easily 
to  be  distinguished  as  they  have  preserved  their  peculiarities, 
does  not  prove  anything  against  the  influence  of  climate,  since 
it  differs  but  little  from  that  of  their  native  country ;  and  from  the 
constant  renewal  of  all  slave  populations,  climate  has  hardly 
been  of  sufficiently  long  continuance  to  have  produced  a  change 
in  them,  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  every  individual  tribe  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  others  by  language,  manners,  and  modes 
of  life. 

No  doubt  many  instances  furnish  us  with  evidence  that 
peculiarities  of  bodily  formation  which  have  persisted  through 
many  generations  are  but  very  slowly  altered ;  but  they  are 
not  sufficient  to  invalidate  the  opposite  doctrine,  that  in  several 
peoples  of  the  same  origin  the  physical  characters  have  altered 
by  the  influence  of  climatic  conditions  in  combination  with 
extensive  changes  in  diet  and  mode  of  life.  Though  there  is 
no  regular  increase  in  the  darkness  of  the  skins  on  approaching 
the  equator,  still  it  can  be  proved  that  colour,  like  many  other 
physical  peculiarities,  depends  partly  on  local  conditions  be- 
sides geographical  latitude.  The  facts,  however,  are  not  alto- 
gether free  from  contradiction,  so  that  definite  rules  on  the 
effect  of  climate  can  only  be  obtained  from  more  extensive 
observation. 

Mountaineers  are  usually  of  a  lighter  colour  and  more  vigor- 
ous than  those  of  the  same  tribe  inhabiting  the  valleys.  The 


SECT.  I.]  CLIMATE.  .  .45 

Hindoos  in  the  cold  mountainous  regions,,  especially  in  the  Hi- 
malayas, are  white  and  have  frequently  blue  eyes,  the  beard  and 
hair  of  the  head  are  sometimes  curly,  brown,  or  red.  The 
Siah-Posh,  or  Kaffirs  of  Hindukuh,  who  speak  a  language 
allied  to  the  Sanskrit,  are  of  European  whiteness ;  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Cashmir  are  brown.1  The  Hindustani  are  tall,  vigorous, 
warlike,  light  coloured ;  the  Bengalese  in  their  damp  and  mild 
climate,  short,  weakly,  timid,  and  black.2  Those  who  consider 
the  colour  of  the  skin  as  permanent,  must  attribute  it,  in  regard 
to  the  Hindoos,  to  intermixture  with  the  dark  aboriginal  inhabi- 
tants of  India.3  The  institution  of  castes  may,  perhaps,  support 
this  explanation.  A  remarkably  striking  contrast  is  exhibited 
by  the  fine  vigorous  Tudas  in  the  high  healthy  parts,  in  com- 
parison with  the  miserable  Curumbars,  inhabiting  the  un- 
healthy lowlands.  If  the  Abyssinian,  whose  olive  coloured 
skin  becomes  usually  lighter  during  the  rainy  period,  approach- 
ing that  of  the  European,  descend  from  the  highlands  into  the 
valleys,  he  becomes  of  a  dark  brown.  Analogous  changes  are 
observed  in  the  hair  and  wool  of  animals.4  The  inhabitants 
of  Enarea  in  the  low  and  marshy  parts  are  perfectly  black,  and 
have  the  features  and  the  woolly  hair  of  Negroes,  whilst  those 
of  the  mountainous  parts  of  Enarea  and  Kaffa  are  not  even  so 
dark  as  the  Neapolitans  ;5  and  .though  this  may,  according  to 
Combes  et  Tamisier,6  be  going  too  far,  there  still  exists  an  im- 
portant difference.  The  natives  on  the  banks  of  the  Zambesi  are 
very  dark  and  negro-like,  but  the  colour  of  the  mountaineers  is 
like  that  of  coffee  and  milk  mixed.  In  harmony  with  these  facts 
is  the  remarkable  circumstance  that  the  proper  and  well-marked 
Negro  type  is  only  found  in  hot  low  countries,  whilst  the  in- 
habitants of  highlands  mostly  deviate  from  it,  and  are  both 
physically  and  intellectually  superior.  Hombron  (p.  282)  en- 
deavours to  prove  that  the  Polynesians  become  in  unhealthy 

1  Elphinstone,  Alex.  Burnes,  Prichard,  iv,  pp.  91,  209. 

2  "  Lassen  Ind.  Alterthumsk.,"  i,  p.  404. 

3  Hombron,  "  Zoologie.  zu  D.  d'Urville  Voy.  au  Pole  Sud,"  164.     Omaluis 
d'Halloy. 

4  Lefebvre,  "  Voy.  en  Abyss.,"  iii,  p.  299,  1845. 
*  Bruce,  "  Quellen  des  Nils,"  ii,  p.  309,  1790. 

6  "  Voy.  en  Abyssinie,"  iv,  p.  285, 1838. 


46  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

parts  uglier  and  more  like  the  Malays.  Winterbottom,1  who 
asserts  that  lean  people  of  dark  colour  become  of  a  lighter  colour 
on  growing  fat,  found  the  inhabitants  of  the  unhealthy  coasts 
of  Sierra  Leone,  darker  than  those  who  live  inland.  Thus  we 
also  hear  of  the  Arowakas,  in  Guiana,  that  whilst  some  of  them 
resemble  in  complexion  the  Spaniards  and  the  Italians,  those 
living  in  the  unhealthy  low  parts  near  the  sea  are  nearly  as 
dark  as  the  lighter  coloured  Negroes.2  In  this  way  it  may, 
perhaps,  be  explained  why  the  Chiriguanas,  in  the  old  missions 
of  Piray,  are  of  dark  brown  colour  (color  morenos),  but  those 
who  remained  heathens,  their  women  specially,  are  nearly  as  white 
as  the  Spaniards.3  The  former  may,  under  the  direction  of 
the  missionaries,  have  cultivated  the  soil,  the  latter  may  have 
lived  in  the  forests  protected  from  the  sun. 

From  these  and  other  instances  it  has  been  inferred  that  hot 
and  damp  countries  favour  the  darkening  of  the  skin.4  The 
frequency  of  bilious  diseases,  which  occur  on  changing  the 
residence  from  high  dry  lands  to  low  marshy  grounds,  has  been 
often  observed.  Further  confirmations  of  the  fact  are  found 
when  we  notice  the  change  of  colour  which  Europeans  experi- 
ence in  other  parts  of  the  world,  and  especially  under  the 
tropics.  Even  the  traveller  who  remains  there  but  a  short 
time  loses  his  colour.  ' '  When  I  arrived  at  Grhadames,"  says 
Eichardson,5  "  I  had  a  rosy  colour,  now  I  am  like  these  yellow 
men."  The  covered  parts,  however,  preserve  their  original 
colour,  as  has  been  proved  in  the  case  of  the  French  soldiers 
in  Algiers.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  stated  of  the  North- 
American  Indians  that  the  covered  parts  are  not  lighter  in 
colour  than  the  naked.7  This  is  also  asserted  of  the  natives 
of  Mexico  and  Peru.8 


1  "Machr.  v.  d.  Sierra  Leone,"  p.  240,  1805. 

2  "  Journal  of  the  Royal  G-eogr.  Soc.,"  ii,  p.  229,  according  to  Hilhouse. 

3  "  Viedma  in  de  Angelas,  Coleccion  de  Obras  y  Documentos,"  B  Aires    iii 
§  9,  ad.  50,  1836. 

4  Jarrold,  "  Anthropologia ;  or,  on  the  Form  and  Colour  of  Man/'  p.  188, 
1838.     Heusinger,  "  Grundriss  der  Anthropol.,"  p.  87,  1829. 

5  «  Trav.  in  the  Great  Desert  of  Sahara,"  i,  p.  265,  1848. 

6  Lay,  James,  "  Account  of  an  Exped.  to  the  Kooky  Mountains  under  M. 
Long.,  Philad.,"  i,  p.  285,  1823. 

T  Humboldt  and  Bonpland,  "  Eeise,"  ii,  250. 


SECT.  I.]  CLIMATE.  47 

These  cases  can,  however,  hardly  be  considered  as  pecu- 
liarities of  race;  for  the  European  in  Java,  as  well  as  in  the 
West  Indies  and  Africa,  soon  loses  his  red  cheeks,  and  experi- 
ences other  changes  if  he  remains  for  a  long  time  exposed  to  a 
tropical  climate.  Whoever  lives  for  a  long  time  in  Guinea, 
and  is  much  exposed  to  the  sun,  becomes  almost  copper- 
coloured.1  Raffenel2  goes  so  far  as  to  assert  that  people  of 
the  Caucasian  race  who  are  for  a  considerable  time  exposed  to 
a  tropical  sun  gradually  assume  the  colour  of  the  Negro,  there 
being  well-authenticated  instances  of  pure  Arabs  who  had 
become  under  such  circumstances  blacker  than  those  accounted 
very  dark  among  Negroes.  And  if,  as  we  are  informed,  the 
Portuguese  colonists  of  Cachaux,  in  West  Africa,  have  become 
black  mulattoes,3  and  those  of  Cape  Verd,  the  coast  of  Guinea, 
in  Quilimane,4  in  Batavia,  Ternate,  Bombay,5  in  Larentuka 
(Mores),  and  in  Dilli  (Timor),6  have  after  a  series  of  gener- 
ations become  black  or  nearly  so,  it  cannot  altogether  be 
ascribed  to  intermixture  with  the  natives.  Even  Pruner,7 — who 
is  not  partial  to  the  doctrine  of  the  great  influence  of  climate 
on  the  organization  of  man,  and  who  considers  the  structure  of 
the  skeleton  in  the  various  races  as  unchangeable, — states  from 
his  own  observation,  that  the  European  acclimated  in  Egypt, 
acquires  after  some  time  a  tawny  skin,  and  in  Abyssinia  a 
bronzed  skin,  he  becomes  pallid  on  the  coast  of  Arabia,  cachectic 
white  in  Syria,  clear  brown  in  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  and  ruddy 
in  the  Syrian  mountains;  whilst  the  hair  does  not  merely 
become  darker,  but  acquires  a  softer  texture,  with  a  tendency 
to  curl.  Aii  interesting  gradation  of  all  shades  down  to  the 
negro-black  is  exhibited  by  the  Jews.  West  of  Tomsk,  in  the 
Barabinsky  Steppes,  they  have  a  clear  skin  and  light  hair,8 
which  is  uncommon  in  England  and  Germany.  In  Spain, 
Portugal,  Syria,  the  East  Indies,  and  Congo,  they  exhibit 

i  Monrad,  "  Gemalde  der  K.  v.  Guinea,"  p.  371, 1824. 
»  "  Nouveau  Voy.,"  i,  p.  272,  1856. 

3  Durand,  "  Voy.  en  Senegal,"  an.  x,  i,  p.  169. 

4  Owen,  "  Narr.  of  voy.  to  explore  the  shores  of  Africa,"  i,  p.  290,  1833. 
6  Forrest,  "  Voy.  to  New  Guinea,"  p.  36,  1779. 

6  Olivier,  "  Land  und  Seereisen  in  Mederl.  Ind.,"  ii,  p.  266,  1829. 

7  "  Die  Krankheiten  des  Orients,"  p.  83,  1847. 

a  Simpson,  "  Narr.  of  a  Journey  Bound  the  World,"  ii,  p.  410,  1847. 


48  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I 

different  shades.1  Though  it  may  be  that  the  Jews,  banishec 
by  John  II,  1492,  from  Portugal,  may,  as  Sprengel2  asserts. 
have  intermixed  with  the  Negroes  of  St.  Thomas,  this  must 
not  be  considered  as  the  sole  cause  of  their  altered  complexion. 
Though  it  appears  that  in  the  same  people,  if  they  live  in 
various  degrees  of  latitude,  the  colour  of  the  skin  usually 
increases  in  darkness  on  approaching  the  Equator,  e.g.,  in  the 
Chinese,  who  from  Pekin  to  Canton  present  all  shades  from 
light  to  deep  copper  colour;  the  Arabs,  from  the  Desert  to 
Jemen,  from  olive  colour  to  black ;  the  Australians  about 
More  ton  Bay,  coal  black;  but  10°  south  copper  coloured:3 — 
still,  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  important  exceptions, 
lately  also  pointed  out  by  Livingstone,  to  the  assumption  that 
the  blackness  of  the  skin  increases  with  heat  and  moisture. 
An  apparent  exception  is  offered  by  the  white  race  in  South 
America  :  the  Europeans  near  to  the  Equator  in  the  hot  and 
damp  Guayaquil,  have  a  fair  complexion,  clearer  even  than 
that  of  the  Spaniards  in  their  native  country,  and  blue  eyes 
and  light  hair  are  common  among  the  women.  This  may 
perhaps  be  explained  by  the  ladies  taking  particular  care  of 
their  complexion.  In  the  unhealthy  spots  of  these  parts,  as 
Panama,  Portobello,  Carthagena,  the  Spanish  Creoles  do  not 
present  the  fair  hair  and  fresh  colour  so  frequently  seen  in 
Guayaquil.5  It  may  also  be  observed,  that  the  Spaniards  in 
Chili  are  white,  and  of  a  fresher  colour  than  in  their  own 
country,  but  the  Portuguese  in  Brazil  are  of  a  lead  colour  or 
yellow.6  It  is  still  more  striking,  that  whilst  in  Carthagena 
there  may  yet  be  seen  fair  or  red-haired  women,  in  Santa  Fe, 
which  is  much  colder,  only  dark  complexions  with  black  hair 
are  found.7  The  same  condition  with  regard  to  colour  is 
stated  of  the  Indians  of  Peru,  by  Tschudi.8  Zarate9  also 

1  "  Prichard,"  iv,  p.  597. 

2  "  Vom  Ursprung  des  Negerhandels,"  p.  32,  1779. 

3  Dunmore  Lang,  "  Cooksland  in  JST.  E.  Australia/'  p.  380,  1847. 

4  Stevenson,  ii,  108.     Basil  Hall,  "Extracts  of  a  Journal  written  in  Chili, 
Peru,  and  Mexico,"  3rd,  Edit.,  ii,  p.  109,  1824. 

5  Ulloa,  "  Voy.  de  1' Am.  merid."  1,  145,  Amst.  1752. 

6  Frezier,  "  Reise  nach  dcr  Sudsee/'  p.  88,  1718. 

7  Mollien,  "  Voy.  dans  la  rep.  de  Colombia,"  ii,  p.  132,  1824. 

8  "Peru  Reiseskizzen,"  ii,  p.  359,  1846. 

9  "  Hist,  de  la  Decouverte  du  Perou/'  i,  p.  41,  1724. 


SECT.  I.]  CLIMATE.  49 

asserts  that  in  Peru,  mountaineers  possess  a  lighter  colour  than 
the  lowlanders;  whilst  Tschudi  says,  the  colder  the  climate 
the  darker  the  colour.  In  Puna  dark  red-brown ;  in  Sierra 
considerably  lighter,  nearly  of  a  rusty  red ;  darker  on  the 
coast,  and  straw-yellow  in  the  forests* 

The  example  of  the  native  Peruvians,  who  are  dark  brown 
in  the  Andes,  though  they  have  but  two  rainy  months  in  the 
year,  has  induced  D'Orbigny  to  declare  a  hot  and  moist  climate, 
provided  the  country  affords  sufficient  shade,  as  favourable  to 
whiteness  of  skin  \  and  he  cites,  as  a  proof,  the  light-corn- 
plexioned  Yuracares  (Antisana)  compared  with  the  Quichuas 
and  Aymaras.  Thus  Dobrizhofier1  saw  in  the  forests  of 
Paraguay,  Indians  of  European  white  colour,  whilst  the  Paya- 
guas,  who  live  almost  entirely  upon  the  water  and  are  much 
exposed  to  the  weather,  are  darker  at  least  than  the 
Guaranis.2  Gumilla3  has  made  the  same  observation,  which 
is  confirmed  by  Humboldt  and  Bonpland.4  To  these  may  be 
added  Eschwege,5  who  says  that  the  lower  classes  of  Portugal 
and  Spain,  especially  the  fishermen,  who  are  much  exposed  to 
the  weather,  possessed  the  same  colour  as  the  Indians  of  Minas 
Geraes,  which  is  deepened  in  the  latter  by  their  uncleanliness. 
Hence  A.  de  St.  Hilaire6  declares  that  the  colour  of  the  Brazil 
Indians  is  merely  the  result  of  the  climate  and  their  uncleanli- 
ness. Hombron  again  states,  that  the  mountaineers  of  New 
Guinea  and  the  Philippines,  although  living  in  damp,  thick 
forests,  are  not  less  black  than  the  New  Hollanders ;  but  he 
also  observes,  that  the  blackest  negroes  somewhat  lose  their 
black  colour  after  a  few  years'  residence  in  warm  and  damp 
colonies.  That  heat  and  moisture  alone  do  not  produce  a 
yellowish  brown  skin,  is  shown  by  several  Polar  nations,  and 
the  majority  of  North  American  Indians,  among  whom  again 
the  natives  of  the  greater  part  of  the  north-west  Coast  exhibit 
a  remarkable  exception  in  their  white  skin. 

1  "  Geschichte  der  Abiponer,"  ii,  p.  18,  1783. 

2  Demersay,  "Bulletin  Soc.  Geogr.,"  i,  p.  17,  1854. 

'*  Hist.  nat.  civ.  et  g.  de  1'Orenoque,"  i,  p.  2,  1758. 

4  "  Reise,"  iv,  p.  495. 

5  "  Journal  v.  Brasil,"  i,  p.  85,  1818. 

6  "  Voy.  dans  I'mterieur  du  Bresil,"  i,  p.  426,  1830. 


50  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I.    ] 

As  in  many  of  these  instances  there  exists  such  a  striking 
and  unexpected  diversity  of  colour,  which  is  not  to  be  accounted 
for  by  any  great  difference  either  of  diet  or  descent,  there  are 
no  means  of  explaining  the  contradictions,  excepting  by  the 
different  modes  of  life,  and  the  modes  of  protection  against  the 
influence  of  climate. 

This  is  of  special  importance  in  countries  where  great  heat 
is  combined  with  sudden  alterations  of  temperature,  or  of 
dampness  and  dryness.  Want  of  protection  against  the  influ- 
ence of  climate  in  such  cases  appears  greatly  to  favour  the 
darkening  of  the  skin.  Continued  confinement  to  the  house, 
as  is  well  known,  blanches  the  skin.  This  also  takes  place  in 
healthy  persons  in  winter,  whilst  the  warm  sun  in  the  spring, 
combined  with  out-of-door  exercise,  darkens  the  complexion. 
Numerous  instances,  both  in  Europe  and  in  other  parts,  show 
that  fishermen  and  navigators  exposed  to  all  changes  of  the 
weather,  are  always  of  darker  complexion  than  the  rest  of  the 
population.  If  Belcher1  observed  the  contrary  in  the  Canary 
Islands  and  among  the  Malays  in  the  Bajows,  and  that  the 
Sandwich  Islanders  and  the  Tahitians  had  been  of  a  lighter 
colour  before  the  missionaries  forbade  them  to  fish  (?)  and  to 
bathe,  he  stands  alone  in  the  erroneous  assumption,  just  as 
D'Orbigny  and  Troyer,2  who  assert  what  has  not  been  confirmed 
by  any  voyager,  that  among  nations  of  brown  or  dark  brown 
skin,  the  exposed  face  is  of  a  lighter  colour  than  the  protected 
parts,  and  that  the  higher  classes  in  the  Sandwich  Islands  have 
a  darker  complexion  than  the  lower  classes.  There  are,  no 
doubt,  peoples  among  whom  the  males  differ  in  colour  from 
the  females,  without  our  being  able  to  trace  a  difference  in 
descent  or  in  mode  of  protection.  Among  the  natives  on  the 
Pilcomayo,  the  females  are  said  to  be  as  white  as  the  Spanish 
women;3  among  the  Coroados  and  Puris,  the  males  have  a 
much  darker  colour,  while  the  females  are  yellow  and  capable 
of  blushing.4  But  though  such  instances  are  at  present  in- 

1  "Narr.  of  the  Voy.  of  H.M.S.  Samarang,"  ii,  p.  94,  1848. 

2  "  Bullet,  de  la  Soc.  Ethnol.,"  22  mai,  1846. 

3  Erbaul,  "  Geschichten  der  Chiquitos,"  Wien,  p.  447,  1729. 

4  Burmeister,  "  R.  nach  Brasilien,"  pp.  246-260,  1853. 


SECT.  I.]  CLIMATE.  51 

explicable,  they  do  not  invalidate  the  general  rule,  that  the 
colour  of  the  skin  and  the  whole  external  aspect  are  essentially 
influenced  by  habits  of  life,  comfort  or  misery,  and  particularly 
by  the  want  or  sufficiency  of  protection  against  heat,  cold,  and 
moisture.  This  is  confirmed  among  all  races. 

Though  we  find  among  all  the  castes  of  the  Hindoos  light 
and  dark  individuals  of  all  shades,  the  lower  castes  are  mostly 
darker,  the  Brahmins  mostly  of  a  lighter  colour,  so  that  in 
comparison  with  the  rest  of  the  population  they  appear  white 
even  in  Mahratta,  the  Deccan,  and  Calcutta.  A  wandering 
tribe  of  Rajpoots,  the  Bengari,  who  travel  through  the  country 
as  corn  merchants,1  are  much  darker  and  more  vigorous  than  the 
rest  of  their  tribes  (Lassen).  The  women  and  girls  of  the 
Hassanieh  Arabs  in  East  Africa,  who  are  very  careful  of  their 
complexion,  are  of  a  light  bronze  colour,  and  differ  in  this  re- 
spect so  much  from  their  dark-brown  husbands,  that  one  is  in- 
clined to  consider  them  of  a  different  tribe.2  Many  women  in 
El  Obeid  (Kordofan)  who  protect  themselves  from  the  sun,  are 
not  darker  than  brunette  European  women.  Among  the 
yellow-brown  Mongolian  race  in  China  and  Japan,  the  work- 
men are  brown ;  high-born  ladies  nearly  white ;  and  upon  the 
Luchu  Islands  the  colour  alternates  from  dark  brown  to  white.3 
In  Bony  (Celebes),  many  women  are  very  white.4  The  most 
striking  diversities  of  colour  and  hair  are  found  among  the 
Fins,  unless  we  are  able  to  explain  it  by  intermixture.  The 
black-haired  dark  Laps  and  Woguls  are  nearly  allied  to  the 
fair  Fins,  the  black-haired  but  clear  complexioned  Magyars, 
and  the  red-haired  Ostiaks.  L.  v.  Buch  considers  the  protec- 
tion against  the  influence  of  climate,  wholesome  food,  warm 
clothing,  and  good  habitation,  among  the  Fins,  and  the  want 
of  them  among  the  short  Laps,  as  the  chief  causes  of  these 
phenomena.  Many  peoples  of  the  South  Sea,  especially  of  the 
Society,  Sandwich  Islands,  and  New  Zealand,  offer  so  con- 
siderable a  difference  in  complexion,  that  one  is  often  inclined 
to  assume  a  mixture  of  different  races ;  which  supposition  is 

1  Ritter,  "  Erdk./'  v,  p.  687.  2  Brehm,  i,  p.  331. 

3  Prichard,  iv,  519. 

4  Olivier,  "  E.  in  Niederlandisch  Indien,"  ii,  p.  175,  1829. 

E  2 


52  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

not  supported  by  linguistic  data,  and  has  been  generally 
abandoned.  At  any  rate,  such  a  theory  must  be  much  limited, 
and  is  in  Polynesia  only  applicable  to  the  Tonga  and  Samoa 
Archipelago  ;  hence  the  great  differences  of  colour  and  physi- 
cal conformation  upon  most  of  the  above  groups  of  Islands 
must  be  considered  as  the  result  of  external  conditions. 

From  the  preceding  facts  there  seems  to  result,  that  the 
colour  of  the  skin,  though  not  always  in  proportion  to  latitude 
and  mean  temperature,  is  essentially  influenced  by  climate; 
that  the  extent  and  mode  of  this  influence  is  chiefly  regulated 
by  habits  and  mode  of  life ;  that  next  to  these,  descent  has  the 
greatest  influence ;  and  that  food  has  also  its  share  in  the  pro- 
duction of  colour,  though  in  a  subordinate  degree.  It  is  further 
shown  that  hot  and  damp  countries,  unprotected  by  forests, 
and  a  mode  of  life  which  exposes  the  organism  to  climatic  in- 
fluences, strongly  favour  the  darkening  of  the  skin.  Frequent 
and  great  alterations  of  temperature,  especially  sudden  changes 
from  wet  to  dry,  brown  the  skin  in  every  climate  and  in  every 
race,  if  the  body  is  much  exposed  and  unprotected. 

We  must  not,  however,  expect  that  the  European  in  America 
or  Africa,  or  the  Negro  in  America,  should,  after  a  few  cen- 
turies, or  perhaps  ever,  assume  the  type  of  the  aborigines ;  for 
where  diet  and  habits  of  life,  and  the  whole  care  for  body  and 
soul  differ  so  essentially  between  immigrants  and  aborigines, 
the  former  can  only  veiy  gradually  approach  the  latter,  specially 
where  there  is  a  constant  influx  of  immigrants.  This  assimila- 
tion can  only  be  effected  as  far  as  the  influence  of  climate  is 
alone  concerned.  The  following  observations  are  interesting 
in  this  respect. 

The  Germans  who  in  the  last  century  emigrated  to  Penn- 
sylvania, and  to  the  banks  of  the  Mohawk,  differ  at  present  * 
considerably  from  the  German  type ;  and,  between  the  Yankee 
and  the  Englishman  the  difference  is  said  to  be  still  greater. 
"  Pale,  a  somewhat  darker  colour,  smoothness  and  softness  of 
features,  strike  the  stranger.    The  effect  of  the  climate  is  more 
decided  in  the  central  and  southern  than  in  the  northern  parts,    ] 
and  more  striking  in  the  plains  near  the  sea  than  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Appalachian  mountains,  and  also  among  the  working 


SECT.  I.]  CLIMATE.  53 

classes  more  than  among  the  higher  classes.  The  colour  of  the 
inhabitants  of  New  Jersey  below  the  cataracts,  is  much  darker 
than  that  of  the  Pennsylvanians,  as  their  country  is  flatter  and 
covered  with  stagnant  waters.  Along  the  south  coast  of  Mary- 
land and  Virginia,  the  colour  is  deeper.  The  inhabitants  of 
the  lowlands  of  Carolina  and  Georgia,  especially  the  poorer  and 
working  classes,  are  but  little  lighter  than  the  Trokeese.  They 
are  mostly  so  thin  and  lean  tljat  their  limbs  appear  dispro- 
portionately long.  The  hair  is  thicker  and  stiffer  than  in  the 
European,  and  does  not  readily  curl.  The  stiffness  increases 
with  every  generation."1 

The  American  as  compared  with  the  Englishman  is  lean,  al- 
though he  grows  fat  after  a  long  sojourn  in  Europe.  There 
obtains,  however,  in  this  respect,  a  difference  between  north 
and  south.  The  Virginian  (the  West  Virginian  excepted)2  is 
tall,  slender,  and  lean ;  the  New  Englander  shorter,  and  has 
mostly  a  round  face ;  both,  it  must  be  observed,  are  of  the 
same  stock.  "  The  genuine  Yankee,"  says  Carpenter,3  {<  may 
be  distinguished  from  the  Englishman  by  the  sharpness  and 
angularity  of  his  features.  There  is  an  excess  of  breadth  be- 
tween the  rami  of  the  lower  jaw,  giving  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
face  a  peculiar  squareness  in  contrast  to  its  oval  form  in  the 
Englishman,  and  which  tends  to  assimilate  the  Anglo-American 
to  the  aborigines  of  the  country/'  It  has  long  been  observed 
that  the  English  immigrants  in  North  America  are  more  vigor- 
ous workmen  than  their  descendants.4  It  may  be  observed  that 
the  flesh  of  our  domestic  animals  seems  there  to  be  less  nutri- 
tious and  of  less  flavour,  and  that  the  breed  of  cattle  is  inferior.5 
Beside,  the  leanness,  the  stiff  shaggy  hair  are  also  characteristics 
of  the  American ;  the  curly  hair  of  the  European  becomes 
straight  in  America  (Jarrold),*so  that  the  American  is,  gene- 

1  Stanhope  Smith,  "  On  the  Causes  of  the  Variety  of  Complexion  and 
Figure,"  p.  68,  New  Brunsw.,  1810 ;  and  Imlay,  "  Nachr.  v.  d.  west  Lande 
der  N.  A.  Freistaaten,"  im  Magaz.  der  Keisebesch.,  ix,  p.  126 :  Vater,  "  Unters. 
iiber  Americas  Bevolkerung  aus.  d.  alten  Continente,"  p.  71,  1810. 

*  Kriegk  in  "  Luedde's  Zeitschrift  fur  Erdkunde,"  i,  p.  484. 

3  Todd's  "  Cyclop,  of  Anat.  and  Physiol.,"  p.  1330. 

4  Johnston,  "Notes  on  North  America,"  1851. 

5  Franz,  "  Anweisung  zur  Vervollk.  der  Viehzucht,  p.  105 ,•  and  Clemens* 
in  der  "  Deutschen  Vierteljahrschrift,"  ii,  p.  78,  1849. 


54  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

rally,  in  caricature,  represented  with  a  long  neck  and  long  hair. 
The  latter  is,  in  comparison  with  the  soft  silky  hair  of  the 
Englishman,  evidently  an  approach  to  the  American  Indian. 
The  long  neck  is  connected  with  a  weaker  development  of  the 
glandular  system,  to  which  must  be  added  the  nervous  irrita- 
bility of  the  American.  These  peculiarities  have  been  connected 
with  the  dry  west  winds  which  predominate  in  the  United 
States ;  notwithstanding  nearly  double  the  quantity  of  rain 
which  falls  there,  in  comparison  with  most  European  countries, 
drought  frequently  injures  the  harvest.1  Other  causes  con- 
tribute to  this  change,  such  as  the  restless  activity  of  the 
Yankee,  and  his  love  of  spirituous  liquors.  The  American  is 
also  said  to  have  a  voice  of  less  metal,  and  his  eyelids  are 
said  to  be  shorter,  than  those  of  the  European.2 

Whilst  in  New  South  Wales,  as  in  North  America,  the  child- 
ren of  European  parents  are  apt  to  become  tall  and  lean,3  there 
is  a  tendency  among  the  European  colonists  at  the  Cape  to 
grow  fat  ;4  which  reminds  us  of  the  large  fat  tails  of  the  Cape 
sheep,  and  the  fat  hips  of  the  native  women.  The  white  Creoles 
in  the  West  Indies,  have  also  a  disposition  to  grow  fat ;  they 
are  tall  and  well-made,  and  distinguish  themselves  from  the 
Europeans  by  the  flexibility  of  their  limbs.  Their  pale  yellow 
complexion  and  their  precocity  have  already  been  mentioned. 
Their  eyes  are  deep-seated,  usually  of  grey,  black,  or  dark- 
brown  colour.  The  skin  generally  feels  cool.5  Some  authors 
(Yater),  mention  the  prominency  of  their  cheek-bones,  which 
is  denied  by  others.  Nott  ascribes  to  them,  besides  their  pale 
complexion,  no  peculiarities  which  distinguish  them  from  the 
whites.  With  regard  to  this  assertion,  it  must  be  considered 
that  most  Europeans,  the  English  especially,  only  go  to  the 
West  Indies  to  acquire  wealth  and  then  return  to  their  native 
country.  Joseph  Brown6  mentions  that  the  same  parents,  who, 

1  Williamson,  "  Observations  on  the  Climate  of  America/'  New  York,  1811. 

2  Jarrold,  p.  135. 

3  Lesson,  "  Voy.  Medical  autour  du  M.,  1829,"  p.  110;  and  Majoribanks, 
"  Travels  in  N.  S.  Wales,  1847,"  p.  217. 

4  Barrow,  "B.  durch  die  inneren  Gegenden  des  Siidlich. Afr.,  1801-55,"  ii,  p.  121 . 
•"•  Bryan  Edwards,  "  Hist,  des  Colonies  Anglaises  dans  les  Indes  occ."  p.  175, 

Paris,  1801. 
6  "  Cyclop,  of  Pract.  Med.,"  ii,  p.  419. 


SECT.  I.]  CLIMATE.  55 

in  the  West  Indies  produce  children  of  West  Indian  colour  and 
physiognomy,  produce  in  Europe,  children  of  European  colour 
and  physiognomy.  The  white  Creoles  in  Peru  originating  from 
the  North  of  Spain  lose  their  ruddy  complexion  in  the  second 
generation,  the  whiteness  of  the  skin  becomes  sallow.1  Red  hair 
and  blue  eyes  disappear  from  the  family  in  succeeding  genera- 
tions. (Sucle  retroceder  en  las  generaciones  siguientes  sacando 
el  pelo  roxo  y  ojos  azules  del  tronco  de  su  familia.  Uanne, 
obser.  sobre  el  clima  de  Lima.  Madrid,  1815,  p.  106.) 

The  changes  which  the  Negroes  undergo  in  America  will  be 
treated  of  in  the  sequel,  as  they  are  not  so  much  owing  to  the 
climate  as  to  the  change  of  habit,  diet,  and  their  intercourse 
with  a  more  intellectual  race.  Here  it  may  be  merely  observed 
that  though  some  instances  have  been  quoted2  of  Negroes 
who,  transplanted  to  the  north,  have  become  gradually  lighter, 
and  ultimately  white,  they  are  isolated  cases,  like  that  men- 
tioned by  De  la  Salle,3  of  a  French  lady  whose  hair  changed  in 
the  East  Indies  from  dark  brown  (perhaps  dyed  ?)  to  a  bright 
red.  As  regards  the  Botokudes,  among  whom  in  their  own 
country  there  are  white  men  with  red  cheeks,  although  they 
live  under  20°  south  lat.,  it  scarcely  can  excite  surprise  that 
they  become  in  Europe  white  in  winter,  as  mentioned  by 
Prince  Max.4  Blumenbach,  and  Hunter  before  him,6  believed 
that  it  takes  a  longer  time  for  a  Negro  to  grow  white  than  for 
a  European  to  become  black.  Skin  affections  must  be  taken 
into  consideration  before  admitting  the  above  cases  as  proofs 
either  way.  A  morbid  affection  was  probably  the  cause  in  an 
instance  related  by  Anderson,5  of  a  Negro  whose  black  shining 
skin  became  in  a  very  cold  night  of  a  pale  ash-grey  colour. 
Prichard  r  speaks  of  Tuaryks,  who,  when  living  alone  in  an  oasis, 
became  gradually,  as  regards  hair  and  features,  negro-like ; 
but  the  metamorphosis  has  been  lately  invalidated  by  Barth, 


1  El  bianco  algo  se  quiebra. 

2  Blumenbach,  "  De  gen.  hum.  var.  nat.,"  p.  60. 

8  Voy.  autour  du  M.  sur  la  Bonito,"  ii,  p.  281,  1845. 

4  "  R.  nach  Brasil,"  ii,  pp.  4,  66. 

*  "  Diss.  de  Hoininurn  Variet.,"  p.  38,  1775. 

6  "  E.  in  Siidwest-Afr.,"  1 

7  Chap,  iv,  p.  600,  according  to  Hodgson. 


56  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

in  as  much  as  the  Negroes  were  in  former  times  much  more 
numerous  in  North  Africa  than  now,  and  that  intermixture 
between  Negroes  and  Tuaryks  occurs  frequentlyin  the  southern 
districts  of  the  latter. 

The  influence  of  climate  upon  temperament  and  character  has 
been  as  much  exaggerated  as  that  upon  the  physical  constitution. 
According  to  Falconer,1  a  hot  climate  greatly  increases  sensi- 
bility, and  predisposes  to  sensual  excesses,  revenge,  thought- 
lessness, inconstancy,  and  cowardice;  whilst  a  cold  climate 
produces  the  opposite  qualities.  He  also  endeavours  to  show 
that  climate  has  an  influence  upon  laws,  religion,  and  politics. 
Travellers,  Werne  for  instance,  have  observed  in  themselves 
and  other  persons  that  the  temporal  residence  in  a  tropical 
climate  produces  a  great  irritability  of  temperament  which 
disappears  again  in  Europe.  Something  similar  is  also  found 
here  and  there  among  immigrants  who  are  already  acclimatized. 
"  A  morbid  irritability  is  general  in  this  country  (Port  Natal) ; 
this  is  more  the  case  in  the  bay,  that  is,  around  d' Urban,  than 
here  (Pietermaritzburg),  so  that  the  more  sober  Maritzburgers 
are  astonished  at  nothing  that  happens  down  the  country,  un- 
less something  rational  is  effected."2  These  effects  appear, 
however,  to  be  merely  transitory  and  of  a  local  nature.  Gener- 
ally we  may  assume  that  the  continued  influence  of  a  hot 
climate  produces  a  relaxed  state,  diminishing  bodily  and  mental 
activity,  or,  as  Poppig  says,3  that  it  leaves  man  physically  and 
morally  more  inert  than  a  temperate  climate.  It  is  not  always 
the  case  that  people  living  under  a  serene  sky  are  more  joyous 
and  more  inclined  to  sports  and  dancing  than  those  enveloped 
by  mists  and  clouds.  In  North  and  South  America,  as  well  as 
in  the  South  Sea,  there  are  found  under  the  same  climatic, 
conditions,  unsocial  and  morose  nations,  as  well  as  cheerful  and 
social  peoples.  While  Egyptians  and  Hindoos  are  patient  and 
unimpassioned,  the  Esquimaux  and  Tschuktch  are  of  an 
irritable,  cheerful,  and  elastic  nature.  The  present  Chileno 
(says  Poppig)  does  not  possess  that  characteristic  irritability 

1  "  Remarks  on  the  Influence  of  Climate/'  1781. 

2  Bleek,  in  Petermann's  "  Geogr.  Mittheil."  p.  369,  1856. 

3  R.  in  Chili,  Peru,  and  the  Amazon  River,  ii,  p.  180,  1835, 


SECT.  I.]  ALIMENT.  57 

and  inconstancy  which  the  prejudice  of  the  north  ascribes  to 
the  south,  but  he  appears  calm  and  discreet. 


The  important  influence  of  diet  upon  the  body,  and  indirectly 
upon  the  mind,  has  never  been  doubted  (a  resume  of  the  varieties 
of  food  used  by  many  nations  may  be  found  in  Foissac)  -1  Be- 
sides the  quantity  and  the  quality  of  the  articles  of  diet,  there 
must  also  be  taken  into  consideration  the  amount  of  labour 
requisite  to  procure  them.  It  is  only  when  man  can  procure 
digestible  food  in  sufficient  quantity  without  too  much  physical 
exertion  that  the  body  can  become  properly  developed.  Hence 
alimentation  is  closely  connected  with  habits  of  life. 

That  wealth  and  poverty  exercise  a  decided  influence  upon 
growth  and  mortality  has  been  proved  by  Quetelet.  Geoffroy2 
has  endeavoured  to  show  that  generally  among  the  mammals 
there  is  a  remarkable  harmony  between  bodily  size  and  the 
food  assigned  to  them  by  nature.  The  consequences  of  hunger 
and  of  the  consumption  of  large  quantities  of  food  not  suffi- 
ciently nutritious  by  itself,  potatoes  specially,  may  be  ascer- 
tained in  the  large  towns  and  manufacturing  districts  of  our 
modern  civilized  states.  Ireland  offers  the  most  striking 
example  of  this  kind.  In  1641,  and  following  years,  Irishmen 
were  driven  out  of  Ulster  and  the  south  of  Down  into  the 
forest  by  the  English.  When  they  were  again  found,  at  a  later 
period,  they  seemed  quite  altered,  only  five  feet  two  inches  high, 
big  bellied,  bandy  legged,  features  distorted,  open  mouthed, 
and  projecting  teeth.3  Similar  instances  are  found  in  other 
parts  of  the  world,  showing  the  effects  in  whole  tribes. 

The  Bosjesmen  are,  as  is  proved  by  their  language,  a  Hot- 
tentot tribe  driven  by  their  enemies  into  a  stony,  sterile  tract, 
and  kept  confined  to  it.  Their  country  is  even  deficient  in 
spring  water  and  rain.  If  the  chase  with  bow  and  arrow  is 
unproductive  they  search  for  roots,  ants,  locusts,  snakes,  and 
lizards  to  satisfy  the  cravings  of  hunger.  The  degeneracy  of 

1  "  Ueber  den  Einfl.  d.  Klimas,"  p.  20,  1840. 

3  Edin.   New  Philos.  Journal,   April  to  July  1833 ;  Froriep's  "  Notizen," 
No.  818,  1833. 
3  Prichard,  "  Uebers,"  ii,  p.  373;  Dublin  Univ.  Mag.,  No.  48,  p.  658. 


58  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PAET    I. 

tlieir  bodily  condition,  as  compared  with  that  of  their  allied 
tribes,  and  their  approximation  to  the  brute  creation,  which 
Lichtenstein  has  so  vividly  described,  justifies  us  the  more  in 
attributing  it  to  their  miserable  mode  of  existence,  since  the 
Bosjesmen  on  the  Zuga  river,  and  in  the  north-east  of  the 
Ngami  lake,  who  do  not  suffer  from  want,  are  strong  and  well 
made,  looking  much  better  than  those  of  the  south  in  the 
desert  who  speak  the  same  language.1 

In  the  same  manner  it  can  be  shown  that  all  peoples  which 
we  find  physically  and  morally  in  the  lowest  scale  of  humanity, 
live  in  the  deepest  material  misery.  To  this  class  belong  the 
aborigines  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  and  Australia.  The  former 
inhabit  a  wild  and  rocky  mountain-coast,  which  even  obstructs 
free  motion,  so  that  they  are  obliged  to  pass  the  greater  por- 
tion of  their  lives  in  their  huts  or  in  their  boats ;  hence  their 
crooked  thin  legs.2  They  suffer  much  from  hunger  and  cold. 
Notwithstanding  their  miserable  appearance,  it  is  highly  proba- 
ble that  they  belong  to  the  powerful  tribe  of  the  Araucanians, 
with  whom,  in  respect  of  their  bodily  formation,  D'Orbigny 
classes  them,  whilst  in  their  manners  they  resemble  the  Pata- 
gonians,  so  unlike  them  in  body.  Attention  has  been  directed 
to  the  external  resemblance  of  the  people  of  Tierra  del  Fuego 
to  the  Esquimaux,  so  that  it  may  be  imagined  that  climate  and 
mode  of  life  induce  a  certain  resemblance  of  physical  forma- 
tion. Australia  is  deficient  in  water  and  large  wild  animals. 
Among  the  tribes  of  the  natives  those  who  are  badly  nourished 
stand  physically  and  mentally  lowest.  On  proceeding  from 
Port  Jackson  northwards  to  Port  Macquarie,  Clarence,  Moreton, 
and  Rockingham  Bay,  Port  Essington,  the  natives  are  found 
to  be  physically  and  mentally  superior.3  Those  who  live  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  interior  are  frequently  exposed  to  hunger, 
and  feed  but  sparingly  on  kangaroos,  whilst  those  who  dwell 
on  the  banks  of  the  Lynd  and  Mitchell  rivers,  and  near  the 


1  Livingstone,  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geog.  Soc.,  xxi,  p.  23,  and  xxii,  p.  164. 

2  Wilkes's  "  Narrative  of  U.  S.  Expedition,"  i,  p.  124,  PMlad.,  1845. 

3  Hodgson,  "  Reminiscences  of  Aust.,"  p.  254,  1846 ;  King,  "  Narrative  of 
a  Survey  of  the  Intertropical  and  W.  Coasts  of  Aust.,"  i,  p.  1827, 203  ;  Leich- 
ardt,  "Tageb.  einer  Landreise  in  Aust.,"  p.  415,  1851. 


SKCT.  I.]  ALIMENT.  59 

g^ulf  of  Carpentaria,  have  fish  in  abundance,  and  are  not  so 
imid  as  the  former,  being  more  inclined  to  trade.1  The 
iborigines  of  Australia  Felix  are  physically  and  intellectually 
superior  to  those  of  New  South  Wales.2  Though  it  has  hitherto 
lot  been  doubted  that  the  peoples  of  Australia  are  all  of  the 
-umo  stock,  there  are  great  differences  found  among  them, 
A  hi  eh  must  chiefly  have  been  produced  by  food  and  mode  of 
ifo.  The  disproportionately  long  arms  and  legs  of  the  natives 
of  New  South  Wales  are  not  general ;  in  the  north-west  tall 
nuscular  men  are  found.3  There  exist,  especially  on  the  Dari- 
ng, great  differences  in  features  and  colour.4  Among  some 
:he  hair  is  straight,  among  others  curly  or  woolly.5  Besides  the 
commonly  small  forehead,  there  are  observed  in  the  west  and 
ho  interior,  receding  foreheads.6  In  the  region  of  Port 
-Stephens  foreheads  of  European  shape  are  sometimes  seen.7 
Similar  differences  are  observed  with  regard  to  the  shape  of 
:he  nose. 

.  It  has  been  asserted  that  a  nation  feeding  much  on  animal 
bod  is  more  vigorous,  and  bolder,  more  passionate  and  less 
docile,  and  becomes  physically  and  mentally  better  developed 
Imn  by  a  vegetable  diet.  This  general  assertion  has  been 
-efuted  by  Foissac,8  and  it  must  not  be  forgotten,  that  the 
orimary  condition  of  bodily  and  mental  health  is  not  merely 
;he  nutritious  quality  of  aliments,  but  their  suitableness  to  the 
wants  of  the  organism,  which  depends  partly  on  the  climate, 
.f  for  the  preservation  of  the  same  physical  force  in  winter, 
und  in  cold  climates,  a  rich  substantial  animal  diet  is  requisite, 
he  inhabitants  of  the  torrid  zone  preserve  the  same  force  with 
it  small  quantity  of  vegetable  food.  Even  the  workman  in 
3enguela  is  satisfied  with  a  handful  of  Maniok  meal;9  the 

1  Leichardt,  p.  250. 

2  Byrne,  "  Twelve  Years  Wanderings  in  the  British  Colonies,"  i,  365,  1848. 

3  Grey,  "Journal  of  Two  Expeditions  in  Australia,"  i,  p.  232,  1841. 

4  Mitchell,  "  Exped.  into  the  Interior  of  Eastern  Australia,"  i,  p.  211,  1838. 

5  Hale,  Wilkes,  Hodgson,  Dampier,  "  Nouv.  voy.  autour  du  m.  1701,"  ii, 
.).  141. 

6  Stokes, "  Discoveries  in  Australia,"  i,  p.  89,  1846 ;  Sturt,  "  Narr.  of  an 
Sxped.  into  Central  Aust.,"  ii,  p.  135,  1849 

7  Dawson,  "  The  Present  State  of  Australia,"  p.  339,  1830. 

8  "  Ueber  den  Einfl.  des  Klimas,"  p.  197,  1840. 

0  Tunis,  "  Die  Portugies.  Besitzungen  in  Siidwest  Air.,"  p.  36,  1845. 


60  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

Kra-negro  remains  muscular  in  his  laborious  exertions,  with  a 
purely  vegetable  diet,  chiefly  rice,  which  is  also  the  case  with 
the  inhabitants  of  Yarriba.1  The  English  are  less  able  to  bear 
the  moist  heat  of  tropical  climates  than  the  Portuguese, 
Spaniards,  and  even  the  French,  because  they  cannot  easily 
give  up  their  animal  diet  and  spirituous  liquors.  In  Brazil 
alone  the  Portuguese  seem  to  form  an  exception;  they  live 
there  on  meat,  fish,  and  spirituous  liquors,  apparently  without 
injury.  The  Esquimaux  requires  for  his  meals  considerable 
quantities  of  animal  food,  fat,  blubber,  etc. ;  but  a  large  con- 
sumption  of  indigestible  aliment  gives  so  much  work  to  the 
digestive  organs  as  to  interfere  with  the  development  of  the 
intellectual  faculties,  though  it  may  not  be  so  injurious  as  the 
consumption  of  large  quantities  of  non-nutritious  aliments. 

However  true  it  may  be  that  the  desire  for  a  quantity  of 
substantial  food  prevails  more  in  cold  and  temperate  climates, 
there  are  still  exceptions  to  this  rule.  The  Negroes  of  the 
Gold  Coast  are  great  gluttons,  and  even  Europeans  who  visit 
this  region  preserve  their  good  appetite.2 

If  the  comparison  be  confined  to  the  English  with  the  Irish, 
the  European  with  the  rice  consuming  Hindoo  or  Japanese,  or 
even  with  the  Chinese  who  eat  flesh  sparingly,  it  certainly 
would  appear  that  an  animal  diet  is  favourable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  character  and  the  intellect.  The  case,  however,  is 
altered  if  a  more  comprehensive  view  be  taken.  The  South- 
African  nations  cannot  do  for  any  length  of  time  without 
animal  food.3  The  Hottentots  and  Kaffirs,  who,  like  the  peoples 
of  cold  climates,  consume  fat  and  tallow  in  large  quantities,4 
differ  a  good  deal  in  character  and  activity.  On  the  arrival  of 
the  Dutch  at  the  Cape,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  they  found 
the  Hottentots  peaceable,  intellectually  inert,  but  good-natured, 
and  yet  they  were  then  like  the  warlike  Kaffirs  of  the  present 
day,  a  pastoral  people,  living  chiefly  on  the  milk  of  their  cattle. 

1  Koler,  "Einige  Notizen  iiber  Bonny/'  p.  57,  1848;  Lander,  "E.  zur  Er- 
forsch.  des  Niger/'  i,  p.  81,  1833. 

2  "  Allg.  Historie  der  Eeisen,"  iv,  p.  127. 

3  Liechtenstein,  "  E.  im  Siidl.  Africa,"  i,  p.  110,  1811. 

4  Thunberg,  "E.  durcli  e.  Theil  v.  Europa,  Afr.  u.  Asien,"  i,  p.  175,  1792; 
Gardiner,  "  Narrative  of  a  Journey  to  the  Zulu  Country,"  p.  175,  1836. 


ZCT.  L]  ALIMENT.  61 


Buraets,  and  many  other  Siberian  nomadic  tribes,  are 
hort  and  weakly  through  living  entirely  on  animal  food 
Pallas)  .  On  the  other  hand,  the  greater  portion  of  the  South 
islanders,  living  almost  entirely  on  vegetables  and  fish,  are 
ntellectually  gifted,  and  many  of  them  very  warlike.1  The 
nost  savage,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  gifted  people,  the 
•'ij'i  islanders,  live  almost  entirely  on  vegetables,  chiefly  yams. 
Fhe  inhabitants  of  New  Caledonia  are  large,  well-proportioned, 
md  more  vigorous  than  those  of  the  New  Hebrides.  The 
Vfohav-Indians,  on  the  Colorado,  in  North  America,  are  of 
ithletic  structure,  though  living  exclusively  on  vegetable  food.2 
From  these  examples,  which  might  easily  be  multiplied,  we 
are  not  inclined  to  consider  with  Lesson  (128),  the  vegetable 
iiet  of  the  inhabitants  of  Ualan  (Micronesia)  as  the  cause  of 
/heir  effeminacy  and  peaceful  disposition,  nor  to  consider  any 
necessary  connexion  of  that  kind,  as  do  Grerdy  and  Lucas.3 

The  capacity  of  thriving  on  any  kind  of  sufficient  alimentary 
substances  appears,  besides  the  climatic  conditions,  to  depend 
on  the  habitude  of  the  organism  which  seems  to  be  transmitted 
to  the  offspring.  It  may  further  be  observed,  that  the  Euro- 
jean  is,  with  regard  to  vegetable  food,  more  favourably  cir- 
cumstanced than  the  inhabitants  of  other  quarters  of  the  globe, 
in  as  much  as  proper  preparation  renders  his  vegetables  more 
nutritious  and  digestible  than  the  maize  of  the  native  Ameri- 
can, the  millet  of  the  African,  and  the  rice  of  the  Asiatic, 
which,  to  afford  the  same  nourishment,  must  be  consumed  in 
arge  quantities,  producing  a  less  advantageous  effect  on  body 
and  mind. 

Further  proofs  of  the  great  influence  of  aliment  and  mode  of 
life  on  man  are  furnished  by  the  American  Indians.  Though 
it  is  undoubted  that  the  Indians  west  of  the  rocky  mountains 
belong  to  the  same  stock  as  those  in  the  East  (the  Indian 
tribes  in  the  interior  of  the  Oregon  region  resemble  very  much 
those  who  formerly  were  in  possession  of  the  eastern  part  of 
the  United  States)  ;  yet,  both  mentally  and  physically  are  they 

1  Moerenhout,  "  Voy.  aux  lies  du  gr.  Ocean,"  i,  p.  120,  1837. 

2  Sitgraves,  in  "  Bullet.  Soc.  Geog./'  i,  p.  379,  1855. 

3  Loc.  cit.,  ii,  p.  474. 


62  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PAKT    T. 

inferior  to  the  Indians  of  the  East.  Their  resources  are  more 
limited,  and  their  diet  poorer.1  All  fishing  peoples  of  these 
parts  are  weaker  than  their  allied  tribes  ;  less  enterprising,  as 
they  have  not  the  habit  of  sustained  activity  requisite  for  hunt- 
ing. The  Takhalis  or  Carriers  in  the  north  of  New  Caledonia ; 
the  fishing  tribes  on  the  Columbia ;  the  Upper  Californians  on 
the  coast,  are  shorter  and  more  delicate  than  the  inhabitants  of 
the  interior  living  by  the  chase.2  Among  the  weakest  and  most 
miserable  human  beings  may  be  enumerated  the  Paiuches,  on 
the  northern  Colorado  and  in  the  region  of  the  Salt  Lake.3  The 
Schoschonies  live  in  an  almost  desert  tract,  with  but  little  game  ; 
(buffaloes  are  only  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains)  they  grow  fat  at  the  time  of  salmon  fishing,  but  be- 
come again  emaciated  in  winter  and  spring.4  The  size  of  the 
Esquimaux  differs  according  to  the  richness  of  the  tract  they 
inhabit.5  The  American  Indian  seems  generally  to  have  no 
tendency  to  grow  fat ;  there  is,  however,  an  exception  as  re- 
gards the  Moxos  in  South  America,  who  lead  a  more  protected 
and  secure  life,  being  agriculturists  and  navigators  besides 
fishers  and  hunters.  (D'Orbigny.) 

There  is  scarcely  a  people  among  whom  more  striking  differ- 
ences are  found  accordingly  as  they  are  nourished,  than  among 
the  Jakutes.  Those  who  live  in  the  meadows  on  the  south 
side  of  the  mountains  are  five  feet  ten  inches  to  six  feet  four 
inches  in  height,  well-formed  and  vigorous ;  whilst  those  in  the 
north  are  only  of  middle  stature,  and  of  an  unhealthy  aspect.6 
A  similar  difference  is  found  among  the  nomadic  people,  the 
Reindeer-Tschuktsh  and  the  Tschuktsh  tribe  settled  on  the; 
coast,  above  whom  the  former  claim  a  superiority.7  The  Arabs 
differ  much  in  their  habits,  and  their  physical  peculiarities  vary 
accordingly,  as  shown  in  Egypt.  In  the  colder  regions  they 
are  clear  complexioned  (yellow  in  the  Hedschas,  white  in 

1  Hale,  p.  199. 

2  Farnhain,  "  Travels  in  the  Californias,"  p.  364,  New  York,  1844. 
a  Ibid.,  p.  376. 

4  Wyeth,  Schoolcraft,  "  History  of  the  Indian  Tribes,"  i,  p.  206. 

5  Seemann,  "  R.  urn  d.  W.,"  ii,  p.  53,  1853. 

6  " Billings,  K.  nach  d.  Nordl.  Gegendenv.russ.  Asien,  n.  Am.,"  p.  122,  1803. 

7  Ibid.,  p.  233 ;  Wrangell,  "  Statist,  und  Ethnog.  Nachrichten  iiber  d.  russ. 
Besitzungen  im  Am.,"  p.  59,  Petersburg.,  1839. 


Si :<  T.  I.]  ALIMENT.  63 

Algeria  and  Aleppo,  says  D'Escayrac,1 )  in  Mecca  yellowish- 
brown,  and  have  neither  the  eagle  nose  nor  the  fine  features  of 
the  Bedouins ;  in  Jemen  the  noses  are  straight  like  the  Greek 
nose.  In  Hauran  (south  of  Damascus)  the  Arabs  are  mostly 
of  short  stature,  small  face,  thin  beard ;  whilst  the  Fellahs  are 
taller  and  more  robust,  beard  strong,  but  their  eyes  are  less 
piercing.  This  difference  must  be  considered  as  the  effect  of 
mode  of  life,  as  it  was  not  appreciable  before  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury.2 The  Bedouins  in  the  middle  of  the  desert  have,  Negro- 
like,  almost  woolly  hair.  In  Nubia,  south  of  Dongola,  there  are 
Arabs  of  a  shining  black  colour,  who  do  not  intermix  with  the 
Negroes.3  The  Sheighias  in  Nubia,  are  of  a  shining  black,4  and 
considered  to  be  the  finest  men  in  the  East,  not  excepting  even 
the  Turks.5  Hoskings,6  however,  calls  them  dark  brown,  and 
observes,  that  they  have  sometimes  larger  nostrils  and  thicker 
lips  than  Europeans,  perhaps  the  result  of  intermixture  with 
the  Negroes. 

That  the  size  of  the  body  depends  essentially  on  nutrition 
has  been  proved  by  various  instances  quoted  by  Milne  Ed- 
wards.7 This  is  shown  by  the  statistical  information  on  stature, 
furnished  by  the  districts  of  Paris  and  the  various  departments 
of  France.  The  French  military  standard  confirms  the  results 
obtained.  Before  1 789,  the  standard  was  five  feet  one  inch,  for 
cavalry  five  feet  three  inches.  Though,  from  1816  the  mean 
height  of  the  French  was  somewhat  raised  during  the  peace, 
still  the  standard  had  to  be  lowered  in  1818  to  four  feet  nine 
inches ;  in  1830  and  1848  it  was  again  lowered,  as  the  requisite 
number  of  recruits  could  not  be  obtained  of  the  legal  stan- 
dard.8 That  the  development  of  the  trunk  is  essentially  affected 
by  the  activity  of  the  muscles,  is  shown  by  the  measurements 
of  Quetelet,  of  Europeans,  Kaffirs,  and  Ojibbeways,  compared 

1  "  Die  Afric.  Wiiste  u.  das  Land.  d.  Schwarzen/'  p.  185,  1855. 
s  Hitter,  "  Erdk.,"  xv,  p.  990. 

3  Priehard,  iv,  p.  590.  , 

4  Waddington  and  Hanbury,  "  Journal  of  a  Visit  to  some  parts  of  Ethio- 
pia," p.  122,  1822. 

3  Ibid.,  p.  194. 

6  "  Travels  in  Ethiopia,"  p.  128,  1835. 

7  "Elemens  de   Zoologie,"  p.  254;  compare  also  I.  Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire, 
"  Ann.  des  Sc.  Nat.,"  1832  ;  Froriep's  "  Notizen,"  1833. 

8  "  All.  Zeitg./'  No.  22,  1852. 


64  PHYSICAL    INVESflGATION.  [PART    I. 

with  those  of  Negro  slaves.1     The  mode  of  life  has  also  ai 
important  influence  on  the  form  of  the  pelvis.      Whilst  th< 
Malay  and  Japanese  women  have  a  comparatively  large  peb 
and  parturiate  with  facility ;  the  Chinese  women  have  often 
narrow  pelvis,  which  may  perhaps  be  ascribed  to  their  sedentai 
life,   as,  even  among  the  neighbouring  Japanese  and  Mala^ 
ladies  of  high  rank,  difficult  labours  occur.2     Whether  then 
obtains  in  Europe  a  similar  difference,  as  a  rule,  between  th( 
inhabitants  of  cities  and  of  the  country,  might  not  be  an  un- 
interesting  subject  of  inquiry. 

The  influence  of  aliment  and  mode  of  life  is  more  strikingh 
exhibited  where,  in  addition  to  a  difference  of  habit,  there  ob- 
tains a  difference  of  social  relations,  and  a  separation  of  the 
various  classes  of  the  population.  By  their  combined  action, 
they  produce  among  men  originally  from  the  same  stock,  a 
gradual  inequality  both  in  their  internal  and  external  characters. 
To  this  may  be  ascribed  the  striking  differences  among  the 
Finnish  nations,  as  well  as  those  existing  between  the  castes 
and  ranks  in  India  and  Polynesia.  We  have  already  spoken  of 
them,  but  they  deserve  repetition,  since  besides  aliment  and 
mode  of  life,  social  relations  combine  with  them.  On  one  side, 
there  is  the  nobility  in  the  consciousness  of  superiority ;  in 
Polynesia,  from  a  belief  of  their  being  in  direct  communication 
with  the  gods,  the  aristocracy  are  almost  worshiped :  on  the  other 
side,  the  people  are  conscious  of  having  been  born  to  servitude, 
or  as  is  the  case  with  some  castes,  are  reckoned  unclean  during 
their  whole  existence.  Similar  relations  existed  in  the  old 
Inka  Empire.  The  aristocracy  were  as  in  Polynesia,  and  as  the 
highest  caste  in  India,  in  possession  of  all  knowledge,  which,  on 
their  being  exterminated  by  the  Spaniards,  disappeared  with 
them.  Analogous  differences  between  the  aristocracy  and  the 
common  people  are  found  everywhere.  Among  the  Kurds  along 
the  Turco-Persian  frontier,  the  traveller  easily  distinguishes  the 
caste  of  peaceable  agricultural  labourers  by  their  nearly  Grecian 
physiognomy,  from  the  higher  caste  of  warriors.3  The  latter 

1  "  Bullet,  de  1' Acad.  des  Sc.  de  Belgique,"  tome  xx. 

2  "  Allg.  Medic.  Centralztg./'  No.  6,  p.  37,  1853. 

3  Prichard,  iv,  p.  68. 


SECT.  I.]  MODE  OF  LIFE.  65 

have  stern  angular  features,  and  staring  grey  or  bluish  eyes. 
There  exist  also  linguistic  differences  between  the  two  castes— 
that  of  the  labourers  approaches  more  the  Persian  dialect  than 
that  of  the  warriors ;  hence,  a  diversity  of  stock  is  not  impro- 
bable.1 Among  the  Bechuanas  of  Littaku,  the  higher  ranks 
are  distinguished  by  a  clearer  complexion,  higher  stature,  and 
European  features.2  Among  the  Chinese  who  have  for  several 
generations  lived  in  affluence,  the  peculiarities  of  the  Mongolian 
race  grow  fainter  and  the  features  become  nobler.3  The  free 
Indians  of  Ecuador  are  mostly  better  made  and  have  finer 
features  and  a  lighter  colour  than  those  employed  by  the 
whites  as  shepherds  and  agricultural  labourers.  The  former 
are,  in  many  parts,  so  white  and  have  such  good  features,  that 
they  seem  only  by  their  dress  to  differ  from  the  Europeans.4 

How  much  the  necessity  of  adopting  different  habits  of  life 
influences  the  development  of  internal  and  external  character- 
istics, is  shown  by  the  inhabitants  of  Wojjerat  in  the  south-east 
of  Tigre.  They  are  said  to  be  the  descendents  of  Portuguese 
soldiers,  who  settled  there  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Combes 
and  Tamisier5  doubt  it,  but  Poncet  in  his  travels,  in  1698, 
says  of  them,  they  are  easily  known,  and  they  were  the  so- 
called  white  Abyssinians.6  In  the  temperate  climate  of  this 
mountain  region,  surrounded  by  many  savage  nations,  and 
forced  by  them  to  many  wars  in  order  to  preserve  their  in- 
dependence, they  have  become  a  proud  athletic  race,  more 
powerful  than  the  majority  of  the  aborigines.  They  form,  in 
this  respect,  a  contrast  to  the  Portuguese  descended  from 
merchants,  who,  in  the  East  Indies,  in  unhealthy  regions,  have 
by  a  dissipated  life,  become  weaker  even  than  the  natives  of 
these  parts.7  The  Fulahs  in  the  south  of  Bornou,  surrounded 
by  natives  who  are  less  civilized,  are  still  herdsmen,  without 
that  desire  for  conquest  and  reform  which  distinguishes  the 

1  Kitter,  "  Erdk.,"  ix,  570. 

2  Philip,  "  Researches  in  South  Africa,"  ii,  128,  1828. 

3  Epp,  "  Schilderungen,  axis  Hollandisch-Indien,"  p.  168, 1852. 

4  Villavicencio,  "  Geogr.  de  la  rep.  del  Ecuador,"  p.  167,  Nev/  York,  1858. 

5  "  Voy.  en  Abyss.,"  iv,  p.  319. 

6  "  Allerhand  lehrreiche  briefe  v.  d.  mission  de  ges.  Jesu  ad.  d.  neue  Welt- 
Bot.,"  iii,  p.  100,  Augsburg,  1726. 

'  Salt,  "  Voyage  to  Abyssinia,"  p.  274. 


0(3  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

western  Fulahs,  and  have,  excepting  their  small  features,  hands 
and  feet  and  the  high  forehead,  little  resemblance  to  the  Fulahs 
of  the  west.1  Generally  speaking,  the  different  aspect  of  the 
Fulahs  in  the  interior  of  Africa  corresponds  closely  with  the 
degrees  of  civilization  and  the  social  relations  in  which  they 
live,  and  cannot  be  explained  by  an  assumed  intermixture  with 
the  Negro-race.  Between  the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  and 
northern  King's-Mill-Islands  (Mikronesia),  there  exists  equally 
a  great  difference  both  externally  and  in  character,  and  there  is 
no  reason  to  suppose  that  they  are  of  different  stocks.  The 
latter  live  in  peace,  and  have  abundant  food,  which  is  not  the 
case  as  regards  the  former.2 

The  argument  in  favour  of  the  power  of  such  conditions  fur- 
nished by  the  Barabra  in  Nubia,  is  however  exposed  to  many 
objections,  the  Barabra  are  described  as  of  a  shining  black,  but 
otherwise  not  at  all  negro-like.  They  have  thin,  curly,  but  not 
woolly  hair,  a  pointed  nose  with  large  nostrils,  a  large  mouth,  and 
but  moderately  thick  lips.  Nevertheless,  they  speak,  according 
to  Eiippel,3  a  Negro  language,  which  with  its  dialects  extends 
over  the  whole  country  from  Dongola  to  Kordofan.  This 
language  prevails  also  in  Darfur  ;4  and  it  seems,  therefore,  as 
Cooley,5  following  Ibn  Khaldun,  observes,  that  the  people  of 
the  Barabra  are  of  Negro  descent,  like  the  native  population 
of  Kordofan  and  Darfur;  but  that  in  consequence  of  agri- 
culture, trade,  and  a  higher  civilization,  the  features  have 
gradually  improved,  which  is  also  asserted  of  other  negro 
tribes  as  the  effect  of  the  introduction  of  Islamism.6  Opposed 
to  this  view,  is  the  circumstance,  that  the  Nubians  have 
been  described  by  the  ancient  Arab  geographers  as  a  fine 
race  of  men,  not  at  all  negro-like;7  and  that  particularly 
the  present  province  Berber  had  been  conquered  under 
the  fourth  Kalif  after  Mohammed  by  Abadja  Arabs,  who 
came  from  Jemen,  and  the  present  Barabra  are  said  to 

1  Barth.,  "  Reisen  u.  Entdecktmgen,"  ii,  p.  476. 

2  Wilkes,  "Narrative  of  the  U.S.  Explor.  Exped.,"  v,p.  107,  Philad.,  1845. 

3  "  R.  in  Nubien,  Kordofan,"  p.  126,  1829. 

4  Burckhardt,  "  R.  in  Nubien,"  p.  486,  1820. 
.->  "Negroland  of  the  Arabs,"  p.  118,  1841. 

fi  Compare  Prichard,  ii,  p.  342. 

<  "  Isthakri,"  p.  21. ;  "  Cod.  Goth.  Idrisi  trad.  p.  Jaubert,"  i,  p.  25. 


SECT.  I.]  MENTAL    CULTURE.  67 

have  descended  from  intermixture.1  Their  country  manifestly 
is  one  of  those  where  an  extended  intermixture  of  Negroes 
with  Abyssinian  and  Arabs  took  place. 

Finally,  it  may  be  noticed  that  Lepsius2  designates  the 
Kundschara  language  as  predominating  in  Darfur  and  the 
greater  part  of  Kordofan,  a  language  which  is  a  foreign  Negro- 
idiom,  while  the  Nuba  language  may  perhaps  be  considered 
as  belonging  to  the  Caucasian  (Semitic?)  language.  Rus- 
seger,3  and  also  Brehm,4  appear  to  be  of  the  same  opinion  in 
considering  the  Barabra  as  belonging  to  the  Ethiopian  (Abys- 
sinian) peoples  from  their  linguistic  similarities. 


Many  of  the  preceding  instances  have  taught  us  what  im- 
portant changes  in  the  organism  may  be  effected  by  a  combi- 
nation of  diet,  physical  culture,  and  social  condition.  But  as 
these  are  chiefly  connected  with  an  entire  change  in  habits, 
there  occurs  in  most  cases  a  corresponding  change  in  mental 
development.  In  now  considering  the  effects  of  psychical  in- 
fluences, it  must  be  observed,  that  a  separation  of  the  particular 
influence  which  each  individual  agent  exercises  is  impracticable; 
for  in  the  great  majority  of  physical  changes  produced  by  the 
continued  action  of  psychical  influences,  nutrition  and  mode  of 
life  are  acting  in  the  same  direction.  An  abundance  of  the 
necessaries  of  life,  combined  with  a  feeling  of  security  and  a 
permanent  social  condition,  are  usually  connected  with  a 
relatively  high  degree  of  mental  culture,  which  reacts 
favourably  on  the  development  of  the  body.  On  the  other 
hand,  hunger,  uncleanliness,  and  misery,  produce  gradually  an 
obtuseness  of  intellect,  loss  of  energy,  and  when  combined 
with  an  oppressed  social  condition,  may  contribute  to  arrest 
bodily  development  in  a  people. 

The  lower  the  mental  development  of  a  people,  the  more 
subject  is  it  to  external  natural  influences.  These  may  act 
directly  upon  the  organism,  or  indirectly.  If  all  conditions  of 

1  Hbskins,  p.  200. 

2  "  Bericht  iiber  d.  verb,  der  Preuss.  Akad./'  p.  382,  1844. 

3  "  E.  in  Europa,  Asien,  u.  Afr.,"  ii,  p.  192,  1843. 

4  Chap,  i,  p.  72. 

F  2 


68  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

life  are  of  a  simple  kind,  and  if  activity  is  exclusively  directed 
to  satisfy  physical  wants,  there  will  be  a  great  external  resem- 
blance in  individuals ;  for  a  feeble  exertion  of  the  mind,  and 
a  uniform  expression  of  mental  emotion,  impress  upon  the 
physiognomy  and  the  whole  body  the  stamp  of  uniformity, 
exhibiting  but  little  variety.  A  greater  difference  between 
individuals  is  only  found  in  more  highly  developed  nations. 
.  Just  as  the  Romans  found  the  old  Germans  very  much  like 
each  other,  so  it  is  with  the  civilized  European  who  looks  at 
so-called  savages  for  the  first  time.  This,  no  doubt,  may  in 
most  cases  arise  from,  merely  taking  a  superficial  view.  Thus 
Kendall1  says  of  the  Mexican  women,  that  they  appear  to 
strangers  very  like  each  other,  because  they  wear  the  same 
dress,  have  black  hair,  dark  piercing  eyes,  and  very  regular 
features.  The  expression  of  Ulloa,2  that  he  who  has  seen  one 
American  has  seen  them  all,  has  been  much  criticised.  Molina 
considers  it  as  a  great  exaggeration,  and  observes,  that  the 
error  arose  from  similarity  of  colour;  that  all  the  tribes  he 
had  seen  exhibited  different  features,  and  that  a  Chilese,  for 
instance,  was  not  less  distinguishable  from  a  Peruvian,  than  a 
German  from  an  Italian.  Hale  also  observes,  that  no  two 
European  nations  differ  from  each  other,  in  external  aspect,  so 
much  as  the  Indians  above,  from  those  below  the  great 
Cataracts  of  Columbia.  It  is  unnecessary  to  accumulate  proofs 
that  great  differences  between  various  tribes  of  America  do 
exist.  The  fact,  however,  stands  thus :  that  whilst  peoples 
may  be  easily  distinguished  from  each  other,  there  exists  a 
very  great  resemblance  between  the  individuals  belonging  to 
the  same  people.  The  great  uniformity  of  external  aspect  of 
the  aboriginal  Americans  has  also  been  noticed  by  Humboldt 
and  Morton,  the  latter  excepts  only  the  Esquimaux.  The 
features  of  the  Botokudes  are  as  various  and  diversified  as 
among  Europeans.3  The  Indians  on  the  Orinoco  form  another 
exception.4  It  has  been  observed  by  many  travellers,  that  it 


p. 
4  Humboldt  und  Bonpland,  "  R.  in  d.  Aeq./'  iii,  p.  493. 


SECT.  I.]  MENTAL    CULTURE.  69 

is  difficult  to  distinguish  in  America  males  from  females  by 
the  features  of  the  face.  Pickering1  asserts  this  of  the  Mon- 
golian race  in  general.  This  applies  also  to  many  Negro 
tribes.  Huschke2  observes,  that  the  differences  in  the  capacity 
of  the  cranium  between  the  sexes  is  least  in  the  Negro,  and 
increases  gradually  up  to  the  European.  De  Hell3  found  a 
great  resemblance  in  the  individuals  of  the  Mongolian  tribes 
on  the  Caspian  Sea.  D'Orbigny,  as  Humboldt  did  before  him,4 
says  the  same  of  the  aboriginal  South  Americans ;  thus  per- 
manence of  type  is,  according  to  them,  partly  owing  to  the 
non-intermixture  of  the  various  tribes.  It  cannot  be  doubted 
that  this  great  physical  resemblance  chiefly  arises  from  deficient 
expression  of  psychical  individuality,  owing  to  the  low  state 
of  mental  culture.  Among  barbarous  nations,  says  Humboldt,5 
we  find  rather  a  tribal  than  an  individual  physiognomy.  Though 
these  phenomena  may  perhaps  not  exactly  be  considered  as  a 
brute  resemblance,  still  it  has  been  remarked  that  even  among 
pur  domestic  animals  there  is  a  greater  difference  in  external 
expression  than  among  the  same  animals  in  a  savage  state* 
This  difference  may  be  the  consequence  of  psychical  develop- 
ment acquired  in  their  relation  and  dependence  on  man. 
Koler,  it  is  true,6  ascribes  to  individuals  of  a  Negro  tribe  the 
same  diversity  of  features  as  among  Europeans ;  but  this 
is,  excepting  in  mixed  nations,  incorrect,  as  there  is  no  doubt 
that  a  uniformity  of  mental  qualities  exists  among  the  same 
tribe.  The  slave  dealer  in  Upper  Egypt  (Schendy)  merely 
inquires  after  the  native  place  of  the  slave,  and  not  after  his 
character,  because  long  experience  has  shown  him  the  im- 
portance of  descent  to  be  greater  than  that  of  individual 
character ;  thus,  the  Nubas  and  Gallas  are  considered  as  very 
faithful,  those  of  Northern  Abyssinia  as  treacherous  and 
malicious,  those  of  Fertit  as  savage  and  revengeful.7  Though 


"  Races  of  man,"  p.  15,  1849. 

Sehadel,  Him  u.  Seele,  p.  48. 

"  Trav.  in  the  steppes  of  the  Caspian." 

"  E.  in  die  aequinoctialg.,"  ed.  Hauff.,  ii,  p.  15. 

"  Neuspanien,"  i,  p.  116. 

"  Notizen  iiber  Bonny,"  p.  91,  1848. 

Katte,  "E.  in  Abyssen./'  p.  131,  1838;  Burckhardt,  pp.  423/447. 


70  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

Burmeister1  speaks  of  great  individual  differences  of  physio- 
gnomy among  Negroes,  this  is  to  be  understood  chiefly  of 
national  features,  as  individuals  of  different  Negro  peoples  came 
under  his  inspection  in  Brazil.  Among  the  Polynesians,  and 
especially  among  the  most  gifted  of  them,  the  Fiji  Islanders, 
the  individuals  of  the  same  tribe  exhibit  as  great  differences  in 
features  as  the  inhabitants  of  any  part  of  Europe.2 

Though  the  uniformity  of  external  aspect,  which  predomi- 
nates among  uncultivated  nations,  must  be  considered  as  partly 
owing  to  the  influence  of  the  mental  state  upon  the  body,  we 
must  not  lose  sight  of  another  source  from  which  such  a  uni- 
formity arises.  An  assimilation  of  features  and  movements 
from  involuntary  imitation  may  arise,  not  only  among  single 
families,  but  among  large  communities,  just  like  many  lin- 
guistic expressions  and  other  habits,  and  such  will  be  especially 
the  case  if  they  lead  a  more  secluded  life.  In  the  clans  of 
Scotland,  for  instance,  these  family  resemblances  are  very 
striking.3  An  assimilation  may  also  be  observed  in  a  single 
individual  who  has  lived  for  a  series  of  years  among  a  foreign 
tribe,  and  having  adopted  their  manners  and  mode  of  life,  has, 
to  some  extent,  become  one  of  them.  Something  of  the  kind 
was  observed  in  Giitzlaff,  when  he  returned  after  a  long  resi- 
dence in  China.  In  America,  especially,  Europeans  have 
been  found  among  the  Indians,  whom  they  greatly  resembled 
after  a  long  residence  among  them.  Similar  cases  have  also 
occurred  in  New  Zealand  and  Australia, 

An  analogous  effect  of  the  reaction  of  intellectual  life  is  also 
seen  in  the  circumstance  that  the  free-born  Negro  children  in 
Sierra  Leone  have  better  features,  more  intelligent  eyes,  and  a 
nobler  deportment  and  form  than  their  liberated  parents.4  The 
same  difference  has  been  observed  between  the  maroon  and 
slave  Negroes  in  Jamaica.5  "  The  blacks  cannot  now  be 
treated  as  formerly ;  they  now  think,  hear,  and  see  as  well  as 

1  "  Geol.  bilder,/'  ii,  p.  101. 

2  Hale,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  10,  48. 

3  Jarrold,  "  Anthropologia ;  or,  Diss.  on  the  form  and  colour  of  man,"  p. 
112,  1858. 

4  Norton,  "  A  residence  in  S.  Leone,"  p.  278,  1849. 

6  Pallas,  "  Gesch.  der  Maroncn  neger  auf  Jam.,"  p.  148,  1805. 


SECT.  I.]  MENTAL  CULTURE.  71 

the  white,  they  have  become  more  intelligent  than  they  were, 
and  will  soon  become  still  more  so,"  said  a  Negro  of  Jamaica 
to  Lewis.1  The  same  difference  between  the  free  and  the 
slaves  among  the  Guaranis  in  Paraguay,  Corrientes,  and  Boli- 
via, has  been  observed  by  D'Orbigny  and  Broc. 

It  is  asserted  that  whenever  in  the  West  Indies  a  Negro  is 
found  occupying  a  superior  position,  he  generally  presents 
some  Caucasian  features,  such  as  a  longer  or  more  hooked 
,  resembling  the  Jewish  physiognomy.2  In  whatever  way 
thesi-  cases  may  be  explained,  they,  at  least,  show  that  the 
bodily  formation  of  the  Negro  has  not  that  absolute  per- 
manence which  some  would  ascribe  to  it ;  and  though  one  might 
be  inclined  to  confine  their  change  of  type  within  narrower 
limits  than  higher  races,  those  who,  like  Nott,  deny  any  change 
of  the  Negro  in  Am  erica,  are  evidently  in  the  wrong. 

Concerning  mental  qualifications  we  possess  some  sufficient 
and  confirmed  data.  Stevenson3  observed  several  times  that 
the  Negroes  born  in  Peru  possessed  better  mental  capacity  than 
those  newly  imported  from  Africa.  He  says  nothing  of  physical 
differences,  excepting  that  the  Creole-Negroes  are  stronger 
and  more  athletic.  According  to  Tschudi,4  the  newly  imported 
Negroes  are  less  lively  than  the  Creole-Negroes,  but  patient 
and  more  faithful  than  the  former.  The  greater  capacities  of 
the  Creole-Negroes  have  been  confirmed  by  the  documents 
which  the  Commission  of  the  French  Chamber  of  Deputies  re- 
ceived from  the  colonies  in  1839.  De  Lisboa5  agrees  in  this 
view,  adding  the  observation,  that  these  higher  capacities 
must  not  be  considered  as  a  consequence  of  education,  in 
which  the  Creoles  are  entirely  deficient ;  hence  the  low  state  of 
mental  capacity  in  Africa  must  be  the  result  of  social  condition. 
Froberville  also,6  who  considers  the  physical  and  moral  sensi- 
bility of  the  Negro  as  considerably  more  obtuse  than  that  of 
the  white,  speaks  of  the  striking  intellectual  difference  between 
the  African  parents  and  their  children  born  in  the  colonies. 

1  "  Journal  of  a  resid.  among  the  negroes  of  the  West  Indies,"  p.  84,  1845. 

2  Day,  "  Five  years  residence  in  the  West  Indies,"  i,  p.  141,  1852. 
8  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  179,  198. 

4  Loc.  cit.,  i,  p.  154. 

"  "  Bullet,  de  la  soc.  Ethnol."  p.  54,  Janv.  1847. 

•  "  Bullet,  de  la  soc.  Geogr.,"  ii,  p.  326,  1847. 


72  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

It  is,  besides,  well  known  that  Negroes  born  in  America  fetch 
higher  prices  than  those  newly  imported,  a  fact  which  speaks 
plainly  in  favour  of  the  superiority  of  the  first.  Such  differ- 
ences of  mental  capacities  cannot  be  entirely  unaccompanied 
by  external  changes,  there  being  such  a  parallelism  between 
physical  and  psychical  life,  that  no  great  change  can  take  place 
in  the  latter  without  re-acting  upon  the  former,  and  giving  it 
expression.  Though  such  physical  changes  may  not  be  de- 
monstrated to  any  extent  in  the  Negroes  of  America,  it  must 
be  taken  into  consideration  that  it  required  a  constant  new  im- 
portation of  African  Negroes  to  supply  the  slave  population, 
and  that  comparatively  there  are  but  a  small  number  of  slaves 
whose  ancestors  have  lived  for  many  generations  in  America. 
The  cases  in  which  the  latter  circumstance  exists  belong  mostly 
to  the  South  of  the  United  States,  West  Indies,  and  South 
America ;  as  statistics  have  shown  that  Negroes  thrive  less  in 
the  New  England  states,  though  it  may  be  going  too  far  to 
maintain  that  climatic  conditions  render  it  impossible  for  them 
to  perpetuate  themselves  in  that  quarter. 

D'Orbigny1  maintains  that  the  type  of  the  Negroes  born  in 
America  is  easily  distinguished  from  that  of  the  newly  im- 
ported in  whom  it  is  more  pronounced.  Lyell  (second  journey) 
learned  from  many  physicians  in  the  slave  states  of  North 
America,  that  the  Negroes  who  had  much  intercourse  with 
Europeans  (independent  of  sexual  intercourse),  approach  them 
gradually  in  shape  of  skull  and  form  of  body  (in  the  course  of 
several  generations),  and  connects  this  with  Dr.  Hancock's 
observation,  that  even  among  the  Negroes  of  Gruinea  a  greater 
mental  cultivation  changed  in  course  of  time  the  general 
physiognomical  expression,  that  the  lower  jaw  and  the  shape 
of  skull  became  modified.  That  such  a  difference  is  ob- 
served between  the  domestic  and  the  plantation  slaves  (the 
latter  preserving  their  original  type),  has  already  been  observed 
by  Prichard,  who  quotes  Wisemann  to  that  effect.  Supported 
by  such  cases  Ward2  asserts  that  the  Negroes  in  the  course  of 
200  or  300  years  had  in  some  parts  of  America,  without  inter- 

1  Loc.  cit.,  p.  143.          2  «  Natural  hist,  of  mankind/'  p.  157,  1849. 


SECT.  I.]  MENTAL    CULTUEE.  73 

mixture  with  other  races,  partially  lost  their  thick  lips  and 
projecting  lower  jaw,  and  their  original  peculiarities  had  been 
lessened  under  the  influence  of  improved  physical  and  moral 
conditions.  Williamson1  confirms  this  improvement  of  the 
Negro  character,  specially  as  regards  the  Negroes  of  Long 
Island;  and  Lavaysse2  speaks  of  a  better  physical  and  intel- 
lectual condition  of  the  Creole-Negroes,  as  founded  upon  the 
general  experience  of  the  planters.  Stanhope  Smith3  says  ex- 
pressly that  he  does  not  speak  of  Mulattoes,  but  of  pure 
Negroes,  and  observes  that  the  well  cared-for  domestic  slaves 
in  America  lose  gradually  their  specific  disagreeable  odour ; 
that  their  hair  becomes  less  crisp,  and  grows  in  the  third 
generation  to  the  length  of  several  inches.  He  states  an  in- 
stance, confirmed  by  many  observers,  of  a  Negro  who  without 
any  disease  had  become  white  and  straight  haired.  In  New 
Jersey  specially  there  are  Negroes  to  be  found  with  straight 
noses,  well-formed  foreheads,  and  straight  incisors.4  These 
instances,  although  they  may  not  be  considered  as  perfectly 
impartial  observations,  are  too  numerous,  too  definite,  and  too 
free  from  any  suspicion  as  to  their  sources,  to  be  rejected  off 
hand.  Two  other  circumstances  are  noteworthy  j  first,  that  the 
greatest  changes  in  the  Negroes  occur  in  the  North  of  the 
United  States,  whence  it  follows  that  the  climatic  conditions 
have  not  been  without  their  influence ;  secondly,  that  just  the 
third  generation  is  mentioned  as  that  in  which  the  metamor- 
phosis becomes  appreciable,  the  same  generation  of  which 
Philip5  maintains  that  in  the  South  African  missions  the  shape 
of  the  crania  of  the  children  deviates  from  its  original  form,  and 
commences  to  improve;  and  also  Mallat6  asserts,  that  in  the 
third  generation  the  tamed  Negrito,  of  Manilla,  becomes  modi- 
fied, and  approaches  in  form  and  character  the  Tagales. 
Whether  we  are  sceptical  or  not  as  to  these  instances,  their 
coincidence  is  remarkable,  and  worthy  of  further  investigation. 

1  "  Observations  on  the  climate  of  America,"  p.  42,  New  York,  1811. 

2  LOG.  cit.,  pp.  139,  141. 
s  Loc.  cit.,  p.  265. 

4  Loc.  cit.,  p.  91,  115,  170 

5  "  Itesearches  in  S.  Africa,**  ii,  p.  129, 1828. 
e  «  Les  Philippines,"  i,  p.  45,  1846. 


74  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

Similar  instances  of  a  greater  or  less  metamorphosis  of  the 
physical  type  by  altered  conditions  of  civilization,  occur  also 
among  us ;  only  that  in  many  of  such  cases  it  cannot  be  shown 
with  certainty  how  far  intermixture  between  several  peoples 
has  occasioned  it ;  and  this  uncertainty  becomes  greater,  inas- 
much as  the  variations  in  civilization  occur  in  consequence  of 
the  intercourse  of  these  peoples. 

If  we  were  in  possession  of  exact  representations  of  the 
physical  aspect  of  individuals  of  the  same  people  at  different 
periods,  we  might,  by  comparison,  infer  how  far  the  external 
characters  of  a  people  correspond  to  the  progress  or  retardation 
of  its  intellectual  culture.     De  Salles  remarks  very  justly,  that 
all  uncultured  nations  possess,    in  comparison  with  civilized 
nations,   a  large  mouth  and  somewhat  thick  lips.     Zimmer- 
mann1  has  directed  attention  to  the  great  differences  between 
the  ancient  and  modern  Germans,  and  endeavoured  to  explain 
them  from  changes  of  the  climate  and  mode  of  life ;  but  their 
spiritual   culture  must  also  have    greatly  contributed  to  the 
physical  changes.     The  high  stature,  the  light  or  red  hair,  the 
blue  eyes,  and  the  clear  complexion  which  they  possessed  at 
the  time  of  the  Romans,  have  not,  it  is  true,  been  lost  by  them,  i 
but  have  become  less  general.     We  find  in  Jarrold2  the  analo- 
gous assertion,  that  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII,  red  hair  pre-  1 
dominated  in  England,  and  that  at  the  commencement  of  the  * 
fifteenth  century,  grey  eyes  were  more  general,  and  dark  eyes  ' 
and  hair  unfrequent.     He  also  mentions,  that  the  cheek  bones 
of  the  English  were  then  more  prominent,  as  they  are  at  pre- 
sent towards  the  north.    This  reminds  us  of  the  strong  features 
presented  by  the  old  German  painters,  showing  that  our  own  I 
physiognomy  has  not  always   been  the  same.      More  refined 
manners,  mental  emotions,  and  a  diminished  firmness  of  cha-   '\ 
racter  appear  to  have  softened  the  rigid,  hard,  and  angular 
features. 

As  a  further  proof  of  the  influence  of  intellectual  culture  on 
physical  form,  may  be  quoted  the  instance  of  the  Sikhs,  a  re- 
ligious sect,  formed  in  1469  by  Kanaka,  and  which  has  since 

1  "  Geogr.  gesch.  des  Menschen,"  i,  p.  54,  1778. 

2  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  155,  216. 


SECT.  I.]  MENTAL    CULTURE.  75 

lived  in  an  isolated  state.  Originally  Hindoos  of  the  Punjab, 
they  are  now  strikingly  distinguished  from  their  nearest  allied 
tribes,  somewhat  in  the  same  degree  as  the  Hindoos  from  the 
Chinese,  by  extremely  regular  features  and  an  oval  face.1  They 
wear  long  beards,2  and  are  said  to  resemble  in  face  and  deport- 
ment, more  than  any  other  Asiatic  people,  Europeans,  with  the 
single  exception  of  the  inhabitants  of  Cashmeer.3 

The  cases  of  the  Osmanli-Turks  and  the  Magyars  are  more 
difficult  to  deal  with.  The  improved  shape  of  the  skull  and  of 
the  features  of  the  former  in  comparison  with  their  allied  tribes 
in  Asia,  has  been  ascribed  to  the  handsome  women  of  the 
harem ;  and  the  physical  improvement  of  the  Magyars,  who  at 
their  arrival  in  Europe  were  of  extreme  ugliness,  to  their  inter- 
mixture with  Germans  and  Sclavonians.  There  are  in  European 
Turkey,  about  700,000  Turks  scattered  among  15,000,000  of 
other  tribes  (Schafarik) ;  and  as  the  influence  of  the  harem 
cannot  have  extended  to  the  whole  people,  it  is  very  probable, 
as  is  proved  by  historical  evidence,  that  intermixture  has 
largely  taken  place,  less  among  the  lower  than  among  the 
higher  classes,  the  language  of  the  former  containing  less 
Arabian,  Persian,  and  European  elements  than  the  written 
language  and  that  used  in  conversation  among  the  higher 
-es.4  That  theory  has  most  in  its  favour  which  assumes 
that  both  intermixture  and  intellectual  progress  have  contri- 
buted to  improve  the  physical  conformation  of  the  Osmanlis. 
This,  perhaps,  is  also  the  case  as  regards  the  Magyars.  They 
differ  at  present  very  much  from  Finns,  yet  their  language  is 
Finnish,  though  some  Indo- Germanic  elements  are  found  in  it 
(Pott) .  Where  they  have  remained  less  mixed  and  less  culti- 
vated, in  some  remote,  chiefly  mountainous  parts,  they  possess 
the  ungainly  primitive  type.  The  flat  lands  exhibit  the  transi- 
tions to  a  nobler  type ;  they  are  conjoined  in  Szegedin.  The 
peasants  in  Cumania  and  Jazygia  are  specially  distinguished 
by  handsome  regular  features.5 

1  Prichard,  iv,  p.  240. 

2  Malcolm,  "  Asiatic  Researches,"  xi,  p.  259. 

8  Pavie  in  "  Mem.  de  la  soc .  Ethnol./'  i,  p.  263. 

«  Schleicher,  "  D.  Spr.  Europas,"  1850. 

5  Eey  in  "Nouv.  ann.  des  voy.,"  ii,  p.  113,  1849. 


76  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

W.  F.  Edwards1  describes,  as  peculiarities  frequently  occur- 
ing  in  Hungary — globular  head,  low  receding  forehead,  oblique 
eyes,  short  flat  nose,  thick  projecting  lips,  flat  occiput,  weak 
beard,2  short  stature.  This  form  is  manifestly  very  different 
from  that  of  the  Finns,  nor  can  it  be  compared  with  that  of  the 
Lapps.  It  is  almost  a  caricature  of  the  Mongolian  type ;  for  the 
Finns  have  short  conical  crania,  flat  temples,  and  globular  occi- 
put ;  the  skull  of  the  Lapps  is  smaller  and  thinner.3  One  is 
certainly  inclined  to  doubt  the  theory  of  the  absolute  perman- 
ence of  types,  and  to  adopt  rather  an  extensive  change  in  the 
form  of  the  crania  by  climate  and  intellectual  pursuits,  when  it 
is  seen  that  Eetzius  is  obliged  to  deny  the  affinity  between 
Finns  and  Lapps,  on  account  of  the  difference  in  shape  of  skull. 
The  Finns  were,  in  former  times,  the  free  owners  of  the  soil ; 
their  monuments  and  their  poetry  testify  of  a  high  culture  in 
past  times ;  while  the  Lapps  ever  have  been,  and  still  are, 
miserable  nomads.  Might  not  the  physical  differences  be 
considered  as  having  gradually  arisen  ?  The  Karele  has  an 
oval  skull ;  the  Savolax,  a  round  one.  The  Tavastlander,  a 
squarish-round  skull,  and  yet  the  Finnish  speaking  Karele,  we 
are  told,  is  no  Finn,  but  has  lost  his  own  language  and  appro- 
priated another,  merely  because  his  head  is  oval.4  Yet  the 
Croats  and  Dalmatians  do  not  show  the  Sclavonian  type;  whilst 
the  old  Egyptian  type  is  still  detected  in  the  Fellahs ;  and  the 
Greek  type  has  been  preserved  in  Greece,  specially  in  the  Morea 
(Pouqueville),  notwithstanding  the  great  admixture  of  foreign 
blood.5 

There  are  other  instances,  very  difficult  to  be  explained  from 
intermixture  alone.  "We  do  not,  therefore,  consider  that  the 
linguist  is  justified  in  conceding  so  much  in  this  respect  to  the 
anatomist  and  zoologist  as  Pott  has  done,  who  assumes6  that 
intermixture  has  produced  an  essential  change  in  physical 

1  "  Des  caracteres  phys.  des  races  hum./'  p.  73,  1829. 

2  The  Magyars  at  this  time  have  fine  long  beards,  which  are  the  objects  of 
particular  care. 

3  Retzius  in  "  Muller's  archiv./'  p.  109,  1845 ;  compare  also  Hueck,  "  De 
craniis  Estonum,"  p.  10,  1838. 

4  Eetzius,  loc.  cit.,  p.  394,  1848. 

5  Edwards,  loc.  cit.,  p.  101. 

6  "  Die  ungleichheit  menschl.  Kassen,"  p.  147,  1856. 


SECT.  I.]  MENTAL    CULTURE.  77 

formation  among  the  Magyars,  Osmanlis,  Finns,  and  Samojeds, 
while  they  have  preserved  their  language — that  "  an  exchange 
of  body"  with  foreign  tribes  has  taken  place  without  an  ex- 
change of  soul ;  whilst  on  the  other  hand,  the  Romanic  nations 
were  compelled  to  adopt  the  Latin  as  their  language  without 
any  great  injury  to  the  essential  peculiarities  of  their  corporeal 
structure.  Without  considering  such  a  theory  as  absolutely 
impossible,  we  should  still  require  more  stringent  proofs  to 
support  it ;  for  intermixtures  of  great  extent  which  alter  the 
physical  type  of  a  people  can  scarcely  be  thought  of,  unless 
the  language  should  experience  a  corresponding  change. 
Where  foreign  races,  as  the  Chinese  in  the  East  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, bring  no  women  with  them,  and  can  only  ally  them^ 
selves  with  native  women,  it  cannot  be  wondered  at  that  the 
mongrels  belong  to  one  type  according  to  language,  and  to 
another  according  to  race  (at  Java  for  instance,  according 
to  De  Jong)  j1  but  such  instances  are  among  the  rare  excep- 
tions. Though  it  is  plainly  shown,  how  among  the  Komanic 
nations  the  language  of  the  conquerors  replaced  that  of  the 
'Conquered,  the  change  which  the  Latin  underwent  corre- 
sponds to  some  extent  with  the  physical  metamorphosis  by 
which  the  Celts  in  Gaul  became  the  French  of  the  present 
day,  and  the  Iberians  became  Spaniards.  How  much  must  be 
ascribed  to  intermixture,  or  to  many  other  causes,  can  be  hardly 
;  ascertained.  We  are  far  too  ready  to  ascribe  it  to  the  first 
•  cause  simply  because  it  affords  a  convenient  explanation. 
When,  for  instance,  the  Finns  are  considered  as  originally  a 
Mongolian  people,  which  has  improved  its  physical  type  by  in- 
itermixture  with  the  white  race  (Castren),  the  theory  is  objec- 
itionable  on  account  of  the  linguistic  development  and  its 
:  inflections,  which  certainly  cannot  be  ascribed  to  the  engrafting 
of  Indo-Grermanic  elements  upon  a  Mongolian  foundation. 
With  regard  to  the  Magyars  and  Osmanli-Turks,  it  must  be 
;  admitted,  that  the  admixture  of  foreign  elements  has  contri- 
buted to  the  change  of  their  physical  type,  the  extent  of  which 


Eeisen  nach  dem  Vorgeb.  der  guten  Hoffnung,"  ii,  p.  373,  1803. 


78  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [?ART    I. 

always  depends  on  the  degree  of  resistance  to  external  and  in- 
ternal influences  possessed  by  various  races. 

The  shape  of  the  cranium  is  now  by  many  naturalists  con- 
sidered as  an  infallible  criterion  of  race,  and  yet  those  who 
have  devoted  the  greatest  attention  to  the  subject  admit  that 
the  individual  differences  in  the  form  of  the  cranium  become 
greater  in  proportion  to  the  higher  intellectual  development  of 
a  nation.1  According  to  Engel,2  there  are  but  few  deviations 
in  the  cranial  structure  among  uncultivated  nations,  but  many 
among  civilized  nations.  We  have  already  stated  that  this 
fact  is,  with  some  exceptions,  generally  correct;  and  if  we 
repeat  it  here  it  is  on  account  of  the  admission  that  the  form 
of  the  cranium  is  liable  to  changes.  Though  Edwards3  is  of 
opinion  that  the  effect  of  civilization  amounts  to  very  little  as 
regards  its  influence  upon  physical  development,  because 
among  the  same  people  the  most  different  degrees  of  culture 
are  found  in  connexion  with  the  same  physical  type — an  axiom 
which  denies  that  mental  capacities  are  indicated  by  the  shape 
of  the  cranium — we  must  bear  in  mind  that  to  support  such  an 
opinion  we  would  require  a  more  exact  division  of  national 
types  than  we  at  present  possess.  We  find,  however,  instances 
which  seem  to  prove  that  the  form  of  the  skull  is  by  no  means 
as  constant  as  is  usually  asserted.  Eetzius,  himself,  found  that 
the  female  skulls  belonging  to  the  higher  and  middle  classes  in 
Sweden  are  generally  smaller  than  those  of  country  people, 
and  he  considers  this  to  be  the  consequence  of  a  different 
mode  of  life  and  occupation.  Latham4  inserts  a  table  from 
Wilson's  "Archaeology  and  Pre-historic  Annals  of  Scotland," 
in  which  it  is  shown  that  the  cranial  capacity  of  the  ancient 
Scots  was  less  than  at  a  later  period,  which  he  is  inclined  to 
consider  as  the  result  of  civilization.  With  regard  to  Negroes, 
the  old  skulls  of  Negroes  dug  out  in  New  York  were,  accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Warren,  much  thicker,  and  betrayed,  phrenologi- 
cally  considered,  much  less  mental  capacity  than  the  skulls  of 
a  recent  date.5  All  this  leads  us  to  the  view  taken  by  Miiller 

1  Eetzius,  loc.  cit.,  p.  205,  1848.  4  "  Man  and  his  migrations,"  p.  63, 

2  "  Unters  iiber  schadelformen,"  p.  121.  1851. 

3  Loc.  cit.,  p.  30.  6  "  Quarterly  Review,"  June  1851. 


Sl-:<T.  l.J  MENTAL    CULTURE.  70 

and  Engel,  that  the  shape  of  the  skull  is  everywhere  essentially 
dependent  on  mental  culture,  and  changes  with  it. 

We  may  also  mention,  as  bearing  upon  the  investigation  of 
this  subject,  the  theory  of  Abbe  Frere,  who  believes  that  the 
more  original  a  human  type  is  the  more  developed  is  the 
occiput  and  the  flatter  the  forehead,  whilst  with  the  progress 
of  civilization  the  forehead  becomes  more  arched  and  the 
occiput  flatter.1  Huschke2  observes  that  in  the  Negro  the 
posterior  lobes  of  the  brain  predominate,  in  the  Mongolian 
race  the  middle  lobes,  and  in  the  European  the  anterior  lobes. 
Such  assertions  resemble,  however,  too  much  a  phrenological 
scheme  to  be  adopted  without  reserve. 

The  changes  which  physical  peculiarities  undergo,  proceed  as 
slowly  as  the  progress  of  cultivation,  hence  they  cannot  be 
easily  traced  within  historical  times,  especially  as  investigations 
on  this  subject  have  only  been  commenced  in  recent  years. 
Though  we  may  agree  with  Prichard,  that  the  physical  characters 
of  nations  correspond  to  their  social  and  intellectual  condition, 
we  must  take  care  not  to  go  so  far  as  to  maintain  with  Courtet 
de  PIsle,3  that  the  capacity  for  civilization  and  the  intel- 
lectuality of  races  corresponds  with  their  physical  beauty.  It 
is  true  that  among  nations,  as  among  individuals,  the  intellec- 
tual faculties  and  performances  give  rise  to  corresponding  ex- 
pressions in  the  body;  but  if  we  were  to  admit  that  regular 
beauty  is  the  natural  expression  of  regular  mental  cultivation, 
and  that  nations  approach  this  type  in  proportion  to  their 
mental  development,  it  would  follow  that  a  one-sided  develop- 
ment only  in  one  direction  or  an  imperfect  development, 
however  important  otherwise,  could  not  always  produce  a  cor- 
responding beautifying  of  the  body. 

On  taking  a  retrospective  view  at  the  changes  to  which  the 
external  aspect  of  man  is  subject,  we  must,  among  the  causes 
which  produce  them,  consider  those  treated  of  last  as  not  less 
influential  than  geographical  and  climatic  conditions,  to  which 
too  much  importance  has  been  attached.  The  phenomena  which 

1  Serre's  "  Gazette  medicale  de  Paris,"  31  Juillet,  1852. 

2  Schiidel,  Him  und  Seele,  p.  100. 

3  "  Bullet,  de  la  soc.  Ethnol./'  1847. 


80  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

we  have  learned  to  regard  as  the  results  of  different  degrees 
of  mental  culture,  warn  us  not  to  under-estimate  the  latter.  In 
confining  ourselves  here  to  the  physical  changes  to  which  man 
is  exposed,  in  order  to  show  the  exaggeration  of  the  influence 
of  climate  and  soil  upon  psychical  life,  we  must  first  consider 
that  a  perfect  dependence  of  man  upon  surrounding  nature  only 
occurs  when  he  is  in  a  primitive  state ;  no  sooner  does  he  rise 
to  a  higher  state  of  culture,  than  he  ceases  entirely  to  corre- 
spond to  the  natural  conditions.  There  is  another  important 
circumstance  which  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  no  people  can 
exactly  in  its  external  aspect  correspond  with  surrounding 
nature,  inasmuch  as,  probably  without  exception,  all  peoples 
have  only  arrived  at  their  present  localities  after  more  or  less 
extensive  migrations.  Hence,  it  is  explicable  how,  from  the 
various  crossings  and  differences  of  direction  which  the  peoples 
have  taken  in  their  migrations,  we  should  find  nations  of  such 
various  types  under  the  same  degrees  of  latitude  and  under 
similar  climatic  conditions ;  for  in  consequence  of  these  migra- 
tions, there  must  have  been  for  them  an  accumulation  of  climatic 
influences,  as  Latham  calls  it.1  By  successively  settling  in 
different  latitudes,  they  have  for  a  shorter  or  longer  time  ex- 
perienced various  external  influences,  and  have  passed  through 
different  modes  of  life  and  degrees  of  culture. 


Besides  climate,  physical  and  mental  culture,  there  is  another 
source  whence  arise  the  changes  to  which  the  organism  is 
subject  in  the  course  of  many  generations  :  namely,  the  spon\ 
taneous  origin  of  new  peculiarities.  This  can  only  be  reduced 
to  a  predisposition  in  certain  individuals  to  deviate  from  the 
physical  form  of  their  parents  without  our  being  able  to 
explain  the  how  and  the  why  these  deviations  occur,  and  whence 
they  arise  in  those  who  first  exhibit  them.  It  is  for  this  reason 
that  we  term  such  peculiarities  spontaneous,  and  consider  them 
specially,  although  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  they  are 
owing  to  the  same  causes  which  have  occupied  our  attention 
hitherto. 

1  Latham,  "  Nat.  Hist,  of  the  varieties  of  man." 


SECT.  I.]  HEREDITARY   TRANSMISSION.  81 

It  is  a  well  known  fact,  that  neither  any  two  individuals  nor 
children  of  the  same  parents  are  perfectly  like  each  other,  but 
that  sometimes  there  exist  considerable  differences.  Under 
favourable  circumstances  these  characteristic  differences  are 
permanently  transmitted  to  the  offspring,  whence  may  arise  the 
changes  to  which  individuals  of  the  same  stock  are  subject, 
which  may  contribute  to  an  explanation  of  the  differences  ex- 
isting in  the  physical  organization  of  mankind.  The  differences 
originating  in  this  way  become  only  permanently  fixed,  if 
such  individuals  as  possess  them  intermarry :  cases  which,  in 
modern  civilized  states  of  Europe,  with  its  abundant  popula- 
tion and  the  separation  of  the  various  ranks  of  society,  but 
rarely  occur,  but  which  happened  more  frequently  in  primitive 
states  of  society,  when  families  lived  in  a  comparatively  isolated 
state  without  much  intercourse  with  foreign  tribes.  It  has 
been  objected  to  this  theory  of  the  differences  exhibited  by  the 
races  of  mankind,  that  such  spontaneous  deviations  from  the 
type  of  the  primitive  stock  are  not  permanent,  but  disappear 
again  after  a  few  generations  (Morton).  This  objection,  how- 
ever, loses  its  importance  on  casting  even  a  superficial  glance 
at  our  domestic  animals,  among  whom  it  is  shown  that  the 
breed  may  be  permanently  improved. 

With  regard  to  plants,  it  is  now  generally  assumed  that  the 
seed  propagates  the  species  only,  but  not  always  the  variety. 
In  the  animal  world,  deviations  from  the  original  type  arise  and 
disappear  more  easily  in  some  species  than  in  others,  and, 
according  to  Prichard,1  are  more  permanently  transmitted,  if 
the  deviations  have  arisen  from  pre-disposition  rather  than 
from  external  circumstances.  The  breeding  of  domestic  animals 
is  founded  on  the  transmission  of  such  spontaneous,  and  not 
easily  explicable,  peculiarities,  namely — colour  and  quality  of 
skin  and  hair,  tendency  to  become  fat,  strength,  size  and  shape. 
Even  mental  qualities  are  improved  by  the  pairing  of  corres- 
ponding individuals.2 

The  transmission  of  physical  and  mental  qualities  has  been 

1  Loc.  cit.,  i,  p.  374. 

2  Many  examples  of  this  kind  of  individual  peculiarities  having  become 
hereditary,  may  be  found  in  Heusinger,  "  Anthropol.,"  p.  93,  and  "  Lucas, 
Traite  de  1'heredite,"  i,  pp.  239,  291,  1847. 

G 


82  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    1. 

specially  observed  in  domestic  animals  ;  and  though  in  most 
cases  of  this  kind  there  is  only  a  disposition  to  propagate  new 
races,  which  soon  disappears,1  it  may  be  owing  partly  to  the 
discontinuance  of  favourable  circumstances,  and  partly  to  the 
deficiency  of  individuals  distinguished  by  similar  characteristics 
which  can  be  paired,  to  fix  the  deviation  as  a  permanent 
character  of  a  new  race.  That  new  races  really  originate  in 
this  way  is  proved  by  many  instances.  One  of  the  best  known 
examples  of  this  kind  is  the  so-called  Otter- Sheep,  bred  from  a 
sheep  of  peculiarly  long  body  and  short  legs,  in  Massachusetts 
(1791),  which  propagated  rapidly  in  North  America,  and  the 
breed  was  liked  on  account  of  their  inability  to  surmount  the 
fences.2  This  race  appears  to  be  permanent,  so  that  on  being 
crossed  with  the  common  sheep,  the  mongrel  resembles  either 
one  or  the  other  race.3  In  a  similar  manner  the  uncloven 
hoof  has  become  hereditary  in  the  Hungarian  cattle.  A 
bull  without  horns  in  Paraguay  produced  only  calves  without 
horns  (Azara)  ;  a  buck  goat  with  cartilaginous  prominent 
nasal  organs,  transmitted  these  peculiarities  to  its  offspring 
(Pallas).  Similar  instances  are  found  in  Jarrold,  Foissac, 
Knight.4  That  temperament  is  equally  transmissible  is  shown 
in  the  docility,  or  restiveness,  and  biting  and  kicking  propen- 
sities, of  horses. 

Still  more  important  than  the  transmission  of  innate  in- 
dividual peculiarities,  is  the  inheritance  (by  no  means  rare)  of 
such  qualities  which  have  only  accidentally  arisen.  To  this 
belong  the  successful  cases  of  acclimatization,  which  tell  at  first 
much  on  the  physical  organism,  whilst  the  succeeding  genera- 
tions find  themselves  as  well  off  in  their  new  home  as  their 
parents  in  their  old  climates.  At  a  height  of  9,000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea  in  Mexico,  harriers  were  found  useless,  but 
their  offspring  are  now  well  fitted  for  coursing  (Lyell).  The 


1  Lucas  (ii,  896)  arrives  at  the  conclusion,  that  the  pecularities  arising  in 
the  course  of  time,  are  so  much  less  permanent  in  proportion  as  they  deviate 
from  the  species,  and  have  only  lasted  for  a  few  generations,  especially  when 
the  favourable  circumstances  which  gave  rise  to  them  cease  to  exist. 

'-'•  "  Philos.  Trans.,"  1813. 

3  Bachman  in  Smith,  "  Unity  of  the  hum.  races,"  p.  310. 

4  "  Philos.  Transact.,  1837." 


SECT.  I.]  HEREDITARY    TRANSMISSION.  83 

geese  introduced  in  Bogota  laid  at  first  but  few  eggs,  only  one 
fourth  were  hatched,  and  half  of  these  perished.  In  the  second 
generation  the  geese  began  to  thrive.  Mutilations  also  are 
sometimes  transmitted.  Williamson1  saw  in  Carolina,  dogs 
which  have  been  deficient  in  tails  for  three  or  four  generations 
in  consequence  of  one  of  their  ancestors  having  accidentally 
lost  it.  A  cow,  three  years  old,  which  had  lost  by  suppuration 
her  left  horn,  produced  three  calves,  which  instead  of  the  left 
horn  presented  only  a  small  protuberance  on  the  skin  (Thar). 
Dogs  and  horses  whose  tails  or  ears  are  clipped,  as  the  draught 
dogs  in  Kamtschatka,2  often  transmit  these  deficiencies  to  their 
offspring  (Blumenbach) .  This  can  scarcely  surprise  us  when 
we  consider  that  even  psychical  qualities,  which  have  only  been 
acquired  in  the  course  of  life,  are  equally  transmissible.  Wher- 
ever oxen  have  not  been  used  as  draught  animals,  it  is  much 
more  difficult  to  accustom  them  to  it,  than  where  the  custom 
has  existed  for  some  generations  (Sturm).  This  applies  also 
to  horses,  milch  cows,  the  barking  of  dogs,  and  the  mewing  of 
cats.  Dogs  who  return  to  a  wild  state  no  longer  bark,  and 
cats  are  said  not  to  mew  in  America.  It  is  further  known  that 
docility  is  hereditary  in  dogs,  especially  in  shepherd  and  hunt- 
ing dogs.  Where  fox-hunting  is  usual,  the  young  foxes  are, 
even  without  any  previously  acquired  experience,  more  timid 
and  cautious  (Leroy) .  Other  instances  of  transmission  of  ac- 
quired instinct  may  be  found  in  Lucas.3  In  many  of  these 
cases  we  must  certainly  not  be  too  hasty  to  ascribe  to  nature 
what  may  perhaps  be  owing  to  the  instinct  of  imitation,  as  in 
the  instance  cited  by  Carpenter,4  that  some  dogs  do  not  attack 
the  PecaVi  singly  bdt  in  packs,  whilst  others  choose  the  less 
advantageous  mode  of  attack.  That  acquired  psychical  qualities 
are  capable  of  transmission,  by  producing  a  corresponding  dis- 
position in  the  offspring,  cannot  be  doubted. 

It  would  be  premature  to  explain  the  origin  of  human  varie- 
ties from  these  observations  made  on  animals;  it  must,  however, 


1  Loc.  cit.,  p.  40. 

2  Langsdorff,  "  Bemerk.  auf  e.  E.  um  d.  Welt,"  ii,  pp.  236,  1812. 


3  Loc.  cit.,  ii,  pp.  479,  482. 

4  Loc.  cit.,  p.  421. 


G2 


84  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

be  admitted,  that  they  are  more  to  the  purpose  than  those 
given  in  favour  of  the  theory  of  a  specific  difference  between 
human  races — a  theory  chiefly  supported  by  the  assumption 
that  the  same  peculiarities  have  been  transmitted  through 
an  indefinite  period  of  time.  If  we  are  justified  from  the 
few  instances  of  prolific  hybridity,  in  contesting  the  law  that 
unlimited  prolificacy  only  occurs  within  the  species,  we  might 
be  equally  justified  in  explaining  the  origin  of  races  from  the 
exceptional  transmission  of  deformities.  At  any  rate,  the  cases 
of  transmission  of  individual  peculiarities  are  sufficient  to  point 
out  the  way  in  which  the  origin  of  various  races  was  possible, 
though  we  may  not  be  able  to  learn  how  it  actually  occurred. 
The  facts  of  the  transmission  of  acquired  physical  or  mental 
qualities  to  the  offspring,  present  very  interesting  psychological 
phases  in  their  progressive  transformation  and  development  of 
a  people.  In  turning  now  our  attention  to  man,  we  must  re- 
mind the  reader  that  we  do  not  require  the  analogy  presented 
by  animals,  since  hereditary  transmission  in  the  human  race 
can  be  proved  by  many  instances.  Although  we  shall  here 
only  enumerate  those  cases  in  which  deformities  have  shown 
themselves  hereditary,  they  cannot  be  considered  as  invalid; 
for  though  it  may  be  objected,  that  the  physical  differences  of 
mankind  are  not  to  be  considered  as  morbid  deviations  from  a 
normal  type,  this  fact  may  be  admitted  without  any  weakening 
of  the  argument.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  not  only  in  many 
instances  impossible  to  decide  whether  an  inherited  peculiarity 
is  a  morbid  one  or  not,  but  the  fact  itself  of  the  transmission  of 
deformities  can  also  be  looked  upon  as  a  special  case  of  the 
general  rule,  that,  deviating  peculiarities'  of  the  organization 
are  frequently  transmitted  to  the  offspring,  so  that  each  instance 
yields  a  new  contribution  to  the  proof  of  such  transmission. 

That  family  peculiarities  of  various  kinds  are  regularly  trans- 
mitted, is  a  well-known  fact.  The  most  frequently  quoted 
instances  of  this  kind  are,  the  thick  lip  of  the  House  of  Haps- 
burg  since  its  alliance  with  the  Jagellones ;  the  tall  life-guards 
of  Frederic  I.  of  Prussia,  who  produced  a  large  sized  progeny. 
Colour  and  quality  of  the  skin  are  also  transmitted,  and  so  are 
temperament,  acuteness,  idiocy,  or  deficiencies  in  the  organs  of 


SECT.  I.]  HEREDITARY    TRANSMISSION.  85 

sense.  Instances  of  hereditary  blindness  and  deafness,  and  of 
alternating  dumbness,  so  that  every  second  or  third  child  was 
di  :if,  are  given  by  Lucas.  Harris1  communicates  a  case  of 
hereditary  blindness  in  one  eye,  and  of  a  double  thumb  on  the 
riirht  hand.  The  so-called  porcupine  men  of  the  family  LamT 
lu-rt,  with  their  excrescences  on  the  hands  and  feet,  have  often 
been  quoted.  Thomson  has  endeavoured  to  prove  that  the 
peculiarities  of  the  skin  are  transmitted  in  the  male  line,  which 
he  supports  by  many  illustrative  cases.2  In  Birmah,  remarkably 
hirsute  men  have  been  met  with,  to  whom  the  peculiarity  was 
transmitted  through  three  generations.3  There  are  also  in- 
stn  ucesrecordedof  six-fingered/six-toed,  and  of  web-footed  indivi- 
duals who  transmitted  these  peculiarities  to  their  offspring. 
The  frequent  tendency  of  succeeding  generations  to  reproduce 
deviations  presents  itself  also  in  the  hereditary  transmission  of  a 
number  of  diseases,  such  as  goitre,  cretinism,  and  mental 
affections. 

Albinism  may  also  be  mentioned,  which  in  some  parts, 
especially  in  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  is  so  prevailing  that  the 
Albinoes  have  been  considered  as  a  distinct  race.  Coreal 
heard  them  thus  described.4  At  a  later  period  Wafer  gave  an 
account  of  these  Albinoes.5  Blumenbach6  has  already  shown 
that  it  occurs  sporadically  in  man  and  animals  in  every  part 
and  in  every  race.  Though  we  cannot  altogether  agree 
with  Prichard,  who  denies  that  there  is  anything  morbid  in 
Albinism,  and  only  ascribes  to  Albinoes  a  more  delicate  organi- 
zation than  that  of  the  white,  the  supposition  of  G.  Forster,7 
that  light-complexioned  men,  when  they  exist  among  dark 
races,  have  frequently,  but  erroneously,  been  described  as 
Albinoes,  is  probably  correct.  From  the  looseness  of  descrip- 
tions, this  cannot  always  be  decided,  which  is  the  less  surprising 
as  skin  diseases  have  frequently  been  mistaken  for  Albinism. 
Blumenbach  has  pointed  out  that  white-spotted  Negroes  must 

The  Highlands  of  Ethiopia/'  2nd  edition,  i,  p.  286. 
Edinb.  Med.  Journal,"  Dec.,  p.  501,  1858. 
Ausland,"  p.  461,  1858. 
Voy.  aux  Indes  occ.,"  ii,  140,  Amst.,  1772. 


Merkw.  E.  nach  Darien,"  p.  117,  Halle,  1759. 
De.  gen.  hum.  var.  nat.,"  p.  278. 
Sammtliche  Schriften,"  iv,  231. 


86  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

be  distinguished  from  such  as  have  become  spotted  from 
disease,  which  frequently  occurs  also  among  Malabars  and 
Tartars.  When,  therefore,  Bennett1  speaks  of  an  Australian  with 
flaxen  hair,  light-blue  eyes,  and  a  white  skin  covered  with  small 
brown  spots;  and  Raffenel,2  of  a  Negro  whose  skin  was  as  white 
as  that  of  sunburnt  Europeans,  whose  beard  and  hair  were  red, 
the  iris  greenish  ;  and  when  Proyart3  describes  a  similar  case, 
reminding  us  of  the  well-known  portrait  in  Blumenbach,  these 
instances  relate  to  Albinism.4  This,  however,  does  not  apply 
to  the  instances  mentioned  by  Lander,5  of  a  light-brown  man 
of  Negro  descent  with  Negro  features,  brown  eyes,  and  white 
eyebrows ;  and  also  of  a  ' '  coal-black  "  man  with  light-brown 
eyes.  Mollien6  found  among  the  Fulahs  men  nearly  white, 
who,  he  expressly  declares,  were  not  Albinoes ;  and  Prichard 
cites  similar  instances. 

We  shall,  in  the  sequel,  cite  many  cases  exhibiting  individual 
deviations  from  the  national  type.  These,  however,  can  but 
rarely  become  permanent,  as  the  national  type  is  always  that 
which  harmonizes  with  the  soil  and  the  climate,  and  the  ex- 
ternal relations  in  which  the  respective  peoples  live.  There 
are,  however,  among  the  Black-feet  and  Mandans  of  North 
America,  some  who  have  an  almost  white  skin  and  ruddy 
cheeks,  and  whole  families  with  grey  or  mixed  grey  hair  ;7  and 
among  the  Chaouia-Berbers  in  the  Auras  Mountains  the  absence 
of  the  lobule  of  the  ear,  which  also  occurs  among  the  Cagots  in 
Spain,  has  doubtless  become  general  from  an  accidentally- 
arisen  peculiarity.8 

Instances  are  not  wanting  of  mutilations  that  have  been 
transmitted  from  parents  to  children;  such,  however,  occur 
less  frequently,  according  to  Blumenbach.  The  children  of  an 
officer  whose  little  finger  had  been  cut  across  and  become 

1  "  Wanderings  in  N.  S.  Wales,"  i,  p.  437,  1834. 

2  "  Voy.  dans  1' Afrique  occ.,"  p.  228,  1846. 

3  "  Hist,  de  Loango,"  p.  196,  1776. 

4  Details  on  its  occurrence  in  Africa  may  be  found  in  Eaffenel,  "Nouv. 
voy.,"  i,  p.  227, 1856. 

5  "  Eeise  zur  Erforschung  des  Niger,"  i,  p.  124,  1833. 

6  "  E.  in  d.  Innere  von  Afr."  p.  57,  1820. 

7  Prinz  Max.  zu  Wied,  "  E.  in  N.  Am.,"  ii,  p.  106,  1839. 

8  Guyen,   in  1'Institut,   ii,   p.  92,  1848 ;  and  "Nouv.  ann.  des  voy.,"  ii, 
p.  398,  1848. 


SECT.  I.]  HEREDITARY    TRANSMISSION.  87 

crooked,  possessed  an  analogous  defect.  Gosse1  cites  the  case 
of  an  officer  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Eylau,  who  transmitted 
to  his  offspring  a  scar  on  the  forehead.  Other  instances  of 
inherited  deformities  are  found  in  R.  Wagner.2  It  has  not 
been  established  that,  among  peoples  who  give  an  artificial 
form  to  the  skull,  succeeding  generations  exhibit  a  similar 
shape.  Poppig  considers  it  probable,  and  Rathke3  is  inclined 
to  believe  it  from  the  shape  of  the  skulls  (macrocephalic)  found 
near  Kertch,  in  the  Crimea  :  Tschudi  and  Morton  maintain  the 
contrary.  Gosse4  cites  several  instances  in  which  irregular 
cranial  shapes,  originating  in  families  hitherto  strange  to  it, 
were  transmitted  by  the  parents ;  but  he  adds,  very  justly,  that 
a  regular  transmission  of  artificial  cranial  shapes  is  not  to  be 
expected  when,  as  is  usual,  the  heads  of  the  boys  only  and  not 
of  the  girls,  are  artificially  deformed. 

European  children,  compared  with  those  of  savage  nations, 
show  that  the  form  of  the  toes  in  the  new-born  is  affected  by 
the  habits  of  the  parents  of  wearing  boots  and  shoes.  It 
seems  not  yet  to  have  been  investigated  how  far  this  is  the  case 
in  the  girls  of  the  higher  classes  in  China.  On  directing  our 
attention  to  psychical  life,  we  meet  with  an  hereditary  trans- 
mission of  character  in  many  instances.  Among  uncultured 
nations  we  find  first  an  instinctive  use  of  the  senses,  indepen- 
dent of  all  education  and  imitation,  and  which  differs  from  that 
of  the  civilized  man.  The  Polynesian  throws  his  children,  who 
have  not  yet  attempted  to  swim,  into  the  water,  apparently 
without  any  injury ;  the  mountaineer  allows  his  infant  to  play 
near  declivities,  dangers  to  which  the  citizen  would  scarcely 
expose  his  children.  Children  of  the  natives  of  Pitcairn  (mon- 
grels of  the  White  and  Tahitians)  swam  when  but  two  or  three 
years  old  merrily  about  in  the  surf.5  The  three  year  old 
children  of  the  Choiios,  in  South  America,  throw  themselves 
into  the  water  to  swim.6  It  does  not,  therefore,  seem  to  be  a 

1  "  Essai  sur  la  deform,  art.  du  crane,"  p.  7,  note,  1855. 

2  "  Naturgesch.  des  menschen,"  ii,  p.  245,  and  Lucas,  ii,  p.  490. 

3  Miiller's  Archiv,  p.  147,  1843. 

4  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  134,  138. 

5  Bennett,  "  Narrative  of  a  whaling  voy.,"  i,  p.  35,  1810. 

6  King  and  Fitzroy,  "  Narr.  of  the    surveying  voy.  of  the  Adventure  and 
Beagle,"  append.,  p.  127,  1839. 


88  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

great  performance  that  the  Arab  children,  from  seven  to  eight 
years,  in  Lower  Mesopotamia,  cross  the  stream.1  The  four 
year  old  children  of  the  Gauchos  in  South  America  are  per- 
fectly skilful  horsemen.3  Among  the  Bushmen  babies  creep 
about,  children  not  one  year  old  walk  about  boldly,  whilst 
those  a  little  older  dig  out  the  onions  in  the  fields.3  As  the 
child  of  the  civilized  man  instinctively  adopts  the  habits  of  his 
parents,  so  does  the  child  of  the  uncultured,  which  is  moreover 
with  difficulty  civilized,  and  always  retains  a  tendency  to  return 
to  the  mode  of  life  of  the  parents.  Supported  by  such  and 
similar  facts,  which  we  shall  investigate  hereafter,  Rush,  Girou, 
Spurzheim,  Burdach,  and  others,  have  maintained  that  acquired 
mental  development  is  transmitted  just  as  is  physical  develop- 
ment. Lucas  especially  has  given  many  instances  to  that 
effect.  Nott  and  Gliddon  maintain  that  the  development  of 
civilization  among  peoples  does  not  depend  so  much  upon  the 
mental  effort  to  attain  certain  objects,  nor  upon  the  concatena- 
tion of  external  circumstances,  as  upon  innate  and  inherited 
instincts,  which  are  nobler  among  nations  capable  of  cultiva- 
tion than  among  uncivilized  peoples,  where  the  instincts  are 
more  of  an  animal  nature.  This  opinion  has  been  expressed 
by  others  in  different  terms,  namely,  that  the  lower  a  people 
stands  in  the  scale  of  civilization,  its  mode  of  life  is  more 
instinctive;  the  more  the  people  becomes  civilized  the  more 
the  instincts  are  replaced  by  a  conscious  mode  of  life. 

How  frequently  mechanical  and  artistic  talents,  and  even  the 
predilection  for  certain  kinds  of  occupation,  are  transmitted 
from  the  father  to  the  son  and  grandson  is  well  known,  and 
may  be  explained  by  a  particular  capacity  for  a  peculiar  use  of 
the  limbs  and  a  higher  perfection  in  the  employment  of  the 
senses,  having  its  origin  in  organic  causes.  But  the  extent  of 
such  hereditary  transmission  is  not  only  limited  to  qualities  of 
psychical  life  depending  on  physical  conditions,  but  also  to 
what  is  the  proper  source  of  it,  for  there  is  no  doubt  that  we 
find  a  higher  mental  activity  and  capacity  among  some  tribes 

1  Bitter,  "  Erdk.,"  xi.,  p.  970. 

2  Scarlett,  "South  Am.  and  the  Pacific,"  1838.   Head,  "Eough  notes  taken 
during  journies  across  the  Pampas,"  p.  20,  1826. 

3  Lichtenstein,  "E.  im  Siidl.  Africa,"  p.  376,  1811. 


SECT.  I.]  HEREDITARY    TRANSMISSION.  89 

than  among  others,  just  as  we  find  differences  in  this  respect 
among  individuals  of  the  same  tribe.  Thus  the  missionaries  in 
Hindostan  found  that  the  children  of  the  Brahmins  possessed 
greater  capacities,  and  were  generally  more  gifted,  than  those 
of  the  lower  castes.  The  history  of  artists,  scholars,  and  of 
reigning  houses  shows  that  great  mental  power,  energy,  and  a 
capacity  for  mental  development  continues  in  the  same  family 
sometimes  for  several  generations,  whilst  others  exhibit  just  the 
contrary,  which  is  proved  by  the  histories  of  families  in  com- 
mon life.  In  such  cases  we  must  be  careful  not  to  ascribe  to 
natural  disposition  what  may  perhaps  be  the  consequence  of 
imitation  and  education.  Admitting  all  this,  we  still  find  such 
a  similar  development  of  mind  and  character  as  cannot  be 
explained  otherwise  than  by  hereditary  transmission. 

However  little  we  may  be  inclined  to  assume  an  hereditary 
aristocracy  of  the  mind,  and  though  we  admit  that  if  it  existed 
it  would  not  be  permanent,  the  fact  still  remains  that  there  are, 
not  only  with  regard  to  mental  capacity,  men  of  coarser  or 
more  refined  organization,  but  families,  castes  and  tribes  who 
are  preferentially  distinguished  by  such  peculiarities,  and  in 
whom  they  are  for  a  long  time  transmitted. 

The  gist  of  all  these  facts  lies  in  this,  that  under  favourable 
circumstances  there  is  regular  transmission  of  original  and 
merely  individual  peculiarities,  and  that  this  transmission  may 
also  occur  as  regards  not  merely  innate,  but  also  acquired, 
characters.  Even  where  community  of  descent  is  unquestion- 
able among  a  people  which  we  have  no  reason  to  suppose  of 
mixed  origin,  and  among  families,  we  observe  individuals  of 
different  physical  and  mental  capacities  transmit  their  special 
qualities  to  succeeding  generations,  among  whom  they  become 
more  or  less  permanent.  If  we  take  into  consideration  the 
great  variety  of  characters  which  families  and  classes  of  every 
population  present,  we  recognize  in  this  difference  of  indi- 
viduals upon  which  the  formation  of  races  is  founded,  an 
important  law  of  nature,  apparently  destined  to  be  a  counter- 
poise to  the  law  of  permanence  of  species,  and  the  constancy 
of  the  transmission  of  its  characters. 

In  concluding  our  observations  on  the  causes  upon  which,  by 
their  combined  action,  the  changes  in  the  physical  organization 


90  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    1. 

of  man  depends,,  we  arrive  at  the  following  results. — The 
assertion  that  the  physical  type  possessed  by  the  respective 
races  remains  entirely  permanent  is  erroneous  ;  it  is  only  as  to 
the  limits  of  certain  changes  that  doubts  exist.  It  is  impossi- 
ble to  determine  the  exact  influence  of  each  individual  agent, 
or  to  point  out  its  limits.  The  theory  which  has  most  in  its 
favour  is,  that  mental  culture  possesses  the  greatest  influence, 
climatic  conditions  alone  have  the  least,  diet  and  mode  of  life 
hold  an  intermediate  place.  Finally,  the  spontaneous  origin 
and  transmission  of  new  qualities  appear  among  the  most 
influential  agents  in  the  production  of  differences  among  man- 
kind. Still  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  can  only  become 
extensive  in  its  effects  among  a  people  where  cultivation  has 
obtained  a  firm  soil,  or  where  the  original  uniformity  of  indi- 
viduals, both  externally  and  internally,  no  longer  exists,  and 
where  the  acquired  qualities  are  transmitted  externally  to 
succeeding  generations. 


SECTION    II. 

THE  CHIEF  ANATOMICAL  AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES 
WHICH  DISTINGUISH  THE  VARIOUS  RACES. 

In  the  preceding  section  we  have  investigated  the  nature  and 
the  extent  of  the  changes  to  which  the  human  frame  is  subject, 
and  traced  them  to  their  causes.  If  we  are  to  arrive  at  any 
conclusion  on  the  question  whether  all  the  peoples  of  the  globe 
belong  to  one  species,  or  whether  specific  differences  exist 
among  them,  we  must  study  the  anatomical  and  physiological 
facts.  By  doing  so  we  may  learn,  whether  the  extent  of  the 
existing  differences  is  within  the  sphere  of  physical  change,  the 
causes  of  which  are  traceable. 

If  we  must,  on  the  one  hand,  examine  the  differences  among 
mankind  with  regard  to  bodily  shape  and  physical  life,  and  the 
changes  to  which  they  are  subject,  it  is  not  the  less  necessary, 
in  order  to  arrive  at  any  result,  to  compare  these  changes  with 
those  which  occur  among  animals  standing  next  to  man  in 


SECT.  II.]    ANATOMICAL  AND  PHYSIOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES.  91 

organization.  We  shall  therefore  examine  the  characteristics 
of  the  ape.  In  doing  so  we  shall  not  enter  into  any  minute 
details,  but  simply  point  out  the  main  differences,  which  are  as 
follows. — The  brain  of  the  ape1  is  considerably  smaller  in 
volume  and  inferior  in  development  to  that  of  man.  The  face 
is  distinguished  by  a  flattened  nose  and  a  projecting  lower  jaw, 
small  chin,  the  lips  deficient  in  fulness,  facial  angle  small 
(30-33°  in  adults).  The  external  ear  is,  compared  with  the 
human  ear,  of  a  very  rude  form,  and  without  a  lobule.  The 
teeth  are  unequal  and  distant  from  each  other.  The  size  of 
the  canine  teeth  is  considerable  compared  with  the  rest,  and 
the  first  premolar  is  of  a  conical  form  and  larger  than  the 
second  premolar  tooth.  The  ape  has  an  inter-maxillary  bone, 
which  is  however  absent  in  some  species,  and  the  occipital 
foramen  is  situated  considerably  backwards.  The  pelvis  is  of 
small  extent  and  narrower  laterally  than  it  is  in  its  antero- 
posterior  diameter,  contrary  to  its  shape  in  man.  The  vertebral 
column  has  a  single  curve,  which  is  concave  towards  the  abdo- 
men. The  upper  extremities  and  the  hands  are  longer  than  in 
man  ;  the  foot  is  in  fact  a  large  curved  hand,  the  ape  having 
four  opposable  thumbs,  those  of  the  forehands  being  small,  and 
only  capable  of  motion  together  with  the  other  fingers.  The 
thighs  are  also  curved ;  the  heelbone  directed  upward,  so  that  the 
ape  approaching  nearest  to  man  cannot  without  difficulty  walk 
upon  the  sole,  but  does  so  upon  the  edges.  These  circumstances, 
and  the  position  of  the  occipital  foramen,  render  the  ape  fit  to 
climb,  whilst  the  anatomical  structure  of  man  proves  him  to  be 
intended  to  walk  upright.  The  hair,  the  length  of  the  body,  the 
limitation  as  to  climate  and  food,  and  the  duration  of  life, 
are  also  important  distinctions  between  the  ape  and  man. 
The  slow  growth,  the  protracted  childhood,  and  late  appearance 
of  puberty,  the  deficiency  in  instinct,  menstruation,  special 
diseases,  the  power  of  language,  of  laughing  and  crying,  are 
other  physiological  marks  which  distinguish  man  from  the  ape. 
The  chimpanzee  and  the  recently-discovered  tschego2  on  the 
Gaboon  river,  belonging  to  the  genus  Troglodytes,  approach 

1  "  On  the  differences  between  man  and  the  ape  in  osteological  respects." 
See  Owen  in  "  Transact,  of  the  Zool.  Soc.,"  i,  343. 

2  Prof.  Waitz  here  alludes  to  the  Troglodytes  tschego  of  Duvernoy  ("  Ar- 
chives du  Museum,"  vol.  viii,  4to,  Paris). — ED. 


92 


PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION. 


[PAET 


nearest  to  man,  but  they  still  exhibit  the  above  differences. 
The  gorilla1  presents  as  regards  the  form  of  the  hand  a  greatei 
resemblance  to  man  than  the  chimpanzee,  orang  and  gibboi 
It  has   only  eight  carpal  bones  ;    flattened  nails ;  the  lenj 
of  the  hand  is  less,  the  breadth  proportionally  greater  than  ii 
other  apes.2 

There  are  many  narrations  of  past  and  modern  times  of  mei 
who   were    said   to  resemble  apes.     Thus,   their  existence  ii 
Tschittagong  is  still  believed  in   India ;  they  are  said  also 
inhabit  the  region  between  Palmo,    Tschumbulpur,    and   th< 
sources  of  the  Nerbudda.3      We  cannot  be  surprised  at  such 
belief,  since  the  ape  appears  as  a  caricature  of  man.      Some 
negroes  consider  apes  as  men,  who  will  not  speak  in  order  nc 
to  be  compelled  to  labour.     It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  tl 
hitherto  all  stories  about  ape-like  men  have  come  to  nothing 
The  truth  is  limited  to  the  known  fact,  that  the  negro  mosl 
resembles  the  ape;  here  we  intend  to  compare  their  typi( 
peculiarities.      Assertions  like  those  of  Nott  and  Gliddon,4 
the  Hottentots  and  Bushmen  are  morally  and  physically  bul 
little  distinguished  from  the  orang-utang,   and  do  not  diffei 
more  from  it  than  the  former  from  the  European,  are  shameless 
exaggerations,5  which  need  not  occupy  us,  being  advanced  ii 
the  interest  of  the  slave-holder  and  slave-dealer,  and  accepl 
only  in  America.     Thus  it  will  probably  be  with  the  tails 
1£  to  2  inches  in  length)  which  lately  Koegel6  asserts  to  have 
seen   on   some   inhabitants   of   the    Sunda   Islands,   specially 
among  the  Dajaks,  and  also  in  the  Moluccas.     Should  this  b( 
confirmed,  it  may  perhaps  be  nothing  more  than  an  abnorau 
elongation  of  the  os  coccygis.     Bhrenberg7  treats  of  the  fr 
quency  of  confounding  apes  with  men,  and  of  the  cynocephah 
of  the  Egyptians. 


1  "  Gorilla  gina,"  Geoff.  St.  Hil. 

2  "  Comptes  rendus,  xxxvi,  p.  925,  1853. 

3  "  Ausland,"  p.  1200,  1855. 

4  "  Types  of  mankind/'  pp.  182  and  457,  1854. 

5  Many  other  exaggerations  are  found  in  that  work.     Thus,  it  is  assert 
that  Africa  south  of  10°  N.,  is  only  inhabited  by  men  whose  intellect  is 
dark  as  their  skin,  and  whose  cranial  formation  renders  every  expectation 
a  future  improvement  an  Utopian  dream. 

fi  "  Ausland,"  p.  1103,  1858. 

7  "  Abh.  der  K.  Akad.,  der  Wiss.,"  1833. 


SHOT.  II.]  NEGRO  TYPE.  $3 

The  most  distinctly-marked  Negro-type  is,  as  Prichard  justly 
observes,  found  only  between  the  tropics,  especially  in  the 
interior  of  the  northern  half  of  that  region,  the  so-called 
Soudan,  and  on  the  western  coast  of  Africa.  According  to 
1,;  it  ham,1  the  Negro  region  extends  only  from  the  Niger  to 
Senegal,  and  a  portion  of  Senaar,  Kordofan,  and  Darfur.  The 
anthropological  peculiarities  found  there  are  the  following : — 
The  skeleton  of  the  Negro  is  heavier,  the  bones  thicker  and 
larger  in  proportion  to  the  muscles  than  in  the  European.2 
This  is  especially  the  case  with  regard  to  the  skull,  which  is 
hard  and  unusually  thick,  so  that  in  fighting,  Negroes,  men  and 
women,  butt  each  other  like  rams3  without  exhibiting  much 
sensibility.  Among  some  of  them,  the  temporal  bone  is  imme- 
diately connected  with  the  frontal  bone,  as  in  the  simia  trocjlo- 
//////>.« ;  this  however  is  not  constant,  and  is  sometimes  found 
among  Mongols.4  Duncan5  says  that  in  Dahomey  skulls  with- 
out any  longitudinal  or  transverse  sutures  are  by  no  means 
rare.  According  to  Sb'mmering,6  the  capacity  of  the  skull  is 
absolutely  less,  and  all  the  dimensions  of  the  head  smaller, 
than  in  the  European ;  the  efferent  nerves  are  thicker  and  the 
brain  harder  and  smaller  in  proportion  (Monroe,  Pruner,) 
decidedly  as  in  apes.  This  has  been  generally  denied  by 
Tiedemann,7  but  has  in  other  respects  been  confirmed  by  him 
in  his  representation  of  the  cerebrum  (Tab.  v.)  of  a  Bush- 
woman,  which  in  regard  to  development  and  convolutions  is 
not  less  inferior  to  that  of  the  Negro  than  that  of  the  latter  to 
the  European.  That  the  convolutions  in  the  Negro  brain  are 
less  numerous  and  more  massive  than  in  the  European  (in 
whom  they  also  vary)  appears  certain.8  The  similarity  of  the 
Negro  brain  to  that  of  the  ape  is  limited  to  this  ;  for  the 
cranial  capacity  of  the  Negro  is  not  (as  Blumenbach,  Lawrence, 

1  "Nat.  hist,  of  the  var.  of  man,"  p.  471,  1850. 

2  Plainer  "  Die  Krankheiten  des  Orients,"  p.  64,  1847. 

3  Hamilton  Smith,  "  Nat.  hist,  of  the  human  species,"  p.  190. 

4  Hollard,  "  De  I'homme  et  des  races  hum.,"  p.  251,  1853. 
s  "  Journey  in  West  Africa,"  ii,  p.  246,  1848. 

6  "  Ueber  d.  korperl.  Verschiedenheiten  des  Negers  vom  Europaer,"  p.  51, 
1785. 

7  «  D.  Him  des  Negers,"  1837. 

8  "  Burmeister  Geol.  Bilder,"  ii,  123. 


94  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

and  Morton,  in  Cran.  Amer.,  have  maintained)  less  than  that  of 
all  other  races.1  The  coronal  region  is  arched  in  the  Negro,  but 
the  forehead  is  often  less  developed  than  in  the  European 
woman  (Huschke) .  The  Negro  brain  thus  possesses  the  type  of 
the  female  and  the  child's  brain,  and  approaches  that  of  the 
superior  apes.  This  does  not  agree  with  what  Sommering 
states,  viz.  that  the  transition  from  the  occiput  to  the  back  is 
flatter  in  the  Negro  than  in  the  European,  nor  with  Burmeister, 
that  the  Negro  possesses  a  shorter  and  less  projecting  occiput. 
The  latter  has  endeavoured  to  explain  from  this  circumstance 
the  backward  position  of  the  occipital  foramen,  which  is  denied 
by  Prichard,  and  declared  by  Latham  as  not  constant,  whilst 
Hollard  admits  a  slight  difference  in  this  respect,  and  so  does 
Arnoux,2  observing,  however,  that  the  particular  form  of  the 
Negro  required  such,  but  does  not  in  any  degree  prevent  the 
erect  posture  of  the  head. 

The  superficies  of  the  face,  which  is  usually  described  as 
small,  is  nevertheless,  in  proportion  to  the  surface  of  the 
cranium,  larger  than  in  the  European  (Sommering,  Lawrence). 
Whilst  in  the  European  the  forehead,  the  nasal  region,  and 
mouth  and  chin,  form  equal  sections  of  the  face,  there  is  in  the 
Negro  a  considerable  increase  in  the  lower  part  (Burmeister) . 
The  facial  angle  is  little  above  seventy  degrees,  and  the  pro- 
jecting jaw  gives  to  the  face  a  snout-like  appearance.  The 
small  laterally-compressed  skull  gives  ample  space  to  the  tem- 
poral muscles,  from  the  great  development  of  which  in  length 
and  breadth  the  lateral  compression  of  the  skull  has  been 
explained.  The  forehead  is  small  and  globular,  its  surface 
uneven  and  knotty  (Blumenbach) .  The  eyes, — the  sockets  of 
which,  according  to  Prichard,  are  not  larger  than  in  the  Eu- 
ropean, but  described  as  larger  by  Sommering, — are  narrow, 
black,  and  protuberant,  mostly  with  a  yellow  conjunctiva 
(Pruner),  frequently  exhibiting  blood-vessels.3  The  cheek- 


1  See  Tiedemann,  W.  Hamilton,  Parchappe,  "  Rech.  sur  1'encephale,"  and 
Huschke,  Schadel,  Him,  und  Seele,  1854 ;  the  latter  of  whom  gives  37'57  ounces 
of  brain  in  54  cases ;  for  the  Malay,  only  36'41  in  98  cases. 

2  "Bullet.  Soc.  Ethnol.,"  1847. 

3  Clapperton  "  Tageb.  der  zweiten  R.  ins  innere  v.  Afr.,"  p.  184,  1830. 


SECT.  II.]  NEGRO  TYPE.  95 

bones  are  prominent,  and  the  thick  flat  nose,  with  wide 
rils,  projects,  together  with  the  jaws,  from  the  face.  The 
ethmoid  bone  is  much  developed.  To  this  has  been  ascribed 
the  great  development  of  the  sense  of  smell  in  the  Negro,  but 
it  must  be  remarked  that  this  occurs  only  exceptionally  among 
Negro  people.  The  nasal  cavity  is  like  the  buccal  cavity,  more 
ious  than  in  the  European  ;  the  nasal  cartilage  is  deficient 
in  development.1  The  lips  (especially  the  upper  lip)  are  puny, 
and  on  that  account  very  different  from  those  of  the  ape  ;  their 
colour  varies  from  a  dirty  rose  colour  to  that  of  cherry  red,  and 
from  dark  red  to  tawny  (Sommering),  or  is  brown  externally 
and  red  internally.  The  upper  jaw  is  stretched,  directed  for- 
wards, the  tongue  thick  and  large,  the  palatine  arch  larger  and 
longer  than  in  the  European.  The  space  for  the  teeth  is  said 
to  be  very  large,  so  that  the  hindmost  molar  tooth  can  be  more 
developed.  There  are  sometimes  six  molars,  the  incisors  are 
not  perpendicular,  the  superior  especially  are  long  and  inclined 
.forwards.  The  whiteness  of  the  teeth,  which  has  been  con- 
sidered as  a  peculiarity  of  the  race,  appears  to  be  produced  by 
rubbing  them  with  vegetable  fibres,  chalk,  etc.2  There  are 
also  regions  where  many  bad  and  decayed  teeth  are  seen, 
for  instance,  in  Nyffe.  The  Negro  has  no  inter-maxillary 
bone,  but  only,  as  the  European  in  childhood,  a  rut  which 
marks  it.  The  chin  is  small,  but  broad  and  receding.  The 
masseter,  as  well  as  the  temporal  muscles,  are  much  developed. 
The  external  ear  projects  out  of  the  head,  is  small,  but  not,  as 
in  the  monkey,  broad  and  flat  (Burmeister)  ;  it  is  more  equally 
rounded  than  in  the  European  (Pruner),  and  as  generally 
among  the  inferior  races  the  helix  is  said  to  be  flatter,  but  the 
trfiyiiH  and  the  lobule  smaller  (Yollard,  p.  99).  The  voice  of  the 
Negro  is  low  and  hoarse  in  the  males,  but  acute  and  shriek- 
ling  among  the  women  (H.  Smith). 

The  hair  of  the  Negro,  which  does  not  gradually,  as  in  the 
European,  diminish  towards  the  temple  and  the  neck,  ceases 


1  Dutenhofer,  "  Ueber  die  Emancip.  d.  Neger.,"  1855. 

2  W.  Miiller,  "  Die  A-fr.,  Landschaft  Fetu,"  1676 ;  Lander,  "  Eeise  zur  Er- 
•forschung  des  Niger,"  iii,  p.  94, 1833  -,  Eaffenel,  "  Voy.  dans  1'Afr.  occ.,"  p.  198, 

1846 ;  Hecquard,  "  E.  a.  d.  Kuste  u.  in  d.  innere  v.  West-Afr.,"  1854. 


96  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  PART    I.] 

abruptly  like  a  wig  (Sommering).  In  some  spots  it  is  entirely 
wanting,  so  that  among  the  Hottentots,  Bushmen,  and  Austral 
Negroes  of  the  South  Sea,  it  grows  in  separate  tufts. 
Although  essentially  differing  from  the  wool  of  animals,  it 
much  resembles  it.  Its  curl  is,  according  to  Henle,  owing  to 
its  elliptic  form.  It  is  harder,  more  elastic  and  shining  than 
that  of  the  European.  It  is  usually  not  longer  than  three 
inches,  which  is  not  owing  to  being  cut,  for  all  Negroes  in 
Brazil  like  long  hair  (Burmeister) .  This  natural  shortness  of 
the  hair  is  said  not  to  be  general.  Many  Negro  tribes  regu- 
larly cut  their  hair,  and,  if  frequently  combed,  it  is  said  to 
reach,  on  the  coast  of  Guinea,  the  length  of  a  foot.1  Dandolo2 
saw  among  the  Bakkara  on  the  White  Nile  a  couple  of  very 
black  Negresses  with  enormous  heads  of  hair  like  a  wig,  half  a 
metre  in  circumference.  It  seems  however  doubtful  whether  in 
these  instances,  pure  Negroes  are  meant.  The  beard  is  mostly 
very  scanty,  and  grows  only  in  advanced  age ;  whiskers  are 
generally  wanting,  hence  the  pride  of  the  Moors  living  among 
the  Negroes,  who  by  their  beards  exhibit  their  Arab  descent,3 
and  the  high  value  put,  in  Ashantee,  upon  a  strong  beard.4 
Chest  and  body  are  but  little,  arms  and  legs  not  at  all,  covered 
with  hair. 

The  relatively  thick  and  strongly  developed  neck  of  the 
Negro,  shorter  by  an  inch  than  that  of  the  European,  com- 
bined with  a  less  curved  vertebral  column,  enables  him  to  carry 
easily  burdens  upon  the  head,  so  that  the  Fantis  for  instance 
prefer,  in  carrying  stones,  to  place  the  wheelbarrow  upon  the 
head.5  The  chest  is  larger  and  more  arched  than  in  the 
European.  The  pelvis  is  narrower,  more  conical,  all  its 
diameters  are  smaller,  hence  the  belly  is  more  pendulous. 
Vrolik6  has  shown  its  similarity  to  that  of  the  ape.  With 
regard  to  the  limbs,  White  has  drawn  attention  to  the  greater 
relative  length  of  the  forearm  in  the  Negro.  In  the  European 

1  Isert,  "  Neue  E.  nach  Guinea/'  p.  164,  1790. 

2  Viaggio  in  Egitto,  "  Nel  Sudan  e  Mil.,"  p.  271,  1854. 

3  M.  Park,  "  Voy.  dans  1'Interieur  de  1'Afr.,  Paris,"  an  viii,  i,  247. 

4  Bowdich,  "  Mission  von  S.  Coast  nach  Aschante,"  p.  391,  1820. 

5  Duncan,  loc.  cit. 

6  "  Consid.  sur  la  diversite  des  bassins,"  1826. 


SECT.  II.]  NEGRO  TYPE.  97 

the  proportion  of  the  female  arm  is  =12:9:6;  in  the  male 
=  12,5:10,5:7;  in  the  Negro  woman  =12:10:7;  in  the 
Negro  =12,8  :  9,6  :  7,5  ;  hence  the  hands  appear  in  the  Negro 
as  long  drawn  with  a  relatively  small  breadth.  The  Negro  has 
fine  white  nails,  but  which  feel  hard  like  wood  (Burmeister) . 
Daniell1  says  on  the  other  hand  that,  according  to  his  measure- 
ments, the  fingers  and  the  hands  only  are  longer  than  in  the 
European,  but  not  the  arms. 

The  skin  between  the  fingers  reaches  higher  up  in  the  Negro 
than  in  the  European.2  The  leg  is,  on  the  whole,  longer,  but 
the  flat  foot,  which  is  but  little  arched,  the  ankle  being  but 
one  and  one-third  by  one  and  a  half  above  the  ground,  reduces 
it  in  such  a  manner,  that  the  leg  appears  short.  The  upper  part 
of  the  thigh  is  not  full,  the  Negro  generally  being  not  prone  to 
become  fat.  The  knees  are  somewhat  bent,  the  calves  weak,  as 
if  laterally  compressed.  Bandy-legs  are  frequent,  probably  in 
consequence  of  the  mode  in  which  the  mothers  carry  their 
children  on  the  back.  On  account  of  the  weakness  of  the 
legs,  the  Negro  is  said  to  be  very  sensible  to  a  blow  on  the 
shinbones.3  The  heel  of  the  Negro  is  longer  and  broader  and 
the  foot  longer  than  in  the  European,  a  peculiarity  which  is 
also  said  to  belong  to  Mulattoes  even  after  they  have  become 
white.4  The  toes  are  small,  the  first  smaller  than  the  second, 
and  separated  from  it  by  a  free  space  (Burmeister).  The 
sesamoid  bones  are  more  numerous  in  the  Negro  than  in  the 
European  (Sommering).  Duttenhofer5  states  that  a  Negro 
can  stand  for  hours  upon  the  extreme  edge  of  one  or  both 
feet,  a  task  we  should  imagine  most  painful  for  him  considering 
the  flatness  of  his  feet. 

As  regards  the  blood  of  the  Negro,  various  statements  are 
to  be  found  in  Sommering.  Primer  describes  it  as  black  and 
pitchy;  Foissac6  and  Omboni7  deny  a  difference  in  colour  of  the 


1  "  L'lnstitut,"  ii,  p.  88,  1846. 

2  Van  der  Hoeven. 

3  Day,  "  Five  years  resid.  in  the  W.  Inlies,"  ii,  p.  98,  1852. 

4  Day,  loc.  cit.,  i,  p.  51. 

5  Loc.  ct.,  p.  83. 

6  Loc.  cit. 

?  «•  Viaggi  neU.  Afr.,  occ.  Mil.,"  p.  159,  1845. 

H 


98  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

Negro  blood  from  that  of  the  European.  T.  W.  de  Miiller1 
observes  that  in  hot  climates  the  arterial  blood  of  white  and 
coloured  men  also  resembles  venous  blood,  in  consequence  of 
the  greater  quantity  of  carbon  contained  in  it ;  and  it  has  been 
asserted  that  the  predominance  of  the  latter  induces  mental  in- 
dolence. The  choleric  and  phlegmatic  temperaments  only  are 
said  to  prevail  among  Negroes.  The  greatly  developed  genitals 
exhibit  frequent  turgescence.  The  glandular  system  is  much 
developed  (Primer) .  The  stomach  has  a  rounder  shape  (Som- 
mering) . 

The  skin  affords  to  the  Negro  a  greater  protection  agains 
the  rays  of  the  sun  than  to  the  European,  as,  exposed  to  the 
sun  for  a  longer  time,  it  is  not  blistered;  it  is  also  per- 
ceptibly thicker  on  the  whole  body  than  that  of  the  European 
it  is  always  cool  and  velvety  to  the  touch.  With  regard  to  th< 
latter  point,  the  savage  natives  of  Central  Africa  are  said  to 
form  an  exception,  as  their  skin  becomes  wrinkled  and  chapped.2 
It  is  more  or  less  black  according  to  the  deposition  of  the  pig- 
ment, which  (according  to  an  analysis  not  entirely  to  be  relied 
upon),  consists  of  nine-tenths  of  carbon  to  one-tenth  iron  and 
fat  (De  Muller),  and  is  found  in  the  common  cells  of  the 
mucous  layer  of  the  epidermis,  and  not  in  special  pigment  cells, 
whilst  the  dermis  of  the  Negro  is  like  that  of  the  European.3 
This  pigment,  which  is  wanting  in  the  Negro  foetus,  is  also 
deposited  in  the  mucous  layer  under  the  nail,4  and  in  the  mem- 
branes of  the  brain  (De  Muller),  exceptionally,  though  rarely,  also 
on  the  gums  and  the  velum  palati,5  and  upon  the  tongue  (Primer) . 
The  palms  only,  and  the  soles  of  the  feet,  are  of  a  lighter 
colour,  the  first,  frequently  of  European  whiteness  (Burmeister) . 
According  to  Flourens'  former  opinion  there  was  said  to  exist 
between  the  epidermis  and  dermis  an  organ  absent  in  the  white, 
which  contained  the  colouring  matter ;  he  has,  however,  now 
adopted  the  prevailing  opinion  that  there  is  no  difference  in 


1  LOG.  cit.,  p.  45. 

2  D'Escayrac  die  Air.  Wiiste  und  das  Land  der  Schwarzen,  p.  186, 1855. 

3  Kolliker,  "  Microscop.  anat." 

4  Beclard,  "Anat.  generale,"  p.  309. 

5  Arnoux,  "  Bullet,  soc.  ethnol.,"  p.  52,  1847. 


SECT.  II.]  NEGRO  TYPE.  99 

the  structure  of  the  skin  between  white  and  black  men,  a  depo- 
sition of  pigment  also  taking  place  in  the  former,  though  in 
lesser  quantity.  Kolliker  observes  that  no  microscopically 
visible  pigment  is  found  where  the  skin  is  white ;  but  he  adds 
that  it  can  be  detected  in  the  skin  of  Europeans  of  brown  or 
dark  complexion.  Krause1  says  that  freckles  and  brown  moles 
in  the  skin  of  Europeans  are  in  structure  like  the  epidermis  of 
the  Negro;2  and  that  the  skin  of  the  white  in  hot  climates 
experienced  an  analogous  change.  The  colour  of  the  Negro 
differs  in  various  nations ;  further,  that  the  colour  of  the  skin 
can  therefore  not  be  considered  as  a  specific  difference  from  other 
races,  as  it  is  chiefly  dependent  on  external  conditions.  This  is 
supported  by  other  considerations,  chiefly  by  the  fact,  that  the 
Negro  becomes  lighter  in  advanced  age;3  and  that  the  women, 
during  the  years  of  menstruation,  when  the  carbon  is  removed 
by  other  means,  are  said  to  be  lighter  than  the  men  (de 
Miiller).  It  is  finally  also  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  new-born 
Negro  children  are  of  a  light  grey  colour,  and  that  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  Negro  region  the  children  become  only 
perfectly  black  in  the  third  year  (Pruner).  Camper4  saw  a 
Negro  child  that  at  birth  was  of  a  reddish  colour,  then  became 
first  black  around  the  nails  and  the  nipples,  on  the  third  day 
the  genitals  became  coloured,  and  on  the  fifth  and  sixth  day 
the  whole  body.  Children  born  in  the  cold  season  take  a 
longer  time  in  becoming  black.  The  children  of  the  Arabs  in 
the  south,  even  where  they  have  not  intermixed  with  the 
Negroes,  but  have  their  colour,  exhibit  at  birth  a  copper 
colour  ;5  whilst  those  of  the  American  race  are  at  birth  of  a 
yellowish-white  or  reddish-brown  colour.6  Those  of  the  native 
Australians  in  the  environs  of  Adelaide  are  immediately  after 
birth  of  a  yellowish-brown,  and  only  become  dark  at  a  later 
period.7 


1  Art.  Haut.,  in  Wagner's  handworterb.,  p.  15,  123. 

2  Compare  Simon  in  Miiller's  "  Archiv.,"  p.  167,  1840. 

3  Carne's  "  Journ>  of  a  voy.  to  the  West  Coast  of  Africa,"  p.  372,  Boston,  1852. 

4  "  Kleine  Schriften.,"  i,  p.  24,  1782. 

5  D'Escayrac,  loc.  cit. 

6  Prinz  Max.,  loc.  cit.,  p.  103,  1839. 

7  Koeler  in  monatsb.  der  ges.  f.  Erdk.,  iii,  44. 

H2 


100 


PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION. 


[PART  I, 


The  frizzly  hair  developes  itself  as  gradually  as  the  colour 
the  skin.  In  the  suckling  the  hair  is  of  a  chestnut  brown,  and 
of  a  silky  texture  (Burmeister) .  The  skin  exhalation  has  in 
the  negro  a  peculiar,  disagreeable  odour,  which,  however,  is 
but  little  perceptible  in  some  individuals,  whilst  in  others  it  is 
smelt  at  a  distance.  This  odour  is  particularly  strong  among 
the  Balantes  and  Bissagos,1  and  among  the  Negroes  in  th( 
south  of  Sierra  Leone,  the  Ibos,  Papaws,  Mokos,  etc.5 
It  corresponds  to  the  odour  emitted  by  the  black  feathers  oi 
birds  and  the  black  hair  of  the  dogs  in  Guinea  (Foissac) . 

From  the  preceding  description  of  the  Negro-type,  in  which 
we  have  preferred  to  let  every  author  speak  for  himself,  il 
cannot  be  doubted  that  there  is  a  certain  resemblance  betwe< 
the  Negro  and  the  Ape,  although  the  distance  between  them  is 
sufficiently  great  to  discard  any  idea  as  to  their  relationship. 
We  must  add  here  a  few  more  observations  to  shew  that  th( 
differences  between  the  Negro  and  European  are  less  importanl 
than  they  appear  at  first  sight. 

The  singularly  thick  skull  which  is  considered  as  one  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  Negro  race  is  not  exclusively  peculiar  to 
it.  We  need  not  mention  that  it  is  frequently  occurring  in 
mental  diseases,  and  Herodotus  ascribes  such  thick  skulls  to 
the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  natives  of  Van  Diemen's  Land 
break  wood  on  their  heads  (Labillardiere)  .3  This  is  also  the 
case  among  the  Penhuenches  in  South  America,  and  many 
Indians  in  Brazil.4  The  skulls  of  the  Australians  are  said  to 
be  much  thicker  than  those  of  Europeans.5  Herrera  mentions 
that  the  Spanish  conquerors  were  not  able  to  split  the  skulls  of 
the  aborigines  of  Cuba  and  Haiti  with  one  stroke  of  the 
sword.  Ulloa6  says  that  the  skulls  found  in  old  American 
graves  are  about  six  to  seven  inches  thick.  Polack7  found  the 


1  Arnoux,  loc.  cit.,  p.  215. 

»  K.  Clarke,  "  S.  Leone,"  p.  51,  1846. 

3  Labillardiere,  "  Eel.  du  voy.  &  la  rech.  de  la  Perouse,"  An.  viii,  ii,  p.  54 ; 
Melville,  "  The  present  state  of  Australia,"  p.  348,  1851. 

4  Poppig,  "  Eeise,"  i,  466 ;  Spix  und  Martius,  "  Seise,"  p.  696. 
6  Dawson,  "  The  present  state  of  Aust.,"  p.  66,  1830. 

6  "  Physikal.  und  hist.  Nachr.,"  ii,  99,  1781. 

7  "  New-Zeal.,  being  a  narrative  of  travels,"  i,  p.  214,  1838. 


SECT.  II.]  NEGRO   TYPE.  101 

same  thickness  in  a  New  Zealand  skull.  The  remarkable 
thickness  of  the  skulls  of  the  Zulu  Kaffirs,  who  do  not  properly 
belong  to  the  Negro  tribe,  is  considered  by  Delegorgue1  to  be 
the  consequence  of  exposing  the  unprotected  head  to  the  heat 
of  the  sun.  In  France  also,  remarkably  thick  skulls  were  dug 
out  in  many  places,2  and  the  Bretons  are  distinguished  by  the 
same  peculiarity,  and  frequently  fight  with  their  heads  like 
Negroes.3 

Oblique  prominent  front  teeth  do  not,  according  to  Sandifort,4 
exclusively  occur  among  Negroes,  but  are  seen,  though  in  a 
less  degree,  among  Kaffirs,  Aboinese,  Cingalese,  Japanese, 
etc.  Even  among  Europeans,  laterally  compressed  skulls  with 
oblique  incisors,  are  not  so  very  rare.5 

With  regard  to  the  length  and  proportions  of  the  arm : 
Jarrold6  has  proved  by  measurements  that  the  forearm  of  the 
Scotch  (twelve  inches  to  six  feet  length  of  body)  is  intermediate 
between  the  Negro  (twelve  and  a  half  inches  to  six  feet  length 
of  body),  and  the  Englishman  (eleven  and  a  half  inches 
to  six  feet  length),  and  that  the  length  of  the  hand  is  pro- 
portionately large  in  the  former ;  hence  also  in  this  respect  the 
resemblance  of  the  Negro  to  the  monkey  is  not  specific. 

The  deficiency  in  the  calves  are  in  Sennaar  and  Taka  as  often 
found  among  the  Arabs  as  among  the  Negroes.7  Brehm8  has 
observed  the  same  among  the  Nomades  of  East  Sudan,  and 
assigns  as  a  cause  that  they  are  accustomed  to  sit  on  the  heels, 
by  which  the  thigh  rests  on  the  calves.  Moreover  the  pecu- 
liarity is  not  general  among  the  Negroes. 

Burmeister  has  pointed  out  the  resemblance  of  the  foot  and 
the  position  of  the  toes  of  the  Negro  to  that  of  the  ape. 

It  has  indeed  been  often  noticed  that  the  large  toe  is  fre- 
quently used  by  Negroes  as  a  thumb ;  but  however  seductive  it 


1  "Voy.  dans  I'Afr.  australe,"  ii,  p.  219,  1847. 

2  Serres,  in  "1'Institut.,"  ii,  p.  123,  1853. 

3  Lenormant,  "  Nouv.  ann  des  voy.,"  i,  p.  110,  1848. 

4  "  Tabulae  cranioruni,"  Lug.  Bat.,  1838. 

5  Loc.  cit.,  p.  62. 

6  K,.  Wagner,  "  Naturgesch.  des  Menschen,"  ii,  p.  219,  1831. 

7  Werne,  "  Feldzug  von  Sennaar  nach  Taka,"  p.  58,  1851. 

8  Loc.  cit.,  p.  76. 


102  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

may  be  to  dwell  upon  this  point,  it  can  easily  be  shown  that 
there  is  not  much  in  it  after  all,  for  the  same  peculiarity  has 
been  observed  not  merely  in  the  Australians,1  who  often,  to 
conceal  their  spears,  drag  them  along  between  the  toes,2  but 
also  in  the  Indian  on  the  Orinoco3  and  in  Yucatan,  where  the 
natives  pick  up  money  with  their  feet,  and  throw  stones  with 
them.4  The  jugglers  at  the  court  of  Montezuma  performed 
their  extraordinary  tricks  with  the  feet:  some  of  these  performers 
Cortez  took  to  Spain,  where  such  feats  are  only  performed  with 
the  hands.5  The  Marquesas  islanders,  the  Malays  of  Luzon  and 
Samar,  and  some  inhabitants  of  Sumatra,  also  use  their  feet, 
and  specially  the  first  and  second  toes,  to  raise  light  objects.6 
Such  facts  may  have  induced  Bory7  to  maintain  that  the  oppo- 
sable  thumbs  on  the  lower  extremities  of  the  ape  cannot  be  con- 
sidered as  a  specific  difference  between  it  and  man,  mentioning 
at  the  same  time  that  this  peculiarity  is  possessed  in  the  same, 
or  even  in  a  higher,  degree  by  the  gum-gatherers  of  Marrensin, 
(Dep.  desLandes),  in  consequence  of  much  climbing.  At  any 
rate,  the  resemblance  in  this  respect  of  the  Negro  to  the  ape 
must  be  abandoned.  How  much  the  use  of  the  limbs  is  due  to 
training  is  shown  by  the  Bayaderes  in  the  East  Indies.  Already 
in  the  course  of  the  first  year  the  mother  of  the  future  Baya- 
dere at  Java  bends  the  limbs  of  her  child  cautiously  in  every 
direction.  The  Bayadere  is  able  to  bend  the  last  phalanx  of 
the  fingers  separately,  forwards  and  backwards,  to  make 
the  back  of  the  hand*  as  concave  as  the  palm,  and  even  to 
place  the  whole  hand  back  upon  the  forearm.  Her  toes  possess 
the  same  flexibility  and  capacity  for  grasping  as  the  fingers, 
and  the  vertebral  column  is  flexible  in  every  direction.8 

1  Mitchell,  "  Three  Expeditions,  i,  p.  303,  1838 ;  Howitt,  "  Impressions  of 
Austr.  Felix,"  p.  284,  1845 ;  Hodgson,  «  Eeminisc.  of  Austr,"  p.  245,  1846. 

2  King,  "  Narr.  of  a  survey  of  the  coasts  of  Austr./'  i,  p.  370,  1827. 
s  Gillii,  "  Nachr.  vom  Lande  Guiana,"  p.  252,  1785. 

4  Waldeck,  "  Voy.  dans  la  prov.  d' Yucatan,"  p.  65,  1838. 

5  "  Gomara  in  "  Historiad.  prem.  de  Ind.,"  p.  342,  Madrid,  1852. 

6  Langsdorff,  "  Bemerk.  auf  einer  Eeise  um  die  Welt,"  i,  p.  151,  1812 ; 
Mallat,  "  Les  Philippines,"  ii,  p.  38,  1846 ;  de  Pages,  "  Eeise  um  die  Welt," 
p.  175, 1786;  Marsden,  "Sumatra,"  1788;  Eengger,  "Naturgesch.  derSaugeth 
von  Paraguay,"  ii,  p.  376. 

7  "  L'Homme,"  i,  p.  45,  1827. 

8  Gumprecht,  "Ztschft.  f.  allg.  Erdk.,"  ii,  p.  118,  1854,  nach  dem  Tageb. 
eines  officiers. 


SECT.  II.]  NEGRO  TYPE.  103 

The  disagreeable  odour  of  the  Negro  has  also  been  considered 
as  a  specific  peculiarity.  But  besides  the  great  differences  ex- 
isting in  this  respect  among  the  Negroes  themselves,1  the  native 
American  also  emits  a  peculiar  though  not  so  strong  an  odour 
(Catinca),  as  Blumenbach  has  also  mentioned  with  regard  to 
the  Caribs  and  other  natives.  It  is  transmitted  by  the  Negro 
and  American  to  the  Mulatto  and  Mestizo.2  The  Araucanians 
especially,  who  live  on  animal  food,  have  an  extremely  dis- 
agreeable odour,  which  is  in  Chili  known  by  the  name  of 
"  soreno."3  Hearne,  on  the  other  hand,4  assures  us  that  nothing 
of  the  kind  is  perceived  in  the  North  Indians,  with  proper  clean- 
liness, and  Oviedo  y  Valdes5  says  of  the  Indians  of  Panama, 
that  they  only  smell  disagreeably  like  the  Negro  when  they 
omit  washing  for  a  couple  of  days.  Say6  attributes  the  odour 
of  the  skin  exhalation  of  the  Indians  chiefly  to  the  substances 
which  they  rub  in,  observing  at  the  same  time  that  the  odour 
of  the  white  is  disagreeable  to  them.  If,  as  is  asserted,  the 
natives  of  Luzon  can  distinguish  the  clothes  of  their  masters 
by  their  smell 7,  and  the  Australians  are  equally  able  to  do  so,8 
it  results  that  not  only  has  the  skin  exhalation  of  the  white 
race,  but  that  every  individual  has  a  specific  odour,  which  is  in 
fact  proved  by  the  capacity  of  the  dog  to  trace  his  master.  A 
practised  dealer  in  hair  is  said  to  be  able  to  distinguish  German 
hair  from  French  hair,  and  even  Irish,  Scotch  and  English  hair.9 
Though  it  may  be  incorrect  what  Kretzschmar  asserts10,  that 
whilst  the  Hottentots  emit  an  intolerable  odour,  the  Bushmen 
and  the  Kaffirs  are  free  from  it,  it  still  results  that  the  disagree- 
able odour  of  the  Negro  is  not  to  be  considered  as  a  specific 

1  The  skin  exhalation  of  the  Huallenga  in  Taka,  who  belong  to  the  Bischaris, 
is  equally  disgusting  (Werne,  "  Felzug  von  Sennar  nach  Taka/'  p.  228,  etc., 
1851). 

2  Humboldt,  "  Neuspanien,"  i,  p.  192. 

3  Lesson,  "  Complement  des  ceuv.  de  Buffon,"  ii,  163. 

4  "  E.  von  Prinz  Wallis  fort,  z,  Eismeer,"  p.  257,  1797. 

5  Ternaux,  "Recueil  de  docum.  sur  1'hist.   des  possess,  espagnoles  dans 
I'Am.,"  p.  130,  1840. 

6  In  James,  "  Ace.  of  an  exped.   from  Pittsburgh  to  the  Rocky  Mount., 
Philad.,"  i,  p.  285,  1823. 

7  Mallat,  loc.  cit.,  ii,  p.  38. 

8  "Australia  felix,"  p.  127,  BerL,  1849. 

9  Morgenblatt,  no.  110,  p.  316,  1855. 

10  "  Sudaffr.  Skizzin,"  p.  207,  1853. 


104  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

peculiarity.  A  good  authority,  Rengger,1  states  that  he  has 
many  times  observed,  that  Europeans  acquire  on  their  acclimati- 
zation in  Paraguay  a  stronger,  more  disagreeable  and  negro- 
like  odour,  and  that  in  consequence  of  this  change  in  the 
activity  of  the  skin,  they  are,  like  the  Indians  and  the  Negroes, 
less  molested  by  the  mosquitos.  They  attack,  indeed,  ac- 
cording to  Humboldt  and  Bonpland,  equally  Indians  and 
Europeans,  but  the  consequences  of  the  stings,  and  the  swell- 
ings which  ensue,  as  well  as  the  pain,  are  slighter  in  the  former. 

According  to  Unanue3,  the  sweat  of  the  European  and 
African  is  an  alkaline  reagent,  that  of  the  aboriginal  Indian, 
acid ;  but  this  acid  reaction,  he  adds,  may  be  removed  by  a 
continuous  animal  diet,  just  as  the  alkaline  peculiarity  of  the 
sweat  of  the  Negro  may  be  reduced  by  vegetable  diet.  The 
sweat  of  the  Spanish  Creoles  is  either  alkaline  or  acid,  accord- 
ing to  their  diet. 

It  cannot  be  our  intention  to  deny  by  these  remarks  the 
greater  resemblance  of  the  Negro  to  the  ape  in  comparison 
with  the  European,  but  simply  to  point  out  that  the  resem- 
blance has  been  greatly  exaggerated.  Sometimes,  peculiarities 
which  he  shares  with  the  higher  races  merely  in  a  higher 
degree,  have  been  pointed  out  as  specific  animal  resemblances, 
at  other  times  our  ignorance  of  the  physical  characters  of  the 
other  races  has  been  used  at  the  expense  of  the  Negro,  for  it  is 
as  yet  quite  undecided  whether  among  the  peoples  of  the 
Malay,  American  races,  &c.,  there  may  not  prevail  similar  pro- 
portions in  the  forms  of  the  pelvis,  hands  and  arms.  The  neces- 
sary measurements  to  decide  these  points  are  yet  wanting. 

In  further  considering  the  most  striking  anatomical  dif- 
ferences between  peoples  and  races,  we  would  also  observe 
that  the  Negroes  of  the  South  Sea  (Austral  Negroes,  Negritos, 
Negrillos)  are  distinguished  from  African  Negroes  by  a  more 
striking  negro-physiognomy  (it  has  been  designated  as  an 
exaggerated  or  caricatured  negro-physiognomy),  and  by  a 
shorter  stature.  They  are  on  the  average  about  four  feet  eight 

i  "  ft,  nach  Paraguay,"  p.  244,  1835.  2  Loc,  cit.,  p.  108. 


SECT.  II.]  NEGRO  TYPE.  105 

pr  nine  inches  high,  without  our  being  able  to  assign  want  of 
food  or  misery  as  the  cause  of  it.  They  are,  excepting  the 
Bushmen  (which,  on  the  average,  are  about  four  feet  high) 
(Lichtenstein),  the  shortest  race  on  the  globe.  The  giant  and 
pigmy  races  of  which  old  travellers  speak  have  vanished,  and 
thus  it  will  probably  be  with  the  tailed  men.1  The  appendages 
having,  as  in  Sumatra,  proved  to  be  pieces  of  dress  made  of 
bark  or  skins,  which  were  hanging  down  behind. 

The  Hottentots  and  Bushmen,  though  differing  from  the 
Negroes  (especially  in  the  form  of  the  head  and  physiognomy), 
possess  the  chief  peculiarities  of  the  Negro  type.  Thunberg2 
describes  the  vertebral  column  of  the  Hottentots  as  strongly 
curved  inwards.  The  upper  thighbone  of  the  Bushmen  resem- 
bles more  that  of  the  ape  than  that  of  Europeans.  Cuvier,  in 
his  minute  description  of  a  Bushwoman,  has,  independent  of 
other  peculiarities  belonging  to  the  negro-type,  drawn  attention 
to  the  smallness  of  the  ear,  and  a  deficiency  in  the  posterior 
pdge,  resembling  the  ear  of  the  ape,  and  compares  the  fat 
cushions  upon  the  hips  of  the  Hottentot  women  to  similar  for- 
mations in  some  female  monkeys,  as  in  the  Mandrill  and 
Pavian,  whilst  Desmoulins  combats  this  analogy.  Fatty 
cushions  upon  the  hips  are  also  observed  in  Negresses 
(Pruner)  in  Congo,  Mandara,  among  the  Makuas  and  Kaffirs, 
and  even  among  the  women  of  the  Southern  Tuaryks,  where 
they  have  intermixed  with  the  blacks.3  This  peculiarity  is  also 
met  with  among  the  Nubian  and  also  the  Somali  females.4 
Among  some  Negroes  these  appendages  are  considered  a  par- 
ticular beauty.  The  women  about  Cape  Coast  wear  cushions5 
on  this  part,  which  reminds  us  of  a  recent  European  fashion. 
Finally,  we  may  mention  the  much  talked-of  Hottentot  apron, 


1  Compare  Castelnau,  "  Renseignements  sur  I5  Afr.  centrale,"   1851,   and 
Tremaux  in  "  Bullet,  soc.  geogr.,"  i,  p.  139,  1855. 

2  "  R.  durch  eines  Theil.  v.  Eur.,  Afr.,  und  As./'  ii,  p.  168,  1792. 

3  Omboni,  p.  161 ;  Denham,  Clapperton,  and  Oudney,  "  Narr.  of  trav.  in 
Afr.,"  2nd  ed.,  p.  201,  1826;  Bunbury,  "Journal  of  a  resid.  at  the  Cape," 
p.  159,  1848  ;  Barth,  "  R.  und  Entdeckungen,"  i,  pp.  328,  599. 

4  Burton,  "First  footsteps  in  East  Afr.,"  p.  108,  1856;  Comber,  "  Voy.  en 
Egypte,  en  Nubie,  etc.,"  ii,  p.  215,  1846. 

4  Cunka — Huntley,  "Seven  years  service  on  the  Slave  Coast,"  i,  p.  70, 
1850. 


106  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

which  however  cannot  be  described  as  a  monkey  formation. 
It  consists  of  a  prolongation  of  the  prceputium  clitoridis  and  of 
the  nymplice,  which  has  first  been  described  as  peculiar  to  the 
Bushwomen,  in  a  memoir  by  Peron  andLesueur,  1805.  Obser- 
vations on  this  subject  by  Miiller  may  be  found  in  his  Archiv., 
1834,p.319.  A  similar  excrescence  hasbeen  noticed  by  Sonnini,1 
and  before  him  by  Thevenot  in  Egypt  and  Abyssinia,  where  girls 
are  circumcised.  This  certainly  cannot  be  considered  as  a  proof, 
for  although  the  circumcision  of  girls  prevails  among  many  tribes 
in  Africa,  especially  in  Sennaar  and  the  surrounding  regions2 
in  Congo,  among  some  of  the  Betschuana  tribes,3  it  probably 
refers  only  to  the  clitoris,  which,  according  to  Werne,4  is  com- 
pletely extirpated  in  Bellad- Sudan. 

That  this  operation  should  be  exclusively  confined  to  the 
Mohammedans  in  East  Africa  (as  stated  in  "Nouv.ann.des  voy.," 
1835,  iii,  172),  is  scarcely  probable.  It  is  also  practised  among 
the  Susus  and  Mandingos  in  the  West.5  The  women  of  Pata- 
gonia are  said  to  have  an  uncommonly  large  clitoris  (Foissac), 
but  no  circumcision  is  practised.  Nor  can  we,  from  the  cir- 
cumcision of  the  nymphse  (which  is  common  in  the  countries 
on  the  Nile  from  the  first  cataract),  conclude  that  there  exists  a 
similar  formation  in  these  parts  as  in  the  Hottentot  women. 
Bosmann6  however  relates  of  the  women  of  Wydah,  that  they 
can  be  circumcised  like  the  Hottentot  women;  and  Adams7 
reports  that  in  Dahomey  the  nymphae  are  artificially  elongated. 
Clarke  also8  observes  that  the  women  of  Popo  are  distinguished 
by  uncommonly  large  nymphae  and  a  large  clitoris.  A  similar 
artificially-produced  deformity  among  the  Mandan  women  is 
described  by  Prince  Max.9  Among  the  women  of  the  Bushmen, 


i  "  R.  in  Ober  und  Nieder  &g."  p.  300,  1800. 
*  "  Bellad  Sudan." 

3  Cailliaud,  "  Voy.  &  Meroe,"  ii,  p.  278,  1826;  Donville,  "  Voy.  au  Congo/ 
i,  pp.  66,  108,  Stuttg.,  1832 ;  "  Delegorgue,"  ii,  p.  561. 

4  Feldzug  von  Sennaar,  "Nach  Taka,"  p.  201. 

5  Matthews,  "B.  nach  S.  Leone,"  p.  72,  1784. 

6  Viaggio  in  Guinea,  trad,  dal  Franz.,  Ven.,"  iii,  p.  88,  1752. 

7  "Remarks  on  the  country  east  from   C.  Palmas  to  the  R.  Congo,"  p. 
15,  1823. 

8  "  S.  Leone,"  p.  49,  1846. 

9  "  E.  in  N.  Am.,"  ii,  p.  107. 


SECT.  II.]  PERUVIANS. EGYPTIANS.  107 

a  double  membrane,  as  above  described,  is  sometimes  seen ; 
two  cases  of  this  kind  are  reported  in  Meyer.1 

As  one  of  the  most  important  deviations  from  the  normal 
form  may  be  mentioned  the  os  incce  on  the  occiput  of  the  old 
Peruvians,  discovered  by  Tschudi,  which,  in  form  of  a  rectan- 
gular triangle,  occurs  in  ruminants  and  carnivora.2  It  appears 
however  not  to  be  a  fixed  peculiarity  of  race.3  Zeune4  saw  such 
a  bone  in  the  skull  of  an  adult  Kalmuck  woman  and  on  that  of 
a  Java  woman.  Hence  it  appears  only  to  be  an  individual 
abnormal  formation.  Before  the  times  of  the  Incas  there  existed, 
according  to  Morton,5  in  Peru,  a  half  civilized  people  with  long 
and  narrow  skulls,  with  a  low  receding  forehead  and  a  facial 
angle  of  sixty-seven  degrees,  and  a  capacity  of  only  seventy- 
five  cubic  inches.  Though  the  American  race  is,  independent 
of  artificial  pressure,  distinguished  by  a  low  forehead,6  still  the 
above  description  of  the  form  of  the  skull,  if  it  were  natural,  as 
Morton  originally  considered,  would  be  a  most  remarkable 
abnormity ;  but  Morton  himself  has  given  up  that  notion.7 

It  is  further  noteworthy  that  in  the  old  Egyptian  monuments, 
as  Winckelmann  has  pointed  out,  the  ear  is  situated  rather 
higher  up  than  usual.  Dureau  de  la  Malle  thought  recently 
that  he  could  detect  the  same  peculiarity  in  several  mummies 
and  in  some  Jews.8  Czermak9  found  nothing  of  the  kind  in 
the  mummies  examined  by  him.  Morton's  investigations10  led 
also  only  to  a  negative  result.  He  considers  the  difference  as 
unimportant,  and  that  the  cartilage  merely  may  have  been 
larger  and  reached  higher  up.  Nott  and  Gliddon  consider  it 
as  founded  on  error.  Though  this  deviation  is  as  yet  unde- 
cided, that,  observed  by  Blumenbach,  that  the  incisors  of  the 
mummies  resembled  in  shape  the  molar  teeth,  is  not  considered 

1  "R.  in  Siid-Afr.,"  pp.  116,  164,  1843. 

2  Miiller's  Archiv.,  p.  107,  1844. 

8  Blake  on  "  Peruvian  skulls,"  Ethno.  Trans.,  1862. — ED. 
4  "  Ueber  Schadelbildung,"  p.  15,  1846. 
s  "  Cran.  Am.,"  102. 

6  Humboldt,  "  Neusspanien,"  i,  p.  154,  1809. 

7  "  On  the  Ethnography  and  Archaeology  of  the  Am.  Aborig."  p.  18,  1846 ; 
and  Schoolcraft,  "  Hist,  of  the  Ind.  tribes,"  ii,  p.  325. 

8  "  Revue  Encyclopedique"  and  Lit.  Gazette,  June  23,  1832. 

9  "  Sitzungsbericht  d.  Wiener  Akad.,"  ix,  p.  427,  1852. 

10  "Cran.  .Egypt.,"  p.  26. 


108  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

as  a  peculiarity  of  the  race,  but  the  consequence  of  their 
mode  of  living. 

There  must  yet  be  mentioned  the  natural  foramen  in  the 
humerus,  or  intercondyloid  perforation  which  receives  the 
olecranon,  in  the  extinct  inhabitants  of  the  Canary  Islands 
(the  Gruanches).  It  occurs  also  among  the  Hottentots,  but 
is  not  a  constant  character.1  This  abnormity  is  not  unfre- 
quently  found  in  Grermany.  We  must  not  therefore  put  the  same 
high  value  upon  this  as  Desmoulins,2  who  considers  the  union 
of  the  nasal  bones  of  the  Bushmen  as  a  specific  quality. 

From  the  preceding  synopsis  of  the  greatest  deviations 
which  can  be  found  in  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  various 
races,  it  is  clear  that  we  may  confine  ourselves  to  the  com- 
parison of  the  Negro  with  the  European  in  fixing  the  maximum 
of  the  differences  existing  between  the  races  as  regards  bodily 
structure ;  but  the  case  is  altered  when  we  institute  a  similar 
comparison  from  a  physiological  point  of  view. 

In  reviewing  the  physiological  peculiarities  of  the  various 
human  races  we  must  bear  in  mind  the  known  axiom,  that  all 
beings  belonging  to  the  same  species  present  the  same  arrange- 
ment of  the  animal  economy.  This  harmony  extends  to 
animal  heat,  the  frequency  of  the  pulse,  the  commencement  of 
puberty  and  the  duration  of  sexual  capacity,  the  duration  and 
frequency  of  gestation  and  the  number  of  young,  the  mean 
duration  of  life,  the  periodical  changes  of  the  organism,  bodily 
strength  and  diseases.  On  instituting  a  comparison  between 
the  white  and  the  other  races  with  regard  to  physiological 
functions  and  qualities,  it  will  be  easily  shown  that  there  is  no 
question  here  of  permanently  specific,  but  merely  of  acquired, 
differences,  which  are  explicable  by  external  or  internal  con- 
ditions, arising  from  civilization,  more  or  less  refined  modes  of 
life,  exercise,  intelligence,  and  the  nature  of  surrounding 
media.  The  greatest  energy  of  physical  life  is  generally 
found,  as  indeed  may  be  expected,  among  peoples  in  a  primitive 
state  ;  but  the  longer  duration  of  life,  a  more  extended  power 

1  T.  Miiller,   "Archiv.,"  p.  336,   1834;  De  Salles,    "Hist.  gen.  des  races 
hum.,"  p.  204,  1849 ;  Hollard,  "  De  1'U.omme  et  des  races  hum./'  p.  251,  1853. 

2  Pp.  297,  303. 


SECT.  II.]  ANIMAL   HEAT.  109 

of  acclimatization,  a  lesser  destruction  of  life  by  diseases,  and 
greater  muscular  strength,  is  found  among  civilized  nations, 
owing  to  their  protecting  themselves  from  injurious  influences 
of  all  kinds,  in  combination  with  superior  nutrition  and  regular 
exercise. 

The  mean  animal  heat  and  the  frequency  of  respiration  do 
not  materially  differ  under  the  tropics  and  the  polar  regions. 
Some  indeed  have  maintained  that  the  first  is  in  the  torrid 
zone  less  by  2 — 3° ;  others  (Davy)  that  in  Ceylon  it  is  higher 
by  2° ;  this  however  has  not  been  confirmed.  Grmelin,  Ross, 
and  Parry  found  under  74°  N.  lat.  no  difference  in  this  re- 
spect.1 That  Livingstone2  found  the  thermometer  under  his 
own  tongue  rise  to  100°,  and  among  the  natives  only  98°, 
affords  no  certain  proof  of  a  constant  difference  between  the 
blood  heat  of  the  Negro  and  the  European.  The  difference 
may  have  been  the  sequel  of  his  fever  or  the  effect  of  other 
circumstances.  Nor  has  the  pretended  quicker  pulse  of  the 
Southerns  been  confirmed.  Among  some  North  American 
tribes  the  pulse  is  only  64,  which  is  perhaps  connected  with 
the  rarity  of  fevers  among  them.3  Prichard4  refers  this  cir- 
cumstance to  a  deficient  energy  of  the  animal  functions,  since 
also  the  menstruation  of  the  women  among  many  Indian 
peoples  is  said  to  be  but  scanty,5  and  puberty  of  the  girls 
occurs  later,  from  the  eighteenth  to  the  twentieth  year,  the 
capacity  to  produce  children  ceasing  with  the  fortieth  year. 
These  phenomena  are  however  far  from  common  among  the 
American  race,  for  the  period  of  puberty  among  girls  com- 
mences in  the  fourteenth  year  among  the  Potowatomis,  in  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  among  the  Sioux.6  Among  the  Dela- 
wares  and  Iroquois  the  girls  marry  at  fourteen,7  and  in  the 
torrid  zone,  marriages  are  earlier  effected  among  the  natives  of 


1  Foissac,  p.  15. 

2  Loc.  cit.,  p.  166. 

8  Say  in  James,  loc.  cit.,  p.  260. 

4  Chap,  i,  p.  133. 

5  Lahontan,  "  Nouv.  voy.  dans  1'Am.  sept.,"  ii,  p.  154,  La  Haye,  1703 ;  and 
Rengger,  "Natgesch.  der  Saugeth  v.  Paraguay,"  p.  11. 

6  Keating,  "Narr.  of  an  exped.  to  the  source  of  St.  Peter's  E.,"i,  p.  434,  1825. 

7  Loskiel,  "  Gesch.  d.  Miss,  unter  den  Ind./'  p.  72. 


110  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

America  than  elsewhere,  namely  from  ten  to  thirteen  years.1 
In  ancient  Mexico,  however,  the  girls  used  to  marry  when  sixteen 
to  eighteen  years  old,  and  the  men  from  twenty  to  twenty-two,2 
the  law  of  the  old  Inca  empire  prescribing  for  the  former  the  age 
of  eighteen  to  twenty,  and  for  the  latter  from  the  twenty-fourth 
year.3  If,  despite  the  cold  climate,  the  puberty  of  the  girls 
commences  among  the  Mongols,  Kalmucks,  Samoieds,  Lapps, 
Kamtschatkals,  Jakutes,  Ostiaks,  etc.,  about  the  twelfth  or 
thirteenth  year, — (it  may  be  of  interest  to  ascertain  how  this  is 
among  the  Magyars,) — the  animal  diet  of  these  peoples  and 
the  heat  of  their  huts  may  perhaps  contribute  to  it,  as  in 
those  of  the  Esquimaux  it  is  said  to  rise  to  28  degrees, 
whilst  in  the  open  air  it  sinks  to  — 28  degrees.4  Puberty 
occurs  rather  late  in  the  Fiji  Islands,  namely,  in  girls  about  the 
fourteenth,  and  in  boys  about  the  seventeenth  or  eighteenth 
year.5  Uncommonly  early,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  tempe- 
rate region  of  New  Zealand,  where  the  girls  frequently  marry 
when  eleven  years  old.6  Among  the  aboriginal  Americans  the 
period  of  puberty  seems,  as  among  other  races,  essentially  to 
depend  on  climate  and  mode  of  life.  This  circumstance  has 
however,  among  others,  been  used  to  support  the  assertion 
that  they  are  a  weakly  race,  deficient  in  vital  power,  and  that 
they  would  have  become  extinct  even  if  the  white  immigrants 
had  not  contributed  to  their  destruction.7  This  renders  neces- 
sary a  closer  investigation  of  an  assertion  assuming  such  an 
essential  difference  of  organization  between  the  American  and 
other  races ;  but  in  order  not  to  interrupt  our  investigation  too 
much  by  details,  we  shall  treat  of  it  in  an  appendix  to  this 
section. 

It  has  been  statistically  proved  that  in  Europe  the  propor- 
tion of  male  to  female  births  is  =106  : 100,  and  there  seems  in 
all  climates  to  prevail  a  similar  preponderance  of  boys  over 


1  D'Orbigny,  Strangewa/s  "  Sketch  of  the  Mosquito  Shore/',  Edin.,  1822. 

2  Clavigero,  "  Hist,  of  Mex.  translated  by  Cullen,"  vi,  p.  38,  1787. 

3  Gurcilasso,  "  Hist,  des  Yncas,"  iv,  c.  8,  Amst.,  1737. 

4  Parry  "  Second  voy.,"  p.  502. 
s  Wilkes,  iii,  p.  93. 

6  W.  Brown,  "  New  Zealand  and  its  aborigines,"  p.  38, 1845. 
'  De  Pauw,  "  Rech.  sur  les  Americains,"  Martins  and  others. 


SECT.  II.]  BIETHS.  Ill 

girls,  excepting  under  particular  circumstances.  Hofacker1 
ascribes  it  to  the  preponderating  influence  of  the  male,  who  in 
Europe  is,  on  the  average,  five  to  six  years  older  than  the 
female.  It  is  also  said  that  the  number  of  male  births  increases 
with  the  advancing  ages  of  both  parents.  A  regular  prepon- 
derance of  female  births,  which  Quetelet2  quotes  of  the  white 
population  in  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  is  rare.  Nothing  of  the 
kind  exists  among  the  same  stock  in  Europe,  a  fact  which 
proves  that  such  proportions  are  not  fixed  peculiarities,  but 
depend  on  particular  local  influences. 

Among  the  Indians  in  Central  America  male  and  female 
births  nearly  balance  each  other,  but  among  the  Whites  and 
Mulattoes  of  these  parts,  among  the  Ladinos,  the  former  are 
exceeded  by  the  latter  in  the  proportion  of  2:3,  or  at  least 
of  4  :  5.3  In  Yucatan  the  proportion  of  women  to  men  is, 
according  to  some  authors,  =2  : 1  ;4  in  Cochabamba,  in  South 
America,  the  number  of  women  to  that  of  men  is  said  to 
reach  the  incredible  proportion  of  5  : 1 .5  In  Granada,  the 
capital  of  Nicaragua,  even  the  casual  observer  is  struck  with 
the  numerical  preponderance  of  the  females  over  the  males.6 
The  same  proportion,  though  in  a  lesser  degree,  is  found  in 
Goyaz,  a  city  in  Brazil,7  and  is  said  to  prevail  throughout 
Venezuela,  and  particularly  in  Cumena,  where,  it  is  asserted, 
there  are  seven  females  to  one  male.8  The  preponderance  of 
the  female  population  of  Buenos  Ayres,  as  asserted  by  some 
authors,  is,  according  to  Caldcleugh,9  unfounded.  Elsewhere 
it  is  asserted,  that  in  Buenos  Ayres  the  male  births  outnumber 
the  female  births  by  twenty-three  per  cent.,  which  seems 
equally  erroneous.  Immigration  only  appears  to  cause  in  that 


1  "  Ueber  die  Eigensch.  welch,  s.  b.  Menschen  und  Thieren  vererben." 

2  "  Ueber  den  Menschen,"  German  by  Eieke,  1838 ;  "  Journal  Asiat.,"  Jul., 
1826 ;  and  Sadler,  "  The  law  of  population/'  ii,  371. 

3  Galindo,  "  Journal  E.  Geogr.  Soc.,"  vi.,  p.  126. 

*  Stephens,  "  Begebenh.  auf.  e.  E.  en  Yucatan,"  p.  171,  1853. 

5  "  Bullet,  soc.  geogr.,"  i,  209,  1855. 

6  Eeichardt,  "  Nicarag.,"  p.  88,  1854. 

7  Castelnau,  "  Exped.  dans  1' Am.  du  Sud,"  i,  328,  1850. 

8  Otto,  "  Eeiserrinnerungen  in  Cuba,"  p.  237,  1843. 

9  "  Travels  in  S.  Am./'  London,  i,  p.  184,  1825. 


112  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

region  a  preponderance  of  males.1  According  to  Castelnau,2 
the  males  preponderate  among  the  Whites,  the  reverse  being 
the  case  among  the  Indians,  Mulattoes  and  Creole  Negroes. 
With  regard  to  Mexico,  Franz  Mayer3  states,  from  recent 
official  sources,  that  more  girls  than  boys  are  born  in  Vera 
Cruz,  Oajaca,  Puebla,  Mechoacan,  Guanajuato,  Jalisco,  the  pre- 
ponderance diminishing  gradually  in  the  order  cited.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  more  boys  than  girls  born  in  Upper  Cali- 
fornia, New  Mexico,  Sonora,  Chihuahua,  Cohahuila,  New  Leon. 
Hence  he  lays  it  down  as  a  general  proposition,  that  away  from 
the  equator  the  preponderance  of  girls  gradually  declines,  and 
altogether  ceases  further  North,  when  there  is  a  turn  in  the 
contrary  direction.  Tamaulipas  specially  exhibits  a  constant 
preponderance  of  male  births.  In  Africa,  on  the  Gold  Coast, 
the  females  preponderate  only  on  the  coasts,  not  in  the  in- 
terior.4 There  are  also  numerous  instances  to  the  contrary. 

The  excess  of  males  over  females  occurs  more  frequently  than 
the  reverse.  Among  the  Jews  in  Berlin  the  proportion  of 
female  to  male  births  is  =  100  :  208 ;  among  the  Jews  in 
Livorno  =100  :  120;  and  in  the  Prussian  dominions  generally 
=100  :  111.5  A  similar  striking  excess  of  male  births,  =4  :  3, 
occurs  in  New  Russia,  in  the  governments,  Jekaterinoslanw, 
Cherson,  Bessarabia,  and  Tabriz.6  In  Galega,  north-east  of 
Madagascar,  the  French  Government  has  authorized  polyandry 
among  the  Negroes,  the  number  of  male  births  being  too 
large.7  In  Tahiti  there  is  equally  a  preponderance  of  males.8 
In  Upper  California  a  much  less  number  of  girls  is  born  than 
boys,  or  the  mortality  must  be  greater  among  the  former  than 
amongst  the  latter.  This  preponderating  number  of  males  has 
for  its  consequence  the  decrease  of  the  population,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Mission  San  Luis-Eey.9  The  same  cause  has 

1  "  Zeitsch.  f.  allg.  erdk.  n.  folge,"  iv,  p.  143. 

2  Loc.  cit.,  i,  138. 

3  "  Mexico,"  ii,  p.  46,  Hartford,  1853. 

4  Wilson,  "  Western  Afr."  p.  181,  Lond.,  1856. 

5  Burdach,  "  Physiol.,"  i,  p.  532 ;  Hoffman  in  Quetelet,  p.  56. 

6  Fechner's  "  Centralbl.,"  p.  368,  1853. 

7  Laplace,  "  Voy.  aut.  du  monde,"  ii,  119,  1833. 

8  "  Journal  K.  Geogr.  Soc.,"  iii,  p.  174. 

9  Coulter,  in  "Journal  E.  Geogr.  Soc.,"  v,  p.  67. 


SECT.  II.]  CONGENITAL   DEFORMITIES.  113 

partly  effected  the  depopulation  of  Australia,  though  it  cannot 
be  considered  as  the  only  one,  and  can  hardly  be  looked  upon 
as  a  sign  of  deficient  vitality  in  the  organization  of  the  natives. 
The  number  of  females  still  decreases  in  Australia.1  In  the 
known  districts  of  Australia  the  proportion  of  males  to  females 
among  the  natives  is  =3  :  2 ;  that  of  adults  to  children,  only 
=5  :  2.  The  mortality  among  the  children  is  enormous,  the 
greater  proportion  of  them  do  not  outlive  the  first  month.2 
Sturt,  however,3  observes,  that  among  the  smaller  tribes  in  the 
interior,  there  is  an  excess  of  women  in  the  proportion  of  2:1, 
or  even  greater.  This  has  also  been  asserted  by  others.4 

Congenital  deformities  are  rarer  among  most  savage  peoples 
than  among  civilized  nations;  and  it  is  now  generally  ac- 
knowledged that  the  views  of  Ulloa,  Robertson,  and  others, 
who  would  explain  this  fact  by  infanticide,  are  erroneous. 
At  the  time  of  the  conquest  there  were  already  in  Peru,  in 
regions  subject  to  sudden  alterations  of  temperature,  many 
cripples  and  blind.5  In  the  environs  of  Leon  there  were  ob- 
served many  one-eyed  individuals — ostensibly  in  consequence 
of  the  great  dust.  Such  persons  were  rarely  met  with  in 
Nicaragua.6  Captain  Landolphe7  saw,  during  his  lengthened 
travels  on  the  African  coasts  and  in  America,  only  one  de- 
brmed  Negro.  Brehm  also  has  confirmed  the  rarity  of  deform- 
ties  among  Negroes  in  East  Sudan ;  but  singularly  enough, 
le  considered  it  as  a  resemblance  to  brutes,  since  more  refined 
and  intellectual  labours  are  the  source  of  many  diseases.  Ellis8 
observes  of  Tahiti,  that  deformities  had  been  rare  in  former 
:imes,  but  are  more  frequent  now;  there  are  specially  many 
aunchbacks  in  the  Society  Islands.9  Pickering10  speaks  of 


1  Eyre,  "  Journals  of  exped.  into  Central  Austr.,"  ii,  p.  417,  1845. 

2  Fechner's  Central  blatt.,  pp.  29,  208,  1853 ;  Westgarth,  in  "  Journal  of 
:he  Ind.  Archipelago,"  Dec.  1851. 

3  "  Narr.  of  an  exped.  into  Central  Aust.,"  ii,  pp.  77, 136,  1849. 

4  D'Urville,  "  Voy.  de  1' Astrolabe,"  i,  p.  495,  1830. 

5  Gemara,  p.  276. 

6  Oviedo,  "  Hist.  gen.  y  nat.  de  Ind.,"  xlii,  c.  4. 

7  "  Mem.  cont.  Fhist.  de  ses  voy.  p.  Quesne,"  i,  p.  137,  1823. 

8  "  Polynes.  Kesearches,"  i,  p.  80,  1832. 

9  "  Lesson  Compl.  des  CEuvr.  de  Buffon,"  ii,  p.  214. 
10  "  The  races  of  man,"  1849. 


114  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

many  innate  deformities  in  Polynesia.  New  Zealand,  however, 
seems  to  form  an  exception.1  In  North  America,  also  more 
rarely  in  Brazil,  cripples  were  in  modern  times  found  in  greater 
numbers.2  The  natives  there  are  said  to  be  now  more  subject 
to  diseases  than  formerly.3  It  seems,  therefore,  that  the 
sanitary  condition  of  savage  nations  has  deteriorated  by  their 
intercourse  with  civilized  nations,  partly  in  consequence  of  new 
diseases,  and  partly  from  changes  in  dress  and  mode  of  life 
which  they  gradually  adopted,  especially  where  missionaries 
effected  such  a  transformation  of  their  habits. 

The  signs  of  age  generally,  though  not  always,  present  them- 
selves later  among  savage  than  among  the  civilized  nations. 
As  deficient  protection  against  the  influence  of  climate  and  hard 
work  depress  the  body,  we  cannot  wonder  that,  for  instance, 
the  North- American  Indians  look  old  at  40,  and  their  women, 
who  perform  most  of  the  labour,  present  the  look  of  old  age 
even  at  an  earlier  period.4  Similar  instances  are  found  among 
all  races. 

But  it  says  much  for  their  vital  energy,  that  grey  hair  and  bald- 
ness, though  they  occur,  appear  but  rarely,  and  only  in  old 
age.5  The  teeth  also  remain  sound  until  old  age ;  they  become 
worn,  but  rarely  carious.  Thus  it  is  among  the  aboriginal 
Americans,  among  the  New  Zealanders,  and  other  Polynesians6 
and  among  the  Bushmen.7  Teething  does  not  seem  to  torment 
the  children.  Marco  Polo  wondered  at  the  enduring  power 
possessed  by  the  Tartars  in  sustaining  bodily  labour.  Similar 
descriptions  have  been  given  of  the  aboriginal  North  Americans, 
who  in  their  hunting  and  war  expeditions  support  hunger, 
thirst,  heat,  cold,  and  wet,  and  the  most  fatiguing  marches, 
with  unexampled  endurance.  To  this  must  be  added  continuous 
fasting,  and,  among  some  peoples,  self-inflicted  pain  from  reli- 


1  Polack,  "  New  Zealand/'  ii,  273, 1838. 

2  "  Prince  Max.  E.  in  N.  Am./'  i,  461 ;  James,  ii,  p.  112. 

3  Hekewelder,  "Nachr.  v.  d. Gesch.  d.  Sitten  der  ind.  Volkersch.,"  p. 388, 1821. 

4  West,  "  Substance  of  a  journal  of  a  resid.  at  the  Red  R.  Col.,"  p.  112, 1824. 

5  Keating,  i,  p.  156;  D'Orbigny,  i,  p.  128;  Gilii,  247;  Tschudi,  ii,  p.  361. 

6  D'UrviUe,  loc.  cit. 

7  Burchell,  ii,  p.  221. 


SECT.  II.]  BODILY    STRENGTH.  115 

gious  scruples,  during  which  it  is  a  point  of  honour  not  to 
exhibit  the  least  sign  of  pain.  The  women  who,  in  order  not 
to  give  birth  to  cowards,  sustain  the  labours  of  parturition  with 
the  .same  firmness,  retiring  to  the  forests  when  their  time 
approaches,  bathe  in  the  river  immediately  after  their  delivery, 
and  return  to  their  labour  with  the  new-born  children  on  their 
backs.  Thus  it  is  among  the  Sioux,  whilst  the  wives  of  the 
Potowatomis  protect  themselves  from  cold  during  ten  days 
after  delivery;1  but  this,  as  well  as  difficult  parturition  generally, 
is  to  be  considered  as  an  exception. 

This  capacity  for  great  physical  efforts  which  we  find  in  such 
a  high  degree  among  the  North  Americans,  is  usually  combined 
with  great  digestive  powers,  which,  owing  to  continued  fasting 
and  frequent  over-feeding,  acquires  among  savage  peoples  an 
unexampled  energy.  That  this  is  merely  the  result  of  habit  and 
not  a  peculiarity  of  race,  is  proved  by  similar  performances 
among  the  ancient  Greek  athletes  and  many  Arabs.  The 
camel  drivers  who  perform  the  journey  from  Cairo  to  Suez, 
which  lasts  above  thirty  hours,  remain  without  food  during 
all  that  time,  and  many  an  Arab  boasts  of  being  able  to  con- 
sume a  whole  sheep  at  one  meal.2  The  Bedouin  Arabs  during 
their  journeys  through  the  desert,  take  only  daily  two  draughts 
of  water  and  two  morsels  of  baked  flour  and  milk.  Six 
Bedouins  are  said  to  consume  no  more  than  one  European;  but 
when  they  find  plenty  of  provisions  they  become  voracious.3 
We  quote  a  few  examples  :  Eyre's  attendant,  a  native  Austra- 
lian named  Wylie,  consumed  in  one  night  6J  pounds  of  boiled 
meat  (not  including  the  bones),  and  could  on  the  average 
consume  nine  pounds  daily.4  Simpson5  gives  a  still  more 
remarkable  instance  of  two  Jakutes.  A  Guarani  consumes  a 
small  calf  in  a  few  hours.6  Ross7  speaks  frequently  of  the 
scarcely  credible  gluttony  of  the  Esquimaux.  Every  Green- 


1  Keating,  i,  p.  130. 

2  D'Escayrac,  p.  128 ;  Bayard  Taylor,  "  E.  N.  Centr.  Africa,"  p.  369,  1855. 

3  Bitter,  Erdk.,  xiii,  pp.  315,  525. 

4  Eyre,  ii,  34. 

5  "  Narr.  of  a  Journey  round  the  world,"  ii,  309,  1847. 

6  Dobrizhoffer,  "  Abiponer,"  i,  p.  281. 

7  "Narr.  of  second  voy.,"  p.  447,  etc.,  Lond.,  1835. 

i2 


116  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I 


d 
Is 


lander  consumes  on  the  average,  besides  eggs,  mussels,  an 
vegetables,  annually  about  645  pounds  of  fish  and  784  pound 
of  meat  and  lard.  Strong  young  men  consume  daily,  during 
several  months,  from  10  to  12  pounds  of  meat,  and  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  biscuits.1  An  Arowake,  on  the  other  hand, 
lives  in  the  field  for  three  weeks,  or  even  a  month,  on  1 0  pounds 
of  Kassava  bread.2  Lichtenstein  speaks  of  the  enormous 
voracity  and  power  of  abstinence  of  the  Bushmen.  One  of 
them  is  said  to  have  lived  for  a  fortnight  on  water  and  salt.3 
Like  the  Kaffirs,  they  are  said  to  grow  fat  again  in  a  few  days. 
When  a  famine  threatens,  it  is  usual  among  the  Kaffirs  not  to 
eat  every  day.4  Richardson5  relates  extraordinary  cases  of  the 
capacity  of  the  Tibbos  to  sustain  hunger  for  a  great  length  of 
time,  and  then  to  satisfy  their  appetite  with  food  scarcely  fit  to 
eat.  Here  may  also  be  mentioned  the  large  consumption  of  a 
fatty  clay  by  the  Otomaks  on  the  Orinoco.6  Among  other 
peoples  the  consumption  of  large  quantities  of  putrid  fish  seems 
to  be  attended  with  no  injury.  Among  the  Takhalis,  or 
Carriers,  in  North- West  America,  such  substances  form  favourite 
dishes,  which  are  kept  until  they  acquire  the  desired  degree  of 
putridity.  The  Koujages,  of  Kadjak,  cook  their  berries  with 
bear  excrements,  and  relish  this  as  a  condiment,  even  when 
they  have  a  sufficiency  of  other  food.  They  bury  boiled 
pieces  of  whale  in  the  earth  until  it  becomes  putrid,  when  it  is 
considered  a  dainty  dish.7  Such  a  corruption  of  taste  would 
lead  us  to  suppose  a  continuous  derangement  of  the  digestive 
faculty,  yet  we  do  not  hear  that  the  health  of  these  peoples 
suffers  from  it. 

With  regard  to  muscular  power,  Peron  was  the  first  who 
performed  experiments  with  the  dynamometer  and  in  wrestling. 
It  resulted  therefrom  that  the  natives  of  Van  Diemen's  Land  were 
inferior  in  this  respect  to  the  Australians,  and  these  again  to 


1  Etzel,  "  Greenland,"  p.  374,  Stuttg.,  1860. 

2  Hilhouse,  "  Journal  E.  G.  S.,"  ii,  p.  232. 
Thompson,  "  Trav.  in  S.  Afr.,"  i,  p.  99,  2nd  edit.,  1827. 
Delegorgue,  i,  p.  134. 

"  Narr.  of  a  mission  to  central  Afr.,"  ii,  p.  45,  1853. 

Heusinger,  "  Geophagy." 

Holmberg,  "  Ethnogr.  skizzen  fiber  die  Volker  des.  Buss."  p.  89,  1855. 


SECT.  II.]  BODILY    STRENGTH.  117 

the  Timorese,  but  all  of  them  were  considerably  weaker  than 
the  Europeans.1  He  points  out,  that  though  the  Timorese  are 
amply  provided  with  food,  they  lead  in  a  hot  climate  an  inactive 
life,  and  become  weak  from  want  of  bodily  exercise,  whilst  the 
weakness  of  the  first-named  nations  arises  from  want  of  proper 
nourishment  and  a  frequent  change  from  extreme  physical 
efforts  to  an  apathetic  repose.  Freycinet2  has  continued  the 
experiments  with  the  dynamometer,  and  has  arrived  at  the 
following  results : — 

Kilogrammes. 

White  Creoles  from  lie  de  France  lift  on  the  average  .  64'4 

Frenchmen  in  the  same  locality    ....  6O3 

Sandwich  Islanders          .....  66'2  and  58-3 

Mozambique  Negroes       .  .  .  .  .  57' 1 

Malgasches        .  .  .  .  .  .  56'9 

Natives  of  the  Carolines .....  54'2 

New  Zealanders,  twenty  to  twenty-five  years  old       .  .  51*4 

Timorese  and  Papuas       .....  40*0 

Australians       ......  45-6 

The  results  communicated  by  Buckton3  differ  from  the 
above  : — 

Mean  Strength  of  the  Arms.  Mean  Strength  of  the  Hips 

12  Tasmanians         .            ,            50'6  kilogr  .  .              —  myriagr. 

17  Australians         .            .            50'8      „  .  .            10*2       „ 

56  Timorese              .            .            58'7      „  .  .            11-6       „ 

17  Frenchmen         .            .            69-2      „  .  .            15-2 

14  Englishmen        .            .            71'4      „  .  .            16'3 

With  regard  to  the  New  Zealanders,  it  is  stated4  that 
they  can,  on  the  average,  lift  367  pounds  avoirdupois. 
Foissac5  has  justly  recommended  caution  in  coming  to 
any  conclusion  from  such  experiments,  as  they  can  only  be 
decisive  when  performed  on  individuals  of  the  same  nature  and 
the  same  practice  in  physical  efforts.  This  is  proved  by  the 
fact,  that  the  American  Hercules,  Cantfield,  exhibited  with  the 


1  Peron,  "  Voy.  de  decouv.  aux  terres  Australes,"  ii,  p.  417,  2nd  edit.,  1824. 

2  "  Voy.  autour  du  m.,"  ii,  p.  714,  1827. 

3  "  Western  Australia,"  p.  91,  1840. 

4  "  Journal  E.  Geogr.  Soc.,"  xiii,  p.  92. 

5  Page  41. 


118  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

dynamometer  no  more  physical  strength  than  an  Ojibbeway 
chief.1  We  should  also  require,  observes  Hamilton  Smith/  ex- 
periments to  be  performed  in  running,  spear-throwing,  etc.,  to 
form  a  judgment  on  the  proportion  of  bodily  strength  in 
different  nations. 

We  should  also  examine  the  power  of  endurance,  as  well  as 
the  amount  of  individual  momentary  performances.  The  ma- 
terials at  hand  are  not  sufficient  to  come  to  any  conclusion  in 
this  respect ;  still  it  is  not  without  interest  to  state  some  of  the 
more  important  results  obtained. 

Per  on3  found  that  the  natives  of  Van  Diemen's  Land  excelled 
the  Europeans  in  running.  This  frequently  occurs  among 
savages,  since  their  safety  and  subsistence  in  war  and  the  chase 
often  depends  on  their  fleetness.  The  American  deer  in  the 
open  prairie  is  sometimes  caught  by  the  Indians,  which  how- 
ever is  rarely  the  case  with  the  Moose  deer  and  the  Bison.4 
Similar  fleetness  is  ascribed  to  the  Lapps  and  Tunguses.  T.  E. 
Alexander5  speaks  of  two  Namaquas,  father  and  son,  who, 
armed  merely  with  a  knife,  gave  chase  to  zebras,  and  outran 
them.  And  Moffat6  asserts  that  among  the  Barolongs  there 
are  some  who  on  foot  can  keep  up  with  the  giraffe.  Hottentot 
Kaffirs  and  Bechuanas  are  less  muscular  than  the  English  and 
the  Dutch  colonists  at  the  Cape,  but  possess  greater  endurance.7 
The  short  thin  Hottentot  excels,  according  to  Alberti,8  the 
Kaffirs  in  lifting  weights,  and  even  a  White  colonist  at  the 
Cape,  celebrated  for  his  strength,  was  not  equal  to  the  Kaffirs 
in  running  and  throwing  spears,  manifestly  the  consequence 
of  more  or  less  practice,  and  independent  of  peculiarity  of  race. 

Peron  has  collected  many  instances  to  prove  the  physical 
weakness  of  the  native  Americans.  On  closely  examining  them 
it  will  be  found  that  they  chiefly  rest  upon  the  rapid  decay  of 


1  Quetelet,  loc.  cit.,  p.  155. 

2  "  Natural  hist,  of  the  human  species,"  p.  165,  Edinburgh,  1848. 

3  Loc.  cit.,  ii,  p.  85. 

4  J.  Tanner,  "  Memoires  trad.  p.  Blosseville/'  i,  p.  201,  1835. 

5  "  Exped.  of  discov.  into  the  Interior  of  Air.,"  ii,  p.  261,  1838. 

6  "  Miss,  labours  in  S.  Afr.,"  p.  260,  1842. 

7  Hoodie,  "  Ten  years  in  S.  Afr.,"  i,  p.  43,  1835 ;  Burchell,  ii,  p.  439. 

8  "Descr.  des  Caffres,"  Amst.,  1811. 


SECT.  II.]  BODILY   STRENGTH.  119 

the  Indian  population.  Under  the  oppression  of  the  con- 
querors, the  native  population  rapidly  perished,  chiefly  in 
South  America,  where  they  were  forced  to  work  in  mines.  It 
became  then  necessary  to  import  Negroes,  who  could  endure 
the  labour,  and  hence  it  was  concluded  that  the  American 
Indian  is,  compared  with  the  Negro,  a  weakling.  Just  the  con- 
tntry  is  asserted  by  Frezier1  and  Helms,2  that  only  the  Indians, 
not  the  Negroes,  can  support  the  heavy  labour  in  the  mines. 
Both  are  correct  under  proper  limitation.  Negroes  cannot  stand 
heavy  work  in  mountainous  regions ;  their  skin  becomes  dis- 
coloured, the  complexion  assumes  an  ash-grey  tint,  they  sicken 
and  die.3  Wilson,4  by  no  means  an  unprejudiced  writer,  asserts 
that  the  sugar  planters  in  the  hot  regions  of  the  interior  of  Mexico 
had  found  it  impossible  to  have  their  plantations  cultivated  by 
Negroes  or  Zamboes,  as  neither  of  these  races  were  viable  in 
these  parts.  The  power  of  endurance  of  the  Negro  under  a 
tropical  sun,  without  injury  to  his  prolificacy,  is  a  known  fact ; 
but  it  has  not  been  taken  into  consideration  that  the  Negro 
'  easily  becomes  reconciled  to  a  state  of  slavery,  for  which  the 
Indian  seems  unfit;  depressed  by  it,  the  latter  sinks  into  a 
state  of  melancholy,  and  thus  perishes  rather  from  psychical 
than  physical  causes.  This  opinion  has  been  confirmed  by 
Von  Sack.5  A  number  of  facts  proves  that y  the  Indian  is  not 
deficient  in  physical  power  for  heavy  labour.  The  South 
American  tribes,  especially,  exhibit  all  the  characters  of  physical 
strength;  some  of  them  are  of  athletic  structure  (D^Orbigny). 
Even  the  natives  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  have  proved  to  be 
so  physically  strong,  that  one  of  them  is  sometimes  a  match 
for  two  English  sailors.6  The  Hapiris  working  in  the  mines  of 
Chili,  who,  according  to  some,  are  not  Indians  of  pure  descent, 
but  are  considered  as  such  by  Tschudi,7  possess  extraordinary 


1  "  Neueste  E.  nach  der  Sudzee,"  p.  353,  1718. 

2  "  Trav.  from  B.  Ayres  to  Lima,"  pp.  16,  37,  2nd  edit.,  1807. 
:l  Skinner,  "  Voy.  au  Perou,"  Paris,  1809. 

4  "  Mexico,"  p.  311,  N.  York,  1855. 

•"'  "  Beschr.  einer  E.  nach  Surinam,"  i,  p.  87,  1821. 

G  King  and  ITitzroy,  "  Narr.  of  the  Survey,  voy.  of  the  Adv.  and  Beagle," 

p.  415,  1839. 

7  Chap,  ii,  p.  117. 


120  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

physical  strength.  Their  usual  burden  (stated  by  Tschudi  to 
amount  only  to  50-75  pounds),  which  they  bring  up  twelve  times 
daily  from  a  depth  of  450  feet,  exceeds  in  weight  200  pounds.1 
The  Indian  porters  in  Peru  carry  on  their  straps,  chests  weigh- 
ing above  100  pounds.2  The  journey  from  Pasco  to  Lima, 
fifty  leagues,  is  performed  by  the  Indian  on  foot  within  three 
days.3  Tschudi  relates  similar  feats  of  the  march  of  Indian 
troops  in  war.  ' { Wherever  the  experiment  has  been  made,  it 
has  been  shown  that  the  Indian  is  capable  of  sustaining  a 
higher  degree  of  physical  effort  than  the  strongest  European."4 
The  Indians  of  Quito  can,  during  the  greater  part  of  the  day, 
carry  a  vessel  upon  the  back  containing  twelve  to  sixteen 
gallons  of  water.5  The  Indians  of  Caracas  carry  on  their  jour- 
neys, burdens  of  about  200  pounds.6  Captain  Head7  says, 
"In  the  mines  of  South  America  I  saw  Indians  work  with  tools 
which  were  too  heavy  for  our  miners,  and  carry  burdens  which 
no  Englishman  could  have  carried.  I  appeal  to  such  travellers 
who  have  been  carried  by  them  across  the  snow,  and  ask  them 
whether  they  could  have  performed  the  same  service  to  the 
Indians,  and  if  not,  it  seems  certainly  strange  that  a  civilized 
man  should  despise  the  physical  power  of  a  fellow  man  upon 
whose  shoulders  he  rides  "  On  proceeding  northwards  we 
hear  that  the  Indians  in  Central  America  perform  five  to  six 
leagues  with  a  burden  of  six  arrobes,8  and  that  the  Indians 
of  Mexico  bring  up  from  the  mines  from  13  to  16  J  arrobes 
upon  their  shoulders.9  It  must  however  be  noticed  that  the 
miners  in  Zacatecas  are  not  pure  Indians  but  Mestizoes,  who 


1  Darwin,  "  Naturalists  voyage/'  ii,  p.  113,  1844;  Andrews,  "Journey  from 
B.  Ayres  to  the  prov.  of  Cordova,"  etc.,  i,  p.  xxi,  1827. 

2  Poppig,  "  Reise,"  ii,  p.  313 ;  Weddel,  "  Voy.  dans  le  Nord  de  Bolivie," 
p.  305,  1853. 

3  Proctor,  "  Narr.  of  a  Journey  across  the  Cordillera,  p.  314,  1825. 

4  W.  Parish,  "  B.  Ayres  and  the  prov.  of  the  La  Plata,"  p.  291,  1838 ;  and 
Molina,  "  Essai  sur  1'hist,  nat.  du  Chili,  p.  314,  1789. 

5  Stevenson,  ii,  p.  176. 

6  Semple,  "  Sketch  of  the  present  state  of  Caracas,"  p.  79,  1812. 

1  "Rough  Notes  taken  during  some  journeys  across  the  Pampas,"  p.  113, 
2nd  edit.,  1826. 

8  Legendre  in  d'Urville,  "  Voy.  au  Pole,  Sud.,"  x,  p.  291,  1841. 

9  Ward,  "  Mexico  in  the  year  1827,"  ii,  p.  201,  Wehn.,  1828. 


SECT.  II.]  BODILY  STRENGTH.  121 

are  more  nearly  allied  to  the  Whites  than  the  natives.1  Accord- 
ing to  Lahontan2  and  Perrin  du  Lac/  the  natives  of  North 
America  are  less  strong  but  more  enduring  in  their  efforts, 
than  Europeans.  Kengger4  says  the  same  of  the  Indians 
of  Paraguay,  and  Weld5  says  that  Englishmen  excel  the 
aborigines  of  North  America  in  short  races,  but  are  beaten 
by  them  in  long  distances.  Individual  instances  of  great  bodily 
strength  are  found  among  them.  Two  Ojibbeways  proved 
themselves  considerably  more  powerful  than  two  Belgians  of 
the  same  age.6  The  Osages  belong  to  the  most  powerful  tribes 
of  the  North  Americans  ;  they  can  perform  per  day  sixty  miles 
on  foot.7  Roger  Williams  states  that  the  Indians  of  New  Eng- 
land travel  in  one  day  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  miles,  and  re- 
turn home  the  following  day.8  The  performances  of  the  runners 
whom  the  native  rulers  of  Mexico  and  Peru  employed  are  well 
known.  The  so-called  postillions  in  Peru  perform  on  foot  from 
twenty  to  thirty  Spanish  leagues.9  That  the,  beard  is  but 
weak  among  the  Americans  proves,  after  these  cited  instances, 
nothing  against  the  physical  strength  of  their  constitution. 
Besides,  they  share  this  peculiarity  with  the  Mongols  and 
Negroes,  and  with  many  South- Arabs.10  Among  the  peoples  of 
the  Mongol  race,  the  powerful  organization  of  which  has  never 
been  doubted,  the  inhabitants  of  the  island  Quelpart  are  con- 
sidered the  strongest ;  they  can  lift  heavier  weights  than  the 
English  sailors.11  Among  the  Esquimaux  there  are  also  in- 
stances of  great  strength;  for,  to  overpower  one  of  them,  a 
number  of  English  sailors  were  requisite  in  a  case  related  by 


1  Lyon,  "  Journal  of  resid.  in  Mex.,"  i,  p.  87,  1828 ;  Burckardt,  "  Aufenhalt 
in  Mex.,"  i,  p.  152,  Stutt.,  1836. 

2  Loc.  cit.,  ii,  p.  94. 

8  "  R.  in  den  beiden  Louisianen,"  ii,  p.  29,  1807. 

4  "  Naturgesch.  der  Saugeth.  in  Paraguay,"  p.  12,  1830. 

5  "  E.  durch  d.  Staaten,  in  N.  Am.  Magazin,"  xx,  p.  470. 

6  Quetelet,  "  Bullet,  de  Tacad.  des  sc.  de  Belg.,  1'Institut.,"  ii,  p.  78, 1846. 

7  Nuttall,  "  Journal  of  trav.  into  the  Arkansas  territory,"  p.  821,  Philad., 
1821. 

8  Hutchinson,  "  Hist,  of  Massachusetts,"  i,  p.  411,  note,  3rd  edit.,  Boston, 
1795. 

9  Temple,  "  Trav.  in  Peru,"  i,  p.  269,  Lond.,  1830. 

10  Pickering,  "  The  races  of  man,"  p.  225,  1849. 

11  Belcher,  "Narr.  of  the  Voy.  of  H.M.S.  Samarang,"  i,  p.  350,  1848. 


122  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

Beechey.1  With  regard  to  the  Malays  and  Polynesians  we  hear 
of  the  Macassars,  that  they  can  perform  journeys  of  forty  to 
fifty  miles  per  day  with  heavy  burdens.2  Labillardiere3  states 
that  the  inhabitants  of  the  Friendly  Islands  (Tonga  Archi- 
pelago) were  inferior  to  the  French  sailors  in  wrestling,  but 
Cook  found  the  Tonga  Islanders  in  boxing  and  wrestling 
superior  to  his  crew.4  Wilkes5  relates  cases  of  a  Tonga 
Islander  who  swam  about  in  the  sea  from  noon  till  the  next 
morning,  and  of  a  woman  from  the  Sandwich  Islands  who  re- 
mained in  the  water  for  thirty  hours.  Cheever6  relates  similar 
cases.  The  great  physical  power  of  the  Sandwich  chiefs  is 
frequently  mentioned  by  Jarves.7 

It  has  been  asserted  that  the  mean  duration  of  life  is  longest 
in  the  temperate  zone,  and  diminishes  on  approaching  the 
tropics.  As  we  have  no  statistical  accounts  of  uncivilized 
nations  we  must  rest  satisfied  with  some  stray  notices,  from 
which  it  would  appear  that  there  exists  no  peculiarity  of  race  in 
this  respect.  The  mean  duration  of  life  may  be  shorter  among 
the  Australians  than  among  Europeans,  in  consequence  of 
privation,  but  still  they  reach  frequently  seventy  years  and  up- 
wards.8 It  has  been  frequently  denied  that  the  American 
Indians  arrive  at  a  very  advanced  age,  but  it  is  now  admitted, 
as  proved  by  many  instances.9  Amerigo  Vespucci  relates  in  a 
letter  in  Bartolozzi,10  that  he  had  seen  a  family  consisting  of  son, 
father,  grandfather,  great-grandfather,  and  great-great-grand- 
father. Leri  says  of  the  natives  of  Brazils  (Tupinambas, 
Tamoyos),  that  they  are  subject  to  fewer  diseases  than  the 
Europeans,  and  reached  an  age  from  100 — 120  years,  and 
Pigafetta11  asserts  that  they  reach  140  years.  Prince  Max12 


1  "  Narr.  of  voy.  to  the  Pacific/'  p.  553,  1831. 

2  "  Eel.  de  la  oaptivite  du  Cap.  Woodard  dans  Tile  de  Celebes,"  p.  147,  1805. 

3  Chap,  ii,  p.  176. 

4  Mariner,  "  Tonga  islands,"  ii,  p.  314,  1818. 

5  "  Narrat.  of  the  TJ.  S.  exped.,"  iii,  p.  31 ;  and  iv,  p.  45,  1845. 

6  "Life  in  the  Sandwich  islands,"  p.  123,  1851. 

7  "  Hist,  of  the  Sandwich  islands,"  p.  77,  1843. 

8  Grey,  "  Journals  of  two  exped.  in  Austr.,"  ii,  p.  247,  1841. 

9  Burmeister,  loc.  cit.,  p.  250,  1853. 

10  "  Eicerche  storiche  sulle  scoperte  d'Am.  Vesp." 

n  «  Premier  voy.  autour  du  in.,"  an.  ix,  p.  16,  Paris. 
12  "  E.  nach  Brasil,"  ii,  p.  107. 


SECT.  II.]  DURATION    OF   LIFE.  123 

saw  an  Indian  who  could  remember  107  years.  Stevenson1 
has  traced  similar  cases  in  the  parish  registers.2  Men  of  dark 
complexion,  Negroes  and  Indians,  reach,  in  spite  of  their 
unwholesome  diet,  even  under  the  tropics,  a  very  advanced 
age.3  Poppig4  is  of  opinion  that  only  men  of  colour  and 
Indians  reach  such  an  age.  It  seems  therefore  exceptional 
that  in  South  America  the  Indians  on  the  Orinoco  are  described 
by  Gilii  (p.  250)  as  weakly,  sensitive  to  changes  of  tempera- 
ture, subject  to  many  diseases,  and  frequently  to  an  early 
death.  It  is  very  remarkable  that  on  the  hot  coast  of  Vera 
Cruz  many  instances  of  extraordinary  longevity  are  met  with. 
In  1831  there  were  in  the  village  Cosoliacac,  among  1,595  souls, 
40  whose  collective  ages  amounted  to  3,407  years,  and  in  1830 
a  woman  died  aged  136.5  As  regards  the  Malays,  we  find  that 
Lichtenstein  gives  instances  of  their  reaching,  at  the  Cape, 
ages  of  107 — 120  years.  Among  the  natives  of  the  Philip- 
pines there  are  many  centenarians ;  men  80  years  of  age  are 
seen  working  vigorously  in  the  fields.6  Foissac  also  has  col- 
lected instances  of  old  age  among  Polynesians  and  Negroes.  A 
woman  at  Cape  Coast  Castle  lived  to  see  the  fifth  generation.7 
In  the  Island  of  St.  Thomas,  Negroes  have  reached  an  age  of 
110  years.8  According  to  the  census  of  the  United  States  of 
1850,  instances  of  advanced  age  from  80  to  100  occur  more 
frequently  among  the  free  coloured  population,  and  still  more 
so  among  the  Negroes  than  among  the  White  population. 
Among  3  millions  of  slaves  there  were  1,400  from  100  years 
upwards,  while  among  the  Whites  there  were  but  800  instances 
of  the  kind  among  20  millions.9  Among  the  Negro  slaves  in 
Cuba  grey  hair  and  other  signs  of  age  appear  very  late,  and 


1  "R.  in  Arauca,  CHI.,"  i,  p.  267,  1826. 

2  Compare  also  Tschudi,  ii,  p.  360;  Spix  &  Martins,  p.  1152;  Dobrizhoffer, 
ii,  pp.  51,  281 ;  Rengger,  "  Naturg.  den  Saugeth  v.  Paraguay,"  p.  12 ;  Azara, 
loc.  cit. ;  Clavigero,  "  Hist,  of  Mex.,"  Lond.,  1787,  Append,  v,  p.  1 ;  Sigaud, 
"  Du  climat  et  des  maladies  du  Bresil,"  p.  448,  1844. 

Humboldt  and  Bonpland,  "  R.,"  iii,  p.  86. 

"R./'i,  p.  208. 

Muehlenfeldt,  "  Schilderung  der  Rep.  Mejico,"  ii,  p.  47,  1844. 

Mallat,  p.  114. 

W.  T.  Mviller,  "Die  Afric  Landscliaft  Fetu,"  p.  280,  1676. 

8  Omboni,  p.  262. 

9  Petermanns,  "  Mittheilungen,"  p.  134,  1855. 


124  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

one  in  900  reaches  the  age  of  100  years.1  Even  among 
the  Hottentots  instances  of  great  age  frequently  occur. 
Moody2  mentions  a  case  of  one  who,  from  his  recollections  of 
former  governors  of  the  colony,  could  not  be  less  than  150 
years  old. 

It  is  not  our  intention  to  give  here  a  synopsis  or  history  of 
the  diseases  peculiar  to  different  tribes  and  climates.  It  will 
be  sufficient  for  our  subject  to  show  that  there  appear  to  be  no 
diseases  exclusively  peculiar  to  either  of  the  races  of  man, 
although  the  frequency  and  mortality  of  many  of  them  differ  in 
various  nations,  according  to  individual  predisposition,  diet, 
climate,  and  medical  treatment.  Even  Nott,  who  appears  to 
have  availed  himself  of  every  circumstance  to  prove  that  the 
various  races  suffer  from  different  specific  diseases,  was  obliged 
to  content  himself  with  the  existence  of  different  predisposi- 
tions. Thus  at  first,  he  thought  to  find  a  proof  for  the  specific 
difference  of  the  Negro  from  the  European  in  the  circumstance 
that  Negroes  and  the  coloured  population  enjoy  almost  an  im- 
munity from  yellow  fever,  so  fatal  to  the  White  not  yet 
acclimated  in  the  south-western  parts  of  North  America.  He 
has,  however,  now  partly  abandoned  this  opinion,3  and  admits 
that  Indians  and  their  mongrels  in  New  Orleans  and  Florida 
are  as  much  subject  to  the  attacks  of  yellow  fever  as  the  Whites 
from  the  North  of  Europe.  He  still  however  maintains  that 
the  liability  to  contract  yellow  fever  differs  essentially  in  the 
Negro  and  the  WTiite.  We  must  object  that  this  does  not 
depend  upon  a  peculiarity  of  race,  but  upon  the  influence  of 
climate,  for  as  regards  the  acclimated  Whites  in  the  West 
Indies,  the  French  refugees,  for  instance,  who  fled  from  St. 
Domingo  to  the  Continent,  the  yellow  fever  was  no  more 
injurious  to  them  than  to  the  Negroes.4  An  opposite  example 
is  furnished  by  the  Negroes  of  the  third  and  fourth  generation, 
who,  after  having  been  acclimatized  in  North  America  had 
returned  to  Africa,  when  they  became  subject  to  the  same 


1  Graf  Gorz,  "  E.  urn  die  Welt/'  ii,  p.  44. 

2  Loc.  cit.,  i,  p.  288. 

3  "  Indigenous  races/'  p.  392,  Philad.,  1857. 

4  Stanhope  Smith,  p.  281. 


SECT.  II.]  DISEASES.  125 

climatic  diseases  as  other  unacclimatized  individuals.1  The  Black 
and  the  White  suffer  equally  from  dysentery  and  intermittent 
fevers  in  the  south  of  the  United  States.  A  disease  very  simi- 
lar to  yellow  fever  (Matlazahuale)  carries  off  a  great  number  of 
Indians  in  Mexico,  whilst  the  Whites  and  the  Creoles  suffer 
little  from  it  ;2  but  also  in  this  case  we  are  rather  inclined  to 
ascribe  it  to  mode  of  life  and  other  external  circumstances, 
than  to  a  specific  difference  of  races.  That  Negroes  and 
American  Indians  are  not  less  subject  to  the  most  various 
mental  diseases  than  Europeans,  is  expressly  pointed  out  by 
Sigaud.3  That  savage  nations,  exclusive  of  destructive  con- 
tagious diseases,  generally  enjoy  better  health  than  civilized 
nations,  has  been  often  asserted.  Thus  many  of  the  old 
travellers  relate  of  the  North  American  Indians,  that  they  fre- 
quently die  only  of  old  age,  preserving  the  full  use  of  their 
senses,  and  exhibiting  in  the  most  advanced  age  no  signs  of 
decay  of  the  vital  functions.  This  is  also  reported  of  the 
Arabs  in  Africa.4  The  Congo-Negroes  are,  according  to 
Cavazzi,5  more  rarely  sick  than  the  Europeans.  The  Kaffirs 
are  described  as  the  impersonation  of  health,6  there  being  but 
one  species  of  putrid  fever  which  causes  great  devastation 
among  them.7  It  is  to  the  rarity  of  disease  among  savages 
that  we  attribute  the  belief  general  among  them,  that  maladies 
are  something  supernatural  or  produced  by  magic.  This 
greater  rarity,  which  however  is  not  so  easily  proved,  may 
arise  from  the  fact,  that  savages  become  by  their  mode  of  life 
more  hardened  against  external  influences,  and  that  they  in- 
stinctively adapt  themselves  to  the  natural  conditions  in  which 
they  live,  and  hence  enjoy  physical  health.  The  civilized  man, 
on  the  other  hand,  follows  a  great  number  of  pursuits  which 
are  not  compatible  with  the  preservation  of  health,  and  if 
he  remain  healthy  withal,  it  is  because  he  economises  his 
strength. 

1  De  Salles,  p.  263. 

2  Foissac,  p.  128. 

3  "  Du  Climat  et  des  m.  du  Bresil,"  p.  347. 

4  M.  Wagner,  "E.  in  Algier,"  ii,  p.  52,  1841. 

5  "  Beschr.  der  Konigr.  Congo,  Mat.  und  Angola,"  p.  168,  1694. 

6  Kretzschmar,  p.  188. 

"  "  Baseler  Missions  Mag.,"  iii,  p.  72,  1852. 


126  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

The  great  vital  energy  of  savage,  compared  with  civilized, 
nations,  is  shown  by  the  relatively  greater  healing  power  of 
nature  (vis  medicatrix  naturae)  possessed  by  the  former.  The 
experiments  made  in  this  respect  extend  to  all  races.  Leigh1 
relates  the  case  of  an  Australian  whose  temporal  bone  had  been 
fractured  by  a  blow,  and  the  temporal  artery  divided,  and  of 
another  whose  ulna  and  radius  had  been  fractured  in  a  terrible 
manner,  that  the  first  took  part  on  the  following  day  in  some 
public  meeting,  and  that,  though  worms  appeared  in  the  arm 
of  the  second,  the  recovery  in  both  took  place  without  any 
operation  or  even  dressing.  Similar  cases  are  to  be  found  in 
Barrington3  and  Dawson.3  Though  but  one  in  four  recover 
from  the  operations  of  the  extirpation  of  the  penis  and  the 
testicles,  which  are  performed  on  Negroes  by  the  slavedealers 
in  East  Sudan,4  many  examples  prove  that  nature's  healing 
power  is  as  great  here  as  among  other  Negroes.  This  extends 
also  to  the  white  races  living  in  Africa,  although  Russegger5 
points  out  that  in  the  hot  climate  of  tropical  Africa,  wounds  heal 
very  slowly  in  the  European,  especially  during  the  rainy  period. 
Others  however  maintain  that  in  the  tropics,  e.  g.  at  Trinidad, 
wounds  heal  rapidly  even  in  Europeans.6  W.  Earl7  ascribes 
the  natural  healing  power  among  the  Malays  to  their  vegetable 
diet,  which  prevents  violent  inflammation.  Petit8  reports  a 
series  of  his  own  observations  in  Abyssinia,  that  those  who  are 
punished  by  having  hands  or  feet  cut  off,  as  well  as  the  chil- 
dren or  adults  who  are  emasculated  or  have  the  whole  ge- 
nitals extirpated,  do  not  generally  die  from  the  operation, 
although  the  wounds  are  entirely  left  to  the  healing  power  of 
nature.  Parkyns9  relates  similar  instances.  To  the  Moors, 
Chenier10  ascribes  that  great  innate  healing  power  and  insen- 


1  "  Reconnoitering  Voy.  in  S.  Austr.,"  p.  173,  1839. 

2  «  Hist,  of  N.  S.  Wales/'  p.  250,  1810. 

3  "  The  present  state  of  Austr.,"  p.  317,  1830. 

4  Brehm,  i,  p.  202. 

5  "  E.  in  Eur.,  As.,  u.  Afr.,"  ii,  p.  2,  1843. 

6  Ausland,  p.  576,  1858. 

7  "  Eastern  seas,"  p.  43. 

8  Lefebvre,  "  Voy.  en  Abyss.,"  iii,  369,  1845-. 

9  "  Life  in  Abyss.,"  ii,  p.  268,  1853. 

10  "Rech.  hist,  sur  les  Maures,"  iii,  p.  205,  1787. 


SECT.  II.]  HEALING  POWER.  127 

sibilty  to  pain,  which  has  been  so  often  attributed  to  the  native 
Americans.  Rengger1  is  also  of  that  opinion,  whilst  many 
modern  observers  ascribe  to  the  native  Americans  a  highly  sen- 
sitive and  nervous  constitution.2  The  case  resembles  that  of 
tin?  Bedouin  Arabs,  who  consider  it  a  point  of  honour  to  exhibit 
no  sign  of  pain. 

With  regard  to  the  native  Americans,  a  relatively  greater  heal- 
ing power  of  nature  has  been  observed  among  the  Blackfeet,  the 
Indians  of  Paraguay  and  the  Abiponians;3  and  of  native  Mexicans 
we  hear  that  they  heal  wounds  which  would  be  mortal  to  Eu- 
ropeans by  merely  washing  them  with  brandy.4  Malays  also 
frequently  recover  from  injuries  which  would  prove  fatal  to 
Europeans.5  Of  twelve  Tonga  Islanders  whose  arms  were  cut 
off  in  the  rudest  manner,  one  only  died  from  loss  of  blood  and 
another  from  grief.6  Similar  cases  of  Marquesas  Islanders  are 
reported  by  Marchand.7 

These  examples  prove  that  the  healing  power  of  nature  is 
greater  among  savage  than  among  civilized  peoples.  We 
must  not  however  close  these  observations  without  mentioning 
another  circumstance  which  has  been  made  use  of  to  establish 
the  specific  difference  between  the  races  of  man,  especially 
between  the  black  and  the  white.  It  has  been  asserted  that 
the  lice  of  the  Negroes  are  not  only  black  and  smaller  than  in 
Europeans,  but  that  they  do  not  exist  in  the  former,  whilst  the 
European  louse  perishes  in  the  Tropics.8  Both  these  assertions 
seem  to  have  been  first  made  by  Oviedo,9  which  he  qualifies  by 
adding,  that  European  vermin  is  rarely  preserved,  whilst  that 
of  the  Indians  only  attacks  some  children  of  the  whites  born  in 
America.  As  Peters10  proves  to  a  certainty,  that  the  European 


1  "  Naturgesch.  d.  Saugeth,"  p.  12. 

2  Ausland,  p.  1146,  1857. 

3  Prince  Max.,  "  E.  in  N.  Am.,"  i,  p.  581  ;  Kengger,   "  Naturgesch.  der 
Siiugeth.  von  Paraguay,"  p.  12  ;  Dobrizhoffer,  ii,  p.  54. 

4  HeUer,  "  E.  in  Mex.,"  p.  58,  1853. 

5  Crawford,  "Hist,  of  the  Ind.  Archip.,"  i,  p.  31,  Edinb.,  1820;  Harris, 
Collect,  of  voy.,"  i,  p.  743. 


6  Mariner,  "Tonga  Isl.,"  ii,  p.  251. 

7  "  Neueste  R.  u.  d.  Welt,"  i,  p. 


p.  144,  Leipzig. 
3  Duttenhofer,  "  Die  Emancip.  der  Neger,,"  p.  33,  1855. 

9  "  Sumario  de  la  nat.  hist,  in  Historiad.  prim,  de  Ind.,"  p.  508,  Madr.,  1852. 

10  "  Monat.  der  Ges.  f.  Erdk.  N.  Folge,"  i,  p.  ON. 


128  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

louse  does  not  perish  under  the  equator,,  there  is  no  occasion  to 
dwell  further  on  this  point.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe, 
that  the  domestic  swine,  though  not  specifically  different  from 
the  wild  hog,  has  a  parasite  which  is  wanting  in  the  latter  : 
the  colour  of  these  animals  changes  with  the  colour  of 
the  skin,  on  which  account  Sommering1  did  not  consider  the 
pediculus  nigritarum  as  of  a  different  species  from  the  Eu- 
ropean louse.  It  seems  also  certain  that  both  the  head  louse 
and  the  p.  pubis  of  Negro  nurses  passes  to  white  children.2 
Quandt3  is  at  any  rate  incorrect  when  he  asserts,  that  the  fleas 
and  lice  of  Indians  and  Americans  did  not  infest  Europeans. 
Neither  do  the  various  species  of  intestinal  worms  exclusively 
infest  one  race,  though  one  species  may  more  or  less  predomi- 
nate in  any  people.  Thus  in  England,  Holland,  and  Germany 
the  tcenia  solium  prevails ;  in  Switzerland  and  in  Russia, 
down  to  Konigsberg,  bothriocephalus  latus ;  in  the  south-east 
of  France  both  prevail ;  in  Abyssinia  and  among  the  Hottentots 
tcenia  predominates.4 

Another  proof  of  the  physical  superiority  of  the  white  has 
been  brought  forward,  namely,  their  capacity  of  being  acclima- 
tized in  every  zone.  This,  however,  can  only  apply  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  temperate  zone.  If  it  be  confirmed  that  the  Sandwich 
Islanders,  who  live  under  the  20°  N.  lat.,  become  excellent 
sailors,  and  can  better  support  a  cold  climate  than  even  the 
sailors  of  Boston,  as  mentioned  by  Duhaut  Cilly,5  then  the 
perhaps  merely  theoretical  assertion  of  Jarrold,  that  the  Negro 
is,  by  the  structure  of  his  skin,  better  protected  against  climatic 
influences,  and  can  alike  thrive  in  every  climate,  is  hardly  correct. 
That  savages  cannot  support  the  influence  of  climate  as  well  as 
civilized  people  is  mainly  owing  that  the  latter  accommodate 
themselves  to  the  climate  by  care  and  corresponding  changes 
in  their  mode  of  life,  which  the  uncivilized  neglect.  HenCe  it 
has  been  asserted  that  it  is  merely  by  the  force  of  his  intellect 
that  man  can  subsist  in  every  clime.  This  seems  to  be  con- 

1  "  Ueber  die  korperl.  Verscht.  des  Negers  v.  Europ.,"  p.  8. 

2  Bachmann  in  Smith,  "  The  Unity  of  the  hum.  races,"  p.  184,  1850. 

3  "  Nachr.  v.  Surinam,"  p.  221, 1807. 

4  Owen,  "  Lect.  on  Comp.  Anat.  of  the  invertebrate  animals." 

5  "  Voy.  autour  du  monde,"  ii,  p.  302,  1834. 


SECT.  II.]  ACCLIMATIZATION.  129 

finned  by  the  fact,  that  the  English  who  cannot  give  up  animal 
food  and  spirituous  liquors,  are  less  able  to  sustain  the  heat  of 
the  tropics  than  the  more  sober  Spaniards  and  Portuguese, 
whose  dark  skin  and  general  habits  render  them  better  adapted 
to  a  tropical  climate.  The  circumstance  that  (according  to 
Ulloa  and  Humboldt)  persons  of  and  above  middle  age  best 
support  transplantation  to  a  tropical  climate,  and  reach  an  ad- 
vanced age,  of  which  the  Batavia  Courant1  cites  many  in- 
stances, may  perhaps  be  explained  by  greater  attention  paid 
in  mature  age  to  the  general  health.  Zimmermann2  has, 
in  opposition  to  the  view,  that  the  capacity  of  man  for  acclimati- 
zation is  increased  by  his  intellectuality,  cited  the  example  of 
the  Polar  nations,  who  can  sustain  themselves,  despite  the 
small  protection  against  climatic  influences.  This,  however, 
proves  nothing  in  favour  of  their  capacity  for  supporting  other 
climates  without  injury.  We  must  further  bear  in  mind 
that  the  incapacity  of  bearing  a  rapid  change  from  one  cli- 
mate into  one  essentially  different,  is  quite  distinct  from  the 
incapacity  to  sustain  a  gradually  progressing  acclimatization, 
which  must  necessarily  have  taken  place  during  the  migrations 
of  so  many  tribes  through  different  degrees  of  latitude. 

Though  the  circumstances  above  mentioned,  contribute  in 
many  instances  to  exhibit  the  capacity  for  acclimatization  to 
be  less  in  savages  than  in  Europeans,  we  must  still  be  cautious 
in  coming  to  any  conclusion  in  this  respect.  We  cannot,  there- 
fore, entirely  agree  with  Humboldt, 3  when  he  attributes  to  the 
American  Indians  a  lesser  degree  of  capacity  for  acclimatization 
'than  to  the  Europeans,  on  the  ground  that  the  working  in  mines 
ds  so  destructive  to  the  former  from  the  great  changes  of  tem- 
perature. In  some  mines  the  temperature  is  6°  higher  than 

e  mean  temperature  of  Jamaica  and  Pondicherry,  so  that  we 
•may  question  whether  Europeans  could  without  injury  sustain 
such  a  heat  and  a  sudden  change  to  a  low  temperature,  without 
injury.  It  is  besides  remarkable,  when  we  learn  that  the 
mortality  among  the  miners  of  Mexico  is  not  much  greater 

*  July  13,  1830. 

2  "  Geogr.  Gesch.  des  Menschen,"  i,  p.  53,  1778. 

3  "  Neu-Spanien,"  i,  p.  161. 


130  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

than  among  the  rest  of  the  population.  Latterly,  the  opinion 
has  gained  ground,  that  the  white  races  possess  no  particular 
privilege  with  regard  to  the  capacity  of  acclimatization ;  but 
only  so  far  has  this  view  been  adopted,  that  a  general  capacity 
to  become  acclimatized  in  all  zones  belongs  to  no  race.  The 
more  important  facts  in  support  of  this  view  are  here  subjoined. 
The  American  race  which  inhabits  all  climates,  refutes  the 
privilege  which  has  been  assigned  to  the  white  race ;  but  it 
presents,  like  other  races,  the  phenomena  that  sudden  transplan- 
tation into  other  conditions,  causes  mortality,  unless  proper  pre- 
cautions are  taken.  It  is,  therefore,  not  the  absolute  adaptation 
of  every  race  to  a  peculiar  climate  or  the  incapacity  of  maintain- 
ing itself  in  a  foreign  climate,  which  causes  its  decay,  but  the 
abrupt  change  of  external  conditions.  Thus,  the  Icelander 
who  settles  in  Copenhagen,  becomes  liable  to,  and  frequently 
dies  of,  consumption.1  Indians  who  leave  the  mountainous 
parts  of  Peru  to  settle  on  the  coast,  or  inhabitants  of  the  coast 
who  settle  in  the  mountains,  perish.2  The  Indian  of  the 
Savannah,  when  transplanted  to  the  damp  air  of  the  primitive 
forests,  dies  of  pulmonary  disease,  just  as  the  inhabitants  of  the 
forests  and  the  hills  when  they  are  obliged  to  settle  in  the  open 
Savannah.3  The  mortality  attending  such  forced  transmigra- 
tions, called  forth  those  edicts  which  were  formerly  published 
against  this  practice  in  Spanish  America.  The  European,  far 
from  supporting  the  sudden  change  from  one  climate  to  another, 
finds  the  tropics  as  injurious  to  his  health  as  the  Negro  finds 
the  northern  regions.  The  Arab  and  the  Copt  sicken  like  the 
European,  in  East  Sudan,  whilst  the  black  displays  there  his 
full  vital  energy.4  There  are  many  districts  in  Africa  where 
strangers,  and  especially  Europeans,  can  neither  live  nor  become 
acclimated,  whilst  the  natives  enjoy  good  health.  Such  is  the 
case  in  some  parts  of  the  Darfur,  the  greater  portion  of 
Kordofan,  Fernando  Po,  and  Zanzibar.  The  military  in  Kor- 
dofan  consists  exclusively  of  blacks.  It  seems,  however,  from 


1  Clemens,  "  Deutsche  Vierteljahrschrift,"  ii,  p.  89,  1849. 

2  Proctor,  "  Narr.  of  a  journey  across  the  Cordillera,"  p.  299,  1825. 

3  Schomburgh,  "  R.  in  Brit.  Guiana,"  ii,  p.  126,  Lpz.,  1847. 

4  Werne,  "Exped.  z.  Entd.  der  Q.  des  W.  Nil,"  p.  47,  1828. 


SECT.  II.]  ACCLIMATIZATION.  131 

what  Pallme1  says  of  their  sad  condition,  that  the  reason  is  not 
so  much  because  of  the  sanitary  state  of  the  troops,  but  rather 
that  the  blacks  are  more  easily  managed.2  In  St.  Felipe  de 
Benguela  all  white  women  either  miscarry,  or  bring  forth  weakly 
children  who  die  during  the  first  few  months.3  The  country 
around  the  N'gami  lake  seems  to  be  uninhabitable  for  the 
white,  on  account  of  the  fevers  ;  the  natives  alone  can  support 
it.4  The  climate  of  other  countries  in  the  tropics  is  likewise 
injurious  to  Europeans,  though  in  a  less  degree  than  the 
African  climate.  According  to  Bryson,5  the  mortality  of  English 
soldiers  in  the  East  Indies  is  annually  15.  per  cent. ;  in  the  West 
Indies  18.1  ;  in  Africa  58.4.  Of  100  European  soldiers  in 
East  India  there  live,  if  well  taken  care  of,  and  exclusive  of 
such  who  are  carried  off  by  wars,  after  5  years,  70  ;  after  10 
years,  45 ;  after  15  years,  25 ;  and  after  20  years,  only  10.6 
In  the  presidency  of  Bengal  the  mortality  of  the  English  Euro- 
pean soldiers  reaches  annually  1  in  13.55;  among  the  natives,!  in 
56  ;  in  the  presidency  of  Madras,  1  in  26  of  the  former  and  1  in 
47' 7  of  the  latter.7  To  prolong  his  life  in  the  West  Indies,  the 
European  requires  great  care  and  rest ;  violent  efforts  are  most 
injurious  tnere  as  well  as  in  Gruiana.8  Reichardt,  however, 
maintains  that  the  debility  and  sickening  of  the  Europeans  in 
onany  tropical  countries,  and  especially  in  Central  America, 
are  wrongly  ascribed  to  the  climate  :  they  are  rather  the  indi- 
rrect  consequences  of  slavery,  indolence,  sensual  gratification, 
and  an  irregular  mode  of  life.9  The  incapability  of  French 
•soldiers  to  perform  more  than  half  the  amount  of  bodily  labour 
hot  climates,  has  been  established  by  Coulomb  at  Mar- 


1  "  Beschr.  von  Kordofan,"  p.  122,  1843. 

2  Mohammed  el  Tounsy,  "Voy.  au  Darfour,"  p.  295,  Paris,  1845  ;  PaUme, 
"  Beschr.  v.  Kordofan,"  pp.  7, 117,  122,  1843  ;  Guillain,  "Docum.  sur  1'hist.  la 
-geogr.,  et  le  comm.  de  Air.  Orient.,"  ii,  pp.  1,  93,  1856 ;  Allen  and  Thomson, 

"  Narr.  of  the  exped.  to  the  K.  Niger,"  ii,  p.  198,  1848. 

3  Spix  and  Martins,  "  Keise,"  p.  669. 

4  Livingstone,  "  Journal  K.  Geogr.  Soc.,"  xxi,  p.  20. 

5  "  Report  on  the  climate  and  princ.  diseases  of  the  Afr.  station,"  p.  178. 

6  Ausland,  p.  968,  1855. 

7  Dieterici,  Uber  d.  Sterblichkeitverh.  in  Europa,  Abh.  d.  Berl.  Akad.  1851, 
p.  732  :  Compare  M'Culloch  in  Quetelet,  p.  624. 

8  Graf.  Gortz,  "Keise,"  ii,  p.  290. 

9  Nicaragua,  p.  280,  1854. 

K2 


132  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

tinique.1  In  consequence  of  the  enormous  mortality  among 
the  recruits  who  descend  to  the  coast  from  the  Mexican  plateau 
(on  one  occasion  there  died  272  out  of  300  in  three  months) 
it  was  resolved  to  employ  acclimatized  Negroes  and  men  of 
colour  for  the  garrison  of  St.  Juan  d'Ulloa.2  A.  de  St.  Hilaire3 
also  observes  that  the  blacks  and  men  of  colour  supported  the 
climate  of  Villa  Boa  much  better  than  the  whites.  Pruner 
again  (p.  68)  assumes  it  as  a  fact,  that  the  white  race  cannot 
perpetuate  itself  in  the  greater  part  of  Negro  regions.  With- 
out slaves,  says  Koler,4  the  fertile  tropical  valleys  would  be 
unproductive  and  deserted,  as  white  men  cannot  labour  there 
in  the  open  air.  Further  proofs  may  be  found  in  Nott  and 
G-liddon,5  who  deny  the  capacity  of  the  white  to  become 
acclimated  in  all  Malaria  regions,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Negro 
in  the  West  Indies.  Dowding6  calls  attention  to  the  fact,  that 
in  the  whole  of  the  West  Indies  the  whites  constitute  at 
present  but  five  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  consequently 
the  blacks  and  men  of  colour  will  in  a  short  time  be  the  sole 
occupants  of  these  islands.  We  cannot,  however,  admit  that 
incapacity  for  acclimatization  under  the  tropics  is  peculiar  to 
the  white  race,  since  individuals  of  any  race  seem  inviable  in 
regions  in  which  they  are  not  acclimatized,  even  in  those  parts 
from  which  they  originally  sprung. 

Though  the  injurious  influences  of  tropical  climates  affect 
the  Negro  less  (and  as  it  seems  in  a  different  manner)  than  the 
European,  he  is  nevertheless  not  less  exposed  to  injury  than  the 
white  on  suddenly  changing  his  climate.  Wilson,7  who,  from 
a  twenty  years  residence  on  the  Gaboon  and  in  C.  Palmas,  has 
arrived  at  the  conviction  that  the  noxiousness  of  the  climate  of 
these  regions  had  been  exaggerated,  states,  that  coloured  peo- 
ple coming  from  the  United  States  suffer  as  much  from  the 
climate  as  the  whites,  though  the  former  accommodate  them- 


1  Peron,  "  Voy.  de  decouv.  aux  terres  Aust.,"  ii,  p.  427,  1824. 

2  Humboldt,  "  Neu-Spanien,"  iv,  p.  408. 

•  Voy.  au  sources  du  E.  S.  Francisco/'  ii,  p.  71,  1847. 
'•  Notizen  iiber  Bonny,"  p.  156,  1848. 

•  Indigenous  races  of  the  earth,"  p.  357. 

:  Religious  Partizanship,  Africa  in  the  West,"  Oxf.  1854. 
Western  Afr.,"  p.  511,  1856. 


SECT.  II.]  ACCLIMATIZATION.  133 

selves  sooner  to  its  influence.  Negroes  from  dry  countries, 
such  as  Bornou,  Hausa,  or  the  Sahara,  die  soon  after  their 
arrival  in  Sierra  Leone.  Their  acclimatization  seems  as  diffi- 
cult as  that  of  Europeans,1  which  is  scarcely  surprising,  when 
we  hear  of  the  winter  cold  in  Bornou,  where  before  sunrise  the 
thermometer  sometimes  sinks  to  +4?°  c.2  In  Khartoum  the 
natives  are  said  to  suffer  as  much,  and  even  more,  from  the 
climate  than  Europeans  ;3  this  is,  however,  an  exceptional  case. 
In  Senegambia  fevers  not  dangerous  to  the  natives  usually  kill 
the  white.4  In  the  West  Indies  the  Negro  exposes  himself  with- 
out injury  to  rain,  which  would  cause  a  fever  to  the  white.5 
The  Negro  can  bear  the  rays  of  the  sun  upon  a  bare  head.6 
It  is  even  said  that  during  the  rainy  season,  which  is  the  most 
dangerous  for  the  European,  he  enjoys  better  health  than 
during  the  dry  season.  This  is  reported  of  the  Negroes  in 
Senegambia,  in  Ruffi,  and  on  the  Niger,  of  the  Ibus  and  of  those 
in  Iddah,  on  the  Prince's  Island,  St.  Thomas  and  Annabon,  on 
the  southern  part  of  the  west  coast  of  Africa.7  The  rainy 
months  in  Angola,  October  and  November,  are  for  the  Eu- 
ropean the  healthy,  and  for  the  natives  the  unhealthy,  season.8 
Upon  the  Island  St.  Thomas,  June,  July,  and  August  are 
favourable  to  Europeans,  and  the  reverse  to  the  natives,  who, 
though  they  suffer  less  from  the  prevailing  diseases,  are  by  no 
means  exempt  from  them.9 

On  the  coast  of  Guinea,  the  rainy  season  so  injurious  to  the 
white,  is,  according  to  Roemer,10  not  less  so  to  the  Negroes.  In 
I  Sierra  Leone  the  month  of  July  is  dangerous  to  the  blacks,  and 


1  Koelle,  "  Gramm.  of  the  Bornu  lang.,"  p.  8. 

2  Earth,  iv,  p.  12. 

Eussegger,  "  Eeise,"  ii,  pp.  2,  38. 

Eaffenel,  "  Voy.  dans  1' Afr.  ou.,"  p.  322,  1846. 

Day,  "  Five  years'  resid.  in  the  W.  Indies,"  i,  p.  37,  1852. 

Werne,  "  Feldz.  nach  Taka,"  p.  134. 

Brunner,  "  E.  n.  Senegambier,"  p.  Ill,  1840 ;  Schoen  and  Crowther, 
"Journals  of  the  exped.  up.  the  Niger,"  p.  166.  1842;  Allen  and  Thomson, 
i,  p.  325 ;  Boteler,  "  Jour.  E.  G.  S.,"  ii,  p.  275 ;  Des  Marchais,  "  Voy.  en 
Guinee,"  iii,  p.  9,  1731 ;  Tarns,  "  Die  Portug.  Besitz.  in  siid  West  Afr.,"  1845. 

8  Livingstone,  ii,  p.  65. 

9  Des  Marchais,  loc.  cit.,  iii,  pp.  9,  5. 

10  "  Nachr.  v.  d.  Kiiste  Guinea,"  1769,  p.  10. 


134  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

August  to  the  whites.1      Brehm  however  denies  the  different 
effects  of  seasons  upon  different  races  in  East  Sudan.2 

Though,  according  to  the  above  statements,  it  is  scarcely 
probable,  as  asserted  by  Werne,3  that  Negro  soldiers  are  less 
able  to  bear  the  fatigue  of  a  campaign  in  hot  countries  than  the 
white,  it  is  not  less  certain  that  Negroes  cannot  without  diffi- 
culty support  a  cold  climate.  The  Negro  is  sensitive  to  even 
moderate  changes  of  temperature.4  Callie  and  other  travellers 
relate  that  on  such  occasions  they  complain  bitterly  of  cold ; 
we  must,  however,  bear  in  mind  the  scanty  covering  which  they 
use.  This  must  also  be  taken  into  consideration  when  Richard- 
son5 mentions  that  the  Negroes  seem  not  so  well  to  support  the 
hot  winds  in  Sahara  as  the  Arabs  and  the  Moors,  in  addition  to 
the  fact,  that  in  North  Africa  the  change  of  temperature  is 
sometimes  very  great,  being  on  some  occasions  so  low,  that 
French  soldiers  have  been  frozen  to  death.  The  Kaffirs,  who 
were  some  years  since  exhibited  in  Europe,  did  not  show  any  of 
that  sensitiveness  to  cold  which  the  real  Negro  is  said  to  possess. 
This  sensitiveness  is,  however,  not  exclusively  peculiar  to  the 
Negro ;  the  Bisharis  have  the  same  peculiarity,6  and  the  in- 
habitants of  Fezzan,  habituated  to  a  high  temperature,  are 
accustomed,  in  inquiring  about  each  other's  health,  to  say, 
' '  I  trust  you  don't  feel  cold/'7  A  great  susceptibility  of  change 
of  temperature  is  a  usual  consequence  of  residence  under  the 
tropics,  and  is  not  confined  to  the  Negro.8  The  Negro  is  said  to 
become  insane  in  cold  climates;  this, however,  is  not  unfrequently 
the  result  of  his  being  transported  to  other  countries.  Selberg9 
found  among  the  Ashantee  Negroes  imported  into  Java,  several 
suffering  from  insanity.  In  the  New  England  states  of  North 
America,  the  Negroes,  it  is  said,  would  become  extinct  were  it 

1  Fraissinet,  "  Nouv.  ann.  des  voy.,"  ii,  p.  293,  1855. 

2  Brehm,  i,  p.  218. 

3  "  Feldz.  Nach  Taka,"  p.  67 ;  he  contradicts  himself  p.  168. 

4  M.  Park,  "  Voy.  dans  Tint,  de  1'Afr.,"  viii,  pp.  1,  55. 

5  "  Trav.  in  the  gr.  desert  of  Sahara,"  ii,  p.  437,  1848. 

6  Bay.  Taylor,  "E.  nach  Central  Afr.,"  p.  151,  1855. 

7  Ledyard  et  Lucas,  "Voy.  en  Afrique  pr.  Lalleniant/'  p.  116,  1804. 

8  Humboldt,  "  R.  in  die  JEquinoctial,"  i,  p.  254. 

9  "  Reise  nach  Java,"  p.  45, 1846. 


SECT.  II.]  BLUSHING.  135 

not  for  fresh  importations.     Knox1  asserts  the  same  thing  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  race  in  America. 

The  capacity  of  Hushing  has  often  been  considered  as  a 
peculiarity  of  the  white  man,  and  has  been  denied  to  other 
races,  and  especially  to  the  Negro.  Blushing,  however,  is  not 
merely  seen  in  Mulattoes,  and  in  delicate  women  of  the  black 
race  (Lawrence,  Lectures,  p.  240),  but  also  in  Negroes.2  Monrad3 
asserts  that  Negresses  become  darker  when  influenced  by  the 
sense  of  shame.  The  Australians  also  blush.4  Though  the 
blushings  of  dark-complexioned  peoples  must  not  be  taken 
exactly  in  the  same  sense  as  these  phenomena  among  the 
whites,  still  a  certain  change,  a  deepening  of  the  colour, 
in  consequence  of  some  emotions,  is  perceptible  in  the  former. 
We  are,  therefore,  surprised  to  find  that  Both5  denies  this 
capacity  altogether  to  the  Abyssinians.  D'Orbigny  observes 
that  the  native  Americans  also  blush,  though  not  very  percep- 
tibly on  account  of  their  complexion.  According  to  Spix 
and  Martius,6  the  change  of  colour  resulting  from  emotions  is 
confined  to  educated  Indians,  who  have  much  intercourse  with 
the  whites.  The  Kalmucks  are  said  not  to  become  red  from 
shame,  but  pale  from  fear  and  terror.7  The  common  changes 
of  colour  in  the  face  have  also  been  observed  in  the  inhabitants 
of  Tahiti,  Marquesas,  and  New  Zealand.8 

It  deserves  to  be  mentioned  as  a  striking  peculiarity  in  the  for- 
mation of  speech-sounds, — the  cause  of  which  some  have  sought 
for  in  the  organs  themselves, — that  the  Negroes  have  no  r,  the 
Australians  no  sy  and  that  in  Polynesia,  the  Fiji  and  Navigation 
islands  excepted,  the  hissing  sounds  are  wanting.  The  dialect 
of  Eimatara,  Eurutu,  Tubuai,  and  Raivavai  seems  to  have  the 


1  "  The  races  of  man,"  1850. 

2  Dupuy,  "  Journal  of  a  resid.  in  Ashantee,"  p.  149,  1824 ;  Golberry,  "  E. 
durch  d.  West  Afr.,"  ii,  p.  307,  Lpz.  1803. 

»  "  Gemalde  der.  k.  v.  Guinea,"  p.  60,  1824. 

4  Barrington,  "  Hist,  of  N.  S.  Wales,"  p.  10,  1810. 

5  Wagner,  "  Gesch.  der  Urwelt,"  p.  269,  1845. 

6  "  Journey,"  p.  376. 

7  Bergmann,  ii,  p.  54. 

8  Forster,  "  Bermerk  auf.  s.  E.  um  d.   Welt,"  p.  204,  1783;    Kotzebue, 
"  Neue  E.  um  die  W.,"  i,  p.  73,  1830 ;  Melville,  "  Vier  Monate  auf  d.  Mar- 
quesas," i,  166,  Lpz.  1847 ;  Mundy,  "  Our  Antipodes,  or  resid.  in  the  Austr. 
col.,"  ii,  p.  127,  1852. 


136  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

least  number  of  consonants  of  any  language,  possessing  only 
seven — m,  n,  ng,  p,  r,  t,  v,1  whilst  the  languages  of  the  Sahap- 
tin  family  in  North  America  possess  at  least  nine  of  them — h, 
k,  I,  m,  n,  p,  s,  if  w.  Hueck2  says  that  the  Esthonians,  like 
the  Hottentots  (W.  v.  Humboldt)  are  incapable  of  forming 
the  hissing  sounds  from  the  narrowness  of  the  hard  palate, 
which  perhaps  also  exists  in  other  Finnish  tribes.  The  pe- 
culiar click  of  the  Hottentots,  which  led  many  travellers  to 
consider  their  language  as  a  mere  chirping,  deserves  also  men- 
tion. Thunberg3  and  Levaillant4  have  only  been  able  to  dis- 
tinguish three,  but  Van  der  Kemp  distinguished  six  of  these 
sounds.5  But  as  such  clicking  sounds  have  passed  from  the 
language  of  the  Hottentots  into  some  words  of  the  Amakosa 
Kaffirs,  and  even  into  the  language  of  the  natives  of  Port  Natal,6 
we  can  scarcely  reduce  the  cause  of  this  phenomenon  to  a  pecu- 
liarity in  the  organs  of  speech.  That  this  peculiarity  is  not 
an  innate  peculiarity  of  race,  but  merely  a  habit,  is  proved 
by  the  circumstance,  that  the  Hottentot  children  who  have 
passed  their  childhood  among  the  white  colonists,  can  on  their 
return  home  as  little  acquire  these  difficult  sounds  as  the  mis- 
sionaries.7 Information  regarding  the  quality  of  voice  in  most 
peoples,  independent  of  the  formation  of  speech  sounds,  is 
almost  entirely  wanting.  It  is  scarcely  doubtful  that  in  this 
respect  similar  differences  exist,  as  have  been  recently  observed, 
among  ourselves — namely,  that  among  country  people,  even 
among  men,  the  voices  are  high ;  but  in  the  cities  there  are 
more  low  voices,  and  that  the  former  seem  gradually  to 
diminish.  That  the  voice  of  the  Negro  is  rather  low  and 
hoarse,  and  that  of  Negresses  high  and  shrill,  has  already  been 
mentioned.  The  Kaffirs  have  generally  deep  bass  voices 
which  are  rarely  found  among  the  Hottentots.8 

1  Hale,  "  Ethnogr.  and  phil.  of  the  U.  S.  expl.  exped.,"  p.  142,  Philad.  1846 

2  "  De  craniis  estonum,"  p.  9,  1838. 

3  "  Iteise,"  ii,  61,  1792. 

4  "  Erste  Eeise,"  p.  289,  1790. 

5  Lichtenstein,  "  Reise,"  ii,  p.  605. 

6  Thunberg,  loc.  cit. ;  Lichtenstein,  i,  637 ;  Colenso,  "  Ten  weeks  in  Natal, 
p.  60,  Cambridge,  1855. 

7  "  Eheinische  missionsberichte,"  p.  54,  1851. 

8  Moodie,  "Ten  years  in  S.  Afr./'  ii,  p.  257,  1835. 


SECT.  II.]  USE  OF  THE  HANDS.  137 

With  regard  to  the  use  of  the  hands,  it  rarely  occurs  among 
savage  nations  that  they  can  use  both  hands  with  equal  skill, 
as  is  said  to  be  the  case  with  the  Indians  of  Yucatan.1  As  far 
as  we  know,  the  right  hand  is  everywhere  preferred  to  the  left. 
In  Great  Bassam  (Guinea  coast)  the  right  only  is  used  in  feed- 
ing, whilst  the  nails  are  allowed  to  grow  long  on  the  left  hand, 
which  is  used  for  unclean  occupations.2  The  word  "  mara," 
(left)  signifies  in  the  Vei-language  also  cc  wrong,  unjust/'3  In 
the  Zulu  language  right  and  left  have  a  similar  signification.4 
The  natives  of  Senegambia,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Darien 
isthmus,  use  only  the  right  hand  for  eating.5  The  word 
"  molemmi"  (left-handed)  occurs  as  a  name  among  the  Beshu- 
anas  ;6  it  also  applies  to  the  ancient  Peruvians,7  whence  we  may 
conclude  that  the  right  hand  is  used  among  them  preferentially. 
This  is  also  the  case  among  the  Malays,  especially  among  the 
higher  classes.  Ladies  of  high  birth  use  only  the  right  for 
eating  and  saluting  (Crawfurd) .  The  Macassars  eat  with  the 
hand  and  wash  themselves  with  the  left.8  From  the  ques- 
tion of  the  Pelew  Islanders,  put  to  Captain  Wilson,  as  to 
which  arm  he  used,  it  appears  that  they  have  a  different  use  for 
each  arm.9  Among  the  North  American  Indians  there  are  but 
few  left-handed.10  Hottentots  and  Bushmen  appear  only  to  be 
able  to  use  one  of  their  hands  with  skill.11 

As  regards  the  perfection  of  the  senses,  civilized  man  is  gene- 
rally inferior  to  the  savage,  with  exception,  perhaps,  of  the 
sense  of  taste,  which  is  exercised  in  the  variety  of  aliments, 
whilst  the  savage  merely  satisfies  his  appetite.  As  the  whole 
existence  of  the  uncivilized  man  depends  in  many  cases  on  the 
use  of  his  senses,  he  directs  his  attention  to  minute  circum- 

1  Waldeck,  "  Voy.  pitt.  dans  la  prov.  d'Yucatan,"  p.  66,  1838. 

2  Hecquard,  p.  46. 

8  Koelle,  "  Outline  of  a  grammar  of  the  Vei,"  p.  199. 

4  Doehne,  "  Zulu  Kaffir  Dictionary,"  p.  228,  1857. 

5  Raffenel,  "  Nouveau  voy.,"  i,  p.  53 ;  Wafer,  loc.  cit.,  p.  127. 

6  BurcheU,  ii,  p.  368,  1822. 
'  Ausland,  p.  205,  1858. 

8  "Rel.  dela  capt.du  Capit.  Woodard  dans  1'isle  de  Celebes,"  p.  150,  1805. 

9  Keate,  "  Account  of  the  Pelew  Isl.,"  p.  230,  1789. 

10  Say  in  James,   "  Account  of  an  exped.  from  Pittsburgh  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,"  i,  p.  284,  Philad.  1823. 

11  They  are  almost  Manchot.    Arbousset  et  Daumas,   "Eel.  d'un  voy    au 
N.  E.  du  Cap  de  B.  Esp.,"  p.  479,  1842. 


138  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I 

stances,  and  combines  them  with  other  indications.  T 
possess,  observes  Leichardt1  of  the  Australians,  an  extraordi- 
nary local  memory ;  peculiarly  shaped  or  grouped  trees,  broker 
branches,  and  many  other  minute  marks,  seem  to  be  impressec 
upon  them  like  a  photograph,  all  of  which  seems  to  be  the  result 
of  concentrated  attention.  Schiel2  received  from  a  Delaware 
Indian,  descriptions  of  countries  which  the  latter  had  not  visited 
for  eighteen  years,  and  yet  they  were  found  perfectly  correct. 
The  European,  however,  after  from  three  to  four  years'  prac- 
tice, is  also  enabled  to  see  twice  as  far  as  before,  but  he  rarely 
acquires  the  skill  in  trailing  possessed  by  the  natives.3 
Kretzschmar4  observes,  that  the  Dutch  boors  at  the  Cape  are 
almost  as  skilful  as  the  Hottentots  in  this  respect.  Many 
interesting  examples  of  this  kind  are  related  of  the  Bedouin 
Arabs,  who  are  able  to  discern  objects  at  a  much  greater 
distance  than  the  Europeans.5  They  pursued  without  err- 
ing the  tracks  of  men  and  animals  among  thousands.  The 
Mongrels  performed  the  same  feats  as  the  pure  races.  The 
Grauchos  in  South  America  possess  the  same  skill  in  tracking  as 
the  pure  Indians.6  A  Hottentot  Mongrel  discovered  at  a 
distance  of  more  than  1,000  metres  the  movement  of  the 
head  of  a  gazelle  concealed  in  grass.7  And  McCoy8  says,  that 
the  practised  white  does  not  show  less  aptitude  in  following 
the  trace  of  animals  or  of  the  enemy  than  the  North  American 
Indians.  Much  of  what  Daumar9  states  of  the  high  per- 
fection of  the  senses  of  the  Suafes,  the  inhabitants  of  the 
district  Suf,  is  manifestly  exaggerated.  It  can  scarcely  be 
doubtful  whether  we  are  in  such  cases  to  assume  an  ori- 
ginally acuter  power  of  perception  in  uncivilized  nations,  or 
an  acquired  vigour  of  the  senses.  Both  are  perhaps  combined, 

1  "  Tageb.  einer  Landreise  in  Austr.,"  1851. 

2  "  R.  durch  d.  Felsengeb.,"  p.  97,  1859. 

3  Hodgson,  «  Eeminisc.  of  Austr./'  p.  249,  1846. 
"  Siidafrikanische  Skizzen,"  p.  327,  1853. 

Bitter,  "Erdk.,"  x,  1099;  Riley,  "  Schiksale  u.  E.  un  der  Wesk.  von 
Afr.,"  p.  37,  1818 ;  D'Escayrac,  "  D.  Afr.  Wiiste  u.  d.  Land  d.  Schwarzen," 
p.  287,  1855 ;  Werne,  "  Feldz.  nach  Taka,"  p.  122. 

Capt.  Head,  "  Bough  Notes,"  2nd  ed.,  p.  257. 

Delegorgue,  "  Voy.  dans  1' Afr.  Aust.,"  i,  p.  135,  1847. 

"  Hist,  of  Baptist.  Ind.  missions,"  p.  344,  Washington,  1840. 

"  La  Sahara  Algerien,"  p.  193,  1845. 


SECT.  II.]  THE  SENSES.  139 

(this  is  also  the  view  of  Rengger,1  who  states  that  the  Indians 
can  distinguish  the  kind  of  wild  beasts  by  the  noise  in  the  bush, 
and  a  mounted  horse  from  an  unmounted  one  by  the  tramp- 
ing of  the  hoof),  for  it  has  been  observed,  that  in  many  animals 
continued  exercise  of  the  senses  through  several  generations, 
gradually  produces  a  corresponding  improvement  of  the  same. 
An  example  of  this  kind  is  furnished  by  the  Dajakes,  among 
whom  such  as  lead  a  nomadic  life  have  smell  and  sight  very 
acute,  which  is  not  the  case  with  those  who  are  agriculturists.2 
That  the  inhabitants  of  the  desert,  like  their  camels  and  horses, 
perceive  water  at  a  considerable  distance,  is  well  known.  Even 
Europeans  acquire  this  power,3  and  it  is  scarcely  surprising 
that,  after  a  long-continued  dryness  of  the  air,  a  higher 
degree  of  moisture  should  produce  a  peculiar  sensation.  In 
Australia,  where  Leichardt  could  observe  nothing  of  this  kind 
in  men  or  animals,  Mitchell4  heard  a  native  use  the  expres- 
sion, "  the  wind  smelled  of  water ;"  and  he  found  that  his  dogs 
discovered  water  more  readily  than  the  natives,  and  the  latter 
more  readily  than  the  Europeans. 

Sight  and  hearing  are  very  acute  among  the  Hottentots  and 
Bushmen  (Burchell)  ;  the  latter  see  objects  with  the  naked  eye 
for  which  we  require  a  telescope.5  This  is  also  the  case  among 
the  Australians,6  many  Polynesians,  New  Zealanders,  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Paumotu- Archipelago,  who  perceive  ships  at 
much  greater  distances  than  Europeans;7  and  among  most 
hunting  tribes  of  the  Mongolian  race.  The  Papuas  of  New 
Guinea  are  also  said  to  possess  acute  sight  and  hearing  ;8  their 
sense  of  taste  seems,  however,  very  obtuse,  if  it  be  true  what 
Freycinet9  relates,  that  one  of  them  swallowed  the  whole  con- 
tents of  a  pepper-box,  not  only  without  experiencing  any  in- 


1  "  Naturgesch.  de  Saugeth.  v.  Paraguay,"  p.  10. 

2  Kessel,  "  Bullet.  Soc.  Geogr.,"  ii,  p.  514,  1852. 

3  Burckhardt,  "  E.  in  Nubien,"  p.  286, 1820;  Le  Vaillant,  Erste  E.,  p.  348. 

4  "  Journal  of  an  exped.  in  Tropical  Austr.,"  p.  264, 1848. 

5  Liechtenstein,  ii,  p.  320. 

6  Turnbull,  E.  um  d.  Velt  im  Mag.  v.  Eeisebeschr.,  p.  36,  Berlin,  1806 ; 
Cunningham,  "  Two  years  in  New  South  Wales,"  ii,  p.  13,  1827. 

7  Moerenhaut,  "Voy.,"  i,  p.  172. 

8  Lesson,  "  Voy.  Med.,"  p.  204,  1829. 

9  "  Voy.  autour  du  m.,"  ii,  p.  23,  1827. 


140  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART 

convenience,  but  finding  the  taste  excellent.  Some  soun< 
which  are  agreeable  to  one  people  produce  very  unpleasant 
sensations  in  others.  The  inhabitants  of  Bouka  (Solomon's 
Islands)  were  enchanted  by  the  sounds  of  the  violin,  which 
caused  the  inhabitants  of  Van  Diemen's  Land  to  stop  their 
ears.1  Fiddles  and  flutes  produced  no  impression  whatever 
upon  the  Esquimaux.2  Beshuanas,  who  for  the  first  time 
heard  a  missionary  sing,  began  to  shed  tears.3  This  applies 
to  other  sensations.  The  Indians  of  tierra  firma,  when 
Columbus  came  to  them,  found  the  odour  of  brass  very 
pleasant.4  The  Esquimaux  in  Prince  Regent  Bay,  who  eat 
raw  putrid  flesh,  rejected  with  disgust,  biscuit,  salt  meat,  and 
spirituous  liquors.5 

The  sense  of  smell  is  described  as  well  developed  among  the 
native  Americans.  Azara6  speaks  of  the  great  acuteness  of 
sight  and  hearing  among  the  Charruas,  and  Dobrizhofler,7  tells 
extraordinary  things  of  the  sight  of  the  Abiponians.  It  de- 
serves to  be  further  investigated  as  an  abnormal  fact,  that  most 
Indians  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  United  States  seem  to  be 
unable  to  distinguish  green  from  blue,  and  that  the  western 
tribes  have  only  one  term  for  these  two  colours.8  Among  the 
languages  of  Central  America,  green  and  blue  are  also  desig- 
nated in  the  Quiche,  Pocouchi,  and  Cacchiquel  dialects  by  the 
same  term,  namely,  "  rax."9  The  acuteness  of  smell  in  this 
race  is  still  more  remarkable;  so  that  the  Caribs  and  Peru- 
vians can  distinguish  the  white,  the  Negro,  and  the  American 
by  the  smell,  and  have  different  names  for  the  various  odours,10 
like  the  Bedouins,  who  track  strayed  camels  by  the  smell.11  The 
eastern  neighbours  of  the  Botocudes,  the  Machacares,  though 

1  Labillardiere,  ii,  p.  50. 

2  Seeman,  "  R.  um  d.  Welt/'  ii,  p.  67,  1853. 

3  Livingstone,  i,  p.  192. 

4  Herrera,  "  Hist,  gen.,"  i,  pp.  3,  11. 

5  J.  Ross,  "  Entdeckungreise  um  Baffin's  Bay  ausz.,"  pp.  46,  52, 54, 1820. 

6  "  Voy.  dans  1'Am.  merid.,"  ii,  p.  9,  1809. 

7  Loc.  cit.,  ii,  p.  24. 

8  Kohl,  «  Kitscbi-Gami,"  i,  p.  25,  1859. 

9  Ximenes,  "  Hist,  del  origen  de  los  indios  de  Guat.,"  ed.  Scherzer,  p.  15, 
note. 

10  Labat,  "  Nouv.  voy.  aux  lies  de  1'Am.,"  i,  p.  157, 1724;  Humboldt,  "Neu- 
Spanien,"  i.  p.  245. 

11  Burckhardt,  p.  300. 


SECT.  II.]  THE  SENSES.  141 

no  longer  savages,  but  reclaimed  Indians  (Indios  mansos), 
distinguish  by  the  smell  in  the  abandoned  huts  the  particular 
tribes  of  Indians  to  which  they  belonged.1  In  North  America 
the  Indian  prisoners  have  in  former  times  been  employed  by 
the  whites  to  track  the  enemy,  which  they  did  chiefly  by  the 
smell.  Colonel  Church,  who  distinguished  himself  by  his 
bravery  against  the  Indians  during  the  first  settlement  of  the 
Europeans,  observes,  in  his  history  of  the  war  against  the 
Indian  chief  Philipp,  that  the  sense  of  smell  of  a  native  is 
but  little  inferior  to  that  of  a  bloodhound.2  Their  sense  of 
smell  is  said  to  be  so  acute,  that  they  cannot  bear  the  strong 
odour  of  musk  or  the  like,  and  they  protest  that  no  odour  is 
so  agreeable  to  them  as  that  of  the  various  kinds  of  food.3 
It  seems,  therefore,  a  strange  exception,  that  the  Potawatomis 
are  inferior  in  this  respect  to  the  whites.4  Also  among  the 
tribes  of  Lower  Columbia  taste  and  smell  are  obtuse,  but  sight 
and  hearing  acute.5  In  the  Negro,6  the  olfactory,  optic  and 
trigeminal  nerves  are  much  developed,  yet  the  sense  of  sight 
is  but  moderate;  but  the  hearing  is  more  acute  and  better 
developed  than  in  the  Egyptian.  This  should  caution  us  against 
assuming,  as  has  often  been  done  theoretically,  great  acuteness 
from  the  size  of  any  organ  of  sense.  Thus  the  considerable 
development  of  the  ethmoid  bone  and  the  organ  of  smell  in 
the  Negro  has  been  considered  as  an  approximation  to  the  brute; 
opposed  to  which  Jarrold  observed,  that  the  Negro  did  not  use 
his  sense  of  smell  to  a  greater  extent  than  other  races,  and  that, 
despite  the  large  development  of  the  organ,  he  effects  less 
by  his  smell  than  the  native  American.  Though  the  approxi- 
mation, in  this  respect,  to  the  brute  may  be  admitted  on  ana- 
tomical grounds,  it  is  inadmissible  from  a  physiological  point 
of  view.  The  inhabitants  of  Kordofan  are  certainly  able,  when 
they  pursue  fugitive  slaves,  to  trace,  like  hounds,  the  tracks  of 

1  Feldner,  "  Reisen  durch  Brasil,"  ii,  p.  146,  1828.     Compare,  "  Memoirs  of 
the  Hist.  Soc.  of  Pennsylvania,"  iii,  p.  128. 

2  Drake,  «'  The  book  of  the  Indians,  biogr.  and  hist.,"  Boston,  1845. " 

3  Heriot,  "  Trav.  through  the  Canadas,"  p.  152,  1807. 

4  Keating,  "Narr.  of  an  exped.  to  the  source  of  St.  Peter's  E.,"  i,  p.  136, 1825. 

5  Parker,  "Journal  of  an  explor.  tour  beyond  the   Rocky  Mountains," 
p.  242,  1838. 

6  Pruner,  "  Ztschrft.  der  morgenl.  Ges.,"  i,  p.  132. 


142  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

individuals  among  a  thousand.1  Similar  feats  are  related  of 
the  Negroes  in  the  Colonies,  especially  on  the  occasions  of  the 
wars  with  the  Maroons ;  yet  these  performances,  in  which  it  is 
questionable  whether  sight  or  smell  play  the  chief  part,  are, 
according  to  what  has  been  stated  above,  not  so  extraordinary 
that  they  must  be  attributed  to  a  peculiar  gift,  nor  do  they 
occur  in  Africa  more  frequently  than  elsewhere.  B.  Edwards3 
asserts,that  the  smell  and  taste  of  the  Negro  are  dull,  but  sight 
and  hearing  acute.  Labat3  says,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
Negroes  detect  snakes  by  smell.  That  their  other  senses  are 
very  acute  is  confirmed  by  Dallas.4  The  children  of  the  natives 
of  Bonny  are  said  to  remain  blind  for  ten  days  after  birth.5 
That  the  ear  is  well  developed  is  proved  by  his  love  for  music, 
united  to  a  good  perception  of  rhythm  and  time  ;  his  capacity 
for  the  perception  of  melody  is  said  to  be  less.6  The  music  of 
the  Negroes  is  certainly  often  not  much  more  than  a  horrid 
noise :  still  a  musical  ear  cannot  be  denied  to  them,  as  the  flute 
and  horn  music  in  Ashantee,  the  music  of  the  Mandingoes, 
especially  in  Kuranko,  also  that  in  Benin  and  Dahomey,  is 
described  as  agreeable  and  harmonious.  In  Dahomey  they  un- 
derstand how  to  employ  thirds,  fifths,  and  the  full  chord  in  mu- 
sic.7 We  must  also  bear  in  mind,  that  a  great  portion  of  the 
popular  music  in  the  United  States  comes  from  the  Negroes,8 
and  that  slaves  hire  themselves  of  their  masters  to  gain 
money  as  musicians.  Negro  melodies  are  inserted  in  Bush.9 
If  the  Maroon  Negroes  in  Jamaica  have  a  particular  horn- sig- 
nal for  calling  any  individual,10  there  is  a  still  more  extended 
use  made  of  musical  signals  on  the  Cameroons.  Information 

1  Eussegger,  "  Eeise,"  ii,  pp.  2,  151. 

2  "  Proceedings  of  the  Governor  of  Jamaica  in  regard  to  the   Maroon 
Negroes,"  p.  39,  1796. 

3  "  Voy.  aux  lies  de  i'Amerique,"  ii,  p.  35. 

4  "  Gesch.  der  Maronen-Neger  auf  Jamaica,"  p.  149,  1805. 

5  Froschel,  in  "  Monatsb.  der  Ges.  f.  Erdk.  N.  Folge,"  vi,  p.  108. 

6  Hamilton  Smith,  "  Nat.  hist,  of  the  hum.  spec.,"  1848. 

-7  Bowdich,  "  Mission  nach  Aschanti,"  1820 ;  Dupuy,  ' '  Journal  of  resid.  in 
Ashantee,"  p.  106, 1824 ;  Hecquard,  "  E.  an.  d.  k.  v.  West.  Afr.,"  p.  121, 1854 ; 
Laing,  "  Voy.  dans  le  Timmani,  Kouranko,"  p.  187, 1826 ;  Bosnian,  "  Viaggio 
in  Guinea,"  iii,  p.  278,  Ven.  1752;  Dalzel,  "Gesch.  v.  Dahomey,"  p.  34,  1799. 


Pickering,  "  The  races  of  man,"  p.  185,  1849. 

"  Wanderungen  zw.  Hudson  u.  Mississ.,"  i,  p.  254. 


10  Dallas,  Inc.  cit, 


SECT.  II.]  THE  SENSES.  143 

is  communicated  by  them  and  a  kind  of  conversation  carried 
on  in  this  manner.1  This  is  also  done  on  the  Gold  coast2  and 
in  the  Bissagos-Archipelago.  Royal  proclamations  are  pub- 
lished in  this  way.3  Finally,  as  regards  the  sense  of  touch  in 
the  Negro,  Hamilton  Smith  describes  it  as  very  acute.  The 
Fanti-Negroes  discriminate  different  impressions  :  they  use  the4 
middle  finger  to  weigh  gold,  and  prefer  this  mode  to  actual 
weighing.4 

We  believe  we  are  justified  in  concluding,  from  the  above 
instances,  that  the  varied  powers  of  the  senses  do  not  rest 
upon  a  different  endowment  of  individual  races,  but  depend 
on  the  different  occasions  which  call  them  forth,  according  to 
the  habitual  mode  of  life  of  the  peoples.  In  endeavouring  to 
give  at  the  end  of  this  section  an  account  of  the  results  ob- 
tained by  our  investigations,  we  must  confess  that  they  are  not 
perfectly  satisfactory.  The  comparison  of  the  Negro  with  the 
ape  on  the  one  hand,  and  with  the  European  on  the  other,  has 
shown  that  there  are  certain  anatomical  differences  prevalent 
among  mankind.  Though  these  are  neither  as  numerous 
and  important  as  has  been  represented,  in  order  to  assign  to 
the  Negro  an  intermediate  position  between  the  European  and 
the  ape,  and  though  the  various  peculiarities  which  distinguish 
different  races  cannot  be  considered  as  fixed  barriers  between 
them,  they  are  still  sufficiently  great  to  leave  it  doubtful  whether 
they  lie  within  or  beyond  the  sphere  of  changes  produced  on 
the  physical  nature  of  men  in  the  course  of  time.  In  order  to 
decide  this  question,  a  further  investigation  will  be  necessary, 
which  we  reserve  for  the  fourth  section.  With  regard  to  the 
physiological  comparison  between  the  various  races  of  man- 
kind, we  may  state  that  its  results  are  favourable  to  the  theory 
of  the  unity  of  mankind ;  for  everywhere  have  the  various 
differences  which  we  have  mentioned  proved  to  be  not  fixed, 
but  fluctuating,  and  dependent  on  changes  of  external  and 
internal  conditions. 


1  Allan  and  Thomson,  ii,  p.  307. 

2  Cruikshank,  "  Achtzehnjjihr.  Aufenthalt  auf  d.  Goldk.,"  p.  283. 

3  Durand,  "  Voy.  au  Senegal,"  an.  x,  pp.  213. 

4  G.  A.  Robertson,  "  Notes  on  Africa,"  p.  168,  1819. 


144 


APPENDIX    TO    SECTION    II. 


ON    THE   ASSERTED    INVIABTL1TY  OF   THE   AMERICANS, 
POLYNESIANS,   AND   AUSTRALIANS. 

THE  facts  we  have  collated  appear  sufficiently  to  prove  that 
none  of  the  uncivilized  peoples  are  deficient  in  viability.  There 
remains,  however,  one  circumstance  in  favour  of  an  opposite 
doctrine,  which  is,  the  rapid  decay  of  several  races  and  their 
apparently  approaching  extinction.  We  shall,  therefore,  have 
to  investigate  whether  the  causes  of  their  extinction  consist  in 
a  defect  of  their  organization,  or  whether  the  fact  must  not  be 
attributed  to  accidental  circumstances.  The  tribes  of  which  we 
shall  have  to  speak  are  the  aboriginal  Americans,  Polynesians, 
and  Australians. 

The  rapid  diminution  of  the  aboriginal  population  of  America 
is  established  by  the  official  census,  and  can  thus  admit  of  no 
doubt.  In  some  regions  the  diminution  may  have  been  only  ap- 
parent. When  we  have  the  statement,  that  all  the  peoples  which 
the  first  immigrants  found  in  Louisiana  and  Mississippi,  have 
almost  entirely  disappeared,  and  even  their  names  forgotten,  it 
may  be  explained  by  some  misconception.  The  names  of  small 
tribes  have  frequently,  by  travellers,  been  given  to  repre- 
sent whole  nations,  whilst  the  names  are  often  those  of  chiefs 
and  their  families.  The  old  travellers  exaggerated  the  numbers 
of  the  peoples  by  seeing  themselves  on  their  arrival  surrounded 
by  a  crowd  of  natives,  who  had  merely  collected  on  the  spot 
from  considerable  distances  either  to  see  or  to  drive  away  the 
wonderful  strangers.  Hence  the  old  estimates  of  the  native 
population  of  America  and  Polynesia  are  evidently  erroneous. 
There  can,  however,  be  no  doubt  that  the  aboriginal  population 
has  diminished  in  a  most  remarkable  degree,  which  we  in  the 
first  place  attribute  to  destructive  diseases. 


SECT.  II.]  DISEASES.  145 

The  American  Indians  may,  possibly  before  the  arrival  of  the 
whites,  have  been  visited  by  pestilential  epidemics,  but  it  is 
chiefly  after  the  arrival  of  the  whites  that  epidemics  of  various 
kinds,  and  especially  the  small-pox,  have  raged  among  them. 
No  race  seems  to  have  suffered  so  much  from  the  small-pox  as  the 
Americans,  whilst  the  Negroes  have  at  all  times  been  little 
liable  to  this  epidemic.  On  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
upon  the  Antilles,  which  were  first  visited  by  the  whites,  the 
small-pox  first  appeared,  and  contributed  much,  perhaps  most, 
to  the  depopulation  which  took  place  in  the  large  West  Indian 
islands.  In  the  northern  parts  of  the  continent  they  appear  to 
have  spread  (about  1630)  a  few  years  after  the  arrival  of  the 
first  settlers,  and  the  natives  knew  well  to  whom  they  were 
indebted  for  this  fatal  gift.  In  New  England  the  natives 
thought  that  the  whites  carried  the  small-pox  poison  in  bottles 
for  the  destruction  of  the  Indians — a  fable  which  was  encour- 
aged by  the  settlers  in  order  to  make  themselves  feared.  Thus 
Dobrizhoffer  quotes  the  expression  of  the  Indians  of  South 
America :  "The  whites  are  truly  good  people;  they  have  given  us 
a  rich  compensation  in  the  small-pox  for  the  gold  and  silver 
they  have  carried  off."  The  following  statements,  by  no  means 
complete,  may  give  some  idea  of  the  devastation  caused  by 
small-pox.  Of  the  North  Indians  nine-tenths  perished  by  it.1 
The  Mandans  were,  with  few  exceptions,  carried  off  in  1837; 
the  Blackfeet  diminished  from  30,000  or  40,000  to  1,000.  Si- 
milar devastations  occurred  among  the  Crow  Indians,  Minatar- 
rees,  Camanchees,  and  Eiccarees ;  among  the  latter  many  killed 
themselves  after  recovery,  from  grief  at  being  disfigured.2  The 
Omahas  lost  two-thirds  of  their  tribe.3  The  Indians  in  Cali- 
fornia did  not  fare  better  (Schoolcraffc) ;  in  the  Missions  one- 
half  are  said  to  have  perished.4  In  South  America  the  fate  of 
the  natives  does  not  seem  to  have  been  less  hard.  Small-pox 
epidemics  raged  among  the  Indians  of  Paraguay  and  Gran 
Chaco,6  among  the  Puelches  (D'Orbigny),  the  Corroados,  the 

1  Hearne,  "  E.  v.  Prinz  Wallis-fort  bis  z.  Eismeer,"  p.  168,  1797. 

2  Schoolcraft,  "  Hist,  of  the  Ind.  tribes." 

3  Washington  Irving,  "  Astoria,"  p.  119,  1838. 

4  Wilkes,  "  U.  St.  Expl.  Exped.,"  v,  p.  172,  1845. 

5  P5ppig,  "  E.,"  ii,  p.  452. 


146  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

Caribs  on  the  Maranon,  and  in  the  whole  northern  part 
of  Peru.1  On  the  Upper  Orinoco,  small-pox  is  almost  un- 
known.2 According  to  Molina3  the  Indians  of  Chili  had  at 
that  period  suffered  little  of  small-pox ;  they  must,  however, 
have  known  its  fatal  issue,  as  that  author  states  that  they  set 
fire  to  the  huts  in  which  they  suspected  a  patient  attacked  by 
the  small-pox,  so  that  he  might  be  burned.  Falkner,4  however, 
states  positively  that  the  Araucanians  have  been  visited  by  this 
pestilence.  In  Guiana,  the  villages  Taruma,  Atorai,  and  the 
Taurai- Indians  have  disappeared  together;  and  small-pox, 
measles,  and  the  fear  of  being  bewitched  by  the  Kanaima,  have 
nearly  annihilated  them.  The  number  of  the  Macoushis  dimi- 
nishes daily,  like  that  of  the  Wapisiana  and  Amaripa,  to  whom,  in 
regard  to  language,  belong  the  Atorai.5  Other  diseases 
besides  the  small-pox,  such  as  measles,  contributed  to  the 
decay  of  the  natives.  Two-thirds  of  the  aborigines  of  the 
Oregon  district  perished  by  fevers  and  the  small-pox.6  Small- 
pox and  measles  raged  in  the  Mosquito  country.7  The  want 
of  physicians  and  the  perverse  modes  of  treatment  to  which  the 
patients  were  subjected,  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  fatal 
issue  of  these  diseases.8  The  so-called  upper  Chinooks  were  in 
the  year  1823  reduced  by  fever  from  10,000  to  500,  that,  as 
frequently  happens  among  the  North  American  Indians,  the 
living  did  not  suffice  to  bury  the  dead.9 

It  deserves  mentioning,10  that  the  mere  contact  of  different 
races,  though  in  perfect  health  at  the  time  of  their  meeting, 
frequently  produces  destructive  diseases  from  which  the  inferior 
race,  or  the  aborigines  who  are  visited  by  the  strange  race, 

1  V.  Eschwege,  "  Journal  v.  Brasil/'  i,  p.  206,  1818 ;  Labat,  "  Nouv.  voy. 
aux  isles  de  FAm.,"  ii,  p.  122,  1724;   "Allerhand  lehrreiche  biief  v.  d.  miss. 
d.  Ges.  Jesu.,"  i,  p.  60,  Augsburg,  1726 ;  Ulloa,  "  Voy.  bist.  de  1'Am.  merid.," 
i,  p.  349,  Amst.  1752. 

2  Humboldt  and  Bonpland,  "  Eeise,"  iv,  p.  26. 

3  "  Essai  sur  1'hist.  nat.  du  Chili,"  p.  23,  1789. 

4  "  Beschr.  v  Patagonien,"  1775. 

5  Schomburgk,  "Jour.  E.  G.  S.,"  xv,  p.  26. 

6  De  Smet,  "Missions  de  1' Oregon,"  p.  19,  1848. 

7  "Bericht  Tiber  d.  Unters.  des  Mosquito,"  p.  21,  184-5  ;  Young,  "  Narr.  of 
a  resid.  on  the  Mosquito  shore,"  2nd  ed.,  pp.  24,  73,  1847. 

8  John  Dunn,  "  Hist,  of  the  Oregon  territory,"  p.  115,  1844. 

9  Wilkes,  v,  140;  HaU,  215. 

10  Dai-win,  German  by  Dieffenbach,  ii,  p.  214. 


SECT.  II.]  DISEASES.  147 

suffers  most.  Thus  Humboldt1  observes,  that  the  great 
epidemics  of  Panama  and  Callao  occurred  after  the  arrival  of 
European  ships  in  Chili.  Fever,  cholera,  etc.,  destroyed  the 
natives  in  the  South  Sea  after  the  arrival  of  Europeans.  The 
belief  that  the  whites  import  all  diseases  is  general  in  the  south, 
the  Gambier  islands,  Rapa,  Raivavai,  Tubuai,  Rurutu,  Raro- 
tonga  (Moerenhout),  and  even  among  the  inhabitants  of  Pit- 
cairn  (Beechey),  in  Tahiti.2  In  Rarotonga  a  destructive  pesti- 
lence broke  out  immediately  after  some  trading  between  the 
natives  and  the  crew  of  an  apparently  healthy  European  ship, 
(Williams.3)  This  opinion  also  prevails  in  Celebes,  where  Brooke 
was  on  that  account  prevented  from  landing.4  The  Boers  of 
the  Cape,  who  under  Potgieter  visited  Algoa  Bay,  are  said  to 
have  introduced  in  that  part  a  croup-like  disease,  with  which 
they  were  not  themselves  affected.5  The  belief  that  the  Whites 
brought  with  them  a  virus,  which  they  let  loose  upon  the 
natives,  prevailed  all  through  New  England,  caused  probably 
by  the  circumstance  that  shortly  after  the  stranding  of  a  French 
ship  near  Cape  Cod,  there  broke  out  among  the  Indians,  in 
1616,  a  destructive  pestilence,  which  so  depopulated  the  coast 
for  a  distance  of  several  hundred  English  miles,  that  the  survi- 
vors were  unable  to  bury  the  dead.6  Assuming  the  correctness 
of  the  above  statement,  we  cannot  subscribe  the  mystical  and 
especially  in  America,  popular  theory,  that  the  aboriginal 
race  of  the  new  world  would,  even  without  drunkenness,  war,  or 
imported  diseases,  have  become  extinct  by  the  approach  of 
civilization  as  f '  from  a  poisonous  breath,  because  nature  has 
devoted  it  to  destruction ;  "7  that  its  organization  is  originally 
defective,  carrying  within  it  the  germ  of  death.8 

There  can  be  no  question  that,  under  favourable  circumstances, 
severely  visited  peoples  may  recover  their  losses,  as  happened 
in  Europe.  Such  was  the  case  with  the  Crees  in  North 

1  "  Neu  Spanien,"  iv. 

2  Turnbull,  "  R.  um  d.  Welt./'  p.  266,  1806. 

3  Baseler,  "  Missions-Blatter,"  p.  100,  1838. 

4  Brooke,  "Narr.  of  events  in  Borneo  and  Celebes,"  2nd  ed.,  i,  p.  48,  1848. 

5  Livingstone,  ii,  p.  307. 

6  Drake,  "  Hist,  and  antiq.  of  the  city  of  Boston,"  p.  30,  1854. 

7  Poppig,  Art.  "  Indier,"  in  Ersch  und  Gruber. 

8  Martius  and  Dieffenbach,  iiber  die  Neu-Zealander. 

L2 


148  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

America  -1  also  with  the  Winnepegs  ;2  with  Apaches,  who  re- 
covered again  a  portion  of  their  country  from  the  Mexicans  ;8 
and  in  a  still  greater  degree  with  the  Sauks,  who  used  to 
adopt  their  prisoners  in  their  tribes.4  After  the  decima- 
tion of  the  population  in  earlier  periods  in  Greenland  by 
destructive  epidemics,  it  now  increases  at  the  rate  of  one  per 
cent,  in  North  Greenland,  and  from  two  to  three  per  cent,  in 
South  Greenland.5  The  Winnebagoes,  or  Winnepegs,  have 
from  the  year  1812  to  1820  increased  from  3,500  to  5,800  souls. 
As  with  the  Menomonies  so  with  them,  the  females  outnumber 
the  males  by  one-third,  and  the  number  of  children  is  in  both 
tribes  proportionately  much  more  considerable  than  among  the 
Indian  tribes  who  have  intermixed  with  the  whites.  The 
Cherokees  likewise  considerably  increased  in  number  before 
they  were  compelled  to  leave  the  country.6  According  to  Ols- 
hausen,7  who  opines  that,  the  number  of  Algonquins  has  rather 
increased  since  the  arrival  of  the  whites,  the  number  of  Chero- 
kees  is  said  to  have  grown,  since  1760,  from  12,000  to  30,000, 
and  that  of  the  Choctaws  from  16,000  in  1772,  to  25,000. 
However  oppressed  the  natives  of  Guatemala8  are  by  the 
Spaniards,  they  increase  so  rapidly,  that  the  latter  begin  to 
fear  them.  Wells9  observes,  that  in  recent  times  the  Blacks 
and  Mulattoes  in  Honduras  zealously  watch  and  resist  the  im- 
migration of  white  Americans,  as  they  hope  shortly  to  be  the 
sole  masters  of  the  country  ;  but  Squier10  says,  ' '  All  observers 
agree  that  the  whites  decrease  in  Central  America,  not  merely 
relatively,  but  absolutely,  whilst  the  pure  Indians  increase 
rapidly,  and  the  cross-breds,  the  Ladinos,  gradually  approach 
the  Indian  type."  Tschudi11  expressly  contradicts  the  assertion 
of  Weigl  and  Martius,  that  the  natives  began  to  decay  on 

1  Simpson,  "  Narr.  of  a  journey  round  the  world,"  i,  p.  87,  1847. 

2  Schoolcraft,  loc.  cit.,  ii,  p.  535. 

3  Kendall,  "  Narr.  of  an  exped.  across  the  prairies,"  ii,  p.  67,  1845. 

4  Keating,  i,  p.  225. 

5  V.  Etzel,  "  Greenland/'  p.  376,  1860. 

6  Morse,  "  Report  on  Ind.  affairs/'  append.,  pp.  48,  59,  375, 152. 

7  "  Dass  Mississipi  Thai.,"  i,  p.  300,  1853. 

8  Gage,  "  Voy.  dans  la  nouv.  Espagne/'  ii,  p.  68,  Amst.  1771. 

9  "  Explor.  and  adv.  in  Honduras,"  p.  197,  1857. 

10  "  Die  staaten  von  Central  Am.,"  German  by  Andree,  p.  28,  1856. 
»  Chap,  ii,  p.  369. 


SECT.  II.]  CAUSES  OP  EXTINCTION.  149 

account  of  the  approach  of  civilization.  The  extinction  of  the 
Maynas  is  sufficiently  explained  by  the  ravages  of  disease. 
Dobrizhoffer1  shows  that  the  number  of  the  Abiponians  had 
actually  increased  after  infanticide  and  polygamy  had  been 
abolished.  In  Lima  the  Indians  have,  from  1793-1820,  in- 
creased from  3,600  to  5,000,  and  a  proportionate  increase  is 
observed  in  the  whole  country ;  a  diminution  in  taxation,  the 
abolishment  of  forced  labour,  and  a  better  treatment  in  general, 
afford  the  only  explanation  for  these  phenomena.2  Moreover, 
we  hear  of  considerable  diminution  in  the  number  of  other 
races,  without  attributing  it  to  an  original  want  of  vitality. 
As  well-known  instances  we  may  mention  the  Jakutes  and 
Aleutes,  who  are  greatly  oppressed,  the  Jukagires  and  Kam- 
schatdales.3  The  Aleutes  perish  by  brandy,  famine,  excesses, 
and,  it  may  be  added,  by  a  systematic  system  of  extermination 
on  the  part  of  the  Kussians.  Numerous  suicides  and  sexual 
excesses  promote  the  extinction  of  the  Kamschatdales. 

Another  principal  cause  which  leads  to  the  extinction  of  the 
aborigines  of  America  is  their  mode  of  life  and  their  relations 
to  each  other.  Many  of  these  tribes  gather  no  provision  for 
the  winter,  but  consume  their  stock,  so  that  they  are  often 
exposed  to  the  greatest  privations.  Whenever  an  opportunity 
offers  they  cause  the  greatest  devastation  among  the  game,  and 
thus  deprive  themselves  of  resources  for  the  future.  The 
Indians  on  Hudson's  Bay  even  believed  that  the  deer  increased 
in  proportion  as  they  killed  them.4  As  among  many  Asiatic 
tribes,  so  in  America,  the  custom  prevails  of  burying  or  burn- 
ing the  property  of  the  deceased  with  him.  Among  the  Sioux 
the  funeral  nearly  swallows  up  the  property  of  the  deceased,  so 
that  the  survivors  are  in  distress  (Schoolcraft).  In  the  ancient 
half  civilized  states  of  America,  as  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  re- 
ligious worship  included  an  immense  number  of  human  sacri- 
fices, which  were  also  practised  by  other  tribes  related  to  the 

1  Chap,  iii,  p.  140. 

2  Caldcleugh,  "  Trav.  in  South  Am./'  ii,  p.  68, 1825. 

3  Billings,  "  E.  nach  d.  nordl.  Gegenden  v.  Russ.  As.  und  Am.,"  p.  121, 
1803 ;  Wrangell,  "  Statist,  und  Ethnogr.  nachr.  iiber  d.  russ.  Bes.  in  Am.." 
p.  218, 1839. 

4  Ellis,  "  E.  nach  Hudson's-Meerb.,"  p.  196,  Q-ott.,  1750. 


150  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

Aztecs,  and  extended  to  Panama.1  Without  entering  into 
any  further  details,  we  may  also  mention  the  many  internecine 
wars  which  the  Indians  have  ever  carried  on  between  themselves. 
From  the  slightest  of  all  causes,  sometimes  from  mere  sus- 
picion of  having  been  bewitched,  or  from  the  revenge  of  an 
individual  who  induced  his  tribe  to  espouse  his  cause,  wars 
have  ensued,  and  have  become  so  habitual,  that  many  tribes 
are  incessantly  at  war.  Though  these  wars  have  not  been 
generally  very  bloody,  still  some  were  exterminating  in  their 
consequences. 

.  Thus  the  Coppermine  Indians  were  nearly  exterminated 
by  the  Dog-rib  Indians  (Hearne) ;  the  Moquis  by  the  Navahoes 
(Schoolcraft)  ;  the  Osages  were,  by  their  numerous  enemies, 
reduced  within  ten  years  by  one-half.3  The  remainder  of  the 
conquered  tribe  is  not  unfrequently  absorbed  by  the  conquerors, 
and  the  name  of  the  former  disappears  from  history.  In  this  man- 
ner the  Creeks  are  said  to  have  gradually  absorbed  the  re- 
mainders of  fifteen  other  tribes.  Thirdly  must  be  mentioned 
the  wars  of  the  Indians  with  the  whites.  It  will  here  be 
sufficient  to  notice  but  a  few  of  the  principal  facts,  as  we  shall 
have  to  treat  of  them  in  detail  in  another  place.  It  is  well  not 
to  lose  sight  of  them  in  considering  the  question,  whether  the 
European  man  possesses,  in  comparison  with  other  races,  the 
character  of  humanity  in  a  higher  degree. 

It  is  an  historical  fact,  that  the  Natches,  the  Shawanoes,  the 
Delawares,  Potowatomies,  Seminoles,  Kaskaskias,  and  several 
other  formerly  powerful  tribes,  have,  chiefly  by  the  wars  with 
the  whites,  been  either  exterminated,  or  brought  so  near  to  ex- 
tinction, that  they  no  longer  exist  as  nations.  Even  at  this 
day  the  Indians  in  the  gold  districts  of  California  are  hunted 
like  wild  beasts ;  and  recently  in  Mexico,  Indians  and  white 
Americans  have  been  hired,  and  were  paid  for  the  scalps  of  the 
Apaches.  In  consequence  of  some  suspicion  that  other  people 
were  killed  on  account  of  the  prize-money,  the  practice  is  now 


1  Ternaux,  "  Eecueil  de  docum.  sur  1'nist.  des  possess.  Espagnoles  dans 
1'Am.,"  p.  115,  1840. 

2  Nuttal,  "  Journal  of  trav.  into  the  Arkansa  ten-it./'  p.  172,  Philad.,  1821  -, 
Gregg ;  "  Karawanenzuge  durch  d.  West.  Praeriesen/'  ii,  p.  189,  "•  «^s 


SECT.  II.]  TEIBAL  WARS.  151 

discontinued.1  Among  the  so-called  heroes  of  old  Kentucky 
and  Virginia  there  were  man-hunters,  who,  as  regards  cruelty 
and  barbarity  against  the  aborigines,  did  not  yield  to  the 
Dutch  Boers  on  the  Cape.  Even  Schoolcrafb,  the  official  his- 
torian of  the  Indians  of  the  United  States,  feels  compelled  to 
admit  thus  much,  though  he  would  willingly  ascribe  the  cruel- 
ties of  which  the  aborigines  have  been  the  victims  to  the 
earlier  expeditions  of  the  Europeans  to  America,  when  dreams 
of  glory  and  thirst  for  gold  drove  the  Christians  into  distant 
lands,  and  when  heathens  were  scarcely  considered  as  men,  and 
were  treated  like  beasts.  It  is  sufficient  to  mention  the  incur- 
sions of  Velasquez,  d'Ayllon,  Narvaez,  De  Soto,  Menendez, 
Pizarro,  Cortes,  to  point  out  the  vast  misery  and  the  enormous 
losses  which  the  aborigines  suffered  from  the  whites.  The 
history  of  the  conquest  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  the  extermination 
of  the  peaceable  population  of  the  West  India  islands,  the 
oppression  of  the  Spanish  governors  in  Yucatan  (where  the 
Indians  were  only  employed  as  beasts  of  burden),  the  extermina- 
tion of  the  Indians  in  Popayan  Chiquitos  by  mining  labour,2 
have,  by  the  old  historians  of  these  countries  (among  whom  we 
would  refer  the  reader  to  Ternaux),3  been  preserved  by  docu- 
mentary evidence,  which  fills,  unquestionably,  one  of  the 
darkest  pages  of  human  history. 

Whilst  the  hostile  collision  of  the  Indians  with  the  Europeans 
caused  their  wholesale  destruction,  peaceful  intercourse  with 
the  whites  was  not  less  injurious  to  them.  Careless  of  the 
future,  the  aborigines  of  North  America  readily  disposed  of 
large  tracts  of  lands.4  In  most  cases  they  were  largely  im- 
posed upon,  and  the  consequences  were  always  distressing.  To 


1  Kendall,  ii,  p.  62. 

«  The  assertion  of  Azara  (ii,  p.  240),  that  the  number  of  Indians  in  South 
America  had  increased  where  there  are  no  mines,  and  when  only  employed  in 
agriculture,  is  doubtless  too  general.  Seemann  ("  E.  um  die  Welt,"  i,  p.  211, 
1853),  is  open  to  the  same  objection,  in  maintaining  that  the  number  of  In- 
dians had  everywhere  increased  where  they  have  kept  themselves  pure,  but 
had  diminished  wherever  they  intermixed  with  the  Whites  and  Negroes ; 
though  it  must  be  admitted  that  such  an  intermixture  may  have  contributed 
to  their  diminution,  as  in  proportion  as  intermixture  progresses,  the  number 
of  aborigines  of  pure  descent  decreases. 

3  "  Voy.  Eel.  et  Mem.  originaux,"  p.  312,  etc. ;  Eecueil,  p.  46,  etc. 

4  Drake,  "  The  book  of  the  Indians,"  iii,  p.  14,  etc.,  9th  edit.,  1845. 


152  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PAKT   I. 

mention  only  one  instance,  the  Creeks  in  less  than  forty  years 
disposed  of  a  territory  of  about  twenty-eight  millions  of  acres ; 
and  though  other  lands  were  assigned  to  them,  these  belonged 
to  the  whites  as  their  creditors.  The  chiefs  only,  when  they 
assisted  in  cheating  their  own  tribes,  were  on  such  occasions 
well  cared  for.1  The  natives  were  frequently  driven  from  their 
fertile  districts  into  marshy,  unproductive  spots.  Since  1840 
they  were  all  assigned  to  the  region  beyond  the  Mississippi,  on 
the  western  boundary  of  the  United  States.  Many  of  them 
perished  during  these  transmigrations,  and  in  their  new  settle- 
ments they  either  found  other  tribes  already  located,  or  were  con- 
fined to  narrow  districts.  Want  of  space  brought  them  into  col- 
lision with  neighbouring  tribes,  as  peoples  living  by  the  chase 
require  extensive  districts.  The  whites  also  introduced  the  use 
of  brandy,  and  made  them  drunkards.  Many  perished  in  this 
way,  as  they  were  not,  like  the  Arabs  of  Algiers,  restrained 
from  this  vice  by  love  of  money.2  Far  from  considering  in- 
toxication as  hurtful  or  disgraceful,  they  considered  it  merely 
as  a  means  of  enjoying  a  short  period  of  bliss.  It  was  only 
when  the  dreadful  consequences  became  generally  manifest  that 
some  chiefs  (of  the  Kickapoos,  Creeks,  Cherokees,  for  instance) 
tried  to  stem  the  current.  Whenever  the  Indians  received 
ready  money  for  lands,  it  was  spent  in  spirituous  liquors. 
Though  at  a  later  period  the  sale  of  brandy  to  the  Indians  was 
forbidden,  it  continued,  and  it  was  only  since  1848  that  a 
complaint  of  an  Indian  chief  against  a  brandy  merchant  was 
attended  to  (Schoolcraft).  Even  the  good  intentions  of  the 
whites  proved  injurious  to  the  Indians.  The  Spanish  mis- 
sions in  California  had  them  captured  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
verting them.  Many  of  them  died  in  their  new  localities. 
The  missions  having  been  abandoned,  the  Indians  returned 
to  their  forests.  Yet,  notwithstanding  all  these  facts,  the 
white  American  is  still  surprised  that  the  Redskins  do  not 
become  civilized,  and  consoles  himself  with  the  thought  that 
Providence  has  doomed  them  to  destruction;  and  German 
scholars  have  subscribed  to  that  opinion. 

1  Featherstonhaugh,  "  Excursion  through,  the  Slave  States,"  ii,  p.  306, 1844. 

2  M.  Wagner,  "  Reise,"  ii,  p.  32. 


SECT.  II.]  PROLIFICACY.  153 

The  scanty  prolificacy  of  the  native  women  has  also  been 
mentioned  as  a  principal  cause  of  the  decay  of  race,  and 
this  phenomenon  has  been  attributed  to  an  original  defect  of 
organization.  The  small  fecundity  of  the  native  women  of  North 
America  had  already  been  noticed  by  Lafitau,1  and  has  been 
confirmed  as  regards  some  tribes  of  the  present  day.  Among 
the  Winnebagoes  in  1842,  women  had  on  the  average  but  one 
child;  in  Oregon,  two  (Schoolcraft).  The  causes  of  these  pheno- 
mena are  not  given  with  the  statements ;  but  in  other  instances 
the  explanation  is  of  a  kind  as  to  exclude  the  idea  of  an  original 
organic  defect  of  the  race.  Among  the  Knisteneux,  abortion 
and  infanticide,  especially  of  girls,  is  frequent  (Mackenzie) .  In 
South  America  two  children  is  the  average  number ;  and  Azara2 
observes,  that  women  get  rid  of  the  others  by  abortive  draughts. 
The  Guaycurus  andLenguas,  who  generally  only  bring  up  one 
child,  are,  in  consequence  of  this  practice,  approaching  ex- 
tinction.3 Among  the  Botocudes,  w_ho  are  said  sometimes  to 
have  many  children,  infanticide  and  abortion  are  less  frequent. 
•Rengger4  observed  nothing  of  this  kind  among  the  Guaranis, 
but  noticed  it  among  the  Payaguas,  who  by  small-pox,  drunken- 
ness, and  abortion,  had  been  reduced  to  two  hundred  souls. 
Quandt5  saw  in  Surinam  a  native  woman  with  five  children. 
Schomburgk6  considers  it  as  a  rare  instance  of  prolificacy  that 
an  Indian  possessed  nine  children  by  three  of  his  wives.  In 
Brazil  an  Indian  woman  has  rarely  more  than  four  children.7 
Among  the  Potowatomies,  artificial  abortion  is  not  often  resorted 
to,  but  the  children  are,  as  among  other  Indian  tribes,  suckled 
for  a  long  period,  sometimes  to  the  fourth  or  fifth  year ;  even 
one  child  aged  twelve  has  been  seen  to  suckle.  In  several 
parts  of  Mexico,  specially  in  Panuco,  the  custom  also  prevailed 
of  suckling  the  children  up  to  the  twelfth  year8.  In  South 
America  this  custom  prevails  among  the  Guaraunos  and  other 

1  "Moeurs  des  Sauv.  Americains,"  i,  p.  590,  1724. 

2  "  Voy.  dans  1'Am.  mend.,"  ii,  pp.  59,  179,  1809. 

3  Eschwege,  "  Journal  v.  Brasil,"  ii,  p.  274,  1818. 

4  "  E.  nach  Paraguay,"  p.  133,  1835. 

5  "  Nachr.  v.  Surinam,"  p.  254,  1807. 

6  "E.  in  Guiana,"  p.  375,  1841. 

7  Freyreiss,  "  Beit.  z.  Kenntniss  v.  Brasil,"  p.  118,  1824. 

8  Gomara,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  438,  440. 


154  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION. 

tribes  only  up  to  the  fourth  year  of  the  child,  but  after  thu 
with  young  animals — a  monkey,  dog,  or  opossum.1  Sterility 
of  the  women  is  frequent.2  Heckewelder  and  Lahontan  \ 
mention  that  in  ancient  times  the  natives  did  not  marry  before 
the  thirtieth  year,  as  it  weakened  the  body,  rendering  it  unfit 
for  war.  All  this  is  now  changed.  Too  early  marriages  seem 
to  have  contributed  to  weaken  the  race  and  to  render  the 
marriages  less  prolific,  a  circumstance  already  known  to  Aris- 
totle.4 Schomburgk5  attributes  the  decay  of  the  Tarumas  in 
Guiana  to  the  deficiency  of  women,  and  to  the  circumstance 
that  girls  marry  before  the  period  of  puberty.  With  regard  to 
South  America,  D'Orbigny  observes,  that  the  women,  though 
never  sterile,  have  only  from  two  to  three  children  on  the 
average.  Burmeister,  however,6  attributes  the  diminution  of 
the  number  of  the  people  to  early  deaths  and  feeble  productive- 
ness. With  regard  to  the  first  statement  we  certainly  find 
that  the  Cholones,  for  instance,  on  the  upper  Huallaga,  scarcely 
reach  the  fortieth  year,  have  rarely  more  than  two  children,  and 
are  frequently  childless;  but  these  inhabit  an  unhealthy  region,7 
and  this  must  be  considered  as  an  exceptional  case. 

From  the  preceding  facts  it  must  be  inferred,  that  the 
sterility  of  the  American  race,  wherever  it  occurs,  is  owing 
to  a  variety  of  causes  among  the  different  tribes.  The  preva- 
lence of  artificial  abortion  renders  this  sterility  more  apparent 
than  real.  Among  some  tribes  the  sexual  appetite  seems  to  be 
proportionably  weak  in  the  men  ;8  hence  the  Indian  women 
have  intercourse  with  the  Negroes,  whilst  the  men  consider 
it  beneath  their  dignity  to  cohabit  with  a  Negress,9  a  circum- 
stance which  may,  perhaps,  be  connected  with  the  small  de- 
velopment of  the  genitals  among  the  Gruaranis,  Coroados,  etc.10 


1  Schomburgk,  in  "  Monatsb.  der  Ges.  f.  Erdk."  iii,  p.  208. 

2  Keating,  i,  p.  131. 

3  LOG.  cit.,  ii,  p.  130. 

4  Illustrative  cases  in  Lucas,  "  Traite  de  1'heredite,"  ii,  p.  460. 

5  "  Journal  E.  Greogr.  Soc.,"  xv,  p.  45. 
e  «Reise,"p.  250. 

7  Poppig,  ii,  p.  322. 

8  Rengger,  "  Naturgesch.  der  Siiugeth." 

9  Spix  and  Martius,  "  Eeise,"  pp.  369,  376. 

10  Rengger,  p.  2 ;  Eschwege,  i,  pp.  126,  230. 


5ECT.  II.]  PROLIFICACY.  155 

rhe  last  circumstance  is,  however,  not  general :  it  is,  for  in- 
tance,  not  observed  in  the  Puris,1  nor  are  there  any  observa- 
ions  that  it  influences  the  productiveness  of  these  peoples. 
)n  the  other  hand,  the  great  abuse  of  spirituous  liquors,  and 
he  misery  of  the  natives,  the  frequent  want  of  means  of  sub- 
isti'iice,  the  heavy  labour  imposed  upon  them  by  the  whites, 
nay  clearly  be  enumerated  as  the  causes,  the  combination  of 
vhich  has  produced  the  apparent  weakness  of  the  race.  How 
leceitful  this  appearance  is  may  be  proved  by  the  example, 
hat  also  in  South  Arabia  many  marriages  are  unproductive, 
ilthough  polygamy  is  not  prevalent  among  the  mass  of  the 
)0pulation.  In  America,  also,  there  are  not  wanting  instances 
vhich  contradict  the  above  assertion.  The  women  on  the 
lorth-west  coast  are  very  prolific.2  Among  the  North  Indians 
t  is  considered  exceptional  if  the  number  of  children  amounts 
mly  to  five  or  six.3  Among  the  Chippeways  the  average 
lumber  of  children  is  four ;  sterility  is  considered  a  disgrace, 
)eing  looked  upon  as  the  consequence  of  incontinency.4  Among 
:he  Sioux  sterility  is  rare :  from  three  to  eight  children  is  the 
isual  number,  and  no  one  remains  unmarried.5  The  Mandans 
lave  often  as  many  as  ten  children,  but,  in  consequence  of  the 
ong  period  of  suckling  and  the  heavy  labour  of  the  women, 
ess  prolific  marriages  are  frequent.6  Say7  found  among  the 
Kansas  instances  of  three  children  born  at  one  birth,  and 
amilies  of  thirteen  children.  An  instance  of  an  Indian  who 
lad  fourteen  children  by  one  wife,  is  also  given.8  Hecke- 
svelder9  knew  among  the  natives  a  converted  Indian  family  with 
hirteen,  others  with  six  to  nine,  children ;  the  usual  number 
was  from  four  to  five.  Among  the  Omahas,  who  have  mostly 
Tom  four  to  six  children,  and  sometimes  from  ten  to  twelve, 


1  Eschwege,  i,  p.  163. 

2  Portlock  and  Dixon,  "  E.  um  d.  Welt,"  p.  213,  Berl.  1791. 

3  Hearne,  "  E.,"  p.  262. 

4  Keating,  ii,  pp.  152,  165. 

5  Schoolcraft,  iii,  p.  238. 

6  Prince  Max,  "  E.  in  N.  Am.,  ii,  p.  129 ;  and  "  Brasilien  nachtrage  und 
'iusatze,"  p.  99. 

7  James,  "  Ace.  of  an  exped.  from  Pittsburg  to  the  E.  mountains,"  i,  p.  124, 
L823. 

8  Ausland,  p.  997,  1857. 

9  "Nach.  v.  d.  Gesch.  der  Ind.  Volkersch."  p.  389,  1821. 


156  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PAET   I. 

sterility  is  rare,  and  proceeds,  when  it  occurs,  probably  from 
the  male,  as  the  women  are  frequently  prolific  with  other  men.] 
Gumilla2  has  made  the  same  observations  as  regards  the  South 
American  women.  An  Osage  chief  had  thirty-seven  children  by 
his  four  wives.3  A.  Vespucci  found  in  1497  Venezuela  thickly 
populated  about  the  region  of  Cape  Paria ;  the  women  were 
then  excellent  breeders.4  Labat5  also  speaks  of  the  great  pro- 
lificacy of  the  Caribs.  Humboldt  and  Bonpland6  mention  the 
great  fecundity  of  the  Gruaraunos  and  the  Indians  in  the  mis- 
sions distant  from  the  Orinoco.  Of  some  tribes  it  has  already 
been  observed,  that  they  have  not  lately  decreased,  but  in- 
creased. Finally,  it  may  be  mentioned,  that  Jefferson7  states, 
that  Indian  women  who  marry  European  traders,  and  are 
relieved  of  their  hard  labour,  properly  settled  and  well  fed, 
produced  as  many  children  as  European  women  :  in  some  cases 
they  have  brought  up  from  six  to  twelve  children.  Rengger's 
statements8  with  regard  to  the  G-uarani  women  are  to  the  same 
effect.  West9  confirms  them  by  observing,  that  Indian  women 
married  to  Europeans  breed  better  than  with  the  men  of  their 
own  stock,  though  they  suffer  more  during  delivery.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  principal  reason  of  their  being  more 
prolific  is  the  improved  mode  of  life.  Thus  among  the  Bedouin- 
Arabs  the  prolificacy  is  less  than  among  those  who  are  settled ; 
five  children  are  considered  among  the  Towaras  upon  the  Sinai- 
peninsula  as  a  very  large  family  ;10  and  among  the  Lapps  and 
Tunguses  more  than  three  to  four  children  are  rare.11 

More  obscure  in  many  respects  than  the  gradual  decay  of 
the  native  population  of  America,  is  an  analogous  phenomenon 
in  the  South  Sea  and  Australia.  Here  one  might  feel  more 
inclined  to  assume  a  defective  vitality  of  the  race,  since  one  of 

1  Say,  in  James,  p.  237. 

2  "  Hist.  nat.  de  1'Orenoque,"  ch.  lii,  1758. 
s  Ibid.,  ii,  p.  251. 

Collection  de  los  Viages  y  descubrimientos,"  iii,  p.  209, 1829. 


Nouv.  voy.  aux  lies  de  1'Am.,"  ii,  p.  109,  1724. 
E.  in  d. 


.  Aequinoctialg.,"  i,  p.  469;  and  iv,  p.  31. 
Besckr.  v.  Virginien,"  in  Sprengel's  Beitr.  viii,  p.  263. 
E.  nach  Paraguay,"  p.  133, 1835. 
Substance  of  a  journal  during  a  residence  at  the  Eed  E.,"  p.  54,  1824. 

10  Eitter,  "  Erdkunde,"  xiv,  p.  953. 

11  Scheffer,  "  Lapland,"  p.  334 ;  Georgi,  p.  266. 


SECT.  II.]  DECREASE    OF   POPULATION.  157 

the  chief  causes  of  the  depopulation  of  America  is  absent  in 
Polynesia,  and  has  not  caused  very  extensive  devastations  in 
Australia,  namely,  the  oppression  of  the  whites  and  the  inter- 
course with  them.  There  is,  however,  one  circumstance  which 
did  not  so  much  prevail  in  America,  but  seems  very  effective 
in  Australia,  namely,  the  great  mortality  among  children. 

The  extinction  of  a  people  once  healthy  and  vigorous  cannot 
be  explained  by  a  denial  of  viability,  or  an  original  defective 
organization,  or  by  the  assumption  of  some  mysterious  cause ; 
we  must  investigate  and  search  for  natural  agencies,  though 
we  may  be  obliged  to  confess  that  our  endeavours  to  trace 
them  have  hitherto  not  been  perfectly  successful. 

The  decrease  of  the  population  in  Polynesia,  concerning 
which  Meinicke1  has  furnished  valuable  statistical  accounts,  does 
not  proceed  in  equal  proportions  in  all  the  islands.  The  merry 
inhabitants  of  the  Tonga  and  Friendly  islands  produce  many 
children,  and  their  number  is  increasing;2  and  in  Tikopia  every 
family  has  three  to  eight  children.3  On  the  other  hand,  the 

'  population  decreases  in  the  islands  of  the  Samoa  Archipelago, 
on  the  Glambier  islands,  in  New  Zealand,  where  Crozet4  found 
in  1771,  in  the  island  bay,  twenty  villages,  each  having  about 
four  hundred  inhabitants.  Though  these  may  have  withdrawn 
into  the  interior,5  it  remains  still  a  vain  attempt  of  Shortland6 

'  to  show  that  the  decrease  is  merely  apparent  and  not  real.  If 
it  be  true  that  in  the  village  Te  Aro,  containing  seventy  men 
and  forty -two  women,  there  are  but  twenty-four  children,7  and 
if  similar  proportions,  as  we  understand,  occur  in  other  places, 
Fox8  is  perfectly  justified  in  assuming  a  yearly  decrease  of  at 
least  4  per  cent.  Power9  is  of  opinion  that  if  the  decrease 
continues  pari  passu,  the  country  will  be  depopulated  about 

1  "D.  Siidseevolker  und  d.  Christenth."  p.  Ill,  1844. 

2  Pickering,  p.  83 ;  Quarterly  Beview,  Dec.  1853 ;  Erskine,  "  Journal  of  a 
cruise  among  the  islands  of  the  W.  Pacific,"  p.  161,  1853. 

3  Gaiinard,  in  d'Urville,  "  Voy.  de  1' Astrolabe,"  v,  p.  309,  1830, 

4  "  N.  Eeise  durch  d.  Sxidsee,"  p.  27,  1783. 

6  Dieffenbach,  "  Trav.  in  New  Zealand,"  ii,  p.  14,  1843. 

6  "  The  Southern  districts  of  New  Zeal.,"  p.  40,  1851. 

7  "  On  the  British  colonization  of  New  Zeal,  by  the  Committee  of  the  Abo- 
rig.  Protect.  Soc.,"  p.  52,  1846. 

8  "The  six  colonies  of  New  Zealand,"  p.  53,  1851. 

9  "  Sketches  in  N.  Z.,"  p.  119,  184-9. 


158  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

1870.  Taylor,1  an  author  well  acquainted  with  the  country 
and  the  people,  has  recently  denied  the  progressive  mortality 
of  the  natives,  and  cites  facts  against  it.2  Peace,  appropriate 
clothing,  diet,  and  mode  of  life,  may  possibly  lead  to  an  im- 
provement in  this  respect. 

With  regard  to  Tahiti,  where,  according  to  the  natives,  the 
diminution  of  the  population  had  already  commenced  before  the 
arrival  of  the  whites,3  Yincendon-Dumoulin  and  Desgraz4  have 
endeavoured  to  show  that  the  decrease  was  about  one-third 
from  1770  to  1814,  and  that  from  1814  to  1825  the  number  of 
the  population  remained  stationary.  In  estimating  the  ancient 
population,  we  must  not  take  Forster's  account5  as  a  basis, 
when  it  states  that  he  found  in  Tahiti  a  fleet  of  159  large  double 
canoes  and  seventy  smaller  ones ;  some  of  the  former  with  144 
rowers,  for  it  is  probable  that  of  this  fleet  a  comparatively  small 
portion  only  belonged  to  Tahiti,  and  the  greater  part  to  the 
large  neighbouring  islands.  The  Spanish  account  of  1778 
estimates  the  population  of  Tahiti  at  15,000  to  16,000.6  Wilson* 
states  that,  according  to  a  moderate  estimate,  the  population 
of  Tahiti  was  in  1797  about  16,000.  It  is  only  subsequent  to 
this  period  that  we  learn  that  the  population  in  1804  amounted 
only  to  5,000.8  This  is  probably  a  great  exaggeration,  caused 
perhaps  by  the  circumstance  that  about  that  period  many 
young  persons  were  carried  off.  According  to  Kotzebue,9  the 
population  amounted  in  1824  to  about  8,000,  which  is  about 
the  same  number  as  given  by  the  missionaries  in  1813.  This 
agrees  with  Wilkes's  statement,10  that  the  population  in  1839 
was  about  9,000;  to  which  he  adds,  that  for  thirty  years 
previously  the  births  and  deaths  had  been  about  equal.  Though 

1  "  New  Zealand  and  its  inhabitants,"  p.  256,  1855. 

2  Compare  however,  "  E.  der  Novara,"  iii,  p.  128. 

8  King  and  Fitzroy  ("  Narr.  of  the  Surv.  Voy.  of  the  Adv.  and  Beagle,"  ii, 
p.  520,  1839)  are  probably  in  error  in  stating  that  destructive  diseases  only 
broke  out  after  Cooke's  arrival  at  Tahiti. 

4  «  lies  Taiti,"  p.  288,  1844. 

5  "  Sammtl.  d.  Ebschr.,"  xxi,  p.  328. 

6  G.  Forster's  "  Sammtl.  Schriften,"  iv,  p.  211. 

7  "  Missionsreise  in  d.  stille  Meer,"  Magz.  v.  E.,  xxi,  p.  333,  1800. 

8  Turnbull,  "  E.  um.  d.  W.,"  p.  259,  1806. 

9  «  Neue  Eeise,"  i,  p.  97, 1830. 

10  "  U.  St.  Expl.  Exped.,"  ii,  p.  49. 


SECT.  II.]          DECEEASE  OP  POPULATION.  159 

Lesson1  states  that  but  few  old  people  could  be  found  in  Tahiti, 
and  that  the  number  in  1830  amounted  only  to  500,2  we  cannot 
but  conclude  that  the  decrease  of  the  population  commenced 
about  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  after  the  Europeans 
had  settled  in  Tahiti,  when  within  ten  years  it  diminished 
from  15,000-16,000  to  8,000-9,000,  after  which  time  the  num- 
ber appears  to  have  remained  stationary.  According  to  the 
census  of  the  French  officials  it  amounted  in  1848  to  8,082  ;  in 
1854,  to  5,988 .3  Different  proportions  prevail  in  other  islands 
of  the  archipelago.  At  Borabora,  where  one  birth  annually  is 
reported  to  thirty-two  inhabitants,  the  proportion  of  births  to 
deaths  is  5  :  6.4  At  Raiatea,  on  the  contrary,  the  population  of 
which,  consisting  in  1830  of  about  1,700,  stand  morally  and 
physically  higher  than  that  of  Tahiti,  the  number  has  been 
much  increased.5 

Very  decided  and  well  authenticated  is  the  progressive  de- 
population of  the  Sandwich  islands;  regarding  which  Vancouver6 
stated,  that  in  1 792  a  perceptible  diminution  of  the  population 
commenced  after  Cook's  arrival.  Exact  information  dates  only 
from  modern  times,  though  all  prove  that  the  decrease  still 
progresses. 

The  annual  diminution  is  calculated  to  be  about  8  per  cent.7 
The  census  for  1832  was  130,313 ;  for  1836, 108,579  ;  for  1850, 
84,165.  In  the  year  1848  there  were  7,943  deaths  and  1,478 
births ;  in  1849,  4,320  deaths  and  1,422  births.8  In  1853  the 
population  amounted  only  to  71,019;  births,  1,513;  deaths, 
8,026  :  5-6,000  of  these  died  of  the  small-pox  ;9  hence  it  is  an 
erroneous  assertion  of  Bennet,10  that  the  Sandwich  Islanders 
are  a  very  healthy  people,  and  free  from  such  fatal  diseases 
as  befal  the  inhabitants  of  the  Friendly  Islands.  It  is  remark- 


1  "  Compl.  des  (Euv.  de  Buffon,"  ii,  p.  281. 

2  "  Journal,  E.  Geogr.  Soc.,"  iii,  p.  174. 

3  "  E.  der  Novara,"  iii,  p.  197. 

4  Steen  Bille,  "  Bericht  iiber  d.  E.  der  Galathea,"  ii,  p.  363,  1852. 

5  "  Journal  E.  Geo.  Soc.,"  iii,  p.  179. 

6  "  E.  nach  der  Sudsee,"  i,  p.  139,  BerL,  1799. 

7  "  Morning  Chronicle,"  May  1,  1850. 

8  "  Details  regarding  individual  islands,"  in  Virgin.,  i,  p.  267. 

9  "  Baseler  Miss.  Mag.,"  iv,  p.  98,  1854. 

10  "  Narr.  of  a  whaling  voy.  round  the  globe,"  i,  p.  242,  1840. 


160  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

able  that  this  decay  of  population  is  so  differently  distributed  in 
the  various  islands ;  nay,  that  districts  in  the  same  island  differ 
in  this  respect.  It  is  therefore  probable,  that  the  chief  causes 
of  this  progressive  decay  must  be  sought  for  in  local  conditions, 
and  not  in  an  organic  defect  of  the  race.  Whilst  in  Hawaii 
and  Oahu,  where  in  1840  there  were  61  births  to  132  deaths, 
the  decrease  is  certain  and  large,  it  seems  only  apparent  in 
Maui.  At  Atowai  or  Kawia,  where,  among  5,541  adults,  there 
were  only  65  women  who  had  more  than  two  children,  a  mis- 
sionary found  in  one  district  the  proportion  of  deaths  to  births 
to  be  3  :  1.  In  other  districts,  however,  the  decrease  of  the 
population  was  only  about  1  per  cent. ;  in  some  it  was  sta- 
tionary, or  slightly  increasing ;  thus  at  Onihau  or  Niihau  the 
increase  of  the  population  was  4:3. 

In  proceeding  to  an  investigation  of  the  causes  of  the  above 
phenomena,  and  bearing  in  mind  the  epidemics  which  ap- 
parently break  out  at  the  first  intercourse  of  uncivilized  peoples 
with  higher  developed  tribes,  we  must  leave  it  to  the  judgment 
of  others  whether  this  would  account  for  the  decay  of  so  many 
South  Sea  peoples;  for  it  does  not  apply  to  all  of  the  Polynesian 
stock,  nor  can  we  assent  to  the  plausible  supposition  of  an 
original  defect  of  organization. 

In  ancient  times,  and  before  the  first  arrival  of  Euro- 
peans in  the  South  Sea,  the  peculiar  habits  of  the  Polyne- 
sians had  already  contributed  to  diminish  the  population. 
Drunkenness  and  gluttony  prevailed  among  the  higher,  and 
infanticide  among  the  lower  classes  of  society  in  many  of  the 
Polynesian  islands.  Only  such  tribes  as  the  New  Zealanders, 
who  seemed  ignorant  how  to  prepare  intoxicating  liquors,  did 
not  at  first  seem  to  relish  the  spirituous  liquors  introduced  by 
the  Europeans ;  the  rest  were  ruined  by  it,  especially  after 
they  had  learnt  from  the  whites  the  art  of  distillation.  Infanti- 
cide, artificial  abortion,  and  sexual  excesses,  without  the  least 
perception  of  any  moral  wrong  in  this  respect,  diminished  the 
population,  and  produced  a  weakly  race.  In  the  Sandwich 
Islands  a  family  never  brought  up  more  than  two  or  three 
children,  the  rest  were  strangled  or  buried  alive.1  Two-thirds 
1  Ellis,  "  Polynes.  Res.,"  iv,  p.  327,  1832. 


SECT.  II.]  CAUSES  OP  DEPOPULATION.  161 

of  all  children  born  are  said  to  have  thus  perished.1  To  this 
must  be  added  internal  wars,  combined  with  cannibalism  and 
human  sacrifices,  for  where  men  eat  each  other,  the  gods  are 
generally  bloodthirsty,  and  receive  their  share.  With  regard 
to  the  devastations  caused  by  wars,  we  shall  mention  but  one 
fact,  viz.,  that,  at  the  conquest  of  the  western  part  of  the  Pau- 
mota  Islands,  thirty-eight  islands  were  depopulated,  and  their 
inhabitants  slain  or  carried  into  slavery.2  Moreover,  those  who 
possessed  the  most  fertile  islands  of  Polynesia  entirely  neg- 
lected agriculture,  and  ruined  themselves  by  the  greatest  prodi- 
gality at  their  feasts,  consuming  all  provisions,  so  that  the 
lower  classes  died  by  famine. 

The  introduction  of  Christianity  in  the  South  Sea  islands 
removed  many  of  these  sources  of  destruction,  others  were 
mitigated  so  that  this  progressive  decay  was  arrested.  The 
bloody  wars,  cannibalism,  human  sacrifices,  and  infanticide  dis- 
appeared almost  entirely ;  and  it  must  be  denounced  as  a 
calumny  inspired  by  party  spirit,  that  French  navigators,  to 
serve  the  interest  of  their  Government  and  their  faith,  have 
endeavoured  to  spread  the  opinion,  that  the  depopulation  of  the 
Sandwich  islands  can  only  be  explained  by  the  severe  laws  and 
the  system  of  intimidation  established  and  practised  by  the 
influence  of  Protestant  missionaries  ;  that  the  women  fled  to 
the  forests  to  kill  their  illegitimate  children  in  order  to  escape 
punishment.3  We  must,  on  the  contrary,  acknowledge  that 
the  missionaries  are  entitled  to  credit  for  their  endeavours  to 
improve  the  physical  and  moral  condition  of  the  islanders, 
though  their  activity  cannot  be  said  to  have  proved  beneficial 
in  all  respects.  Their  severity  appears  to  have  produced  the 
concealment  of  many  vices  and  crimes,  and  the  sudden  change 
of  the  habits  of  life  which  were  at  once  and  with  great  strictness 
forced  upon  the  natives,  sometimes  may  have  proved  injurious. 
There  can,  however,  be  no  doubt  that,  on  the  whole,  the  material 
condition  of  the  South  Sea  peoples,  which  alone  concerns  us 

1  Stewart,  "  Journal  of  a  residence  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,"  p.  250,  1828. 

2  Wilkes,  i,  p.  343 ;  Hale,  p.  35. 

3  Laplace,  "  Campagne  de  circumnavigation,"  V,  p.  470,  1841 ;  Du  Petit- 
Thouai's,  "  Voy.  autour  du  monde,"  i,  p.  389,  1840;  de  la  Salle,  "  Voy.  autour 
du  monde  sur  la  Bonite,"  ii,  p.  198,  1845. 

M* 


162  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

here,  lias  been  improved ;  and  this  presents  a  fresh  difficulty  in 
the  explanation  of  a  progressive  decay. 

In  order  to  understand  this,  we  must  remember  that,  at  the 
time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Europeans  in  the  South  Sea  (as 
Moerenhout,  and  especially  Meinicke,  have  proved),  there  pre- 
vailed already  an  extreme  dissolution  of  social  relations, 
morals,  and  religion,  among  the  chief  nations  of  Polynesia. 
This  apparent  break  up  of  society,  the  result  of  long-continued 
excesses,  was  much  promoted  by  the  arrivals  of  the  Whites. 
The  enervated  race  of  the  Tahitians,  and  the  weakened  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Sandwich  islands,  had  then  much  to  suffer  from 
the  new  diseases  imported  by  the  Europeans.  Next  to  influ- 
enza, great  destruction  was  caused  by  syphilis  constantly 
imported  by  15,000  to  20,000  seamen,  chiefly  whalers,  who 
landed  in  Honolulu  and  Lahaina.1  Many  of  these  diseases 
became  fatal  from  the  small  protection  afforded  by  the  scanty 
dress  and  defective  habitations  of  the  natives.  In  New  Zealand, 
Dieffenbach  considers  that  the  decay  is  chiefly  owing  to  a 
change  of  dress  and  habits  of  life,  so  that  scrofula  and  its  allied 
affections  have  spread  among  children.3  This  also  applies  to 
the  Society  islands  of  Raiatea.  The  population  of  Burutu,  say 
Tyermann  and  Bennet,3  had,  a  few  years  ago,  been  reduced  by 
fever  from  6,000  to  314.  The  sterility  of  the  women  and  the 
mortality  among  the  children,  are  no  doubt  closely  connected 
with  the  decrease  of  the  population.  Both  phenomena  are  very 
common  in  the  Sandwich  islands.4  According  to  the  mission- 
aries only  half  of  the  marriages  are  prolific.5  The  great 
mortality  of  the  children  in  the  Society  Islands,  where  infanti- 
cide has  been  replaced  by  artificial  abortion,  is"  said  to  be 
greatly  owing  to  an  improper  alimentation.  The  number  of 
children,  which  in  Tahiti  is  not  large,  rarely  in  the  Marquesas 
exceeds  two  to  one  woman.6  In  Samoa,  the  number  of  children 

1  Virgin,  i,  p.  269. 

2  Fox,  loc.  cit.,  p.  55. 

3  "Journal  of  voy.  and  trav.,"  i,  p.  497,  1831. 

4  Wilkes,  iv,  pp.  77,  94. 


Hines,  "Oregon,  its  history,"  p.  210,  Buffalo,  1851. 
6  Krusenstern,  "  R.  um  d.  Welt,"  i, 


,  p.  198,  1810;  Melville,  "VierMonate 
auf.  d.  Marq.,"  ii,  p.  125,  1847.  Langsdorff  (i,  p.  152)  asserts  that  twins  are 
not  rare. 


SECT.  II.]  CAUSES  OF  DEPOPULATION.  163 

is  limited  by  the  long  continued  suckling,  sometimes  up  to  the 
sixth  year,  or  several  children  are  suckled  at  the  same  time.1 
In  New  Zealand,  where  the  proportion  of  females  to  males  is 
small,  because  many  girls  are  killed  immediately  after  birth, 
a  woman  has  rarely  more  than  two  or  three  children.2  Perhaps 
the  trade  in  preserved  ornamented  heads  may  have  contributed 
something  to  the  diminution  of  the  population.3  Psychical 
causes  also  appear  to  have  injuriously  affected  the  physical 
prosperity  of  the  peoples,  such  as  the  feeling  of  powerless- 
ness  and  certain  destruction  by  the  Whites,  and  the  loss  of 
authority  of  the  chiefs  among  their  own  people4 — a  circumstance 
which  also  contributed  to  the  decay  of  the  Americans,  who  are 
absolutely  unfit  for  slavery. 

The  peoples  in  the  Sandwich  islands  were  in  former  times 
much  oppressed  by  their  own  chiefs.  The  taxes  were  enormous, 
and  the  labour  imposed  upon  them  excessive,  so  that  they  were 
compelled  to  neglect  agriculture  to  cut  sandal-wood  and  perform 
other  work.  Many  of  them  ran  away ;  infanticide  and  famine 
raged  among  them;5  and  even  in  recent  times  a  progressive 
poll-tax  unfavourably  influenced  the  increase  of  the  popula- 
tion.6 About  a  thousand  individuals  annually  leave  their 
native  country,  proceeding  to  California,  Columbia  and  other 
parts  of  South  America.7  The  aborigines  of  Australia,  the 
inhabitants,  at  least,  of  the  known  parts  of  that  continent,  also 
approach  rapid  extinction.  A  tribe  of  about  three  hundred  souls 
is  said  to  have  diminished  within  six  years  to  four  individuals.8 
The  causes  of  these  phenomena  are  similar  to  those  already 
stated.  The  chief  of  them  are  diseases  communicated  to  them  by 
European  settlers,  to  which  must  be  added  infanticide  and  great 
mortality  among  the  children,  the  small  proportion  of  women, 
inebriety  in  the  vicinity  of  the  colonies,  and  sexual  excesses.9 

1  Wilkes,  ii,  p.  138. 

2  Dieffenbach,  ii,  p.  33  j  Pickering,  p.  82. 

3  Quarterly  Review,  p.  192,  June  1854. 

4  Fox,  p.  56. 

Jarves,  "  History  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,"  p.  368,  1843. 
Walpole,  "  Four  years  in  the  Pacific,"  ii,  p.  245,  2nd  edit.,  1850. 
Simpson,  "Narr.  of  a  journey  round  the  world,"  ii,  p.  15,  1847. 
Baseler  Miss.  Mag.,  iv,  p.  96,  1854. 
Eyre,  "  Journals  of  exped.  into  central  Austr.,"  ii,  p.  320,  1845. 

M2 


164  *  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

Small-pox  carried  off  in  some  parts,  particularly  in  New  South 
Wales  not  long  after  the  year  1 788,  the  sixth  to  the  third  part 
of  the  natives ;  though  taught  by  experience  they  left  off  the 
cold  water  cure,  and  applied  a  more  appropriate  mode  of  treat- 
ment.1 Small-pox  also  caused  great  devastations  in  the  interior,2 
as  well  as  the  measles  and  syphilis.3  Even  the  clothing  fur- 
nished by  the  colonists  often  proved  injurious  to  them ;  from 
having  become  accustomed  to  woollen  coverings  they  felt  the 
want  of  them  when  again  deprived  of  these  articles. 

Infanticide,  especially  of  girls,  is  frequent :  hence  the  propor- 
tionately small  number  of  women.4  This  proceeds  partly  from 
superstition,  partly  from  the  desire  to  escape  the  trouble  of  rear- 
ing them,  and  sometimes  from  revenge  against  the  faithless 
father,  especially  if  he  be  an  European.  The  great  mortality 
of  the  children  seems  also  to  be  caused  by  the  negligence  of 
the  parents,  and  inappropriate  diet.  Turnbull  asserts  that 
three-fourths  of  the  children  do  not  attain  the  fourth  year. 
Grey5  does  not  think  that  the  mortality  is  great,  though 
much  greater  than  in  Europe ;  he  remarks,  also,  that  suckling 
is  continued  until  the  third  year.  He  knew  41  women  whose 
children  amounted  to  188.  The  average  number  of  children  in 
a  family  is,  according  to  Eyre,  about  five,  of  which  two  only 
are  brought  up.  There  are,  however,  instances  of  a  woman 
having  nine  children.6  This  is  corroborated  in  other  races. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  North  African  desert  are  equally  distin- 
guished by  their  small  number  of  children,  about  two  on  the 
average.7  It  is  more  rare  to  find  a  Hottentot  woman  with  six, 
than  the  wife  of  a  colonist  with  twelve,  children.8  When,  how- 
ever, well-treated  and  rendered  comfortable,  the  Hottentot 
women  are  very  prolific,  both  in  their  intercourse  with  the 

1  Wilkes,  ii,  p.  184 ;  Baker,  "  Sydney  and  Melbourne/'  p.  148, 1845 ;  Bennet, 
"  Wanderings  in  N.  S.  Wales,"  i,  p.  154,  1834. 

2  Mitchell,  "  Three  exped.,"  i,  p.  216,  1838. 

3  Darwin,  "  Naturalists'  Voyage,"  ii,  p.  213,  1844;  Eyre,  ii,  p.  380. 

4  «  Austr.  felix,"  p.  131,  BerL,  1849. 

5  "  Journals  of  two  exped.  in  Austr.,"  ii,  p.  251,  1841. 

6  "  Austr.  felix,"  p.  130. 

7  Eichardson,  "  Trav.  in  the  Sahara,"  ii,  p.  427,  1848. 

8  Burehell,  «-*  E.  in  d.  Innere  von  Siidafrika,"  ii,  p.  175,  1822. 


SECT.  II.]  CAUSES  OP  DEPOPULATION.  165 

Whites  and  their  own  people.1  The  fecundity  of  the  Indian 
women  is  equally  increased  by  better  nourishment  and  diminu- 
tion of  labour.2  A  Chippeway  woman  is  mentioned  who  had 
fourteen  children  all  grown  up.  From  these  instances  we  are 
justified  in  concluding  that  sterility  is  not  a  peculiarity  of  the 
race,  but  is  caused  by  external  circumstances. 

How  much  the  natives  have  suffered  from  the  invasion  of  Eu- 
ropeans is  expressed  in  the  following  words  of  a  native  : — "  You 
Whites/'  said  an  Australian,  "ought  to  give  us  Blacks,  cows  and 
sheep,  for  you  have  exterminated  our  opossums  and  kangaroos ; 
we  have  nothing  to  live  on,  and  are  hungry."3  Though  in  some 
parts  the  natives  no  longer  live  by  hunting  kangaroos,4  it  still 
is  in  other  parts  their  principal  resource  for  subsistence. 
They  are  in  the  habit  of  burning  down  the  grass  for  the 
growth  of  a  fresh  crop  for  the  pasture  of  these  animals, 
who  are  driven  off  by  the  cattle  of  the  colonists,  and  the 
natives  disappear  from  the  spot.  At  present  the  aborigines 
possess  no  right  to  the  country,  or  rather  they  never  had  any ; 
at  any  rate,  England  has  never  acknowledged  such  a  right. 
The  land  belongs  to  the  Crown,  which  practically  means  that 
the  natives,  being  English  subjects,  may  be  punished  for  their 
crimes,  whilst  the  Whites  are  generally  acquitted  by  their  coun- 
trymen.5 This  becomes  intelligible  when  we  find  that  the 
natives  can  neither  be  valid  witnesses  in  a  court  of  law,  nor  are 
allowed  to  bear  firearms.6  Latterly,  however,  they  have  in  New 
South  Wales  at  least  been  admitted  as  witnesses,  but  in  so 
limited  a  degree,  that  their  oppression  is  but  little  mitigated  by 
the  favour  accorded.7 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  justify  the  great  injustice  done  to 
natives  owing  to  their  atrocity,  which  is  greatly  exaggerated. 
>rding  to  the  "  Papers  on  Aborigines  of  Australian  Colonies, 

1  Moodie,  "  Ten  years  in  S.  Afr.,"  ii,  p.  350,  1835. 

2  Schoolcraft,  iv,  p.  350. 

3  Bennet,  i,  p.  327. 

4  Hodgkinson,  "  Aust.  from  P.  Macquarie  to  Moreton  Bay,"  p.  223,  1845. 

5  Instances  in  Eyre,  ii,  p.  176 ;  and  in  Du  Petit-Thouars,  iii,  p.  204.    There 
a  criminal  process  in  which  the  jury  for  a  long  time  refused  to  condemn 
culprits  who  were  guilty  of  an  unprovoked  murder  of  twenty-eight 

natives. 

6  Howitt,  "  Impressions  of  Austr.  felix,"  p.  199,  1845. 

7  Eyre,  ii,  p.  493 ;  "  Austr.  felix,"  p.  143. 


166  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

printed  for  the  House  of  Commons,  August,  1844,"  p.  318,  there 
were  in  the  district  of  Port  Phillip,  since  its  first  occupation, 
eight  Whites  killed  by  the  natives  and  forty-three  natives  by  the 
Whites.1  If  the  natives  wish  to  continue  their  mode  of  life, 
they  must  quit  the  region,  join  other  tribes,  or  become  beggars 
and  robbers,  which  indeed  they  have  become.  A  general  war- 
fare between  them  and  the  Whites  in  Portland  Bay  and  other 
districts  was  the  consequence.2  That  it  is  impossible  to  live 
with  or  near  them  in  peace  has  been  often  refuted.  A  settler 
has  frequently  succeeded  in  gaining  over  the  friendship  of  the 
natives,  so  that  even  in  critical  times  he  was  not  molested  by 
them.3  This  is  also  proved  by  the  success  of  the  settlement 
of  Moorunde  on  the  Murray  in  1841.  The  natives,  who  at 
first  were  inimical,  became,  in  consequence  of  the  kindly  treat- 
ment of  the  colonists,  friendly  and  serviceable.4  Eyre  obtained 
on  this  occasion  a  great  authority  over  them,  by  which  Sturt's 
expedition  into  the  interior  was  facilitated.  Dawson  also  knew 
how  to  gain  them  over  in  Port  Stephens,  and  describes  them 
as  peaceable  and  serviceable.  With  one  man  only  he  was  un- 
successful.5 All  others  proved  docile  when  well  treated,  and 
especially  when  the  principle  is  adopted  of  not  limiting  their  free- 
dom more  than  is  absolutely  requisite  for  public  safety.6  Most 
of  the  settlers  found  it  more  suitable  to  their  dignity  to  exhibit 
everywhere  their  superiority,  as  the  Whites  did  in  America. 
The  natives  were  shot  down  whenever  they  showed  themselves  ; 
cruelties  were  committed  on  women  and  children.7  The  natives 
had  most  to  suffer  from  runaway  convicts,  and  it  may  be 
imagined  how  much  a  penal  colony  must  have  injured  the 
native  population, — for  New  South  Wales  was  one  up  to  1843, 
Van  Diemen's  Land  up  to  1852,  and  West  Australia  has  be- 


Eyre,  ii,  p.  156. 

Baker,  p.  154. 

Hodgson,  "  Eeminiscences  of  Australia,"  p.  81,  1846. 

Eyre,  ii,  p.  461. 

Dawson,  "  The  present  state  of  Austr.,"  p.  265,  1830. - 

Compare  on  this  subject  the  extract  from  the  "  Australian,"  Oct.  14, 1836, 
by  Dumont  d'Urville,  "  Voy.  de  1' Astrolabe/'  i,  p.  489. 

7  Wilkes,  ii,  pp.  186,  256 ;  Lang,  "  Account  of  N.  S.  Wales,"  i,  p.  37,  3rd 
edit.,  1840;  Clutterbuck,  "Port  Phillip  in  1849,"  p.  62;  Byrne,  "Twelve 
years  wanderings  in  the  British  Colonies,"  i,  p.  368,  1848. 


SECT.  III.]  INTEKMIXTURE    OP    EACES.  167 

come  one  recently.  The  English  Government  has  repeatedly 
in  official  documents  acknowledged  the  wrongs  done  to  the 
native's/  and  expressed  the  intention  of  repairing  the  injury. 
If  it  were  true  that  the  colonists  have  contributed  but  little 
to  their  destruction,  and  that  the  main  cause,  as  has  been 
as-erted,  lies  in  their  own  mode  of  life,2  then  it  is  inconceivable 
why  they  have  not  long  become  extinct,  since  there  has  not  been 
an  essential  change  in  their  mode  of  life.  The  official  protec- 
torate, which,  however,  seems  to  have  borne  but  little  fruit, 
was  instituted  in  consequence  of  the  crimes  committed  against 
the  natives  by  the  Whites.  In  several  parts  of  Australia  a 
larger  number  of  natives  are  said  to  have  been  poisoned  when 
it  became  known  that  they  would  for  the  future  be  protected 
against  oppression.3  In  many  parts  of  New  South  Wales 
they  made  no  secret  of  it,  as  Byrne4  states  from  his  own 
experience,  but  even  boasted  that  the  natives  have  been  got  rid 
of  by  arsenic. 


SECTION    III. 

THE    RESULTS    OF    INTERMIXTURE    OF     DIFFERENT    TYPES, 
AND   THE   PECULIARITIES    OF   THE    MONGRELS. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  question  of  the  unity  of  the  human 
species,  we  have  yet  to  consider  a  series  of  phenomena  which, 
though  not  so  decisive  as  was  formerly  believed,  still  possess 
more  than  a  secondary  importance,  namely,  the  results  of  inter- 
mixture and  the  character  of  the  cross-breeds.  These  will  show 
that  we  are  not  compelled  to  assume  a  specific  difference  between 
human  races.  The  practical  difficulties  of  fixing  the  results  of 
intermixture  are,  no  doubt,  very  great ;  still  they  do  not  much 
affect  the  principle  laid  down. 

I1  See  the  document  in  Tegg's  "  N.  S.  Wales'  Pocket  Almanack"  for  1841, 
147,  Sydney. 
2  Schayer  in  "  Monatsb.  d.  ges.  f.  Erdk.  N.  Folge,"  ii,  p.  226. 
3  Eyre,  ii,  p.  176. 
*  Loc.  cit.,  i,  p.  275. 


168  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

The  pains  taken  to  fathom  the  mode  in  which  the  peculiar 
bodily  organization  is  transmitted  from  parent  to  offspring 
have  hitherto  been  unsuccessful.  There  has  not  been  wanting 
a  number  of  theories,  but  not  one  has  proved  itself  unexcep- 
tional and  trustworthy.  Thus  it  frequently  happens  among 
animals  and  human  beings  that  the  offspring  resembles  the 
male  parent  in  hair,  colour,  constitution,  diseases,  malformation 
and  idiosyncracies.  As  collateral  relations  (cousins,  uncles, 
and  nephews)  frequently  exhibit  the  same  peculiarities  with- 
out having  received  them  direct  from  their  parents,  we  are 
led  to  suppose  that  these  phenomena  obey  a  law  (the  so-called 
relapse — that  is  to  say,  the  reproduction  of  the  peculiarities  of 
remote  ancestors  in  the  descendants, — has  by  Grirou  been  con- 
sidered as  a  general  law,  by  which  he  endeavoured  to  explain 
all  the  differences  of  children  from  their  parents),  the  compre- 
hension of  which  would  require  a  profounder  knowledge  of  the 
dependence  of  the  development  of  the  germ  than  we  at  present 
possess. 

Sometimes  the  father,  at  other  times  the  mother,  has  been 
considered  as  possessing  an  exclusive  influence  on  the  peculiari- 
ties of  children.  Again  it  has  been  asserted  that  the  father 
influenced  the  psychical,  and  the  mother  the  physical,  constitu- 
tion of  the  offspring;  or  again,  that  they  influence  separate 
parts  of  the  system.  Thus,  according  to  Sturm  and  Grirou,  the 
young  in  domestic  animals  resemble  the  father  in  the  form  of 
the  head  and  the  chest,  and  the  mother  in  the  formation  of  the 
pelvis  and  the  posterior  part,  a  view  which  Blumenbach  felt  in- 
clined to  adopt  also  as  regards  man.  Some  were  of  opinion 
that,  where  one  child  took  after  one  parent,  it  was  both  phy- 
sically and  psychically.  Others  considered  the  influence  of  the 
father  paramount,  not  a  few  that  of  the  mother,  so  that  the 
sons  resembled  the  father,  and  the  daughters  the  mother,  a 
case  which,  however,  is  frequently  reversed.  There  was,  in  fact, 
no  theory  which  had  not  its  supporters.1  We  quote  the  follow- 
ing interesting  observation  of  Burmeister,2  "  Generally  speaking, 
the  first  child  exhibits  physically  the  finest  organization,  and 

1  See  Lucas,  "  Traite  de  Fberedite,"  vol.  ii. 
3  Loc.  cit.,  ii,  p.  162. 


SECT.  III.]  INTEEMIXTUEE    OP   EACES.  169 

presents  intellectually,  more  than  the  others,  either  the  pecu- 
liarities of  the  father  or  of  the  mother ;  and  it  is  to  be  noticed 
that  the  first-born  son  takes  more  after  the  mother,  and  the 
first-born  daughter  more  after  the  father.  Gradually  the  chil- 
dren become  more  robust,  physically  stronger,  frequently 
plainer  and  more  plump  ;  the  qualities  of  both  parents  become 
more  mixed,  and  a  decided  repetition  of  the  parents  or  grand- 
parents becomes  rarer." 

It  deserves  to  be  noticed  that  the  cases  in  which  the  influence 
of  the  father  predominates  are  not  so  frequent  as  contrary 
instances.  The  influence  of  the  mother  on  the  intellectual 
nature  of  the  offspring  seems  so  predominating,  that  Buffon 
considered  it  as  exclusive :  hence  the  vulgar  expression 
( '  motherwit,"  not  "  fatherwit."  The  head  of  the  cross-breed, 
however,  takes  chiefly  after  the  father.1  The  physical  qualities 
of  the  father  generally  predominate  among  cross-breeds.2  This 
is  the  case  among  the  Mestizoes  in  the  Philippines,  whether 
the  father  be  a  European  or  a  Chinese  ;3  among  the  Mulattoes 
on  the  Sandwich  islands.4  The  Negro  produces  with  a  white 
woman  a  more  Negro-like  child  than  the  white  man  with  a 
Negress.5  Among  the  children  of  Mulattoes — themselves,  with 
few  exceptions,  descendants  of  white  fathers  and  Negro 
mothers, — the  white  blood  predominates,6  so  that  the  children 
even  of  a  Mulatto  woman  and  a  Negro  possess  the  colour  of 
the  mother.  Primer  says  that  the  offspring  of  a  Negro  and  a 
white  woman,  though  rarely  viable,  approach  the  European  type 
sooner  than  that  of  a  Negress  and  a  white  man.  Burmeister 
considers  the  Negro  character  as  predominating  in  Mulattoes. 
The  boys  have  the  hair  often  frizzly,  then  it  becomes  perfectly 
Negro-like;  among  the  girls  it  is  frequently  straight.  The 
shape  of  the  head  resembles  more  that  of  the  Negro  than  that 
of  the  European;  the  forehead  is  low,  the  occiput  short.  The 
cranium  generally  is  small,  the  beard  stronger  than  in  the 

1  Heusinger,  "  Vgl.  Physiol.,"  p.  250. 

2  Spix  and  Martius,  "  Reise,"  p.  1183. 

3  Mallat,  ii,  p.  134. 

4  Bennet,  "  Narr.  of  a  whaling  voyage/'  i,  p.  240,  1840. 

5  Nott  and  Gliddon,  "  Types  of  mankind/'  p.  373,  1854. 

6  Lyell,  "  Second  voyage." 


170  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

Negro,  the  stature  on  the  whole  more  elegant,  especially  the 
hands  and  feet,  which  latter  are,  however,  rather  flat.  It  may 
also  be  noticed,  that  among  Mulattoes  sprung  from  Negroes 
and  Indian  women  on  the  Rio  das  Pedras  (Paranahyba),  the 
Indian  character  predominates,  namely,  dark  colour,  broad 
chest  and  shoulders,  short  neck,  large  angular  head,  bushy 
hair,  rather  thin  lips,  well-shaped  legs.1  Poppig2  describes 
the  Mestizo — generally  the  child  of  an  Indian  woman  and  a 
white  man — as  resembling  more  the  Indian.  The  Portuguese 
Mulattoes  also,  at  Ceylon,  who  are  more  numerous  than  the 
Dutch,  resemble  in  stature,  shape  of  skull,  and  features,  more 
the  Cingalese  than  Europeans.3  Stevenson4  states,  from  his 
own  observation,  that  the  father  influences  the  colour  of  the 
Mestizo  more  than  the  mother.  He  also  observes  that  the 
Peruvians  call  the  children  of  a  white  woman  and  a  Negro 
Mulatto,  Zambo  Mulatto,  Quadroon ;  whilst  those  of  a  white 
man  and  a  Negress,  Mulatto  woman,  or  Quadroon,  are  called 
Mulatto  Quadroon  Quintroon,  by  which  he  endeavours  to  prove 
that  the  mongrels  of  a  white  man  approach  the  European 
type  a  generation  before  those  of  a  white  woman.  Tschudi,5 
however,  considers  this  an  error,  and  states  that  the  designa- 
tion is  the  same  whether  the  mongrels  proceed  from  the  father 
or  the  mother. 

Lucas6  has  by  many  examples  proved  that  the  characters  of 
mongrels  are  not  constant ;  sometimes  those  of  the  mother,  at 
other  times  those  of  the  father  predominate.  The  Danes  pro- 
duce with  Hindoo  women,  children  of  European  type  and  vigour; 
but  such  is  not  the  case  with  other  European  nations  (Rush) .  The 
mongrels  of  Europeans  and  Mongols  constantly  exhibit  the 
type  of  the  mother  (Klaproth)  ;  those  of  Europeans  and  Hot- 
tentots always  exhibit  the  character  of  the  father  (Le  Vaillant) . 
With  regard  to  the  latter,  Burchell7  remarks,  that  the  children 


1  A.  De  St.  Hilaire,  "  Voy.  aux  sources  du  R.  S.  Francisco/'  ii,  p.  253, 1847. 

2  Loc.  cit.,  i,  p.  201. 

3  Schmarda,  "  R.  um  d.  Erde,"  i,  p.  482,  1861. 

4  "  Eeise  in  Arauco,"  i,  p.  180. 

5  «  Peru,"  i,  p.  161,  1846. 

6  Loc.  cit.,  ii,  p.  3. 

7  Loc.  cit.,  ii,  p.  185. 


SECT.  III.]  INTERMIXTURE    OF    RACES.  171 

of  a  white  woman  by  a  Hottentot  are  taller,  whiter,  and  of 
more  European  features  than  those  of  a  Hottentot  woman  and 
a  European.  The  latter  are  brown,  thick-set  men,  with  hair 
less  crisp  than  that  of  the  Negro,  flat  nose,  hollow  cheeks,  no 
beard,  and  but  few  hairs  on  the  upper  lip.1  According  to 
Sparraian,2  their  bones  and  muscles  are  more  developed  than 
in  Hottentots. 

Since  it  results  that  there  is  no  certain  rule  with  regard  to 
the  greater  resemblance  of  mongrels  to  either  of  the  parents, 
we  must  try  whether  other  facts  may  not  throw  some  light  on 
this  question.  Some  authors  have  taken  as  a  starting  point, 
the  greater  or  less  differences  of  types.  If  the  difference  be 
important,  the  mongrel  represents  the  intermediate  type  ;3  and 
this  intermediate  form  is,  according  to  I.  Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire, 
constant.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  parent  stocks  are  less 
distinct,  the  mongrel  approaches  constantly  one  of  the  types  of 
either  parent.  In  the  intermixture  of  the  Negro  and  the  Euro- 
pean, which  Geoffroy  considers  as  specifically  distinct,  inter- 
mediate types  are  constant  results.  Nott  and  Gliddon  agree 
in  this  view,  but  add  that  the  cross-breeds  of  different  species 
of  men  do  not,  in  respect  of  characters,  all  obey  the  same  law ; 
for  while  Europeans  and  Negroes  produce  an  intermediate  type, 
others  (Europeans  and  Americans)  produce  types  resembling 
either  of  the  parents. 

With  regard  to  animals,  for  instance,  mongrels  of  wild  and 
tame  hogs,  dogs,  cats,  birds,  take  either  after  the  male  or 
female.  We  may  admit  that  in  man  the  Mulatto  type 
appears  to  be  constant,  but  this  applies  chiefly  to  the  first 
generation ;  as  by  a  continued  admixture  of  new  elements  of 
the  white  or  black  race,  a  variety  of  forms  is  produced,  as 
shown  by  the  following  examples.  The  third  child  of  a  three- 
quarter  white  woman  by  a  Mulatto  (half-breed),  had  the  colour 
of  the  father;  the  other  children  were  lighter  in  colour  than 
the  mother.  A  Mulatto  woman  bore  to  a  Negro  two  children 


1  Arbousset  et  Daumas,  "  Eel.  d'un  voy.  au  N.  E.  du  Cap  de  B.  Esperance," 
p.  20,  1842. 

2  «  E.  nach  d.  K.  d.  g.  H.,"  p.  261,  1784. 

3  Edwards,  "  Des  caracterea  phy.  des  races  humaines/'  p.  21,  1829. 


172  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PAET   I. 

of  her  own  colour,  and  eleven  others  who  were  even  blacker 
than  the  father.  A  Negress  bore  to  a  Mulatto,  nine  or  ten 
black  children  and  two  or  three  of  the  colour  of  the  father 
(Nott  and  Gliddon).  In  the  same  family  may  be  seen  Mu- 
latto children  with  crisp,  or  with  light,  straight  hair  (Bur- 
meister).  A  Negro  in  Berlin  had  by  a  white  woman  seven 
Mulatto  girls,  and  four  white  boys.1  Lucas2  relates  three 
similar  cases  :  a  white  woman  had  by  a  Negro  a  black  child,  a 
Mulatto,  and  a  white  boy.  Campbell3  mentions  a  similar  case. 
When  d'Abbadie4  states,  that  among  the  red  race  in  Abys- 
sinia, black  children  are  seen,  and  that  among  the  Negroes  of 
these  regions  red  and  black  individuals  are  seen  in  the  same 
tribe,  they  are  probably  mongrels,  of  which  the  type  is  incon- 
stant. 

With  regard  to  the  mongrels  of  the  American  race,  we 
equally  observe  a  great  variation  in  external  appearance.  The 
Mestizo-mongrels  of  white  men  and  American  women — recog- 
nized in  Mexico  by  their  yellowish,  weak  beard,  and  somewhat 
oblique  aperture  of  the  eyes5 — have  in  Quito  small  foreheads  and 
coarse  hair,  small,  pointed  nose,  and  good  beards ;  some  of  them 
have  a  fair  skin  and  light  hair,  others  are  as  dark  as  the 
Indians  ;6  they  are  mostly  well  formed,  yet  easily  recognizable 
by  their  low  foreheads  and  great  leanness.7  In  the  central 
parts  of  Peru,  on  the  contrary,  of  Herculean  frame,  and  a 
whiter  colour,  frequently  with  a  yellowish  tint.8  In  Chili  they 
are  often  taller  but  less  compact  than  the  Indians :  still  they 
are  broad-shouldered,  with  a  short  neck,  short  arms,  small 
hands  and  feet;  and  in  this  as  well  in  hair,  cheek-bone,  flat 
nose  with  large  nostrils,  resemble  the  Indians.9 

In  Concepcion  they  are  as  white  as  the  Spaniards ;  some  of 

1  Siebold,  "  Journal  f.  Geburtsh."  vii,  p.  2. 

2  Loc.  cit.,  i,  p.  213. 

3  "  E.  in  Siid.-Afr.,"  p.  360,  1816. 

4  "  Bullet.  Soc.  Geogr.,  ii,  p.  45,  1855. 

5  Muhlerpfordt,  i,  p.  261. 

6  Ulloa,  "  Voyage/'  i,  p.  228. 

7  Stevenson,  ii,  p.  177. 

8  Unanne,  "  Observ.  sobre  el  clima  de  Lima,"  p.  106,  1815. 

9  Poppig,  i,  p.  201. 


SECT.  1II.J  INTERMIXTURE    OP   RACES.  173 

them  are  quite  fair.1  The  stiff  hair  which  they  preserve  to  the 
second  and  third  generations  is,  according  to  Ovaglie,2  the  only 
mark  which  there  distinguishes  the  Mestizoes  from  the  pure 
Spaniards.  Among  the  Sertanejos  of  Pernambuco  the  children 
of  the  same  parents  are  rarely  all  of  the  same  colour,  and  the 
difference  is  in  some  cases  so  great,  that  a  doubt  might  arise  as 
to  their  legitimacy  if  the  phenomenon  were  less  general.3  In 
Paraguay,  where  the  intermixture  between  Spaniards  and  In- 
dians has  been  more  general,  there  are  but  few  indications  of 
Indian  blood  either  in  the  higher  or  lower  ranks ;  the  features 
appear  here  more  English  than  in  any  other  part  of  Spanish 
America.  In  the  huts  of  the  poor,  children  are  frequently  seen 
with  elongated  faces,  and  light  or  red  hair,  as  among  the 
Scotch.4  The  North-American  Indians,  as  is  often  asserted, 
produce,  especially  with  the  Scotch,  a  powerful  race  of  cross- 
breeds.5 The  Mestizoes,  originating  from  the  peoples  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia  river,  exhibit  but  few  peculiarities  of  the 
Indians ;  they  have  mostly  a  light  skin,  frequently  light  hair 
and  blue  eyes.6  The  mongrels  of  Europeans  and  Greenlanders 
have,  as  a  rule,  a  European  physiognomy,  which,  however, 
varies  much,  the  hair  being  mostly  dark,  sometimes  light ;  the 
complexion  fair.  Psychically  they  resemble  more  the  Esquimaux, 
chiefly  because  they  are  brought  up  by  Esquimaux  mothers, 
though  they  are  more  active,  clean,  and  orderly.7 

Castelnau8  makes  the  following   statement  concerning   the 
Mulattoes  of  Minas  Greraes  : — 

1 .  The  child  of  a  white  man  and  an  Indian  woman  resembles 
the  mother :  it  has  stiff  hair  and  oblique  eyes. 

2.  The  child  of  an  Indian  and  Negress,  the  Cabouret  or 
Zambo,  has  crisp  hair,  oblique  eyes,  and  a  dark  bronzed  skin. 

3.  That   of  the   Indian   and   the    Cabourette   has   straight 


1  Ulloa,  ii,  p.  34. 

2  "  Hist,  relatione  del  regno  di  Cile,  Eoma,"  p.  96,  1646. 

3  Koster/p.  238. 

4  Ausland,  p.  977,  1856,  according  to  Mansfield,  "  Paraguay,  Brazil,  and  the 
Plate." 

5  Kohl,  "Kitschi-Gami,"  ii,  p.  206. 

6  Parker,  "Journal,"  p.  160,  1838. 

'  V.  Etzel,  "  Greenland,"  p.  339,  1860. 
8  "Exped.,"i,  p.  205,  1850. 


174  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

or    slightly  crisp   hair,  oblique    eyes,    and  the  colour  of  the 
Indian.1 

4.  The  child  of  the  Indian  and  the  cross-breed  of  No.  3  re- 
sembles entirely  the  Indian,  and  is  considered  equal  to  him 
before  the  law. 

5.  The  child  of  a  white  man  and  a  Mestizo  is  of  a  light 
copper  colour,  has  stiff  hair  and  oblique  eyes. 

6.  The  offspring  of  a  white  man  and  a  cross-breed  No.  5  is 
white,  but  has  frequently  black  hair  and  somewhat  oblique 
eyes. 

7.  The  child  of  a  white  and  mongrel  No.  6  entirely  resem- 
bles the  white. 

The  Zamboes  or  Cabourets  (Mulattoes  of  Negroes  and  native 
American  women,  called  in  Peru  Chinos)  are  of  a  dark  bronze 
colour,  and  have  crisp  hair  and  oblique  eyes  (Castelnau),  whilst 
in  other  parts  their  hair  is  less  crisp  than  that  of  the  Mulattoes, 
and  they  possess  the  nose  and  mouth  of  the  Negro,  but  the  fore- 
head, cheeks,  and  eyes  of  the  Indian.3  Their  physiognomy  is 
much  more  African  than  American.  The  cheek  bones  are  not 
very  prominent,  the  nose  is  broad  but  turned  up,  the  lips  thick, 
but  not  puffy,  the  hair  half  crisp,  sometimes  merely  at  the 
ends,  the  colour  of  the  skin  dark  copper  or  coffee-brown,  body 
slender,  but  muscular.  They  are  thus  described  by  Schom- 
burgk,3  in  Guiana,  where  they  are  only  found  in  small  num- 
bers, as  (which  is  also  the  case  elsewhere)  Indians  do  not  readily 
intermix  with  Negroes,  whom  they  despise.  The  Zamboes,  in 
the  south  of  the  United  States,  present  sometimes  crisp  hair, 
with  copper-coloured  skin,  and  all  other  Indian  characteristics, 
and  sometimes  the  coarse  hair  of  the  Indian  upon  the  head  of 
a  Negro  with  a  black  skin.  There  is  here  no  intermediate  type 
produced  by  intermixture,  but  there  is  produced  an  irregular 
agglomeration  of  the  characteristics  of  the  parents.4  To  them 
belong  also  the  Cafusos,  whose  enormous  wigs  have  been  de- 
scribed by  Spix  and  Martius.5  The  hair  rises  to  1-1 J  feet,  and  is 

1  Compare  K.  Schomburgh,  ii,  p.  385. 

2  Tschudi,  i,  p.  169. 

3  "  R.  in  Brit.  Guiana,"  i,  sq.  i,  pp.  74,  385. 

4  Forey  in  Schoolcraft,  iv,  p.  359. 

5  "  Reise,"  p.  215. 


SECT.  III.]  INTERMIXTURE    OP   RACES.  175 

curled  at  the  point.  The  face  of  the  Cafuso  resembles  more 
the  Negro  than  the  American,  but  the  thick  lips  are  not  turned 
up ;  the  legs  are  weak,  the  muscles  of  the  chest  and  arms  are 
powerfully  developed.  A  similar  enormous  growth  of  the  hair 
is  also  seen  among  the  Cocamas  on  the  lower  Huallaga,1  so 
that  they  may  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  Zambo  race. 
It  is  also  observed  among  the  Fiji  Islanders,  who,  on  other 
grounds,  are  considered  as  mongrels  of  Polynesians  and  Austral 
Negroes ;  and  it  is  also  probable  that  the  Arab  tribe  in  Taka, 
among  whom  Werne2  observed  the  same  peculiarity,  has  an 
admixture  of  Negro  blood.3 

On  reviewing  the  examples  cited,  we  find  the  principle  con- 
firmed, that  the  pure  races  exhibit  a  more  uniform,  and  the 
mixed  races  a  variegated,  type,  and  this  variation  increases  as 
the  intermixture  progresses. 

When,  therefore,  we  hear  of  a  people  which,  despite  a  low 
state  of  intellectual  culture,  exhibits  a  variety  in  features,  nose, 
lips,  as,  for  instance,  among  the  Tschuvashes,4  we  shall  not  be 
wrong  in  considering  it  as  of  mixed  origin.  With  regard, 
however,  to  the  axiom  of  Geoffroy,  we  can  only  admit  that  the 
product  of  the  crossing  between  the  white  and  the  black  man 
is  usually  an  intermediate  type,  whilst  variety  .and  inconstancy 
of  physical  form  is  again  exhibited  in  subsequent  generations 
by  the  intermixture  of  the  mongrels.  The  principal  types  of 
mankind  appear  to  possess  different  degrees  of  constancy  in 
their  intermixtures.  Next  to  the  Negro  type,  the  Mongolian 
appears  to  possess  considerable  constancy.5  The  characteristics 
of  the  Hottentots  exhibit  a  similar  tenacity.  The  first  altera- 
tion in  their  cross-breeds  is  that  of  colour,  then  of  the  hair,  then 
follows  an  alteration  of  the  form  of  the  nose,  and,  finally,  in 
the  shape  of  the  eyes.6 


1  Poppig,  "  E.,"  ii,  p.  450. 

2  "  Feldz.  nach  Taka,"  p.  89. 

3  In  East  Africa  there  are  also  the  Danakil,  distinguished  by  their  wig-like 
hair  (Harris,  "  Highlands  of  Ethiopia,"  i,  p.  337,  2nd  edit.,  1844 ;  Pickering, 
p.  206.) 

4  Kornheim,  in  Erman's  "  Archiv,"  iii,  p.  74. 

5  Eitter,  "  Erkunde,"  iii,  p.  386. 

6  Schmarda,  "  E.  urn  d.  Erde,"  ii,  p.  32,  1861. 


176  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

The  first  impregnation  seems  to  exert  in  cross-breeds,  both  in 
animals  and  in  man,  an  important  influence  on  physical  forma- 
tion. A  mare  which  has  first  produced  a  mule  produces  subse- 
quently indifferent  colts ;  a  sow  first  crossed  by  a  wild  boar, 
a  bitch  with  a  dog  of  a  different  race,  Subsequently  produce 
young  resembling  the  first.  Thus  it  has  often  been  observed, 
that  the  children  of  a  second  marriage  resemble  those  of  the 
first  husband.1  With  regard  to  cross-breeds  of  various  races, 
instances  are  recorded  of  Negresses  who,  after  having  first 
given  birth  to  Mulatto  children,  had  subsequently  children  by 
a  Negro,  which,  however,  resembled  the  father  of  the  first.2 
That  Negresses,  after  having  had  Mulatto  children,  no  longer 
conceive  by  a  Negro,  as  has  been  asserted,  is  an  error.  This 
applies  also  to  Strzelecki's  assertion,3  that  the  native  women  of 
a  great  part  of  North  America,  as  well  as  those  of  Polynesia, 
Australia,  and  Yan  Diemen's  Land,  were  sterile  with  men  of 
their  own  stock  after  having  once  been  impregnated  by  Euro- 
peans. That  he  is  wrong  as  regards  the  Australian  women  has 
been  shown  by  Thompson.4 

In  proceeding  now  to  the  chief  question,  namely,  the  com- 
parison between  mongrels  and  the  original  types  as  regards 
unlimited  prolificacy,  we  may  assume  as  a  demonstrated  fact, 
that  however  many  types  of  mankind  we  may  assume,  all  of 
them  (as  far  as  our  present  knowledge  extends)  are  prolific 
between  each  other,  and  produce  by  intermixture  certain  inter- 
mediate types  which  exhibit  in  various  degrees  the  characters 
of  the  parents.  By  crossing,  it  may  be  generally  asserted,  the 
lower  type  is  improved  by  a  higher  type,  as,  for  instance,  the 
Negro  into  the  Mulatto,  the  American  Indian  into  the  Mestizo; 
and  this  improvement  progresses  when  the  connection  of  the 
cross-breeds  with  individuals  of  a  higher  type  is  continued  :  thus 
from  Mulattoes  spring  Tertroon,  Quadroon,  Quintroon.  This 
improvement  of  the  race  corresponds  to  the  deterioration  of  the 

1  Instances  of  this  kind  in  Lucas,  and  in  Latham,  "  Man  and  his  migra- 
tions," p.  65. 

2  Harvey  in  Nott  and  Gliddon,  p.  396. 

3  "  Descript.  of  N.  S.  Wales,"  p.  347,  1842. 

4  Fechner's  " Centralbl.,"  1853;  Todd,  "Cyclop.,"  p.  1365;  and  "Munch. 
Gel.  Anz.,"  p.  197,  1852. 


SECT.  III.]  INTERMIXTURE    OF    RACES.  177 

race  by  pairing  the  mongrel  with  an  inferior  race,  for  instance, 
in  the  Zambo,  the  offspring  of  the  Negro  and  Mulatto  (this 
name  is  sometimes  given  to  the  offspring  of  the  Negro  and  the 
native  Indian).  The  transition  of  the  mongrels  of  lower  races 
into  higher,  and  viceversd,  succeeds,  in  a  less  number  of  genera- 
tions, the  more  they  approach  the  original  type.  In  the  Society 
Islands,  where  there  are  but  few  mongrels,  they  are  said  to 
assume  the  European  type  in  the  second  or  third  generation.1 
The  American  Indian  produces  with  a  Zambo  woman  (Cabou- 
rette),  in  the  second  generation,  a  mongrel  resembling  the 
pure  Indian ;  the  white  with  a  Mestizo  woman,  one  who  assumes 
the  type  of  a  white  in  the  third  generation ;  in  four  generations 
Mulattoes  may  become  white,  in  five  generations  they  may 
become  black.2  Thus  the  Quintroon  is  in  law  considered 
as  a  White  in  the  United  States.  In  Dutch  Guiana  the  Quad- 
roons are  in  the  same  conditions.3  The  Mestizo  is  considered 
equal  to  a  Negro-tertroon,  so  that  his  offsprings  are  Quad- 
roons. It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe,  that  these  state- 
ments refer  only  to  physical  conformation,  and  not  to  the  intel- 
lectual capacities  of  the  mongrels,  and  under  the  supposition 
that  the  mongrel,  in  order  to  pass  into  another  race,  should 
uninterruptedly  intermix  with  that  race. 

On  comparing  the  results  of  intermixture  between  various 
human  types  with  those  of  the  crossing  of  animals,  we  obtain 
analogous  results.  In  some  cases  three  generations  have  been 
found  sufficient  to  replace  the  old  race  by  a  new  one;  and,  after 
the  fourth  generation,  no  relapse  to  the  old  race  is  any  longer 
expected.  According  to  Burdach,  six  uninterrupted  impreg- 
nations of  an  inferior  race  by  a  higher  one  are  required  in 
sheep  and  horses  ;  according  to  others,  twelve ;  and,  according 
to  Morel  and  Yinde,  a  continuous  impregnation  is  requisite.4 

1  Bennet,  "  Narr.  of  a  whaling  voy.,"  i,  p.  149,  1840. 

2  Serres'  assertion,  that  in  an  intermixture  of  a  higher  with  a  lower  race,  the 
first  parts  with  at  least  two-thirds  of  its  character  to  the  mongrel,  has  not 
yet  been  confirmed  by  facts ;  and  this  assertion  seems  to  be  a  mere  sequence 
of  the  theory,  that  the  higher  races  are  destined  to  absorb  the  lower  ones, 
and  to  rule  them. 

3  Fechner's  "  Centralbl.,"  p.  288,  1853,  according  to  Castelnau. 

4  V.  Sack,  "Beschr.  e.  E.  nach  Surinam,"  i,  p.  84,  1821. 

5  Chambon,  "  Traite  de  1'education  des  moutons,"  ii,  p.  278. 


178  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

Elyse"e  Lefebvre  and  Grirou  maintain  that  crossing  with  an  in- 
ferior race  should  be  avoided,  for  fear  of  deterioration.  This  opi- 
nion is  borne  out  by  the  fact,  that  in  the  transition  of  the  Negro- 
mongrel  into  the  white,  there  remain  for  a  long  time  some  indi- 
cations of  Negro  descent.  The  peculiar  odour  of  the  Negro 
is  said  to  be  still  perceptible  in  the  Quintroon.  The  cornea  of 
the  Tertroon  Mestizo  (and,  perhaps,  in  later  generations)  is 
somewhat  yellowish.1  The  violet  colour  of  the  nails  near  the 
insertion,  and  the  bluish  ring  round  the  eyes,  as  well  as  the 
peculiar  shape  of  the  heels  and  feet,  remain  for  a  long  time  in 
the  Negro  mongrels.2  The  darkening  of  the  skin  in  Hindoo 
mongrels  in  advanced  age,  and  the  dark  colour  of  the  genitals 
in  the  former,  as  well  as  in  the  American  Mestizo,  is  a  pecu- 
liarity which,  even  after  many  generations,  indicates  the  source 
they  have  sprung  from.3  When,  therefore,  Nott,  as  a  genuine 
American,  believes  he  can  detect  in  every  case  an  admixture  of 
Negro  blood,  even  in  Quintroons,  we  may  admit  all  this  with- 
out adopting  his  hypothesis,  that  the  Mulattoes  become  extinct 
after  a  few  generations,  and  before  they  can  perfectly  assume 
the  type  of  the  white  race. 

In  the  United  States  they  are  exceedingly  acute  in  the  recog- 
nition of  these  minute  distinctions,  for  the  fashion,  in  opposition 
to  the  law  of  the  land,  proscribes  any  one  in  whose  veins  there 
is  a  drop  of  Negro  blood,  whilst  in  Brazil  no  stigma  is  attached 
to  mixed  descent.  Whoever  shares  the  Negro  prejudices  of  the 
North  Americans  must  certainly  feel  inclined  to  assume  distinct 
species  among  mankind,  and  consider  that  a  trace  of  Negro 
blood,  however  slight,  renders  man,  morally  and  intellectually, 
inferior  to  the  pure  white  ;  while,  according  to  Nott  and  Grlid- 
don,  a  few  drops  of  European  blood  produce  a  decided  modi- 
fication in  the  moral  and  physical  character  of  the  Negro. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Mulatto  is  more  gifted  than  the 
Negro,  though  impartial  observers  still  doubt  whether  the 
greater  intelligence  of  the  Mulattoes,  who  are,  on  this  account, 
preferred  for  domestic  service,  is  the  consequence  of  an  im- 

1  Labat,  "Nouv.  voy.  aux  lies  de  1'Am./'  i,  pp.  2,  40,  1724. 

2  Day,  "  Five  years  resid.  in  the  W.  Indies,"  i,  p.  51. 

3  D'Orbigny  et  Troyer,  "  Bullet.  Soc.  Ethnol.,"  Mai  22,  1846. 


SECT.  III.]  INTEEMIXTUEE    OP   EACES.  179 

provement  of  the  race,  or  of  a  superior  education,  and  of  more 
intercourse  with  the  whites.1  In  French  West  India  (Gua- 
deloupe) nearly  all  the  trades  are  in  the  hands  of  Mulattoes, 
and  some  of  them  are  rich.2  They  have  in  1830  recovered 
again  their  civil  rights,  which  the  code  noir  of  the  year  1855 
had  given  them,  but  later  decrees  had  deprived  them  of.  Their 
intelligence  and  activity  render  them  hateful  to  the  Creoles.3 
In  Peru  many  Mulattoes  study  theology ;  most  physicians  in 
Lima  belong  to  this  caste.4  In  the  northern  parts  of  Brazil 
(Bahia,  Pernambuco,  Maranham),  they  form  a  large  and  active 
portion  of  the  population.5  In  every  rank  of  society,  among 
lawyers,  physicians,  statesmen,  and  scholars  in  Brazil,  there 
are  Mulattoes  who  distinguish  themselves  by  talent  and  intelli- 
gence ;  they  seem  also  to  possess  great  capacity  for  the  fine  arts, 
so  that  men  of  colour  are  there  received  in  the  best  society. 
Many  Mulattoes  pass  there  for  whites,  and  occupy  the  same 
position,  after  their  documents  have  declared  them  as  such.6 
A.  de  St.  Hilaire7  is  of  opinion  that  the  Mulattoes  in  Brazil 
excel  the  white  in  intellect  and  talent,  though  they  are  morally 
inferior,  and  share  with  the  Negro  the  fickleness  of  character. 
The  Mestizo,  who  stands  nearer  to  the  white  by  a  generation, 
is  inferior  to  the  Mulatto,  the  latter  being  more  active  than  the 
former;  thus  it  is  in  Brazil,  Peru,  and  Mexico.8  Koster9  alone 
maintains  that  they  possess  greater  courage  and  more  self- 
esteem  than  the  Mulattoes,  and  are,  consequently,  less  subor- 
dinate to  the  white  than  the  latter.  The  Mestizo  is  less 
vigorous,  often  indolent  and  undecided ;  still  he  is  gentle,  com- 
passionate, easily  excited,  but  of  a  changeable  disposition,  and 
without  valour.  The  Mexican  Mestizoes  possess  great  intel- 
lectual endowments  ;  they  have  a  ready  wit,  are  quick  of  appre- 


1  Lyell,  "  Second  voyage/'  p.  266. 

2  Granier  de  Cassagnac,  "  Voy.  aux  Antilles,"  i,  p.  255,  1843. 

3  Oelsner-montmerque,  d.  Creole,  e.  Vorlesung,  p.  23,  1848. 

*  Tschudi,  i,  p.  167. 

5  Kendu  "  Etudes  sur  le  Bresil,"  p.  30,  1848. 

*  De  Lisboa,  "  Bullet,  soc.  ethuol.,"  p.  58,  Jan.  1847. 

7  Loc.  cit.,  ii,  p.  52. 

8  Spix  and  Martius,  p.  607;   Tschudi,  i,  p.  165;    Humboldt,  "  Neu-Spa- 
nien,"  i,  p.  184. 

9  "R.  in  Brasilien,"  p.  553,  1817. 

N2 


180  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

tension,  and   possess   a  lively  imagination ;  those,  however, 
sprung  from  white  mothers  are  said  to  be  more  vicious  than 
the  children  of  the  Indian  women.1       They  excel  the   Euro- 
pean in  agriculture,  cattle  breeding,  and  mining  labour.2     The 
Mestizo  in  Peru  is,  according  to  Poppig,  not  so  robust  as  the 
Mulatto,  and  often  indolent.    Tschudi  justly  draws  attention  to 
the  fact,  that  talents  among  the  Indians  and  mongrels  have  no 
field  for  display,  oppressed  as  they  are  by  the  White.    Accord- 
ing to  Poppig,3  the  mongrel  population,  with  its  innate  vices, 
and  their  hatred  against  the  pure  races  from  which  they  have 
sprung,  is  an  everlasting  canker  of  society  and  political  life  in 
South  America,  as  all  the  shades  of  the  mongrels  are  hostile  to 
each  other  and  to  the  pure  race.     Like  the  Mulatto,  the  Mes- 
tizo is   considered  as  having   inherited  all   the   vices    of   his 
parents,  without  any  of  their  virtues ;  with  the  pride  of  the 
White,  which  he  carries  to  excess,  he  combines  the  laziness, 
apathy,  thoughtlessness,  and  inconstancy  of  the  Indian ;  he  is 
dissipated,  ambitious,   and   cowardly,    very   tyrannical  to  the 
Indian,  as  the  Mulatto  is  to  the  Negro  ;  he  possesses,  however, 
great  imitative  talent.4      The  coloured  population  in  British 
Guiana  at  present  frequently  rival  the  Europeans  as  mechanics 
and  artists.5     A  very  favourable  description  is  given  of  the 
capacities  and   the   character  of  the  Mestizoes  in  Paraguay.6 
The  half-breds  in  Oregon  resemble  the  father  in  their  mental 
activity,  but   frequently  exhibit   something  of  the  wild  pas- 
sionateness  of  their  mother.     Quick  to  learn,  well-spoken,  and 
of  courteous  manners,  they  are,  nevertheless,  without  any  edu- 
cation,  and  have,   moreover,  constantly  before  them  the  evil 
example  of  their  parents.     They  are  given  to  swearing,  drink- 
ing, and  other  excesses  ;  excellent  hunters,  skilful  navigators, 
brave  and  courageous  in  battle,   open  and  generous  of  cha- 
racter, without    cunning  and  hypocrisy;    they   submit  to  no 


1  Muehlenpfordt,  i,  p.  260. 

2  Sartorius,  "  Mexico,"  p.  156,  1859. 

3  Loc.  cit.,  i,  p.  193. 

4  Ibid.,  ii,  p.  146. 

5  E.  Schoniburgk,  i,  p.  47. 

6  Gumprecht,  "  Zeitschr.  f.  Erdk./'  ii,  p.  29. 


SECT.  III.]  INTERMIXTURE   OP   1UCES.  181 

wrong,  being  themselves  careful  not  to  offend  others.1  The 
Zarnbo  excels  the  Negro  Indian  in  energy,  stature,  and  vigour;3 
but  we  rarely  meet  with  such  a  favourable  description  of  their 
characters,  as  that  given  by  A.  de  St.  Hilaire3  of  the  Zamboes 
on  the  Paranahyba.  He  describes  them  as  peaceable  agricul- 
turists, providing  for  all  their  wants ;  they  spin  and  weave, 
make  their  own  pottery,  are  well-dressed,  and  live  in  comfort- 
able circumstances.  Sarmiento4  also  attributes  to  the  Zamboes 
of  the  Argentine  republic,  talents  and  progressive  civilization. 
But  elsewhere  they  are  in  very  bad  repute,  on  account  of  their 
indifferent  character,  though  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  almost 
all  of  them  are  illegitimate  children.  The  Cocamas  are  said  to 
be  courageous,  warlike,  and  lovers  of  freedom.5  The  so- 
called  "Black  Caribs"  of  St.  Vincent,  who  once  murdered 
the  colonists  of  that  island  without  any  provocation,  were 
Zamboes.  In  Lima  all  the  great  criminals  are,  according  to 
Tschudi,  Zamboes,  who  are  also  in  Caraccas  considered  as  the 
worst  class  of  the  population.  By  far  the  most  profligate  of 
all  mongrels  in  Peru  are  those  of  Negroes  and  Mestizoes,  or  of 
Negroes  and  Mulattoes.6  This  applies  also  to  the  Zamboes  in 
Nicaragua.7  Like  the  cross-breeds  of  the  Dutch  and  Malay 
women  in  Batavia,  the  Hindoo  mongrels  of  Europeans  are  weak 
in  body  and  mind.8  The  mongrels  of  Europeans  and  New 
Zealand  women  are  described  as  healthy  and  muscular,9  but 
neither  bodily  nor  intellectually  do  they  seem  superior  to  the 
children  of  the  natives ;  the  latter  are  open  and  free  with 
strangers,  the  former  are  bashful,  and  conceal  themselves 
behind  their  mothers.10 

Various  theories  have  been  founded  upon  the  phenomena 
resulting  from  the  crossing  of  different  types.    Grobineau  has  en- 


1  E.  Cox,  "  The  Columbia  river,"  iii,  p.  298,  3rd  edit.,  1832. 

2  Lavaysse,  "  E.  nacli  Trinidad,"  p.  357,  1816. 

3  "  Voy.  aux  sources  du  E.  S.  Francisco,"  ii,  p.  254,  1847. 

4  "  Nouv.  Ann.  des  voy.,"  p.  302,  1853. 
*  Poppig,  ii,  p.  401. 

6  Stevenson,  "  E.,"  i,  p.  200. 

7  Squier,  "  Trav.  in  centr.  Am.,"  ii,  p.  153,  1853. 

8  Graf  Odrtz,  "  E.  um  d.  Welt,"  iii,  p.  405. 

9  Polack,  "  New-Zeal.,"  ii,  p.  276,  1838 ;  Schmalda,  loc.  cit.,  ii,  p.  200. 

10  Savage,  "  Some  account  of  N.  Zeal.,"  p.  92,  1807. 


182  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

deavoured  to  establish  the  one,  that  the  crossing  of  different  types 
invariably  induces  a  physical  and  moral  degeneration,  and  im- 
plants the  germ  of  certain  decay,  whilst  Serres  considers  cross- 
ing as  an  essential  means  of  improving  the  race,  and  rendering  it 
vigorous  by  the  infusion  of  fresh  blood  from  a  different  stock  : 
he  is  even  inclined  to  believe  that  in  a  perfect  intermixture  of  the 
chief  types  is  a  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  development  of 
humanity.  Nott,  who  thinks  to  have  demonstrated  the  exist- 
ence of  various  human  species,  endeavours  also  to  prove  that 
mongrels  possess  little  viability,  and  only  a  limited  prolificacy, 
and  are  incapable  by  themselves  of  founding  a  new  type,  since 
they  have  no  permanent  vitality  without  re-crossing  with 
one  of  the  parent  stocks.  It  will  presently  be  shown  that 
this  theory  is  as  little  consonant  with  the  facts  as  the  pre- 
ceding. 

Whatever  view  we  may  adopt  with  regard  to  the  unity  of  the 
human  species,  it  would  be  idle  to  expect  that  the  mongrels  of 
the  various  types  should  be  equally  viable  and  vigorous,  since 
there  are  peoples  apparently  unmixed  who  are  more  or  less 
strong  or  weak,  according  to  their  constitution,  mode  of  life, 
and  climate.  Corresponding  differences  are  found  in  mongrel 
races.  In  some  cases  the  mongrels  of  different  stocks  are  more 
prolific  and  vigorous  than  the  stock  from  which  they  issued. 
The  Kuruglis  (mongrels  of  Turks  and  Moors)  excel  their 
Turkish  fathers  in  strength  and  beauty  of  form.1  Arabs  and 
Ethiopians  (Abyssinians  and  their  allied  tribes)  produce  a  fine 
race,  viable  in  all  warm  climates.2  From  the  intermixture  of 
Europeans  with  the  natives  of  the  Philippines  there  frequently 
issue  finer  children  than  those  produced  by  the  marriages  of 
Europeans  between  themselves.3  D'Orbigny  is  of  opinion, 
that,  by  the  intermixture  of  various  Indian  tribes  of  South 
America,  healthier  and  more  gifted  individuals  are  produced ; 
but  he  does  not  think  that  such  is  the  case  when  Europeans 
ally  themselves  with  the  natives  of  those  regions.  The  mixed 
populations  of  Paraguay,  existing  in  a  similar  healthy  con- 

1  M.  Wagner,  "  E.  in  Algier,"  iii,  p.  293,  1841. 

2  Pruner,  p.  71. 

3  Mallat,  ii,  p.  40. 


SECT.  III.]  INTERMIXTURE    OP    RACES.  183 

dition,1  after  a  few  generations,  excel  the  Spaniards  of  these 
parts.  In  the  state  of  Buenos  Ayres  the  coloured  race 
has  certainly,  since  1778,  been  reduced  from  one-third  of 
the  whole  population  to  one-fourth.  The  cause  of  this 
seems  to  be  their  lesser  fecundity  and  greater  mortality  in  com- 
parison with  the  Whites.  It  must  not,  however,  be  under- 
stood that  the  coloured  population  die  off  in  the  above  propor- 
tion, as  the  diminution  is  also  owing  to  their  fusion  with  the 
white  population,  into  which  they  are  gradually  absorbed.2  In 
Peru,  where  only  the  coloured  population  and  the  Indians 
attain  a  great  age,3  the  Cholos  (mongrels  of  Mestizos  and 
Indians)  are  said  to  excel  all  other  classes  of  the  population  in 
bodily  strength,  activity,  and  talent ;  yet  their  education  is  very 
indifferent.4  We  may  now  mention  a  series  of  opposite  in- 
stances. The  mongrels  of  Europeans  and  natives  of  Northern 
Australia  about  Port  Essington  do  not  appear  to  thrive.5  Are 
they,  perhaps,  like  other  mongrel  children  in  Australia,  killed  ? 
In  the  country  of  the  Fulahs  in  Africa  the  Toucouleurs,  the 
descendants  of  the  immigrant  Pules  (Peuls)  and  the  Negroes, 
are  physically  and  mentally  superior  to  the  latter,  but  there  are 
found  among  them,  especially  in  Futa-Torro,  many  stammerers, 
blind,  hunchbacks,  idiots,  etc.6  The  children  produced  by 
Arabs  with  the  women  of  Darfur  are  weakly,  and  have  but 
little  vitality.7  It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  children 
of  a  white  woman  by  a  Negro  are  rarely  viable ;  Serres  even 
asserts  that  they  are  rarely  prolific.  The  marriages  between 
the  French  and  Indian  women  of  the  north  of  the  United 
States  are,  on  the  whole,  very  productive,  and  the  children, 
despite  the  Indian  mode  of  life,  take  more  after  the  father 
than  the  mother,  the  girls  particularly  so.  If  such  cross-breeds 
intermarry,  the  girls  predominate  in  their  offspring ;  the  chil- 

1  Brackenridge,  "E.  nach  Sud.-Am."  ii,  pp.  74,  152,  1821,  according  to 
Azara,  Funes,  and  Passos. 

2  "  Zeitschr.  f.  AUg.  Erdk.  N.  Folge,"  iv,  p.  141. 

3  Poppig,  p.  208. 

4  Brackenridge,  "E.  nach  Sud-Am.,"  ii,  p.  167,  1821. 

«  Macgillivray,  "  Narr.  of  the  voyage  of  H.M.S.  Eattlesnake,"  i,  p.  151, 1852. 

6  Mollien,  "  E.  in  d.  Innere  v.  Africa,"  p.  174,  1820 ;  Eaffenel,  "  Voy.  dans 
1'Afr.  occ.,"  p.  51,  1846. 

7  Mohammed-el-Tounsy,  "  Voy.  au  Darf  p.  Jomard,"  p.  277,  1845. 


184  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

dren  are  frequently  stunted  and  deficient  in  vitality — this,  at 
least,  is  the  prevailing  belief  in  that  country.1 

Some  of  these  cases  remind  us  of  the  axiom  of  Buffon,  that, 
from  the  connexion  of  near  relations,  morbid  affections,  idiotcy, 
blindness,  and  dumbness  arise.  It  does  not  yet  seem  to  be 
ascertained  how  it  stands  with  regard  to  domestic  animals.  In 
the  breeding  of  blood  horses  the  stallion  is  made  to  cover  his 
own  descendants.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  asserted  that  all 
races  of  animals  are  entirely  deteriorated  in  the  second  and 
third  generation  by  the  coupling  of  near  relations ;  and  such  is 
also  the  case  with  man.2  We  know  that  in  many  ancient  and  mo- 
dern nations,  marriages  between  brothers  and  sisters,  even  be- 
tween parents  and  their  children,  frequently  took  place  without 
a  deterioration  of  the  race.  Such  alliances  were  made  among 
the  Assyrians,  Egyptians,  Athenians,  Persians,  some  peoples  of 
India  (before,  and  even  after,  the  introduction  of  Buddhism), 
the  Druses,  Mingrelians,  the  royal  family  of  the  Sandwich 
Islands.  This  also  appears  from  some  legends  of  American 
Indians  and  other  nations.  Garcilasso3  narrates  that  the  chil- 
dren of  Manco  Capac  intermarried,  and  that  this  was  the  custom 
in  the  royal  family  of  Peru,  to  keep  the  race  pure.  They  jus- 
tified the  custom,  inasmuch  as  the  moon  was  both  the  sister 
and  the  wife  of  the  sun.  The  Inca  always  married  his  eldest 
sister.  According  to  Acosta,4  only  the  last  Incas  did  so. 
Among  the  Coroados  marriages  between  the  nearest  blood 
relations  occur  frequently.5  As  proofs  of  the  destructiveness 
of  such  connexions,  the  Irish  in  South  Carolina  are  cited,  who 
for  a  long  time  have  only  intermarried  between  themselves.6 
The  Dutch  colonists  at  the  Cape  are  in  the  same  condition  ;7 
Lichtenstein8  had  already  noticed  the  frequent  presence  among 
them  of  deaf  and  dumb,  idiots,  etc.  Davis9  says  also  of  the  so- 

1  Kohl  in  Ausland,  p.  57,  1859. 

2  Lucas,  ii,  p.  904. 

3  "  Hist,  des  Yncas,"  i,  pp.  2,  25. 

4  "  Hist.  nat.  e  morale  delle  Indie/'  vi,  c.  12,  Venet.,  1596. 

5  Eschwege,  "  Journal  v.  Brasil,"  i,  p.  121,  1818. 

6  Nott  and  Gliddon,  p.  408. 

7  Kretschmar,  "  Siid-Afr.  Skizzen,"  p.  163,  1853. 

8  "  Reisen,"  i,  pp.  101,  211,  346. 

9  "El  Gringo,"  p.  146,  N.  York,  1857. 


SECT.  III.]  INTERMIXTURE   OP   RACES.  185 

called  Pueblos  Indians  in  New  Mexico,  that  they  degenerate 
because  the  inhabitants  of  the  same  village  only  intermarry. 

We  believe  we  are  justified  in  concluding  from  the  pre- 
ceding facts,  with  regard  to  sexual  intercourse  and  the  quality 
of  the  offspring,  that  there  exists,  both  in  individuals  of  the 
same  stock,  as  well  as  between  different  nations,  not  exactly 
antipathy,  but  still  incompatibility,  which,  though  not  explica- 
ble as  to  its  origin,  is  sufficiently  established;  and,  in  spite 
of  this,  we  are  not  competent,  from  the  sterility  or  decay  of 
certain  races,  to  infer  a  difference  of  species  of  mankind  as  its 
cause.  Such  a  conclusion  is  inadmissible,  on  the  ground  that 
there  are  not  a  few  peoples  sprung  from  the  same  stock,  ac- 
counted as  deficient  in  vitality,  who  perpetuate  themselves  in 
full  health.  For  this  purpose,  we  shall  examine  the  contested 
prolificacy  of  Mulattoes,1  as  far  as  it  seems  founded  on  facts. 
It  has  been  asserted  that  the  Mulattoes  would  become  extinct 
if  they  could  be  cut  off  from  any  infusion  of  new  blood  from 
the  parent  stocks.2  Mulattoes  of  the  same  degree  are  said  to 
be  rarely  prolific.3  Nott,  especially,  has,  in  his  work  "  On 
Hybridity,"  dwelt  on  the  sterility  of  Mulattoes,  which  had 
already  been  noticed  by  Etwick  and  Long,4  in  order  to  establish 
their  defective  vitality.  He  has,  it  is  true,  subsequently  aban- 
doned the  view,  that,  of  all  men,  the  mean  duration  of  life  is 
least  in  the  Mulatto ;  and  he  now  only  maintains  that  the  Mulat- 
toes in  the  north  of  the  United  States  proceeding  from  English- 
men possessed  less  vitality  than  those  of  the  south  sprung  from 
dark-complexioned  races,  such  as  the  Spaniards,  Portuguese, 
etc.  Nott's  present  theory  regarding  Mulattoes  is,  that  they 
are  less  capable  of  sustaining  physical  labour  than  the  Europeans 
and  Negroes ;  that  the  women  are  very  delicate,  have  many 
miscarriages,  and  are  subject  to  many  chronic  diseases.:  that 

1  With  regard  to  the  axiom  of  Geoffrey  and  Nott,  quoted  above,  as  to  the 
sterility  of  Mulattoes,  it  is  interesting  to  compare  Wiegman's  observation, 
that  in  plants  hybrids  are  sterile  which  present  an  intermediate  type  between 
two  species ;  whilst  those  which  partake  more  of  one  or  the  other  species,  can 
be  propagated  by  seeds. 

2  Van  Amringe,  "  Investigations  of  the  theories  of  the  nat.  hist,  of  man ;" 
Knox,  "The  Races  of  Man,"  1850;  Ham.  Smith,  "Natural  history  of  the 
human  species,"  1848. 

3  Day,  "  Five  years  residence  in  the  West  Indies,"  i,  p.  294,  1852. 

4  "  History  of  Jamaica." 


186  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

they  are  bad  breeders,  that  the  children  die  young ;  and,  finally, 
that  the  Mulattoes,  like  the  Negroes,  are  little  liable  to  yellow 
fever.  As  to  the  latter  point,  we  have  already  shown  that  it 
chiefly  depends  upon  acclimatization,  and  not  upon  peculiarity 
of  race.  With  respect  to  the  weakness  and  mortality  of  the 
Mulatto  children,  it  is  not  yet  proved  whether  or  not  it  is  to  be 
attributed  to  the  race,  and  the  fact  itself  is  not  yet  established. 
Bachman1  knew  Mulatto  families  in  Carolina  and  New  York 
who,  without  any  infusion  of  new  blood,  were  prolific  through 
five  generations,  and  are  still  so.  Lewis2  expressly  denies  the 
sterility  of  the  Mulattoes  in  Jamaica,  and  says  they  are  as  pro- 
lific as  the  black  and  the  white,  but  they  are  generally  weakly, 
and  their  children  do  not  exhibit  strong  vital  powers ;  hence 
Mulatto  women  prefer  marrying  Whites,  so  that  the  Mulattoes 
are  obliged  to  marry  black  women.  Hombron3  remarks,  on  the 
sterility  of  various  races,  that  the  white  and  the  native  Ameri- 
can women  present  the  greatest  prolificacy ;  then  come  the 
Negro  and  the  Negress,  then  Negro  and  the  American  woman  ; 
Mulattoes  and  white  women,  as  well  as  Mulattoes  between 
themselves,  are  also  very  prolific.  Mulattoes  moreover  form, 
in  the  northern  provinces  of  Brazil,  such  a  large  portion  of 
the  population,  that  their  prolificacy  cannot  be  doubted.  The 
vigorous  inhabitants  of  the  Fiji  Islands  are  also,  by  their 
language  and  physical  constitution,  proved  to  be  a  mixed 
people,  sprung  from  Polynesians  and  Austral  Negroes.  The 
people  of  the  Griquas  in  South  Africa  have  come  from  inter- 
mixture of  Hottentots,  Dutch,  and  Negroes.4  The  Dutch  and 
Hottentots  at  the  Cape  intermarry  between  themselves,  and 
but  rarely  with  either  of  the  parent  stock  ;5  and  yet  we  hear 
nothing  of  their  sterility ;  on  the  contrary,  the  offsprings  are 
described  as  very  vigorous.  The  Rhenish  Missionary  Journal6 
contains  a  case  of  a  mongrel  who  was  the  father  of  twenty-four 
children  by  one  wife. 

1  In  Smyth,  "  Unity  of  the  human  races/'  p.  196,  1830. 

2  "  Journal  of  a  residence  among  the  Negroes  in  the  W.  Indies,"  p.  55, 1845. 


1850. 

5  Barrington,  "Account  of  a  voyage  toN.  S.  Wales,"  p.  189,  2nd  edit.,  1810. 

6  Page  296,  1850. 


SECT.  III.]  INTERMIXTURE   OF   RACES.  187 

It  is  certainly  much  more  easy  to  assert  the  sterility  of  Mu- 
lattoes  than  to  refute  it  by  the  few  observations  we  possess  on 
this  subject.  Wherever  sterility  occurs  it  appears  rather  as  an 
isolated  fact,  the  local  nature  of  which  does  not  admit  of  its 
being  laid  down  as  a  general  rule.  Thus  we  must  consider  it  as 
a  local  phenomenon  that  the  mongrels  of  Negroes,  Indians,  and 
Whites  in  Panama  are  very  prolific  between  each  other,  but  can- 
not easily  rear  their  children,  whilst  families  of  pure  blood  are 
less  prolific,  but  bring  their  children  up.1  The  progeny  of 
the  Chinese  by  Malay  women  in  the  East  Indian  Archipelago 
are  said  to  die  early.2  According  to  Dr.  Yvan,  the  children  of 
the  Dutch  and  Malay  women  in  Java  (Lipplapps)  are  said  to  be 
only  productive  to  the  third  generation.  They  are  well  de- 
veloped up  to  the  fifteenth  year,  when  they  remain  stationary ; 
in  the  third  generation  chiefly  daughters  are  born,  and  these 
remain  barren.3  But  all  this  is  an  exceptional  local  phenome- 
non, for  elsewhere  these  mongrels  remain  prolific.4  As  a 
parallel  to  the  sterility  of  mongrels  may  be  mentioned  the 
assertion,  that  the  children  of  Europeans  in  Batavia  become 
frequently  sterile  in  the  second  generation.5 

Setting  aside  the  Mulattoes,  it  has  frequently  been  asserted 
that  mongrels  of  every  kind  can  only  perpetuate  themselves  by 
an  infusion  of  fresh  blood  from  the  parent  stock,  not  having 
between  themselves  an  unlimited  prolificacy.  That  children  of 
mongrels  are  produced  in  great  numbers  is  already  proved  by 
the  variety  of  names  given  to  them  in  South  America  :— 
Choles,  children  of  Zamboes ;  Kaskes,  children  of  Mulattoes ; 
Tente  en  el  ayre,  children  of  mongrels  of  the  same  degree,6  etc. 
The  significance  of  these  terms7  is  given  by  Blumenbach  and  by 

1  Seemann,  "  R.  u.  d.  Welt,"  i,  p.  314,  1853. 

2  "  Ztschft.  der  morgenl.  Ges.,"  vi,  p.  573. 

3  Graf  Gorz,  Reise,  iii,  p.  288. 

4  Quatrefages,  "  Revue  des  deux  mondes,"  Mars,  p.  162, 1857. 

s  Steen  Bille,  "  Bericht  iiber  d.  E.  de  Galathea,"  i,  p.  376,  1852. 

6  Ulloa,  "Voy.,"  i,  p.  28,  1752. 

7  As  an  illustration  of  this  confusion  of  terms,  the  following  will  serve : — 
In  the  "West  Indies  the  native  Whites  are  called  Creoles ;   in  Brazil,   the 
Blacks  who  are  born  there  (Steen  Bille  says,  the  Blacks  only  are  called  so 
in  Brazil).      In   Peru,  the   children  of  Whites   and   Mestizoes  are  called 
Creoles.     In  Russian  America,  the  Mestizoes  are  generally  designated  as 
Creoles  (Erman's  "  Archiv,"  ii,  p.  461) ;  and  in  East  India,  the  term  is  used 


188  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART 


* 

le. 


VollgrafF.1  A  continued  admixture  of  fresh  blood  of  one  ele- 
ment, without  a  corresponding  addition  on  the  other  side,  would 
be  a  sure  means  of  destroying  the  type,  and  reducing  the 
people  to  its  original,  that  is  to  say,  the  character  of  the  mon- 
grels could  not  be  preserved  under  such  circumstances.  Hence 
those  who  consider  a  fresh  infusion  as  indispensable  are  obliged 
to  deny  the  capacity  of  mixed  peoples  to  perpetuate  them- 
selves. 

In  addition  to  the  preceding  instances  of  mixed  populations 
which  subsist  independently,  we  would  also  mention  those  of 
Mexico  and  the  Philippines,  possessing  partly  an  undoubted 
mixed  population  of  Spaniards  and  natives;  of  Nicaragua, 
which,  besides  10,000  whites,  15,000  Negroes,  and  80,000 
Indians,  has  a  Mestizo  population  of  145,000  souls;2  the 
province  S.  Paulo,  with  a  thoroughly  mixed  population ;  and 
Paraguay,  where  the  Mestizoes  (mongrels  of  Spaniards  and 
Ghiaranis)  intermarry,  and  the  progeny  of  which  forms  the  great 
mass  of  the  so-called  Spanish  population  ;3  New  Granada,  pos- 
sessing a  mixed  population  sprung  from  Spaniards,  Indians, 
and  Negroes,  in  which  the  Spanish  blood  is  greatly  predomi- 
nating, but,  in  spite  of  their  designation  as  whites,  are  not  free 
from  Indian  and  Negro  blood  ;4  Caraccas,  where  the  mixed  popu- 
lation form  the  majority,5  and  we  do  not  hear  anything  of  de- 
fective vitality,  diminution,  or  decay.  We  learn,  on  the  con- 
trary, that  the  Mestizoes  in  New  Granada,  as  well  as  in  the 

in  the  same  sense  (Pfyffer,  "  Skizzen  v.  d.  Insel.  Java,"  p.  67,  1829).  The 
Mulatto  is  called  Pardo  in  Brazil ;  in  Buenos  Ayres,  Mestizo ;  who  again  in 
Brazil  is  called  Mamaluco.  The  child  of  a  Negro  and  Mulatto  is,  in  Peru 
and  the  West  Indies,  called  Zambo ;  elsewhere  the  mongrel  of  the  Ameri- 
can and  Negro  race  has  the  name  of  Chino;  Caboglo  in  Surinam;  Ca- 
riboco  in  Brazil  (A.  de  St.  Hilaire,  ii,  p.  271).  Unanne  ("  Observ.  sobre  el 
clima  de  Lima,"  p.  105,  1815)  enumerates  all  the  crossbreeds  found  in  Peru, 
with  their  names.  "  Quadroon"  is  the  child  of  a  white  man  and  a  mulatto 
woman ;  "  Tertroon"  does  not  seem  to  be  applied  in  Peru.  The  child  of  a 
Negro  and  Chino  is  also  called  "  Zarnbo,"  like  that  of  a  Negro  and  Mulatto  wo- 
man; the  child  of  a  Negro  and  Zambo  is  called  "  Zambo  prieto."  The  names  ap- 
plied to  crossbreeds  in  Mexico  are  given  by  Muehlenpfordt  (i,  p.  200)  and  Gr. 
A.  Thompson  ("  Narr.  of  official  visit  to  Guatemala,"  p.  523,  1829.) 

1  "  Ethnognosie  und  Ethnologie,"  i,  p.  233. 

2  Scherzer,  "  Wanderungen  durch  d.  Mittelam.  Freist,"  p.  125,  1857. 

3  Azara,  "  Voy.  dans  1'Am.  merid.,"  ed.  Walckenaer,  ii,  p.  265,  1809;  see 
Demersay,  "Bullet,  soc.  geogr."  i,  p.  5,  1854. 

4  Mollien,  "Voy.  dans  la  Eepubl.  de  Colombia,"  i,  p.  150;  ii,  p.  160,  1824. 

5  Semple,  "  Sketch  of  the  present  state  of  Caraccas,"  pp.  53,  105,  1812. 


SECT.  III.]  PERMANENCE    OP   TYPE.  189 

southern  part  of  Chili,  greatly  increase,  and  are  described  by 
Poppig  as  very  prolific. 

These  facts  are  sufficient  to  weaken  the  argument  of  a  specific 
difference  between  the  two  principal  races  of  mankind,  as 
founded  upon  the  pretended  sterility  of  mixed  races.  They 
refute,  at  the  same  time,  the  theory  that  mixed  races  can 
only  perpetuate  themselves  by  re-crossing  with  the  parent 
stocks.  That  mixed  tribes,  by  a  continued  re-crossing  with 
individuals  of  a  parent  stock,  revert  to  it  after  a  few  gene- 
rations, cannot  be  adduced  as  a  proof  of  the  immutability  of 
an  original  type,  as  the  few  foreign  elements  disappear.  Poppig, 
however,1  says,  that  it  is  in  the  American  colonies  a  well  known 
fact,  that  mixed  tribes,  abandoned  to  themselves,  revert  again 
to  the  original  type  (to  which  ?) .  If  this  be  so,  it  can  only  be 
considered  as  an  exceptional  case,  which  certainly  cannot  serve  as 
a  general  rule,  considering  the  large  number  of  mixed  popula- 
tions which  are  self-subsistent.  When,  further,  W.  F.  Edwards2 
thinks  that  he  can  recognize  the  types  of  the  original  races  in 
the  mixed  population  of  France,  Switzerland,  and  Italy,  sup- 
porting M.  Serres*  assertion  of  the  absolute  permanence  of 
original  type,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  this  is  merely  a  sub- 
jective theory  without  any  anatomical  proofs,  and  that  we  are 
ignorant  as  to  these  original  types.  Nott  and  Grliddon  go 
much  farther ;  they  are  not  merely  of  opinion  that  all  original 
types  are  still  to  be  found,  but  that  the  type  of  the  skull  long 
outlives  the  history  and  civilization  of  a  people,  it  being  inca- 
pable of  alteration,  and  is  constantly  reproduced  until  again  it 
predominates.  We  should,  therefore,  not  be  surprised  were 
they  to  assert,  with  regard  to  the  mixed  population  of  Paraguay 
which  is  said  so  much  to  resemble  the  English,  that  it  is  not  a 
mixed  type,  but  the  genuine  old  Iberian  form  of  the  Spaniards 
which  now  reappears  in  South  America.  Cautious  observers, 
Schomburgh  for  instance,3  confine  their  remarks  to  the  ef- 
fect that  some  peoples,  in  their  intermixtures  with  others, 
preserve  their  peculiarities  for  a  longer,  others  for  a  shorter 

1  Art.  "  Indier,"  in  Ersch  und  Gruber,  p.  359. 

2  «  Mem.  de  la  soc.  ethnol.,"  i  et  ii. 

3  "  Bullet,  soc.  geogr.,"  ii,  p.  63, 1851. 


190  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

time.  Although  among  some,  these  peculiarities  disappear  after 
a  few  generations,  they  are  in  others  preserved  after  a  long 
series  of  generations.  The  latter  applies  to  the  so-called 
"  Indians"  at  Hayti,  especially  as  regards  the  women.  They 
have  symmetrical  forms,  an  olive-coloured  delicate  skin,  large 
black  eyes,  and  very  fine  heads  of  hair.  This  reminds  us  of 
the  assertion  supported  by  Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire,  that  the  cha- 
racters of  an  animal  race  are  more  constant  and  permanent  in 
proportion  as  the  race  is  older,  and  more  changeable  the  younger 
the  race  is. 


The  intermixture  of  the  various  types  is  one  of  the  chief 
agents  in  the  changes  produced  in  mankind.  Whoever  is  in- 
clined to  consider  the  principal  races  as  specifically  different, 
doubts  the  vitality  and  unlimited  prolificacy  of  mongrels ;  but 
still  he  explains  the  changes  of  type  from  intermixture,  because 
the  theory  of  a  specific  difference  would  be  untenable  if  climate, 
civilization,  etc.,  could  by  themselves  produce  that  change. 
With  regard  to  this  dilemma,  in  which  the  defenders  of  specific 
differences  find  themselves,  we  would  further  observe,  that  it 
is  inconsistent  to  deduce  all  changes  of  types  merely  from 
intermixture,  as  the  assertion  of  the  permanence  of  specific 
characters  would  thus  partly  be  refuted.  From  whatever  point 
of  view  we  may  consider  the  results  of  the  intermixture  of 
different  types,  we  are  entitled  to  maintain  that  on  the  whole 
they  are  more  in  favour  of  the  unity  of  mankind  than  for  the 
opposite  theory. 


SECTION    IV. 

REVIEW    OF    THE    PRINCIPAL    THEORIES    REGARDING    THE 
UNITY   OF   MANKIND. 

We  have  hitherto  been  engaged  in  enumerating  the  most  im- 
portant facts  bearing  upon  the  question  of  the  unity  of  man- 


SECT.  IV.]  UNITY  OF  MANKIND.  191 

kind,  and  in  investigating  their  scope.  In  endeavouring  to 
render  an  impartial  account  of  the  inferences  to  which  these 
facts  lead,  we  first  observed  a  gradual  mutability  of  the  phy- 
sical type,  owing  partly  to  external  and  partly  to  internal 
agents.  The  degree  and  extent  of  this  mutability,  though  by 
no  means  slight,  is  nevertheless,  in  comparison  with  the  great 
differences  existing  between  various  races,  not  so  strongly 
marked  as  to  decide  the  question,  whether  these  differences 
are  to  be  considered  as  having  specific  value.  We  may,  how- 
ever, say,  that  the  theory  which  assumes  permanent  specific 
differences  in  mankind,  appears  to  us  less  probable  than  the 
opposite  theory;  and  further,  we  venture  positively  to  deny 
the  existence  of  permanency  of  type  in  the  human  form,  it 
being  a  phenomenon  which  could  only  arise  from  a  long  conti- 
nued influence  of  climate,  mode  of  life,  external  relations,  and 
defective  mental  culture,  etc. 

There  seems  to  exist  this  essential  difference  between  man 
and  animals, — that  the  mutability  of  his  physical  form  has  a 
wider  circle  than  that  of  the  latter.  It  must  not  be  objected 
that  man  being,  according  to  his  organization,  an  animal,  such 
an  assumption  is  gratuitous,  inasmuch  as  the  natural  laws  for 
the  development  and  changes  of  the  animal  economy  must  be 
the  same  for  both.  It  is  in  the  first  place  undeniable  that  the 
same  human  races  can  successively  live  in  different  climates, 
and  that  the  whole  mode  of  life  and  external  conditions  to 
which  the  same  race  may  be  subject,  may  be  essentially  altered, 
— not  so  those  of  animals ;  and  that  the  same  race  of  men  may 
pass  through  various  degrees  of  culture, — which  is  not  the  case 
with  animals.  If  accordingly  a  wider  sphere,  with  regard  to  all 
these  circumstances,  is  granted  to  man,  it  is  not  in  contradic- 
tion to  the  laws  of  nature  that  the  limits  of  the  mutability  of 
his  nature  are  less  confined  than  those  of  animals.  Though 
we  could  not  entirely  assent  to  the  proofs  for  the  unity  of  the 
human  race  adduced  by  Blumenbach  and  Prichard  derived 
from  analogy,  namely,  that  the  differences  of  human  races  are 
less  considerable  than  those  found  in  animals  which  undoubtedly 
belong  to  the  same  species ;  still  we  agree  with  Prichard  when 
he  says,  that  the  external  differences  of  men  are  not  so  great 


192  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

as  we  might  expect  from  the  great  differences  of  climate  and 
civilization. 

These  views  have,  in  modern  times,  been  opposed  by  theories 
which  are  at  present  very  popular,  not  so  much  in  consequence 
of  their  novelty,  as  of  their  apparently  logical  sequence  and 
their  connexion  with  materialistic  views.  They  are  based  on 
the  view  we  have  just  repudiated,  that  man  as  a  physical 
being  must,  with  regard  to  his  body  and  its  changes,  be  in  the 
same  condition  as  animals,  and  that  it  is  mere  fancy  to  deny 
his  perfect  equality  as  a  physical  being,  and  his  subjection  to 
the  same  laws  as  animals.  Man,  they  maintain,  like  animals, 
undergoes  but  unimportant  changes  from  the  influence  of  cli- 
mate: like  them,  man  is  only  changed  by  intermixture; 
and  as  in  the  animal  kingdom  new  species  arise  by  hybri- 
dity  (as  asserted  by  some,  without  the  intervention  of  the 
Creator),  so  does  it  happen  by  the  crossing  of  various  species 
of  men. 

Among  the  men  holding  these  extreme  views  may  be  men- 
tioned Hamilton  Smith.1  Lawrence2  had  already  maintained 
that  the  type  of  human  races  is  perpetuated  in  all  climates, 
and  only  changes  by  intermixture ;  to  which  Smith  adds,  that 
each  of  the  chief  races  is  only  perpetuated  in  their  original 
native  country,  whilst  the  descendants  of  other  races  would 
there  perish  without  intermixture,  but  that  from  such  inter- 
mixture there  issue,  as  among  many  animals  of  various  species, 
intermediate  types  indefinitely  prolific,  provided  there  be  a 
continued  infusion  of  fresh  blood  from  either  of  the  parent 
stocks.  He  points  out  the  extinct  Paltas3  on  the  Titicaca  lake, 
with  naturally  flattened  and  receding  skulls,  the  remnants 


1  ' '  Natural  history  of  the  human  species,"  Edinb.,  1848. 

3  "  Lectures,"  p.  448. 

3  The  mention  of  the  Paltas,  on  the  Titicaca,  by  H.  Smith,  is  probably 
founded  in  error.  Mention  is  certainly  made  of  a  chieftain,  in  the  south, 
named  "  Palta,"  about  the  time  of  Valdivias  (1550),  among  the  Araucanians 
(Ovaglie,  "  Hist,  relatione  del  regno  di  Cile,"  p.  187,  Roma,  1646)  ;  but  the 
people  called  Paltas  existed  only  in  the  south  of  the  state  of  Quito,  due  north 
of  Loja,  near  Tumebamba.  They  are  mentioned  together  with  the  Canares 
and  Chaparras,  but  nothing  is  said  about  their  cranial  shape,  or  other  pecu- 
liarities (Cieza  de  Leon  in  "  Historiad.  prim,  de  Indias,"  pp.  401  and  409, 1852 ; 
Gomara,  ibid. ;  compare,  also,  Herrera,  "  Hist,  gen.,"  v,  and  of  later  writers ; 
Velasco,  "  Hist,  del  reino  de  Quito,"  iii,  pp.  2,  15. 


SECT.  IV.]  NEGRO  TYPE.  193 

of  very  inferior  tribes  of  abnormal  form,  as  the  Cagots, 
Tschuwasches,  and  some  others,  the  Cumbrie-Negroes  on 
the  Niger,  reduce'd  to  slavery  by  their  neighbours,  the  extinct 
Guanches  of  the  Canary  Islands  and  the  Ompizes  (Yazimbres  ?) 
of  Madagascar,  in  order  to  support  the  theory  that  there  are 
remnants  of  human  races  older  than  the  present, — a  race  which 
was  once  surrounded  by  a  different  flora  and  fauna  than  ours, 
and  which  was  spread  over  the  globe  before  the  extinction  of 
some  species  of  animals.  The  Papuas  (Austral-Negroes  ?) 
especially,  are  said  to  belong  to  this  most  ancient  population, 
and  date,  perhaps,  from  an  earlier  period  of  the  history  of  our 
planet.  This  latter  point  has  been  descanted  upon  by  Hom- 
bron.1  He  assumes,  in  every  part  of  the  globe,  several  central 
points  of  creation,  and  makes  man  see  the  light  of  the  world 
in  three  successive  periods  of  creation.  In  fixing  the  latter, 
and  the  selection  of  the  peoples,  he  seems  very  unfortunate. 
According  to  him  the  Samoiedes,  Lapps,  and  all  black  people, 
were  created  first ;  then  came  the  Mongols,  Americans,  Egyp- 
tians, and  Berbers;  European  humanity  was  created  last. 
He  who  feels  inclined  to  assign  different  periods  of  creation 
to  the  chief  types  of  humanity,  will  necessarily  consider  the 
Negroes  as  the  most  imperfect  and  oldest  species,  and  connect 
his  colour  with  the  greater  quantity  of  carbon  contained  in  the 
air  of  primeval  times. 

On  depriving  these  bold  theories  of  their  varnish,  we  would 
first  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  it  is,  under  all  circum- 
stances, very  difficult  to  ascertain  whether  human  tribes  sunk  so 
low  are  to  be  considered  as  originally  defectively  organized ;  and 
that  especially  incase  of  their  extinction  the  question  cannot  be 
decided  one  way  or  another.  Where  particulars  are  wanting, 
both  theories  are  equally  tenable.  Among  the  peoples  men- 
tioned by  Smith,  the  Cumbries  are  unquestionably  a  Negro  tribe, 
(universally  despised  and  oppressed,  but  nothing  shows  that  they 
specifically  differ  from  other  Negroes ;  by  Paltas  is  probably  de- 
signated the  old  Peruvian  people  with  abnormal  skulls,  the  shape 
of  which  was  by  Morton  first  considered  as  original,  but  subse- 

1  D'Urville,  "  Voy.  au  Pole  Sud.  Zoologie,"  i,  p.  184. 


194  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

quently  acknowledged  as  an  artificial  deformity.  The  Guanches, 
whose  skulls  resemble  those  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  belong 
probably  to  the  so-called  Caucasian  race ;  they  were  a  semi- 
civilized  people,  in  which  the  nobility  were  distinguished 
from  the  people ;  even  monotheism,  and  some  astronomical 
knowledge,  are  ascribed  to  them  by  old  Spanish  authors.1  As 
to  the  rest  of  the  peoples  mentioned,  exact  information  is 
wanting,  with  exception  of  the  Papuas,  and  there  exists  not 
the  slightest  ground  for  considering  these  older  than  the  rest 
of  mankind. 

The  assertions  maintained  at  different  periods,  and  lately  in 
America,  that  human  bones  have  been  found  in  tertiary  forma- 
tions, accompanied  by  fossil  remains,  which  justified  the  in- 
ference of  the  existence  of  man  at  a  period  when  the  surface 
of  the  earth  had  not  yet  assumed  its  present  contour ;  they  were, 
until  recently,  without  confirmation,  and  are  still  by  geologists 
received  with  considerable  caution.  A.  Maury,2  however,  and 
also  Nott  and  Gliddon,3  endeavour  to  prove  that  the  finding  of 
fossil  human  bones  and  implements  is  unquestionable;  in  oppo- 
sition to  which  the  author  of  the  Essay  in  the  "  Deutsche 
Vierteljahrschrifb"4  only  assumes  its  probability.5  With  regard 
to  the  Guadaloupe  skeletons,  it  may  be  stated  that,  in  conse- 
quence of  purely  local  conditions,  the  process  of  petrifaction 
proceeds  in  that  island  very  rapidly,  and  therefore  these 
skeletons  cannot  be  adduced  as  a  proof  of  a  remote  exist- 
ence of  the  human  race ;  nor  is  the  circumstance,  that  bones 
of  the  mammoth  are  found  intermixed  with  arrowheads,  in 
favour  of  this  theory.  Littre6  merely  states  that  the  exist- 
ence of  man  in  an  earlier  geological  epoch  has  become  less 
improbable  than  before  by  the  excavations  of  Boucher  de 

1  Humboldt  und  Bonpland,  "  E.  in  die  -^Equinoctial-Gegenden,"  i,  pp  153 
283;  Golbeny,  "E.  durch  d.  Westl.  Afr.,"  i,  p.  35, 1803 ;  Webb  et  Berthelot, 
"  Hist.  nat.  des  lies  Canaries ;  Berthelot,  in  "  Mem.  de  la  soc.  Ethnol.,"  i, 
et  ii ;  Hodgkin,  in  "  Nbuv.  ann.  des  voy.,"  iii,  p.  375. 

2  "Des  ossemens  humains enfouis  dans  les  roches,"  1852 :  Sprint,  in  "1'In- 
stitut,"  ii,  p.  41,  1854. 

3  "  Indigenous  races  of  the  earth,"  1857. 

4  Chap,  ii,  p.  213,  1838. 

5  Compare  Cuvier  "  Umwalzungen  der  Erdrinde,"  German  by  v  Nogger- 
rath,  i,  p.  118,  1830. 

6  "  E6v.  des  deux  mondes." 


SECT.  IY.]  HUMAN  FOSSILS.  195 

Perthes ;  and  it  must  certainly  be  admitted  that  the  probability 
of  this  view  is  annually  increasing. 

Dr.  Lund,1  who  is  said  to  have  discovered  human  fossils  in 
not  less  than  eight  different  localities  (in  Minas  Greraes),  infers 
that  the  population  of  America  is  more  ancient  than  that  of 
the  Old  World.  Usher  relates2  that,  in  the  excavations  for  the 
gas  works  at  New  Orleans,  a  human  skeleton  had  been  found  at 
a  depth  of  16  feet  under  the  cypress  forests,  the  skull  of  which 
he  considers  as  belonging  to  the  American  race,  and  the  age 
of  which  he  calculates  at  57,000  years.  Several  of  such  pre- 
tended undoubted  cases  are  quoted.  Boucher  de  Perthes3  has 
excavated  so-called  antediluvian  antiquities,  stone  hatchets, 
intermixed  with  fossil  bones  of  extinct  animals.  Nilssohn,4 
distinguishes  three  ancient  races  in  Scandinavia,  one  of 
which  is  pre-historic ;  and  Wilde5  in  Ireland,  and  Wilson6 
in  Scotland,  described  several  kinds  of  pre-Celtic  skulls. 
Although  we  may  pass  over  and  leave  to  geology  the  investiga- 
tion of  the  theory  of  the  existence  of  man  in  an  earlier  geolo- 
gical epoch,  still  we  may  admit  a  very  high  antiquity  of  the 
human  race.  We  maintain,  however,  that  at  present  there 
exists  no  proof  of  an  earlier  race  now  extinct,  nor  of  the 
existence  of  the  human  race  before  the  present  geological 
epoch.  Though  it  could  be  proved  that  Scotland  possessed  a 
population  before  the  arrival  of  the  Celts,  or  that  the  American 
race  was  57,000  years  old,  nothing  is  yet  gained  for  the  asser- 
tions of  H.  Smith. 

Neither  can  the  remains  of  old  buildings,  the  object  and 
origin  of  which  is  unknown  to  present  generations  of  the  respec- 
tive countries,  be  adduced  in  support  of  the  above  theories ; 
for  it  has  repeatedly  happened  that  uncivilized  nations  have 
taken  possession  of  a  territory,  without  preserving  the  history  of 
its  former  inhabitants  any  more  than  their  own.  And  thus  the 


1  "  Nouv.  aim.  des  voy.,"  i,  363,  1845. 

2  Nott  and  Gliddon,  p.  338. 

3  «  Antiq.  Celt,  et  Antediluv.,"  Paris,  1849. 

4  "  Keports  of  the  British  Association,"  p.  31,  1847. 

5  "  Lecture  on  the  Ethnology  of  the  ancient  Irish,"  1844 ;  Davis,  "  Crania 
Britannica." 

6  "  Archaeol.  and  pre-historical  annals  of  Scotland,"  Edinburgh,  1851. 

02 


196  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

assertion,  that  before  the  present  human  race  there  existed 
one  resembling  the  ape,  supported  by  the  mystical  doctrine  of 
the  spontaneous  extinction  of  lower  human  types,  remains 
without  the  least  scientific  proof.  Two  other  assertions  of 
Smith  still  require  investigation,  namely,  that  each  of  the 
principal  types  of  mankind  (European,  Mongol,  and  Negro), 
can  only  perpetuate  themselves  in  their  native  country,  and 
that  each  must  be  considered  as  a  distinct  species,  from  which 
new  types  issue  by  intermixture.  ^e  shall  best  consider 
these  views  in  connection  with  those  of  another  naturalist. 

Agassiz  has  given  a  peculiar  support  to  the  theory  of  the 
specific  differences  of  the  chief  types  through  the  influence  of 
climate.1  His  mode  of  treating  this  subject  is  in  the  main  not 
original,  but  is  similar  to  that  of  Swainson2  who,  without  him- 
self deciding  on  the  unity  of  mankind,  assumes  six  zoological 
provinces,  apparently  agreeing  with  the  regions  occupied  by 
the  various  races.  They  are  the  following:  1.  Europe  with 
Asia  Minor,  and  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean;  2.  Asia  be- 
yond the  Ural ;  3.  America  (all  these  three  with  three,  the  latter 
with  a  fourth,  problematical  subdivision  in  the  extreme  south) . 
4.  Africa  south  of  Sahara,  the  third  subdivision  of  which 
(South  Africa  and  Madagascar)  passes  into  the  5th.  Australia 
(with  New  Holland  as  centre)  ;  6.  the  north  of  the  old  and  new 
world.  The  corresponding  human  races  would  be  :  the  Cauca- 
sian, Mongolian,  American,  the  Negro,  the  Malay,  and  the  so- 
called  Hyperborean.  Agassiz  has  the  following  observations 
on  this  theory. 

The  boundaries  of  the  zoological  and  botanical  provinces, 
correspond  generally  with  the  distribution  of  the  so-called  races 
of  mankind.  But  the  species  of  animals  and  plants  is  originally 
different  in  each  of  these  provinces ;  and  even  in  those  where 
the  differences  are  but  slight,  no  common  descent  can  be 
assumed  if  they  belong  to  different  provinces,  because  no 
species  passes  across  its  limits  into  another  province,  but  (as 
can  be  proved  by  many  examples)  keeps  within  its  native  soil. 
Hence  we  must  assume,  not  one  but  several  centres  of  creation 

1  "  Christian  Examiner,"  Boston,  July  1850,  and  in  Nott  and  Gliddon. 

2  "  Treatise  on  the  geography  and  classification  of  animals,"  London,  1835. 


SECT.  IV.]          CENTRES  OP  CEEATION.  197 


from  which  the  creatures  have  spread  over  the  earth,- 
many  as  there  are  zoological  and  botanical  provinces  :  and 
there  obtains  the  same  analogy  for  the  human  race  as  for  the 
rest  of  organized  beings. 

The  chief  idea  upon  which  this  theory  rests  has,  before 
Agassiz,  been  promulgated  by  Desmoulins,1  namely,  the  idea 
that  various  centres  of  creation  must  be  assumed  for  the 
animals  of  different  parts  of  the  world,  as  migrations  into 
regions  where  they  cannot  exist  are  out  of  the  question. 
Though  man  undoubtedly  possesses  a  greater  capacity  for  mi- 
grations, still  his  analogy  to  other  organic  beings  renders  it 
very  probable  that,  like  them,  he  originally  proceeded  from 
various  centres  of  creation. 

We  leave  it  to  zoologists  and  botanists  to  say  whether  this 
theory  of  the  natural  limitation  of  these  provinces  can  be 
carried  out  as  strictly  as  Agassiz  imagines ;-  whether  it  is  not 
rather  a  scheme  which,  like  many  others,  does  violence  to  the 
facts.  It  is  easily  perceptible,  that  if  there  be  no  exact  limits 
of  the  provinces,  that  is  to  say,  if  with  regard  to  some  animals 
it  must  be  admitted  that  they  have  migrated  from  one  part 
into  another,  the  analogy  to  man,  who  unquestionably  pos- 
sesses the  greatest  capacity  of  locomotion,  either  does  not  apply, 
or  at  least  loses  much  of  its  importance.  When  we  learn  that 
some  European  reptiles  are  also  found  in  the  whole  of  Asia, 
even  in  Japan,  whilst  all  the  reptiles  of  the  New  World  are 
entirely  different  from  those  of  the  Old  World  ;2  and  further, 
that  the  genuine  typical  forms  of  the  animal  world  of  America 
differ  as  much  from  those  of  the  Old  World  as  the  Australian, 
one  might  be  led  from  analogy  to  infer  the  separate  origin  of  the 
European,  American,  and  Australian  man  :  but  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  many  birds  and  mammals  of  the  Old  World  are 
also  found  in  North  America,  this  probability  as  regards  man 
again  disappears.  We  shall,  however,  in  order  to  give  to 
this  new  theory  every  chance,  not  insist  upon  this,  but  consider 
the  question  from  another  point  of  view.  We  shall  examine 
whether  the  existing  principal  types  of  mankind  correspond, 

1  "  Hist.  nat.  des  races  hum./'  1826. 

2  Schlegel,  "  Essai  sur  la  pliysiog.  des  serpens,"  1837. 


198  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

with  some  degree  of  exactness  in  the  localities  which  they 
occupy,  with  the  zoological  and  botanical  provinces  assumed 
by  Agassiz. 

We  meet  at  the  outset  with  the  peculiar  difficulty  of  laying 
hold  of  Agassiz's  opinions,  as  he  has  frequently  changed  them.1 
Whilst  in  1845  he  asserts  the  unity  of  mankind  as  a  species,2 
we  find  him  in  1850  distribute  eleven  or  twelve,  in  1853 
(Nott  and  Grliddon),  eight,  human  species  in  as  many  zoolo- 
gical and  botanical  provinces ;  and  it  appears  as  if  he  made 
this  last  change  chiefly  to  make  these  provinces  better  agree 
with  the  existing  chief  types  of  mankind.  The  twelve  pro- 
vinces of  1850  are  the  following: — one  arctic;  three  of  the 
temperate  zone  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  the  latter  in 
two  divisions,  the  one  to  the  east,  the  other  to  the  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains ;  three  tropical  provinces,  the  one  of  the 
Atlas,  exclusive  of  the  Nile  valley  and  the  Cape  of  Grood  Hope, 
the  second  in  Asia  south  of  the  Himalaya,  including  the  Sunda 
Islands,  the  third  in  America ;  the  eighth  province  forms  New 
Holland  with  Van  Diemen's  Land ;  then  follows,  as  a  province 
of  doubtful  independence,  Polynesia ;  the  throe  remaining  pro- 
vinces belong  to  the  temperate  zone  of  South  America,  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the  south  Polar  Circle^  But  in  1853 
he  makes  the  following  division': — 1.  Arctic  province;  2.  Asia; 
3.  Europe  to  the  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  in  the  south  to  the 
Indus,  inclusive  of  the  northern  edge  of  Africa ;  4.  America ; 
5.  Africa;  6.  India;  7.  Australia  and  New  Guinea;  8.  Poly- 
nesia. We  shall  chiefly  keep  in  view  the  first  distribution  in 
making  some  observations  from  an  anthropological  stand- 
point. 

1  He  endeavours  in  vain  to  show,  in  his  essay  in  the  "  Christian  Examiner/' 
that  his  opinion  as  to  the  unity  of  species  is  not  in  conflict  with  his  theory  of 
difference  of  origin;  for  however  we  maybe  inclined  to  agree  with  him  andMeigs 
(in  Nott  and  Gliddon,  p.  350),  that  the  question  of  unity  of  species  is  to  be 
separated  from  that  of  unity  of  origin,  still  the  separation  has  hitherto  been 
very  little  attended  to  by  zoologists,  who  mostly  consider  that  the  affirmation 
of  the  first  question  implies  that  of  the  second.      In  Germany,  Eberhard 
("  Die  Menschenracen,"  p.  36,  Koburg,  1842)  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
who  considered  that  the  question  of  unity  of  origin  from  one  pair,  should  be 
entirely  separated  from  that  of  unity  of  species.     He  himself  is  of  opinion 
that  every  species  has  originally  appeared  in  several  varieties. 

2  Smith,  "  Unity  of  the  human  races,"  p.  349,  New  York,  1850. 


SECT.  IV.]  THEORY  OF  AGASSIZ.  199 

The  north-polar  nations  have  frequently  been  considered 
as  a  distinct  race.  This  can,  however,  only  be  maintained  when 
we  simply  keep  in  view  their  corporeal  shape,  and  the  peculiari- 
ties of  their  habits  and  customs.  Forster  has  already,  in  his 

History  of  the  Voyages  to  North  America,"1  shown  the  im- 
)ropriety  of  grouping  together  the  Lapp  and  Samoied,  and 
considering  them  of  the  same  stock  as  the  Esquimaux.  As 
there  is  even  now  a  large  group  of  Samoied  peoples  in  the 
south,  extending  to  the  sources  of  the  Jenissei,  their  undoubted 
affinity  to  other  Asiatic  nations,  decidedly  indicates  their  origin 
from  central  Asia.  Who,  moreover,  could  assume  that  they 
sprung  up  in  their  cold  climate,  unless  the  Creator  had  gifted 
them  with  thick  fur,  like  the  ice-bear,  that  they  might  not  be 
frozen  to  death  before  they  had  learned  to  build  huts,  etc.  ? 

If  it  be  objected  that  the  climate  of  the  polar  regions  had 
been  warmer  in  former  periods,  there  must  be  assumed  a  gra- 
dual acclimatization,  which  is  denied  by  all  those  who,  like 
Agassiz,  believe  that  the  chief  types  of  mankind  are  limited 
to  the  climatic  conditions  and  zones  in  which  they  were  born. 
The  polar  nations  thus  manifestly  do  not  originally  belong  to 
their  present  localities. 

This  may  also,  on  historical  and  linguistic  grounds,  be 
proved  with  regard  to  the  Indo-Germanic  nations  of  Europe. 
They  have  not  sprung  up  in  their  present  localities,  but  are 
immigrants  from  the  south-west  of  Asia.  If  the  Mongols, 
Tunguses,  and  their  allied  tribes,  are  considered  as  a  family, 
the  original  cradle  of  which  was  in  the  temperate  region  of 
Asia,  their  province  now  extends,  in  the  south,  to  the  sources 
of  the  two  large  Chinese  rivers,  and  in  the  north,  to  the  Polar 
Sea.  Where,  then,  is  that  climatic  limitation  of  individual 
human  species  ?  Where  is  it  in  America,  the  separation  of 
which,  in  three  divisions,  according  to  the  zones,  is  ethnogra- 
phically  perfectly  arbitrary  ?  Further,  New  Holland  and  Van 
Diemen's  Land  are  not  connected,  anthropologically  considered, 
and  the  province  of  the  south  pole  is  uninhabited.  To  this 
must  be  added,  that  the  Austral-Negroes  and  Papuas  live  in 

1  Vol.  iii,  p.  GO,  Berlin,  1791. 


200  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I 

the  immediate  vicinity  of  nations  which  are  related  to  the 
Malays,  whilst  the  latter  extend  to  Madagascar ;  and  that  the 
tropical  province  of  Asia  contains  the  four  most  distinct  human 
stocks  inhabiting  the  globe  (Caucasian,  Mongolian,  Malay, 
and  Negro  races),  with  some  probability  considered  as  their 
cradle.  There  can,  therefore,  be  no  question  of  such  a  sepa- 
ration of  the  families  of  mankind  in  zoological  and  botanical 
provinces,  which  may,  perhaps,  more  properly  apply  to  Africa, 
the  northern  shorelands  of  which  present  a  flora  and  fauna 
distinct  from  the  regions  south  of  the  Atlas,  whilst  similar 
differences  are  presented  by  the  Nile  valley  and  the  Cape. 
With  these  districts  correspond,  as  great  ethnographic  divisions, 
the  Berbers,  who  belong  to  the  Caucasian  race,  the  Negroes, 
the  Egyptians,  the  Abyssinians,  and  the  Hottentots.  In  all 
other  parts  of  the  globe,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say,  there 
is  no  correspondence  of  the  numerous  subdivisions  in  special 
faunas  and  floras  of  Agassiz,  with  the  groups  of  nations  in- 
habiting these  parts,  and  his  subdivisions  have  no  anthropo- 
logical signification. 

But  what  tells  against  the  whole  hypothesis  of  Agassiz,  and 
should  at  the  outset  have  prevented  its  adoption,  is  the  circum- 
stance that  the  cradle  of  mankind  can  only  be  imagined  to 
have  been  situated  in  a  warm  climate;  otherwise  the  first 
human  beings  must  have  perished  in  a  climate  where  artificial 
protection  and  certain  kinds  of  knowledge  were  requisite  to 
obtain  nutriment  in  sufficient  quantity.  To  this  must  be  added 
the  improbability  that,  with  the  great  capacity  for  locomotion 
possessed  by  man,  and  the  wants  he  is  subject  to  in  a  state  of 
nature,  the  parent  stocks  of  each  human  species  should  have 
remained  in  their  original  country  from  the  period  of  their  first 
appearance  on  the  globe  until  the  historical  period, — an  im- 
mense space  of  time.  While  extensive  emigrations  contradict 
such  a  fixed  abode,  we  find,  on  the  other  hand,  in  many 
parts  of  the  globe,  men  of  perfectly  distinct  types  living  in 
close  vicinity, — facts  very  unfavourable  to  the  above  theory. 
If  it  be  correct,  we  need  not  assume  any  migrations  of 
peoples;  just  as  Desmoulins  considers  the  Indo-Grermans  as 
autochthons  in  the  countries  of  Scandinavia  to  the  Caspian 


SECT.  IV.]  DESCENT    FROM   A   SINGLE    PAIE.  201 

Sea  and  the  Indus  ;  the  Finns  as  autochthons  on  both  sides  of 
the  Ural ;  the  Turks  as  autochthons  on  the  Altai  and  in  the 
north-west  of  Thibet. 

Though  the  above  theories  are  inadmissible,  we  must  be  careful 
not  to  fall  into  the  opposite  error  of  deriving  all  human  races  from 
one  spot, — the  paradise  usually  placed  in  south-western  Asia, — 
and  attempting  to  indicate  the  course  of  their  original  migra- 
tions. We  can  only  speak  of  the  relatively  oldest  migrations, 
without  asserting  whether  or  not  the  countries  to  which  they 
emigrated  were  already  populated  before  their  arrival.  Liiken1 
has  committed  this  error;  nor  has  Latham,  cautious  as  he 
usually  is,  remained  free  from  it.  It  is  under  the  influence 
of  such  ideas  that  he  makes  the  Austral-Negroes  and  the 
Par/uas  occupy  their  present  districts  in  remote  times ;  makes 
the  Australians  migrate  across  Timur  from  south  Asia  into  New 
Holland;  lets  the  Polynesians  and  Micronesians  follow  them 
in  the  South  Sea  from  the  present  Malay  regions,  and  is  much 
inclined  to  consider  all  these  different  stocks  identical  in 
their  origin.  He  deserves  consideration,  however,  when  he 
observes,2  that  primary  migrations  of  peoples  are  always  pro- 
bable where  we — as,  for  instance,  with  the  Hottentots,  Lapps, 
Celts  in  Ireland — have  extreme  localities  before  us  which  are 
very  remote  from  the  supposed  centre  and  starting  point  of 
the  migration. 

As  it  was  formerly  traditionally  assumed  that  mankind  de- 
scended from  one  pair,  it  was  but  natural  to  look  for  the  cradle 
of  humanity,  to  inquire  how  the  original  stocks  became  divided, 
and  what  roads  they  took  when  they  left  their  original  dwelling 
place  to  search  for  new  localities.  In  modern  times  many  au- 
thors have  attempted  positive  counter-proofs.  Eudolphi3  has 
pointed  out  the  difficulties  under  which  the  assumption  laboured, 
that  the  distribution  of  mankind  over  the  globe  had  only  pro- 
ceeded from  one  spot.  These  difficulties  are  manifestly  nowhere 
so  great  as  in  the  South  Sea ;  and  yet  even  there  it  can  be 
satisfactorily  shown  that  they  are  not  unsurmountable.  Not 
to  become  tedious,  we  would  here  only  mention  that  Japanese 

1  "  D.  Einheit  des  MenschengescnL,"  1845. 

2  "  Man  and  his  migrations,"  p.  157,  1850. 

3  "  Beitrage  zur  Anthropol./'  p.  150,  1812. 


202  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

are  frequently  mentioned  as  having  been  cast  away  in  the 
South  Sea.  Thus  they  came,  by  a  long  involuntary  sea-voyage, 
1690,  to  Manilla,1  in  1832  to  Oahu,2in  1833  to  Point  Grenaille, 
H°  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river;3  and  Humboldt 
has  shown  that  to  proceed  from  Asia  to  America,  without  pass- 
ing beyond  the  55th  degree  of  N".  lat.,  did  not  require  more 
than  a  sea-voyage  of  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours.4  Still 
more  decisive  is  the  agreement  of  language,  tradition,  manners, 
and  religion  prevailing  in  Polynesia,  from  the  Sandwich  islands 
to  New  Zealand ;  so  that  the  assumption  of  a  different  descent 
of  these  island  populations  cannot  be  admitted.  Thus  the  dif- 
ficulties of  migration  cannot  be  adduced  as  a  proof  in  favour 
of  the  theory  that  mankind  have  originated  in  one  particular 
spot. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  positive  proofs  in  favour  of  the  de- 
scent of  humanity  from  a  single  pair  are  scanty  in  the  extreme. 
Without  wishing  to  enter  into  any  discussion  with  those  who 
have  faith  in  the  narration  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  assump- 
tion of  a  single  pair  appears  to  us  very  improbable,  as  nature 
would  scarcely  hang  the  existence  and  preservation  of  any 
species  on  so  slender  a  thread  as  a  single  pair  of  human  beings. 
It  is  true  that  the  ground  against  descent  from  a  single  pair 
rests  only  on  a  teleological,  and  not  on  a  physical  or  physio- 
logical basis,  still  it  is  the  principal  ground  which  presents 
itself.  Though  the  possibility  of  the  descent  of  mankind  from 
a  single  pair  may  be  admitted  by  the  analogy  of  many  domestic 
animals  imported  into  America,  which  have  greatly  multiplied 
from  one  or  a  few  pairs,5  there  is  nothing  gained  by  it  for 
its  reality  as  regards  man.  Smith  and  others  endeavour 
to  show  that  the  theory  of  descent  from  a  single  pair  is  prefer- 
able to  the  opposite  assumption,  inasmuch  as  we  should  not, 
without  absolute  necessity,  multiply  causes,  and  because  one 
miracle  is  more  acceptable  than  many ;  but  it  is  clear  that  a  mul- 

1  G.  Careri,  "  Voy.  autour  du  naonde,"  v.  p.  64,  1719. 

2  Bennet,  "  Narrative  of  a  whaling  voyage/'  i,  p.  242 ;  Jarves,  "  Hist,  of  the 
Sandwich  islands,"  p.  27 ;  Wilkes,  v,  p.  260. 

3  Wilkes,  iv,  p.  295. 

4  "  Neu-Spanien,"  ii,  p.  273 ;  compare  also,  "  Hist,  de  la  geogr.  du  Nouveau 
Continent,"  ii,  p.  607, 1836. 

5  Giebel,  "  Tagesfr.  aus  d.  Natgesch.,"  1857. 


SECT.  IV.]  DESCENT    PROM    A    SINGLE    PAIE.  203 

tiplication  of  agents  is  something  different  from  a  great  com- 
plication of  acting  causes ;  and  that,  as  regards  miracles,  science 
cannot  concern  itself  about  the  degree  of  admissibility,  but 
about  a  suspension  of  the  natural  laws  which  is  in  conflict  with 
science ;  for  a  miracle,  as  such,  has  no  degrees.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  may  be  readily  admitted  that  it  is  but  a  weak  argu- 
ment when  Agassiz,  from  the  analogy  of  bees  and  other 
inferior  social  animals,  endeavours  to  render  the  descent  of 
mankind  from  a  single  pair  highly  improbable ;  for  as  Smith1 
justly  observes,  this  analogy  can  neither  be  extended  to  all 
animals,  nor  is  it  at  all  applicable  to  highly  organized  beings. 

They  are  completely  in  error  who,  adopting  the  views  of 
Agassiz,  assume  as  many  original  types  of  mankind  as  there 
are  typically  different  peoples  on  the  globe.  It  is  permissible 
to  assume,  that  men  have  appeared  in  masses  in  various  centres 
of  creation,  and  that  the  peoples  of  the  globe  have  descended 
from  several  stocks,  whose  descendants  have  intermixed.  It 
might  even  be  difficult,  from  the  known  facts,  to  deny  the  pro- 
bability of  such  a  supposition  or  to  refute  it :  the  more  is  it 
necessary  to  be  cautious  in  extending  the  theory  to  the  solution 
of  the  difficult  question  with  regard  to  the  origin  of  man.  By 
adopting  it  we  escape,  no  doubt,  many  difficulties  ;  but  none  is 
solved,  especially  the  question,  whether  the  pairs  which  ori- 
ginated in  a  centre  of  creation,  simultaneously  or  successively, 
were  of  the  same  species  or  not.  An  indefinite  multiplication 
of  human  species  is  inadmissible  on  account  of  the  resemblances 
found  among  many  and  very  remote  peoples,  to  explain  which 
we  must  either  have  recourse  to  paradoxical  accidents  or  to 
common  descent.  Common  structure  of  language,  and  a  great 
number  of  common  radicals,  render  the  unity  of  the  Indo-Ger- 
manic  peoples  unquestionable.  It  may  further  be  considered  as 
proved  that,  with  the  transition  of  a  people  from  a  state  of 
nature  into  the  civilized  state,  the  typical  uniformity  of  the 
corporeal  form  is  gradually  diminished,  and  gives  place  to 
greater  variety ;  there  is,  therefore,  every  reason  to  assume  a 
less  number  of  original  types  than  at  present  exist. 

Finally,  it  has  been  clearly  ascertained  that  numerous  mi- 
'  Loc.  cit.,  p.  356. 


204  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

grations  of  peoples  have  taken  place,  consequently  they  cannot 
all  have  originated  in  the  localities  they  now  occupy.  But  the 
principle  that  man  can  only  have  originated  in  a  warm  climate 
where  all  the  conditions  for  his  preservation  exist,  is  in  conflict 
with  the  multiplication  of  regions  considered  as  the  cradle  of 
mankind,  at  least  until  it  is  proved  that  the  age  of  humanity 
reaches  beyond  the  present  geological  epoch. 

On  recapitulating  the  results  of  our  investigation,  we  may 
admit  that  though,  in  some  respects,  Agassiz's  theory  cannot 
be  refuted,  it  is  considered,  as  a  whole,  too  special  and  specu- 
lative to  be  accepted.  The  principle  which  may  be  assented  to 
in  this  theory  is,  that  in  the  hot  zone  there  may  have  been 
several  spots  in  which  men  originated,  and  from  which  they 
spread.  In  taking  into  consideration  the  circumstance  that 
neither  the  African,  nor  the  Austral-Negroes  and  New  Hol- 
landers, perform  sea-voyages,  that  they  possess  only  miser- 
able boats  scarcely  fit  for  river  and  coast  navigation,  that  there 
is  no  indication  of  their  having  been  navigators  or  traders  at 
remote  periods,  we  feel  little  inclined  to  assume  that  the  black 
populations  of  the  South  Sea  are  immigrants  from  Africa. 
Whoever,  on  the  other  hand,  assumes  only  a  single  region  as 
the  cradle  of  mankind,  looks  for  that  region  in  south  Asia, 
whence  the  Negro  races  spread  in  a  north-easterly  and  north- 
westerly direction.  Again,  he  who  assumes  several  cradles  of 
humanity,  would  be  obliged,  on  account  of  the  little  capacity 
for  immigration  possessed  by  Negro  peoples,  to  look  for  them 
in  south  Asia,  Africa,  and  New  Gruinea.  The  latter  theory, 
namely,  the  assumption  of  several  cradles  of  humanity,  though 
incapable  of  positive  proof,  is  mainly  supported  by  the  facts  of 
differentiation  between  the  chief  types  by  climate,  and  the  re- 
semblance of  the  African  and  Australian  Negro  to  the  ape. 

To  determine  the  scope  of  the  first  fact,  the  climatic  sepa- 
ration of  the  chief  types,  is  difficult,  as  it  is  not  yet  sufficiently 
ascertained;  for  peoples  of  essentially  different  types  frequently 
live  in  close  vicinity  (compare  the  examples  quoted  in  the  se- 
quel) ;  and  however  certain  it  may  be  that  the  Whites  cannot 
perpetuate  themselves  as  a  people  in  all  Negro  regions,  and 
that  acclimatization,  in  sudden  transitions  from  one  climate 


SECT.  IV.]          INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE.  205 

into  another,  usually  fails,  it  is  still  merely  a  hazardous  asser- 
tion that  Europeans  cannot  thrive  in  any  country  where  the 
Negro  prospers.  It  is  equally  rash  to  maintain  that  a  gradual 
acclimatization  of  a  white  people,  which  from  century  to  cen- 
tury progresses  from  north  to  south,  into  a  negro  region  is 
impossible.  The  strictness  with  which  Knox1  defends  the 
differences  of  races  by  climate  is  inadmissible ;  he  goes  so  far 
as  to  maintain  that  all  immigrants  into  a  foreign  climate  can 
only  be  preserved  by  a  constant  infusion  of  fresh  blood  from 
their  native  country.  We  hear,  however,  nothing  of  a  rapid 
extinction  of  the  Creoles  in  the  tropical  colonies,  as  might  be 
expected  if  this  theory  had  any  foundation.  The  limitation  of 
animals  to  certain  climates,  which  was  invoked  as  an  analogy, 
is  not  so  general  as  to  be  applied  to  man,  for  most  domestic 
animals  can  thrive  in  nearly  all  climates,  though  they  do  not 
attain  in  them  the  same  size  and  vigour.  The  fox  lives  in  the 
cold  north  as  well  as  in  the  hot  south ;  the  home  of  the  tiger 
extends  from  India  to  Siberia.  Man  seems,  indeed,  in  his 
transitions  from  one  climate  to  another,  to  resemble  domestic 
animals,  with  this  difference,  that  he  bears  these  changes  better 
in  proportion  as  he  is  civilized.  As  in  foreign  climates  races 
of  animals  degenerate,  approaching  the  type  of  the  native  ani- 
mals, even  without  intermixture  ;2  so  does  man,  unless  essential 
differences  in  nutriment,  mode  of  life,  and  cultivation  of  the 
immigrants,  from  that  of  the  natives,  prevent  it. 

As  a  race  of  animals  cannot  long  maintain  itself  in  a  foreign 
climate  against  the  native  race  without  constant  infusion  of 
fresh  blood  from  the  parent  stock,  but  is  absorbed  by  it — be- 
cause the  mass  of  intermixing  elements  finally  decides  the 
type  of  the  mongrels,  and  climate  gradually  produces  the  re- 
semblance of  the  foreign  tribe  to  the  native, — so  a  small  number 
of  foreign  immigrants  remains  without  influence  upon  the  type 
of  the  mongrels,  whilst  a  sufficiently  large  number  influences 
the  type  of  the  progeny. 

The  second  point,  the  resemblance  of  the  Negro  to  the 
ape,  is  a  fact  which  is  estimated  differently  according  to  the 

1  "  The  races  of  man." 

2  Lucas,  ii,  p.  311 . 


206  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

stand-point  of  the  inquirer.  It  has  been  connected  with 
the  theories  on  the  origin  of  man,  and  the  ape  has  been  con- 
sidered as  the  ancestor  of  man,  which  is  the  doctrine  of 
those  who  assume  a  development  of  animal  species :  it  may 
be  that  this  transformation  was  limited  to  periods  of  great 
geological  changes,  or  that  it  was  slowly  progressive  in  the 
course  of  time  by  continuous  accommodation  to  external  cir- 
cumstances.1 

Although  one  would  not  feel  inclined  to  attach  much  value  to 
this  theory  in  preference  to  that  of  the  permanence  of  species, 
it  still  appears  important,  from  the  analogy  in  which  it  stands  to 
a  scientific  theory  of  nature  and  human  life.  The  gradual  de- 
velopment of  the  earth,  and  of  higher  forms  from  lower  forms, 
apparently  without  any  manifestation  of  new  creative  power, 
appears  to  force  upon  us  that  view  of  the  origin  of  man,  whose 
history  seems  to  show  that  the  higher  forms  and  the  develop- 
ment of  external  and  internal  life  have  proceeded  from  lower 
forms,  and  which  in  course  of  time  they  maybe  destined  to  super- 
sede. Certain  as  it  is  that  man  has  somewhere,  and  at  some 
period,  appeared  on  this  earth,  it  is  equally  certain  that  all 
scientific  analogies  tend  to  show  that  he  originated  in  a  natural 
way.  It  must,  however,  as  candidly  be  admitted,  that  all  analo- 
gies indicating  the  transformation  of  the  ape  into  a  man  are  as 
yet  wanting  to  experimental  science ;  nor  can  we  at  present 
scientifically  render  an  account  of  the  natural  origin  of  man, 
though  science  is  justified  in  assuming  it.  But  is  the  investi- 
gator bound  to  establish  theories  in  the  absence  of  facts  ? 
Certainly  not ;  the  love  of  truth,  on  the  contrary,  forbids  it. 
It  is  certainly  very  disagreeable  to  many  to  be  bound  to  con- 
fess that  their  wisdom  is  at  an  end ;  but  logic,  and  a  real  sci- 
entific interest,  require  such  a  confession  where  facts  are 
wanting.  If  a  theory  can  only  be  supported  by  a  general  ana- 
logy and  not  by  definite  grounds,  whilst  there  is  opposed  to  it 
a  wide  field  of  conflicting  possibilities,  its  foundation  is  weak 
indeed,  and  there  remains  in  its  favour  but  a  scanty  probability 
that  it  may  be  as  we  are  inclined  to  expect. 

1  Lamarck  and  his  followers.      I.  Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire. 


SECT.  IV.]  AFFINITY    BETWEEN    MAN   AND    APE.  207 

The  question  as  to  the  affinity  between  man  and  the  ape,  ap- 
pears as  idle  at  present  as  that  of  the  original  colour  of  the  first 
pair,  whom  Lacepede1  describes,  like  Hunter  and  Link,  as 
black,  on  account  of  the  greater  heat  of  past  periods.  Buffon 
and  Blumenbach  describe  them  as  white,  De  Salles  and  others 
describe  them  as  brownish-red.  We  would  here  observe,  that 
the  assertion  of  such  relationship  (of  the  ape  and  man)  is,  for  him 
who  assumes  a  corresponding  progressive  improvement  of  the 
physical  form  with  the  progress  of  civilization  in  the  human 
race,  an  interesting  hypothesis  ;  whilst  he  who  decides  for  the 
permanence  of  individual  human  types  and  different  species  of 
animals,  with  respect  to  their  external  and  internal  constitution, 
must  ascribe  to  the  effects  of  external  influences  an  unlimited 
power  for  the  transformation  of  the  ape  into  man.  De  Salles2 
observes  therefore  very  justly,  (f  Affirm  er  la  force  creatrice  des 
milieux  pour  un  type  primitif,  c'est  a  plus  forte  raison  admettre 
la  modification  secondaire  de  ce  type  quand  ?  expatriation  a 
change  les  milieux,  c'est-a-dire  Pair,  la  lumiere,  Thumidite  ou 
secheresse,  la  nourriture,  Pelevation  au-dessus  du  niveau  de  la 
mer."  But  it  has  not  prevented  the  committal  of  this  gross 
eiTor  : — the  so-called  races  of  man  are  said  to  represent  fixed 
types,  but  little  changeable  by  climate,  mode  of  life  or  mental 
culture  y  and  yet  they  are  to  have  originated  in  consequence  of 
changes  of  external  conditions  during  the  various  periods  of 
the  history  of  the  globe.3  Finally,  it  may  be  observed,  that  if 
man  descended  from  the  ape,  it  is  clear  that,  like  the  ape,  he 
originally  belonged  to  a  tropical  climate. 

Though  fossil  apes  have  been  found  in  regions  which  now 
possess  a  temperate  climate,  as  Gascony,  still  the  contempo- 
raneous existence  of  man  remains  as  yet  to  be  proved ;  and  if 
it  were  proved,  it  would  render  the  assumption  necessary  that 
man  existed  upon  the  earth  before  the  present  division  of  the 
climates.  At  any  rate,  it  must  be  conceded  that,  by  the  dis- 
covery of  fossil  monkeys,  the  existence  of  fossil  human  bones 
has  been  rendered  less  improbable. 

1  "  Ages  de  la  nature,"  i,  p.  255,  1830. 
-  "  Hist,  generale  des  races  hum.,"  p.  31, 1849. 

3  Compare,  as  an  example  of  such  false  reasoning,  the  essay  on  human 
races  in  the  "  Deutsche  Vierteljahrschrift,"  ii,  p.  170,  1838. 


208  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  fact  of  the  resemblance  of  the  Negro 
to  the  ape  is  made  use  of  to  prove  that  mankind  is  to  be  di- 
vided into  different  species.  The  Negro  presents  in  this  case 
not  merely  the  most  striking  example  of  a  deviation  of  form, 
but  also  a  type  apparently  constant.  Hence  many,  in  inves- 
tigating the  pedigree  of  man,  would  have  the  Negro  still  more 
ape-like  than  he  really  is :  we  must  therefore  be  cautious  not 
to  exaggerate  that  resemblance.  That  the  Negro  manufac- 
tures tools,  and  learns  from  experience  to  subject  nature  to 
his  wants,  that  he  establishes  communities,  that  he  possesses 
an  artificially  constructed  language,  and  religious  ideas,  is  un- 
doubted. Still  it  is  undeniable  that,  if  differences  of  species 
are  to  be  assumed,  the  Negro  and  the  White  present  the  most 
striking  examples.  Yirey  considers  these  two  alone  as  speci- 
fically different.  It  is,  therefore,  worth  while  to  investigate 
this  question,  for  which  purpose  we  shall  closely  examine  the 
Negro  type,  and  the  modifications  which  it  presents. 

Keeping  in  view  the  peoples  which  inhabit  Africa,  between 
the  tropics,  it  has  already  been  observed,  that  the  proper 
Negro  type  is  only  found  in  the  region  between  Senegal  and 
Niger,  and  in  some  parts  of  Senaar,  Kordofan,  and  Darfur. 
In  the  first  place,  the  whole  large  family  of  the  South  African 
peoples,  reaching  from  the  equator  to  the  Hottentots,  do  not 
present  that  type  in  its  purity,  though  Prichard  justly  observes, 
that  the  gradual  transition  which  we  find  in  bodily  form  from 
the  proper  Kaffirs  on  the  north-east  boundary  of  the  Cape 
Colony,  to  the  natives  of  Mozambique,  and  from  these  again 
to  the  natives  farther  north,  compels  us  to  consider  these 
peoples  as  of  the  same  stock  as  the  Negroes.  The  proper 
Kaffirs  possess  more  arched  and  European-shaped  skulls,  and 
less  projecting  lower  jaws  than  the  Negroes ;  the  hair  is  short, 
coarse,  bushy,  less  woolly  than  in  the  Negro,  the  cheek-bones 
are  more  arched  outwards  ;*•  the  lips  full,  not  like  the  Negroes  ;3 
the  nose  but  little  flattened,  sometimes  arched ;  the  colour 
varying  from  light  brown  to  black ;  hence  Barrow3  says  that, 

1  Le  VaiUant,  "  Erste  R.,"  p.  356,  1799. 

2  Kay,  "  Travels  in  Kaffraria,"  p.  110,  1833. 

3  Vol.  i,  p.  203. 


SECT.  IV.]  NEGRO  TYPE.  209 

but  for  the  colour,  the  Kaffirs  might  be  taken  for  Europeans. 
Throughout  Africa,  south  of  the  equator,  true  Negroes  are 
found  only  in  Mozambique,  and  in  Congo  in  the  interior 
of  the  country,  where  the  nose  is  perfectly  flattened,  and  the 
lips  are  enormously  protruding  ;T  whilst  towards  the  mouth  of 
the  river  the  Negro  peculiarities  appear  modified.2  On  ascend- 
ing the  Gaboon,  the  physical  form  is  found  gradually  to  ap- 
proach the  Caucasian  type.3  From  information  received  by  the 
Portuguese  governor,  Saldanha,  the  Muluas  inhabiting  the  in- 
terior of  the  country  are  said  to  be  handsomer  and  more 
civilized  than  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast.4 

The  chief  peoples  of  East  Africa  to  the  north  of  the  equator 
do  not  represent  the  peculiar  Negro  type,  from  which  they  de- 
viate still  more  than  the  South  Africans.  Setting  aside  the 
Abyssinians  and  their  kindreds,  there  are  the  Tibboo,  who  are 
described  as  tall,  colour  not  perfectly  black,  eyes  sparkling, 
lips  full,  nose  small,  but  not  turned  up,  short  but  not  frizzly 
hair.5  Among  those  of  Kisby,  the  nose  is  thick  and  fleshy, 
with  wide  nostrils ;  in  Ghinda,  on  the  frontier  of  Bornou,  they 
have  sharp,  intelligent  features,  high  forehead,  prominent  eyes, 
flat  nose,  and  large  mouth.6  The  inhabitants  of  Haussa  have, 
it  is  true,  woolly  hair  and  a  black  skin,  but  their  features  are  re- 
gular, with  a  general  resemblance  to  the  European.  The  Kanori 
differ  from  the  Haussaua  by  their  broad  faces,  open  nos- 
trils, and  thick  bones.7  Among  the  native  peoples  of  Adamaua, 
the  Battas  are  the  most  numerous  j  their  lips  are  but  little 
protruding,  they  are  well-shaped,  and  possess  regular  features.8 
The  Bornouese  are  less  black  than  the  inhabitants  of  Haussa, 
and  have  high  foreheads,  but  thick  Negro-noses,  and  round 
laughing  faces  with  fat  cheeks.9  The  Mandaranes  have  less 

1  Omboni,  "  Viaggi  nelT  Afr.  occ.,"  p.  161,  1845. 

2  Owen,  "  Narr.  of  voyage  to  explore  the  shores  of  Africa,"  ii,  p.  283,  1833. 

3  Hecquard,  "  K.  an.  d.  K.  in  d.  Innere  von  West-Afr.,"  p.  7, 1854. 

4  Bowdich,  "  Account  of  the  discoveries  of  the  Portuguese,"  p.  17. 
*  Hornemann,  "  Tageb.  seiner  R.,"  p.  125,  1802. 

6  Denham,  Clapperton,  and  Oudney,  "  Narrative  of  travels,"  i,  pp.  25,  52, 
2nd  edit.,  1826. 

7  Earth,  "  Eeisen  und  Entdeck.,"  ii,  p.  183. 

8  Ibid.,  p.  613. 

9  Denhain,  loc.  cit.,  p.  140 ;  Kichardson,  "  Travels  in  the  Great  Desert  of 
Sahara,"  i,  p.  264,  1848. 


210  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

flattened  faces  than  the  former,  frizzly  hair,  large  sparkling 
eyes,  high  but  flat  foreheads,  and  somewhat  hooked  noses.1  In 
the  district  of  Marghi,  the  peculiar  Negro  type  is  not  met  with  : 
the  features  are  fine  and  regular,  lips  no  more  than  full,  fore- 
head high,  colour  of  a  shining  black  or  of  a  coppery  tint.2 
On  the  other  hand,  the  dirty  black  and  bony  Mussgu  are,  ex- 
cepting their  high  foreheads  and  bushy  eyebrows,  entirely 
Negro-like.  The  inhabitants  of  Baghirmi  are  well  grown, 
more  muscular  than  the  Bornouese,  the  nostrils  are  not  widely 
open,  and  the  women  have  remarkably  regular  features.  In 
Wadai,  where  Mohammed-el-Tounsy3  mentions  a  large  number 
of  different  peoples,  without  describing  them,  each  of  which 
is  said  to  have  its  peculiar  physiognomy  and  language,  there 
live,  according  to  Barth,  both  Negro  and  Arab  tribes.  The 
Nuba,  as  the  inhabitants  of  Kordofan  call  themselves,  possess 
woolly  hair  and  very  thick  lips,  not  the  small  flat  noses  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  mountains  of  that  region,  but 
well  proportioned.4  The  mountaineers  have  less  prominent 
cheek-bones  than  the  Negroes  proper,  the  skin  is  often  of 
a  chestnut  colour,  and  they  are  generally  well  made.  The 
old  Arab  writers  (Icthakri,  Idrisi)  expressly  distinguish  the 
Nubians  from  Negroes  (whom  later  authors  confound),  and  de- 
scribe them,  especially  the  women,  as  smooth-haired,  with 
small  lips  and  mouths,  which  corresponds  in  the  main  with  the 
description  of  modern  travellers  as  regards  the  Nubians  beyond 
Kordofan.  The  physical  form  of  the  Gallas  sometimes  ap- 
proaches the  European  type,  and  it  is  not  yet  decided  to  which 
they  properly  belong'.5  But  in  their  district,  and  in  that  of  the 
Abyssinians,  some  small  tribes  of  a  genuine  Negro-type  are 
met  with, — the  Shangallas,6  the  Doba,7  and  the  Doko.8  The 

1  Denham,  Clapperton,  and  Oudney,  p.  201. 

2  Earth.,  loc.  cit.,  ii,  p.  465. 

3  «  Voy.  au  Ouaday,"  pp.  245,  253,  1851. 

4  Riippell,  "  Ecise  in  Nubien,"  p.  141,  1829. 

5  Rochet  d'Hericourt,  "Voy.   dans   le  royaume  de  Choa,"  p.  269,  1841; 
Primer,  p.  63 ;  Lefebvre,  Petit  et  Quartin-Dillon,  "  Voy.  en  Abyssinie,"  iii, 
p.  289,  1845. 

r>  Bruce,  "  Eeise,"  ii,  pp.  433,  537,  1790. 

<   Salt,  "  Voy.  to  Abyssinia,"  p.  275,  1814. 

8  Harris,  "  The  highlands  of  ^Ethiopia,"  iii,  p.  63,  2nd  edit.,  1844  ;  compare 
Johnston,  "  Travels  in  S.  Abyssinia,"  ii,  p.  383, 1844,  and  d' Abbadie  in  "  Nouv. 
aim.  des  voy."  i,  p.  261,  1845. 


SECT.  IV.]  NEGRO  TYPE.  211 

whole  mountain  region  on  the  Blue  Nile  and  the  Tpmat,  from 
Fassokl  south  to  the  Grallas,  is  inhabited  by  Negroes,  who 
differ,  however,  from  the  Shillook  and  Dinka  on  the  White  Nile, 
being  of  a  finer  stock  than  these.1  On  the  White  Nile,  from 
6°  to  7°  N.  lat.,  the  Negro-type  disappears  gradually  towards 
the  south,  and  among  the  southern  Dinka  peoples,  so  little 
marked  is  it  "that  the  greater  part  of  Europeans  would 
resemble  them  if  they  were  painted  black."2  The  Negro-type 
is  accordingly,  in  East  Africa,  confined  to  but  few  small 
peoples. 

On  now  turning  our  attention  to  the  Negro  regions  proper, 
between  the  Senegal  and  the  Niger,  we  find  that  there  prevails 
as  little,  as  in  other  parts  of  Africa,  the  same  physical  type  in 
perfect  uniformity,  though  on  the  whole,  the  typical  forms  of 
the  Negro  race  are  greatly  predominating.  The  Jolofs  between 
the  Senegal  and  the  Gambia  are  of  a  dark,  shining  black  colour  ; 
hair,  lips,  and  nose  are  Negro-like,  but  not  very  decidedly 
marked;3  the  nose  is  but  moderately  flat,  the  lips  not  very 
thick;4  figure  and  features  frequently  noble  and  regular.5  The 
brownish-black  Mandingoes  have  more  oval  faces  than  the  Ne- 
groes proper ;  the  forehead  is  less  prominent,  larger,  and  more 
receding,  especially  among  the  Fulahs;  the  head  is  rather 
pointed  towards  the  crown,  the  nose  is  very  broad,  and  the 
upper  lip  very  large.6  Some  of  the  Mandingo  tribes  are 
not  so  well  made,  they  have  thicker  lips  and  flatter  noses 
than  others;  this  applies  to  the  Susus,  as  compared  with 
the  Bullams  and  Timanis.7  The  Fulahs,  who  look  down 
upon  the  Negroes,8  and  consider  themselves  as  Whites  com- 
pared with  them,9  do  not  everywhere  exhibit  the  same  colour 
and  type.  In  the  west,  they  are  usually  reddish-brown,  have 
flat  noses,  but  not  very  woolly  hair,  a  broader  forehead,  and  a 

1  Kusseger,  "  Eeise,"  ii,  pp.  562,  762. 

2  Werne,  "Exped.  zur.  Entd.  der  Q.  des  Weissen  Nil,"  p.  241.  1848. 

3  Golberry,  "  Keise  durch  d.  Westl.  Afr.,"  i,  p.  51,  1803. 

4  Park,  "  Voy.  dans  Tint,  de  1'Afr.,"  an.  viii,  i,  p.  24. 

5  Mollien,  "  Eeise  in  d.  Innere  von  Afr./'  p.  41,  1820. 

6  Golberry,  ii,  p.  114;  Duncan,  "  E.  in  West- Afr.,"  p.  15,  1848;  Eaffenel, 
"  Voy.  dans  FAfr.  occ.,"  p.  394,  1846. 

7  Matthews,  "  Eeise  nach  S.  Leone,"  p.  94,  1789. 

8  M.  Park,  i,  p.  92. 

9  Lander,  "  Eeise  z.  Erforsch.  des  Niger,"  ii,  p.  278, 1833. 

P2 


212  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

larger  facial  angle  than  genuine  Negroes,  small  lips  and  oval 
face.1  Barth2  describes  them  as  an  intermediate  race  between 
Negroes,  Arabs,  and  Berbers,  and  observes,  that  the  men,  up 
to  the  twentieth  year,  are  often  very  handsome,  but  subse- 
quently assume  an  apish  physiognomy,  which  destroys  the 
Caucasian  features.  The  Jambures,  in  the  country  of  the  Por- 
tuguese settlements  on  the  S.  Domingo,  the  Casamanza,  and 
R.  Grande,  are  perfectly  black,  but  have  neither  flat  noses  nor 
thick  lips ;  their  features  approach  those  of  Europeans.3  The 
inhabitants  of  Cazegut  (Bissagos-Archipelago)  have  agreeable 
features,  and  have  neither  flat  noses  nor  thick  lips.4  The 
Krus  and  Grebos  have  a  particularly  well-shaped  chin;  the 
facial  angle  is  larger,  the  head  more  oval,  and  not  so  arched  as 
in  the  Negro.5  A  pleasing  roundness  of  features  and  an  oval  face 
are  characteristic  of  the  Odshis ;  pointed  and  hooked  noses  are 
not  common  amongst  them,  but  flattened  noses  and  thick  pro- 
truding lips  are  rare.6  This  is  also  the  case  among  the  natives  of 
Apollonia.7  In  Aquapim  the  head  is  partly  globular,  the  nose 
broad,  lips  thick ;  occasionally  it  happens  that  the  head  is  long, 
the  nose  pointed,  the  lips  small,  nearly  European ;  the  last  form 
prevails  chiefly  among  the  Ashantees,8  among  the  higher  ranks 
of  which  not  only  fine  women  are  seen,  but  regular  Grecian  faces 
are  frequently  met  with.9  These  characters  are  also  to  be  found 
in  the  higher  classes  of  Dahomey,  where  some  members  of  the 
reigning  family  "  are  nearly  of  Moorish  aspect,  and  not  so  black 
as  genuine  Negroes."10  The  Mahis  in  the  north  of  Dahomey 
have  long,  and  high  crowned  and  posteriorly  developed  heads,  so 
characteristic  of  the  genuine  Negro-type,  a  shorter  chin,  but 
less  thick  lips  than  the  Dahomians,  and  an  almost  European 
nose.11  The  Negroes  of  Yarriba  possess  only  moderately  thick 

1  M.  Park,  i,  pp.  26,  91 ;  Raffenel,  p.  263. 

2  "  Reise  und  Entd.,"  p.  505. 

3  "  Bullet,  soc.  geogr.,"  i,  p.  152,  1846,  according  to  Lopes  de  Lima. 

4  Durand,  "  Voy.  au  Senegal,  an.  x,"  i,  p.  185. 

*  Allen  and  Thomson,  "  Narr.  of  the  Exped.  to  the  R.  Niger,"  i,  p.  124, 1848. 
e  "  Baseler  Miss.-Mag.,"  i,  p.  53,  1856. 

7  Meredith,  "  Account  of  the  Gold  Coast,"  p.  61,  1812. 

8  "  Baseler  Miss.-Mag./'  iv,  p.  241,  1852. 

9  Bowdich,  "  Mission  nach  Ashantee,"  p.  422,  1820. 

10  Duncan,  i,  p.  238 ;  Forbes,  "  Dahomey,  and  the  Dahomians,"  pp.  17,  50, 
Paris,  1851. 
»  Duncan,  ii,  p.  273. 


f  T  J-L 

Th 

4O,,- 


SECT.  IV. J  NEGRO  TYPE.  213 

lips,  and  their  nose  approaches  the  aquiline  form  j1  those  of 
Iddah,  on  the  Niger,  have  more  rounded  features,  thinner 
lips  than  the  Ibus,  and  large  receding  foreheads.2  The 
natives  of  Accono-Coono,  under  6°  30',  have  not  such  coarse 
Negro  features,  and  are  handsomer,  and  look  more  intelligent 
than  the  southerns  of  Omun,  resembling  in  this  respect  those 
of  Iddah.3  In  the  same  way,  we  learn  that  almost  every- 
where the  decided  Negro-type  diminishes  in  these  parts  from 
the  coast  inland.  The  Edeeyahs  (Adiahs)  of  Fernando  Po 
have  longer  hair,  more  silky  than  woolly,  round  face,  cheek- 
bones not  so  high,  narrower  nostrils,  thinner  lips,  and  a  finer 
mouth  than  their  neighbours  on  the  continent ;  the  colour 
varies  from  deep  black  to  copper-colour,  but  the  physiognomy 
is  the  same  in  all.4 

The  preceding  rather  dry  enumeration,  which  might  have 
been  rendered  more  minute,  of  a  great  number  of  variations  in 
shape,  was  necessary  to  show  how  valueless  is  that  asserted 
fixity  of  the  Negro  type.  Taken  generally,  it  rests  upon 
fancy,  for  this  type  in  its  purity  is  limited  to  comparatively 
few  peoples;  and,  moreover,  there  prevails  a  great  number 
of  other  types,  which  may  be  partly  considered  as  tran- 
sitions to  the  European  form,  and  partly  as  deviations  and 
modifications  of  Negro  peculiarities,  without  any  approach  to 
other  races.  That  such  transitions,  between  the  Caucasian  and 
Negro-type,  are  not  wanting,  has  been  shown  in  the  quoted 
examples,  and  has  been  pointed  out  by  various  travellers. 
The  traveller  from  Cairo  up  the  Nile  to  Nubia  and  Senaar, 
finds  himself,  on  account  of  the  small  gradations  by  which 
the  Egyptian  passes  in  the  Negro,  embarrassed  to  decide 
where  the  white  race  ceases  and  the  black  race  commences.5 

.e  transitions  are  imperceptible ;  it  is  only  near  Assuan  that 
there  is  a  sudden  change  from  the  Egyptian  to  the  Nubian 
type.6  On  progressing  from  Tunis  towards  the  south,  there  is 


1  Clapperton,  "  Tageb.  der  zweiten  E.,"  p.  382, 1830. 

2  Allen  and  Thomson,  i,  p.  325. 

3  Becrofb,  in  "  Journal  Eoy.  Greo.  Soc.,"  xiv,  p.  272. 

4  Allen  and  Thomson,  ii,  p.  194 ;  "  Nouv.  ann.  d.  voy.,"  ii,  p.  281,  1845 ; 
Boteler,  "  Narrative  of  a  voyage  to  Africa  and  Arabia,"  ii,  p.  423,  1835. 

6  "  D'Escayrac  d.  Afr.  Wiiste  und  d.  Land  der  Schwarzen,"  p.  184,  1855. 
e  Dandolo,  "  Viaggio  in  Egitto,"  p.  182,  1854. 


214  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

also  a  regular  and  gradual  transition  of  features  and  colour 
into  the  Negro-type  perceptible,  especially  in  Tozar ;  "  and  if 
it  were  possible  to  bring  from  these  countries  an  ethnological 
collection  to  Europe,  the  greatest  sceptic  would  feel  convinced 
that  time  and  locality  alone  are  the  causes  of  these  fluctuating 
differences."1  We  attach,  however,  but  little  weight  to  this 
gradual  fusion  of  both  types  which  presents  itself  to  the  tra- 
veller, since  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  North  and  Central 
Africa  contains  a  great  number  of  mixed  populations.  It  is, 
however,  more  important  to  observe  that  the  whole  South 
African  family,  where  we  have  no  reason  to  suppose  a  sufficient 
admixture  of  northern  elements,  form,  with  regard  to  their 
cranial  development,  a  well-defined  intermediate  link  between 
the  black  and  the  white  races. 

Whilst  admitting  that  a  considerable  number  of  African 
peoples,  even  the  inhabitants  between  the  Senegal  and  the  Niger, 
owe  their  deviations  from  the  pure  Negro  type  to  an  admixture  of 
elements  from  a  higher  race  ;  still  it  remains  clear,  that  on  the 
one  hand  these  mongrels  do  not  become  extinct,  as  is  usually 
the  case  in  the  hybrids  of  some  species  of  animals,  nor  lose 
the  acquired  type  by  reversion,  but  preserve  it :  and  that  on  the 
other  hand,  the  attempt  to  explain  all  considerable  deviations 
from  the  pure  Negro  type,  which  occur  generally  among  African 
peoples  by  intermixture,  may  be  supported  by  preconceived 
theories,  but  not  by  actual  facts.  It  would  not  be  difficult  to 
indicate  as  great  a  number  of  different  types  in  other  parts 
of  the  globe.  We  shall,  however,  confine  ourselves  to  a  few  ex- 
amples, which  plainly  show  that  these  types  are  nowhere  so  per- 
fectly distinct  as  to  be  considered  as  specifically  different. 
Races  decidedly  different,  dwell,  no  doubt,  in  many  places  near 
each  other  in  the  same  climate ;  for  instance,  on  the  Senegal, 
Moors  and  Negroes ;  in  many  of  the  Polynesian  islands  and  in 
the  South  Sea,  Malays  and  Polynesians,  beside  Negro-like 
populations ;  in  Europe,  Lapps  and  Scandinavians,  etc.  This 
shows  that  climate  alone  can  hardly  change  in  a  very  great  de- 
gree the  type  of  a  people,  that  it  may  be  one  of  the  agents, 

1  Davis,  "  Evenings  in  rny  tent,"  ii,  p.  3,  1854. 


SECT.  IV.]  INTERMEDIATE    FOEMS.  215 

but  standing  alone  it  has  not  a  decidedly  marked  influence. 
But  in  spite  of  that  striking  difference  in  form  which  we 
meet  with  in  several  regions  of  the  earth,  each  of  the  chief 
forms  which  comes  in  contact  with  another  becomes  mingled  with 
it  by  a  series  of  gradations,  each  bearing  a  peculiar  local  stamp, 
just  as  we  might  expect  from  the  peculiar  external  and  internal 
conditions  in  which  these  individual  tribes  live.  The  Finnish 
peoples  are,  as  regards  the  corporeal  form,  such  an  intermediate 
link  between  the  Mongolian  and  Caucasian  races,  just  as  the 
Hindoos  have  been  considered  as  intermediate  between  the 
former  and  the  Malay  race.  The  Tchuktchi  and  Korjaks,  the 
Esquimaux  and  some  West  American  nations,  whose  cranial 
form  approaches  the  Mongolian,  stand  between  Asiatics  and 
Americans,  and  the  Esquimaux  themselves  (who,  on  the  Atlantic 
are  easily  distinguished  from  the  American  Indians),  are  gradu- 
ally mingled  with  them  on  the  coast  of  the  Pacific.  Botocudes 
felt  so  surprised  at  the  sight  of  the  Chinese  that,  from  their  re- 
semblance to  them,  they  called  them  their  uncles.1  From  the 
Mongols  and  the  Tunguses  to  the  Samoiedes2  there  is  a  natural 
transition  in  respect  to  language  and  physical  and  geographical 
relation ;  and  this  is  also  the  case  from  the  Samoiedes  to  the 
Amos,  and  from  these  to  the  Esquimaux. 

That  a  definite  limitation  of  some  chief  forms  cannot  be 
maintained,  is  moreover  shown  by  the  fact  that  some  peoples, 
though  very  remote  from  each  other  and  manifestly  uncon- 
nected, present  great  resemblances.  The  Californians  greatly 
resemble  the  Negroes  of  Guinea,  New  Guinea,  and  the  New 
Hebrides,  in  shape  of  head  and  face, — their  hair,  however,  is 
not  woolly.  All  travellers  are  struck  with  the  slight  external 
differences  existing  between  Europeans  and  the  Marquesas 
islanders.  The  head  of  the  Tahitian  might  be  taken  for  Eu- 
ropean were  it  not  for  the  wide  nostrils  and  large  lips.3  Some 
New  Zealanders  have  perfectly  European  skulls,  whilst  the 
features  approach  those  of  the  North  American  Indians  (Dieffen- 

3h).     The  Hottentots,  on  account  of  their  colour,  shape  of 


1  Hollard,  p.  197,  after  St.  Hilaire. 

2  Neumann  in  A.  Wagner,  "Gesch.  d.  Urwelt,"  p.  311,  1845. 

3  Lesson,  in  "  Complement  des  ODUV.  de  Buffon,"  ii,  p.  206. 


216  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PAKT   I. 

skull  and  face,  have  by  many  been  included  in  the  Mongolian 
race,  though  they  are  separated  from  it  by  their  woolly  hair 
growing  in  single  small  bunches.  The  Georgians  and  Tscherk- 
esses  possess  perfect  Grecian  skulls ;  yet  their  language  forbids 
the  idea  of  their  consanguinity  to  the  Indo- Germanic  nations. 
According  to  Tschudi,1  the  cranium  of  the  Aymaras  approaches 
nearly  that  of  the  Guanches. 

A  further  objection,  of  considerable  weight,  against  a  fixed 
separation  of  the  chief  types,  and  consequently  against  the 
assumption  of  specific  differences,  is  afforded  by  the  fact  that 
individuals  who,  in  their  external  character,  deviate  consider- 
ably from  the  parent  stock,  exhibiting  that  of  a  foreign  tribe, 
occur  in  all  parts  of  the  globe.  It  has  already  been  mentioned, 
that  laterally  compressed  skulls  and  oblique  incisors,  are  fre- 
quently found  in  Europeans.  Oblique  eyes,  projecting  lower 
jaw,  small  square  foreheads,  crania  elongated  upwards  or  back- 
wards, prominent  cheek-bones,  appear  in  families  the  Germanic 
origin  of  which  is  undoubted.  Lucae2  has  given  a  sketch  of 
such  a  skull3  which  much  resembles  the  macrocephalous 
Asiatic  of  Blumenbach.4  There  is,  further,5  the  skull  of  a 
Hessian  criminal,  of  the  Marburg  collection,  which  in  form 
entirely  agrees  with  that  of  the  Peruvian  skulls,  as  regards  the 
flattened  forehead,  strongly  developed  occiput,  and  flattened 
coronal  region ;  and  finally,6  there  is  a  skull  which  in  many 
respects  reminds  us  of  the  Mongolian  formation.  Pure  Arabs 
are  sometimes,  in  their  native  country,  perfectly  black.  The 
prognathous  form  of  the  face,  with  a  light  complexion,  is  seen 
in  many  Egyptians.  Thick  lips  and  flat  noses  are  met  with  in 
European  nations ;  for  instance,  among  the  Slavonians.  Even 
woolly  hair  is  seen  in  some  instances  in  northern  nations ;  but 
a  single  character,  observes  Pruner,  establishes  no  decided 
mark  of  distinction,  they  must  all  be  combined.  However 
much  we  might  agree  with  him  in  this  respect,  we  find  in  it  a 
confession  that  race-characters  do  not  constitute  specifically 
fixed  differences :  hence  it  seems  to  us  illogical,  when  he  says, 

1  Midler's,  "  Archiv,"  p.  98,  1844.  4  Decas,  i,  tab.  3. 

2  Schadel,  abnormer  form.  5  Table  vi. 

3  Table  iii.  6  Table  xvii. 


SECT.    IV.]  DEVIATION    FROM    TYPE.  217 

"  that  it  is  impossible  that  one  race-character  should  pass  into 
another  without  intermixture."  Another  explanation  in  favour 
of  the  specific  difference  of  races  has  been  attempted  by 
Giebel.1  He  asserts  that  Negro  resemblances,  or  other  devia- 
tions from  the  Caucasian  form  which  now  and  then  present  them- 
selves in  Europeans,  are  so  superficial  that  they  do  not  much 
affect  the  Caucasian  type.  He,  however,  refutes  himself2  by 
declaring  in  another  passage,  that  such  analogies  of  form, 
wherever  they  do  occur,  affect  all  the  proportions  of  the  body. 

Other  individual  deviations  from  the  original  type  have  been 
mentioned  by  Liiken3  and  Weerth4.  They  refer  to  the  inha- 
bitants of  Carinthia  and  Styria ;  the  Chinese  and  South  Sea 
islanders,  who  in  many  instances  approach  the  European  forms, 
whilst  Chinese  physiognomies  are  said  to  be  frequently  met  with 
in  Poland  (Schadow,  Polyklet) ;  the  Tartars,  who  by  their  pro- 
jecting lower  jaws,  pointed  chin,  and  long  teeth,  differ  con- 
siderably from  the  Mongol  type,  which  is  also  the  case  with 
Kalmucks.  Among  the  latter,  Pallas  observed  fine  figures,  and 
individuals  with  fair  hair.  Even  among  theTunguses,who  repre- 
sent so  decidedly  the  Mongol  type,  there  are  found  some  indivi- 
duals with  a  European  physiognomy,  light  blue  eyes,  straight  or 
curved  nose,  brown  hair,  and  strong  beard.5  Seemann6  met  with 
an  Esquimaux,  of  the  tribe  of  Hotham  Bay,  remarkably  Negro- 
like,  and  another  who  had  a  strikingly  hooked  Jewish  nose. 
The  Slavonians  present  a  very  remarkable  example  of  great 
differences  among  allied  nations.  They  are  dark  in  the 
south-east  of  their  districts ;  the  Poles  present  a  different 
aspect ;  the  Eussian  peasants  have  often  light  brown  or 
red  hair  •  so  that  these  peoples  differ  externally  from  each 
other  more  than  from  some  other  Indo-Germanic  nations. 

Deviations  in  colour,  eyes,  hair,  are  particularly  numerous. 
Some  of  these  deviations  have  been  considered  as  the  result  of 
disease.  Not  wishing  to  repeat  the  facts  already  mentioned, 

1  "  Tagesfr.  a.  d.  natgesch.,"  p.  55,  1857. 

2  Page  105. 

3  "  D.  Einheit  des  Menschengeschl.,"  p.  15,  1845. 

4  "  D.  Entw.  der  Mensehenrassen,"  p.  17,  1842. 

5  Prichard,  iv,  p.  410. 

6  "  Eeise  urn  d.  Welt,"  ii,  p.  53,  1853. 


218  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

we  would  only  add  the  following. — Red  hair  is  frequently 
noticed  among  Negroes  and  Mulattoes;1  also  among  the 
Papuas2  in  the  South  Sea,  where  Quiros  was  struck  by  it  ;3 
in  Tahiti,  New  Zealand,  and  elsewhere;4  in  Timor,5  among 
the  Esquimaux,6  among  the  Esthonians  and  Wotjakes,7  among 
the  Hindoos  and  the  Arabs  of  Yembo,  more  rarely  in  Cey- 
lon, Cochin-China  and  Tonkin.8  Especially  remarkable  are 
the  great  differences  exhibited  by  the  peoples  of  the  table-land 
above  Dilli  (Timor).  Some  of  the  natives  have  a  dark  yellow 
colour ;  the  parts  exposed  to  the  sun  are  covered  with  light- 
brown  patches ;  the  hair  is  straight  and  thin,  its  natural  colour 
reddish,  or  of  a  dark  chestnut-brown.  There  are  also  found  in 
Timor  all  intermediate  shades  of  the  skin,  from  dark  yellow  to 
black  or  chocolate-brown ;  and  the  hair  from  red  and  straight 
to  the  short  and  woolly  hair  of  the  Papuas.9  Red  hair  and 
variously  coloured  eyes  are  also  met  with  among  the  Congo- 
Negroes  and  the  Bushmen.10  Brown  eyes  are  very  common  in 
Bonny.11  Among  the  Akoos  (Yarriba),  the  iris  is  light-brown  or 
dark  chestnut,  sometimes  dark  sea-green.12  Even  at  Madagas- 
car there  are  blue-eyed  women.13  Scarlett14  saw  in  Peru  a  per- 
fectly black  Negro-boy  with  light  blue  eyes,  whose  mother  had 
one  eye  black  and  the  other  blue.  Kabyles  with  red  hair  and 
blue  eyes  are  mentioned  by  Bruce15  and  others,  and  Blumen- 
bach  quotes  similar  instances.  Barbot  states  that  the  wives 
of  the  Gralibis  (Caribs)  in  Guiana  have  mostly  blue  eyes ; 
and  Wallis  found  in  Tahiti  people  with  brown,  red,  and 


1  Marcgrav,  Lopez,  Winterbottom,  etc. 

2  Sonnerat. 

3  1605,  according  to  Torquemada,  "  Monarquia  Indiana/'  v,  c.  66,  1723. 

4  Forster,  Wallis,  Marion,  and  Duclesmeur. 

5  Van  Hogendorp. 

6  Charlevoix. 

7  Gmelin. 

8  Blumenbach,  "  De  gen.  hum.  v.  n.,"  pp.  165,  169 ;  De  Salles,  «'  Hist.  gen. 
des  races  hum.,"  p.  246,  1849,  according  to  Desmoulins. 

9  W.  Earl,  "  The  native  races  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,"  p.  179,  1853. 

w  Lopez,  "  Warh.  Beschr.  des  K.  Congo,"  p.  5,  ed.  de  Bry.,  1597 ;  BurcheU, 
ii,  p.  225. 

11  Koler,  p.  89. 

12  K,.  Clarke,  "  Sierra  Leone,"  p.  149,  1846. 

13  Eochon,  "  Eeise  nach  Madag.  in  Mazin  v.  Eeisebeschr.,"  viii,  p.  24. 
w  "  South  America  and  the  Pacific,"  ii,  p.  166,  1838. 

15  Vol.  i,  p.  27. 


SECT.  IV.]  DEVIATION    FROM    TYPE.  219 

flaxen  hair.  In  Nutka,  there  are  men  with  brown  and  light 
li.iir.1  Among  the  Cayawas  or  Cayowas,  near  the  sources  of 
the  Rio  Branco,  a  tributary  of  the  Paraguay,  there  are  fair- 
complexioned  individuals  with  light  hair,  who  seem  to  be  of  pure 
blood  ;2  and  Velasco3  says  of  the  Graes  people  on  the  Marafion, 
that  their  hair  is  as  fine  as  that  of  Europeans.  Pickering4  is 
therefore  wrong  in  maintaining  that,  excluding  Albinoes,  flaxen 
hair,  red  hair,  and  blue  eyes,  are  only  met  with  in  the  white 
race.  With  regard  to  the  colour  of  the  skin,  there  are  also 
among  the  Pehuenches  strikingly  white  Indians  who  have  the 
colour  of  a  German  peasant.5  Thus  the  Spaniards  found  in 
Macapana  when  they  conquered  the  country,  young  Indian 
girls  who  had  been  brought  up  in  seclusion,  white  as  Euro- 
peans, which  was  also  the  case  in  Santa  Fe.6  Among  the 
Aguanos  and  Barbudes,  on  the  Huallaga  river,  the  males  were 
sunburnt,  but  the  women  were  as  white  as  the  Spanish  females, 
some  of  them  even  had  red  hair  (according  to  the  reports  of 
the  Jesuits  in  the  seventeenth  century)  .7  To  the  Araucanians 
belong  the  much  whiter  Boroanos,  living  between  the  rivers 
Imperial  and  Tolten,  38J°-39°  S.  lat.;8  they  are  considered, 
by  Molina,9  perfectly  to  resemble  northern  Europeans  in  figure 
and  colour.  However  much  he  may  elsewhere10  insist  upon  it 
that  they  are  neither  Albinoes  nor  cross-breeds,  still,  as  we  shall 
show  in  the  sequel,  the  view  that  they  are  Mestizoes  (an  opinion 
recently  adopted  also  by  Smith11),  is  much  more  probable. 
Ancient  historical  documents,  referring  to  that  country,  leave 
no  doubt  on  the  subject. 

After  these  examples,  we  may  expect  that  a  closer  examina- 
tion of  individual  peoples  will  make  us  acquainted  with  still 
greater  deviations  from  their  original  type,  than  those  who  as- 

1  Roquefeuil,  "  Journal  d'un  voy.  aut.  du  monde,"  ii,  p.  189,  1823. 

2  Castelnau,  ii,  p.  395. 

3  In  Ternaux,  "  Recueil  de  documents,"  p.  288. 

4  "  The  races  of  man,"  1849. 

5  Poppig,  "  Reise,"  i,  p.  463. 

6  P.  Simon,  "  Noticias  de  las  conq.  de  Tierra  Firme,"  i,  pp.  2,  4,  1627. 

I  Rodriquez,  "  El  Maranon  y  Ainazonas,"  iii,  c.  3,  Madrid,  1684. 

8  Poppig,  "  Reise,"  vol.  i. 

9  "  Essai  sur  1'hist.  nat.  du  Chili,"  p.  313,  1789. 

10  See  his  "  Saggio  sulle  storia  civile  de  Chile,"  p.  10,  Bologna,  1787. 

II  "  The  Araucanians,"  p.  293,  New  York,  1855. 


220  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

sume  a  fixed  specific  form  are  inclined  to  admit.  In  the  face 
of  the  above  facts,  the  only  alternative  for  such  as  contend  for 
a  plurality  of  human  species,  is  to  multiply  them  still  more. 
We  have  already  indicated  the  difficulties  of  such  an  alternative, 
for  such  it  is ;  we  would  therefore  only  add,  that  the  same  rea- 
sons may  be  urged  against  the  assumption  of  a  hundred  or 
more  species,  as  against  the  assumption  of  only  two  species. 
In  members  of  the  same  family,  diversities  are  as  frequently  ob- 
served as  in  individuals  of  a  foreign  stock ;  and  in  individuals  of 
the  same  stock,  without  intermixture,  differences  such  as  are 
exhibited  by  distinct  races.  However  few  may  be  the  tribes 
included  within  one  species,  there  will  always  be  found  diver- 
sities amongst  them,  among  their  families  and  individuals,  as 
great  as  the  differences  exhibited  by  the  assumed  number  of 
species ;  on  which  account  they  cannot  be  considered  as  specific 
distinctions. 

He  who  assumes  only  as  many  species  of  mankind  as  there 
are  principal  forms  of  cranial  and  bodily  shape,  at  most  from  five 
to  seven,  will  in  the  end  find  himself  obliged  to  abandon  his 
theory.  He  obtains  specific  characters  fluctuating  as  much  be- 
tween extreme  limits  as  the  individual  who  assumes  but  one 
species  of  man,  and  he  is  therefore  obliged  to  admit,  like  the 
latter,  the  great  influence  of  external  agents.  At  any  rate,  it 
is  perfectly  arbitrary  to  consider  certain  principal  forms  as  spe- 
cifically different  which  are  partly  extreme  forms  (as  the 
Negro-type),  partly  intermediate  (the  American  type),  and 
subordinate  types.  "  The  break  up  of  one  principal  form 
into  physically  and  morally  distinct  families  of  man,  is  not 
much  more  explicable  than  the  races  themselves."1  If  it  be 
contended,  with  regard  to  the  first,  that  they  have  become  de- 
veloped in  the  course  of  time  by  the  agency  of  external  and 
internal  forces,  there  is  no  reason  to  deny  it  as  regards  the 
latter.  If  minor  differences  of  each  species  could  arise  in  this 
manner,  it  only  requires  sufficiently  long  periods  and  appro- 
priate conditions  to  produce  greater  differences.  There  is  not 
even  any  necessity  to  adduce  a  frequently  expressed  assump- 

1  "  Deutsche  Vierteljahi-sclirif't/'  ii,  p.  247,  1838. 


SECT.  IV.]  GROUNDS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION.  221 

tion,  that  at  a  remote  time  the  human  organism  was  more 
plastic  under  external  agencies,  just  as  every  individual  and 
every  people  has  a  juvenile  period  before  their  transition  from 
the  natural  to  the  civilized  state,  in  which  they  are  more 
plastic  than  at  any  later  period. 

„  We  conclude,  therefore,  that  there  are  no  fixed  and  definitely 
limited  forms  which  can  be  considered  as  specific  differences ; 
but  that  if  the  human  species  is  zoologically  to  be  brought 
under  some  chief  divisions,  it  is  a  mere  classification  furnished 
to  us  by  striking  analogies.  Lesson1  observes  very  justly, 
"  On  ne  devrait  en  effet  adopter  les  distinctions  de  races  ou 
d'especes2  que  com/me  des  moyens  artificiels  destines  d  preciser  nos 
idees  dans  V etude  de  I'homme,  et  d  le  rendre  plus  facile"  J. 
Miiller3  expresses  himself  in  a  similar  sense  when  he  says, t '  that 
a  rigid  division  of  mankind  is  impossible.  The  given  forms 
differ  in  typical  peculiarities;  but  there  is  no  certain  scien- 
tific principle  for  fixing  the  limits  specifically.  It  might 
be  more  proper  to  distinguish  all  peoples  as  constant  and 
extreme  forms  of  variations,  than  to  distribute  them  into 
races.  This  seems  impossible,  nor  does  science  require 
such  a  division ;  to  attempt  it  leads  unavoidably  to  an  arbi- 
trary assumption."  Tartars  and  Finns  will  always  occupy 
an  unknown  position  between  the  Mongolian  and  Caucasian 
race ;  Papuas  and  Alfurus  between  Malays  and  Negroes,  etc. 
The  impossibility  of  a  rigid  separation  is  confirmed  by  an  expe- 
rimental study  of  race-characters,  and  also  by  the  fact  that 
only  small  collections  of  skulls  exhibit  decidedly  different 
forms ;  whilst  large  collections  fill  up  the  gaps  between  them, 
showing  continued  transitions  from  one  form  into  every  other. 
If,  in  order  to  oppose  the  argument  founded  upon  the 
above  facts,  many  originally  different  human  species  are 
assumed  in  that  part  of  Africa  situated  between  the  tropics, 
all  difficulties  are  removed,  inasmuch  as  such  assumptions 

1  "  Voyage  medical  autour  du  monde,"  p.  156,  1829. 

2  As  regards  species,  this  is  an  error,  though  it  is  true  with  respect  to  races. 
The  question  in  relation  to  the  first  has  been  awkwardly  treated,  for  they 
have  disputed  whether  species  were  created  or  were  only  by  us  introduced  in 
nature.     Species  are,  no  doubt,  objective  realities,  not  merely  thoughts  or 
models  according  to  which  nature  acts. 

3  "Handbuch  der  Physiol.,"  ii,  114. 


222  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

cannot  be  refuted  until  it  is  definitely  stated  which  tribes 
constitute  these  different  species.  The  American  school,  fol- 
lowing Morton,  which  assumes  that  men  have  been  created  in 
masses  of  peoples,  entertains  this  opinion,  and  would  rather 
not  admit  any  influence  of  external  conditions  upon  the  phy- 
sical peculiarities  of  mankind ;  there  are,  it  asserts,  no  races, 
but  only  an  indefinitely  large  number  of  species  of  man. 
Vogt,  who  has  propagated  this  doctrine  in  Germany,  is  even 
of  opinion  that  individual  nations  are  not  to  be  considered  of 
mixed  origin,  because  the  known  mongrel  types  of  the  Mulat- 
toes,  Mestizoes,  etc.,  are  not  exactly  found  in  them,  and  that 
consequently,  hundreds  of  originally  different  stocks  must  be 
assumed;  all  which  only  acquires  its  validity  by  the  erroneous 
supposition,  that  types  are  perfectly  unalterable  by  external 
influences.  Let  us,  therefore,  subject  that  assertion  of  an 
absolute  immutability  of  race-types  to  a  closer  investigation. 

The  chief,  if  not  the  only,  proofs  are  derived  from  the  old 
Egyptian  monuments  and  the  Jews.  Blumenbach1  recognized 
upon  the  first,  three  different  human  types  :  that  of  the  Negro ; 
a  second,  which  he  calls  the  Indian  type ;  and  a  third,  which  is 
said  to  be  produced  by  the  influence  of  the  Egyptian  climate, 
a  relaxed  flabby  form,  short  chin  and  prominent  eyes.  At  a 
later  period,  Morton2  distinguished  Pelasgic,  Semitic,  and  Negro 
skulls  among  those  of  the  old  Egyptians.  B.  Taylor3  still 
more  decidedly  points  out  upon  the  old  Egyptian  monuments, 
the  distinguishable  forms  of  Negroes,  Persians  and  Jews. 
Others,  especially  Mariotte,  believe  they  can  recognize  in  pic- 
tures, above  5,000  years  old,  the  type  of  the  Fellahs  of  the 
present  day.4 

Nott  and  Grliddon5  have  in  this  manner  endeavoured  to 
prove  the  immutability  of  some  chief  types  and  consequently  the 
permanency  of  all  :  they  assert  that,  as  far  as  history  reaches, 


1  "  De  gen.  hum.  var.  nat.,"  p.  188. 

2  "  Crania  ^Egyptiaca." 

3  "  Eeise  nach  central  Afrika,"  pp.  97,  447,  1853. 

4  The  various  results  of  the  anthropological  relations  of  ancient  Egypt 
have  been  collated  by  Courtet  de  Lisle  in  "  Nouv.  ann.  des  voy.,"  ii,  p.  299, 
1847. 

5  "  Types  of  mankind,"  1854. 


SECT.  IV.]  TYPE  UNCHANGED.  223 

these  forms  have  always  existed;  whilst  de  Salles,  following 
Lepsius,  maintains  that  skulls  of  an  earlier  period  than  the  fifth 
and  sixth  centuries  B.C.  no  longer  exist  in  Egypt,  and  well 
observes  that  the  present  Fellahs  ought  not  to  present  the  old 
Egyptian  type,  if  types  be  permanent,  as  in  Egypt  so  many  in- 
termixtures had  taken  place  :  the  former1  endeavouring  to  prove, 
that  the  Nubians  had  already  inhabited  their  present  localities 
3,500  years  ago,  as  shown  by  pictures  representing  the  out- 
lines of  the  face,  and  beards.  Cranial  measurements  are  not 
mentioned,  but  every  one  knows  what  a  difference  in  external 
aspect  is  produced  by  a  different  head-dress  in  the  same  indi- 
viduals, as  may  be  seen  in  the  pictures  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Tierra  del  Fuego  in  the  work  of  King  and  Fitzroy.2 

All  that  can  legitimately  be  inferred  from  the  old  Egyptian 
monuments,  amounts  to  this — that  the  most  striking  race-cha- 
racters have  essentially,  and  for  a  long  period,  persisted  as  we 
see  them  at  present,  and  that  under  the  same  conditions  they 
remain  unaltered.  Even  the  believer  in  the  agency  of  ex- 
ternal influences,  would  be  surprised,  if  in  Africa  where  Ne- 
groes existed  in  remote  times,  there  were  no  skulls  found 
resembling  the  skulls  of  living  Negroes ;  and  there  is  hardly  a 
thinking  man  who  would  assert  that  3-4000  years  ago  the  civi- 
lized nations  of  antiquity  and  the  Negroes  who  were  always 
treated  by  them  as  slaves,  did  not  then  possess  the  cranial  type 
which  they  now  exhibit. 

In  order  to  prove  the  permanence  of  type,  and  the  importance 
of  climate,  the  Jews  have  been  instanced,  whose  national  physi- 
ognomy is  depicted  upon  the  ancient  monuments  of  Egypt. 
Even  in  Malabar,  where  it  was  formerly  believed  that  in  the 
course  of  time  they  had  assumed  the  type  of  the  Hindoos,  they 
have,  according  to  Buchanan  and  other  travellers,  remained 
essentially  unchanged,  for  only  the  so-called  white  Jews  in  that 
region  are  of  pure  blood,  whilst  the  black  Jews  are  Hindoos  or 
Hindoo-mongrels.3  In  order  properly  to  appreciate  this  fact  we 
must  bear  in  mind  that  by  this  people  religion  and  habits  have 

1  "  L'Institut./'  ii,  p.  40, 1846. 

2  "  Narrative  of  the  voyage  of  the  Adventure  and  Beagle." 

3  Nott  and  Gliddon,  p.  118. 


224  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

in  every  region  of  the  world  been  preserved  with  unexampled 
tenacity,  that  their  whole  domestic  economy  and  degree  of 
civilization  have  remained  everywhere  the  same,  that  they  have 
in  every  region  lived  in  a  state  of  oppression  which  forced  them 
to  a  closer  connexion  between  themselves,  and  to  preserve  their 
peculiarities.  Wherever  they  existed,  be  it  in  Europe  among 
Christians,  or  in  Africa  among  the  Moors,  their  fate  was  the 
same;  they  lived  as  an  excluded  caste,  whose  only  resource  was 
to  obtain  wealth  in  order  to  secure  a  certain  degree  of  power  and 
position.  No  wonder  if  their  cranial  type  as  well  as  their  cha- 
racter remained  on  the  whole  unchanged.  The  uniformity  of 
their  skulls  is,  however,  not  yet  exactly  ascertained.  Sandifort1 
gives  the  following  proportions  of  length,  height,  and  breadth 
of  two  Jewish  crania  =  190  :  226  :  148  and  =  190  :  190  :  130, 
indicating  considerable  variations  in  that  people  which  is  ge- 
nerally quoted  as  an  instance  of  constancy  and  uniformity  of 
the  cranial  development. 

There  is  no  want  of  instances  which  plainly  show  that  the 
sphere  of  variation  in  individual  peoples  or  races ;  when  closely 
examined,  is  as  great  as  that  of  the  whole  human  race ;  and 
these  proofs  have  been  chiefly  furnished  by  those  whose  studies 
have  been  directed  to  the  cranial  structure  of  various  races. 
M.  I.  Weber2  has  distinguished  four  principal  types  of  crania, 
with  which  the  shape  of  the  pelvis  corresponds.  The  oval  skull 
of  the  European,  the  round  one  of  the  American,  the  cuneiform 
of  the  Negro,  the  square-shaped  of  the  Mongol.  Among  the 
examples  for  the  second  form,  he  gives  that  of  an  European,  a 
Jew,  and  a  Kalmuck  ;  among  the  third  form,  an  European  and 
a  Bugis ;  the  last  form  he  found  also  in  Europeans  and  Kaffirs. 
There  occur,  therefore,  in  every  race,  cranial  shapes  foreign  to 
it,  and  consequently  there  are  no  perfectly  fixed  marks  of  race. 
This  also  applies  to  the  shape  of  the  pelvis.  Even  all  the  Kal- 
muck skulls  which  Weber  examined  did  not  possess  the  square 
Mongol,  but  rather  a  globular  form.  Blumenbach3  also  men- 


1  "  Tabulse  craniorum." 

2  "  Die  Lehre  von  den  Ur-und  Racenformen  der  Schiidel  und  Becken  des 
Menschen,"  1830. 

3  "  Decas  craniorum,"  iii,  p.  6. 


SECT.  IV.]  CRANIAL  VARIATIONS.  225 

tions  the  skull  of  a  Lithuanian  which  perfectly  resembled  that 
of  a  Congo-Negro,  and  Godron1  mentions  a  Negro  skull  of  a 
perfectly  European  shape.  That  Retzius2  found  the  old  Swed- 
ish skull  corresponding  with  the  present  shape  proves  but  little 
for  the  constancy  of  forms,  when  it  is  considered  that  great 
variations  in  this  respect  prevail  among  the  same  people.  "I 
have,"  says  Prince  Max,3  "  compared  a  whole  series  of  genuine 
Mandan  skulls,  and  found  great  differences  as  regards  the  re- 
ceding forehead  and  the  flattening  of  the  skull."  Some  have 
perpendicular,  others  receding  foreheads.4  Engel,5  who  assumes 
twelve  chief  types,  seems  by  his  measurements  to  confirm  the 
observations  of  Weber.  He  includes  in  his  third  form,  besides 
Germans  and  Tschechs,  also  Magyars,  a  Javanese,  a  Guanche, 
and  a  Bedouin.  In  his  sixth  form  there  are,  besides  Tschechs  and 
Germans,  the  skulls  of  several  Negroes,  a  Hottentot,  a  Malabar, 
a  Bengalese,  a  New  Zealander.  In  his  tenth  chief  form  the 
skull  of  a  Negro  child,  an  American  Indian,  etc.  If  Engel6  is 
further  of  opinion  that  there  are  race-types,  and  even  caste- 
types  of  crania,  which,  however,  are  not  inherited,  but  chiefly 
depend  on  the  nature  of  aliment,  and  the  thickness  of  bone, 
that  is  to  say,  on  the  addition  of  osseous  matter  received  by 
the  skull,  we  might  expect  that  the  thickness  of  the  cranial 
bones  should  be  unexceptionally  analogous  to  the  cranial  forms, 
which,  however,  is  not  confirmed  by  the  facts. 

The  attempts  of  a  natural  division  of  mankind  rest  princi- 
cipally  upon  the  supposition  that  the  chief  types  possess  a 
high  degree  of  constancy,  and  this  enables  us  to  ascertain  the 
affinity  of  varieties  which  constitute  the  great  divisions  of  man- 
kind.7 The  weakness  of  the  basis  upon  which  these  attempts 

1  "  De  Fespece  et  des  races,"  p.  106,  Nancy,  1848. 

2  Mullens  "  Archiv,"  p.  94,  1845. 

3  "  Eeise  in  N.  Am.,"  i,  235. 

4  Ibid.,  ii,  106. 

5  Unters.  iiber  Schadelformen,"  1851. 

6  Page  120. 

7  In  a  more  rational  way  than  we  are  accustomed  to  find  in  the  American 
school,  Meigs  (in  Nott  and  Gliddon,  "  Indigenoiis  races,"  etc.,  pp.  223,  349) 
observes,  that  not  only  is  every  cranial  type  subject  to  change  by  climate, 
but  similarity  of  its  type  proves  as  little  a  common  origin  as  variation  proves 
a  different  origin.     We  are,  then,  entitled  to  ask  with  some  surprise,  what 
this  school  contends  for,  if  it  admits  that  the  skull  is  no  certain  mark  of 
descent  ? 


226  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

are  founded,  becomes  apparent  at  once  on  comparing  them 
with,  each  other,  when  we  find  as  many  different  classifications 
as  there  are  authors ;  so  that  we  cannot  help  agreeing  with 
Hollard1  when  he  says,  that  zoologists  generally  agree  as  to 
animal  species  and  their  characters,  but  are  always  at  logger- 
heads with  regard  to  the  number  and  types  of  human  races, 
which  they  sometimes  wish  to  establish  as  distinct  species. 
That,  with  respect  to  affinities  of  peoples,  the  external  habitus 
alone  is  not  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  classify  them,  is  proved 
by  the  gross  errors  committed  by  authors  who  have  trusted  to 
its  constancy.  Thus,  for  instance,  we  find  in  Desmoulins  that 
the  first  human  species  consists  of  Indo- Germans,  Finns,  and 
Turks;  the  sixteenth  are  the  Semitics,  the  first  branch  of 
which  is  made  to  consist  of  the  Arabs,  Persians,  Kurds,  Jews, 
Moors,  and  Abyssinians  ;  whilst  the  Etrusco-Pelasgi  constitute 
the  second,  and  the  Celts  the  third  branch  of  the  Semitics. 
In  America,  two  species  are  said  to  exist, — the  Caribs  forming 
one,  and  the  Guaranis  the  other.  Broc,  who  also  classifies 
according  to  physical  characters,  places  the  Hindoos  among  the 
Mongols  and  Malays.  Bory2,  following  the  same  principles, 
includes  in  his  first  species,  the  Georgians  in  the  Caucasus,  the 
Pelasgi,  Celts,  Germans,  Slaves;  with  regard  to  the  Aztecs, 
he  seems  doubtful  whether  they  belong  to  the  hyperborean  or 
Mongolian  species ;  the  Gypsies  in  Spain  he  considers  as  Ma- 
lays. He  further  distinguishes  three  species  of  Americans  ; 
the  first  of  which  reaching  from  the  land  of  the  Esquimaux  to 
Guiana,  whilst  the  third  only  embraces  the  Patagonians.  Such 
absurdities  show  indirectly,  and  better  than  anything  else,  how 
we  should  appreciate  this  pretended  constancy  of  physical  type 
as  a  criterion  of  affinity  of  race. 

We  may,  perhaps,  be  reproached  for  having  selected  the 
least  reliable  authorities  in  order  to  arrive  at  a  certain  result 
from  the  perversity  of  their  assertions.  We  shall  therefore  ex- 
clude them,  as  well  as  the  eccentric  views  of  H.  Smith  and 
others,  and  only  refer  to  such  as  are  known  as  careful  ob- 
servers and  cautious  investigators,  but  who,  trusting  to  the 

1  "  De  I'homme  et  des  races  hum.,"  p.  263,  1853. 

2  "  L'Homnie,"  2nd  ed.,  1827. 


SECT.  IV.]  CONSTANCY  OP  TYPE.  227 

perfect  constancy  of  the  cranial  form,  felt  justified  in  inferring 
from  it  affinities  of  races.  Lesson1  declares  not  only  the  Ma- 
lays as  a  mixed  people  of  Hindoos  and  Mongols,  the  Micro- 
nesians  as  Mongols,  who  had  arrived  later  in  the  South  Sea 
than  the  Polynesians ;  but  the  latter  as  manifestly  the  descend- 
ants of  Hindoos,  and  the  Austral-Negroes  and  Papuas,  as  the 
progeny  of  African  Negroes.  Junghuhn2  considers,  judging 
from  the  skull,  the  Balinese  as  genuine  Battas,  with  which  the 
Alfurus  of  the  East  Indian  Archipelago  as  well  as  the  Bugis 
and  Macassars  are  allied,  whilst  he  believes  that  the  Malays 
are  not  related  to  them,  but  form  a  separate  race.  Pickering3 
groups  together  the  Malays,  Siamese,  Burmese,  Cochin  Chinese, 
and  Japanese,  and  does  not  hesitate  to  include  also  in  that 
group  Californians,  Mexicans,  Creeks,  and  Cherokees.  Ketzius4 
believes,  on  account  of  the  resemblance  of  the  cranial  forma- 
tion, in  the  affinity  of  Turanian,  Scythian,  and  Sarmatian 
families  with  the  Pelasgi ;  whilst,  on  the  same  ground,  he  is 
inclined  to  consider  the  Finnish- speaking  Kareles,  as  allied  to 
the  Arabs.  Though  Hartmann5  has  endeavoured  to  render  it 
probable  that  the  Kareles  are  not  Finns,  but  a  foreign  people 
who  had  formerly  lived  on  the  Ladoga  lake,  it  is  quite  certain 
they  are  not  Arabs.  D'Omalius  d'Halloy6  groups  the  Lapps  with 
the  Samoiedes  on  account  of  their  cranial  shape.  W.  F.  Edwards7 
declares  the  Magyars  to  be  partly  Slavonians  and  partly  Huns. 
Nothing  can  more  plainly  prove  that  the  corporeal  and  cranial 
type  may  be  the  same  in  peoples  of  different  stocks,  and  may 
differ  so  much  in  peoples  of  the  same  stock,  than  the  fact,  that  a 
skilful  observer  is  unable  to  recognize  to  which  the  individuals 
belong.  Certainly,  those  who  believe  in  the  absolute  perma- 
nence of  types  judge  differently.  They  consequently  exhibit  a 
singular  acuteness  in  the  detection  of  mixed  types.  Thus 


1  "  Voy.  Med./'  pp.  157,  163,  185. 

2  "  Die  Battalander,"  p.  282,  1847. 

3  Pages  105,  134. 

4  Miiller,  "Archiv,"  p.  392,  1848. 

5  •«  Abh.  der  K.  G.  der  Wiss.  v.  Stockholm,"  1847. 

6  "  L'Institut.,"  ii,  p.  5,  1840. 

7  "Des  caract.  phys.  des  races  hum.,  1829,"  in  "Mem.  de  la  Soc.  Ethnol.," 
i,  p.  71. 

Q2 


228  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION,  [PART   I. 

Bory1  recognizes  in  Mexico,  in  spite  of  the  number  of  pro* 
ceding  intermixtures,  still  the  type  of  the  Americans,  and  the 
diversities  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  west  coast  from  the  other 
native  Americans;  and  Nott  and  Gliddon2  recognize,  upon 
some  of  the  oldest  monuments  of  Egypt,  already  a  very  mixed 
people.  We  are  almost  tempted  to  ask  them,  How  they  know 
that  God  has  not  originally  created  some  mixed  types  ? 

The  proper  definition  of  physical  characters  of  races  and 
peoples  is  as  yet  deficient  in  scientific  precision.  The  practised 
eye  generally  decides  on  resemblance  and  dissimilarity.  Hence 
there  has  slipped  in  a  sort  of  mysterious  augur-wisdom  in  our 
science, — a  knowledge  resting  more  upon  feeling  and  a  kind  of 
artistic  intuition  than  upon  fixed  rules, — upon  an  indefinite 
something  which  was  only  manifested  to  the  connoisseur.  Thus 
the  door  was  opened  to  quackery  which  does  not  fail  to  make 
itself  felt.  An  investigation  of  the  facts  leads  us  to  the  infer- 
ence, that  as  it  certainly  cannot  occur  to  any  ethnographer  to 
separate  in  the  lands  of  the  Moors,  the  Berber,  Gothic,  Phoeni- 
cian, Roman,  Greek  elements,  etc.,  according  to  cranial  shape, 
or  to  distinguish  in  Greece  the  Slavonian  and  Hellenic  elements, 
it  is  certain  that  the  absolute  permanence  of  the  physical  type 
is  nothing  but  a  prejudice,  possessing  no  scientific  title  what- 
ever to  serve  as  a  basis  for  the  assumption  of  a  plurality  of 
human  species. 


Whatever  number  of  principal  types  of  mankind  may  be 
assumed,  if  they  are  considered  as  specifically  different,  it  be- 
comes always  requisite  with  regard  to  the  peoples  belonging  to 
these  original  types  to  admit  either  a  relatively  considerable 
mutability  of  the  type  by  external  and  internal  influences, — as 
every  people  has  its  own  peculiarities, — or  else  to  admit  an  in- 
termixture of  species.  In  the  first  case,  the  power  of  these  in- 
fluences is  strictly  limited  by  the  assumption  of  species, — limits, 
the  fixing  of  which  is  purely  arbitrary :  in  the  second  case,  in 
which  all  changes  are  reduced  to  intermixture  alone,  we  add  to 
the  great  improbability  contained  in  the  assertion,  that  nearly 

1  Vol.  i,  p.  274.  2  page  233. 


SECT.  IV.]  RESULTS.  229 

all  the  peoples  of  the  earth  were  true  mongrels,  a  second 
one :  that  all  these  mixed  types  possess  a  persistent  vitality 
without  any  infusion  of  fresh  blood  from  the  stock  they  have 
sprung  from ;  and  further,  that  their  own  types  are  pre- 
served without  any  reversion  to  that  of  the  parent  stock,  by 
which  the  assumed  specific  differences  are  neutralized  and  ren- 
dered illusory. 

It  is  unquestionable  that,  among  the  causes  which  induce 
permanent  changes  of  type,  intermixture  is  the  most  potent, 
and  that  in  comparison  with  this  agent  other  influences  seem 
less  important.  Though  this  circumstance  renders  the  suppo- 
sition of  several  originally  different  races  in  some  degree  pro- 
bable, it  still  remains,  in  by  far  the  greater  number  of  cases, 
impossible  to  determine  whether  an  intermixture  of  different 
elements  has  taken  place  at  all,  and  how  far  it  has  progressed. 
Intermixture,  moreover,  as  we  have  seen,  is  not  the  sole  agent. 
We  can,  therefore,  scarcely  go  further  than  this, — that  every- 
where, and  especially  when  in  an  uncivilized  state,  a  number 
of  human  beings,  possessing  the  same  habits  and  modes  of 
life,  will,  by  continued  intermixture  of  the  individuals  between 
themselves  through  a  series  of  generations,  if  they  live  in  a 
state  of  seclusion,  acquire  in  the  course  of  time  a  nearly  uni- 
form external  type,  whatever  may  have  been  the  original 
elements. 

The  whole  result  of  the  preceding  investigation  may  there- 
fore be  summed  up  to  this  effect : — that  the  known  facts  not 
only  permit  the  assumption  of  the  unity  of  the  human  species, 
but  that  this  view  presents  less  difficulties  than  the  opposite 
theory  of  specific  differences ;  because  any  number  of  species 
assumed,  appears  equally  arbitrary.  But  as  the  principal  argu- 
ments in  favour  of  unity  of  species  rest  upon  the  mutability  of 
the  human  organism  by  internal  and  external  influences,  the 
limits  of  which  are  unknown  to  us ;  and  as  in  the  absence  of 
any  exact  information  as  to  the  length  of  time  they  were 
in  action,  we  cannot  decide  whether  the  power  of  these  influ- 
ences was  sufficient  to  produce  the  existing  differences,  the 
question  of  unity  of  species  remains  an  open  one.  Even 
if  it  were  satisfactorily  proved  that  the  magnitude  of  the 


230  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

changes  which  a  human  family  may  in  course  of  time  undergo, 
equalled  the  differences  between  the  Negro  and  the  European, 
it  would  still  remain  uncertain  whether,  in  fact,  the  one  de- 
scended from  the  other.  The  question  as  regards  unity  of 
species  might  then  be  considered  as  answered ;  but  not  unity 
of  descent.  We  possess  scarcely  any  facts  which  may  serve 
as  a  basis  for  the  solution  of  the  latter  question  ;  and  in  what- 
ever way  it  may  be  decided,  the  solution  can  only  claim  some 
degree  of  probability. 


SECTION    V. 

ON   THE    CLASSIFICATION    OF   MANKIND. 

It  needs  no  justification  if,  in  passing  from  the  physical  to 
the  psychological  investigations  concerning  the  unity  of  the 
human  species,  we  offer  some  few  remarks  on  the  starting 
points  from  which  the  classification  of  mankind  has  been  at- 
tempted. Though  we  do  not  pretend  to  settle  the  dispute 
between  naturalists  and  linguists,  in  regard  to  the  value  which 
they  attach  to  their  respective  arguments,  still  the  following 
remarks  may,  perhaps,  assist  in  removing  several  prejudices 
which,  founded  upon  a  one-sided  conception,  have  obstructed 
a  proper  estimation  of  some  important  points. 

In  the  various  attempts  which  have  been  made  towards  a 
classification  of  the  human  species,  the  main  object  which  has 
been  kept  in  view  was  not  merely  a  general  grouping  of  the  races 
according  to  their  resemblance,  but  a  division  of  the  peoples 
according  to  their  descent.  This  object  was  the  more  naturally 
followed,  inasmuch  as  the  possibility  of  a  common  descent  was, 
in  all  classifications  of  mankind,  either  tacitly  or  expressly 
assumed.  Such  a  division  of  mankind,  resting  upon  commu- 
nity of  descent,  may  be  formed  from  three  different  points  of 
view,  which  we  may  term — the  physical,  the  linguistic,  and 
the  historical  stand-points.  The  results  obtained  by  no  means 
agree.  The.  physical  and  linguistic  grounds  for  a  certain  clas- 


SECT.  V.]  CLASSIFICATION.  231 

sification  are  frequently  in  conflict;  and  so  it  often  happens 
that  one  of  these  arguments  is  considered  as  of  inferior  import- 
ance,— a  partiality  which  is  frequently  exhibited  by  naturalists 
who  were,  and  still  are,  the  principal  expounders  of  the  theories 
of  human  races. 

A  classification  of  mankind  according  to  affinity,  may  be 
said  to  rest  on  a  sure  basis,  if  inferences  from  authenticated 
historical  data  warrant  it  j  but  these  do  not  reach  so  far  back  in 
time  as  the  inferences  which  may  be  drawn  from  linguistic  and 
anatomical  data,  and  moreover,  the  former  extend  only  to  a 
small  portion  of  the  globe.  The  historical  stand-point,  there- 
fore, occupies  the  background ;  though  it  acquires  a  secondary 
value  where  we  find  a  conformity  in  manners,  traditions,  archi- 
tecture, works  of  art,  etc.,  which  conformity  could  not  easily 
have  been  accidental. 

The  study  of  languages  may  afford  more  certain  indications. 
If  the  grammatical  structure,  the  speech-sounds,  and  a  large 
number  of  radicals,  agree  in  the  languages  of  two  or  several 
peoples,  their  relationship  may  be  considered  as  proved.  There 
only  remains  against  this  assumption,  the  possible  and  some- 
what rare  circumstance  of  a  people  losing  their  own  lan- 
guage and  changing  it  for  another, — a  case  which  must  not  be 
assumed  without  positive  proofs.  Though  a  difference  in  lan- 
guage does  not  necessarily  lead  to  the  inference  of  a  distinct 
origin  of  the  respective  peoples,  still  their  assumed  affinity  is 
thereby  reduced  to  an  incalculably  remote  period. 

Although  the  anatomical  arguments  may  without  difficulty  be 
applied  to  the  classification  of  the  whole  human  species,  they 
can  scarcely  claim  more  than  a  general  grouping  according  to 
external  resemblance.  The  proofs,  as  regards  affinities  of  hu- 
man races  on  anatomical  grounds  are,  as  we  have  shown,  un- 
certain, partly  because  the  methods  of  cranial  measurement 
have  not  yet  reached  the  desirable  degree  of  perfection,  and 
chiefly  because  it  is  as  yet  very  doubtful  whether  there  are 
constant  anatomical  differences,  not  merely  between  the  large 
groups  of  peoples,  but  also  within  individual  nations. 

We  shall  now  enter  upon  the  special  consideration  of  the 
above  mentioned  three  principal  points  of  view. 


232  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

The  old  attempts,  with  regard  to  the  natural  division  of  the 
human  race,  were  chiefly  founded  on  the  visible  differences  ex- 
hibited by  human  beings,  such  as  the  colour  of  the  skin  and  the 
quality  of  the  hair.1  It  was,  however,  soon  found  that  these  pre- 
sented too  many  deviations  to  allow  great  importance  to  be  at- 
tached to  them.  Thus  the  colour  of  the  skin  is  not  sufficiently 
constant  in  the  same  people ;  and  the  changes  it  presents  from 
one  family  of  peoples  into  another,  are  uncertain.  Generally 
speaking,  dark  colour  of  the  skin  is  found  in  combination  with 
black  hair,  and  a  black  or  brown  iris ;  on  the  other  hand,  fair 
complexion  is  combined  with  light  or  red  hair,  and  a  light 
brown,  blue,  or  greenish  iris.  The  second  combination  is 
generally,  though  not  exclusively,  peculiar  to  the  northern  or 
white  race.  If  to  this  be  added,  that  the  hair  of  the  Negro 
frizzles  in  consequence  of  the  elliptical  form  of  its  diameter, 
we  obtain  a  division  of  mankind  into  tribes  of  light  complexion 
and  straight  hair,  into  tribes  of  dark  complexion  and  straight  hair, 
and,  finally,  into  families  of  dark  complexion  and  frizzly  hair. 

This  basis  of  a  division  according  to  colour  and  hair,  has 
recently  been  abandoned.  Only  D'Omalius  d'Halloy2  still  con- 
siders colour  and  hair  as  decided  distinctions  of  race.  He 
includes  the  Finns  and  Turks  in  the  white  race ;  and  in  the 
brown  (Malay),  the  Hindoos,  as  a  mixed  people  of  white  Arians 
and  black  aborigines,  the  Abyssinians,  and  the  Fellahs. 
Though  he  may  be  wrong  in  attributing  greater  constancy  to 
the  colour  of  the  skin  than  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  skeleton, 
it  must  be  admitted  that  with  many  individuals  of  mankind  it 
would  remain  doubtful  as  to  which  family  they  belong,  if  the 
colour  and  the  hair  did  not  furnish  us  with  certain  indications. 
A  greater  degree  of  constancy  is  now  generally  attributed  to 
the  shape  of  the  skull.  It  is  agreed,  that  it  presents  a  basis 
for  a  natural  division;  and  this  mark  of  distinction  becomes 
the  more  important  as  it  gives  some  indications  with  respect 
to  past  generations. 

With  regard  to  the  principal  cranial  types,  from  which  the 
rest  may  be  considered  as  deviations,  we  find  that  Blumenbach, 

1  See  Blumenbach,  "  De  gen.  hum.  var.  nat.,"  p.  296,  3rd  edit. 

2  "  L'Institut.,"  ii,  p.  86,  1844. 


SECT.  V.]  SHAPE  OP  SKULL.  233 

the  founder  of  this  theory,  designates  the  Ethiopian1  and  Mon- 
golian forms  as  the  extremes  between  which  the  Caucasian 
occupies  the  centre,  the  American  being  placed  between  the 
latter  and  the  Mongolian,  and  the  Malay  between  the  Ethiopian 
and  the  Caucasian.  The  various  races,  distinguished  by 
Blumenbach,  are  placed  in  the  following  order :  —  Negro, 
Malay,  Caucasian,  American,  Mongolian ;  so  that  the  White, 
assuming  the  unity  of  the  human  race,  appears  as  the  medium 
or  normal  type  of  humanity.  On  taking,  however,  into  con- 
sideration not  merely  the  shape  of  the  skull,  but  other  ana- 
tomical differences,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  White  and 
the  Negro  form  the  extremes ;  the  latter,  on  account  of  his 
resemblance  to  the  ape,  which  nearly  disappears  in  the  white 
man. 

Blumenbach' s  division  into  five  races  is  either  too  large  or 
too  small,  manifestly  corresponding  with  the  geographical 
scheme  of  five  parts  of  the  globe.  Lacepede  and  Dumeril 
added  a  sixth  variety, — the  so-called  Hyperborean  race  of  the 
polar  regions;  whilst  Yirey2  considers  the  Hottentots  and 
Papuas  as  the  sixth  chief  variety,  and  the  Negro  and  the 
White  as  distinct  species.  The  facts,  however,  would  lead 
either  to  the  adoption  of  the  three  principal  types,  according 
to  Cuvier,  namely,  the  Mongol,  the  Negro,  and  the  Caucasian, 
named  by  some  writers  after  Shem,  Ham,  and  Japhet,  or 
to  assume  a  considerably  larger  number.  Prichard,  Smith, 
and  Latham,  are  inclined  to  adopt  the  former  division ; 
Pickering  assumes  eleven,  Bory  fifteen,  Desmoulins  sixteen, 
and  Agassiz  and  Nott  an  indefinite  number,  of  species.  Hom- 
bron3  assumes,  even  in  Australia,  the  population  of  which 
was  hitherto  considered  by  all  ethnographers  as  belonging  to 
one  family,  a  number  of  distinct  species,  and  declares  the  in- 
habitants of  Van  Diemen's  land  to  be  also  of  a  distinct  species. 

1  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  mention  that  the  term  "  Ethiopian"  is  as  im- 
proper as  the  term  Caucasian,  which  Blumenbach  used  simply  because  the 
skull  of  a  Georgian  woman  seemed  to  him  as  the  best  representative  of  this 
type,  without  any  intention  on  his  part  to  express  thereby  an  opinion  as  to 
the  cradle  of  these  peoples.    We  shall,  however,  abide  by  these  designations, 
as  they  are  generally  adopted. 

2  "  Hist.  nat.  du  genre  hum.,"  i,  p.  318,  1834. 

3  "  Zoologie,"  i,  p.  312,  etc.,  in  Urville,  "  Voy.  au  Pole  Sud." 


234  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

If  the  Malay  and  American  be  added  to  the  three  chief  forms 
adopted  by  Cuvier,  we  can  scarcely  avoid  adding  the  Austra- 
lians, Austral  Negroes  (Negrillos),  the  Papuas,  and  the  Hot- 
tentots. Nor  will  this  be  sufficient.  All  the  intermediate 
tribes  between  the  Negro  and  the  white,  namely,  the  Kaffirs, 
Nubians,  Gallas,  Abyssinians,  and  Berbers,  have  an  equal  claim 
to  consideration.  This  applies  also  to  the  Battas,  the  cranial 
form  of  whom  is  intermediate  between  that  of  Europeans  and 
Malays.1  With  the  Mongolian  type  there  is  further  associated 
the  so-called  Hyperborean  type,  though  the  assumption  of  a 
separate  polar  race  presents  many  difficulties,  as  already  shown 
by  Yater,2  and  indicates  a  considerable  deviation.  But  least 
of  all  can  the  aboriginal  Americans  be  comprehended  in 
the  division ;  for,  whatever  Morton  and  his  school  may  assert 
as  to  the  similarity  of  the  cranial  type  in  all  the  varieties  of 
South  and  North  America,  it  is  shown  by  their  own  researches 
that  differences  of  shape  are  as  considerable  there  as  in  those 
parts  in  which  they  are  considered  as  fundamentally  different. 
Some  are  long-headed,  some  short-headed,3  others,  again,  are 
round-headed ;  the  present  Peruvians  have  small  square  skulls, 
with  a  compressed  occiput.4  Tschudi5  has  pointed  out  three 
essentially  distinct  cranial  forms  of  the  original  inhabitants  of 
Peru.  It  could  be  easily  shown,  that,  having  proceeded  thus 
far  in  the  division  of  mankind,  there  can  be  no  halting  place  ; 
but  we  must  go  further,  and  adopt  an  unlimited  number 
of  types.  It  would  be  necessary  to  assume  fixed  differences 
between  nations  to  whom,  on  historical  and  linguistic  grounds, 
we  cannot  ascribe  a  separate  descent.  We  thus  become  con- 
vinced, that,  from  a  mere  anatomical  point  of  view,  nothing 
certain  can  be  inferred  as  to  the  consanguinity  of  races ;  and 
that  it  is  therefore,  in  every  respect,  advisable  to  adopt  the 
above  three  chief  types,  which,  moreover,  as  we  have  already 
shown  in  their  intermixture  with  others,  exhibit  the  greatest 
persistence. 

1  "  Junghuhn  d.  Battalander,"  ii,  p.  6. 

2  Mithridates,  iii,  p.  317. 

3  Retzius,  Miiller's  "  Arckiv,"  p.  503,  1855. 

4  Morton,  "  Cran.  Am./'  pp.  65,  115. 

5  Miiller's  "  Archiv,"  p.  98,  1844. 


SECT.  V.]  SHAPE  OF  SKULL.  235 

To  Retzius  belongs  the  chief  merit  of  having  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  an  ethnographic  craniology.  Proceeding  from  the 
principle,  that  the  psychical  individuality  of  a  people  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  development  of  the  brain  as  indicated  by  the 
skull,  he  distinguishes  first  dolichocephalic  and  brachycephalic 
crania,  the  former  shape  depending  on  a  considerable  develop- 
ment of  the  posterior  lobes  of  the  brain,  and  the  latter  on  their 
comparative  shortness,  which  causes  them  in  some  instances  to 
be  more  developed  in  breadth.  The  functions  of  the  posterior 
lobes  are  considered  by  Ketzius  as  very  important.  To  this 
general  division  Retzius  adds  a  secondary  classification,  accord- 
ing to  the  form  of  the  face,  as  follows : — 

1.  Gentes  dolichocephalse  orthognathae, 

2.  Gentes  brachycephalae  orthognathae, 

3.  Gentes  dolichocephalae  prognathae, 

4.  Gentes  brachycephalae  prognathae. 

The  two  first  are  only  found  in  Europe.  In  Asia  all  the  four 
shapes  are  met  with  in  almost  equal  proportions.  The  third 
and  the  fourth  are  the  predominating  types  in  the  South  Sea. 
In  Africa  the  third  type  predominates,  though  the  first  form 
also  occurs  in  that  part,  as  well  as  the  second  type  in  the  South 
Sea.  In  America  the  third  and  fourth  forms  alternate,  in- 
cluding, to  a  less  extent,  the  second  type,  so  that  the 
greatest  variety  and  intermingling  of  types  is  to  be  found. 

From  the  details  given  by  Retzius,1  it  clearly  results  that  no 
consanguinity  can  be  established  between  the  peoples  exhibit- 
ing the  same  cranial  types.  Thus  in  Europe  there  belong  to 
the  brachycephalce  orthognathce  the  Turks,  Lapps,  Slaves, 
Basques ;  in  Asia  the  Samoiedes,  Burates,  Affghans,  Persians. 
To  the  brachycephalce  prognathce  in  the  East  Indies  and  the 
South  Sea  belong  the  Tahitians,  Malays,  Papuas ;  to  the  doli- 
chocephalce  prognatlwe  in  Africa,  Negroes,  Hottentots,  and 
Kopts,  etc. 

Zeune2  distinguishes  three  extreme  cranial  types  :  high  skulls 

1  Mailer's  "  Archiv,"  p.  271,  1848. 

2  "  Ueber  Schadelbildung,"  1846. 


236  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

(Europeans  and  Asiatics  in  the  west  and  south  of  these  parts, 
as  far  as  India)  ;  broad  skulls  (Mongols  and  many  Malay  peo- 
ples) ;  long  skulls  (Negroes) .  These  three  chief  types  are  also 
found  in  the  New  World:  the  first  among  the  Natchez  and 
Choctaws ;  the  second  among  the  Caribs  and  Macusis ;  the 
third  in  Peru,  among  the  Huancas  and  Incas ;  so  that  we  have, 
on  the  whole,  six  chief  divisions.  Between  the  above  extreme 
types  there  are  intermediate  forms,  probably  the  result  of  in- 
termixture. Thus  the  Turks,  Slaves,  Magyars,  Finns,  Lapps, 
and  many  Malay  peoples,  are  intermediate  between  the  Mongol 
and  Caucasian ;  the  Papuas,  Alfurus,  and  Hottentots,  between 
the  Mongol  and  Negro-type ;  the  latter  originating,  perhaps, 
from  intermixture  between  Negroes  and  Malays. 

The  preceding  synopsis  of  the  chief  attempts  of  classifications 
shows  one  fact  very  clearly,  namely,  the  disagreement  of  all 
authors  who  have  treated  of  this  subject,  both  in  principle  and 
execution,  whenever  they  pass  beyond  the  three  chief  types 
which  distinguish  the  Negro,  the  Mongol,  and  the  European. 
This  disagreement  either  proves  that  the  subject  is  indefinite, 
or  that  science  is  as  yet  not  sufficiently  advanced  to  give  a  de- 
cisive answer. 

It  cannot  be  our  intention  to  depreciate  the  meritorious* 
efforts  as  regards  the  investigation  of  the  cranial  race-theory. 
It  is  highly  probable  that  there  exists  in  every  people  a  national 
form  of  skull,  to  establish  which  would  be  of  great  ethno- 
graphic interest.  There  is,  however,  no  question  that  the  in- 
ferences of  identity  of  tribe  from  an  identity  of  skull,  or  of 
consanguinity  from  a  similar  cranial  shape,  are  as  doubtful  as 
the  conclusions  to  a  different  stock  from  a  deviating  cranial 
form ;  for  similar  types  are  presented  by  peoples  living  at  the 
most  remote  distances  from  each  other,  who  cannot,  without  a 
far-fetched  hypothesis,  be  presumed  to  be  allied ;  whilst,  on  the 
other  hand,  great  varieties  of  cranial  forms  are  found  among 
peoples  whose  consanguinity  is  undeniable.  Finally,  the  varia- 
tion of  shape  in  individual  national  types  is  as  yet  too  little 
known  to  determine  which  form  is  within  or  without  the  sphere 
of  that  particular  type. 

How  cautious  we  should  be  in  concluding  from  cranial  mea- 


SECT.  V.]  SHAPE  OP  SKULL.  237 

surements  to  consanguinity  of  tribe,  is  shown  by  Hueck,1  who 
found  the  measurement  of  Esthon  skulls  mostly  agreeing  with 
that  of  two  Tartar  skulls,  although  they  are  generally  different 
in  form.  Zeune  observes,  that,  according  to  Ketzius,  the  Scan- 
dinavians have  long-heads,  the  Slaves  short-heads;  yet  he  found 
the  skull  of  a  Swede  to  be  shorter  than  those  of  two  Kussian 
female  skulls.  The  Avar  skull  found  near  Grafenegg  in  Aus- 
tria has,  by  Tschudi,2  been  considered  as  of  Peruvian  origin,  on 
account  of  its  similarity  to  those  of  the  Huancas;  whilst  Meyer3 
asserts,  that  the  skulls  of  the  latter  are  perfectly  identical  with 
the  microcephalse  found  in  the  Crimea.  No  further  commen- 
tary is  necessary  to  show  what  confusion  would  result  if  the 
cranial  shape  were  assumed  to  be  an  absolute  mark  of  race. 

The  question  may  here  be  asked,  why  the  skull  has  been  pre- 
ferentially selected  to  determine  the  race — do  the  other  parts 
of  the  skeleton  exhibit  a  less  degree  of  constancy  ?  Hardly ; 
but  the  skull  was  not  only  the  most  accessible,  but  the  most 
characteristic  part,  from  its  supposed  relation  to  the  psychical 
qualities  of  man,  however  obscure  this  relation  may  yet  be,  for, 
as  to  the  fables  of  phrenology,  these  have  been  rejected  by 
German  science.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  skull  has 
been  too  exclusively  considered  as  a  permanent  mark  of  race, 
and  it  has  become  necessary  no  longer  to  neglect  other  physical 
characters,  for  it  is  only  in  their  entirety  that  they  can  afford 
any  satisfactory  clue  as  to  the  peculiarities  of  each  race.  Which 
of  these  peculiarities  is  the  more  or  less  important  will  only  be 
determined  after  a  long  series  of  investigations.  A  fair  be- 
ginning has  been  made  by  Quetelet,  whose  measurements  have 
extended  to  the  proportions  of  individual  parts  composing  the 
body.  He  has  arrived  at  the  result,4  that  in  the  European  race 
the  proportions  of  the  body  are  constant,  and  that  the  measure- 
ment of  but  few  individuals  is  necessary  to  find  the  normal  pro- 
portions ;  he  considers  it,  moreover,  as  probable  that  the  human 
body  is,  in  its  forms  and  proportions,  more  definite  than  any 

1  "  De  craniis  Esthonum,"  p.  9. 

2  Mailer's  "  ArcMv,"  p.  277,  1845. 

3  Ibid.,  p.  510,  1850. 

1  "Bullet,  de  1'Acad.  des  Sc.  de  Belg.,"  xv,  P.  i,  p.  580;  P.  ii,  p.  16;  xvi, 
P.  ii,  pp.  11,  17;  xvii,  P.  i,  p.  344;  P.  ii,  pp.  38,  95. 


238  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

other  production  of  nature.  Among  the  American  race,  putting 
aside  the  greater  breadth  of  the  chest  and  the  smaller  feet, 
there  is  a  great  resemblance  of  proportions  with  those  of  the 
finest  European  forms.  Among  the  Chinese  the  deviations  are 
not  very  considerable,  excepting  with  regard  to  hand,  foot,  and 
length  of  arm,  which  are  generally  smaller  in  them  than  in  the 
European;  the  female  hand  is,  however,  distinguished  by  a 
greater  size.  Schultz,1  on  the  other  hand,  asserts,  that  he 
found  considerable  differences  in  the  proportions  of  parts  among 
Russians,  Letts,  Tscherkesses,  Tschuwashes,  Negroes,  and 
Jews. 

We  subjoin  a  short  table  of  measurements  possessing  an 
anthropological  interest : — 

1. — Cranial  Measurements.  Ketzius,  in  Mailer's  "Archiv,"  p.  84,  1845. 
(Swedes,  Slaves,  Finns,  Lapps),  ibid.,  p.  498,  1855.  (Pampas  Indians),  in 
"  Nouv.  Ann.  des  voy.,"  iii,  p.  119,  1847.  (Abyssinians,  Basuto-Kaffirs), 
Van  der  Hoven,  in  Mailer's  "  Archiv,"  p.  433,  1844.  (Slavonians),  Philipps, 
in  Schoolcraft,  "  Hist,  of  the  Ind.  Trib.,"  ii,  p.  385.  (North  Am.  Indians), 
Robt.  Clarke,  "  Sierra  Leone,"  p.  48,  1846.  (Various  Negro  peoples),  Hushcke, 
Schiidel,  Hirn,  and  Seele. 

2. — Measurements  of  Cranium  and  the  most  important  parts  of  the  Body. 
Freycinet,  "  Voy.  aut.  d.  m.,"  1827  (Papuas,  Sandwich  Islanders,  Australians, 
etc.).  Sandifort,  "Tab.  Cran.,"  1838  (Greenlanders,  Romans,  Amboineese, 
Kaffirs,  Hottentots,  Bushmen,  North  Americans,  Singalese,  Chinese,  Japanese, 
Papuas,  Australians,  Kolusches,  Guanches,  Turks,  Negroes,  Javanese,  Jews). 
Hueck,  "  De  Cran.  Esth.,"  1838  (Esthonians,  Lapps,  Tschuktshes,  Kalmucks, 
Tartars,  Letts) .  Lesson, "  Voy.  aut.  du  m./'  1829  (Mozambique  Negroes,  Papuas, 
Alfurus,  Polynesians).  Schultz  et  Quetelet,  loc.  cit.  (Ojibbeways,  Neapolitan 
giant,  American  Hercules,  Chinese,  Kaffirs,  Negroes,  European  soldiers). 
Duttenhofer,  "  Ueber  die  Emancip.  der  Neger,"  p.  77,  1855  (Negroes),  Bur- 
meister,  "  Geol.  Bilder,"  ii,  Negroes ;  Thomson,  in  "  Brit.  &  For.  Med.  Chir. 
Eeview/'  p.  489,  1854 ;  and  Fechner's  "  Central-Blatt,"  p.  417, 1854,  New  Zea- 
landers.  Wilkes,  "  United  States  Exploring  Expedition,"  v,  p.  539, 1845  (Poly- 
nesians). Flinders,  "Voy.  to  Terra  Australia,"  i,  p.  68,  1814  (Australians). 

More  important  and  certain  results  have  been  obtained  from 
philological  investigations. 

It  probably  would  never  have  occurred  to  a  zoologist  to 
group  the  Indo- Germanic,  Semitic,  and  other  tribes  in  the  same 
family.  The  anthropologist  could  only  wait  for  and  appro- 

1  Froriep's  "  Neue  Notizen,"  xxxv,  p.  164. 


SECT.  V.]  LANGUAGES.  239 

priate  the  results  obtained  in  this  way.  When,  therefore,  the 
naturalist,  in  opposition  to  the  linguist  (as  is  frequently  done) 
speaks  of  the  absolute  constancy  of  cranial  types,  and  signifi- 
cantly points  to  those  cases  in  which  whole  nations  have 
changed  their  language,  it  looks  not  merely  like  ingratitude, 
but  like  envy. 

The  natural  forms  of  intellectual  life  seem  to  be  subject  to 
as  many  changes  as  the  mental  peculiarities  of  individuals ; 
hence  it  was  believed  that  a  greater  constancy  of  type  is  to  be 
found  within  the  sphere  of  physical  organization.  The  appear- 
ance may  possibly  be  deceitful,  and  more  extensive  investiga- 
tions may  exhibit  an  equal  uniformity  in  the  mental  as  in  the 
physical  organization.  Philology  gives  a  certain  probability  to 
this  idea,  for  not  only  may  we  from  the  language  of  a  people 
draw  some  correct  inferences  as  to  its  intellectual  state,  as 
Crawfurd1  has  done  with  regard  to  the  original  state  of  civiliza- 
tion of  the  Malays,  but,  generally  speaking,  the  linguistic  pecu- 
liarities are  the  most  important  of  those  of  intellectual  life ; 
because,  on  the  one  hand,  they  are  in  their  origin  as  inde- 
pendent of  conscious  reflection  as  of  the  influence  of  external 
circumstances ;  and  because,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  trans- 
mitted and  appropriated  by  later  generations,  and  thus  exhibit, 
in  all  essential  points,  a  high  degree  of  constancy.  Whatever 
is  created  by  the  conscious  will  is  subject  to  multifarious 
changes  by  further  reflection,  but  not  that  which,  like  the  form 
and  structure  of  language,  is  transmitted  by  unconscious  imi- 
tation, which  is  thus  withdrawn  from  reflection. 

These  general  psychological  considerations  show  the  great 
importance  of  linguistic  researches  in  relation  to  the  consan- 
guinity of  peoples.  We  shall,  therefore,  endeavour  to  specify 
the  claims  of  philology  to  be  heard  on  this  question. 

The  two  chief  points  which  are  to  be  considered  in  compara- 
tive philology  are  the  grammatical  structure  of  a  language,  in- 
cluding the  articulated  sounds,  and  its  vocabulary.  According 
io  the  present  state  of  science,  both  of  them  must  correspond 
to  infer  a  genealogical  relationship  of  languages.  Comparisons 

*  »  "  History  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,"  1820. 


240  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

of  vocabularies,  formerly  so  much  in  vogue,  are  now  deemed 
insufficient,  as  these  comparisons  were  without  method,  pro- 
ceeded from  no  fixed  principle,  and  the  estimation  of  the  pre- 
vailing differences  of  words  was  quite  arbitrary.  Even  in  lan- 
guages where  the  resemblances  of  many  words  are  unmistake- 
able,  it  cannot  be  decided  from  them  alone,  whether  they  have 
been  transmitted  or  merely  borrowed,  whether  they  are  the 
consequence  of  a  genealogical  relationship,  or  of  an  exchange 
or  communication  from  one  language  to  another  originally  dis- 
tinct, but  which  subsequently  came  in  contact.  Many  of  these 
vocabulary  resemblances  may  also  be  accidental,  and  produced 
by  identical  original  invention.  The  extent  and  degree  of  the 
resemblance  of  individual  words  must  also  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration, as  well  as  their  signification,  especially  such  as 
designate  common  things  indispensable  to  peoples  even  in 
a  low  state  of  cultivation ;  for  these  are  not  so  much  altered 
in  an  exchange  of  languages  as  those  belonging  to  things  found 
only  among  peoples  more  civilized.  But  all  this  does  not  in- 
validate the  general  principle,  that  word  comparisons  alone  are 
insufficient  to  decide  upon  the  affinity  of  languages. 

It  seems,  then,  that,  in  judging  of  the  affinity  of  languages, 
greater  importance  is  attached  to  grammatical  structure  than 
even  to  the  resemblance  of  the  roots  of  a  language.  Equality 
of  original  invention  with  regard  to  the  structure  of  language 
among  perfectly  distinct  races  is,  on  account  of  the  great  com- 
plications and  great  variety  of  grammatical  proportions  so 
improbable  that  it  nearly  amounts  to  an  impossibility.  It 
appears,  therefore,  requisite  that  two  languages  should,  on 
comparison,  agree  to  some  extent  in  both  the  chief  elements 
before  we  can  decide  on  their  affinity.  We  shall  endeavour  to 
point  out  the  reasons  which  justify  us  in  inferring  the  consan- 
guinity of  peoples  from  the  quality  of  the  grammatical  struc- 
ture of  their  languages. 

When  a  language  is  transmitted  from  one  generation  to  an- 
other, not  merely  the  words,  but  their  mode  of  connexion,  as 
sentences,  is  also  transmitted  and  appropriated  by  unconscious 
imitation,  and  thus  becomes  fixed.  The  latter  point  is  not 
sufficiently  appreciated,  though  it  is  quite  clear  that  we  do  not 


SECT.  V.]  LANGUAGES.  241 

think  in  words,  but  in  whole  sentences  ;  hence,  we  may  assert, 
that  a  living  language  consists  of  sentences,  not  of  words.  But 
a  sentence  is  formed  not  of  single  independent  words,  but 
of  words  which  refer  to  each  other  in  a  particular  manner, 
like  the  corresponding  thought,  which  does  not  consist  of  single 
independent  ideas,  but  of  such  as,  connected,  form  a  whole, 
and  which  determine  each  other  mutually;  hence  the  great 
importance  of  the  relations  of  words  which  are  afforded  by 
grammatical  structure.  We  shall  illustrate  this  by  somo 
examples. 

In  the  sentence,  "Tie  will  to-day  in  the  night  watch  his 
enemy  in  order  to  kill  him,"  the  chief  idea,  to  which  all 
others  are  added,  is  the  action  of  watching.  The  sensible 
image  of  this  action  can  be  immediately  conceived  and  repro- 
duced by  us.  The  action  of  watching  is  first  defined,  as  in 
this  case,  a  future  action,  and  this  future  is  defined  as  occurring 
to-day.  The  external  circumstances  are  further  to  be  defined 
(in  the  night),  the  subject  and  the  object  of  the  action  (he — 
enemy),  and  the  relation  of  the  subject  to  the  object  (his 
enemy) ;  then  the  object  of  the  action,  which  is  expressed  in 
the  form  of  a  second  action  (kill),  the  object  of  this  second 
action,  and  the  relation  of  the  same  to  the  object  of  the  first 
action,  a  relation  of  identity  (him — his  enemy) .  Consequently, 
the  above  sentence — on  leaving  out  all  indications  of  the  rela- 
tions of  the  individual  ideas  which  connected  them,  and  instead 
of  the  pronoun  ' '  he"  place  the  name  of  a  person — would  be 
expressed  thus, — 

"  Watch  (future  —  to-day)  —  night  —  Cajus — enemy — kill — 
enemy." 

Such  a  sentence,  consisting  of  unconnected  words,  which 
would  compel  the  listener  to  seek  for  himself  all  the  relations 
of  these  ideas,  would  certainly  be  better  than  no  speech  at  all, 
as  it  might  be  understood  in  spite  of  its  obscurity.  The  appa- 
rent imperfection  would  also  be  greatly  lessened  if  there  were 
some  fixed  rules  by  wh^ch  the  relation  of  the  words  might  be 
recognized;  such  as  that  the  governing  always  precedes  the 
governed,  the  chief  idea  always  the  subordinate  idea,  and  so 
forth.  In  such  a  state  are  the  asynthetic,  monosyllabic  Ian- 


242  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

guages,  which,  like  the  Chinese,  in  the  absence  of  all  separa- 
tion of  the  parts  of  speech,  express  the  relations  by  the  position 
of  the  words.  To  these  languages  belongs,  probably,  the  idiom 
of  the  Yebus  in  the  west  of  Benin  (d'Avezac) ;  whether,  also, 
that  of  the  Othomi  in  Central  America  is  as  yet  doubtful.1 

A  language  is,  undoubtedly,  more  perfect  in  proportion  as 
all  the  relations  of  the  individual  ideas  occurring  in  a  sen- 
tence may  be  easily  recognized.  The  means  of  effecting  this 
are  innumerable;  such  as  the  formation  of  the  particular 
word-forms  added  to  substantive  words  designating  a  certain 
modification  of  the  sense  of  the  latter  :  for  instance,  the  future, 
the  past,  the  negation,  the  possibility  of  an  action ;  the  varia- 
tion in  the  sounds  occurring  in  the  words  modifying  their 
sense  and  relation  to  others ;  the  combination  of  several  words 
in  one  word,  etc. 

The  American  languages,  which  are  called  polysynthetic, 
are  so  characterized  that  they  usually  consist  of  an  agglomera- 
tion of  independent  words  :  thus,  in  the  Sahaptin,  hi-tau-tuala- 
wihnan-kau-na,  means,  he  travels  past  in  a  rainy  night ;  hi,  he; 
tau,  refers  to  something  in  the  night ;  tuala,  to  something  that 
is  done  in  rain ;  wihnan,  from  wihnasa,  to  travel  on  foot ;  kau, 
from  kokauna,  to  pass  by ;  na  designates  the  aorist  and  the 
direction  (Hale) .  In  the  Dakota,  b a,  as  a  prefix  of  the  verb 
or  adjective,  designates  that  the  action  has  been  effected  by 
cutting ;  bo,  by  shooting  or  blowing ;  ka,  by  striking ;  na,  by 
pressure  or  by  the  foot ;  pa,  by  pushing ;  ya,  by  the  mouth 
(Biggs).  In  a  similar  manner  do  the  so-called  agglutinated 
languages,  to  which  the  Tartar,  Turkish,  and  Finnish  idioms 
belong,  express  the  relations  of  the  chief  idea  to  the  subordi- 
nate ones,  by  adding  relatively  substantive  words  to  the  un- 
changed root  of  the  word  which  designates  the  chief  idea  in  a 
sentence ;  so  that  compound  words  are  formed,  in  which  the  re- 
lations of  the  chief  idea  are  amalgamated.  The  Magyar  language 
has  thus,  for  instance,  twenty  post-positions  which  can  be  com- 
bined with  the  substantive  noun.  From  sevmek  (Turkish),  "  to 
love,"  may  be  formed  sev-dir-ish-e-mc-mek,  to  love  mutually, 

1  Pott,  p.  256. 


SECT.  V.]  LANGUAGES.  243 

cannot  be  forced ;  dir  gives  to  the  word  a  transitive,  ish,  a  re- 
ciprocal, me,  a  negative,  signification ;  e,  indicates  impossibi- 
lity. Nevertheless,  according  to  the  opinion  of  linguists,  the 
poly  synthetic  languages  of  America  must  not  be  placed  in  the 
same  class  with  the  agglutinated  languages  of  Asia,  as  their 
chief  characters  greatly  differ  (Pott).  The  peculiarity  of  each 
of  those  last  mentioned  languages,  depends  on  what  and  how 
many  secondary  ideas  are  incorporated  with  the  chief  word, 
and  by  what  means  this  is  effected  (prefixes,  infixes,  suffixes, 
changes  of  sound) ;  and  finally,  what  secondary  ideas  and  re- 
lations remain  unexpressed. 

The  ideas  of  action  rarely  arise  in  our  minds  without 
some  definite  relations  to  persons,  things,  time,  place,  etc.  If 
these  relations  are  designated  by  changes  in  the  word  itself,  by 
sounds  which  per  se  have  no  definite  sense,  the  language  is 
said  to  be  an  inflected  language  :  amabis,  loving,  with  relation 
to  the  second  person  as  the  subject  of  action,  and  the  future. 
This  principle  of  expressing  the  relations  of  the  chief  idea  to 
secondary  ideas  by  changes  in  the  chief  word  may,  in  every 
individual  language,  be  more  or  less  completely  carried  out,  by 
which  a  great  variety  of  languages  becomes  possible,  occupy- 
ingacertain  intermediate  position  between  the  inflected,  agglu- 
tinated, and  poly  synthetic  (incorporating)  languages.  Thus 
many  American  languages,  which  Grallatin1  considered  as  in- 
flected languages  (which  is  denied  by  Pott),  have  a  great 
number  of  tense  and  modes.  The  Selish  has  two  futures, 
(I  shall,  I  will),  an  optative  (I  should),  a  reflective,  reci- 
procal modus,  a  modus  of  object  (I  go  in  order  to),  etc.  The 
Cherokee  has  still  more.2  In  the  Sahaptin  languages,  nearly 
every  part  of  speech  may  be  conjugated, — "Man,"  I  am  a 
man,  thou  art  a  man,  etc. ;  "  over,"  I  am  over  it,  thou  art 
over  it,  etc. 

We  do  not  pretend  to  have  given  a  characteristic  of  the 
chief  types  of  language ;  we  merely  endeavoured  to  show,  by 
some  striking  examples,  the  great  influence  of  the  type  of  a 


1  "  Transactions  of  the  American  Ethnological  Society,"  ii,  p.  23. 

2  Worcester,  in  Schoolcraft,  "  "  History  of  the  Indian  tribes,"  ii,  p.  446. 

E  2 


244  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

language  upon  the  ideal  world ;  for  it  is  clear,  that  regulation 
of  the  latter  greatly  depends  upon  the  former.  Entirely  asyn- 
thetic,  monosyllabic  languages,  allow  our  individual  ideas, 
which  correspond  to  individual  words,  to  stand  in  independent 
juxtaposition,  merely  indicating  some  rude  distinctions  between 
chief  and  secondary  ideas.  In  contrast  with  them,  poly  syn- 
thetic languages  force  us  to  grasp  the  whole  idea,  and  inti- 
mately to  connect  the  secondary  ideas  with  the  chief  idea,  to 
take  in  at  one  glance  the  whole  situation,  not  piecemeal  and 
successively.  That  they  prevent  the  dismemberment  of  ideas 
in  a  greater  degree  than  the  former,  is  proved  by  many  sub- 
stantive nouns  in  these  languages,  like  "hand,"  "father," 
"  son,"  occurring,  not  separately,  but  always  in  connexion  with 
a  possessive  pronoun.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  for 
the  regulation  of  the  mass  of  our  ideas,  how  many  and  what  se- 
condary ideas  our  language  induces  us  to  connect  as  integral 
parts  with  the  chief  idea  to  which  they  refer,  or  what  may  be 
added  as  relatively  independent  parts.  It  is  not  less  important 
whether,  as  in  inflected  languages,  the  relations  are  expressed 
by  particles  which,  separated  from  the  chief  word,  have  no 
distinct  signification.  These  grammatical  forms  of  the  mother 
language  become  habitual  to  us  before  we  arrive  at  reflection ; 
for  what  language  presents  combined  in  one  sound,  we  conceive 
together,  and  what  it  presents  in  a  separate  form,  we  conceive 
as  relatively  separate. 

These  elementary  habits  in  connecting  individual  ideas,  be- 
long to  the  most  important  special  laws  to  which  the  concep- 
tion of  man  is  subject ;  and  on  account  of  the  power  which 
they  exert  in  the  elementary  construction  of  our  ideas,  an 
essential  change  of  the  structure  of  a  language  in  a  people, 
which  continues  as  a  people,  is  highly  improbable.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  a  gradual  change  in  the  grammatical  structure 
of  a  language  is  possible ;  and  if  it  be  probable  that  all 
merely  grammatical  words  (forms)  were  originally  words  of 
independent  signification,  and  that  even  the  syllables  of  inflec- 
tion sprung  from  originally  independent  words,  which  were 
merely  added  to  the  chief  word, — then  there  exists  between  the 
types  of  language  as  little  an  absolute  constant  difference  as 


SECT.  V.]  LANGUAGES.  245 

between  the  chief  types  of  the  corporeal  form;  but  such  a 
possibility  of  an  original  unity  of  languages  is,  as  Pott1  ob- 
serves, far  indeed  from  being  proved. 

The  idea  of  an  original  language  of  the  whole  human  race, 
so  much  discussed  in  the  last  century,  is  by  science  now  con- 
sidered as  a  chimera.2  Neither  would  it  amount  to  a  proof  of 
the  unity  of  mankind,  if  among  languages  of  different  gram- 
matical structure,  such  as  the  Chinese  and  Sanscrit,  there 
were  found  a  number  of  similar  roots.3  W.  von  Humboldt 
has  remarked,  that  though  the  three  chief  types  of  the  known 
languages  may  be  considered  as  an  ascending  scale  of  the  devel- 
opment of  language,  it  can  neither  be  proved,  nor  is  it  probable, 
that  they  have  originated  among  themselves.  Nevertheless, 
Max  Muller  has  recently  advanced  the  latter  theory.  According 
to  him,  the  first  stage  of  the  development  of  language  is  a 
juxtaposition  of  independent  words  (family  stage) ;  the  second 
is  characterized  by  an  incorporation  of  relations  in  the  govern- 
ing word  (nomadic  stage — agglutination) ;  the  third  changes 
the  governing  word  to  designate  the  relations  (political  stage — 
amalgamation).  This  interesting  scheme  has  not  met  with 
approval  among  philologists,  and  has  been  especially  opposed 
by  Pott,  who  assumes  a  plurality  of  originally  distinct  lan- 
guages. Though  philology  may  not  be  absolutely  opposed  to 
the  origin  of  the  human  race  from  one  pair,4  there  is  at  pre- 
sent no  prospect  of  supporting  it  by  proofs,  as  Bunsen  and 
Muller  have  attempted. 

One  might  be  inclined  to  adopt  this  view  on  considering, 
that  the  light  which  philology  has  hitherto  thrown  on  the 
affinity  of  peoples  extends  to  but  a  small  portion  of  the  earth, 
and  in  casting  a  glance  at  the  summary  of  Balbi5  of  the  lan- 
guages of  the  globe.  He  assumes  860  languages,  which  he 
thus  classifies  : — 

i.  Asia,  with  153  languages  in  seventeen  families :  Indo- 
Germans,  Tamules,  Semitics,  Georgians,  Caucasians,  Tunguses 

•    l  "  Zeitschrift  d.  Deutsch.  Morgenl.  Ges.,"  p.  405,  1855. 

2  Martin,  "  Essai  sur  1'origine  du  Lang./'  p.  32,  Paris,  1835. 

3  Scnleicher,  "  D.  Sprachen  Europas,"  p.  29,  1850. 

4  "  Die  Ungleickheit  menschl.  Rassen,"  pp.  202,  242,  272. 

5  "  Atlas  Ethnographique,"  Paris,  1826. 


246  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

(with  Mongols,  Turks,  Samoiedes,  and  Finns),  Zenniseis, 
Kuriles  or  Ainos,  Jukagires,  Korjakes,  Kamschatdales,  Polar- 
Americans  in  Asia,  Japanese,  Koreans,  Tibetians,  Chinese, 
Indo-Chinese.  The  latter  and  the  Caucasians  are  probably 
to  be  subdivided  in  several  families  (Pott) . 

ii.  Europe,  with  53  languages  in  seven  families  :  Iberian, 
Basque,  Rhastian-Etruscan,  Illyrian-Albanese,  Indo-Germanic 
(Greeks  and  Latins,  Celts,  Germans,  Lithuanians  and  Slavo- 
nians, Gypsies),  Finns  (Lapps,  Esthonians,  Magyars),  Semitics, 
Turks. 

in.  Africa,  with  114  (according  to  Kolle,  with  150-200) 
languages,  among  which  the  Berber  and  the  Kongo  family  (the 
South  African  language)  are  the  most  extended. 

iv.  Oceania,  with  117,  in  three  families :  Malays  and  Poly- 
nesians, Melanesians  (black  nations),  and  Australians. 

v.  America,  with  423  languages,  which,  excluding  California, 
separate  in  North  America  in  thirty-two  different  stocks.  In 
South  America,  Rivero  and  Tschudi  have  estimated  the  number 
of  languages  from  280-340,  of  which  four-fifths  are  radically 
different. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  caution  the  reader  against  the 
authenticity  of  the  above  data,  when  we  consider  that  the  de- 
finition of  what  must  be  considered  as  a  distinct  language  is 
rather  arbitrary.  The  numbers  are,  however,  hardly  too  high. 
When  we  take  into  consideration  the  many  languages  spoken 
in  a  comparatively  small  space,  owing  to  the  want  of  inter- 
course or  complete  isolation  of  small  tribes,  in  various  regions 
of  the  globe,  we  would  rather  be  inclined  to  assume  a  higher 
number  of  radically  different  languages  on  the  globe  than 
Balbi  did.  The  maximum  of  different  languages  appears  to 
prevail  in  Central  America,  and  thence  northwards  on  the 
western  coasts  from  California  to  the  land  of  the  Esquimaux,1 
in  Asia,  in  the  Caucasus,  in  Africa,  in  the  south  of  Abyssinia, 
in  Wadai  (where  there  are  twenty),  in  Bornou  (where  there  are 
thirty),  and  in  Andamana,  where  Barth2  has  distinguished  some 
thirty  distinct  languages.  The  island  Timor  possesses,  accord- 

1  Hale,  p.  197. 

2  "  Zeitsch.  d.  Deutsch.  Morgenl.  Ges./'  vi,  p.  412. 


SECT.  V.]  LANGUAGES.  247 

ing  to  Crawfurd,  no  less  than  forty  different  languages;  the 
number  is  also  said  to  be  very  considerable  in  Ende  and  Flores, 
ell  as  in  the  interior  of  Borneo ;  and  even  upon  the  small 
islands  of  the  South  Sea,  inhabited  by  blacks,  four  or  five  dif- 
ferent languages  are  not  unfrequent.  In  every  part  of  the  world 
there  is  a  large  number  of  different  languages  met  with,  in 
regions  which  may  be  supposed  to  have  been  the  passage-roads 
during  the  migrations  of  peoples.  Either  upon  these  roads, 
or  at  a  moderate  distance  from  them,  smaller  or  larger  masses 
seem  to  have  halted,  and  permanently  settled. 

It  yet  remains  for  us  to  say  a  few  words  with  regard  to  the 
relation  of  the  physical  and  the  linguistic  proofs  of  division  in 
Anthropology.  Where  both  agree  as  to  the  affinity  of  races, 
there  can  be  no  difficulty;  this,  however,  is  not  often  the 
case.  If  the  points  of  view  are  different,  two  cases  may 
occur:  either  anatomy  or  philology  is  in  favour  of  affinity. 
The  first  case  can  scarcely  surprise  us,  when  within  each 
of  the  great  natural  divisions  of  mankind,  we  find  languages 
of  a  radically  different  type  (for  instance,  among  the  Chinese 
and  Mongols,  Germans  and  Basques) ;  for  we  must  bear  in 
mind  that  the  above  division  includes  nations,  the  physical  differ- 
ences of  which  are  still  sufficiently  great  to  render  the  assump- 
tion of  their  having  originally  sprung  from  the  same  stock  not 
absolutely  demonstrable ;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  though  ori- 
ginally from  the  same  stock,  an  early  and  complete  separation 
is  the  only  assumable  ground  for  a  radical  difference  of  lan- 
guage. If  this  conflict  between  anatomy  and  philology  is,  in 
such  a  case,  merely  apparent,  it  becomes  real  and  unsolvable, 
when  languages,  clearly  ascertained  to  be  related,  are  found 
among  peoples  whose  physical  characters  are  widely  distinct, 
unless  such  phenomena  can  be  explained  by  intermixture,  or 
an  exchange  of  language,  or  both  together. 

Cases'  of  the  latter  kind  cannot  be  decided  by  general  rules ; 
and  for  such,  a  careful  investigation  of  the  particular  conditions 
is  requisite.  It  may,  however,  be  assumed,  that  language 
generally  affords  a  safer  guide  than  the  physical  character  of 
a  people,  for  the  following  reasons.  In  the  first  place,  the 
typical  peculiarities  of  languages  appear  to  be  proportionally 


248  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

less  changeable,  whilst  we  have  shown  that  the  physical  pecu- 
liarities are  more  so ;  thus,  originally  different  stocks  acquire 
a  resemblance  to  each  other  in  the  course  of  time,  whilst  ori- 
ginally similar  stocks  become  dissimilar.  Again,  where  peoples 
within  historical  times  have  met  and  influenced  each  other, 
words  have  gradually  passed  from  one  language  into  an- 
other, just  as  they  may,  without  foreign  influence,  undergo  a 
change  or  disappear  altogether  \  but  never  has  the  gramma- 
tical structure  of  a  language  accommodated  itself  to  a  new  one, 
but  rather  the  whole  language  has  disappeared,  and  has  been 
supplanted  by  the  new  one ;  for  such  a  change  of  the  structure 
of  a  language  would  presuppose  a  transformation  of  ideas  and 
the  mode  of  connecting  the  elements  of  thought,  which  we 
deem  next  to  impossible.  This  is  confirmed  by  thieves'  and 
vagabond  dialects,  which  always  borrow  their  grammatical 
structure  from  a  language  ready  made,  whilst  the  words  are 
newly-formed  and  mutilated.  Thus,  the  jargon  spoken  in 
Oregon,  in  the  region  of  Fort  Vancouver,  consists  of  words 
belonging  to  the  English,  French,  Nootka,  Chinook,  and  other 
languages. 

Another  ground  for  the  principle  laid  down  is,  that  the 
scientific  method  at  present  applied  in  comparative  philology 
possesses  a  higher  degree  of  authenticity,  and  offers  better 
guarantees  for  its  results  than  the  methods  of  physical  anthro- 
pology and  craniology.  As  a  proof  of  this  may  be  mentioned, 
the  greater  unanimity  of  linguists  with  regard  to  the  results 
of  their  science  in  comparison  with  the  disputes  among  natu- 
ralists as  to  the  theory  of  races. 

Moreover,  the  positive  principles  on  affinity  of  nations  laid 
down  by  philology,  claim  greater  reliance  than  the  negative 
ones  supported  by  naturalists.  We  have  seen  that  even  great 
resemblance  of  the  physical  characters  of  two  peoples  affords 
no  positive  proof  for  their  real  affinity ;  whilst  philology  may, 
in  many  instances,  adduce  an  undoubted  proof  to  that  effect. 

We  are  therefore  bound  to  declare  against  all  those  authors, 
who,  like  Nott  and  Grliddon,1  assert,  in  relation  to  the  Berber 

1  "  Types  of  Mankind/'  p.  205. 


SECT.  V.]  LANGUAGES.  249 

tribes,  that  affinity  of  language  proves  nothing  in  favour  of 
unity  of  origin,  since,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Jews,  a  frequent 
exchange  of  language  takes  place.  There  are  certainly  examples 
of  this  kind,  but  they  present  the  important  peculiarity  that, 
without  exception,  the  people  which  loses  its  language  and 
exchanges  it  for  another,  has  ceased  to  live  as  a  people,  has 
been  absorbed  by  the  other,  whether  conqueror  or  conquered, 
and  forms  with  it  an  amalgam,  from  which  the  adherents  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  permanence  of  physical  types  are  less  able 
to  extract  the  composing  elements,  if  the  linguists  fail  to  do 
so.  We  are  ready  to  admit  that  though  the  proportion  of  an 
intermixture  of  different  nations  may  be  manifested  to  the 
linguist  by  the  comparative  number  of  foreign  elements  in- 
troduced in  a  language,  as  for  instance,  the  Malay,  which 
possesses  5  per  cent.  Arab  and  16  per  cent.  Sanscrit  words; 
still  the  quantity  of  linguistic  elements  does  not  always  cor- 
respond to  the  quantity  of  foreign  blood,  so  that  philology 
cannot  give  a  decided  opinion  as  to  the  genealogy  of  peoples 
strongly  intermixed,  any  more  than  natural  history  is  able 
to  do. 

When  small  remnants  of  a  scattered  people  lose  their  lan- 
guage among  nations  of  different  stocks,  such  instances  can- 
not be  adduced  as  a  proof  that  exchanges  of  languages  are 
of  frequent  occurrence,  and  that  language  offers  no  certain  in- 
dication as  to  the  affinity  of  nations.  Thus,  the  few  hundred 
Bosnian  soldiers  who,  in  1420,  were  sent  by  Sultan  Selim 
into  lower  Nubia,  where  they  settled,  have  not  preserved  their 
language.  The  scattered  Hottentots  in  the  Cape  Colony, 
which  are  of  mixed  blood,  speak  only  Dutch.1  Many  Chinese 
born  in  Manilla  speak  only  Tagal;2  the  Chinese  in  Banjer- 
massing,  and  many  other  parts  of  Borneo,  speak  only  Malay.3 
The  small  tribe  of  the  Brothertons  (Algonquin-Indians)  have 
adopted  the  English  as  their  language,4  which  may  be  ex- 
plained by  the  circumstance  that  they  are  composed  of  the 


1  Napier,  "  Excursions  in  South  Africa,"  i,  p.  181,  1850. 

2  Virgin,  "  Erdumsegl.  der  F.  Eugenie  ubers.  v.  Etzel,"  ii,  p.  195,  1856. 

3  "  Kheinische  Missionsber.,"  p.  67,  1853. 

4  Schoolcraffc,  "  Algic  Researches,  New  York,"  i,  p.  27,  1839. 


250  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I. 

remnants  of  several  tribes,  Mohicans,  Narragansetts,  Pequos, 
Nanticockes,  etc.,  who  had  no  language  in  common  j1  many 
Germans  in  the  United  States  have  done  the  same.  The 
Spaniards  in  the  mining  districts  of  Peru  exchange  their  native 
language  for  the  Quichua,2  especially  in  Cuenca,  and  other  parts 
of  Ecuador.3  Among  the  inhabitants  of  Zamboanga,  in  Min- 
dano,  the  number  of  which  does  not  exceed  7,000,  a  corrupt 
Spanish  has  established  itself,  consisting  of  Spanish  and  native 
words  mixed  up  in  various  combinations  by  different  individuals.4 
Nor  can  such  instances  be  adduced  against  language  as  indi- 
cative of  race,  in  which  a  population,  consisting  of  heteroge- 
neous elements,  finally  adopt  the  language  of  the  dominating 
caste,  as  happened  with  the  Negroes  at  Haiti,  who  adopted  the 
French.  Negroes  of  various  African  nationalities,  brought  as 
slaves  into  America,  everywhere  speak  the  languages  of  their 
masters,  though  in  a  mutilated  manner.  In  Brazil  they  speak 
Portuguese  f  in  the  Mauritius  (He  de  France),  French.6  In  the 
English  West  Indies  they  speak  the  well-known  Negro-English; 
there  is  also  found  the  Negro-Portuguese,  or  so-called  Jew- 
language,  in  Surinam.7  In  the  Danish  colonies,  a  language 
prevails  consisting  of  words  chiefly  Low- German,  with  the 
omission  of  all  inflexions.8  In  a  similar  condition,  as  regards 
language,  is  the  present  population  of  the  Marian  islands,  or 
rather  of  Guaham,  for  the  other  islands  are  now  deserted.  It 
consists  of  a  mixture  of  the  original  natives  (who,  under 
the  oppression  of  Quiroga,  are  said  to  have  diminished  to 
2,000),  some  immigrants  from  the  Carolines,  imported  natives 
from  the  Philippines,  and  also  Mexicans.9  According  to 

1  Schoolcraft,  "  History  of  the  Indian  tribes,"  v,  p.  506,  note  2. 

2  Pickering,  "  The  Eaces  of  Man,"  p.  277,  1849. 

3  Seeman,  i,  p.  209. 

4  Trad.  Lay  in  "  The  Claims  of  Japan  and  Malaisia  upon  Christendom," 
ii,  p.  113,  New  York,  1839. 

5  Koster,  Eeise  in  Brasil,"  p.  574,  1817. 

6  Example  of  a  narration  in  one  of  the  dialects  of  Negro-French  may  be 
found  in  Freycinet,  "  Voyage  autour  du  monde,"  i,  p.  407,  1827. 

7  "  Zeitschrift  d.  Deutsch.  Morgenl.  Ges.,"  xi,  p.  324. 

8  Oldendorp,  "  Gesch.  d.  Miss,  auf  St.  Thomas,  St.  Croix,  and  St.  Jan., 
p.   424,    1777;   and  Wullschlagel,  "Gramm.  und  Worterb.   des   Neger-En- 
glischen." 

9  Chamisso,  Bemerk.  in  "  Ansichten  auf  einer  Entdeckungsreise,"  p.  78, 
1821;  Kotzebue,  "Entdeckungsreise,"  ii,  p.   129,  1821;  De  Pages,  "Eeise 
urn  d.  Welt,"  p.  143,  1786. 


SECT.  V.]  CHANGE   OF   LANGUAGE.  251 

Mallat1  they  speak  Spanish,  and  have  adopted  many  Spanish 
customs  ;  but  according  to  D'Urville,2  the  imported  population 
do  not  speak  Spanish,  but  the  language  of  the  natives, — the 
Chamorro.  In  America,  also,  the  Spanish  has  frequently  re- 
placed the  languages  of  the  natives,  especially  in  S.  Salvador, 
Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Eica,  the  original  languages  of  which  are 
unknown.  These  phenomena  do  not,  however,  appear  to  be 
so  general  as  Latham  asserts  ;3  but  are  limited  in  Nicaragua  to 
certain  districts,  are  more  frequent  in  S.  Salvador,  and  occur 
also  in  some  villages  in  Honduras.4 

As  in  these  cases  the  exchange  of  language  may  be  explained 
from  extensive  intermixture  of  the  natives  with  the  Spaniards, 
so  also  among  the  Guayqueriers,  a  branch  of  the  Guaraunos 
on  the  coast  of  S.  Margaretha,  who  now  all  speak  Spanish,  and 
differ  much  in  external  appearance  from  individuals  of  their  own 
stock.5  This  likewise  applies  to  the  populations  of  Baradero, 
Quilmos,  Calchaguy,  and  S.  Domingo  Soriano,  on  the  river 
Negro,  who  not  having  been  by  the  Jesuits  united  in  commu- 
nities, have  preserved  their  liberty,  and  pass  now  as  Spaniards, 
whose  language  and  customs  they  have  adopted  in  consequence 
of  intermixture  ;6  also  to  the  inhabitants  of  Chiloe,  whose  ori- 
ginal language  is  almost  entirely  forgotten  and  replaced  by  the 
Spanish.7  With  regard  to  the  Changes,  who  reach  from 
Huasco  to  Cobija,  the  accounts  are  contradictory.  According 
to  some  they  are  Indians,  according  to  others  they  are  the  de- 
scendants of  Spaniards,  who  in  the  olden  time  had  settled 
there;  their  language  seems  to  be  a  corrupt  Spanish;  they 
dress  like  the  lower  classes  of  Chili,  and  have  had,  as  is  asserted, 
little  intercourse  with  the  Spaniards.8  The  Indians  of  the 
environs  of  Rio  Janeiro  have  also  almost  entirely  lost  their 

1  "  Les  Philippines/'  i,  p.  342, 1846. 

2  "  Voyage  de  1' Astrolabe,"  v,  p.  277. 

3  "  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,"  xx,  p.  189. 

4  Scherzer,  "  Wanderungen  durch  d.  mittel  am  Freistaaten,"  pp.  165,  402, 
348;  1857. 

5  Humboldt  und  Bonpland,  i,  p.  467. 

6  Azara,  "  Voy.  dans  1'Am.  merid.,"  ii,  p.  217,  1809. 

7  King  and  Fitzroy,  i,  p.  278. 

8  De  la  Salle,  "  Voyage  autour  du  monde  sur  la  Bonite,"  ii,  p.  13,  1845 ; 
St.  Cricq,  "  Bullet.  Soc.   Geog.,"  ii,  p.  304,  1853 ;  Philippi,  in  Petermann's 
"Geogr.  Mittheil.,"  p.  56,  1856. 


252  PHYSICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    I 

language,  and  speak  Portuguese.1  It  is,  undoubtedly,  an 
exaggeration  that  one  million  of  the  aborigines  of  America 
have  exchanged  their  native  for  an  European,  language.2  The 
natives  of  unmixed  blood  have  scarcely  done  so  in  a  single 
instance ;  only  mixed  populations,  in  a  state  of  slavery,  have 
allowed  the  language  of  the  rulers  to  be  forced  on  them. 

Thus  we  often  see  small  tribes  absorbed  by  stronger  ones  ; 
by  ceasing  to  exist  as  a  people,  they  adopt  the  language  of  the 
more  powerful  tribe.  Ancient  Rome,  which  had  absorbed  so 
many  foreign  elements,  presents  a  striking  example.  It  has 
already  been  mentioned,  that  many  American  Indian  nations 
have  absorbed  a  number  of  minor  tribes.  It  occurs,  however, 
occasionally  that  a  people  absorbed  by  another  may  still  pre- 
serve its  language,  like  the  Yuchi,  incorporated  by  the  Creeks  ; 
perhaps  the  circumstance  that  the  women  of  the  Caribs  possess 
a  different  language  than  the  men,  may  result  from  a  similar 
event.  In  such  cases,  much  depends  on  the  will  of  the  con- 
queror, and  the  tenacity  with  which  the  conquered  keep  to  the 
peculiarities  of  their  race, — a  quality  which  different  tribes 
possess  in  a  different  degree.  The  caste  of  the  serfs  among 
the  Bracknas,  in  the  north  of  Senegal,  are  the  Zenaghas, — a 
Berber  tribe  which,  by  its  masters  the  Assani,  had  the  Arabian 
language  forced  upon  them,8  like  several  Kabyle  tribes  of  the 
province  Constantine,  who  have  adopted  this  language.4  Thus, 
many  scattered  Yindjha  peoples  in  the  East  Indies  have  ex- 
changed their  language  for  a  filial  language  of  the  Sanscrit. 
On  the  other  hand,  that  the  conquerors  lose  sometimes  their 
language  to  the  conquered,  is  instanced  by  the  Normans  in 
the  tenth  century,  and  the  Longobards. 

In  all  these  cases,  in  which  a  people  has  lost  its  language,  it 
has  by  intermixture  ceased  to  exist  as  a  people ;  and  neither 
the  consideration  of  physical  types,  nor  philology,  can  give  any 
clear  indication  of  its  existence,  unless  supported  by  special  his- 
torical documents.  It  must  be  an  extremely  rare  case  in  which, 


1  Von  Eschwege,  "  Journal  v.  Brasil,"  ii,  p.  16. 

2  Humboldt  und  Bonpland,  v,  p.  774. 

3  Leo  Afrieaiius,  "Bossi  e  Negri  delle  Nigrizia  occ.  Torino,"  i,  p.  112,  1838. 

4  M.  Wagner,  "  Eoise  in  Algier,"  ii,  p.  11,  1S41. 


SECT.  V.]  CHANGE   OP   LANGUAGE.  253 

according  to  Pott's  assumption,1  the  Parthian,  i.  e.  the  Scythian 
conquerors  of  Iran,  found  themselves,  by  losing  the  gramma- 
tical structure  of  their  own  language,  which  was  replaced  by  a 
very  simple  one, — that  of  the  Pehlwi,  which  belongs  to  the 
Iranian  languages.  Thus,  in  Sicily,  the  non-Greek  peoples 
forgot  their  own  language  in  consequence  of  intermixture  of 
the  natives  with  the  Sikeliotes,  and  the  forced  transportation 
of  whole  communities ;  the  whole  island  became  a  Greek  ter- 
ritory, and  remained  so  to  the  middle  ages.2  Where,  however, 
such  a  case  is  not  proved  by  history,  we  are  not  justified  in 
adducing  such  rare  exceptions  in  support  of  assumed  theories. 
Such  an  error  is  committed  by  Berthelot,3  in  asserting  that  the 
present  inhabitants  of  the  Canary  islands  are  still,  physically 
and  morally,  the  ancient  Guanches,  having  only  lost  their  lan- 
guage ;  though  he  confines  himself  merely  to  some  similarity  of 
both  in  customs  and  mode  of  life,  and  describes  two  different 
types  of  Guanche  mummies,  without  even  maintaining  that 
they  are  the  types  of  the  present  natives.  Retzius  commits  a 
similar  error,4  in  stating  that  the  Kareles  have  lost  their 
own  language  and  appropriated  the  Finnish,  because  they 
possess  oval  heads,  while  the  Savolax  is  globular-headed,  and 
the  Tavastlander  square-headed.  Such  assumptions,  without 
historical  evidence,  are  inadmissible.  Pott  says  justly,5  "If 
colonies  are  to  be  able  to  suppress  languages,  or  essentially  to 
alter  them,  they  must  possess  a  lasting  power  which  must  be 
concentrated  in  important  cities,  otherwise  they  will,  with  their 
own  language,  perish  in  the  mass  of  the  subjected  peoples." 

In  contrast  to  the  phenomenon  of  the  loss  of  a  language  of  a 
people,  or  rather,  as  is  most  generally  the  case,  of  the  extinction 
of  the  same  as  a  people,  together  with  its  language,  stands  the 
not  less  frequent  phenomenon  of  individual  languages  which 
sustain  their  independence.  The  Spanish  language  in  Manilla 
has,  in  spite  of  the  secured  possession  of  the  Spaniards,  made 
in  that  part  as  little  progress  as  the  English  language  in  the 

1  Art.  "  Indogerm.  Sprachstamm,"  Ersch.  u.  GK,  p.  52. 

2  Niebuhr,  "  Rom.  Gesch.,"  i,  174. 

3  "Mem.  de  la  Soc.  Ethnol./'  i,  p.  146. 

4  MiOler's  "  Archiv,"  p.  395, 1848. 

5  Loc.  cit.,  p.  81. 


' 

254  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

East  Indies.  The  Malay  in  Singapore,  and  the  Sowaheili  on 
the  east  coast  of  Africa,  have  remained  the  dominant  languages, 
notwithstanding  the  long  rule  of  the  Arabs  over  that  region. 
The  Arab  language,  though  in  a  corrupt  state,  has  maintained  it- 
self in  Malta ;  and  notwithstanding  their  dispersion,  the  Gypsies, 
and  in  many  places  the  Jews,  have  preserved  their  languages. 


The  historical  point  of  view  which  may  serve  as  a  guide  in 
the  division  of  mankind  and  their  affinity,  can  hardly  be  sepa- 
rated from  linguistic  considerations,  since  the  peculiarities  of 
language  present  the  chief  evidence  which  throws  light  on  the 
history  of  a  people ;  and  the  knowledge  of  historical  develop- 
ment remains  imperfect  and  fragmentary  in  proportion  as  the 
linguistic  data  are  defective.  We  have,  nevertheless,  ventured 
upon  the  separation  of  the  linguistic  and  historical  stand-points, 
partly  because  it  was  our  endeavour  to  explain  the  relation 
in  which  the  first  stands  to  the  physical  theory  of  the  division 
of  mankind,  with  which  it  is  frequently  in  conflict,  and  partly 
because,  with  regard  to  the  great  majority  of  peoples,  there 
exists  no  history ;  so  that,  in  the  absence  of  all  historical  docu- 
ments, we  are  limited  to  their  language  and  the  reports  of 
travellers,  which,  though  frequently  very  meagre,  are  still  im- 
portant as  the  only  sources  we  possess. 

The  historical  consideration,  in  as  far  as  it  differs  from  the 
linguistic  consideration,  is,  in  most  cases,  compelled  to  remain 
satisfied  with  the  comparison  of  the  traditions  of  peoples,  their 
religious  ideas,  their  festivals,  funeral  ceremonies;  then  their 
chronology,  architectural  remains,  tools,  clothing,  ornaments, 
and  arms ;  and  their  social  and  family  life. 

From  these  ethnographic  data,  conclusions  of  comprehensive 
scope  have  been  hazarded ;  migrations  and  affinities,  and  even 
the  descent  of  mankind  from  a  single  pair,  or  at  any  rate,  an 
original  cradle  of  the  human  race,  has  been  inferred  from  the 
tradition  of  the  flood,1  prevalent  among  so  many  distant  nations. 

1  According  to  the  views  of  Cuvier  and  Buckland,  the  universality  of  the 
traditions  of  the  Flood  may  be  explained  by  a  corresponding  universal  revolu- 
tion in  the  crust  of  the  earth  5-6,000  years  ago.  Other  geologists  flatly  deny 
the  universality  of  such  a  revolution  (see  Jameson,  zu  Cuvier' s  "  Umwalzun- 
gen  der  Erdrinde,  deutsch  von  Noggerath,"  ii,  p.  191,  1830).  The  flood  tra- 


SECT.  V.  HISTORICAL   ANALOGIES.  255 

We  must  here  observe,  that  analogies  in  either  of  these 
points,  taken  individually,  afford  no  proof  whatever  in  favour 
of  affinity,  and  even  similarities  in  several  points  possess  only 
a  secondary  importance ;  for  partly  may  they,  under  similar 
conditions,  spontaneously  arise  in  peoples  who  had  always  lived 
in  a  state  of  separation ;  and  partly  may  they  have  been  the 
result  of  a  short  intercourse  between  two  different  peoples. 
How  cautious  we  ought  to  be,  and  how  just  the  principle  is, 
that  all  such  analogies  can  only  be  considered  as  secondary 
arguments  in  favour  of  affinity,  will  be  seen  by  the  following 
examples : — 

The  analogies  existing  between  Asiatic  and  American  peoples 
have  been  collated  by  Delafield.1  Most  of  these  peculiarities 
prove  nothing,  as  they  concern  things  which  are  frequently 
met  with  among  uncivilized  nations  of  the  most  remote  regions. 
Whilst  the  Mongolian  type  nearly  approaches  the  American 
(Bradford),  the  structure  of  their  respective  languages  differs 
essentially.2  The  chief  points  of  resemblance  are  the  follow- 
ing. The  Schamanism  of  the  Mongol  tribes,  based  on  fire- 
worship,3  finds  its  counterpart  in  the  religious  ideas  and  cere- 
monies of  most  of  the  Indian  tribes  of  North  America.  A. 
von  Humboldt  has  noticed  striking  similarities  of  the  old 
buildings,  and  the  religion  of  the  Aztecs  to  that  of  the  Tartars 
and  Tibetians.  Squier4  has  pointed  out  the  resemblance  of  the 
old  temples  of  Yucatan  to  those  of  Buddha  in  India. 

The  doctrine  of  a  periodical  destruction  of  the  world  and  of 
its  reconstruction,  prevails  in  Tibet  and  India,  as  well  as  in  old 
Mexico ;  the  first  destruction  was  effected  by  earthquake,  the 
second  by  fire,  the  third  by  a  storm,  the  last  by  water.  The 

ditions  among  some  peoples,  may  be  explained  from  the  fact  of  shells  being 
found  inland  in  great  numbers,  whence  they  concluded  that  inundations  'had 
taken  place  at  some  period.  Among  other  nations,  that  which  appears  as  an 
ancient  tradition  is  manifestly  of  modern  Christian  origin,  by  its  similarity 
to  the  Mosaic  records,  and  other  accidental  circumstances.  The  first  was  the 
case  among  the  Greenlanders  (Cranz,  "  Historie  v.  Greenland,"  i,  p.  262, 
2  Aufl.,  1770) ;  the  second  was  found  among  the  Namaquas  (Moffat,  "  Mission 
Labours  in  South  Africa,"  p.  126,  1842). 

1  "  Inquiry  into  the  origin  of  the  Antiquities  of  America,"  Cincinnati,  1836 ; 
Bradford,  "American  Antiquities,"  New  York,  1841. 

2  Pott,  "  D.  TJngl.  menschl.  Rassen,"  p.  257. 

3  Erman's  "  Archiv  f.  wissl.  Kunde  v.  Eussland,"  viii,  p.  213. 

4  "The  Serpent  Symbol,"  New  York,  1851. 


256  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   I. 

parallels  of  Humboldt  refer  to  the  chronology  of  the  ancient 
Mexicans  and  some  Indian  peoples.  The  zodiacal  signs  of  the 
Mongols  are  arbitrarily  selected  names  of  animals,  the  same 
as  serve  for  designating  the  years :  mouse,  ox,  leopard, 
hare,  crocodile,  serpent,  horse,  sheep,  ape,  fowl,  dog,  swine. 
The  Mandshus,  Japanese,  and  Tibetians  have,  instead  of  the 
leopard,  crocodile,  and  sheep,  the  signs  tiger,  dragon,  and 
goat.  The  days  of  the  months  of  the  Mexicans  have  partly 
the  same  names, — hare,  serpent,  ape,  dog ;  instead  of  the  leo- 
pard, crocodile,  and  fowl,  they  have  the  signs  of  the  ocelot, 
lizard,  and  eagle ;  the  other  five  animals  of  the  first  series 
were  unknown  to  them.  Of  the  moon-calendar  of  the  Hindoos, 
seven  signs  are  met  with  in  Mexico, — serpent,  tube,  razor, 
sun-orbit,  dog-tail,  house.  What  may  be  inferred  from  these 
facts  is  simply  this,  that  an  Asiatic  origin  of  many  elements 
of  civilization  in  Mexico,  is  not  less  probable  than  numerous 
immigrations  into  North-western  America  from  Asia,  as  we 
shall  prove  in  the  sequel.  On  such  grounds,  no  proof  of  the 
descent  of  Americans  from  Asia  can  be  inferred.  But  what 
under  other  circumstances  might  be  considered  as  trivial, 
namely,  that  Coxcox,  of  the  Mexican  legerld,  corresponds  to 
Noah  and  his  ark,  and  that  even  the  green  twig  in  the  beak  of 
the  bird  is  not  wanting,  acquires  in  this  case  some  importance, 
combined  as  it  is  found  there  with  the  analogy  of  baptism 
with  water.  Still  these  coincidences  do  not  necessarily  lead 
us  to  a  definite  conclusion,  though  they  afford  indications  which 
deserve  to  be  further  investigated. 

When  we  merely  find  conformity  of  customs  like  the  follow- 
ing,— genealogy  by  the  female  line ;  burying  the  arms,  and 
other  valuable  property,  with  the  deceased;  cutting  off  the 
flesh  from  the  bones  of  corpses,  and  worship  of  the  dead; 
referring  all  diseases  to  evil  spirits  ;  treatment  by  magic,  pecu- 
liarities which  the  Madagascans  possess  in  common  with 
many  American  tribes, — there  is  no  necessity  for  inferring 
either  affinity  or  intercommunication.  But  when  we  find  in 
Madagascar  a  peculiar  construction  of  bellows  in  use,  formed 
like  a  double  pump,  it  may  serve  as  a  subsidiary  argument  that 
the  population  of  Madagascar  is  descended  from  the  Malays,  for 


SECT.  V.]  HISTORICAL   ANALOGIES.  257 

the  very  same  kind  of  bellows  is  in  use  in  Sumatra,1  in  the  Lutu 
islands  (Wilkes),  in  Borneo,  among  the  Dajaks,2  in  Mindanao,3 
in  Timor,4  and  in  Dory  in  New  Guinea.5  How  little  resemblances 
of  domestic  arrangements  signify  by  themselves,  is  shown  by 
King,6  who  during  his  survey  of  York  Sound  on  the  Eoe  river 
in  Australia,  did  not  find  two  huts  built  perfectly  alike ;  and 
Simpson,7  who  saw  in  a  camp  of  Flat-heads  in  North  America, 
tents  of  every  possible  construction.  The  same  mode  of  pro- 
curing fire,  by  whirling  a  thin  piece  of  wood  in  the  hole  of  a  larger 
piece,  prevails  in  Australia,  North  and  South  America,  among  the 
Kaffirs  and  Bushmen,8  also  in  the  Carolines  and  Aleutes ;  whilst 
in  Kadak,  and  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  a  small  piece  of  wood 
is  placed  in  the  groove  of  a  larger  piece,  at  an  angle  of  30°, 
and  rubbed  against  it.9  The  Algonquins,  in  North  Ame- 
rica, strike  fire  by  means  of  two  stones.10  The  remarkable 
custom  which  Xenophon  ascribes  to  the  Tibarenes  in  Asia 
Minor,  that  at  the  birth  of  a  child  the  father  goes  to  bed  and 
is  attended  to,  is  of  such  a  kind  that,  if  it  be  found  among 
different  nations,  one  would,  on  account  of  its  singularity,  feel 
inclined  to  assume  that  an  intercommunication  must  have 
taken  place.  This,  however,  becomes  impossible,  when  we 
learn  that  the  custom  prevails,  not  merely  in  West  Yunnan 
(M.  Polo),  in  Bouro,11  but  also  in  Africa,  in  Cassange,12  among 
the  Basques  in  Biscaya,13  and  most  frequently  in  South  America,14 


1  Marsden,  "  Sumatra,"  p.  347,  Berlin,  1788. 

2  Brook,  in  Keppel,  "  Expedition  to  Borneo,"  p.  75,  1846. 

3  Dampier,  "  Nouv.  voy.  autour  du  monde,"  ii,  p.  9,  Amsterdam,  1701. 

4  Peron,  "  Voyage  de  decouv.  aux  ter.  Aust.,"  2nd  edit.,  atlas,  pi.  46,  1824. 

5  W.  Earl,  "  Native  races  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,"  p.  76,  1853. 

6  "  Narrative  of  a  survey  of  the  coasts  of  Austr.,"  i,  p.  431,  1827. 

7  "  Narrative  of  a  journey  round  the  world,"  i,  p.  143,  1847. 

8  Alberti,  "  Desc.  phys.  et  hist,  des  Caffres,"  p.  36,  Amst.,  1811 ;  Campbell, 
"  Eeise  in  Sud-Afr.,"  p.  37,  Weimar,  1823 ;  Barrow,  "  Eeise  durch  d.  inneren 
G.  des  Siidl.  Afr.,"  i,  p.  281,  1801. 

9  Chamisso,  "  Entdeckungsreise,"  p.  154. 

10  Lafitau,  "  Moeurs  des  Sauvages  Americains,"  ii,  p.  242, 1724. 

11  Ausland,  p.  1046,  1855. 

12  Zuchelli,  "  Miss.  u.  Keisebesch.  nach  Congo,"  p.  166,  1715, 

13  Eougemont,  "  Le  peuple  primitif,"  ii,  p.  420,  1855. 

11  The  unanimity  of  travellers  forbids  our  considering  this  custom  as  a 
fiction.  The  caiise  seems  to  be  a  peculiar  superstition.  Among  the  Caribs 
it  is  said  to  rest  upon  this, — that  the  husband  is  not  allowed,  at  the  birth  of 
a  child,  to  kill  any  large  but  only  small  game,  as  birds,  etc., — perhaps,  in 
order  that  the  wife  might  not  be  obliged  to  overtask  her  powers  in  the 


258  PHYSICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   ! 

namely,  among  the  Caribs,1  in  the  Pearl  Island,  near  Cartha- 
gena,2  on  the  Ucayale,3  on  the  Solimoes,  among  the  Juris,4  01 
the   Tapajoz,    among  the  Mundrucus,5  and  among  the  Abi- 
ponians.6 

These  examples  prove  how  cautious  we  should  be  in  arriving 
at  conclusions  when  we  find  merely  conformities  in  such  and 
similar  things,  as  they  offer  no  secure  basis  by  themselves  for 
inferring  the  affinity  of  peoples. 

preparation  of  larger  animals,  hence  the  husband  passes  the  greater  part  of 
the  day  in  his  hammock  (Quandt,  "  Nachr.  v.  Surinam,"  p.  252, 1807).  Among 
many  peoples  we  hear  of  a  continuous  fasting  of  the  husband  on  such  occa- 
sions, among  the  Conibos  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ucayale,  among  the  Indians 
on  the  Orinoco  (St.  Cricq,  "  Bui.  Soc.  Geogr.,"  p.  289,  1853;  Gilii,  p.  274).  Ac- 
cording to  Labat  ("  Nouv.  voy.  aux  iles  del' Am.,"  ii,  p.  123, 1724),  this  fasting 
lasts,  among  the  Caribs,  thirty  to  forty  days,  but  only  takes  place  at  the  birth 
of  the  first  son,  and  is  thus  a  religious  custom. 

1  Fennin,  "Descr.  de  la  col.  de  Surinam,"  i,  p.  81,  Amst.,  1769;  Lavaysse, 
"  Eeise  nach  Trinidad,"  1816,  denies  it. 

2  Allerhand,  "  Lehrreiche  Briefe,  v.  d.  Miss,  der  Ges.  Jesu/'  i,  p.  56,  1726. 
8  Tschudi,  "  Peru,"  p.  235,  1846. 

4  Spix  and  Martius,  p.  1186. 

6  Ibid.,  p.  1339. 

6  Dobrizhoffer,  "Gesch.  d.  Abiponer,"  ii,  p.  273,  1783. 


259 


PAKT    II. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  INVESTIGATION. 

IP  the  examination  of  the  physical  peculiarities  of  the  races 
of  mankind  had  irresistibly  led  to  the  result,  that  the  question 
as  regards  the  unity  of  mankind  must  be  answered  in  the 
negative,  we  might  have  been  relieved  of  the  necessity  of  in- 
quiring into  the  psychical  endowments  of  the  various  races ; 
or  we  might  have  simply  endeavoured  to  ascertain  whether  the 
specific  physical  diversities  corresponded  to  the  differences  in 
psychical  manifestations.  But  the  psychological  investigation 
becomes  highly  important,  if  not  indispensable,  for  the  solu- 
tion of  the  chief  question  when  we  find  that,  though  anatomy 
and  physiology  furnish  us  with  stronger  grounds  in  favour  of 
the  unity  of  mankind,  as  a  species,  than  the  arguments  ad- 
duced for  the  opposite  theory,  they  are  of  such  a  nature 
that  they  cannot  be  considered  as  decisive.  Again,  however 
conclusive  the  physical  arguments  in  favour  of  unity  might  be, 
they  would  lose  their  validity  if  it  could  be  established,  that 
there  existed  permanent  psychical  differences,  presenting  im- 
passable barriers  to  the  development  of  individual  races. 

The  psychological  aspect  of  the  question  has  not,  it  is  true, 
been  entirely  overlooked;  but  its  importance  has  either  not 
been  sufficiently  estimated,  or  it  has  been  treated  with  a 
superficiality  that  would  surprise  us,  if  "the  reason  why" 
were  not  so  clear.  If  it  be  somewhat  difficult  to  arrive 
at  a  just  estimation  of  the  mental  capacity  of  individuals 

s2 


260  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

known  to  us,  it  is  still  more  difficult  to  estimate  the  psy- 
chical capacity  of  whole  nations  or  races :  the  judgment  is,  in 
such  cases,  generally  subjective.  Individual  nations  occupy  at 
different  periods,  different  scales  of  development ;  and  though 
from  the  actual  performances  we  may  arrive  at  an  estimation 
of  the  faculties  which  produced  them,  they  would  seem  to 
vary  at  times.  In  addition  to  these  difficulties,  there  is  the 
circumstance,  that  the  external  and  internal  causes,  which  in 
one  people  effect  the  transition  from  a  primitive  to  a  civilized 
state,  are  as  much  hidden  from  us  as  the  causes  which  pre- 
vented the  development  of  another  people  and  apparently 
fixed  it  in  the  position  which  it  once  occupied.  All  this  pro- 
duces an  inclination  to  cut  the  matter  short,  by  assuming  a 
different  endowment  for  individual  races, — an  assumption  ren- 
dered probable  by  the  description  of  the  chief  features  of  the 
thoughtless  Negro,  the  restless  nomadic  American,  the  cannibal 
south-islander.  The  primitive  man  stands  in  such  striking 
contrast  to  the  civilized  man,  that  the  latter  in  his  vanity  con- 
siders the  former  as  specifically  different ;  that  he  himself  once 
occupied  a  similar  position,  he  does  not  seem  to  take  into  any 
serious  consideration . 

The  reports  we  possess  of  the  mental  condition  of  uncultured 
nations  are  numerous  enough,  but  far  from  sufficient  to  enable 
us  to  form  a  correct  estimate  of  their  inner  life.  Fragmentary 
as  these  reports  are,  we  derive  from  them  no  information  as  to 
the  mode  of  thinking  and  feeling  peculiar  to  these  nations,  nor 
as  to  the  intellect  manifested  in  many  ways  which,  super- 
ficially considered,  appear  frivolous  or  atrocious.  Hence,  re- 
ligion, customs,  and  legends  of  such  peoples,  have  hitherto 
been  treated  as  mere  curiosities ;  but  no  pains  have  been  taken 
to  understand  them  so  as  to  deduce  from  them  proper  infer- 
ences with  regard  to  psychical  peculiarities,  or  a  proper  charac- 
teristic of  the  uncivilized  man. 

There  is  another  circumstance  which  deserves  notice,  namely, 
that  hitherto  the  problem  of  unity  of  species  has  been  almost 
exclusively  treated  by  naturalists,  who  considered  the  psycho- 
logical side  of  the  question  either  as  foreign  to  the  main  sub- 
ject, or  as  of  secondary  consideration.  If  the  question  was 


INTE.]  CKANIAL  CAPACITY.  261 

mooted  at  all,  it  was  under  tlie  assumption  that  the  psychical 
peculiarities  of  nations  corresponded  with  their  physical  charac- 
ters, especially  with  the  structure  of  the  skull ;  in  short,  these 
things  were  treated  with  a  levity  not  unusual  among  physio- 
logists when  speaking  of  psychology.  From  the  external  re- 
semblance of  the  Negro  to  the  ape,  the  internal  resemblance 
was  deduced  without  much  ado.  The  cranial  capacity  was, 
however,  chiefly  relied  upon  to  measure  the  mental  capacity. 

Morton,  especially,  has  endeavoured  to  establish  that  the 
mental  capacity  of  nations  or  races  is  always  proportional  to 
the  volume  of  the  head ;  and  though,  as  we  shall  show,  the 
contrary  results  from  what  he  endeavours  to  prove,  his  asser- 
tions have  been  generally  assented  to.1  In  Germany,  the 
same  views  were  previously  held.  Recently,  however,  Engel2 
observed  that  there  were  considerable  doubts  whether  the 
mass  of  the  brain  differed  in  crania  of  different  types ;  or 
whether  the  contraction  of  the  skull  in  one  direction  was  not 
compensated  by  an  expansion  in  another;  and  whether  the 
various  cranial  shapes  had  any  influence  on  cerebral  activity. 
Though  we  may  fully  acknowledge  the  importance  of  the  fact 
that  the  Indo-Germanic  and  Semitic  nations,  which  have  ever 
been,  and  still  are,  the  representatives  of  civilization  (from  the 
Semitic  races  the  three  chief  theistical  religions  have  emanated), 
either  excel,  or  at  any  rate  do  not  yield,  in  cerebral  develop- 
ment to  any  other  race ;  and  assuming  even  as  probable  the 
assertion  of  Lawrence,3  that  the  great  diversities  in  the  mental 
development  of  nations  can  only  be  explained  from  innate  dif- 
ferences of  cerebral  structure ;  still  the  axiom,  that  the  shape 
and  capacity  of  the  skull  indicates  the  proportion  of  mental 
capacity,  remains  unproved.  ' '  Why,"  asks  Prichard,  pointedly, 
"  have  the  Georgians,  despite  their  Greek  crania,  never  been 
mentally  distinguished?  Why  has  Greek  and  Roman  civili- 
zation yielded  before  the  Germanic  ?  Why,  we  may  ask,  has 
it  at  all  declined,  since  the  cranial  shape  and  the  cerebral  struc- 


1  See  Hamilton  Smith,  p.  159 ;  P.  de  Remusat,  "  Revue  des  deux  Mondes," 
4me  livre,  1854. 

2  "  Untersuchungen  iiber  Schadelformen,"  p.  124. 

3  "  Lectures,"  p.  416,  3rd  edit.,  1823. 


262  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PAET   II 

ture  have  remained  unaltered?"  On  consulting  history,  we 
may  easily  find  other  examples  showing  the  overthrow  of 
nations  who  were  once  highly  civilized,  possessed  of  beautifully 
formed  crania,  by  peoples  of  inferior  mental  capacity,  and  less 
developed  skulls.  Notwithstanding  the  incontestable  supe- 
riority of  the  white  man  above  the  other  races,  the  Turks  and 
the  Magyars  have  entered  Europe,  obtained  great  conquests, 
and  become  permanently  settled.  The  larger  cranial  capacity 
of  the  white  race  could  not  prevent  it. 

Turning  to  Parchappe's  measurements,1  we  find  the  races  stand 
in  the  following  order,  according  to  the  volume  of  the  head  : — 
Caucasians,  Negroes,  Mongols,  Americans,  and  Malays.  The 
first  is  distinguished  by  the  greatest  length  of  the  head,  and 
the  greatest  development  of  the  forehead  and  occiput ;  in  the 
Negro,  the  length  is  the  same ;  it  is  less  in  the  Mongol  and 
the  American,  and  considerably  less  in  the  Malay.  Lawrence, 
on  the  other  hand,  places  the  Malay,  with  regard  to  cranial 
capacity,  between  the  European  and  the  Negro,  and  the  Ame- 
rican between  the  European  and  the  Mongol. 

In  the  tables  of  Tiedemann,2  the  mean  capacity  of  the 
skull  is : — 

Cases.        Ounces. 

For  the  European  -     135  -  40f 

„      American  -       31  -  40£ 

„      Mongol  -       43  -  39f 

„      Malay     -  -       77  -  38^ 

„      Adult  Negro    -  -       48  -  37^ 

„      Asiatics  and  Africans  of  the  white  race    39  -  37f- 

It  is  singular  enough  that  these  mean  values,  derived  from 
Tiedemann's  data,  are  opposed  to  the  axiom  which  he  has 
deduced  from  them,  namely,  that  the  brain  of  the  Negro 
is  not  smaller  than  that  of  the  European;  just  as  Morton's 
measurements  are  in  opposition  to  the  results  which  he 
infers  from  them.  Morton  says,3  that  the  mean  cranial 
capacity  in  the  European  amounted  to  87  cubic  inches; 

1  "  B-echerches  sur  1'encephale." 

2  "  D.  Him  des  Negers/'  1837. 

3  "  Crania  Americana,"  p.  260. 


INTE.]  CRANIAL  CAPACITY.  263 

in  the  Mongol,  83 ;  Malay,  81 ;  American,  80 ;  Negro,  78 ; 
but  at  a  later  period,1  after  further  measurements,  Morton 
changed  the  order,2  so  that  the  Malay  comes  immediately  after 
the  Caucasian,  with  85,  the  Negro  with  83,  the  Mongol  with 
82,  and  the  American  with  79,  cubic  inches  of  brain ;  and  ac- 
cordingly the  American  race  (which  is  confirmed  by  Meigs,  in 
Nott  and  Gliddon3),  is,  in  this  respect,  the  least  favoured.  He 
is  thus  frequently  in  conflict  with  his  own  assertions,  that  cra- 
nial capacity  corresponds  with  mental  endowment.  The  old 
Peruvians  and  Mexicans,  the  only  American  nations  which  had 
arrived  at  a  high  degree  of  cultivation,  possessed  a  cranial 
capacity  of  76  and  79  cubic  inches.4  Nott  and  Gliddon5  give 
to  this  so-called  ' f  Toltecan  family,"6  on  the  average  only 
76 '8  cubic  inches.  An  old,  half-civilized  people  in  Peru  had 
only  73,  and  the  higher  ranks  of  the  old  Peruvians  75,  cub.  in.;7 
that  is  to  say,  as  much  as  the  Hottentots  and  the  Alfurus, — the 
result  of  155  measurements, — whilst  Morton  gives  to  the  bar- 
barous nomadic  nations  of  America,  as  the  mean  results  of 
161  measurements,  84  cub.  in.  ;8  to  the  Creeks,  Iroquois,  and 
Esquimaux,  87  and  88  cub.  in. ;  i.  e.}  as  much  as  to  Europeans, 
but  much  less  to  the  more  gifted  Cherokees  \  to  the  Hindoo  75, 
and  to  the  Negro  78  cub.  in.9  In  order  to  sustain  his  axiom, 
he  adds,  as  a  good  phrenologist,  that  the  barbarous  Indian 
tribes,  by  defending  their  liberty,  have  proved  themselves  to  be 
better  endowed  than  the  slavish  Peruvians  and  Mexicans ;  and 
Philipps,10  as  well  as  Nott  and  Gliddon,  skilfully  evade  the 
question  by  the  assertion,  that  in  barbarous  nations  the  lower 

1  Silliman'a  "  Am,  Journ.  of  Science,"  2nd  series,  ix,  p.  247. 

2  Nott  and  Gliddon,  "  Types  of  Mankind,"  p.  450. 

3  "  Indigenous  races,  of  the  Earth,"  1857. 

4  "Crania  Americana,"  p.  261. 

5  "Types  of  mankind,"  p.  446. 

6  Morton  frequently  speaks  of  Toltecan  skulls  he  had  before  him.   It  must 
be  mentioned  that  he  designates  by  "  Toltecans,"  very  inappropriately,  we 
think,  all  the  ancient  South  and  North  American  cultivated  nations  indis- 
criminately. 

7  Schoolcraft,  "  History  of  the  Indian  Tribes,"  iii,  p.  239. 

*  Nott  and  Gliddon,  82-4  cub.  in.     In  opposition  to  Morton,  Warren  main- 
tains that,  from  the  measurements  of  the  crania  in  his  collection,  the  old 
civilized  nations  of  America  were  distinguished  from  the  barbarous  by  larger 
foreheads  and  superior  cranial  shape  (Prescott,  "  History  of  the  Conquest  of 
Mexico,"  2nd  edit.,  1844.) 
9  "  Crania  Americana,"  pp.  173,  195,  247. 
10   In  Schoolcraft,  iii,  p.  331. 


264  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

faculties  of  the  occipital  region  are  predominating ;  whilst  the 
anterior  part  of  the  brain — the  intellectual  portion — is  not  so 
much  developed  as  in  the  Peruvians  and  Mexicans.  How- 
ever, it  unfortunately  happens  that  the  latter,  in  spite  of  their 
cultivation,  had  low  receding  foreheads ;  and  that,  as  regards 
the  savage  tribes  of  America,  a  flattened,  small  developed  occi- 
put, has,  by  Morton  himself,  been  considered  as  typical.  As 
another  contradiction,  may  be  mentioned,  that  the  old  Egyp- 
tians had  only  80  cubic  inches,1  and  must  accordingly,  like  the 
Hindoos,  old  Peruvians,  and  Mexicans,  have  possessed  less 
brains  than  the  barbarous  nations  which  lived  in  their  vicinity. 
By  the  way,  we  may  mention,  that  according  to  Tiedemann's 
and  Morton's  tables,2  the  difference  between  the  mean  cranial 
capacity  of  the  Englishman  and  Irishman  amounts  to  9  cubic 
inches,  and  that  between  the  Irishman  and  the  Negro  only  to 
4  cubic  inches. 

Huschke3  has  recently  made  numerous  measurements,  and 
found  that,  though  in  all  races  relatively  large  and  small  skulls 
occur,  the  size  of  the  cranium  increases  from  the  lower  to 
higher  races,  among  whom  the  largest  crania  are  met  with. 
But  even  his  special  data  do  not  support  his  general  propo- 
sitions. They  are  as  follows  : — 

MEAN   RESULTS   OF   CRANIAL   CAPACITY. 

Ounces.  Cases. 

Male  Europeans  -  40'88  -  441 

„    Americans  -         -  39'13  -  31 

„    Mongols  -  38-39  -  46 

„    Negroes  -         -  37-57  -  54 

„    Malays  -  36'41  -  98 

It  may  be  immediately  seen  that  this  series  does  not  agree 
with  any  of  those  quoted,  but  that  it  proves  as  little  the  pro- 
position, that  cranial  capacity  and  mental  qualifications  are  cor- 
responding ;  for  the  gifted  Malay  has,  according  to  the  above 

1  Mean  results  of  55  cases,  Silliman,  loc.  cit. ;  Nott  and  Gliddon,  "  Types," 
pp.  280,  432,  450. 

2  Quoted  by  Bachmann,  in  Smyth,  "  The  unity  of  the  human  races,"  p.  262, 
1850. 

3  Schadel,  Hirn,  und  Seele,  1854. 
3  "  Crania  Americana,"  p.  260. 


INTE.]  CRANIAL  CAPACITY.  265 

table,  the  least  quantity  of  brain,  and  the  Mongol  less  than 
the  American.  One  might  feel  inclined  to  set  aside  the  first 
objection,  as  Huschke  has  done,1  namely,  that  the  cranial  capa- 
city of  the  Hindoo,  which  according  to  him  only  contains  27 
ounces  of  brain,  is  to  that  of  the  European  only  =2:3. 
This  he  explains  from  the  circumstance  that  the  Hindoo,  on  the 
average,  is  only  4  feet  high,  whilst  the  European  is  6  feet,  and 
that  therefore  the  brain  is  proportional  to  the  size  of  the  body. 
This  explanation  is  unsatisfactory,  for  the  Hindoo  is,  on  the 
average,  5  feet  2  inches  high  ;2  nor  is  it  all  applicable  to  the 
Malay,  who  is  not  on  the  average  smaller  than  the  Mongol. 
Another  difficulty  is,  that  the  old  Egyptians  possessed,  next 
to  the  Hindoos,  the  smallest  skulls  of  all  Caucasian  races 
(Huschke).  That  some  American  nations  have  uncommonly 
large  heads,  was  proved  by  the  fact,  that  the  hats  fabricated  in 
Paris  for  the  natives  of  Canada  and  New  Orleans  during  the  war 
of  liberation,  were  all  too  small  for  them.  The  inhabitants  of 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  the  Esquimaux,  and  the  natives  of  Yan  Die- 
men's  Land,  have  all,  with  a  compact  structure,  uncommonly 
large  heads,  which  seems  to  be  the  case  with  all  inhabitants  of 
cold  regions,  Caucasians  included,  in  comparison  with  the  in- 
habitants of  warmer  climates.3  Virey4  observes,  that  the 
Russian  possesses  a  more  capacious  skull  than  the  Swede ;  the 
Kalmuck  and  Tartar;  a  larger  cranium  than  the  civilized  Euro- 
pean; but  the  Laplander  is  particularly  distinguished  by  a 
greatly  developed  cranial  structure.  Desmoulins  has  also 
pointed  out  the  disproportion  existing  in  the  Mongol,  and 
especially  in  the  so-called  Hyperborean  race,  between  the  size 
of  the  head  and  mental  qualification.  Finally,  instances  are 
not  wanting  which  prove  that  the  same  or  similar  intellectual 
and  moral  dispositions  coexist  with  different  cranial  formations ; 
and  vice  versd,  different  dispositions  with  the  same  or  similar 
cranial  shape  and  capacity.  We  see  one  and  the  same  people, 
in  the  course  of  its  history,  proceed  from  barbarism  to  civiliza- 


1  Page  49. 

2  Lassen,  "  Ind.  Alterthumskunde,"  i,  p.  402. 

3  Parchappe,  loc  cit.,  p.  51. 

4  "  Hist.  nat.  du  genre  humain,"  i,  p.  G6,  1834. 


266  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

tion,  and  again  relapse  from  its  high  state,  and  its  capacities 
decline ;  but  as  the  cranial  shape  (as  is  usually  assumed), 
remains  the  same,  the  assertion  that  the  intellectual  faculties 
are  dependent  on  it,  is  not  even  consonant  with  the  doctrine 
of  the  immutability  of  race-crania.  We  are  thus  compelled  to 
renounce  the  doctrine  that  the  capacity  of  the  cranium  indi- 
cates the  amount  of  mental  endowment. 

Having  disposed  of  this  preliminary  question,  and  shown 
that  the  size  of  the  skull  presents  us  with  no  criterion  for 
the  peculiarities  of  intellectual  life,  we  must  endeavour  to  in- 
dicate the  path  we  ought  to  pursue  in  these  investigations. 

As,  in  physical  respects,  all  men  may  be  considered  as  be- 
longing to  the  same  species,  if  it  can  be  proved  that  the 
greatest  physical  differences  occurring  among  them,  are  not 
more  considerable  than  such  as  may  have  arisen  in  the 
same  people  in  the  course  of  time ;  so  may  we,  in  psychical 
respects,  count  all  as  belonging  to  the  same  species,  if  it  can 
be  shown  that  the  greatest  differences  of  their  mental  develop- 
ment and  their  intellectual  and  moral  culture,  are  not  greater 
than  the  differences  of  the  degrees  of  civilization  which  the 
same  people  passes  through  in  its  history.  Here  the  question 
is  not  either  to  prove  or  to  refute  that  at  present,  e.  g.  an 
individual  Negro,  or  the  Negro  race  generally,  is  capable  of 
the  same  intellectual  performances  as  an  European  civilized 
people;  for  nations  are  as  much  dependent  on  the  historical 
basis  of  their  vital  development  as  individuals,  and  it  is  impos- 
sible that  peoples  passing  through  different  stages  of  develop- 
ment should  be  capable  of  the  same  intellectual  performances. 
But  if  by  the  term  capacity  be  designated — what  alone  should 
be  designated  by  it — not  the  possible  performances  at  any 
given  time,  but  such  as  are  possible  to  the  living  generation 
under  the  most  favourable  circumstances;  then  it  becomes 
clear,  not  only  that  the  capacities  of  a  people  may  change  in 
the  course  of  time,  but  that  the  judgment,  as  regards  the 
unity  of  mankind,  depends  on  the  solution  of  the  question, 
whether,  under  favourable  circumstances,  in  the  course  of 
time,  all  nations  and  tribes  are  capable,  or  not,  of  reaching  the 
same  degree  of  mental  development. 


INTR.]  GIST  OP  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  QUESTION.  267 

Though  we  may  all  agree  that  the  capacity  of  the  Negroes 
is  at  present  far  inferior  to  that  of  the  White  race, — and  who 
would  not  admit  this  ? — nothing  can  be  deduced  from  this  ad- 
mission in  favour  of  the  assumption,  that  there  exist  specific 
psychical  differences  among  the  races  of  man. 

Like  our  preceding  physical  investigation,  the  results  of  the 
present  inquiry  will  depend  on  the  solution  of  the  question 
relating  to  the  greatest  differences  existing  in  the  various  races 
as  regards  mental  development,  and  the  greatest  changes 
which  in  this  respect  take  place  among  the  same  people. 

If  we  find  in  the  same  stock,  or  in  different  peoples  at  dif- 
ferent periods,  or  at  the  same  period  in  different  nations,  psy- 
chical diversities  which  equal  or  approach  the  generally  exist- 
ing differences,  the  latter  cannot  be  considered  as  specific. 
This  also  holds  good  when  the  differences  of  individuals,  apart 
of  course  from  morbid  phenomena  (idiocy,  etc.),  approach  that 
maximum.  The  intellectual  development  of  individuals  is 
doubly  important  for  our  investigation;  partly  because  the 
most  and  the  least  gifted  of  every  people  gauge  the  limits  of 
its  intellectual  capacity,  and  thus  furnish  us  with  an  indi- 
cation whether  or  not  we  have  to  do  with  specific  differ- 
ences; and  partly  in  as  far  as  the  most  gifted  may,  under 
favourable  circumstances  elevate  the  people  to  which  they 
belong,  to  a  higher  degree  of  civilization,  and  (what  is  insepa- 
rable from  it)  to  a  higher  degree  of  mental  capacity. 

It  is  easy  to  see,  that  for  the  solution  of  this  question  a  per- 
fect and  special  description  of  the  intellectual  life,  and  all  its 
peculiarities  of  barbarous  nations,  is  requisite,  as  its  affirmation 
or  negation  can  only  be  obtained  by  contrasting  their  chief 
features  with  the  most  striking  performances  of  civilized 
nations  in  their  historical  development.  Reserving  the  details 
for  the  sequel,  we  will  consider  here  the  psychological  problem 
generally. 

We  may  start  from  the  assumption  that,  as  in  the  life 
of  individuals,  so  also  in  that  of  nations,  all  cultivation  is 
something  secondary,  resting  upon  a  gradual  progress  to  a 
better  state  than  was  the  primitive  or  natural  state  of  mankind. 
This  natural  state,  marked  by  the  absence  of  all  cultivation, 


268  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

we  must  imagine  to  have  been  the  original  condition  of  every 
race  ;  and  though  we  would  not  designate  it  as  an  utterly 
barbarous  and  degraded  state,  we  must  consider  it  as  a  mode 
of  human  existence  in  which  all  intellectual  and  moral  forces 
were  yet  undeveloped.  But  though  we  are  compelled  to  pro- 
ceed from  the  assumption,  that  all  peoples  have  passed  through 
a  period  so  absolutely  uncultured,  that  originally  they  were 
psychically  -equal,  there  yet  remains  a  possible  supposition  that 
some — owing  to  superior  predispositions,  perhaps  in  conse- 
quence of  an  innate  specific  impulse — have  more  easily,  and 
from  slighter  external  influences,  worked  their  way  out  of 
that  original  state,  than  other  peoples  who  not  'only  were  un- 
able to  effect  this,  but  who  were  also  unable  to  appropriate  the 
elements  of  foreign  civilization. 

Keeping  the  latter  point  in  view,  our  first  task  must  be  to 
find  out  the  specific  characters  of  man  generally,  i.  e.,  those 
which  distinguish  him  from  the  brute,  in  order  to  learn  whether 
or  not  these  characters  pertain  to  all  races  and  individuals. 
The  second  question,  then,  will  be,  whether  within  these  cha- 
racters, which  constitute  the  psychical  essence  of  man,  there 
exist  permanent  differences  which  compel  us  to  view  the  races 
of  mankind,  not  as  varieties  of  one  species,  but  as  species  of  a 
genus.  In  attempting  a  solution  of  this  question,  we  shall — 
availing  ourselves  of  existing  materials — have  to  sketch  a 
picture  of  the  natural  state  of  man,  which,  free  from  philoso- 
phical theories,  must  be  founded  on  our  actual  knowledge  of 
mankind.  In  order  finally  to  arrive  at  a  correct  estimation  of 
the  differences  between  the  various  stocks  in  mental  develop- 
ment, we  shall  have  to  take  into  consideration  the  circum- 
stances which  induce  man  to  leave  the  natural  state ;  whereby 
we  may  learn  whether  the  existing  differences  in  development 
are  the  result  of  specific  differences  in  mental  endowment, 
or  the  consequence  of  different  surrounding  media,  mode  of 
life,  contact  with  other  nations;  in  short,  of  differences  of 
their  historical  events,  or  possibly  of  the  combination  of 
both. 


SECT.  I.]  PERFECTIBILITY.  269 

SECTION    I. 

THE   SPECIFIC   CHARACTERS   OF   MAN. 

We  deemed  it  superfluous,  in  treating  of  the  physical  cha- 
racters of  man,  to  enter  into  any  details  as  regards  the  differ- 
ences which  distinguish  man  from  the  brute,  as  they  are  too 
well  known.  With  regard,  however,  to  his  psychical  life, 
the  differences  are  not  so  patent ;  for  even  now  we  meet  with 
authors  who,  perhaps  judging  from  their  own  experience, 
consider  that  the  mental  life  of  the  lower  races  is  not  superior 
to  that  of  the  ape.  The  witty  saying  of  Beaumarchais,  "  Boire 
sans  soif  et  faire  V amour  en  tout  temps,  c'est  ce  qui  distingue 
Vhomme  de  la  b£te,"  has  been  defended  in  all  seriousness,  even 
by  those  who,  unprejudiced,  have  merely  judged  from  the  im- 
pressions produced  upon  the  European  by  a  perfectly  unculti- 
vated people.  From  the  various  judgments  passed  on  so- 
called  savages,  it  is  no  idle  question  to  inquire  into  the  essential 
differences  which  separate  man  from  the  brute,  as  these  marks 
of  distinction  form  the  common  basis  for  the  mental  life  both 
of  the  savage  and  the  civilized  man. 

It  is  not  sufficient  for  this  object  to  find  a  term  by  which 
this  specific  difference  can  be  designated  so  as  to  be  generally 
acceptable.  Various  formulae  of  the  kind  have  been  given,  and 
we  may  assent  to  some  without  preferring  any  in  particular. 
When  we  attribute  to  man,  exclusively,  reason  or  perfectibility, 
and  deny  them  to  animals,  the  question  must  be,  in  what  sense 
we  take  these  significant  terms.  Moreover,  this  perfectibility, 
which  is  so  often  described  as  a  general  criterion  of  humanity, 
is,  by  some  authors,  denied  to  the  inferior  races;  whether 
rightly  or  wrongly  will  be  shown  by  the  historical  consideration 
of  individual  tribes  and  their  mental  characteristics.  We  are 
thus  induced  to  lay  aside  general  notions,  and  to  keep  to  par- 
ticulars. Moreover,  it  is  difficult  to  doubt  that  some  animals, 
though  they  have  no  history  in  our  sense,  possess  a  certain 
perfectibility,  such  as  the  dog  and  the  horse.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  it  is  not  by  the  spontaneous  impulse  of  these  animals, 


270  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II. 

but  by  the  influence  of  man,  that  they  leave  the  natural  state 
and  reach  a  higher  degree  of  mental  culture.  To  convince 
ourselves  that  these  animals  are  really  capable  of  such  a  mental 
improvement,  we  need  only  compare  the  Arabian  horse  with 
its  wild  parent  stock.  Constantly  in  intercourse  with  its 
master  and  his  family,  it  is  cared  for  like  a  member  of  the 
family,  and,  like  a  near  relation,  the  animal  takes  an  interest  in 
all  that  concerns  the  family :  it  learns  to  understand  human 
actions  and  occurrences;  and  that  it  sometimes  acts  spon- 
taneously and  seemingly  sympathizes  with  the  misfortunes  and 
joys  of  the  family,  has  been  supported  by  many  examples. 
Can  we,  then,  deny  perfectibility  to  these  animals,  or  doubt 
that  their  sphere  of  thought  is  capable  of  enlargement  beyond 
what  appears  its  natural  limits  ? 

We  must,  then,  search  for  more  decided  differences  between 
man  and  the  brute  than  such  as  are  designated  by  the  term 
' ( perfectibility,"  and  we  must  look  for  them  in  the  perform- 
ances peculiar  to  mankind.  This  investigation  will,  at  the 
same  time,  teach  us  the  circumstances  and  relations  upon 
which  the  character  of  perfectibility,  exclusively  attributed  to 
man,  rests. 

That  man  learns  from  experience,  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant but  not  a  specific  peculiarity.  Common  observation 
of  our  domestic  animals  sufficiently  shows  that  they  also  profit 
by  experience,  frequently  in  a  very  short  time,  and  the  lesson 
thus  acquired  lasts  for  life.  Elephants,  who  have  once  and 
decisively  experienced  the  superiority  of  man,  are  usually 
docile  afterwards.  Wild  horses,  caught  with  the  lasso,  use 
every  effort  to  set  themselves  free,  but  once  tamed  they  prove 
docile  for  ever.  Monkeys  who  have  once  burned  their  lips  in 
swallowing  hot  liquids,  afterwards  wait  with  patience  until 
they  are  cooled  j1  but  this  profiting  of  former  experiences  does 
not  seemingly  pass  beyond  a  certain  point.  Thus  monkeys 
are  frequently  caught  by  means  of  pots  placed  into  the  earth, 
filled  with  maize,  through  the  narrow  neck  of  which  they  are 
able  to  introduce  the  empty  hand,  but  unable  to  withdraw  it 

1  Bennet,  "  Wanderings  in  New  South  Wales,"  ii,  p.  158,  1834. 


SECT.  I.]          TEACHINGS  OP  EXPERIENCE.  271 

when  filled.  Now,  though  we  would  not  deny  that  the  un- 
civilized man,  overcome  in  a  similar  manner  by  sensual  desire, 
does  not  reap  all  the  fruit  of  his  experience ;  still,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  catch  men  in  so  simple  a  manner  as  are  the 
monkeys. 

We  must  not,  however,  estimate  too  lightly  what  animals 
really  learn  from  experience.  The  mysterious  word  f '  instinct" 
conceals,  in  the  psychical  life  of  animals,  more  intellectuality 
and  less  mechanism  than  is  usually  assumed.  We  would  ad- 
duce as  a  proof  the  important  fact,  that  the  known  phenomena 
which  we  are  accustomed  to  ascribe  to  an  instinctive  fear  of 
man,  are  probably  the  result  of  experience, — be  it  from  a  tra- 
dition unknown  to  us, — from  a  kind  of  instruction  given  by 
the  parents  to  the  young,  or  that  later  generations  have  by 
nature  become  more  cautious  and  shy,  whilst  their  progenitors 
became  so  by  experience.  We  are  led  to  this  view  by  the 
conduct  of  animals  in  countries  which  were  never  inhabited  by 
man.  All  kinds  of  birds,  says,  Darwin,1  not  excluding  birds 
of  prey,  are,  on  the  Galapagos  islands,  perfectly  tame, — all 
may  be  approached  so  near  as  to  be  struck  or  caught.  Accord- 
ing to  Cowley  and  Dampier  (1684),  they  seem  formerly  to  have 
been  still  more  confiding.  Even  on  the  Falkland  islands, 
where  there  are  falcons  and  foxes,  the  same  observation  has 
been  made.  It  is,  however,  different  as  regards  birds  of  pass- 
age, who  have  acquired  experience  in  other  countries.  On 
Possession  Island  (Victoria  Land),  the  penguins  appeared  in- 
clined to  obstruct  the  progress  of  the  crew  of  Capt.  Boss.3  In 
Kordofan,  the  birds  are  less  shy  if  the  sportsman  appears  in  a 
dress  different  from  that  worn  in  the  country.3 

On  comparing  man  with  the  brute  in  this  respect,  the 
teachings  which  he  derives  from  experience,  are  not  only  more 
comprehensive,  but  they  exercise  a  deeper  influence  on  the 
whole  formation  of  his  external  and  inner  life,  and  enable  him 
to  occupy  a  dominating  position  even  in  the  lowest  state  of 
civilization.  Just  as  the  civilized  man  conquers  the  savage, 

1  "  Naturalists'  Voyage/'  chap.  xvii. 

2  "  Voyage  in  the  Southern  and  Antarctic  regions,"  i,  p.  189,  1847. 

3  Pallme,  «  Beschr.  v.  Kordofan,"  p.  153,  1843. 


272  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II. 

so  does  the  latter  overpower  the  brute,  not  so  much  by  phy- 
sical as  by  mental  force.  He  uses  their  instincts  in  a  variety 
of  modes  to  deceive  them,  imitates  their  sounds,  catches  them 
by  baits,  and  hunts  each  species  according  to  its  peculiar 
habits. 

As  this  accommodation  to  circumstances  and  their  skilful 
use  shows,  even  in  the  most  savage  nations,  a  decided  supe- 
riority above  the  brute  creation,  so  it  is  not  less  exhibited  in 
the  subjection  of  nature  to  human  objects.  Protection  against 
the  influences  of  the  climate  by  dress  and  habitation,  manu- 
facture of  tools,  and  instruments  for  fishing,  hunting,  etc.,  the 
preparation  of  food,  are  found  among  every  people  on  the 
globe ;  in  all  which  we  find  a  far  greater  use  of  experience 
than  is  found  in  the  most  gifted  animal.  What  has  formerly 
been  related  of  the  natives  of  the  Marian  Islands,  namely,  that 
they  were  unable  to  light  a  fire,  has  been  proved  to  be  fabulous. 
At  Fakaafo  only  (Union  Islands,  north  of  the  Samoa  Archi- 
pelago), where  the  inhabitants  live  entirely  on  cocoa-nuts  and 
pandanus,  no  trace  of  cooking  or  firing  has  been  found,1  but 
they  seem  scarcely  to  have  any  use  for  it. 

Next  to  the  teachings  of  experience,  must  be  mentioned  the 
important  privilege  of  the  designating  or  representing  faculty 
by  which  man  gives  fixity  to  and  regulates  his  thoughts,  and 
exchanges  them  with  others.  Whilst  animals  possess  but  im- 
perfect means  of  communication,  and  consequently  every  indi- 
vidual leads,  if  not  externally  yet  internally,  an  isolated  life, 
we  see  man  in  every  stage  of  his  development  constantly  en- 
deavouring to  give  expression  to  his  emotions  by  sensible 
images  and  sounds.  In  this  kind  of  activity,  as  Schleiermacher 
observed,  is  manifested  an  essentially  human  peculiarity.  Ori- 
ginally he  finds  a  certain  relief  by  giving  audible  and  visible 
expression  to  his  feelings.  This  is  not  the  place  to  enter  into 
any  particulars  as  regards  the  origin  of  language ;  all  that  we 
here  require  is,  to  point  out  the  possession  of  language,  and 
its  use  as  a  specific  human  peculiarity. 

It  is  now  generally  admitted,  that  even  the  most  barbarous 

1  Wilkes's  "  Narrative  of  United  States'  Expedition,"  v,  p.  18,  1845. 


SECT.  I.]  MAN  AND  BRUTE.  273 

nations  possess  a  language  with  a  more  or  less  regular  gram- 
matical structure.  Though  it  be  more  than  probable  that 
animals  possess  some  means  of  intercommunication,  their  per- 
formances in  this  respect  have  only  a  very  distant  resemblance 
to  language.  Nature  has  limited  most  of  them  to  the  produc- 
tion of  but  few  sounds  and  gestures. 

Deficient  in  ideas,  animals  can  only  give  expression  as  re- 
gards their  concrete  condition.  Human  language  presupposes 
not  merely  definite  individual  conceptions  of  separate  qualities, 
but  of  their  relations  to  each  other,  so  to  say,  an  articulation 
of  ideas  by  which  alone  a  designation  by  grammatical  forms 
becomes  possible.  However  low  a  language  may  be  in  its 
development,  it  could  neither  express  thoughts  nor  render 
them  intelligible,  if  in  the  ideal  world  of  the  speaker,  as  well 
as  in  that  of  the  listener,  such  a  regulation  of  thought  did  not 
exist ;  and  this  is  one  of  the  proofs  that  the  psychical  condition 
of  man,  however  uncultivated  he  may  be,  is  specifically  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  brute.  But  inasmuch  as  the  possession 
of  a  language  of  regular  grammatical  structure  forms  a  fixed 
barrier  between  man  and  the  brute,  it  establishes  at  the  same 
time  a  near  relationship  between  all  peoples  in  psychical  re- 
spects, agreeing  as  they  do  in  the  most  essential  peculiarity  of 
intellectual  life,  namely,  in  the  power  of  arranging  the  rela- 
tions of  substantive  separate  ideas  so  as  to  give  them  a  definite 
oral  expression.  In  the  presence  of  this  common  feature  of 
the  human  mind,  all  other  differences  lose  their  importance, 
and  make  us  more  inclined  to  consider  them  as  merely  differ- 
ences in  degree ;  the  more  so  as  there  are  peoples  who,  despite 
their  mental  degradation,  possess  a  language  by  no  means 
undeveloped  as  regards  grammatical  structure.  We  agree, 
therefore,  with  Pott,1  ' '  If  theology  feared  that  an  original  dif- 
ference of  language,  which  linguists  assume,  would  involve 
the  original  unity  of  the  human  species  (which  by  no  means 
follows),  the  science  of  language  restores  to  theology  the  psy- 
chical unity  of  mankind,  compared  with  which  the  physical 
unity  must  yield  in  importance." 

1  "  Von  der  Ungleichh.  menschl.  Eassen,"  p.  243. 


274  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 


ies 
el- 
el- 


This  is  amply  proved  by  the  reports  on  the  mental  qualities 
of  uncivilized  nations,  furnished  by  a  great  variety  of  travel- 
lers. Everywhere  we  find  essentially  the  same  type  of  intel- 
lectual activity  :  the  same  motives  for  action,  the  same  mental 
emotions,  the  same  passions,  the  same  mode  of  irritation,  asso- 
ciation, etc.,  are  observed  in  the  savage  as  in  the  civilized 
European,  without  any  distinction  of  race ;  and  as  soon  as  we 
can  appreciate  the  motive  for  action,  we  find,  even  in  the  most 
ape-like  Negro,  a  homogeneous  human  nature. 

There  is  much  in  the  inner  life  of  animals  which  will,  per- 
haps, ever  remain  unintelligible  to  us.  What  may  be  their 
motives  for  action,  what  determines  their  conceptions  and 
associations  of  ideas,  especially  their  mechanical  instinct,  is 
scarcely  known  to  us,  for  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  in- 
stinct which  impels  them  rests  upon  some  obscure  conceptions 
or  upon  something  specific.  But  in  the  presence  of  human 
beings  we  are  never  in  the  same  dilemma.  However  great  the 
difference  between  their  mental  culture  and  ours,  we  may,  if 
time  and  opportunity  are  favourable,  learn  to  understand  all 
their  actions,  and  we  are  thus  justified  in  assuming  in  the 
human  species,  only  differences  in  culture. 

Next  to  speech  must  be  mentioned  some  other  specific  dif- 
ferences which  distinguish  man  from  the  brute,  namely,  the 
use  of  a  number  of  external  signs  expressive  of  the  relations 
in  which  persons  permanently  or  temporarily  stand  to  each 
other;  salutation;  the  signs  of  veneration  or  contempt,  of 
peace  and  friendship,  or  the  reverse;  of  agreement  or  dis- 
agreement, etc.  Further,  the  distinctive  marks  of  rank  in 
clothing,  head-dress,  ornament,  and  other  marks  on  the  body. 
Thus,  a  shorn  head  frequently  marks  the  slave  in  Africa;  an 
artificially  compressed  head,  in  America,  distinguishes  the  free 
man;  scars  of  certain  forms,  and  in  certain  spots,  generally 
distinguish  the  tribes  among  Negro  peoples.  The  tattooed 
figures  in  the  South  Sea  seem  originally  to  have  had  the  same 
object  in  view. 

Another  comprehensive  class  of  marks  deserves  mentioning, 
such  as  ornamentation  of  external  life,  having  little  reference 
to  the  material  well-being.  This  is  found  even  among  the 


SECT.  I.]  CHARACTERISTICS   OP   MAN.  275 

rudest  nations,  and  is  really  specifically  human.  However 
poor  and  miserable,  man  finds  a  pleasure  in  adorning  himself. 
He  adorns  his  person,  his  instruments,  etc.,  with  the  greatest 
industry,  and  even  supports,  as  in  tattooing,  great  physical 
pain  for  this  object.  What  impels  him  is  simply  the  pleasure 
to  be  beautiful  in  his  own  eyes  and  to  be  admired  by  others, 
and  so  he  bepaints  and  bedecks  himself,  and  all  that  belongs 
to  him.  Variegated  colours  and  their  grotesque  combination, 
musical  sounds  and  their  variations,  are  agreeable  to  him ;  he 
finds  a  certain  satisfaction  in  depicting  by  lines  and  colours 
what  has  interested  him ;  he  constructs  musical  instruments, 
and  thus  he  beautifies  his  life,  the  mere  attempt  of  which 
raises  him,  on  account  of  the  intellectual  basis  upon  which 
it  rests,  far  above  the  scale  occupied  by  the  most  gifted 
animals. 

A  third  chief  peculiarity  of  man  must  be  mentioned, — his 
social  character,  with  which  his  capacity  of  speaking  stands  in 
intimate  relation.  Aristotle  called  him,  on  account  of  this 
character,  not  a  gregarious,  but  a  political  being.  Men  asso- 
ciate together,  not  merely  under  the  guidance  of  an  individual, 
as  is  the  case  with  many  animals,  but  their  association  in  tribes 
and  families  is  more  consistent.  The  individuals  are  not  so 
isolated  as  animals  belonging  to  the  same  flock ;  but  the  ex- 
change of  thought  by  language  leads  them  to  more  intimate 
relations  between  each  other, — to  greater  sympathy.  True, 
not  everywhere  do  human  beings,  living  together,  form  a  state, 
the  nature  of  the  country  and  the  dispersion  of  the  population 
frequently  prevent  this,  as  in  Australia;  but  nowhere  are 
peculiar  social  customs  absent,  whilst  the  habits  of  gregarious 
animals  seem  to  be  everywhere  the  same  :  everywhere  we  find 
practical  ideas  of  property  and  right.  The  small  value  attached 
to  property  by  savage  nations,  must  not  induce  us  to  think 
that  they  know  nothing  of  property.  Common  property  of  a 
tribe  or  family  is  acknowledged  everywhere,  where  peoples 
come  in  contact :  property  in  the  soil,  which  a  stranger  must 
not  enter  without  the  permission  of  the  proprietor,  seems  to 
be  sometimes  more  fixed  among  savage  nations  than  we  are 
inclined  to  believe.  Private  property  is  nowhere  wanting 

T2 


27(3  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

when  individuals  may  have  to  dispute  the  possession  of  any 
goods ;  but  such  disputes  exist  everywhere. 

The  ethical  importance  of  private  property  is  founded  upon 
this,  that  it  enlarges  the  sphere  of  activity  in  the  individual, 
and  secures  his  future.  This  enlargement  of  his  sphere  only 
becomes  important  to  man,  because  he  looks  into  the  future, 
and  wishes  to  protect  himself  against  possible  future  evils. 
Property  can  thus  only  belong  to  those  who  do  not,  like  ani- 
mals, live  merely  in  the  present,  but  who  look  forward  into  the 
future.  In  order  that  property  should  be  respected,  it  must 
be  distinguishable.  Again,  in  order  that  it  should  fulfil  its 
object,  property  must  be  transferable,  which  is  only  possible  if 
the  will  to  transfer  and  that  of  accepting  it  can  be  communi- 
cated by  intelligible  signs.  But  all  these  presuppositions, 
which  constitute  the  essence  of  property,  prove  again  the  un- 
surmountable  barrier  which  separates  the  rudest  nation  from 
animals. 

Though  all  peoples  do  not  possess  a  regular  common- 
wealth, they  nevertheless  form  a  society  in  which  there  are 
certain  gradations,  which  ultimately  develop  themselves  into  a 
distinction  of  ranks.  Human  society  everywhere  has  some 
common  interest  in  opposition  to  the  private  interests  of  tho 
individuals  composing  it.  A  common  external  enemy,  or 
a  common  misfortune  by  natural  agencies,  would  suffice  to 
call  forth  such  a  common  interest.  One  or  more  individuals 
acquire  authority,  and  are  either  feared  or  respected.  Such 
relations  are  wanting  in  no  human  society,  and  have  but  a  dis- 
tant resemblance  to  the  rivalry  shown  among  some  animals, 
and  to  the  influence  which  leaders  of  the  gregarious  ani- 
mals acquire. 

Among  the  social  peculiarities,  there  is  also  to  be  mentioned 
a  specific  feature,  the  attachment  to  his  country,  family,  and 
people,  owing  partly  to  the  personal  relations  of  individuals. 
This  attachment  does  not  exist  in  animals,  deficient  as  they 
are  in  individualization :  an  animal  can  easily  be  separated 
from  one  flock  and  attached  to  another ;  whilst  for  man,  how- 
ever uncivilized  he  may  be,  such  a  separation  from  a  locality, — 
where  by  language,  personal  intercourse,  and  a  thousand  habits 


SECT.  I.]  CHARACTERISTICS RELIGIONS.  277 

his  being  has  taken  root, — is  always  painful,  making  him  feel 
that  for  his  happiness  he  requires  not  merely  human  society  in 
general,  but  some  definite  individuals  by  whom  he  is  under- 
stood. It  is  the  great  misery  to  which  the  Negro  is  exposed 
which  renders  it  possible  that  he  nearly  forgets  this  human 
desire,  rejoicing  merely  in  a  sensual  existence,  and  finding 
his  happiness  in  eating  and  drinking,  idling  and  sleeping. 
But  such  facts  as  these,  which  can  only  be  explained  by  an 
entire  perversion  of  the  natural  human  relations,  by  no  means 
prove  that  the  character  of  humanity  is  absent  in  the  Negro. 
It  is  chiefly  language  which  separates  and  unites  mankind,  by 
impressing  the  national  character  upon  the  individual,  and  the 
peculiar  mode  of  thinking  and  feeling  belonging  to  his  stock, 
drawing  thus  closer  the  bonds  which  unite  the  individuals  as 
a  whole.  The  power  of  public  opinion,  to  which  also  the  un- 
civilized man  is  subject,  shows  how  sensible  he  is  to  the 
applause  or  censure  of  his  fellow-men. 

"We  have  now  considered  the  specific  psychical  activity  of 
man  in  three  directions : — in  availing  himself  of  surround- 
ing natural  phenomena  for  his  own  objects,  profiting  largely 
by  experience;  in  giving  outward  expression  to  his  internal 
feelings  either  by  language  or  other  visible  signs ;  in  his 
social  relations  with  their  concomitant  rights  and  property, 
leading  to  certain  gradations  in  society,  and  to  a  closer 
attachment  to  his  own  people.  Though  we  find  here  the 
elements  from  which  science,  art,  and  morality  gradually 
arise ;  there  is  yet  another  principle,  leading  to  a  higher  spi- 
ritual development,  namely,  the  religious  element.  This  is 
nowhere  entirely  wanting ;  and  though  it  may  manifest  itself 
in  the  crudest  form,  its  influence  can  be  traced  in  the  history 
of  every  people. 

It  has  been  asserted,  that  there  are  peoples  among  whom 
there  is  not  a  vestige  of  religion ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
all  known  peoples  have  their  gods.  A  strict  investigation  has 
established  that  the  first  assertion  is  false,  and  the  second  not 
true.  All  depends  on  what  is  meant  by  religion  and  religious 
worship,  otherwise  the  contest  about  the  universality  of  this 
principle  is  merely  a  play  upon  words.  Though  it  may  be 


278  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

admitted,  as  indeed  it  is  the  truth,  that  there  are  some  savages 
among  whom  hitherto  religious  ideas — taken  in  a  restricted 
sense,  a  belief  in  divine  beings — have  not  been  found,  it  must 
be  noticed,  that  they  are  generally  those  peoples  of  whom  our 
knowledge  is  very  scanty,  and  that  on  becoming  better  ac- 
quainted with  them,  religious  sentiments  have  been  detected, 
as  is  sufficiently  indicated  by  certain  superstitious  ceremonies. 
We  would  here  only  mention  a  few  such  instances.  It  has  been 
asserted,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  Arru  Islands  neither  be- 
lieved in  G  od  nor  a  future  life  j1  yet  they  possess  carved  images 
of  men  and  beasts,  who  protect  their  habitations  from  evil 
spirits.2  The  Dajaks,  on  the  Lundu  river,  in  the  north-east  of 
Borneo,  have  neither  priests,  nor  temples,  nor  images ;  still, 
they  have  omens  and  augurs,3  and  traces  of  old  Hindoo  worship 
have  also  been  found  among  them.  Neither  images  nor  any 
religious  worship  have  been  met  with  in  New  Caledonia  ;4  still, 
the  natives  have  their  tabus,  magic,  and  magicians.  Thus, 
Anderssen5  could  find  nothing  approaching  religious  worship 
among  the  Ovambos ;  yet,  he  observes,  very  justly,  that  on 
nearer  acquaintance  we  shall  find  that  they,  too,  have  some 
idea,  though  a  very  crude  one,  of  an  invisible  power. 

It  is  certain  that  all  peoples  do  not  believe  in  a  God  who 
directs  everything  in  the  world ;  but  if  by  religious  belief  be 
understood  the  conviction  of  the  existence  of  invisible  mys- 
terious powers  which,  in  various  modes,  influence  the  pheno- 
mena of  nature,  so  that  man  and  his  fate  is  dependent  on  their 
favour,  we  may  safely  assert,  that  every  people  possesess  a  kind 
of  religion.  No  doubt,  in  peoples  standing  in  the  lowest 
scale  of  civilization,  this  religion  is  merely  a  belief  in  spectres, 
still,  the  religious  element  is  recognizable.  Moral  ideas  appear 
not  originally  allied  with  these  religious  views.  Thus,  we  find 
that  the  Kamtschadales  consider  only  the  transgression  of 
their  superstitious  customs  as  sin ;  to  pierce  coal  with  a  knife, 
to  scrape  off  the  snow  from  the  shoes,  etc.,  they  consider  as 

1  Cooke  Taylor,  "  Natural  History  of  Soc.,"  i,  p.  167,  1840. 

2  Kolff,  "  Voyage  of  the  Brig  Dourga,"  translated  by  W.  Earl,  p.  159, 1840. 

3  Brooke, "  Narrative  of  events  in  Borneo  and  Celebes,"  i,  p.  23, 2nd  ed.,  1848; 
Journ.  E.  G.  S.,  xxiii,  p.  78. 

4  Lascazas,  in  "  Nouv.  ann.  des  Voy.,"  i,  p.  332,  1855. 

5  "  Eeisen  in  Siidwest  Afrika,  Deutch,"  von  Lotze,  i,  p.  214,  1858. 


SECT.  I.]  ORIGIN  OP  RELIGIONS.  279 

very  wrong,  and  attribute  to  it  diseases,  whilst  the  coarsest 
vices  appear  to  them  venial.  Moral  ideas  flow  from  an  essen- 
tially different  source  than  religion,  but  both  are  associated 
when  man  reaches  a  higher  degree  of  civilization.  We  must 
also  consider  as  erroneous,  the  opinion  that  morality  and 
religion  have  grown  out  from  a  common  root,  namely, 
conscience. 

Though  man  may  be  considered  as  the  lord  of  the  creation, 
his  dominion  is  by  no  means  a  secure  one ;  the  less  so  the 
lower  he  stands  in  psychical  development :  his  wishes  and 
aims  are  not  fulfilled,  his  plans  are  frustrated,  misery  and  want 
overtake  him.  Whose  fault  is  this  ?  who  effects  it  ?  These 
are  the  questions  which  occur  both  to  the  savage  and  the 
civilized  man.  The  first  answer  which  man  returns  to  his  own 
questions  is  generally  to  the  following  effect : — There  is  an 
inimical  power  which  wills  my  misfortune, — a  wicked  being 
which,  with  invisible  power,  leads  me  to  destruction.  The 
belief  in  spirits  is  extended  to  all  nature,  the  course  of  which, 
though  apparently  uniform  and  regular,  still  appears  to  the  un- 
civilized man  as  incalculable.  Man  sees  in  the  natural  sensible 
phenomena  something  more  than  material  forces;  he  sees  in 
them  supernatural  powers  and  a  supernatural  connexion, — he 
spiritualizes  nature.  We  find  all  uncultured  peoples  in  this 
condition ;  and  though  they  may  be  deficient  in  definite  ideas 
of  a  God  and  fixed  forms  of  worship,  the  religious  element,  so 
far  from  being  absent,  influences  their  whole  conception  of 
nature. 

Temples  are  not  everywhere  erected  to  higher  powers,  nor 
images  nor  sacrifices  made ;  but,  in  great  need,  invocations  of 
such  powers,  and  attempts  to  appease  their  wrath  or  malice  are 
nowhere  wanting.  Their  habitations  are  usually  imagined  to  be 
on  high  mountains,  or  in  inaccessible  places.  Dreams,  un- 
common occurrences,  disease,  and  even  natural  death,  are 
ascribed  to  the  influence  of  spirits.  The  fear  of  the  dead,  and 
the  honour  shown  to  them,  among  all  uncultured  nations,  are 
partly  connected  with  the  belief  that  the  departed  souls  return 
to  the  earth,  and  like  other  spirits,  reappear  in  an  animal  form 
to  plague  the  living.  This  is  essentially  the  essence  of  the 


280  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II. 

religious  ideas  which  we  found  developed  with  remarkable 
uniformity  among  savage  peoples. 

In  recapitulating  the  sum  of  specific  human  peculiarities,  we 
find  that  the  general  question,  as  regards  the  psychological  basis 
upon  which  the  differences  between  man  and  the  animal  rest, 
consists  of  a  series  of  special  questions,  as  follows :  How  does 
it  come  to  pass,  that  man  gains  so  much  more  from  experience 
than  the  brute  ?  that  he  is  capable  of  giving  expression  to  his 
ideas  ?  that  he  has  the  sense  of  beauty  ?  that  he  looks  into 
and  cares  for  the  future  ?  and  that,  finally,  he  believes  that 
there  is  a  spiritual  world  beneath  the  material  world  ? 

The  last  of  these  questions  is  the  most  easily  answered. 
As  man  has  wishes,  pursues  certain  objects,  and  recognizes 
that  he  has  a  will  which  regulates  his  actions,  he  attributes 
all  this  to  external  nature,  whenever  he  is  hindered  by  it 
in  the  attainment  of  his  objects.  He  can  only  conceive  the 
course  of  nature  from  the  analogy  to  his  own  actions ;  so  that 
all  natural  phenomena  whose  powers  he  experiences,  are  con- 
sidered by  him  as  acting  and  willing  beings.  With  regard  to 
the  specific  peculiarity,  that  man  looks  into  and  cares  for  the 
future^  it  may  be  observed,  that  the  faculty  is  altogether  em- 
pirical, for  all  expectation  of  what  is  to  come  depends  on  the 
recollection  in  what  order  and  sequence  events  occurred  in 
the  past. 

To  what  extent  an  individual  is  capable  of  profiting  by 
experience,  chiefly  depends  on  the  correctness  with  which  he 
has  conceived  past  phenomena,  and  the  mode  in  which  he  com- 
pares them  with  present  circumstances.  Particular  circum- 
stances may  contribute  to  present  the  past  to  us  in  a  more  or 
less  vivid  light,  but  the  essential  conditions  always  remain, — 
the  mode  and  the  strength  of  the  original  conception.  We 
must  therefore  assume  that  there  is  an  original  difference 
between  man  and  the  brutes  in  the  mode  of  conception,  and 
consequent  recollection  of  external  phenomena. 

We  must  here  point  out  that  the  natural  requirements  of  man 
for  the  preservation  of  his  life  and  protection  against  the 
elements,  are  more  various  and  more  difficult  to  be  procured, 
and  require  greater  mental  efforts  than  those  of  animals,  and 


SECT.  I.]  DISTINCTIONS    OP    MAN   AND    BRUTE.  281 

that  consequently  he  is  driven  to  thousands  of  expedients  by 
which  he  is  both  taught  and  psychically  developed.  By  his 
upright  walk,  nature  seems  to  have  destined  him  to  take  a 
comprehensive  view  of  surrounding  objects;  whilst  the  pos- 
session of  "  the  instrument  of  instruments,"  as  Aristotle  calls 
the  human  hand,  equally  indicates  his  capacity  for  a  higher 
mental  development.1  All  these  are,  no  doubt,  important  at- 
tendant circumstances,  contributing  in  a  high  degree  to  the 
preservation  of  man's  capacity  to  learn  from  experience,  as 
compared  with  that  of  brutes ;  but  these  are  merely  subordinate, 
not  fundamental  conditions.  Little  would  it  avail  man  that 
his  wants  are  more  multifarious  than  those  of  brutes,  that 
nature  grants  him  less,  that  he  must  use  his  own  exertions, 
and  that  his  necessities  stimulate  him  to  use  his  senses  and  his 
natural  instruments,  if  he  were  not  enabled  to  do  so  by  his 
greater  powers  of  perception  and  recollection  of  individual 
phenomena  and  their  relations. 

That  there  exists  in  this  respect  a  very  great  difference  be- 
tween man  and  the  brute,  is  established  by  many  facts.  When 
in  a  state  of  liberty,  animals  appropriate  only  clear  conceptions 
of  the  few  things  relating  to  their  food  and  mode  of  life. 
Everything  else  passes  by  them  unnoticed,  though  they  pos* 
sess  equally  acute,  and  in  some  respects  stronger,  senses.  But 
all  their  senses  are  not  developed  in  an  equal  degree ;  thus  the 
sense  of  smell  is  more  developed,  the  selection  of  their  food 
being  chiefly  dependent  on  its  exercise.  Man,  on  the  other 
hand,  requires  all  his  senses  for  the  satisfying  of  his  wants ; 
hence,  not  one  of  them  acquires  such  a  predominance  as 
we  see  in  most  animals.  If  to  this  development  of  all  the 
senses  be  added,  a  better  memory  for  received  impressions,  a 
larger  basis  for  a  higher  psychical  development  becomes  mani- 
fest. Having  thus  disposed  of  one  great  distinctive  feature 
between  man  and  the  brute,  as  regards  his  capacity  to  profit 
by  experience,  we  shall  now  investigate  two  other  specific  cha- 
racters,— individualization,  and  the  power  of  speech. 

1  Buffon  maintains,  that  the  greater  intellect  of  some  men,  in  comparison 
with  others,  may  be  explained  from  the  more  extended  use  of  the  hands  made 
by  the  former  in  early  childhood. 


282  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

With  regard  to  the  power  of  speech,  we  have  already  indi- 
cated that  its  essential  psychological  condition — of  which 
alone  we  treat  in  this  place1 — consists  in  the  possession  of  an 
articulated  ideal  world,  of  such  a  nature,  that  single  con- 
ceptions corresponding  with  relatively  substantive  objects,  are 
kept  separate,  whilst  their  constantly  changing  relations  to 
each  other  are  clearly  distinguished  by  us.  But  the  fulfilment 
of  this  condition  depends  again  on  the  original  mode  of  con- 
ception of  things,  and  on  the  degree  of  distinctness  with  which 
what  has  been  conceived  is  again  reproduced.  If  the  percep- 
tion is  imperfect  and  one-sided,  the  conceptions,  which  can 
only  reproduce  the  perceptions,  are  equally  so ;  and  this  is  the 
reason  why  animals  are  incapable  of  speech.  They  are  not 
deficient  in  the  conception  of  individual  things  relating  to  their 
vital  necessities,  but  these  are  comparatively  few  in  number ; 
all  other  impressions  of  the  senses  produce  only  a  confused 
aggregate,  and  the  distinction  of  the  relation  of  individual  im- 
pressions cannot  be  accomplished.  In  man,  all  senses  are 
equally  called  upon  to  receive  impressions  from  the  external 
world;  he  thus  acquires  separate  conceptions  of  separate 
objects,  and  their  relations  to  each  other,  by  which  speech  be- 
comes possible. 

On  the  same  conditions,  but  more  intimately,  depends  the 
more  distinctive  individuality  by  which  man  is  separated 
from  the  brute.  Speech,  and  the  personal  relations  induced 
by  it,  influence  the  individualization  of  characters.  It  is  by 
means  of  language  that  individuals  enter  into  various  and  more 
intimate  relations  to  each  other;  the  experiences  which  they 
gather  in  their  intercourse  give  a  particular  impress  to  each 
individual,  varying  according  to  the  variety  of  his  connexion 
with  other  individuals  who  have  contributed  to  its  develop- 
ment. We  have  already  had  occasion  to  observe,  that  the 
language  of  a  people  testifies  to  the  degree  of  civilization,  and 
that  its  grammatical  structure  decisively  influences  the  psy- 
chical peculiarity ;  it  separates  the  national  characters  of  peoples, 
and  frequently  acts  upon  the  development  of  individuals. 

1  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe,  that  we  do  not  explain  here  the  origin 
of  language,  but  merely  the  psychological  condition  for  its  possibility. 


SECT.  I.]  DISTINCTIONS   OP   MAN   AND    BRUTE.  283 

This  enlarged  individualization  within  the  human  species,  rests 
upon  a  richer  vital  development,  founded  upon  a  peculiar  con- 
ception of  the  results  of  experience. 

There  is  only  one  specific  peculiarity  mentioned  by  us  which 
cannot  apparently  be  traced  to  the  same  foundation ;  namely, 
the  sense  of  the  beautiful,  so  that  man  does  not  remain  satis- 
fied with  merely  providing  for  his  physical  wants,  but  orna- 
ments his  body,  and  what  belongs  to  him  in  various  ways.  It 
may  be  that  such  attempts  are  not  made  where  an  individual 
lives  in  perfect  isolation,  that  they  are  founded  on  vanity  and 
desire  of  distinction  above  others ;  still,  the  problem  is  not 
solved  by  it.  The  impression  produced  on  the  mind  by  music 
belongs  to  this,  like  other  sensual  perceptions  which  do  not 
merely  supply  vital  necessaries.  The  agreeable  sensations  and 
pleasurable  feelings  of  which  animals  are  capable,  seem  to  be 
much  less  various,  and  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  gra- 
tification of  the  lower  senses  (smell  and  taste).  We  are  not 
far  wrong,  if  we  consider  this  limitation  to  the  gratification  of 
the  lower  senses  as  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  psychical 
inferiority  of  animals. 

When  we  consider  how  decisive,  for  the  mode  of  our  con- 
ceptions of  things  and  their  remembrance,  is  the  interest  we 
take  in  a  particular  object,  and  how  this  interest  determines 
the  degree  of  intensity  and  direction  of  our  attention,  we  must 
feel  inclined  to  trace  back  the  differences  existing  between  man 
and  animals,  in  their  original  modes  of  conception  and  the 
strength  of  memory,  to  an  original  difference  in  the  interest 
taken  by  different  creatures.  The  interest  in  an  object  is  pro- 
portional to  the  pleasurable  feeling  experienced  or  expected  from 
it.  In  man,  there  are  many  perceptions  of  the  higher  senses 
allied  to  such  pleasurable  feelings,  which  induce  him  to  pay 
greater  attention  to  their  development  and  impressions ;  whilst 
the  pleasurable  feelings  of  animals,  being  chiefly  limited  to  the 
gratification  of  the  lower  senses,  induces  a  defective  apprecia- 
tion of  things,  and  prevents  a  higher  intellectual  development. 
We  shall  not  attempt  here  to  decide  the  difficult  fundamental 
psychological  question,  whether  the  original  mode  of  concep- 
tion decides  the  form  of  psychological  life ;  as  the  differences 


284  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II. 

between  man  and  brute  only  concern  us  in  this  place,  it  may 
be  sufficient  to  have  shown  that  essential  differences  do  exist, 
which  influence  the  progressive  elevation  of  the  former,  and 
the  stationary  condition  of  the  latter. 


SECTION    II. 

PRIMITIVE    STATE    OF    MAN    (NATURAL    STATE). 

We  have  examined  the  specific  characters  of  humanity,  and 
traced  them  to  their  psychological  basis.  But  though  it  has 
been  shown  that  its  essential  characters  belong,  without  excep- 
tion, to  all  races,  it  has  been  left  undecided  whether  there  may 
not  be  special  peculiarities  which  must  be  regarded  as  specific 
differences  between  various  subdivisions  of  mankind. 

This  question  has  been  but  superficially  considered  by  op- 
posing parties.  On  one  side  we  hear  the  uncivilized  nations 
of  Africa,  America,  Australia,  etc.,  designated  by  the  stereo- 
typed expression,  " irreclaimable  savages";  and  on  the  other 
hand,  the  unity  of  mankind  and  the  origin  from  a  single  pair, 
is  deduced  from  the  fact,  that  all  nations  possess  languages  of 
a  certain  grammatical  structure,  that  all  possess  similar  notions 
of  supersensual  things,  and  religious  sentiments.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  these  great  psychological  facts  deserve  the  utmost 
consideration,  and  are  undervalued  by  the  opponents  of  the 
theory  of  the  unity  of  mankind.  We  agree,  therefore,  with 
Smyth  in  maintaining1  that  these  psychological  facts  are  as 
much  opposed  to  the  assumption  of  specific  differences,  as  the 
physical  phenomena  which  are  adduced  are  in  favour  of  that 
assumption.  But  in  all  this  the  doubt  yet  remains,  whether, 
within  the  chief  characters,  there  may  not  be  permanent  dif- 
ferences which  may  compel  us  to  divide  mankind  into  various 
species. 

To  solve  this  question,  we  shall  pursue  the  same  path  we  have 
hitherto  followed :  we  shall  examine  the  greatest  differences  in 

1  "  The  Unity  of  the  Human  Races/'  p.  249,  1850. 


SECT.  II.]  PRIMITIVE    STATE    OF    MAN.  285 

the  psychical  phenomena  of  mankind.  To  attain  this  object, 
we  must  first  of  all  direct  our  attention  to  the  primitive  or 
natural  state  of  man  from  two  points  of  view :  first,  whether 
we  find  man,  at  least  approximately,  in  a  natural  condition, 
and  in  what  condition  we  find  him. 

As  all  civilization  is  something  secondary,  and  is  only  de- 
veloped in  course  of  time,  it  is  clear  that  the  natural  (uncivilized) 
man  must,  wherever  we  find  him  and  whatever  may  be 
his  qualifications,  appear  so  dissimilar  to  us  as  regards  his 
psychical  life,  as  to  lead  us  to  assume  between  him  and  our- 
selves specific  differences  which  do  not  exist.  Again,  we  find 
so  great  a  difference  in  mental  development  between  the  civi- 
lized Europeans  and  the  so-called  savages  of  other  parts,  that 
we  are  inclined  to  attribute  it  to  a  radical  natural  difference. 
The  question  is,  whether  we  are  justified  in  coming  to  that 
conclusion,  or  whether  the  greatest  actual  differences  in  the 
development  of  psychical  life  are  only  the  result  of  a,  fluctuating 
difference  in  culture. 

The  period  when  man  first  appeared  on  this  globe,  and  was 
in  his  actual  primitive  or  natural  state,  cannot  be  determined. 
For  many  reasons  it  is  highly  probable  that  a  very  long  period 
of  time  must  have  elapsed  before  the  commencement  of  the 
historical  epoch.  Some  chronological  calculations  have  been 
deduced  from  geological  data.  The  period  which  has  elapsed 
between  the  present  time  and  that  of  the  coal  formation,  has, 
from  the  progressive  cooling  of  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
earth,  been  calculated  from  5-9,000,000  of  years.  From 
the  recession  of  the  falls  of  Niagara  (annually  from  one  to 
two  feet),  Lyell  concludes  that  the  formation  of  the  val- 
ley of  that  river,  which  is  more  recent  than  the  diluvial 
formation,  reaches  at  least  35,000  years  back.  Though  it 
cannot  be  proved  that  the  age  of  man  extends  beyond  the 
diluvial  formation,  there  is  still  less  reason  to  consider  him 
younger,  as  at  the  diluvial  period  all  essential  conditions  for 
the  existence  of  man  were  present,  and  since  that  period  no 
considerable  changes  have  occurred  on  the  surface  of  the  globe. 
It  seems,  therefore,  that  we  may  imagine  the  age  of  mankind 
to  reach  somewhere  between  the  rather  remote  limits  of  35,000 
and  9,000,000  of  years. 


286  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

There  is  another  circumstance,  namely,  that  man  has  no- 
where been  found  in  an  actual  primitive  state.  Everywhere  we 
find  him  in  possession  of  some  artificial  instruments,  generally 
of  war,  a  minimum  of  clothing,  etc.  But  in  all  these  things,  as 
well  as  in  their  mode  of  life,  savage  tribes  have  been  found  so 
stationary,  that  they  have  been  considered  incapable  of  pro- 
gress, and  yet  the  progress  they  have  actually  made  from  a 
primitive  state  is  already  considerable ;  for  it  is  just  these  pri- 
mary inventions,  seemingly  nowhere  absent,  which  are  the 
most  difficult,  and  require  a  long  time  before  they  are  accom- 
plished. To  those  especially,  who  assume  that  mankind  spread 
gradually  from  a  certain  spot  over  the  whole  globe,  the  period 
requisite  for  such  a  purpose  must  appear  a  very  long  one 
indeed ;  for  we  never  see  nations  voluntarily  leave  their  dwel- 
ling places,  unless  pressed  upon  by  natural  phenomena  or 
enemies.  Almost  all  migrations  proceed  very  slowly;  and 
hence  in  all  parts  of  the  earth,  the  peoples  who  had  occupied 
the  land  from  time  immemorial,  looked  upon  themselves  as 
natives  of  the  soil  they  inhabit.  Among  the  oldest  civilized 
nations  known  to  us,  the  Egyptians  for  instance,  their  in- 
ventions date  from  a  period  for  which  history  furnishes  us 
with  no  chronological  standard.  More  than  inventions  and 
migrations,  languages,  and  the  physical  peculiarities  of  the 
various  races,  indicate  the  great  antiquity  of  mankind.  It  is 
exceedingly  improbable  that  a  language  of  a  complicated  struc- 
ture should  have  issued  from  the  mouth  of  man  when  he  first 
appeared ;  it  approaches  to  a  psychological  impossibility.  The 
slowness  with  which  a  child  learns  to  speak  is  a  proof  of  it,  and 
yet  the  child  has  nothing  to  invent,  but  only  to  appropriate. 
Children  learn  the  grammatical  forms  very  gradually;  these 
forms  cannot  have  been  produced  at  once,  for  that  which  is 
expressed  by  them,  the  relations  of  individual  conceptions, 
cannot  have  at  once  been  present  to  man.  From  the  uncon- 
scious or  involuntary  basis  upon  which  language  no  doubt 
rests,  we  must  conclude  that  it  was  not  constructed  in  a  short 
time  or  sprung  into  life  at  once.  We  should  further  take  into 
consideration  the  great  lapse  of  time  which  the  branching  off 
and  substantive  development  of  individual  languages  derived 


SECT.  II.]  PRIMITIVE    STATE   OP   MAN.  287 

from  the  same  stock,  must  have  required.  The  break  up  of  an 
original  into  several  filial  languages  may  in  some  cases  have 
proceeded  more  or  less  rapidly ;  but  from  the  circumstance  that 
the  mass  of  radically  different  languages  is  so  large  compared 
with  the  probable  original  cradles  and  stocks  of  mankind,  we 
are  justified  in  assuming  the  age  of  mankind  upon  the  globe  to 
reach  back  for  a  long  series  of  thousands  of  years,  especially 
when  we  consider  that  language  is  only  propagated  by  tradi- 
tion from  generation  to  generation,  and  that  it  is  seldom  that 
great  changes  in  a  language  are  produced  within  a  short  lapse 
of  time.  What  has  just  been  stated  in  regard  to  language 
applies  also  to  physical  types,  which  everywhere  exhibit  a  high 
degree  of  fixity,  and  are  at  any  rate  only  changeable  within 
long  periods.  Whether  we  derive  the  intermediate  gradations 
between  the  extreme  types  from  long  continued  climatic  or 
other  influences,  or  from  intermixture  of  originally  and  essen- 
tially different  types,  everything  points  to  a  past  period  which 
cannot  be  measured  by  our  historical  standard. 

There  is,  then,  no  hope  of  finding  man  anywhere  in  an  actual 
primitive  or  natural  state.  Whence,  then,  are  we  to  derive  our 
notions  of  such  a  state  ?  To  this  question  three  answers  may 
be  given,  which  we  shall  have  to  examine  separately.  What 
man  is  by  nature  must  be  exhibited  by  the  human  child,  which 
proceeds  immediately  from  nature ;  we  must,  then,  empirically 
study  the  so-called  savages,  whose  state,  though  not  absolutely 
primitive,  more  or  less  approaches  it. 

There  is  much  to  be  said  against  judging  of  the  primitive  con- 
dition of  man  from  the  condition  of  infancy.  Infancy  is  a  rapidly 
passing  stage  of  development  of  the  individual,  with  which  we 
may,  perhaps,  compare  the  youthful  state  of  mankind,  but  can- 
not exactly  parallelize  it.  Deficiency  of  experience  and  of 
mental  development  are  common  to  both,  but  in  this  there 
prevail  so  many  differences,  that  for  our  object  very  little  can 
be  inferred.  We  need  only  be  reminded  that  the  primitive  man 
neither  possesses  the  undeveloped  physical  organization  of  the 
child,  which  renders  the  latter  so  helpless,  nor  is  he,  like  the 
child,  led  to  a  higher  development  by  example  and  imitation. 
Moreover,  the  child  is  already  born  with  the  peculiarities  be- 


288  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II. 

longing  to  his  stock,  and  possesses,  as  we  nave  already  seen, 
at  the  beginning  of  his  life,  certain  physical  and  psychical  cha- 
racters hereditarily  acquired,  which  prevent  us  from  considering 
him  as  the  representative  of  a  primitive  state.  From  this  it 
would  appear,  that  not  only  cannot  we  take  infancy  as  the 
standard  of  the  primitive  condition  of  mankind,  but  that  the 
latter  can  nowhere  be  found ;  and  it  is  folly  to  search  for  its 
characters,  partly  because  man  at  all  times  must  have  learned 
from  tradition  through  his  parents,  without  which  supposition 
we  cannot  think  of  him,  and  also  because  he  must  everywhere 
have  exhibited  the  typical  character  of  his  stock,  and  not 
merely  the  general  peculiarities  of  humanity. 

The  discussion  of  this  point  becomes  difficult  as  we  find  our- 
selves on  the  limits  of  our  experimental  knowledge.  Since  we 
cannot  obtain  from  science  any  clue  as  to  the  origin  of  man,  it 
must  remain  undecided  whether  there  ever  have  been  men  who 
have  grown  up  without  any  traditional  instruction  from  others, 
and  whether  they  have  not  at  all  times  possessed,  besides  the 
general  characters  of  humanity,  also  certain  separate  peculiari- 
ties of  stock.  But  all  these  doubts  are,  for  our  question,  only 
of  subordinate  interest.  We  might  even  admit  that  the  "  na- 
tural man"  is  a  mere  fiction,  and  has  never  anywhere  existed 
in  reality,  like  a  circle  or  an  ellipse  in  a  geometrical  sense,  and 
which,  like  all  abstract  notions,  possess  an  individual  existence, 
without  at  all  impairing  their  value  in  a  scientific  investigation. 
We  wish  here  to  obtain  a  clear  idea  how  we  must  think  of  man 
as  he  was  before,  and  independent  of,  all  cultivation,  and  it  is  for 
this  object  quite  indifferent  whether  there  have  ever  been  indi- 
viduals perfectly  corresponding  to  that  state  which  we  term  the 
natural  state.  That  man  at  his  first  appearance  upon  the  earth, 
and  immediately  after  it,  must  have  approximated  to  that  state 
seems  pretty  evident  from  the  absence  of  cultivation,  which  we 
were  obliged  to  assume. 

From  what  has  been  stated,  it  is  clear  that  this  primitive 
state  is  neither  represented  in  children,  nor  in  those  individuals 
who,  born  of  civilized  parents,  have  grown  up  in  an  isolated 
state  in  forests,  and  have  been  found  again  in  an  adult 
age.  Such  persons  have  formerly  been  described  as  real  na- 


SECT.  II.]  PRIMITIVE    STATE   OP   MAN.  289 

tural  men,  though  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  were  only 
degenerated. 

What  man  is  when  divested  of  all  cultivation,  is  a  question 
which  has  been  frequently  asked  and  differently  answered.  It 
is  difficult  to  realize  this  abstraction,  but  much  easier  to  con- 
vince ourselves  that  it  does  not  lead  to  an  idea  of  a  paradisiacal 
state  of  innocence  and  bliss,  the  result  of  uncorrupted  human 
nature  founded  upon  a  happy  harmony  of  slender  knowledge, 
few  desires,  and  the  absence  of  all  passions.  There  is  no  doubt 
the  natural  man  does  not  possess  the  refined  concealed  vices  of 
a  corrupt  society,  from  the  sight  of  which  Rousseau's  sickly 
imagination  shrunk,  and  caused  him  to  indulge  in  a  dream  of 
the  original  goodness  and  purity  of  mankind;  but  what  he 
certainly  does  possess  are  the  ugly  features  of  external  and  in- 
ternal crudity,  the  necessary  attendants  on  an  entire  absence 
of  intellectual  and  moral  culture. 

On  imagining  man  deprived  of  everything  which  is  the 
effect  of  cultivation,  he  represents  merely  the  product  of  the 
power  which  called  him  into  life,  resembling  an  individual  of 
perfectly  neglected  education,  upon  whom  experience,  in- 
struction, or  example  have  exercised  no  influence,  and  who 
consequently  is  inclined  neither  to  good  nor  evil,  having  not 
yet  learned  to  distinguish  between  them.  The  first  thing  which 
would  strike  us  as  characteristic,  would  be  his  perfect  depend- 
ence on  surrounding  media,  his  whole  inner  life  would  be  their 
product.  The  primitive  man  first  becomes  that  which  the  cir- 
cumstances in  which  he  is  placed  make  of  him.  The  aliment 
afforded  him  by  nature,  the  mode  by  which  he  can  obtain  it, 
the  protection  he  requires  against  external  agents,  the  inven- 
tions requisite  to  supply  his  wants, — all  are  taught  by  nature 
which  surrounds  him,  and  which  thus  determines  his  mode  of 
life.  The  instruments  he  makes,  the  skill  he  acquires,  the  mag- 
nitude of  the  efforts  requisite  to  attain  his  objects,  and  the 
degree  of  development  of  his  psychical  activity,  will  at  the  out- 
set mainly  depend  on  the  external  media  in  which  he  is  placed. 
No  sooner,  however,  has  he  supplied  his  pressing  necessities, 
than  his  physical  and  mental  efforts  cease. 

This  latter  circumstance  is  a  highly  important  point,  ex- 


290  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II. 

hibiting  a  chief  feature  in  the  character  of  the  uncultured  man 
— his  remarkable  indolence.  The  cause  is  not  exactly  that,,  in 
the  natural  state,  man  is  forced  to  make  great  efforts  to  support 
himself,  so  that  rest  affords  great  enjoyment.  The  true  cause  we 
apprehend  to  be  that  man  by  nature  shuns  every  kind  of 
labour ;  that  he  undertakes  none  which  is  not  absolutely  re- 
quisite for  his  well  being.  Though  his  indolence  may  have 
brought  him  to  want,  notwithstanding  his  experience  may  have 
enabled  him  to  foresee  his  fate,  he  concerns  himself  little  about 
the  future,  but  he  hopes  for  the  best.  Indolence  and  thought- 
lessness, in  an  incredible  degree,  are  characteristic  of  perfectly 
uneducated  human  beings,  and  it  requires  but  little  knowledge 
of  the  lower  classes,  even  in  Europe,  to  perceive  that  indolence 
is  enjoyment  to  man  in  the  natural  state,  and  not  merely  in 
consequence  of  moral  degeneracy.  If  we  could  for  a  short  time 
remove  the  motives  of  vanity  and  ambition  from  the  civilized 
world,  even  he  who  has  the  most  lofty  ideas  of  human  nature, 
would  soon  find  that  indolence  is  the  ideal  of  most  people. 

It  is  nothing  but  poetical  fancy  which  endows  the  primitive 
man  with  a  desire  for  intellectual  progress ;  the  habit  of 
indolence  induces  him  to  remain  in  his  actual  condition. 
He  never  from  internal  impulse  and  without  any  external 
agency,  desires  to  become  civilized,  just  as  the  lower  classes  in 
Europe  abandoned  to  themselves  desire  nothing  of  the  kind  so 
long  as  their  material  interests  are  not  suffering ;  and  yet  they 
have  before  their  eyes  the  results  of  a  higher  civilization  :  hence 
the  comparatively  slow  progress  of  humanity.  "  The  world 
would  look  quite  different,"  observed  Hume,  ' '  if  man  possessed 
by  nature  a  little  more  love  for  useful  activity ;  for  his  indolence 
seems  to  keep  him  fixed  for  a  long  time  at  every  stage  of  his 
development." 

Peyroux  de  la  Coudreniere1  appears  to  have  been  the 
first  to  promulgate  the  theory  that  the  white  race  alone  is 
psychically  active,  and  possesses  by  nature  that  peculiar  desire 
of  knowledge  which  Aristotle  ascribed  to  man  generally, 
and  that  consequently  all  higher  culture  of  other  races  can 

1  "  Mem.  sur  les  sept  especcs  d' Homines,"  Paris,  1814. 


SECT.  II.]  PRIMITIVE    STATE    OP    MAN.  291 

only  be  explained  by  its  being  communicated  to  them  by  the 
white  race.  He  found  many  disciples,  among  whom,  in  Ger- 
many, we  would  mention  Klemm1  and  Wuttke,2  who  assume 
permanent  differences  between  active  and  passive  human  races.3 
A  closer  examination  of  the  peculiarities  of  mankind  renders 
such  a  division  very  doubtful. 

However  much  we  may  be  inclined,  at  the  first  glance,  to 
lament  that  man  in  a  state  of  nature  exhibits  at  every  stage 
such  inertness  and  disinclination  for  progress,  our  judgment 
undergoes  a  material  change  on  a  closer  investigation.  It  is 
just  in  proportion  as  the  higher  desires  are  absent,  that  the 
gratification  of  the  lower  propensities  becomes  possible,  and 
the  simplicity  and  small  extent  of  the  conditions  upon  which 
the  contentment  of  man  in  a  primitive  state  depends,  render 
his  life  enjoyable.  His  inner  life,  it  is  true,  moves  in  a  very 
limited  circle ;  but  it  is  undisturbed  by  that  feverish  desire  for 
an  improvement  of  his  condition  which  torments  the  more 
developed  man.  The  inner  contest  in  man  arises  chiefly  from 
his  desire  after  a  higher  development;  it  only  becomes  pos- 
sible with  the  growth  of  higher  desires  which  are  not  easily 
satisfied.  Thus  far  it  is  true  to  designate  the  progress  to  civi- 
lization as  the  source  of  mental  distress ;  but  we  must  not  con- 
clude from  it  that  the  natural  state  of  man  is  the  ideal  of  Para- 
dise, the  loss  of  which  we  have  to  lament;  for  it  is  only  in 
proportion  as  man  is  removed  from  the  primitive  state  that  his 
physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  development  is  accomplished. 

Besides  these  two  chief  characters  of  the  primitive  man, — 
his  perfect  dependence  on  external  media,  and  his  indolence, — 
there  is  another  feature,  the  licentiousness  of  his  egotistical 
desires,  and  the  absence  of  steadiness  and  plan  in  all  his 
actions.  Restraint  and  self-control  are  nowhere  engrafted 
upon  man  by  nature;  they  must  be  learned,  and  are  but 
slowly  acquired.  This  is  shown  in  the  intercourse  with 
others,  even  as  we  see  it  in  children  and  persons  brought  up 


"AUge.  Culturgesch." 

2  "  Gesch.  des  Heidenthums." 

3  In  a  similar  sense,  Carus  distinguishes  night,  day,  and  dawn  men  (Ne- 
groes, Europeans,  Mongols,  and  Americans). 

u2 


292  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II. 

without  any  control.  Endeavouring  to  subject  others  when- 
ever they  come  in  conflict  with  his  own  interest,  every  indi- 
vidual leads  originally  an  isolated  life.  However  repulsive 
these  characteristic  features  of  the  primitive  man  may  be,  they 
are  not  manifestations  of  malignity,  but  as  in  the  child  and  the 
perfectly  uneducated  the  result  of  capricious  desires.  The 
absence  of  steadiness  in  the  pursuit  of  a  certain  object,  the 
action  from  sudden  impulses,  render  the  uncultivated  savage 
unintelligible  to  the  civilized  man,  so  that  he  judges  him  in  a 
variety  of  ways. 

If  the  correctness  of  the  preceding  characteristic  of  the  pri- 
mitive man  be  admitted,  then  we  are  justified  in  designating 
the  majority  of  the  uncultivated  nations  of  the  globe  as  primitive 
peoples  (Naturvolker — peoples  in  a  state  of  nature),  because 
though  not  exactly  in  a  primitive  or  natural  state,  they  still 
occupy  a  scale  of  development  which  pretty  nearly  approaches 
it ;  for  all  the  peculiarities  which  we  attributed  to  the  primitive 
man  are  found  among  them,  and  all  agree  in  this  respect.  To 
consider,  on  the  other  hand,  all  uncultivated  nations  as  dege- 
nerate, as  fallen  from  a  previous  elevation,  would  be  to  assume 
that  culture  was  the  primitive,  and  barbarism  the  secondary 
state  of  man. 

We  shall  now  compare  the  more  prominent  empirical  in- 
formation we  possess  of  uncultivated  nations,  in  order  to  see 
whether  our  characteristics  of  the  natural  state  of  man  be 
correct. 

The  inhabitant  of  the  north  does  not  emigrate  to  the  south 
to  improve  his  condition,  nor  does  the  inhabitant  of  the  south 
desire  to  exchange  his  climate  for  a  more  favourable  one.  In 
spite  of  the  many  diseases  to  which,  for  instance,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Darfur  are  subject,  they  love  their  country,  have  no 
wish  to  emigrate,  but  desire  to  return  when  they  have  left 
it.1  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  this  attachment  to  their 
native  country,  even  among  nomadic  nations,  may  partly  arise 
from  their  ignorance  that  there  are  finer  climates,  more  abound- 
ing in  natural  products.  This  is  not  always  the  case.  With 

1  Moliainined-el-Tounsy,  "  Voy.  au  Darfour,"  p.  296,  Paris,  1845. 


SECT.  II.]  UNCULTURED  PEOPLES.  293 

all  the  misery  a  people  may  endure,  it  generally  considers  its 
own  country  as  the  best  in  the  world,  and  its  manners  and  cus- 
toms as  the  most  preferable.  Cavazzi1  gives  a  graphic  descrip- 
tion of  the  Congo-negroes,  who,  after  having  emigrated,  return 
like  the  Kru-negroes  to  their  native  country,  there  to  enjoy 
what  they  may  have  acquired.  This  sentiment  seems  general 
among  negro  nations ;  and  especially  in  such  parts  of  Ame- 
rica as  are  visited  by  Europeans,  the  natives  have  the  firm 
belief  that  the  Whites  have  only  left  their  homes  in  search  for 
happier  climates.  We  are,  indeed,  told  of  an  Abiponian  who 
worked  hard  for  his  passage  to  Buenos  Ayres  in  order  to  gra- 
tify his  desire  of  seeing  the  world.2  Du  Pratz3  also  speaks  of 
a  native  whom  a  similar  desire  drove  into  the  world ;  but  such 
cases  form  rare  exceptions.  From  the  inhabitant  of  Tierra  del 
Fuego  to  the  Hottentot,  man  in  the  natural  state  remains  con- 
tent with  his  lot  though  living  in  the  greatest  misery,  while  it 
is  difficult  to  find  among  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe  one 
people  which  is  similarly  contented.  Hence  the  following  ex- 
pression of  an  experienced  man  becomes  intelligible  :  "  There 
are  positions  in  which  a  thinking  man  feels  himself  inferior  to 
a  child  of  nature,  in  which  he  begins  to  doubt  whether  his  firm 
convictions  are  little  better  than  high  sounding  prejudices."4 
This  at  any  rate  is  certain,  that  every  race,  as  Strzelecki  ob- 
serves,5 has  its  own  ideas  of  happiness  :  the  restless  striving  of 
the  civilized  man  appears  to  the  uncultivated  man  as  childish, 
whilst  the  enjoyment  of  an  apathetic  rest — the  ideal  of  the 
latter — would  be  extremely  irksome  to  the  former. 

The  principal  motives  for  action  among  uncultivated  nations 
may  be  reduced  to  three  :  physical  well-being,  chiefly  directed 
to  the  gratification  of  the  appetites,  sexual  enjoyment,  and  in- 
dolence, in  consequence  of  a  reluctance  to  every  kind  of  labour ; 
social  enjoyment,  effected  partly  by  subjecting  the  members  of 
family  to  the  will  of  one  man,  and  partly  by  obtaining  greater 
power  over  others;  and,  thirdly,  habit,  the  power  of  which 

1  "  Beschr.  v.  Congo,  Matamba,  und  Angola,"  p.  76,  1694. 

2  J.  P.  and  W.  P.  Robertson,  "  Letters  on  South  America,"  iii,  p.  186, 1843. 

3  "  Hist,  de  la  Louisiane,"  1758. 

4  Cowper  Eose,  "  Four  Years  in  Southern  Africa,"  p.  173,  1829. 

5  "  Description  of  New  South  Wales,"  p.  343. 


294  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PAET    II. 

influences  all  actions,  and  to  a  great  extent  perpetuates  physical 
and  moral  misery.  Some  are  inclined  to  add  a  fourth  motive 
which  actuates  the  uncultivated  man — the  superstition  peculiar 
to  an  eudaemonistic  religion ;  but  this  group  of  efficient  motives 
belongs  to  the  first  class  ;  for  it  is  clear  that  his  physical  well- 
being  alone  influences  his  religious  ideas,  and  secures  their 
power  over  him. 

The  external  life  of  uncultivated  nations  does  not  admit  of  a 
description  common  to  all,  being  different  according  to  the 
different  circumstances  producing  it.  Some  of  them  are 
hunters,  others  fishers,  root  diggers,  berry  collectors,  or  they 
carry  on  these  occupations  alternately  according  to  the  seasons. 
Dress,  habitation,  domestic  furniture,  arms,  and  the  arts  whicli 
they  exercise,  all  depend  on  their  modes  of  life  j  but  with 
regard  to  their  inner  life,  we  find  among  them  everywhere  a 
remarkable  uniformity.  There  have  been  frequently  assumed, 
says  Hugh  Murray,1  far  greater  diversities  in  the  degrees  of 
cultivation  among  uncivilized  nations  than  really  exist;  per- 
manent differences  have  been  described  which  are  unimportant, 
or  do  not  exist  at  all. 

The  individual  character  among  uncivilized  nations  is  not 
so  decided  as  among  the  cultivated.  Want  of  self-control, 
improvidence,  intemperance,  indolence  combined  with  perse- 
verance in  the  pursuit  after  actual  necessaries,  and  ornament- 
ation of  the  person,  are  general  characters. 

Gluttony,  drunkenness,  and  sexual  excesses,  are  the  most 
generally  spread  vices.  Next  to  licentious  festivities,  savage 
passion  is  displayed  in  the  chase.  When  there  is  abun- 
ance  of  game,  the  hunter  exhibits,  like  a  soldier  in  battle, 
the  greatest  rage ;  he  finds  delight  in  killing  and  de- 
stroying the  game  indiscriminately  and  uselessly.  Hence 
hunting  tribes  require  a  great  space,  and  are  frequently  in 
want,  as  they  do  not  economize  their  provisions.  The  hun- 
dredth part  of  the  game  killed  by  the  Zulus,  observes  Dele- 
gorgue,2  would  have  been  more  than  sufficient  for  him  and 
all  his  companions.  There  are  peoples  who  suffer  annu- 

1  "Enquiries  respecting  the  Characters  of  Nations/'  Edinb.,  1808. 

2  Vol.  i,  p.  430. 


SECT.  II.]  CHAEACTERISTICS. MARRIAGE.  295 

ally  from  famine,  and  nevertheless  neglect  to  lay  in  provisions 
or  to  cultivate  the  soil  for  their  support.  A  characteristic  trait 
proving  utter  carelessness  for  the  future  is  mentioned  by 
Labat,1  namely,  that  the  Caribs  sell  their  hammocks  cheaper  in 
the  morning  than  in  the  evening.  The  great  indolence  and 
thoughtlessness  which  renders  uncivilized  nations  so  disin- 
clined to  improve  their  miserable  condition,  has  led  to  the  con- 
clusion, that  they  are  utterly  incapable  of  effecting  anything 
which  requires  industry  and  perseverance.  That  such  a  conclu- 
sion is  unwarrantable  is  proved  by  the  surprising  patience 
which  they  evince  in  manufacturing  their  furniture  and  dress 
with  the  simplest  tools.  As  instances,  may  be  mentioned  that 
the  Indians  of  Peru  sometimes  spend  two  years  in  weaving  a 
blanket,2  and  devote  five  to  six  hours  to  paint  their  bodies. 
The  Bosjesmen  are  especially  distinguished  by  their  perseve- 
rance, when  once  they  are  roused  from  their  lethargy.  ' '  Nothing 
can  induce  them  to  leave  the  track  of  game,  nor  will  any  diffi- 
culty deter  them  from  an  enterprise  once  resolved  upon/'3 
Such  firmness  of  purpose  is,  however,  rare  among  uncultivated 
nations,  as  they  are  commonly  very  changeable  in  disposition. 
Without  being  absolutely  malignant  and  treacherous,  uncul- 
tured peoples  soon  become  faithless,  crafty,  and  deceitful, 
especially  when  they  feel  themselves  secure ;  and  this  not  so 
much  from  self-interest,  as  from  a  momentary  impulse,  which 
irresistibly  leads  them  to  gratify  their  desires.  That  this  is 
taking  a  just  view  is  proved  by  many  examples  in  which  rob- 
beries and  assassination  by  savages  have  been  prevented  by 
changing  their  current  of  thought  in  drawing  attention  to 
some  artificial  trick,  or  by  some  other  entertainment.  If 
Dentrecasteaux  (1792),  and  other  writers  of  that  period, 
describe  uncultivated  nations,  e.  g.,  the  inhabitants  of  Van 
Diemen's  land,  as  peaceable  children  of  nature,  it  is  partly 
owing  to  the  then  prevailing  opinion  that  all  corruption  belongs 
to  the  civilized  state,  partly,  it  may  be  owing  to  the  circum- 
stance that  some  navigators  treated  the  aborigines  kindly, 

1  "  Nouv.  Voy.  aux  Isles  de  1' Am.,"  i,  pp.  2,  18,  1724. 

2  Ulloa,  "  Voy.  historique,"  p.  336,  Amst.,  1752. 

3  Lichtenstein,  "  Eeise  im  Siidl.  Afr.,"  ii,  p.  319,  1811. 


296  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

made  them  many  gifts,  and  met  with  kindness  in  return.1  In 
modern  times,  however,  the  above  view  as  regards  uncivilized 
nations  has  undergone  a  great  change,  many  writers  now  con- 
sidering man  in  a  state  of  nature  little  better  than  the  ape ;  and 
it  would  be  difficult  to  decide  which  of  these  views  is  the 
most  erroneous. 

Taking  into  consideration  the  characteristic  qualities  of  un- 
civilized nations,  we  must  be  prepared  to  find  great  abnormities 
in  moral  respects,  not  merely  in  individual  actions  but  in  the 
fixed  habits  of  life.  There  is  no  doubt  that  cannibalism,  in- 
fanticide, and  similar  deeds,  have  been  and  are  still  practised 
without  any  consciousness  of  their  criminality.  Though  it 
may  originally  have  been  either  revenge  or  misery  which  led  to 
cannibalism, — as  related  of  the  Zulu  people  of  Immithlanga 
(Intlangwein),  that  famine  first  drove  them  to  eat  their  own 
children,  since  which  time  they  commenced  regularly  to  devour 
their  prisoners  of  war,2 — anthropophagy  in  time  became  a 
habit. 

In  like  manner  may  be  explained  the  many  instances  of 
moral  degradation  exhibited  by  uncivilized  peoples.  The 
principle  of  revenge  seems  to  be  universal  among  them. 
Blood  for  blood  is  a  strict  duty,  and  a  ransom  paid  by  the 
murderer  to  the  nearest  kinsman  is  only  accepted  where  pro- 
perty has  acquired  a  higher  value,  and  where  wealth  gives 
power.  "  The  most  sacred  duty  of  the  Australian  is  to  avenge 
the  death  of  his  nearest  relation ;  until  he  has  accomplished 
this  he  is  mocked  by  the  old  women — his  wives,  if  he  be 
married,  would  soon  leave  him.  If  unmarried,  no  girl  speaks 
to  him ;  his  own  mother  would  constantly  cry  and  lament  at 
having  given  birth  to  so  degenerate  a  son ;  his  father  would 
treat  him  with  contempt."3  It  is  well  known  that  similar 
views  exist  among  the  natives  of  North  America.  "There 
seems  to  be  a  complete  absence  of  moral  sentiment  among  the 

1  Latterly  this  view  has  been  abandoned,  and  only  a  faint  echo  of  it  ap- 
pears in  Schomburgk's  statement  ("  Eeise  in  British  Guiana/'  ii,  p.  240, 1847), 
that  the  feelings  for  morality  and  virtue  are  nicer  among  Indians  than 
among  ourselves. 

2  Gardiner,  "Narrative  of  a  journey  to  the  Zulu  country,"  p.  185,  1836. 

3  Grey,  "  Journals  of  two  Expeditions  in  Australia,"  ii,  p.  240,  1840. 


?T.  II.]          POLYGAMY. POLYANDKY.  297 

3groes  of  East  Sudan,  who  not  merely  excuse  theft,  murder, 
id  treachery,  but  consider  these  actions  as  praiseworthy  in 
man.  They  first  learned  under  the  Turkish  rule  to  distinguish 
murder  frpm  justifiable  homicide  in  war.  Lying  and  deceit- 
fulness  are  considered  as  marks  of  mental  superiority,  and  those 
who  suffer  death  on  the  gallows  are  buried  with  the  same 
honours  as  the  rich  merchant  or  the  Sheik."1  It  is,  however, 
a  remarkable  fact,  showing  that  there  is  a  natural  moral  feeling 
among  even  the  rudest  nations,  that,  e.  g.,  the  Australians  in 
the  region  of  Port  Essington,  when  they  are  detected  as  thieves, 
offer  no  resistance  f  and  that  in  the  Sandwich  Islands  the 
discovered  thief  returns  the  stolen  property  without  reluctance.3 
We  must  now  turn  to  the  social  relations  of  uncultivated 
peoples.  In  marriage  and  family  life  we  find  two  characteristic 
features — the  enslaved  state  of  woman  as  the  weaker  being,  and 
polygamy.  The  male  is  independent,  as  he  has  to  defend  and 
support  his  family.  The  female  is  despised  and  considered  as 
merchandise.  How  little  chastity  is  esteemed  is  evinced  by 
the  language  of  the  Bosjesmen  not  distinguishing  girl  from 
wife.4  In  the  north  of  Peru  a  girl  is  more  courted  if  she  has 
had  many  lovers  before  marriage,5  which  is  also  the  case  in 
Wydah.6  Sexual  excesses  committed  by  girls  before  marriage 
are  of  little  importance;  continence  is  only  required  of  married 
women.  It  has  even  been  asserted  that  chastity  among  Negroes 
only  means  that  pregnant  and  menstruating  women  should  ab- 
stain from  illicit  intercourse.7  Of  the  absence  of  romantic  love 
there  can  under  such  circumstances  be  no  question,  although 
it  may  not  be  entirely  wanting  among  some  uncultivated  nations. 
Generally  speaking  there  prevails,  in  consequence  of  early  gra- 
tification of  the  sexual  passion,  an  unaffected  and  passionless  re- 
lation between  the  sexes,  which  must  not,  as  Delegorgue  has 
suggested,  be  attributed  to  a  greater  natural  gentleness  of  un- 


1  Brehm,  "  Reise-skizzen  aus  Nordost-Afrika,"  i,  162,  175,  1855. 

2  Jukes,  "  Narrative  of  the  surveying  voy.,  of  H.M.S.  Fly/'  i,  p.  354,  1847. 
»  Wilson,  "  Missionsreise  in  das  stille  Meer,"  Mag.  v.  Eeiseb.,  xxi,  p.  291. 

4  Liechtenstein,  i,  p.  192. 

5  Ulloa,  "  Voy.  de  1'Am.  merid.,"  i,  pp.  343,  1752. 

6  Des  Marchais,  "Voyage  en  Guinee,"  Amsterdam,  1731. 

7  Smith,  "Trade  and  Travels  in  the  Gulph  of  Guinea,"  p.  249,  1851. 


298  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II. 

cultured    nations    in    comparison   with   that    of    the    civilized 
European. 

The  woman  belongs  to  the  man  who  has  purchased  her  from 
her  parents ;  he  can  therefore  discard,  lend,  exchange,  or  sell 
her.  The  power  of  the  husband  over  his  wife  seems  to  be 
greatest  on  the  Fiji  Islands,  where  the  women  among  the 
common  people  are  not  merely  articles  of  commerce,  but  are 
frequently  killed  and  eaten  by  their  husbands  without  their 
being  punished  for  it.1  The  wives  of  the  father  sometimes 
pass  to  the  son  as  an  inheritance.  The  wife  only,  not  the 
husband,  can  commit  adultery.  Polyandry,  though,  as  Wuttke 
observes,2  opposed  to  the  notions  of  uncultured  peoples  about 
marriage,  is  not  only  cogitable  as  a  matter  of  necessity,  but  is 
also  practised  from  political  or  religious  motives.3  Polygamy, 
on  the  other  hand,  proceeds  from  the  estimation  of  the  female  sex 
among  uncultured  peoples,  and  can  scarcely  have  been  the  con- 
sequence of  the  overplus  of  females  caused  by  war ;  though  it 
may  be  admitted  that  a  greater  mortality  of  the  males,  as  for  in- 
stance, is  caused  in  Greenland  by  a  dangerous  and  noxious  mode 
of  life,5  may  have  contributed  to  establish  the  custom.  It  is 
chiefly  the  result  of  woman  being  considered  as  property  and  a 
beast  of  burden  capable  of  being  applied  to  useful  labour.  An- 
other circumstance  which  leads  to  polygamy  is  the  early  fading 
of  woman  (in  the  Bast  Indies  girls  marry  at  the  age  of  twelve, 
and  are  old  between  twenty-five  and  thirty),  whether  it  be  in 
consequence  of  the  climate,  or  of  being  overworked.  Among 
some  African  nations  women  are  considered  unclean  during  the 
whole  period  of  lactation,  during  which  all  intercourse  with 
the  other  sex  is  strictly  forbidden.  It  has  been  asserted  that 

1  Wilkes,  iii,  p.  192. 

2  "  G-eschichte  der  Heidenthums,"  i,  p.  184. 

3  Dessalles'  description  ("  Hist,  gen  des  Antilles/'  i,  p.  197,  1847)  of  poly- 
gamy and  polyandry  among  the  Caribs  in  the  West  India  Islands,  is  unre- 
liable.    Polyandry,  however,  is  found  as  a  permanent  custom  among  the 
Avanoes  and  Maypures  in  South  America  (Huniboldt  and  Bonpland,  "  Eeise," 
iv,  p.  477)  ;  also  in  Ladakh,  in  the  highland  of  Thibet,  in  the  alpine  state  of 
Sirmore,  although  the  inhabitants  of  the  latter  region  seem  to  be  Hindoos 
(Bitter,  "Erdk.,"  iii,  pp.  623,  752,  880).     The  arrangement  is,  that  several 
brothers  have  but  one  wife  between  them.     In  Ladakh,  the  eldest  brother 
must  support  the  children.     One  ground  of  the  custom  may  be,  that  the  sup- 
port of  a  wife  is  expensive. 

4  Cranz,  i,  p.  218. 


\  II.]  SENSE    OF    SHAME.  299 

iere  polygamy  exists  conjugal  fidelity  is  very  lax.     This  is 

ly  true  so  far,  that  it  chiefly  exists  among  uncultivated  or 
f-civilized  nations;  but  it  can  scarcely  be  said  that  polygamy, as 

jh,  favours  licentiousness.  That  polygamy  frequently  causes 
sensions  among  the  women  and  disturbs  domestic  peace 
be  true,  but  is  far  from  being  so  general  as  asserted, 
long  the  Zulu  and  other  Kaffir  tribes  (by  no  means  the  only 
iples)  there  prevails  no  jealousy  among  the  women:  the 

$t  wife  tries  to  gain  so  much  as  to  enable  her  husband  to 

irchase  a  second  and  a  younger  wife.  Her  authority  is  then 
increased  and  her  labour  lightened.  The  women,  in  fact,  pre- 
fer polygamy  to  monogamy,  as  the  love  for  their  husbands  is, 
from  being  purchased,  rarely  a  personal  affection.1 

It  seems,  thus,  that  polygamy  is  not  so  generally  injurious 
to  family  peace  as  is  frequently  assumed.  Its  social  danger 
lies  in  this,  that,  supposing  the  sexes  equal  in  number,  there 
must  be  left  a  great  many  men  unmarried,  which  may  give 
rise  to  other  vicious  habits. 

It  can  scarcely  have  been  a  feeling  of  shame  which  originally 
induced  man  to  cover  his  nakedness.  The  New  Zealander 
covers  his  body  merely  to  protect  himself  from  the  cold,  and  by 
no  means  to  conceal  his  person.3  Just  as  the  half- civilized 
Guanches  were  quite  naked,  not  on  all,  but  on  some  of  the 
Canaiy  Islands,  so  the  Puris  are  to  this  day,  men  and  women ; 
also  the  Patachos,  Botocudes,  etc.3  This  is  also  found  to  be 
the  case  upon  a  small  island  near  Apollonia ;  only  when  they  go 
on  a  journey  they  cover  themselves,  and  then  scantily.4  Especially 
where  business  requires  it,  there  is  not  the  least  reluctance  to 
expose  the  person.  Caillie5  saw  in  Bambarra,  laundresses  walk 
about  quite  naked  before  strangers.  It  is  therefore  surprising 
that  the  laws  of  the  Susus  (Mandingo  people)  condemn  him  to 
slavery  who  looks  at  women  bathing,6  whilst  in  Yucatan  both 

1  Steedinan,  "  Wanderings  and  Adventures  in  South  Africa/'  i,  p.  240, 1835; 
Delegorgue,  i,  p.  154 ;  ii,  p.  231. 

2  Crozet,  "  Reise  durch  d.  Siidsee,"  p.  70,  Leipz.,  1783. 

3  Prinz  Max,  zu  "  Wied  R.  nach  Brasil,"  i,  pp.  136,  286,  333,  1820. 

4  Boudyk,  "  Voyage  a  la  cote  de  Guinee,"  p.  158,  1853. 

5  "  Voyage  a  Temboctu,"  ii,  p.  115,  1833. 
fi  E.  Clarke,  "  Sierra  Leone,"  p.  33, 1846. 


: 

f 


300  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

sexes  bathe  together.1  Some  Indians  on  the  Orinoco,  where 
both  sexes  go  about  naked,  were  at  first  ashamed  to  wear 
clothes,3  as  it  seemed  to  them  indecent  to  appear  before 
strangers  unpainted.3 

The  original  motives,  however,  of  painting  and  tattooing  the 
body  could  hardly  have  been  to  cover  nakedness  from  a  feeling  o 
shame ;  the  former  was  resorted  to  for  ornamentation,  the  latter 
to  mark  the  tribe  or  the  family.  The  disinclination  to  wear 
clothes  is  pretty  general  among  uncivilized  nations.  The  feeling 
of  shame,  if  it  exist,  extends  only  to  the  presence  of  strangers, 
particularly  Europeans  ;  it  is  only  before  them  that  the  women 
of  Timor  veil  the  bosom,  and  the  Indian  women  of  Brazil  wear 
a  cest.4  This  applies  also  to  the  Australian.5  If  dress  were  the 
result  of  a  feeling  of  shame,  we  should  expect  it  to  be  more  in- 
dispensable to  woman  than  to  man,  which  is  not  the  case. 
Among  many  African  tribes  the  males  only  cover  the  body.6 
Among  some  of  these  tribes  married  women  go  about  naked, 
but  not  unmarried  girls.7  In  Australia,  also,  girls  before 
marriage  wear  an  apron,  which  is  laid  aside  afterwards.8 
Among  the  Gruanches  the  reverse  takes  place.9  The  latter 
custom  arises  generally  from  a  better  moral  tone,  the  dress  of 
girls  being  used  as  a  mere  stimulant.  In  Akra  the  girls,  as 
distinguished  from  married  women,  go  about  perfectly  naked ; 
and  among  some  Sererer  tribes  the  want  of  clothing  is  a  mark 
of  virginity.10  There  remains,  however,  an  unfavourable  ex- 
planation, namely,  that  a  girl  is  permitted  to  exhibit  her 
charms,  but  the  wife  is  the  property  of  the  husband,  at  whose 
command  she  must  dress.  To  appear  naked  before  another 

1  Heller,  <•  Eeise  in  Mexico,"  p.  217,  1853. 

2  Gumilla,  "  Hist,  de  FOrenoque,"  chap,  vii,  1788. 

3  Gilii,  "Nachr.  v.  Gruiana,"  p.  253,  1785. 

4  Spix  und  Martius,  "Eeise/'  p.  370;  Peron,  "Voyage  de  Decouv.,"  2nd 
edit. ;  Freycinet,  iv,  p.  18,  1824. 

a  Barrington,  "History  of  N.  S.  Wales,"  p.  37,  1810;  Eyre,  "Journals  of 
Expeditions  into  Central  Australia,"  ii,  p.  216,  1845 ;  Hind,  in  "  Journal  of 
Eoy.  Geogr.  Soc.,"  i,  p.  40. 

6  Earth,  "  Eeisen  u.  Entdeck.,"  ii,  p.  473. 

?  Ibid,  p.  467. 

8  Barrington,  loc.  cit.,  p.  23. 

9  Webb  et  Berthelot,  "  Histoire  nat.  des  lies  Canaries." 

10  Zimmermann,  "  Vocabulary  of  the  Akra  language,"  pp.  190,  253 ;  Boilat, 
"  Esquisses  Senegalaises,"  p.  104,  1853. 


SECT.  II.]  MARITAL    RIGHTS. SHAME.  301 

person  passes  here  and  there,  as  a  mark  of  submission.  In  the 
kingdom  of  Melly  all  the  slaves  were  formerly  obliged  to  be 
quite  naked,  and  all  the  women  had  thus  to  appear  before  the 
Sultan.1  There  are  peoples  among  whom  the  males  only  are 
dressed;2  but  even  where  the  women  go  about  quite  naked,  as 
among  the  Chevas  and  Tumbucas  on  the  Zambesi,  it  does  not 
affect  their  chastity.8  On  the  Orinoco,  where  the  mission- 
aries on  exhibiting  marima  shirts  say,  that  clothes  grow  upon 
the  trees,  the  males  are  seemingly  more  ashamed  of  their 
nakedness  than  the  females.4 

The  influence  of  habit  and  custom  is  very  great  in  these 
matters.  The  following  examples  are  not  uninteresting.  On 
the  Marquesas  they  are  not  at  all  ashamed  to  go  about  naked,  but 
it  is  considered  indecent  not  to  bind  up  the  prepuce.5  In  New 
Zealand  and  many  islands  of  the  South  Sea  the  males  are 
ashamed  to  lay  aside  the  suspensory.6  The  Fellah  women 
(which  also  happens  in  other  Mahommedan  countries)  have  no 
hesitation  in  exposing  every  part  of  the  body  except  the  face. 
The  Tubori  women  in  Central  Africa  go  about  quite  naked, 
wearing  only  a  narrow  strap,  to  which  is  attached  a  twig  hang- 
ing down  behind ;  they  feel  greatly  ashamed  if  by  chance  the 
twig  falls  off.7 

In  passing  from  sexual  and  family  relations  to  the  social 
condition  of  uncivilized  nations,  but  little  can  be  said  that  is 
generally  characteristic.  Families  generally  live  near  each 
other  independently  under  their  own  chief,  gradually  forming 
little  societies,  without  any  form  of  government,  until  internal 
dissensions  or  external  attacks  compel  them  to  unite  and  sub- 
mit to  the  sway  of  one  or  more  individuals  who  have  proved 
their  prowess  or  their  wisdom.  Such  peoples  may,  however,  re- 
main for  a  long  time  without  any  organization,  oscillating  be- 

1  Ibu  Batuta,  "  Journal  Asiatique,"  i,  p.  221,  4me  serie. 

2  Koelle,  "  Polyglotta  Afr.,"  p.  13. 

3  "  Ausland,"  p.  262,  1858,  according  to  Monteiro. 

4  Humboldt,  "  Eeise  in  die  .33quinoctialg.,"  iv,  p.  101 :  iii,  p.  95,  ed.  Hauff. 

5  Langsdorff,  "  Bemerk.  auf.  e.   "  Eeise  urn.  die  Welt,"  p.  137,  1812 ;  Lisi- 
ansky,  "  Voyage  round  the  World,"  p.  85,  1814 ;  Eoquefeuil,  "  Journal  d'un 
Voyage  autour  du  monde,"  i,  p.  303,  1823. 

6  D'Urville  "  Voyage  de  1* Astrolabe,"  ii,  p.  482. 

7  Vogel,  in  Peteranann's  "  Mittheilungen,"  p.  138,  1857. 


302  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II. 

tween  a  state  of  perfect  independence  and  one  of  despotism. 
It  is  an  erroneous  view  to  consider  this  oscillation  among  rude 
nations  as  degrees  of  social  development,  instead  of  attributing 
it  to  its  natural  cause. 

The  disputes  occurring  between  indviduals  are  either  ad- 
justed by  a  third  party  who  interposes  his  authority  or  who  is 
chosen  to  act  as  arbiter,  or  what  is  more  usual  among  primitive 
nations,  the  interested  party  is  left  to  find  his  own  remedy. 
Among  many  such  peoples,  ordeals  are  instituted  to  decide  the 
matter.  The  disputes  among  individuals  frequently  involve 
whole  families  and  tribes  in  feuds ;  but  it  is  chiefly  supersti- 
tion or  hunger  and  miseiy  which  lead  to  wars. 

The  religious  ideas  of  primitive  peoples  have  already  been 
touched  upon  in  a  general  sense.  They  are  based  upon  a  per- 
sonification of  striking  natural  forces  on  which  man  believes  his 
fate  depends,  ascribing  any  misfortune  to  the  action  of  inde- 
pendent spirits.  Ungrateful  as  man  generally  is  when  in  luck, 
he  sees,  even  when  in  a  primitive  state,  nothing  in  the  success  of 
his  plans  but  the  usual  course  of  nature  or  the  result  of  his 
sagacity.  Thus  originally  his  view  of  nature  which  coincides 
with  his  religious  ideas  is  about  this — that  among  the  spirits 
which  direct  nature  and  the  fates  of  man,  the  evil  spirits  are 
either  exclusively  active,  as  is  asserted  of  the  Indians  of  Carac- 
cas,  who  only  believe  in  a  wicked  original  being,1  or  so  far  pre- 
dominant that  the  good  spirits  are  made  subordinate.  Though 
the  existence  of  the  latter  is  not  altogether  denied,  they  are 
but  little  attended  to  either  in  thought  or  prayers,  worship 
or  sacrifice,  since  they  are  already  by  their  nature  friendly  to 
man.  All  these  spirits,  are  of  course,  conceived  as  analogous 
to  the  nature  of  man. 

The  religion  of  the  primitive  man  is  thus  throughout — a 
crude  polytheism2  without  poetry,  even  without  mythology,  or 

1  Depons,  in  "  Magaz.  v.  Merkw.  Reisenbeschrift,"  xxix,  p.  143. 

2  Rougement,   however   ("  Le  People   Primitif,"   1855),    considers  mono- 
theism as  the  original  religion  imparted  to  man  by  an  original  revelation, 
and  that  pantheism  formed  the  transition  to  polytheism.     He  endeavours  to 
trace  this  primitive  monotheism  in  the  confused  legends   of  uncultured 
peoples,  by  ascribing  a  cosmogonic  meaning  to  these  myths.     It  is  unques- 
tionable that  some  of  the  most  remote  peoples  frequently  agree  in  this  re- 
spect.    Thus,  the  flood  legends  are  almost  universally  found  in  America, 


SECT.  II.]  PRIMITIVE  RELIGIONS.  303 

rather  a  gloomy  unconnected  belief  in  spectres  and  spirits,  des- 
troying all  faith  in  the  natural  course  of  phenomena.  Even 
these  religions  have  been  considered  as  stages  of  development, 
which  is,  however,  not  confirmed  by  experience.  Wuttke1 
^•nates  the  deification  of  natural  objects  as  the  first  stage 
of  natural  religion,  manifesting  itself  in  the  worship  of  the 
elements,  plants,  animals;  the  second  stage  is  Fetishism;  the 
third  demon-worship,  Schamanism.  All  this  is  much  too  arti- 
ficial, an  idle  logical  scheme  with  which  the  facts  do  not  cor- 
respond. The  belief  in  spirits  among  the  Negroes,  which 
is  usually  designated  Fetishism,  though  in  many  respects  differ- 
ing from  that  of  the  Australian  and  American,  is  not  essentially 
distinct.  The  principle,  the  whole  conception  of  nature,  the 
relation  of  man  to  the  spiritual  world,  is  pretty  much  the  same ; 
and  we  are  astonished  at  this  uniformity  among  nations  so  dis- 
tant— an  uniformity  tending  to  show  that  in  this  respect  in 
what  constitutes  the  kernel  of  mental  life  they  all  belong  to 
the  same  species. 

In  order  to  complete  this  general  description  of  the  psychical 
life  of  primitive  nations,  we  must  consider  their  sense  of  the 
beautiful.  The  great  difference  in  taste  is  so  universally  ac- 
knowledged, that  we  may  expect  but  little  that  is  generally 
applicable,  since  individuality,  mode  of  life,  surrounding  nature, 

which  does  not  necessarily  prove  that  the  traditions  relate  only  to  one  great 
flood.  There  is  certainly  a  charm  in  giving  a  symbolical  signification  to  the 
traditions  of  uncultured  peoples,  and  thus  rendering  them  rational  and  in- 
teresting; but  it  is,  in  most  cases,  a  futile  undertaking,  for  the  following 
reasons : — 1.  We  know  but  a  few  fragments  of  these  traditions.  2.  The 
legends  are  so  variable  among  uncultured  peoples,  that  scarcely  two  indivi- 
duals relate  them  alike.  Some  of  these  are  evidently  invented  by  individuals 
whose  object,  perhaps,  is  to  acquire  some  influence.  3.  A  close  examination 
of  the  religious  opinions  of  uncultured  peoples  forbids  us,  in  most  cases,  to 
ascribe  a  cosmogonic  meaning  to  their  insipid  traditions.  4.  It  is  as  psycholo- 
gically impossible  that  there  should  exist  a  tradition  of  the  primitive  history 
of  mankind,  as  that  an  individual  should  recollect  his  own  birth,  or  the  first 
events  of  his  life.  5.  As  regards  the  agreement  of  certain  legends,  they 
may  possibly  point  to  some  early  connexion  of  the  respective  peoples, 
but  nothing  as  to  common  descent  (we  may,  for  instance,  ask  whether 
immigrants,  say  Buddhists,  had  once  come  from  Asia  to  Mexico  ?  but  not 
whether  the  old  Mexicans  originated  in  East  India  or  China?).  Many  of  the 
traditions  have  only  an  apparent  resemblance ;  and  others  may  be  explained 
from  the  circumstance  that  mankind  were,  in  many  regions,  as  regards  the 
natural  forces,  placed  in  the  same  conditions,  and  led  to  the  invention  of 
similar  traditions. 

1  "  Gesch.  des  Heidenthums/'  i,  p.  50. 


304  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

the  historical  fate  of  a  people,  are  more  influential  in  this  respect 
than  upon  moral  development.  Even  the  symbolism  of  colour 
differs  among  individual  peoples,  though  here  and  there  we 
meet  with  an  interesting  conformity.  The  colour  of  mourning 
at  the  death  of  near  relations  is  yellow  in  some  Asiatic  regions, 
and  among  the  Quiches  in  Guatemala;1  brown  among  the 
Persians ;  blue  among  the  Turks ;  white  among  the  Chinese, 
Anamese,  and  Siamese  ;2  the  colour  is  dark  blue  in  Elmina  ;3 
dark  blue  and  black  among  the  Quichuas.4  The  Australian 
when  in  mourning  paints  his  body  white,  or  draws  merely  a 
white  line  across  his  forehead,  nose,  or  cheeks.5  The  Omahas 
also  use  white  paint  when  in  mourning;6  whilst  among  the 
natives  of  North  America  black  is  generally  the  colour  of 
mourning,  and  red  the  colour  of  war.  Among  the  Mandingoes 
in  the  region  of  Sierra  Leone  white  is  the  symbol  of  peace.7 
Among  the  Ashantees  and  other  negro  peoples  white  is  the 
colour  of  joy,  and  they  paint  themselves  white  on  their  birth- 
days.8 Priests,  ambassadors,  and  warriors  are  dressed  in 
white  among  the  Yebus.9  Persons  who  have  gained  a  suit,  or 
been  acquitted  of  some  crime,  dress  in  white  in  some  parts  of 
Africa.  The  natives  of  Elmina,  in  opposition  to  the  belief  of 
other  negro  tribes,  imagine  the  good  god  to  be  of  white,  and 
the  bad  god  to  be  of  a  black  colour.10  Among  the  inhabitants 
of  Tierra  del  Fuego  white  is  the  colour  of  war,  red  that  of 
peace  and  friendship.11  Yellow,  the  favourite  colour  of  the 
Malays  and  the  lowest  Hindoo  castes,12  is  at  the  same  time  the 
colour  of  priestly  clothing  among  the  Birmese. 

1  Ximenes,  "  Hist.  del.  Orig.  de  los  Indies,"  p.  214,  ed.  Scherzer. 

2  Virey,  "  Hist.  nat.  du  genre  humain,"  iii,  p.  86. 

3  Boudyck,  p.  180. 

4  Tschudi,  "  Peru,"  i,  p.  353,  1846. 

5  Baker,  "  Sydney  and  Melbourne,"  p.  150,  1843. 

6  James,  "  An  Account  of  an  Expedition  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,"  i,  p.  282, 
1823. 

7  Matthews,  "  Reise  nach  Sierra  Leone,"  p.  89,  1789. 

8  Halleur,  "  D.  Leben  der  Neger  West-Afrikas,"  p.  31,  1850. 

9  D'Avezac,  "Notice  sur  le  pays  et  le  peuple  des  Yebus,"  in  Mem.  dela 
Soc.  Ethnol.,  ii,  p.  70. 

10  Boudyck,  "  Voyage  a  la  cote  de  G-uinee,"  p.  179,  1853. 

11  King  and  Fitzroy,  "  Narrative  of  the  Surveying  Voyage  of  the  Adventure 
and  Beagle,"  ii,  p.  177,  1839. 

12  Crawford. 


SECT.  II.]  IDEAS    OF    HUMAN    BEAUTY.  305 

Even  in  the  estimate  of  human  beauty  there  is  the  same  disa- 
greement. Crawfurd1  maintains  that  the  views  of  the  Malays  cor- 
respond in  this  respect  with  our  own ;  and  it  has  otherwise  been 
assumed  that  the  ideal  of  beauty  is  the  same  among  all  peoples. 
This,  however,  is  quite  erroneous.  Desmoulins2  is  no  doubt  too 
rash  in  his  conclusions  from  the  deviations  which  the  sculp- 
tured portraits  of  the  Chinese  and  old  Mexicans  exhibit  from 
the  Greek  ideal ;  for  although  right  in  the  main,  it  is  question- 
able whether  these  portraits  were  intended  to  represent  the 
beautiful.  We  are  assured  that  the  Negroes,  who  generally 
imagine  the  Devil  to  be  white,  consider  a  black  shiny  skin, 
thick  lips,  and  flattened  noses  as  the  type  of  beauty  ;3  and  that 
the  Tahitians,  among  whom  "  long-nose"  is  considered  as  a 
word  of  insult,  for  the  sake  of  beauty  compress  the  forehead 
and  the  nose  of  the  children.4  The  artificial  deformation  of 
the  head  among  so  many  American  nations  also  indicates  a 
difference  in  the  ideas  of  personal  beauty,  Ap  Australian 
wo'man  had  a  child  by  a  white  man :  she  smoked  it  and 
rubbed  it  with  oil  to  give  it  a  darker  colour.5  A  yellow,  not  a 
white  girl  is  considered  a  beauty  in  Java.6  To  have  white 
teeth,  "  like  dogs,"  instead  of  black  coloured  teeth  is  consi- 
dered ugly  and  disgraceful,  just  as  the  natives  of  North 
America  consider  vegetable  food  as  beastly  aliment.  A  servant 
of  the  king  of  Cochin  China  spoke  with  contempt  of  the  wife  of 
the  English  ambassador  (1821)  that  she  had  white  teeth  like  a 
dog  and  a  rosy  colour  like  that  of  potato  flowers.7  And  even 
a  recent  European  traveller8  assures  us  that  whoever  is  once 
accustomed  to  the  grotesque  painted  visages  of  the  Indians, 
considers  unpainted  countenances  unmeaning  and  ugly. 

Ideas  of  courtesy  and  manner  differ  still  more  than  those 
of  beauty  and  ugliness.     Among  peoples  who  live  chiefly  in  a 

1  "  History  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,"  i,  p.  22,  1820. 

2  "  Histoire  naturelle  des  races  humaines,"  p.  229,  1826. 

3  Moore,  "  Travels  into  the  inland  parts  of  Africa,"  p.  93,  London,  1730. 

4  Bang  and  Fitzroy,  ii,  p.  527. 

5  Barrington,  loc.  cit.,  p.  32. 

6  Pfeyffer,  "  Skizzen  von  der  InselJava,"  p.  41,  1829;  Selberg,  "  Eeise  nach 
Java,"  p.  182,  1846. 

7  Laplace,  "  Voyage  autour  du  nionde,"  ii,  p.  463,  1833. 

8  Kohl,  "  Kitchi-Gaini,"  i,  p.  29. 


306  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II 


state  of  war,  the  forms  of  salutation  are  merely  tlie  resull 
of  distrust  of  strangers,  as  among  the  American  Indians 
Australians,  the  Danakils  in  Africa.1  As  curiosities  may  here 
be  mentioned  that  among  the  Malays  civility  requires  the  heac 
to  be  covered,  the  back  turned,  and  the  eyes  cast  down.2  In 
Sumatra,  it  is  uncivil  to  mention  one's  own  name.  In  Java 
and  the  Eastern  Carolines,  one  must  not  stand  upright 
nor  sit  down  in  the  presence  of  high  personages.  It  is  rather 
peculiar  that  the  Arowakes  in  conversing  do  not  look  at  each 
other,  as  they  say  dogs  do  so.3 

We  must  finally  mention  as  characteristic,  the  general  ab- 
sence of  all  cleanliness  among  uncultured  nations, — one  of  the 
first  conditions  of  beauty  in  the  eyes  of  the  civilized  man.  This 
is  not  always  owing  to  mere  neglect,  for  dirt  is  sometimes  a 
protection  against  cold.  It  is  rare  that  this  uncleanliness  pro- 
ceeds from  principle,  as  in  Hamaruwa  on  the  Benuwe  (Tchadda) , 
where  the  wives  of  the  Fulahs  are  cleaner  than  the  men  who, 
as  warriors  or  conquerors,  despise  cleanliness  and  ornaments.4 
How  much  all  judgment  on  these  matters  depends  on  habit  and 
custom  is  proved  by  the  Sandwich  islanders,  who  collect  and 
eat  their  own  lice,  but  feel  disgust  at  eating  from  a  plate  in 
which  a  fly  has  been  drowned.5 

We  have  endeavoured  to  illustrate  the  natural  state  of  man 
from  two  different  points  of  view — first,  by  inquiring  how  we 
may  imagine  him  independent  of  all  experience  and  of.  all  cul- 
tivation ;  secondly,  what  experience  teaches  us  of  the  psychical 
life  of  such  peoples  as  approach  nearer  the  primitive,  than 
the  civilized  state.  The  answers  to  these  two  questions  bear 
such  a  great  similarity  that  we  may,  on  the  whole,  designate 
the  uncivilized  nations — namely,  those  of  whom  it  cannot  be 
proved  that  at  any  time  they  occupied  a  higher  stage  of  devel- 
opment,— as  primitive  peoples  (Naturvolker) .  We  are  the  more 
justified  in  doing  so,  as  the  traces  of  that  condition  which  we 
have  assumed  to  have  been  the  original  state  are  still  to 

1  Johnston,  "  Travels  in  South  Abyssinia/'  i,  p.  154,  1844. 

2  Crawfurd,  i,  p.  98. 

3  "  Quandt.  nachr.  v.  Surinam,"  p.  267,  1807. 

4  Crowther,  in  Petermann's,  "  Mittheilungen,"  p.  225,  1855. 

5  Stewart,  "  Journal  of  a  residence  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,"  p.  156,  1828. 


SECT.  II.]  UNCULTIVATED    WHITE    RACES.  307 

be  found  among  civilized  nations,  for  by  cultivation  the  nature 
of  man  may  indeed  be  improved,  but  can  never  be  changed. 

The  facts  we  have  to  adduce  in  support  of  the  correctness  of 
our  estimate  of  the  natural  state,  admit  yet  of  another  point  of 
view  of  still  greater  importance.  They  prove  incontestably 
that  the  greatest  differences  in  the  development  of  intellectual 
life,  have  no  specific  importance,  but  are  fluctuating,  forming 
nowhere  fixed  limits  between  the  degrees  of  civilization,  that 
they  run  into  each  other  in  the  most  complicated  way,  so  that 
on  psychological  grounds  we  cannot  divide  mankind  in  various 
species. 

The  civilized  European  is  accustomed  to  look  so  much  down 
upon  the  so-called  savage,  that  he  deems  it  an  insult  to  be 
compared  with  him ;  and  yet,  even  in  the  midst  of  civilization 
we  find  the  traces  of  customs,  manners,  and  modes  of  thinking, 
which,  like  the  relapse  of  civilized  men  into  a  savage  state, 
prove  their  intimate  connection. 

The  assumption  of  Prichard  that  the  oldest  inhabitants  of 
civilized  Europe  were  in  no  way  superior  to  the  present  inhabit- 
ants of  Africa  can  neither  be  proved  nor  refuted  in  our  ignor- 
ance of  pre -historical  times ;  the  decision  must  depend  on  our 
conception  of  the  primitive  state  of  man.  This  theory  acquires 
probability  from  the  circumstance,  that  even  now,  as  we  are  as- 
sured, there  are  communities  in  Ireland,  and  even  in  the  heart 
of  France,  the  civilization  of  which  is  scarcely  higher  than  that 
of  many  Negro  tribes,  and  that  a  comparison  of  the  free  Negro 
population  in  the  larger  cities  of  the  United  States,  especially 
of  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  with  that  of  the  above-men- 
tioned Irish  districts,  turns  to  the  advantage  of  the  free 
Negroes.1  Stephens2  has  observed,  that  the  sight  of  the  Rus- 
sian peasants  and  a  comparison  of  them  with  the  Negroes  in 
the  Greek  and  Turkish  army,  has  compelled  him  to  abandon 
the  theory  of  the  superiority  of  the  white  race — and  Stephens 
is  an  American  !  What  in  such  cases  has  been  effected  by  social 
oppression  has  in  other  cases  been  the  result  of  isolation,  and 
the  want  of  intercourse  with  the  civilized  world,  combined  with 

1  "  Quarterly  Review,"  p.  29,  December,  1849. 

2  "  Incidents  of  Travels  in  Greece,  Turkey,  and  Eussia." 


308  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

the  influence  of  surrounding  nature.  What  would  have  become 
of  the  transmarine  colonies  of  the  tough  and  almost  indestruct- 
ible English  without  a  constant  reinforcement  of  civilized  men 
from  the  mother  country  ?  In  spite  of  all  progressive  tendency 
ascribed  to  the  white  race,  we  answer  unhesitatingly,  it  would 
either  have  perished  or  returned  to  barbarism.  These  results 
are  everywhere  constant,  where  intercourse  or  the  influx  of 
fresh  forces  is  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  interrupted. 

In  the  plains  of  Cordova  and  San-Luis  (Argentine  Republic) 
the  pure  Spanish  race  predominates,  the  young  females  are 
frequently  of  a  white  rosy  colour  and  delicate  structure,  yet 
living  in  a  state  of  isolation  the  Spaniards  have  not  exhibited 
greater  activity  and  a  stronger  tendency  to  civilization  than 
the  aborigines  of  that  country.  The  German  and  Scottish 
colony  south  of  Buenos  Ayres,  with  their  flourishing  and  neat 
villages,  form  a  decided  contrast  to  the  former.1  The  white 
settlers  south  of  Buenos  Ayres  are  scarcely  less  rude  and  bar- 
barous than  the  Indians.  Criminals  and  the  scum  of  all  nations 
who  take  refuge  among  them  instruct  them  in  all  that  is 
wicked.  Many  cruelties  and  devastations  are  committed  by 
these  lawless  men  over  whom  the  Indian  chiefs  have  no  author- 
ity.2 The  Creoles  of  the  La  Plata  States  are  almost  as  godless 
and  dirty  as  the  Indians.  To  construct  wind-mills  is  beyond 
their  mechanical  talent,  and  notwithstanding  the  great  fertility 
of  the  soil,  there  is  no  garden  to  be  seen  on  the  high  road  from 
Buenos  Ayres  to  Barranquitos.  Except  in  the  villages  there 
is  no  cultivation  of  the  soil.  To  catch  lice  is  the  chief  amuse- 
ment of  the  women,  who  offer  them  to  strangers  as  dainties  ;3 
they  are  dirty  beyond  measure;  they  are  even  deficient  in 
curiosity. 

A  similar  description  is  given  of  the  inhabitants  of  Tucuman.4 
The  Indians  of  Rioja  are  simple-minded  sober  men,  whose  dis- 
putes never  lead  to  bloodshed;  they  are  more  industrious  and  per- 

1  Sarmiento,  loc.  cit. 

2  Garcia,  in  De  Angelas,  p.  12 ;  "  Collection  de  obras  y  docurnentos,"  iii,  1836. 

3  Dobrizhofler,  "  Gesch.  der  Abiponer,"  ii,  p.  445,  1783 ;  Renger,  "  Reise 
nach  Paraguay,"  p.  393,  1835. 

4  Miers,  "  Travels  in  Chile  and  La  Plata,"  i,  pp.  28, 30, 314, 1826 ;  Andrews, 
"  Journey  from  Buenos  Ayres  through  Cordova,"  etc.,  i,  p.  187,  1827. 


SECT.  II.]  UNCULTIVATED   WHITE    RACES.  309 

severing  than  the  Spanish  Creoles,  and  their  festivals  never  exhi- 
bit the  same  coarseness  which  distinguishes  those  of  the  Creoles.1 
Many  of  the  common  utensils  and  tools  of  the  Chilise,  carts, 
looms,  ploughs,  are  extremely  clumsy,  scarcely  better  than 
those  of  the  Indians ;  the  axe2  is  chiefly  used,  the  saw  but  little. 
They  are  outdone  by  the  superior  agriculture  of  the  Arauca- 
nians.3  They  are  very  cleanly  in  their  persons  ;4  they  bathe 
several  times  daily,  and  by  their  cleanliness  in  the  villages,  the 
Indians  of  the  tropics  in  America  contrast  with  the  immigrant 
South-Europeans.5  In  the  vicinity  of  Talcahuano  (Chili) 
D'Urville6  found  such  miserable  dirty  huts,  that  they  could 
scarcely  stand  comparison  with  the  habitations  of  the  Poly- 
nesians. Helms,  after  describing  the  indolent  habits  of  the 
Creoles  of  South  America,7  adds :  "  The  Indians  are  the  only 
industrious  class  in  this  country ."  The  colonists  in  the  Llanos 
of  Caraccas  are  too  lazy  to  dig  a  well,  though  they  know  that 
they  could  find  the  finest  springs  at  a  depth  of  ten  feet.  Even 
at  this  day,  there  may  be  found  in  New  Spain,  flourishing 
Indian  villages  and  a  well  cultivated  soil  near  miserable  villages 
of  white  Creoles.8  Ploughs  are  there  in  use,  made  of  wood 
without  any  iron,  and  are  always  drawn  by  oxen,  never  by 
horses  ;9  and  the  Spanish  Californians,  whom  Simpson10  has 
described  as  lazy  and  degraded,  still  avail  themselves  of  a 
miserable  plough  and  the  canoe  of  the  Indians.  In  Brazil  the 
structure  of  bridges  is  neglected  even  on  the  high  road  from 
Bio  Janeiro  to  Yilla-Eicca,  and  agriculture  is  carried  on  accord- 
ing to  the  model  of  the  Indians.  The  forest  is  burnt  down ; 
they  sow,  reap,  and  abandon  the  land  after  a  few  harvests.11 
The  Brazilian  peasant,  especially  in  the  central  and  northern 

1  French,  "  Journal,  Royal  Geogr.  Society,"  ix,  p.  398. 

2  Gardiner,  "  Visit  to  the  Ind.  on  the  frontier  of  Chili,"  pp.  155,  163,  1841. 

3  Genoux,  in  "  Bullet.  Soc.  Geogr.,"  i,  p.  150,  1852. 

4  Stevenson,  "  Reise  in  Arauco,"  i,  p.  5,  1826. 

5  Poppig,  "  Reise  in  Chile  and  Peru,"  ii,  pp.  352,  354,  1835. 

6  "  Voyage  au  Pole  Sud,"  iii,  p.  47. 

7  "  Travels  from  Buouos  Ayres,  by  Potosi,  to  Lima,"  pp.  15,  36,  2nd  edit., 
1807. 

8  W.  Thompson,  "  Recollections  of  Mexico,"  p.  1,  1846. 

9  Duflot  de  Mofras,  "  Exploration  de  TOregon  des  Calif,"  p.  17,  1844. 

10  "  Narrative  of  a  Journey  round  the  World,"  1847. 

11  A.  de  St.  Hilaire,  "  Voyage  dans  I'mterieur  du  Bresil,"  i,  p.  191,  1830. 


310  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II.     | 

provinces  of  the  empire,  is  both  lazy  and  proud ;  he  despises    ! 
labour  as  dishonourable;    he   cares  little   for  habitation   and    ; 
dress,  suffering  rather  from  wet  and  cold ;]  his  religious  ideas,    • 
his  belief  in  wood-spirits  and  other  spectres,  is  as  absurd  as  that 
of  the  Botocudes.2     The  children  of  the  Portuguese  settled  in 
the   Sertajo   grow    up  indolent  and   become   prodigal;    their 
farms  fall  into  decay.      Ignorance  and  superstition,  belief  in 
witchcraft,  spectres,  and  amulets,  are  universal ;  they  have  lost 
all  the  dignity  of  human   nature,  and   only   pass   from  their 
apathy  to  the  grossest  sensuality.     Though  pacific  and  hospit- 
able,   they  are   devoid  of  any  intellectual   or  moral  activity. 
Women   and   gambling  form    the    sole   objects    of    interest; 
and  there  are  here  some  few  Portuguese  refugees  who  have 
forgotten  religion,  the  knowledge  of  the  use  of  money,  and 
even  of  salt.3 

In  Groyaz  it  is  not  much  better ;  the  colonists  are  enervated 
by  early  excesses ;  concubinage  is  so  common  among  them 
that  a  married  man  is  an  object  of  mockery.  Poverty  is  pre- 
valent ;  their  indolence  is  remarkable ;  fraud,  especially  falsi- 
fication of  the  gold,  is  general.  Something  similar  may  be 
found  in  other  mining,  and  gold  districts.4  The  thirst 
for  gold  and  labour  is  succeeded  by  wealth  and  prodi- 
gality; then  succeed  enervation,  misery,  poverty,  and  all 
vices.  There  has  for  a  long  time  existed  in  the  islands  Fer- 
nando Noronha,  a  Portuguese  criminal  colony.  No  trace  of 
agriculture  is  visible  there,  nor  is  any  amelioration  of  their 
miserable  condition  thought  of.  The  people  smoke,  gamble,  or 
lie  in  their  hammocks ;  they  have  but  a  miserable  ferry  boat,  so 
that  Webster5  exclaims  in  astonishment :  "  is  it  possible  that 
these  people  are  the  progeny  of  the  seafaring  Portuguese,  who 
were  so  eminent  as  navigators  ?"  In  Africa,  the  condition  of 
the  Portuguese  is  equally  miserable.  On  the  west  coast,  where 
they  settled  in  the  sixteenth  century  and  have  intermixed  with 

1  Rendu,  "  Etudes  top.  med.  et  agron.  sur  le  Bresil,"  p.  24,  1848. 

2  Prinz  Max,  "  Eeise  nach  Brasil,"  ii,  p.  59,  1820. 

3  A.  de  St.  Hilaire,  loc.  cit.,  ii,  p.  304. 

4  A.  de  St.  Hilaire,  "  Voyage  aux  sources  de  la  riviere  San  Francisco,"  i, 
pp.  127,  173,  218,  316,  373;  ii,  pp.  75,  243,  1847. 

5  "  Narrative  of  a  voyage  to  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean,"  ii,  p.  23, 1834. 


SECT.  II.]  UNCULTIVATED   WHITE    RACES.  311 

the  Negroes,  and  are  pretty  numerous,  they  live  in  forests ; 
and  it  is  their  influence  which  obstructs  the  progress  of  the 
Liberia  Republic  among  the  Negroes.1  The  indolence  of  the 
Portuguese  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa  nearly  equals  that  of  the 
Negroes;  their  chief  object  is  an  existence  which  may  be 
attained  by  the  least  possible  effort.2  The  horrors  of  their 
dominion  and  their  own  degeneration  are  described  by  Om- 
boni.3  In  Angola,  they  have  introduced  no  other  agricultural 
implement  but  the  hoe ;  and  maniok,  which  affords  but  small 
nutriment,  is  still  the  chief  vegetable  aliment.4  The  condition 
of  the  Europeans  in  the  Banda  Islands  is  but  little  better.5 
Nearly  all  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  colonies  rival  each  other 
in  proving  how  little  these  nations  are  able  to  spread  civilization 
in  other  regions,  since  separated  from  their  native  country  they 
are  not  even  capable  of  preserving  the  culture  they  have 
brought  with  them.  The  English  and  the  French  have  in  this 
respect  proved  more  successful ;  but  this  superiority  can  only 
partly  be  ascribed  to  the  superiority  of  the  original  stock,  and 
to  the  care  of  the  government  of  their  mother- countries  to  keep 
up  the  intercourse  of  the  colonies  with  the  civilized  world. 
Nevertheless,  we  learn  that  in  the  Mauritius,  for  instance,  the 
population  of  which  is  chiefly  French,  the  condition  of  agricul- 
ture before  the  advent  of  the  English  (1810),  was  as  bad  as  in 
the  Spanish  colonies  :  ploughs  were  scarce,  and  the  fields  were 
not  manured.6 

.  It  may  be  objected  that  several  of  the  instances  cited  re- 
ferred to  mixed  populations  and  not  to  pure  Europeans.  Still, 
it  must  be  admitted  that  even  in  these  cases  the  European 
blood,  despite  the  improvement  of  the  race  which  is  usually 
ascribed  to  its  infusion,  has  not  proved  its  efficiency  in  raising 
the  breed  one  step  above  the  condition  of  the  aborigines ;  and 
that  even  in  such  cases  where  there  was  no  intermixture,  or  a 


1  Foote,  "  Africa,  and  the  American  flag,"  p.  72,  New  York,  1854. 

2  Owen,  "  Narr.  of  a  voyage  to  explore  the  shores  of  Africa,"  ii,  p.  13, 1833. 

3  "  Viaggi  neU.  Afr.  occ.,"  p.  100,  Milano,  1845. 

4  Livingstone,  ii,  p.  72. 

5  Kogel  in  Ausland,  p.  1066,  1857. 

6  D'Unienville,  "  Statistique  de  1'He  Maurice,"  i,  p.  305,  1838. 


312  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II. 

very  slight  one,  the  degeneracy  of  the  population  was  nearly 
the  same.  The  assertion  that  the  European  alone  is  capable  of 
taking  the  initiative  in  civilization,  and  that  the  impulse 
thereunto  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  race,  must,  after  the  quoted 
facts,  be  considerably  modified,  for  they  prove  at  least  that 
the  white  man  is  not  much  less  dependent  on  external  cir- 
cumstances in  his  progress  towards  civilization  than  the 
black  man.  This  is  plainly  shown  when  we  consider  man  in 
his  individual  capacity. 

The  savage,  though  he  may  have  lived  for  some  time  in 
civilized  society,  is  generally  but  superficially  changed.  Young 
Australians  brought  up  by  Europeans  have  escaped  to  the  woods 
when  grown  up  j1  and  similar  instances  are  related  of  North 
American  Indians.  In  order  not  to  draw  erroneous  conclu- 
sions from  such  cases,  we  must  consider  that  these  individuals 
could  not  fail  to  observe  that  they  played  but  a  sorry  part 
among  the  Whites ;  perhaps,  also,  an  instinctive  impulse  drove 
them  again  to  seek  their  freedom.  Civilization  is  a  state 
which  the  uncultivated  man,  be  he  European  or  African,  resists 
with  all  his  power,  according  to  the  law  of  inertia ;  but  it  does 
not  irresistibly  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  savage  peoples  are 
irreclaimable.  If,  on  the  one  hand,  the  savage  does  not  take 
freely  to  civilization,  though  surrounded  by  it,  we  find,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  civilized  man,  living  among  savages,  re- 
lapses after  a  short  time  into  a  state  of  barbarism,  which,  on 
that  account,  we  must  consider  as  the  primitive  state  of  man. 
In  New  Zealand,  there  are  many  such  degenerate  Europeans, 
whose  character  and  mode  of  life  resemble  those  of  the  natives.2 
Numbers  of  such  instances  are  to  be  met  with  in  Australia  and 
North  America;  nor  was  it  in  many  cases  necessity,  but  a  pre- 
dilection for  a  roaming  life ;  it  was  free  choice  which  made 
these  men  return  to  barbarism.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
last  century  it  very  often  happened  that  some  Whites  were 

1  Braim,  "  History  of  New  South  Wales,"  ii,  p.  240,  1846. 

2  Mundy,  "  Our  Antipodes,"  ii,  p.  124, 1852 ;  Polack,  "  New  Zealand :  being 
a  Narrative,"  i,  p.  52,  1838;  "Die  Neuseeliinder nacli  d.  Engl.,"  p.  258,  1833. 
Kay,  in  "  Caffraria,"  p.  400,  1833. 


SECT.  II.]  UNCULTIVATED    WHITE    RACES.  313 

adopted  by  Indian  tribes.1  Froebel3  says  that  in  Mexico, 
where  the  natives  frequently  kidnap  individuals,  there  are 
many  instances  of  their  perfect  naturalization  among  the 
savages.  There  are  said  to  live  in  the  valley  Simbura,  at 
some  distance  from  Carimango  in  the  province  Loxa  in  Ecuador, 
Spaniards  of  pure  blood  sunk  into  a  complete  state  of  barbar- 
ism, possessing  a  degenerate  language,  without  a  trace  of 
historical  tradition.3  Europeans  perfectly  degenerate,  in  fact 
cannibals,  like  the  natives,  have  been  found  by  Lery4  among  the 
Tupinambas,  and  latterly  they  have  been  met  with  on  the  Fiji 
islands,5  as  a  parallel  to  which  may  be  mentioned  that  the 
habit  of  eating  human  flesh  spread  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
first  in  consequence  of  a  famine,  among  all  classes  of  the 
Egyptian  population.6  How  much  civilization  and  degeneracy 
depend  on  external  circumstances  has  been  repeatedly  proved. 
Before  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  with  the  Iroquois  (1685), 
says  Charleroix,7  the  French  were  entirely  unprotected,  and 
constantly  surrounded  by  pressing  dangers ;  nevertheless  they 
lived  like  savages,  in  perfect  carelessness,  nor  made  they  any 
attempt  to  discipline  and  combine  their  forces.  Careless  and 
improvident,  says  Irving,8  of  a  hunting  expedition  through  the 
prairies,  as  hunters  generally  are,  they  feasted  continually, 
without  any  thought  of  laying  in  a  provision  for  the  following 
day.  Does  the  savage  act  otherwise  ?  As  regards  moral  dis- 
positions, it  can  still  less  be  maintained  that  the  white  race 
possesses  any  great  advantage  above  other  races.  The  atroci- 
ties we  see  committed  by  savages  (and  sometimes  by  our- 
selves) in  cold  blood,  without  the  least  scruple,  and  their 
insensibility  to  all  moral  relations,  has  something  so  repulsive 
for  the  civilized  man,  that  he  feels  inclined  to  assume  that  they 


1  Baily,   "Journal  of  a  Tour  in   1796,"  p.  770,  Ausland,  1856;  Wilkes, 
"  United  States  Exploring  Expedition,"  iv,  pp.  357,  360;  v,  p.  143. 

2  "  Eeise  dnrch  den  Wester  der  V.  St."  ' 

3  Tschudi,  "  D.  Kechua-Sprache,"  i,  p.  8.     According  to  Velasco,  "  Hist, 
del  reino  de  Quito,"  iii,  pp.  2,  15,  17,  who,  perhaps,  followed  Alcedo. 

4  "  Reise  in  Brasil  iibers,"  p.  258,  1794. 

5  "Ausland,"  p.  936,  1857. 

6  Abd  Allatif,  bei  Humboldt  und  Bonpland,  "  Keise,"  iv,  p.  373. 

7  "  Ges.  v.  Neu-Frankreich,"  p.  286,  in  Allg.,  "  Hist,  der  Keisen." 

8  Ausflug  auf  die  Prairien. 


314  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

are  specifically  different  beings.  We,  however,  soon  learn  that 
such  a  theory  is  not  tenable  on  these  grounds. 

We  need  not  refer  to  the  atrocities  of  the  miserable  Arnauts 
in  the  war  of  Mohammed  Ali,1  nor  to  the  Turko-Russian 
war,  and  the  late  rebellion  of  the  Hindoos  against  the  English, 
for,  independently  of  the  low  degree  of  civilization  of  these  na- 
tions, the  exasperation  of  the  struggle  may,  to  some  extent, 
excuse  them.  Let  us  grasp  the  life  of  the  European  apart  from 
such  extraordinary  impulses,  and  in  a  state  where  he  is 
not  kept  in  bounds  by  the  law.  How  the  Russo-American 
Company  behaved  to  the  Aleutes,  and  even  their  own  people, 
may  be  learned  from  Langsdorff;2  the  former  were  treated 
much  worse  than  slaves.  Though  sick,  they  were  worked  to 
death;  the  moribund  were  put  into  damp  huts,  and  provided  nei- 
ther with  firewood  nor  proper  victuals.  The  Europeans  living 
in  Khartoum,  on  the  Nile,  belong  to  a  variety  of  nations,  and  are 
described  as  civilized ;  but  R/usseger,  Brehm,  and  all  other 
travellers,  unanimously  describe  them  as  the  most  worthless  and 
unscrupulous  men  in  the  world,  living  as  slave  dealers,  without 
any  law,  and  given  to  all  possible  vices. 

The  worst  in  such  cases  is,  that  with  the  decline  of  morality 
the  moral  sense  itself  gradually  degenerates.  The  frontier 
peasants  at  the  Cape  find  nothing  morally  wrong  in  the  razzias 
which,  without  any  provocation,  they  undertake  against  the 
Bosjesmans,  though  they  would  consider  it  a  heinous  sin  thus 
to  treat  Christians.3  This  reminds  us  of  the  Bosjesman  who 
knew  nothing  of  the  difference  between  good  and  bad  actions, 
adding,  after  some  hesitation,  that  it  was  right  in  him  to  steal 
the  wives  of  other  men,  but  wrong  in  others  to  steal  his 
own  wife.  The  oft-praised  pioneers  of  the  West  of  North 
America  acted  in  a  similar  manner  towards  the  Indians,  and 
their  moral  judgment  in  this  respect  was  the  same  as  that  of 
the  Dutch  peasants.  The  backwoodsmen  of  Old  Kentucky  are 
brought  up  in  the  hatred  of  the  natives,  and  shoot  them  down 

1  Werne,  "  Feldzug  Von  Sennaar  nach  Taka,"  p.  116,  1851. 

2  Vol.  ii,  pp.  63,  80. 

3  Thompson's  "  Travels  and  Adventures  in  South  Africa,"  i,  p.  396,  2nd 
edit.,  1827. 


SECT.  II.]  MOEAL  SENSE.  315 

without  the  least  scruple,  though  they  are  generally  humane 
towards  the  White.  No  doubt  some  of  them  have  grievously 
suffered  from  the  massacre  of  their  families  by  the  Indians. 
They  accordingly  look  upon  the  Indians  as  wild  beasts,  and  treat 
them  as  such.1  Thus  we  perceive  that  the  European  acts  in 
such  cases  entirely  on  the  principle  prevalent  among  savages, 
namely,  that  vengeance,  if  it  cannot  reach  the  guilty,  may  be 
taken  on  the  tribe  to  which  he  belongs ;  for  instance,  the 
Bedouin  Arab  makes  the  Turk  responsible  for  the  Turk,  the 
Frank  for  the  Frank,  the  black  for  the  black.2  We  need 
scarcely  refer  to  the  morality  of  the  slaveholders  in  the  United 
States.  The  Catholic  missionaries  in  Congo  looked  with  horror 
upon  the  slave  trade  carried  on  by  Protestants,  but  had  no  ob- 
jection that  Congo  negroes  should  be  kidnapped  by  Catholics 
and  carried  into  Catholic  countries.3  In  our  own  time  even 
we  find  the  moral  judgment  very  elastic,  and  just  adapted  to 
the  prevailing  practice ;  habit  makes  us  so  familiar  with  this, 
that  only  striking  deviations  become  perceptible.  Thus  we 
read  that  in  Java  the  seducer  of  another  man's  wife  is  judged 
very  indulgently,  the  husband  only  being  ridiculed ;  whilst  the 
seduction  of  another  man's  housekeeper  is  considered  a  very 
reprehensible  act,  for  which  the  offender  is  excluded  from  all 
society.4  Some  hundred  years  back  there  prevailed  in  Europe 
quite  a  different  morality.  Slave  trade,  cruelties  of  every  kind 
against  non- Christians,  were  considered  as  perfectly  justifiable. 
We  may  mention,  by  the  way,  that  Edward  III.  of  England 
forbade  his  "  right  noble  lords  and  right  honourable  ladies"  to 
carry  on  piracy  and  highway  robbery,  not  on  the  grounds  of 
justice  and  morality,  but  simply  because  these  acts  injured  the 
revenues  of  the  crown,  and  deterred  foreign  merchants  from 
visiting  the  country. 

The  natives  of  America  have  often  been  reproached  with  an 
incorrigible  vice  of  drunkenness  peculiar  to  the  red  race,  and 
which  leads  them  to  certain  destruction.  This  may  also  be  as- 


1  Hoffman,  "  A  Winter  in  the  Far  West,"  ii,  p.  30,  1835. 

2  D'Escayrac,  "  Die  Afrika  Wiiste  und  d.  Land  der  Scliwarzen,"  p.  170, 1855. 

3  ZuchelH,  "  Merkw.  Miss.  u.  Eeisebeschr.  nacli  Congo,"  p.  226,  1715. 

4  Selberg,  loc.  cit.,  p.  168. 


316  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

serted  as  regards  many  other  uncivilized  nations.  We  see 
nothing  in  this  but  the  irresistible  power  which  sensual  gratifi 
cation  exercises  on  man  in  a  state  of  nature,  careless  of  the 
future  and  unconscious  of  the  degrading  consequences  of  the 
vice.  Without  laying  much  stress  on  the  efforts  made  by  some 
Indian  chiefs  to  stem  the  progress  of  this  vice,  we  would 
mention  that  Europeans  also  perished  in  masses  in  consequence 
of  their  drunken  habits.  Among  the  lowest  class  of  the  Cape 
colonists  there  are  but  few  who  are  not  drunkards.1  The 
greater  number  of  the  first  white  settlers  on  the  Derwent  river 
in  Van  Diemen's  Land  were  prematurely  cut  off  in  consequence 
of  this  vice,  and  Ross2  asserts  that  half  of  the  deaths  were  di- 
rectly or  indirectly  the  result  of  drunkenness.3  Braim4  denies 
that  drunkenness  is  at  present  prevalent  in  New  South 
Wales,  but  Byrne5  asserts  the  contrary.  In  Sydney,  says 
Majoribanks,6  there  are  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred 
wine  vaults,  and  there  are  consumed  ten  times  as  much  spi- 
rituous liquors  as  in  other  places ;  for  every  adult  spends  on 
the  average  about  £20  per  annum  on  this  article.  As  regards 
the  natives  of  America,  the  Araucanians  are  considered  the 
most  decided  drunkards,  but  D'Urville7  observes  that  the 
Chilise  differ  very  little  from  them  in  this  respect.  The  old 
Germans  are  somewhat  differently  judged,  at  least  in  Ger- 
many !  At  their  drinking-bouts,  when  individuals  frequently 
gambled  away  their  personal  liberty,  there  still  reigned  "a 
youthful  dignity  and  force,"  and  "  this  still  life  differs  infinitely 
from  the  brutish  stupor  in  which  other  savages  indulge  when 
they  are  satiated  with  fighting  and  plundering."8  Butcheries, 
cruelties,  treachery,  cunning,  breaches  of  faith,  were  frequent 
among  them,  from  the  exasperation  caused  by  the  Roman  wars, 
and  yet  they  are  represented  to  us  as  men  in  whom  even  at  that 


1  Moodie,  "  "  Ten  Years  in  South  Africa/'  i,  p.  53,  1835. 

2  "  Hobart  Town  Almanac,"  1831. 

3  Laplace,  <f  Voyage  autour  du  monde,"  iii,  p.  478,  1833. 

4  "  History  of  New  South  Wales,"  ii,  p.  317,  1846. 

5  «  Twelve  Years  Wanderings  in  the  British  Colonies,"  i,  p.  136,  1848. 
e  "  Travels  in  New  South  Wales,"  p.  31,  1847. 

7  "  Voyage  au  Pole  Sud,"  iii,  p.  55. 

8  Ruckert,  "  Culturgeseh.  des  Deutschen  Volkes,"  i,  p.  77. 


SECT.  II.]  POSITION  OP  WOMAN.  317 

timo  ideal  motives,  public  spirit,  and  love  of  liberty  greatly 
predominated  ! 

The  degraded  position  of  women  among  uncivilized  peoples 
has  been  made  too  much  of,  as  it  is  not  a  permanent  but  a 
fluctuating  feature.  We  would  not  discuss  here  the  delicate 
question  whether  the  demoralization  in  these  things  among 
ourselves  is  not  concealed  beneath  more  refined  forms,  whilst 
it  is  seen  in  its  nakedness  among  savages.  Though  wives  are 
not  sold  in  the  market,  marriages  in  the  higher  ranks  are  con- 
ducted pretty  much  like  mercantile  transactions. 

Although  among  the  ancient  Germans,  woman  was  purchased, 
she  was  not  considered  as  mentally  inferior  to  man,  but  only  as 
physically  weaker,  and  requiring  protection.  But  such  a  noble 
conception  of  woman  is  rare.  In  Greece  and  Rome  females 
occupied  a  subordinate  position.  In  Sparta,  where  marriage 
(as  in  Plato's  republic)  was  considered  a  purely  political  in- 
stitution, as  a  means  of  producing  stout  citizens,  a  third  party 
might  be  the  representative  of  the  husband  if  the  marriage 
proved  unprolific.  In  Athens,  where  rape  was  only  considered 
as  an  offence  against  the  husband  or  father,  and  was  merely 
punished  by  a  fine,  the  hetaeras  only  were  well-educated 
women.  A  parallel  to  this  state  exists  at  present  in  Java, 
where  the  Eonggeng,  though  a  hetaera,  enjoys  a  certain 
honourable  position,  for  even  princes  dance  (dandak)  with  her, 
and  when  she  marries,  all  immoralities  of  her  former  life  are 
forgotten.1  Old  Christian  authorities  looked  at  marriage  only 
from  a  sensual  point  of  view,  and  have  seriously  doubted 
whether  women  had  souls.  We  must,  therefore,  not  feel  sur- 
prised that  Chinese,  Hindoos,  and  Mohammedans  positively 
deny  that  they  have  any  soul.  If  a  Chinaman  is  asked  how 
many  children  he  has,  he  only  mentions  the  boys ;  if  he 
has  only  girls,  he  answers  he  has  no  children.2  Accord- 
ingly woman  is  by  these  peoples  treated  as  merchandize. 
Among  some  tribes  of  the  Moors  it  is  considered  an  act  of 
politeness  and  hospitality  to  offer  a  woman  to  the  stranger.3 

1  Epp,  "  Sckilderungen  aus  Hollandisch  Indien,"  p.  401,  1852. 

2  Duhaut-Cilly,  "  Voyage  autour  du  monde,"  ii,  p.  369,  1834. 

3  Chenier,  "  Eecherches  hist,  sur  les  Maures,"  iii,  p.  125,  1787. 


318  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

It  is  not  so  much  owing  to  the  estimation  of  woman  as  regarc 
for  the  rights  of  the  husband,  that  in  Java  it  is  considered 
great  insult  to  place  the  hand  on  the  head  of  the  wife  j1  and  th 
inviolability  of  women  in  the  whole  of  the  East  may  also  b 
ascribed   to   the    gravity   and    self-esteem    of   the  males.     A 
Turkish  Bey  of  Assuan,  who  was  insulted  by  a  Fellah  womai 
on  account  of  some  sentence  he  passed  on  her  husband,  left  the 
divan  in  a  rage,  exclaiming  at  the  same  time,  ' '  If  thou  wert  a 
man,  by  the  beard  of  my  father  thou  shouldst  be  flogged  to 
death."2 

We  believe  we  may  be  justified  in  concluding  that  the  moral 
endowment  of  the  white  race  differs  in  nothing  from  that  of 
other  races,  for  it  is  clearly  shown  that  the  rude  primitive 
nature  breaks  out  in  the  civilized  man  whenever  wholesome 
restraints  are  removed.  Crude  habits  and  manners  among 
savages  must  not  be  considered  as  specific  peculiarities  of 
race,  though  we  might  strongly  be  so  inclined  on  witnessing 
a  scene  like  that  described  by  Parkman,3  of  North  American 
Indians,  like  wild  beasts,  devouring  a  buffalo  they  had  just 
killed,  their  faces  and  hands  all  besmeared  with  blood.  It  even 
produces  upon  the  European  a  disagreeable  impression  to  see 
Turks  eat,  digging  about  in  the  dish  with  their  fingers,  and  to 
hear  their  constant  eructations.4  The  American  habit  mentioned 
above  is  also  found  among  the  Danakils  in  Africa,  who  are 
usually  included  in  the  Caucasian  race.5  In  order  not  to  lay  too 
much  weight  on  such  external  habits,  we  should  remember  that 
a  long  series  of  parallels  may  be  drawn  between  the  customs 
of  so-called  savages  and  many  cultivated  nations  of  antiquity, 
such  as  tattooing,  scalping,  preserving  the  heads  of  enemies 
as  trophies,  etc.  Not  to  become  tedious,  we  refer  to  the 
collation  of  such  analogies  to  the  authorities  below.6  With  re- 

1  Pfyffer,  "  Skizzen  v.  d.  Insel  Java,"  p.  25,  1829. 

2  Brehm,  loc.  cit.,  ii,  p.  62. 

3  "  The  California  and  Oregon  Trail,"  New  York,  1849. 

4  Werne,  loc.  cit.,  p.  107. 

5  Johnston,  i,  p.  160. 

6  Lafitau,  "Mceurs  des   Sauvages   Americains,"  ii,  p.   257,   1724;  Carli, 
"  Briefe    uber    America,"    deutsch,  von    Hennig.    1785 ;    Martius,    von  d. 
Rechtsztde  (1832),  "  Die  Neuseelander  nach  d.  Engl.,"  Leipz.,  1833. 


SECT.  II.]  NO  SPECIFIC  DIFFERENCES.  319 

gard  to  what  is  considered  proper  or  disgusting  in  food,  we 
would  only  mention  that  the  worms  found  in  the  bamboo  cane 
are  as  eagerly  eaten  by  the  Brazilians  as  those  of  the  palm  in 
Guiana  are  relished  by  the  Whites.1  Many  Europeans  relish 
some  species  of  lizards  and  large  bats,  and  the  beautiful  Creole 
women  in  Mauritius  roast  the  nests  and  larvae  of  yellow  wasps, 
and  also  the  grubs  found  in  certain  old  trees,  and  consume 
them  as  dainties.2 

If,  finally,  in  order  to  prove  that  there  are  specific  differences 
in  the  psychical  life  of  nations,  we  refer  to  the  great  and  ap- 
parently constant  differences  in  intellectual  development,  we 
shall  meet  with  similar  objections.  De  Salles3  observes  with 
regard  to  our  modern  European  civilization  that  it  was,  in  re- 
gard to  its  intellectuality,  nothing  else  but  a  rayonnement  de  la 
science  de  la  minority  sur  I'ignorance  des  masses,  and  Hunter4 
adduced  as  a  proof  that  there  were  no  specific  differences 
among  mankind,  a  comparison  of  Newton  with  the  rest  of  his 
countrymen  in  regard  to  mental  development.  The  same  dis- 
parity in  mental  endowment  and  development  exists  among 
all  peoples,  as  amongst  us.  Artistic  and  scientific  genius 
exists  among  Negroes  and  Americans,  as  well  as  amongst  us ; 
and  if  pre-eminent  men  of  one  people  lead  it  from  a  state 
of  barbarism  to  civilization  under  favourable  conditions,  the 
stability  of  the  black  races  has  not  for  its  chief  cause, 
deficiency  of  mental  qualification  so  much  as  other  circum- 
stances. When  Foissac5  points  out  that  all  great  men  except- 
ing Mahomet,  belonged  to  the  temperate  zone,  and  ascribes 
this  phenomenon  to  the  effect  of  the  European  climate,  we 
reply,  that  great  talents  can  acquire  only  a  transitory  in- 
fluence over  uncivilized  peoples  which  have  no  history,  there 
being  no  proper  field  where  their  efforts  may  produce  fruit. 
Moreover,  every  thing  shows  that  the  most  civilized  peoples  of 
modern  times  have  only  gradually  emerged  from  their  original 

1  A.  de  St.  Hilaire,  "  Voyage  au  Bresil,"  i,  p.  433 ;  Bancroft,  "  Naturgesch. 
v.  Guiana  a.  d.  Engl.,"  p.  148, 1769 ;  Schombnrgk,  "  Eeise  in  Guiana,"  p.  429, 
1841. 

2  D'Unienville,  "  Statistique  de  1'Ile  Maurice,"  i,  p.  259,  1838. 

3  "  Hist  gen.  des  races  humaines,"  1849. 

4  "  Bisp.  inaugur.  de  hominum  varietatibus,"  p.  42,  Edinburgh,  1775. 

5  Loc.  cit.,  p.  246. 


320  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II. 

barbarism  in  which,  we  still  find  many  nations  sunk,  whilst  primi 
tive  crudeness  now  and  then  breaks  forth  even  among  the  most 
civilized.  Where  is  the  warranty  that  we  may  not  relapse  into 
such  a  primitive  state  ?  Who  can  calculate  the  time  during 
which  the  present  cultivated  nations  remained  stationary  ? 
Where  are  the  proofs  that  the  so-called  lower  races  are  con- 
demned to  remain  in  their  present  state  ?  The  few  thousand 
years  we  are  in  advance  of  them  in  civilization,  are,  considering 
the  great  antiquity  of  the  earth,  too  short  a  period  for  us  to 
form  a  decisive  judgment  of  the  capacity  of  all  mankind. 

Though  it  can  be  shown  that  in  North  America  and  in  the 
South  Sea,  a  wide-spread  civilization  formerly  existed,  which  had 
already  greatly  declined  at  the  arrival  of  the  Europeans,  no- 
thing of  the  kind  has  been  found  in  Africa ;  for  what  Smyth1 
and  others  have  asserted  of  the  ancient  civilization  of  Negroes, 
seems  fabulous  and  only  based  upon  the  hypothesis  that  Negro 
nations  were  formerly  in  possession  of  the  South  of  Asia,  and 
had  also  contributed  much  to  old  Egyptian  civilization,  appa- 
rently proved  by  the  Negro-skulls  found  in  old  Egypt.  Still  less 
probable  is  Dunmore  Lange's  assertion,  that  the  black  race  of 
the  South  Sea  had  formerly  occupied  a  much  higher  position 
than  at  present.2  Though  such  unfounded  assertions  cannot 
induce  us  to  estimate  the  capacities  of  the  so-called  lower  races 
more  favourably  than  is  usually  done,  we  must,  on  the  other 
hand,  be  on  our  guard  against  the  unfavourable  influences 
drawn  from  the  gross  superstition  so  prevalent  amongst  them. 
We  need  only  refer  to  the  old  Germans,  who  burned  horses  and 
weapons  with  their  dead,  and  on  important  occasions  sacrificed 
human  beings.3  Moreover,  the  belief  in  witchcraft,  spectres, 
etc.,  is  not  yet  extinct  amongst  us.  In  the  last  century,  when 
princes  were  lying  in  state,  a  well-furnished  table  was  pro- 
vided for  the  dead  in  the  chapel,  and  faithful  catholics  still 
entertain  the  most  extravagant  expectations  from  the  purchase 

i  The  unity  of  the  human  races/'  N.  York,  1850. 

a  "  Cooksland,  in  North-east  Australia,"  p.  362,  1847. 

3  We  must  not  omit  mentioning  that  the  custom,  to  sacrifice  human 
beings,  among  Persians,  Greeks,  Romans,  Egyptians,  Celts,  Franks,  Goths, 
may  safely  be  traced  to  cannibalism  as  its  source  (J.  G.  Miiller,  "  Gesch.  d. 
Am.  Urrelig./'  p.  629,  1855). 


SECT.  II.]  PSYCHICAL    UNITY    OP    MANKIND.  321 

of  popish  bulls,  quite  analogous  to  the  amulets  of  the  Negroes 
and  other  savages.1  A  parallel  to  it  exists  at  this  day  in 
Dauphine,  where  every  passer-by  throws  into  certain  chasms 
a  little  stone,  as  an  offering  to  the  mountain  spirit ;  where  at 
now  year's  and  St.  John's  Eve  a  meal  of  cheese,  bread,  and 
wine,  is  served  up  in  every  house  for  the  wandering  Fadets 
and  Blanquettes ;  where  soothsayers  (devins)  are  consulted 
against  fever  and  pestilence ;  and  where  sick  men  and  beasts 
are  cured  by  pronouncing  some  unintelligible  gibberish.2 

The  above  facts,  selected  from  among  the  more  important, 
appear  to  us  sufficient  proof  for  our  argument  as  regards  the 
mental  relationship  of  the  civilized  European  with  primitive 
nations.  They  have  at  the  same  time  confirmed  our  view  that 
the  natural  state  of  man  is  not  a  state  of  original  purity  and 
perfection,  but  just  the  reverse. 

But  though  we  may,  after  what  has  been  stated,  feel  inclined 
to  answer  the  question,  whether  there  be  specific  differences 
among  mankind,  in  the  negative,  we  cannot  consider  it  as 
solved  so  long  as  there  remain  so  many  objections  to  such 
a  view.  It  is  said  that  the  Negro,  the  American  Indian,  the 
Australian,  and  many  others,  show  themselves  everywhere  in- 
capable of  taking  the  initiative  in  civilization ;  what  prevents 
them  doing  so,  if  it  be  not  their  inferior  mental  endowment  ? 
Their  resistance  against  cultivation  is  such  that  the  teaching 
and  the  example  of  the  White  have  no  power  over  them.  They 
remain  just  what  they  are  and  ever  were.  The  European  alone 
progresses,  there  is  within  him  a  mental  impulse  in  which  the 
other  races  are  deficient ;  if  such  be  not  the  case,  what  are  the 
causes  of  the  progress  of  the  former  and  the  retrogression  of 
the  latter  ? 

Before  discussing  this  subject,  which  we  reserve  for  the  next 
section,  it  may  be  necessary  to  offer  some  considerations  calcu- 
lated to  support  the  theory  of  the  psychical  unity  of  the  human 
species. 

Even  in  recent  times,  the  proposition  has  been  often  de- 

1  Marchand,  "  Neueste  Eeise  um  die  Welt,"  i,  p.  50,  Leipz. ;  Lavaysse, 
"Eeise  n.  Trinidad,  Tabago,  iind  Venoz.,"  p.  423, 1816. 
8  Von  Ghuner  in  Ausland,  No.  15,  1855. 


322  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

fended,  that  there  were  no  differences  whatever  in  the  mental  en- 
dowment of  races;1  that  mental  dispositions  are  not  transmitted, 
but  are  alike  in  all  races  ;  that  their  development  depended 
entirely  on  surrounding  nature,  and  on  education,  the  former 
determining  the  wants  of  man,  and  thus  compelling  him  to 
greater  or  less  efforts  in  order  to  supply  them.  It  cannot  be 
denied  that  a  great  part  of  the  most  striking  differences  which 
human  beings  exhibit  may  be  ascribed  to  the  above  conditions, 
but  the  failure  of  the  attempts  to  educate  the  little  children  of 
some  savages  prove,  at  any  rate,  that  there  is  no  absolute 
equality  of  mental  disposition  either  among  peoples  generally, 
nor  among  individuals  of  the  same  people.  If,  by  original  dis- 
position, be  meant  that  mental  capacity  which  a  people  pos- 
sessed before  any  cultivation,  it  cannot  be  proved  that  it  was 
specifically  different  in  individual  races,  since  in  all  probability 
they  must  for  a  long  time  have  remained  without  cultiva- 
tion, and  have  only  developed  themselves  from  the  primitive 
state  which  must  have  been  the  same  in  all.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  speak  of  the  mental  endowment  of  a  people  at  a 
certain  period  of  its  history  relating  to  a  stage  of  its  devel- 
opment, we  must  keep  in  view  that  it  continually  changes, 
and  that  this  endowment  cannot  be  considered  as  something 
permanent.  It  is  only  the  continuity  of  the  vital  develop- 
ment of  a  people,  or  of  an  individual,  which  suggests  to  us  that 
this  development,  even  before  its  accomplishment,  was  a 
pre-formed  capacity.  Now,  it  is  by  the  other  side  readily 
admitted,  that  the  mental  performances  of  an  individual,  or 
a  people,  do  not  depend  on  mental  endowment  so  much  as 
on  external  circumstances,  education,  etc. :  it  is  also  admitted 
that  the  same  individual  if  at  the  beginning  acted  upon  by 
different  external  circumstances,  would  either  have  been  better 
or  worse  developed,  would  have  evinced  higher  or  lower  mental 
and  moral  qualities,  and  would  have  acted  quite  differently  than 
he  does  at  present. 

We  can  only  avoid  this  dilemma  by  its  being  understood 
that  when  we  speak  of  mental  capacity  and  mental  endowment, 

1  Frankenheim,  Volkerkunde,  p.  134,  1852. 


SECT.  II.]  MENTAL    ENDOWMENT.  323 

we  mean  that  which  is  peculiar  to  a  people  or  an  individual  at  a 
given  time,  or,  in  other  words,  that  we  must  not  speak  of 
mental  capacity  or  endowment  as  universally  applicable,  but 
only  in  relation  to  a  certain  period  and  condition  in  the  life  of 
the  subject.  Hence  it  is  clear  that  mental  endowment  is  not 
immutable,  being  constantly  changed  in  the  course  of  life ;  and 
that  though  the  fixed  character  of  brutes,  which  psychically 
remain  the  same,  must  be  sought  for  in  their  mental  capacities, 
the  differences  of  mankind  cannot  be  traced  to  the  same  cause, 
unless  the  absolute  incapacity  of  mental  improvement  in  some 
races  be  demonstrated,  namely,  that  they  must  remain  sta- 
tionary under  all  circumstances,  and  are  confined  to  some  defi- 
nite limits  which  are  passed  by  other.  Instead  of  positive 
demonstration,  we  have  only  vague  assertions  on  the  improv- 
ability  of  the  so-called  savages  and  the  excellence  of  European 
civilization. 

If,  according  to  the  usual  view,  the  civilization  of  a  people  is 
the  simple  product  of  its  mental  capacity,  then  the  powerful 
influences  of  surrounding  nature,  historical  events,  and  educa- 
tion, are  underrated;  and  we  commit,  moreover,  the  error  of 
ascribing  to  the  people  as  a  whole  a  mental  capacity  which 
is  only  possessed  by  individuals.  These  differ  greatly  in 
mental  capacity ;  and  for  the  development  of  a  people  it  is  of 
considerable  importance  in  what  relations  these  individuals 
stand  to  each  other  and  to  that  people,  for  upon  these  relations 
depends  their  influence  on  society  at  large.  What,  there- 
fore, appears  as  the  endowment  of  a  people,  is  mainly  deter- 
mined by  the  effects  produced  on  the  mass  by  individuals,  each 
of  whom  with  his  special  gifts  becomes  a  factor  at  a  certain 
period  in  the  social  machinery ;  and  as  the  performance  of  a  ma- 
chine depends  on  the  combination  of  its  parts,  so  does  the  devel- 
opment of  a  people  depend  on  the  mode  of  combination  of  differ- 
ently gifted  individuals  at  definite  periods  and  under  particular 
conditions.  From  this  point  of  view,  the  notion  of  people 
is  not  collective,  but  that  of  a  constantly  fluctuating  yet  spe- 
cially definite  combination  and  collocation  of  individualities, 
on  which  depends  the  degree  of  development  that  is  generally 
attributed  to  the  people  as  a  whole.  To  consider  the  mental 

Y2 


324  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

endowment  of  a  people  as  something  constant  and  given  once 
for  all,  is  inadmissible,  based  as  it  is  upon  an  empty,  scientifi- 
cally useless  abstraction.  There  is  no  agent,  real  and  substan- 
tive, which  can  be  considered  as  the  spirit  of  a  people  or  of 
humanity ;  individuals  alone  are  real.  But  as  there  exist  highly 
gifted  individuals  and  geniuses  among  all  races,  and  as  happy 
occasions  for  their  activity  may  occur  among  all  races,  we 
dare  not  deny  to  any  race  the  capacity  for  progress  and  a 
higher  cultivation. 

Our  investigations  of  the  physical  changes  of  man  have  ren- 
dered it  probable  that  the  race-type  may,  by  the  influence  of 
climate,  aliment,  mode  of  life,  and  social  condition,  be  slowly, 
and  to  some  extent  only,  altered.  Parallel  with  this  physical 
transformation,  we  may  also  assume  a  change  in  mental  capacity, 
which,  from  its  very  nature,  never  exhibits  itself  in  peoples  as 
something  fixed  and  unalterable,  but  as  fluctuating,  which  is 
proved  by  the  rise  and  decline  of  civilization  among  the 
same  people.  Materialists,  as  well  as  their  opponents,  admit 
that  physical  changes  influence  the  development  of  mental 
capacities.1  We  assert,  moreover,  in  opposition  to  the  usual 
theory,  that  the  degree  of  civilization  of  a  people,  or  of  an  in- 
dividual, is  exclusively  the  product  of  his  mental  capacity; 
that  his  capacities,  which  designate  merely  the  magnitude 
of  his  performances,  depend  on  the  degree  of  cultivation 
which  he  has  already  reached.  The  capacities  of  a  people  do 
not  alter  merely  in  the  course  of  time,  but  according  to  its  his- 
torical fate.  An  old  civilization  which  has  continued  for  cen- 
turies (shown  also  in  the  differences  exhibited  by  the  children 
of  the  same  people  in  different  ranks  of  society)  produces,  in 
combination  with  an  altered  mode  of  life,  social  relations,  etc., 
gradually  a  race  of  men  altered,  both  externally  and  psy- 
chically. 

If,  then,  we  are  agreed  that  an  absolute  judgment  regarding 
the  mental  capacity  of  a  people  or  race  is  impossible,  it  must 
also  be  admitted  that  it  would  be  extremely  difficult  to  base 
upon  it  specific  differences  of  mankind.  Two  groups  of  facts 

1  Remarks  on  the  subject  will  be  found  in  my  "  Allg.  Padagogik,"  p.  42. 


SECT.  II.]  CIVILIZATION    STATIONARY.  325 

are  opposed  to  it.  The  one  group  teaches  us  that  the  peoples 
which  occupy  the  lowest  place  in  humanity,  and  approach  the 
primitive  state,  do  not  all  belong  to  the  same,  but  to  different 
races ;  the  other  shows  that  within  every  race  there  are  peoples 
of  different  degrees  of  development,  and  that  peoples  of  the 
same  stock  may  live  near  each  other,  the  one  progressing,  the 
other  remaining  in  a  stationary  condition. 

The  inhabitants  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  the  Australians,  the 
Bushmen,  and  the  Hottentots  (included  by  some  in  the  Mongol 
race)  and  African  peoples,  occupy  the  lowest  stage  in  mental 
and  moral  development.  To  these  may  be  added  certain  tribes 
of  the  aborigines  of  the  Deccan  and  some  other  partly  straight 
or  frizzly-haired  natives  of  the  East  Indian  and  South  Sea  islands, 
who  are  not  sufficiently  known  to  us  to  allow  of  a  decided 
judgment.  Some  of  the  latter,  on  nearer  acquaintance,  have  not 
proved  so  crude  and  savage  as  they  were  described.  Of  all 
these  peoples  it  can  be  shown  that  external  nature  and  their 
social  condition  rendered  progress  next  to  impossible,  living  as 
they  did  in  a  sterile  stony  country,  which,  on  account  of  sur- 
rounding enemies,  they  were  unable  to  quit. 

It  is  true  enough  that  none  of  the  above  peoples  belonged  to 
the  so-called  Caucasian  race,  but,  as  will  be  shown,  there  exist 
also  among  the  latter  remarkable  contrasts.  Leaving  out  of 
view  the  peoples  of  the  north-east  of  Africa,  of  whom  it  is  yet 
doubtful  whether  they  belong  to  the  white  race,  we  might  still 
mention  the  Berbers,  the  Gruanches,  and  Abyssinians,  among 
whom  a  higher  civilization  has  never  taken  root.  Abyssinia  is 
a  Christian  country,  but  its  Christianity  consists  merely  of  ex- 
ternal ceremonies,  in  a  blue  string  of  silk,  which  as  a  mark  of 
faith,  is  worn  round  the  neck  in  crosses  and  rosaries.  The 
Christians  are  there  far  beneath  the  Moslems  in  industry  and 
honesty.1  Marriage  is  rarely  solemnized  in  the  church,  as  it  is 
then  indissoluble.  Polygamy,  though  not  authorized,  is  tole- 
rated (Riippell) ;  there  is  but  a  small  fine  attached  to  adultery ; 
nor  is  there  any  difference  made  between  legitimate  and  natural 


1  Riippell,  "  Eeise  in  Abyss.,"  i,  pp.  327,  366,  1840;  V.  Katte,  "Eeise  in 
Abyss./'  pp.  37,  97,  1838. 


326  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PAET   II. 

children  (Bruce) .  Cruel  punishments  by  mutilation  are  com- 
mon, the  mode  of  warfare  is  barbarous,  and  the  victor  cuts  off 
the  genitals  from  the  conquered,  without  killing  him,  to  carry 
them  off  as  trophies.1  Diseases  are  ascribed  to  witchcraft  and 
possession,  and  are  healed  by  exorcism.2  The  Guanches, 
though  a  half-civilized  people,  made  human  sacrifices  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  In  some  of  their  islands  (Lancerote  and  For- 
taventura)  there  existed  a  kind  of  polyandry,  which  permitted 
a  woman  to  have  three  husbands,  whilst  monogamy  prevailed  in 
the  other  islands.  They  seem  not  less  distinguished  by  their 
indolence,  for,  though  islanders,  they  have  never  built  ships  or 
boats.3  The  inhabitants  of  the  island  Sokotra,  now  Moham- 
medans, formerly  Jacobite  Christians,  belong  to  the  Arabian 
stock.  They  possess  scarcely  a  boat  fit  for  the  coasting 
trade,  denoting,  as  Guillain  justly  observes,4  a  mental  ob- 
tuseness  and  apathy  not  met  with  in  the  most  isolated  is- 
lands of  Polynesia;  and  yet  this  condition  has  continued  for 
centuries.  De  Barras5  says  of  them,  that  they  live  in  caves 
and  ravines,  and,  like  most  of  the  Abyssinians,  with  whom  he 
classifies  them,  are  clothed  in  undressed  skins.  The  Arabs  in 
Nubia  never  think  of  bodily  efforts  so  long  as  they  have  anything 
to  subsist  upon,  and  prefer  to  live  in  misery  than  labour  to  im- 
prove their  condition.6  Thieving  and  ingratitude  form  the  chief 
features  in  the  character  of  the  Arabs  of  the  north-east  coast 
of  Africa.7  The  Egyptians  are  equally  deficient  in  the  power  to 
execute  a  work  by  themselves  ;  yet  they  are  fit  for  all  kinds  of 
work,  but  they  must  be  driven  to  it  by  the  stick  ;  they  can 
do  everything  under  the  superintendence  of  those  they  fear. 
If,  then,  in  the  presence  of  these  facts,  we  hear  the  indolence 
of  the  Negroes  spoken  of  as  a  peculiarity  of  the  race,  which 
can  only  be  overcome  by  the  whip,  we  oppose  to  it  the  instance 

1  Bruce,   "Eeise  zum  Entd.  d.  Quellen  des  Nil,"  iii,  284,  1790;  Eochet 
d'Hericourt,  "  Seconde  Voyage,"  p.  187,  1846 ;  Brehm,  iii,  p.  234. 

2  Johnston,  loc.  cit.,  ii,  p.  328 ;  Salt,  "  Voyage  to  Abyssinia,"  p.  422,  1814 ; 
Harris,  "  Highlands  of  Ethiopia,"  ii,  pp.  157,  190,  2nd  edit.,  1844. 

3  Berthelot,  in  "  Mem.  de  la  Soc.  Ethnol.,"  i,  pp.  121, 155,  185,  210. 

4  "  Documents  sur  1'hist.la  geog.  et  le  comm.de  1'Afr.or.,"  ii,  pp.  1, 360, 1856. 

5  "  Geschichte  der  Entdeck.  der  Portugiesen,"  ii,  p.  12 ;  iii,  p.  112,  1821. 

6  Hoskins,  "  Travels  in  Ethiopia,"  p.  259,  1835. 

7  Werne,  "  Feldzug  v.  Sennaar  nach  Taka,"  pp.  121,  126,  1851. 


SECT.  II.]  EACE  ASCENDANCY.  327 

of  the  Arabs,  who  once  ruled  the  finest  parts  of  Europe,  and 
both  in  science  and  art,  excelled  most  nations  of  that  period. 

In  order  to  prove  the  natural  superiority  of  the  white  race 
over  all  others,  particular  stress  has  been  laid  on  the  circum- 
stance that  wheresoever  they  came  in  contact  with  the  latter, 
they  invariably  became  their  masters.  But  this  superiority,  as 
can  be  easily  shown,  is  not  owing  to  the  race  as  such,  but  to  their 
civilization.  Gunpowder,  brandy,  faithlessness,  and  cruelty, 
were  pretty  much  the  chief  means  by  which  the  aborigines  of 
their  respective  countries  were  subjected.  The  old  world  fur- 
nishes two  remarkable  exceptions  to  the  above  assumption. 
In  Hungary  and  Turkey,  peoples  of  a  foreign  stock  have  per- 
manently fixed  themselves  and  subjected  the  white  race;  and 
in  Africa,  the  Turks  subjected  the  Arabs  and  the  Berbers. 
How  long  in  the  West  Indies,  the  dominion  of  the  Whites, 
constituting  only  5  per  cent,  of  the  population,  may  last  after 
the  emancipation  of  the  Negroes,  is  very  doubtful,  unless  there 
be  a  constant  reinforcement  from  the  mother-country.1 

On  casting  a  retrospective  glance  at  the  numerous  facts,  and 
the  various  points  of  view  from  which  we  have  endeavoured  to 
elucidate  the  main  question,  we  are  irresistibly  led  to  the  con- 
clusion that  there  are  no  specific  differences  among  mankind 
with  regard  to  their  psychical  life.  The  great  difference  in 
civilization  amongst  peoples  of  the  same  stock,  testifies  that 
the  degree  of  civilization  does  not  chiefly  depend  on  organiza- 
tion or  mental  endowment. 

Those  modern  authors  who  recognize  only  a  specific  psychi- 
cal difference  between  the  white  and  the  black  races,  proceed 
in  the  manner  of  those  who  assume  specific  physical  differ- 
ences between  them — namely,  they  view  only  the  extremes ; 
and  their  task  would  be  easy  enough  were  it  not  for  the  in- 
termediate transitions.  Nevertheless,  there  is  also  in  this 
respect  a  remarkable  parallelism  between  the  mental  and  phy- 
sical provinces,  inasmuch  as  the  differences  of  mental  en- 
dowment and  development  in  individuals  of  the  same  race,  and 
in  the  same  people  at  different  periods,  are  not  less  considerable 

1  Doweling,  "  Religious  Partizanship/'  p.  55,  1854. 


328  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

than  those  which  are  described  as  specific  in  the  chief  races. 
Hence  it  is  inadmissible  to  assume  with  Klemm  and  Wuttke, 
active  and  passive  races ;  to  consider  like  Eichthal,  the  white 
man  as  the  representative  of  the  male,  and  the  Negro  as  the  re- 
presentative of  the  female  element  in  the  "  organism"  of  hu- 
manity, and  to  consider  both  as  necessary,  but  essentially  differ- 
ently endowed  members  of  it.  It  is  further  unreasonable  to 
ascribe,  like  Nott  and  Gliddon,  to  the  lower  races  merely  animal 
instincts,  but  to  the  white  races  a  higher  instinct  for  mental  pro- 
gress which  impels  them  to  their  historical  development.  All 
those  schematizing  theories,  however  plausible  they  may  be, 
are  irreconcilable  with  a  close  investigation  of  the  facts,  and 
we  hope  in  the  sequel  to  prove  their  groundlessness  by  more 
special  proofs  than  we  have  hitherto  been  able  to  adduce. 


SECTION    III. 

ON    THE    VARIOUS    DEGREES    OF    CIVILIZATION,    AND    THE 
CHIEF    CONDITIONS   OF   ITS   DEVELOPMENT. 

The  investigation  of  the  greatest  differences  existing  in  the 
psychical  life  of  mankind,  has  proved  unfavourable  to  the  as- 
sumption of  specific  differences,  which  we  felt  warranted  in 
considering  as  merely  fluctuating,  and  traceable  to  the  oppo- 
sition of  nature  and  cultivation.  The  correctness  of  this  view 
cannot,  however,  be  considered  as  established,  until  the  degrees 
intermediate  between  the  natural  and  the  civilized  state  have 
been  exposed,  so  as  to  show  that  the  progressive  mental  de- 
velopment of  some  peoples,  and  the  remarkable  stability  of 
others,  essentially  depend  upon  other  causes  than  on  the  differ- 
ences of  their  original  mental  endowment. 

That  the  so-called  lower  races  do  not  emerge  from  the  bar- 
barous state  in  which  they  have  apparently  been  from  time 
immemorial,  that  they  exhibit  no  desire  to  leave  it,  that  in 
spite  of  example  and  teaching  they  seein  to  remain  what  they 
ever  were,  can  no  doubt  very  easily  be  explained  by  the  as- 


SECT.  III.]          INFLUENCE    OP    SURROUNDING   NATURE.  329 

sumption  of  specific  differences.  Such  an  explanation,  how- 
ever, loses  its  probability  when  we  can  show  that  external  con- 
ditions and  historical  events  possess  a  more  decided  influence 
on  the  degree  of  the  development  of  mankind.  In  order  to  ar- 
rive at  a  true  estimate  of  human  nature  itself,  and  the  various 
states  of  civilization  in  which  we  find  man,  we  must  first  ex- 
amine what  it  is  that  induces  him  to  leave  the  natural  state, 
what  leads  him  from  one  step  of  development  to  a  higher  one, 
and  what  delays  and  prevents  his  mental  elevation  or  renders 
it  stationary. 

These  questions  are  as  comprehensive  as  they  are  difficult, 
so  that  a  satisfactory  answer  can  scarcely  be  hoped  for.  This 
consideration  does  not  restrain  us  from  making  the  attempt, 
though  we  are  conscious  that  the  results  can  be  but  incomplete. 
Besides,  such  an  investigation  however  imperfect  it  may  be, 
deserves  some  acknowledgment  in  opposition  to  the  simple 
declaration  that  the  various  degrees  of  civilization  resulted 
from  specific  psychical  differences,  inasmuch  as  it  traces  the 
differences  of  culture  back  to  certain  causes  and  motives, 
whilst  the  assumption  of  specific  psychical  differences  cuts  the 
matter  short  ab  initio,  thus  leaving  the  various  phenomena  of 
progressive  civilization  unexplained. 

The  paramount  influence  which  surrounding  nature  has  on 
the  development  of  the  human  being,  is  generally  admitted. 
It  is  usually  the  more  powerful  the  nearer  a  people  is  to  the 
natural  state,  and  diminishes  in  influence  in  proportion  as  hu- 
man art  and  science  gain  power  over  it,  though  even  in  civi- 
lized communities,  agriculture,  industry,  or  trade,  remain  per- 
manently under  the  influence  of  the  nature  of  the  country.  It 
is  evident  that  the  manner  in  which  the  above  pursuits  are 
followed  is  one  of  the  most  important  agents,  and  gives  a 
national  stamp  to  the  mental  individuality  of  a  people. 

The  first  and  most  important  influence  which  man  experiences 
from  surrounding  nature  is  that  of  its  climatic  condition.  It  is 
not  easy  correctly  to  estimate  its  influence  upon  mental  devel- 
opment ;  for  we  meet  here  with  the  same  difficulty,  as  when  we 
treated  of  its  influence  in  physical  development,  inasmuch  as  it 
acts  in  combination  with  other  agents,  and  we  are  unable  posi- 


330  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

tively  to  state  what  belongs  to  it  exclusively.  Thus  much  may, 
however,  be  asserted — that  a  hot  climate  renders  physical,  and 
still  more,  mental  labour  difficult,  induces  man  to  consider  every 
kind  of  effort  as  a  greater  evil,  and  indolence  as  a  greater 
enjoyment  than  is  the  case  in  temperate  or  cold  regions.  The 
European  experiences  such  sensations  when  he  settles  in  a 
tropical  climate,  and  it  can  scarcely  be  supposed  that  they  are 
essentially  different  in  the  natives  of  hot  climates,  because 
their  organism  is  not  only  habituated  to  them,  but  also  con- 
forms like  that  of  the  European  to  his  own  climate.  Although 
we  may  admit  that  the  influence  of  climate  acts  more  in- 
tensely on  strangers  than  on  the  natives,  it  can  scarcely  be 
denied  that  the  latter,  whose  organism  is  in  harmony  with 
the  climatic  condition  of  their  country,  possess  by  nature  such 
qualities  of  temperament  as  are  only  gradually  developed 
in  the  immigrant.  The  intense  reluctance  against  labour  of 
any  kind,  especially  mental,  among  the  Europeans  in  Africa, 
the  white  Creoles  in  West  India  and  other  tropics,  is  generally 
known.  It  must  further  be  taken  into  consideration,  that  the 
European  is,  in  his  own  country,  brought  up  to  labour  and  self- 
control,  which  the  natives  of  the  above  countries  are  not.  We 
can  thus  hardly  make  the  mental  capacity  responsible  for  their 
want  of  energy.  When  we  hear  of  the  "  unconquerable  disin- 
clination" for  mental  efforts  which  distinguishes  the  Whites  in 
hot  climates,1  it  must,  at  least,  appear  very  doubtful  whether 
they  would  by  themselves  have  there  acquired  that  high  degree  of 
mental  development  from  which  they  now  look  down  with  con- 
tempt upon  the  Negro.  Foissac2  has  pointed  out  that  in  many 
tropical  countries  where  the  mortality  is  great  (inBatavia,  1  :  28 ; 
in  Guadeloupe,  1:27;  Bombay,  1  : 20 ;  Guanaxato,  in  Mexico, 
1  : 19),  there  was  also  a  proportionately  great  prolificacy.  We 
cannot  agree  with  him  in  considering  this  circumstance  as  the 
cause  of  these  peoples  constantly  remaining  in  a  certain  state 
of  childhood.  Thus  much,  however,  must  be  admitted,  that  the 

1  Europeans  at  Java  complain  that  the  climate  admits  of  no  mental  effort. 
Their  children  show  a  decided  reluctance  to  engage  in  serious  occupations; 
drawing,  music,  etc.,  they  learn  easily  (Selberg,  "  K.  nach  Java,"  p.  189, 1846). 

»  Loc.  cit.,  p.  164. 


SECT.  III.]  EFFECTS    OF    CLIMATE.          .  331 

physical  precocity  which  is  the  effect  of  climate  shortens  the  pe- 
riod of  infancy  (the  long  duration  of  which  has  been  considered 
as  a  distinguishing  feature  of  man  above  brutes) ,  so  that  shortly 
after  puberty  both  sexes  enter  into  new  relations,  in  which  they 
are  burdened  with  cares  for  others  which  leave  them  neither  the 
inclination  nor  the  leisure  for  their  own  further  development. 

If,  moreover,  as  is  frequently  the  case  in  the  torrid  zone, 
nature  yields  her  gifts  freely  in  supporting  man,  labour  and 
mental  activity  naturally  languish,  and  the  mind  is  rendered 
passive.  Again,  if  nature,  as  in  very  cold  climates,  bestows 
her  gifts  too  sparingly,  the  great  effort  to  obtain  the  actual 
necessaries  of  life  consumes  all  powers ;  and  there  results,  in 
this  case  also,  though  from  opposite  causes,  a  proportionate 
desire  of  rest  and  a  mental  obtuseness,  which  prevent  any 
attempt  at  a  higher  civilization.  The  Pisang  or  Banana  tree, 
which  is  for  the  inhabitant  of  the  torrid  zone  what  the  cereals  are 
for  West  Asia  and  Europe,  produces  in  the  same  space  twenty 
times  as  much  aliment  as  the  latter.  "  We  often  hear  in  the 
Spanish  colonies  the  assertion,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  Tierra 
calicnte  cannot  raise  themselves  from  the  state  of  apathy  in  which 
they  have  been  sunk  for  centuries,  until  a  royal  decree  orders 
the  destruction  of  the  Banana  plantations/'1  As,  moreover, 
lakes  and  rivers  contain  innumerable  birds,  it  is  conceivable 
that  the  want  of  domestic  animals  cannot  be  much  felt.  In  Nica- 
ragua, and  also  in  Costa  Rica,  a  small  family  may,  for  six 
cents,  buy  as  much  food  (chiefly  beans)  as  they  require  for 
a  week.2  Hence,  there  is  no  inducement  to  labour  in  these 
parts.  Gruyot3  observes,  that,  with  regard  to  the  effect  of  sur- 
rounding nature  on  man,  the  native  of  the  tropics  may  be  com- 
pared with  the  son  of  a  princely  house,  and  he  of  the  north 
with  the  son  of  a  beggar,  he  of  the  temperate  zone  as  belong- 
ing to  the  middle  classes,  which  state  alone  experiences  all  the 
impulses  for  labour  and  civilization.  History  confirms  it,  that 
all  cultured  nations,  and  especially  such  as  have  taken  the  initia- 

1  Humboldt  und  Bonpland,  "  Reise,"  ii,  p.  12 ;  Humboldt,  "  Neu-Spanien," 
iii,  pp.  12,  23,  142. 

2  Squier,   "Travels  in  Central  America/'  i,  p.  274,  1853;  Wagner  and 
Scherzer,  "  Costa  Rica,"  p.  147,  1856. 

3  "  Grundz.  der  vgl.  Erdkunde,"  p.  227,  1851. 


332  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PAET   II. 

tive  in  development,  belong  to  the  temperate  zone,  though  a 
certain  grandeur  in  material  civilization  cannot  be  denied  to 
some  peoples  of  hot  countries.  These  phenomena  are  probably 
connected  with  another  influence  of  climate  upon  the  mental 
peculiarity  of  man,  namely,  its  influence  upon  the  imagination. 
A  hot  climate  has,  in  every  respect,  a  relaxing  influence ;  with 
the  reluctance  to  bodily  effort,  there  is  a  corresponding  in- 
ertness of  thought  and  deficient  energy  of  the  will.  But 
this  laxity  is  associated  with  a  greater  intensity  and  restlessness 
of  movements,  a  greater  amount  of  physical  and  psychical  irri- 
tation whenever  the  state  of  rest  is  abandoned.  The  incredible 
efforts  and  lasting  power  which  the  Negro  exhibits  in  the  dance, 
the  explosions  of  the  passions,  the  licentious  excesses,  prove 
the  remarkable  ability  of  the  southern  character  to  move  within 
much  greater  extremes  than  the  inhabitants  of  temperate 
climates.  It  is  not  that  the  native  of  the  tropics  is  more  easily 
aroused ;  only,  when  aroused,  the  energy  is  far  more  intense :  we 
need  only  refer  to  the  running  "  Amock"  among  the  Malays.  We 
find  among  the  natives  of  a  hot  climate  a  comparatively  low 
psychical  culture,  which  has  never  properly  penetrated  the 
mass,  a  cultivation  the  remarkable  material  performances  of 
which  could  only  be  effected  by  the  most  unlimited  despotism. 
The  grotesque  ornamentation  of  their  images,  the  grandeur  of 
their  buildings,  the  fantastic  representations  of  their  deities, 
all  which  transcends  the  imagination  of  the  northern  nations, 
give  abundant  testimony  of  the  eccentric  "  glowing"  fancy  of 
the  inhabitant  of  the  tropics,  as  well  as  that  displayed  in  all 
Oriental  tales.  The  peoples  of  the  south  have  a  particular  pre- 
dilection for  glitter  and  splendour,  and  for  riotous  pleasures, 
whilst  their  sense  for  the  really  beautiful,  for  calm  contempla- 
tion of  the  beauties  of  nature,  is  very  defective ;  even  the  South 
European,  like  the  Mexican,  is  enthusiastically  fond  of  pyro- 
technic displays.  The  Brazilians  also  celebrate  their  festivals 
with  the  greatest  possible  noise ;  artillery  discharges  and  fire- 
works are  indispensable  adjuncts.1  The  Oriental,  observes 
Hitter,2  and  especially  the  Arab,  is  deficient  in  the  perception 

1  W.  H.  Edwards,  "  Voyage  up  the  river  Amazon,"  chap,  xix,  1847. 

2  "  Erdkunde,"  viii,  p.  42. 


SECT.  III.]  EFFECTS    OF   CLIMATE.  333 

of  the  beauties  of  nature,  which  distinguishes  the  European. 
It  is  a  rare  exception  that  the  inhabitants  of  Ualan  (Carolina) 
cultivate  flower  gardens/  and  that  some  Polynesian  tribes  use 
flowers  as  ornaments. 

It  has  often  been  observed  that  Southrons  differ  in  many 
characteristic  features  from  the  Northern  inhabitants  though 
belonging  to  the  same  people,  a  difference  not  so  much,  per- 
haps, the  result  of  the  climate  itself  as  of  the  different  mode 
of  life.  Lyell,2  speaking  of  the  hospitality  to  strangers  in  the 
slave  states,  observes,  "  There  is  a  warm  and  noble  candour  in 
the  character  of  the  Southerners,  which  mere  wealth  cannot  im- 
part, and  there  is  in  their  bearing  a  dignity,  without  stiffness, 
which  is  very  pleasing/'  The  descent  of  these  Southrons  is 
essentially  the  same  as  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Northern 
states,  but  they  are  not,  like  the  former,  engaged  in  a  constant 
rivalry  with  each  other  :  they  live  as  planters,  in  the  conscious- 
ness of  possessing  unlimited  power  over  their  slaves  upon  their 
own  property.  All  this  produces  a  certain  feeling  of  security, 
which  induces  them  neither  modestly  to  conceal  their  virtues 
nor  to  be  ashamed  of  their  vices.  In  like  manner  we  find  in 
Europe,  among  the  Southern  nations,  a  richer  imagination,  a 
greater  vividness,  combined  with  less  perseverance,  whilst  the 
Northerners  are  more  serious  and  reserved,  less  noisy  in  their 
pleasures,  and  more  phlegmatic.  Here,  also,  we  find  that  edu- 
cation and  social  habits,  which  impose  a  greater  degree  of  self- 
restraint,  are  more  potent  than  the  climate.  Still  there  must 
be  a  definite  influence  of  climate  in  this  respect  when  we  hear, 
that  in  all  parts  of  Spanish  America  there  exists  as  great  a 
contrast  between  the  inhabitants  of  the  hot  plains  and  those  in 
the  Cordilleras,  as  between  the  Northern  and  Southern  nations 
of  Europe;  the  former  appear  to  the  latter  cold  and  lifeless, 
whilst  the  Southrons  are  accused  of  levity  and  inconstancy.3 

Wherever  climate,  the  nature  of  the  country,  and  social  re- 
lations are  decidedly  unfavourable,  man's  progress  to  civiliza- 
tion is  seriously  obstructed.  An  unhealthy  climate  enfeebles 

1  Lesson,  "  Voyage  med.  autour  du  monde,"  p.  128,  1829. 

2  "  Second  Voyage." 

3  Humboldt,  "  Neu-Spanien,"  iv,  p.  319. 


334  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

body  and  mind,  so  that  man's  efforts  scarcely  suffice  to  provide 
for  his  physical  existence.  If  nature  yields  quantitatively  but  a 
scanty  subsistence,  man  is  frequently  exposed  to  want,  and 
physical  and  mental  debility  must  be  the  result.  If,  in  addi- 
tion, his  nation  is  surrounded  by  inimical  tribes,  so  that  it 
must  live  in  a  state  of  isolation,  every  progress  is  clearly  ob- 
structed whatever  may  be  the  original  mental  endowment.  But 
in  such  a  condition  are  most  of  the  peoples  who  occupy  the 
lowest  scale  in  civilization  :  the  Bosjesmans,  the  natives  of 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  a  considerable  number  of  the  Australians ; 
also  the  black  aborigines  of  many  East  India  islands,  who  live, 
as  it  were,  imprisoned  by  the  Malays  of  the  coast,  and  the 
savage  tribes  of  the  Vindjha  mountains,  of  the  Deccan,  and 
other  parts  of  India,  etc. 

The  results  will  be  more  favourable,  where  a  people  living  in 
a  healthy  climate  is  master  of  the  soil  and  its  products.  In 
such  a  condition  are  the  greater  portion  of  the  natives  of  Ame- 
rica and  Africa,  and  they  stand  somewhat  higher  in  civilization 
than  the  above-mentioned  nations.  It  is  surrounding  nature 
which  first  determines  the  direction  of  their  activity,  for  on 
it  depends  what  means,  instruments,  and  skill  are  requisite 
to  satisfy  their  daily  wants,  and  what  difficulties  they  have 
to  contend  with.  It  is  easily  seen  how  great  must  be  the 
difference  it  makes  in  the  character  of  a  people,  whether  the 
chase,  fishing,  gathering  of  fruits,  or  the  breeding  of  cattle  and 
agriculture  constitute  the  essential  subsistence  of  a  people. 

Where  vegetable  food  is  not  abundant,  there  will  originally 
arise  a  tendency  to  a  hunting  life — first,  because,  if  successful, 
it  yields  in  a  short  time  a  large  amount  of  aliment;  and  secondly, 
because  the  excitement  which  attends  it  is  more  adapted  to  the 
feeling  of  strength  and  the  natural  inclination  than  the  tame 
collecting  of  fruit.  However,  the  first  important  result  of  a 
hunting  life  is,  the  scattering  of  the  population  in  small  masses 
which  require  a  large  area,  which  by  itself  renders  any  advance 
in  civilization  impossible,  a  relatively  dense  population  with  its 
multifarious  reciprocal  relations  being  an  indispensable  con- 
dition of  civilization.  The  hunters,  moreover,  must  follow  the 
game  ;  they  form  no  permanent  settlements ;  their  migrations 


SECT.  III.]  LIFE  OP  PRIMITIVE  PEOPLES.  335 

entangle  them  in  various  wars  for  the  possession  of  fresh  lands 
— all  which  obstruct  civilization.  Sometimes  it  is  but  one 
beast  upon  which  the  existence  of  such  hunting  tribes  de- 
pends. Thus,  in  the  immense  prairies  between  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  Mississippi,  it  is  the  buffalo.  It  pro- 
vides the  Sioux  with  aliment,  clothing,  sinews  for  their  bows, 
thread,  strings,  harness  and  saddles,  water-vessels,  boats, 
glue,  and  skins,  etc.,1  just  as  in  many  tropical  countries 
the  palm  tree  provides  most  of  the  necessities  of  the  natives. 
Wherever  the  game  is  not  fit  to  supply  these  wants,  the  animal 
and  the  mineral  kingdom  must  yield  their  quota.  Wood,  stones, 
and  bones  are  used  as  weapons  until  some  happy  accident  leads 
to  the  use  of  metals — a  decided  step  towards  a  superior  material 
culture  when  it  rests  upon  invention,  but  much  less  so  when 
the  introduction  of  the  metals  depends  on  a  stranger,  because 
of  their  fabrication  being  unknown  to  the  natives. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  hunter  result  from  his  mode 
of  life ;  he  becomes  familiar  with  danger ;  accustomed  to  hard- 
ships, he  grows  bold  and  energetic.  A  feeling  of  independence 
is  developed,  in  the  wars  with  his  neighbours  he  is  never  en- 
tirely subjected  and  reduced  to  slavery,  as  his  steeled  elastic 
organism  still  retains  something  of  the  original  impulse  for 
liberty.  As  a  warrior,  hatred  and  revenge  stimulate  him  to 
bold  deeds;  but  there  is  also  cunning,  treachery,  and  cruelty 
in  his  character,  for  a  certain  savageness  is  the  almost  unavoid- 
able concomitant  of  the  habit  of  killing  and  the  excitement 
attendant  on  hunting ;  the  cunning  it  requires,  the  mode  of  slay- 
ing the  game,  lead  to  a  corresponding  treatment  of  human  be- 
ings who  meet  him  as  enemies.  Wild  animals  are  the  benefactors 
of  the  huntsman,  as  his  subsistence  depends  on  them,  but  often 
his  life  is  endangered  by  them ;  hence  his  religious  ideas  are 
shaped  accordingly,  the  animal  world  is  for  him  a  spiritual 
world,  a  realm  of  mythological  beings.8 

1  Perrin  du  Lac,  "  Reise  in  d.  beiden  Louisianen,"  ii,  p.  27,  Leipz.,  1807. 

2  It  is  a  mistaken  idea  of  Muller's  ("  Gesch.  der  Am.  TJrrelig,"  p.  60, 1855), 
that  the  primitive  man  beholds  in  the  animal  a  manifestation  of  the  general 
power  of  nature,  and  not  a  being  with  individual  consciousness.     On  the 
contrary,  the  primitive  man  looks  upon  all  phenomena  as  individual  pheno- 
mena; the  idea  of  a  universal  power  of  nature  is  beyond  his  conception. 


336  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

Simpson1  observes  justly,  that  the  character  of  peoples 
living  together  in  masses  differs  greatly  from  those  who  wander 
about  scattered  in  the  woods,  or  live  by  fishing.  This  is  es- 
pecially shown  on  comparing  fishing  with  hunting  peoples. 

The  fisher  requires  instruments  differing  much  from  those  of 
the  hunter.  They  are  generally  less  varied  in  shape,  nor  does 
the  fisher  require  such  an  acute  perception  of  the  phenomena 
of  nature ;  his  experience  is  less,  and  hence  his  mental  horizon 
is  more  limited.  His  mode  of  life  is  not  apt  to  call  forth  that 
energy  of  character  which  distinguishes  the  hunter ;  he  is  not 
a  warrior,  has  no  ambition,  no  confidence  in  his  own  strength, 
no  love  for  liberty.  The  greater  security  for  subsistence 
without  much  effort  makes  him  indolent,  and  he  is  gene- 
rally very  deficient  in  cleanliness.  Fishing  peoples,  how- 
ever, occupy  a  higher  state  when  they  live  on  the  coast, 
carrying  on  a  coasting  trade,  and  in  the  struggle  with  the  ele- 
ments they  have  to  display  more  invention  and  courage  than  the 
river  fishers.  The  intercourse  with  strangers  also  contributes 
to  stimulate  their  activity,  especially  if  fishing  does  not  form 
their  sole  means  of  subsistence.  The  gathering  of  wild  grow- 
ing fruits  is  but  little  calculated  to  promote  intellectual  de- 
velopment ;  it  becomes  nevertheless  important  as  leading  to 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  the  thought  of  which  must  naturally 
arise  when  the  fruit  does  not  grow  in  sufficient  abundance.  It 
is  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  which  may  be  considered  as  the 
first  and  necessary  stage  from  which  civilization  proceeds. 

Agriculture  may,  however,  be  carried  on  in  a  way  that 
proves  but  a  weak  lever  of  civilization.  Numerous  instances 
in  all  parts  of  the  world  may  be  cited  to  that  effect.  In  the 
north-west  of  the  great  prairies  of  North  America  rice  grows 
wild  in  large  quantities,  extending  from  31-50°  N.  lat.,  and 

When  water,  a  tiger,  a  serpent,  do  any  mischief,  it  is  an  individual  evil  spirit 
which  has  incited  them  to  do  so.  It  is  not  the  genus  or  the  species  which 
inspires  the  primitive  man  with  awe,  and  which  he  worships.  Even  where 
all  the  animals  of  a  certain  species  are  worshipped,  it  is  only  the  particular 
individual  which  is  honoured  as  the  incarnation  of  an  individual  spirit.  The 
travestying  of  natural  forces  into  mythological  persons,  does  not  correspond 
with  the  intuition  of  the  primitive  man ;  but  he  beholds  in  what  we  call 
nature  a  number  of  mysterious,  arbitrarily  acting,  individual  beings. 
1  "  Narrative  of  a  Journey  round  the  world,"  i,  p.  251,  1847. 


SECT.  III.]  NOMADIC  LIFE.  337 

from  the  Atlantic  to  St.  Peter's  River/  and  next  to  fish  is 
the  chief  nutriment  of  the  Chippeways  and  other  tribes.  It  is 
not  sown,  whilst  many  other  North  American  peoples,  besides 
being  hunters,  also  sow  some  cereals,  chiefly  maize.  Among 
these  agriculture  is  only  a  temporary  expedient ;  they  carry  it  on 
irregularly,  reap  what  they  have  sown,  and  move  further  on,  thus 
remaining  nomadic  despite  their  agricultural  pursuits,  which, 
moreover,  only  occupy  them  in  summer,  whilst  the  chase  is 
followed  in  winter.  Under  such  circumstances,  it  is  evidently, 
as  regards  the  civilization  of  a  people,  of  little  importance 
whether  they  cultivate  the  soil,  or  merely  gather  the  wild  grow- 
ing fruit,  for  they  do  not  become  attached  to  the  soil ;  and  in 
such  cases  agriculture  contributes  but  little  to  change  the  cha- 
racter of  the  people. 

Neither  do  we  find  in  most  Negro  countries  any  progressive 
civilization,  though  agriculture  exists  to  a  considerable  extent, 
the  mode  of  life  not  being  nomadic,  and  the  social  relations 
being  more  developed  than  among  the  natives  of  America.  But 
the  comparatively  low  degree  of  civilization  among  the  Negroes 
may  be  chiefly  explained  by  the  relaxing  effects  of  the  climate, 
the  geographical  position  of  these  regions,  the  few  requirements 
as  regards  dress,  food,  and  habitation,  all  which  nature  yields  in 
abundance,  and  are  obtainable  by  the  simplest  efforts.  The 
quantity  and  productiveness  of  vegetables,  the  possession  of 
domestic  and  gregarious  animals,  combined  with  the  industry 
of  the  women,  who  mostly  cultivate  the  soil,  are  more  than  suf- 
ficient to  provide  the  Negro  with  all  the  comforts  which  check 
the  impulse  to  a  higher  civilization. 

We  perceive  hence  that  even  the  breeding  of  domestic  ani- 
mals and  cattle  by  itself  is  not  sufficient  to  lead  to  progressive 
civilization.  A  nomadic  pastoral  life  cannot  be  considered  as 
an  advance  compared  with  a  fishing  or  hunting  life.  The 
Hottentots  were  in  possession  of  numerous  flocks  and  herds 
when  the  Europeans  first  visited  their  country ;  and  the  Kaffirs 
are  a  pastoral  people  to  this  day.  Cattle  breeding  does  not 
necessarily  lead  to  a  settled  life,  though  it  is  compatible  with 

1  Keating,  "  Narrative  of  an  Expedition  to  the  source  of  St.  Peter's  River," 
ii,  pp.  107,  146,  1825. 


338  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

it,  and  renders  it  more  secure  if  combined  with  agriculture.  It 
is  on  this  combination  that  progressive  civilization  depends ; 
separately  they  effect  but  little.  Here  it  may  be  right  to 
mention,  that  in  the  whole  of  America,  Peru  alone,  at  an 
early  period,  had  domesticated  animals,  namely,  the  llama 
and  alpaca,  whilst  of  edible  plants,  it  possessed  the  potato 
and  the  quinoa.  With  the  exception  of  Peru,  pastoral  life 
could  not  prevail  in  the  New  World,  the  want  of  which,  as 
Humboldt1  has  shown,  exercised  a  decisive  influence  on  the 
civilization  of  the  inhabitants.  The  dog  was  much  used  as  a 
beast  of  burden,  and  its  influence  on  the  mode  of  life  of  the 
natives  was  unimportant.  Even  the  horse,  which  the  Europeans 
introduced  into  the  Northern  and  Southern  continent,  has 
proved  ineffectual  in  America  as  a  means  of  civilization,  show- 
ing plainly  that  the  effect  produced  by  the  most  important 
domestic  animals  depends  on  the  mode  of  life  and  the  degree 
of  cultivation  which  the  people  had  then  already  acquired. 
The  buffalo  chase,  without  the  horse,  must  be  more  difficult 
and  less  productive,  as  the  buffaloes  are  gregarious,  and  swift- 
ness is  more  requisite  than  craft.  Little  apt  for  breeding  in 
general,  the  American  has  not  used  the  horse  for  such  a  pur- 
pose :  he  catches  it  according  to  his  requirements,  so  that  this 
animal  merely  contributed  in  inducing  him  to  continue  a  hunting 
life.  On  the  other  hand,  the  camel,  which  was  but  introduced 
into  Africa  from  the  East  in  the  third  century,2  is,  in  the 
deserts  of  North  Africa  and  Arabia,  often  the  sole  means  of 
subsistence ;  its  milk,  its  endurance  and  usefulness  as  a  beast 
of  burden,  have  rendered  these  parts  accessible,  and  almost 
everywhere  has  this  animal  exercised  an  important  influence  011 
the  mode  of  life.  This  applies  also  to  the  horse  in  relation  to 
the  equestrian  nations  of  the  interior  of  Asia  and  the  greater 
portion  of  Arabia. 

The  climatic  conditions  which  so  much  influence  the  tem- 
perament and  character,  and  the  natural  products  which  deter- 
mine the  modes  of  life,  are  not  the  sole  agents  in  the  develop- 


1  "  Reise  in  die  JSqninoctialg."  ii,  p.  382,  ed.  Hauff. 

2  "  L'Institut./'  p.  136,  1857. 


SECT.  III.]  HUNTING  LIFE.  339 

ment  of  civilization.    The  geographical  position  of  the  country, 
the  quality  of  the  surface  are  no  mean  elements. 

Unquestionably  important  as  all  these  elements  are,  we  must 
be  cautious  not  to  exaggerate  them.  Montesquieu  has  evi- 
dently over-estimated  the  influence  of  climate  by  propound- 
ing the  theory  that  republics  can  only  thrive  in  cold,  despotism 
only  in  hot  countries,  and  constitutional  monarchies  in  tem- 
perate climates.  Latterly,  it  has  even  been  promulgated  that 
moral  purity  and  courage  are  incompatible  with  tropical  heat, 
and  a  love  of  liberty  has  been  ascribed  to  mountaineers,  etc. 
Granted  that  some  of  these  relations  actually  exist,  they  must 
be  limited  thus  far,  that  dissipation  and  excesses  are  more  pe- 
culiar to  the  southern  temperament,  and  moderation  to  the 
nothern  temperament.  A  deduction  of  the  national  character 
and  the  civilization  of  nations  solely  from  the  nature  of  the 
climate  and  the  soil,  as  Weerth1  has  made,  is  easily  refuted. 
With  regard  to  the  above-mentioned  characteristics  we  are  re- 
minded that  the  morals  of  the  Kamtschatdales,  Aleutes,  and 
some  other  northern  nations  are  as  corrupt  as  possible ;  that 
the  bravery  of  the  Arabs,  of  some  Malays  and  Negro-tribes  is 
exemplary ;  that  carnage  and  cruelty  reach  a  very  high  degree 
among  many  hunting  nations  of  North  America ;  whilst  on  the 
other  hand,  many  inhabitants  of  the  tropics  in  America,  as  well 
as  in  Africa,  are  distinguished  by  their  peaceable  character, 
and  that  mountaineers  can  more  easily  escape  subjection  than 
the  inhabitants  of  valleys.  An  innate  love  of  liberty  moreover 
distinguishes  the  tribes  occupying  the  plains  of  North  America. 
It  is  equally  inadmissible  to  transfer  the  poetical  impressions 
which  the  civilized  man  receives  from  what  is  grand  in  nature 
to  the  primitive  man,  as  all  aesthetical  conceptions  of  nature 
are  partly  the  reflex  of  a  rich  cultivated  imagination,  which  the 
primitive  man  does  not  possess.  The  religious  ideas  and 
legends  of  primitive  peoples  prove  this  sufficiently.  Plants, 
useful  or  dangerous  animals  play  in  them  a  sensible  part,  but 
of  the  conception  of  the  grand  and  beautiful  in  nature 
there  is  no  trace,  nature  being  exclusively  looked  at  in  rela- 

1  "  D.  Entw.  der  Menschenrassen,"  184-2. 

z  2 


310  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

tion  to  its  use  or  its  danger,  and  the  fear  with  which  it  in- 
spires man. 

No  less  caution  is  required  in  estimating  the  influence  of 
geographical  condition  on  human  civilization.  Gruyot  deduces 
from  geographical  conditions  alone,  the  axiom,  that  the  peoples 
of  the  three  large  northern  continents  of  the  globe  have  the  mis- 
sion to  undertake  the  psychical  development  of  humanity,  whilst 
those  of  the  southern  parts  have  only  to  follow  them,  and  that 
some  have  no  substantive  power  whatever  to  become  civilized 
by  their  own  efforts. 

If  the  question  were  merely  to  decide  which  countries  are,  in 
consequence  of  their  geographical  condition,  most  capable  of 
promoting  civilization,  Europe  would  certainly  bear  away  the 
palm.  C.  Hitter1  has  shown  that  Europe  possesses  propor- 
tionately the  greatest  coast-line,  that  the  positions  of  its 
islands  and  peninsulas  are  excellent,  whilst  other  quarters 
of  the  world  are  much  less  favoured  by  nature.  Thus 
the  interior  of  Africa  is  almost  shut  out  of  this  advantage ; 
the  interior  of  Asia  seems  destined  for  ever  to  remain  the 
home  of  nomadic  life ;  whilst  the  forelands  and  peninsulas  of 
this  part  are  by  nature  rendered  accessible  to  civilization. 
Hitter  also  points  out  with  regard  to  Egypt,2  that  the  seclusion 
of  that  country  by  the  desert,  the  regular  rise  of  the  Nile, — the 
condition  of  all  fertility, — the  absence  of  tide,  and  some  other 
circumstances,  have  naturally  led  to  that  concentration  of  acti- 
vity and  seclusion  which  distinguished  old  Egyptian  civilization. 
Whilst  the  peoples  beyond  the  valley  of  the  Nile  remained 
nomadic,  those  within  the  valley  passed  easily  from  a  pastoral 
to  an  agricultural  life,  and  the  river  stimulated  their  scientific 
efforts  in  the  development  of  navigation,  water- works,  and  in- 
directly, geometry,  astronomy,  and  chronology.  That  the 
stationary  character  of  civilization  in  some  peoples  is  frequently 
owing  to  the  disadvantages  of  surrounding  nature  has  been  ex- 
emplified in  the  Bretons.3  A  nomadic  life  was  impossible  in 


1  TJeber    rauml.   Anordnungen    auf   d.   Aussenseite    des   Erdballs  in   d. 
Abh.  d.  Berl.  Akad.,  1849. 

2  "  Erdkunde,"  i,  p.  875. 

3  Courson,  "  Hist,  des  peuples  Bretons,"  i,  p.  186,  1846. 


SECT.  III.]  CAUSES  OF  CIVILIZATION.  341 

their  country.  Isolated  by  mountains  and  surrounded  by 
enemies,  it  was  too  confined  to  furnish  them  a  subsist- 
ence without  agriculture;  its  steep  coasts  exposed  to  the 
westerly  winds  did  not  admit  of  fishing  during  a  portion  of  the 
year,  nor  was  the  nature  of  the  country  favourable  to  the  chase 
or  a  nomadic  pastoral  life.  The  more  difficult  culture  is,  the 
slower  is  its  progress,  and  every  industry  requires,  as  Chaptal 
expresses  it,  like  every  plant,  its  own  peculiar  soil. 

The  importance  of  the  above  conditions  for  the  development 
of  the  life  of  peoples  is  manifest.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
whatever  that  the  variety  of  surface,  combined  with  a  tem- 
perate climate,  have  been  essential  elements  in  the  production 
of  that  high  degree  of  civilization  which  Europe  has  reached. 
This,  however,  does  not  justify  us  in  attributing  the  civilization 
of  the  European,  nor  the  barbarism  prevailing  in  Africa  and 
Australia,  to  geographical  conditions  alone.  Thus  we  find  that 
the  difference  existing  in  Africa  between  the  Negroes  of  the 
coast  and  the  interior  is  just  the  reverse  of  what  we  might  ex- 
pect according  to  the  above  theory,  for  the  latter  stand,  in  spirit 
and  character,  much  higher  than  the  former.  Whilst  elsewhere 
the  proximity  of  the  sea  promotes  civilization,  it  isolates,  as 
Hollard  observes,  in  Africa,  whilst  the  interior  is  more  favour- 
able to  the  intercourse  of  peoples. 

Two  points  must  never  be  lost  sight  of  in  estimating  the  in- 
fluence of  geographical  conditions  in  promoting  or  obstructing 
civilization.  The  first  is  the  relative  value  of  these  conditions, 
which  partly  depends  on  the  degree  of  civilization  already  ob- 
tained by  a  people,  and  thug  differs  in  its  effects  ;  and  secondly, 
the  important  distinction  of  positive  impulses  to  culture 
from  merely "  occasional  opportunities,  which  may  remain  un- 
used, if  the  former  be  wanting.  These  two  points  are  inti- 
mately connected.  The  example  of  Europe  shows  that  what 
we  have  termed  occasional  causes  of  civilization  are  the  more 
made  use  of,  the  higher  the  degree  of  civilization  which  has 
already  been  attained  by  a  people.  A  favourable  geographical 
position,  the  nature  of  the  coasts,  the  richness  of  the  soil, 
either  on  or  below  the  surface,  become  important  means  of 
progressive  development.  It  is  fo*  this  reason  tjiat  Europe 


342  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

must  present  the  greatest  development ;  but  that  the  transition 
from  a  primitive  state  to  a  higher  degree  of  civilization  was 
rendered  more  easy  in  Europe  than  elsewhere  is  very  doubtful, 
since  geographical  conditions  alone  do  not  constitute  positive 
impulses  to  civilization. 

The  relative  influence  of  geographical  conditions  on  culture 
is  shown  in  many  instances.  The  influence  of  the  sea  on  the 
progress  of  nations  depends  partly  on  the  nature  of  the 
coasts.  Good  harbours  promote  trade,  colonization,  etc. ;  a  de- 
ficiency in  this  respect  obstructs  them.  All  this,  however, 
depends  on  the  development  of  the  art  of  navigation ;  where 
this  is  wanting  the  sea  obstructs  trade  and  civilization.  Latham 
observes  justly,1  that  for  the  Turk  on  the  Hellespont  a  small 
stream  presented  an  obstruction,  owing  to  the  absence  of 
means  for  water  carriage.  Hence  it  is  unscientific  to  gene- 
ralize d  priori  in  respect  to  the  influence  of  land  and  water  as 
means  of  natural  intercourse  or  the  spreading  of  nations.  The 
desert,  the  prairie,  or  the  ocean  are  limits  which  confine  the 
spreading  of  tribes  or  peoples,  or  ways  which  favour  it, 
accordingly  as  the  camel,  horse,  or  ship  are  available  for 
service.  The  degree  of  civilization  of  the  people  itself 
alone  proves  decisive.  The  inhabitants  of  the  oases  in  the 
African  deserts  are  under  the  influence  of  the  caravan  trade, 
which  impresses  the  character  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
North  Africans  with  a  strikingly  uniform  stamp ;  they  are 
necessarily  traders,  but  neither  the  geographical  conditions, 
nor  even  the  possession  of  the  camel,  would  have  made 
them  so  if,  ignorant  of  cattle  breeding,  they  had  abandoned 
this'  animal  to  itself,  as  the  native  Americans  did  with  the 
horse. 

Streams,  bays,  the  vicinity  of  the  sea,  all  invite  emigration,  but 
they  do  not  impel  to  it,  least  of  all  do  they  influence  the  savage, 
who  has  no  desire  to  see  the  world,  but  gladly  remains  where 
he  finds  support  unless  driven  away  by  want  or  enemies.  It 
seems,  therefore,  more  correct  to  attribute  the  stability  of 
Chinese  and  Indian  civilization  to  the  relative  isolation  of  the 

1  "  Natural  history  of  the  varieties  of  man,"  p.  129,  1850. 


SECT.  III.]  CAUSES  OF  CIVILIZATION.  343 

interior  of  these  countries  by  natural  conditions,  than  to  deduce 
the  origin  of  their  civilization  from  the  advantages  offered  by 
their  geographical  position,  for,  in  this  respect,  that  portion  of 
India  which  is  still  more  favoured  has  never  attained  a  substan- 
tive civilization.  The  peoples  of  the  Deccan,  notwithstanding 
the  favours  of  nature  and  their  intercourse  with  the  Hindoos, 
are  but  little  civilized.  The  Celts,  also,  have  remained  more 
stationary  than  the  Teutons,  and,  though  they  have  often  been 
displaced,  and  suffered  great  deprivations,  still  they  were,  like 
the  latter,  favoured  by  their  geographical  position. 

Although,  generally  speaking,  it  is  quite  true  that  the 
presence  or  absence  of  certain  animals,  plants,  or  minerals,  in 
combination  with  the  geographical  conditions,  partly  determine 
the  degree  of  civilization  which  may  be  attained  by  a  people 
through  its  own  efforts,  it  is  on  the  other  hand  also  demonstrated, 
that  a  great  portion  of  the  natural  advantages  remain  neglected, 
that  animals  fit  for  breeding  are  abandoned  to  themselves,  that 
cereals  are  not  cultivated,  minerals  remain  hidden  in  the  earth, 
and  all  this  either  because  necessity  or  the  requisite  knowledge 
was  absent,  and  thus  the  natives,  notwithstanding  the  wealth 
of  surrounding  nature,  never  emerged  from  the  state  of  bar- 
barism. The  influence  of  natural  conditions  is  best  exhibited 
in  peoples  whose  perfect  seclusion  guarantees  to  them  the  pos- 
session of  their  country.  The  best  known  instances  of  that 
kind  are  furnished  by  some  islands  of  the  South  Sea  and  the 
Indian  Archipelago.  In  the  latter  there  are  tribes  of  the  Malay 
race,  who  not  unfrequently,  both  as  regards  physical  and  social 
development,  stand  lower  than  the  Papuas  of  the  coasts,  and 
even  the  Australians  of  Port  Essington.1  W.  Earl2  also  observes, 
that  in  the  Indian  Archipelago  the  state  of  cultivation  of  the 
natives  seemingly  depends  not  so  much  on  race  as  on  sur- 
rounding nature.  Near  the  sea  and  on  the  rivers  they  usually 
become  navigators,  in  the  table  lands  agriculturists,  for  which 
reason  he  abandoned  his  former  theory  of  an  immigation  of 
Polynesians  to  North  Australia.  In  the  majority  of  the  Poly- 
nesian islands  we  see  in  earlier  periods  a  harmless,  thoughtless 

1  Logan,  in  "  Journal  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,"  vol.  i. 

2  "  The  native  races  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,"  p.  235,  1853. 


344  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

population,  without  any  distinctive  character,  surrounded  by  a 
nature  so  rich  and  varied,  as  scarcely  to  call  forth  any  bodily 
labour.  Devoid  of  all  moral  ideas,  they  consider  physical 
enjoyment  as  the  chief  object  of  life.  The  tyranny  of  the 
nobility,  intercourse  with  the  neighbouring  islands,  and,  in 
some  parts,  wars  between  the  tribes,  influence  civilization, 
and  exercise  a  sort  of  antagonism  against  the  influences  of 
the  agencies  of  the  natural  conditions.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
high  islands  of  volcanic  origin  in  Polynesia,  generally  occupy 
a  higher  scale  than  those  of  the  Coral  islands,  who,  kept  down 
by  the  paucity  of  nature,  are  more  savage  and  dirty  in  their 
habits,  and  less  accessible  to  strangers.1 

If  it  be  our  chief  object  to  ascertain  the  acting  impulses 
which  induce  man  to  leave  the  primitive  state,  we  must  turn 
to  the  consideration  of  social  and  historical  conditions ;  for, 
however  important  natural  and  geographical  advantages  may 
be  as  occasional  causes,  they  only  produce  a  positive  effect  by 
the  mode  of  life  which  is  adopted  by  their  agency  and  by  the 
abundance  or  deficiency  of  the  necessaries  of  life  which  they 
afford — but  even  these  influences  become  either  a  propelh'ng  or 
repelling  force  by  the  social  consequences  which  they  produce. 

This  is  first  shown  by  the  migrations  of  peoples  which  are 
usually  caused  by  natural  conditions,  and  by  the  wars  in  which 
they  become  in  most  cases  entangled. 

These  two  constitute,  unquestionably,  the  most  potent  levers 
acting  on  civilization.  Deficiency  of  means  of  subsistence  or  a 
powerful  enemy,  may  force  a  people  to  leave  their  native 
country.  Even  in  present  times,  the  Indians  separate  in  tribes 
if  the  chase  prove  unproductive.  Exploring  parties  having 
been  first  sent  out,  the  separation  is  peaceably  effected,  and 
friendly  relations  are  established  between  the  separated  parties. 
The  separation  may  also  have  been  caused  by  internal  dis- 
cord, or  they  may  have  been  dispersed  by  external  wars.2 
These  migrations,  frequently  extending  over  vast  tracts  of 
land,  and  through  different  climates,  proceeding  very  gradu- 
ally, become  very  pregnant  in  their  results  in  bringing  the 

1  Latham,  loc.  cit.,  Pickering,  p.  68. 

2  Hunter,  "  Memoirs  of  a  Captivity  among  the  Indians,"  p.  180,  1824. 


SECT.  III.]  CAUSES  OP  CIVILIZATION.  345 

peoples  in  contact  with  other  branches  of  mankind  either 
friendly  or  inimical  to  them. 

The  influence  which  these  migrations  produce  upon  the  civi- 
lization of  the  respective  nations  may  be  beneficial  or  not, 
though  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  good  effects  are  predomi- 
nating. These  migrations  in  the  first  place  prevent  a  firm 
foundation  of  social  order  and  the  habit  of  regular  labour, 
engendering  a  desire  for  constant  changes.  The  Hottentot, 
though  he  may  be  in  a  good  place  and  has  no  complaint  against 
his  master,  leaves  him  suddenly,  as  he  cannot  long  bear  the 
uniformity  of  his  life,  but  returns  as  suddenly  to  his  former 
service.1  The  Gauchos  frequently  leave  their  masters  for  no 
other  reason  "  than  that  they  have  served  them  long  enough."2 
Whoever  has  been  brought  up  in  the  Pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres 
is  unfit  for  any  work  which  is  not  in  some  way  connected 
with  cattle-breeding.  To  live  in  a  city,  or  as  agricultu- 
rists, would  be  intolerable  to  those  people.  Most  of  them 
have  never  seen  a  town,  and  know  not  how  old  they  are.  Their 
only  ambition  is  to  be  good  horsemen,  their  favourite  occupa- 
tion cattle-breeding ;  trade  and  every  kind  of  industry  are  de- 
spised, neglected,  and  abandoned  to  the  stranger.3  We  are, 
therefore,  not  surprised  to  read  in  Darwin  that  the  number  of 
horses,  and  the  abundance  of  provisions  in  Montevideo  checked 
all  industry. 

Another  unfavourable  consequence  of  migrations  is  this,  that 
the  transition  from  a  rich  to  a  poor  country  exposes  the  respec- 
tive peoples  to  want  and  a  loss  of  the  civilization  they  had  pre- 
viously attained,  whilst  the  sudden  transition  from  want  to 
abundance  may  induce  a  degeneracy  not  less  inimical  to  pro- 
gress. Whether  and  how  far  these  evils  may  be  avoided,  de- 
pends not  so  much  on  the  new  natural  conditions  as  on  the 
skill  and  character  of  the  immigrants,  and  on  the  useful  ani- 
mals and  plants  they  may  introduce  into  their  new  country. 

1  Moodie,  "  Ten  Years  in  South  Africa,"  i,  p.  215,  1835. 

2  Ausland,  p.  28,  1858. 

3  MacCann,  "  Two  thousand  miles  ride  through  the  Argentine  Provinces," 
i,  p.  57,  155,  1853 ;  and  the  description  of  the  Gauchos  by  Azara,  "  Voyage 
dans  1'  Amerique  merid.,"  ii,  p.  292,  1809 ;  Head,  "  Hough  notes  taken  during 
Journeys  across  the  Pampas,"  p.  258,  1826. 


346  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

The  happiest  combination  in  this  respect  is  generally  when 
the  art  and  skill  already  acquired  are  not  forgotten,  but  may 
be  further  developed.  Nearly  all  migrations  lead  to  an  accom- 
modation to  new  circumstances.  Fresh  difficulties  prepared 
by  enemies  or  the  elements,  require  new  efforts  and  inventions, 
just  as  any  new  animal  and  every  particular  species  of  the 
chase  requires  a  peculiar  skill,  knowledge,  and  experience. 
Different  means  of  subsistence  must  be  adopted,  and  the  habits 
of  life  become  essentially  altered — all  of  which  stimulate  psy- 
chical activity.  The  expansion  of  the  mental  horizon  becomes 
greater  when  greater  skill  is  required  to  satisfy  such  wants 
as  called  forth  but  little  exertion  in  the  abandoned  terri- 
tory. It  is  thus  clear  that  in  such  cases  every  thing  depends 
upon  what  relation  the  condition  of  the  new  country  stands  to  the 
civilization,  requirements,  and  habits  of  the  immigrant  people. 
If  the  nature  of  the  country  and  the  condition  of  the  people  are 
favourable  to  progress,  a  vagabond  people  may  become  agri- 
cultural and  settled ;  if  unfavourable,  it  will  sink  again  into  no- 
madic life. 

Migrations  become  very  important  in  their  effects  through  the 
reciprocal  influences  of  the  various  nations  who  come  in  con- 
tact, which  is  rarely  of  a  peaceable  nature  at  first.  Friendly 
intercourse  among  peoples,  as  among  individuals,  is  something 
secondary.  Distrust  and  jealousy,  the  desire  of  exclusive  pos- 
session of  the  goods  of  life,  are  but  natural,  especially  in  a  poor 
country,  and  when  the  first  contact  of  peoples  is  usually  hostile. 
The  incessant  wars  in  which  we  see  uncivilized  nations  con- 
stantly engaged,  partly  prevent  their  progress;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  is  war  which  rouses  them  from  their  psychical 
indolence,  and  prevents  them  sinking  into  a  state  of  lethargy. 
War,  no  doubt,  rouses  all  the  passions,  but,  at  the  same  time, 
it  calls  for  great  efforts,  and  stimulates  invention.  But  this  is 
not  all.  Wars  require,  above  all,  a  union  of  force,  which  is  not 
easily  effected  without  it.  Whether  this  union  be  loose  or  only 
temporary,  whether  its  duration  depend  on  the  individualities 
of  the  leading  persons,  and  then  on  the  spirit  of  submission  or 
independence  of  the  people  in  general,  still  an  important  step 
has  been  gained.  Individuals  who  formerly  lived  in  a  state  of 


SECT.  III.]  EFFECTS    OF    INTEEMIXTUEE. WARS.  347 

isolation  are  now  animated  by  a  common  interest,  and  united  in 
common  action,  so  important  for  the  social  development  of  a 
people.  One  of  the  most  important  effects  of  war  is  this,  that 
the  commanding  and  obeying  elements  temporarily  subsisting 
in  war  become  permanent  after  its  termination  ;  for  though  the 
wars  of  savages  do  not  immediately  lead  to  the  establishment 
of  despotism,  still  the  relations  between  master  and  servant, 
between  conqueror  and  conquered,  are  established,  relations 
which,  in  various  forms  and  degrees,  are  found  in  all  the  higher 
stages  of  civilization,  and  seem,  in  fact,  indispensable  to  its 
development. 

The  notions  of  right  are  developed  by  wars,  for  it  is  only  after 
the  peoples  have  measured  their  strength  that  they  commence 
making  mutual  concessions,  and  especially  so  with  reference  to 
denning  the  boundaries  of  their  possessions.  The  first  conse- 
quence of  war  is,  that  fixed  relations  are  established  between 
peoples,  which  render  friendly  intercourse  possible,  an  inter- 
course which  becomes  more  important  from  the  interchange  of 
knowledge  and  experience  than  from  the  mere  interchange  of 
commodities.  The  reception  of  the  conquered  among  the  victors 
leads  frequently  to  the  same  result,  the  latter  appropriating,  not 
only  the  labour,  but  the  arts  of  the  conquered.  It  is  chiefly  the 
collision  of  a  civilized  with  a  barbarous  people  which,  directly  or 
indirectly,  influences  the  latter,  as  exemplified  in  the  collisions 
of  the  Eomans  and  Germans.  There  must,  however,  be  rather 
a  fusion  than  an  enslavement.  Individuals,  however  highly 
civilized  when  settling  among  savages,  can  never  effect  a  trans- 
formation of  the  latter ;  they  will  rather  sink  down  to  their 
level,  and  degenerate  or  remain  isolated  amongst  them,  and,  if 
they  produce  any  effect,  it  will  be  merely  transitory. 

As  regards  the  effects  produced  by  intermixture  of  peoples 
and  tribes  on  mental  endowment,  and  the  mode  in  which  it 
modifies  temperament  and  mental  peculiarities,  all  that  is  known 
is,  that  a  remarkable  transformation  actually  takes  place.  As 
we  have  already  stated,  there  are  two  opposite  theories,  both  of 
which  are  equally  extreme  and  erroneous.  Gobineau  is  of 
opinion,  that  intermixture  between  different  races  contains  the 
germ  of  the  necessary  decay  and  final  extinction  of  all  civiliza- 


348  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

tion  ;  whilst  Serres  and  others  maintain  that  intermixture  is  the 
essential  lever  of  all  progress.  Though  we  cannot  entirely 
assent  to  the  latter  theory ,  it  is  unquestionably  more  accept- 
able than  the  first :  for  whenever  we  see  a  people,  of  whatever 
degree  of  civilization,  not  living  in  contact  and  reciprocal 
action  with  others,  we  shall  generally  find  a  certain  stagnation, 
a  mental  inertness,  and  a  want  of  activity,  which  render  any 
change  of  social  and  political  condition  next  to  impossible. 
These  are,  in  times  of  peace,  transmitted  like  an  everlasting 
disease,  and  war  appears  then,  in  spite  of  what  the  apostles  of 
peace  may  say,  as  a  saving  angel,  who  rouses  the  national 
spirit,  and  renders  all  forces  more  elastic. 

It  certainly  must  remain  undecided  how  far  these  wholesome 
results  are  to  be  attributed  to  mental  intercourse  or  to  physical 
intermixture  :  that,  however,  the  latter  is  justly  considered  as  a 
lever  of  historical  development  results  from  the  fact,  that  it  has 
never  been  absent  in  a  civilized  country  the  ethnographical 
condition  of  which  is  known  to  us.  The  old  Roman  civilization 
has,  besides  the  non-Indo- Germanic  element  of  the  Etruscans, 
also  absorbed  other  non-Latin  tribes,  and  as  regards  Greece, 
modern  scholars  (Kortum)  consider  the  Pelasgi  as  an  entirely 
or  partially  Semitic-Phoenician — at  any  rate,  as  an  Eastern 
people,  which  was  essentially  different  from  the  rest  of  the 
population.  That  non- Greek  tribes  (Carians,  Leleges,  Tyr- 
rheni)  lived  in  Greece  before  the  immigration  of  the  Hellenes, 
and  have  gradually  become  assimilated  to  the  latter,  has  been 
rendered  certain  by  historical  investigation. 

There  is  found,  however,  in  South  and  North  America,  a  nu- 
merous mixed  population  who  are  considered  incapable  of  a 
high  degree  of  civilization.  Semple1  and  Mollien2  describe  the 
intermixture  of  races  in  Caraccas  and  New  Grenada  as  the 
source  of  corruption.  In  the  cities  and  villages  the  greatest 
dissipation  prevails  ;  to  lie  in  the  hammock,  to  smoke,  gamble, 
to  see  bull  fights,  are  the  greatest  enjoyments.  Religion  has  no 
influence :  sins  are  confessed  and  forgiven ;  indolence  and 
apathy  characterize  the  population.  The  complaint  is  so  far 

1  "  Sketch  of  the  present  state  of  Caraccas/'  1812. 

2  "  Voyage  dans  la  Eepublique  de  Colombia,"  1824. 


SECT.  III.]  DENSITY  OP  POPULATION.  349 

unjust  in  applying  the  standard  of  European  culture  to  these 
mixed  races.  There  are  neither  in  the  North  nor  in  the 
South  of  America  instances  wanting  of  these  mixed  people 
having  taken  the  initiative  in  the  civilization  of  the  natives  ;  at 
any  rate,  they  confirm  the  theory  that  the  mental  capacity  of 
mongrels  is  generally  greater  than  that  of  the  lower  of  the 
two  races  from  which  they  sprung.  There  are  even  cases  which 
render  it  probable  that  two  peoples  of  an  equally  low  degree, 
by  intermixture  produce  mongrels  of  greater  capacity ;  just  as 
is  asserted  that  by  the  engrafting  of  a  wild  sapling  upon  a  wild 
fruit  tree,  the  fruit  is  improved. 

Density  of  population,  so  essential  an  element  of  progress, 
is  determined  by  surrounding  nature,  for  everywhere  we  find 
them  combined,  so  that  the  former  has  been  considered  both 
the  result  and  the  cause  of  civilization. 

It  has  often  been  suggested,  that  the  cradle  of  mankind 
must  have  been  in  a  hot  country,  because  there  only  prevailed 
the  conditions  necessary  for  man's  existence  in  a  primitive 
state ;  and  that  the  East  Indies,  which  possess  all  animals  fit 
to  become  domesticated,  were  probably  the  home  of  these  ani- 
mals, as  of  all  our  cultivated  plants.  We  have  also  seen  that 
nature,  however  rich,  gives  originally  no  positive  impulse  to 
civilization. 

Secondarily,  but  not  primarily,  does  it  favour  civilization, 
i.  e.}  not  its  first  origin,  but  its  progress  only ;  and  only  in 
this  respect  is  it  true  that  the  great  table-lands  alone,  like 
Thibet  and  Abyssinia  in  the  Old,  Mexico  and  Peru  in  the  New 
World,  were  the  natural  cradles  of  civilization.1  Rich  table- 
lands only  indirectly  promote  civilization,  by  inducing  a  rapid 
increase  of  the  population,  which  compels  the  people  to  spread, 
to  leave  their  original  habitations,  to  take  the  most  useful 
plants  and  animals  with  them  and  import  them  into  poorer 
regions. 

Griitzlaff  has  observed,  that  in  China  the  great  mass  of  the 
population  has  too  much  bodily  labour  to  obtain  the  necessaries 
of  life,  to  evince  any  mental  activity.  This  shows  that  too 

»  Pickering,  "  The  Races  of  man,"  p.  300,  1849. 


350  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

dense  a  population  may  obstruct  civilization.  Though  neces- 
sity may  indirectly  be  a  means  of  civilization,  it  is  not  so 
under  all  circumstances.  There  are  not  a  few  barbarous  na- 
tions who  suffer  annually  from  want  of  provisions,  and  though 
in  possession  of  useful  plants,  never  attempt  to  cultivate  the 
soil.  Distress,  no  doubt,  impels  them  to  greater  physical  and 
mental  efforts,  but  these  cease  with  the  distress. 

If  the  population  be  thin  and  the  country  productive,  there 
is  but  little  or  no  inducement  to  labour,  as  everyone  can  easily 
obtain  the  necessaries  of  life  for  himself  and  his  family.  In- 
dividuals remain  in  such  cases  independent  of  each  other,  ex- 
cepting on  particular  occasions ;  there  is  no  community  of 
interest, — no  union  of  forces.  The  social  relations  beyond  the 
family  extend  chiefly  to  patriarchal  hospitality,  which  dimi- 
nishes and  disappears  with  the  progress  of  civilization.  The 
original  motive  for  hospitality  is  the  desire  for  society,  curio- 
sity, and  the  sympathy  for  the  helpless,  derived  from  bitter  ex- 
perience. These  relations  assume  a  different  aspect  with  the 
increase  of  the  population.  The  intercourse  between  indivi- 
duals, the  interchange  of  thought  and  of  goods,  are  increased 
by  living  in  close  vicinity  and  immediate  contact ;  comparisons 
as  regards  their  position  and  performances  are  made, — they 
become  rivals,  and  disputes  arise.  The  rivalry  extends  to 
labour,  which,  besides  present  necessaries,  is  also  to  provide 
for  the  future.  There  arise  contrasts  between  wealth  and 
poverty.  The  possession  of  goods  is  more  estimated,  as  it 
can  only  be  obtained  by  labour,  and  private  property  must  be 
protected.  The  increase  of  the  population  renders  agriculture 
a  necessity  j  and  from  the  already  existing  inequality,  relations 
are  developed  between  master  and  dependent,  which  is  already 
a  step  towards  the  foundation  of  despotism,  as  opposed  to 
that  original  liberty  and  perfect  independence  of  individuals. 
We  have  now  arrived  at  a  stage  from  which  the  development 
of  society  may,  under  favourable  circumstances,  be  more  or 
less  rapid. 

Before  proceeding  further,  it  may  be  as  well  to  cast  a  retro- 
spective glance  at  the  question,  whether  our  investigations 
justify  us  in  attributing  the  stability  of  most  peoples  in  a  low 


SECT.  III.]  ORIGINAL   EQUALITY   OP   RACES.  351 

scale  of  civilization,  as  essentially  due  to  the  natural  con- 
ditions and  mode  of  life  under  the  influence  of  which  they 
stand;  or  whether  we  must  assume  a  specific  difference  of 
mental  endowment,  since  the  above  physical  and  social  forces 
appear  insufficient  to  explain  the  phenomenon. 

According  to  the  teaching  of  the  American  school/  the 
higher  races  are  destined  to  displace  the  lower.  This  ex- 
tinction of  the  lower  races  is  predestined  by  nature,  and  it 
would  thus  appear  that  we  must  not  merely  acknowledge  the 
right  of  the  white  American  to  destroy  the  red  man,  but  per- 
haps praise  him  that  he  has  constituted  himself  the  instrument 
of  Providence  in  carrying  out  and  promoting  this  law  of  destruc- 
tion. The  pious  manslayer  thus  enjoys  the  consolation  that  he 
acts  according  to  the  laws  of  nature  which  govern  the  rise  and 
extinction  of  races.  Such  a  theory  has  many  advantages : 
it  reconciles  us  both  with  Providence  and  the  evil  dispositions 
of  man;  it  flatters  our  self-esteem  by  the  specific  excellence 
of  our  moral  and  intellectual  endowment,  and  saves  us 
the  trouble  of  inquiring  for  the  causes  of  the  differences 
existing  in  civilization.  This  theory  has  thus  obtained  many 
adherents ;  whilst  there  are  some  who  consider  this  one  of  the 
reasons  which  render  the  assumption  of  a  specifically  higher 
mental  endowment  of  the  white  race,  improbable. 

In  opposition  to  this  American  doctrine,  we  maintain  that 
the  psychical  endowment  of  the  various  races  was  most  probably 
originally  the  same,  or  nearly  so ;  that  the  earlier  or  later  emer- 
gence of  individual  peoples  from  the  primitive  state  essentially 
depended  on  the  natural  and  social  conditions  in  which  they 
were  placed ;  and  that  by  these  external  circumstances  in  their 
manifold  concatenations,  the  extent  and  rapidity  of  their  deve- 
lopment was  mainly  determined.  We  must  not  omit  referring 
here  to  a  principle  already  touched  upon — namely,  that  the  deve- 
lopment of  mankind  in  the  course  of  time  produces  a  favour- 
able predisposing  influence  on  the  psychical  endowment  of  the 
progeny,  which  increases  with  the  progress  of  civilization, 
which  predisposition  must  be  less  the  nearer  a  people  is  to  the 

1  Agassiz,  Morton,  etc.,  etc. 


352  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

primitive  state.  This  partly  explains  why  we  see  so  many 
peoples  apparently  stationary,  whilst  others  proceed  rapidly 
from  a  certain  point. 

The  solution  of  the  question  is  rendered  difficult  at  the  outset 
if  we  do  not  abandon  the  false  theory,  arising  from  the  exclusive 
view  of  our  European  civilization,  that  there  is  anything  in  the 
nature  of  man  generally,  or  of  some  tribes  particularly,  impel- 
ling them  to  civilization;  whilst,  on  the  contrary,  the  un- 
civilized state  is,  originally,  natural  to  all.  When  Humboldt,1 
in  declaring  for  the  unity  of  mankind,  and  against  any 
difference  between  higher  and  lower  races,  adds,  "There 
are  more  plastic,  but  not  more  noble  races ;  all  are  equally  des- 
tined for  liberty,"  the  apparent  contradiction  can  only  be 
explained  in  this  way ;  that  the  greater  natural  inclination  and 
capacity  for  civilization  manifested  by  some  peoples,  is  nothing 
original,  but  something  acquired  in  the  course  of  their  develop- 
ment, which,  under  favourable  circumstances,  might  have  been 
equally  acquired  by  peoples  who  appear  at  present  less  capable 
of  civilization. 

The  investigation  of  the  question  is  not  less  impeded  by  re- 
ferring, like  Stanhope  Smyth,  De  Salles,  and  others,  the  begin- 
ning of  all  civilization  not  to  the  nature  and  activity  of  man, 
but  to  the  immediate  influence  of  God.  This  view  has  been 
supported  by  the  circumstance,  that  the  first  elements  of  civi- 
lization, as  far  as  history  reaches,  always  appear  as  communi- 
cated from  one  people  to  another,  and  that  of  no  people  can  it 
be  proved  how,  where,  and  when  they  have  become  civilized  by 
their  own  inherent  power.  However  true  this  may  be,  it  is 
easily  explained,  since  history  neither  reaches  nor  can  ever 
reach  back  to  the  primitive  condition  of  man.  All  this  mani- 
festly does  not  justify  us  in  assuming  a  direct  communication 
of  the  necessary  arts  and  knowledge,  or  of  language,  by  God 
to  man.  Moreover  as,  strictly  speaking,  there  is  no  commence- 
ment of  civilization  in  an  absolute  sense,  but  merely  a  gradual 
passing  from  one  state  of  culture  to  another,  it  remains  as  dif- 
ficult to  explain  how  a  people  already  emerged  from  a  primi- 

i  "  Cosmos,"  i,  p.  385. 


SECT.  III.]  EFFECTS   OF   AGRICULTURE.  353 

tive  state  can,  without  direct  interference  of  God,  make  any 
progress  in  civilization,  as  how  it  was  possible  for  them  to 
take  the  earliest  steps  which  served  as  a  basis  for  their  further 
development. 

The  impediments  which  obstruct  the  progress  of  primitive 
peoples  and  keep  them  in  a  state  of  barbarism,  are  multifa- 
rious. A  nomadic  life  and  constant  warfare,  have  become  a 
second  nature  to  them ;  they  have  but  few  wants,  and  these 
are  more  easily  satisfied  than  those  of  the  civilized  man ;  they 
are  content  with  their  position,  feel  themselves  comparatively 
happy,  and  desire  no  change  j  their  reluctance  to  labour,  and 
their  carelessness  for  the  future,  induce  them  to  neglect  what 
appears  to  them  useful  and  necessary.  The  apathy  with  which 
they  look  at  everything  not  immediately  bearing  on  their 
necessities,  scarcely  exciting  a  passing  curiosity,  prevents 
their  learning  from  experience.  These  impediments  to  pro- 
gress are  pretty  much  the  same  among  all  uncivilized  peoples, 
and  it  requires  no  great  acuteness  to  perceive  that  the  assump- 
tion of  a  specifically  different  endowment  of  races  is  at  least 
unnecessary  to  explain  the  differences  in  their  civilization. 

Among  the  elements  of  civilization,  agriculture  unquestion- 
ably occupies  the  first  place :  it  is  the  chief  basis  of  it,  nor  can 
true  civilization  grow  out  of  any  other  soil.  This  applies 
to  agriculture,  only  so  far  as  it  constitutes  the  essential  means 
of  subsistence,  especially  in  connection  with  cattle-breeding, 
which  renders  hunting  superfluous. 

It  is  the  unproductiveness  of  the  chase,  of  the  fisheries,  of 
fruit  and  root  gathering,  which  leads  to  and  gradually  developes 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  Without  being  impelled  to  it  by 
want,  no  primitive  people  will  spontaneously  turn  to  agricul- 
ture. To  pursue  agriculture  successfully,  requires  perseverance 
and  patience,  which  primitive  nations  do  not  possess.  Simpson1 
observes  very  justly,  that  one  of  the  main  difficulties  of  the 
transition  to  agriculture  consists  in  the  circumstance  that  they 
are  accustomed  immediately  to  expect  and  to  enjoy  the  fruit  of 
their  labour.  Hence  it  appears,  that  where  there  does  not 

1  "  Narrative  of  a  journey  round  the  world,"  i,  p.  251,  1847. 

A  A 


354  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PAET   II. 

exist  a  slow  and  steady  transformation  of  the  mode  of  life  from 
an  irregular  and  changeable  activity  to  more  uniform  industry, 
agriculture  requires  a  special  condition  if  it  is  to  reach  that 
extent  and  regularity,  by  which  alone  it  becomes  the  basis  of 
civilization. 

Social  conditions  favour  agriculture  by  establishing  the  rela- 
tions of  master  and  servant,  and  so  does  slavery,  which  is  a 
usual  consequence  of  war.  Peoples  who  have  no  agriculture, 
or  consider  it  only  as  a  secondary  affair,  generally  kill  their 
prisoners  of  war,  or  more  rarely  adopt  them  in  their  own 
tribes  ;  such,  however,  as  cultivate  the  soil  make  their  prisoners 
work.  Slavery  thus  spreads  with  agriculture,  whether  it  has 
originated  from  war  or  not,  and  agriculture  gains  in  extent 
and  regularity,  so  that  it  becomes  in  time  the  chief  means  of 
subsistence  for  the  people.  Since  all  the  work  is  performed 
by  others,  it  gives  to  the  free  people  that  leisure  which  is  re- 
quisite to  secure  for  them  a  comfortable  existence. 

This  latter  circumstance  is,  in  some  respect,  rather  an  impe- 
diment than  a  help  to  civilization,  for,  however  true  it  is 
that  leisure  is  requisite  for  intellectual  development,  still  in 
that  leisure  itself  there  is  for  the  primitive  man  no  impulse  to 
serious  mental  activity.  The  promotion  of  civilization  by  agri- 
culture lies  rather  in  the  circumstance  that  it  accustoms  to 
regular  labour,  renders  the  people  less  inclined  to  war,  produces 
an  attachment  to  a  fixed  habitation,  and  a  settled  mental  dis- 
position differing  from  indolence. 

The  important  influence  which  agriculture,  however  imper- 
fect, exercises  upon  the  national  character,  is  shown  in  many  in- 
stances. The  Indians  of  the  Cordilleras  in  South  America, 
who  like  agriculture,  are  peaceable  and  timid ;  those  of  the 
plains  bold  and  enterprising,  finding  pleasure  in  the  dangers  of 
hunting  the  jaguar  and  the  wild  bull,  or  taming  the  horse.1  The 
greater  capacity  for  progress  in  the  agriculturist  is  shown  by 
comparing  him  with  the  hunter  :  the  former  sees  his  inferiority 
to  the  white  man,  and  is  more  easily  induced  to  improve  his  con- 
dition ;  whilst  the  latter  despises  the  arts  of  the  European,  and, 

1  Mollien,  loc.  cit.,  ii,  p.  168. 


SECT.  III.]  EFFECTS    OF    AGRICULTURE.  355 

in  the  feeling  of  his  independence,  deems  himself  the  superior. 
A  great  portion  of  the  Negro  and  South  Sea  peoples,  who 
possess  very  indifferent  agricultural  implements,  acknowledge 
the  superiority  of  the  Europeans  in  this  respect,  and  en- 
deavour to  imitate  them ;  whilst  the  American  hunting  tribes 
merely  stare  at  the  civilization  which  constantly  meets  their 
eye,  and  turn  their  backs  upon  it,  showing  but  little  inclination 
to  live  among  Europeans. 

The  agriculturist  leads  a  more  secure  life,  less  exposed  to 
accidents  than  the  hunter ;  his  labour  is  less  exciting  and  less 
dangerous,  nor  is  he  agitated  by  the  same  expectations  and 
fears.  Agriculture  and  a  fixed  habitation  increase  the  means 
of  subsistence,  diminish  toil,  especially  of  the  females,  ren- 
dering them  more  prolific,  and  thus  contribute  to  the  in- 
crease of  the  population.  Regular  labour  induces  sobriety; 
manners  and  customs  are  established  among  settled  inhabitants, 
which  are  incompatible  with  a  licentious  wandering  life  ;  in- 
ternal and  external  peace  becomes  a  necessity,  for  man  wishes  to 
enjoy  the  fruit  of  his  labour.  He  does  not  attack  from  a  desire 
to  conquer ;  he  merely  defends  what  he  possesses ;  he  feels  the 
necessity  of  a  regulated  social  life,  for  he  has  built  better 
houses,  rendered  them  more  comfortable,  and  his  enjoyments 
have  gradually  multiplied.  Already  among  pastoral  tribes,  ob- 
serves Falconer,1  there  obtains,  in  comparison  with  hunting  and 
fishing  nations,  a  considerable  extension  of  private  property, 
and  an  increase  in  its  value ;  and  crimes  against  property  are 
often  very  severely  punished.  Though  originally  the  strong 
has  subjected  the  weak,  and  the  latter  has  submitted  both  from 
fear  of  punishment  and  an  instinctive  admiration  of  manly 
power,  the  times  are  now  changing:  a  government  founded  upon 
mere  individual  authority  is  no  longer  deemed  sufficient,  and 
a  desire  arises  for  fixed  social  relations.  The  settled  agricul- 
turist now  obtains  his  subsistence  by  moderate  labour,  and  the 
population  increases  in  proportion.  Migrations  no  longer 
occur  unless  forced  upon  the  people  by  external  or  internal 
wars,  a  wandering  life  is  now  opposed  to  newly  acquired  habits, 
and  to  attachment  to  the  native  soil. 

1  "  Remarks  on  the  influence  of  Climate,"  p.  328,  1781. 

AA2 


356  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

It  results  from  the  preceding  observations,  that  agriculture 
contains  many  of  the  essential  germs  of  civilization,  though  they 
are  rarely  fully  developed.  We  may  at  the  same  time  remark, 
that  peoples  which  have  never  been  under  the  necessity  of 
abandoning  a  nomadic  life,  who  possess  no  beasts  of  burden, 
should  not  be.  reproached  with  an  incapacity  for  civilization,  as 
the  assumption  of  an  innate  impulse  for  culture  and  labour, 
without  being  driven  to  it  by  necessity,  is  a  mere  fiction.  If  such 
peoples  should  become  civilized  by  their  own  native  force,  we 
should  consider  them  as  more  highly  gifted  than  the  Europeans. 

It  is  true  that  we  do  not  everywhere,  even  when  agriculture 
constitutes  the  chief  means  of  subsistence,  observe  such  rapid 
progressive  development  as  we  might  be  led  to  expect.  A  va- 
riety of  causes  may  prevent  such  progress.  If  nature  is  too 
generous,  and  very  little  labour  is  required  for  raising  the 
necessaries  of  life,  physical  indolence  must  be  the  result.  This 
disadvantage,  under  which  many  Negro  countries  labour,  only 
disappears  if  the  superfluities  of  the  native  soil  find  an  outlet 
by  trade,  and  the  people  require  articles  of  necessity  or  luxury 
peculiar  to  foreign  countries.  It  has  already  been  observed, 
that  agriculture  loses  the  greater  part  of  its  beneficial  influence 
if  exclusively  carried  on  by  slaves.  Agriculture  produces  in 
time  an  inequality  in  the  possession  of  goods.  Individuals 
grow  in  wealth,  whilst  others  who  do  not  reap  the  fruit  of  their 
labour  become  dependent.  The  consequence  is,  that  there 
is  no  love  of  labour,  for  ' '  people  who  live  by  the  work  of  their 
hands  are  only  industrious  when  they  enjoy  the  fruit  of  their 
handiwork,  or  have  been  trained  to  constant  activity."1  The 
spirit  of  oppression  and  of  self-interest  which  prevails  in 
society  undermines  or  destroys  all  moral  feelings,  as  may  be 
seen  in  many  peoples  of  Africa  and  the  South  Sea. 

We  are  thus  introduced  to  another  essential  agent  of  civiliz- 
ation, namely,  the  development  of  public  law  and  government. 
Their  influence  is  very  great,  but  it  is  difficult  to  arrive  at 
its  true  value.  By  some  it  is  considered  as  all  powerful. 


1  Wrangell,  "  Statist,  in  Etlinog.  naclir.  iiber  d.  russ.  Besit/.  in  Am."  p. 
2]  7,  1839. 


SECT.  III.]  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS.  357 

Barthes1  says,  that  political  conditions  chiefly  determine  the 
manners  and  the  national  character;  the  climatic  conditions 
determine  the  physical  peculiarities  ;  and,  if  both  co-exist  un- 
changed for  several  centuries,  a  race  is  produced  which,  if  it 
remains  unmixed,  may  perpetuate  itself  in  other  climates,  and 
under  different  political  relations.  Passy,  on  the  other  hand, 
has  endeavoured  to  prove,2  that  though  the  power  of  political 
and  social  institutions  may  promote  or  retard  national  progress, 
it  is  not  determined  by  them,  inasmuch  as  the  same  institutions 
constantly  change  among  the  same  people.  At  any  rate,  we 
cannot  but  recognise  in  climate,  mode  of  life,  density  of  popu- 
lation and  its  intermixture  with  foreign  elements,  and  the  de- 
velopment of  mental  activity,  powers  which  are  but  remotely 
governed  by  laws,  whilst  they  undoubtedly  influence  the  forma- 
tion and  efficacy  of  the  latter. 

The  security  of  private  property  is  the  most  important  of  all 
legal  institutions,  and  the  very  basis  of  civilization.  Its  origin 
among  primitive  peoples  and  its  development  depend  chiefly  on 
the  relations  between  the  mode  of  life  and  the  necessities  of  the 
population,  and  the  area  and  natural  conditions  in  which  they 
live.  Among  the  Indians  of  Magna  the  aggregation  of  a 
number  of  people  in  the  same  spot  was  the  main  cause  of  the 
establishment  of  landed  property.3  Among  the  Indians  on  the 
Orinoco,  fisheries,  hunting  districts,  &c.,  are  common  property 
of  the  tribe,  but  the  land  becomes  private  property  as  soon, 
and  so  long,  as  it  is  cultivated.4  As  the  Northern  Nicobares 
are  more  densely  populated  than  the  Southern,  private  pro- 
perty is  better  defined  in  the  former,  where  boundary  stones 
are  placed,  which  is  not  the  case  in  the  latter.5  Considering 
the  deficiency  of  water  in  Australia,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
the  natives  lay  claim  to  the  water  of  the  rivers,  near  which 
they  live.6  Next  to  occupation  and  long  exclusive  possession, 
it  is  the  labour  expended  which  gives  origin  to  private  pro- 

1  "  Nouv.  elemens  de  la  sc.  de  I'homme,"  ii,  p.  274,  1806. 

2  "  L'Instit./'  ii,  p.  19,  1845. 

3  Poppig,  "  E-eise  in  Chile,  Peru,  und  auf  d.  Amazonenstr.,"  ii,  p.  374, 1835. 

4  Gilii,  "  Nachr.  v.  Lande  Guiana,"  p.  327,  1785. 

5  Steen  Bille,  "  Bericht  iiber  d.  Reise  der  Galathea,"  i,  p.  288,  1852. 

6  Mitchell,  "  Three  Exped.  into  the  Interior  of  E.  Australia,"  p.  304,  1838. 


358  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

perty,  and  makes  it  respected  by  others.  This  respect,  which 
among  primitive  peoples  is  generally  enforced  by  the  proprietor 
himself  as  the  chief  (who  does  not  willingly  interfere  in  the  dis- 
putes of  individuals,  nor  is  he  generally  looked  upon  as  a  natural 
judge) ,  has  an  important  moral  effect,  since  it  leads  to  self-con- 
trol, and  places  limits  to  general  covetousness.  In  order  to 
rouse  and  sustain  the  exertion  of  regulated  efforts,  security  of 
property  and  its  enjoyment  are  essential. 

These  happy  results  are  destroyed  by  oppression  and  arbi- 
trary power.  Wherever  these  exist  accompanied  by  extor- 
tion, the  very  appearance  of  wealth  is  carefully  avoided.  Thus 
the  natives  of  Loango  breed  but  few  domestic  cattle,  and  prefer 
hunting,  as  the  officials  of  the  rulers  rob  them  of  the  former.1 
In  Tahiti  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  was  neglected,  because  the 
Arreois  on  festival  occasions  either  destroyed  or  took  possession 
of  the  crops.2  Dampier3  attributes  the  indolence  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Mindanao,  formerly  an  active  people,  to  the  pre- 
vailing despotism.  This  must  not,  however,  prevent  us  from 
acknowledging  the  latter  as  a  primary  necessary  element  in  the 
development  of  society,  nor  from  under-estimating  the  beneficial 
effects  which  may  frequently  result  therefrom. 

Where  the  people  can  support  themselves  without  much 
effort,  owing  to  the  productiveness  of  the  country,  where  the 
population  much  increases,  and  inequalities  of  property  or  social 
position  arise,  the  masses  must  be  kept  in  order  by  force.  Un- 
der such  circumstances,  it  is  of  small  importance  for  society 
whether  that  superior  power  is  subject  to  fixed  laws,  or  whether 
it  is  equitably  exercised ;  what  is  really  essential  is,  that  some 
authority  should  be  established,  for  in  such  cases  any  govern- 
ment is  preferable  to  a  state  of  anarchy.  Pure  despotism  has 
at  least  the  advantage,  that  labour  is  enforced  and  order  main- 
tained. If  the  despotism  lasts,  it  imparts  to  the  masses  the  habit 
of  labour,  and  the  original  unbridled  savageness  gives  place 
to  a  sedate  submissiveness  not  unfrequently  allied  with  hypo- 
crisy and  a  cringing  disposition.  In  this  sense  must  be  under- 

1  Proyart,  "  Hist,  de  Loango,,  Kakongo,  et  autres  roy.,"  p.  32,  1776. 

2  Wilson,  "Miss.  Reise  in  d.  still  Meer,"  p.  314,  1800. 

3  "  Nouv.  voy.  autour  du  monde,"  ii,  p.  3,  Amst.,  1701. 


SECT.  III.]  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS.  359 

stood  the  observation  of  Brooke,1  as  regards  the  Chinese,  that 
they  exhibit  in  their  character  all  the  signs  of  having  lived  in 
a  despotic  and  densely  populated  country,  whilst  it  may  be 
easily  detected  in  the  character  of  the  Malay,  that  they  be- 
longed to  a  favoured  climate  which  neither  forced  them  to 
labour  nor  to  control  their  passions.  The  latter  observation 
cannot,  however,  be  applied  to  all  Malays,  for  many  of  the 
Malay  tribes  live  under  despotic  governments.  These  occupy 
a  higher  position  in  civilization,2  and  also  exhibit  the  effects 
of  despotism  upon  the  national  character,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 
Javanese. 

We  thus  find  that  the  first  steps  towards  civilization  can 
neither  be  taken  nor  maintained  by  primitive  nations  without 
the  intervention  of  an  energetic  despotism;  for  all  liberty  which 
is  to  benefit  social  development  must  be  directly  proportional 
to  the  moral  restraint  which  society  imposes  upon  itself,  be  it 
by  the  power  of  public  opinion,  a  feeling  of  honour,  education,  or 
religious  conceptions.  But  such  a  moral  restraint  diminishes 
in  proportion  as  a  people  approaches  the  primitive  state.  Under 
such  circumstances,  despotism  acts  beneficially,  though  it  may 
rest  only  on  conquest  or  the  assumption  of  power  to  which  the 
people  submit  either  from  fear  or  in  expectation  of  greater  secu- 
rity for  life  and  property.  It  is  in  rich  countries  especially  where 
despotism  is  first  developed  and  long  maintained  :  great  fertility 
of  the  soil,  also  produces  an  indolent  people  little  inclined  to 
make  great  efforts  for  their  political  liberty.  Crawfurd3  well  ob- 
serves that  the  uniformity  of  the  seasons  and  of  the  natural  pro- 
ducts, contribute  much,  in  combination  with  the  social  condition 
in  tropical  regions,  and  especially  in  the  East  Indian  Archipelago, 
to  produce  mental  indolence — all  which  explains  the  remarkable 
fact  that  there  is  no  instance  of  a  free  constitution  in  the  torrid 
zone  among  peoples  which  possess  any  civilization.  Closely  con- 
nected with  the  above  facts,  is  the  circumstance  that  the  in- 
habitants of  rich  countries  are  rarely  courageous  and  brave ; 
they  are  effeminated  partly  by  their  mode  of  life,  and  partly  by 
the  influence  of  despotism.4 

1  "  Narrative  of  events  in  Borneo  and  Celebes,"  i,  p.  11,  2nd  edit.,  1848. 

2  Crawfurd,  "  History  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,"  iii,  p.  4,  1820. 

3  Loc.  cit.,  ii,  p.  37.  4  Falconer,  p.  186. 


360  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II. 

It  may  be  that  the  muses  only  flourish  among  free  rude 
nations,  as  indeed  it  has  been  attempted  to  prove  from  history; 
it  may  be  true  that  despotism,  in  many  cases,  impedes  the  pro- 
gress to  a  higher  civilization,  still  such  is  not  the  necessary 
result,  though  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  favourable  or  un- 
favourable effect  which  it  produces  depends  upon  the  accidental 
disposition  of  the  ruler.  In  despotically  governed  countries 
there  is  no  public  opinion  and  no  moral  force  among  the 
peoples ;  what  passes  as  such  is  merely  the  reflex  of  the  views 
of  the  despot.  In  all  the  Mohammedan  states  in  Africa,  the 
man  whom  the  sovereign  degrades  is  despised  and  maltreated. 
Everything  that  is  ordered  is  considered  right  and  proper ; 
everything  that  is  forbidden  is  looked  upon  as  bad  and  dis- 
graceful. This  slavery  of  conviction  is  still  greater  among 
some  peoples.  The  Matebeles  (Zulus)  believe  in  the  greatest 
absurdities,  and  among  others  that  their  chief  Moselkatse 
can  look  forward  into  the  future,  and  if  any  one  were  to  doubt 
that  he  can  produce  rain  by  ascending  to  the  sky,  he  would 
be  treated  as  a  traitor.  One  of  the  Zulus  being  told  that  these 
are  mere  delusions,  replied,  "  one  must  be  very  cautious  in  ex- 
pressing any  doubts  on  the  subject."1  On  the  other  hand,  we 
find  in  Java,  where  all  jurisdiction  proceeds  from  the  king  or 
his  lieutenant,  that  there  are  cases  in  which  despotism  is  the 
most  essential  means  of  developing  the  moral  sense  of  the  nation. 
In  the  legal  language  of  Java,  theft  is  called  "  a  crime  against 
the  king's  property,"  unlawful  wounding  is  called  ' '  wounding 
the  king,"  ' '  regicide." 

As  it  is  our  chief  object  to  investigate  the  main  forces  which 
influence  the  development  of  human  society,  we  shall  only 
mention  the  sum  of  the  effects  on  civilization  by  living  in 
communities.  These  are — -the  discipline  of  the  masses,  they 
being  gradually  habituated  to  obedience  and  self-control; 
greater  protection  for  life  and  property,  which  enables  the 
people  to  devote  their  activity  to  other  purposes ;  the  establish- 
ment of  a  community  of  interest  and  action  against  external 
powers,  etc. 

1  "  Baseler  Miss.  Mag.,"  iii,  p.  141,  1856. 


SECT.  III.]  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS.  361 

It  would  be  difficult  or  impossible  to  give  a  sketch  of  the 
progressive  development  of  society  in  various  directions,  in- 
fluenced as  it  is  by  so  many  and  various  causes.  We  must, 
therefore,  confine  ourselves  to  pointing  out  some  other  social 
elements  of  considerable  importance  in  the  development  of 
civilization. 

We  have  already  had  occasion  to  observe,  that,  by  the 
inequalities  in  the  distribution  of  property,  there  arises  a 
rivalry  which,  in  one  respect,  stimulates  activity,  but  also  gives 
cause  for  disputes,  and  irritates  the  passions.  This  rivalry,  ac- 
companied by  its  beneficial  and  detrimental  consequences,  pro- 
duces a  permanent  antagonism  in  society.  If  to  the  distinction 
between  the  rich  and  the  poor  there  be  added  that  between  the 
governing  and  the  governed  elements,  a  series  of  contrasts  is 
established,  and  the  rivalry  for  the  possession  of  property  is 
now  directed  to  the  possession  of  power  and  honour. 

The  development  of  such  antagonistic  forces  becomes  very  im- 
portant, both  directly  and  indirectly,  for  the  progress  of  culture. 
It  leads,  in  the  first  place,  to  a  community  of  such  elements  in 
society  whose  interest  is  opposed  to  that  of  others.  The  first 
step  is,  that  the  members  of  a  family  originally  united  by  the 
autocratic  will  of  a  man  unite  with  their  relations.  These 
family  bonds,  no  doubt,  form  the  essential  basis  of  all  civiliza- 
tion. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  descant  upon  the  mode  by  which  the 
gradations  in  society  lead  to  the  more  extensive  union  of  men. 
Common  interest,  as  opposed  to  other  motives,  also  leads 
here  to  common  efforts  and  greater  performances :  in  order 
to  effect  the  latter,  division  of  labour  presents  itself  as  an 
effective  means. 

On  comparing  the  various  classes  of  society,  we  find  as 
striking  differences  in  their  inner  as  in  their  external  life.  The 
feeling  of  security,  the  consciousness  of  a  prominent  position, 
the  servility  of  others,  the  command  over  the  enjoyments  of 
life,  give  to  the  character  of  the  higher  ranks  a  direction  and 
a  development  as  essentially  distinct  from  that  of  the  lower 
classes,  as  they  differ  in  nutriment,  dress,  habitation,  and  con- 
sequent protection  from  the  effects  of  climate.  It  has  already 


362  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

been  pointed  out  how  great  is  this  influence  upon  the  physical 
peculiarities  of  mankind,  and  it  needs  no  proof  that  they  are 
equally  potent  as  regards  psychical  life.  We  can  hardly  err  in 
considering  the  development  of  the  above  social  contrasts  as 
the  chief  cause  of  the  known  phenomenon  that,  with  the  pro- 
gress of  civilization,  the  differences  of  individual  capacities, 
physically  and  intellectually,  become  more  striking  in  society. 
Among  rude  nations,  the  contrasts  between  master  and  ser- 
vant, rich  and  poor,  high  and  low,  are  usually  connected  with 
birth,  and  are  commonly  maintained  with  such  strictness  that  the 
transition  from  one  caste  to  another  is  forbidden.  It  is  rare, 
however,  that  this  exclusiveness  is  maintained  in  its  original 
rigour.  External  and  internal  commotions  produce  a  greater 
variety  in  the  condition  of  individuals,  the  distinctions  become 
gradually  obliterated,  and  in  course  of  time  the  various  classes 
become  intermixed. 

It  has  been  said  that,  "  the  more  nature,  the  greater  the  pecu- 
liarity of  character ;  the  more  art  and  culture,  the  greater  the 
resemblance  of  character."1  This,  however,  applies  only  to  the 
civilized  world,  and  even  here  only  under  certain  limitations ; 
with  regard  to  the  comparison  of  primitive  with  civilized 
nations,  it  is  entirely  erroneous.  Hale2  also  maintains  that  it 
is  a  mistake  to  attribute  to  savage  nations  a  certain  uniformity 
of  character,  of  feelings,  and  passions,  but  that  it  was  civiliza- 
tion which  produced  that  uniformity;  and  he  adduces  as  a 
proof,  that  the  yellow  and  the  black  races  of  the  Pacific,  who 
live  close  to  each  other,  differ  more  from  each  other  than  any 
two  European  nations.  Though  this  may  be  admitted  as  re- 
gards peoples,  it  does  not  apply  to  the  characters  of  indivi- 
duals ;  the  latter  invariably  more  resemble  each  other  among 
savage  than  among  the  cultivated  nations,  as  the  comparison 
of  the  native  Americans  with  the  more  advanced  Polynesians 
plainly  shows.  But  this  increasing  individual  dissimilarity, 
which  seems  to  extend  amongst  civilized  nations,  which  is  a 
natural  consequence  of  the  differences  of  social  condition  and 


1  "  Schmid.  Einl.  z.  de  la  Chambre's  Anleitung  z.  Menschenk."  p.  62,  1794. 

2  Ethnogr.  and  Philol.  of  the  U.  S.  Expl.  Exp./'  p.  13,  Philad.,  1846. 


SECT.  III.]  GENIUS   IN    EVERY   RACE.  363 

increasing  intermixture  of  the  various  classes,  becomes  again 
a  powerful  lever  for  progressive  development,  by  producing  a 
corresponding  difference  in  the  pursuits  and  inclinations  of  in- 
dividuals, and  thus  promotes  a  division  of  labour. 

Connected  with  these  social  contrasts  and  the  distinctive 
character  of  individual  differences,  is  another  circumstance, — the 
importance  of  which  has,  indeed,  formerly  been  overvalued, 
but  which  certainly  plays  no  subordinate  part  in  the  progress 
of  civilization, — which  is,  the  emergence  of  highly  gifted  in- 
dividuals from  the  mass  of  the  people,  who  as  rulers,  heroes, 
lawgivers,  transform  the  position  of  their  people,  change  its 
relations  with  other  nations,  regulate  its  internal  constitution, 
expand  its  horizon  in  science  and  art,  improve  their  morals, 
and  direct  their  attention  to  nobler  objects.  Whether  these 
objects  are  attained,  whether  the  seed  thus  thrown  falls  upon 
a  productive  soil,  germinates,  and  grows  to  maturity,  or  de- 
cays, depends  upon  the  people ;  for  which  reason  the  capacity 
and  the  character  of  a  whole  people  cannot  exactly  be  deter- 
mined from  the  intellectuality  exhibited  in  individual  instances. 

To  form,  however,  a  correct  judgment,  we  must  take  into 
consideration  that  the  great  mass  occupies  almost  everywhere 
a  very  inferior  position  as  regards  civilization,  and  that  it  is 
by  individual  great  teachers  of  humanity  that  the  progress  of 
the  mass  is  mostly  effected.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  a 
number  of  discoveries  and  inventions  have  also  been  made 
among  the  coloured  races,  but  it  probably  took  them  a  longer 
time  than  the  Whites  before  the  people  appropriated  and 
applied  them.  Everything  seems  to  depend  upon  the  right 
man  appearing  at  the  right  time.  Genius  exists  in  every  race 
and  in  every  period ;  but  there  must  be  a  mental  susceptibility 
among  the  people,  and  a  happy  combination  of  circumstances, 
in  order  that  the  talents  of  an  individual  may  lead  to  im- 
portant results,  and  have  their  full  effect  on  civilization.  The 
greater  the  individual  disparity  amongst  peoples,  and  the 
greater  the  difference  in  their  respective  modes  of  life,  the  less 
is  it  to  be  feared  that  important  inventions  may  be  lost  to 
society ;  but  they  will  certainly  remain  neglected  so  long  as 
the  people  occupy  a  low  scale  in  civilization. 


364  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

We  have  already  had  occasion  to  observe,  that  trade  and 
commerce  are  calculated  to  stimulate  the  industry  of  productive 
countries,  provided  their  inhabitants  possess  the  desire  for 
foreign  products.  Trade  becomes  a  greater  stimulus  to  in- 
vention and  enterprise  amongst  peoples  who  are  compelled 
to  import  necessaries  from  foreign  parts. 

Productive  countries,  i.  e.,  such  as  support  their  popu- 
lations abundantly,  are  self-sufficient;  their  inhabitants  are 
not  anxious  for  intercourse  with  strangers,  they  do  not  take 
the  initiative  in  commerce,  but  are  rather  passive  in  bartering 
for  foreign  commodities  which  appear  to  them  useful  or  curious. 
So  long  as  poor  countries  are  ignorant  of  the  abundance  exist- 
ing elsewhere,  their  efforts  may  remain  nugatory,  until  some  few 
who  had  been  cast  away,  return  and  make  known  their  discoveries 
to  their  own  people.  The  insular  or  geographical  position  of 
the  country  is  as  influential  at  the  outset  as  in  the  development 
of  commerce.  In  order  to  take  the  initiative  in  commerce, 
(which  is  a  more  powerful  lever  in  civilization  than  a  mere  pas- 
sive acquiescence,  but  at  the  same  time  presupposes  a  higher 
civilization),  a  series  of  inventions,  arts,  and  contrivances  are 
requisite,  in  order  to  overcome  the  difficulties  of  transit  by 
land  and  water,  and  natural  or  artificial  products,  either  of 
native  or  foreign  growth,  must  be  collected  for  exportation. 
The  observation  of  natural  phenomena,  especially  of  the  move- 
ments of  celestial  bodies,  becomes  essential  to  the  navi- 
gator, whilst  the  agriculturist  takes  only  an  interest  in  the 
changes  of  the  weather  and  the  seasons.  Thus  trade  stimu- 
lates inquiry  into  the  connexion  and  the  laws  of  natural 
phenomena ;  whilst  elsewhere  it  is  a  religious  motive  which 
directs  the  attention  to  the  motions  of  celestial  bodies,  and  the 
gradual  production  of  a  calendar.  It  is  unnecessary  further 
to  dwell  on  the  variety  of  impulses  to  physical  and  mental 
activity,  directly  or  indirectly,  given  by  commerce.  Though  in 
this,  as  in  many  other  things,  the  most  obvious  inventions  and 
discoveries  have  been  long  in  being  made,  and  many  efforts 
have  remained  fruitless ;  still,  these  very  efforts  act  beneficially 
on  subsequent  exertions,  by  the  stimulus  they  have  given  to 
mental  efforts. 


SECT.  III.]  RESULTS  OP  TRADE.  365 

The  immediate  results  of  trade  on  the  civilization  of  a 
trading  people  are  not  estimated  so  highly  as  the  efforts  made 
to  establish  it.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a  knowledge  of 
foreign  countries,  and  their  history  and  manners,  expands 
the  intellectual  horizon;  but  there  does  not  seem  to  result 
from  it  a  genuine  improvement  in  the  mode  of  life,  for 
everything  is  viewed  from  the  stand-point  of  profit.  "  Com- 
merce," observes  Falconer,1  ' '  renders  the  people  more  indus- 
trious than  agriculture;  but  they  become  very  selfish,  they 
over-estimate  the  value  of  wealth ;  everything  is  for  sale ;  they 
are  sober  and  honest,  not  from  virtue  but  from  interest,  and 
they  become  timid  and  unwarlike." 

Whether  trade  and  intercourse  contribute  to  raise  a  savage 
people  partly  depends  on  the  commodities  interchanged,  and 
also  on  the  parties  which  carry  on  the  trade.  The  intercourse 
with  a  foreign  country  may  become  most  beneficial,  if  it,  for 
instance,  receives  important  plants  and  domestic  animals  in 
which  it  is  deficient,  so  that  now  a  regular  agriculture  is  ren- 
dered possible ;  or  it  may  become  a  curse,  if  the  natives  are 
provided  with  brandy,  fire-arms,  and  similar  articles,  which  lead 
to  their  destruction.  Where  cereals  of  a  superior  quality  are 
wanting,  an  original  impulse  to  a  higher  civilization  cannot  be 
expected  :  thus  at  Molucca,  and  Borneo,  New  Guinea,  the  pos- 
session of  gold  and  spices,  and  the  foreign  trade  with  these  ar- 
ticles, do  not  lead  to  any  great  progress.2  The  commerce 
which  more  civilized  nations  entertain  with  the  natives  is 
generally  injurious  to  the  latter.  It  is  known  that  the  Dutch 
at  a  former  period,  destroyed  the  spices,  and  even  prevented 
the  cultivation  of  rice  in  the  Moluccas,  (excepting  the  Amboyna, 
Banda,  and  some  small  islands),  in  order  to  import  rice,  so 
as  to  render  the  natives  altogether  dependent  on  them,  and  to 
force  them  to  labour  at  the  lowest  wages  for  their  benefit.  We 
need  not  refer  to  the  slave  trade — this  source  of  the  greatest 
misery — to  point  out  the  injury  which  the  intercourse  of  Euro- 
peans has  done  to  the  natives  of  many  parts  of  the  globe. 
The  treachery,  the  excesses,  the  utter  absence  of  any  moral 

1  Loc.  cit,,  p.  404.  2  Crawford,  i,  p.  15. 


366  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

sense,  which  Europeans  have  evinced  in  their  intercourse  with 
the  aborigines  of  every  part,  have  been  such  that  it  is  utterly 
absurd  to  assert,  in  order  to  prove  the  incapacity  of  certain 
peoples  and  savages  for  improvement,  that  they  have  appro- 
priated nothing  from  the  intercourse  with  civilized  nations  but 
their  vices.  An  unprejudiced  observer  sees  in  this  only  the 
natural  consequence  of  the  intercourse  of  the  refuse  of  Euro- 
pean society  with  primitive  nations.  Passing  by  the  natural 
effect  of  criminal  colonies  on  the  natives,  it  may  be  observed, 
that  vices  are  more  easily  contracted  than  virtues,  even  by 
comparatively  civilized  beings.  To  give  only  one  instance,  we 
may  mention  that  the  gifted  New  Zealanders  have  everywhere 
descended  from  their  station  of  proud,  though  rude,  warriors, 
to  become  common  beggars,  in  proportion  as  they  came  in 
contact  with  Europeans.  D'Urville1  says  of  them,  "  Though 
trade  may  be  a  potent  means  of  leading  rude  nations  to  civiliza- 
tion, it  is  incapable,  in  many  instances,  of  effecting  it  on  account 
of  the  bad  character  of  the  people  who  first  come  in  contact 
with  them/' 

Instances  of  a  perfectly  peaceable  and  friendly  intercourse, 
between  Europeans  and  savage  nations,  are  very  rare,  and 
belong  to  a  very  recent  period.  Port  Essington  offers  such  an 
instance,  having  been  an  English  colony  from  1839-50,  but  has 
since  been  abandoned.  During  that  whole  period,  no  inimical 
collision  between  White  and  native  is  said  to  have  occurred. 
There  is  another  instance  of  this  kind  furnished  by  Brooke  in 
Sarawak,  Borneo.  Brooke  took  care  that  the  old  laws  and 
customs  of  the  population  should,  as  much  as  possible,  be  pre- 
served ;  he  protected  them  from  the  oppression  of  the  native 
rulers,  established  an  impartial  court  of  justice  to  punish 
crimes,  free  trade  and  labour,  and  very  moderate  taxes.2  The 
results,  however,  of  these  attempts  at  civilization  seem  to 
have  been,  that  the  natives  of  Sarawak,  by  being  freed  from 
oppression,  by  the  diminution  of  taxes,  and  the  obtaining 


1  "  Voyage  au  Pole  Sud,"  ix,  p.  134. 

2  Reports  of  Rajah.  Brooke's  doings  have  been  latterly  spread,  which  do 
not  agree  with  the  above  statement ;  whether  they  are  true  or  not  must  for 
the  present  remain  undecided. 


SECT.  III.]  EESULTS  OF  TRADE.  367 

security  of  life  and  property,  have  become  lazy,  contrary  to 
Brooke's  expectation  that  it  would  stimulate  their  industry.1 
Such  an  expectation  is  not  always  realized,  since  deliverance 
from  oppression  and  the  establishment  of  order  alone  do  not 
positively  impel  man  to  labour.  These  impulses,  as  has  been 
justly  observed,  arise  only  when  new  physical  or  mental 
wants  are  excited,  such  as  can  only  be  supplied  by  their  own 
activity;  it  is  then  that  trade  may  become  a  lever  for  the 
civilization  of  savage  tribes. 

If  the  new  wants  which  arise  in  a  people  are  in  the  direction 
of  progress,  much  has  already  been  gained.  Thus,  for  in- 
stance, in  Delagoa  Bay  the  natives,  although  inveterate 
smokers,  preferred  being  paid  for  their  services  in  clothing.1 
There  are  many  and  striking  instances,  especially  in  the  South 
Sea,  of  progress  shown  in  the  proper  estimation  of  commodi- 
ties. The  acquirement  of  such  wants  may,  however,  become 
injurious  if  the  people  do  not  learn  to  supply  them  by  their 
own  efforts,  and  become  thus  dependent  on  importation  which 
is  irregular.  If  commerce  is  to  raise  a  people,  it  is  neces- 
sary, not  merely  that  it  obtain  a  knowledge  of  really  useful 
foreign  products,  but  that  it  should  endeavour  to  reproduce 
them,  not  directly,  but  indirectly,  by  increasing  their  own 
produce  by  labour.  Next  to  the  opportunity  of  exchanging 
the  commodities,  stand  as  chief  conditions,  security  for  life  and 
property  and  the  possession  of  a  currency  in  sufficient  quantity. 
Gold,  ivory,  and  the  slave  trade  have  not,  as  Cruickshank  ob- 
serves, been  sufficient  to  raise  the  Negro  on  the  gold  coast ;  but 
now  flourishing  palm  oil  trade,  which  annually  imports  150 
tons  of  cawris  as  current  coin,  will  effect  much.  Similar  improve- 
ments are  now  taking  place  in  Senegambia,  whence  European 
trade  exports  skins,  wood,  palm  oil,  etc.,  all  which  must  be 
gained  by  the  labour  of  the  natives,  who  are  thus  habituated 
to  labour  and  to  European  requirements. 

In  investigating  the  influences  upon  the  civilization  and  de- 
velopment of  various  peoples,  we  have  first  considered  the  phy- 
sical conditions  and  the  accidental  events.  We  have  further 


1  Keppel,  "  A  visit  to  the  Indian  Archipelago/'  ii,  p.  61,  1853. 

2  Owen,  "  Narr.  of  a  voy.  to  Explore  the  Shores  of  Africa,"  i,  p. 


159, 1833. 


368  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II. 

reviewed  the  elements  of  civilization  arising  from  occupation, 
mode  of  life,  and  social  condition,  and  we  have  now  finally  to 
examine  the  agents  of  psychical  life  chiefly  concerned  in  its 
development.  Religion  and  knowledge  must  be  considered  as 
the  chief  elements  in  this  respect. 

Whether  religion  promotes  or  impedes  the  progress  of  civiliz- 
ation and  in  what  proportion,  depends  in  the  first  place  on  its 
nature,  and  mainly  on  its  adaptation  to  the  intellectual  status, 
and  the  moral  ideas  which  govern  practical  life.  Where  the  in- 
telligence is  yet  undeveloped,  there  arise  the  crudest  religious 
notions  and  the  most  absurd  superstition.  Such  a  religion  can 
only  obstruct  mental  activity  and  civilization.  It  has  a  similar 
effect  when  its  doctrines  have  no  relation  to  morality,  or  when 
it  exercises  a  depraving  influence  by  authorizing  barbarous 
customs,  such  as  cannibalism  and  human  sacrifices,  the  assassi- 
nation of  twins,  ordeals,  etc.  We  shall  here  illustrate  these 
relations,  chiefly  as  regards  primitive  peoples. 

We  have  seen  that  the  original  form  of  all  religion  is  a  raw 
unsystematic  polytheism.  Man  in  a  state  of  nature  finds  him- 
self surrounded  by  threatening  dangers  and  actual  miseries, 
which  he  attributes  to  unfriendly  powers  who  appear  to  him  to 
be  constantly  on  the  alert  to  impede  his  progress.  That,  on 
the  contrary,  which  regularly  and  periodically  recurs,  passes  by 
him  unheeded,  because,  being  expected  and  anticipated,  he  is 
not  obstructed  in  his  path.  He  looks  thus  at  nature  as  a  world 
of  spirits ;  but  the  notions  he  conceives  as  to  the  nature  of  these 
inimical  powers  depend  partly  on  surrounding  nature  and  the 
vividness  of  his  imagination,  and  partly  on  the  special  occa- 
sions which  excite  his  affections  and  passions.  The  interpre- 
tation of  sensible  objects  depends  entirely  on  the  mental  dispo- 
sition of  the  individual  who  perceives  them,  and  the  mode  in 
which  they  act  upon  him.  The  heavenly  bodies,  the  elements, 
plants  and  animals,  even  stones,  are  looked  upon  as  spirits. 
Thus,  for  instance,  rock-crystal  is  something  sacred  in  the  eyes 
of  the  Australians.  Leichardt1  says,  that  the  savage  endows 
glittering  stones  with  beneficial  qualities,  and  so  is  blood- 

1  Tageb.  einer  Landreise  in  Austr.,  p.  221,  1851. 


SECT.  III.]  RELIGIOUS  NOTIONS.  369 

stone  considered,  with,  other  minerals,  by  the  Indians  of  South 
America.1  Even  the  artificial  products,  such  as  watches,  tele- 
scopes, etc.,  are  looked  at  as  possessed  by  demons.  An  intel- 
ligent Betchuana,  on  seeing  the  sea  and  a  ship  for  the  first 
time,  observed  that  the  ship  must  be  an  uncreated  object,  a 
thing  that  had  come  by  itself,  and  had  not  been  made  by  the 
hand  of  man.2  The  instances  of  Cortez  and  Cook  show  that  even 
living  human  beings  have  been  considered  as  gods,  a  delusion 
which  certainly  disappears  on  nearer  acquaintance,  for  man  is 
too  commensurable  to  man  :  ' '  ^Equales  sunt  qui  sequalia  contra 
se  invicem  possunt ;  at  qui  maxima  possunt,  nimirum  occidere, 
aequalia  possunt"  (Hobbes) .  When  the  ruling  family  is  looked 
upon  as  of  divine  origin,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  ruler  should, 
after  his  death,  or  even  during  his  life,  be  placed  among  the 
gods,  and  be  worshipped  accordingly,  as,  for  instance,  Tamatoa, 
king  of  Raiatea.3  Religions  of  this  kind  are  characterised  by 
their  discrepancies.  Every  one  worships  either  what  he  fears 
the  most,  or  from  which  he  expects  the  greatest  aid  in  need. 
There  are  few  general,  but  many  local  and  individual,  ob- 
jects of  veneration,  and  even  the  general  objects  of  worship 
possess  at  different  times  a  greater  or  less  importance  for 
their  worshippers.  Faith  as  yet  lays  no  claim  to  universal 
assent ;  there  is  an  absolute  toleration,  and  it  is  considered 
quite  natural  that  other  people  should  have  other  gods.  The 
endeavour  to  force  upon  others  his  own  views,  whether  con- 
cerning religious  or  other  subjects,  is  altogether  foreign  to  the 
primitive  man,  who  so  highly  values  personal  independence. 

In  Africa  the  Christians  and  Mohammedans  only,  try  to  make 
proselytes,  and  in  America  Peru  was  the  only  state  which  did 
so.  On  the  other  hand,  foreign  gods  are  easily  added  to  the 
native  ones.  Thus  the  Fantees  purchase  gods  which  have  ac- 
quired a  certain  celebrity.4  The  gods  are  put  on  their  trial,  to 
see  whether  they  are  more  powerful  than  others,  and,  if  they 
prove  themselves  so,  obtain  preference  and  a  higher  rank  above 


1  Humboldt  und  Bonpland,  "  Eeise,"  iv,  p.  334. 

2  Thompson,  "  Travels  and  adventures  in  South  Africa,"  2nd  edit.,  1827. 

3  Tyermann  and  Bennet,  "  Journal,"  i,  p.  524,  1831. 

4  W.  T.  Midler,  "  D.  Afrika  Landschaft  Fetu."  p.  55,  Hamb.,  1676. 

B  B 


370  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

other  gods.  This  is,  as  regards  religious  belief,  in  many 
cases  the  result  of  the  conversion  of  such  peoples,  if  peace- 
fully effected.  If  the  religion  of  the  conqueror  is  forced 
upon  the  conquered,  the  belief  in  the  old  gods  continues  for 
a  considerable  time,  as  they  are  considered  to  have  been  only 
temporarily  defeated  and  banished  by  the  new  gods  to  caves  or 
distant  mountains.  The  Mexicans  shut  up  the  gods  of  the  con- 
quered nations  in  a  separate  temple.1  The  facility  of  the  adop- 
tion of  foreign  gods  among  the  native  deities  and  the  evocatio 
deorum  among  the  Romans  afford  similar  instances.  The 
gods  of  the  conquered  peoples  were  by  the  old  Peruvians 
placed  in  the  temple  of  the  Incas.2 

Hence  it  is  clear  that  the  religions  of  savages  are  incapable 
of  promoting  civilization,  but  that,  on  the  contrary,  they  im- 
pede progress  by  attributing  all  that  is  to  them  unintelligible 
in  nature  to  the  power  of  spirits,  so  that  the  fate  of  man  de- 
pends much  less  on  his  own  exertions  than  on  the  changing 
humours  of  mysterious,  malicious  powers.  Opposed  to  them, 
there  remains  nothing  for  man  but  to  do  them  homage,  to  flatter 
them,  to  enter  their  service,  or  (and  this  also  sometimes  hap- 
pens) to  over-reach  or  even  conquer  them.  The  most  senseless 
actions,  the  coarsest  immorality  are  often  supported  by  religious 
motives,  and  the  purely  utilitarian  objects  which  man  pursues 
in  relation  to  his  gods  contribute  to  confirm  him  in  his  crude 
egotism. 

In  this  stage  of  development  the  thought  easily  occurs  of 
making  sacrifices  to  the  higher  spirits  ;  they  are  first  made  to 
take  their  share  in  food  and  any  other  enjoyment.  A  further 
step  is  to  deprive  oneself  of  something,  and  to  sacrifice  it  to 
the  gods.  Among  some  American  tribes  the  religious  feeling 
is  so  intense,  that  they  readily  give  up  what  is  dearest  to  them, 
and  inflict  upon  themselves  the  greatest  pain,  in  order  to  prove 
their  devotion  :  hence  the  vows,  the  strict  fastings,  and  the  self- 
mutilations  on  certain  festivals.  In  some  places  they  produce 
by  long  fasting  an  ecstatic  condition,  attended  with  dreams  and 

1  Clavigero,  "History  of  Mexico,"  translated  by  Cullen,  vi,  p.  11,  1787. 

•   GrarcilaSSO    "TTist,    rl«s  Vr»p,a.s  "    Ainsf,      1  737  •    Annafo.    <e  TTicf.    /l^llo  Tn/li/ 

Venet.,  1596. 


SECT.  III.]  RELIGIOUS  NOTIONS.  371 

visions,  in  which  they  are  supposed  to  approach  the  higher 
spirits.  The  young  medicine-man,  especially,  required  such  an 
initiation.  The  chiefs  among  the  Caribs,  Mexicans,  and  Peru- 
vians, who  exercised  both  spiritual  and  temporal  powers,  had  to 
undergo  similar  ordeals. 

When  nature  is  thus  spiritualised,  every  little  accidental  oc- 
currence is  attributed  to  the  mysterious  action  of  higher  powers, 
and  in  them  the  primitive  man  sees  prognostications.  To  in- 
terpret these  becomes  an  art  which  requires  much  study.  The 
want  of  a  mediation  with  the  higher  spirits,  to  interpret  their 
signs,  to  conciliate  them,  to  take  their  advice  as  regards  the 
future,  gives  rise  to  priestcraft,  and  gradually  endow  it  with 
power  and  influence  in  all  the  affairs  of  life.  As  the  spirit 
world  is  always  called  upon  when  human  means  are  exhausted, 
so  its  aid  is  also  invoked  in  the  administration  of  justice  : 
hence  the  ordeals  which  are  found  among  nearly  all  primitive 
peoples.  This  fundamental  idea  is  well  shown  in  the  doctrine 
of  Indian  legislation,  in  which  the  proof  by  ordeals  is  only  ad- 
mitted where  other  proofs  are  wanting.  The  opinion  of  Wuttke, 
that  the  belief  in  prognostics  and  ordeals  rests  upon  some  ob- 
scure innate  idea  of  fate  which  is  beyond  religion,  cannot  be 
admitted. 

In  consequence  of  this  transference  of  sensible  impres- 
sions to  a  spiritual  province,  the  gods  are  generally  located  in 
elevations,  or  at  great  distances,  on  high  distant  mountains, 
the  clouds,  the  sky.  It  is,  therefore,  very  possible  that,  as 
Squire1  observes,  among  many  peoples  the  first  temples  were 
artificial  mounds,  an  imitation  of  the  localities  in  which  they 
placed  their  gods.  The  Mexicans,  Peruvians,  and  Cherokees 
called  their  high  buildings  "  Houses  of  God."2  Temples  pro- 
perly so  called  were  only  built  when  man  himself  lived  in 
houses. 

If  nature  is  once  spiritualised  in  the  manner  indicated,  so 
that  the  spiritual  world  is  not  something  above  or  beside  the 
physical  world,  but  contained  within  it,  the  idea  of  the  influence 
of  deceased  persons  on  earthly  life  suggests  itself.  As  Tiede- 

1  "  The  Serpent  Symbol,"  p.  77,  New  York,  1851. 

2  Adair,  "  History  of  the  American  Indians." 

B  B  2 


372  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

mann  well  observes,1  some  idea  of  sensation  is  still  attri- 
buted to  the  corpse;  he  is  sympathised  with,  and  the  dead 
are  still  more  feared  than  the  living.  It  is  believed  the  spirit 
has  left  the  body  to  wander  about,  and  that  it  can  now  assume 
any  shape,  can  appear  in  dreams,  and  torment  the  living  if  no 
honour  be  shown  to  it,  so  that  the  survivors  avoid  pronouncing 
the  name  of  the  deceased,  from  fear  that  he  would  hear  it,  and 
return.  This  kind  of  belief  in  immortality,  which  is  erroneously 
confounded  with  the  belief  in  a  transmigration  of  souls,  whilst 
it  is  nothing  but  a  belief  in  spectres  and  transformation, 
may  have  led  to  animal  worship,  which,  however,  as  we  have 
already  shown,  is  due  to  other  causes.  The  worship  of  some 
particular  animals  sometimes  arises  from  a  tradition  that  a 
tribe  had  descended  from  them.  The  departed  souls  are  by 
some  believed  to  return  to  the  spiritual  world,  dwelling  near 
the  gods  :  hence  they  are  buried  in  places  already  consecrated 
to  the  gods ;  or  inversely,  the  burial  places  become  sacred  by 
the  fact,  that  they  contain  the  remains  of  the  dead,  and  thus  be- 
come the  chief  places  of  worship.  Such  is  especially  the  case 
where  the  religious  faith  is  fused  with  the  belief  in  immor- 
tality, when  great  men  after  their  death  are  numbered  among 
the  gods. 

Among  many  peoples  the  princes,  the  rich>  and  eminent  per- 
sons only  are  considered  as  immortal,  as  man  is  believed  here- 
after to  continue  to  play  the  same  part  as  during  his  lifetime. 
The  future  is  looked  upon  as  a  counterpart  of  the  present  :  the 
master  remains  a  master,  the  slave  a  slave  ;  the  common  man 
is  considered  too  powerless  to  continue  his  existence.  Such 
men,  therefore,  who  were  pre-eminently  distinguished  in  life, 
and  especially  where  distinctions  in  rank  are  well  denned,  be- 
come gods  after  their  decease,  and  a  hero-worship  becomes 
gradually  the  chief  element  of  religion,  when,  for  instance,  as  in 
Polynesia,  the  nobles  and  the  priests  alone  claim  a  divine  origin 
and  a  relationship  with  the  gods.  The  deified  chiefs  become 
then  confounded  with  the  ancient  gods,  so  that  it  is  sometimes 
difficult  to  distinguish  the  latter  from  the  former.  Thus  Nden- 

1  "  Magaz.  v.  merkw.  Keisebescrift."  xxiii,  p.  47. 


SECT.  III.]  RELIGIOUS  NOTIONS.  373 

gei,  the  highest  god  of  Fiji  islanders,  was,  it  is  said,  ori- 
ginally a  man,  and  wandered  about  in  the  islands.  The 
worship  of  deceased  chiefs  is  very  general  in  other  islands 
of  the  South  Sea,  and  constitutes  an  important  element  in 
religion. 

The  adoption  of  eminent  men  among  the  gods  becomes,  for 
the  transformation  of  religious  ideas,  important  in  many  re- 
spects. If  man  can  only  imagine  higher  beings  in  his  own 
image,  idol  worship  is  easily  established,  especially  if  deceased 
persons  are  worshipped  as  gods.  Nearly  all  idols  resemble  the 
human  form,  and  even  the  three  feet  long,  irregular-shaped 
coral  piece  which,  on  the  King's-Mill  Islands,  is  every  month 
covered  with  cocoa  leaves,  and  worshipped  as  the  image  of  the 
highest  god,1  has  some  resemblance  to  the  human  shape.  The 
reception  of  human  individuals  among  the  gods  becomes  par- 
ticularly important  in  relation  to  their  teachings,  which  we  find 
in  every  mythology.  They  are  either  considered  as  incarnations 
of  a  god,  or  as  the  sons  of  the  highest  god,  born  of  a  human 
mother,  or  a  virgin,  and  miraculously  conceived.2  They  be- 

1  Hale. 

2  This  point  recurs  under  various  forms,  of  which  we  shall  cite  a  few 
examples.     The  legend  of  the  birth  of  Fohi,  in  China,  runs  thus : — Three 
nymphs  descended  from  heaven  to  bathe  in  a  river.    They  had  scarcely 
entered  it  when  the  lotus  plant  appealed  upon  the  garments  of  one,  with  its 
coral  fruit.     The  consequence  was  that  she  became  pregnaijt,  and  gave  birth 
to  a  son,  who  became  a  founder  of  religion,  a  warrior,  and  lawgiver.     Father 
Tachard  relates  the  legend  of  the  birth  of  Codom,  as  follows  : — Many,  many 
years  ago,  a  virgin  in  a  state  of  ecstasy,  left  the  society  of  men,  and  haunted 
the  most  solitary  places  of  the  forest,  expecting  the  advent  of  a  god  long 
predicted.     One  day,  when  she  knelt  down  to  pray,  she  became  pregnant  by 
the  sunbeams.     On  the  shores  of  a  lake,  between  Siam  and  Camboya,  she 
was  delivered  of  a  boy,  whom  she  placed  in  the  leaves  of  a  lotus.     She  was 
then  translated  to  heaven ;  but  the  boy  was  found  by  a  hermit,  and  became 
a  great  sage  and  performer  of  miracles.     Archer,  in  Corea,  is  also  said  to  be 
the  son  of  a  virgin  impregnated  by  the  sun.      Huitzilipochtli,  in  Mexico, 
was  born  by  a  woman  who  caught  in  her  bosom  a  featherbaU  which  descended 
from  the  heavens  (Clavigero,  "History  of  Mexico,"  vi,  p.  6).     In  a  legend  of 
the  Apaches,  rain  caused  a  supernatural  conception :  in  Tahiti,  it  was  the 
shadow  of  a  leaf  of  a  bread-tree  which  Taaroa  passed  above  Hina  (Ellis, 
"  Polynes.  Resear.,"  i,  p.  326,  1832) ;  the  mother  of  the  first  Mandan  chief 
conceived  by  eating  the  fat  of  a  bison  cow  (Prinz  Max,  loc.  cit).  Other  similar 
instances  are  related  in  Ausland,  1856,  T.  G.  MuUer,  etc.     The  Chibchar 
equally  attribute  a  supernatural  birth  to  their  heroes  (P.  Simon,  "  Noticias 
de  las  Conq.  de  Tierra  Firme,"  ii,  p.  13;  in  Kingsborough,  viii).     Hence  it 
clearly  results  that  E.  Schomburgk  ("  K.  in  Guiana,"  ii,  p.  320)  wrongly  sup- 
poses Christian  admixtures  in  the  Indian  traditions,  which,  like  those  of  the 
Maipures  and  Warraus,  speak  of  the  supernatural  conception  and  birth  of 
one  of  their  heroes. 


374  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

come  then  the  mediators  between  gods  and  men,  and  the 
benefactors  of  the  latter  as  the  founders  of  a  new  religion,  the 
inventors  of  important  arts,  the  founders  of  agriculture  and 
social  order,  and  the  promoters  of  civilization.  Squier1  gives 
as  examples,  Buddha  in  India,  Fohi  in  China,  Zoroaster  in 
Persia,  Osiris  in  Egypt,  Odin  in  Scandinavia,  etc.  In  the  New 
World  belong  to  this  category,  Quetzalcoatl  in  Mexico ;  Manco 
Capac  in  Peru,  the  founder  of  Cuzco,  sent  by  the  sun ;  ana- 
logous heroes  we  find  among  the  Muyscas  in  Yucatan,  in  Nica- 
ragua, and  even  among  the  Natchez  ;3  Hiawatha  among  the 
Iroquois,  the  founder  of  their  confederacy ;  Manabozho  among 
the  Algonquins ;  Tamoi  among  the  Guarayos.3 

It  is  by  the  influence  of  such  heroes  that  religion  becomes 
an  element  of  civilization,  whilst  in  its  natural  form  it  directly 
or  indirectly  impedes  it.  In  order  to  promote  culture,  it  re- 
quires a  transformation,  which,  like  all  psychical  progress,  is 
not  so  much  determined  by  the  influence  of  external  natural 
forces,  or  by  social  relations  and  historical  events,  as  by  the 
influence  of  pre-eminently  gifted  individuals,  who  no  doubt, 
to  be  successful  in  their  endeavours,  require  a  susceptible  and 
productive  field  in  their  own  people.  No  natural  religion 
seems  in  itself  to  possess  the  germ  of  a  higher  development 
conducive  to  civilization.  The  mass  of  superstition  which 
these  religions"  contain  suffocates  thought ;  and  the  exclusive 
predominance  of  evil  spirits,  whilst  the  benevolent  beings  are 
little  heeded,  deprives  them  of  any  beneficial  effect  which  religion 
should  exercise  upon  moral  conduct.  It  is  only  in  a  higher 
stage  of  cultivation  when  man  becomes  the  master  of  nature, 
and  his  moral  sense  is  developed  by  means  independent  of  a 
religious  source,  that  he  is  led  to  the  worship  of  a  good  prin- 
ciple. Even  the  question  as  regards  the  variety  of  surrounding 
phenomena,  and  the  origin  of  the  world,  is  not  originally  raised 
by  man;  the  idea  of  a  creation  does  not  immediately  occur 
to  him,  but  remains  for  a  long  time  dormant,  or  at  least 
confused. 

1  "  Serpent  Symbol ;"  and  Kougement,  "  Le  peuple  primitif,"  ii,  p.  108. 

2  Du  Pratz,  "  Hist,  de  la  Louisane,"  ii,  p.  324,  1758. 

3  D'Orbigny,  «  L'Homme  Amer./'  iii,  pp.  12,  23,  1839. 


SECT.  III.]  RELIGIOUS  NOTIONS.  375 

Just  as  the  establishment  of  a  well  organized  community  is 
not  the  work  of  the  multitude  but  of  gifted  individuals  who, 
either  with  or  without  the  consent  of  the  people,  place  them- 
selves at  their  head, — so  can  religions  be  only  created  by  in- 
dividuals, and  imposed  upon  the  masses.  As  such  religions 
are  frequently  opposed  to  old  prevailing  religious  notions,  their 
introduction  among  peoples  in  a  low  state  of  culture  are  the 
more  successful  if  they  supply  a  want,  or  if  their  representative 
is  in  the  possession  of  sufficient  personal  authority.  If  the 
new  doctrines  are  of  native  growth,  they  will,  however  much 
they  may  be  opposed  to  the  ancient  faith,  find  their  points  of 
attachment  in  the  psychical  life  of  the  people,  and  take  root, 
which  can  be  scarcely  expected  if  they  are  imported  by  a 
people  whose  history,  civilization,  and  social  conditions,  differ 
widely.  Islamism  and  Christianity  offer  instructive  examples 
in  this  respect.  The  first  spread  in  Africa  imperceptibly,  as  it 
was  more  intelligible  to  the  Negro,  and  is  more  compatible 
with  his  culture,  so  that  even  in  Abyssinia  it  gains  on  Chris- 
tianity; whilst  large  sums  have  been  spent,  and  great  and 
noble  efforts  made,  to  promote  the  latter,  with  but  little 
success. 

Next  to  the  historical  condition,  civilization  will  depend  on 
the  comparative  purity  of  the  new  religion.  A  religion  may 
be  said  to  be  the  purer  the  less  it  prevents  the  development  of 
knowledge,  and  the  more  its  principles  coincide  with  those  of 
morality.  Where  faith  extends  to  subjects  accessible  to  know- 
ledge, it  becomes  superstition,  and  prevents  the  progress  of 
knowledge,  not  merely  by  establishing  false  principles  as  fixed 
doctrines,  but  by  investing  these  doctrines  with  a  sacred  cha- 
racter so  as  to  render  them  unassailable.  If  the  religion  con- 
tains immoral  elements,  it  corrupts  the  motives  of  man,  con- 
firms him  in  his  errors  by  placing  before  him  bad  ideals,  and 
directs  him  into  paths  which  estrange  him  more  or  less  from  a 
higher  cultivation. 

It  is  difficult  to  exactly  determine  the  influence  of  certain 
religions  on  civilization,  inasmuch  as  all  peoples  at  different 
periods  fuse  their  religious  doctrines  with  other  elements  of 
their  psychical  life,  and  either  abandon  or  modify  the  old  doc- 


376  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

trines.  Thus  neither  the  Mohammedan  nor  the  Christian  re- 
ligion has  at  all  times  and  in  all  regions  produced  the  same 
effects.  The  Mohammedan  religion  has  made  the  Arabs  a 
people  of  great  historical  importance  by  giving  them  unity, 
and  rousing  their  enthusiasm  for  common  enterprises,  whilst 
it  was  unable  to  secure  its  conquests  of  Babylon  and  Egypt. 
This  religion  is,  nevertheless,  such  an  incubus  on  intellectual 
and  moral  progress,  that  its  professors  will  always  remain  in- 
ferior to  Christian  peoples.  Whoever  professes  a  belief  in 
Allah  and  the  Prophet  is  acknowledged  as  a  brother.  The 
monotheism  of  the  Mohammedans  loses  its  moral  force  by 
their  God  being  only  the  God  of  the  faithful,  to  whom  He  has 
given  the  world.  Their  notion  of  God  does  not  include  the 
world  as  a  whole,  and  all  mankind  as  one  family ;  but  only  a 
God  of  the  faithful,  all  the  rest  being  considered  as  God's 
enemies,  which  may  be  killed  or  reduced  to  slavery,  and  to 
fight  against  whom  is  meritorious.  The  doctrine  of  immorta- 
lity promises  sensual  enjoyments  to  the  faithful.  The  belief  in 
predestination  may  impart  submission  to  fate,  but  it  deadens 
at  the  same  time  every  effort,  mental  and  corporeal.  "  JTis  the 
will  of  God,"  is  among  Mohammedans  not  merely  an  expres- 
sion of  religious  faith  and  resignation,  but  of  superstition. 
The  permission  of  polygamy,  in  connexion  with  the  doctrine 
that  women  possess  no  souls  and  do  not  enter  heaven,  leads 
to  an  undignified  position  of  the  female  sex.  The  prohibition 
to  make  images  of  men  and  animals,  prevents  any  attempts  in 
the  plastic  arts.  To  use  knives,  spoons,  or  forks,  is  considered 
irreligious  by  the  Arabs  in  Africa ;  and  the  faith  in  the  sanctity 
of  the  Koran,  which  gives  rise  to  a  number  of  superstitious 
customs,  explains  why  the  Arabs  in  Africa  are  but  little 
superior  in  intellectual  culture  to  many  heathen  peoples. 
Moreover,  the  Koran  contains  many  contradictions,  by  incul- 
cating fanaticism  against  all  infidels,  and  in  teaching  tole- 
ration. Submission  to  authority  is  not  inculcated  as  a  re- 
ligious duty.  The  Turks,  the  Syrians,  Egyptian  Arabs, 
though  they  utter  witji  their  tongues  the  most  beautiful  moral 
sentences,  possess,  in  fact,  but  little  piety,  compassion,  or 


SECT.  III.]  KNOWLEDGE   AND   ART.  377 

honesty,  as  they  believe  they  fulfil  every  duty  by  their  prayers 
and  ceremonies  (Burckhardt)  .l 

Art  usually  attaches  itself  to  religion,  by  supplying  the  re- 
quisites of  worship  sensibly  to  represent  the  religious  ideas. 
The  creations  of  plastic  art  and  poetry  frequently  give  a  type 
to  religious  notions.  This  applies  both  to  the  forms  of  indi- 
vidual gods  and  to  the  traditions  attached  to  them.  It 
is  in  this  way  that  gradually  a  series  of  less  varied  mytho- 
logical persons  and  legends  issue  from  the  original  mass 
of  superstition.  At  the  same  time,  the  first  attempts  at 
plastic  delineations,  as  we  find  among  rude  nations,  are  used 
as  communications  of  remarkable  events,  to  which  is  allied 
the  development  of  picture  writing.  Despite  these  import- 
ant contributions  of  art  to  the  progress  of  culture,  we  do 
not  consider  them  as  the  chief  causes  which  determine  civiliza- 
tion as  a  whole.  However  great  the  influence  of  the  arts  may 
be  on  the  forms  of  life  which  a  high  civilization  presents, 
they  must,  in  the  inferior  stages  of  development,  be  rather 
considered  as  the  products  than  as  the  springs  of  culture,  and 
are  hardly  capable  of  effecting  the  elevation  of  a  people ;  be- 
cause the  really  beautiful  can  neither  be  produced  nor  enjoyed 
by  rude  nations,  and  since  the  formation  of  taste  becomes  only 
important  for  the  masses  in  proportion  as  the  sense  for  the 
beautiful  is  already  developed. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  progress  of  knowledge  must  be 
considered  as  the  second  principal  cause  to  which  civiliza- 
tion owes  its  development  and  duration.  Its  effects  in  this 
direction  are  so  great  that  it  cannot  possibly  be  over-esti- 
mated ;  for  knowledge  penetrates  all  the  ramifications  of  life 
and  makes  them  dependent  on  itself,  so  that  the  intellectual 
development  of  a  people  is  the  standard  of  its  civilization. 

To  what  a  degree  the  material  welfare  of  a  people  depends 
on  its  intellectual  development  lies  on  the  surface.  Surrounded 
by  abundance  and  favoured  by  nature,  we  see  many  peoples 

1  Among  those  authors  who  have  by  experience  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
life  in  Mohammedan  countries,  D'Escayrac  may  be  mentioned  as  an  eloquent 
eulogist  of  the  Mohammedan  religion  ("  Die  Afr.  Wueste  und  das  Land  der 
Schwarzen").  An  impartial  review  of  the  lights  and  shadows  of  Islamism 
will  be  found  ill  "  Zeitschrift  f.  d.  Kunde  des  Morgenlandes,"  iii,  p.  352. 


378  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II. 

of  the  tropics  lead  a  miserable  life,  helplessly  exposed  to  alter- 
nate changes,  and  careless  of  the  future.  They  support  them- 
selves in  the  most  simple  and  uniform  manner  from  what 
nature  voluntarily  offers,  or  they  cultivate  the  soil  with  the 
rudest  implements.  Their  preparation  of  food  is  defective,  and 
the  aliments  are  frequently  unwholesome.  The  protection 
against  climate  by  dress  and  habitation  is  neglected ;  nor  does 
the  savage  take  any  measures  to  secure  himself  against  any 
external  evils. 

"  Knowledge  is  power."  This  is  shown  by  the  subjection  of 
nature  to  the  aims  of  man,  and  by  the  application  of  its  re- 
sources to  social  wants.  In  proportion  as  man  studies  his  own 
nature,  the  scope  and  inclination  of  his  desires  and  passions, 
and  the  general  interests  of  society,  in  the  same  proportion 
can  he  succeed  in  establishing  and  developing  a  fixed  social 
condition.  In  order  to  overcome  the  difficulties  and  dangers 
which  beset  social  life,  a  knowledge  of  the  means  capable  of 
effecting  it  must  be  attained.  Here,  as  everywhere,  knowledge 
must  precede  the  power,  unless  the  development  of  what 
already  exists  is  abandoned  to  mere  chance.  In  order  to 
secure  the  basis  of  all  social  order,  the  institution  of  private 
property,  a  certain  self-control  is  requisite,  which  can  only  rest 
upon  the  consciousness,  that  the  limitation  of  arbitrary  power 
is  better  than  general  insecurity. 

It  is  the  eating  of  the  fruit  of  the  tree  of  knowledge  which 
enables  us  to  distinguish  right  from  wrong,  and  which  gives 
tongue  to  conscience.  Whether  this  knowledge  be  in  many 
cases  merely  traditional,  and  the  conception  of  morality  be 
only  acquired,  it  is  not  less  true  that  conscience  speaks  ac- 
cordingly. The  crude  or  fine  distinctions  which  conscience 
makes,  its  perversity  and  defects,  its  singularities,  have  all  their 
source  in  the  theoretical  conception  of  the  condition  of  man. 
But  on  account  of  the  reciprocal  effect  of  all  branches  of  human 
knowledge,  there  is  full  reason  to  expect  that  the  knowledge  of 
morality  and  its  application  will  not  lag  behind  where  all  others 
become  developed,  there  being  a  parallelism  in  the  progress 
of  all. 

Hence  religion  experiences  a  decided  reaction  from  the  pro- 


SECT.  III.]       INFLUENCE    OF    KNOWLEDGE    ON    RELIGION.  379 

gress  of  knowledge.  Although  a  progressive  knowledge  of  na- 
ture does  not  at  once  destroy  the  spiritualisation  of  the  sensible 
world,  it  gradually  limits  it.  Diseases  are  no  longer  considered  as 
the  effects  of  evil  spirits,  the  number  of  which  is  gradually 
lessened,  until  reduced  to  one  devil.  The  local  gods,  also,  are 
considerably  reduced.  The  remaining  gods,  formerly  spectral 
and  capricious,  are  now  differently  conceived ;  they  are  more 
spiritualised,  and  are  endowed  with  a  more  specific  character, 
their  actions  have  more  design,  they  receive  a  symbolical  sig- 
nification, so  that  a  connected  mythology  is  established  which 
promotes  the  plastic  arts.  The  more  man  is  enlightened  by  the 
torch  of  knowledge,  and  perceives  that  the  ethic-aesthetical  in- 
terests form  the  centre  of  his  destination,  the  more  his  gods, 
either  from  analogy  to  himself  or  to  his  ideals,  acquire  an 
ethic-aesthetic  signification,  until  at  length  their  number  no 
longer  corresponds  with  his  improved  notions  of  the  unity  and 
design  of  the  world,  and  he  abandons  polytheism. 

These  illustrations  must  suffice  to  show  that  it  is  essentially 
the  development  of  knowledge  which  is  the  moving  power,  all 
other  forces  being  secondary.  Nevertheless,  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  it  is  attended  by  some  injurious  effects.  In  every 
branch,  of  human  science,  ignorance  is  first  replaced  by  a  series 
of  errors  which  surround  certain  truths.  Though  many  of 
these  errors  may,  separately,  be  harmless  enough,  they  become 
highly  dangerous  when  they  affect  the  passions  of  man.  The 
danger  and  destructiveness  of  knowledge  grows  in  proportion 
to  its  superiority  above  others.  Kefined  wickedness  is  fre- 
quently the  result  of  intellectual  development.  Knowledge 
itself  may  rouse  the  passions,  by  leading  to  disputes,  giving 
rise  to  vanity  and  over-weening  pride.  Again,  every  new  fact 
is  over-valued,  transferred  by  false  analogies  to  other  pheno- 
mena, and  prematurely  made  the  basis  of  general  theories. 
Old  theories  oppose,  with  the  power  of  inertia,  the  acknow- 
ledgment of  inconvenient  facts  or  arguments ;  and  it  is  often 
that  some  false  theory  seizes  the  masses  after  it  has  been  com- 
pletely refuted :  hence  the  extreme  errors  between  which 
knowledge  in  its  progress  frequently  seems  to  oscillate. 

The  motives  for  the  development  of  knowledge  lie  rarely 


380  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

in  theoretical  interests ;  for  these  are  only  manifested  in  any 
strength  among  civilized  nations,  and  even  among  them  it  is 
not  so  much  the  desire  of  knowledge,  but  the  striving  after 
honour  and  power.  Then  comes  the  habit  of  mental  exertion  in 
solving  the  questions  conducive  to  the  progress  of  knowledge. 
There  is  no  impulse  among  rude  or  primitive  peoples  to  ob- 
tain knowledge,  which,  according  to  Aristotle,  is  innate  in 
human  nature.  It  is  the  practical  wants  and  misery  which 
overcome  the  natural  psychical  indolence  of  man,  and  induce 
him  to  overpower  the  natural  forces.  In  the  course  of  our  in- 
vestigation, we  have  had  frequent  occasion  to  insist  upon  this 
point,  and  it  has  always  been  shown  that  in  the  primitive  man 
there  is  no  tendency  to  progress.  The  modern  idealistic 
doctrine  of  the  necessary  development  of  the  human  mind  out 
of  itself,  is  a  fiction,  which  may  natter  man's  vanity,  but  which 
is  contradicted  by  actual  facts.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it 
is  man's  thought  which  produces  and  preserves  civilization ; 
this  thought,  however,  does  not  originate  by  itself,  nor  does 
it  move  by  itself,  nor  is  it  the  function  of  one  mind,  but  is 
the  combined  activity  of  all  individuals  living  together,  pro- 
duced by  surrounding  media,  and  nourished  and  matured  by 
the  historical  events  which  befall  them. 


We  are  far  from  pretending  to  have  given  a  history  of  the  de- 
velopment of  mankind  from  the  primitive  state  to  that  of  civiliza- 
tion, or  even  a  general  outline  of  what  may  be  termed  the  natural 
history  of  human  society.  The  attempt  to  solve  this  interest- 
ing problem  would  only  lead  to  the  same  result  as  obtained 
by  the  so-called  philosophy  of  history,  namely,  the  establish- 
ment of  a  model  theory,  which,  considering  the  great  variety 
and  manifold  concatenation  of  the  conditions  on  which  the 
civilization  of  nations  depends,  can  have  no  claim  to  general 
application.  We  have  therefore  confined  ourselves  to  investi- 
gating the  general  motives  which  lie  at  the  foundation  of,  and 
promote  culture.  Whether  the  result  of  such  investigation, 
for  the  elucidation  of  the  psychological  causal  connexion  as 
regards  civilization,  be  great  or  small,  this  much  has  been 


SECT.  III.]  NATURAL   CHARACTER.  381 

proved,  that  the  various  degrees  of  culture  in  various  peoples 
depend  in  a  much  greater  degree  on  the  mode  of  life,  the  his- 
torical events,  and  other  elements,  than  on  their  original 
mental  endowment,  which,  however,  does  not  exclude  the 
latter,  and  which  possibly,  also,  may  have  its  influence.  The 
latter  supposition  is  possible,  but  cannot  be  demonstrated. 
The  whole  course  of  our  investigation  has  rendered  it  more 
probable  that  barbarism  and  civilization  prevail  among  all 
peoples  of  the  earth,  and  that  powerful  impulses  are  required 
to  change  their  conditions ;  but  that  as  regards  the  further 
development  of  already  partially  civilized  peoples,  there  is  this 
circumstance  in  their  favour,  that  in  consequence  of  the  civi- 
lization already  acquired,  the  progeny  inherit  better  predis- 
positions than  those  possessed  by  their  progenitors.  And  yet 
we  find  that  even  in  the  higher  stages  of  civilization,  it  is  by 
single  individuals  only  that  the  progress  in  science,  art,  re- 
ligion, and  social  economy  is  really  effected.  Even  among  the 
rudest  nations,  such  genial  natures  are  not  wanting :  there  is 
no  specific  difference  of  mankind  in  this  respect ;  but  they 
rarely  produce  more  than  a  transitory  effect. 

The  question  has  been  frequently  asked,  in  what  consists  the 
national  character  of  a  people  ?  The  preceding  investigation 
has  shown  that  it  depends  on  so  many  conditions  that  an  exact 
analysis  is  extremely  difficult.  That  it  is  not  the  race  alone 
which  determines  it,  is  proved  by  there  being  different  nation- 
alities within  the  same  race.  It  is  therefore  probable,  as 
observed  by  Hugh  Murray,1  that  the  mental  peculiarities  of 
peoples  are  generally  more  flexible  and  changeable  than  the 
physical  characters  of  the  race,  and  are  transmitted  with  a 
less  degree  of  constancy.  Though  it  may  be  admitted,  that 
peculiarities  of  race  exercise  an  indirect  influence  upon  the 
national  character  by  the  tradition  of  manners  and  laws,  it 
cannot  be  generally  asserted  that  the  political  or  religious  in- 
stitutions determine  it,  for  among  primitive  peoples  we  find 
the  latter  very  similar,  and  yet  the  national  characters  differ 
widely.  These  are  developed,  and  become  permanent  by  the 

1  Loc.  cit.,  p.  149. 


382  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II. 

combined  simultaneous  or  successive  effects  of  all  the  factors 
of  the  physical,  social,  and  psychical  life  of  the  respective 
peoples  ;  and  hence  it  is  easily  explained  that  each  of  these 
factors,  though  it  may  be  found  in  two  or  several  peoples,  in 
consequence  of  its  combination  with  others  which  either  sup- 
port or  oppose  its  action,  may  produce  very  different  effects. 
As  every  event  and  every  experience  acts  differently  upon  the 
same  individual  in  different  periods  of  life,  and  according  to 
different  circumstances,  so  have  the  same  events  different 
effects  upon  the  various  peoples.  The  same  climate,  the  same 
social  position,  political  constitution,  and  religion,  may  produce 
very  different  effects  on  the  national  character,  according  to 
the  different  periods  of  development  of  the  peoples ;  and  it 
may  thus  occur  that  what  essentially  determines  the  national 
character  in  one  people  may  be  powerless  in  another,  or  pro- 
duce quite  different  effects. 

From  our  investigation  of  the  psychological  nature  of  man, 
we  have  obtained  a  result,  which,  though  not  strictly  proved, 
admits  of  but  little  doubt,  namely : — that  there  exists  an  ex- 
tremely gradual  variability  in  the  mental  development  of  peo- 
ples, which  justifies  us  in  considering  the  greatest  differences 
in  the  states  of  civilization  as  merely  different  in  degree  ;  that 
the  conditions  for  mental  development  are  essentially  the  same 
in  all  races ;  and  that  there  is  no  sufficient  reason  to  assume 
specific  differences  among  mankind.  Are  we  then,  if  human 
nature  is  everywhere  the  same,  to  suppose  that  the  object  of 
its  development  is  one  and  the  same  ?  Are  we  to  imagine  that 
the  object  of  the  history  of  humanity  is  an  essentially  uniform 
civilization  akin  to  our  present  European  civilization,  which 
may  once  prevail  over  the  whole  globe  ?  These  are  questions 
which  we  will  just  touch  upon  in  concluding  our  investigations. 

Whoever  entertains  the  conviction,  that  the  transition  from 
a  primitive  to  a  civilized  state  neither  increases  the  sum  nor 
the  intensity  of  enjoyments,  but  only  their  variety,  may  put 
the  same  value  on  the  various  phases  of  human  life,  or  what 
amounts  to  the  same  thing,  consider  the  values  of  barbarism 
and  civilization  as  merely  subjective  notions.  Everyone  is 
pleased  with  the  world  in  which  he  moves,  and  with  the  fate 


SECT.  III.]  BARBARISM   AND    CIVILIZATION.  383 

nature  prepares  for  him ;  hence  the  civilized  man  desires  no 
change  in  his  mode  of  life,  nor  does  the  primitive  man  desire 
to  emerge  from  the  state  of  nature.  Nature  acts  equitably  to- 
wards both ;  the  more  our  capacity  for  enjoyment,  and  the  greater 
its  intensity,  the  more  the  capacity  for  suffering  increases, 
as  pleasure  and  pain  flow  from  the  same  source, — from  the 
possession  and  loss  of  the  same  goods.  All  the  modes  of 
life  in  human  society  are  equal  in  the  amount  of  gratification 
which  they  afford  to  man ;  it  is  better  to  abstain  from  com- 
paring their  relative  value,  and  to  consider  them  merely 
collectively  as  a  grand  spectacle  in  the  changes  and  evolutions 
in  which  they  take  a  part. 

We  might  certainly  regret  the  restlessness  with  which  the 
civilized  man  strives  to  improve  his  position,  the  efforts  which 
he  makes  to  pursue  his  object,  and  the  sufferings  and  the  de- 
privations which  he  encounters  in  his  pursuit.  The  desire  for 
a  deeper  signification  of  human  life  would  thus  be  an  error, — 
a  mournful  product  of  a  perverted  culture, — the  thirst  after 
intelligence,  neither  better  nor  nobler  than  the  thirst  for  water. 
The  history  of  mankind  would  thus  only  exhibit  the  melan- 
choly spectacle  in  which,  notwithstanding  the  greatest  efforts, 
there  would  only  be  obtained  the  common  object  which  na- 
ture attains  in  every  animal,  namely,  a  constant  sum  of  en- 
joyment. 

The  wonderful  design  in  the  construction  of  separate  parts 
contradicts,  however,  the  idea  of  viewing  the  world  as  an  aimless 
combination  of  forces.  The  natural  laws  sufficiently  indicate 
that  the  object  of  nature  is  not  merely  the  production  of  the 
greatest  possible  sum  of  enjoyment :  although  the  sum  of  en- 
joyment may  not  be  increased  by  civilization,  yet  the  mode  of 
enjoyment  is  essentially  altered  by  it.  The  great  value  of 
civilization  above  the  primitive  state  lies  chiefly  in  this,  that 
it  places  human  life  upon  a  different  foundation  from  that  in 
which  it  took  root.  In  the  natural  state  it  was  the  indivi- 
dual interest  which,  in  the  form  of  the  instinct  of  self-preser- 
vation and  sensual  enjoyment,  acted  exclusively  on  man,  whilst 
in  the  civilized  state  the  general  interests  begin  to  predo- 
minate. Enjoyment  is  in  its  nature  confined  to  the  individual ; 


384  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II. 

but  psychical  advantages  have  the  tendency  to  become  common 
right. 

The  progress  of  civilization  in  every  stage  of  development 
of  human  society,  is  mainly  effected  by  labour  and  the  renun- 
ciation of  immediate  enjoyment,  for  the  latter  merely  consumes 
and  produces  nothing.  It  is  on  this  account  that  civiliza- 
tion does  not  increase  enjoyment.  The  prevalence  of  labour 
is  above  all  characteristic  of  civilization ;  the  object  of  labour 
is  first  to  make  man  the  master  of  nature,  to  overcome  it,  and 
to  make  it  subservient  to  his  wants,  in  order  to  gain  leisure 
and  force  for  his  psychical  life,  and  to  secure  his  existence 
from  the  dangers  of  natural  forces.  The  performances  of  phy- 
sical efforts  are  determined  by  mental  labour,  and  they  become 
more  perfect  in  proportion  as  the  knowledge  of  nature  extends. 
But  whilst  man  gradually  renders  himself  more  independent 
of  the  influences  of  natural  forces,  his  mental  independence 
grows  simultaneously,  he  becomes  master  of  himself,  and  learns 
to  shape  his  individual  and  social  life.  The  variety  and  ex- 
tent of  his  performances  thus  grow  in  every  direction. 
His  mental  efforts  gradually  predominate  over  the  physical ; 
but  they  are  not  made  as  having  an  object  in  themselves, 
or  as  referring  only  to  individual  interest,  but  in  order 
that  they  may  benefit  the  world,  that  is  to  say,  all  the  members 
of  human  society,  partly  by  lessening  the  pressure  of  external 
circumstances  on  the  present  generation,  and  partly  for  the 
benefit  of  generations  to  come.  Thus  civilization  is  an 
incessant  labour  of  all  for  every  individual,  not  alone  for  his 
enjoyment,  but  for  fitting  him  for  an  intellectual  life, — a 
labour  which  can  only  have  its  full  effect  by  the  coalition 
of  all  the  external  and  inner  forces  of  individuals,  but  which, 
on  this  account,  at  first  includes  only  small  and  gradually  larger 
circles  of  society,  until  at  length  it  connects  all  humanity  by 
closer  moral  bonds. 

It  is  in  this  sense  that  we  look  upon  civilization  as  the  uni- 
versal destination  of  mankind.  This  is  the  development  which 
nature  designs  for  man,  in  which  all  human  beings  participate, 
though  the  parts  which  they  take  in  it  may  greatly  differ.  We 
need  not  investigate  here  how  far  the  present  European  civi- 


SECT.  III.]  HAPPINESS   WITHOUT   CULTURE.  385 

lization  corresponds  with  our  abstract  notions.  If  its  dark 
side,  which  we  are  too  much  accustomed  to  look  upon  as 
necessarily  evil,  is  overlooked  or  under-estimated,  and  the 
theory  is  indulged  that  all  the  countries  on  the  globe  may 
become  assimilated  in  manners  and  morals  to  Europe,  doubts 
may  arise  whether  such  a  consummation  is  indeed  so  much  to 
be  wished  for.  No  one,  it  is  true,  now  gives  any  credence  to 
the  idyllic  descriptions  of  a  golden  age ;  yet  the  information 
given  by  many  travellers  of  the  condition  of  some  primitive 
peoples  is  too  well  authenticated  to  be  entirely  rejected  as 
fabulous. 

Capt.  Woodes  Rogers,  and  other  travellers  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  describe  the  natives  of  Port  Natal — who  at  a  later  period 
were  almost  entirely  exterminated  by  the  Zulus — as  a  people 
of  innocent  manners,  kind  and  hospitable  to  strangers,  and  as 
living  in  a  state  of  ideal  happiness.  The  inhabitants  of  Chiloe, 
who  neither  have  nor  require  physicians  and  lawyers,  living 
with  the  Indians  (to  whom,  since  1829,  they  have  ceded 
their  country),  in  peaceful  vicinity,  are  said  to  be  in  a  similar 
blissful  state :  murder,  robbery,  debts,  are  not  heard  of;  drun- 
kenness is  only  seen  among  the  foreign  sailors ;  doors  are 
not  barred;  general  confidence  and  honesty  prevail.1  The 
patriarchal  happy  life  of  the  colonists  of  the  small  island 
Pitcairn  (in  the  South  Sea),  now  transferred  to  Norfolk  Island, 
is  too  well  known.2  To  this  may  be  added  what  Father  Garces 
(as  communicated  by  Humboldt),  narrates  of  his  visit  to  the 
Indians  in  the  vicinity  of  Casas  Grandes,  south  of  the  Rio 
Gila  (1773).  They  were  peaceable  agriculturists,  cultivated 
maize,  cotton,  and  gourds,  extremely  gentle,  and  living  to- 
gether in  the  greatest  concord.  The  missionary  pointed  out 
to  them  the  advantages  of  a  mission,  when  they  would  have 
an  alcalde  to  administer  full  justice.  The  chief  replied,  "  We 
neither  steal  nor  quarrel,  what  occasion  have  we  for  an  alcalde  ?" 
East  of  Surabaya,  in  Java,  in  the  Tengger  mountains,  in  the 


1  Blanckley,  in  "  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geogr.  Society,"  iv,  p.  351. 

2  Beechey,  "Narrative  of  a  voyage  to  the  Pacific,"  1831;  Bennet,  "Narra- 
tive of  a  whaling  voyage  round  the  globe,"  i,  p.  44,  1840;    Moerenhout, 
"  Voy.  aux  lies  du  grand  Ocean,"  ii,  p.  283,  1837. 

C  C 


386  PSYCHOLOGICAL    INVESTIGATION.  [PART    II. 

vicinity  of  the  so-called  Sandy  Sea,  there  live  in  about  forty 
villages,  the  remnants  of  a  people  which  still  profess  the  old 
Hindoo  religion.  They  are  taller  and  more  robust  than  the 
other  Javanese.1  The  position  and  the  structure  of  their 
houses,  in  the  midst  of  which  stands  the  sanctuary  of  bricks, 
which  no  stranger  must  touch,  are  entirely  different  from  any- 
thing else  on  the  island.3  The  chiefs  of  every  village  and  his 
assistants  are  elective.  Four  priests,  intelligent,  but  otherwise 
uneducated  men,  are  the  keepers  of  important  documents,  and 
the  sacred  books,  written  on  lontar-leaves,  describing  the 
origin  of  the  world,  the  attributes  of  the  deity,  and  the  forms 
of  worship  ;  they  perform  the  marriages,  and  sing  the  hymns. 
"  The  people  universally  declare  that  adultery,  theft,  and  other 
crimes  are  never  committed  amongst  them,  and  that  conse- 
quently there  is  no  punishment  for  them.  If  an  individual 
commit  any  wrong,  he  is  reprimanded  by  the  chief  of  the 
village,  and  this  rebuke  is  considered  a  sufficient  punishment 
for  an  inhabitant  of  Tengger.  The  authorities  of  the  country 
confirm  this.  They  are  almost  exempt  from  crime,  generally 
peaceable,  frugal,  and  industrious ;  gambling  and  opium  are 
unknown."  The  whole  population  amounts  to  about  1,200 
souls.  They  live,  without  exception,  in  the  fairest  and  richest 
region  of  Java.  Their  language  is  the  present  Javanese. 
Proud  of  their  independence  and  morality,  they  do  not  inter- 
mix with  the  people  of  the  low-lands. 

In  contrasting  these  examples  with  the  laziness  and  vulgarity 
into  which  small  communities  of  civilized  Europeans  have  sunk, 
when  far  removed  from  their  native  country,  we  are  not  merely 
cautioned  against  the  assumption  of  specific  differences  between 
the  white  and  coloured  races  :  but  the  question  obtrudes  itself, 
whether,  after  all,  it  would  be  so  very  beneficial  for  all  races  to 
partake  of  our  European  civilization ;  or  whether  there  are  not 
certain  states  of  culture,  which,  though  differing  widely  from 
ours,  may  not  excel  it  in  their  moral  aspect  by  the  sum  of  hap- 
piness and  well-being  they  afford. 

If  we  admit  that  instances  of  this  kind  refer  exclusively  to 

1  Jukes,  "  Narrative  of  the  Surveying  Voy.  of  H.M.S.  Fly,"  ii,  p.  80,  1847. 

2  Stamford  Raffles,  "  History  of  Java,"  i,  p.  329,  1817. 


SECT.  III.]  UNIFORM    CIVILIZATION    IMPROBABLE.  387 

small  populations  living  in  a  state  of  seclusion,  we  must  infer 
from  it  that  if  the  main  object  of  human  life  is  happiness  and 
well-being,  a  break  up  of  nations  into  small  independent  com- 
munities would  be  requisite  to  attain  the  proper  end  of  the 
human  race.  If,  further,  it  be  granted  that  in  all  the  adduced 
examples  a  strikingly  low  psychical  condition  and  a  deficiency 
of  mental  efforts  is  clearly  manifested,  then  it  may,  with 
regard  to  our  European  civilization,  be  asserted,  that  it  is  just 
to  this  circumstance  that  we  must  attribute  the  essential  cause 
of  the  undisturbed  happiness  of  these  men,  and  of  man  in 
general,  provided  that  security  against  external  danger,  un- 
corrupted  morals,  and  a  consoling  faith  free  from  the  coarsest 
superstition,  are  added  to  it.  But  it  assumes  a  very  different 
aspect  when  we  consider  the  ideas  of  civilization  and  develop* 
ment  as  the  destination  of  humanity. 

A  superficial  glance  at  the  great  differences  of  peoples,  and 
the  mighty  influences  of  natural  conditions  and  climates  which 
preserve  these  diversities,  is  sufficient  to  convince  us  of  the 
little  probability  that  a  uniform  civilization  will  ever  prevail 
among  all  peoples  of  the  earth.  Just  as  the  animal  and 
vegetable  world  offers,  in  the  various  degrees  of  latitude, 
a  diversity  which  will  continue  so  long  as  the  present 
condition  of  our  planet  remains;  so  nature  seems  inclined 
to  preserve  a  similar  diversity  in  the  physical  and  psychical 
characters  of  mankind.  It  would,  however,  be  unjust  to  infei* 
from  this,  as  has  often  been  done,  that  some  peoples  are  by 
nature  intended  for  civilization,  and  others  for  barbarism* 
Every  civilized  society,  be  it  large  or  small,  clearly  shows  that 
for  its  existence  and  development  a  division  of  labour,  a  variety 
of  occupation,  are  requisite, — all  equally  necessary,  though  of 
unequal  intrinsic  value.  These  extremely  varied  perform- 
ances must  tend  to  a  common  object :  what  individuals  are  to 
the  state,  individual  peoples  must  be  to  mankind,  as  a  whole  \ 
as  the  former  by  their  special  callings  supply  the  wants  of  the 
society  in  which  they  live,  so  all  separate  peoples  must  gradu- 
ally take  their  special  positions  and  functions  in  regard  to 
mankind  at  large.  For  this  reason  the  isolation  of  small  com- 
munities, or  larger  nations,  however  happy  they  may  be  in 

c  c  2 


388  PSYCHOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATION.  [PART   II. 

undisturbed  enjoyment,  cannot  last ;  for  it  is  their  destination 
sooner  or  later  to  be  drawn  within  the  vortex  of  general  inter- 
course, and  to  be  made  in  some  way,  by  their  labour,  to  con- 
tribute to  the  end  and  aim  and  development  of  society. 

Even  after  this  shall  have  been  effected  as  regards  all  the 
peoples  of  the  earth,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  great 
differences  between  the  various  kinds  of  labour  required  by 
civilization  will  disappear.  Setting  aside  all  minor  differences, 
and  keeping  in  view  the"  chief  object  of  labour,  we  find  that 
it  is  physical,  social,  or  intellectual,  accordingly  as  it  is 
directed  to  physical  well-being,  the  preservation  of  social  order, 
or  the  promotion  of  knowledge.  In  every  people  which  par- 
takes of  civilization,  these  chief  divisions  of  labour  will  be 
represented  by  different  classes,  though  it  does  not  follow  that 
this  is  effected  in  every  people  in  the  same  manner.  Though  in 
every  people  the  group  of  social  arrangements  remains  gene- 
rally the  same,  since  social  order  is  not  easily  transferred  from 
one  people  to  another,  we  find  that  some  have  more  regard  for 
the  material,  and  others  for  the  psychical,  development  of  the 
respective  peoples.  Thus,  among  some  peoples  material, 
among  others  mental,  labour  would  predominate,  and  each 
would  partake  of  the  productiveness  of  the  rest.  In  tropical 
countries  the  material  products,  in  temperate  climates  psy- 
chical productiveness,  would  predominate. 

A  high  degree  of  intellectual  development,  deep  thought, 
and  a  refined  morality  seem  scarcely  compatible  with  the  men- 
tal prostration  which  life  in  the  torrid  zone  produces  in  the  Eu- 
ropean as  well  as  in  the  native.  Human  art  will  hardly  ever 
overcome  the  power  of  these  natural  obstructions.  Christianity, 
exclusively  directed  to  the  moral  elevation  of  man,  finds  there 
for  its  spiritual  doctrines  a  very  infertile  soil.  An  expe- 
rienced author  intimately  acquainted  with  India,  Montgomery 
Martin,  asserts,  that  no  Indian  has  ever  become  a  true  Christian, 
whilst  all  picturesque  religions  which  much  engage  the  imagi- 
nation, and  possess  an  eudsemonistic  colouring  like  Mohammed- 
anism, is  more  homogeneous  to  the  nature  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  tropics,  and  more  intelligible  and  satisfactory  to  them  than 
is  Christianity.  For  this  reason,  and  taking  into  consideration 


SECT.  III.]  SCOPE  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  389 

the  successes  hitherto  obtained  by  the  various  missions,  it  ap- 
pears doubtful  whether  Christianity  will  ever,  not  merely  in 
name,  but  in  spirit,  enter  the  hearts  of  mankind  all  over  the 
globe.  Our  European  civilization  is,  on  the  whole,  too  artificial 
and  abstract  immediately  to  attract  uncivilized  nations  :  such 
peoples  must  first  pass  through  a  long  series  of  transitional 
stages  before  our  culture  becomes  accessible  to  them.  In  order 
to  arrive  at  it,  the  vital  power  and  energy  of  a  people  must 
neither  have  degenerated  into  idleness  and  sensual  enjoyment, 
nor  have  been  exhausted  by  misery  and  distress ;  a  happy 
combination  is  requisite  to  enable  it  gradually  to  encounter 
difficulties  raised  by  nature  and  man,  but  in  such  a  manner, 
that  its  power  of  resistance  and  its  external  and  internal  re- 
sources should  be  adequate,  so  that  the  people  may  emerge 
from  the  struggle  physically  and  morally  strengthened. 

Where  the  necessary  transitional  stages,  which  a  primitive 
people  has  to  pass  through  to  arrive  at  a  higher  development, 
are  wanting,  it  will,  after  a  short  apparent  elevation,  relapse 
again  into  the  original  state,  and,  as  so  frequently  occurs  when 
primitive  and  civilized  peoples  come  in  contact,  the  former  will 
unavoidably  perish.  Civilization  may  then  continue  to  spread 
in  the  habitable  world,  but  it  will  crush  these  peoples,  for  a 
sudden  transition  from  the  natural  state  to  Christianity  and 
European  civilization  is  opposed  to  the  laws  of  nature.  The 
attempt  to  effect  it  resembles  the  attempt  of  the  ignorant 
pedagogue,  who  expects  by  one  powerful  effort  suddenly  to 
transform  the  character  of  his  pupil.  Civilization  must  pro- 
gress slowly,  or  it  will  retrograde;  the  history  of  revolutions 
yields  the  same  results  in  this  respect  as  the  history  of  the 
missions. 


END   OF   VOLUME   THE    FIRST. 


INDEX. 


Abipones,  140,  149,  258, 
293 

Aborigines,  rights,  165 

Abyssinians,  45,  210,  325, 
326 

Acclimatization,  199 ;  of 
white,  125 

Acosta,  184,  370 

Adair,  371 

Adams,  106 

Adiahs,  213 

Adultery,  325 

Africa,  257,  369 

Agassiz,  21,  22,  32,  196, 
203,  233,  351 

Age,  signs  of,  1 14 

Agriculture,  336,  353 

Aguanas,  219 

Ainos,  42 

Alberti,  118 

Albinism,  85 

Aleutes,  149, 257,  314,  339 

Alexander,  118 

Alfurus,  221 

Algoa  Bay,  147 

Algonquins,  148,  249,  257, 
374 

Algerian  Arabs,  152 

Aliment  and  mode  of  life, 
34 

Allen  and  Thomson,  131, 
133,  143,  212,  213 

Allerhand,  258 

Amboyna,  365 

America,  257 

Americans,  144,  238,  242, 
255,  306 

American  lean  compared 
with  Englishman,  53 

American  school  of  an- 
thropology, 351 

American  school,  22 

American  Indians,  61, 145 

Amerigo  Vespucci,  122 

Amock,  running,  332 

Analogies  between  na- 
tions, 255 


Anamese,  304 

Anatomy  a  branch  of  an- 
thropology, 6 

Ancient  buildings,  195 

Andersson,  278 

Angola,  311 

Animal  heat,  109 

Anatomical  differences  in 
man,  90 

Ancon  sheep,  82 

Anderson,  55 

Andrews,  308 

Anthropology  discussed  in 
America  as  a  party 
question,  1 ;  scarcely 
yet  touched  upon  in 
Germany,  1;  comprises 
the  labours  of  the  zoo- 
logist, geologist,  lin- 
guist, historian,  and 
psychologist,  1 ;  defini- 
tion of,  3  ;  formerly  re- 
stricted to  the  differ- 
ences between  man  and 
animals,  5 ;  formerly  in- 
cluded such  natur- 
philosophical  subjects 
as  the  origin  of  man- 
kind, animal  magnet- 
ism, etc.,  5 ;  sometimes 
treated  empirically, 
sometimes  philosophi- 
cally, 5 ;  its  empirical 
definition  the  one  ad 
hered  to  in  this  work, 
5 ;  includes  the  ana- 
tomy, physiology,  and 
psychology  of  man  on 
the  one  side,  and  the 
history  of  civilization  on 
the  other,6 ;  its  relations 
to  history,  8 

Anthropophagy,  296 

Antiquity  of  man,  194, 285 

Apaches,  148,150,373 

Ape,  man  compared  with, 
91 


Ape  and  negro,  a  certain 
resemblance  between, 
100 

Appendix  to  Section  II,  144 

Apron  of  Hottentot  wo- 
men, 105 

Aquapim,  212 

Arab  children  swim,  88 

Arabs,  61,  63,  115,  218, 
254,  332,  339 

Arabs  of  Sennaar,  101 

Araucafios,  103,  146,  309, 
316 

Arbousset  and  Daumas, 
137,  171,  186 

Archer,  373 

Argentine  republic,  308 

Aristotle,  10,  281,  380 

Aristocracy,  hereditary,  of 
the  mind,  89 

Arnauts,  314 

Arnoux,  94,  98,  100 

Arowakas,  46 

Arowaki,  115,  306 

Arm  islands,  278 

Arsenic  used  to  poison 
aborigines,  167 

Artistic  talents  trans- 
mitted, 89 

Ashantees,  ]42,  212,  304 

Assuan,  818 

Atavism,  168 

Athens,  317 

Atmosphere,  hygrometric 
state  of,  34 

Australians,  58,  100,  102, 
103,116,135,  140,  144, 
176,  204,  233,  257,  296, 
297,  300,  304,  306,  312, 
325,  334,  357 

Author's  preface,  1 

Avare  skull,  239 

Axe,  309 

Aymaras,  216 

Azara,  123, 140,  151,  183, 
251,  345 

Aztecs,  255 


392 


INDEX. 


Bachmann,  82,  128,  186, 

264 

Baghirmi,  210 
Baily,  313 

Baker,  164,  166,  304 
Balbi,  245 
Baldness,  114, 
Baltos,  234 
Banana,  331 
Bancroft,  319 
Banda  Islands,  311 
Banjarmassing,  249 
Baptism,  256 
Barabra,  66 
Barbot,  218 
Barrington,  126,  135, 186, 

300,  305 

Barrow,  54,  208,  257 
Barth,  66,  105,  133,  209, 

210,  212,  246,  300 
Barthes,  38,  357 
Bambarra,  299 
Baseler,  147 
Baseler,  Miss,  163 
Basques,  257 
Bayaderes,  102 
Bayard  Taylor,  115 
Beauty,  ideas  of  human, 

305 

Beaumarchais,  269 
Beard  in  Negro,  96 
Bechuanas,  65,  137,  140, 

369 

Beclard,  98 
Becroft,  213 
Bedouins,  63,  156 
Bedouin  Arabs,  115,  138, 

315 

Beechey,  122,  147 
Bees,  203 
Belcher,  50,  121 
Bellows,  257 

Benguela,  food  of  work- 
men in,  59 
Benin,  142,  242 
Bennet,159,165,169,177, 

202,  270 

Bennett,  86,  87,  164 
Benuwe,  306 
Berber,  66 
Berbers,  325 
Bergmann,  135 
Berthelot,  253, 326  ;  Webb 

and  Berthelot,  194 
Berthold,  35 
Billings,  62,  149 
Birmah,  85 
Birmese,  304 
Bissagos  Archipelago,  143 
Blackfeet,  145 


Black  peoples  created  first 

193 

Blake,  Carter,  107 
Bleek,  56 

Blindness,  hereditary,  85 
Blind  Children,  142 
Blue  Nile,  9.11 
Bluish  ring  round  eyes  of 

Mongrels,  178 
Blood  of  Negro,  97 
Blumenbach,  28,   29,  30, 

35,  38,  39,  42,  55,  107, 

168,  191,  207,  218,  222, 

224,  232,  234 
Blushing,  135 
Bodily  strength  of  various 

nations,  121 
Boers,  147,  151 
Bogota,  83 
Bonny,  142 
Borabora,  159 
Borneo,  365 
Bornou,  209 
Boroanos,  219 
Boors  at  Cape,  138 
Borlat,  300 
Bory,  15,  23,  38, 102,  226, 

228,  233 
Bosjesman,  57,  295,  314, 

334 

Bosnian  soldiers,  249 
Bosnian  soldiers  in  Nubia, 

43 

Bosnians,  106, 142 
Botanical  Provinces,  196 
Boteler,  133,  213 
Botocudos,    55,    68,   140, 

153,215,299,310 
Bothriocephalus,  128 
Boucher  de  Perthes,  194 
Boudyk,  299,  304 
Bowka,  140 

Bowdich,  96, 142, 209,  212 
Bradford,  255 
Bracknas,  252 
Brackenridge,  183 
Brandy  sold   to   Indians, 

152 

Brachycephalic,  235 
Brass,  odour  of,  140 
Brain  of  Ape,  91;  of  Negro, 

93 

Brain,  312,316 
Brazil,  111 

Brazil,  mulattos  in,  179 
Brazilians,  250,  300,  319, 

322 

Brazilian  society,  178 
Brahmin  children  highly 

gifted,  89 


Brehm,  40,  51,  101,  113, 

125,  134,297,318,326 
Bretons,  101 
Bridges,  309 
Broad  skulls,  236 
Broc,  38,  71,  226 
Brook,  257 
Brooke,    147,    278,    359, 

366 

Brothertons,  249 
Brown,  Joseph,  54 
Brown,  W.,  110 
Bruce,  45,  210,  218,  326 
Brunner,  133 
Buccal  cavity  in  Negro,  95 
Buchanan,  223 
Buckland,  254 
Buck  goat,  82 
Buckton,  117 
Buddha,  374 
Buenos   Ayres,  111,  293, 

308,  345 
Buffalo,  319 
Buffon,  23, 169,  184,  207, 

281 

Buildings,  ancient,  195 
Bullams,  211 
Bunbury,  105 
Burchell,  114,   137,   139, 

164 
Burckhardt,  43,  69,   139, 

140,  377 

Burdach,  88,  112,177 
Buriats,  feeding  on  animal 

food,  are  weakly,  61 
Burmeister,  50, 70,  93,  94, 

95,96,97,  101,122,154, 

168,  172,  238 
Burton,  105 
Burutu,  162 
Busb,  142 

Bushmen,  children  preco- 
cious, 88 
Bushmen,  105,  108,  114, 

137,  139,  257,  325 
Bushwomen,  cerebrum  of, 

93 
Byrne,  59, 166,  167,  316 


Cabouret,  173 
Cafusos,  174 
Cagots  in  Spain,  86,  193 
Cailliaud,  106 
Caillie,  134,  299 
Caldcleugh,  111,  149 
California,  62,  145,  213 
California,  Upper,  112 
Callao,  147 
Camanchees,  145 


INDEX. 


393 


Camel,  338 
Camel  drivers,  115 
Campbell,  172,  257 
Canary  Islands,  253,  299 
Cannibalism,  296 
Canttield,  117 
Cape,  314 
Cape  Cod,  147 
Caraccas,  ]  20, 309,  348 
Careri,  202 
Carians,  348 
Caribs,  100, 146,  218, 258, 

295,  371 
Carimango,  313 
Carmthia,  217 
Carli,  318 
Carne,  99 
Carohies,  257 
Carpenter,  83 
Carrier  Indians,  116 
Carsange,  257 
Carthagena,  258 
Carus,  291 
Castelnau,  105,  112,  173, 

219 

Castien,  77 

Catholic  missionaries,  315 
Catinca,  103 
Cattle  in  the  United  States, 

23 

Caucasians,  318 
Causes  of  civilization,  341 
Cavazzi,  125,  293 
Cayowas,  219 
Cazegut,  212 
Celebes,  5],  147 
Celts,  343 
Ceylon,  218 
Chamisso,  250,  257 
Chambon,  177 
Chamois  of  Pyrenees  and 

Alps,  21,  251 
Change  of  colour  produced 

by  age,  99 
Changes,  251 
Chaptal,  341 
Characteristics    of    man, 

275 

Charleroix,  218,  313 
Charruas,  140 
Chastity,  297 
Cheever,  122 
Chenier,  126,  317 
Cheras,  301 
Cherokees,  243,  371 
Chibchas,  373 
Children  swim  in  Polyne- 
sia, 87 

Chile,  146, 172,  257,  309 
Chimpanzee  and  Gorilla; 

their  differences,  32,  91 


Chinook,  146 

Chinos,  174 

Chinese,  238,    242,    245, 

304,  317 
Chinese   in   East  Indian 

Archipelago. 

Chippeways,155, 164,  337 
Chiriguanas,  46 
Choles,  183,  187 
Cholores,  154 
Chonos  children  swim,  87 
Christians,  369 
Christianity,  325 
Chronology,  285 
Church,  Col.,  141 
Cieza  de  Leon,  192 
Circumcision  of  girls,  106 
Civilized  man  inferior  sen- 
sually to  savage,  137 
Civilization,    degrees    of, 

328 

Civilization  stationary,  325 
Clapperton,  94, 105,  213 
Clarke,  K.,  100,  106,  218, 

238,  299 

Classification  of  man,  10 
Classification  of  mankind, 

230 
Clavigero,  110,  123,  370, 

373 

Clemens,  130 
Click  of  Hottentots,  136 
Climate,  34 
Clutterbuck,  166 
Cobija,  251 

Cochin  China,  218,  305 
Cocamas,  175 
Codom,  373 
Cohabitation  between  Ne- 

gros  and  Indians,  154 
Colenso,  136 
Colour  of  first  pair,  207 
Colour  and  hair  distinc- 
tions of  race,  232 
Colour  of  skin  influenced 

by  climate,  52 
Colour,  deviations  in,  217 
Columbia,  Indians  of,  62 
Columbus,  41,  140 
Combes  and  Tamisier,  45, 

65 
Copenhagen,  Icelander  in, 

130 

Concep9ion,  172 
Congenital  deformities,113 
Congo  negros,  209,  218, 

293 

Conjunctiva  in  negro,  94 
Conquistadores,  151 
Constancy  of  types,  225 


Consumption  of  food,  115 

Convolutions  in  negro 
brain,  93 

Cook,  369 

Cooley,  66 

Coppermine  Indians,  150 

Coral  islands,  344 

Cordilleras,  Indiansof,  354 

Cordova,  308 

Corea,  373 

Coreal,  85 

Corroados,  145 

Cortez,  369 

Costa  Rica,  251 

Coultner,  112 

Courson,  340 

Courtesy,  ideas  of,  305 

Courtet  De  Lisle,  79,  222 

Cowley  and  Dampier,  271 

Cox,  R.,  181 

Coxcox,  256 

Cradle  of  mankind,  200 

Cranial  capacities,  261 

Cranium,  shape  of,  78 

Cranium,  deviations  in,  21 

Cranz,  255,  298 

Crawfurd,  127,  131,  238, 
239,  304,  306,  359,  365 

Crees,  147 

Creeks,  150,  152 

Creole,  205,  319 

Creoles,  308 

Creoles  in  West  Indies 
become  fat,  54 

Crows,  145 

Crowther,  306 

Crozet,  299 

Cruicksbank,  143,  367 

Cuba,  100 

Cumbrie  negros,  193 

Cunningham,  139 

Curumbars,  45 

Cushions  on  hips  of  fe- 
male Hottentot,  105 

Cuvier,  15,  19,  194,  234, 
254 

Cuzco,  3,  74 

Cynocephalus,  92 

Czermak,  107 


D'Abbadie,  172 
Dahomey,    93,   106,  142, 

212 

Dajakes,  92,  139,  257 
Dakota,  242 
Dallas,  70,  142 
Dalzel,  142 
Dampier,  59,  257,  358 
Danakils,  175,  306,  318 


394 

Dandolo,  96,  213 

Danish  colonies,  250 

Darfur,  183,  208,  292 

Darien,  137 

Darien,  Isthmus  of,  85 

Darnell,  97 

Darwin,  120, 146, 164, 271, 

345 

Daumar,  138 
Dauphine,  321 
D'Avezac,  242,  304 
Davis,  184,  214 
Dawson,  59,  100,  126,  166 
Day,  71,97,  183,  178,  185 
De  Barras,  326 
Decandolle,  21,31 
Deccan,  134,  325,  343 
Definition  of  species,  17, 18 
De  Jong,  77 
De  Hell,  69 
Delafield,  255 
Delagoa  Bay,  367 
De  la  Salle,  55,  251 
Delaware  Indian,  138 
Delawares,  109 
Delegorgue,  107, 116, 138, 

294,  297,  299 
De  Lisboa,  71, 179 
Deraersay,  49, 189 
Denham,  105,  209,  210 
Denham,  Clapperton,  and 

Oudney,  209,  210 
Density  of  population,  349 
D'Entrecasteaux,  295 
Depons,  302 
Derwent  river,  315 
De  Salles,  30,  74,  108, 125, 

207,  223,  298,  319,  352 
D'Escayrac,    63,    98,    99 

115,  138,  213,  315,  377, 
Des  Marchais,4<>,  13"3,  297 
Desmoulins,  23,  32,  43, 

108,  196,  226,  233,  265, 

305 

Desgraz,  1 58 
De  Pages,  102,  250 
De  Pauw,  110 
De  Smet,  146 
Development  of  nations, 

266 

Deviation  from  type,  34 
Devil,  the  negro,  white, 

305 

Dieffenbach,  157,163,215 
Diet  of  various  nations,  60 
Diet,  influence  on  the 

body,  57 
Dieterici,  131 
Diseases  of  man,  124 
Diseases,  145 


INDEX. 

Disinclination  for  labour, 

330 
Distinctions 'between  man 

and  brute,  270,  274 
Dobrizhoffer,     115,     123, 

140,  145,149,258,  308 
Dohne,  137 
Doko,  210 

Dolichocephalse,  235 
D'Omalius  d'Halloy,  227, 

232 

Dory,  257 
Douville,  106 
Dowding,  132,  327 
D'Orbigny,  37,  49,  69,  71, 

72,  110,  114,  119,  135, 

178,  374 

D'Orbigny  and  Troyer,  178 
Durand,47,  143,212 
Dureau  de  la  Malle,  107 
D'Urville,  113,  114,  186, 

193,233,  251,  301,  309, 

316,  366 
Dutch,  249,  365 
Dutch  Guiana,  177 
Dutch  and  Hottentots,  186 
Duttenhofer,  95,  127,  238 
Drake,  147,  151 
Drunkenness,  315 
Duclesmour,  218 
Duhaut  Cilly,  128,  317 
Dumeril,  38,  233 
Dumont  d'Urville,  166 
Duncan,  13,  96,  212 
Dunmore,  48 
Dunmore  Lange,  320 
D'Unienville,  44,  311,  319 
DuPetit-Thouars,  161, 165 
Dunn,  146 
Duprat,  44 
Dupratz,  293,  374 
Dupuy,  135, 142 
Duration  of  life,  123 
Duvernoy,  91 
Dynamometer,  116 


Ear,  lobule  of,  86 
Ear  of  Bushmen,  105 
Ear  in  Egyptians,  101 
Earl,  W.,  126,  218,  257, 

343 

East  Indies,  298 
East  Indies,  mortality  in, 

131 

Eastern  Carolinas,  306 
Eberhard,  198 
Ecuador,  250,  313 
Edeeyabs,  213 
Edward  III  of  England, 

315 


Edwards,  W.  R,  76,  189, 

227 

Edwards,  B.,  142 
Edwards,  W.  A.,  332 
Edwards,  76,  171 
Effects  of  climate,  333 
Egypt,  340 

Egyptian  monuments,  25 
Egyptians,  326 
Ehrenberg,  92 
Eichthal,  328 
Elphinstone,  45 
Ellis,  113,  149, 160 
Elmina,  304 
Enarea,  45 

Engel,  38,  78,  225,  261 
English     stand     tropical 

heat  worse   than    Spa- 
niards, 129 
Epp,  65,  317 
Erboul,  50 
Erskine,  157 
Eschwege,  49,   145,  153, 

155,  184,  252 
Esquimaux,  115, 121, 140, 

215,217,218 
Esquimaux  and  Fuegians 

resemble  each  other,  38 
Esquimaux  consume  fat, 

60,62 

Esthonians,  136,  218 
Ethnography,  10 
E'hnology,  10 
Etruscans,  348 
Etzel,V.,  116,  173 
European,    colour    varies 

according  to  climate,  47 
Experience,  teachings  of, 

271 

External  characters,  226 
Extinction  of  tribes,  163 
Extremities  of  ape,  91 
Eyes,  deviations  in,  217 
Eyre,  113,  115,  163, 164, 

165,  166,  167,  300 


Face  of  ape,  91 

Fakaafo,  272 

Falconer,    56,    355,    359, 

363 

Falkland  Islands,  271 
Falkner,  146 
Fantees,  369 
Fanti  Negroes,  143 
Farnham,  62 
Featherstonhaugh,  152 
Fechner,    112,    113,    176, 

177,  238 
Fecundity,greatest  known, 

41 


INDEX. 


395 


Fecundity  no  proof  of  com- 
mon origin,  25 

Feldner,  141 

Fellahs,  301,  318 

Fermin,  258 

Fernando  Noronha,  310 

Fernando  Po,  213 

Fetishism,  303 

Fevers,  124 

Fick,  38 

Fiji,  313 

Fiji  Islands,  186,  298 

Fiji  Islanders,  110,  373 

Fingers,  skin  between,  71 

Finnish  nations,  04 

Finns,  221,  253 

Finns,  their  type,  76 

Fire,  how  produced,  257 

Fishers,  336 

First  appearance  of  man, 
285 

Fohi,  373,  374 

Foissac,  35,  57,  50, 82,  97, 
109,  117,  123,  125,319, 
330 

Foote,  311 

Foramen  magnum  of  ape, 
91 

Forearm  in  Negro,  96 

Forey,  174 

Forrest,  47 

Forster,  G.,  158 

Forster,  85, 135, 158, 199, 
218 

Fox,  41, 157, 162, 1U3,  205 

Fleetness,  118 

Flinders,  238 

Frankenheim,  322 

Franz,  53 

Franz  Mayer,  112 

Frederic  I.  of  Prussia,  84 

French,  309 

Frere,  Abbe,  79 

Freycinet,  117,  134,  139, 
238,  250,  300 

Freyreiss,  153 

Frezier,  119 

Friendly  Islanders,  159 

Fronto-temporal  union  in 
Negro  and  Mongol,  as 
in  Chimpanzee,  93 

Frobel,  313 

Froriep,  39,  238 

Froschel,  142 

Fulahs,43,  65,  211,306 

Funes,  183 


Gaboon,  209 
Gaes,219 


Gage,  149 
Gaimard,  157 
Galapagos,  271 
Galindo,  111 
Gallas,  210,  211 
Gallatin,  243 
Gambia,  157 
Garcia,  308 

Garcilasso,  110,  184,  370 
Gardiner,  60,  296,  309 
Gascony,  207 
Gauchos,  138,  345 
Gernara,  113 
Genitals,  154 
Genitals  in  Negro,  98 
Genitals  (dark)  in   Mon- 
grels, 178 

Genius  in  every  race,  301 
Genoux,  309 
Geoffroy  and  Nott,  185 
Geoffroy  St.Hilaire.  1,206 
Geoffroy,  57 
Geographical  distribution 

of  human  race,  196 
Georgians,  216,261 
Gerdy  and  Lucas,  61 
Germans,  316,  320 
Germans  in  Pennsylvania, 

52 
Giebel,21,26,30,  32,202, 

217 
Gillii,  102,  123,  258,  300, 

359 

Giron,  88,  168 
Gmelin,  109,  218 
Gobineau,  181,  347 
God,  belief  in,  278 
God,   knowledge   of,    and 

knowledge    of    human 

nature   (Anthropology) 

identical,  4 
Godron,  30,  225 
Golberry,  135,194,211 
Gold  Coast,  142 
Gomara,  102,  153 
Gorilla,  92 

Goiz,  124,131,181,187 
Gosse,  87 
Gouron,  36 
Goyaz,  310 
Grafenegg  skull,  237 
Granier     de     Cassagnac, 

179 
Grammatical      structure, 

240 

Gran  Chaco,  145 
Grebos,  212 
Greece  and  Rome,  317 
Greek  army,  307 
Greek  athletes,  115 


Greenland,  148,  298 
Greenlander,  115 
Gregg,  150 
Grey,  59,  122,  296 
Grey  hair,  114 
Griquas,  186 
Guadeloupe,  179,  194 
Guam,  250 
Guanches,  108,  193,  216, 

253,  300,  325, 326 
Guanaxuata  in  Mexico,  41 
Guarayos,  374 
Guarani,  115,  156 
Guatemala,  148 
Guatemala,  304 
Guaycunas,  153 
Guiana,  140,  174,  319 
Guiana  children,  4 
Guinea,  133 
Guillain,  131,  326 
Gum  gatherers  of  Maren- 

sin,  102 

Gumilla,  49,  156,  300 
Gumprecht,  102,  180 
Gunda,  209 
Giitzlaff,  70,  349 
Guyon,  42,  86 
Guyot,  331 
Gypsy,  254 


Hair,  dealers  in,  103 

Hair  in  Negro,  100;  devia- 
tions in, 217 

Haiti,  100,  250 

Hale,  41,  59,  62,  70,  136, 
242,  246,  373 

Halleur,  304 

Hamamwa,  306 

Hamilton,  W.,  94 

Hancock,  72 

Hands,  use  of,  137 

Hapiris,  119 

Hapsburg,  house  of,  84 

Harthann,  221 

Harvey,  176 

Harriers  in  Mexico,  82 

Harris,  85,  175,210 

Haussa,  209 

Hawaii,  160 

Hiawatha,  374 

Hayti  Indians,  190 

Head,  120,  138,  345 

Head,  Negro  carries  bur- 
dens on,  96 

Hearne,  145,  150,  155 

Hecquard,  95,  137,  142, 
209 

Heel  of  Ape,  91 

Hekewelder,  114,  155 


396 


INDEX. 


Heller,  300 

Hellespont,  342 

Helms,  119,  309 

Heusinger,  36,  46,  81, 
116,  169 

Hereditary  transmission, 
81;  blindness,  85 

Herrera,  41,  100,  140, 192 

Hessian  skull,  216 

Heteerse,  317 

Hexadactylous  abnormi- 
ties, 85* 

Hilhouse,  116 

High  skulls,  235 

Hind,  300 

Hindoo  mongrels,  178,223 

Hindoo  rebellion,  314 

Hindoos,  38,  51,  218,  304, 
317 

Hines,  162 

Hips  of  female  Hottentot, 
105 

History;  its  relations  to 
Anthropology,  8 

History  of  civilization,  de- 
veloped by  the  action  of 
four  groups  of  causes — 
man's  physical  organi- 
zation, the  psychical 
life  peculiar  to  each  peo- 
ple, surrounding  nature, 
and  social  relations,  7 

History  of  mankind,  10 

History  of  civilization,  a 
branch  of  Anthropolo- 
gy, 6 

Hobbes,  369 

Hodgson,  55,  58,  59,  138, 
166 

Hodgkinson,  1(55 

Hofacker,  111 

Hoffman,  112,  315 

Hogs,  lice  of,  128 

Hollard,  26,  93,  94,  95, 
108,215,226,  341 

Holmberg,  116 

Hombron,  45,  49,  186, 
193,  233 

Homicide,  297 

Honduras,  148 

Hoof,  in  Hungarian  cattle, 
uncloven,  82* 

Hornemann,  209 

Hoskin,  40,  67 

Hoskins,  326 

Hoskings,  63 

Hotham  Bay,  217 

Hottentot,  female,  hips  of, 
103 

Hottentots,  37,  124,  136, 


137,  139, 164,  186,  249, 
293,  325,  337,  345 

Hottentots,  consume  fat, 
60 

Howitt,  165 

Hoven,  238 

Huallaga,  154,  175 

Huasco,  251 

Hudson's  Bay,  149 

Hueck,  237,  238 

Human  hair,  42 

Humanity:  its  spirit,  equi- 
valent to  the  spirit  of 
God  himself,  3 

Humboldt,  41, 46,  69, 129, 
132,  134,  140,  147, 156, 
179,  202,  298,  318,  333, 
338 

Humboldt  and  Bonpland, 
68,  103,  107,  123,  146, 
194,  251,  252,  255,  331, 
369 

Humboldt,  William  von, 
245 

Hume,  290 

Hungary,  327 

Hunter,  207,  344 

Hunting  life,  335,  339 

Huntley,  105 

Huschke,  69,  79,  94,  238, 
264 

Hutchinson,  121 

Hybrids,  22 

Hygrometric  state  of  at- 
mosphere, 34 

Hyperboreans,  38,  199 


Ibn  Batuta,  301 

Icelander  in  Copenhagen, 
130 

Icthakri,  210 

Idrisi,  210 

Itnlay,  53 

Immithlanga,  296 

Incas,  184,  370 

Indians  of  the  Cordilleras, 
354 

Indios  Mansos,  140 

Indo-German  nations,  199 

Indolence,  295 

Infanticide,  163 

Infanticide  bears  no  re- 
lation to  congenital  de- 
formities, 113 

Influence  of  knowledge  on 
religion,  379 

Influence  of  respiration 
on  the  form  of  man,  37 

Instinct,  2  71 


Intercondyloid  perfora- 
tion, 108 

Intermaxillary  bone  of 
ape,  91 ;  of  Negro,  95 

Intermixture  of  race,  171 

Intermixture  induces 
change  of  type,  229 

Intermixture  of  types,  167 

Inviability,  144 

Iran,  253 

Ireland,  307 

Irreclaimable  savages,  284 

Iroquois,  109,  374 

Irving,  313 

Isert,  96 

Islamism,  375 


Jakutes,  62,  115,  129,  149 

Jamaica,  129 

Jambures,  212 

James,  103,  137, 156,  304 

Jameson,  254 

Japanese,  256 

Jargon,  the  Chinook,  248 

Jarrold,  46,  53,  54,  70,  74, 
82, 101,  128,  141 

Jarves,  122,  163,  202 

Java,  Bayaderes  of,  102 

Java,  77,  305,  306,  315, 
318 

Jefferson,  156 

Jew,  254 

Jewish  crania,  224 

Jews,  223,  249  ;  com- 
plexion of,  47 ;  banished 
from  Portugal,  48  ; 
in  Berlin,  112 

Johnston,  53,  210,  306, 
318,  326 

Jolofs,  211 

Jukagires,  149 

Jukes,  297 

Junghuhn, 227 

Juris,  258 


Kabyles  of  N.  Africa,  42 
Kabyles,  218 

Kaffirs,  125, 136,  208,  257 
Kalmucks,  135 
Kamschatdale,  149 
Kamschatdales,  278,  339 
Kangaroos,  165 
Kanori,  209 
Kansas,  155 
Kareles,  76,  227,  253 
Kaskes,  187 
Katte,  69 
Katte,  V.,  325 


INDEX. 


397 


Kay,  208,  312 

Keate,  137 

Keating,    109,    114,    115, 

141, 148, 154,  155,  337 
Kentucky,  151,  314 
Kendall,  68, 148 
Keppel,  257,  367 
Kessel,  139 
Khartoum,  133,  314 
King,  102,  257 
KingandFitzroy,87,119, 

158,  251,  304 
Kingsborough,  373 
King's  Mill  Islands,  373 
Klaproth,  170 
Klemra,  291,328 
Knee  in  Negro,  97 
Knight,  82 
Knisteneaux,  153 
Knox,  135,  185,  205 
Kogel,  92,  311 
Kohl,  140,  173,  184,  305 
Koler,  60,  69,  99,  132,  218 
Kolff,  278 
Kolle,  133,  137 
Kolliker,  98 

Kordofan,51,14l,208,271 
Korjaks,  215 
Kornheim,  175 
Kortiira,  348 
Koster,  173,  179,250 
Kotzebue,  135,  158,  250 
Koujages,  116 
Kretschmar,  103, 125, 138, 

184 

Kriegk,  53 
Kruraan,  food  of,  60 
Krus,  212 
Kru  Negros,  293 
Krusenstein,  162 
Kurds,  64 
Kuruglis,  182 


Labat,  140,  142,  146,  156, 

178,  258,  295 

Labillardiere,  100, 122, 140 
Labour,  disinclination  for, 

330 

Lacepede,  38,  40,  207,  233 
Lad  in  os,  148 
Lafitan,  153,  257,  318 
Lahontan,  109,  121,  154 
Laing,  142 
Lamarck,  206 
Lambert,    the    porcupine 

family,  85 
Lancerote,  326 
Lander,  86,211 
Landolphe,  113 


Langsdorff,  83,  102,  162, 

301,314 

Language  of  conqueror  re- 
placed thatof  conquered, 

77 

Languages,  239 
Laplace,  112,  Kil,  305,  316 
Lang,  J66 
Lapp,  199 

Lapps,  118,  156,  227 
Latham,  80,  176,  201, 233, 

251,342,344;  man  and 

hismigrations,  10;  limits 

of  the  Negro  region,  93 
Lascazas,  278 
Lassen,  265 
Laundresses,  299 
Laurence,  135,  261 
Lauvergne,  38 
Lavaysse,  73,  181,321 
Lawrence,  94 
Lay,  Tradescant,  250 
Lay,  James,  46 
Leg  in  Negro,  97 
Ledyard  and  Lucas,  134 
Lefebvre,  45,  126,  210 
Legendre,  120 
Leichardt,  138,  139,  368 
Leigh,  126 
Leleges,  348 
Lenguas,  153 
Lenormant,  101 
Leo  Africanus,  252 
Lepouse,  He,  23 
Lepsius,  67,  68,  223 
Leri,  122 
Lery,  313 
Lesson,  54,  61,  103,  113, 

139,  159,  215,  221,  227, 

238,  333 
Le  Vaillant,  136,  139,  170, 

208 

Lewis,  71,  186 
Liberia,  311 
Lice,  127 
Lice-eating,  306 
Lichtenstein,  60,  88,  105, 

116,136,  139,  184,  295, 

297 
Life  of  primitive  peoples, 

335 

Lifeguards  of  Prussia,  84 
Lima,  49 
Link,  207 

Lion  of  Africa  and  Asia,  21 
Lip   of  house    of   Haps- 

burg,  84 
Lipplaps,  187 
Lips  of  Negro,  95 
Lisiansky,  301 


Lithuania,  225 

Littre,  194 

Livingstone,  42,  48,  58, 
109,  131,  133,  140,  147, 
311 

Llama,  338 

Llanos,  309 

Loango,  358 

Lobes  of  the  brain,  class- 
ification founded  on,  79 

Logan,  343 

Long,  184 

Long  skulls,  236 

Longevity,  123 

Longobards,  252 

Lopez,  218 

Louisiana,  144 

Lower  Columbia,  141 

Loxa,  313 

Lucae,  216 

Lucas,  32,  81,  82,  83,  88, 
168,  170,  172, 176,  184, 
205 

Liiken,  201,217 

Lund,  195 

Lutu,  257 

Luzon,  102,  103 

Lyell,  37,  72,  82, 169, 179, 
215,  333 

Lyon,  121 


Mac  Cann,  345 
McCox,  138 
M'Culloch,  131 
Macauley,  41 
Mackenzie,  153 
Machacares,  140 
Macgillivray,  183 
Macousis,  146 
Macrocephali,  216 
Macrocephalffi,  237 
Macapana,  219 
Macassars,  157 
Madagascar,  112,  218 
Madagascans,  256 
Magua,  357 
Maguas,  149 
Magyars,  75,  242 
Mahaf,  212 
Majoribanks,  316 
Malabar,  223 
Malatza,  223 
Malays,  123, 137, 254, 256, 

304,  306,  332,  238,  339 
Malcolm,  75 
Mallat,  123,  182,  251 
Mallat,  73,  102,  10-3,  169 
Malta,  254 
Man  and  brute,  273 


398 


INDEX. 


Man,  zoologically  speak- 
ing, the  highest  mam- 
mal, 3  ;  theologically 
speaking,  occupying  a 
position  between  God 
aud  nature,  3 ;  charac- 
teristics of,  275;  ap- 
pears in  history  a  com- 
bination of  physical  and 
psychical  life,  9 ;  primi- 
tive state  of,  9 ;  specific 
characters  of,  269 

Mankind,  classification  of, 
230 

Manilla,  249,  253 

Manco  Capac,  184.  374 

Mandans,  155 

Mandingos,  142,  211,  299 

Mandingo  and  Guinea 
negro,  their  differences, 
32 

Mankind,  cradle  of,  201 

Maniok,  311 

Manabozho,  374 

Mandans,  373 

Maranon,  146,  219 

Martius,  318 

Mandshus,  256 

Mariner,  127 

Marchand,  127 

Mandaranes,  209 

Mandans,  145 

Mandan  women,  106 

Marquesas  islanders,  102 

Marital  rights,  301 

Marrensin,  gum  gatherers 
of,  102 

Marsden,  257 

Matebeles,  360 

Maximilian  zu  Wied,  99, 
106,  122,  127 

Martin,  243 

Marian  Islands,  272,  250 

Marion,  218 

Martius  and  Dieffenbach, 
147 

Marcarave,  218 

Marchand,  321 

Marghi,  209 

Mariette,  222 

Marriage,  297 

Marquesas,  135,  301 

Martius,  148 

Maroon  Negros,  142 

Maroons,  142 

Mauritius,  250,  311 

Maury,  A.,  194 

Matthews,  106,211,  304 

Marriages,  prolific,  162 

Mariner,  122 


Marsden,  102 

Maximilian  zu  Wied,  68, 
86,155,225 

Melvill,  100 

Melly,  301 

Meigs,  198 

Meyer,  107,  237 

Mexico,  313  ;  high  eleva- 
tion, 82 ;  mortality  in, 
132 

Meinicke,  162 

Measles,  164 

Meigs,  225 

Melville,  135,  162 

Mechanical  talents  trans- 
mitted, 88 

Mental  and  physical  qua- 
lities, transmission  of, 
81;  endowments,  323; 
development,  67 

Mental  condition  of  na- 
tions, 260 

Mestizoes,  27,  187,  169, 
172,  177,  5L9;  in  Para- 
guay, 180 

Meredith,  212 

Mexico,  112,  188,  255; 
miners  of,  129 

Mexican,  332 

Mexicans,  370 

Micronesia,  65 

Micronesians,  vegetarian, 
61 

Middle-aged  persons  ac- 
climatise best,  129 

Milne-Edwards,  63 

Miers,  308 

Mindanao,  257,  358 

Migrations,  346 

Minas  Geraes,  173,  195 

Mindans,  250 

Miners,  120 ;  of  Mexico, 
129 

Minatarrees,  145 

Mississippi,  144 

Miserable  boats,  204 

Mitchell,  59,  139,  164 

Military  standard  in 
Fiance,  63 

Mithridates,  234 

Monro,  93 

Molina,  68,  120,  146 

Mollien,  189 

Mongrels,  27, 138;  viability 
in,  182;  peculiarity  of, 
167  ;  in  Peru  profligate, 
181 ;  in  New  Zealand 
healthy,  18  L 

Mohammed  el  Touney, 
292 


Mongols,  121, 199,  215 
Mongolians,  255 
Moarenhout,  61,  139,  162 
Moffat,  118 
Moluccas,  92,  365 
Montezurna,  102 
Montevideo,  345 
Moral  sense,  315 
Mortality  percentages,  131 
Morton,  22, 24, 30, 87,  IP 7, 

222,  234,  261,  262,  263, 

351 

Morel  and  Vinde,  177 
Mourning,  colours  of,  304 
Moors,  224 
Morse,  148 
Mollien,  48,  86,  183,211, 

348, 354 

Mofras,  Duflot  de,  309 
Mofiat,  255 
Monrad,  47, 135 
Mohammed     el    Tounsy, 

131,183,210 
Moore,  305 
Moors,  317 
Moodie,  118, 136, 165,316, 

345 
Mouflon  of  Sardinia  and 

Asia  Minor,  21 
Moral  bearing  of  the  doc- 
trine of  polygamy,  12  ; 

degradation,  296 
Moody,  124 
Moquis,  150 
Mosquito,  146 
Moxos,  62 
Mohammedans,  317,  360, 

369 

Mohammed  Ali,  314 
Mozambique,  209 
Muhlenfordt,  43, 172, 180, 

188 

Muhlengeldt,  123 
Muller,  98,  106, 107, 108, 

216,  221,  225,  227,  245, 

253,  334,  336 
Miiller,  F.,  23 
Muller,  W.  T.,  123 
Muller,  W.,  95 
Muller,  J.  G.,  320 
Muller,  W.  T.,  369 
Muller,  W.  de,  35 
Mulatto  more  gifted  than 

Negro,  178 
Mulattos,   27,    135,    171; 

sterile,  187 
Murder,  297 
Munclrucus,  258 
Mundy,  135,  312 
Mussgu,  210 


INDEX. 


399 


Mutilations    transmitted, 

80 

Murray  river.  166 
Murray,  Hugh,  294,  381 
Muyscas,  374 


Nails  of  mongrel  breed, 
178 

Napier,  249 

Nakedness,  299 

Nasal  bones  of  Bushmen, 
108 

Natural  objects,  worship 
of,  303 

Natahoes,  150 

Naturvolker,  292,  306 

Nature,  healing  power  of, 
126 

Naturzustand,  9,  10 

Nolengei,  372 

Nicaragua,  374 

Negritos,  73, 104 

Negros,  spotted,  86 

Negrillos,  104 

Negros,  183,  337 

Negro,  222,  257;  resem- 
blance to  ape,  205;  mon- 
grels, 311 ;  his  black 
skin,  35 ;  mental  capa- 
city of,  15;  lighter  in 
advanced  age,  99 ;  type, 
between  tropics,  93 ; 
physiognomy,  37 

Negros,  and  mulattos,  218 

Negros,  109,  208,  211, 
225,  250,  296,  326,  339 

Negros,  longevity  of,  123 

Negro  Portuguese,  250 

Negros,  mortality  of,  133 ; 
in  New  England  States, 
134 ;  cannot  pronounce 
the  R,  135 

Negros  born  in  America, 
72  ;  improve  by  contact 
with  Europeans,  72 

Negro  type  not  fixed,  213 

Negro  English,  250 

Negro  capacity,  inferior 
to  white,  267 

Negro  children  run  about 
early,  40 

Negros,  free,  307 

Negro  most  resembles 
ape,  92 

Negro  and  ape  compared, 
143 

Negro  and  ape,  a  certain 
resemblance  between, 
100 


New  South  Wales,  child- 
ren become  tall  and 
lean,  54 

New  Russia,  112 

New  Zealanders,  114,  215, 
299,  312,  366 

New  Holland,  199 

New  England  States,  134 

Newton,  319 

New  Guinea,  365 

New-born  Negros  light 
grey,  99 

Niagara,  285 

Nicaragua,  215,  331 

Nilsson,  195 

Niebuhr,  253 

Newmann,  213 

Niger,  213 

Niquet,  43 

New  Spain,  309 

New  Zealand,  135,  162, 
218,  301 

New  Zealanders,  114,  306 

Nile,  the  ascent  of,  213 

Nikobars,  357 

Nerbudda,  92 

Nerves,  thicker  in  Negro, 
93 

New  peculiarities,  spon- 
taneous origin  of,  80 

New  Granada,  348 

New  Caledonia,  278 

New  Zealand,  mongrels 
healthy,  181 

Nott  and  Gliddon,  22,  24, 
25,  30,  88,  172,  184, 
188,  189,  195,  198,222, 
225,  228,  248,  263 

Nott,  124,  182,  184,  223 

Norton,  70 

Noah,  256 

Normans,  252 

Natches,  374 

Northern,  333 

Nubia,  63,  213,  326 

Nukahiwa,  children  of,  40 

Nusard,  32 

Nutka,  218 

Nuttall,  121 


Odin,  374 

Odour    of    Negroes    dis- 
agreeable, 100,  103 
Odshis,  212 

Oelsner,  Montmerque,  179 
Ojibbeways,  121 
Oldendorp,  250 


Old  Testament,  202 
Olivier,  47,  51 
Olshausen,  148 
Omahos,  145,  155 
Omboni,  97, 105, 123, 209, 

311 

Ompizes,  193 
Onihou,  160 
Oregon,  146,  248 
Original  equality  of  races, 

351 
Orinoco,    102,    116,    146, 

300,  301,  357 
Orinoco,  Indians  on,  68 
Orthognathse,  235 
Osage,  121,  156 
Os  Incffi,  107 
Osiris,  374 
Osmanli  Turks,  75 
Othomi,  247 
Otomaks,  116 
Otter  sheep,  82 
Otto,  111 
Oudney,  105 
Ovaglie,  173,  192 
Ovambos,  278 
Oviedo  y  Valdez,  103 
Oviedo,  113,  127 
Owen,  47,  91, 209, 31 1,367 
Owen,  Richard,  128 


Pain,  exhibition  of,  127 

Pallas,  217 

Paraguay,  145,  173 

Paranahyba,  170 

Parry,  109,  110 

Parchappe,  94,  265 

Pallme,  131,  271 

Panama,  147 

Park,  M.,  96,  134,  211 

Paiuches,  02 

Papuas,  139,  343 

Passy,  357 

Passes,  183 

Patachos,  299 

Patagonians,  106 

Pavie,  75 

Painting    and     tattooing, 

300 

Palmo,  92 
Parallelism  in  the  animal 

kingdom,  14 
Painted  Indians,  305 
Pampas,  345 
Paraguay,  Europeans  in, 

104 ;  cattle  in,  82 
Papuas,  193,221;  in  South 

Sea,  218 


400 

Parchappe,  262 

Parkyns,  126 

Parker,  141,  173 

Parthian,  253 

Parish,  126 

Pecari,  83 

Pediculus,  128 

Pedras,  Kio  das,  170 

Pehlwi,  253 

Pehuenches,  100,  219 

Penguins,  271 

Pelasgi,  222,  348 

Peron,  41,  116,  117,  118, 
132,  257,  300 

Perrin  du  Lac,  121,335 

Pelvis  of  ape,  91 

Petit,  126,  210 

Petermann,  123 

Peters,  127 

Pelvis,  size  of,  64 

Peuls,  183 

Pernambuco,  173 

Peru,  146, 338;  Indian, 295 

Peru,  172,  250,  369,  370 

Peruvian  skulls,  107,  216 

Peruvian  thrives  at  7000 
to  15,000  feet  above  the 
sea,  37 

Peruvians,  137,  140;  their 
variable  complexion,  49 

Petit,  126 

Pfyffer,  43,  188 

Philippines,  169,  188 

Philip,  65,  73 

Philipps,  238,  263 

Physical  and  mental  qua- 
lities, transmission  of, 
81 

Philippi,  251 

Philip,  141 

Philological  investiga- 
tions, 238 

Phrenology,  its  fables  re- 
jected in  Germany,  237 

Physical  changes  to  which 
man  is  subject,  34 

Physiology,  its  relations 
to  psychology,  7 

Physical  investigations,  17 

Physiological  differences 
in  man,  90 

Pitcairns  Island,  children 
swim,  87 

Pickering,  113, 173,  227 

Pigafetta,  123 

Pickering,  121 ,  142,  157, 
188,  219,  233,  250,  344, 
349 

Pigment  of  Negro  skin, 
98 


INDEX. 

Pisang,  331 

Plough, 309 

Pitcairn,  147 

Peyroux  de  la  Condre- 
niere,  290 

Polyandry,  228 

Physiology,  a  branch  of 
anthropology,  6 

Peron  and  Lesueur,  106 

Polynesians,  their  differ- 
ence of  colour,  41 

Polack,  100,  114, 184,312 

Polo,  M.,  257 

Pondicherry,  129 

Poppig,  56,  87,  100,  120, 
123,  145,  147,  154,  170, 
172,  175,  180,  181,183, 
219,  307,  309 

Population,  density  of,  3 

Population,  157 

Portlock  and  Dixon,  155 

Portuguese  Creoles-,  their 
complexion,  48 

Portland  Bay,  166 

Polltax,  163 

Port  Essington,  366 

Pouqtieville,  76 

Pott,  273 

Pri chard,  261 

Potawatomis,  141 

Precocity  of  children,  40 

Port  Natal,  56 

Power,  157 

Preserved  heads,  163 

Prescott,  263 

Pfeyffer,  305,  318 

Polynesians,  114 

Polynesia,  64, 157 ;  no  hiss- 
ing sound  in,  135 

Plato's  Eepublic,  317 

Polar  nations,  129 

Political  conditions,  c61 

Polygamy,  153, 325;  moral 
bearing  of  the  doctrine, 
12 

Port  Essington,  297,  343 

Port  Stephens,  166 

Polyklet,  217 

Polynesians,  144,  160,  343 

Porcupine  family,  85 

Portuguese,  170,  310;  de- 
generated, 65 

Pott,  76,  243,  253,  255 

Potawatomis,  115,  153 

Protestant  missionaries, 
intimidation  imputed  to 
them,  161 

Property,  276 

Primitive  state  of  man,  9 

Proportion  of  male  to  fe- 
male births,  110 


Protoplasts,  20 

Protestant  slave  trade,  315 

Prognathffi,  235 

Proctor,  120, 130 

Proyart,  86,  358 

Pruner,47,91,93,94,  144, 
169,181,210,216 

Pre-Celtic  population  of 
Scotland,  195 

Prichard,  19,  24,  28,  29, 
48,  51,  55,  57,  63,  64, 
66,  72,  75,  81,  95,  109, 
208,  217,  307 

Primeval  Language,  245 

Prince  Kegent's  Bay,  140 

Psychical  influence,  4 

Psychical  unity,  321 

Psychology  a  branch  of 
anthropology,  6 

Psychical  qualities  trans- 
missible, 83 

Psychological  investiga- 
tion, 259 

Presort,  42 

Puberty,  time  of,  40 

Puberty  of  girls,  110 

Pueblos,  184 

Puelches,  185 

Puris,  155,  299 


Quadroon,  170,  176 

Quandt,  128,  153,  258 

Quartin  Dillon,  210 

Quatrefages,  187 

Question  of  the  unity  of 
mankind,  11 

Quetelet,     measurements 
of,  63 

Quetelet,  40,  57,  111,  118, 
121,237 

Quetzalcoatl,  374 

Quiches,  304 
i  Quichuas,  250,  304 

Quintroon,  170 

Quioga,  250 

Quirus,  218 

Quito,  120,    172  ;    eleva- 
tion of,  37 


Raffenel,  47,  86,  95,  133, 

173,  183,212 
Eaces,    intermixture    of, 

171 

Raiatea,  156,  399 
Rainy  months,  133 
Rajpoots,  51 
Rathke,  87 
Raratonga,  147 


INDEX. 


401 


Ren du,  2 10 

Rengger,    102,   104,   109, 

121,  123,  127,  189,  158, 

154,  156,  308 
Redskins,  152 
Reptiles,  wide  distribution 

of,  197 
Reeke,  111 

Religious  notions,  369 
Religion  of  primitive  man, 

302 

Remusat,  261 
Resiniers  of  Aquitaine,102 
Respiration,  109 
Retzius,  76,  78,  225,  234, 

235,  238,  253 
Reversion  to  original  type, 

27 
Reversion  no  criterion  of 

race,  33 
Rey,  75 
Riccarees,  145 
Richardt,  111 
Richardson,  116,  164,  209 
Riggs,  242 
Riley,  138 
Rioja,  308 

Rio  Janeiro,  251,  309 
Ritter,  38,  51,  63,  65,  115, 

138,156,  175,332 
Ritter,  C.,  340 
Rivero  and  Tschudi,  246 
Robertson,  G.  A.,  1 13, 143 
Robertson,  G.  P.  and  W. 

P.,  293 
Rochet  d'Hericourt,  210, 

326 

Rochon,  218 
Rodriguez,  219 
Robillas,43 
Romanic  nations,  77 
Romer,  1 

Roquefeuille,  219,  301 
Rose  Cowper,  293 
Ross,  109, 115,  271,  316 
Ross,  ,T.,  140 
Roth,  135 
Rougemont,  257 
Rousseau,  289 
Rudolpbi,  23,  201 
Ruppell,  66,  210,  325 
Rush,  88,  170 
Russegger,  126,  133,  142, 

211 

Russian  peasants,  307 
Russo  -  American      Com- 
pany, 314 


Sack,  v.,  177 


Sadler,  111 

Sahantin,  242 

St.  Peter's  River,  337 

St.  Crica,  251,  258 

St.  Hilaire,  S.  Geoffroy, 
1,  63,  171 

St.  Hilaire,  A.  de,  49,  132, 
170,  179,  309,  319 

St.  Thomas,  133 

Salt,  65,  210 

Samoa,  157 

Samoa  Archipelago,  272 

Samoiedes,  199,215,227 

Sandwich  islanders,  159, 
lf.0,  306 

Sandwich  islands,  297 

Sandifort,  101,  224,  238 

San  Luis,  308 

S.  Salvador,  251 

Sanscrit,  245,  252 

Sarawak,  366 

Sarraiento,  181,  308 

Sartorius,  180 

Savage,  civilized  man  in- 
ferior sensually  to,  137 

Savage,  181 

Savolax,  76,  253 

Say,  103, 109, 137, 155,156 

Scarlett,  88,  218 

Scalphunting  by  White 
Americans,  150 

Schamanism,  255,  303 

Scherzer,  189,  251 

Schlegel,  197 

Schleicher,  75,  249 

Schendy,  69 

Schiel,  138 

Schultz,238 

Schoffer,  156 

Schoolcraft,  14,  62,  107, 
145,  148,  149,  150,  151, 
164,  238,  243,  263 

Schomburgk,  Sir  R.,  37, 
40,  96,  130,  146,  153, 
154,  174,  180,  189,  290, 
312,  319 

Scbon  and  Crowther,  133 

Schoschonies,  62 

Schadow,  217 

Scherzen,  167 

Schmaida,  170,  175,  181 

Scruple,  348 

Scythian,  253 

Sea  voyages,  204 

Seemann,  15, 62, 140, 187, 
217 

Selberg,  305,  315,  330 

Selisk,  243 

Semitic-Phoenician,  348 

Semitic,  222 


Semple,  184,  188,  348 

Senaar,  208,  213 

Senaar,  Arabs  of,  101 

Senegambia,  133, 137,367 

Sentences,construction  of, 
241 

Senegal,  214 

Senses,  perfection  of,  137 

Sense  of  shame,  299 

Sense  of  smell  in  Negro, 
95 

Sertanejos,  173 

Sertajo,  310 

Sererer,  300 

Serres,  79,  101,  177, 182, 
183 

Sesamoid  bones,  97 

Sexual  excesses,  297 

Shape  of  the  skull,  con- 
stant to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, 232 

Shangallas,  210 

Sheighias,  63 

Shorthand,  157 

Siah-Posh,  45 

Siamese,  304 

Siberian  tribes,  110 

Sicily,  253 

Siebols,  172 

Sikeliotes,  253 

Sikhs,  originally  Hindoos, 
74 

Siland,  125 

Silliman,  263 

Simbura,  313 

Simon,  Pedro,  219,  373 

Simon,  99 

Simpson,47, 148, 163, 257, 
336 

Singapore,  254 

Sioux,  109,  115,  149,  155, 
335 

Sit  graves,  61 

Skeleton  of  Negro  heavy, 
93 

Skin  of  Negro,  98 

Skinner,  119 

Skull,  form  of,  78 

Skull,  deviations  in,  217 

Skull  of  Negro  thick,  93 

Slaveholders  and  slave- 
dealers,  92 

Slaveholders,  315 

Slaves  well  cared  for  lose 
their  specific  odour,  73 

Smell,  sense  of,  140 

Small- pox,  164 

Small-pox  poison,  145 

Smith,  Hamilton,  118, 
142,  185,  192,  2fil 


D  D 


402 


INDEX. 


Smith,  98,  226,  233,  297 

Smoking  a  baby,  305 

Smyth,  186,  264,  284,  320 

Society,  276 

Sokotra,  32(5 

Solimoes,  258 

Solomon's  Island,  140 

Sommering,  93, 94,  96,  97, 
128 

Sonnerat,  218 

Sonnini,  106 

Soreno,  103 

Soudan,  East,  296 

South  America,  257 

Sowaheili,  254 

Spaniards,  250 

Sparrman,  171 

Sparta,  317 

Spanish  Creoles,  their 
complexion,  4s 

Spanish  conquerors,  151 

Species,  signification  of, 
22 

Species,  diversity  of,  220 

Species  neither  subjec- 
tive abstractions,  n<-r 
exemplars,  17 ;  defini- 
tion of,  17 

Specific  differences  among 
mankind,  13 

Speech  sounds,  135 

Spix  and  Martius,  123, 
131,  135,  154,  169,  174, 
179,154,258,300 

Spontaneous  origin  of  new 
peculiarities,  80 

Spotted  Negroes,  86 

Sprengel,  48 

Spurzheim,  88 

Squier,  148, 181,  255,  331, 
371 

Stanhope  Smith,  38,  53, 
73,  124,  352 

Stature  of  man,  acted  on 
by  climate,  39 

Stephens,  111,  307 

Stevenson,  37,  48, 71, 120, 
123,  170,172,  181,309 

Steen  Bille,  159,  187,  357 

Stewart,  161,  306 

Steedman,299 

Steffens  distinguished  a 
geological,  physiologi- 
cal, and  psychological 
anatomy,  5 

Stokes,  59 

Strap  and  twig  garment, 
301 

Strzelecki,  176,  293 

Sturm,  83,  168 


Styria,  217 

Subdivisions  of  species,  21 
Suckling,  163 
Sumatra,  102,  257,  306 
Sunda  Islands,  92 
Surinam,  250 
Susus,  21.1,  299 
Swainson,  21,  31,  39,  196 
Sweat,  104 
Sydney, 316 
Syphilis,  162,  164 


Tachard,  373 

Taenia,  128 

Tagal,  249 

Tahitians,  305 

Tahiti,  112,  135,  147,158, 

218,  373,  388 
Tailed  men,  92 
Talcahuano,  309 
Tamatoa,  369 
Tarns,  59,  133 
Tanner,  118 
Tapajos,  258 
Tapeworms,  128 
Taaroa,  373 
Tartars,  221,  225 
Tasmanians     inferior     to 

Australians,  116 
Tavastlander,  76,  253 
Taylor,  134,  158 
Taylor,  B.,  222 
Tchuktchi,  215 
Tchadda,  306 
Teeth  of  ape,  91 ;  of  Negro, 

95 

Temperament     transmis- 
sible, 82 

Temple,  120,  121 
Tente  en  el  ayre,  187 
Testament,  Old,  202 
Tertroon,  176 
Tegg,  167 
Ternaux,   103,   150,    151, 

219 

Tertiary  formations,  194 
Teutons,  343 
Thar,  83 
Thickness  of  Negro's  skull 

not  exclusively  peculiar 

to  him,  100 
Thompson,  116,  176,  390, 

314,  369 

Thunberg,  60,  105,  136 
Thomson,  85,  238 
Thevenot,  106 
Thighs  of  ape,  91 
Thigh  in  Negro,  79 
Thumb,  toe  of  Negro  used 

as  a,  107 


Thompson,  G.  H.,  188 

Tibarenes,  257 
Tiedemann,  93,  94,  262 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  58,  119, 

223,  293,  304,  325,  334 
Tierra  Firme,  14 
Time  of  puberty,  40 
Tibet,  255 
Tiger,  205 
Timor,  forty  languages  in, 

247 

Tibboo,  209 
Timani,  211 
Timorese,  117,  218,  257, 

300 

Todd,  53,  176 
Toe  of  Negro  used  as  a 

thumb,  101 
Toes  in  new-born  children, 

87 

Tozar,  214 
Tomat,  211 
Tonkin,  218 
Torquemada,  218 
Toucouleurs,  183 
Towaras,  156 
Transmission,  hereditary, 

81 
Tropical  provinces  of  Asia, 

200 

Tremaux,  105 
Tropics    in    East    India, 

South  America,  and  one 

part   of  Africa,  do   not 

contain  blacks,  35 
Troyer,  50 
Tschittagong,  92 
Tscberkesses,  216 
Tschudi,48,  107,114,119, 

123,  148,  170,  174,  179, 

180,216,  234,237,258, 

304,  313 
Tschego,  91 
Tschuvasches,  175,  193 
Tschumbulpur,  92 
Tschuktsb,  56,  62 
Tumbucus,  301 
Turnbull,  138,139,147 
Tunguses,  118,  156,  215, 

217 

Turkish  nations,  242 
Turkish  army,  307 
Turkish  rule,  297 
Turks,  304,  318,  342 
Tupinambis,  122,  313 
Turkey,  327 
Tucuman,  308 
Tuboris,  301 
Turco-Russian  wur,  314 


INDEX. 


403 


Tupinambis,  313 
Types,  constancy  of,  225 
Types  of  languages,  247 
Tyermann    and  Bennett, 

40,  162,  369 
Tyrrheni,  348 


Ualan,  333 

Uanne,  55 

Ucayale,  258 

Ulloa,   42,   68,    100,  113, 

146,  172,  173,187,295, 

297 
Ulster,    degeneration    of 

Irish,    when     expelled 

from,  57 

Unanue,  104,  188 
Uncultured  peoples,  292 
Unity     of     the     human 

species,  167 
Unity  of  mankind,  143 
Unity  of    mankind   as   a 

species,  10 
Unity  of  species,  20 
Upper  jaw,  95 
Usher,  195 


Van  Amzinge,  15, 185 

Vancouver,  159 

Vancouver  fort,  248 

Vandals,  their  descendants 
in  North  Africa,  42 

Van  Diemen's  Land,  140, 
199, 295 

Van  Biemen's  Land,  na- 
tives of,  100 

Van  der  Hoeven,  97 

Van  der  Kemp,  136 

Van  Hogendorp,  218 

Vater,  53,  234 

Vei,  137 

Velasco,  192,  219 

Venezuela,  111 

Venezuela,  156 

Vertebral  column  of  ape, 
91 

Vespucci,  156 

Viability  in  mongrels,  182 

Victoria  Land,  271 

Villavicencio,  65 

Vincendon-Dumoulin,  158 

Vindjha,  252,  334 

Violin,  sound  of,  140 

Yirey,  38, 208,233, 265,304 

Virginia,  151 


Virgin,  162,  249 

Wilde,  195 

Vis  medicatrix  naturae,  J  26 

Williamson,  54,  73,  83 

Vocabularies,  240 

Wilson,  112,119,132,158, 

Vogel,  301 

195,  297,  358 

Vogt,  15,  21,  24,  222 

Wilson,  Professor  Daniel, 

Voice,  136 

78 

Volkmann,  14 

Winnepegs,  148 

Vollgraff,  188 

Winckelmann,  107 

Volney,  37 

Williams,  Roger,  121 

Von  Gliimer,  321 

Winterbottom,  46,  218 

Von  Sack,  119 

Wise,  40 

Vrolik,  96 

Wisemann,  72 

Worcester,  243 

Wojgerat,  65 

Waddington  and  Hanbury  , 

Wotjakes,  218 

63 

Worms  eaten,  319 

Wadai,  210 

Wrestling,  116 

Wafer,  85 

Wrangell,  62,  149,  356 

Wagner,  M.,  152,  182,  252 

Wuttke,  291,303,  328 

Wagner,  A.,  24,  28 

Wydah,  106 

Wagner,  K.,  24,  87,  101 

Wyeth,  62 

Wagner,  125,  135 

Wallis,  218 

Waldeck,  103,137 

Xenophon,  257 

Wagner  and  Scherzer,  331 

Ximenes,  140,  304 

Ward,  72,  120 

Wallschagel,  250 

Walpole,  163 

Yankee  type,  52 

Warm  climate,  201 

Yarriba,  212,  218 

Wars    of     extermination 

Yarriba,  food  of  inhabit- 

justifiable, 13 

ants  of,  60 

Washington  Irving,  145 

Yebus,  242,  304 

Webster,  310 

Yellow  fever,  124 

Weerth,  217,  339 

Yembo,  218 

Weber,  225 

York  Sound,  257 

Weber,  M.  J.,  224 

Yucatan,    102,  111,    137, 

Werne,  56,  101,  103,  130, 

255,  299,  374 

133,  134,138,175,211, 

Yunnan,  257 

314,  318,  326 

Yvan,  187 

Webb  and  Berthelot,  300 

Web-footed     abnormities, 

85 

Zambo,  170,  173 

Weigl,  148 

Zambos,  181 

Weld,  121 

Zacotecas,  120 

Wells,  148 

Zambezi,  301 

West  Indies,  250;   mor- 

Zarate, 48 

tality  in,  131 

Zenaghas,  252 

West,  114,  156 

Zeune,  107,  235 

White,  96 

Zimmermann,  30,  74,  129, 

White,  acclimatization  of, 

300 

128 

Zoological  provinces,  196 

Whites,  330 

Zoroaster,  374 

White  teeth,  305 

Zuchelli,  315 

Wilkea,  58,  59,  66,  122, 

Zulu  Kaffirs,  101 

145,  146,  158,  161,  162, 

Zulu,  137,  296 

163,  164,  166,202,238, 

Zulus,  294,  299,  360 

272 

404 


ERRATA. 


Page 

15  line 

1  note              ...       for  Voigt               read  Vogt 

26    „ 

9         ...             ...         „    HoUand               „     Hollard 

36    „ 

13         ...             ...         „    2  (reference)       „     1  (reference) 

40      , 

10         ...             ...         ,,    Schomburgh       „     Schomburgk 

64      , 

8  from  bottom            „    Inka                    „     Inca 

95      , 

5          „                        „    VoUard                „     HoUard 

100     , 

7          „                        „    Penhuenches      „     Pehuenches 

106     , 

2         ...             ...        „    A  monkey           „     An  ape 

106 

in  note  3  at  foot      „    Donville              „     Douville 

107 

„    1862                     „     1863 

111    „ 

7  from  bottom            „    Cumena               „     Cumana 

123 

in  note  9  at  foot      „    Petermanns        „     Petermann's 

131 

in  note  8  at  foot      „    Gortz                    „     Gorz 

134    „ 

8  from  top                   „    CaUie                    „     Caillie 

134 

in  note  1  at  foot      „    Fraissinet           „     Freycinet 

140    „ 

9  from  top                   „    Firma                    ,     Firme 

140 

in  note  2                   „    Seeman 

,     Seemann 

141     „ 

9  from  top                   „    Philipp 

,     Philip 

143 

in  note  I  at  foot      „    Allan 

,     AUen 

153     „ 

11  from  top                  „    Knisteneux 

,     Knisteneaux 

171    „ 

14         „                        „    Geoffrey 

,     GeoiTroy 

172 

in  note  8  at  foot     „    Unanne 

,     Unanue 

186    „ 

8  from  top                       Bachman 

,     Bachmann 

188    „ 

6  in  note 

Unanne 

,     Unanue 

195    „ 

13  from  top 

Nilssohn 

,     Nilsson 

204    „ 

12 

Hot 

,     Torrid 

218 

237    „ 

in  note  1 
11  from  top 

Marcgrav 
Microcephalee 

,     Marcgrave 
,     Macrocephalae 

238     „ 

19 

Hushcke 

,     Huschke 

250 

in  note  3 

Seeman 

,     Seemann 

301     „ 

17  from  top 

Mahommedan 

,     Mohammedan 

302 

in  note 

People 

,     Peuple 

371     „ 

10  from  bottom 

Squire 

.     Squier 

373 

in  top  line 

insert  the  before  Fiji 

373    „ 

7  from  bot.  in  note 

Cliibchar               „     Chibchas 

374 

in  note  2  at  foot 

Louieane              „     Louisiane 

T.    RICHARDS,    PKINTEK.    37,    OT.    QUEEN    STREET. 


THIRD    LIST 


FOUNDATION  FELLOWS 


t:t     0f 


(Corrected  to  December  1st,  1863.) 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL   SOCIETY    OF   LONDON. 


OFFICEES    AND    COUNCIL    FOE    1863, 


JAMES  HUNT,  ESQ.,  Ph.D.,  F.S.A.,  F.K.S.L.,  Foreign  Associate,  of  the 
Anthropological  Society  of  Paris,  Honorary  Fellow  of  the  Ethnological 
Society  of  London,  Corresponding  Member  of  the  Upper  Hesse  Society 
for  Natural  and  Medical  Science,  etc. 


CAPTAIN   EICHAED   F.  BURTON,  H.M.  Consul  at  Fernando  Po,  etc. 
SIR  CHARLES  NICHOLSON,  BART,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.G.S.,  etc. 
THE  DUKE  OF  ROUSSILLON. 


.Secretaries, 
C.  CARTER  BLAKE,  ESQ.,  F.G.S.,  Foreign  Associate  of  the  Anthropological 

Society  of  Paris,  etc. 
J.    FREDERICK    COLLINGWOOD,    ESQ.,    F.R.S.L.,    F.G.S. 

f^onorarg  jForetgn  &ccretarg. 
ALFRED     HIGG1NS,    ESQ. 

treasurer* 
RICHARD  STEPHEN  CHARNOCK,  ESQ.,  F.S.A.,  F.R.G.S. 

Council. 

THOMAS  BENDYSHE,  ESQ.,   M.A. 
WILLIAM    BOLLAERT,  ESQ.,  F.R.G.S.   Corr.   Mem.   Univ.  Chile,  and 

Ethno.  Socs.  London  and  New  York. 
S.  EDWIN  COLLINGWOOD,  ESQ.,  F.Z.S. 
GEORGE  DUNCAN  GIBB,  ESQ.,  M.A.,  M.D.,  F.G.S. 
HENRY  HOTZE,  ESQ.,  C.S.A. 
J.  HUGHLINGS  JACKSON,  ESQ.,  M.D.,  M.R.C.P.,  Professor  of  Physiology 

at  the  London  Hospital  Medical  School. 
J.  NORMAN  LOCKYER,  ESQ.,  F.R.A.S.,  M.R.I. 
EDWARD  PICK,  ESQ.,  Ph.D.,  F.E.S. 
W.  WINWOOD  READE,  ESQ.,  F.R.G.S.,  Corr.  Mem.  Geographical  Society 

of  Paris. 

GEORGE  E.  ROBERTS,  ESQ. 

CHARLES  ROBERT   DES   RUFFIERES,  ESQ.,  F.G.S.,   F.E.S. 
WILLIAM  TRAVERS,  ESQ.,  M.R.C.S. 
WILLIAM     SANDYS    WRIGHT    VAUX,    ESQ.,    M.A.,  F.S.A.,  F.R.S.L., 

President  of  the  Numismatic  Society  of  London. 
GEORGE  WITT,  ESQ.,  F.R.S. 


THIRD      LIST 

OF  THE 

FOUNDATION    FELLOWS 

OF  THE 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL  SOCIETY  OF  LONDON. 


The  names  with  *  before  them  are  those  of  Fellows  who  have  com- 
pounded for  their  Annual  Subscription. 

Those  Fellows  to  whose  names  the  ^[  is  attached,  have  contributed 
Papers. 

f  Members  of  Council. 

J   These  Fellows  are  also  Local  Secretaries* 


Adlam,  William,  Esq.     9  Brook  Street,  Bath. 
Aitkin,  Thomas,  Esq.,  M.D.     District  Lunatic  Asylum,  Inverness. 
Armitstead,  T.  B.,  Esq.  Padnoller  House,  Nether  Stowey,  Bridgewater. 
Arundell,  Rodolph,  Esq.     14  Montagu  Place,  Montagu  Square,  W. 
Atkinson,  Henry  George,  Esq.,  F.G.S.     18  Upper  Gloucester  Ptacet 

N.W. 

Austin,  William  Baird,  Esq.,  M.D.     St.  Andrew's,  Fife. 
Avery,  John  Gould,  Esq.     40  Belsize  Park,  N.W. 

Babington,  William,  Esq.      Cameroons  River. 
Bailey,  John,  Esq.,  B.A.     Hampton. 

Baker,  J.  P.,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.     6  York  Place,  Portman  Square,  W. 
Barr,  W.  R.,  Esq.     Park  Mills,  Stockport. 

Barr,  Joseph  Henry,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.     Ardwick  Green,  Manchester. 
Beale,  John  S.,  Esq.     17  Padding  ton  Green,  W. 
Beavan,  Hugh  J.  C.,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.     13  Blandford  Square,  Regent's 
Park;  and  Grajton  Club,  W. 


Beardsley,  Amos,  Esq.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.     The  Grange,  near  Ulverstone, 

Lancashire. 

Beddoe,  John,  Esq.,  M.D.,  F.E.S.,  Foreign  Associate  of  the  Anthro- 
pological Society  of  Paris.      Clifton. 

f  <J  Bendyshe,  Trios. ,  Esq.,  M.A.     7  Old  Square,  Lincoln's  Inn,  W.C. 
Benson,  W.  F.  G.,  Esq.      115  Kensington,  Liverpool. 
Blackstone,  Alan  C.,  Esq.,    M.A.,    F.R.G.S.      5    Henrietta   Street, 

Covent  Garden,  W.C. 
t^[^[  Blake,  Charles  Carter,  Esq.,  F.G.S. ,  Foreign  Associate  of  the 

Anthropological  Society  of  Paris,    Lecturer   on  Zoology,  London 

Institution.      HONORARY    SECRETARY.       4    St.   Martin's   Place, 

W.C. ;  and  43  Argyll  Square,  W.C. 
Blakely,  T.  A.,  Esq.     34  Montpellier  Square,  S.W. 
t^fBollaert,    William,    Esq.,    F.R.G.S.,    Corr.    Mem.    Ethno.    Soc., 

London,  New  York  and  Univ.  Chile.     21  A  Hanover  Square,  W. 
Bond,  Walter  M.,  Esq.      The  Argory,  Moy,  Ireland. 
Bonney,    Rev.     T.    George,    M.A.,     F.G.S.       St.    John's     College, 

Cambridge. 
Boase,   Henry  S.,  Esq.,    M.D.,   F.R.S.,    F.G.S.      Claverhouse,   near 

Dundee. 

Boulton,  George,  Esq.      1  Gordon  Square,  W.C. 
Bouverie-Pusey,  S.  E.,  Esq.,  F.E.S.     16  Chesham  Place,  S  W. 
Boreham,  W.  W.,  Esq.,  F.R.A.S.     Haverhill,  Suffolk 
Boys,  Jacob,  Esq.     Grand  Parade,  Brighton. 
Braggiotti,  George  M.,  Esq.     New  York. 
Brainsford,  C.,  Esq.,  M.D.     Haverhill,  Su/olk. 
Brebner,  James,  Esq.     1  St.  Albyn  Place,  Aberdeen. 
Brodhurst,  Bernard  Edward,  Esq.,  F.R.C.S.     20  Grosvenor  St.,  W. 
Bunkell,  Henry  Christopher,  Esq.     1  Penn  Road,  Caledonian  Road, 

Holloivay,  N. 

Burke,  Luke,  Esq.,  F.E.S.     11  Eton  Street,  Gloucester  Road,  N.W. 
f  ^[  Burton,    Captain    Richard    Fenwick,    F.R.G.S.,    H.M.    Consul, 

Fernando   Po.     VICE-PRESIDENT.      14  Montagu  Place,  Montagu 

Square,  W. ;  and  Fernando  Po. 
Byham,  George,  Esq.      War  Office,  Pall  Mall,  S.W. ;  and  Ealing, 


Cameron,  Captain,  H.M.  Consul.     Mapowah,  Abyssinia. 
Campbell,  Montgomery,  Esq.      Vernon  Place,  Scarborough. 
Cartwright,  Samuel,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  F.S.A.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.     32   Old 
Burlington  Street,  W. 


Chambers,  Charles  Harcourt,  Esq.,  F.E.S.     2   Chesham  Place,  S.W. 

Chamberlain,  William,  Esq.     4  Hervey  Terrace,  Brighton. 

ff  Charnock,  Richard  Stephen,  Esq.,  F.S.A.,  F.R.G.S.,  F.R.S.S.A., 

Foundation  Member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Northern  Antiquaries, 

Corresponding  Member  of  the  New  England  Historico-Genealogical 

Society.     TREASURER.     4  St.  Martin's  Place,  W.C. ;  and  8  Gray's 

Inn  Square,  W.C. 

J  Chignell,  Hendrick  Agnis,  Esq.     47  York  Road,  Brighton. 
Clark,  H.,  Esq.,  M.D.,  F.S.A.     3  Upper  Morla  Place,  Southampton. 
Cleland,  John,  Esq.,  M.D.,  Demonstrator  of  Anatomy,   University, 

Glasgow.      181  Pitt  Street,  Glasgow. 

Clement,  William  James,  Esq.,  F.E.S.    The  Council  House,  Shrewsbury. 
Clodd,    Edward,    Esq.       2    Glamorgan    Villas,    Leytonstone    Roady 

Stratford,  E. 

Cockings,  W.  Spencer,  Esq.,  F.E.S.     20  University  Street,  W.C. 
f  Collingwood,    J.   Frederick,    Esq.,   F.R.S.L.,    F.G  S.    HONORARY 

SECRETARY.      4    St.  Martin's   Place,  W.C. ;    and  54    Gloucester 

Street,  Belgrave  Road,  S.W. 
f  Collingwood,    S.    Edwin,    Esq.,    F.Z.S.        26    Buckingham   Place, 

Brighton. 

Cooper,  Sir  Daniel,  Bart.     20  Prince's  Gardens,  W. 
Crolly,  J.  M.,  Ph.D.      Trimdon. 

Croxford,  George  Rayner,  Esq.     Forest  Gate,  Essex,  E. 
*  Cuthbert,  J.  R.,  Esq.      Chapel  Street,  Liverpool. 


Daniel,  J.  T.  F.  Hurst,  Esq.     Buxton  House,  Highbury  Hill,  N. 

Davey,  J.  G.,  Esq.,  M'D.       Northivoods,  near  Bristol. 

Davis,    J.  Barnard,    Esq.,    M.D.,    F.S.A.,   Foreign  Associate  of  the 

Anthropological  Society  of  Paris.     Shelton,  Staffordshire. 
Dawson,  George,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.G.S.     The  Brook  House,  Bromsgrove. 
De  Home,  John,  Esq.     137  Offord  Road,  Barnsbury  Park,  London,  N. 
Dickinson,  Henry,  Esq.,  Colonial  Surgeon.      Ceylon. 
*Dingle,  Rev.  John,  M.A.      Lanchester,  near  Durham;  and  IS  North 

Grove  West,  Mildmay  Park,  Islington. 

Donaldson,  Prof.  John,  Advocate.    Marchjicld  House,  near  Edinburgh. 
JDu  Chaillu,  M.  Paul  Belloni,  F.R.G.S.     129  Mount  Sheet,  W. 
Duggan,  J.  R.,  Esq.      42  Watling  Street,  E.G. 


Evans,  John,  Esq.,  F.G.S.,   F.S.A ,    Secretary   to   the   Numismatic 
Society  of  London.     Nash  Mills,  Hemel  Hempstead. 


6 

{Fairbank,    Frederick    Royston,    Esq.,    M.D.,    F.E.S.      St.   Mary's 

Terrace,  Hulme,  Manchester. 

Farrar,  Rev.  F.  W.,  M.A.,  F.E.S.     Harrow,  N.W. 
Ferguson,   William,    Esq.,    F.L.S.,    F.G.S.     (Of    Kinnendy,    Ellon, 

Aberdeen.)     2  St.  Aidan's  Terrace,  Birkenhead. 
Fleming,  Captain.     Aldershot. 

Flight,  Walter,  Esq.      Queemvood  College,  near  Stockbridge,  Hants. 
Forrester,  Joseph  James,  Esq.      6  St.  Helen's  Place,  E.G. 
Foster,  M.,  Esq.,  M.D.     Huntingdon. 
Fraser,    A.   A.,    Esq.       14   Limerston  Street,  King's  Road,    Chelsea, 

S.W. 

Frenler,  H.  Albert,  Esq.,  M.D.     North  Street,  St.  Andrew's. 
Fry,  Danby  P.,  Esq.      Gwydyr  House,  Whitehall,  S.W. 
Fuller,  Stephen,  Esq.     1  Eaton  Place,  S.W. 

Garrett,  William  H.,  Esq.     98  Guildford  Street,  W.C. 

Gatty,  Charles  Henry,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  F.C.P.S.  Pel- 
bridge  Park,  East  Grinstead,  Sussex. 

Georgei,  Professor.      18  Wimpole  Street,  Cavendish  Square,  W. 

fGibb,  George  Duncan,  Esq.,  M.D.,  M.A.,  F.G.S.  19A  Portman 
Street,  Portman  Square,  Wr. 

Glaucopides,  Spyridon,  Esq.  7  Mai tl  and  Park  Crescent,  Haverstock 
Hill. 

I  f  Gore,  Richard  Thomas,  Esq.,  F.R.C.S.,  F.E.S.  6  Queen's  Square, 
Bath. 

Green,  Sidney  Faithhorn,  Esq.     Montagu  House,  Eltham,  Kent. 

Gregor,  Rev.  Walter,  M.A.    Pitsliyo  Manse,  Rostfiearty,  Aberdeenshire. 

Gregory,  J.  R.,  Esq.     25  Golden  Square,  W. 

Guppy,  H.  F.  G.,  Esq.      Port  of  Spam,  Trinidad. 

Hammond,  C.  D.,  Esq.,  M.D.     1 1  Charlotte  Street,  Bedford  Sq.,  W.C. 

Hepworth,  John  Mason,  Esq.,  J.P.     Ackuwrth,  Yorkshire. 

f  Higgins,  Alfred,  Esq.,  HONORARY  FOREIGN  SECRETARY.     4  St. 

Martin's  Place,  WT.C.;  and  26  Manchester  Street,  W. 
Higgins,  James,  Esq.     5  Hopwood  Terrace,  Manchester. 
Hodge,  Thomas,  Esq.     South  Street,  St.  Andrew's. 
Hodgson,  B.  W.,  Esq.      The  Rangers,  Dursley. 
Horton,  W.  I.  S.,  Esq.      Talbot  Villa,  Rugeley. 
f  Hotze.  Henry,  Esq.,  C.S.A.      17  Savile  Row. 
Hunt,  G,  S.  Lennox,  Esq.,  F.E.S.,  H.B.M.  Consul.     Pernambuco. 


Hunt,  James,  Esq.,  Ph.D.,  F.S.A.,  F.R.S.L  ,  Foreign  Associate 
of  the  Anthropological  Society  of  Paris,  Corr.  Mem.  of  Upper  Hesse 
Society  for  Natural  and  Medical  Science,  Honorary  Fellow  of  the 
Ethnological  Society  of  London.  PRESIDENT.  4  St.  Martin's 
Place,  W.C. ;  and  Ore  House,  near  Hastings. 

Hunt,  John,  Esq.     42  North  Parade,  Grantham. 

Husband,  Frank,  Esq.     2  Faults  Terrace,  Onslow  Square,  S.W. 

Hutchinson,  Jonathan,  Esq.,  F.R.C.S.     4  Finsbury  Circus,  E.G. 

Hutchinson,  T.  J.,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.,  H.M.  Consul.     Rosario. 

loannides,  A.,  Esq.,  M.D.     8  Chepstow  Place,  Bayswater,  W. 

Jackson,  Henry,  Esq.,  F.E.S.     St.  James*  Row,  Sheffield. 
Jackson,  H.  W.,  Esq.,  F.R.C.S.     Surrey  County  Asylum,  Tooting. 
f  Jackson,  J.  Hughlings,Esq.,  M.D.,  M.R.C.P.,  Professor  of  Physiology 

at  the  London  Hospital  Medical  College.     5  Queen  Square.  Russell 

Square,  W.C. 

\ Jackson,  J.  W.,  Esq.     39  St.  George's  Road,  Glasgow. 
Jardine,  Sir  William,  Bart.,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S.     Jardine  Hall,  Lockerby. 
Jarratt,  The  Rev.  John,  M.A.     North  Cave,  Brough,  Yorkshire. 
Jenyns,  The  Rev.  Leonard,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.     Darlington  Place, 

Bathwick,  Bath. 
Jones,  W.  T.,  Esq.     1  Montague  Place,  Kentish  Town,  N.W. 


Kendall,  T.  M.,  Esq.     King's  Lynn,  Norfolk. 

JKing,  Kelburne,  Esq.,  M.D.,  Lecturer  on  Anatomy,  Hull ;   Curator 

of  the  Anatomical  Museum  of  the  Hull  Literary  and  Philosophical 

Society.     27  George  Street,  Hull. 
King,  The  Rev.  S.  W.,  F.G.S.     Saxlingham  Rectory,  Su/olk. 


La  Barte,  Rev.  W.  W.,  M.A.     Lexden,  Colchester. 
Lancaster,  John,  Esq.,  F.G.S.     Hindleg  Hatl,  near  Wigan. 
Laurence,  John  Zachariah,  Esq.,    F.R.C.S.      30  Devonshire   Street, 

Portland  Place,  W. 

Lawrence,  Frederick,  Esq.     Essex  Court,  Temple,  E.G. 
Lee,  Richard,  Esq.     46  Upper  Gower  Street,  W.C. 
Lees,  Samuel,  Esq.     Heaton  Villas,  Cheetham  Hill,  Manchester. 
fLockyer,   J.  Norman,    Esq.,   F.R.A.S.,  M.R.I.      War  Office,  Pall 

Mall,  S.W. ;  and  47  Drayton  Grove,  Brompton,  S.W. 


8 

Longman,  William,  Esq.,  F.G.S.,  F.R.S.L.,  F.R.G.S.     36  Hyde  Park 

Square,  W. 

Lonsdale,  Henry,  Esq.,  M.D.      Carlisle. 
Lord,  Edward,  Esq.      Canal  Street  Works,  Todmorden. 

Macclelland,  James,  Esq.     10  Claremont  Terrace,  Glasgow. 
Macdonald,   William,   Esq.,   M.D.,   F.L.S.,   Professor  of  Nat.  Hist. 

University,  St.  Andreiv's. 
Mackie,  Samuel  Joseph,  Esq.,  F.G.S.,  F.E.S.     1  Alma  Square,  St. 

John's  Wood,  N.W. 

Mackinder,  Draper,  Esq.,  M.D.      Gainsborough. 
Macleay,  George,  Esq.     Burlington  Hotel,  W. 
McLeod,  Walter,  Esq.     Military  Hospital,  Chelsea,  S.W. 
Markham,  Clements  R.,  F.R.G.S.     21  Eccleston  Square,  S.W. 
Martindale,  N.,  Esq.      17  Hanover  Street,  Liverpool. 
Mathieson,  James,  Esq.      1  A  Telegraph  Street,  Bank ;    and  2  Belitha 

Villas,  Barnsbury  Park,  N. 

Matthews,  Henry,  Esq.     30  Goiver  Street,  W.C. 
Mayson,  John  S.,  Esq.      Oak  Hill,  near  Fallowfield,  Manchester. 
Medd,  William  H.,  Esq.      The  Mansion  House,  Stockport. 
Milligan,  Joseph,  M.D.,  F.G.S.,  F.L.S.     15  Northumberland  Street, 

Strand,  W.C. 

Milner,  W.  R.,  Esq.      Wakejield. 
Moore,   J.  Daniel,   M.D.,   Esq.,    F.L.S.       County  Lunatic  Asylum, 

Lancaster. 

Morgan,  F.  J.,  Esq.     Stamford. 

JMorris,  David,  Esq.,  F.S.A.     Market  Place,  Manchester. 
Morison.  J.  Cotter,  Esq. ,F.R.S.L.    7 Porchester  Square,  Baysivater,  W. 
Murphy,  Edward  W.,  Esq.    41  Cumberland  Street,  Bryanstone  Sq.,  W. 


Nesbitt,  George,  Esq.     9  Piccadilly,  Manchester. 
Newlett,  Alfred,  Esq.,  F.G.S.      Grange,  Coppock,  near  Wigan. 
Newton,  Henry,  Esq.      13  Hood  Street,  Newcastle- on- Tyne. 
fNicholson,  Sir  Charles,  Bart.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.G.S.     VICE-PRE- 
SIDENT.    5  Cleveland  Row,  St.  James's. 
North,  Samuel  W.,  Esq.      York. 
North,  George,  Esq.     4  Dane's  Inn,  W.C. 

Owen,  Robert  Briscoe,  Esq.,  M.D.,  F.L.S.     Haulfre,  Beaumaris. 
Owen,  H.  Bernard,  Esq.      1  Swiss  Villas,  Chorlton  Road,  Manchester. 


Packman,  J.  D.  V.,  Esq.,  F.L.S.     Braughing,  Ware,  Herts. 

Palmer,  S.,  Esq.     London  Road,  Newbury. 

Parker,  J.  W.,  Esq.     Warren  Corner  House,  near  Farnham. 

Parry,  Dashwood  G.,  Esq.     Hope,  near  Wrexham. 

Peacock,  Thomas  Bevill,  Esq.,  M.D.     20  Finsbury  Circus,  E.G. 

Peiser,  John,  Esq.     Barnsjield  House,  Oxford  Street,  Manchester. 

JPengelly,  William,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.     Lamorna,  Torquay. 

Perry,  Gerald,  Esq.,  H.M.  Consul.     French  Guiana. 

Petherick,  Horace  W.,  Esq.     2  Rose  Villas,  Richmond  Road,  North 

End,  Fulham,  S.W. 

fPick,  Dr.  Edward,  F.E.S.      Old  Quebec  Street,  Portman  Square,  W. 
Pike,  Luke  Owen,  Esq.,  M.A.     25  Carlton  Villas,  Maida  Vale,  W. 
Pinkerton,  W.,  Esq.     Hounslow. 
Prigg,  Henry,  Esq.,  jun.     Bury  St.  Edmunds. 

Ramsay,  A.,  jun.,  Esq.     45  Norland  Square,  Notting  Hill,  W. 

Eatcliff,  Charles,  Esq.,  F.L.S.,  F.S.A.,  F.G.S.,  F.E.S.  The 
Wyddringtons,  Edgbaston,  Birmingham. 

•fflReade,  William  Winwood,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.,  Corr.  Mem.  Geo- 
graphical Society  of  Paris.  Conservative  Club,  S.W. 

Reddie,  James,  Esq.  The  Admiralty,  Somerset  House,  and  Bridge 
House,  Hammersmith,  W. 

Renshaw,  Charles  J.,  Esq.,  M.D.     Ashton- on- Mersey,  Manchester. 

f^fRoberts,  George  E.,  Esq.  Geological  Society,  Somerset  House, 
W.C.;  and  9  Caversham  Road  Villas,  N.W. 

Rock,  James,  Esq.,  jun.    ^Fairlight,  near  Hastings. 

Rogers,  Alfred  S.,  Esq.,  L.D.S.     St.  John's  Street,  Manchester. 

fRoussillon,  The  Duke  of.  VICE-PRESIDENT.  17  Weymouth  Street, 
Portland  Place,  W. 

fRuffieres,  Charles  Robert  des,  Esq.,  F.G.S. ,  F.E.S.  Wilmot  Lodge, 
Rochester  Row,  Camden  Town,  N.W. 

Russell,  Captain  A.H.     Hawke's  Bay,  Napier,  New  Zealand. 

St.  John,  Spencer,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.     H.M.  Consul.     Hayti. 
Salting,  William,  Esq.     13  King's  Bench  Walk,  Temple,  E.G. 
Sanderson,  Alfred  W.,  Esq.     16  Archibald  Street,  Bow,  E. 
J  ^  Schvarcz,  Julius,  Esq.,  Ph.D.,  F.G.S.,  Corr.  Mem.  E.S.     Stuhl- 

weissenberg,  Hungary. 

Schwabe,  E.  S.,  Esq.     Rhodes  Terrace,  Manchester. 
Scott,  The  Rev.  Robert  S.,  M.A.     7  Beaufort  Terrace,  Cecil  Street, 

Manchester. 
Seemann,  Berthold,  Esq.,  M.D.,  F.L.S.     39  Canonbury  Sq.,  Islington. 


10 

Sharp,  Samuel,  Esq.,  F.S.A.,  F.G.S.     Dallington  Hall,  Northampton. 

Shortt,  John,  Esq.,  M.D.,  Zillah  Surgeon.      Chingleput,  Madras. 

Skues,  Dr.  Mackenzie,  Staff  Surgeon.     Kurrachee,  Scinde. 

Silva-Ferro,  Don  Ramon  de,  F.G.S. ,  F.R.G.S.,  Consul  for  the 
Republic  of  Chile.  21  A  Hanover  Square. 

St.  Clair,  George,  Esq.     Holford  House,  Regents  Park,  N.W. 

Smith,  Abell,  Esq.      1  Great  George  Street,  Westminster,  S.W. 

Smith,  John,  Esq.,  F.E.S.     1  Great  George  Street,  Westminster,  S.W. 

Smith,  Thomas,  Esq.,  M.D.     Portland  House  Cheltenham. 

Smith,  Protheroe,  Esq.,  M.D.     25  Park  Street,  W. 

Smith,  Wm.  Nugent,  Esq.     Apsley  Lodge,  Wellington  Road,  Brighton. 

Snell,  George  Blagrove,  Esq.  4  Pembroke  Cottages,  South  Ken- 
sington, W. 

Spencer,  W.  H.,  Esq.     High  Wy combe,  Bucks. 

JStanbridge,  W.  E.,  Esq.      Wombat,   Victoria,  Australia. 

Stenning,  Charles,  Esq.     4  Westbourne  Park  Place,  Bayswater,  W. 

Stevenson,  John,  Esq.     4  Brougham  Street,  Edinburgh. 

Strachan,  John,  Esq.      1  Avondale  Place,  Glasgow. 

Sturman,  Edward,  Esq.      Camden  House,  Sydenham  Park. 

Tagore,  G.  M.,  Esq.,  Professor  of  Bengali  and  Hindu  Law  in  University 
College,  London.  38  Kensington  Park  Gardens,  Notting  Hill,  W. 

Taylor,  W.  E.,  Esq.     Milfield  House,  Enjield,  near  Accrington. 

Tenison,  Ryan,  Esq.,  M.D.     8  Keith  Terrace,  Shepherd's  Bush,  W. 

Thurnam,  John,  Esq.,  M.D.,  F.S.A.,  F.E.S.     Devizes. 

fTravers,  William,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.      Charing  Cross  Hospital,  W.C. 

Trevelyan,  Arthur,  Esq.,  J.P.      Teinholan,  Tranent,  N.B. 

Triibner,  Nicolas,  Esq.     60  Paternoster  Row,  E.C. 

Tylor,  Edward  Burnet,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.  6  Boniface  Terrace,  Ventnor^ 
Isle  of  Wight. 

Valpy,  Rev.  J .  J.  C.,  M.A.     Eking  Rectory,  Norfolk. 

fVaux,  William  Sandys  Wright,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.S.A.,  F.  &  Hon.  Sec. 

R.S.L.,  Pres.  Numismatic  Society  of  London.     British  Museum, 

W.C. 
Vernon,  George  Venables,  Esq.,  F.R.A.S.,  M.B.M.S.,  Mem.  Met.  Soc. 

Scot.,  Mem.  de  la  Societe  Meteorologique  de  la  France.     Old  Traf- 
ford,  Manchester. 

^[Wake,  Charles  Staniland,  Esq.     16  Oxford  Road  Kilburn,  N.W. 
Walker,  Robert,  Esq.     42  Carnarvon  Street,  Glasgow. 


11 

Ward,  Charles  Augustus,  Esq.     1  Chapel  Street,  May/air,  W. 
Warwick,  Richard  Archer,  Esq.,  M.D.,  M.R.C.P.,  F.G.S.  5  Hill  Rise, 

Richmond,  S.W. 

Washbourn,  Buchanan,  Esq.,  M.D.     East  Gate  House,  Gloucester. 
Watson,  Samuel,  Esq.,  F.E.S.     Bouverie  Street,  E.G. 
Watts,  J.  King,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.     St.  Ives,  Hunts. 
Westropp,  Hodder  M.,  Esq.     Rookhurst,  Monktown,  Cork. 
Whitear,  The  Rev.  William.     20  Roman  Road,  Barnsbury,  N.W. 
Whitehead,  J.  B.,  Esq.     Oakley  House,  Ratvtenstall,  near  Manchester. 
Whitehead,  Peter  O.,  Esq.     Holly  House,  Rawtenstall. 
Whitehead,  Thomas  K.,  Esq.     Holly  Mount,  Rawtenstall. 
Wickes,  Henry  William,  Esq.     Pixfield,  Bromley,  Kent. 
Wilkins,  Augustus  S.,  Esq.,  B.A.     18  West  Brixton,  S. 
Williams,  Eric,  Esq.     Newton  House,  Kensington,  W. 
fWitt,  George,  Esq.,  F.R.S.     22  Prince's  Terrace,  Hyde  Park,  S.W. 
Woodd,- Charles  H.  L.,  Esq.     Roslyn,  Hampstead,  N.W. 
Wood,  F.  Henry,  Esq.     Hollin  Hall,  near  Ripon,  Yorkshire. 
Wood,  the  Rev.  William  S.,  D.D.     The  School,  Oakham,  Rutland. 


HONOEAEY     FELLOWS. 

Agassiz,  M.  Louis,  Professor  of  Zoology  at  Yale  College,  Cambridge, 

Mass.,  U.S.      Cambridge,  Mass. 
Boudin,   M.,   Medecin  en   Chef  de   PHopital    Militaire    St.   Martin. 

210  Rue  de  Rivoli,  Paris. 
Broca,  M.  Paul,  Secretaire  general  a  la  Societe  d'Anthropologie  de 

Paris.      1  Rue  des  Saintspcres,  Paris. 
Baer,  Von,  M.,  Foreign  Associate  of  the  Anthropological  Society  of 

Paris.     St.  Petersburg. 
Boucher  de   Perthes,  M.,   Honorary  Fellow  of  the  Anthropological 

Society  of  Paris,  Foreign  Correspondent  of  the  Geological  Society 

of  London.     Abbeville. 
Crawfurd,  John,   Esq.,   F.R.S.,    Vice-President  of  the  Ethnological 

Society  of  London,  F.R.G.S.,  etc.     15    William   Street,   Lowndes 

Square,  S.W. ;  and  Athenaeum  Club. 
Dareste,  M.  Camille,    Secretaire   de  la   Societe   d'Anthropologie   de 

Paris.     Rue  de  V  Abbaye,  Paris. 
Darwin,    Charles,    Esq.,    M.A.,    F.-R.S.,    F.L.S.,    F.G.S.      Down, 

Bromley,  Kent. 


12 

Eckhard,  M.,  Professor  of  Physiology  at  the  University  of  Giessen. 
G lessen. 

Gratiolet,  M.  Pierre,  D.  M.  P.,  Membre  Titulaire  de  la  Societe 
d'Anthropologie  de  Paris.  15  Rue  Guy  Labrosse,  Paris. 

Kingsley,  The  Rev.  Charles,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,  F.G  S.,  Rector  of 
Eversley,  Professor  of  Modern  History  in  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge. Eversley,  near  Winchfield,  Hants. 

Lartet,  M.  Edouard,  For.  Member  G.S.     15  Rue  Lacepede,  Paris. 

Lawrence,  William,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.C.S.  18,  Whitehall  Place, 
S.W. 

Lucae,  Dr.  J.  C.  S.     Frankfort. 

Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  V.P.G.S.,  Eq.  Ord. 
Boruss.  "pour  le  merite,"  Hon. M. R.S.Ed.,  F.S.L.  53  Hurley 
Street,  W. 

Meigs,  Dr.  J.  Aitken,  Foreign  Associate  of  the  Anthropological 
Society  of  Paris.  Philadelphia. 

Milne-Edwards,  Dr.  Henry,  Member  of  the  Institute,  For.  Mem. 
R.S.,  For.  Mem.  G.S.,  Professor  of  Natural  History,  Jardin  des 
Plantes.  Paris. 

Nott,  Dr.  J.  C.,  Foreign  Associate  of  the  Anthropological  Society  of 
Paris.  Mobile  (Alabama,  C.S.A.J 

Owen,  Richard,  Esq.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.C.S.E.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S., 
F.L.S.,  Hon.  M.R.S.Ed.,  Hon.  F.R.  College  of  Surgeons  of  Ireland, 
Eq.  Ord.  Boruss.  "  pour  le  merite,"  Foreign  Associate  of  the 
Anthropological  Society  of  Paris,  Chev.  Leg.  Hon.  Institut 
(Imp.  Acad.  Sci.)  Paris,  Director  of  the  Natural  History  Depart- 
ment, British  Museum.  Sheen  Lodge,  Richmond  Park,  S.W. 

Pruner-Bey,  M.,  Membre  Titulaire  de  la  Societe  d'Anthropologie. 
23,  Place  St.  Victor,  Paris. 

Quatrefages,  M.  Alphonse  de,  President  of  the  Societe  d'Anthro- 
pologie de  Paris.  Rue  Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire,  Paris. 

Kenan,  M.,  Membre  Honoraire  de  la  Societe  d'Anthropologie.  55 
Rue  Madame,  Paris. 

Wagner,  M.  Rudolph,  Professor  of  Zoology  in  the  University  of 
Gottingen. 

Waitz,  M.  Theodor,  Professor  of  Philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Marburg. 

Wright,  Thomas,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.S.A.,  Hon.  F.R.S.L.,  Corr.  Mem.  of 
the  Imperial  Academy  of  Paris,  Honorary  Secretary  of  the  Ethno- 
logical Society  of  London.  14  Sydney  Street,  Brompton,  S.W. 


13 


CORRESPONDING    MEMBERS. 

Briicke,  Dr.     Vienna. 

Buschmann,  Professor.     Berlin. 

Carus,  Professor  C.  G.     Dresden. 

Castelnau,  M.  de.     Paris. 

Desnoyers,  M.     Paris. 

Dorn,  General  Bernard.     St.  Petersburg. 

D'Omalius  d'Halloy,  Professor.     Brussels. 

Gervais,  M.     Montpellier. 

Giglioli,  Professor.     Pavia. 

Gosse,  M.  A.  L.  (pere).     Geneva. 

Gosse,  M.  H.  J.     Geneva. 

Hochstetter,  Professor.     Vienna. 

Hyrtl,  Professor,  Vienna. 

Kaup,  Professor.     Darmstadt. 

Leuckart,  M.     Giessen. 

Marschall,  Count,  For.  Corr,  G.  S.     Vienna. 

Martin-Magron,  M.     26  Rue  Madame,  Paris. 

Morlot,  M.,  For.  Corr.  G.S.     Berne. 

Pictet,  M.,  For.  Corr.  G.S.     Geneva. 

Pouchet,  George.     Rouen. 

Raimondy,  Professor.     Lima. 

Rei  chert,  M. 

Rickard,  Major  Francis  Ignacio,  F.G.S.,  F.C,S.    Argentine  Republic. 

21  A  Hanover  Square. 
Riitimeyer,  Professor.     Basle, 
Scherzer,  Dr.  Carl.     Vienna. 
Schlagintweit,  Hermann  de.     Paris. 
Steinhauer,  Herr  Carl.     Copenhagen. 
Steenstrup,  Professor.     Copenhagen. 
Thomsen,  Professor.     Copenhagen. 
Uhde,  C.  W.  F.     Berlin. 
Vibraye,  Marquis  de.     Abbeville. 
Vogt,  Carl.     Geneva. 
Welcker,  Dr.  H.,  Professor.     Halle. 
Wilson,  Professor  Daniel.     Toronto. 
Worsaae,  Professor.     Copenhagen. 


14 


LOCAL  SECEETARIES  (GREAT  BRITAIN). 

Brodie,   The   Rev.    P.    B.,    M.A.,    F.L.S.,    F.G.S.      The   Vicarage, 

Rowington,  near  Warwick. 
Buckman,   Professor,    F.L.S.,  F.G.S.      Royal  Agricultural   College, 

Cirencester. 

Chignell,  H.  A.,  Esq.,  F.A.S.L.     47  York  Road,  Brighton. 
Evans,  Sebastian,  Esq.     Birmingham. 
Fairbank,    Frederick    Royston,    Esq.,   M.D.,   F.A.S.L.      St.   Mary's 

Terrace,  Hulme,  Manchester. 
Farquharson,  Dr.     Stockton-on-Tees. 
Gibson,  Craig,  Esq.,  M.D.     Bebbington,  Cheshire. 
Gore,  R.  T.,  Esq.,  F.A.S.L.,  F.R.C.S.     6  Queen  Square,  Bath. 
Groves,  Charles,  Esq.     Wareham. 

Helsby,  W.  G.,  Esq.     Crosby  Green,  New  Derby,  Liverpool. 
Jackson,  J.  W.,  Esq.,  F.A.S.L.     39  St.  George's  Road,  Glasgow. 
Jones,  John,  Esq.     Gloucester. 

King,  Kelburne,  Esq.,  M.D.,  F.A.S.L.     27  George  Street,  Hull. 
MacClean,  Hector,  Esq.     Ballygrant,  Islay,  Scotland. 
Morris,  David,  Esq.,  F.S.A.,  F.A.S.L.     Market  Place.  Manchester. 
Pengelly,    William,    Esq.,    F.R.S,,    F.G.S.,    F.A.S.L.      Lamorna, 

Torquay. 

Puilen,  Hyde,  Esq.     Isle  of  Wight. 
Rivers,  Rev.  Henry  F.,  M.A.     Chatham. 
Rolph,  Charles  Alfred,  Esq.     St.  Mark's  Terrace,  Tettenhall  Road, 

near  Wolverhampton. 
Tate,  George,  Esq.,  F.G.S.,  Secretary  of  the  Berwickshire  Naturalists' 

Field  Club,  Corresponding  Member  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries, 

Scotland.     Alnwick. 
Tate,  Thomas,  Esq.,  F.R.A.S.,  President  of  the  Hastings  and  St. 

Leonard's  Philosophical  Society.     Hastings. 
Travers,  Frederick,  Esq.     Poole. 


LOCAL    SECRETARIES    (ABROAD). 

Allen,  S.  Stafford,  Esq.  (2  Paradise  Row,  Stoke  Newington,  N.)  Egypt. 
Bogge,  Edward  B.,  R.N.     Vancouver's  Island. 
Cross,  A.  G.,  Esq.,  F.R.C.S.     China. 

Du  Chaillu,   Paul  Belloni,   Esq.,   F.A.S.L.,   F.R.G.S.     West  Coast 
of  Africa. 


15 

Fen  wick,  G.  E  ,  Esq.,  M.D.     Montreal,  Upper  Canada. 

Fritsch,   Dr.  Anton,   Director  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History, 

Prague.     Prague. 
Giraldes,  Professor  M.,  Prof,  de  Med.  a  PHopital  des  Enfans  Trouves, 

Paris. 

Houghton,  Dr.  Edward  Price,  Surgeon.     Borneo. 
Hincks,  Professor.     Toronto. 
Lockart,  William,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.     China. 
Miklosich,  M.  Franciscus.     Vienna. 
Phoebus,  Dr.     Giessen. 
Ross,  J.  G.  C.,  Esq.     Cocoa  Islands,  Java. 
Russell,  Captain  A.  H.,  F.A.S.L.     New  Zealand. 
Schaaffhausen,  Dr.     Bonn. 

T  Schvarcz,  Dr.  Julius,  F.G.S.,  F.A.S.L.    Stuhlweissenberg,  Hungary. 
Snow,  Captain  W.  Parker.     New  York. 
Stanbridge,    W.    E.,    Esq.,    F.A.S.L.,    F.E.S.      Wombat,    Victoria, 

Australia. 

Wienecke,  Dr.     Batavia. 
Wilson,  J.  Spotswood,  F.R.G.S.     Ecuador. 

Member  Deceased. 
Bertrand,  M.  Camille.     Local  Secretary  for  Montpellier. 


T.    RICHARDS,   PRINTER,  37,    GREAT   QUEEN    STREET. 


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