4' ■ ■■■,'' ',■

■■.^:M

AN

INTRODUCTION

TOTHB

STATURAL HISTORY OF FISHES;

BEING THE ARTICLE " ICHTHYOI-OGY," FKOM THE SEVENTH EDITION

OF THE

ENCYCLOPiEDIA BKITANNICA.

WITH ABOVE ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY H -USTRATIONS.

JAiMES WILSON, F.R.S K M.W.S.

'M, III' Tiu' i-v'rrtMnr.(ir:!i' \ I tMiiFT'.

ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH;

SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO, WHITTAKfeR & Co\ AND HAMILTON, ADAMS, & CO.

LONDON ; AND JOHN CUMMING, DUBLIN.

M.DCCC.XX XVIII.

-#

HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

LIBRARY

OF THE
MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY

Library of
SAMUEL GARMAN

U-AVg--

^, ^A^.

^liUQ 1929

INTRODUCTION

TO THE

NATURAL HISTORY OF FISHES

AN

INTRODUCTION

NATURAL HISTORY OF FISHES;

a/.i/,ri;iiUM-.(,w,

BEING THE ARTICLE " ICHTHYOLOGY," FROM THE SEVENTH EDITION

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.

WITH ABOVE ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY ILLUSTRATIONS.

BY

JAMES WILSON, F.R.S.E. M.W.S.

AND OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETT OF FRANCE.

ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH ;

SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO., WHITTAKER & CO., AND HAMILTON, ADAMS, & CO.
LONDON ; AND JOHN GUMMING, DUBLIN.

M.DCCC.XXXVni.

Edinburgh ; Printed by Thomas Allah * Co.
265 High Street.

PREFATORY NOTICE.

The Proprietors of the Encyclopjedia Britannica having informed me of their inten-
tion to re-publish (in a separate form) the Systematic Treatise on the Class of Fishes, which,
under the term Ichthyology, I some time ago contributed to the Seventh (or current)
Edition of that work, I deem it advisable to prefix a Catalogue of the British Species
described and figured in Mr Yarrell's recent volumes. These had not approached comple-
■ tion when the article above referred to was concluded ; and it will no doubt prove interest-
ing to the student of the general subject to be enabled to perceive the relations which our
indigenous species bear to the more gorgeous natives of foreign climes. By referring to the
Alphabetical Index which terminates the Treatise, the generic titles of the British Fishes
will be found in their systematic order, and the species named, many of which are of fami-
liar occurrence, will thus serve to exemplify the groups to which they respectively belong,
and so illustrate the Cuvierian arrangement of the Class.

Of two hundred and twenty-six British species, described and figured by Mr Yarrell, we
believe that about one fourth part had not been previously included in any catalogue of
our indigenous productions ; and when we consider that above six thousand different kinds
of fishes have been already collected in the various waters of the earth (which, from their
prevailing continuity and comparative equality of temperature, afford an easy as well as an
ample field for migratory movement), we cannot doubt that the spirit of observation which
is now afloat will lead to the discovery from time to time of numerous other and most in-
teresting additions along our island shores. The admiration excited by the beautiful illus-
trations of the " History of British Fishes," and the facilities which they afford for the com-
parison and ascertainment of species, have indeed already conduced to that desired effect;'
and we believe that Mr Yarrell's manuscript notes will enable him to furnish a great in-
crease of ichthyological information to a second edition of his work, which we take it for
granted will be ere long called for.

I shall here only further observe, that the vexata qucestio which regards the specific na-
ture and origin of the Parr, has been of late discussed with frequency and fulness by se-
veral ingenious, and one or two competent, observers. The most important point at issue,
viz. the identity of parr and salmon-smolts, has received some curious confirmation from the

' See Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xiv. ; and Annals of Natural Hittory, No. iii.

6 PREFATORY NOTICE.

observations and experiments of Mr Shaw, Drumlanrigg," — notwithstanding which, how-
ever, there are not wanting zealous advocates to maintain the specific distinction of the
fish in question. In the present state of the case, I think it unnecessary to qualify the opi-
nions expressed upon the subject in the following Treatise, although I think that Mr Shaw's
views regarding the slow growth of salmon fry, and their long continuance in river water,
are founded upon too definite data to be disregarded, and that, when confirmed by a more
extended series of observations on these creatures in their native streams, they will mate-
rially modify the sentiments of naturalists, and eventually lead to an alteration in our fis-
cal regulations regarding the conservation of the most important of all the species which
breed in fresh waters.

The student of Scottish Ichthyology will peruse with interest the descriptive Essay by Dr
Parnell, " On the Fishes of the Firth of Forth," at present on the eve of publication.'

J. W.

WooDviLLE, Edinburgh, May 1838.

■ Account of some experiments and observations on the Parr and on tlie Ova of the Salmon, proving the Parr to
be the young of the Salmon {Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal for July 1836). Experiments on the develop-
ment and growth of the Fry of the Salmon, from the exclusion of the ovum to the age of six months. (Read be-
fore the Royal Society on 18th December, and published in the Edinburgh New PhilosophicalJournal for January
1838.)

' Memoiriofthe Wernerian Natural History Society, vol. vii.

LIST OF BKITISH FISHES.

FIRST GREAT SERIES, CALLED 1

ORDINARY OR OSSEOUS FISHES.
Order I. — Acanthopterygii.

Ray's Bream.

Family Squammipennes.
Brama Rail.

Family
The Perch.
The Basse.

The Smooth Serranus.
Couch's Serranus.
The Dusky Serranus.
The Ruffe or Pope.
The Great Weever.
The Lesser Weever.
The Striped Red Mullet.
The Plain Red Mullet.

PercidcB.
Perca fluviatilis.
Labrax lupus.
Serranus cabrilla.
Serranus Couchii.
S. gigas.

Acerina vulgaris.
Trachinus draco.
T. vipera.

MuUus surmuletus.
M. barbatus.

Family Bucccb Loricatce.
The Red Gurnard. Trigla cuculus.

The Sapphirine Gurnard. ~
The Piper.

The Streaked Gurnard.
The Gray Gurnard.
Bloch's Gurnard.
The River Bull-head.
The Sea Scorpion.
The Father-lasher.
The Four-Horned Cottus.
The Armed Bull-Head.
The Bergylt.
The Rough-tailed Stickle- ^

back. j

The Half-armed Stickle- (

back. J

The Smooth-tailed Stickle- (

back.
The Short-spined Stickle- \

back. j

The Four-spined Stickle- j

T. hirundo.

T. lyra.

T. lineata.

T. gurnardus.

T. Blochii.

Cottus gobio.

C. scorpius.

C. bubalis.

C. quadricornis.

Aspidophorus Europaeus.

Sebastes Norvegicus.

Gasterosteus trachurus.

G.

-G.

semi-armatus.

leiurus.

G.

G.

pungitius.
spinachia.

back. I

The Ten-spined Stickle^

back.
The Fifteen-spined Stickle- (

back. J

Family Scianidce.
The Maigre. Scisena aquila.

The Bearded Umbrina. Umbrina vulgaris.

Family SparidcB.

brachycentrus.
spinulosus.

The Gilt-head.

The Braize.

The Spanish Bream.

The Sea Bream.

The Four-toothed sparus.

The Black Bream.

Chrysophrys aurata.
Pagrus vulgaris.
Pagellus erythrinus.
P. centrodontus.

Dentex vulgaris.
Cantharus griseus.

Family

The Mackerel.

The Spanish Mackerel.

The Tunny.

The Bonito.

The Sword-fish.

The Pilot-fish.

The Scad.

The Black-fish.

The Dory.

The Boar-fish.

The Opah or King-fish.

Family

The Scabbard-fish.
The Silvery Hair-tail.
Hawken's Gymnetrus.
The Deal-fish.
The Red Band-fish.

Family
The Gray Mullet.
The Thick-lipped Gray \
Mullet. /

The Short Gray Mullet.
-The Atherine.

ScomheridcB.

Scomber scomber.
S. scolias.

Thynnus vulgaris.
Th. pelamys.

Xiphias gladius.
Naucrates ductor.
Caranx trachurus.
Centrolophus pompilus.
Zeus faber.
Capros asper.
Lampris guttata.

TcBiiioidcB.

Lepidopus argyreus.
Trichiurus lepturus.
Gymnetrus Hawken'".
Gymnetrus arcticus.
Cepola rubescens.

Miiffilida.
Mugil capito.

Mugil chelo.

Mugil curtus.
Atherina presbyter.

Family

Montagu's Blenny.

The Ocellated Blenny.

The Gattoruginous Blenny.

The Shanny.

The Crested Blenny.

The Spotted Gunnel.

The Viviparous Blenny.

The Wolf-fish.

The Black Goby.

The Doubly-Spotted Goby.

The Spotted Goby.

The Slender Goby.

The Gemmeous Dragonet.

The Sordid Dragonet.

Gobioida.

Blennius Montagui.
B. ocellaris.

B. gattorugine.

B. pholis.

B. palmicornis.
Mursenoides guttata.
Zoarcus viviparus.
Annarrhichus lupus.
Gobius niger.

G. bipunctatus.
G. minutus.

G. gracilis.
Callionymus lyra.

C. dracunculus.

Family Pectorales Pediculati.

The Fishing Frog. Lophius piscatorius.

Family Labridce.

The Ballan Wrasse. Labrus maculatus.

The Green Streaked Wrasse. L. lineatus.

The Blue Striped Wrasse. L. variegatus.

The Sea- Wife.
The Red Wrasse.

L.
L.

vetula.
carneus.

8

LIST OF BRITISH FISHES.

The Comber Wrasse. Labrus comber.

The Rainbow Wrasse. Julis Mediterranea.

The Gilt Head. Crenilabrus tinea.

Tlie Goldfinny. C. cornubicus.

The Gibbous Wrasse. C. gibbus.

The Scale-rayed Wrasse. C. luscus.

Family Fisiularidm.
The Trumpet-fish. Centriscus scolopax.

Order II. — Malacopterygii Abdominales.
Family Cyprinidce.
The Common Carp. Cyprinus carpio.

The Crucian Carp.

The Gold Carp.

The Barbel.

The Gudgeon.

The Tench.

The Bream.

The White Bream.

The Ide.

The Dobule Roach.

The Roach.

The Dace.

The Graining.

The Chub.

The Red-Eye.

The Azurine.

The Bleak.

The Minnow.

The Loach.

The Spined Loach.

The Pike.
The Gar-fish.
The Saury Pike.
The Flying-fish.

The Sly Silurus.

C. gibelio.

C. auratus.

Barbus vulgaris.
Gobio fluviatilis.
Tinea vulgaris.
Abramis brama.
Abramis blicca.
Leuciscus idus.

L.
L.
L.
L.
L.
L.
L.
L.
L.

dobula.

rutilus.

vulgaris.

Lancastriensis.

cephalus.

erythrothalmus.

caeruleus.

alburnus.

phoxinus.

Cobitis barbatula.
Botia taenia.

Family EsocidcB.

Esox lucius.
Belone vulgaris.
Scomber-esox saurus.
Exocetus volitans.

Family Siluridm.

Silurus glanis.
Family Salmonida.

The Salmon.

The Bull-Trout.

The Salmon-Trout.

The Parr.

The Common Trout.

The Great Lake Trout.

The Northern Charr.

The Welsh Charr.

The Smelt.

The Grayling.

The Gwyniad or Schelly.

The Vendace.

The Argentine.

Salmo salar.
S. eriox.
S. trutta.
S. salmulus.
S. fario.
S. ferox.
S. umbla.
S. salvelinus.
Osmerus eperlanus.
Thyraallus vulgaris.
Coregonus fera ? Cuv.
C. Willughbii.

Scopelus Humboldii.

Family Clupeida.

The Pilchard.
The Herring.
Leach's Herring.
The Sprat or Garvie.
The White-Bait.
The Twaite Shad.
The AUice Shad.
The Anchovy.

Clupea pilchardus.
C. harengus.

C. Leachii.

C. sprattus.

C. alba.

Alosa finta.
A. communis.
Engraulis encrasicolus.

Ordeu III. — Malacopterygii Subrachiati.
Family Gadida.
The Common Cod. Morrhua vulgaris.

The Haddock.
The Bib.
The Poor.
The Speckled Cod.
The Whiting.
The Coal-Fish.
The Pollack.
The Green Cod.
The Hake.
The Ling.
The Burbot.
The Three-bearded Rock- J
ling. J

The Five-bearded Rockling.
The Mackerel Midge.
The Silvery Gade.
The Torsk or Tusk.
The Forked Hake.
The Lesser Forked Hake.

' Morrhua aeglefinus.
M. lusca.

M. minuta

M. punctata.

Merlangus vulgaris.
M. carbonarius.

M. poUachius.

M. virens.

Merlucius vulgaris.
Lota molva.
L. vulgaris.

Motella vulgaris.

M. quinquecirrata.

M. glauca.

M. argenteola.

Brosmius vulgaris.
Phycis furcatus.
Raniceps trifurcatus.

Family Pleuronectida.

The Plaice.
The Flounder.
The Common Dab.
The Lemon Dab.
The Long Rough Dab.
The Craig Fluke.
The Holibut.
The Turbot.
The Brill.
Muller's Topknot.
Block's Topknot.
The Whiff.
The Scald-Fish.
The Sole.
The Lemon Sole-
The Variegated Sole.

Platessa vulgaris.
Platessa flesus.
P. limanda.

P. microcephalus.

P. limandoides.

P. pola.

Hippoglossus vulgaris.
Rhombus marinus.
Rh. vulgaris.

Rh. hirtus.

Rh. punctatus.

Rh. raegastoma.

Rh. Arnoglossus.

Solea vulgaris.
S. pegusa.
Monochirus linguatulus.

Family Cychpterida.

The Cornish Sucker.
The Bimaculated Sucker.
The Lump Sucker.
The Unctuous Sucker.
Montagu's Sucking Fish.

Lepidogaster Cornubiensis.
L. bimaculatus.

Cyclopterus lumpus.
Liparis vulgaris.
L. Montagui.

Family Echeneidce.
The Common Remora. Echeneis remora.

Order IV. — Mai/Acopterygii Apodes.

Family MurmnidcB.
The Sharp-nosed Eel. Anguilla acutirostris.

The Broad-nosed Eel.

The Snig.

The Conger.

The Muraena.

The Anglesey Morris.

The Beardless Ophidium.

The Sand-Eel.

The Sand-Lance.

A. latirostris.

A. mediorostris.

Conger vulgaris.
Muraena Helena.
Leptocephalus Morrisii.
Ophidium imberbe.
Ammodytes Tobianus.
Am. lancea.

Order V. — Lophobbanchii.
Family Syngnathida.

The Dorse.

M.

callarias.

The Great Pipe-fish.
The Deep-nosed Pipe-fish.
The ^quorial Pipe-fish.
The Snake Pipe-fish.
The Worm Pipe-fish.
The Short-nosed Hippo-
campus.

Syngnathus acus.

S. typhle.

S. asquoreus.

S. ophidion.

S. lumbriciformis.

- Hippocampus brevirostris.

LIST OF BRITISH FISHES.

Order VI Plectognathi.

Family Gymnodontida.
Pennant's Globe-fish. Tetradon Pennantii.

The Short Sun-fish. Orthagoriscus niola.

Tlie Oblong Sun-fish. O. oblongus.

Family Salistidce.
The European File-fisii. Balistes capriscus.

SECOND GREAT SERIES, CALLED

CHONDROPTERYGII, OR CARTILAGINOUS
FISHES.

Order I. — Branchiae fuee.

Family Sturionidce.
The Common Sturgeon. Acipenser sturio.

Family Chimaridcc.
The Northern Chimaera. Chimaera monstrosa.

Order II. — Branchiae fixed.

Family Squalida.
The Small-spotted Dog-Fish. Scyllium canicula.
TheLarge-spottedDog-Fish. Sc. catulus.

The Black-mouthed Dog- ( g^_ melanostomum .

Fish. J

The White Shark. Carcharias vulgaris.

The Fox Shark. C. vulpes.

The Blue Shark. C. glaucus.

The Porbeagle.
The Beaumaris Shark.
The Common Tope.
The Smooth Hound.
The Basking Shark.
The Picked Dog-fish.
The Greenland Shark.
The Hammer Head.
The Ansel-fish.

Lamna cornubicus.
L. monensis.

Galeus vulgaris.
Mustelus la;vis.
Selachus maximus.
Spinax acanthias.
Scymnus borealis.
Zygacna malleus ?
Squatina angel us.

Family Raiidm.

The Electric Ray.
The Long-nosed Skate.
The Skate.

The Sharp- nosed Ray.
The Bordered Ray.
The Homelyn Ray.
The Small-eyed Raj-.
The Thorn Back.
The Starry Ray.
The Sting Hay.
The Eagle Ray.

Torpedo vulgaris.
Raia chagrinea.
R. batis.
R. oxyrhynchus.
R. marginata.
R. maculata.
R. microcellata.
R. clavata.
R. radiata.
Trygon pastinacea.
Myliobatis aquila.

Family Petromyzida.

The Lamprey.
The Lampern.
The Fringed-lipped

Lampern.
The Pride.
The Myxine.
The Lancelet.

Petromyzon marinus.
P. fluviatilis.

P. Planeri.

Ammocaetes branchialis.
Gastrobranchus caecus.
Amphioxus lanceolatus.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

SECT. I. DEFINITION AND GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. THE

PRINCIPAL EPOCHS IN THE SCIENCE OF ICHTHYOLOGY.

Fishes maybe technically defined as, vertehrated animals
viith red blood, breathing through the medium of water b;/
means of braiichia or gills. Tliis definition, as Baron Cu-
vier has remarked, is the result of observation ; it is a pro-
duct of analysis, or wliat is termed in physics an empyrical
formula; but its accuracy is demonstrable by the inverse
method, for, when once duly perceived, we may in a great
measure deduce from it a knowledge of the entire nature
of tlie beings to which it is applied. Being vertebrated,
they must be possessed of an internal skeleton ; of a brain
and spinal marrow, enclosed in a vertebral column ; of mus-
cles exterior to the bones ; of four extremities only ; and of
the organs of the first four senses, situate in the cavities
of the head ; witli other relations not necessary to be here
named.

The greater portion of the surface of the earth is cover-
ed by the waters of the translucent sea ; and wherever con-
tinents and the larger islands protrude their rocky bulk,
we find them coursed by flowing rivers, or intersected by
lakes and marshes. These present in their aggregate an
enormous mass of waters, and afford protection and nou-
rishment to mjTiads of living creatures, probabl}' superior
in number, and in no way inferior in beauty, to those
which inhabit the earth. On land, the matter susceptible
of life is mainly employed in the construction and conti-
nuance of vegetable species ; from these herbivorous ani-
mals draw their nourishment ; and this being animalized
by assimilation, becomes an appropriate food for the carni-
vorous kinds, which scarcely amount to more than one half
of the terrestrial creatures of all classes. But in the liquid
element, and more especially among the saline waters of the
ocean, where the vegetable kingdom is so much more re-
stricted, almost all organized substances are pervaded by
animal life, and each lives at the expense of some smaller
or feebler foe. There we meet not only with the greatest
and most wonderful variety of forms, but also with the ex-
tremes in respect to size, — from the myriads of microscopic
monads, which, but for artificial means, must have remain-
ed for ever invisible and unknown, to tlie ponderous whale,
which surpasses by twenty times the bulk of the largest
elephant. There, too, we may discover the majority of those
magnificent combinations of organic structure, on the rela-
tions of which naturalists have established the distinction
of classes, or great primary groups, — in other words, the
sea may be said to contain representatives of each ; for,
even among birds, those aerial creatures which usually in-
habit so light an element, we find species so constructed as

to dwell almost for ever on its waves. The mammiferous Introduc-
class is still more fully represented in the numerous tribes ''""•
of seals, morses, manaties, and whales, all of which require '■■^~^''~*^
a moist abode, and some of which immediately perish
when deprived of it. Most reptiles arc aquatic, many in-
sects are so, more particularly in their larva state ; and al-
most all the Mollusca, the Annelides, the Crustacea, and
Zoophytes, — four great classes, which on terra fimia are kvf
and I'ar between, — exist in countless numbers in the waters
of the ocean. Hence that ancient dictum recorded by
Pliny, " Quicquid nascatiu- in ])arte natura; uUa, et in mari
esse ; pra;terque midta quae nusquam alibi."

But amongst all the teeming wonders which vivify the
vast expanse and li(|uid depth of waters, none so predo-
minate, or are so truly characteristic, as the subjects of our
present treatise ; nor are any more worthy of our devoted
consideration, whether we regard the beauty or eccentri-
city of their forms, the metallic splendour of their colours,
or the innumerable benefits which, through the foresight
of Providence, they confer upon the human race. We there-
fore deem it incumbent upon us to exhibit an ample view
of the present condition of Systematic Ichthyology ; but
before doing so, we shall endeavour to add to the interest
of the subject by a (ew general observations.

We may state, in the first place, that we here intention-
ally refrain from any bibliographical inquiry, or historical
exposition of the progress of Ichthyology. If such were
complete, or even ample, it wo\dd occupy too much of that
space which we deem more usefully devoted to the actual
condition of our subject-matter. W^e more willingly set
that department aside, when we consider how perfectly it
has been presented by Baron Ciivier.^ We shall, however,
briefly allude to what may be regarded as the principal
epocha in the progress of Ichthyological Science. During
many remote ages it consisted, in common with all the
kindred branches of human knowledge, of nothing more
than a few partial and disjointed observations. Aristotle,
about 350 years before the Christian era, made some pro-
gress towards connecting these together as a body of doc-
trine ; but still it was a feeble body, reposing upon truths
(perceived indeed with surprising skill when we consider
the scanty data) as yet obscurely known and vaguely ex-
pressed, owing to the entire absence of all proper standards
for the distinction of species. For more than eighteen
hundred years ensuing, those who wrote on natural history
can scarcely be regarded in any other light than as either
copiers or commentators of Aristotle ; but about the mid-
dle of the sixteenth century, Belon, Rondelet, and Salviani,
the true founders of modern Ichthyology, made their ap-
pearance (we mean as authors), by a singular coincidence,
almost precisely at the same time, — the first in 1553, the
second from 1554 to 1555, and the third from 1554 to
1658. Differing from their compiling predecessors, they

' From 'ix.^v!, a fish, and Xsycc, a discourte.

* See the Tableau Ilhtoihjiic dcs Froi^rls de VJchiyotogk, dcpuh son orlgine jutqii'a nos jours,, m the first volume of his great though un-
fortunately uncompleted work, the Ilutoire NaUireUe dcs Fuissons. We deem ourselves fortunate beyond our predecessors in ency-
cloptedic labour, in having as a guide in so difficult a subject as that on which the reader is about to enter, the first nine volumes
of Baron Cuvier's signal publication. We should act unwisely were we to present a crude compendium of the works of foreign and
British writers, such as has hitherto sufficed for publications similar to that in which we are now engaged. We prefer adhering
throughout to Cuvier's system of arrangement, as one which, without doubt, is entitled to supersede all others hitherto proposed. We
shall also avail ourselves, wherever our doing so seems likely to instruct the reader, of whatever general or miscellaneous information
is scattered through his work, presenting it in a form and sequence the most advantageous to those unacquainted with the volumi-
nous original ; and adding, especially in relation to our native species, wliatever we find of interest in recent authors, among whom, as
elucidators of *' British i'ishes," Messrs Couch and Yarrell stand pre-eminent. We beg to make this general acknowledgment of the
infinite advantage we have derived from Baron Cuvier's labours, in the formation of the present treatise, in reference both to ouriu-
troductory and systematic portions.

152

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Introduc- saw and examined for tliemselves, and made drawings from
tion. nature, if not with the elegant accuracy of modern days, at

^'^~y-^ least with a recognisable exactness. Yet, true to the ge-
nius of their time, they continued to attach much more
importance to the ascertainment of the names which the
species bore in the classical pages of anticjuity, than to the
composition of th.eir history, as it were afresh, by the light
of nature and their own knowledge. Nevertheless they
rectified as well as extended the observations of Aristotle,
and laid a positive base or new foundation of the subject,
by figures and descriptions of a certain number of well-de-
termined species. About the close of the seventeenth cen-
tury, Willughby, and his illustrious friend John Ray, gave
tor the first time a history of fishes, in which the species
were not only clearly described from nature, but distribut-
ed in accordance with characters drawn solely from their
structure, and in which we are no longer unnecessarily
burdened with inapplicable passages from either Greek or
Roman writers. Finally, about the middle of the eigh-
teenth century, Artedi and Linnreus completed what the
others had commenced, by establishing well-defined generic
groups, consisting of ascertained species precisely charac-
terised. From that period it may be said that no radical
defect existed, nor any obstacle in the way of a gradual
perfecting of the system, which could not be overcome by
zeal, accuracy, and perseverance. Nevertheless it is to the
genius of Baron Cuvier that we owe the gigantic stride
which has been made in our own more immediate days.
Prior to 1815, the methods of almost all the modern syste-
matic writers were little else than modifications, variously
disguised, of the Linnaean system, — that is, with alterations,
generally for the worse, of the nomenclature of the illus-
trious Swede. They darkened knowledge by a multipli-
city of vain words ; — and when any principle of classifica-
tion was brought forward, — if new, then it was untrue to
nature, — if true to that beautiful abstraction, then it was
already familiar as household words. But forty years assi-
duously devoted to Ichthyology, — that is, to a deep study
of all preceding authors, to a constant ascertainment of
whatever could be gathered of the habits of fishes, and to
the formation of an unrivalled museimi of comparative ana-
tomy, where both their outward and internal forms were
perfectly displayed, — convinced tlie great French naturalist
that many heterogeneous groups still formed portions of
our ichthyological system, and that a salutary reformation
might consequently be effected in numerous minor details.
It was obvious, from an attentive consideration of the
subject, that the differences of both external and interior
organs, by which fishes might be distinctly characterised,
were not less numerous than decided ; and that in truth
there were few classes of created beings among which it
was more easy to recognise the existence of natural groups.
But with a view to dispose of the genera and families in a
becoming order, it was necessary to seize upon a small
number of important characters, from which might result
certain great divisions, not likely to break up nat>u-al rela-
tions, and yet sufficiently precise and perceptible to leave
no doubt as to the place of each species. This was a prin-
cipal desideratimi, and one which the industry and perse-
verance, not less than the genius and high attainments, of
Cuvier, have gone so far to satisfy.

The numerous characters lield in common by the chon-
dropterygian or cartilaginous fishes were too remarkable to
have escaped detection by those who loved and sought for
the light of system. Thus all Ichthyologists have agreed
in the formation for these fishes of a separate order ; but

the Baron has observed, that almost all have likewise in- Introduc-
jured the justness of their ordinal division, by a combina- ^'^""■
tion of certain species which resembled the true cartila- ^■"^"^^
ginous kinds merely in the softness of their skeleton. Thus
the genera Lophius and Cyclopterus, except in that soft-
ness, do not differ in any respect from tlie ordinary osseous
fishes, and therefore ought not to be withdrawn from them.
But there are others which, in addition to the softness of
their bones, present peculiar characters in their tegumen-
tary system, in their teeth, and especially in the disposition
of the skeleton of the head, which render their immediate
imion with either of the great groups of osseous or carti-
laginous fishes a matter of greater doubt and difficulty.
Such, for example, are the genera Tetrodon, Diodon, Os-
tracion, and Batistes. The Syngnathi, or pipe-fish, like-
wise present, in their peculiar branchia?, distinctive charac-
ters of great importance. The remarkable external aspect
of these different genera had long induced the majority of
naturalists to separate them from the others ; but it so
happened also that the same majority were by no means
fortunate in discovering the true characters of separation.
Thus Artedi not only re-united them to the Loptiii and
lum)>fish, in the order of branchiostegous fishes, but he
established that entire order on a false supposition — to wit,
that they possessed no rays in their branchial membrane
(" biaNc/iiis osseis, ossibus destilutis," — " t)ranchiostegi in
branchiis mdta ossicula germit,"^) — while the fact is, that
they all possess those rays, and that even Artedi himself has
inadvertently described both their nature and their number
(^membrana branch iostega ossicuta sex gracilia conti?tet) in
his notice of the lump-fish [Cycloptey'us) in question.^

Linna;us,^ after placing the chondropterygian fishes
among the reptiles, and adding thereto the genus Lo-
p/iius ; after referring the Mormyri and Syngnathi to the
branchiostegous fishes of Artedi, and assigning to them
the character of wanting not only the rays of the branchiae,
but the opercula (the contrary in several species being ob-
vious to the most simple observation) ; afterwards combin-
ed'' the Chondropterygii and Branchiostegi into a single or-
der oi reptiles (^Amphibia Nantes), on the supposed but quite
erroneous basis of their being possessed at once of lungs
and gills. Gmelin re-established the two orders of Artedi,
but still attributing to the Branchiostegi the absence of
rays. Gouan characterised them merely by the incom-
pleteness of their branchia:, — a vague expression, and in-
deed contestable in almost all the genera. Pennant com-
bined them with the Chondropterygii, imder the common
name of Cartitaginous, a term adopted by M. Lacepede ;
but which Cuvier has shown, in relation to the actual con-
tents of the grovip, to be improper. The great French ana-
tomist has observed that the appellation is by no means
applicable, either in a positive or a negative sense. It can-
not in any way be maintained that the skeleton of the Ba-
tistes is cartilaginous ; and among the number of species "
which Pennant and his followers leave among the osseous
fishes, there are several, for example, the Leptocephali, in
which we can scarcely perceive the vestige of a skeleton.*
Baron Cuvier"s great object thus became, to disentangle,
as it were, those anomalous groups, or at least to separate
all such as seemed to differ sufficiently from the type of
ordinary fishes to authorize such separation. His next
object was the discovery of precise characters, cajiable of
being clearly expressed in words. This examination soon
convinced him that such genera as Lophius, Cyclopterus,
Centriscus, Mormyrus, and Macrorhynclms, had been er-
roneously withdrawn from the great group of ordinary

' Genera Piscutm, p. 85.

= Ihld. p. (i2.

^ Sf^stCfua Nitiurtr, 10th ed.

* Syitema Nalura, 12th ed.

» Hist. Nat. des Poissons, t. i. p. 555.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

153

Iiitroduc- fishes, from which in fact they essentially differed in no-
t'O"- thing. But he satisfied himself that the singular genus

■"^-Y"*^ Syngnathus, of which tiie form and economy are so re-
markable, were distinctively characterised by their bran-
chiae, in the form of tufts (hence the title of lophobraiichial
fishes), concealed beneath an opercle which permits the
water to escape only by a small opening towards the nape
of the neck ; and that the genera Diodon, Tetrodon, Os-
tracion, and Balistes, independently of the singularity of
their general form, and the incompleteness of their skele-
ton, have the jaws, and in general all the bones of the head,
somewhat differently arranged from the corresponding parts
in tlie generality of fishes, the upper jaw and the palatine
bones being articulated with each other, and with the vo-
mer, by immoveable sutures — a structure which leaves
them much less freedom in the opening of their mouths,
and is also the cause (in connection with the tightness of
the tegumentary envelope which fastens down the bran-
chial apparatus) of so many naturalists having failed to per-
ceive that the genera in question were furnished with rays
and opercula like other species.

But these groups once separated, there remained nine
tenths of the whole class of fishes, among which the first
great distinctive division which presents itself is, into such
as have soft fins, or of which tlie rays are branched and
articulated, and into such as have spiny fins, of which a
portion of the rays consist of pointed bones without
branches or articulation, — two primary divisions, corre-
sponding to the great groups named respectively Mala-
coPTERVGii and Acanthopterygii by Artedi. Even
this principle of classification is not universally prevalent;
for, in its practical application, we are obliged to keep out
of view the first rays of the dorsal and pectoral fins in cer-
tain species of the genera Cyprimis and Silurus, in which
these rays exhibit strong and solid spines, although we still
class them with the Malacopterygii, or soft-finned division.'
In like manner, there are, among the other great division,
corresponding exceptions to the acanthopterygian character,
as in the blennies and certain Labridae, of which the spines
are so small, so feeble, or so few in number, as almost to
escape detection. However, if the principle referred to is
not quite precise in relation to these slight anomalies, it is
on the whole well founded, and certainly does not force us
to separate numerous species which nature has approxi-
mated.

The same cannot be asserted of those distinctions which
naturalists have sought to establish on other principles, nor
of those on which so many of the secondary divisions have
been founded. Thus the general form of the body, and
tlie absence of the ventral fins, the characters assumed by
Ray, anterior to those deduced from the spines, force a
heterogeneous grouping of the eels, the gobies, the Syng-
nathi, the Xiphias, and the moon-fish. Linnaeus was the
first (in the tenth edition of the Systema Natura), while
neglecting the distinction of the spiny rays, to imagine the
division of ordinary fishes into apodal, jugular, thoracic,
and abdominal, according to the absence or position of the
ventral fins ; and in so doing obliged himself to place the
genera Xiphias, Trichiurus, and Stromateus with the eels
and Gytmwti, the Gadi between the weevers and the blen-
nies, Pleuronectes between Zeus and Chatodon, and the Aru-
pAaca7j</«' as intermediate with Silurus and Loricaria. Va-

rious modifications have since been proposed of the Lin- Introduc-
noean arrangement, but our present limits will not admit of tion.
our entering upon these as exhibited in the various works "^"V*^
of Gouan, Lacepede, Dumeril, Risso, Rafincsque, Goldfuss,
Oken, and others who have laboured to amend the modern
system.^

SECT. II. THE EXTERNAL FORM AND CHARACTER 01"

FISHES.^

The form and structure of fishes are as admirably adapt-
ed for rapid movement through the water, as are those of
birds for that aerial motion called flight. Suspended in a
liquid element of almost equal specific gravity with them-
selves, external organs resembling those of birds in size
would have been disproportioned and unnecessary ; but the
air-bladder (the functions of which, by no means entirely
understood, have never been satisfactorily explained in all
their bearings) is known to possess the power of contrac-
tion and dilatation, the exercise of which is followed by
a corresponding descent or ascent of the animal's body.
Thus a small, central, and inconspicuous organ eiiects, in
the easiest and most simple manner, the same object which
even the soaring eagle or giant condor can only attain by
great exertion of the wings, and after laborious and fre-
quently repeated gyrations. We shall ere long, however,
have occasion to observe, that the air-bladder, although es-
sential to the economy of such species as possess it, is by
no means indispensable to the class of fishes, as in many
tribes it is entirely wanting.

Fishes being without a neck, and the part called the tail
for the most part equalling at its origin the portion of the
trunk from which it springs, the prevailing shape is some-
what uniform, diminishing gradually towards either end.
Doubtless, however, a vast variety of form is exhibited in
a class which is now calculated to contain from six to eight
thousand collected species. Of these forms a sufficiently
accurate idea may be acquired by inspecting the numerous
plates which accompany the present treatise, and we shall
therefore not attempt any further verbal illustration of the
subject, although we shall add a few notices regarding the
general aspect and character of the principal external parts.

The mouth of fishes either opens from beneath, as in the
rays, or at the extremity of the muzzle, as in the majority
of the class, or from the upper surface, as in Uranoscopus.
It also varies greatly in its relative dimensions, from the mi-
nute perforation of Centrisctis, to the vast expansion of the
angler fish.

Exteriorly only two of the organs of the senses are visi-
ble, the orifices of the nostrils and the eyes. The former
may be simple, as in the rays and sharks, or double, as in
the generality of osseous fishes ; and they differ in their
position in relation to the jaws, the eyes, or the extremity
of the muzzle. The eyes vary extremely in respect to
size in the different species, and even sometimes disappear
entirely beneath the skin ; and they also differ greatly in
their position, being usually placed laterally, one on each
side of the head, although in Uranoscopus (as the name
implies) they look upwards, and in most of the flat fishes
they both occupy the same side.

In regard to those important organs, the branchiae or
gills, a single family alone, the chondropterygian fishes.

' These epines, however, as Cuvier remarks, are formed, in the two genera above named, by the agglutination of a multitude of
smaller parts, of which the articulations, though not obvious, are perceptible.

* For critical notices of their works, see the 1st volume of the Hitt. Nat. des Poissons.

' We may here premise, that in the ensuing sections several interesting and important particulars in the structure and physiology
of fishes are very slightly, or even not at all, touched upon, in consequence of their having been already detailed in the article
Comparative Anatomy of this work. (See vol. iii. p. 1, &c.) We deemed it more advisable that the reader should be made to
incur the slight inconvenience of referring occasionally to a separate treatise, than that the present publication should be burdened
by a repetition of the same subject. U

VOL. XI 1.

154

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Introduc- are characterised by having their exterior margin fixed to
tion. ti,g skin, with as many openings for the issue of the water
"^ as there are intervals between the branchiae themselves ;
but all other fislies have the external margin of the bran-
chia; free, and the water which enters the mouth escapes
by the opening of the gill-covers.

A certain number of the fins are vertical, and serve the
fish somewhat in the same way as a vessel is served by her
helm and keel. Of these, some, called dorsal, are attached
to the back, others, beneath the tail, are named anal, while
a fine expansion, which usually terminates the body, is
known as the caudal fin. All these are vertical fins, and
vary in different tribes, either in number, or dimensions, or
the nahu-e of the rays by which they are supported, and
which arc sometimes spiny, sometimes branched and com-
posed-of numerous articulations. The other fins are dis-
posed in pairs, and rejDrcsent the foia- external members of
the higher classes, such as quadrupeds and birds. Those
which correspond to the fore-legs of quadrupeds and the
wings of birds are named the pectoral fins, and are always
attached behind the gills ; those again which are regarded
as the analogues of the hinder extremities of the other
classes are named the ventral fins, and have a considerable
range of position in different species, from as far forward
as beneath the throat, to the origin of the tail. Like the
vertical fins, they also vary in size, and in the number and
structure of their rays ; and one or even both pairs are oc-
casionally wanting, as in eels, which have no ventral fins,
and Murena;, which have neither ventral nor pectoral fins.
Indeed the Apierichti have no fins at all.

Those fishes are named Malacopterygian, of which
all the rays of the fins are articulated, and of a softer struc-
ture : while such as are characterised by Jiaving at least a
portion of their rays hard, simple, and in the form of spines,
are included under the general title of Acanthoptery-
GiAN fishes.' These great divisions apply solely to the os-
seous species. We have already mentioned that the car-
tilaginous kinds are distinguished by the name of Ciion-
DRoPTERYGiAN, while two Icsscr groups, in some respects
intermediate between these and the preceding, fall under
the orders Lophobranchii and Plectognatiii of Baron
Cuvier.

The differences hitherto alluded to are connected with
intimate structure — with the skeleton or bony frame-work
of the fish. There are of course others of a slighter or
more superficial character. The jaws may be armed with
teeth of all sorts, and these weapons sometimes occupy all
parts of the mouth, and are found occasionally even in the
throat. The lips are frequently furnished with a kind of
fleshy beard or barbies, which differ greatly in number, size,
and substance. Some have long fleshy isolated filaments
hanging to the body, as in Scorpaiia; and occasionally one
or more of the rays is to a certain extent detachable from
the fin, and susceptible of independent movement.

The nature of the surface or external tegument of fishes
also varies greatly. Some may be called naked, while
others are scaly, spinous, or plated, in whole or in part.
If to these considerations we add the infinitely varied cha-
racter of colour in all its admirable distributions, and the
differences in size and weight observable in fishes, we shall
be able to form a general idea of the external aspect of this
great and important class.

SECT. III. THE OSTEOLOGY OF FISHES.

In regard to the texture of the bones of fishes, their
skeletons are either bony, Jibro-cartilaginous, or truly car-

tilaginous. Those distinguished by the last-named charac-
ter are the chondropterygian groups, such as the sturgeons,
sharks, and rays, all of which exhibit throughout the whole
of their frame-work, in their branchiae (the external bor-
der of which is fixed to the skin, and through which the
water is allowed to escape only by narrow openings), and
in other important parts of their organization, distinctive
characters, which obviously separate them from all other
fishes. They are in fact destitute of true bones, their har-
der parts consisting only of a homogeneous and semitrans-
parent cartilage, which is merely covered on the surface
in certain genera by a layer of small, opake, calcareous gra-
nules, closely set together. In the lampreys even this en-
velope is wanting, while among the Ammocates the skele-
ton continues in an actually membranous condition. The
sturgeons and Chimera; partake in some measure of the
lamprey character in relation to the softness of their spines,
but the first-named genus is possessed of many true bones
of the head and shoulder.

Other fishes differ in their osteological character chief-
I3' in the hardness of their skeleton, and it is without rea-
son that the fibro-cartilaginous kinds have been associ-
ated by some authors with the Chondropterygii. The
calcareous matter, that is, the phosphate of lime, is de-
posited in layers and fibres in the cartilage which forms
the basis of their bones, precisely in the same manner
as among the hard-boned species, but less abundantly ;
and the texture of the bone never becomes so hard and
homogeneous as among the osseous kinds. Thus in Te-
trodon 3Iola we perceive, as it were, only scattered fibres
amid the membranes, and in Lophius piscalorius they are
nearly as soft. The other Tetrodons and Diodons, the
Balistes and the Ostracions, have denser bones ; and in
some species these parts can scarcely be distinguished
from those of the osseous fishes. It is certain also that
the bony frame-work of the fibro-cartilaginous kinds is
constructed on the same plan as that of the truly osseous
species, and not in accordance with those of the Chon-
dropterygii ; and it is in opposition to the known truth of
nature that both Artedi and Linna;us have denied them
the possession of opercula and branchiostegous rays.
The Balistes have even ribs, — their only osteological dif-
ference consisting in the granulation of their jaws ; while
the Sijngiuithi have regular bony jaws, although they
want the ribs and branchiostegous rays.

The majority of osseous fishes have bones fully harder
than those of other animals, and it is quite a gratuitous
assumption to suppose that the observed longevity of cer-
tain species arises from the softer consistence of those
parts. Certain fish bones, in fact, exhibit neither pores
nor fibres, and appear almost vitreous to the eye. But
neither the osseous nor the cartilaginous kinds have ci-
ther epiphyses to the bones, or medullary canal within
them ; but there are some, such as the trouts, in which
the tissue of the bones is more or less penetrated by an
oilyjuice; while in others, such as the Dory, the inter-
nal portion continues cartilaginous, while the surface is
completely ossified. Finally, in certain species, while
the general skeleton is very hard, particular portions of
it are cartilaginous. Such are the bones which consti-
tute the head of the pike.

When viewed in relation to their general structure,
the bones of fishes, like those of other vertebrated ani-
mals, are composed of an organic base penetrated by
earthy matter. The latter consists of phosphate of lime
and of magnesia, with oxide of iron, supposed to be unit-
ed to phosphoric acid. There is also a certain portion

I It may be here noted, however, that certain malacopterygian kinds, such as carps and siluri, have the articulations of some of
the rays soldered together, in such a manner as to appear simply spinous.

ICHTHYOLOGY. 155

Introduc of subcarbonate of lime. The animal matter is of two The anterior members, commonly called the pectoral Introduc-
. ^'°"" , kinds : — the one, of an azotised nature, forms the base of fins, consist of the shoulder, an osseous semicircle com- I'o"-
"~^l'~'^ t|)e cartiiage ; the other is fatty, in the form of a pervad- posed of several bones suspended above from tlie cranium ^'"Y"^^
ing oil. The cartilage of fish bones differs from that of or the spine, and joined beneath to the corresponding
mammifera; and birds, in as far as it yields no gelatine portion of the otiier side. We can here also distinguish
when subjected to tiie process of boiling. The oil is certain bones analogous to the two pieces of the omoplate
composed chiefly of oieine, impregnated with an odorous of reptiles, to the humerus, and to the bones of the fore-
principle and a yellow colouring matter. The oil itself arm ; and further back there is usually a small projec-
is easily convertible into soap, and then produces oleic tion, composed of two pieces, which have been supposed
acid, glycerine, and a minute portion of margaric acid. to represent the coracoid bone, and even the clavicle.

The skeleton of osseous fishes consists of the head ; What is more assured is, that the two bones which Cu-

of the respiratory apparatus, having always a large bony vier compares to the cubitus and radius, bear on their

development; of the trunk, including body and tail ; and margin a range of little bones, which seem to represent

of members, that is, the pectoral and ventral fins. The those of the carpus, and which themselves support the

vertical fins, viz. those of the back, anus, and tail, may rays of the pectoral fin, excepting the first of the latter,

likewise be viewed as belonging to the trunk. which articulates directly with the radial bone.

The head, possessing many more moveable parts than The posterior members, much more variable in their
that of the Mammalia, is subdivisible into a great many position than the corresponding limbs of the Mammalia,
regions, such as the cranium, the maxilla;, the bones and of which the external and moveable portions are
beneath the cranium and behind the jaws, and which aid named the ventral fins, project sometimes in advance of,
in their movement and suspension ; the bones of the oper- sometimes beneath, and sometimes behind, the anterior
cles, which open and shut the overtures of the bran- or pectoral members. They are composed of four bones,
chia;; the bones, almost exterior, which surround the of which the largest, which are likewise the most con-
nostrils, the eye, and the temples, or which cover a por- stant, being always placed in advance of the anus and of
tion of the cheek. the generative system, may be regarded as a sort of pu-

In the majority of fishes the inter-maxillary bone forms bis, and bear upon a portion of their posterior margin the
the edge of the upper jaw, and has behind it the maxil- rays of the fin, without any smaller intermediate bones
lary, commonly called the mystax, or labial bone. A pa- which can be compared either to the femur, the tibia,
latine arch, composed of the palatine, of the two ptery- the peroneum, or tarsal bones. The rays of both the
gold processes, of the jugal, t3'mpanic, and squamous pectoral and ventral fins are likewise divisible lengthwise
bones, constitutes, as among birds and snakes, a kind of into halves, like those of the vertical fins before mention-
interior jaw, and provides posteriorly an articulation to ed. These rays, with the exception of the external ven-
the lower jaw-, which has usually two bones on each side, tral one of the Acanthopterygii {which is spinous), are al-
io the Chondropterygii, however, these various pieces are most always articulated,
greatly reduced in number. The skeleton of the Chondropterygii, such as sharks and

Besides the apparatus of the branchial arches, the hy- skates, is composed of pieces consisting of no fibrous tis-

oid bone carries on eacli side certain rays which support sue characteristic of bone. The interior continues in a

the branchial membrane ; a kind of lid or clapper, com- cartilaginous state, and the surface alone becomes indu-

posed of three bony pieces, the opercle, the sub-opercle, rated by the accumulation of small calcareous granules,

and the inter-opercle, unites with that membrane to close which produce externally a stippled aspect. The form

the great opening of the gills ; it articulates with the as of the cranium is similar to that of other fishes, but ne-

tJ/mpam,aml plays on the piece called the pre-opercle. But, vertheless consists of only one enclosure, without sutures,

like the parts before mentioned, this apparatus is likewise The face is very simple, with only two bones in the pala-

wantingin many of the Chondropterygii. to-temporal arch; — the first descending from the crani-

The trunk is composed of the vertebrje of the back uni, at the articulation of the jaws, — the other represent-

and tail (for we can scarcely say that there is any neck, ing the upper jaw, and bearing the teeth. The maxillary

and the sacrum is wanting) ; of ribs ; of the interspinal and inter-maxillary bones are merely rudimentary. The

bones, which give support to the dorsal and anal fins ; under jaw has also but one bone (the articular) on each

and of the rays of those fins, and of the caudal. These side, bearing the teeth ; of the others only a single ves-

rays, whether branched and articulated, or simply spi- tige is discoverable, concealed beneath the skin of the

nous, may be always divided lengthways into halves. lip. The opercular apparatus is wanting, but the hyoi-

The vertebrae of fishes are characterised by the conical dean and branchial structure is very conformable with the
hollow on each of their faces. Double hollow cones are same parts in osseous fishes. Sharks have, moreover, op-
thus formed in the interval between two vertebrae, fill- posite to the external attachment of each branchia, a slen-
edbya soft membranous and gelatinous substance, which der bone, which may be regarded as the genuine vestige
passes from one void to another by means of an opening of a rib. The branchial system is situate further back
through each vertebra, and forms as it were a gelatinous than in osseous fishes, and hence the humeral girdle is
chaplet through the whole. They have, as in other ani- also more posterior. The spinal ribs, if they exist, are
mals, an annular portion in their superior part, for the usually very small, except in the sturgeons. In that ge-
passage of the spinal marrow. nus, indeed, the branchial system is in some respects inter-
Fish rarely possess a sternum properly so called, and mediate between the cartilaginous and osseous fishes,
when it does exist, it is formed of almost external pieces, Several bones of the head and shoulder are as hard as
which unite the inferior extremities of the ribs. stone, yet the spine is almost as soft as that of lampreys.'

' For the sake of a more explicit comprehension of the principal portions of the osteological system of fishes, we have figured
(from Cuvier) the skeleton ot'tlie perch. We shall here subjoin the names of the bones, in reference to the engraved numerals. See
Plate CCXCVII. figs. 1, 2, 4, 5.

Cranium : Principal frontal, 1 ; anterior frontals, 2 ; ethmoidal, 3 ; posterior frontal, 4 ; basilary, 5 ; sphenoid, 6 ; parietals, 7 ;
inter-parietal, 8 ; external occipital, 9 ; occipital lateral, 10 ; great ala, or temporal ala, II; mastoidean, 12; rupes, 13; orbitary
ala, 14; anterior sphenoid, 16; vomer, lU. Upper jaw : Inter-maxillary, 17; maxillary, 18. Nasal, sub-orbitury, and supia-temporal
bancs: First sub-orbitary, 19; chain of bones attaclied to the last named, and endini^ at the posterior frontal (these are conspi-
cuous in Trigla and Scorpaena), likewise numbered 19 ; nasal, 20 ; supra-temporals, 21. Puleiiue arch, or palatim-pUrygoidean and

156 ICHTHYOLOGY.

SECT. IV THE MUSCLES AND MUSCULAR MOTIONS OF coiisequence of the projection of the upper and under Introduc

FISHES. spiny processes of the vertebrae. tion.

Tlie great organ of movement in all fishes is the tail. **^'^'^~'

The spinal column, composed of numerous articula- The muscles by which it is brought into play extend in

tions united by cartilages which permit of certain move- lengthened masses on either side of the vertebral column.

ments, curves with great facility from side to side ; but The body being supported chiefly by the swimming blad-

the vertical motion is much more restricted, chiefly in der (which, however, is absent in several species), is pro-

temporal system : Palatine, 22 ; temporal, 23 ; transverse bone, 24 ; internal aptervgoidean, 25 ; jugal, 26 ; tympanal, 27. Opercular
bones: Operculum, 28 ; styloid, 29 ; pre-operculuni, 30; sympletic, 31 ; sub-operculum, 32 ; inter-opereulum, 33; this last-named
bone furnishes an attachment to the branch of the hyoid bone at the point where it is itself joined to the styloid, which suspends it
on the temporal bone, and hence the opercular sliutters can neither open nor close without a corresponding movement of the hyoidean
branches. Lower ja-w : Dental, 34 ; articular, 35 ; these are the usual divisions, but there is often a third bone, the angular, 36",
and sometimes a fourth, on the internal face of the articular, con-esponding to the opercular of reptiles, 37. Thus the head of
fishes usually consists of about sixty bones — the amount being sensibly greater in such species as have the upper maxillary subject
to division.

Hyoid bone and branchiostegous rn?/s. The three opercular pieces above mentioned do not of themselves effect the closure of those
great clefts observable on each side of a fish, between the head and shoulder, and within which are the respiratory organ sor bran-
chije. This closure is completed by the branchiostegous membrane, which adheres to the hyoid bone. (See Plate CCXCVII. figs. 2,
4, and 5.) This bone is placed as in other vertebrated classes, but is always suspended to the temporal bones. It is composed of
two branches, each consisting of five pieces, viz. the styloid, 29, by which it is suspended to the temporal ; two large lateral pieces,
37 and 38, placed one behind the other, and forming the principal portion of the branch (the posterior, 38, being that which attaches
to the inter-operculum) ; lastly, two small pieces, 39 and 40, placed one above the other at the anterior extremity of the branch,
and serving to unite it with the corresponding portion of the other side. Anterior to this junction is the lingual bone, 41, and be-
hind it, in the angle formed by the meeting of the two branches, and beneath the branchiiE, is a single piece, usually vertical, 42 (fig.
5), which represents the tail of the hyoid bone, so well known in birds and liz.irds. It is this piece which, uniting with the sym.
physes of the humerals, forms what is called the isthmus, which separates the two branchial openings from below. Thus in its tota-
lity the hyoid bone of fishes is composed of twelve bones.

The rays, 43, which support the branchiostegous membrane, adhere by moveable articulation, or by simple ligaments, to the infe-
rior margin of the principal portions already mentioned (37, 38) of the hyoid bone. They vary in form and number, some species
having three, others thirty. The perch, which forms the subject of our illustration, has seven branchial rays ; and that number is the
most common among the acanthopterygian fishes.

Bones iehich support the branchlcr. As fishes cannot respire except by making the water which they have taken into the mouth flow
out by the openings behind the lateral part of the head, it thus passes between the branchine, those well-known comb-like organs,
usually four in number on each side, composed of a great quantity of thin, narrow, forked laminte, of a membranous or cartilaginous
nature, and placed in files. These four pair of branchiae are supported by four pair of arches, adhering by their inferior extremities
to the two sides of a chain of small intermediate bones, which is itself attached to the angle formed by the anterior portions of the
hyoid bone, and above the tail of the latter. These arches ascend in a curve, and are attached at their other extremity beneath the
cranium, but by means only of cellulosity, or of ligaments. The intermediate chain of bones just alluded to forms, in a certain sense,
a continuation of the lingual bone. There are usually three : the first, 53 (see chiefly fig. 4), is attached at the base of the angle formed
by the two branches of the hyoid bone ; the second, 54, affords attachment to the first pair of arches ; and the third, 55, affords the like
attachment to the second pair, while the third pair adheres to its extremity ; the fourth pair of arches is connected with the angle of the
third pair. Each arch is composed of two parts, moveable on each other, and the interior portion of the first three pair itself consists
of two pieces, 57 and 58 ; in the last pair there is only a single piece, GO. The upper portion of the arches, CI, is simple, except in
the first pair, which is usually suspended from the cranium by a small stylus, 59. The inner face of these arches is furnished with
small plates or cones of osseous lamina, usually armed with teeth variously disposed according to the species. The most general uses
of this armature are to arrest the progress of such substances as the fish is swallowing, — to prevent their escaping with the respired
water, or their producing inconvenience amid the interstices of the branchia;. It may be likened in its functions to the epiglottis of
quadrupeds, or the dentations of the margins of the larynx of birds. Besides the interior range of conical plates, the perch possesses
an external row of slender pointed teeth, resembling those of a garden rake, upon its first pair of arches, see 03.

Pharyngeal bodies. At the entrance to the oesophagus, and immediately below the branchial apparatus, are placed the pharyngeal
bones, which produce a second mastication, often more powerful than the first ; for this purpose they are armed with teeth of very
variable form and number, according to the species. These bones are usually two inferior, 5ti, and six superior, 02.

Vertebra: We have already described the general character of the vertebral bones of fishes. Their special forms will be best un-
derstood by an inspection of Plate CCXCVII. fig. 1, Nos. 07, 08, 09, with the processes, marked a, b, c. The ribs are shown at 72;
the styles or appendages which frequently adhere to those parts, at 73. In a few fishes the ribs are entirely wanting.

Vertical fins. These are supported by rays composed of an internal portion, named the interspinal, 74, which serves as a sustaining
root, by penetrating the flesh among the great lateral muscles, and an external portion, which exhibits the rays properly so called, as
seen at 75. We sometimes find an interspinal bone which bears no rays, 70. A certain number of these vertical rays are pointed
bones, and are then named spines, or spiny rays ; others are bony or solid only towards their base, their remainder being formed of
a multitude of small articulations, and frequently ramified into lesser branches, themselves still further divided ; in these states they
are named articulated, soft, or branched rays. Those of the tail, 71, are always soft and articulated ; although, towards the root, both
above and below, 78, they gradually diminish till only the solid portion of the base remains. In a great nimiber of fishes the vertebra
at which the abdomen terminates and the caudal part begins, and even that which follows it, 83, 83, have a great inferior spinous pro-
cess, to which is joined a more or less voluminous bone, 79, extending behind the anus, and thus forming the posterior boundary of
the abdominal cavity.

The sternum does not exist in all fishes. When present, it consists of a series of single bones of various configuration, according
to the genera, and at these the ribs terminate.

Bones of the shoulder and arm. In osseous fishes, we find on each side, immediately behind the orifice of the gills, a suite of bones,
forming a kind of frame, on which the opercle rests when closed. These bones, usually attached to the head from above, and unit-
ing together below, form an osseous belt, surroumling that part of the body. Their inferior symphysis unites by ligaments to the
tail of the hyoid bone (formerly mentioned, 42), and forms with it the ij(/()«;(j, which separates the external openings of the gills from
each other beneath, just as the cranium separates them above. This cincture, when complete, is composed on each side of three bones,
which represent the shoulder and the arm, to which adheres, posteriorly, a group of two or three others, occupying the place of the
fore arm, and bearing the pectoral fin, which may be considered as the hand ; lastly, there is almost always suspended a style, com-
posed of one or two bones, which Cuvier regards as the analogue of the coracoidian bone. The highest of these first three bones, 40,
is usually forked, and attached by its two crests to the lateral crests of the cranium. It is visible externally at the top of the bran-
chial opening, resembling a scale, larger than the others, and is sometimes toothed on its edges. The second, 47, continues along the
margin of the branchial opening. The third, 48, always the largest, completes the cincture, by uniting with its counterpart beneath
the throat. To the inner surface of the last-mentioned bone adheres a fourth, 51, and fifth, 52, placed one above the other. The
free side of these bones bears the pectoral fin, but by means of an intermediate range of four or five small bones, 53. These bonelets
may be supposed to represent the carpal series ; and if so, then the two others, 51 and 52, will be the cubitus and radius. The third

ICHTHYOLOGY.

157

pelled forwards by the rapid flexure of the extremity
acting laterally upon the resistance offered by the water.
Generally speaking, neither the pectoral nor the ventral
fins are of any material use during swift progressive mo-
tion ; they rather serve to balance the body, or to aid its
gentler movements while in a state of comparative re-
pose. In fli/ing fishes, as they are called, the pectoral
fins are of such great length and expansion as to support
the animal in the air; and the strength of muscular ac-
tion might probably suffice even for a longer flight, but
for the necessity of constant moisture for the purposes of
respiration. The drying of the gills in an individual of
this class is attended by results analogous to those pro-
duced by submersion in the case of a land animal ; — and
a flying fish is obliged to descend to respire, in like man-
ner as a swimming quadruped, or disguised mammiferous
animal (as we may term a whale), is under the necessity
of ascending for the same purpose.

The head of fishes exercises but a slight movement
independent of the rest of the body ; but the jaws, hyoid
bone, palato-temporal and branchial arches, and pliaryn-
gial and opercular bones, are very free in their motions.
The muscles of fishes, like those of other vertebrated
animals, are composed of fleshy fibres more or less colour-
ed, and of tendinous fibres of a white or silvery colour.
With the exception, however, of certain special muscles
which are sometimes of a deep red, the flesh of fishes is
much paler than that of quadrupeds, and still more so than
that of birds. In some species it is even entirely white.

SECT. V THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SENSES OF FISHES.

The sensitive system of fishes, like that of the higher
classes, is composed of the external senses, of a central
medullary apparatus, and of nerves of communication.
As in the classes alluded to, the central portion of the ner-
vous system, that is, the brain and spinal marrow, occu-
pies the cavity of the cranium and vertebral column.

As fishes respire through the intervention of water alone,
that is, as they can scarcely avail themselves, in rendering
their blood arterial, of any tiling more than the small por-
tion of oxygen contained in the air which is suspended in
the water, their blood is necessarily cold, and their gene-
ral energy, and the activity of their senses and movements,
are less than among Mammalia and birds. Their brain
also, though of similar composition, is proportionally much
smaller ; and the external organs of the senses do not seem
of such a nature as to be capable of impressing or convey-
ing towards it any vivid excitement. Indeed the most
striking characteristic of the brain of fishes is its extreme
smallness, when compared either with the total size of the
body, with the mass of nerves which proceed from it, or
with the cavity of the cranium in which it is contained.
In the burbot, or Gadus lota, the weight of the brain to

that of the spinal marrow is estimated by Carus to be as 8 Introduc
to 12, and to that of the whole body as I to 720. It was t'o"-
previously known that the brain of the pike weighed in ^'"V*^
proportion to that of the whole body as 1 to 1303. Now,
in many small birds, the brain, viewed in relation to the rest
of the body, is equal to a twentieth part. In the genera-
lity of fishes, the spinal marrow extends along the whole
of the caudal vertebra; ; and it is thus that it preponderates
over the brain. The Lop/iius piscatorius, however, and a
few other species, form remarkable exceptions to this rule,
as in them the sjiinal marrow disappears before it reaches
the eighth vertebra ; but in the greater proportion of
cases it may be said that the spinal cord in this class
terminates by a single thread in the last caudal vertebra.'
The brain of fishes by no means fills up the cavity of the
cranium ; and the interval between the pia-mater which en-
velopes the brain itself, and the dura-mater, which lines
the interior of the skull, is occupied only by a loose cellu-
losity, frequently impregnated by an oil, or sometimes, as
in the sturgeon and thunny, by a rather compact grease.
It has also been remarked, that this void between the cra-
nium and the brain is much less in young subjects than in
adults ; from which it may be inferred, that the brain does
not increase in an equal proportion with the rest of the
body. Cuvier, in fact, has fovmd its dimensions nearly
the same in different individuals, of which the general size
of the one was double that of the other.

When compared with that of quadrupeds, the brain of
fishes has been said to possess an embryonic character,
and to have its greatest development in the cerebellum,
the seat of the appetites. Of all vertebrated animals, fish
in fact exhibit the smallest apparent signs of sensibility.
Having no elastic air to act upon, they are necessarily
mute, or nearly so ; and all the sensations which the de-
lightful faculty of voice has called into being among the
higher tribes, are to them unknown. Their glazed im-
moveable eyes, their fixed and bony faces, their bodies and
members moving altogether, if they move at all, admit of
little play in their physiognomy, and of scarcely any ex-
pression to their emotions. Their ears, surrounded on
every side by the bones of the cranium, destitute of exter-
nal conch, without any internal cochlea, and composed
merely of some sacks and membranous canals, scarcely
suffice for the perception of the loudest sounds. Even
their sight may be supposed to find but little exercise in
those profound depths where so many of the inhabitants of
ocean dwell, although the largeness of the visual organs in
many species probably in some measure makes amends for
this deficiency of light. But even in those species the eye
cannot change its direction ; still less can it alter its focus,
so as to accommodate the vision to a varying distance ; for
the iris neither dilates nor contracts, and the pupil remains
for ever the same in all degrees of light. No tear moistens
its glazed surface, no eyelid clears or protects it, and it

bone of the cincture, which supports the two last named, will then necessarily represent the humerus, and the first and second (46-7)
the shoulder blade. There still remains to be mentioned a species of style, almost always composed of two pieces, 49 and 50.

Carpal bones. At the outer edge of the radial and cubital bones adhere the small flat bones, 53, compared to the carpus. Their
function is to support the rays of' the pectoral fin, 53, a, however numerous these may be, with the exception of the first, which arti-
culates directly with the radius or upper bone, 62.

B07ies of the hinder cxtremitij. The os innominata, the thigh, the tibia, and the tarsus, are represented in fishes by a single bone,
80, usually of a triangular form, but more or less complicated by processes and projecting plates. Its posterior side affords attach-
ment to the rays of the ventral -fins. In eels and others, in which the ventral fins are wanting, the bone is also absent.

The rays of the extremities. These rays, that is, those of the pectoral and ventral fins, 82 and 53, o, without being as symmetrical as
those of the vertical fins, are equally divisilde into halves. Except the external ray of the ventral in the Acanthopterygii, 81, they
are almost always articulated, but their bases become solid, and there tlie articulation is scarcely if at all perceptible.

* In regard to the shortness of the spinal cord in Lophius, the fact, as above referred to, is taken from the dissertation of Apostolo-
Arsaki, a Greek doctor, who published De. piscium ccrcbro et medulla spinali, Halle, 1813 ; but in a note to the Hist. Nat. dcs Poissmis
of Cuvier (vol. i. p. 437), we find the following correction of that statement ; — " Sa moelle regne presque tout le long de IMpine ;
mais elle est enveloppde et cache'e par les nert's, qui naissent beaucoup plus haul qu'ils ne sortent." It is certain, however, from Cu-
vier's recent statement, that the supposed character is truly exhibited by the moon-fish (Lainpris guttatus, Retz ; opah of Pennant),
" Ou la moelle dpiniere est tellement raccourcie qu'elle ne semble qu'une petite proiminence conique de I'enc^phale, de laqueUe les
diffi^rentes paires de nerfs partent comme une queue de cheval." {Ibid.)

lo8

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Introduc- consequently offers but a dull and feeble representative of
''""■ that beautiful and most expressive organ, so full of life and
'('""^ animation in the higher tribes.

The position, direction, and dimensions of the eyes of
fishes vary greatly. In some they have an upward aspect,
and are often very close upon each other ; in others they
are lateral, and so wide apart as to be even directed slight-
ly downwards. But of all anomalies, one of the most ex-
traordinary which their position presents, is that of the
Pleuronectes (such as tm'bot, flounders, soles, &c.). In
which the two eyes are placed, as it w ere, the one above
the other, and both u])on the same side of the head. In
certain species of the eels and Siltiri, they are so small as
to be scarcely visible ; while in other groiii)s, such as Pria-
ca7it/ius and Pomatonms, they siu'pass in proportional dia-
meter whatever is known of the same organs in the higher
classes. It may be said in general that the eye of fishes
is large, and that its pupil especially is broad and open ; a
character probably connected witli the necessity of collect-
ing whatever devious rays of light may penetrate the ob-
scure depth of waters. Fishes have no true eyelids. The
skin always passes over the eye, to which it is slightly ad-
herent ; and it is for the most part sufficiently transparent
for the passage of the solar rays. In some species, such as
eels, it passes over without the slightest fold or duplication ;
while in a few, for example, the Gcislrobranchus cacus of
Bloch, it continues quite opake, so as entirely to conceal
the eye. In others, as the well-known mackerel and her-
ring, it forms an adipose fold both before and behind ; but
these folds are fixed, and being unprovided with muscles,
have no mobility. Sharks have one, somewhat more move-
able, on the inferior margin of the orbit. The globe of the
eye itself is very slightly moveable, although, like that of
man, it is furnished «ith six muscles. Perhaps the most sin-
gular eye presented by the class of fishes is that of Anableps,
which has two cornea?, separated by an opake line, and two
pupils pierced in the same iris, so that one might deem it
double ; but there is only one retina, and a single vitreous
and crystalline humour. In accordance with the general
structure of the eyes of fishes (which we shall not further
detail), the nearly spherical form of the crystalline humour,
the immobility of the pupil, and the difficulty with which
it changes the length of its axis, we can scarcely doubt
that the vision of this class is comparatively imperfect.
Images must be but feebly painted in their retina, and
their visual perceptions must be indistinct and dull. At
the same time it is evident that they perceive their prey
from a considerable distance ; and the angler, who knows
either how rapidly they seize or how cautiously they avoid
his lure, and with what discrimination they sometimes pre-
fer one colour or kind of artificial fly to another, must be
impressed with the belief that the power of vision, at least
of certain species, is by no means devoid of clearness and
precision.

The organ of hearing in fishes consists of little more than
the labyrinth, and that a much less complicated one than
the corresponding part in either qiiadrupeds or birds.
They have no external car, unless we may bestow that
name on a small cavity, sometimes slightly spiral, which
we find in the rays. It is however always covered by the
skin, and is not perceptible among the osseous fishes. A
i'ew of the latter, such as the genus Lepidolcprus, and certain
Mormyri, have merely openings in the cranium closed by
the skin, by means of which the vibrations of the element
by which they are surrounded may be conducted to the
labyrinth. In some other species, as Myripristis, the cra-
nium is open beneath, and its orifice is closed by a mera-
brano\is partition, to which the swimming bladder adheres ;
but these communications are very different from that
which takes place by means of the tympanum, and still
more by means of the Eustachian tube in other classes.

Both these parts, as well as the bones, are in fact wanting Introduc-
in the class of fishes. Those who find in the bones of the tion.
operculum the four bones of the ear of man suddenly and
prodigiously developed, hazard such a notion merely on the
assumption that the bony pieces are the same in number
in all crania ; but it must be borne in mind, that neither
the form, nor the relations, nor the functions of these bones,
nor their nerves nor muscles, support such a comparison.
The ear of fishes, then, is much less complete than that of
quadrupeds, birds, or even of the majority of reptiles.
There is no doubt that they possess the sense of hearing ;
but it is merely a general sense of sound, and is in all
probability incompetent to perceive any variety or range
of intonation. In truth, the simple fact of fishes being as
a class entirely mute, is of itself a logical ground for be-
lieving that their perception of sound is extremely dull.

A few lines may now be devoted to the consideration of
the sense of smell. The nostrils of fishes are not so placed
as to be traversed either by air or water, in connection
with the act of respiration. They consist merely of two
openings, situate near the extremity of the muzzle, and
lined by the pituitary membrane, which is raised in ex-
tremely regular folds. In the ordinary fishes, the bones
which Cuvier regards as the nasal serve as the arch or
covering ; while the vomer, the maxillary, and inter-maxil-
lary contribute to sustain the sides, the first sub-orbitary
forming the inferior portion. The shape of the nostrils is
sometimes oblong, sometimes round or oval. They are
placed either at the end of the muzzle or on its sides ;
sometimes on its superior face, and even occasionally, as
in skates and sharks, on its under surface near the angle of
the mouth. In the lamprey they are approximate on the
top of the head, and open by one common orifice. In the
great majority of fishes, perhaps in all the osseous kinds,
each nostril opens by two orifices, the one posterior to the
other, and in some cases at a considerable distance. These
are what are called double nostrils ; an inaccurate term, in
as far as each pair of holes leads only to a single cavity.
The margins oi' the anterior orifice are often tubular, as
in the eel, and sometimes a single side of the tubular mar-
gin is prolonged into a tentacular appendage, as in several
JSiluri. In the genus Lophius the nostrils are borne upon
a little pedicle, so as somewhat to resemble mushrooms.
Various other modifications are observable in different ge-
nera, although not necessary to be here narrated. It does
not appear, at least in the osseous fishes, that the envelope
of the nostrils possesses mobility, or that the orifices are
furnished with muscles by means of which they can be
opened and shut.

It is certain, however, that fishes possess the faculty of
perceiving odours ; that various scents attract or repel
them ; and there is no reason to doubt that the seat of that
perception lies in the nostrils. It may be reasonably con-
jectured that its strength depends mainly on the degree of
development produced by the number and extent of the
interior folds.

In regard to the sense of taste in fishes, it is evident that
as, with few exceptions, they swallow their food rapidly
and without mastication, their perception of that faculty
nmst be in noways acute. The same may be inferred
from the fact of their tongue being almost immoveable,
often entirely osseous, or beset with teeth or dental plates,
and from its receiving very slender nerves, and these but
i'evi in number. Even those species of which the jaws
are so armed as to enable them to cut and bruize their ali-
ments, cannot long retain the latter in their mouths, on
account of the position and the play of the respiratory or-
gans. No salivary glands discharge their moisture on the
organs of taste. The tongue itself is not seldom entirely
wanting; and even when it exists in its most distinct and
apparently fleshy state, it consists merely of a ligament-

ICHTHYOLOGY.

159

Introiiuc- ous or cellular substance, applied on front of the lingual
ti(in. bone. It is never furnished with muscles capable of pro-

^•^''■''^^ ducing any movement of extension or retraction, as in
quadrupeds.

Fisiies cannot be said to be more highly favoured in re-
spect to the organs of toiwh than those of taste. The fa-
culty is greatly deadened over the general surface by the
coating of scales, and in the particular members by the in-
flexibility of the rays. It is chiefly confined to the lips,
and even these parts in many species are tiicmselves as
liard and insensible as bone. Certain soft and delicate ap-
pendages called barbies, possessed by many species, such
as the cod and loach, are supposed to enjoy a more deli-
cate perception of the sense of touch. It is by means of
the dermis that that peculiar matter, so remarkable for its
silvery metallic lustre, and ^^•hich bestows so much of bril-
liancy upon the class, is secreted beneath the scales. It is
composed of small polished plates resembling burnished sil-
ver, and capable of being removed by washing, either from
the skin itself, or from the inferior surfiice of the scales. It
is this substance that is used in the formation of false pearls.
It is also secreted by many species in the thickness of the
peritoneum, and in the envelopes supplied by that part to
particular viscera, especially the swimming bladder. The
scales of the majority of fishes are imbricated, that is, placed
partially over each other, like the tiles or slates of the roof
of a liouse. They are not equally distributed, nor of the
same form or consistence, over the general surface of the
body. The head is frequently destitute of scales, and those
of the lateral line of the body are distinguished from the
others by one or more small tubes by which they are per-
forated, and by otlier peculiarities.'

It thus appears that the external senses of fishes convey
to them few lively or distinct impressions ; and by what-
ever scenes in nature they are surrounded, their percep-
tions are probably indistinct and dull. Their sexual emo,
tions, cold as their blood, indicate only individual wants.
Few species pair, or enjoy any connubial gratification, for
the males seek the eggs rather than tlie females which de-
posit them, and neither sex ever recognises its offspring.
At least the exceptions to these generalities are extremely
few, and the prevailing economy of fishes may be said in
all these respects to be exactly the reverse of that of birds.
These gay creatures of the sky have the power of survey-
ing distinctly at a glance an immeasurable extent of hori-
zon ; their acute perception of hearing appreciates all
sounds, and every intonation ; and their glad voices are ex-
quisitely skilled in their production. Though their bills
be hard, and their bodies covered by down and feathers,
they are by no means deficient in the sense of touch. They
enjoy all the delights of conjugal and parental affection,
and perform their incumbent duties with devotedness and
courage ; they cherish and defend their offspring, and will
sometimes die in that defence ; and of all the wonderful
labours of instinctive art, none is so beautiful as the forma-
tion of their mossy dwellings. With what deep and con-
tinuous affection does the female brood over her cherish-
ed treasures ! how unwearied is the gallant male in his ten-
der assiduities, and in the rich outpouring of that varied song
by which he seeks to soothe her sedentary task ! The same
principle of attachment and discrimination is even made
available in a state of domestication by the skill of all-en-
grossing man. A bird acquires a knowledge of its master,
and submits to and obeys that master's will ; and the proud
falcon, which in its natural state

Doth dally with the wind, and scorn the sun,
will wheel in airy circles over a well-trained dog, or stoop

its boldest flight at some familiar urchin's call. Other spe-
cies will even imitate man's noblest faculty, the power of
speech, — and it is thus with somewhat doubtfid feelings
that we deny to them the gift of reason.

But the silent dweller in the deep knows few attach-
ments, expresses no language, cherishes no affections.
Constructing no dwelling, he merely shelters himself from
danger among the cavernous rocks of the ocean, or be-
neath the murky shade of the overhanging banks of ri-
vers ; and the cravings of hunger seem alone to exercise a
frequent or influential action over his monotonous move-
ments. We must not, ho^vever, suppose that the life of
fishes is not one of enjoyment, for we know that the great
Creator " careth for all his creatures ;" and it ought perhaps
rather to be said that \vc cannot appreciate the nature of
their feelings, than that they are in any way fore-doomed
to a negation of pleasvu'e. Assuredly, however, the hand
of nature has been most prodigal in bestowing on their ex-
ternal aspect every variety of adornment. Their special
forms are infinite, their proportions often most elegant,
their colours lively and diversified, and nothing seems want-
ing in them to excite the admiration of mankind. Indeed
it almost appears as if this prodigality of beauty was in-
tended solely for such an end. The brightness of metallic
splendour, the sparkling brilliancy of precious gems, the
milder effulgence of the hues of flowers, all combine to
signalise fishes as among the most beautiful objects of crea-
tion. When newly withdrawn from their native element,
or still gliding submerged in its liquid coolness, their co-
lours, fixed or iridescent, are seen mingling in streaks or
bands, or broader flashes, always elegant and symmetrical ;
sometimes richly contrasted, sometimes gradually softened
into each other ; and in all cases harmonizing with a chaste
fulness of effect, which Titian or Rubens might envy, but
ooidd never equal. For what reason, then, it has been
asked, has all this adornment been so lavishly bestowed on
creatures which can scarcely perceive each other amid the
dim and perpetual tv.'ilight of the deep ? Shakspeare has al-
ready said that there are " more things in heaven and earth
than are dream't of in our philosophy ;'' and we fear it is no
answer to the foregoing question to add, that the same ob-
servation applies with even greater truth to the " waters
beneath the earth."

SECT. VI THE NUTRITION, MANDUCATION, AND DEGLUTI-
TION OF FISHES.

The nutritive functions of fishes follow the same order
of progression as those of the other vertebrated classes ;
they seize and in some measure divide their food with their
teeth ; they digest it in the stomach, from whence it passes
into the intestinal canal, where it receives a supply of bile
from the liver, and frequently a liquid similar to that of
the pancreas ; the nutritive juices absorbed by vessels ana-
logous to lacteals, and probably taken up in part also di-
rectly by the veins, are mingled with the venous blood
which is flowing towards the heart, from whence it is push-
ed to the branchiae, in which, coming into contact with the
water, it is converted into arterial blood, and then pro-
ceeds to the nourishment of the whole body. As in other
animals, also, certain properties are carried off from the
blood by transpiration, the secreting power of the kid-
neys, &c.

Fishes in general are extremely voracious, and the rule
of " eat or be eaten" applies to them with unusual force.
They are almost constantly engaged in the pursuit and
capture of their prey ; their degree of power in these re-
spects depending of course on the dimensions of the mouth

' See Hist. Nat. det Poissont, l. i. chap. vi.

]60

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Introduc- and throat, and the strength of the teeth and jaws. If the
tion. teeth are sharp and hooked, they are capable of securing

^"""Y^*^ tlie slenderest and most agile animals ; if they are broad
and strong, they are able to bruise the hardest aliment ; if
they are feeble or entirely wanting, they are only service-
able in procuring some inert or unresisting prey. Fishes
indeed show but little choice in the selection of their food,
and their digestive powers are so strong and rapid as to
suffice to dissolve very speedily all kinds of animal sub-
stances. They greedily swallow other fishes, notwithstand-
ing the sharp spines or bony ridges with which they may
be armed ; they attack and devour crabs and shell-fish,
gulping them entire if they cannot otherwise attain their
object ; they do not object occasionally to swallow the
young even of their own species, and the more power-
ful kinds carry their warfare into other kingdoms of na-
ture, and revel on rats, reptiles, and young ducklings, to
say nothing of the ferocious shark, which not seldom
makes a meal even of the lord of the creation. The spe-
cies which Hve chiefly on vegetable substances are few in
number.

The growth of fishes depends greatly on the nature and
supply of food, and different individuals of the same species
exhibit a great disparity in their respective dimensions.
They grow less rapidly in small ponds or shallow streams,
than in large lakes and deep rivers.' The growth itself
seems to continue for a great length of time, and we can
scarcely set bounds to, certainly we know not with preci-
sion, the utmost range of the specific size of fishes. Even
among species in no way remarkable for their dimensions,
we ever and anon meet with ancient individuals, favourably
situated, which vastly exceed the ordinary weight and mea-
surement of their kind.

The teeth of fishes are sometimes spread over all the
bones which envelope the cavities of the mouth and pha-
rynx; on the maxillary, inter-maxillary, and palatine bones ;
on the vomer, the tongue, the branchial arches, and pha-
ryngeal bones. In certain genera thf;y exist on all those
parts ; while in others they are wanting on some, or are
even entirely absent on all. The denominations of the
teeth are derived from their position, that is, from the
bones to which they are attached, and are consequently as
numerous as the varieties of their situation. Their forms
are not less varied than their stations, and give rise to
terms still more numerous. The majority are conical or
hooked, more or less acute. When these hooks are in con-
siderable number, and disposed in several rows, or in quin-
cunx, they are compared to those sharp points which beset
the instruments called cards, used in the working of wool
or cotton. It is to this form and distribution that we allude
in the descriptive portion of the present treatise when we
happen to use the French term en carde. Sometimes the
teeth of fishes are slender, and so closely set together as
to resemble to the eye the pile of velvet, in which case they
are said to be en velours ;' when they are at the same
time extremely short and close, they are likened to smooth
velvet; when feeble and elongated, they are said to be
brushy or hair-like. Lastly, those kinds of teeth are some-
times so extremely small and short as to be reduced to
mere asperities, sensible rather to touch than sight. The

whole are simple, and spring firom an equally simple pulpy Introduc-
germ. ''""■

In the majority of osseous fishes, besides the lips, which,
even when fleshy, having no peculiar muscles, can exert
but little strength in retaining the aliments, there is gene-
rally in the inside of each jaw, behind the anterior teeth, a
kind of membranous fold or valvule, formed by a replica-
tion of the interior skin, and directed backwards, of which
the effect is to hinder the alimentary substances, and espe-
cially the water gulped during respiration, from escaping
again by the mouth. This structure, as formerly supposed,
does not constitute a character restricted to the genus
Zeus, but exists in an infinity of fishes. The food seized
by the teeth of the maxillae, and detained by the valve just
mentioned, is carried still farther back by the teeth of the
palate and tongue when these exist, and is at the same
time prevented by the dentations of the branchial arches
from penetrating between the intervals of the branchiae,
where it might injure the delicate organs of respiration.
The movements of the maxillae and tongue can thus send
the food only in the direction of the pharynx, where it un-
dergoes additional action on the part of the teeth of the
pharyngeal bones, which triturate or carry it backwards
into the oesophagus. The last-named part is clothed by a
layer of strong, close-set, muscular fibres, sometimes form-
ing various bundles, the contractions of which push the
alimentary matter into the stomach, thus completing the
act of deglutition.^

SECT. VII. THE CIRCULATION OF FISHES.

Fishes, in common with warm-blooded animals, are pro-
vided with a complete circulation for the body, and with
another equally complete for the organs of respiration, and
with a particular abdominal circulation terminating at the
liver by means of the vena porta ; but their peculiar cha-
racter consists in this, that the branchial circulation alone
is provided at its base with a muscular apparatus or heart,
corresponding to the right auricle and ventricle of the high-
er classes, while nothing of the kind exists at the base of
the circulating system of the body ; in other words, the
left auricle and ventricle are entirely wanting — the bran-
chial veins changing into arteries without any muscular en-
velope.

The muscular apparatus of their circulation is composed
of the auricle, the ventricle, and the bvdb of the pulmonary
artery, and the auricle itself is preceded by a large sinus, in
which all the veins of the body tei-minate ; a structure
which gives rise to four cavities separated by restrictions,
into which the blood must flow in its progress from the
body to the branchiae. Their size is small in proportion to
the dimensions of the body, and does not increase in the
same ratio with the growth of the individual. Three of these
receptacles, the auricle, the heart, and the bulb, are lodged
in a pericardium, which is itself placed beneath the pharyn-
geal bones, between the inferior parts of the branchial
arches, and for the most part protected externally by the hu-
meral bones. The great venous sinus is not placed in the
pericardium, but between the posterior partition of that
cavity and the membrane which represents the diaphragm,

' The writer of tliis treatise kept a minnow little more than half an inch long in a glass tumbler for a period of two years, during
which time there was no perceptible increase in its dimensions. Had it continued in its native stream, subjected to the fattening in.
fluence of a continuous flow of water, and a consequent increase in the quantity and variety of its natural food, its cubic dimensions
would probably have been twenty times greater ; yet it must have attained, prior to the lapse of a couple of years, to the usual period
ol' the adult state.

- The I'rench expression of dents en vcIouts, which so frequently occurs both in the Regne Animal and the Hist. Nat. dcs Poissoni,
is one of the many instances, as Dr M'Murtrie has remarked, in which Baron Cuvier's expressions bid defiance to all English sy-
nonyms.

» The various notices (as already intimated) of the internal stnicture of fishes contained in the article Compaeativk Anatomy of
this work (vol. iii.) absolve us from the propriety of presenting any details regnrding the form and constitution of the intestinal canal,
and of certain other important interior organs of the class.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

161

Inlrmluc- and which is merely the anterior portion of the peritoneum
timi. strengthened by aponeurotic fibres. This sinus is extend-
"'"^'^ ed transversely, and receives by several different trunks
the veins of the liver, of the generative organs, of the kid-
neys, of the fins, branchiiv, and throat, and finally those of
the head, which tlicmselves partly pass by a sinus at the
back of the cranium. The first-mentioned sinus sends the
whole of this blood by a single orifice of its anterior con-
vexity into the auricle, which receives it through the open-
ing of its anterior portion. Two thin membranous valvules
protect this comnumication, and are turned towards the
auricle. The latter organ is ])laced in the pericardium, in
front of the great sinus, and above the ventricle, that is, on
its dorsal asjjcct. It presents very various and often re-
markable configurations. In osseous fishes it is usually of
a tetrahedral form, — in the cartilaginous kinds more i're-
quently rounded and depressed. It is situate beneath the
auricle, the cavity being so turned as to be almost vertical
next that organ, and horizontal towards the bulb. Its coats
are extremely robust, and furnished internally « ith power-
ful fleshy columns, its substance being composed of two
different layers. But it is in the bulb of the branchial ar-
tery that we find the most vigorous fibres, usually disposed
in a circular form. The prolongation of this bulb issues
from the pericardium, and becomes the branchial artery,
advancing forward beneath the single chain of small bones
which unites the arches of tlie branchiae. The branchial
artery soon divides, and in such a manner as to send a
branch to each brancliia. These branches pass along a
hollow groove on the convexity of each branchial arch,
and more external than the vein which follows the same
track, but in an opposite direction. To the arch are attach-
ed a great number of leaflets, parallel to each other, usu-
ally terminated in a forked point, and sometimes deeply
divided. The principal branch which passes along the
groove of the arch gives a smaller branch to each of the
leaflets ; and this branch, after being twice bifurcated, fur-
nishes an infinity of lesser branchlets, which meander over
the surface of each leaflet, till they are finally converted
into extremely minute veins. These little vessels meet on
each side in a branchial vein, which proceeds along the in-
ternal margin of the lateral lobe of the leaflet, and the two
veins open into the trunk of the great vein of the bran-
chia.

On passing out of the dorsal side of the branchia, the
branchial veins assume the structure and functions of arte-
ries ; even before their arrival at this point, the anterior
have already sent several branches to different portions of
the head ; and it is necessary to remark, that the heart and
several parts situate in the chest receive their blood from
a branchial vein, by means of an offset issuing from near
its source, and consequently anterior to its exit from the
branchia;. Nevertheless, it is only by the re-union of the
trunks proceeding from the four branchiae that the great
artery is formed which carries the blood to the viscera and
all the parts of the trunk, and which is by consequence
the representative of the aorta of the Mammalia, — but of
m aorta which possesses neither auricle nor ventricle at
its base. Thus, according to Cuvier's views, the left cavi-
ties of the heart of quadrupeds do not exist in fishes, but
are replaced by a simple vascular apparatus, situate above
the branchise, in like manner as the right cavities are placed
beneath them.

SECT. via. THE RESPIRATION OF FISHES.

It is thus by an almost infinite subdivision of the vessels
over the surface of the branchiae or gills, that the blood of

fishes becomes subjected to the influence of an ambient Introduc-
fluid. This fluid is of course water, which is made to flow tion.
incessantly between the branchiae by the movement of the '^■"''Y'*^
jaws, and of the opercular and hyoidean apparatus. This
mode of respiration is equally necessary to fishes, as the di-
rect respiration of air is to other animals ; but the action
of water on the blood is much more feeble than that of air.
It appears that it is neither the water itself, nor the oxygen
contained in it, which effects the respiration, but the small
portion of air which is held in solution or mingled with the
water. If this is expelled by ebullition, fishes cannot live ;
and many species are obliged to rise fre<iuently to the sur-
iiice for the purpose of breathing atmospheric air. It is
easy to suffocate various kinds, by keeping them beneath
the surface, enclosed in a gauze net. In the respiration of
fishes, as in that of other animals, both the atmospheric air
and that contained in the water give out their oxygen.
The absorption of the latter, however, is very trifling
among these aquatics, for it has been calculated that a man
consumes fifty thousand times more than is required by a
tench. When fishes are deprived of water, they perish not
so much for want of oxygen, as because their branchiae be-
come dry, and their blood can no longer circulate with
freedom. Hence the species of which the branchial orifice
is small, as the eel, or those which possess receptacles for
moisture, like Aiiabas and Ophicephalus, long survive ex-
posure ; while such as have their gills greatly cleft and open,
as the herring, expire almost instantly when withdrawn
from their moist abode.

SECT. I.K. THE SWIMMING BLADDER OF FISHES.

One of the most remarkable and characteristic organs of
fishes is the swimming bladder, commonly so called. In
many genera it has no opening or external communication,
and the air which it contains must therefore be the result
of secretion. It is composed of an extremely fine internal
tunic, and of another of a thicker texture and peculiar
fibrous structure, remarkable for producing the finest kind
of isinglass. It is enclosed within the general coating with
which the peritoneum invests the other viscera. It is
sometimes simple, as in perch, sometimes furnished with
more or less numerous appendages, as in some of the had-
dock tribe, or branched, as in certain SciantB} Occasion-
ally we find it divided, as it were, into two parts, by a re-
striction, as in the genus Cyprinus, many of the Salmonida;,
and others. The Catastomce have it even divided into
three. It is chiefly among the abdominal fishes that we
find it communicating by a tube or tunnel with the intes-
tinal canal, and either directly with the oesophagus, as in
Cyprmus, or with the base of the stomach, as in the her-
ring. That of the sturgeon opens into the former portion
by means of a large orifice. The contents of the swim-
ming bladder are usually found to be azote, mingled with
some fractional parts of oxygen or carbonic acid. A dif-
ference of opinion, however, seems to exist regarding
the proportion of oxygen, which is estimated as much
greater both by Configliachi and Biot. Some physiologists
appear to have regarded the swimming bladder as a true
lung, which both admitted and returned the external air ;
but in many species the air-duct which connects the bladder
with the gullet is entirely wanting ; and in many others
which remain constantly at prodigious depths, the quantity
of oxygen gas in the swimming bladder is greater than in
those the abode of which is near the surface. Indeed the
oxygen is said to increase in quantity in proportion to the
depth at which the species dwells. Carus considers it pro-
bable that the vessel in question performs a part analogous

' For representations of various forms of the swimming bladder of fishes, see Plate CCXCVII. figs. 3, 6, 7, a
.YII.

J 62

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Introduc- to that of the expiratory functions of the hmgs in the
tion. higher classes, by not only separating excrementitious azote

^'"V^"' and superabundant oxygen from the blood, but even dis-
charging those elements in such species as have this parti-
cular viscus provided with an air-duct-

The more obvious use, however, of this organ seems to
be to maintain the fish in equilibrium, or to lighten or in-
crease its relative weight, so as to cause an ascension or a
sinking, in proportion as the bladder is compressed or ex-
panded. This is probably effected by the contraction or
dilatation of the ribs. At all events, it is certain, that when
the air-bladder bursts, the fish remains at the bottom, usu-
ally turning up its belly, and exhibiting other irregularities
in its locomotion. Another curious effect is observable in
regard to fishes which have been suddenly brought from a
great depth by means of a long fishing line, and which
having no time either to compress or partially empty the
organ in question, the air which it contains being no longer
pressed by the heavy weight of water, either expands so
as to burst the bladder, or by its dilatation forces the sto-
mach and oesophagus into the fish's mouth. M^hen the air-
bladder is pierced artificially, the fish almost immediately
turns upon its back, and sinks to the bottom.

We have already alluded to the physiological opinion
which regards this organ as an auxiliary to the respiratory
system, and have likewise adverted to the argument against
that opinion, deduced from the fact of its being imperforate
in many species, and entirely wanting in others. We may
add, that Weber' has pointed out a remarkable connection
between the swimming bladder and the organs of hearing.
It would appear that the former in several instances sub-
serves the latter as a membrana tympani ; but its primary,
or at least most important purpose, seems to be to regulate
the ascending or descending movements. Though of the
highest importance in the structure of such species as pos-
sess it (and these are by far the greater number), yet the
swimming bladder is not indispensable in the general eco-
nomy of the class of fishes. In several genera (e. g. Pleu-
ronectes) it is entirely wanting, and the species in such
cases generally remain at the bottom, and, swimming ob-
liquely on one side, propel themselves forward by a nearly
vertical motion of the tail. In such cases both eyes are
on the same side, and the whole structure of the fish, espe-
cially the skeleton of the head, presents an unsymmetrical
aspect of a very extraordinary kind.^ In many cartilagi-
nous fishes, such as rays (commonly called skates), the ab-
sence of the swimming bladder seems compensated by the
enormous size of the pectoral fins, which, of all the exter-
nal organs, are probably the most efficient in raising the
body, as Uie caudal extremity is the power chiefly employ-
ed during an onward course. The lamprey, which has
neither swimming bladder nor pectoral fins, dwells in the
mud. Flat fishes being unprovided M'itli swimming bladders,
are supposed for that reason to raise themselves with dif-
ficulty to the surface ; and they do not appear to strike the
water laterally like other fishes, but swim rather after the
manner of the Cetacea, by a motion alternately up and
down. In all the other animals of tliis class the chief organ
of progressive motion is the tail, or prolongation of the
body, terminated by a caudal fin, the position of which,
unlike that of the great aquatic mammalia called whales,
is vertical. The reason of the difference is obviously this :
A true fish, possessing the power of extracting air from
water by means of its gills, does not (except at rare inter-
vals) require to mount to the surface for the performance
of the vital act of respiration ; but all cetaceous animals

being furnished with lungs, which cannot perform their Introduc-
functions except through an immediate communication tion.
with the atmosphere, require their bodies to be terminal- ^'^^•"'•^
ed by a horizontal expansion, the action of which is the
most efficient for an ascending course.

It is, however, difficult to account for the fact that so
considerable an organ as the swimming bladder should
have been denied to so many species, not only of the
more indolent kinds, which dwell composedly at the bot-
tom of the waters, but to many others which yield to none
of their class in the ease and velocity of their move-
ments. Its presence or absence does not even accord
with the other conditions of organization ; for while it is
wanting in the common mackerel, it is found to occur in
a closely allied species, the Scomber pnetimatophorus of
Laroche.

Another singular peculiarity connected with the organi-
zation of certain fishes may be also shortly noticed in this
place, we mean the power of conveying electrical shocks.
In Torpedos, the apparatus consists of membranous tubes
filled with mucous matter, divided by transverse cham-
bers closely set together, like the cells of honeycomb,
and disposed in two groups placed on each side of the
head. They receive enormous branches of nerves from
the fifth and eighth pair. In the Gymnotus this extraor-
dinary structure occupies the under surface of the body
throughout its entire extent, and to a considerable thick-
ness. It is composed oF parallel plates separated by thin
layers of mucilage. The effect of this natural galvanic
pile will be detailed in the course of the systematic por-
tion of this article, when we shall have occasion to men-
tion the electric fishes in their proper place.

SECT. X. THE GENERAL POSITION AND RELATIONS OF

FISHES, CONSIDERED AS A GREAT CLASS IN THE ANI-
MAL KINGDOM.

It results not less from this general exposition of the
Structure of our present class, than from all observation
of special organization, that fishes form a class of animals
distinct from every other, and destined by the totality of
their conformation to live, move, and have their being in
the waters. The liquid element forms their proper place in
the creation ; there they had their origin, there they must
remain till the final consummation of all things, — and it is
either through slight and superficial approximations, or
by vain metaphysical speculation, that any modern wri-
ter could regard them as proceeding from an exalted or
more perfect development of the molluscous tribes. Equal-
ly unfounded is of course that other and corresponding
opinion, which, in the spirit of the same philosophy, looks
upon fishes as forming an elementary stage, or footal con-
dition, of the other vertebrated classes. It is true that
the Mollusca, in common with fishes, respire by means of
branchiae ; they equally possess a nervous and circulating
system, an intestinal canal and a liver ; " and nobody,"
says Cuvier, with a justifiable pride, " knows these things
better than I, who was the first to make known with any
degree of completeness the anatomy and zoological rela-
tions of the molluscous tribes." As animal life, he con-
tinues,'' has received but a limited number of organs, it
necessarily happens that some of these organs are com-
mon to several classes. But where is in other respects
the resemblance ? The skeleton of these animals, and
their entire system of locomotion, are they comparable in
the least of their parts ? And even such organs as are

' De Aure ct Auditn, &c.

» In several insects of the genus Blatla we have observed a want of symmetry both in the size and markings of the elytra. >> e
do not mean an accidental variation of one side, but an evidently pre-ordained disparity of form and colour.
' Hist. Nat. det Poitimi, t. i. p. 644.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

163

Introduc. common alike to the Mollnsca and to fislios, can they be
tion. brought into relation with those connections which the

'""'y^^ latter exhibit with the other vertebrated classes? By
what passage does nature conduct us from the one to the
other ? It is certainly by no means difficult, while dis-
regarding numerous disagreements, so to compose a defi-
nition as to embrace only those points which they possess
in common ; but that definition assuredly will always re-
pose upon a pure abstraction of the mind, a definition
simply nominal, an assemblage of vain words, which can
never be represented by a harmonious and existing plan,
notwithstanding whatever extraneous details may be col-
lected or conceived in support of such visionary views.
By a like procedure, there is in truth no two things, how-
ever remote or dissimilar, which may not be so allied ; for,
whatever their disresemblance, there will always be some
particular point or other in which they may be found to
agree. But when we look to the characters in which ob-
jects differ, we shall find reason to view the subject in an-
other light. The heart itself in those MoUusca which have
only one, is placed in a contrary mode from that of fishes ;
it is at the junction of the branchial veins and arteries of
the body that that organ is attached ; in several the mem-
bers are placed upon the head, in others the generative
system is lateral, and frequently the respiratory organs
are placed above those of digestion, and extend more or
less over the dorsal surface. Perhaps all that can be said
regarding any positive or important relationship between
MoUusca and fishes is, that both classes are possessed of
branchiae.

It may indeed be observed, that whenever we proceed
from these purely verbal or metaphysical formula, we find
ourselves lost among the most inadmissible comparisons.
According to one theorist, the shells of bivalves represent
the opercula of fishes ; according to another, the buckler
of the cuttle-fish is a true fibrous bone ; according to a
third, the large scales of the sturgeon, and the spines of
the diodons, are to b^ regarded as an external skeleton.
Others search for the desired analogies among the Crus-
tacea, of which the margins of the thorax represent the
opercula. Beneath these margins the branchiae actually
occur, but if we continue the comparison, all is changed.
The medullary cord is towards the abdomen, the heart
towards the back, and the latter organ, as among the
MoUusca, receives the blood from the branchiae, but does
not send it thither. Finally, some observers, apparently
despairing of their transcendental cause, perceive the rays
or spiny apophyses of vertebrated animals in the legs of
the Crustacea, forgetting that, were it so, an obvious de-
gradation rather than amelioration of organic structure
must have befallen the class of fishes.

The affinity of fishes toother classes of vertebrated ani-
mals is much better founded. At least we here find the
commencement of sensible relations in the number of or-
ganic systems, and in their mutual connections ; but we
are still far from discovering a progressive and continuous
course. We cannot in this place report the conclusive
reasoning of Baron Cuvier regarding the distinctions of
these classes. We shall merely state his conclusion to be,
that if there is a resemblance between the organs of fishes
and those of the other great groups of the animal king-
dom, it is only in so far as the functions of such organs
are similar ; that if we assert either that fishes are Mol-
lusca of an ameliorated or higher grade, or that they re-
present a commencing or fcetal state of reptiles, we can do
so only in an abstract or metaphysical acceptation, and
that even with that restriction we by no means convey an
accurate notion of their organic structure ; that we can-
not regard them either as links of an imaginary chain of
successive forms (of which none could serve as the germ
of another, since none is capable of a solitary or isolated

existence), nor of that other chain, not less fanciful, of si- Introduc-
multaneous and transitionary forms, which has no reality ,^l°|]l^
but in the imagination of certain naturalists, more poeti- ~^i~^-^
cal than observant. They pertain in truth, and solely, to
the actual chain of co-existent beings, — of beings neces-
sary to each other, and which by their mutual action
maintain the resplendent order and harmony of created
things.

These are thy (rlorious works, F.irent of good.

Almighty ! Thine this universal frame.

Thus wondrous fair ; Thyself how wondrous theri I

Unspeakable, who sitt'st above these heavens.

To us invisible, or dimly seen

In these thy lowest works; yet these declare

Thy goodness beyond thought, and power divine.

SECT. Xr. THE CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES.

The class of fishes is of all others the most difficult to
divide into orders, according to fixed and perceptible
characters. We shall here give a brief view of I3aron
Cuvier's arrangement, the details of which we shall after-
wards exhibit in our systematic view.

Fishes are divisible, in the first place, into two great and
distinct series, viz. Fishes pkoperly so called, embra-
cing the great majority of species ; and Chondboptery-
GiAN or Cartilaginous Fishes, such as sharks and
rays.

The general character of the latter series consists in
the absence of the bones of the upper jaw, the place of
which is supplied by those of the palate. Their entire
structure also exhibits sundry analogies, to be afterwards
described. Cartilaginous fishes are further divisible into
three principal orders.

1st. Cyclostomi, the jaws of which are soldered into
an immoveable ring, and the branchiae open by means of
numerous holes. Example, the Lamprey.

2d. Selaciiii, which possess thebranchix of the Cyclos-
tomi, but not their jaws. Example, Sharks.

3d. Sturiones, of which the branchial opening is in
the usual fissure-like form, and furnished with an opercle.
Example, Sturgeons.

The other great series, or that of the Ordinary Fishes,
presents a first subdivision into those in which the maxil-
lary bone and the palatine arch are fixed to the cranium.
They constitute Cuvier's order Plectognathi, which
comprises two families, the Gy.mnodontes and Sclero-
DERMi. Examples, the genera Diodo7i and Ostracion.

The next subdivision of the ordinary fishes contains
certain species with perfect jaws, but the branchiee of
which, instead of being comb-shaped, resemble a series of
small tufts. They constitute an order called Lopho-
branchii, which comprises the two genera Syngnathus
and Pegasus of Linn. Example, the Pipe-fish.

Of the ordinary fishes there then remains an immense
assemblage, to the general classification of which no other
characters can be applied than those of the external or-
gans of motion. After a long and laborious research.
Baron Cuvier became satisfied that the least objection-
able of these characters is still that long ago employed
by Ray and Artedi, drawn from the nature of the first
rays of the dorsal and anal fins. Thus the great body of
the ordinary fishes is divided into Malacopterygii, in
which all the rays are soft, with the occasional exception
of the first of the dorsal, or of the pectorals ; and Acan-
thopterygii, in which the first portion of the dorsal, or
the first dorsal if there are two fins of that kind, is al-
ways supported by spinous rays, and where some similar
spines are also found in the anal fin, and at least one in
each of the ventrals.

Of these two last-mentioned groups, the former, or

164

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Inrri'iluc- iMalacopter}'gii, may be conveniently subdivided accord-
^ j^'""' ing to the position of the ventral fins, whether situate
"^^f""*"^ behind the abdomen, suspended to the apparatus of the
shoulder, or entirely wantinfj. This view furnishes us
with three fjreat orders, the Malacopterygu Abdomi-
NALES (such as pike, salmon, and herring), the M. Sub-
BRACHiATi (such as cod, haddock, and flat fish), and the
M. ApoDEs (such as eels).

But such a basis of subdivision is altogether inapplicable
to the remaining group of ordinary fishes, viz. the Acan-
THOPTERYGii, which at present can only be placed to-
gether in a certain series of natural families. Fortunate-
ly, several of these families are possessed of characters
almost as precise as those which could be assigned to
genuine orders. It is, however, impossible to assign to
the families of fish the same marked gradation so percep-
tible among those of the Mammalia. Thus the Chon-
dropterygians are related to serpents on the one hand
by the organs of the senses, and in certain cases even by
the generative svstem ; while, on the other, they bear an
alliance to the Mollusca and worms in the occasional im-
perfection of their skeleton.

Before proceeding with our systematic exposition of the
minor divisions, we shall present our readers with a sketch
of Baron Cuvier's views regarding the general character
and relations of certain groups. After forty years devot-
ed to the study of Ichthyology, that great observer be-
came convinced that no acanthopterygian species ought
to be mingled in classification with the fishes of other fa-
milies, as attempted by many of his predecessors; and he
also came to the conclusion that the acanthopterygian
order, which comprises about three fourths of the entire
class, contains the characteristic type, and is the most
accordant and homogeneous, even amid all the variations
which it undergoes.

The acanthopterygian character prevails over all the
others, and these ought to be employed only as subservient
to it, and never in opposition ; but the extreme constancy
of the general plan, and the predominating influence of
the regulating character, render it a matter of greater diffi-
culty to apply precise and perceptible characters of a sub-
ordinate nature. It is thus that the various families of
the acanthopterygian order pass so insensibly from one to
another, that we are often at a loss to define the transition.
The family of Percidas, for example, which is essentially
distinguished from that of the Scianidae by its palatinal
teeth, comprises a group of some extent, and extremely
natural in its constr\tction, which yet contains a portion of
species possessed of those teeth, while the other portion is
without them. The same thing happens in the family
with mailed cheeks (joues cuirassees), the majority of which
are allied to the perches, — the others to the Scifenidse.
The sciaonoid genera themselves approach in part to the
ChaJtodontes in the scales which in several instances more
or less cover their vertical fins, and yet it is necessary to
assimilate them still more closely to the Sparidae, by rea-
son, in many other instances, of the entire absence of those
scales.

The malacopterygian families are distinguished by
stronger and more obvious differences, and several of them
are not only natural, but subjected to fixed limits, so that
each, in its separation from the other, preserves within it-
self a great resemblance in details. This precision is so
sensible, that the majority of natural families established
by Cuvier in this part of the class had been already signa-
lised by Artedi as generic groups. His Siluri, Cyprini,
Salmones, CliipetE, and Esoces, may remain unbroken,
and there is even no inconvenience in distributing them
according to the position of the ventral fins, because in
those genera the character in question, however trivial in
itself) is constant ; but it is clearly impossible to preserve

the distinction of jugular, thoracic, and abdominal fishes, In trod uc-
in the mode established by Linnaeus. It is, as Cuvier ob- li""
serves, of small consequence, in fact, whether the ventrals
manifest themselves externally a little before or a little
behind the pectorals, or immediately beneath them ; but
the circumstance of importance, as connected with the
structure of the fish, is to ascertain whether the pelvis be
attached to the bones of the shoulder, or whether it is sim-
ply suspended in the muscles of the abdomen. To desig-
nate the fish belonging to the former category, the name
of Sub-brachians has been bestowed by Cuvier, and that
without any reference to the external position of the ven-
trals,— that circumstance being dependent on the greater
or less extent of the bones of tlie pelvis. To those of the
second category he leaves the older name of Abdominals.
Lastly, the term Apodes naturally designates the JMala-
copterygians destitute of ventral fins.

Cuvier's systematic exposition of fishes commences with
the Acanthopterygians, which constitute in reality only a
single family of vast extent. He then places in succession
the various families of Malacopterygians, in the order in
which they seem allied to the preceding great division ;
but he guards the student from inferring that these rela-
tions follow only in a single line or series. If the abdomi-
nal Malacopterygians may be so arranged, and may even
be made to commence with those \vhich possess some
spiny rays, they are not followed in so natural a succession
by either the apodal or sub-brachian tribes. The Gadi,
for example, are as nearly related as any of the xlbdomi-
nals to certain species of the acanthopterygian order, and
there would be no reason for jjlacing them after the Abdo-
minals if the question were mooted respecting the station
they should hold in nature. If they are actually arranged
subsequent to the latter in our systems, it is because the
exposition of facts in a book necessarily requires a succes-
sive order.

The spirit of the same observation is applicable to the
rest of the fishes ; — to those of which the upper jaw is
fixed (Pleclognalhi), — to such as have tufted branchiae
{Lopliobranchii), — and, above all, to the great and impor-
tant series of Chondropterygians, which terminate the
class. I', is indeed chiefly among those last mentioned
that we perceive the futility of whatever system seeks to
arrange the objects of creation in a single line. Several
of the genera alluded to, the rays and sharks, for example,
may be said to rise above the rank of ordinary fishes by
the com|)licated nature of some of their organs of sense,
and by that of the generative system, which is more fully
developed in some particulars than even that of birds ; —
while other genera of the same series, and at which we
arrive by graduated transitions, such as the Lampreys and
Ammocastes, become so simplified in their structure, that
they have even been regarded as affording a connecting
link between the class of fishes and that of the articulated
worms. The genus Ammoca-tes certainly possesses no
skeleton; and its muscular apparatus is attached solely to
tendinous or membranous supports.

Let it not therefore be imagined, says Cuvier, that be-
cause one genus or family is placed anterior to another, it
is for that reason to be regarded as more perfect, or supe-
rior to those that follow. He alone will indulge in that
fond fancy, who piu-sues the chimerical project of ranging
beings in a single series, — a project, be it remembered, now
renoimced by jihilosophy. The further we advance into
the penetralia of the temple of nature, the more we shall
feel convinced that a falser notion was never entertained in
relation to natural history. Genuine systems view each
being not as intermediate merely to two others, but as
central among many ; — they show the «onderful radiations
that link it more or less inmiediately with the vast web of
organic life ; and it is by such extended views alone that

ICHTHYOLOGY.

165

Introduc- we shall acquire ideas worthy of nature and of nature's
tion. (Jod. It is therefore not so mucii in the position which a

*""^~i'"^^ being occupies in our pubUshed systems, which are neces-
sarily linear or consecutive, that we arc to seek for those
multifarious relations, or for the actual dccjree of organisa-
tion,— but in accurate descriptions of structure afforded
by those who possess the use of their eyes and pen. It
is not, however, to be in any way maintained that no di-
rect classification is possible, or that species should not be
formed into groups, and embraced by definitions. These
approximations are on the contrary so real, that the natu-
ral understanding of man has ever inclined towards them,
and in all ages and countries the vulgar as well as the
learned have formed their genera. It is in truth one of
the great objects of science to render the various groups

into which, for our own convenience, we must arrange the Introduc-
objects of creation, as natural in themselves, and as near- i'""-
ly related to their neighbours, as is consistent with the ne- "C"^
ccssity of placing them in our descriptive systems in a
single fixed position, — a [josition, be it remembered, in
which their numeroiis and mixed relations can neither be
philosophically exhibited nor fully expressed.

We here terminate our introductory chapter, or gene-
ral exposition of the class of fishes, and shall now proceed
to a detailed enumeration of the characters of the principal
genera, adding, as occasion requires, a succinct descrip-
tion and history of the most interesting or important spe-
cies. We give in a note below a tabular abstract of the
Ichthyological System.'

' Systematic View of the Orders, Families, Genera, and Sub-genera of Fishes, aecorilinii to the arrangement of Baron Cuvier.

N. B In this abstract we follow the system of the Regne Animal, as sufficing for a tabular view ; but in the body of our article

we shall introduce notices of such new or amended genera as have been signalised by our illustrious guide in those volumes of the
Hist. Nat. dcs Poissons, which have made their appearance posterior to the publication of the second edition of the Animal Kingdom.

CLASS FISHES.
First Great Series, called ORDINARY or OSSEOUS FISHES.

ORDER I ACANTHOPTERYGII.

lAMILY I PERCID.E.

With thoraeic ventrals.

Seven branchial ratjs, two dorsals,
teeth small and crowded.

Perca.

I,abrax.

Ijates.

Centropomus.

Grammistes.

Aspro.

Huro.

Etelis.

Niphon.

Enoplosus.

Diploprion.
Apogon.

Cheilodipterus.

Pomatomus.

.Some of the teeth long and pointed.

Ambassis.
I.ucio-Perca.

JVith a single dorsal, and canine
teeth.
Serranus.

Serranus proper.
Anthias.
Merrus.
Plectropoma.
Diacope.
Jlesoprion.

IVith a single dorsal, and s?nall
crowded teeth.

Acerina.

Rypticus.

Polyprioii.

Centropristis.

Gristes.

JVith less titan seven branchial rays,

A single dorsal, and some canine
teeth.
Cirrhites.

A single dorsal, all the teeth small
and crowded.
Chironemus.
Pomotis.
Centrarchus.

Priacanthus.
Dules.
Therapon.
Datnia.
Palates.
Helotes.

Trvo dorsals.
Trichodon.
Sill ago.

TVith more than seven branchial

rays.
Holocentrum.
Myripristis.
Bervx.
Trachicthys.

IVith jugular ventrals.
Trachinus.
Percis.
Pinguipes.
Percophis.
Uranoscopus.

TVith abdominal ventrals.
Polynemus.
Sphyraena.
Paralepis.
MuUus.

MuUus proper.

Upeneus.

FAMILV II. BUCC.T, LORICAT.i;,

OR MAILED CUEEKS.

Trigla.

Trigia proper.

Prionotus.

Peristedion.

Dactylopterus.
Cephalacanthus.
Cottus.

Cottus proper.

Aspidophorus.
Hemitripterus.
Hemilepidotus.
Platycephalus.
Scorpjena.

Scorpaena proper.

Ta;nianotes.

Sebastes.
Pterois.

Blepsias.

Apistus.

Agrlopus.

Pelor.

Synanceia.

Menocentris.

Gasterosteus.

Oreosoma.

FAMILY III SCI^NID^.

With two dorsals.
Scisna.

Scisena proper.

Otolithus.

Ancylodon.

Corvina.

Johnius.

Umbrina.

Pogonias.
Eques.

With one dorsal, and seven bran-
chial rays,
Hasmulon.
Pristipoma.
Diagramma.

With less than seven branchial rays,
the lateral line continuous.

Pentapoda.

I.ethrinus.
Cantharus.
Boops.
Oblada.

I.obotes.
Cheilodactylus.
Scolopsides.
Jlicropterus.

With less than seven branchial rays,
the lateral line interrupted.

Amphiprion.

Premnas.

Pomacentrus.

Dascyllus.

Glyphisodon.

Heliasus.

FA.MILY IV SPABID-t.

Sparus.

Sargus.

Chrysophris.

Pagrus.

Pagellus.

Dentex.

FAMILV V .MENID.E.

IMaena.
Smaris.
CoBsio.
Gerres.

FAMILY VI SUUAMMIPENXES.

Chtetodon.

ChseUidon proper.

Chelmon.

Heniochus.

Kphippus.
Taurichtes.

Holocanthus.
Pomocanthus.

Platax.
Psettus.
Pimelepterus.
Dipterodon.
Brama.
Pempheris.
Toxotes.

FAMILY Vll SCOMBEHID.I.

Scomber.

Scomber proper.

Thynnus.

Orcynus.

Auxis.

Sarda.

Cybium.

Thyrsites.

Gempylus.
Xiphias.

Xiphias proper.

Tetrapturus.

IMakaira.

HIstiophorus.
Centronotus.

Naucrates.

Elacates.

Licbia.

Trachinotus.

J 66

Aranthop-
terygii.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

FIRST GREAT SERIES OF THE CLASS OF FISHES.

ORDINARY OR OSSEOUS FISHES.
ORDER I.— ACANTHOPTERYGII.

These, as already mentioned, form much the most nu-
merous division of the class. They are distinguished by
the spines, which occupy tlie place of the first rays of the
dorsal fin, or which alone sustain the anterior dorsal when
there are two. Sometimes, instead of an anterior dorsal,
there are only a few free spines. The first rays of their
anal fin are also spinous, and there is generally one of a
similar nature to each of the ventrals. The Acanthoptery-

Percijit.

gians bear so many relations to each other, — their several Acanlhop-
natural families exhibit so many variations in the apparent J'^O'Su.
characters which one might suppose capable of indicatina
orders or other subdivisions, — that it has been found im-
possible to divide them, otherwise than by those natural
families themselves, which are thus left without any higher
combinations.

FAMILY I.— PERCID.^.

So named because well typified by the common perch.
Their bodies are of an oblong form, covered with scales,
which are generally hard and rough ; the opercle andpre-
opercle, and frequently both, have the margins toothed or

Rhinchobdella.

jMacrognatluis.

Mastacembelus.
Notocanthus.
Seriola.
Nonieus.
Temnodon.
Caranx.

Caranga.

Citula.
Vomer.

Ollstus.

Scvris.

Blepharis.

Gall us.

Argyreiosus.

Vomer proper.
Zeus.

Zeus proper.

Capros.

Lanipris.

Equula.

Mene.
Stromateus.

Pampla.

Peprilus.

I.uvarus.
Seserinus.
Kurtus-
Coryphaena.

Coryphoena proper.

Caranxomorus.

Centrolophus.

Astrodermus.

Pteraclis.

FAMILY VIII T.5NI0ID.E.

Tlie muzzle elongated, teeth strong.

Lepidopus.
Trichiurus.

The muzzle short, mouth small.

Gymnetrus.
.Stylephorus.

The muzzle short, mouth cleft, head

obtuse.
Cepola.
Lophotes.

FAMILY IX. — THEUTID.I.

Sipjanus.

Acanthurus.

Prionurus.

Naseus.

Axinurus.

Priodon.

FAMILY X LAllVRINTHIFORBI

PHARYNGEALS.

Macropodius.

Ilelostoma.

Osphromenus.

Trichopodus.

Spirobranchus.

Opbicephalus.

FAMILY XI MUGILIDiE.

IMugil.

Tetragonurus.

Atherina.

FAMILY XII GOBIDA.

Blennius.

Blennius proper.

Pholis.

Myxodes.

Salarias.

Clinus.

Cirrhibarba.

Gunellus.

Opistognathus.

Zoarcus.
Anarrhicas.
Gobius.

Gobius proper.

Gobioides.

Toenioides.

Periopthalmus.
EUotris.
Callionymus.

Trichonotus.

Comephorua.
Platypterus.
Chirus.

FAMILY Xlir PECT0RALE3

PEDICULATI.

Lophius.

Lophius proper.

Chironectes.

Malthe.
Batrachus.

FAMILY XIV LABRID^.

Anabas.
Polyacanthus.

Labrus.

Labrus proper.

Cheilinus.

I.achnolainius.

Julis.

Ananipses.

Crenilabrus.

Coricus.

Epibulus.

Cleplicus.

Gomphosus.
Xirichthys.
Chromis.

Cychla.
Plesiops.
Malacanthus.
Scarus.

Calliodon.

Odax.

FAMILY XV FISTCLARID.E.

Fistularia.

Fistularia proper.

Aulostomus.
Centriseus.

Centriscus proper.

Amphisile.

ORDER 11— M.'^LACOPTERYGH ABDOMINALES.

FAMILY I CYPRINIDX.

Cyprinus. •

Cyprinus proper.

Barbus.

Gobio.

Tinea.

Cirrhinus.

Abramis.

Laheo.

Catastomus.

Leuciscus.

Chela.

Gonorhynchus.
Cobitis.
Anableps.
Psecilia.
Lebias.
Fundulus.
Molinesia.
Cyprinodon.

FAMILY II ESOCID^.

Esox.

Esox proper.

Galaxias.

Alepocephalus.

Microstoma.

Stomias.

Chauliodus.

Salanx.

Belone.

Scomberesox.

Hemiramphus.
Exocetus.
Mormyrus.

FAMILY III SILUaiD^.

Silurus.

Silurus proper.
Schilbe.
Mystus.
Pimelodes.

Bagrus.

Pimelodes proper.

Synodontis.

Ag-neiosus.
Doras.

Heterobranchus.
Macropteronotes.
Plotosus.
Callichtbvs.

Malapterurus.

Platystachus.

Loricaria.

Hypostomus.

l^oricaria proper.

FAMILY IV SALMONIO/K.

Salmo.

Salnio proper.

Osmerus.

Mallotus.

Thj'mallus.

Coregonus.

Argentina.

Characinus.

Curimata.

Anostomus.

Gasteropelecus.

Piabucus.

Serrasalmo.

Tetragonoptei u».

Chalceus.

Myletes.

Hydrocyon.

Citharinus.

Saurus.

Scopelus.

Auiopus.
Sternoptyx.

FAMILY V. — CLUPIDX.

Clupea.

Clupea proper.

Alosa.

Chatoessus.
Odontognathus.
Pristigaster.
Notopterus.
Engraulis.

Thryssa.
Megalops.
Elops.
Bulirinus.
Chirocentrus.
Hyodon.
Erytbrinus.
Aniia.
Sudis.

Osteoglossum.
Lepisosteus.
Polypterus.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

167

terygii

PercidK.

Acanthop- spiny ; and the jaws, the front of the vomer, and almost al-
ways the palatine bones, are furnished with teeth.
, The species of this ftmiily are extremely numerous, es-
pecially in the tropical seas. Their flesh is in general
wholesome, and of an agreeable flavour. By far the great-
er number have their ventral fins attached beneath the
pectoral, and thus form a first division, named

Thokacic I'ercid^.'

A. Seven branchial rays ; two dorsal ^ns.

a. All the teeth small and croivdcd.

Genus Perca, Cuv. I're-opercle dentated ; bony
opcrcle terminated by two or three sharp points ; tongue
smooth. Sometimes the sub-orbital and humeral bones are
slightly dentated.

Tlie common perch (Perca Jluviatilis, Linn.), Plate
CCXCVIII. fig. 1, one of the most beautiful of the fresh-
water fishes of Europe, is too familiarly known to require de-
scription. It inhabits both lakes and rivers, but shuns salt
water.- As an article of food it is still in some estimation,
although the character given of it in that respect by Au-
sonius is higher than accords with modern views. The
female deposits her ova, united together by a viscid matter,

I'erciiite.

in lengthened strings, a peculiarity noted by Aristotle. Acanthop-
The number of these eggs sometimes amounts to nearly a ter.vB"-
million. The perch occurs over all Europe, and most of
the northern districts of Asia. Pennant alludes to one
said to have been taken in the Serpentine River, in Hyde
Park, which weighed nine povnuls. But even one half of
that weight would be regarded as extraordinary in the pre-
sent species.

The Perca Italica occurs in the south of Europe, and is
distinguished by the want of the black bands so conspicu-
ous in the common kind. Several other sjiecies are found
in North America. P. ciliata is a native of Java; and P.
trutta occurs in Cook's Strait, New Zealand.

Genus Labrax, Cuv. Distinguished from the preced-
ing by scaly opercula terminating in two spines, and by
the roughness of the tongue.

To this genus belongs the basse or sea-perch {P. labrax,
Linn.; Labrax liqms, Cuv.), Plate CCXCVIIL fig. 2, a fish
of a chaste and pleasing aspect, though destitute of the
more strongly contrasted colours of the fresh-water spe-
cies. Its upper parts are gray, with bluish reflections,
which gradually shade away into a silvery whiteness o]i
the under surface. The pectoral fins are slightly tinged with
red. It occurs along the Dutch and British shores, but is

ORDER UI._MALACOPTERYGII SUB-BRACHIATI.

FAMILY I. GADID^.

Gadus.

Slorrhua.

Merlangus.

Merluccius.

Lota.

Motella.

Brosmius.

Brotula.

Phycis.

Raniceps.
Macrourus.

FA5IILY II rtEURONECTID^.

Pleuronectes.
Platessa.

Hippoglossus.

Rhombus.

Solea.

Monochirus.

Achirus.

Plagusia.

FAMILY III. — DISCOBOLI.

Lepadogastcr.

I.epaclogaster proper.

Gobiesux.
Cycloptems.

Lumpus.

Liparis.
Echeneis.

Synbranchus.

Alabes.
Saccopbarynx.
Gymnotiis.

Gyninotus proper.

Carapus.

Sternarchus.

Gymnarchus.

Leptocephalus.

OpblcUum.

Ophidium jirojier.

Fierasfer.
Ammodytes.

ORDER V._LOPHOBRANCnir.

Syngnathus.
Syngnatlius proper.
Hippocampus.

Solenostomus.
Pegasus.

ORDER VI._PLECTOGNATHI.

ORDER IV._MALACOPTERYGII APODES.

FAMILY I ANQUILLIFOBMES.

FAMILY 1 GYMNODONTES.

Aluraena.
Anguilla.
Anguilla proper.

Conger.
Ophisurus.
Muroena proper.
Sphagebranchus.
Monopterus.

Diodon.
Tetrodon.
Orlhagoriscus.
Triodou.

FAMILY II. SCLERODERMI

Balistes.

Balistes proper.

Monocanthus.

Aluteies.

Triacanthus.
Ostracion.

SecondGreat Series, called CHONDROPTERYG II, or CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.

ORDERL(7thoftheentireClass.)— STURIONES, orCHON-
DROPTERYGII WITH FREE BRANCHIAE.

Acipenser.
Spatularia.

Chimsera.

Chimajra proper.
Callorhynchus.

ORDER II. (8th of the entire Clas8.)_CHONDROPTERY.
GII WITH FIXED BRANCHI^.

FAMILY I.

— SELACHII.

Squalus proper.
Carcharias.

Squalus.

Lamiia.

Scyllium.

Galeus.

Mustelus.
Notidanus.
Selache.
Cestracion.
Spinas.
Centrina.
Scymnus.
Zygoena.
Squatina.
Pristis.
Raia.

Rhinobatus.
Rhina.
Torpedo.
Raia proper.

Trygon.

Anacanthus.

Jlyliobatis.

Rhinoptera.

Cephaloptera.

FAMILY II SICTORII.

Petromyzon.
Myxine.

Heptatremus.

Gastrobranchus.
Ammocsetes.

' Almost all the species were included by Linnseus in his genus Perca, but Cuvier has divided them, as shown above, according
to the amount of the rays of the branchiae, the number of the dorsal fins, and the nature of the teeth.

» Pallas, however, is said to have remarked, in a work, we believe, still unpublished (Zoographia linsso-Asiatica), that about spawn-
jug time both i)ike and perch are found in a gulf of the Caspian Sea, about thirty verstes from the mouth of the Terek.

1G8

Acanthop
terygii.
Percida?.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

much more abundant in the Mediterranean. It is a voracious
fish, remarkable for the size of" its stomach, and was known
to the ancients under the appropriate name of lupus.

Genus Lates, Cuv. Scarcely differs from Perca, ex-
cept in having deep dentations, and even a small spine at
the angle of the j)re-opercle, and by stronger dentations
also on the sub-orbital and humeral bones.

We shall here notice only the L. Nilolicus, the largest
and one of the finest-flavoured fishes of the celebrated
Nile. It is altogether of a silvery tint, tinged on the up-
per parts and fins with olive brown. Individuals of a very
great size are sometimes found in Upper Egypt, and, ac-
cording to Paul Lucas, the species occasionally attains to
the weight of 300 pounds. Other kinds occur in India,
where they are highly esteemed as food.

Genus Centhopomus, Lacepede. Pre-opercle den-
tated ; opercle obtuse, and unarmed.

C. undecimalis, Cuv. is a large and excellent fish, known
along a great extent of the South American shores, where
it is much used as an article of consumption, under the
name of brocket or pike. In the form of its muzzle, and
general shape, it somewhat resembles that fresh-water fish,
and indeed it frequently ascends the great rivers to a con-
siderable height. A kind of caviar is made of its row. It
attains to the weight of twenty-five pounds.

Genus Grammistes, Cuv. Opercle and pre-opercle
spined, but not dentated ; dorsal fins approximate ; scales
small, as if sunk beneath the epidermis ; anal fin without
apparent spine.

Of this genus there seems to be only a single species,
G. orientalis, a small fish, native to the Indian seas.

Genus Aspro, Cuv. Body elongated ; dorsals not ap-
proximate ; ventrals broad ; teeth small and close (en ve-
lours) ; head depressed ; muzzle reaching beyond the
mouth, and terminating in a rounded point.

We are acquainted with only two species of this genus,
both of which are known in the fresh waters of the conti-
nent of Emope. We have represented A. vulgaris {Perca
asper, Linn.), on Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 3. It is a small
fish, rarely exceeding half a foot in length, common in the
Rhone, especially between Lyons and Vienne.

We shall here pass over some limited genera, of which
the species are all foreign to Europe; such as Huko,
which contains the black bass, or black perch, of the
English inhabitants of the banks of tlie Huron ; Etelis,
NiPHON, Enoplosus, and Diploprion. The species of
the last two genera are remarkable as resembling Cha:-
todons in their general form, rather than percoid fishes.

Genus Apogon, Lacepede. Body short, and, in com-
mon with the opercles, furnished with large scales which
are easily dislodged ; dorsal fins very separate ; a double
dentated border on the pre-opercle.

The Apogon rex Mullorunt of Cuvier (JJullus imberhis,
Linn.) is a small Mediterranean species, of a red colour,
with a black spot on each side of the tail. It measures
about three inches in length. The foreign species seem
chiefly confined to the Indian seas, at least they have
not yet been observed in those of Africa or America.
A ievi have been met with along the shores of New Hol-
land, New Guinea, d-c.

Genus PomatojMus, Risso. Resembles the preceding
in the separation of its dorsals, and its deciduous scales ;
but the pre-opercle is simply striated, the opercle emar-
ginate, and the eye enormously large.

Percidje.

The only known species is the P. telescopium, a fish of Acanthop.
excessive rarity. According to Risso, it scarcely ever tervgii.
leaves the bottom of the deep sea. He is aware of only
two specimens having been taken near Nice during a pe-
riod of thirty years. It measures about twenty inches in
length. The colours are brownish violet, with red and
blue reflections, the fins being brownish black. Whether
the prodigious dimensions of its eyes are in any way con-
nected with the depth and consequent darkness of its
abode, is a point which we have not at present any means
to determine.

b. Some long and pointed teeth mixed with the close-set
kind.

Genus Ambassis, Commerson. Resembles Apogon
in form ; the pre-opercle has a double dentation towards
the base, and the opercle terminates in a point ; but the
two dorsals are contiguous, and the anterior one is pre-
ceded by a spine.

A peculiarity in the intestinal canal, that is, the want of
appendages to the pylorus, renders the present position
of this genus in the system somewhat doubtful. The
species are small fishes found in the fresh waters of In-
dia. One of them, A. Commersonii, Cuv. is abundant in
a small lake in the island of Bourbon, where it is prepar-
ed as the Europeans do anchovies.

Genus Lucio-Pkrca, Cuv. Margin of the pre-oper-
cle with only a simple dentation, dorsal fins not approxi-
mate.

This genus receives its name from the supposed com-
bination which certain of its species exhibit of the cha-
racters of the pike and perch, — that is, they possess the
fins and banded markings of the latter, with the elongat-
ed head and body, and acute lengthened teeth, of the
former. The best known species is the L. sandra of Cu-
vier {Perca lucioperca of Bloch), an excellent fish, found
in the lakes and rivers of Germany and the east of
Europe, but unknown in France, Italy, and England. It
sometimes attains to the size of a large salmon. Its
growth is remarkably rapid, and its flesh is said to be rich
and agreeable. Great quantities, preserved by salt or
smoke, are exported from Prussia and Silesia.

B. Scfen branchial rays ; only one dorsal Jin.

This subdivision is divisible, like the preceding, accord-
ing to the nature of the teeth, the spines and dentations
of the opercles, and other characters.

a. TeetJi hooked or canine. -

Genus Serranus, Cuv. Pre-opercle dentated, bony
opercle terminated by one or more points.

This extensive genus has been recently partitioned
into several minor groups. Serranus proper contains
the Perca scriba of Linn.; so called on account of some
peculiar markings in the cheeks, resembling written cha-
racters.' Antiuus is represented by .^. «acer of Bloch,
a beautiful fish of the Mediterranean, of a ruby-red co-
lour, changing into gold and silver, with yellow bands
upon the cheeks. The third ray of the dorsal fin is
greatly elevated, and the ventrals are much prolonged.
This fish appears to have been known to ancient writers,
and was regarded as sacred by the divers for marine pro-
ductions, Irom the fond belief that no dangerous species
would approach its haunts. When an individual happen-

" The smooth Serranus {S. nihrUla, Cuv. ; Perca chatmut. Couch) has been described as a British species. Mr Couch regards it
as a common fisli, well knottii to the Cornish fishermen. He mentions (Magazine uf Nat. Hist. vol. v. p. 19) that it keeps in the
neighbourhood of rocks not far from land ; and adds, as a singular fact, that the spasm which seizes it when taken never passes off.
Hence it is found long after death in a state of rigidity and contortion, with the fins preternaturaUv erect. Both Cuvier and Cavo-
lini have described this and other species of the genus" as actual hermaphrodites, — one portion of each lobe of roe consisting of true
ova, the other having every appearance cf a perlect milt.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

jr.9

Percida".

Acunthop. ed unfortunately to be caught by the fislierman's liotik,
terygii. jf y,^g supposed that its companions immediately severed
the line by means of their sharp spines. Mekros of Cuv.
contains tlie Perca gigas of Gmelin, a species wliich some-
times attains to tlie weight of sixty pounds.' This sub-
division of the genus Serranus contains a great amount
of species. The only other which we shall here mention
is that which we have shown in Plate CCXCVIII. fig.
4, under the name of Serranus altivelis, which is chiefly
remarkable for the great size of the posterior portion of
the dorsal fin. It occurs in the seas around Java.

Genus Plectropoma, Cuv. Differs from Serranus
chiefly in the more or less numerous dentations of the in-
ferior margin of the pre-opercle, being directed obliquely
forward, — recalling in some measure the teeth of the
rowel of a spur. AH the species are foreign to Europe ;
and the same observation applies to the genus Diacope,
the characters of which we shall not here detail.

Genus Mesoprion, Cuv. Agrees with Serranus in its
teeth, fins, and dentated pre-opercle, but differs in its
opercle being terminated by an obtuse angle, not spinous.

The species are remarkable for the varied richness and
lustre of their colours. They inhabit both the castciTi
and western seas, but occur chiefly in those of India,
China, and Japan, concealing themselves in the hollows
of rocks, and leaving their sombre haunts only during
fine weather, to prey on the delicate Mollusca with which
those waters swarm. Many of the species are large, and
excellent as articles of food. M. vivanus attains the
weight of forty pounds. We have figured, on Plate
CCXCVIII. fig. 5, an American species of great beautj-,
described by Cuvier under the name of M. mii/iolaliis.
The back and upper portion of the head and cheeks are
of rich steel blue, the lower part of the cheeks and sidts
of a fine rose colour, the abdomen silvery. The entire
body is coursed by many bands of a golden hue, irregular
and disconnected on the dorsal surface. The dorsal fin
is rose-colour, with three yellow bands ; the other fins
are gamboge yellow. This species seldom much exceeds
a foot in length.

b. Teeth fine, and closely set.

Genus Acerina, Cuv. Distinguished by cavities or
depressions in the bones of the head, and by the opercle
and pre-opercle having only small spines, without denta-
tions.

We shall here name only the Acerina vulgaris {Perca
cermia, Linn.), a British species, commonly called the ruffe,
much esteemed for the delicacy of its flesh. Mr Yarrell
informs us that it is common to almost all the canals and
rivers of England, particularly the Thames, the Isis, and
the Cam. Though said to be unknown in Spain, Italy,
and Greece, it occurs pretty generally over the colder
portion of the European continent, preferring slow, shaded
streams, and a gravelly bottom.-

It is angled for with a small red worm, and being gre-
garious, six or eight dozen may sometimes be taken at a
single stand.

Genus Rypticus, Cuv. Small spines on the opercles ;
scales likewise small, and concealed, like those of Gram-
mistes, beneath a thick epidermis. The genus, however, is
well distinguished from the latter by the single dorsal fin.

The species have been named Savonniers by the
French, in consequence of their soft and soapy surface,
which feels as if it had been lubricated by some unctuous
matter.

I'orcKlu;.

Genus Polyprion', Cuv. In addition to spines on theAcanthop-
opercle, and dentations on the pre-opercle, the former is tervpii
furnished with a rough bifurcated crest, and the bones of
the head generally are marked by asperities.

P. cernium is an enormous fish, extremely common in
the Mediterranean, but very indistinctly characterised or
understood before the time of Cuvier and his able coadju-
tor M. Valenciennes. It attains the length of five or six
feet, and sometimes weighs a hundred pounds. The flesh
is white, tender, and well tasted. It is frequent, according
to Risso, near Nice, where it delights in rocky bottoms,
and is occasionally captured at the vast depth of three
thousand feet.

Cuvier here places the singular genus Pentaceros, of
which the sole species, bearing some resemblance in its
general aspect to the Ostradon auritus of Shaw, was
brought to Holland by M. Horstock. We shall here
likewise merely name the genera Centropristis and
Gristes of Cuvier, the former containing the Black Har-
ry of the Americans, an excellent fish, common near New
York,— the latter, the species called growler in the Uni-
ted States.

The ancient unrestricted genus Perca, as defined by
Artedi and Linnasus, terminates in this place. But there
remains a large assemblage of allied species referrible to
various distinct genera, though still pertaining to the
great family of Percid;e.

C. With less thafi seven branchial rays.

a. inih a single dorsal fin, and canine teeth mingled with
the others.

In this subdivision we place the genus Cirrhites
alone. The species are from the Indian seas, and have
only six branchial rays.

b. With a single dorsal fin, and small close-set teeth.

Here are classed the genera Chironemus, Centra r-
cnus, and Pomotis. To the last belongs the P. vulgaris,
Cuv. {Labrus auritus, Linn.), called pond-perch in New
York. It is frequent in mill-dams and other tranquil
waters, and is often angled for in America, both for plea-
sure and profit. According to Dr Richardson, it is called
sun-fish around Lake Huron. See Plate CCXCVIII. fig.
6. Of the genus Priacanthus we shall merely observe.X
that the species are peculiar to the seas of hot climates.
The genus Dules resembles Centropristis already de-
scribed, except that it possesses only seven branchial rays.
D. riipestris bears resemblance to a carp, and is found in
the fresh waters of the islands of Bourbon and the Mau- "
ritius, where it is highly esteemed for the excellence of
its flavour. We have figured one of the most remarkable
of the genus (Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 7), named Dules
auriga by Cuvier, on account of the long whip-like form
assumed by the third spine of the dorsal fin. It was
brought from Brazil by iM. Delalande.

We shall conclude this subdivision by a brief notice of
the genera Tiierapon, Datnia, Pelates, and Helotes.
It has been observed that these constitute a group, form-
ed, as it were, to make naturalists despair, by showing
how nature laughs at what we deem characteristic com-
binations. The genera above named, possessing a mul-
titude of mutual relations, as well interior as external,
sufficient to forbid their distant separation, and bearing a
great resemblance to the entire percoid family, at the
same time combine species furnished with palatine teeth.

' It is synonymous with Pcrra robuita of Mr Couch, made known by that gentleman as a British species, from a single specimen
taken with a hne. (See Mugaxiue uf Natural History, vol. v. p. 21.1
• Hiltory of British Fishes, p. \li.
VOL. XII. ■*

170

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Percidae.

Acanthop. along with other species which seem to be constantly de-
jterygii. prived oF these organs. They also possess close-set teeth
in the jaws, and dentations on the sub-orbital, the pre-
opercle, and not unfrequently on the shoulder bone ; none
has more than six branchial rays ; no scales are visible
on the cranium, muzzle, or maxilla? ; the dorsal spines
are folded back into a groove of the back ; and the swim-
ming bladder is constantly divided by a restriction into
two distinct sacks, as in Ci/prhtus, Choracinus, and Myri-
pristis, — a character somewliat remarkable in any group
of the acanthopterygian order.

c. With (wo dorsal Jins.^

Genus Trichodon, Steller. Pre-opercle with several
strong spines ; opercle terminating in a flattened point ;
no scales ; mouth almost vertically cleft.

Of this genus only one species has been yet discovered,
the T. Stelleri of Cuv. It was found by the unfortunate Stel-
ler near Cape Cronock, and especially at the island of
Unalaschka. It inhabits sandy shores, in which it con-
ceals itself on the ebbing of the tide, and is there collected
by the natives with their hands. The females deposit their
eggs in little hollows in the sand, and offer, it is said, an
exception to the ordinary instinct of fishes, in attending
to their young ones after they are hatched.

Genus Sillago, Cuv. Head somewhat drawn to a
point ; mouth small ; small crowded teeth on the jaws,
and before the vomer ; opercle terminating in a small
spine ; six branchial rays ; dorsal fins contiguous ; — the
spines of the first slender, of the second long and low.

The species occur in. the Indian Seas, and are held in
high esteem for the delicate flavour and brightness of their
flesh. The most noted species is the peche madame of
Pondicherry {S. domino):, of a brownish colour, and re-
markable for the first ray of the dorsal fin being elongated
to a filament as long as the body. Another species, called
Soring by Russell (the Sciana malabarica of Bloch), mea-
sures about a foot in length, and is of a fulvous colour.
It is regarded as one of the best fishes in India.

D. With more than seven branchial rays.

The genera of this group, besides possessing eight bran-
chial rays, are distinguished by this further peculiarity,
otherwise unexampled among the acanthopterygian tribes,
that they possess, besides the spine, seven soft rays, or even
more, to each of the ventral fins. Many of the species are
remarkable for their beauty.

Genus Holocentrum, Artedi. Scales brilliant and
dentated ; opercle dentated and spinous ; pre-opercle not
only dentated, but furnished at its angle with a strong
spine directed backwards.

The species of this genus are widely distributed, occur-
ring in the warmer portions of both the Pacific and Atlan-
tic Oceans. Few species are more remarkable, either for
the magnificence of their integuments, or the strength of
their spines. The lustre of their scales equals that of a
mirror, and is rendered still more brilliant by bands of red
and spots of brown variously distributed. They bear a
close resemblance to each other. That which we have se-
lected as an illustration (Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 8) is the
H. hastatum of Cuvier, which exists in the Royal Mu-
seum of Paris. Its native country is unknown, although
it is presumed to have been brought from the African

Percidae.

coast, and seems identical with specimens more recently Acanthop-
collected by MM. Quoy and Gaymard at the Cape de Verd i^'^yg"-
Islands.

Genus Myripristis, Cuv. Resembles the preceding
in splendour, form, aud scales ; but the pre-opercle has
a double dentated margin, and wants the spine at the
angle.

This genus is remarkable for its swimming bladder being
divided into two portions, of which the anterior is bilobed
and attached to the cranium in two places, where it is
merely covered by a membrane, and which correspond to
the cavities of the ears.

The genera Beryx and Trachichtys are nearly allied
to the preceding. The latter was originally characterised,
and somewhat vaguely, by Dr Shaw, from a specimen re-
ceived from the New Holland seas.

All the percoid fishes to which we have hitherto alluded
are characterised by having their ventral fins inserted be-
neath the pectorals. But in several genera these import-
ant organs are otherwise placed. Thus, in the ensuing
group, their position is in advance of the pectorals, that is,
upon the throat. They are hence called

Jugular Pebcidje.

Genus Trachinus, Linn. Head compressed ; eyes ap-
proximate ; mouth oblique ; first dorsal very short, the se-
cond very long ; pectorals large ; opercle furnished with a
strong spine.

Several of the species occur in the European seas, and
two species, known in our own country as the greater and
lesser weevers ( T. major and draco), occur occasionally on
the English coasts. They remain concealed in the sand,
and the wounds inflicted by their spines are not only pain-
ful, but dangerous.

" That the greater weever," observes Mr Yarrell, " pre-
fers deep water, that it lives constantly near the bottom,
that it is tenacious of life when caught, and that its flesh
is excellent, are four points that have been already noticed ;
but this subject, in reference to fishes generally, may be
farther illustrated. It may be considered as a law, that
those fish that swim near the surface of the water have a
high standard of respiration, a low degree of muscular ir-
ritability, great necessity for oxygen, die soon, almost im-
mediately, when taken out of water, and have flesh prone
to rapid decomposition. On the contrary, those fish that
live near the bottom of the water have a low standard of
respiration, a high degree of muscular irritability, and less
necessity for oxygen ; they sustain life long after they are
taken out of the water, and their flesh remains good for
several days. The carp, the tench, the various flat fish,
and the eel, are seen gaping and writhing on the stalls of
the fishmongers for hours in succession ; but no one sees
any symptom of motion in the mackerel, the salmon, the
trout, or the herring, unless present at the capture. These
four last named, and many others of the same habits, to
be eaten in the greatest perfection, should be prepared for
table the same day they are caught;" but the turbot, de-
licate as it is, may be kept till the second day with advan-
tage, and even longer without injury ; and fishmongers
generally are well aware of the circumstance, that fish
from deep water have the muscle more dense in structure,
— in their language, more firm to the touch, — that they are

' In the indication of this group in the Regnc Animal, t. ii. p. 149, there seems to be a typographical error where the words
" a moins des six rayons branchiaux" are used, instead oi sept. The mistake has been copied as a matter of course into all the Eng.
lish and American translations.

•ur'r^''^ '^^^^ swims near the top of the water, and is caught with a fly, a -moth, or a grasshopper, upon the surface; and Isaac
Walton sa,ys, " But take this rule with you— that a chub newly taken and newly dressed is so much better than a chub of a day's
keeping after he is dead, that I can compare him to nothing so fitly as to cherries newly gathered from a tree, and others that have
been bruised and lain a day or two in water."

ICHTHYOLOGY.

171

Percidoe.

Aeanthop- of finer flavour, and will keep longer, than fish drawn from
terygii. shallow water.

The law referred to has its origin in the principles of
organization ; and though it would be difficult for the ana-
tomist to demonstrate those deviations in structure be-
tween the trout and the tench which give rise to these
distinctions and their effects, it is only necessary to make
the point of comparison wider to be assured of the fact.

" Between a fish with a true bony skeleton, the highest
in organization among fishes, and the lamprey, the lowest,
the differences are most obvious. If we for a moment
consider the lamprey, which is the lowest in organization
of the vcrlebrated animals, with only a rudimentary ver-
tebral column, as the supposed centre of zoological struc-
ture, and look from thence up and down the scale of or-
ganization, we on the extreme on one side arrive at man,
to whom division of his substance would be destruction ;
but on the other we come to the polype, the division of
which gives rise to new animals, each possessing attributes,
not only equal to each other, but equal also to the animal
of which they previously formed but a small part."' The
species represented in our accompanying illustration (see
Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 9) is T. radiatus, well known in the
Mediterranean.

The Trachini of exotic regions, if such exist, are un-
known. They are in some measure represented there by
the genus Percis of Bloch and Schneider, which is found
in the Indian, African, and New Holland seas.

The genus Pinguipes, of a heavy form, is distinguished
by its strong conical teeth ; its fleshy lips, and teeth upon
the palate ; and by its thick ventrals. The only known
species is from Brazil. The genus Percophis, on the
contrary, is much elongated in its shape (combining, as it
were, that of the perch and serpent, — from whence the
name) ; some of the teeth are long and pointed, and the
extremity of the lower jaw projects. The sole species is a
rare and remarkable fish from Rio Janeiro, discovered by
the French naturalists attached to Freycinet's expedition.

Genus Uranoscopus, Linn. Eyes placed on the upper
surface of a nearly cubical-shaped head ; mouth vertically
cleft ; pre-opercle crenate towards its base ; a strong spine
at each shoulder ; gills with only six rays.

In the interior of the mouth of this remarkable genus,
and in front of the tongue, there is a long and narrow
shred, which they can exsert at pleasure, and which it is
said they use while lying concealed in the mud, to attract
their prey, consisting of the smaller fishes. Another sin-
gularity in their structure consists in the immense size of
the gall-bladder, a fact well known to ancient observers.
In some of the species the first dorsal, which is small and
spinous, is separated from the second, which is soft and
long. Such is U. scaber, a Mediterranean species, not un-
frequently used as food, although of a most ugly and re-
pelling aspect. In others the dorsal is single, and its spi-
nous and softer parts continuous. Such is U. inermis, the
species represented in Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 10, which at-
tains to the length of a couple of feet, and is native to the
coast of Coromandel. It dwells in the sand, and the In-
dian fishers allege, what is no doubt a gross exaggeration,
that it sometimes penetrates to a depth of twenty feet.

In the third principal division of the percoid family the
ventral fins are inserted behind the pectorals. They are
hence named

Abdominal Percid^.

Genus Polynemus, Linn. Several of the inferior rays
of the pectorals firee, and forming so many filaments ; ven-

trals not greatly posterior to the pectorals ; pelvis still sus- Acamhop-
pended to the bones of Uie shoulder.

The species are allied to the Percidse in general by the
close set teeth upon their jaws, vomer, and palate ; but
they possess the arched or convex snout, and the scaly
vertical fins, which distinguish so many of the Sciaenidee.
Their two dorsals are distant ; their pre-opercle dentated,
and their mouths greatly cleft. They appear to inhabit
the seas of all warm countries. P. loiigifilis of Cuv. {P.
paradiseus and qiiitiqiiinarius, Linn.) is the noted mango-
Jish of India, so called from its fine yellow colour. According
to Russel and Hamilton Buchanan, it is the most delicious
of all the species eaten in Bengal. It is fished for all the
year round, at the mouths of rivers, where the waters are
saline. It ascends to some distance about spawning time
in spring, but not beyond the influence of the tide. When
in prime condition, the mango-fish, though onlyafew inches
long, sells so high as a rupee. The eggs are also much
esteemed. The colours of this species, like those of other
fishes, seem to vary greatly, probably in relation to the
condition of individuals, or the season of the year. M.
Dussumier describes it as of a citron yellow, with the fins
and filaments of a beautiful orange. Buchanan states that
the greater niunber are silvery, with reflections of gold
and purple, and a greenish tint upon the back ; the fins
being then yellow, and the upper parts spotted with black.
The same author names the silvery mango-fish P. risua,
and the yellow ones P. aureus ; but he hesitates to make
them distinct species, and rather opines that the fine co-
lour is the result of season, and that it continues only du-
ring spawning time. This view of the subject is well
confirmed by the fact, that the high-coloured specimens
sent to Europe by M. Dussumier were full either of roe
or milt, and is moreover in exact conformity with the ob-
servations of all practical anglers and Ichthyologists in
relation to the species of our own country. We here
figure (Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 11) a recently-discovered
species, received by Baron Cuvier from Senegal. It is
named P. quadrifilis, having only four free rays on the
pectoral fins.

In the ensuing genera of the abdominal Percidae, the
ventrals are placed farther back, and the pelvis no longer
adheres to the bones of the shoulder.

Genus Sphyr^na, Bloch and Sch. Form elongated ;
two distant dorsals ; head oblong, with the lower jaw
forming a projecting point beyond the upper one ; a por-
tion of the teeth large, pointed, and cutting ; opercle
without spines; pre-opercle without dentations; seven
branchial rays ; numerous appendages to the pylorus.

These fish were formerly classed w ith the pikes ; and
the Italians still name them Lucii marini, on account of
their strong and pointed teeth. The Mediterranean spe-
cies (S. vulgaris, Cuv. ; Esox sphyrana, Linn.) attains to
the length of three feet. <S. picuda, from the coast of
Brazil, is extremely similar. This fish, though used as
an article of food, is occasionally poisonous. M. Poey
alleges that the malady produced by eating it is some-
times mortal ; but he adds that it is easy to distinguish
the dangerous individuals beforehand, by a peculiar black-
ness at the base of their teeth. Another species (S. bar-
racuda, Cuv. ; £isox barracud, Shaw), which likewise oc-
curs along the Brazilian shores, and among the Antilles,
is said to be extremely formidable, on account of its fero-
cious habits. It is among the number of those marine
monsters of which Rochefort speaks in his Histoire des
Antilles, as greedy of human flesh. He states it to at-
tain the length of seven or eight feet, and that it darts
with fury upon any man whom it perceives in the water.

' Britisti Fishes, p. 22.

172

j\canthop-

lerygii.
. I'eicitse.

ICHTHYOLOGY-

Tlie wounds of its teeth are said to be mortal. Dutertre
attributes to it the same great size and mahgn qualities,
and regards it as more dangerous than the fiercest shark.
Neither noise, nor any kind of threatening movement, has
the slightest effect in producing intimidation ; on the
contrary, such signs of dislike only excite it to a greater
readiness to seize upon its victim. It must be a most dis-
agreeable creature.

Genus Mullus, Linn. Surfijce of the body and
opercles covered by large deciduous scales ; pre-opercle
without dentations ; mouth small, or but slightly cleft,
and feebly toothed ; dorsal fins distant from each other ;
a pair of barbies or appendages depending from the sym-
physis of the loiver jaw.

This genus, although allied to the Percidje by several
anatomical and external details, is yet characterised by
so many peculiarities of organization, that it might al-
most be regarded as forming of itself a special family.
Cuvier, however, has placed it a la suite of the Percidas,
and we shall therefore follow that great authority in this
as in the other portions of our ichthyological system.
'J'he genus Mullus is now divided into two.

1. Mullus proper. Branchiae wiih three rays; opercle
spineless ; no teeth to the upper jaw ; two large plates
of small teeth en pave on the vomer ; no swimming blad-
der.

To this sub-genus belongs the famous red mullet {31.
barbutus), Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 12, which, by reason both
of its great personal beauty, and the exquisite flavour of its
flesh, has for so many ages ministered to the degenerate
and heartless luxury of man. It is very frequent in the
Mediterranean, and also occurs occasionally along the
outer and more northern coasts of Europe. It is brought
occasionally to the London markets during the mackerel
season ; but it is doubtful whether MUller is not in error
in assigning to it so northern a locality as Denmark.
" The great and rich among the Romans were in the ha-
bit, according to Varro, of preserving the red mullet in
artificial waters, as one of the most convincing proofs of
their individual wealth. Cicero has ridiculed the sense-
less ostentation with which they exhibited fine speci-
mens of this fish, domiciliated in their own ponds ; but
Seneca and Pliny have rendered their countrymen odious
in the eyes of posterity, and of other nations, by relating
the cruelty with which, in their disgusting orgies, they
revelled over the dying mullet, while the bright red co-
lour of its healthy state passed through various shades of
purple, violet, blue, and white, as life gradually receded,
till the convulsions of death put an end to the pleasing
spectacle. They had these devoted fish enclosed in wa-
ter in vessels with sides of crystal, over a slow fire, on
their tables, and derived a fiend-like pleasure from the
lingering sufferings of their victims as the increasing heat
of the water gradually destroyed them, before the final
operation of boiling had rendered them fit to gratify the
refined taste of civilization. One cannot indeed read these
revolting histories of old time without a blush at certain
modern practices far too analogous with them : the sense
of taste may, in the cases alluded to, be alone consulted ;
but the difference is nothing to the suffering animal,
wliether its torments gratify one or more of the evil pas-
sions of its tormentors. The skinning of eels, and the
boiling of live Crustacea, would be as disgusting as the
gradual boiling of a mullet, did not, in this as in many
other cases, the practice of evil destroy the feeling of its
iniquity. So extravagant was the folly of the Romans
with regard to this fish, that they often gave for them

Buccce
Lorkatie.

immense prices. Martial mentions one of four pounds Acanthop.
weight, which had cost 1300 sesterces ; and it is said that tervfrn.
the Emperor Tiberius sold one weighing nearly five
pounds for 4000 sesterces. Asinius Celer, one of the
consuls, is reported by Pliny to have paid 8000 ; and, ac-
cording to Suetonius, 30,000 sesterces had been given
for three mullets."'

The surmulet, or striped mullet {M. Surmuktus, Linn.),
is larger than the preceding, and measures about a foot
in length. It is much more common as a British species
than the preceding, being of frequent occurrence along
the extended line of our southern coast, from Cornwall
to Sussex ; but becoming rarer as we proceed from thence
northward by the eastern coast. It has been regarded
as migratory, yet it a])pears in the shops of the London
fish-mongers throughout the year, though in much greater
plenty during May and June, at which time their colours
are most vivid, and the fish, as food, is in the best condition.
The striped red mullet spawns in spring, and the young
are five inches long by the end of October." The spe-
cies is much more extensively distributed than the red
mullet, and is not confined, as Baron Cuvier seems to
suppose, to European coasts. It occurs not far to the
south of New York, and has been found in much greater
numbers along the southernmost coasts of South Ame-
rica.^ It has been supposed that to this species the
larger specimens of mullet mentioned by the ancients
are referrible. Pliny indeed states expressly that the
large mullets were found especially in the Northern and
Western Oceans.

2. Upkneus, Cuv. Branchiaj with four rays ; teeth
on both jaws, but frequently none on the palate ; opercle
with a small spine ; a swimming bladder.

The species of this sub-genus are native to the seas of
India and America. That which %ve have selected for
illustration (Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 13) is the H. Vlamingii
of Cuvier. It was sent to Paris by MM. Quoy and Gay-
mard, and when opened its stomach was found filled with
small Crustacea.

We here terminate the family of Percid^, or perch-
like fishes, and proceed to

FAMILY II — BUCC.E LORICATE, or MAILED
CHEEKS.

Tliere are a certain set of fishes which, in the totality
of their structure, certainly approach the preceding fa-
mily of the perches ; but on which the singular aspect of
their variously-armed heads bestows so peculiar a phy-
siognomy, that they have always been classed together
in special genera. As examples, we may mention the gur-
nards, father-lashers, and river bull-heads, belonging to
Trigla and Cotlus. The common character of all these
fishes consists in the sub-orbital bone being more or less
extended over the cheek, and articulating behind with
the pre-opercle. The genus Uranoscopus alone of the
preceding family exhibits some affinity to this form of
structure ; but still in that case, the sub-orbital, though
very broad, is connected posteriorly, not with the opercle,
but with the temporal bones. It is then from this pecu-
liar extension and attachment of one or both of the sub-
orbitals that the family of the mailed cheeks derives its
name.

In the Linnaean system these fishes formed three ge-
nera, Trigla, Cotlus, and Scorpana, groups which have
been considerably subdivided by Cuvier, who has more-

« Griffith's Animal Kingdom, vol. x. (>• 2/7. = Yarrell's British Fishss.

' Griffith's Animal Kingdom, vol. X. p. 278.

p. 27.

ICHTHYOLOGY

173

Buccse
Ijoricatne.

Acaiilhop. over added to them a certain portion of the genus Gaste-
terygii. rosteiis, or stickle-back tribe.

Genus Trigla, Linn. Here the family character is
strongly marked. An enormous sub-orbital covers the
entire cheek, and even articulates by means of an im-
movable suture with the pre-opercle, vvliich in this way
possesses no separate movement ; the sides of the head
are nearly vertical, producing a form approaching that of
a cube or of a parallelopiped, and the bones are hard and
granulated ; the back bears two distinct dorsals, and be-
neatli the pectorals are three free rays ; in the interior
we find about a dozen caeca, and a broad bilobed swim-
ming bladder.

This extensive genus has been subdivided by modern
writers.

Trigla proper contains the gur7iards commonly so
called. They have small close-set teeth on the maxillae,
and before the vomer ; and their pectoral fins, though
large, are incompetent to sustain them through the air.
T. cuculus, Linn. ( T. jnni of Bloch), our red gurnard,
is a voracious species, common in the European seas.
T. b/ra^, named the piper, is another British species re-
markable for the hissing sound which it produces when
caught, by expelling air through its gills. It is a beauti-
ful fish, of a bright red above, and silvery white below.
T, cuculus of Bloch (7'. Blochii, Yarrell) is another red
gurnard, distinguishable by a black spot on the first dorsal
fin. T. lucerna is a Mediterranean species, so named
because it shines in the dark. T. hirundo is a British
species, known as the sapphirine gurnard. Its pectoral
fins are rich green and blue. The only other species we
shall mention is the grey gurnard ( T. gurnardus), Plate
CCXCVIII. fig. 1. Its muzzle is bifurcated, with three
spines on each side. It is easily taken with a hook, and
is common in the British seas.

Prionites of Lacepede contains species analogous to
those last named, but with pectorals so long as occasion-
ally to sustain them in the air. Their precise character,
however, consists in their having a band of small close-
set teeth on each palatine.

Peristedion of Lac. is separated from Trigla proper,
with still more correctness. The whole body is as it
were cuirassed over by great hexagonal scales, forming
longitudinal ridges ; the muzzle is divided into two points,
and bears branched barbies beneath ; the mouth has no
teeth. The only well-known species is the T. cataphracta,
Linn, a Mediterranean fish, called Malarmat both at Mar-
seilles and Genoa, probably by an antiphrase, as it is one
of the most redoubtably armed of all the fishes of the
European seas.

Dactylopterus of Lac, yet further removed from
Trigla, contains certain (though not the whole) of those
species known under the famous name of flying fishes.'
Their sub-pectoral rays are much more numerous and ex-
tended, and instead of being free, as in the preceding
groups, they are united by a membrane so as to form a
supernumerary fin, longer than the fish itself, and capable
of supporting it in the air.

The common Dactylopterus, or flying fish of the Me-
diterranean {Trigla volitans, Linn.), is a species too re-
markable for its functions, so opposite to those of its class
in general, not to have attracted from an early period the
attention of mankind. It is extremely common in the
Mediterranean, and has been mentioned by all the au-
thors who have treated of the fishes of that inland sea.
The ardour with which it is pursued by the dolphins
and bonitos, the sudden effort which it makes to escape
these predaceous creatures by vaulting into the air, the

new and probably unthought of dangers which there await Acanthop-
it from gulls and other aquatic birds, render it an object t^rypi.
of the highest interest to the unaccustomed landsman, , •'^^'^
somewhat wearied with the monotony of a sailor's life. ,.^,.^,,^
" It is by the extension of the pectoral rays and mem-
brane that the fish is enabled to raise itself from its pro-
per element to the regions of the air, though this is by
no means a continual flight, for the utmost it can do is to
describe an arch over the surface of the water extending
to a distance of about 120 feet, and sufficiently elevated
fiar the fish sometimes to fall on the deck of a large ves-
sel. This power of flight or momentary suspension would
be much greater if the pectoral membrane could preserve
its humidity longer: this is soon evaporated in the heat
of the tropics; and the membrane, as it becomes dry, loses
its buoyant power, and the fish falls. They are some-
times so numerous as to afford much pleasure to the spec-
tator by their repeated flights ; and at particular times,
especially on the approach of rough weather, in the night,
numbers of them may be seen, by the phosphoric light
they emit, marking their arched passages in apparent
streams of fire.^"

It is singular that the species to which we now allude
{D. volitans), though so frequent in the Mediterranean,
should be almost entirely unknown along the oceanic
coasts of Europe. Still more singular is it, in relation to
that exclusion, that it should at the same time be found
across the Atlantic, and spreading not only along all the
central and southern shores of the New World, but ex-
tending even as far north as the chilly waters of New-
foundland. The great Gulf Stream may however prove
influential in the northern distribution of many western
species.

We shall conclude this notice by observing, that the
fish in question measures about a foot in length ; it is
brown above, reddish below, with blackish fins, variously
spotted with blue. Its most formidable weapon of of-
fence consists of the long and pointed spine of the oper-
cle, which it can raise and render almost perpendicular
to its body. With this organ it is easy to conceive that
it may produce serious, or even dangerous wounds; and
we therefore wonder the less that a poet like Oppian
should have declared them mortal.

There seems to be only one other clearly ascertained
species of the genus Dactylopterus. It is the D. orieiUalis
of Cuvier, and occurs in the Indian seas.

Genus Cottus, Linn. Head broad and depressed,
mailed, and variously armed by spines or tubercles ; two
dorsal fins ; teeth in front of the vomer, but none on the
palatines ; six rays to the branchia;, and only three or
four to the ventral fins. The inferior rays of the pecto-
rals, as in the weevers (genus Tracki/ius), are not branch-
ed ; the caecal appendages are less numerous than in Tri-
gla, and the swimming bladder is wanting.

The fresh-water species of this genus have the head al-
most smooth, and only a single spine to the pre-opercle.
Their first dorsal is very low. The most common is the
river bull-head (Cottus gobio, Linn.), sometimes called the
miller's thumb. It is a small dark-coloured fish, four or
five inches in length, and frequent in most of the streams
of Europe and the north of Asia. It usually lies con-
cealed beneath stones, from whence it darts with great
rapidity upon its prey. It is said to be extremely prolific ;
and the female, when with spawn, becomes so greatly en-
larged, that her ovaries protrude like mammae. The bull-
head, like the salmon, has a reddish hue when boiled. It
affords a good and wholesome food, much sought after by
the mountain tribes of several countries ; yet Pallas as-

' Others, for example, belong to Exocalus, one of the genera of Malacopterygli ahdominakt, to be afterwards described.
' Griffith's Animal Kingdom, vol. X. p. 280.

174

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Buccae
LoricatsB.

Acanthop- sures US that in Russia no one will taste it, although
tjerygn. the common people hang it around their necks as an amu-
let, under the impression that it acts as a preservative
against attacks of tertian fever. We have represented in
this work (Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 2)a salt-water species, C.
scorpius, commonly called the father-lasher, and frequent
around our rocky coasts. Under the English name of father-
lasher, tno species, however, seem to have been confound-
ed.' There are many other species of the genus, one of
which is extremely common in all the bays and gulfs of
Greenland.

Under the generic name of Aspidophorus, several
Cotti have been separated from the parent group. Their
bodies are cuirassed by angular plates, and the teeth are
wanting on the vomer. Such is a small fish common on
our shores, and of which the membrane of the gills is gar-
nished with fleshy filaments. It is the C. cataphractus of
Linn., our common Pogge, or armed bull-head. See Plate
CCXCIX. fig. 3.

We may here name three genera as intermediate be-
tween Cottus and Scorpana, viz. Hemitripterus (ibid,
fig. ■!■), Hemilepidotus, and Platvcephalus. We can-
not enter into any details regarding them.

Genus ScoRPiENA, Linn. Head, as in Cottus, mailed
and jagged, but compressed laterally; body covered with
scales ; seven rays to the branchiae ; a single dorsal fin.

These are small fishes of a repulsive aspect, to be al-
most inferred from the vulgar names bestowed upon them
in most countries, such as scorpion, toad, sea-devil, &c.
The species represented on the above Plate, fig. 5, was re-
ceived from the Isle of France. Many others occur in
the Indian seas, as well as in those of more northern
countries.

The genus Sebastes of Cuv. possesses most of the cha-
racters of .Scorpawa, although the head is less jagged and
scaly. The species are widely dispersed through both
the northern and southern seas. We have selected as an
illustration (Plate CCXCIX. fig. 6) S. variabilis, which at-
tains to the length of two feet, and occurs in great abun-
dance in the seas about Kamtschatka and the Aleutian
Isles, where it is used as food. To this genus belongs
another northern species {S. norvegicus, Cuv. ; the sea-
perch of Pennant), occasionally found along the British
shores, and known to the Shetlanders under the name of
Bergylt, or Norway haddock?

The genus Pterois of Cuv. contains the Scorpcena vo-
litans of Gmelin and other authors, remarkable for its
enormous pectoral fins, which resemble those of the fly-
ing fish, except that they are feebler, and, from being
so deeply notched, incapable of aiding the fish in leaving
its native element. Mr Bennet was assured by the fish-
ermen of Ceylon, where the species is very common, that
they had never seen it fly.

The genus Apistus, Cuv., resembles Scorpana in its
palatine teeth and dorsal fin ; but the few rays of the pec-
torals are all branched. The distinguishing character,
however, consists in the strong spine of the sub-orbitals,
which on being projected from the cheek becomes a dan-
gerous weapon ; the more so, as in a state of repose it is
scarcely perceptible. In fact, their generic name is de-
rived from amffros, perfidious. M. Ehrenberg has made
us acquainted with a species from the Red Sea, which
greatly resembles the Indian Wooi-ah-minoo described by
Russel. It measures about four inches in length, and is
of a reddish colour on the back, and whitish on the sides
and abdomen. This Apistus flies like a Dactylopterus.
Ehrenberg observed it in the vicinity of Tor ; and when-

Bucca

LoricatsE.

ever the sea was agitated, several fell into his vessel. As Acanthop
it is the only flying fish of the Red Sea, and is extremely t^rygii
abundant along those desert coasts over which the Israel-
ites so long wandered, he has conjectured that the food
mentioned in Exodus, ch. xvi. ver. 13, and by us translat-
ed quails, was in reslity the fish in question. It is named
by the Arabs Gherad el bahr, a term which we understand
to signify sea locust. The genus is rather numerous. We
have figured (Plate CCXCIX. fig. 7) Ap. marmoratus, a
species transmitted by Peron fiom Timor. It surpasses
the others in size, as well as in the lustre and precision of
its marbled markings.

Genus Agriopus. No sub-orbital spine ; dorsal still
higher than in the preceding genus, reaching as far for-
ward as between the eyes ; the nape of the neck elevated ;
muzzle narrowed ; mouth small and slightly toothed ;
body without scales.

The fish called sea-horse {see paard) by the Dutch
colonists at the Cape, and used by them as food, belongs
to this genus. It is the A. torvus of Cuvier.

Genus Pelor, Cuv. Dorsal undivided, and teeth on
the palate, like Scorpiena ; bod^' without scales ; two free
rays beneath the pectorals ; anterior portion of the head
appearing crushed ; e3'es approximate ; dorsal spines very
high, and almost free ; sub-orbital spine wanting.

The fantastic shape and almost monstrous aspect of
these fishes are alone sufficient to distinguish them from
every other genus. It is scarcely possible by words alone
to convey an idea of their extraordinary forms. ■ They in-
habit the Indian seas, and one of the most remarkable is
P.filamentorum, a species from the Isle of France, disco-
vered during Duperrey's expedition. It may be inferred
to feed upon Crustacea, as the remains of squillse were
found within its stomach.

The genus Synanceia of Bloch and Schneider is quite
as hideous as that of Pelor, and indeed surpasses all the
Scorpaenae in ugliness. Their heads are rough, tubercu-
lated, but not compressed, and frequently enveloped in a
loose and fungous skin ; their pectoral rays are all branch-
ed, their dorsals entire ; they have no teeth either on the
vomer or palatines.

S. horrida, as the title implies, exhibits by no means an
inviting aspect. It is named Ikan-swangi, or sorcerer fish,
by the Malays. S. hrachio of Cuv. is the species called
fi-fi, or hideous, by the Negroes of the Isle of France, who
hold it in great abhorrence. In fact, nothing can be con-
ceived more frightful. At first sight, no one would consi-
der it a fish, but rather as a mass or unformed lump of
corrupted jellj'. " Totum corpus," says Commerson,
" muco squalidum et quasi ulcerosum." Its head and
members seem enveloped in a sack of thick, soft, spongy
skin, warty and wrinkled like that of a leper, and irregu-
larly blotted over with various tints of brown and grey.
Sometimes it appears entirely black ; but it is always
gluey and disgusting to the touch. The little eyes are
scarcely discernible in the large cavernous head. This
species is said to possess great tenacity of life, and sur-
vives for a long time out of the water. The skin, in fact,
forms a little ring like that oi' Pelor, in the upper part of
the gills, above the point of the opercle, through which
the fish can respire at pleasure, leaving the remainder of
the cover closed, and the branchiae consequently unex-
posed to desiccation. The inhabitants of the Isle of
France regard it rather as a reptile than a fish ; and they
fear what they call its sting (that is, the wound inflicted
by its spines) more than that of snakes or scorpions.

Genus Monocentris, Bloch. Body short, thick, and

• See Hitt. Nat. dcs Poistont, t. iv. pp. 160-165 ; and Yarrell's BritUh FUhct, pp. 60-63.
' Fleming's British Animals, p. 212.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Acauthop. completely mailed with enormous angular scales, rough
'erygii. ^„^ carinated ; dorsal fin represented by four or five thick
Buccoe spings . gjjch ventral consisting of a single enormous spine,
orica ce. j^ ^j^^ angle of which some small soft rays lie concealed ;
head large and mailed ; front gibbous ; mouth large ; small
and close-set teeth in the jaws and palatines, but none
upon the vomer ; eight branchial rays.

Of this remarkable genus there is only a single species
known, a small fish of a silvery whiteness, measuring about
six inches in length. It inhabits the seas of Japan. See
Plate CCXCIX. fig. 8.

Genus Gasterosteus, Cuv. Cheeks mailed, but the
head neither spined nor tuberculated, as in the preceding
genera. The special characters consist in the freedom of
the dorsal spines, which do not form a fin, and in the pel-
vis being united to larger humerals than usual, thus fur-
nishing the abdomen with a kind of bony cuirass. The
ventrals, placed posterior to the pectorals, are reduced al-
most to a single spine. There are only three branchial
rays.

The species are small fishes familiarly known under
the name of Stlckle-backs (Scotice, Betilicles), extremely
common in all the fresh waters of Europe. Gesner indeed
asserted that they did not occur in Switzerland ; but the
contrary has been long since ascertained. Our most
common species is G. aculeatus, Linn. (Plate CCXCIX.
fig. 9), under which name, however, it is supposed that
more than a single kind has been confounded. It is an
active and greedy little fish, extremely destructive of the
fry of other species, and consequently injurious in ponds
where these are sought to be preserved. Mr Henry Ba-
ker informs us that it will spring not less than a foot per-
pendicularly out of the water, and to a much greater dis-
tance in an oblique direction, when it desires to overcome
any opposing obstacle. " It is scarcely to be conceived,"
he adds, " what damage these little fish do, and how
greatly detrimental they are to the increase of all the fish
in general among which they live ; for it is with the ut-
most industry, sagacity, and greediness that they seek out
and destroy all the young fry that come in their way,
which are pursued with the utmost eagerness, and swal-
lowed down without distinction, provided they are not too
large ; and in proof of this, I must assert that a bannstic-
kle which I kept for some time, did, on the 4th of May, de-
vour, in five hours' time, seventy-four young dace, which
were about a quarter of an inch long, and of the thickness
of a horse-hair. Two days after it swallowed sixty-two;
and would, I am persuaded, have eat as many every day,
could I have procured them for it." The stickle-back
sometimes swarms in prodigious numbers. Pennant states,
that at Spalding, in Lincolnshire, there are once in seven
years amazing shoals, which appear in the Welland, com-
ing up the river in the form of a vast column. This con-
course is supposed to arise from the multitudes which
have been washed out of the fens by the floods of several
years, and which collect in deep holes, till, overcharged
with numbers, they are obliged to attempt a change of
place. The quantity may perhaps be conceived from the
fact, that a man employed in collecting them gained for
a considerable time four shillings a day by selling them
at the rate of a halfpenny a bushel. G. pmigitivus, com-
monly called the smaller or ten-spined stickle-back, is
the least of all our fresh-water fishes. In common, how-
ever, with a more truly marine species (G.spiTiochia, Linn.,
which forms a sub-genus), it is also found in the sea.'

We shall here conclude our exposition of the family
with mailed cheeks.

175

FAMILY III.— SCl.ENID^. Acanthop-

terypii.

This family is closely related to the Percidae, and exhi- r""^^^
bits almost all the same combinations of external charac- ^-^'^"^
ters, especially the dentations of the pre-opercle, and the
opercular spines ; but the Scia;nidas have never any teeth
either on the vomer or palatines ; the bones of the face
and cranium are generally cavernous, and the muzzle more
or less gibbous ; a form rarely observed among the Per-
cida;. The vertical fins are frequently somewhat scaly.

Even in its interior organization our present family
bears a considerable resemblance to the perches ; but
there are greater variations, and especially a more compli-
cated structure of the swimming bladder. In several spe-
cies that organ is furnished with a multitude of branched
appendages (See Plate CCXCVII. figs. 6, 7, 8) ; and al-
though we cannot trace in it any connection with the ex-
terior, yet when we consider that many of the Sciaenidae are
more remarkable even than the gurnards for the produc-
tion of extraordinary sounds, it is difficult to believe that
the peculiar structure of the swimming bladder is not in
some way connected with their utterance. The Sciaenidae
are almost as numerous as the perches ; they are charac-
terised in a great measure by similar habits, and present
the same advantages to the human race. They almost
all afford excellent eating ; of several, indeed, the flavour
is exquisite ; and a few are of great size. The famous
maigre, for example (<S. aquila, Cuv.), commonly weighs
about sixty pounds, and sometimes attains to the length
of six feet.

A. Two dorsal fins.

Genus Sci^na, Cuv. Head gibbous, supported by ca-
vernous bones ; two dorsals, or one deeply emarginate,
with its softer portion much longer than the spinous ; a short
anal fin ; a dentated pre-opercle ; an opercle terminated by
points ; seven branchial rays.

The species bear a great resemblance to perch, except
that they want the teeth upon the palate. Their whole
head is scaly, their swimming bladder irequently furnished
with remarkable appendages, and the stony bones of the
ear are larger than in most fishes. One of the most re-
markable is the maigre above alluded to (<S'. aquila), call-
ed Unibrina by the Romans, and held in high esteem
even at the present day. (Plate CCXCIX. fig. 10.) It is a
rare fish on the outer coasts of Europe, and disappears almost
entirely towards the north. The only example with which
we are acquainted of its appearance in the northern parts
of our own country is recorded by Dr Patrick Neill.^ It
was caught off Ugea in Northmavine, Shetland, in Novem-
ber 1819, and was first observed by the fishermen while
endeavouring to escape from a seal. It measured five feet
four inches in length, and when lifted into the boat, made
its usual " purring sound." Other instances are mention-
ed by Mr Yarrell. It is, however, extremely common in
many parts of the Mediterranean, especially along the Ro-
man states. Paul Jovius mentions that many are taken
there at the mouths of rivers, along with sturgeons. They
swim in troops, and are said to utter at times a singular
low bellowing beneath the waters. It is recorded that
three fishermen, guided by this sound, dropt their net on
one occasion so successfully as to secure twenty fine fish
at a single throw. The noise may be heard at a depth of
twenty fathoms, and is often very perceptible when the ear
is placed upon the gunnel of the boat. Its tone seems to
vary, as some have compared it to a dull buzzing, others
to a sharp whistle. Some of the fishermen allege that the

' It appears that we now possess seven British species of stickle-back, of which the four-tpined (G. tpinulosus, Yarrell) was discovered
by Dr James Stark in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. He exhibited specimens to the AV'emerian Nat. Hist. Society in 1831.
' £din. NcK Phil. Journ. No. 1.

176

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Acaiithop. males alone are musical during spawning time, and that it
Sde^fd' ^^ V^f^s possible to capture them without any bait, merely
^^^^^,^^ by imitating this peculiar sound. One alluded to by Cu-
vier as having been entangled in a net spread along the
shore at Dieppe, was at first found sleeping ; but on being
handled, it roused itself so suddenly, and with such vio-
lence, as to precipitate the fisherman into the water, and
force him to call for assistance before he could become its
master. High, though of course imaginary virtues, were
formerly attributed to the stones which occur in the ear
of this, as of other osseous fishes. They were worn on the
neck, set in gold ; and Belon says they were called cotic-
stones, being renowned for the cure, and even prevention,
of that complaint. It «as necessary, however, that they
should be received as a gift, — such as were purchased be-
ing found to lose their virtue.

The species above mentioned belongs to the genus Sci-
«NA proper of Cuvier, a subdivision characterised by the
feebleness of the anal spines, and by the want of canine
teeth and barbies.

Other subdivisions of the principal genus Sci;ena are as
follows : — OroLiTHUsand Ancylodon are foreign groups
(from India and America), which we shall merely name.
CoRviNA of Cuvier differs from Sciaena proper chiefly in
the much greater strength of the second anal spine. An
abundant species in the Mediterranean is the C. nigra, of
a silvery brown colour, with the ventral and anal fins black.
It occurs in salt marshes and the sea, but does not appear
to ascend rivers. It is less esteemed than the maigre, but
is not unfrequently sold for that fish in the Italian markets.
JoHNius of Bloch is closely allied to the preceding. We
here figure as an example of that minor group, the C. den-
tex of Cuv., a species from St Domingo. (Plate CCXCIX.
fig. 12.) Several of the fishes used as food in India belong
to the genus Jolinius. Their flesh is light, but not highly
flavoured. They are called ivhitings by the English in
Bengal. The species are tolerably numerous, and inha-
bit both seas and rivers. Umbrina of Cuvier is distin-
guished from the other Sciaenae by bearing a barbie on
the symphysis of the lower jaw. (Ibid. fig. 11.) The spe-
cies represented ( U. coroides) is a native of Brazil. The
bearded Umbrina ( U. vulgaris, Cuv.), a species frequent
on the coasts of France, Italy, and Spain, was captured in
the river Eye in 1827, as recorded in the minute-book of
the Linna-an Society. Pogonias, Lacepede, resembles
the preceding ; but it is furnished with several barbies in-
stead of one. The species are remarkable for their size,
some of them weighing occasionally aboveahundred pounds,
and for the singular sounds uttered by them, and which
have gained them the vulgar name of drums. Mr John
White, an American lieutenant, who (in 1824) published
a Voyage to the China Seas, relates, that being at the
mouth of the river Cambodia, himself and crew were great-
ly astonished by certain extraordinary sounds, which were
heard from around and beneath the vessel. They resembled
a combination of the base of an organ, tjie sound of bells,
and the guttural cries of a large frog, with certain tones,
which the imagination might attribute to a gigantic harp.
It might almost have been said that the vessel trembled at
those uncertain sounds. For some time they increased,
and finally formed a loud and universal chorus, the entire
length of the vessel, and on either side. In proportion as
they ascended the river the mysterious sounds diminished,
and finally altogether ceased. The interpreter gave the
information that they were produced by a troop of fishes
of a flattened oval form, which possess the faculty of ad-
hering firmly to various bodies by their mouths. A simi-'
lar phenomenon was noticed by the illustrious Humboldt
in the South Seas, although he was unable at the time to
divine the cause. It would, as Cuvier has remarked, be
an object of curious research to discover by what organ

these sounds are produced. We have already mentioned, Acantliop-
that the majority of the Sciaenida;, especially such as are the tervgii.
most remarkable for the utterance of the sounds in ques- Spaiiila;.
tion, have large swimming bladders, furnished with strong ^"^■r^-^
muscles. In some species the organ is characterised by-
prolongations, more or less complicated, which even pene-
trate the intervals of the ribs. It must, however, be borne
in mind that these swimming bladders have no communi-
cation with the intestinal canal, nor in general with any
part of the exterior. The example of the genus here figured
is P.fasciatus (Labrus Grunniens of Dr Mitchell), a ISforth
American species. (Plate CCXCIX. fig. LS.)

Genus Eques, Bloch. Recognisable by a compressed
elongated body, raised at the shoulders, and finishing in a
point towards the tail ; the first dorsal is elevated, the se-
cond long and scaly.

All the known species are American. See Plate
CCXCIX. fig. 14.

B. A single dorsal fin.

a. Seven branchial rays.

The genera of this subdivision are HiEMULON, Dia-
GRAMM A, and Pristipom A, foreign groups, of each of which
we have figured an example. See Plate CCC. figs. 1,2, 3.

b. Less than seven branchial rays.

This minor group is again subdivisible in accordance
with the character of the lateral line. Those in which
that part is continuous to the tail are the genera Lobo-
TEs (Plate CCC. fig. 4), Cheilgdactylus (ibid. fig. 7),
ScoLOPSiDEs (ibid. fig. 6), and Latilus (ibid. fig. 9).
Those in which it is interrupted are Amphiprion (ibid,
fig. 5), Premnas (ibid. fig. 8), Pomocentrus (ibid. fig.
11), Dascyllus, Glyphisodon (ibid. fig. 10), and He-
liases. All these last-named genera consist of small
species, which, with few exceptions, are natives of the
Indian seas, the shores of which they embellish by the
splendour of their colours, which are in general extremely
brilliant. They may be perceived swimming about inces-
santly, and with great vivacity, among the rocks, and in
the watery pools left by the ebbing tide. Although for the
most part eatable, none of the species furnishes an im-
portant article of consumption, on account of the smallness
of their size, and their not occurring in numerous shoals.

FAMILY IV — SPARID.«.

The genera of this family, like those of the Sciaenidae,
have the palate destitute of teeth, and in their general
forms, as well as in several particulars of their organiza-
tion, they bear a strong alliance to that family ; but they
have no scales upon the fins. Their muzzle is not gib-
bous, nor the bones of their head cavernous. There are
no dentations to the pre-opercle, nor spines to the opercle.
The pylorus is furnished with caecal appendages. None
of the species possesses more than six rays to the bran-
chiae. They are further divisible according to the form
of their teeth.

Genus Sargus, Cuv. Cutting incisors in front of the
jaws, almost similar to those of the human race.

The species in general feed on shells and the smaller
Crustacea, which they easily crush with their molar teeth.
Certain kinds appear to devour fuci, at least Cuvier found
the stomachs of some which came from the Red Sea, and
of others from the Atlantic Ocean, filled with that marine
vegetation. Many vague notices of the Sargi are con-
tained in ancient authors. TElian and Oppian inform us
that the male is polygamous, and fights with great fury
against his own sex for the possession of many females.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

177

Acnnthop- The same authors attribute to it a feeling still more ex-
terygii. traordinary, — a lively passion for goats, which it exhibits
Spariilaf. |,y always swimming with great rapidity towards those
'^^^ animals, and indulging in playful gambols before them.
So blind was this passion, that a fisherman (it was so al-
leged) might catch as many as he pleased by disguising
himself with the skin and horns of a goat, and scattering
in the water flour steeped in goats' broth. We have some-
where seen a doggrel rhyme in allusion to this strange
and foundationless fancy (it may have been an attempted
translation of an ancient epigram), in which it was ex-
pressed that the Sargus

Went courting she-goats on the grassy shore,
Horning those husbands who had horns before.

The best-known species inhabits the Mediterranean.
It is the S. Rondektiiot Cuv. (Plate CCC. fig. 12.) The
American shores produce several others, one of which
(S. ovis) is called the sheep s-1iead by the Americans.
Dr Mitchell speaks in the most eulogistic terms of the
superexcellence of its flesh, and of the high esteem in
which it is held at the tables of New York. It yields in
his opinion to fevi fishes, and is worthy of being served at
the most sumptuous entertainments. The price varies
from a dollar to a dollar and a half for a middle-sized in-
dividual, and above that size the price ranges even so
high as from four to seven pounds sterling. They some-
times weigh from fourteen to fifteen pounds. The fish-
ery of this species forms an object of importance along
the coasts of the state of New York. It approaches those
of Long Island in the hot season from the month of June
till the middle of September, after which it seems to seek
retirement iri the deep abysses of the ocean. As they
swim in troops, they may be advantageously fished for
with the net, and many hundreds are sometimes taken at
a single cast. With the great nets used at Rayner town,
and the two islands, thousands are drawn ashore. They
are immediately packed in ice, and despatched during the
cool of the night to the markets of New York. It is diffi-
cult tn take the sheep's-head with a line, because it con-
trives to snap the very hooks asunder with its cutting
teeth.

Genus Chrysophris, Cuv. Round molars on the
sides of the jaw, forming at least three rows on the upper
one ; a few conical or blunted teeth in front.

The species of this genus are numerous, and extended
through many seas. Those of the Mediterranean are
only two in number, and are called Daurades by the
French, no doubt from the Latin Aurata, a term applied
to them by ancient authors. The Greeks named them
Chrysophris, which signifies golden eye-brow, in allusion
to the brilliant spot of gold which the common species
bears between its eyes. That the Aurafa of the Latins
was identical with the Chrysophris of the Greeks, may be
inferred from a passage in Pliny, which is obviously bor-
rowed from Aristotle, and where the former word is used
as the translation of the latter. According to Columella,
the Aurata was among the number of the fishes brought
up by the Romans in their vivaria ; and the inventor of
these vivaria, one Sergius Grata, is supposed to have de-
rived his surname from the fish in question. jElian tells
us that the Chrysophris is the most timid of all fishes,
and that branches of poplars planted in the sand during
a reflux so terrified a party of these fishes which were
carried upwards by the flux, that in the succeeding re-
flux they did not dare to pass the poplars, but allowed
themselves to be taken by the hand.

The only species wo shall here notice is the Chryso- Acanthop-
phris aurnta (Plate CCC. fig. 14), described under the terygii.
name of Gilt-head hy Pennant.' This fish seldom quits the Sj^ridae.
vicinity of the shore, and grows extremely fat in the salt ^'~>"*^
ponds. We owe to Duhamel whatever information we
possess regarding its habits. The fishermen informed that
author that it agitates the sand forcibly with its tail, so
as to discover the shell- fish which may lie beneath con-
cealed. It is extremely fond of muscles, and its near
presence is sometimes ascertained by the noise which it
makes while breaking their shells with its teeth. It great-
ly dreads cold, and many were observed to perish during
the severe winter of 1766. The Gilt-head is a British
species, but of extremely rare occurrence.

Genus Pagrus, Cuv. Differs from the preceding by
having only two rows of small rounded molar teeth in
each jaw; the front teeth are either like those of a wool
card, or small and crowded.

We have figured the best-known species, Pagrus vul-
garis, C\jim. ( Sp. pagrus, Linn.), the braize or becker of
English authors, which appears to be confined chiefly to
the Mediterranean. (See Plate CCC. fig. 13.) Its sy-
nonyms seem confused and contradictory, and are great-
ly mingled in the works both of British and foreign au-
thors with those of certain Pagelli and other Sparidae.
Its history as a British species is obscure. Dr Fleming
no doubt records it in his British Animals, p. 211; but
as he indicates it by " a dark spot at the base of the pec-
torals," it is probable that his actual species was Pagellus
centrodontus, Cuv. synonymous with Sparus orphus of Linn.
Mr Couch, however, observes that it appears on the Cor-
nish coast in moderately deep water throughout the sum-
mer and autumn, and retires in winter and spring.'-

Genus Pagellus, Cuv. Teeth nearly resembling
those of Pagrus, but the molars, equally in two rows, are
smaller ; the conical teeth in front are slender and more
numerous ; and the physiognomy is different in conse-
quence of a more elongated muzzle.

Several species occur in the European seas. P. erythri-
nus, commonly called the Spanish Bream (Plate CCC.
fig. 15), is very abundant in the Mediterranean, and even
enters the Atlantic, advancing pretty far north. It is
very rare along the British shores. The fish figured by
Donovan {British Fishes, iv. pi. 89) as the Sparus aurata
of Linn. (Pennant's Gilt-head) belongs to our present ge-
nus. It is the Pagellus centrodontus just before referred
to, which Pennant also erroneously regarded as synony-
mous with Sparus pagrus of Linn. It is by no means a
rare British species, although usually concealed by our
modern authors under some other name. It is the sea-
hream of Couch and Montagu.

Genus Dentex, Cuv. Conical teeth even on the sides
of the maxillae, usually in a single row, and of which some
of the anterior are lengthened into large hooks.

The Dentex vulgaris, a fish of a silvery hue, shaded
into blue upon the back, with reddish pectoral fins, and
sometimes attaining to the weight of twenty pounds, has
occurred upon the Sussex coast. The specimen figured by
Donovan, pi. 73, was obtained in Billingsgate market.

Genus Cantharis, Cuv. Teeth small and closely
set all round the jaws, the outer range being the strong-
est ; body elevated and thick ; muzzle short ; jaws not pro-
tractile.

The species of this genus, of which four inhabit the
European seas, are very voracious, and easily taken by
hook and line. We may name as an example the fish
called the black bream by Montagu-' ( Cantharus griseus,

' The Giluhead of Donovan and Turton is, however, another species, the Pagellus centrodontus. Cut.
' Linn. Trans, vol Xiv. p. 79. 3 Mem. of Wernerian Society, vol. ii. p. 451.

VOL. XII. Z

J 78

Acantliop-
tervgii-
Menidae.

Squammi.
peiines.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Cuv. ; Pagrus Uneatus, Fleming ; Sparus brama, Linn.).
Other species occur about the Cape of Good Hope, and
in the Indian seas ; but it does not appear that any have
yet been observed along the American shores, or around
the islands of the Atlantic.

The genus Boops,' with which we shall conclude our
sketch of the Sparidae, has its outer row of teeth of a tren-
chant or cutting form ; the mouth small, and not at all
protractile. Two species occur in the European seas, more
particularly in the Mediterranean. They differ from most
of their congeners in living entirely on marine plants, such
as alga; and fuci of various kinds. In accordance with
this vegetable diet, their intestinal canal is very long,
though they have tevf appendages around the pylorus.
They are celebrated for the beauty of their colours.

FAMILY v.— MENID.E

The genera of this family differ from those of the pre-
ceding in their upper jaw being capable of projection and
retraction, in consequence of the length of the intermaxil-
lary pedicles, which withdraw between the orbits. Their
body is scaly like that of Sparus, of which genus they
formed a part, until their re-arrangement by Baron Cuvier.

As we have nothing of general interest to state regard-
ing the fishes of this comparatively limited group, we
shall merely refer, in relation to its general contents, to
our Systematic Table (note to page 165), and proceed to

FAMILY VI.—SQUAMMIPENNES.

So called because the softer, and frequently also the
spinous portions of the dorsal and anal fins are covered
with scales, which as it were encrust them, and render
their discrimination from the rest of the body by no means
easy. This is the most obvious character of these fishes,
of which the form is in general much compressed. The
intestines are rather long, and the caeca numerous. This
family was comprised by Linnaeus in his genus Chjetodon,
so called from the long, slender, and hair-like character of
the teeth ; and the species in general are alike remarkable
for their singular forms and splendid colours.

The seas of the torrid zone have indeed no cause to
envy the productions of those famous lands, the shores of
which they have so long bathed with their translucent
waters. If the equatorial regions of Africa and Ameri-
ca possess, among their feathered tribes, the brilliant soui-
mangas, the lustrous humming birds, and the gorgeous
chatterers, the intermediate ocean and the Indian seas
contain countless thousands of the finny race which sur-
pass even these in splendour. The Cha?todons, in parti-
cular, form a family on which nature has bestowed her
ornaments with a most lavish hand. The deep purple of
the iris, the paler richness of the rose, the azure blue of
the " crystalline sky," the darkest velvet black, — these
hues, and many more, are seen commingled with metallic
lustre over the pearly surface of this resplendent group.
The eye of man receives the greater pleasure from their
contemplation, in as far as being of moderate size, and
haunting habitually the rocky shores, at no great depth of
water, they are seen to sport in the sunbeams, as if desir-
ous to exhibit their splendid liveries to the greatest ad-
vantage in the blaze of day.

Tribe \st. TeetJi Hair-like.
Genus Ch^todon, Cuv. Body more or less elliptical,

the spinous and the softer rays continuing in a nearly Acanthop-
uniform curve; muzzle'more or less advanced; the pre- terygii.
opercle sometimes finely dentated. Sijuammi-

The species resemble each other not only in the more P^""®^'
essential characters just stated, but even in the distribu- »^
tion of their markings. The majority, for example, are
characterised by a black vertical band, in which the eye
is placed. In some we find several additional vertical
bands parallel to the one mentioned ; in others they are
oblique or horizontal. Certain species are distinguish-
ed by a filament which results from the prolongation of
one or more of the soft rays of the dorsal fin. The ge-
nus is very extensive, containing upwards of sixty spe-
cies even in its restricted constitution. We must here
confine ourselves to a slight notice of two or three of
these. ChiEtodon reticulatus, Cuv. (Plate CCCI. fig. 1)
is a beautiful example obtained by MM. Lesson and
Garnot at Otaheite. Its sides are mailed or reticulated
by a longitudinal series of scales. It measures about six
inches in length, and four in height. Ch. lunula, Cuv.
(ibid. fig. 2), occurs at the Isle of France. It is nearly of
the same size as the preceding, A third species, of even
more singular markings, is Ch. Ephippium of the same
author (ibid. fig. 3). It was found at the Moluccas by
M. Reinwardt — at Bolabola one of the Society Islands,
by MM. Lesson and Garnot, — and appears, by a coloured
drawing in the Banksian Library, to have likewise oc-
curred at Otaheite during Cook's third voyage.

Genus Chelmon, Cuv. Separated from Cha?todon on
account of the extraordinary form of the muzzle, which is
long and slender, open only at the extremity, and form-
ed by the inordinate horizontal prolongation of the inter-
maxillary bone above, and of the inferior jaw. These
parts are united for two thirds of their length by a mem-
brane, so that the mouth is nothing more than a small
terminal cleft. The teeth are rather fine and closely set
than hair-like. Chelmon rostratus ( Chat. rost. Linn.) is
the most anciently known. It is a small fish, measuring
from six to eight inches in length, and is remarkable for
the following peculiarity. It feeds on flies and other
winged insects, and when it perceives one of these either
hovering over the surface, or settled on a twig or blade
of grass, it ejects against it with considerable force a drop
of liquid from ist tubular snout, so as to drive it into the
water. In shooting at a sitting insect it generally ap-
proaches cautiously within a few feet before it explodes
the water. Schlosser has described this curious device
in the Philosophical Transactions for 1764, after Hum-
mel, and it has since been confirmed by Reinwardt. It
is even said to be an amusement of the Chinese in Java to
keep this fish in confinement in a large vessel of water,
with a view to observe its dexterity in the practice of
this admirable instinct. They fasten a fly or other insect
to the side of the vessel, when the Chelmon immediate-
ly bombards it with such precision as very rarely to miss
the mark. In a state of nature it is said to inhabit both
the coasts and rivers of Java. We are as yet acquainted
with only one other species of this restricted genus. It
is the Ch. longirostris of Broussonet, of which the reader
will find an accurate representation on Plate CCCI. fig.
5. It is not known de facto to possess the same singu-
lar mode of capturing its prey as the preceding, but that
it does so may be almost infierred from its similarity of
structure.

Genus Henochius, Cuv. Differs from Chastodon in
the spines of the back, particularly the third and fourth,
being greatly increased in length, and forming a filament
sometimes double the length of the body.

Tlie generic name is changed to Box in the Hist. Nat. ties Poissons, t. vi. p. 340.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

179

Acantliop.

tervcfii.
Squaninii-

pennes.

//. macrolepidotus is a larpc fisli, celebrated in the
East for the excellence of its tlavour. It is called Vlag-
man by the Dutcli colonists, in allusion to the long fila-
ment upon the back. They also name it Ttifel-visch, on
account of its frequent use as food. Iluysch asserts that
at Amboyna no good dinner is ever served without it, and
he compares its taste to that of the finest flounder. The
specimens hitherto sent to Europe do not seem to exceed
the length of ten inches; but the species must at times
greatly exceed that size, if, as llenard and Valentyn as-
sert, it weighs from twenty to twenty-five pounds. As
an example of this extraordinary genus we have figured
Heuochius moitoceros, a species recently transmitted from
the Isle of France by MM. Quoy and Gaimard, Plate
CCCI. fig. 4. The specimen represented does not mea-
sure above seven inches, and its height is almost equal to
its length.

The genus Zanclus of Commerson is closely allied to
the preceding, but the scaling is so much more delicate
that the skin appears almost smooth to the naked eye.
The external aspect is, if possible, still more extraordi-
nary. We have here engraved L. cornutus of Cuv.
(Plate CCCI. fig. 8), which, on account probabl3f of its
singular form and horned front, has become an object al-
most of superstitious reverence among the fishermen of
the Moluccas. It is alleged, that when they happen to
capture one of this species, they immediately salute it
by certain genuflexions, and then cast it into the sea. It
is, however, an excellent table fish, which attains a weight
of fifteen pounds, and resembles the turbot in flavour. It
is rather widely diffused, occurring both in the Indian seas
and Pacific Ocean.

Genus Ephippus, Cuv. Distinguished by a deep
emargination between the spinous and softer portion of
the dorsal fin ; the former part has no scales, and can be
folded into a groove on the back.

An American species (E. gigas) is remarkable for the
great club-shaped enlargement of the first inter-spinal of
the anal and dorsal fins, and by a similar enlargement of
the crest of the cranium. A fish which may be referred
to a subdivision of this genus, occurs among the fossils of
Mount Bolca.'

Baron Cuvier has remarked,^ that among all the strange
and fantastic fishes preserved in the representations of
Ruysch, Renard, and Valentyn,' and which have so long
excited the mistrust of naturalists, none seems more likely
to provoke that feeling than the species which these wri-
ters designate by the Malay name of Skankarbauiu, or buf-
falo-fish ; and yet it now turns out that none is more
accordant with the truth of nature. Its sharp recurved
horns, the protuberance above the head, the compressed
and unequal spines, and the singular distribution of colour,
— all exist in a species recently received from the Indian
Archipelago. It has accordingly been named Taurich-
THYS by Cuvier, — the Greek translation of the Malay
name. The species here figured is T. varius, which is
from four to six inches long, with a height almost equal to
its length. See Plate CCCI. fig. 7.

Genus Holacanthus, Lacep. A large spine at the

pennes.

angle of the pre-opercle, the margins of which are usually Acanthop-
dentated. terygii.

The s|)ecies are remarkable for the great beauty and ^quamnn-
synuiietrical distribution of their colours, and for their ex-
cellence as articles of food. They are numerous both in
the Indian and American seas. One of the most celebrat-
ed for the splendour and singularity of its aspect, is that
named the Emperor of Japan by the Dutch, Chmtodon
JmperatoT of Bloch, figured in many works. Its body is
deep blue, traversed all over by about two and thirty nar-
row bands of orange yellow.'* The pectoral fins are black,
and the entire tail bright yellow. It is a large fish of its
kind, sometimes attaining the length of fifteen inches, and,
as an article of food, is one of the most esteemed of all the
Indian species, resembling our own much-prized salmon in
flavour. Another and more recently discovered species is
H. semicircidatus, Cuv. It occurs both at Timor and New
Ireland. Its colours are white and blue, its length from four
to five inches. The inhabitants of Waigiou call it Mami.

Genus Platax, Cuv. Anterior to the brush-like
teeth, a row of cutting teeth, each of which is divided into
three points ; body much compressed, and apparently pro-
longed into thick, greatly elevated, scaly, vertical fins,
in the anterior edge of which a small number of spines lie
concealed.

Almost all the known species occur either in the Indian
or Pacific Oceans. One or two were found by Ruppell in
the Red Sea. They are esteemed as food. Words can
convey but a feeble idea of the anomalous form of these
fishes, some of which, if we include the vertical fins, are
more than twice as high as they are long. We here figure
the ChcEtodon teira of Bloch, wliich is a true Platax, Plate
CCCI. fig. 6. It was brought by M. Dussumier from the
coast of Malabar. It is said to attain to the length of two
feet, a g^eat size for a fish of this genus, many of which
measure only a few inches. P. punctulatus, indeed, may
be regarded as one of the smallest of known fishes, as it
is only an inch long. It occurs at Timor.

Genus Psettus, Commerson. Form resembling the
preceding ; but all the teeth are small and crowded, and
the ventral fins are reduced to a single small spine, without
soft rays.

The species are natives of the Indian seas. Their teeth
are rather short and close than in the usual bristle-like
form of our present tribe of Squammipennes, yet they can-
not be arranged under tribe third, in as far as they want
the teeth iqion the palate. The Chcetodoti rhombeus of
Bloch and Schneider belongs to this genus. It was an-
ciently represented by Seba (t. iii. pi. 26, fig. 21), and
now bears the name of Psettus Sebce. The species is ex-
tremely rare, and its native country was unknown, till in
recent times a specimen was transmitted from the Senegal
coast by M. Perottet. It measures six inches in length,
and is considerably higher than long. See Plate CCCII.
fig. 1.

Tribe 2rf. With cutting teeth.

Genus Pimelepterus, Lacep. Distinguished from
all other fishes by a single range of teeth borne upon a ho-

' Itliol. Veronese, plate 5, fig. 2. • I/ist. Nat. dcs Poissorrs, t. vii. p. 146.

' The works alluded to above are the following : — 1. The Theutrum Atiimalbwi of Henry lUiysch (son <it' the celebrated anato-
mist), two vols, in folio, Anisterd. 1718, which is in fact a tliird edition of Johnston's prior work of the same name, with the addition
of the plates of fishes, to be afterwards noticed. 2. A Dutch work entitled East India, Ancient and Modern, in five vols, folio, Am-
sterd. 1724-26. The author was Francis Valentyn, a Protestant clergyman of Amboyna. 3. A Collection of P'igures of Fish, and
other ."Marine Creatures, published by Francis Renard, in one vol. foho, Amsterd. 17.34. This recucil was formed about thirty years
prior to its publication, and was engraved from a collection of native Indian drawings, which, under a necessarily extraordinary
aspect, are now known to exhibit with accuracy many truly interesting species. The same series of drawings, or a corresponding
copy, seems to have supplied the originals of both the other works just named.

■* Shaw describes this magnificent fish as of a '" golden-yellow, longitudinally but somewhat obliquely striped with very nume-
rous bright blue parallel rays." This seems in some measure the reverse of the above, but is accounted for by the equal proper.
tion of the two colours, either of which may be regarded as the groundwork.

180

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Squammi
pen lies.

Acajithop- rizontal base or heel, on the anterior edge of wliich is a
terygii. vertical cutting portion. The body is oblong, the head
obtuse, and the 6ns rendered thick by means of the scales
with which they are covered.

P. Boscii is a small Atlantic species, which measures
about five inches in length. Bosc, by whom it was brought
from the coast of Carolina, has seen it following vessels in
the high seas, and assembling in troops around the stern, in
order to seize upon whatever is thrown overboard. It is
shy at seizing a hook, and is said to know how to carry off
the bait without being captured. It is sought after as
food by the French, though held in slight esteem by the
natives of Britain.

The only other genus of this tribe is that named Dipte-
KODON by Lacepede.

Tribe 3d. Teeth either close-set or en carde on the Jaws and
palate.

Genus Bkama, Bloch and Schneider. Pertains to our
present family, so far as concerns the scales which cover
the vertical fins, which have only a small number of spiny
rays concealed in their anterior margins ; but the teeth
are en carde on the jaws and palate, the profile elevated,
the muzzle very short, the front descending vertically,
the mouth almost vertical when closed. The scales reach
as far as the maxillaries ; there are seven rays to the gills ;
a low dorsal and anal fin, each commencing by a salient
point ; a short stomach, a small intestine, and only five
cffica.

Of this genus there was known till recently only a sin-
gle species, that of the Mediterranean, the Sparus Rati of
Bloch.

It is only of late that its characters and history have
been rendered in any way clear or satisfactory — a fact the
more remarkable when we consider its large size, its singu-
lar form, its extreme abundance, and the exquisite flavour
of its flesh. In spite of all these circumstances, most mo-
dern authors seem to have written regarding it as if they
were blindfolded. Bloch regarded it as a northern fish,
simply because so far back as 1681 a specimen was thrown
ashore on our Yorkshire coast ; and Lacepede describes it
as an oceanic species. The individual above alluded to
was described by Ray in his Synopsis (p. 115), under the
title of Braina marina cauda forcipata. Pennant figures
and describes it in his British Zoology (2d edition) by the
name of toothed Gilt-head, and it seems indicated by Mr
Couch (in Linn. Trans, xiv. 78) as a Chaetodon seen ott'
the coast of Cornwall. There is no doubt that its central
dominion is in the Mediterranean, as it is extremely com-
mon along many coasts of that inland sea.' It is called
Rondauin in the markets of Genoa. At the same time
there is no doubt that it wanders occasionally as far north
even as Denmark, and that many accidental specimens have
been captured along both the British and Irish shores.
Two other species have lately been discovered in the equa-
torial seas.

Genus Toxotes, Cuv. Body short and compressed ;
dorsal situate on the hinder part of the back, strongly
spined, its softer portion, as well as the corresponding part
of the anal, scaly ; muzzle depressed, short ; lower jaw
more advanced than the upper ; small close-set teeth in
either jaw, on the vomer, the palatines, the pterygoids,
and tongue ; six branchial rays ; very fine dentations on
the inferior margin of the sub-orbital bone and pre-
opercle. Stomach short and broad ; twelve ca.cal apjien-
dages upon the pylorus ; swimming bladder large and thin.

ridse.

The Toxotes jaculatOT (Plate CCCII. fig. 2) is a small Acanthop-
Javanese species, measuring six or seven inches in length, tervgii.
remarkable for possessing the same faculty as that men- S'^ombe-
tioned in our notice of Clielmon rostratus. When it per-- , ' "'"
ceives a fly or other insect upon an aquatic plant, it dex-
terously drives it into the water by a shower of drops.
Cuvier received a specimen from Batavia, the stomach' of
which was entirely filled with ants. This species has been
erroneously multiplied in systematic works. It is twice
described by Shaw- under two different names (Scrirus
Schlosseri and Labrus jaculator), neither of v/hich is the
right one ; and there is no doubt of its being identical
with Hamilton Buchanan's Coins chatereus, a supposed
new species irom the Ganges.^ It seems pretty widely
distributed throughout the Indian Archipelago, and is
known to the Malays by the name of ikan-siimpit.

FAMILY VII._SCO.\IBERID:E.

One of the most useful to the human race of the entire
class of fishes, whether we consider their agreeable fla-
vour, their considerable size, or their inexhaustible pro-
ductive powers. We may mention the mackerel, the
tunny, and bonito, as familiar examples.

When considered isolately, these celebrated fishes are
by no means difficult to characterise. The simple sepa-
ration of the posterior of the second dorsal, and of those
of the anal fin, would of itself suffice ; but the species
above named are the chiefs of a numerous series of gene-
ra and sub-genera, in which the more typical form gi'a-
dually alters, and passes insensibly into others which do
not exhibit either the character just mentioned, or almost
any other by which the principal types are distinguished.
Scales usually very small, causing the greater part of the
skin to appear as if entirely smooth ; opercular pieces
without spines or dentations, and in general numerous
caeca ; — these are almost the only prevailing characters
which can be assigned to the family, which at the same
time exhibits a likeness in the aspect of its constituent
groups which never leaves it. In short, it forms what bo-
tanists call a family by series or transition. The majori-
ty have the sides of the caudal extremity carinated, or
armed with scales or shields, which are themselves cari-
nated ; or the terminal rays of the second dorsal or of
the anal are free ; or the spiny rays of that dorsal want
their uniting membrane. Most frequently the caudal fin
is of great size, and corresponding vigour. In the majo-
rity, also, the first spiny rays of the anal fin are separated
from the others, and form, as it were, a small distinct fin
by themselves. But none of these characters is common
to the whole.

We may here group, as forming the First Great Tribe,
those genera of which the anterior dorsal Jin is entire, but
the terminal rays of the posterior one are detached or iso-
lated, Jorming what may be called finlets or spurious Jins
[pinna spuria:).

Genus Scomber, Cuv. The mackerels, properly so
called, have a fusiform body covered by scales, uniformly
small and smooth ; sides of the tail not carinated, but
merely raised into two small cutaneous crests ; a vacant
space between the first and second dorsal fin.

The common mackerel {Sc. scombrus) is one of the
most beautii'ul of fishes, and too well knoviii to require a

' Mr Yarrell, however, Itas brought together various instances of its occurrence along the British shores ; and as it is mentioned
by Nilsson in his Frodronms as occurring on the coast of Norway, and by lleinhardt as a Danish species, it rather appears that Baron
Cuvier regarded Uay's Bream too exclusively as a Mediterranean species.

» General Zoolugtj, vol. iv. part ii. pp. 398, 485. ^ Fishes of Ha- Cannes, part 21)1, plate 14, fig. 34.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

181

Acanthop- minute description. The back is blue, crossed by many
terysii. durii transverse bands, nearly straight in the males, but
Scombe- findy waved in the females. The sides and abdomen are
""'^"" of a silvery hue, glossed with brilliant tints of gold. The
name is said to refer to the spotted appearance of the up-
per parts, and to be derived from the Latin macularius.
We shall here avail ourselves of Mr Yarrell's history of
this important species.

" The mackerel was supposed by Anderson, Duhamel,
and others, to be a fish of passage, performing, like some
birds, certain periodical migrations, and making long voy-
ages from north to south at one season of the year, and the
reverse at another. It does not appear to have been suffi-
ciently considered, that, inhabiting a medium which varied
but little either in its temperature or productions, locally,
fishes are removed beyond the influence of the two prin-
cipal causes which make a temporary change of situation
necessary. Independently of the difficulty of tracing the
course pursued through so vast an expanse of water, the
order of the appearance of the fish at different places on
the shores of the temperate and southern parts of Europe
is the reverse of that which, according to their theory,
ought to have happened. It is known that this fish is noiv
taken, even on some parts of our own coast, in every month
of the year. It is jirobable that the mackerel inhabits al-
most the whole of the European seas ; and the law of na-
ture which obliges them and many others to visit the
shallower water of the shores at a particular season, appears
to be one of those wise and bountiful provisions of the
Creator, by which not only is the species perpetuated with
the greatest certainty, but a large portion of the parent
animals are thus brought within the reach of man, who,
but for the action of this law, would be deprived of many
of those species most valuable to him as food. For the
mackerel dispersed over the immense surface of the deej),
no effective fishery could be carried on ; but, approaching
the shore as they do from all directions, and roving along
the coast collected in immense shoals, millions are caught,
which yet form but a very small portion compared with the
myriads that escape.

" This subject receives farther illustration from a fresh-
water fish, as stated in the Magazine of Natural History,
vol. vii. p. 637 : ' When the char spawn, they are seen
in the shallow parts of the rocky lakes (in which only they
are found), and some of the streams that run into them :
they are then taken in abundance, but so soon as the
spawning is over, they retire into the deepest parts of the
lake, and are but rarely caught.'

" It may be observed farther, that as there is scarcely a
month throughout the year in which the fishes of some one
or more species are not brought within the reach of man
by the operation of the imperative law of nature referred
to, a constant succession of wholesome food is thus spread
before him, which, in the first instance, costs him little
beyond the exercise of his ingenuity and labour to ob-
tain.

" On the coast of Ireland, the mackerel is taken from
the county of Kerry in the west, along the southern shore,
eastward to Cork and Waterford ; from thence northward
to Antrim, and north-west to Londonderry and Donegal.
Dr M'Culloch says it visits some of the lochs of the West-
ern Islands, but is not considered very abundant. On the
Cornish coast this fish in some seasons occurs as early as
the month of March, and appears to be pursuing a course
from west to east. They are plentiful on the Devonshire
coast, and swarm in West Bay about June. On the
Hampshire and Sussex coast, particularly the latter, they
arrive as early as March ; and sometimes, as « ill be shown,
even in February : and the earlier m the year the fisher-
men go to look for them, the farther from the shore do
they seek for and find them. Duhamel says the mackerel

are caught earlier at Dunkirk than at Dieppe or Havre lAcanihop.
upon our own eastern coast, however, the fishing is later, tervgii.
The fishermen of Lowestoffc and Yarmouth gain their °'^°'"''^-
great harvest from the mackerel in May and June. Mr \^..^-^
Neill says they occur in the Forth at the end of summer ; ~ ^^
and Mr Low, in his Fauna Orcadensis, states that they do
not make their appearance there till the last week in July
or the first week in August.

" The mackerel spawns in June ; and, according to
Bloch, five hundred and forty thousand ova have been
counted in one female. I have observed, by the mackerel
sent to the London market from the shallow shores of Worth-
ing and its vicinity, that these fish mature and deposit their
roe earlier on that flat sandy shore than those cauglit in
the deep water off Brigliton. The young mackerel, which
are called shiners, are from four to six inches long by the
end of August. They are half grown by November ; when
they retire, says Mr Couch, ' to deep water, and are seen
no more that winter: but the adult fishes never wholly
quit the Cornish coast ; and it is common to see some ta-
ken with lines in every month of the year.' Their princi-
pal food is probably the fry of other fish ; and at Hastings
the mackerel follow towards the shore a small species of
Clupea, which is there called, in consequence, the mackerel
mint. I have been unable hitherto to obtain any specimens
of this small fish ; but, from various descriptions, I think
it is probably the young of the sprat. It is described as
being about one inch long in July.

" The mackerel as feeders are voracious, and their growth
is rapid. The ordinary length varies from fourteen to six-
teen inches, and their weight is about two pounds each ;
but they are said to attain the length of twenty inches,
with a proportionate increase in weight. The largest fish
are not, however, considered the best for the table.

" As an article of food they are in great request ; and
those taken in the months of May and June are generally
considered to be superior in flavour to those taken either
earlier in spring, or in autumn. To be eaten in perfection,
this fish should be very fresh. As it soon becomes unfit for
food, some facilities in the way of sale have been afforded
to the dealers in a commodity so perishable. Mackerel
were first allowed to be cried through the streets of Lon-
don on a Sunday in 1698, and the practice prevails to the
present time.

" At our various fishing towns on the coast, the macke-
rel season is one of great bustle and activity. The fre-
quent departures and arrivals of boats at this time form a
lively contrast to the more ordinary routine of other pe-
riods ; the high price obtained for the early cargoes, and
the large return gained generally from the enormous num-
bers of this fish sometimes captured in a single night, be-
ing the inducement to great exertions. A few particulars
from various sources may not be uninteresting.

" In May 1807, the first Brighton boat-load of mackerel
sold at Billingsgate for forty guineas per hundred — seven
shillings each, reckoning six score to a hundred ; the high-
est price ever known at that market. The next boat-load
produced but thirteen guineas per hundred. Mackerel
were so plentiful at Dover in 1808 that they were sold
sixty for a shilling. At Brighton, in June of the same
year, the shoal of mackerel « as so great, that one of the
boats had the meshes of her nets so completely occupied
by them, that it was impossible to drag them in ; the fish
and nets, therefore, in the end, sunk together, the fisher-
men thereby sustaining a loss of nearly sixty pounds, ex-
clusive of what the cargo, could it have been got into the
boat, would have produced. The success of the fishery in
1821 was beyond all precedent. The value of the catch
of sixteen boats from Lowestoffe, on the 30th of June,
amounted to L.52o2 ; and it is supposed that there was, no
less an amount than L. 14, 000 altogether realised by the

182

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Aranthop- owners and men concerned in the fishery of the Suffolk
terygii. coast.' In March 1833, on a Sunday, four Hastings' boats
brought on shore ten thousand eiglit hundred mackerel ;
and the next day two boats brought seven thousand fish.
Early in the month of February 1834, one boat's crew from
Hastings cleared L.lOO by the fish caught in one night;
and a large quantity of very fine mackerel appeared in the
London market in the second week of the same month.
They were cried through the streets of London three for a
shilling on the 14th and 2-2d of March 1834, and had then
been plentiful for a month. The boats engaged in fishing
are usually attended by other fast-sailing vessels, which are
sent away with the fish taken. From some situations
these vessels sail away direct for the London market ; at
others they make for the nearest point from which they
can obtain land-carriage for their fish. From Hastings
and other fishing towns on the Sussex coast the fish are
brought to London by vans, which travel up during the
night.

" The most common mode of fishing for mackerel, and
the way in which the greatest numbers are taken, is by
drift-nets. The drift-net is twenty feet deep, by one hun-
dred and twenty feet long ; well corked at the top, but
without lead at the bottom. They are made of small fine
twine, which is tanned of a reddish-brown colour, to pre-
serve it from the action of the sea-water ; and it is thereby
rendered much more durable. The size of the mesh is
about two and a half inches, or rather larger. Twelve,
fifteen, and sometimes eighteen of these nets are attached
lengthways, by tying along a thick rope, called the drift-
rope, and at the ends of each net, to each other. When
arranged for depositing in the sea, a large buoy attached
to the end of the drift rope is thrown overboard, the vessel
is put before the wind, and, as she sails along, the rope,
with the nets thus attached, is passed over the stern into
the water till the whole of the nets are run out. The net
thus deposited hangs suspended in the water ]ierpendicu-
larly twenty feet deep from the drift-rope, and extending
from three quarters of a mile to a mile, or even a mile and
a half, depending on the number of nets belonging to the
party or company engaged in fishing together. When
the whole of the nets are thus lianded out, the drift-rope is
shifted from the stern to the bow of the vessel, and she
rides by it as if at anchor. The benefit gained by the
boat's hanging at the end of the drift-rope is, that the net
is kept strained in a straight line, which, without this pull
upon it, would not be the case. The nets are shot in the
evening, and sometimes haided once during the night, at
others allowed to remain in the water all night. The fish
roving in the dark through the water, hang in the meshes
of the net, which are large enough to admit them beyond
the gill-covers and pectoral fins, but not large enough to
allow the thickest part of the body to pass through. In
the morning early, preparations are made for hauling the
nets. A capstan on the deck is manned, about which two
turns of the drift-rope are taken. One man stands forward
to untie the upper edge of each net from the drift-rope,
which is called casting oflf" the lashings ; others hand in the
net with the fish caught, to which one side of the vessel is
devoted ; the other side is occupied by the drift-rope,
which is wound in by the men at the capstan. The whole
of the net in, and the fish secured, the vessel runs back
into harbour with her fish ; or, depositing them on board

ridie.

some other boat in company, that carries for the party to Acanthop-
the nearest market, the fishing vessel remains at sea for terygii.
the next night's operation."^ Scombe-

Another mode of fishing is with a hook and line, angled ,
with a coarse rod, from a boat under rapid sail. A slice
from the mackerel's own body affords an excellent bait,
and even a piece of scarlet cloth or leather is often used
with great success. The line is weighed down by a heavy
plummet ; and when the fish are numerous, two men h ill
thus capture from 500 to 1000 in a single day. It is a
singular fact, that the common mackerel has no swimming
bladder, although that organ is found in several closely al-
lied species. What necessity of nature, Cuvier asks, can
require it in the one, and not in the other ? What can have
produced it ? lliese are great problems, both in the study
of final causes, and in the general philosophy of nature.

Genus Thvnnus, Cuv. A kind of corselet round the
thorax, formed by scales larger and coarser than those of
the rest of the body ; sides of the tail with a cartilaginous
keel between the two crests above mentioned. The ante-
rior dorsal is prolonged almost to the posterior one.

The tunny ( T7t. vulgaris, Cuv.; Scomber t/iytinus, Linn.),
(Plate CCCII. fig. 3), is one of the largest fishes of the
ocean.^ When it weighs only a hundred pounds, the Sar-
dinians give it the name of scn?iipirro, a diminutive deriv-
ed from Scomber. When above that weight, and onwards
to three hundred pounds, it is called mezzo-tonno, or half
tunny. The larger individuals frequently weigh a thou-
sand pounds ; and Cetti asserts that old males are taken
occasionally weighing eighteen hundred pounds.** The
fishery of the tunny dates from the most remote anti-
quity ; and the city of Byzantium was more especially
enriched by it. The shoals which entered the Bosphorus
were said to meet near Chalcedon with a white rock,
which so terrified them that they turned into the Gulf
of Byzantium, now the port of Constantinople. It was,
according to Cuvier, in consequence of this abundance
of tunnies, that the gulf in question received the name
of the Golden Horn ; and the oracle of Apollo designat-
ed Chalcedon as the Cih/ of lite Blind, because its foun-
ders did not perceive the inferiority of its site in relation
to these valued fish. Gibbon, however, tells us, that
" the curve which it describes might be compared to the
horn of a stag, or, as it should seem, with more propriety,
to that of an ox. The epithet golden was expressive of
the riches which every wind wafted from the most dis-
tant countries into the secure and capacious port of Con-
stantinople." The same prodigious quantities of the
tunny are still seen there as in ancient times. According
to Syllius, twenty vessels might be filled by a single cast
of the net ; and they may frequently be taken by the
hand without the aid of nets. W'hen ascending towards-
the port, they may be killed with stones; and even wo-
men take them in quantities, merely by suspending a large
basket by a cord iiom the windows.* The tunny fishery
was of still more ancient practice in the West. The Phoeni-
cians established it at a very early period on the coasts of
Spain, both within and beyond the columns of Hercules.
It is thus that we find the tunny on the Phoenician medals
of Cadiz and Carteia. Its salted preparation was known
to the Romans as an esteemed article, under the name
of Saltaiiientum Sardicum.

The tunny fishery does not seem to be now carried on

' " In an interesting and useful sketch of the natural history of Yarmouth and its neighbourhood, by C. and J. Paget, it is stated
at p. IG, tliat in lfi23, one hundred and forty-two lasts of mackerel were taken there. A last is ten thousand."

= Britiik Fishes, p. 1-21.

" AVe may here note, in regard to the engraved illustrations of the present treatise, that we found it impossible to maintain a pro-
portional size in our figures. Thus the liinny, a gigantic species, appears, upon the plate above referred to, as smaller than its neigh-
bour Toxotcs jaculalnr, which is scarcely more than half a foot long.

♦ Hiitoire Nalurelk ds Sardaigne, t. iii. 134, 135. • De Constantino^. Topograpftia, in praeC

ICHTHYOLOGY.

183

Aoanlhop-

Sconibe-
ri<lii'.

at Constantinople on a great or systematic scale, but is
cliii'fly concentrated in the interior of the Mediterranean.
The species sometimes wanders along the British shores ;
and a fine specimen, measurinj; nine feet in length, was
killed in the beautiful Gairloch, opposite Greenock, in
July 1831. It is preserved in the Andersonian Museum,
Glasgow.

The fish known to navigators under the name of Bonito
belongs to our present genus. It is the Th. pelamijs of
Cuv. and sometimes occurs along the British shores. It
resembles the tunny in form, but is a great deal smaller,
seldom exceeding the length of thirty inches. It is cele-
brated in the tropical seas for its eager pursuit of the fly-
ing fish. The bonito of the Mediterranean, however, be
it remembered, belongs to the following genus.

Genus Auxis, Cuv. Corselet and pectoral fins as in
Thynnus ; but the dorsal fins distant, as in Scomber.

We here engrave (Plate CCCII. fig. ■->) a species com-
mon in the Mediterranean, where it is called bonito,
Auxis vulgaris, Cuv. It is of a fine blue colour above,
with oblique blackish lines. The flesh is red and coarse.
We have eaten it during a voyage to Genoa, in the course
of which the vessel was followed by a flock for an entire
day. We struck them with a small harpoon from the
bowsprit. The species seldom exceeds six pounds.

In regard to the genus Pelamys of Cuv.' we shall here
merely state, that it is distinguished from the tunnies by
its strong, separate, and pointed teeth. The vague name
of bonito is likewise applied to one of the species, the
Scomber sarda of Bloch, common in the Mediterranean.
The genus Cybium has the body elongated, without corse-
let, the teeth large, compressed, cutting, in the form of
lancets. On the palatines there are only the close-set
kind of teeth. The species inhabit the warmer parts both
of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and some of them at-
tain a great size. The genus Thyrsites differs from the
preceding in having the anterior teeth longer than the
others, as well as the palatines being furnished with point-
ed teeth.

The genus Gempylus is allied in many respects to that
last named, but it wants the teeth upon the palate, and
the ventrals are almost imperceptible. See Plate CCCII.
fig. 6, where we have represented G. prometheus, Cuv., a
species discovered at St Helena, by Messrs Quoy and
Gaimard.

We shall here briefly notice two genera which cannot
be better placed than in succession to the preceding
Scomberida. We allude to Lepidopus and Trichiurus,^
which resemble the two last-named groups in almost
every thing, except that they entirely want the finlets, or
false fins, and even the soft rays of the dorsal. There is
merel)' a vestige of the ventral fins. It is a singular thing,
as Cuvier has observed, that a fish so gcnerallj' met with
as the great Lepidopus argyreus of the European seas
(there is no other species), so handsome, and so large,
should have remained unknown to naturalists so recently
as the end of the eighteenth century, and that it should
have been afterwards successively described by various
writers, under a new name, and by each in ignorance of
the labours of his predecessor. If we figure to ourselves
a large and broad riband of silver, swimming with a wavy
motion through the water, and casting from it in its pro-
gress the most beautiful reflections of light, we may form
some notion of the general aspect of this creature in its
living state. Its length, as described by Montagu^ (under

the name of Zipotheca tc(radens), was five feet six inches, Acanthop.
with a depth at the gills of four inches and a half; it gra- tery};ii.
dually decreased from the vent to the commencement of Sconilje-
the anal fin, where it measured only two inches in depth ; v^_^_J_^
at the end of that fin the form was nearly round, and the
diameter only half an inch. The weight, without the in-
testines, was about six pounds. Montagu's specimen was
taken in Salcomb Harbour, on the coast of South Devon,
on the 4th June 1808. It was swimming with astonish-
ing velocity, icil/i its head above water, going, as the fisher-
men said, "as swift as a bird,'' and was killed by the blow
of an oar. It occurs occasionally on most of the Euro-
pean coasts ; is more frequent in some parts of the Medi-
terranean ; and has been captured as far south as the Cape
of Good Hope. See our representation on Plate CCCII.
fig. 4.

The other genus to which we have alluded, that of
Trichiurus, Linn., resembles the preceding in its head
and teeth, but it has not even a vestige of a ventral fin ;
the anal is replaced by a series of very small spines, which
scarcely project above the skin, and the tail terminates
in a filament or lengthened point, without any caudal fin.
We here figure (Plate CCCII. fig. 8) an Indian species,
named Trichiurus savala by Cuvier. We believe it is
synonymous with T. armutus of Mr Gray's Illustrations
of Indian Zoology. Some additional species are figured
in Mr Griffith's valuable edition of the Animal King-
dom, and that called the silvery hair-tail, or blade fish
( T. lepturus, Linn.), was some years ago cast ashore on the
Moray Firth.^

Another group of Scomberida;, or rather a branch of
the first great tribe, contains the sword-fish, and a few
other species, which modern Ichthyologists, anterior to the
time of Cuvier, placed too much apart from each other,
solely because some were possessed of ventral fins, while
in others those parts were wanting, " difference," observes
our author, " qui ne sert qu'a prouver de plus en plus le
pen d'importance de ces nageoires pour un raethode na-
turelle."^ Their relationship to the tunnies and macke-
rels has been still less appreciated, although very obvi-
ous in the form of the tail, the structure of the intestines,
the quality of the flesh, and even in the parasitical ani-
mals by which they are infested ; but as they differ in
wanting the false fins, all actual resemblances have been
set aside, at least in regard to such as are destitute of
ventral fins.

Genus Xiphias, Linn. Pertains to the family Scom-
beridoe, and approaches the tunnies especially in the ex-
treme smallness of the scales, the carination of the sides
of the tail, the strength of the caudal fin, and the whole
of the interior organization. The distinctive character
consists in the lengthened beak or sword-like prolonga-
tion of the muzzle or upper jaw, which forms a powerful
weapon of offence, and enables them to attack and over-
come the largest marine animals. This beak is composed
chiefly of the vomer and intermaxillaries, strengthened
towards the base by the ethmoid, the frontals, and maxil-
laries. The branchia? are not divided like the toothing
of a comb, but formed each of two large parallel plates,
of which the surface is reticulated. The rapidity of their
course is excessive, the quality of their flesh excellent.

Such is a brief indication of the characters of the genus
Xiphias of Linnaeus, which has been divided as follows, in
more recent times.

\st. Genus Xiphias proper, Cuv. No ventral fin.

149.

' Hist. Nat. dcs Po^isons. t. vUi.
Regnc Animal, t. ii. p. 199.

■ Both genera were formerly placed by Cuvier in the ensuing family T^Niom.E
• Memoirs of the Werncrian Nat. Hist. Sflcictif, vol. i. p. 8*2

The genus Pela.mys corresponds to that named Sarda in the second edition of tlie

(See Rc^nc Animal, t. ii. p. 217.)

• f.inti. Trans, vol. xi. p. 200.

" Hist. Nat. des Poitsons, t. viii. p. 254.

]84

Acanthop.

terygii.

Scombc-

ridae.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

The only known species seems to have received the
same name from all nations. Gladhis, Ejiee, Dard, Pesce-
spada, Scliipcrd-fish, Su-ord-Jish, and the Greek generic
name of Xiphias, all indicate the formidable weapon with
which the front is armed. So remarkable a creature in
size and structure could indeed have scarcely remained
unknown at any period. All ancient wTiters within whose
province it could possibly fall, speak of it in such a man-
ner as clearly to prove an intimate knowledge of its nature.
They describe its offensive weapon, the blows which it in-
flicts, the dreadful combats which it sustains, the attacks
which are made upon it, and the stratagems by which, in
spite of its strength, it is lured to its destruction. Although,
in relation to its European distribution, the Mediterranean
may be said to be its chief dominion, yet the older indivi-
duals especially often enter the ocean, and astonish the
natives of colder climes by spreading along the northern
shores. It has been frequently captured on the British
coasts. It even enters the Baltic, and has been seen near
Lubeck, of an enormous size.' Pennant is doubtful of its
occurrence as a North American species, although it is
named as such by Catesby. It is not noticed by Dr Mit-
chell, in his description of the fishes of New York, and for
this reason Baron Cuvier does not admit that it crosses the
Atlantic. It is, however, fully described by Dr Smith, in
his Fishes of Massachusetts ; and the same writer as-
sures us, on the authority of an old pilot, that the sword-
fish is by no means uncommon off that portion of the Ame-
rican shore. It cannot, however, be traced far south in
any part of the western world ; whilst, like many of the
Mediterranean species, it advances along the African coast
as far as the Cape of Good Hope.

The fish now alluded to is the Xiphias gladius, Linn.
(Plate CCCII. fig. 7.) Its horizontal snout is flat and
cutting, like the blade of a sword. The sides of its tail
are strongly carinated. It has but one dorsal fin, which
rises both before and behind, but of which the middle por-
tion in the adults becomes in some manner so worn away,
that an appearance is at last presented of two dorsal fins.
This v.ill be perfectly understood by comparing the figure
last referred to, with fig. 10 of the same plate, where we
have represented the young of the present species."

Sword-fish, though by no means uncommon, are sel-
dom captured, owing to their extreme vigilance. Captain
Beechey informs us, that while in the Pacific Ocean, near
Easter Island, '■ as the line was hauling in, a large sword-
fish bit at the tin case which contained our thermometer,
but fortunately failed in carrying it off." Their mode of
capture in the Mediterranean may be likened to whale
fishing in miniature, and is said to be a very amusing and
exciting sport. A watchman placed upon a mast, or
standing on the summit of a neighbouring rock, gives
warning by signal when he sees a fish approach. The
fishermen then row towards it ; and, being so skilful as
frequently to strike the fish from a great distance, they
throw a harpoon into it attached to a long line. An ardu-

We shall conclude by observing, that the sword-fish isAcanthop-
not only one of the largest species of the European seas, ^^'^O'f "
attaining sometimes to a length of fifteen feet, but that it
is also much esteemed as an article of diet. When young,
especially, the flesh is white, firm, and of excellent fla-
vour.

2rf. Genus Tetrapterus, Rafinesque.^ Point of the
muzzle shaped like a stiletto ; ventrals consisting each of
one unjointed slender bone ; two small projecting crests,
like those of the mackerel, at each side of the base of the
caudal fin.

The sole European species is T, helone of the Italian
author. It is a large Mediterranean species, of about six
feet in length, and weighing from 150 to 200 pounds.

3rf. Genus Makaira, Lacep. Possesses the points of
the two small caudal crests of the preceding genus, but it
wants the ventral fins.

We shall merely mention as an example the X. Makai-
ra, or short-snouted sword-fish of Shaw.''

Ath. Genus Histiophorus, Lacep. Characterised by
the beak and caudal crests of Tetrapterus, but the dorsal
fin is so greatly elevated as to serve as a sail when swim-
ming on the surface, and the vontrals are long, slender,
and composed of two rays.

This genus contains that large and showy species {H.
indicus, Plate CCCII. fig. 9) known to the Malays by the
name of fan-fish, and called by the corresponding title of
sail-fish by the Dutch. It sometimes attains to so great a
size as to have been compared to a small whale. When
swimming near the surface, its dorsal fin may be seen pro-
jecting, from the distance of a league at sea. Many years
ago a letter was addressed to Sir Joseph Banks by the
captain of an East Indiaman, containing an account of the
astonishing strength occasionally exerted by this species.
The bottom of the ship was pierced through by it in such
a manner that the snout or sword was buried almost to its
base, and the animal itself was killed by the violence of
the blow. Accidents of a similar nature have also occur-
red with the common sword-fish ; and it is the opinion of
naturalists that both species mistake our wooden walls for
the vast abdomen of some great cetaceous animal which
they desire to encounter and destroy.

We here figure, under the name of Histiophorus pul-
chellus, a beautiful dwarf species taken by M. Raynaud on
his return from the Cape to France in 1829. It measured
only four inches in length, and possesses certain special
characters, which lead to the conclusion that, notwith-
standing its minute size, it ought not to be regarded as
the young of any previously described species. See Plate
CCCII. fig. 1 1.

We now enter upon a group of genera which form the
Second Great Tribe of Scomberidae, and are character-
ised by having the spiny rays of the back not contintwus,
but separate.

ous struggle then commences, during which the aggres

sors are sometimes pulled about by the
hours before they can get it into the boat.

The Scomberidae, as has been already remarked, have the
fish for many caudal fin in general very strong, although the other verti-
cal fins are often extremely feeble. We have now noticed

' Captain Crow, in a work recently published, relates the following spectacle, witnessed during a voyage to Memel. " One morn-
ing, during a calm, when near the Hebrides, all hands were called up at three a. m. to witness a battle between several of the fish
called thrashers, or fox-sharks {Carcliarius vuljies), and some sword-fish on one side, and an enormous whale on the other. It was in
the middle of summer, and the weather being clear, and the fish close to the vessel, we had a fine opportunity of witnessing the con-
test. As soon as the whale's back appeared above the water, the thrashers, springing several yards into the air, descended with great
violence upon the object of their rancour, and inflicted upon him the most severe slaps with their long tails, the sound of which re-
sembled the reports of muskets fired at a distance. The sword-fish, in^heir turn, attacked the distressed whale, stabbing from be-
low ; and thus beset on all sides, and wounded, when the poor creature appeared, the water around him was dyed with blood. In this
manner they continued tormenting and wounding him for many hours, until we lost sight of him ; and I have no doubt they in the
end completed his destruction." (Quoted from Mr Yarrell's British Fishes, p. 144.)

' It was probably this disparity of the dorsal fin in different individuals that induced Dr Leach to apply the new name of Xi-
phiju Roiidclctii to the old species. (See Wcrnerian Memoirs, vol. ii. part i. p. 58.)

• Caratteri di alciini nuovi geiieri, &c. delta Skilta, p. 54. * General Zoology, vol. iv. part i. p. 104, pi. 16,

ICHTHYOLOGY.

185

Acanthop.

tervpii.

Scunibe-

rida;.

the genera of the first great tribe, in wliich the posterior
portion of the second dorsal and of tlie anal fin possess
no continuous membrane between its rays, which thus re-
main free and disconnected, under the name of finlets.
But in the group which we are about to enter it is the
anterior dorsal which wants the membrane, and of which
the rays are consequently free, and capable of isolated
movement. Certain species even conjoin with this cha-
racter that of the preceding tribe, and have finlets behind,
at the same time that they possess free rays upon their
anterior portion.

Genus Naucrates, Rafin. Dorsal spines free ; body
fusiform ; a carina or keel on the sides of the tail, as in
the tunny, and two free spines before the anal fin.

This genus contains N. ditctor, the fdmous pilot Jish of
navigators (Gasterosteus dwtor, Linn.), so named from its
habit of keeping company with ships at sea, and frequent-
ly swimming beneath their bows. It would seem, from
early indications of a similar instinct, to be the Pompilhis of
the ancients, described as pointing out the way to dubious
or embarrassed sailors, and as announcing the vicinity of
land by its sudden disappearance. It was thus regarded
as a sacred fish. The other story of its serving as a guide
to the shark does not appear to have been transmitted to
us from so remote a source. It is not mentioned even by
the Ichthyologists of the sixteenth century ; and Cuvier
regards as the first allusion to it, that of Dutertre in his
Description of the Antilles, printed in 1667. Since that
period it has been carefully repeated by all voyagers
and compilers ; and Osbeck even makes it a subject of
pious reflection on the wonderful ways of Providence. We
are told by a greater than Osbeck that " they that go
down to the sea in ships, that do business in great waters ;
these see the works of the Lord, and his wonders in the
deep :" but the fact in the present instance seems reduci-
ble to this, that the pilot accompanies both ships and
sharks, sometimes swimming before, sometimes behind,
for the sake of preying upon whatever may be thrown
over board in the or e case, or left uneaten in the other.
It is true that the shark never attacks it ; but it is also
true that the hawk does not attack the swallow ; and in
both instances the reason is the same ; the pilot being too
nimble for the unwieldy shark in the water, just as the
feebler but more agile bird is too swift in its movements
fur falco in the air. It is thus that the apparent alliance
of these dissimilar fishes may be explained even upon ge-
neral principles, to say nothing of Bosc's observation, who
assures us that he has seen hundreds of pilot-fish, that

they always keep at a respectful distance from the shark, Acantliop.
and swim about swiftly in different directions, that they terygii.
may more certainly avoid it. If any food be thrown over
board, the pilot stops to seize it, and abandons both the
shark and vessel. Geoffroy no doubt tells a story of two
])ilot-fish having been seen to take a great deal of trouble,
swimming to and <Vo, in order to conduct a shark towards
a baited hook ; but admitting the truth of the details, it is
clear, that whatever advantage might eventually accrue to
the conductors, the probable result to the shark was a
cruel death, and one is consequently the more inclined to
admire how the narrative itself should find place in a
Memoir Sur rajfertioii nmtiielle des quelques animaux I'

The pilot-fish in question is chiefly a Mediterranean
species, although it also spreads into distant oceans, hav-
ing been found by Daldorf under the equator. A great
extent of geographical distribution may indeed be expect-
ed in reference to a species which is said to suffer itself
to be led away immense distances in its eager pursuit of
ships. Dutertre records that he saw one which followed
his vessel for more than 500 leagues. Whether he kept his
eye upon it night and day during all that time, or in what
other way he ascertained it to be the same individual
throughout so long a traverse, is what he does not state, and
we therefore cannot explain. " In the year 1831," Mr Yar-
rell observes, " two specimens of pilot-fish were caught on
the opposite side of the British Channel, and more than one
instance has occurred of their following ships into Guern-
sey. A few years since, a pair accompanied a ship from the
Mediterranean into Falmouth, and were both taken with
a net. In January 1831, the Peru, Graham master, put
into Plymouth, on her voyage from Alexandria for Lon-
don, after a passage of eighty-two days. About two days
after she left Alexandria, two pilot-fish, Gasterosteus duc-
tor, made their appearance close alongside the vessel,
were constantly seen near her during the homeward voy-
age, and followed her into Plymouth. After she came to
an anchor in Catwater, their attachment appeared to have
increased ; they kept constant guard to the vessel, and
made themselves so familiar, that one of them was actu-
ally captured by a gentleman in a boat alongside, but, by
a strong effort, it escaped from his grasp, and regained
the water. After this the two fish separated ; but they were
both taken the same evening, and, when dressed the next
day, were found to be excellent eating. In October 1833
nearly one hundred pilot-fish accompanied a vessel from
Sicily into Catwater, but they were not taken.'"- The
pilot-fish is of a silvery blue colour, paler below, with

' Annaks du Mus. i'H'ist. Nat. t. ix. p. 4C9. In further illustration of the subject, we sliall subjoin a short extract from a recent
publication, Dr Aleyen's Reise urn die Erdc. " The pilot swims constantly in front of the shark ; we ourselves have seen three in.
stances in which the shark was led by the pilot. "When the sea-angel neared the ship, the pilot swam close to the snout, or near one
of the breast fins of the animal ; sometimes lie darted rapidly forwards or sidewards, as if looking for something, and constantly went
back again to the shark. AVhen we threw overboajd a piece of bacon fastened on a great hook, the shark was about twenty paces
from the ship. With the quickness of lightning the pilot came up, smelt at the dainty, and instantly swam back again to the shark,
swimming many times round his snout, and splashing, as if to give him exact information as to tlie bacon. The shark now began to
put himself in motion, the pilot showing him the way, and in a moment he was fast upon the hook. Once we watched a pilot for many
days, who kept constantly swimming close before the'keel of the ship. The sailors say, as of a thing well known and familiar, that such
a iish so situated has lost his shark, and is seeking another. Upon a later occasion, we observed two pilots in sedulous attendance on
a blue shark, which we caught in the Chinese Sea. It seems probable that tlie pilot feeds on the shark's excrements, keeps his
company for that purpose, and directs his operations solely from this selfish view." On this very singular subject we are tempted
to quote another anecdote, which, notwithstanding what we have said in the text above, if correctly observed and recorded, would
certainly indicate something remarkable in the association of these species. The account was furnished to the editor of the English
edition of the Animal Kingdom (vol. x. p. (iSC), by Colonel Hamilton Smith, an accurate and accomplished naturalist. " Captain
Richards, R. N., during his last station in tlie Siediterranean, saw on a fine day a blue shark, which followed the ship, attracted
perhaps by a corpse which had been committed to the waves. After some time a shark-hook, baited with pork, was flung out. The
shark, attended by four pilot-fish. Scomber ductor, repeatedly approached the bait ; and every time that he did so, one of the pilots,
preceding him, was distinctlv seen from the tatfrail of the ship to run his snout against the side of the shark's head, to turn it away.
After some farther plav, the' fish swam off in the wake of the vessel, his dorsal fin being long distinctly visible above the water.
WTien he had gone, however, a considerable distance, he suddenly turned round, darted after the vessel, and before the pilot-fish
could overtake him and interpose, snapped at the bait and was taken. In hoisting him up, one of the pilots was observed to cling to
his side until he was half above water, when it fell off. All the pilot fishes then swam about awhile, as if in search of their friend,
with every apparent mark of anxiety and distress, and afterwards darted suddenly down into the depths of the sea. Colonel H.
Smith has himself witnessed, with intense curiosity, au event in all respects precisely similar."
' British Fishes, p. 151.

VOL. XII.

2 A

186

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Scombe-

Acanthop. bands of deeper blue upon the upper portions. It varies
terygii. from four inches to a foot in length, and the larger indi-
viduals have much the aspect of a mackerel. The name
of pilot has been bestowed on various other fishes, and the
genus Naucrates itself contains several species. N. In-
dicus, Cuv. was brought from Aniboyna by Messrs Lesson
and Garnot.

Other genera of this tribe are Elacate, Lichia, Cho-
RiNEMUs, and Trachinotus, which we. cannot here do
more than name.

Genus Rhinchobdella, B1. and Schn. Free spines
on the back, as in tlie preceding genera, and two free
spines in front of the anal fin, but the ventrals are absent,
as in Xiphias proper. The body is lengthened.

Of this genus Cuvier has formed two minor groups, —
Rhinchobdella {Macrognathus, Lacep.), including such
species as have the muzzle concave, and striated beneath,
and the three vertical fins separate ; and Mastacomblus,
Gronovius, containing such as have the muzzle simply
conical, neither striated nor concave, and the vertical fins
more or less completely joined.

The S])ecies of both genera inhabit the fresh waters of
Asia, and are widely distributed, from Syria to the isles of
Sunda, tlie Moluccas, and China. Their snouts are fur-
nished with a delicate organ of touch, and it appears that
they employ it while searching in the mud for small worms,
or other slender substances on which they feed. They are
generally regarded as poissons de bon gout, the flavour of
their flesh bearing some resemblance to that of eels.

The genus Notocanthus (of which N. Nastis is the
sole species) is characteristic of the most northern seas.

We next proceed to a grou]) of the Scomberidse which
forms the Third Great Tribe, distinguished by having
the sides furnished ivith a cuirassed lateral line.

In the timnies, sword-fish, and other Scomberidae al-
ready discussed, a projecting cartilaginous portion is ob-
servable, forming a kind of ridge or keel on each side of
the tail, at the extremity of the lateral line. In the ge-
nera of the same family of which we have now to treat,
this ridge is no longer a simple prominence of the dermis,
but is covered by scaly shields, themselves crested, and
overlapping each other. These shields, frequently ending
in a point or hook, are not always confined to the termi-
nation of the lateral line, but sometimes spread over its
entire length, and usually occupy a considerable portion.
In relation to this character, however, the tribe may be di-
vided into two sections : the first of which, comprising only
the great genus Caranx, exhibits this kind of armour in its
greatest strength and extension ; while the second (of which
the genus V^omer is the type) shows its gradual reduction
to small scales, not surpassing those of the rest of the body.

Genus Caranx, Cuv. Lateral line armed to a greater
or less extent with scaly shields, raised into a keel, and
pointed.

As an example, we here figure the Caranx hoops, a
beautiful fish from Amboyna, of a fine silvery hue, tinted
towards the back with brilliant steel blue, with green re-
flections. A pure line of orange extends from the gills to
the tail, but this ornamental character is said to disappear
speedily after death. The pectoral fins are likewise orange.
It varies from a few inches to a foot in length. See Plate
CCCII. fig. 12. The genus is extremely numerous, con-
taining probably not fewer than seventy different kinds ;
but the only other species we shall here notice is a fish
called the scad, or horse-mackerel (^Caranx truchurus,
Lacep. and Cuv.), which occasionally occurs in prodigious
shoals along the British shores. Ten thousand have been

taken by a foot-sean in a single evening in August. It Acanthop-
likewise occurs in the Mediterranean, and in the vicinity tervgii.
of Madeira.

Of genera allied to Caranx, and consisting chiefly of ,
species heretofore and erroneously referred to Zeus, Baron
Cuvier has established or retained the following, viz. Olis-
Tus, ScYRis, Blepharis, Gali,ichtys, Argyreyosus,
Vomer, and Hynnis. Of these our restricted limits pre-
vent our exhibiting the detailed characters. We shall
merely present the reader with a figaire of that singular
little fish Gallichtys ^gyptiacus, brought by Ehrenberg from
the neighbourhood of Alexandria. It measures only from
one to two inches in length, and is of a truly remarkable
form. See Plate CCCIII. fig. 1.

We have now arrived at the concluding group or Fourth
Great Tribe of the Scomberidae, in which thejinlets, the
free spines of' the hack, and the armour of the sides of the
tail, are all wanting.

The genera of this tribe, it will be perceived, are com-
bined by means of merely negative characters, and it may
therefore be expected that they will exhibit mutual rela-
tions of a less intimate kind than those of the preceding
tribes. They form in fact a group, as it were, by con-
tinuity,— one of those series of which there are many in
nature, and of which the agreement is not the less evi-
dent and harmonious, although it may be difficult to point
out a precise character in common.

As we have little to say of general interest regarding
their history or habits, we think it more suitable to the na-
ture of this article to reserve a principal portion of our al-
lotted space for the elucidation of those species concerning
which some important or amusing information has been re-
corded, We shall therefore do little more than name the
genera of our present tribe.

The genus Seriola scarcely differs from Caranx, ex-
cept in the lateral line being either unprovided with a cui-
rass, or at least merely furnished with scales which slightly
surpass those of the rest of the body. S. Dumerilii of
Risso occurs near Nice, and elsewhere in the Mediterra-
nean. It sometimes attains to the great weight of nearly
200 pounds, and dwells in deep and inaccessible places of
the sea, rarely approaching the shores, unless when com-
pelled to do so by hunger. Its flesh is of a reddish colour,
firm, and of an exquisite flavour.

The genus Temnodon greatly resembles the preceding,
but its teeth are cutting. There are two small spines in
advance of the anal fin, but almost concealed beneath the
skin. We here place the Perca saltatrix of Linn, called
skip-jack by the Americans. Its geographical distribution
is extremely extensive.

The genus Nomeus, Cuv. was for a long time combined
with the Gobies. It is related in several particulars to
Seriola, but the very large broad ventrals, attached to the
body by their inner edge, produce a peculiar character and
aspect. We here figure a small species, of which the
ground colour is like brilliant silver. The ventrals are tra-
versed by two black bands. It was transmitted to the Mu-
seum of the Low Countries from Java, by MM. Kuhl and
Van Hasselt. See Plate CCCIII. fig. 4. Three other genera
are described by Cuvier in this portion of his great work,'
which, however, we shall merely name, — viz. Nauclerus,
Porthoneus, and Psenes. The next genus is of more
general interest.

Genus Coryph^na, Linn. Body compressed, elon-
gated, covered by small scales ; head compressed, profile
circular ; eyes low, approaching the angle of the mouth ;
dorsal fin rising from the cranium, and stretching con-

' I/ist Nut. dcs Foisso'ii-, t. ix. pp. 247-C7.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Acantliop.

teryjjii.

Scombe-

ridae.

tinuously to the taiU towards whicli it decreases in ele-
vation.

Tiiis noted frenus has been remodelled in recent times,
and now consists of the following minor groups.

Isi. Genus Corypiia;na proper. Cuv. Head very ele-
vated, profile curved and perpendicular, eyes low ; mouth
well cleft ; teeth like those of a wool card.

The generic term is derived from xo^uipri, I'ertex, or top
of the head, in reference to the height of the crest of the
cranium. This division contains the famous dolphin of the

187

ridsE.

One or two other kinds, not so distinctly known, occur Acanthop-
in the Meditenanean, and many others in more distant terygii.
seas. We here figure a large species, measuring nearly Scombe-
four feet in length, taken by M. Dussumier about fifty
leagues to the west of the Azores, for which reason it bears
the name of Coryjilmna, Azorica, see Plate CCCIII.fig. a.
The PoKtuguese name more than one species Dorade, a term
which, from its similarity to Baurade (a frequent appella-
tion of our gilt-head, Chrysophria aurata), has produced
some confusion. Not less ambiguous is the name of Dol-

Mediterranean(Cor./(ip/j?<TOs, Linn.), so celebrated for the /)/««, which appears to have been first misapplied to the
beauty of its versatile tints. Corypha;na; by the Dutch. It is scarcely necessary to ob-

serve, that the English word Dni|)hin, as synonymous with
the Greek AsXp/j, the Latin Delphinus, and the French
Dauphin, was originally, and is still correctly, applied only
to designate a group of cetaceous animals (allied in struc-
ture to the whales), to which the classical dolphin of anti-
quity assuredly belonged. But by some conversion, into
the history of which it is not worth while to inquire, the

parting day

Hies like the dolphin, whom each pang imbues

AVith a new colour as it gasps away.

The last still loveliest, till — 'tis gone — and all is gray.

The species are still in some measure indistinctly cha-
racterized. They occur in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans,
and the Mediterranean Sea, and are remarkable, anions

other things, for their keen pursuit of flying fish, which, in term has been applied by most modern writers, particularly

poets, to a creature of another class, a genuine fish, of the
genus Coryphana. No fault therefore can be imputed to
the naturalist, if the general misapplication of the term is
now found to occasion any misconception. There is no
doubt, however, that the animal beloved by gods and men,
the Hieros Ichthys of the heroic Greeks, and the revered
symbol of the Delphic Apollo, was nothing more than a
pellock or porpoise.-

2rf. Genus Lampugus,^ Cuv. Head oblong ; central crest
of the forehead much lower than in Coryphaena ; dorsal fin
equal, and low throughout its whole extent.

More than one species occurs in the Mediterranean,
but the most common in that sea is L. pelagicus, which
almost in every thing resembles the so-called dolphin,
except in the form of its head, and more diminutive di-
mensions.

3rf. Genus Centrolophus, Lacep. Form more length-
ened ; palatine teeth wanting ; an interval between the
occiput and the commencement of the dorsal fin.

Most of the species occur in the Mediterranean ; and
the black perch of Pennant, the black fish of Couch and
Yarrell (Cent, pompilus, Cuv.), is referrible to this genus.
It is a fish of great strength and velocity, measuring from
two to three feet, and is one of our rare British species.

Genus Astrodebmus, Bonelli. Head elevated and
sharp; mouth slightly cleft ; only four branchial rays ; ven-
trals very small, and placed upon the throat ; scales scat-
tered upon the body, and assuming the radiated form of
little stars. It is from the latter circumstance that the
genus derives its name.

There is only a single species of this genus, — recently
discovered, and still extremely rare. It has been taken
near Nice, and also in the Gulf of Cagliari in Sardinia,
and was originally described by M. Risso under the name
of Coryphana elegans.

Genus Pteraclis. Head and teeth as in Coryphana,
but the scales are larger, the ventrals very small, and
placed upon the throat ; the dorsal and anal fins prodi-
giously extended.

This eccentric genus is founded on a fish described by
Pallas in his Spicilegia, under the name of Cofrypha'na ve-

the first place, they force to leave their native element,
and then following swiftly in a corresponding track, receive
with open mo\ith the moment they descend exhausted to
the surface. The Coryjjhaena; may be regarded as among
tlie most brilliant inhabitants of the sea. It is necessary,
according to Bosc, to have seen them following a vessel in
troops, before we can form a proper estimate of their beauty.
When they swim embodied near the surface, and beneath
the light of a cloudless sky, they seem effulgent with the rich-
est gold, combined with the sparkling lustre of the topaz,
the emerald, and the sapphire, — and every brilliant hue in
perpetual change, accordant with the vivacity and varied
grace of their movements. It is indeed a spectacle suffi-
cient anywhere to excite our unfeigned admiration ; and
when seen suddenly amid the waves of the lonely and
monotonous ocean, it comes upon us like a glad surprise.
The beauty of these fishes has in every age attracted the
wonder

Of all who on the wide deep wandering are;

and it is so far to be regretted, that their fugitive colours
have been the chief object of attention, — their more pre-
cise description and specific discrimination having been
greatly disregarded.

The Coryphaenae are strong, active, and voracious fishes.
W'hile swimming rapidly, they seem rather as if impelled
or projected forwards by some exterior force, than by any
exertion of their own. But, on attentive examination, a
strong and rapid muscular movement may be detected, by
the constant undulation of the long dorsal fin, a movement
which greatly contributes to the throwing off of those lus-
trous metallic reflections for which they have so long been
noted. The Mediterranean species. Cor. hippurus, if not the
most beautiful, is the largest known. It sometimes attains
to the length of five feet. Its colours, so far as they are ca-
pable of description, are silvery blue above, with markings
of a deeper azure, and reflections of pure gold^the lower
parts citron yellow, marked with pale blue. The pectoral
fins are partly lead colour, partly yellow ; the ventrals are
yellow on their under surface, and black above ; the anal
fin is yellow. The iris of the eye is made of apparent gold.'

' Every voyager seems to describe the dolphin in his own way ; and it is by no means easy for a landsman to ascertain which is
the right one. The plav of colour, as it is called, may no doubt admit of great diversity in the expressions used. The above de-
scription is from the recorded observation of the living fish by 51. Biberon. Another eye-witness. Colonel Bory St Vincent, de-
scribes the back as being of a sea-green colour, sprinkled with orange spots ; the abdomen silvery ; the lateral line yellow ; the dorsal
fin celestial blue, with golden-coloured rays ; the caudal fin surrounded by a green hue ; the other fins yellow. {Dictiannnire Ctas-
tique d'Hist. Nat. t. iv. p. 528)

' Wilson's Illustrations of Zoology, vol. i. article Uelphiwaptehus.

' Synonymous with the genus Caranxomiis of Lacepede, which was adopted by Cuvier in the Rcgne Animal, but is now, so far as
the name is concerned, handed over to oblivion.

18S

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Acanthop. lifera, and it was with a feeling of doubt that Cuvier
terygii. placed it where it now stands. It is not easy to conceive
Scombe- j|^g ^gg pf jjg dorsal and anal fins, so enormouslj' large in
"'"'*■ proportion to the size of the body. Pallas indeed ima-
gined that they might serve to sustain it in the air ; but
in that case the fish must fly, as a flounder swims, upon
its side. The species are unfortunately so rare, that it
may be long before an opportunity occurs of throwing
any liglit upon the subject. The only known specimen
of Pt. ocellatus, Cuv. was taken entire from the stomach of
a bonito in the Straits of Mosambique. The species re-
presented in this work (See Plate CCCIII. fig 3) was
brought to Europe by MM. Quoy and Gaymard, but we
know not from what locality.

Genus Stromateos, Linn. Distinguished among the
Scoraberidoe by the want of the ventral fins, and by a
single dorsal, the spiny rays of which, few in number, are
concealed in its anterior margin. The vertical fins are
covered by scales, as among the Squammipennes.

The Mediterranean produces a beautiful species {St.
fialola, Linn.), remarkable for its spots and broken bands of
gold upon a lead-coloured ground. The black pomfret of
India, a delicious fish for table uses, pertains to this genus.
It is the St. niger of Bloch. According to Russel, it is
abundant at Vizagapatam during the months of March
and April, and vanishes and re-appears alternately every
two or three days. It requires to be eaten immediately
after capture. A singular circumstance in the geographi-
cal history of this genus is, that although the species
seem common along a great extent of Indian coast, and
spread as far as China, none is known at the Isle of France,
nor in any part of the Indian Archipelago.

Genus Rhombus,' Lacep. Extremity of the pelvis
forming, anterior to tiie anus, a small pointed and cutting
blade, which resembles a vestige of the ventral fins.

As an example, we may mention the Harvest fish of New
York, an excellent article for the table. It is the Rh.
longipinnis of Cuvier, erroneously placed by Linnaeus
among the Chaetodons.

The genus Luvarus of Rafinesque resembles the pre-
ceding. There is only one species distinctly known
{L. imperialis), a fish of fine flavour, but extremely rare.
It measures five feet in length ; the whole body is of a
reddish silvery colour, more obscure upon the back. It
was dashed ashore near Solanto, in Sicily.* A species
unknown to the fishermen was taken in 1826, at Isle-de-
Re, which Cuvier regards as referrible to this genus. The
genus Sbserinus, Cuv. possesses the characters of Stro-
mateus, but very small ventrals are perceptible, or at
least the vestiges of these organs are apparent. The only
known species is S. Rondeletii, a small fish of the Medi-
terranean.

Gekus Kurtus, Bloch. Allied to Rhombus, but differs
in the dorsal fin being shorter, and the ventrals more
developed. The scales are so fine as to be imperceptible
in the dried state. There are seven branchial rays. The
pelvis shows a spine between the ventrals, and several
small cutting blades are visible anterior to the dorsal fin.

at the base of which is a spine directed horizontally for- Acanthop.
wards. tervgii.

The skeleton in this genus presents a striking pecu- Scombe-
liarity in the ribs, which are dilated, convex, and in the ^_,_ " /
form of rings which come in contact with each other, —
thus enclosing a conical empty space, which is prolonged
beneath the tail, in the inferior rings of the vertebra;, into
a long thin tube enclosing the swimming bladder. The
species inhabit the Indian seas, and are few in number.
K. cornutiis, called somdrum-hara-moddee at Vizagapatam,
and which Cuvier regards as the male of K. Blochii, La-
copede, is an excellent eating fish, remarkable for being
almost transparent in a state of freshness.

We shall conclude our exposition of the Scomberidae
by a brief notice of the genus Zeus, Linn, from which
some of the preceding genera, such as GaUychtis, Argy-
reyosus, &c. have already been detached. In its more
restricted form it contains fishes of a compressed body,
protractile mouth covered by small scales, with teeth
feeble and few in number. It is further divisible as
follows :

Genus Zeus, Cuv. Dorsal fin emarginate, its spines
accompanied by long slips of the membrane; a series of
forked spines along the base of the dorsal and anal fins.

The type of the genus is Zeits faber, commonly called
the Dory (Plate CCCIII. fig. 5), probably from the French
term doree, in allusion to the golden tints of its body.^ Its
surface has at the same time a smoked appearance, on
which account the French name \lforgeron, a word which
corresponds to the Latin trivial name oi faber, or black-
smith. It is also called \hefish of St Peter, from an an-
cient traditionary belief that it was from the mouth of
this species that the apostle extracted the tribute-money,
and the black spot on either side of its body is supposed
ta be a record of its capture at that time.'' The dory is
a fish greatly esteemed for the table. It occurs both in
the Mediterranean Sea, and along the oceanic coasts of
Europe. According to Pennant, the largest are found in
the Bay of Biscay. Willughby alludes to it as common
in his day on the shores of Cornwall ; and it is still taken
both there and along the Devonshire coast, occasionally
even in profusion. Mr Couch, as quoted by Mr Yarrell,
considers the dory rather as a wandering than a migra-
tory fish, and as regulated in a great measure by the move-
ments of the smaller kinds on which it preys. Wlien the
pilchards approach the shore, it is frequently taken in
considerable numbers. In the autumn of 1829, more than
sixty were hauled on shore at once in a net, some of them
of large size, and yet the whole were sold together for
nine shillings. The largest specimens of the London
market weigh from ten to twelve pounds, but the aver-
age weight is scarcely more than five. The dory is a
bold, voracious species, preying greedily upon the more
timid kinds, and pouncing readily upon all sorts of bait.
Its flesh was highly esteemed in the time of Pliny. Co-
lumella, who was a native of Cadiz (where it was regard-
ed as the best of fishes), has recorded that it had been
long known by the name of Zeus — a designation which in

' In the second edition of the Regne Animal, this genus bears the name of Peprilus ; Cuvier not having been at that time
aware that it had been previously designated by Lacepede under the name of Rhombus. We deem the choice of the latter name
equally unfortunate, seeing that it had been previously applied generically to that group of the Pleuronectidfe called Turhots. But
we leiivL> it to more influential authors to propose a second change.

- Rafinesque, Caratteri di alcuni ntiovi pener'i, &c. dclla Sicilia, p. 22.

' A variety of derivations, however, have been assigned to the English name. In addition to the one above alluded to, we
shall merely mention the following : St Christopher, while wading through an arm of the sea, and bearing the infant Saviour, is
said to have caught a dory, and to have impressed its sides with the two peculiar marks, as a perpetual record of the fact. The
name was therefore said to be from the French adoric, worshipped, as something unusually sacred. The designation of John Dory
is in all probability derived from the French jauiie dorie, in allusion to the tints of a golden i/cllow hue with which it is adorned.
Some, however, refer it (and again in connection with St Peter) to the Italian term janifoir, or door-keeper, by which it seems the
species is known to the fishermen of the Adriatic.

* The common haddock also bears a share in this tradition.

ICHTHYOLOGY

189

Acanthop-
terygii.

itself argues pre-eminence, Ziut in Greek signifying the
monarch of the gods.

Genus Capros, Lacep. Dorsal fin emarginate, as in the
preceding, and the mouth still more protractile ; but there
are no spines to either the anal or dorsal fin. The body
is covered with strong rough scales.

The only species with which we are acquainted is the
Zeus aper of Linn, a small fish of the Mediterranean. A
specimen was taken in Mounts Bay in October 1825,' and
more recently it was observed in the Bridgewater fish-
market, as we are informed by W. C. Trevelyan, Esq.

Genus Lampris, Retzius. A single dorsal fin, high in
front, where it is furnished with one or two small spines.
The ventrals have ten long rays, and the lobes of the
caudal fin are considerably elongated, but these prolonga-
tions seem to become effaced by age. The sides of the
tail are carinated.

The only known species (Z. guftatiis, 2kus luna, Gme-
lin) occurs, though rarely, off the French coasts, and in
the British seas, where it is known as the opah or king-
fish. It is one of the most splendid and remarkable of
European fishes. Its back is of a deep blue spotted with
silver, — the rest of its body like polished gold, reflecting
ail the colours of the rainbow. It is certainly sufficiently
singular that a species included by Nilsson in his Prodro-
mus of the fishes of Scandinavia, should likewise be enu-
merated by Kaempfer as occurring in Japan. The opah
is a fish of great size, measuring sometimes five feet in
length. Its flesh is said to taste like beef. See Plate
CCCIII. fig. 6.

The remaining genera are Equula, Cuvier, and Mene,
Lacepede. The Zeus insidiator is an example of the for-
mer,— the Zeus maculatus, of the latter.

FAMILY VIII — T^NIOID^.

This family is closely connected with the Scomberidae.
The species are of a very lengthened form, and flattened
laterally, from which they have obtained the name of rib-
bon-fishes. Their scales are very small.

The first tribe' comprehends those genera of which the
mouth is small, and but slightly cleft.

Genus Gymnetrus, Bloch. Body elongated and flat;
anal fin entirely wanting ; dorsal fin long, with prolonged
anterior rays, which, however, are easily broken ; ventrals
also very long, when not worn away by use, or otherwise
fractured ; the caudal, composed of few rays, rises verti-
cally on the extremity of the tail, which finishes in a
little hook. There are six branchial rays.

The species are so soft and tender that they often pre-
sent themselves as it were with false characters, from the
natural mutilation of the rays. For this reason they are
as yet indistinctly characterized by systematic writers.
Even the central skeleton, and especially the bones of the
vertebrae, are extremely soft. The stomach is long ; there
are numerous caeca; the swimming bladder is wanting;
and the flesh, of a raucous nature, decomposes with great
rapidity. The European species occur in the Mediter-
ranean, and also occasionally in the British and more
northern seas. The fish called king/ of the herrings by
the Norwegians belongs to this genus. We here figure as

a curious example the Gymnetrus falx. See Plate CCCIII- Acanthop-
fig. 8. We may add, that the Gymnetrus Hawkenii of toryjfii.
Bloch, a species originally described from a specimen taken Theuti'lae.
near Goa, in the Indian Sea, was many years ago drawn ^^"V"~^
ashore dead on the south coast of Cornwall. It measured
nearly nine feet, and weighed forty pounds. The vaag-
tnaer, or deal-fish, has also been recorded by Dr Fleming
as a British species.-* It is the Gymnetrus Arcticus of sys-
tematic authors.

That very singularly-formed fish, the Slyleptiorus cor-
datus of Shaw, forms the remaining genus of the present
tribe.*

In the second tribe of T^Nioina; the muzzle is short,
and the mouth obliquely cleft.

Genus Cepola, Linn. Dorsal and anal fin long, each
reaching to the base of the caudal, which itself is rather
large ; the cranium is not raised or crested ; the muzzle
is very short, with the superior curved upwards ; the teeth
are distinct, and the ventral fins perceptibly developed.
There are a few unarticulated rays in the dorsal fin, which
are as flexible as the others ; the spine of the ventrals
alone being stiff and pointed. There are six branchial
rays. Both the abdominal cavity and stomach are very
short. Some casca are perceptible, and a swimming blad-
der, which extends into the caudal extremity. The occa-
sional occurrence of a Mediterranean species of this genus
( Cep. rtthescens, Linn.) along the coasts of Devon and Corn-
wall has been recorded both by Montagu and Couch.^

Genus Lophotes, Giorna. Head short, surmounted
by a raised osseous crest, on the summit of which is ar-
ticulated a long and powerful spiny ray, bordered behind
by a membrane, and followed by a low simply rayed con-
tinuous fin, which spreads onwards to the point of the tail.
Caudal fin distinct but small ; and beneath the above-
mentioned point there are two scarcely perceptible ven-
tral fins furnished with four or five exceedingly small
rays. The teeth are pointed, and not very close toge-
ther ; the mouth directed upwards, and the eyes very
large. There are six branchial rays, and the abdominal
cavity occupies almost the entire extent of the body. We
are acquainted with only a single species (Loph. Lacepe-
dianus), which inhabits the Mediterranean, where, how-
ever, it is extremely rare. It attains to a large size, that
is, to about four feet in length.*

FAMILY IX.— THEUTID^.

This family is perhaps as closely allied to the Scombe-
ridae as the preceding, but its alliance proceeds from other
points,— such as the armature of the sides of the tail in
several genera, or the horizontal spine anterior to the
dorsal fin in others. It comprises but a small number of
foreign genera, with compressed oblong bodies, small
mouths, slightly or not at all protractile, armed on each
jaw with cutting teeth upon a single range, the palate and
tongue without teeth, and a single dorsal fin. The species
are of herbivorous habits, feeding chiefly on fuci and other
marine vegetation. Their intestines are ample. We are
compelled to be brief in our indications of the generic
groups.

The genus Siganus, Forsk. of which the species are

' Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1833, p. 113.

' In the Regne Animal, t. ii. p. 217, the first tribe of the family above named is composed of the genera Lepidopiis and Trichiurua,
which, however, in Cuvier's later work (Hiit. Nat. dei Poissons, t. viii. p. 217) are placed as an appendix to the first tribe of the ScoK-
BERID.E, where we have accordingly placed them in the present article. We therefore commence the T^NioiDiE with what waa
formerly the second tribe.

^ Magazine of Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p. 215. ■• See General Zoology, vol. iv. part 1. p. 87.

• Linn. Trans, vol. vii. p. 291, and vol. xiv. p. 17.

• See Mem. deVAcad. de Turin, 1805-8, p. 19; and Ann. du Museum, t. xx. fig. 17-

190

Acanthop-
terygii.
I.abyrin-
thitbrni
Pliarvn-
geals.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

numerous in tlie Indian seas, is characterized by a fea-
ture believed to be unique among fishes, that of having
both the outer and inner ray of the ventral fins spiny.
The genus Acanthurus, Bloch, has the teeth cutting
and dentated, and a strong moveable spine on each side
of the tail, capable of inflicting a severe vvound on those
who grasp it incautiously. On this account a species
greatly sought for in the West Indies as food has re-
ceived the name of surgeon, Ac. Chirurgus. As an ex-
ample we here figure the Acanthurus Delisianus. See
Plate CCCIII. fig. 7. In the genus Naseus the sides of
the tail are armed witli fixed spines, and the teeth are coni-
cal. The great peculiarity, however, consists in a horn-
like prominence on the front of the head. The skin re-
sembles leather. Forskall relates of one species (N.fron-
ticornis, Lac.) that although of peaceable demeanour and
herbivorous habits, it knows hoiv to defend itself from
unprovoked aggression ; and he reports the observations
of some Arabian fishermen, who saw a troop of them come
to the rescue of a companion who had been transfixed on
the surfiice of the water by an eagle. They so bothered
the " Bird of Jove" as eventually to produce his death by
drowning. This, however, savours more of an " Arabian
Tale" than of a fact in natural history. See Plate CCCIII.
fig. 9. The reader will perceive in the two preceding re-
presentations a resemblance to the genus Chaetodon. The
remaining genera of this small family are Axinurus and
Priodon, Cuv.

FAMILY X— LABYRINTHIF0R5I PHARYNGEALS.

By this term Baron Cuvier means to designate the pe-
culiar structure of a part of the upper pharyngeal bones,
which are divided into leaflets more or less numerous
and irregular. This formation produces cells capable of
containing water, which flows upon and moistens the
branchise for some time after the fish itself has been re-
moved from its natural element; and this refreshing in-
fluence is rendered the more effectual by the closeness of
the opercula or gill-covers. The consequence is, that most
of the species possess the power of quitting their streams
and pools, and creeping, as it were, to some little distance
from their watery homes, — a faculty not unknown to an-
cient writers, and one which in India has led to the belief
that these fishes fall from heaven.

Genus Anabas. In this genus the labyrinths alluded
to attain the greatest degree of complication. Neverthe-
less the third pharyngeals have teeth en paves, and there
are others beneath the back of the cranium. The body
is round, covered by strong scales ; the head large ; the
muzzle short and obtuse ; the mouth small ; the lateral
line interrupted about its posterior third. The margins
of the opercle, sub-opercle, and inter-opercle, are strong-
ly toothed, but not those of the pre-opercle. The bran-
chial membrane has five rays. There are many spiny
rays to the dorsal, and even to the anal fin. The stomach
is of medium size, rounded. The pylorus has only three
appendices.

The generic name is derived from the Greek, anajSaim,
to ascetid, and refers to the singular instinct of the only
known species (A71. scaiidens, Plate CCCIII. fig. 11), which
induces it to climb trees.' It performs this action by
means of the spiny processes of the gill-covers, and moves
at pleasure up the trunks of trees which grow by the
water side. It was observed by Lieutenant Daldorff, at
Tranquebar, ascending by a fissure in the stem of the

Labynii-
thiforni
Pharyn-
geals.

palm called Borassus Jlabellifer, and was also found to Acanthop
be so tenacious of life as to move about upon the dry terygii
sand for some hours after it was captured on the tree.*
At the same time other respectable observers who have
attended to this species in its natural state, make no men-
tion of the fact. M. Reinwardt has frequently taken the
Anabas at Java, but never heard any climbing propensi-
ties attributed to it ; M. Leschenault, who transmitted se-
veral specimens to Pondicherry, simply observes that they
dwell in rivers and fresh-water ponds ; while Mr Hamil-
ton Buchanan proceeds still further, and not only denies
the fact, but regards it as contrary to the laws of nature.
One point, however, is certain, that it is capable of living
an unusual length of time out of the water, a fact in per-
fect accordance with the peculiar structure of its pharyn-
geals. It also creeps about upon the ground for hours
together, and the fishermen are alleged to keep it alive
for five or six days in a dry vessel. It is thus brought
alive to the markets of Calcutta from the great marshes
of the district of Yazor, which are distant more than a
hundred and fifty miles. " Les charlatans et jongleurs,"
says Cuvier, " dont ITnde abonde, ont generalemeftt de
ces poissons avec eux dans des vases, pour amuser la po-
pulace de leurs mouvemens."^

Passing over the nearly allied genera of Helostoma,
Polyacanthus, Colisa, and Macropodus, we arrive at
the

Genus Osphronemus of Commerson, of which .the
forehead is somewhat concave, the anal fin larger than
the dorsal, the sub-orbitals and base of the pre-opercle
finely dentated, and the first soft ray of the ventrals re-
markably prolonged. There are six branchial rays, and
the general form of the body is much compressed.

This genus contains the Os. olfax, or Gourami, one of the
most famous for its flavour of all the fishes of the East.
See Plate CCCIII. fig. 10.) It grows as large as a turbot,
and is even more delicious than that favourite food. Com-
merson has recorded in his manuscript that he never tast-
ed so exquisite a fish, — " Nihil inter pisces turn marinos
tum fluviatiles exquisitius unquam degustavi ;" and he
adds, that the Dutch of Batavia rear them in large earth-
en vessels, renewing the water every day, and feeding
them on aquatic plants, particularly Pistia nutans. That
navigator was also of opinion that the species had been
imported originally from China to the Isle of France, and
it appears to have been recently conveyed to the French
colonies in South America by Captain Philibert. Its im-
portation to Europe would be well worth attempting, and
would probablj' be attended by success if the Gourami,
like the golden carp, is actually a native of China. It
does not, however, appear that any mention is made of it
in any natural history notices of that empire, and it seems
as yet unknown in India. It is said that the female Gou-
rami hollows out a little foss in the side of the pond where
she is kept, for the purpose of depositing her eggs in
safety.

The remaining genera of this group are Thichopus,
Spirobranchus, and Ophicephalus. Of the former two
only a single species is known of each. The last named is
more numerous, and is deserving of a brief notice.

The Ophicephali resemble all the preceding genera of
the family in the majority of their characters, and particu-
larly in the celhilar disposition of their pharyngeals, which
seem equally adapted for the singular retention of water
before alluded to. They can consequently also creep to a
considerable distance from their liquid abodes ; but what
particularly distinguishes and even separates them irom all

' It is synonymous with Perca scandcns of Daldorf, and Coins coioiiii of Buchanan. In the Tamoiil language it is called Paneiri,
or the tree climber.

* Linn. Trant. vol iii p. G2. » Hitt. Jfat. dct Poition; t. vii. p. 332.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

191

Acanthop. other acantliopterygian fishes, is the absence of spines to developed, give an angular form to the oesophagus resem- Acanthop.

terygii. fjjjj ^fjg^ except the single one to the ventrals, which itself,
\,^^^IJ^ though simple, is neither stiff nor pointed. The body is
elongated, and almost cylindrical ; the muzzle short and
obtuse ; the head depressed, and furnished with polygonal
scales, or rather plates, as in Aiuibas. It may be said, how-
ever, that it is by means of the solitary ventral spines alone
that they exhibit the normal character of the great division
of acanthopterygian fishes with which we have been hitherto
engaged. They thus, by such ambiguous combination of cha-
racter, almost break up the grand distinction of acanthop-
terygian and malacopterygian species, a distinction other-
wise so well grounded as to have hitherto produced no dis-
ruption of the relations of natural affinity. " If it were pos-
sible," says Cuvier, " to admit that anomalous beings exist-
ed in nature, there is certainly none to which the title is so
justly due as to the Ophicephali." Their watery reservoirs
enable them to journey from one marsh to another, and
they are moreover so tenacious of life that their bowels
may he torn out, and themselves cut to pieces, without pro-
ducing immediate death. They are often thus carried about
alive, or sold in the markets slice by slice ; and the con-
sumers refuse to give the best price when so much has
been cut away that the remainder ceases to move. This
seems a parallel case to that of the beef-steaks from the
oxen of Abyssinia. We here figure as an example of this
singular genus the Ophicephalus slriatus, a species which
seems spread over the whole of India. See Plate CCCIII.
fig. 12. Buchanan describes another species under the
name of Gachua ( Oph. marginalus, Cuv. ?), which some-
times grows to a foot in length. It is very common in the
l)onds and fosses of Bengal, and is one of the species most
generally believed to fall from the clouds in wet weather.
During the first heavy showers of the rainy season, they
are certainly seen crawling on the grass ; but their object
in so doing is doubtless to escape from the corrupted water
of the narrow dykes which they had previously inhabited,
and to go in search of a purer element, and a fresherand more
ample food. The species called Barca by Buchanan lives
in holes in the vertical banks of the Brahmapootra, with no-
thing visible but its head, that it may the more readily ob-
serve and seize its prey. It is a large fish, measuring three
feet in length, and is regarded as good eating. On the
W'hole, however, the species of this genus are consumed ra-
ther by natives than Europeans, — the latter probably re-
garding them too much in the light of reptiles. We may
add, that the Ophicephali are often exhibited by the Indian
jugglers, and that even the children amuse themselves by
forcing them to crawl upon the ground.

FAMILY XI—MUGILID.E.

The fishes which compose our present group (corre-
sponding to the genus MuGir, of Linn.) exhibit so many
peculiarities of organization, that Cuvier has deemed it ad-
visable to form them into a distinct family. The body is
almost cylindrical, covered with large scales, and furnished
with two distinct dorsal fins, the first of which has only
four spiny rays. The ventrals are attached somewhat be-
hind the pectorals. The gills have six rays. The head is
rather depressed, also covered with large scales or polygo-
nal plates. The muzzle is very short. The transverse
mouth forms an angle by means of a prominence of the

biing that of the mouth, which permits only fluids or very ter.v{»ii.
small substances to enter the stomach, notwithstanding ^^"S''"'*-
which the latter terminates in a kind of fleshy gizzard, ana- *~'"V~'
logons to that of birds. The pyloric appendices are few
in number, but the intestine is long and folded.

The species are excellent as articles of food. They re-
sort in vast troops to the mouths of large rivers, where
they may be observed continually springing out of the wa-
ter.

The Mtigil cephalus, or Mediterranean gray mullet (the
English name must not mislead the unpractised reader to
confound it with the genus Mullus, formerly described), is
distinguished from all the other European species by its
eyes, which are half covered by two adipose veils adherent
to the anterior and posterior margin of the orbit, and by
the peculiar concealment of the maxillary bone, which,
when the mouth is closed, is completely hidden beneath
the sub-orbital. The base of the pectoral fin is surmount-
ed by a long carinated scale. See Plate CCCIII. fig. 13.
The species just referred to is the best and largest of the
Mediterranean kinds. It weighs about ten or twelve
pounds, and does not appear to have been yet detected
in the seas or estuaries of Britain, nor along the oceanic
shores of France. It is very common on the coast of Spain,
especially around the island of Ivica, where the fishermen
are said to recognise two varieties under the names of Mw
gil and Lissa. W^hen surrounded by a net, it endeavours,
and often successfully, to effect its escape, by leaping over
the edges into the unencumbered sea.'

" Its hearing is very fine, as has been noticed by Aris-
totle, and it feeds on worms and small marine animals ;
but it is doubtful, though it has been advanced, that it can
live on vegetable substances. It appears to be of a stupid
character, a fact which was known in the time of Pliny, for
that author tells us that there is something ludicrous in the
disposition of the mullets ; for if they are afraid they con-
ceal their heads, and thus imagine they are entirely with-
drawn from the observation of their enemies.

" When, towards the end of spring and the commence-
ment of summer, the fishes of this species, excited by the
necessity of living in the fresh water, approach the shores
and advance towards the mouths of the rivers, they form
such numerous troops that the water through which they
are seen, without being clearly distinguished, appears to
be bluish. This particularly happens in the Garonne and
the Loire at these periods. The fishermen there adopt the
plan of surrounding these legions of mullets with nets, the
enclosure of which they gradually contract, taking care to
make a noise to frighten the fish, and oblige them to press
together, and heap themselves as it were one upon the
other.

" Of the mullets thus taken some are eaten fresh, others
are salted and smoke-dried ; it is with their eggs salted,
washed, pressed, and dried, that the preparation called io-
tarcha is made, which is a condiment greatly in request in
Italy and the southern provinces of France. The flesh of
this mullet is tender, delicate, and of an agreeable flavour ;
it is fatter and more in estimation when it is taken in the
fresh water. The ancients, who from the time of Aristotle
w ere acquainted with this fish, had it in great request ; and
the consumption of it is still very considerable in most of
the southern countries of Europe. According to the re-
port of Athenaeus, those mullets were formerly in very high

middle of the lower jaw, corresponding to a depression of esteem which were taken in the neighbourhood of Sinope
the upper one ; and the teeth are excessively fine, indeed and Abdera ; while, as Paulus Jovius informs us, those were
in some cases imperceptible. The pharyngeal bones, greatly very little prized which had lived in the salt marsh of Or-

' The Mngil salicni derives its specific name from the extraordinary velocity with which it springs into the air when it finds it-
self abuut to be enclosed.

]92

Acanlhop.

tervi^ii.
Gobioidae.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

bitello in Tuscany, in the lagunes of Ferrara and Venice,
in those of Padua and Chiozza, and sucli as came from the
neighbourhood of Commachio and Ravenna. All these
places in fact are marshy, and the streams by which they
are watered are brackish, and communicate to the fish
which they sujiport the odour and the flavour of the mud."'
At the conclusion of this family Cuvier places the two
following genera, the first of which is allied partly to the
mullets and partly to the Scomberidae, while the second
partakes of characters intermediate between the Mugilidae
in general, and the ensuing family of Gobioidas.

Genus Tetragonubus, Risso, so called from two sa-
lient crests on each side, near the base of the caudal fin.
The body is elongated ; the spinous dorsal long, but very
low, — the soft dorsal approximate, but higher and short,
with an anal of corresponding form ; the ventrals are a
little behind the pectorals ; the branches of the lower jaw
are vertically raised, and furnished with a range of pointed
cutting teeth, forming as it were a saw, and fitting, when
the mouth is closed, into those of the upper jaw. The sto-
mach is garnished interiorly with hard and pointed papillae.
The only known species (71 Cuvieri, Risso) is found
along the Mediterranean shores, but only at great depths.
It is of a black colour, measuring about a foot in length,
and is covered by hard, toothed, striated scales. Its flesh
is said to be poisonous.

Genus Atherina, Linn. Body elongated; dorsals
wide apart ; ventrals further back than the pectorals ;
mouth very projectile, and furnished with extremely small
teeth. The transverse processes of the last abdominal ver-
tebrae are bent so as to form a little conical bag for the re-
ception of the point of the swimming bladder.

All the known species are characterised by a broad sil-
very band along the sides. They are highly esteemed for
their delicacy ; and the fry, which continue for a long time
together in crowded troops, are eaten along the Mediter-
ranean shores under the name oi Nonnat. A. hepsetus, Linn,
was till very recently regarded as indigenous to the seas
and estuaries of Britain. There was reason, however, to
believe that several species had been confounded under
that name ; and Mr Yarrell has ascertained that the Bri-
tish species, commonly called the Atherine, coincides in
its characters with the Atherina presbyter of Cuvier. It is
a common fish at Brighton, where, under the name of
sand-smelt, it is eaten in large quantities by the inhabitants
and visitors during the winter months. It partakes of the
cucumber smell and flavour of the true smelt, and is a small
handsome fish, measuring from five to six inches. It is
rarely brought to the London market. It spawns in May
and June.

FAAIILY XII GOBIOID,*:.

This family derives its name from the Linnaean genus
Gobius, and is distinguished by having the dorsal spines

slender and flexible. The viscera of all the fishes pertain- Acantliop-
ing to it are nearly of the same conformation ; the intestinal terygii.
canal is equal, ample, and without cjeca, and there is no Gobioida;.
swimming bladder. ^■^"Y"*^

The species referrible to the genus Blennius, Linn, pre-
sent a very distinctive character in having their ventral
fins placed before the pectorals, and composed only of
two rays. Their bodies are elongated and compressed,
and they bear only a single dorsal, composed almost en-
tirely of simple and flexible rays. They live in small com-
panies in rocky streams, and can survive for a consider-
able time out of the water, in consequence of their skin
being covered with a kind of mucus, a circumstance which
has caused the Greek name Blennius to be applied to
them. Many of them are viviparous, and both sexes have
a tubercle near the anus, which seems to be subservient to
the purposes of copulation. They are now arranged under
the following genera :

Genus Blennius, Cuv. Includes the blennies properly
so called, and is characterised by long, equal, and closely-
placed teeth, forming only a single and rather regular row
on each jaw, terminating behind in some species by a
long and hooked tooth. The head is obtuse, the muzzle
short, and the forehead vertical ; the intestines broad and
short. Several species occur along the coasts of Britain.
Of these we may mention the butterfly blenny {B. ocella-
ris), distinguished by having the dorsal bi-lobed, the an-
terior lobe being very elevated, and marked with a round
black spot, cinctured with a white and black circle. See
Plate CCCIV. fig. 1.

Genus Myxodes, Cuv. Separated from the blennies
properly so called, in consequence of the head being elon-
gated, the snout pointed, and projecting beyond the
mouth ; the range of teeth like those of the blennies, but
without the canine teeth.

Genus Salarias, Cuv. Teeth laterally compressed,
hooked at the extremity, exceedingly slender, and in pro-
digious numbers. The head of these fishes is very much
compressed superiorly, and of great breadth across the
base : their lips are fleshy and thick, their forehead quite
vertical, and their intestines, spirally convoluted, are
longer and more slender than in the common blennies.
All the known species are from the Indian Ocean.

Genus Clin us, Cuv. Teeth short and pointed, dis-
posed in several rows, the first of which is largest. Their
muzzle is less obtuse than in the two preceding groups,
the stomach broader, and the intestines not so long.

Genus Cihrhibarbus, Cuv. The general form is
that of the preceding genus ; the teeth are crowded, and
there is a small tentaculum over the eye, and another on
the nostril, besides three large ones at the extremity of
the muzzle, and eight under the point of the lower jaw.
Only one species is known, a native of the Indus. It is of
a uniform reddish-yellow colour.

Genus Gunellus. {3Iur(enoides, hacep.) Distinguish-
ed from all the other blennies by having the ventrals so

■ ' Griffith's edition of the minimal Kingdom, vol. x. p. 300. According to Baron Cuvier, Linnaeus and several of his successors liave
confounded all tlie European niugils or gray mullets under the single specific name of M. ccphalus. The Frencli naturalist restricts
that denomination to the species characterised above, and which has not yet been detected along our island shores. Our ffratj mullet
is the mugil capita of Cuvier, an inhabitant not only of the Mediterranean, but also of all the western shores of the temperate parts of
Europe. " The partiality," says Mr Yan-ell, " exhibited by the gray nuillet for fresh water has led to actual expeiiment of the
effe.-t of confining them to it entirely. Jlr Arnould put a number of the fiy of the gray mullet about the size of a finger into his
pond at Guernsey, wliich is of about three acres area, and has been before referred to under the article Jjussc. After a few years, mul-
let of four pounds weight were caught, which proved to be fatter, deeper, and heavier for tlieir length, than others obtained from the
sea. Of all the various salt-water fishes introduced, the gray mullet appeared to be the most improved. A slight change in the ex-
ternal colour is said to be visible." [llritish Fishes, p. 205.) The same author informs us that the gray mullet is frequently an object
of sport to the angler. They rise freely at the Hies used for trout, and even at the larger and more gaudy flies used for salmon.
They are strong in the water, and rc(iuire a careful hand in consequence of their impetuous plunging. Our other British species are
the thick-lipped gray mullet, mugil clirlo, Cuv., and a small species described by Mr Yarrell under the name of short gray mullet, mu-
gil cuitns. We may here remark, Ihat it is unfortunate that the English term miillft should be applied both to the subjects of our
jiresent note, and to the red and striped mullets, which belong to a very diflPerent genus of the family Percidae, before described. If
the latter were termed lurmulkts, or the former mugils, the ambiguity of a double application of the same name would be avoided.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

]93

Acanthop- small as to be almost imperceptible, and often reduced to

tervfrii. a single ray. The head is very small, and tlie body elon-

Gobioidae. gated like the blade of a sword ; the back garnished

^'^'V^ throughout its whole length with a uniform dorsal fin, all

the rays of which are simple and without articulations.

The teeth are as in the genus Cliiius, the stomach and

intestines of a uniform character.

One species, the common gunnel {B. gtmnellus), is very
abundant on the coasts of Britain, and in other northern
seas. It varies from six to ten inches in length, is of a
yellowish-brown colour on the body, with the belly white,
and the dorsal fin ornamented with a series of dark ocillat-
ed spots along the base.

Genus Opistognathus, Cuv. Presents the form of
the blennies properly so called, but differs from them in
having the maxillaries very large, and prolonged posterior-
ly into a kind of long flat moustache. The teeth in each
jaw are rasp-like, the exterior range being strongest. The
ventrals are placed exactly under the pectorals, and con-
sist of three rays. Only one species seems to be known,
which was brought from the Indian Ocean by M. Sonne-
rat, after whom it was named by Baron Cuvier.

Genus Zoarcus, Cuv. The species of this group are
destitute of a spiny ray ; they have an anal tubercle, the
intestines are without cseca, and there are six branchial
rays. The ventrals have three rays ; the teeth are conic,
and placed in a single row along the sides of the jaws,
but in several in front ; the palate is without teeth.
Their dorsal, anal, and caudal fins are united, although
the first named experiences a great depression.

The viviparous blenny {B. viviparvs) is a well-known
species, and has been long celebrated for a peculiarity
which is chiefly observable among cartilaginous fishes,
that, namely, of producing its young alive. These are so
matured at the time of their birth, that on their first ex-
clusion they swim about with the utmost agilit)'. No
fewer than 200 or 300 young are sometimes produced by
an individual, and the abdomen of the mother is so dis-
tended before parturition, that it is impossible to touch
it without causing them to be extruded. Full-grown in-
dividuals seldom exceed twelve inches in length ; the
body is slender and smooth ; the colour yellowish olive,
pale beneath, and marked on the upper parts with dusky
spots. It is a littoral fish, and of frequent occurrence
under stones. When boiled, the back-bone acquires a
green colour. America produces a much larger species,
which sometimes exceeds the length of three feet. It
lias been described under the name of Blennius labrosus.

Genus Anahrhichas, Linn. Bear so much affinity
to the blennies, that the species have been termed b)'
Cuvier Blennies without ventrals. The dorsal fin, en-
tirely composed of simple rays, but without stiffness, be-
gins at the nape, and extends, in common with the anal
one, nearly to the caudal fin, which is rounded like the
pectorals. The whole body is smooth and covered with
mucus. Their palatines, vomer, and mandibles, are arm-
ed with large osseous tubercles, which are crowned with
small enamelled teeth ; but the anterior teeth are longer
and conical. Such a conformation of the teeth makes
them very powerful instruments, and these fishes, from
their large size, are thereby rendered ferocious and dan-
gerous. They have six rays in the gills ; the stomach is
short and fleshy, with the pylorus near its base ; the in-
testine short, thick, and without caca ; and the swimming
bladder is wanting.

The most common species is the A. lupus. Plate
CCCIV. fig. 2. It is of frequent occurrence in most of the
northern seas, and is well known along the coasts of Britain
by the names of sea-wolf and sea-cat. Its ordinary length is
from three to four feet, but examples sometimes occur near-
ly double that size. The colour is obscure livid brown, with

VOL. XII.

several transverse stripes or bands of a darker hue. The Acanthop-
dorsal fin, as already mentioned, extends along the whole terygii.
length of the back, and is composed of seventy-three t'ol'''"Jie.
rays. The fore teeth project considerably, and diverge a^^^'^^
little from each other, forming a powerful kind of arma-
ture, moved by jaws of such strength that the animal has
been known to imprint the marks of its teeth on a bar of
iron. The uninviting aspect of this fish has probably not
been without influence in producing a prejudice against
it as an article of food. Its flesh, however, is far from
being unsavoury, and bears considerable resemblance to
that of the eel. It is in great request among the Ice-
landers, who eat it dry and salted ; while the other parts
of the fish are likewise converted to useful purposes, the
skin forming shagreen, and the gall being used as soap.

The gobies ( Gobius, Linn.) are at once distinguished
from their associates by having their thoracic ventrals
united, either throughout their whole length, or only to-
wards the base, and forming a single hollow disk, more
or less tunnel-shaped.

The spines of their dorsal fins are flexible ; the open-
ing of the gills, provided there are only five branchial
rays, is generally very small ; and, like the blennies,
they can live for some time out of the water. Their sto-
mach is without a cul-de-sac, and the intestinal canal has
no ca^ca : the males have an appendage, like the blen-
nies, behind the anus ; and some species are known to
produce their young alive. They are small or middle-
sized fishes, and usually frequent rocky places near the
margin of the waters which they inhabit. The greater
number are provided with a simple air-bladder.

Genus Gobius, Cuv. Includes the gobies properly
so called. They have their ventrals united throughout
their whole length, and even anterior to their base, by a
traverse, so as to form a concave disk. Their body is
elongated ; the head of moderate size, and rounded , the
cheeks inflated ; and the eyes placed near each other.
The back bears two fins, the posterior one rather long.
Several species occur in European seas, the characters of
which have not been sufficiently examined. They fre-
quent waters having a clay bottom, and pass the winter
in excavations which they make for that purpose. In the
spring they prepare a kind of nest in places which abound
with Fuci, and cover it with the roots of the Zostera: the
male remains there waiting the arrival of the females,
which come in succession to deposit their eggs. These
he fecundates, and afterwards watches and defends coura-
geously.

The black goby ( Gobius niger, Linn.) is not a scarce
species on the coasts of Britain. It is about five inches
long, of a dark-brown colour above, and white beneath,
variegated with darker spots and stripes. The tail is
rounded, and the superior rays of the pectorals are free at
the extremity. Several others are found in the Mediter-
ranean, such as G.jozzo, G. capita, and G. cruentatus. A few
are inhabitants of fresh waters, such as the small dark-co-
loured species described by Bonelli under the name of G.
Jiuviatilis. Among foreign kinds the most remarkable are
the Coitus 7nacrocephalus of Pallas, in which the head is
unusually large; and the G. lariceolatus of Bloch, distin-
guished by its elongated form, and pointed caudal fin.

The genus named Gobioides by Lacepede differs
from the gobies only in having their dorsals united so as
to form a single fin, and in the body being more elongat-
ed. The Tenioides of the same distinguished Ichthyo-
logist have likewise a continuous dorsal line, and the
body is still more lengthened. These fishes present a
very peculiar aspect, in consequence of having their upper
jaw very short, and the lower one high and convex, rising
above it, both of them being armed with long crooked
teeth, while the eye is reduced to a mere point, and en-

2 B

194

ICHTHYOLOGY.

' — ,-

Acanthop. tirely concealed under the skin. The cavity of the mouth

lervs^i. jg filled with a fleshy tongue almost of a globular shape,

Gutii.iida!. ^^^j ^Y,e lower jaw has a few barbels beneath. The TVe-

^*^'""*^ nioides Hermanii is the only species known : it is a native

of the East Indies, and is usually found in the mud of

stagnant waters.

Genus Periophthalmus, Schn. Contains such as
have the head entirely scaly, the eyes placed quite close
to each other, and furnished on their lower margin with
an eye-lid capable of covering them ; the pectoral fins
clothed with scales for more than half their length, which
makes them look as if supported by a kind of arm. Their
gills being still narrower than those of the other gobies,
they can live for a longer period out of the water ; and in
the Moluccas, their native country, they are often observ-
ed to leap out on the mud in order to escape their ene-
mies, or to seize the small shrimps, which form their prin-
cipal nourishment. In some the ventrals have a concave
disk like the gobies properly so called ; while in others
these fins are separated almost to the base. Plate CCCIV.
fig. 3.

Genus Eleotris, Cuv. In common with the gobies,
the fishes referred to this genus have the first dorsal with
flexible spines, and an appendage behind the anus ; but
the ventrals are perfectly distinct, the head obtuse and
a little depressed, the eyes remote from each other, and
the branchial membrane with six rays. The lateral line
is faintly marked, and the viscera resemble those of the
Gobii. The greater proportion of the species live in
fresh water, and often in the mud. That named E. dor-
mitatrix is a native of the Antilles ; it is of considerable
size, with the head depressed, the cheeks dilated, and the
fins spotted with black. Others occur in Senegal and
the Indies, and a small gilded species, marked with a
black spot at the base of the pectoral (the Gobius aura-
tus of Hiss.), inhabits the coasts of the Mediterranean.

Genus Callionymus, Linn. Possesses very strongly
marked characters in the gills being open only by a hole
on each side of the nape, and in the ventral fins being
placed under the throat, remote, and larger than the pec-
torals. The head is oblong and depressed, the eyes ap-
proximating when seen from above, the inter-maxillaries
very protractile, and the pre-opercles elongated behind
and terminating in a few spines. The teeth are crowded,
and are wanting on the palate. They are beautiful fishes,
with a smooth skin, and having the anterior dorsal sup-
ported by some setaceous rays, occasionally much ele-
vated. The second dorsal is elongated, as well as the
anal. The same appendage is observable behind the anus
as in the preceding genera. The stomach is not in the
form of a cul-de-sac, and they are without casca and air-
bladder. Of this handsome genus we may mention as
an example the gemmeous dragonet (C. lyra), which oc-
curs not unfrequently in the British seas. Plate CCCIV.
fig. 4. It derives its specific name from the form of the
dorsal fin, which has been thought to bear an obscure
resemblance to a lyre. The full-grown fish is about a
foot in length. It is of a beautiful orange or yellow co-
lour, spotted and striped with violet ; the pupils of the
eyes fine deep blue, and the pectoral fins light brown.
The sordid dragonet (C. dracunculus) differs from the
above only in having the dorsal fin short and without a
fillet : by many it is conjectured to be the female of C.
lyra. Several species inhabit the Mediterranean, such
as C. lacerta, cithara, jaciilus ; and not a few are found
in foreign countries.

Genus Thichonotus, Schn. Differs from the typical
Callionymi only in having the body very much elongat-
ed, and the continuous dorsal and anal of proportionate
extent. The genus Comephora of Lacepede compre-
hends but one species, from the Lake Baikal, which is

Pediculati.

usually found dead after storms, and is of so soft and fat Acanthop-
a substance as to afford a considerable quantity of oil. tervjrii.
It is distinguished from all the other members of this J*';f'"'?'f?
group by being destitute of ventrals. The genus Pla-
TYPiERON is constituted by a few Indian fishes, which,
to the large and remote ventrals of the Callionymi, unite
a short depressed head, a small mouth, open branchia',
and large scales : their two dorsals are short and remote.
Genus Chirus, Steller (^Labrax, Pallas). Placed by
Cuvier at the end of this family, presents so many dis-
tinctive characters, that it may not improperly be regard-
ed as the type of a new famil)' group. The body is elon-
gated, and garnished with ciliated scales ; the head small
and unarmed ; the mouth but slightly cleft, and furnished
with small unequal conical teeth ; the spines of the dor-
sal are almost invariably slender, and that fin extends
along the whole back. But their most distinctive feature
consists of numerous series of pores, resembling several
lateral lines. Their intestines are without caecal appen-
dages ; they have often a tuft on the eye-brow, like cer-
tain kinds of blenny ; but their ventrals are composed of
five soft rays, as is usual in the allied species. All the
known kinds, amounting to six or seven in number, are
from the sea of Kamschatka, and were first described by
Pallas in the II th volume of the Memoirs of the Academy
of Petersburg for 1810.

FAMILY XIII PECTOllALES PEDICULATI.

This family, in Baron Cuvier's arrangement, compre-
hends such acanthopterj'genous species as have the carpal
bone prolonged in order to form a kind of arm, which sup-
Dorts t^-e pectorals. From this peculiarity they have de-
rived their family name. Only two genera are here in-
cluded, and these are closely allied to each other, although
the generality of authors have placed them widely apart.

Genus LoPHius,Linn. Besides the semi-cartilaginous
nature of the skeleton, and the want of scales on the skin,
has for its general character pectorals supported as if by
two arms, each of them sustained by two bones, which
have been compared to the radius and cubitus, but which
in reality belong to the carpus, and are more elongated
in this genus than in any other. The ventrals are placed
greatly in advance of the pectorals, and the opercles and
rays of the branchiae are enveloped in the skin, while the
gills open only by a single hole, pierced behind the pec-
torals. The species are voracious ; they have a large sto-
mach and a short intestine, and are able to live for a very
long period out of the water, on account of the small open-
ing of their gills. The kinds now included in this genus,
in the restricted sense attached to it by Cuvier, have the
head excessively large in proportion to the rest of the
body, and at the same time broad and depressed, and
spiny in many places ; the opening of the mouth very
wide, and armed with pointed teeth ; and the lower jaw
furnished with numerous barbels. There are two distinct
dorsals, of which the anterior possesses some detached
rays, moveable over the head, where they rest on a ho-
rizontal inter-spinal ; the branchial membrane forming a
very large sac opening in the axilla, and supported by six
very long rays ; the operculum small. It is asserted that
they lie among the mud, and by putting in motion the
rays of their head, attract small fishes, which, mistaking
the broad and fleshy extremities of these rays for worms,
thus become the prey of the Lophii. It is also said that
they can seize and retain their prey by means of their
large branchial sacs. Their intestine has two very short
caeca towards its origin, and the swimming bladder is
awanting. Of these fishes, the most remarkable is the
Lophius piscalorius oi lAnnxas. Plate CCCIV. fig. 3. It

ICHTHYOLOGY.

195

Acanthop- is a large fish (measuring from four to five feet in lengtli)

ttr.vi,'ii. of the European seas, with a wide mouth, depressed head,

Lahrid*. numerous teeth, and a bearded tongue. Its aspect is ex-

^""i"^^ tremely repulsive. The Mountshay Avgltr of Borlase,'

and the one from Bristol,^ are, according; to Dr Fleming,

only mutilated specimens of the species just alluded to.

The Chironectes {Anten?iarhis, Commers.) have free
rays on the head, like the preceding, the first being slen-
der, often terminating by a tuft; and the following, in-
creased by a membrane, are sometimes greatly inflated,
and at other times united into a single fin. Their body
and head are compressed, and the mouth opens vertically ;
tiieir gill-covers, provided with four rays, open only by a
canal, and a small hole behind the pectoral ; the dorsal
occupies nearly all the back. The whole body is some-
times garnished with cutaneous appendages. The bran-
chias are four in number ; the swimming bladder is large,
and the intestine of moderate size and without ca;ca. By
filling their enormous stomach with air, after the manner
of the Tetrodons, they can inflate their abdomen like a
balloon. When on land, their fins assist them in creep-
ing, which they do almost after the manner of small quad-
rupeds, the pectorals, from their position, performing the
office of hinder legs. Moving about in this manner, they
can live without entering the water for two or three days.
They are found in tropical seas; and Linnaeus appears to
have confounded several species under the name of Lo-
phivs histrio.

Genus Malthe, Cuv. Has the head unusually large
and flattened, principally by the projection of the sub-oper-
culum : the eyes placed very far forwards ; the muzzle
projecting like a little horn, and the mouth situate under
it, the latter being of moderate size and protractile ; the
gill-covers supported by six or seven rays, and open to-
wards the back by a hole above each pectoral ; the single
dorsal small and soft ; the body covered with osseous tu-
bercles, and having barbels along the sides, but there are
no free rays over the head. The swimming bladder and
caeca are wanting.

Genus Batrachus. Derives its name from a Greek
word signifying a frog, to which the species are thought
to bear some resemblance, in consequence of the enlarge-
ment of the head. The latter is flattened horizontally, and
wider than the body ; the gape wide, and both the opercle
and sub-opercle spiny ; the gill-covers six-rayed ; the ven-
trals narrow, attached under the throat, and consisting
only of three rays, of which the first is wide and elongat-
ed ; and the pectorals supported by a short arm, form-
ed by the prolongation of the carpal bone. The first dor-
sal is short, supported by three spiny rays ; the second
long and soft, which is also the case with the corre-
sponding anal one. The lips are often garnished with fila-
ments. Such as have been dissected have their stomach
in the form of an oblong sac, the intestines short and
without ca;ca. The swimming bladder is deeply furcate
anteriorly. Thej' conceal themselves in the sand, lying
in ambush for their prey. The wounds made by their
spines are supposed to be dangerous. The species, which
vary considerably in their form and aspect, occur both in
the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

FAMILY XIV — LABRIDjG.

Easily recognised by its external aspect. The body is
oblong and scaly, and the single dorsal fin is supported an-
teriorly by spines, each of which is generally garnished
with a membranous appendage. The jaws are covered

by fleshy lips ; the two upper pharyngeals are supported Acanthop-
against the cranium, and the lower one is large, all the '"-^S,"'
three armed with teeth, srimeUmes en pave, at other times ^||i|^™^
pointed or in the form of plates, but generally stronger ^""^'^^
than usual. The intestinal canal is entirely without casca,
or only with two very small ones ; and there is a strong
swimming bladder.

The genus LABUUSofLinnseus forms an extensive group
of fishes, very like each other in their oblong shape, and
double fleshy lips (from which circumstance they derive
their name), one of which is immediately connected with
the jaws, and the other with the sub-orbitals ; the gills are
serrated, and have five rays ; the maxillary teeth conic,
the middle and anterior ones being longest ; the pharyn-
geal teeth cylindrical and blunt, disposed en pave, the
superior on two large plates, the inferior on a single one
corresponding to the two above. The stomach is not in
the form of a cul-de-sac, but is continuous with an intes-
tine without caeca, which, after two convolutions, termi-
nates in a large rectum. The swimming bladder is robust
and simple. The species are numerous, and the colours
of many of them liable to so much variation that it is dif-
ficult to distinguish them with precision.

In recent times the Linna;an genus has been subdivid-
ed as follows :

Genus Labrus, properly so called. Opercle and pre-
opercle destitute both of spines and dentations ; cheeks
and opercle covered with scales ; lateral line straight, or
nearly so.

Four different kinds have been described as inhabiting
the British seas, but some of these seem to be mere va-
rieties, such, for example, as the L. balaniisand L. comber
of Pennant, which are probably referrible to the Labrus
maculatus of Bloch. L. lineatus is likewise a British spe-
cies. The ground colour is reddish, with one or more ir-
regular clouded bands of a deeper colour along the flanks.
The dorsal has from sixteen to seventeen spines, and is
marked with a dark-coloured spot anteriorly.

Genus Cheilinus, Lacep. Differs from the Labri
properly so called, by the lateral line being interrupted
opposite the dorsal fin, and commencing again a little
lower. The scales at the extremity of the tail are large,
and partially envelope the base of the caudal. They are
fishes of considerable beauty, and are found in the Indian
seas.

The next genus of interest is that named Julis, in
which the head is entirely smooth and without scales,
and the lateral line is much bent opposite the end of the
dorsal. Several species occur in the Atlantic and Medi-
terranean, and most of them are of very beautiful colours.
The most common European one {Labrus Julis, Linn.) is
frequent in the Mediterranean, and has likewise been
found on the coast of Cornwall. It is about seven inches
in length, and of a beautiful violet, relieved by a bright
zigzag orange band on each side.

Genus Crenilabrus has been separated by Cuvier
from the Z.M//awi of Bloch, and associated with the Labri,
to which all their characters, both external and internal,
correspond, except the dentation of the edge of the pre-
opercle. (See Plate CCCIV. fig. 6.) Several species are
found in the northern seas, such as Lutjamis rupestris,
Bloch, 250, of a j'ellow colour, with clouded vertical bands.
The British species (C. tinea) known under the name of
old wife, or wrasse, belongs to this genus, as does likewise
the gibbous wrasse of Pennant's British Zoology. The
Mediterranean furnishes a great number adorned with
the most beautiful colours, such as the Labr. lapina,
Forsk, which is silvery, with three broad longitudinal

' Cornaall, 26C, t. 27, f. 6.

- Phil. Trans, liii. p. 170, t. 13.

196

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Acanthop- bands formed by dots of vermillion ; the pectorals yellow,
tervgii. gpij [i^g ventrals blue. Many likewise occur in tropical
v^_™*^ countries, of which we may mention Lut. verres{V>\. 255),
~ 1^ Ijiii. notatus, L. virescens, and L. chrysops.

To the characters of the Cretiilabri, the genus CoRi-
cus of Cuvier joins that of a mouth nearly as protractile
as in the Epihuli. The latter group are very remarkable
for this property, being capable of extending it to a great
length, and suddenly forming it into a kind of tube by a
peculiar movement of the maxillaries. They practise this
artifice to seize small fishes as they swim within reach of
this singular instrument. Several allied genera avail
themselves of the greater or less protractility of their
jaws to procure their food in a similar manner.

The whole bod}', and the head of the Epihuli, are covered
with large scales, the hinder row of which encroaches even
on the anal and caudal fins, as likewise takes place among
the Cheilini. Tlie lateral line is interrupted in a similar
manner, and, in common with these last-named fishes, and
the Lahri. they have two long conical teeth in front of each
jaw, and behind them small blunt ones. Those of the
pharynx have not been observed. The Sparus insidiutor
of Pallas is the only species hitherto discovered. It is of
a reddish colour, and found in the Indian Ocean.

Genus Clepticus. Furnished with a small cylindrical
muzzle, which rises suddenly like that of the Epibuli, but
is not so long as the head, and scarcely permits the view
of a few small teeth ; the body is oblong, the head obtuse,
the lateral line continuous, and the scales envelope the
dorsal and anal fins, almost as far as the summit of the
spines. The only ascertained species {C. geiiizara) is of
a reddish purple colour, and inhabits the Antilles.

Genus Elops, Commers. Gomphosis, Lacep. Has the
head entirely smooth, as in Julis, but the muzzle is in the
form of a long and slender tube, formed by the prolonga-
tion of their inter-maxillaries and mandibularies, which the
integuments bind together as far as the small opening of
the mouth. Of these fishes, the Gomphosis cceruleus, and
G. raWe^ra^!^, Lacep., may serve as examples. They are
taken in the Indian seas, and many of them are said to
form a delicious article of food. The preceding genera,
from Labrus properly so called inclusive, may be all re-
garded as Linnaean Labri. We now come to

Genus Xirichtiivs, Cuv. Which comprehends fishes
resembling the Labri in form, but they are very much
compressed, and the ibrehead descends suddenly towards
the mouth by a deep and nearly vertical line, formed by
the ethmoid and the ascending branches of the inter-max-
illaries. The body is covered with large scales ; the late-
ral line interrupted ; the jaws armed with a row of coni-
cal teeth, of which the medial ones are longest, and the
pharynx paved with hemispherical teeth; the intestinal
canal is continuous, with two convolutions, and no caeca,
nor is the stomach in the form of a cul-de-sac. They pos-
sess a pretty large air-bladder.

Naturalists, anterior to the time of Cuvier, ranged the
species with the Coryphccna, from which they greatly dif-
fer in their structure, internal as well as external. They
approximate to the Labri, to which, however, they are dis-
similar in the profile of the head.

Genus Chromis, Cuv. Has the lips and protractile in-
ter-maxillaries, the pharyngeal bones, and dorsal filaments,
of the Labri ; but the teeth are en carde upon the jaws and
pharynx, with an anterior range of a conical shape. The
vertical fins are filamentous, and even those of the abdo-
men are often prolonged into long filets, and the lateral
line is interrupted. The stomach is a cul-de-sac, but
there are no ca;ca. One small species, of a chestnut-
brown colour (S/)ari<« chromis). is found in immense num-
bers in the Mediterranean. The Nile produces another,
which attains the length of two feet, and is regarded as

the best fish occurring in Egypt. It is the Labrus Nilotictts Aanihop.
of Hasselq.and Sonnini. The genus Cych la differs from ^erygii.
the preceding by having all the teeth crowded, and placed
in a broad band, and by the body being more elongated.
Plesiops, Cuv., has the head compressed, the eyes near
each other, and the ventrals very long. Malacanthus
possesses the general characters of the Labri, and the
maxillary teeth are also similar to theirs, but those of the
pharyngeals are e?i carde ; the body is lengthened, the
lateral line continuous, the opercle terminated by a small
spine, and the long dorsal has only a small number of
slender, flexible, anterior spines. One species is found
in the Antilles, of a yellowish colour, irregularly rayed
across with violet ; it is the Coryphena plumieri, Lacep.
iv. viii. 1.

Genus Scarus, Linn. Comprehends fishes very re-
markable on account of the form of the jaws (that is, their
inter-maxillary and pre-mandibularybones), which are con-
vex, rounded, and garnished with teeth like scales upon
their edges and anterior surface ; these teeth succeed
each other from behind forwards, so that those of the base
are the newest, and in time come to form a range upon
the cutting edge. Naturalists have erroneously thought
that the jaw-bones themselves were naked or exposed.
These jaws are, besides, covered while the fish is alive by
fleshy lips, but there is no double lip adherent to the sub-
orbitaries. The species have the oblong form of Labrus,
with large scales, and the lateral line interrupted ; they
bear on their pharynx two plates above and one below,
garnished with teeth like the pharyngeal plates of the
Labri, but these teeth are in the form of transverse lamina;,
and not e» jMve.

Cuvier is of opinion that the Scarus crelicus of Aldro-
vandus is the species so celebrated under the name of
Scarus by the ancients, and in search of which (in the
time of Claudius) Elipertius Optatus, the commander of
the Roman fleet, went to Greece, with a view to effect its
introduction to the Italian seas. It is still used in our
da3'S as an article of food in Greece. The species are nu-
merous in the seas of warm climates, and are vulgarly
known, on account of the peculiar form of the jaws, and
the splendour of their colours, under the name of parrot
fishes.

FAMILY XV._FISTULAKID^.

Characterised by a long tube formed in front of the cra-
nium, by the prolongation of the ethmoid, the vomer, the
pre-opercles, inter-opercles, &c. at the end of which the
mouth is placed, composed, as usual, of inter-maxillaries,
maxillaries, palatines, and mandibularies. The intestine
is without any considerable inequalities, or many convo-
lutions, and their ribs are either short or wanting. Some
of them (the Fistularice) have the body cylindrical, others
(the Centnsci) have it oval and compressed.

Genus Fistularia, Linn. Acquires its name from
the long tube common to all the family. The jaws are at
the extremity, opening but little, and nearly in a horizon-
tal direction. The head, thus elongated, composes a third
or fourth part of the whole body, which is itself long and
slender. There are six or seven rays in the gills ; the
osseous appendages likewise extend behind the head to
the anterior part of the body, which they tend more or less
to strengthen. The dorsal corresponds to the position of
the anal, and the stomach, in the form of a fleshy tube, is
continuous with a narrow canal, w ithout folds, at the com-
mencement of which there are two CEeca. In Fistu-
laria properly so called, there is only one dorsal, which,
as well as the anal, is composed chiefly of simple rays ; the
inter-maxillaries and lower jaw are armed with small teeth ;

ICHTHYOLOGY.

197

Malacop-
terygii
Abdomi-

nales.
Cvpvinidae,

and between the lobes of the caudal there issues a filament
sometimes as long as the whole body ; the tube of the
mu/,7.1e is very long and depressed, the swimming bladder
excessively large, and the scales invisible. In the subdivi-
sion called AuLosTOMA by Lacep^de, a name derived fioni
avXoi, a Jiute, and Sro/ia, the month, the dorsal is |)reced-
ed by numerous free spines, and the jaws are without teeth.
The body, which is very scaly, is broad, and compressed
between the dorsal and anal, the latter followed by a short,
small tail, terminated by the usual fin. The tube of the
muzzle is rather short, large, and compressed ; the swim-
ming bladder very large. We are acquainted with only
one species (Fisltdaria chinensis, Bl.), \vliicii is found in
the Indian seas.

The CENTitisci of Linn, possess the tubular trunk of
this family; the body, however, is not elongated, but oval
or oblong, compressed laterally, and sharp on the under
side ; the gills have only two or three slender rays ; the
first dorsal is spiny, and the small ventrals are placed be-
hind the pectorals. The mouth is extremely small, and
opens obliquely ; the intestines are without ca:'ca, I'olded
three or four times ; and the swimming bladder is of con-
siderable size. In Centriscus properly so called, the
anterior dorsal, which is placed very far forwards, has its
first spine long and strong, supported by an apparatus
connected with the shoulder and head. The species are
covered with small scales, and have several broad and
denticulated plates on the apparatus just mentioned. The
C. scolopax, or trumpet-fish, is a very common species in
the Mediterranean, about five inches long, and of a silvery
lustre. (See Plate CCCIV. fig. 7.) It occurs occasion-
ally on the south-western coasts of England. In the
sub-genus Amphisile, the back is defended with large
scaly pieces, of which the anterior spine and the first dor-
sal have the appearance of being a continuation. All the
species hitherto known to us are from the Indian seas :
we may mention as examples, Centriscus scutaliis, Linn.,
and Centriscus velitaris, Pallas.

We here terminate our abstract of the Acanihop-
TERYGii, or first great order or division of the ordinary
fishes.

The second division of common fishes, or that named
Malacopterygii, contains within itself three orders,
which admit of being characterised by the position of the
ventrals, or, in certain cases, by their absence.

ORDER II.'— MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES.

These are distinguished by having their ventrals sus-
pended to the under part of the abdomen, and behind the
pectorals, without any attachment to the shoulder bone.
This is the most numerous of the three orders, and in-
cludes a large proportion of the fresh-water fishes. It is
divisible into five families.

FAMILY L— CYPRINID^.

May be known by having the mouth but slightly cleft,
the jaws weak and generally without teeth, and their edge
formed by the inter-maxillaries ; by pharyngeals strongly
toothed, thus compensating for the imperfect armature of
the jaws ; and by the branchial rays being few in num-

nales.
Cvprinida

ber. Their body is scaly, and there is no adipose dorsal, Malaccip-
such as is observed in Siluri and salmon. Their stomach terygii
has no cul-de-sac, and the pylorus is without caecal ap- Abdomi-
pendages. They are the least carnivorous of fishes.

The typical genus Cyprinus is a very natural one, and
comprehends a great number of species, which are readi-
ly distinguished by the small mouth, toothless jaws, and
the three flat branchial rays. Their tongue is smooth, and
the palate provided with a soft and singularly irritable
substance, vulgarly known by the name of Carps tongue.
The pharynx presents a powerful instrument for mastica-
tion, consisting of large teeth attached to the inferior
pharyngeal bones, and ca|)able of pressing the food be-
tween them, and a stony disk enclosed in a wide cavity
under an apophysis of the basilary bone. These fishes have
only one dorsal, and the body is covered with scales, most
frequently of large size. They inhabit fresh waters, and
are perhaps the least carnivorous of their class, subsisting
chiefly on grains, grass, and even on mud. Their stomach
is continuous, with a short intestine without ceeca, and
the bladder is divided into two by a constriction.

The genus Cvprinus,-' Cuv. including the Carps pro-
perly so called, has a long dorsal, which, as well as the
anal, has a spine for the second ray. Of these, some have
barbels at the angles of the upper jaw, and others are
destitute of these appendages. Of the former we may
cite as an example the common carp ; and the gold fish of
China affords an instance of the latter.

Cyprinus carpio, the common carp. This well-known
fish is of an olive-green, yellowish beneath, having the
anal and dorsal spines strong and denticulated, and the
barbels short ; the pharyngeal teeth are flat and striated
on the crown. It is a native of the central countries of
Europe ; but, owing to its value as an article of food, it
was early distributed by human agency over the whole of
that Continent. The ease with which it can be transport-
ed from one place to another, and its speedy growth and
propagation in ponds and artificial reservoirs, afforded
great facilities for its rapid dispersion. The year 1614 is
assigned as the date of its first introduction into England ;
but it was naturalized in Germany and Sweden nearly
half a century before that period. It delights in tranquil
waters, preferring such as have a muddy bottom, and
the surface partially shaded with plants. Its food consists
of the larvae of aquatic insects, minute Testacea, worms,
and the tender blades and shoots of plants. The leaves
of lettuce, and other succulent plants of a similar kind, are
said to be particularly agreeable to them, and to fatten
them sooner than any other food. Although the carp
eats with great voracity when its supply of aliment is
abundant, — to such a degree, indeed, as sometimes to pro-
duce indigestion, which occasionally proves fatal, — it can
subsist for an astonishing length of time without nourish-
ment. In the winter, when they assemble in great num-
bers, and bury themselves among the mud and the roots of
plants, they often remain for many months without eat-
ing. They can also be preserved alive for a considerable
length of time out of the water, especially if care be taken
to moisten them occasionally as they become dry. Ad-
vantage is often taken of this circumstance to transport
them alive, by packing them among damp herbage, or
wet linen ; and the operation is said to be unattended with
any risk to the animal, especially if the precaution be
taken to put a piece of bread in its mouth steeped in bran-
dy ! In a similar way, the Dutch preserve them by sus-
pending them from the roof of a damp apartment in a
bag-net filled with moss, which is continually kept moist,

' Of tlie general Class of Fishes.

' The name is of Grecian origin, and was applied to the species because they were dedicated to Venus, in consequence of their
extraordinary fecundity.

198

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Malacop. and they are fed with vegetables and bread steeped in
iery^ii niilk, — a mode of treatment by wliich they are not only

Abdomi- j.gpj alive, but actually thrive and fatten.

CvprinidEE. T'^^ fecundity of these fishes is very great, and their

C— >^^ numbers consequently would soon become excessive, but
for the many enemies by which their spawn is destroyed.
No fewer than 700,000 eggs have been found in the ova-
ria of a single carp, and that too by no means an indivi-
dual of the largest size. Their growth is very rapid, more
so perhaps than that of any other fresh-water fish, and
the size which they sometimes attain is very considerable.
In certain lakes in Germany and Prussia, individuals are
occasionally taken weighing tliirty or forty pounds ; and
Pallas relates that they occur in the Volga five feet in
length, and even of greater weight than the examples just
alluded to. The largest of which we have any account
is that mentioned by Bloch, taken near Frankfort-on-the-
Oder, which weighed seventy pounds, and measured near-
ly nine feet in length.

CyprhiHS anratus (gold fish). This beautiful species,
the most brilliantly adorned of all our fresh-water fishes,
and scarcely surpassed even by the more richly ornament-
ed inhabitants of the ocean, is well known to be a native
of China, although it is now domesticated, so to speak, in
almost every country, both of the old and new world.
Like the carp, it has the dorsal and anal spines denticu-
lated. When young it is of a blackish colour, and it gra-
dually acquires the fine golden red by which it is charac-
terised ; but some examples are of a silvery hue, and
others are variegated with three different shades of co-
lour. Like most other animals that have been long estran-
ged from their natural habits, and subjected to artificial in-
fluences, this species presents a great many varieties, ex-
tending even to some important parts of structure. In-
dividuals occur without a dorsal, others with a very large
one, others with the caudal greatly enlarged, and divided
into three or four lobes ; and in some instances the eyes
are enormously dilated.' The golden carp is said to have
been originally confined to a lake near the mountain
Tsimking, in the province of The-kiang, in China, about
the 30th degree of N. lat. It was first brought to Eng-
land in 1691, but was very scarce till 1728, when a con-
siderable number were imported, and they soon became
generally known. They do not flourish in rivers and open
ponds, not, however, because such places are uncongenial
to them, but because they are exposed to many enemies,
against which they have no means of defence. When kept
in confinement they ought to be nourished with fine
crumbs of bread, small worms, flies, and yolks of eggs dried
and powdered, and the water ought to be frequently chan-
ged. The ordinary length of this species is from four to six
inches ; but they have been sometimes known to reach a
foot. Although natives of a warm climate, they can sus-
tain a great degree of cold uninjured. An individual,
which was accidentally exposed during the night, was
completely frozen up in the centre of its glass jar ; but as
the ice thawed it recovered its vigour, and seemed to suf-
fer no further inconvenience.

To this group belongs the smallest of the European
Cyprini, viz. C. amariis, which is about an inch long,
greenish above, and of a fine red beneath. During the
time of spawning, which takes place in April, it has a
steel-blue line on each side of the tail ; the second dorsal
ray forms a rather stiff spine.

Genus Barbus of Cuvier, contains such species as
have the dorsal and anal short, with a strong spine for
the second or third ray of the dorsal, and four barbels.

two of which are at the extremity, and two at the angles Malacop-
of the upper jaw. As an example, we may refer to the '•^'"vgii
Cyprimis barbus, or barbel, which may be known by its ^"^""n-
oblong head. It is very common in clear and running Cyj^jj^]^
waters, where it sometimes attains to a length exceeding v^-y-.^,
ten feet. Several allied species are found in Italy, having
the spine weaker, but which, nevertheless, differ from the
following genus by possessing four barbels. Such are
Barbus caninus., Bonnelli ; JB. plebeius, Val. ; B. eqites.
Id. Various species of Barbi occur in the Caspian Sea, in
the Nile, and in India ; and not a few have been ascertain-
ed to inhabit America.

Genus Gobio, Cuv. Has the dorsal and anal short, both
of them without spines, and the mouth furnished with bar-
bels. Of this genus the gudgeon ( Ci/prinus gobio) may be
cited as an example. It is a small fish, seldom exceeding
seven or eight inches, and is found in most parts of Europe
in small lakes and gently flowing rivers. It is of a pale
olive-brown colour, slightly spotted with black, especially
on the fins, tlie sides and abdomen being silvery white.
It spawns in the spring, and as it deposits its ova at dis-
tant intervals, the operation generally continues for a con-
siderable time. It is a very prolific fish ; and as its flesh
is of a very delicate flavour, it is much sought after for
the table.

Genus Tinca, Cuv. Unites to the characters of the
gudgeons that of having very m.inute scales ; their bar-
bels also are very small. This genus includes the com-
mon tench (Ci/prinus tinca, L.), which is of a deep yel-
lowish brown, sometimes, however, assuming a fine gol-
den colour. Its usual length is from twelve to fourteen
inches ; but instances are on record of its having reached
three feet. It inhabits stagnant waters with a muddy
bottom ; and in the winter conceals itself among the mud,
and seems to undergo a kind of torpidity. In May and
June it deposits its ova among aquatic plants; these are
very minute, of a green colour, and so numerous that
297,000 have been reckoned in one female. The tench
is very extensively distributed, appearing to occur through-
out the whole globe. Its flesh is not much esteemed, as
it is soft, insipid, and difficult of digestion.

Genus Adramis, Cuv. Distinguished by wanting spines
and barbels ; the dorsal is short, placed behind the ven-
trals, and the anal long. Two species are known, the
common bream {Cyp. bramd), and the little bream {Cyp.
hlicca, C. latus, Gm. Bl. 10). The former is the largest
fish in this subdivision ; there are twenty-nine rays in the
anal, and all the fins are obscure. It is common in slow
flowing rivers and lakes in most European countries. It
sometimes acquires two feet and a half in length, but its
ordinary dimensions may be stated to be about a foot.
Worms, conferva-, and aquatic plants are its usual food ;
but, like many allied species, it often swallows mud, which
renders its flesh unsavoury. " There exists in the river
Trent, in the neighbourhood of Newark, two species or
varieties of bream. The common bream, Cyprimis bra-
ma, is known there by the name of Carp Bream, from its
yellow colour, and has been taken of nearly eight pounds
weight. The other species or variety, which 1 believe to
be a non-descript, never exceeds a pound in weight. It is
of a silvery hue, and goes by the name of White Bream.""

Omitting the genera Labeo and Catastomus, of
which the species are all foreign, and imperfectly known,
we now come to the generic group named Leuciscus
(Klein), comprehending several kinds indigenous to Eu-
rope. They have the dorsal and anal short, and are des-
titute of spines and barbels, and there is nothing particu-

' The varieties of this species have afforded materials for a kind of monograph by Sauvigny, and a painter of the name of Slartiiiet.
' Liii?i. Trant. xiv. p. 5U7-

ICHTHYOLOGY.

199

Malacop.
terygii
Abdomi-
nules.
Cypri-
nidoe.

lar in the structure of the lips. The species of this sub-
division are considerable in amount, but they are held in
httle estimation as articles of food. They are distinguished
by the position of the dorsal, a character, however, which
is not always sufficiently defined. In some it corresponds
to the position of the ventrals ; such is the case with
Letic. dohula {Cyprinus dobula, Linn.), in which the head
is broad, the muzzle rounded, and the pectorals red.
Leiic. rutilus (the roach), has the body compressed and
silvery, and all the fins red. In others, the dorsal cor-
responds above to the interval which is between the ven-
trals and the anal. This is exemplified in Leuc. alburnus
(the bleak), in which the body is narrow, and of a bril-
liant silvery hue ; the fins pale ; the forehead straight,
and the inferior jaws somewhat elongated. It is com-
mon throughout Europe ; and is one of the fishes vvhose
nacre (or silvery-looking substance) is employed in fabri-
cating artificial pearls. Leuc. phoxinus (common minnow)
likewise pertains to this group. The appearance of this
beautiful little fish is familiar to all. It is the smallest
species of the genus found in Europe, the greatest length
which it attains seldom exceeding three inches. It first
makes its appearance in March, and disappears in Octo-
ber, passing the winter beneath the mud. It is well known
to be a gregarious species, and small shoals are to be
found in almost every shallow stream, especially in clear
weather, as they seem to delight in warmtli and sunshine.
They usually spawn in the month of June, but their ova
are often found at a much later period. The flesh of the
minnow is delicate and well flavoured, but its size is too
small to admit of its being of much value as an article of
food. It is principally used as a bait for the capture of
larger kinds.

Certain species of the present genus (the Chelae of Bu-
chanan) have the dorsal corresponding to the commence-
ment of the anal, and in several of these the body is com-
pressed nearly in the same manner as in some of the Clu-
peoe. Such is Leitc. cultratus, which is further remarka-
ble for its lower jaw, which ascends in front of the upper,
and for its large pectorals shaped like a scythe.' The ge-
neric group GoNORHYNCHUs, Gronov. is dissimilar from
all the other Cyprini, by having the body and the head
elongated, and covered, as well as the opercula, and even
the membrane of the branchiae, with small scales ; the muz-
zle projecting in front of the mouth, which is small, and
without teeth or barbels ; three branchial rays, and a small
dorsal above the ventrals. Only one species is known
{Cyprinus gonorhynchus, Gm.), which is found at the Cape
of Good Hope.

Genus Cobitis (loach). Has the head small, the body
elongated, clothed with scales, and covered with a mucous
matter ; the ventrals placed behind, and above them a small
single dorsal ; the mouth at the end of the muzzle, but little
cleft and without teeth, but surrounded with lips fitted for
sucking,and bybarbels; gill-covers little opened, and having
only three rays. Their inferior pharyngeal bones are rather
strongly dentated, their intestines are without any caeca, and
their swimming bladder, which is very small, is enclosed in
an osseous bilobate case, attached to the third and fourth
vertebrae. Three species are found in the fresh waters of
Europe, viz. C. barbatukt, C. fossiUs, and C. tcenia. The
first of these, the bearded loach, is a well-known fish in this
country, as it occurs plentifidly in almost every small stream.
It is about four or five inches long. The second species,
which does not occur in Britain, measures sometimes a foot
in length. It dwells in the mud of ponds, and is so tena-
cious of life as to live a long time after being stiffly frozen,
or even dried. In stormy weather it rises to the surface

and agitates the water. It swallows quantities of air,
which it converts, according to M. Ehrman's observations,
into carbonic acid. Its flesh is soft, and savours of mud.
The third species was introduced into the British Fauna by
Berkenhout. Turton says it occurs in the " clear streams
of Wiltshire."

The fishes which Bloch distinguished by the name Ana-
BLEPS (a term first used by Artedi, and signifying to raise
the eyes, or to look up, being derived from avaSxixoi) were
long united with the loaches, although they afford charac-
ters of a very distinctive kind. Their eyes, which are very
salient, and placed under an arch formed on each side by
the frontal bone, have the cornea and iris divided into two
portions by transverse bands, in such a manner that they
have two pupils, and appeardouble, although in reality there
is only a single crystalline and vitreous humour, and one re-
tina,— a peculiarity of which no other instance is to be
found among vertebrate animals. The organs of genera-
tion, moreover, and the bladder of the male, have their ex-
cretory canal in the anterior border of the anal fin, which is
thick, long, and clothed with scales ; its extremity is per-
forated, and no doubt subserves the generative functions.
The female is viviparous, and the young are not produced
till they have attained a considei'able size.

The body of these fishes is cylindrical, and covered with
scales; there are five branchial rays, the head is flat, the
muzzle truncated, the mouth cleft transversely at the end,
and armed in both jaws with numerous small teeth. The
inter-maxillaries are without a pedicle, and suspended un-
der the nasal bones, which form the anterior edge of the
muzzle. The pectorals are in a great measure scaly, and
a small dorsal is placed over the tail, and further back than
the anal. Their pharyngeal bones are large, and provided
with numerous small globular teeth ; their air-bladder is
very large, and also their intestine ; but the latter is with-
out caeca. Only one species is known, which is an inha-
bitant of the rivers of Guiana. It is the Anableps tetrop-
thalnms, Bl. 361. See Plate CCCIV. fig. 8.

Genus Pgecilia, Schn. Has the two jaws flattened ho-
rizontally, protractile, slightly cleft, furnished with a series
of small and very fine teeth, the upper side of the head
flattened, the opercula large, five branchial rays, the body
not much elongated, the ventrals not far back, and the
dorsal placed just above the anal. They are all small vi-
viparous fishes, and inhabit the fresh waters of America.
The only remaining genera included in the present family
are Lebias,Cuv., Fundulus, Lacep., Molinesia, Lesueur,
and Cyprinodon, Lacep., which comprehend but a limited
number of species, most of them of small size, and pre-
senting no peculiarities of particular interest.

FAMILY II._ESOCID^.

Corresponds to the undivided genus Esox, as established
by Linnaeus. It is characterised by the want of the adi-
pose dorsal ; by having the edge of the upper jaw formed
by the inter-maxillary, or at least, when not wholly formed
by that bone, the maxillary is without teeth, and concealed
in the thickness of the lips. They are a very voracious tribe
of fishes ; their intestine is short and without caeca, and all
are provided with a swimming bladder. With the excep-
tion of the 3Iicrostoma, all the kinds with which we are
acquainted have the dorsal opposite the anal.

In the Cuvierian system this family is divided into many
genera, of the principal of which we shall now proceed to
give some account. Such fishes as belong to

Genus Esox, in its present restricted acceptation, have

Malacop-
tcryjni
Abdomi.

nak'S.
Esocidie.

' The genus Ltuciscus contains also the dace, chub, and other well-known British species.

200

JMalacop-
tervgii
Abdomi-

nales.
Esocidae.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

small inter-maxillaries provided with minute pointed teeth
in the middle of the upper jaw, of which they form the two
thirds ; but the maxillaries occupying the sides are with-
out teeth. The vomer, the palatines, the tongue, the
pharyngeals, and the arches of the branchia;, are covered
with teeth resembling those of a card ; and, in addition to
these, a series of long pointed teeth occupy the sides of
the lower jaw. The snout is oblong and obtuse, broad and
depressed ; and there is only one dorsal opposite the anal.
The stomach, which is large and plicate, is continuous with
a slender doubly-folded intestine without ca;ca. The swim-
ming bladder is very large. There is only one European
species, viz. Esox luchts, Linn, (the common pike), Plate
CCCIV. fig. 9. During the earliest stage of its life it is
of a greenish hue, but in the second year it becomes gray
with pale spots, the latter ultimately acquiring a yellow-
ish colour. Its markings, however, are very variable, and
instances have occurred of its being perfectly white. It
is one of the largest of fresh-water fishes, and indeed, if
the accounts which some writers give are not exaggerat-
ed, it occasionally attains a size not greatly inferior to the
gigantic inhabitants of the ocean. Individuals are record-
ed as measuring from five to nine feet in length. They
frequently weigh above thirty pounds in the lakes of the
north of England ; and Dr Grierson mentions one taken in
Loch Ken, in Galloway, which weighed sixty-one pounds.
Bloch indeed examined a portion of the skeleton of ano-
ther which could not be less than eight feet in length.
The most remarkable pike, however, of which we have
any authentic account, is that caught at Kaiserslautern,
near Manheim, in 1497, which was nearly nineteen feet
in length, and weighed 360 pounds. The skeleton of this
extraordinary specimen was for a long time preserved,
and bore a brass ring with an inscription to the effect that
the fish was put into a pond by the hands of the Emperor
Frederick II., the 5tli of October 12(32. From this it is
inferred that it was upwards of 235 years old. Pikes are
proverbially voracious. There seems indeed to be no
bounds to their gluttony, for they devour indiscriminately
whatever edible substances they fall in with, and almost
every animal they are able to subdue. " It is,'' says M.
de Lacepede, " the shark of the fresh waters ; it reigns
there a devastating tyrant, like the shark in the midst of
the ocean ; insatiable in its appetites, it ravages with fear-
ful rapidity the streams, the lakes, and the fish-ponds
where it inhabits. Blindly ferocious, it does not spare its
species, and even devours its own young ; gluttonous with-
out choice, it tears and swallows with a sort of fury, the
remains even of putrified carcasses. This blood-thirsty
animal is also one of those to which nature has accorded
the longest duration of years ; for ages it terrifies, agi-
tates, pursues, destroys, and consumes the feeble inhabit-
ants of the waters which it infests; and as if, in spite of
its insatiable cruelty, it was meant that it should receive
every advantage, it has not only been gifted with strength,
with size, with numerous weapons, but it has also been
adorned with elegance of form, symmetry of proportions,
and variety and richness of colour."' A singular instance
of its voracity is related by .Johnston, who asserts that he
saw one killed which contained in its belly another pike of
large size, and the latter on being opened was found to
have swallowed a water-rat !

The pike inhabits almost all the fresh waters of Europe,
but seems to flourish most in the northern and middle
countries. It likewise occurs in abundance in Asia and
North America. Its flesh is well flavoured and easy of
digestion, and is consequently much sought after as an

article of food, especially for convalescents, and others of Malacop-
weakly habit. It is most lender and nutritive in young tervgii
individuals, but full-grown pikes are occasionally found,
in which the flesh on the back and near the vertebral co-
lumn acquires a greenish colour, which is held in high re-
pute, and often purchased at a great price.

Genus Galaxi.is, Cuv. Has the body without appa-
rent scales, the mouth slightly cleft, pointed teeth of mo-
derate size on the palatines and both jaws, the upper jaw
having almost its entire edge formed by the inter-maxil-
lary. There are also some strong hooked teeth on the
tongue. 'V\\e Esox truttaceus,CviV., Esox alepodittcs, Forst.
exhibits the structure above described.

Genus Alepocephalus, Risso. The species of this
genus bear a very close resemblance in their general form
to those of the preceding group, but their head only is
destitute of scales, the body being covered with scales of
large size; their mouth is small, and the teeth small and
crowded. The eye is very large, and the gills have eight
rays. Only one species is known, and it inhabits the
deepest parts of the Mediterranean. It is the A. rostra-
tus, Risso, 2d ed. f. 27.

Genus jVIicrostoma, Cuv. Have the snout very short,
the lower jaw more advanced, and furnished, as well as
the small inter-niaxillaries, with very fine teeth ; three
broad and flat branchial rays ; the eye large, the body
elongated, and having the lateral line garnished with a
series of strong scales. There is a single dorsal a little
behind the position of the ventrals, and the intestines
are similar to those of the pikes. The only species known
{Sa-pa microstoma, Risso, p. 356) inhabits the Mediter-
ranean.

Genus Stomias, Cuv. Muzzle extremely short, the
mouth cleft almost to the gills, the opercula reduced to
small membranous leaflets, and the maxillaries fixed to
the cheek ; inter-maxillaries, palatines, and mandibles
armed with small bent teeth, and the tongue with similar
ones. Their body is elongated, their ventrals altogether
behind, and their dorsal opposite their anal, on the hinder
extremity of the body. We are acquainted with two spe-
cies of these singular fishes, Esox boa, Risso, and Stmnias
barbatus, both from the Mediterranean.

The genera Chauliodus (of which the sole species,
found near Gibraltar, is shown on Plate CCCIV. fig. 10),
Salanx, and Belone, comprehend a few species found
chiefly in the Mediterranean. In the last-mentioned genus,
the inter-maxillaries form the whole edge of the upper jaw,
which is prolonged, as well as the inferior, into a long
snout, and both provided with small teeth ; there are no
other teeth in the mouth, and those of the pharynx are
en pave. Their body is long, and covered with indis-
tinct scales, except a longitudinal carinated range on each
side, near the inferior edge. The bones are very remark-
able for their fine green colour. The intestines differ in
their structure from those of the pikes. One species in-
habits the European coasts, which is about two feet long,
green above, and white beneath. It affords a good dish,
in spite of the prejudice caused by the colour of its bones.
It is the Esox belone, sea-pike, or gar-Jish. Species near-
ly allied are to be found in all seas. Of these, one is said
to reach eight feet in length, and its bite is reported to be
dangerous.

Genus Scomber-esox, Lacep. Has a snout of the
same structure as in Belone, nearly the same appearance
and arrangement of the scales, but the last rays of the
dorsal and anal are detached in spurious fins, as in the
mackerels. One of them occurs in the Mediterranean, viz.

' Quoted in Griffith's edition of the Rif^e AniTnal. We cannot, however, agree with M. Lace'pede in his admiration of the gene*
ral ajijiearance of the pike, for we think its long lank jaws and sunken eye give it rather a diabolical aspect.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

^lalacop-

Abd<imi-

nales.
Ksiicitiu?.

Esox saurus, Bl. Sch. pi. Ixxviii. 2, and is also found along
the British shores, where it is known under the name of
Egyptian herring. It sometimes leaps so actively out of
the water as to pass over a space of thirty or forty feet.
Of the nearly allied genus Hemi-rami'hu.s, Cuv. several
species are to be found in the warm latitudes of both he-
mispheres. Although their flesh is oily, it is of an agree-
able taste.

We now come to a tribe of fishes which have attracted
much attention, owing to the power they possess of leap-
ing to a great height into the air, and even sustaining
themselves in Uiat element for a perceptible time. This
faculty, which has caused them to be nameA Jiying fishes,
they owe to the excessive development of their pectorals,
a peculiarity which readily distinguishes them from all
other abdominal fishes. Their head and body are clothed
with scales, and a longitudinal series of carinated scales
forms a salient line at the bottom of each flank, as in
some of the genera last described. The head is flattened
above and on the sides ; the dorsal is placed above the
anal, the eyes are large, the inter-maxillaries without pe-
dicles, and themselves forming the edge of the upper jaw.
The two jaws are furnished with small pointed teeth, and
the pharyngeal bones with teeth en pave. Such as pre-
sent these characters are to be referred to the

Genus Exocetus, Linn., a name which signifies lying
out, and which was given by the ancient Greeks to a fish
that was reported to be in the habit of coming to repose
on shore. They are further characterised by having ten
branchial rays, a very large swimming bladder, and straight
intestines without ca?ca; the upper lobe of the caudal fin is
the shortest.

The Exocetus voUtans, Bloch, 398 (see Plate CCCIV.
fig. 11), is a well-known flying fish of the ocean (but not
to be confounded, as it has sometimes been, with the
Trigla volitans, or flying gurnard, already alluded to under
the genus Dactylopterus). It is common in many of the
warmer parts of the northern hemisphere, especially be-
tween Teneriffe and the line. It is also said to occur oc-
casionally in the Mediterranean, and may be recognised
by its large eyes, and the smallness of the ventral fins,
which are placed in advance of the centre of the body.
Its mouth is slightly tubular, its scales deciduous, and its
size from six to twelve inches. A species more common
in the IMediterranean is the E. exilie/is, Bloch, 397, of
which the ventrals are long, and placed behind the centre
of the body. It attains to the length of fifteen inches.
The young have black bands upon the fins.
!■ Some difference of opinion seems still to exist in regard
to the mode of flight in these fishes. Mr Bennet sup-
poses, that because they do not use their pectoral fins in
the air precisely as birds use their wings, that their pro-
gression ought rather to be termed leaping than flying.
" In fish," he observes, " the organ of motion for propel-
ling them through the water is the tail, and the fins di-
rect their course ; in birds, on the contrary, the wings
are the organs of motion, and the tail the rudder. The
only use of the extended pectoral fins in the fish is for the
purpose of supporting the animal in the air, like a para-
chute, after it has leaped from the water by so?ne power
which is possessed even by the whale. From the struc-
ture of the fin, I cannot consider it at ail calculated for
repeated percussions out of the water ; while in that fluid,
it continues its natural action uninjured ; but it soon dries
when brought into contact with the air, and the delicacy
of the membrane between the rays would very readily
become injured were the organ similarly exerted in that

medium. The greatest length of time that I have seen
these I'olatile fish on the fin, has been thirty seconds by
the watch. ...Their usual height of flight is from two to three
feet ; but I have known them come on board at a height
of fourteen feet ; and they have been well ascertained to
come into the channels of a line-of-battle ship, i. e. as
high as twenty feet and upwards. But it must not be
supposed that they have the power of elevating them-
selves in the air, after having left their native element :
on watching them, I have often seen them fall much be-
low the elevation at which they first rose from the water,
but never in any one instance could I observe them raise
themselves above that height. I therefore regard the
elevation they take to depend on the power of the first
spring or leap they make on leaving their native element."'
Colonel Bory St Vincent, on the other hand, regards that
opinion as erroneous which limits their aerial movements
to a single sudden spring. " Je n'ai pas vu les exocets
s'^lever tres-haut ; mais je souvent observe qu'ils ne se
replongeaient dans la mer qu'a une bonne portee de fusil
au moinsdu point d'ou ilsetaient partis. Selon I'occasion,
ils changent la direction de leur vol, et s'abaissent ou
s'elevent parallelement aux flots agites ; ils ont enfin la
faculte de voler d'une maniere bien plus parfaite qu'on ne
la leur suppose generalement."^ The double chase of this
unfortunate species was indicated by Duquesne so far
back as 1690. " Ce petits animaux," observes that voy-
ager, " n'ont nul repos, ni dans I'eau, ni dans fair; dans
I'eau, a cause des bonites, dans fair, a. cause des oiseaux
qui fondent sur eux avec plus de rapidite que le faucon
ne fond sur la perdrix."^ Indeed, all voyagers, whether
ancient or modern, have recorded the delight with which
they witnessed these sudden emergencies ; and Bosc in
particular describes the flying fish as sometimes rising in
hundreds, and even thousands, around his vessel, and dart-
ing over the waves in all directions, scouring away, as
Coleridge has beautifully said in relation to another group
of animals, " like a Tartar troop over the wilderness."
We shall conclude this notice by observing that the flesh
of flying fishes is savoury and delicate, and that they thus
present another claim to the attention of the voyager.

At the end of the family of the Esocid^ is to be placed
a genus which differs but a little from them, except in
having long intestines provided with two C£Eca, and which
will probably be formed into a particular family.

Genus Mormybus, Linn. Body compressed, oblong
and scaly ; tail slender at the base, and enlarged towards
the fin ; head covered with a thick naked skin, envelop-
ing the opercula and the branchial rays, and leaving for
their aperture only a vertical cleft, a circumstance which
has caused some naturalists to deny the existence of
opercula, although they are as complete as in any other
fish, and to assign to them only two branchial rays, al-
though there are five or six. I'he opening of the mouth
is very small, almost as in those Mammalia named ant-
eaters, and the maxillaries form its angles. The teeth,
which are slender and notched at the end, cover the in-
ter-maxillaries and the lower jaw ; while on the tongue,
and under the vomer, there is a band of small and crowd-
ed teeth. The stomach is in the form of a rounded sac,
followed by two cajca, and a long slender intestine al-
ways enveloped in a profusion of fat. The bladder is
long, large, and simple. Many of these fishes inhabit the
Nile, and they are ranked among the best which that
river produces. It is conjectured that it was one of them
which the ancient Egyptians held in religious veneration,
and which they named oxyrhincus.

201

Malacop-
tervpii

Abdomi-
nak's.

Ksocuiae.

* Wanderingt in New South TValcs, &c. vol. ii. p. 31. = Voyage aux quatre Ues d'Afri^ue^ t. i. p. 83.

* yoyage aM.r Indcs Orieniaks, t. i. p. 236*.
VOL. XII. 2 C

202

Malacop.

tervfrii
Abilomi-

nales.
SiluriilDP.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

FAMILY III— SILURID/E.

Is distingiiislied from all the others in the order by hav-
ing no true scales, but only a naked skin, or large osseous
plates. The inter-maxillaries, suspended under the eth-
moid, form the edge of the upper jaw ; and the maxillaries
are reduced either to mere vestiges, or are lengthened
into barbels. The intestinal canal is large, folded, and
without caeca ; the bladder large, and adhering to a pe-
culiar osseous process ; the dorsal and pectorals have al-
most always a strong articulated spine for the first ray,
and there is very frequently an adipose fin behind, as in
the SalmonidsB.

Genus Silurus. A numerous genus, known by its
want of scales, the mouth cleft at the end of the snout,
and, in the greater number of sub-genera, by the first ray
of the pectoral being composed of a strong spine. Tliis
is articulated to the shoulder bone, in such a manner that
the animal at pleasure can either draw it towards its body
or erect it perpendicularly, in which case it becomes a
dangerous weapon, and inflicts wounds which in some
countries are considered venomous, doubtless because
tetanus or lock-jaw sometimes ensues. The head of the
Siluri is depressed ; the maxillaries very small ; and the
covering of the branchiae wants that piece which has been
named by Cuvier the sub-opercle.

In some species (Sibinis, Lacep. properly so called)
there is only one small fin, with few rays on the anterior
part of the back, but the anal is very long, and reaches
nearly to the caudal. In others, more especially so nam-
ed by Artedi and Gronovius, the small dorsal is without
any apparent spine ; the teeth on both jaws are like those
of a wool card, and behind the inter-maxillary band of
teeth there is a vomerian band. Of this kind of structure
an example is found in Silurus glanis, L. which is the
largest of European fresh-water fishes, and the only one
of this extensive genus inhabiting the Continent. See
Plate CCCIV. fig. 12. It is smooth, greenish black, spot-
ted with black above, and yellowish-white beneath. The
head is large, with six barbels. It sometimes attains the
length of twelve or fifteen feet, and the weight of 300 or
400 pounds. As this creature is somewhat unwieldy in
its motions, it does not pursue its prey, which consists of
small fishes, but lies concealed among the mud, and seizes
such unwary stragglers as happen to come within reach.
It has occasionally been observed in the sea, but always
near the mouths of rivers, and in such other situations as
to leave no doubt that its appearance there is to be as-
cribed to accidental causes. The flesh is fat and sweet,
and its lard has been employed in some places as a sub-
stitute for that of the hog. Sir Robert Sibbald, at the
conclusion of his list of river fishes, adds, " Silurus sive
Glanis ;"' from which it has been inferred that this gigan-
tic species may at one period have inhabited the Scottish
rivers.^

A few fishes, found hitherto only in the Nile, differ from
the Siluri in having their bodies compressed vertically, and
by having a strong and denticulated spine to the dorsal.
Their head is small and depressed, the nape suddenly raised,
and the eyes placed very low — circumstances which be-
stow upon them a very singular appearance. They consti-
tute the genus Schilbus. The Pimelodi of Lacepede
are characterised by the body being covered only by a
naked skin, without lateral armature. This definition, how-
ever, comprehends a great number of fishes, many of which
present so many differences in appearance and structure,
that it is necessary that they should be grouped in several

subordinate genera. The first of these, established by
Cuvier, and which he names Bagrus, has in each jaw a
band of small crowded teeth, and behind those of the up-
per jaw a parallel band which belongs to the vomer. They
admit of still further subdivision, from the number of their
barbels and the form of their head. Among those having
eight barbels, some have the head oblong and depressed ; in
others it is broad and short. Of such as are furnished with
six bar'^^els, the most remarkable have the muzzle depres-
sed anci broad, after the manner of the pike ; while others
have the head of an oval form, and its shagreened bones
forming a kind of helmet. The Pimelodi, however, /)ro-
perly so called, have no band of teeth on the vomer, paral-
lel to that of the upper jaw, but there are often some on
the palatines. In the number of their barbels, and in the
form of their heads, these fishes present still more nume-
rous varieties than the Bagri. Thus, among such as have
only a single band of teeth, some are observed to have the
head helmeted, and a distinct osseous plate or buckler be-
tween the helmet and the spine of the dorsal. Such is Sil.
clarias, Bl. xxxv. 1, 2. In others the buckler is united to
the helmet, and forms only a single body with it, the hel-
met thus extending from the muzzle as far as the dorsal.
In some instances the head is oval, clothed only by the
skin, through which the bones do not appear ; in this
group the species have either six or eight barbels. In
those called cat-Jish, the head is naked but very broad,
and their barbels also vary, according to the species, from
six to eight. We ought probably to place here the Mathe-
megh of the Cree Indians (Silurus felis, Gm. ?), described
by Dr Richardson as found sparingly in the lakes that flow
into the Saskatchewan, and more abundantly in the lakes
and rivers to the southward. It is much prized as a rich
food.^ Numerous other modifications of structure are to
be found in this extensive genus, of which the greater pro-
portion of the constituent species have but recently become
known to naturalists. Several have the muzzle elongated,
and these lead to a group of still more remarkable confor-
mation, viz.

Genus Synodontis, Cuv. In which the muzzle is nar-
row, and the lower jaw supports a packet of teeth much
flattened laterally, terminating in hooks, and each suspend-
ed by a flexible pedicle ; a kind of dentition of which no
other example is known. The rough helmet, formed by
the cranium of these fishes, is continuous, without any in-
terruption, with an osseous plate, which extends to the
base of the spine of the first dorsal ; and that spine is very
strong, as is likewise the case with those of the pectorals.
The lower barbels, and sometimes also the maxillaries,
have lateral barbels. The species are found in the Nile
and Senegal, and are known to the inhabitants of Lower
Egypt by the general name of Schal, while in the upper
regions of the same country they are termed Gurgur.
Their flesh is not accounted of any value. The Age-
NEiosrof Lacep. possess all the characters of the Pimelodi,
but they are without the barbels properly so called. Silu-'
Tus inermis (Bl. 363) affords an example.

Genus Doras, Lacep. Contains such Siluri as have
a second adipose dorsal, and the lateral line defended by
a row of osseous pieces, each relieved by a spine or pro-
jecting keel. Their dorsal and pectoral spines are very
strong, and powerfully dentated. Their helmet is rough,
and is continued as far as the dorsal, as in Synodontis. and
the humeral bone forms a point behind.

Genus Heterobranciius, Geoff. Has the head pro-
vided with a rough, flat buckler, wider than in any other
of the Siluri, because the frontals and parietals produce

Malacop.

terygii

Abilniiii-

nale.°.
Siluridae.

' Scoiia lUustrata, p. 25

» Appendix to Captain Franklin's first Voyage to the Polar Seti, p. 12i

' Fleming's British Animals, p.

198.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

203

Malai'op-
teryi;ii

AbdiiRii-
nales.

Siluridoe.

lateral plates which cover the orbit and the temple. The
operclc is still smaller in ])roportion than in the foregoing
genera, and the peculiarity observed by Geoffroy distin-
guishes them from all other fishes, viz. that besides the or-
dinary hranchiiv, they have ramified appendages like trees
adhering to the superior branch of the third and fourth
branchial arch, and which appear to be a kind of supernu-
merary branchia;. All the species pertaining to this genus
are found in the Nile, Senegal, and a few of the Asiatic
rivers. Their flesh is either of indifferent quality, or alto-
gether imfit for food. This is not the case, however, with
the Sharmuth or Blncfi-Jish ( Sihiriis ajiguillaris, Hasselq.),
which is common in Egypt and Syria, and constitutes in
the latter country a valuable article for the table.

Genus Plotosus, Lacep. Is characterised by a second
radiated dorsal, of great length, as well as the anal ; and
both uniting at the caudal, form a point, as in the eel.
Their lips are fleshy and pendent ; the throat armed an-
teriorly with conical teeth, behind which there are others
of a globular form, which at the upper jaw jiertain to the
vomer. The head, as well as the rest of the body, is en-
veloped in a thick skin, and the branchial membrane has
nine or ten rays. All the known species are from the
East Indies. They have eight barbels, and, behind the
anus, the fleshy and conical tubercle common to all the
Sihiri ; and there is, besides, a fleshy ramified appendage,
the functions of which, though unknown, are [)robably re-
markable. Some have the dorsal and pectoral spines
dentated, and of considerable size. Such is Platystacus
anrjuillaris, 151. 373, while others have them concealed
beneath the skin. The latter is the case with Plotosus
cashis, Buchan. xv. 44. Certain fishes referred by Lin-
naeus to the genus Callichthys, and pertaining to that nam-
ed Cataphractus by Lacep., have their bodies almost
entirely cuirassed, so to speak, on its sides, by four rows
of scaly pieces ; and there is likewise on the head a com-
partment of these pieces. The extremity of the muzzle,
however, is naked, as well as the under side of the body.
The second dorsal has but a single ray in its anterior
edge; the pectoral spine is strong, but the dorsal is slen-
der or short. The mouth is but little cleft, and the teeth
nearly imperceptible ; the barbels, four in number ; the
eyes small, and placed on the sides of the head. These
fishes can crawl for some time on dry land like the eel.
In some the pectoral spine is merely rough, in others it is
dentate, as in the majority of the Sihiri.

Genus Malapterurl's, Lacep. Distinguished from
all the true Sihiri by having no rayed fin upon the back,
but only a small adipose one on the tail, and by the want
of a spine to the pectorals, of which the rays are entirely
soft. But one species is known with six barbels, the head
not so thick as the body, which is inflated in front. It is
the famous electric Silurus (Siltirus ehctricus, Linn.) of
the Nile and of Senegal ; the Raash or Thunder of the
Arabs, which gives electrical shocks like the Torpedo and
Gymnohis. It appears that the seat of this faculty is a
particular tissue situate between the skin and muscles,
and which presents the appearance of an adipose cellular
substance, abundantly supplied with nei'ves.

Genus AsPREDO, Linn. Platystacus, B\. Presents very
peculiar characters in the flattening of the head, and the
enlargement of the anterior part of the trunk, which prin-
cipally results from the size of the humeral bones ; in the
proportional length of the tail ; in the small eyes placed
in the superior face ; and in the inter-maxillaries being in-
clined under the ethmoid, directed backwards, and bear-
ing teeth only on the hinder edge. In addition to these

peculiarities, they are the only osseous fishes known which
have no mobility in the operculum, because the pieces
which ought to compose it are soldered to the tympanum
and pre-opercle. Only a few species have come under
the cognizance of naturalists, such as the Silurus Asjiredo,
Linn. ; Plat, cotylep/iortis, Bl. 372 ; Silurus hexadacti/lus, '
Lacep. They have six or eight barbels, and it is remark-
able, that when there are eight, one pair is attached to the
base of the maxillary barbels ; the four of the lower jaw
are in pairs, one behind the other. Globules are seen on
some of these fishes, which appear to be their eggs, ad-
hering to the thorax by means of pedicles.

Genus Loricaria, Linn. Is so named on account of
the rigid angular plates which completely cover the body
and head, as with a coat of mail, and is further distin-
guished from such kinds as possess a somewhat similar
defensive armour by having the mouth pierced under
the muzzle. In position and mode of conformation, this
mouth is most analogous to that of Synodontis ; the inter-
maxillaries are small and suspended under the muzzle,
and the mandibular bones, which are transverse and sepa-
rate, bear long flexible teeth, terminating in a hook. A
broad, circular, and membranous veil surrounds the aper-
ture ; and the pharyngeal bones are garnished with nu-
merous teeth e«/)at'e. The trueopercula are immoveable,
asin^«/)reffo,but twosmall, moveable, external plates seem
to perform their office. The branchial membrane has four
rays ; and the first rays of the dorsal and pectorals, and
even of the ventrals, are strong spines. There is neither
ca?ca nor air-bladder. The species may now be arranged
in two sub-genera, viz. Hypostoma, Lacep., which has a
second small dorsal, provided with a single ray, as in
Callichthys. Their labial veil is simply papillose, and
bears a small barbel on each side. They have no plates
under the belly, and the intestines, which are spirally
convoluted, are as slender as a pack-thread, and twelve or
fifteen times longer than the body. They are caught in
the rivers of South America. Loricaria plecostomus, Linn.,
Bl. 376, and Hyp. etentaculatum, Spix, iv. are examples
of this sub-genus. Loricaria, properly so called, has
but a single dorsal in front : their labial veil is garnished
on its edges with many barbels, and sometimes covered
with villosities ; the belly is defended by plates, and the
intestines are of moderate thickness. To this group be-
long L. cataphracta, Linn. ; L. rostrata, Spix ; Rinelepis
aspera and Acanthicus hystrix, Id.

FAMILY IV.— SALMONID^.'

The fourth family of the Malacopterygii of Cuvier is
composed almost entirely of the Linniean genus Salmo,
and has in consequence received from modern Ichthyolo-
gists the title of Salmonid^. It will remain, however, to
future observation to determine whether the family shall
take its title from the salmon, as typical of the form, or
from some other group, leaving to the above-mentioned
fishes the value of a sub-family only. As it is, the circum-
stance of the present Salmonidae possessing a small adi-
pose fin, placed between the dorsal fin and the tail, has
been used in a light purely artificial, and too much conse-
quence has been attached to it. Mons. Agassiz is of opi-
nion that the Clupeas should be added to them, as diflering
only in the want of this fin ; while all the Salmones of Cu-
vier do not possess a true adipose fin, — that part being
composed of rays in the genera Serrasalmus and Myletes.

The family, as it now stands, may be characterised by

Jlalacop-

terygii
Abdocni-
nales.
Salmo.
iiidse.

' As an illustration of the SaljioniDvE, we here figure (from IMr Griffith's Animal Kingdom) Salmo Canademit, a North American
species, beautifully spotted with blood rid on a white circle. See Plate CCCV. fig. I.

204

ICHTHYOLOGY

Malacop. a lengthened form, the body covered with scales of no
terypii great size, and furnished with two dorsal fins. The first
dorsal fin is composed of soft rays ; the second, gene-
rally of a fatty substance, resembling a fold of the skin,
is usually of small size. The tail is remarkably power-
ful, acting as an elastic lever, and, as usual, constitutes
the principal organ of locomotion. Tlie margins of the
jaws are formed by the maxillary and inter-maxillary
bones, and, with the vomer and palate bones, are com-
monly thickly studded with teeth, strong, conical, and
bending backwards. The maxillary and inter-maxillary
bones constitute a single continuous arch, as in the higher
animals. The pyloric portion of the stomach is furnished
with numerous appendices connected with a pancreas. The
swimming bladder is large and oblong, and opens into the
gullet near the extremity. They are voracious, feed on
insects, the less Crustacea, and small fishes. Many of the
species are migratory, and approach the mouths of rivers,
or ascend their streams for the purpose of spawning. In
the breeding season they are marked by some appendage
peculiar to the time, or by a change to colouring of more
brilliant tints. They reach a large size. The flesh is well
flavoured and wholesome.

In the modern arrangement it was found necessary to
separate the Salmonid.je into groups ; and in the present
sketch we shall follow those proposed or adopted by Ba-
ron Cuvier in the last edition of the Ri'gne Animal, —
having deeply to regret that his decease should have pre-
vented his great ichthyological work from advancing to a
branch of the subject which still stands in need of revi-
sion, and which would undoubtedly have derived the most
signal advantage from the exercise of his critical skill.

Genus Salmo, Cuv. Edges of the upper jaws form-
ed by the maxillary and inter-maxillary bones, which,
with the palatine bones, vomer, and tongue, are armed
with strong conical recurved teeth ; rays of the gill-covers
from ten to twelve ; tail very powerful ; posterior dorsal
fin adipose ; ventral fins ])laced opposite the anterior dor-
sal, anal opposite the posterior ; vertebroe from fifty-six to
sixty. The male fish has the nose elongated and the un-
der jaw hooked during the breeding season. The silvery
colours change to gray and red. The species inhabit the
sea and fresh waters. Some migrate at the breeding sea-
son ; all spawn in shallow streams, and both sexes assist
in forming the spawning bed. They inhabit Europe, Asia,
and America.

The fishes which constitute this genus are of great im-
portance, and are by far the most esteemed and valuable
of all those which inhabit the fresh waters. The value of
the fisheries, with the number of men engaged in them,
is very great, and the expense of the materials which are
consumed in the capture of one or two species is immense.
In Britain they are mostly consumed in the great towns,
either in a recent or prepared condition. In the north
of Europe and America numbers are salted or otherwise
cured for exportation. At the commencement of the ge-
nus is generally placed

Salmo salar, or common salmon, a species which likewise
occupies the foremost place in the estimation of both sports-
man and epicure. The salmon is a fish of great elegance,
combining a form fitted alike for strength and swiftness ;
and its depth and thickness, while in good condition, are so
proportioned to its length as at once to convey the idea of a
pleasing symmetry. The body above is of a rich bluish or
greenish gray, changing below to silvery, sprinkled above
the lateral line with rather large sub-cruciform black spots,
a few of which at the shoulders generally extend below the
line. The characters which distinguish it from its British
congeners are the diflerent form of the opercular bones,
which show a rounded outline to the posterior edge of the
gill-covers, the longest diameter of which to the nose would

be in a line through the eye, while in all the other British Malacop-
migratory species the same line would pass much below the ter.vg"
eye. The black inner surface of the pectoral fin is nearly ■'^bdoini-
a constant mark. The tail is forked in the young state, but
fills up to a nearly square outline in the adult, in which
the width between the extremities is proportionally wider
than in S. eriox, the only migratory species which attains
a weight at all approaching that of the salmon. The out-
line of the scales also presents distinguishable differences.

The common salmon inhabits the seas around Great
Britain, and extends to the north of Europe and to Asia;
but it is not properly ascertained that those found in
North America are identical. Its true abode may be
called the sea; for as soon as it has entered the rivers
it begins to deteriorate in condition, the scales lose their
brilliant silvery lustre, and the flesh becomes soft and pale.
It is drawn to the fresh waters by that natural instinct so
wisely implanted for the purpose of its reproduction, an
instinct which enables it to stem the current of the most
rapid rivers, to ascend precipitous falls, and to pass through
weirs and obstacles of human intervention, which no other
power could overcome. This desire of looking for a suit-
able place in which to deposit their ova is their sole rea-
son for thus seeking the " rivers of water," the torment
of sea insects, or other causes which have been assigned,
having no influence. This may be at once understood
from the fact of the barren fish continuing their usual
haunts along the coast, while a great many do not for a
year at all enter the fresh waters. It is during this run
to the proper spawning beds that the greatest numbers are
captured, either by weirs, cruives, nets, or the rod; and it
is then also that tlie sporting angler alone can ply his vo-
cation, almost all attempts to angle the salmon in salt wa-
ter having yet proved unsuccessful. Many fish far ad-
vanced with spawn are by these means destroyed; for
unfortunately the most advanced are the most voracious,
and a needy fisherman looks more to his present gain than
to an expected produce of another year. It would be
well and wise if the net fisheries of tliis valuable species
were more confined to the tide-ways, where, in some es-
tuaries, they are extensively carried on (as well as in the
rivers) by means of stake-nets. These are so constructed
as to intercept the fish entering the rivers, all in a high
state of condition, and are sometimes wrought to such
an extent as to employ several miles of netting.

Salmon generally delay entering the rivers in great num-
bers until the streams become somewhat swollen by rains,
although in the larger rivers there may be said to be a
limited daily run. When the flood has fairly mingled with,
and to a certain extent has saturated, the estuaries, the rush
of fish is often very great, especially if there has been a
continued tract of dry weather. In the latter case they
collect at the mouths of rivers, and are seen and often
taken in vast numbers ; but they do not then attempt an
ascent, deterred perhaps by the clearness of the stream, or
by some instinctive feeling that the water would yet be de-
ficient to carry them through. As the fiesh approaches, how-
ever, an increased activity may be perceived ; and, as far as
we can judge, the change is probably indicated by the nostrils
receiving a sense of the mixture of the waters, by means of
the large ramification of nerves with which they are supplied;
and to this same sense may perhaps be attributed the singu-
lar fact of the greater proportion of salmon returning to the
^ ery streams in which they were spawned. The fish, on en-
tering the river, rush forward as long as the flood continues,
seldom resting in their course during the time that the water
continues discoloured. From ten to twenty-five miles daily
is the rate, as far as can be ascertained, at which they are
supposed to travel.

In their more lengthened courses, where the rivers are
deeper and the interruptions less frequent, the rate at

ICHTHYOLOGY.

205

Malacop- wliici) salmon travel is probably much more rapid. We
tervfjii know indeed little as yet regarding the identity of species

Abdoini- (jytween our own and those of foreign regions , but if, as
i* , ■ some suppose, our salmon attains to the lofty Cordilleras
iiidiK. of South America, by means of the miglity Maragnon,

>,»-^,-^./ then it must run a course of about 800 leagues. 15ear-
ing in mind, however, that the salmon is a truly northern
fisli (that they occin- in soine abundance in the arctic re-
gions, may be inferred from the fact, that Commander
Ross, during liis recent voyage, took three thousand three
hundred nnd seventij-eighl at one haul, in the month of July ;
and that his uncle Sir John obtained a ton weight of salmon
from an Esquimaux, in exchange for one or two knives !),
and also remembering those laws of distribution which re-
gulate, and, with a few exceptions, circumscribe, the loca-
lities of living creatures, we think it more than likely that
the South American salmon belong to another species.
We know, however, that our common kind (Snlmo sa/ar)
makes its way by the Elbe into Bohemia, and through the
Loire as far as the environs of Puy, in the ancient Velay.
We also know that it works its way up the Rhine, and
visits a portion of the rivers of Switzerland, although the
irresistible torrent of the Falls of SchafFhausen prevents
its ingress to any part of the basin of the great Lake of
Constance. But we feel less assured of its occurrence in
the Persian Gulf, or of the identity of the species found
in the Caspian Sea. Neither can we credit that it advances
unrepelled by the gloomy terrors of a subterranean journey,
and that salmon from the Gulf, adorned by the fanciful
Persians with rings of gold and silver, have been found in
the Caspian. The non-existence of the supposed commu-
nication is of itself a pretty sufficient barrier, even did no
other exist in tlie laws of nature, and were light and atmo-
spheric air dispensable.

In our lower and clearer waters, however, they travel at
a much slower rate than tb;.t above alluded to, — resting
i()r some time in the pools by the way, and now and then
taking a regular lie in some chosen spot, which they will
return to daily as long as the river continues unfitted for
their progress. Upon the least accession, however, to the
^vater, either directly or from some swollen tributary, they
are again upon the alert ; and it is often felt by them
several hours before the quickest or most experienced hu-
man eye can perceive a rise upon the river. Having as-
cended to a considerable height, they remain more station-
ary, and proceed more slowly with the subsequent floods,
till the spawn increases in size. This increase, if not in-
fluenced by, is at least so connected with, the commence-
ment of the colder weather, as then to proceed at a more
rapid rate. As the spawn advances, the symmetry of the
form is disfigured ; the female becomes disproportionate-
ly large, the colours lose the brightness of their silvery
tints, and become dull and gray. The male becomes thin
upon the back, the nose elongates, and the under jaw turns
nj5 in a large and strong hook, which enters a hollow in the
nose before the inter-maxillary bones. The colours and
markings become brown and red, those on the head and
gill-covers being particularly brilliant, and disposed in lines
almost like the marking of a Sparus.^ In this full breeding
dress the male and female seek some ford or shallow stream,
and commence to excavate a trench or furrow (chiefly by
the exertions of the female). In this the spawn is depo-
sited, and impregnated at the same time, and finally cov-

ered with gravel by the exertions of the fish. The fur-
row is generally liom six to nine inches in depth ; and
when the spawn has a))peared to be covered beyond that
de))th, this has occurred from some other circumstances, —
such as the stream or floods having carried downward addi-
tional masses of gravel, i'c. After this great effort has been
accomplished, both sexes are reduced to a state of remark-
al)le emaciation. The elongated nose, and hooked jaw,
and brilliant coloiirs, are almost immediately lost ; the old
scales are cast, and the fish retire to some pool to regain
their strength and complete their new clothing. They
finally redescend to the sea by easy stages, where their
former condition and silvery lustre are regained, their
strength invigorated, and all their functions so repaired as
to enable them ere long to renew their visit to the flowing
streams, again to multiply their race.

The ova continue covered by the gravel d\iringthe win-
ter, and begin to vivify from abo\it the end of March to
the commencement of April. Tlie fry remove from under
the gravel when nearly an inch in length, with the ovum
still attached ; and at tliis period, if the spauning bed or
furrow be turned up, it will appear in motion. When dis-
engaged from the ova, the fish increase in si::e most rapid-
ly, and about the end of April and during May conniience
and perform their first migration or journey to the sea.
At this time they are from four to six inches in length, of
a greenish gray above, silvery below, the scales extremely
delicate and very deciduous. From the time they reach
the sea, for two months or ten weeks, we lose sight of
them, and can only infer their growth from the fact, that
after the lapse of that period we find them again ascending
the rivers with a weight of from two and a half to four
pounds. They are then known under the name of gi/se or
grilse ; and their size, as they ascend from the sea, increases
with the advance of the season. The gilse which thus ascend
spawn during the ensuing winter, and are then entitled to
the name of salmon. Descending in a weak state (as be-
fore mentioned), they return again in the summer of the
following year, as fish of from ten to fifteen pounds weight,
according to special circumstances. A third year would
still increase their weight, as would several ensuing sea-
sons, till the attainment ot an enormons size. Pennant,
for example, mentions a salmon which weighed seventy -
four pounds ; and although we now regard with something
of wonder a fish which weighs even the half of that amount,
yet there is no doubt that not many years ago salmon of
forty pounds were much more frequent than in these de-
generate days." The absence of salmon of the largest class
from many of the Scotch rivers, where they formerly
abounded, is in fact owing to the injudicious perfection of
our fisheries, which occasions the constant capture of the
species in the state of gilse, or other early condition ; and
the chances are by consequence greatly against any indi-
vidual escaping the various dangers by which it is environ-
ed, for such a succession of years as is likely to admit of
its attaining to its full dimensions. The destruction by
poachers in the higher parts of the rivers, of the large en-
feebled kelts, or fish which have completed their spawning
operations, is also extremely prejudicial ; for these indi-
viduals (almost utterly useless as food at the time alluded
to) would, if allowed to descend to the salubrious sea, ere
long revisit their native streams, greatly increased in size,
and full of health and vigour.'

Jfalacnp-
tervgii

Abdonii-
nales.
Salmci-
nidse.

' In this state it has received from Cuvier the erroneous name of S. liamatus, as if it were a distinct species. See Regne Animal,
t. ii. p. 303.

* We observe that a salmon above fifty pounds weight was recently taken at the mouth of the Leven in Dumbartonshire. The
general capture this season (1835) has beeii very great in Scotland. Nearly 800 were taken at one haul in a bay of the island of
Islay ; and our calculation, from accurate data, is, that for some time past about a hundred thousand salmon (including grilse) have
been shipped in Scotland weekly from our eastern ports alone. A friend of our own lately saw a salmon of sixty-one pounds weight
on a fishmonger's stall in London.

" The reader will consult with advantage the Parliamentary Reports of evidence taken by a Committee of the House of Commons,

20G

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Malacop-
tervgii
Abdomi-

nales.
Xalmo-

nidfE.

Snlmo erioXjOr hull trout, is another British species which
attains a large size, and does not seem as yet clearly de-
scribed as inhabiting any of the other European waters.'
It reaches a weight of twenty-five pounds. It is thicker
in proportion to its length tlian the salmon ; the fins are
much more muscular ; the tail particularly so, and per-
fectly square at the end in all the stages of growth, while
the distance between the two extremes of the web is
smaller proportionally than in any of the other species.
The head is larger in proportion than that of the salmon
of a similar weight, and the opercular covering is more
lengthened. The toothing is very strong. The general co-
lours are, above greenish gray, the lower parts silvery
white ; the body above the lateral line being thickly cover-
ed with large cruciform black spots. In the breeding
dress they assume a much blacker tint than the salmon,
and want much of the red markings. All the under parts,
jaws, and cheeks, become blotched with deep blackish
gray. The flesh is of a yellowish tint, and is coarse, ex-
cept in the young state ; it has the least flavour, and is
consequently less esteemed in the market than any of the
other species. The hook of the under jaw of the male
does not become so elongated as in the salmon. The old
fish commence to enter the rivers about the end of July,
and appear to deposit their spawn and return to the sea
about a month earlier than the salmon. The young fish,
of from two to three pounds weight, and in this state
known as whitlings, enter the rivers about the beginning
of June. In all its states it is a very powerful fish, and
feeds voraciously and indiscriminately. When hooked it
springs repeatedly from the water, and runs (to use an
angler's expression) with extraordinary vigour to free it-
self. The river Tweed and its tributaries are among the
principal localities for this fish. It occurs also, though
more sparingly, in some of the rivers of the Sol way, but
appears to be rare on the west and north coasts of Scot-
land.^

Salmo Irutta and alhua. — These fish have been by most
modern Ichthyologists described as distinct. The charac-
ters of each, however, are extremely difficult to determine ;
and it is most probable that they will both be found to
merge into one species, entitled to the name ot Salmo trutta.
Both fish are very abundant, and are taken in great quan-
tities in the Solway and its tributaries, and along the great-
er part of the west and north coasts of Scotland. In the
first-named locality, they bear the name of sea trout,
herling, and wliitling ; in the two latter, of white trout and
Jinnock ; and being transported to the markets of our
metropolis, they receive the additional name of salmon
trout. Thus we may easily conceive the immense con-
fusion that may and has arisen from the use or abuse of
provincial names. Along the south-east coast of Scotland
they appear less abundant ; but this may arise from the
larger mesh employed in the nettings. The Tay and the
Forth supply the Edinburgh market. In its largest state, or
as known under the specific title oi trutta, it enters the rivers
from two and a half to six pounds weight in the end of May.
It is of an elegant form, and possesses all the symmetry of
the salmon. The head is small, the back remarkably broad
when viewed from above ; the tail slightly forked, and wide
at the extremity of the web ; the colour above greenish,
inclining to bluish-gray, lower parts of the clearest silver ;

terygii
Abduini-
r.ales.
Salmo-
iiida;.

body above the line spotted, as in .S. eriox, with large, deep- Malacop
black spots, but generally much fewer in number. The
flesh is pink, richly flavoured, and much esteemed for the
table. It ranks next to that of the salmon, and by many is
esteemed more delicate than even that prized species. The
S. albuSfOr smaller and younger state in which it is found, is
very nearly of the same proportion, form, and colours. They
approach the mouths of the rivers in the end of July and
commencement of August, in immense profusion, and im-
mediately enter the fresh waters, where an angler may
take almost any quantity without the exercise of great
skill. In the north they form a perquisite to the tax-
men or kayners of the salmon fisheries, — above a thou-
sand being sometimes taken at a sweep of the net. In the
Solway they are taken in equal abundance in houses of
the stake-net, covered for the purpose with net of a
small mesh, and are then carried to the various country
markets, and during the height of the run to the villages,
in cart-loads, for sale. The flesh of this smaller fish (whe-
ther species or variety, as the case may be) is also pink,
and delicately flavoured. Its food is likewise the same as
that of the larger kind; in the sea small Cr\istncea{Talitrus
locusta being a favourite and common food), — in fresh wa-
ter aquatic insects, worms, minnows, or other small fish.
They appear also to spawn rather earlier than the salmon,
and after the same manner. The colours of both sorts
during the breeding season are deep-grayish black, slight-
ly tinted with brown in the males ; and at this time they
offer a most marked contrast (being black and lean) to the
symmetrical form and brilliant silvery tints of their per-
fect condition.

The preceding species (S. salar, eriox, trutta, and al-
bus) — whether three or four in number, is still, as we have
said, a dubious point — appear to be the only migratory
salmon yet known to inhabit the waters of Great Britain.
On the Continent of Europe, however, we have the

Salmo hucho, said to be peculiar to the waters of the
Danube, but most probably migratory to the Black Sea,
and certainly not a native of the British waters, though
inserted in many of our lists. It is a fish of extraordinary
power, attaining to the weight of sixty pounds ; and is of
more lengthened proportions than the common salmon.
The flesh pale coloured, and rather coarse. The young
have large transverse bands upon the back and sides ;
with age these break up into spots, and gradually disap-
pear, till the ground colour becomes uniform, and is only
broken by the ordinarily black or violet spotting. In Ame-
rica, again, we have in this division the

Salmo Hearnii, or Copper-mine River salmon. Above
olive-green, pale on the sides, and shading into bluish
white, marked with longitudinal rows of flesh-red spots,
largest on the sides, where they are about the size of a pea.
The scales, like those of the other salmon of America,
are much smaller than those of the European species, and
in this fish they possess peculiar lustre. The teeth are weak
and few, their size inferior to those of the common salmon.
Their flesh is red. This fish is abundant during July and
August, below the falls of the Copper-mine River.

The migratory salmon are distinguished from those
which inhabit only the fresh waters by the clear grayish
blue of the upper half of the body, and the brilliant sil-
very lustre of the belly and lower parts. Among those

appointed to investigate the subject of the salmon fisheries. We beg also to refer to Dr Knox's Observations, published in the 12th
volume of tbe Transactions of the Roi/al Societi/ of Edinbarfsh.

' The young is the whitUng of the Tweed, the Bir-uick trout of the London markets ; but tlie ■whitlinf; of all our Scottish rivers is not
necessarily the young of .V. eriox, in as far as provincial names are sometimes variously apjilied. In regard to the more scientiSc
synonyms of this species, we know not what degree of relationship its adult state may bear to the Tru'ite dc Ncr of the French,—
Salmo Schicfr.rmulkri, Bloch, 103.

^ \Ve liavc no doubt that the Xor-xay salmon of the Sulherlandshire fisheries is identical with the above-described species, — that
is. with the full-grown Salmo eriox. _

ICHTHYOLOGY.

207

JIalacop.
terygii

Abdomi-
iiales.
Salmo-
nicte.

• which in common language receive the appellation of
trotits, the colouring is more varied and of brighter tints,
in which yellow and orange predominate, changing to
various shades according to locality. The best and most
familiar example is
' Salmo fario, or comyyion front. This lovely fish is
most extensively distributed over the whole of Northern
Europe, being found in every burn and tarn, in every lake
and river. It may be also said to be one of the most
pleasing in its appearance ; and, when newly taken in
" golden glory" from some translucent stream, is exqui-
sitely beautiful. The variation of the tints of the ground
colour is infinite ; yellow, however, is the most predomi-
nant, varying to the most brilliant orange ; while at other
times the ground colour of the body runs from a dark-
greenish black to violet, in most instances numerously
spotted with black and red. Sometimes, however, the
black is alone present in the form of large round spots,
placed in a pale circle, but in all cases beautifully reliev-
ed, and breaking up the uniformity of the other colours.
In a few instances the spots have been observed to be
wanting altogether. One cause of the variation in the
trout, is the difference of food ; and, according to every in-
formation we possess, those which feed on fresh-water
shells, Gammari (screws, or fresh-water shrimps, as they
are sometimes called), are of the most brilliant tint, and
also of the finest flavour, with a decided pinkness in their
flesh. Those feeding on the ordinary water insects are
next in brilliancy and flavour, while such as live chiefly
upon aquatic vegetables are dull in colour, and of soft
consistence. This is further confirmed by the trout in
steics being always finished, or fed off as it is called, on
the foresaid Gammari, collected often from a distance. It
is only in this v.ay also that we can account for the varia-
tion in the appearance and flavour of trout found in two
adjoining bays of the same lake. The individuals, in fact,
do not appear to stray to any distance, but seem to be
satisfied with whatever food is found within a limited dis-
trict, and which of course will be in many instances of a
peculiar and local kind. It is also true, that the colours
of trout accommodate themselves to the tint of the water,
and to the prevailing to7ie of the bottom, whether of rock
or gravel, or of softer substance ; and so constantly is this
the case, that an experienced and observant angler has little
difficulty in accurately predicating the general aspectof the
fish of any lake or river. The presence of moss, so frequent
in alpine districts, has invariably the effect of deepening
the tints, particularly the shades of green and yellow.

In form this fish, when in perfect condition, may be
said to be nearly symmetrical ; the head only being some-
times rather large in proportion to the body, when con-
sidered in relation to what we regard as the beau ideal.
The fins are of moderate strength, those of the body as-
suming a variation of form, from a rounded to a lengthen-
ed extremity. The tail is almost always forked ; the fins
are always coloured, that is, never of the transparent
whiteness observable in the migratory species; and their
tints are generally of a paler shade than those of the corre-
sponding parts of the body. The anal fin is often border-
ed on its lower surface with white. The scaling is propor-
tionally less than in the migratory kinds. The toothing
is in general strong, and very prominent on both the tongue
and vomer.

The average growth of the common trout, taking the
species generally, may be stated at about a pound, and
certainly not more than a pound and a half. In almost all

rivers, fish weighing beyond this may certainly be found ;
but they are comparatively uncommon. Individuals from
two to six pounds weight are occasionally taken, even in
what may be termed a " wild state." In ponds or stews,
again, they reach a much greater size, but cannot be said
io be in the natural condition of unenclosed fish. The
Thames trout seem to reach most frequently the largest
size, being short compared to their length, but of great
thickness and well flavoured. Two were lately taken, the
one of eleven, the other of fifteen pounds weight. The
lakes in the north of England produce trout of very fine
quality, and which are often passed off for char. Loch Le-
ven, too (of which the barren isle and now dismantled
castle are famous in history as the prison-place of the
beautiful Queen Mary), has long been celebrated for its
breed ot trout. These, however, have fallen off of late con-
siderably in their general flavour and condition, owing, it is
said, to the partial drainage of the loch having destroyed
their best feeding ground, by exposing the beds of fresh-
water shells, which formed the greater portion of their
food. Farther north (as in Sutherlandshire) the immense
multitude of lochs produce a corresponding abundance
and variety of trout. Of these, however, only a few are
of superior quality; but these i'ew may assuredly vie with
the trout of any country in the v/orld.' Another large
species, occurring in the British waters, and not yet dis-
tinctly known elsewhere, is the

Salmo ferox, Jardine. This species reaches a weight of
twenty-eight pounds, and is of very great power compared
with its size. The characters which distinguish this fish
from S.fario are the great size which it attains in a natural
state, the large proportional size of the head, the square
extremity of the tail in all the stages of its growth, the
relative position of the fins, and the number of rays in the
dorsal, which vary from 2 — II to 4 — 11. The external
skin or covering of the scales is also extremely tough ;
and there is a difference in the form of the scales of the
lateral line. In colour the upper parts are generally of
a deep purplish brown, shading into purplish gray, and
finally, on the lower parts, to greenish or grayish yel-
low, more or less tinted with orange. The spotting is
large and not numerous, and consists of black spots placed
in a pale circle, and of large pink spots with a similar
light area. These extend over the gill-covers, upper fins,
and often over the tail itself. A variety occurs in Loch
Loyal, in Sutherland, above purplish brown, beneath
blackish gray, the whole body spotted over with dark se-
pio-coloured spots, of a smaller size on the lower portions.
Salmo ferox appears to be entirely confined to the lakes,
seldom ascending or descending rivers, or wandering in
and out of them, and never migrating to the sea. When
spawning, it ascends for a short way up the rivers or
streams which run into the lakes, but never, as far as yet
known, descends those which run out of them. It inha-
bits, among the English lakes, Ulswater ; but does not
there reach a size above ten or eleven pounds. In Ire-
land, as far as we can yet learn (specimens having not
yet reached us on this side of the water), it is found in
Loch Neagh and some other large lakes ; and in Scotland
we have taken it in Loch Awe, Loch Laggan, the upper
end of Loch Shin, and Lochs Loyal and Assynt. It is a
fish of remarkable ferocity, and as great an enemy to its
smaller companions as the pike. It may be taken by night
lines, or by strong trolling tackle, baited with a small trout,
and will return a second and third time to the bait, even
after it has been dragged for forty or fifty yards.*

Malacop.
terygii
Abduiiii-

iiales.
iSalnio-

i)iil;c.

■ We may here note the existence of a strongly marked and peculiar variety, called the gillaroo trout of Galway. It is remark-
able for feeding on shell-tisli, in consequence of whicli (as is supposed) the coats of the stomach acquire a great degree of thickness,

from wliich peculiarity it is sometimes called tlie ghzard trout.

■ for a detailed account of the mode of fishing for this and the other species, see our article Angling, in the third volume of the
present woik.

208

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Malacop-
terygii
Abiiomi-
nales.
Salmo.
nidae.

5. salmulus, or pnrr. An abundant species in all the
clear running streams in England and Wales, and the south
of Scotland ; but in the last-named country it begins to
decrease, so as to become comparatively rare, towards the
north. It frequents the clearest streams, delighting in
the shallower fords having a fine gravelly bottom, and
hanging there in shoals, in constant activity apparently
both day and night. It is found during the whole year
in the rivers; but its breeding has not yet been discover-
ed, though the fish are found in such a state as to shed
their spawn when handled, close to the verge of the tide-
way. It is a remarkably beautiful little fisli when newly
taken from the water, above of a greenish gray, beneath
white inclining to yellowish, the sides marked with dull
bluish patches of an oval form, and the body above the
lateral line sparingly spotted with brownish-black and red.
On the gill-covers there are two black s)K)ts, one of which
is often indistinct. Tiiis fish has been always confounded,
and still is so, with other species. Many maintain it to be
the young of the salmon, while others insist that it bears
that relationship to the common trout. The presence of
the dark finger-like markings upon their sides has natvnally
assisted in this confusion. These marks, however, are dis-
tinguished by being always narrower in their form than in
the trout or young salmon.' Besides the external aspect
being so distinct tiiat any observer will without difficulty
separate them when seen together, the whole skeleton of
our present species is more delicately formed, as are also
the teeth. The form of the opercular bones is likewise
different, and the length of the maxillary bones is much
less in the .S'. salmulus, or parr, showing a very marked
difference when the open mouths of the different fish are
exhibited together. Another distinction is, the great
width and power of the pectoral fins, evidently a special
provision, as the principal organ of support in those rapid
streams where tiiis little fish is almost always found.

Although the history of the parr is still, in truth, ob-
scure, we certainly deem ourselves authorized to state
that it is not the young of the salmon. It may be found
in rivers throughout the year, and is more especially a-
bundant during those midsummer months in which the
acknowledged young of the salmon is unknown except as
a fish returning from the sea. The most characteristic
and irrepressible instinct of the latter seems to consist in
its descent to the sea a i'ew weeks after exclusion from
the egg ; and if our summer parr is also the young of the
salmon, the fact presents a very rare and remarkable ex-

ample of different individuals of the same species vary-
ing in their instinctive habits. The occurrence of parr in
rivers so long after midsummer, and the entire disappear-
ance oi smoults (as the young salmon are sometimes call-
ed) anterior to that period, is a main argument in favour
of their being distinct kinds ; and we cannot get over the ■
difficulty by simply asserting, that such as go down to the
sea early are parr, and that such as go down late are parr
also. It is admitted that tlie ova of salmon are hatched
in spring, and that the growth of the young (by whatever
name we choose to call it) is extremelj' rapid. Now, as
nobody ever finds a parr above a few inches long (six
inches is a large one), and as by the end of summer they
must be several months old, how can we (in the belief of
their being young salmon) reconcile their imputed age
with their actual dimensions?'- Still more difficult will it
be to explain, in connection with that belief, how the
brood which has descended seawards in the spring should,
after the lapse of the same period, be found in their na-
tive rivers weighing many pounds.

The preceding are all the species belonging to our pre-
sent group which have been yet ascertained to inhabit the
waters of Britain. On the Continent of Europe we have
the S. lacuslris, Linn., found in the lakes of Lower Aus-
tria, and in the Rhine above Constance, and reaching to an
enormous size.'*

In the northern parts of North America, according to
Dr Richardson, trout abound in every lake and river. In
the Appendix to that gentleman's first expedition under
Captain Franklin, the diflerent varieties are all placed un-
der <S'. fario, or common trout. It is doubtful, however,
whether that species exists at all in America ; and several
species entirely distinct will be described in the third vo-
lume of the Northern Zooloyy, which have much of the co-
louring of some varieties of the European trouts, but differ
remarkably in the smallness of the scales.* Specimens of
forty pounds in weight were seen ; and in Lake Monito
they were said to attain the weight of ninety pounds.

Another small group, which has hitherto been placed
among the true Salmones, contains the fish commonly
known under the name of Char. They differ from the
trouts in the very small and narrower form of the scales,
in the more delicate toothing (the vomer furnished with a
single minute tuft at the tip, instead of being armed for
its whole length), in the remarkably brilliant change which
takes place during the season of breeding, a change very
much more completely developed than in any of the other

Malacop-
tervgii

Abdomi-
nales.
Salmo-
nidsE.

' We would also suggest, as a good logical argument against the fact of S. salmulus being the young of the common salmon,
that it is frequent in streams where salmon are scarcely ever seen. " What a jiity it is," uliserves tlie Kev. George Low, " that I
am almost obliged to deny the salmon a place in the Orkney zoology ; yet true it is, that this noble tish is so seldom got here, that
it is considered as a ■wonder when one is thrown asliore, or runs so tar up one of our burns as to be taken. I have not heard of above
three or four instances of salmon being taken in Orknev, three of which (if they were all salmon) were killed and brought on shore
by the otter from the sea, and i)icked up by the country people, and a fourth which stuck in a mill-wheel, and was caught by the
miller." The same writer, under the article Pan\ observes, " Pretty /myj/cii/ in the shallower lakts and clear burns, tliough not in
such numbers as I have observed them in Scotland." {Fauna Orcudrnsis. Y\). i."JO and 223.) The reader will also bear in mind, that
as we advance northwards in our own island, the parr becomes scarcer, the salmon more abundant, — and that while in the icy
streams of the arctic regions the former has riot yet been detected, the latter swarms in (elsewhere) unequalled luunbers. It is
scarcely worth while to allude to the opinion maintained by the late Sir Humphry Davy and others, that the parr is a hybrid or
mule between the trout and salmon !

= We yesterday (Uth September 1835), while angling in the North F.sk, above the beautiful residence called The Bum, in Kin-
cardineshire, killed about a dozen parr, two of which, measuring eight inches in length, were the larjrest we had ever seen. They were,
however, as usual, spotted with red along the lateral line, and tinged all over the under parts, like trouts, with yellow. They ex-
hibited no approach to the silvery character of the salmon, nor any departure from the usual asjiect of the parr. The majority
of the others were of the ordinary size, and some of them so small as to render it entirely incomprehensible — unless we are totally
misinformed regarding the spawning periods of the salmon, and the time of its exclusion from the egg — by what process of rea-
soning they could be maintained to be the young of that fish.

^ We are not yet in a position to judge conclusively regarding the identity or distinction of the great lake trouts of Switzerland,
and our own Suhno fcrox. '^ I. a grande truite du I-ac de Geneve (^Salmo kmanus, N.)," says I5aron Cuvier, " qui se trouve aussi
dans quelques lacs voisins, a la tete et le dos semes de petitcs taclies rondes et noiratres sur un fond blandvitre ; sa chair est iris
blauclie. II y en a de quarante et de cinciuanle livres." (Itcgne Animal, ii. 303.) Now the gigantic tyrant of our Scotch lochs, to
fay nothing of other discrepancies, has the llesh of an orange hue.

* The greater number of the ])lates for the volume above alluded to have been for some time engraved, and their publication,
with the corresponding descriptions, will atibrd an important addition to the library of the Ichthyologist.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

209

Abdunii-
nales.
SalinM-
nidfle.

Malacop. species, and in their food consisting in a great measure of
minute entoniostraca. TIic best aii'l most familiar exam-
ple of this group is the char of England.

Salmo iimbla, Agassiz, — -apparently confounded by most
authors, in consequence of its great variety of aspect, and
' synonymous, according to the above-named naturalist, with
S. alpinus and salvelinus, Linn. It is abundant in the
Englisli and Welsh lakes, and in the greater mmiber of
those in the north of Scotland, when of any considerable
extent ; but more seldom seen there, from the absence of
the practice of netting, and the general miHillingness of
char to take a fly or bait. This fish is of great repute
in the Lake of Geneva, and is also found in many of the
alpine lakes of northern Europe. The common char
reaches a considerable size, being sometimes taken in Bri-
t.ain above two pounds in weight, although the more usual
weight is under three quarters of a pound. When in full
condition, it is a fish of very great beauty, above of a gray-
ish green, shading into the most delicate white on the
lower parts, and tinted with a blush which is comparable to
that seen on the breasts of some of the gull tribe when
newly shot in spring. The body is sprinkled over with
pale spots of a considerable size. In this state they re-
main in the deeper parts of the lakes, and are not frequent-
ly taken, although we doubt not they might be so were
the practice adopted of hanging a herring-net in the deep
water, instead of trying only the xuinter practice of bawling
in shore. We ourselves caught them by the former me-
thod, in their prime silvery state, in Sutherland, during the
month of June. On the approach of the breeding time,
they seek the mouths of the small tributaries, and are
taken in vast numbers at the very period when their pre-
servation ought to be most strictly attended to, and when,
in truth, they begin to fall off in their condition. At this
season the colour of the upper parts is darkened, the fins
are very rich, and the sides and belly become of a beauti-
ful and brilliant red, the whole spotted with small marks of
a paler tint.

Although we here follow our friend M. Agassiz in pla-
cing the two supposed species under one denon)ination,
yet we willingly admit, and indeed particularly desire our
readers to remember, that the history of the char, whether
single or distinctive, has not yet been clearly made out.'
We have already mentioned (in the article Angling of
this work) that both kinds occur in Windermere, to wit,
the char or case char (Salmo alpinus), and the torgoch
or red char (Salmo salveliims). These are usually thus
distinguished : — the former by having the first rays of the
ventral and anal fins white ; the latter by having those
parts plain, that is, of the same colour as the other rays.
A remarkable distinction is also observable in their natu-
ral habits, — the case char ascending rivers, and spawning
about Michaelmas, — the red char depositing its ova along
the shores of the lake, and not till the end of December
or the beginning of the year." Let these facts be duly
regarded in determining upon the distinction or identity
of species. We hope ere long to investigate the subject
steadily. In the mean time, to illustrate the character of
colour, we shall extract from our note-book some memo-

randa made a few seasons ago, on six specimens of char iMalacop-
(supposed to exhibit examples of the different varieties or teOf/ii
kinds) selected from a bawl taken (hy net) in Windermere
on the 12th December. " No. I is a very beautiful fish, —
the ground colour of the body pale ashy brown, somewhat
lighter beneath the lateral line. The sides are richly
marked with scarlet spots of different sizes ; the whole of
the under surface, from the pectoral fins to the tail, are
brilliant scarlet. The fins are margined anteriorly with
an opake white stripe, followed by a blackish-brown por-
tion, passing posteriorly into deep crimson. The tail is
blackish brown. The nose and front part of the head are
marked by a black spot. The dorsal fin is of the same
pale-brown colour as the back, slightly inclining to blue."
This seemed a male. " No. 2 is a smaller fish, brown
upon the back, and becoming gradually paler beneath ;
the abdomen and lower parts are dingy white, tinged with
bluish colour. The ventral and anal fins are margined
with white, their other parts flesh colour; the pectoral
fins are reddish brown ; the dorsal fin and tail blackish
brown. The sides of this specimen are indistinctly mark-
ed with pale yellowish-red spots." This was a male red
char, which appeared to have spawned. " No. 3 is of a
blackish-brown colour, somewhat silvery, paler beneath the
lateral line, and passing into yellowish white on the belly.
The pectoral, ventral, and anal fins are brown, tinged
with red. The dorsal fin and tail are brownish black.
The upper part of the head is also black. The sides of
this specimen are distinctly marked with numerous very
pale, almost colourless, spots. No. 4 resembles the last
described, but is smaller." These the fishermen called
two geld fish, full grown and half grown. " No. 5 is a
very dark fish, brownish black upon the back and sides, be-
coming, as usual, gradually paler beneath the lateral line.
77(6 pectoral, ventral, and anal fins are distinctly margined
anteriorly with opake white; the central portion of these
fins are brownish black, and their interior margins flesh
colour. The upper part of the head is dark ; the belly of
a dingy red. No. 6 resembles the preceding, except that
the under surface, instead of being dingy red, is pale red-
dish white. The ventral and anal Jins are reddish brown,
jnargined anteriorly with white. The pectoral fins are
reddish brown, the dorsal fins are brownish black. Both
these specimens are marked on the sides with obscure
pale-reddish spots." These two fish were what the fish-
ermen called case char (Salmo alpinus ?), male and female,
— yet the pectoral, ventral, and anal fins of the former,
and the ventral and anal fins of the latter sex, were con-
spicuously margined with white, although that character
is usually regarded as distinctive of the torgoch or red
char. Perhaps the fact of the male having the pectorals
so margined, while those of the female were of uniform
colour, may be regarded as of some importance, as tend-
ing to show that the character itself is in some measure
variable, and therefore insufficient to constitute a specific
distinction.^ Every angler knows that the under fins of
the common trout are frequently margined on one edge
w ith an opake line of milky white.

Although the art of angling is not immediately connect-

' We understand that Blr Yarre!) has obtained what he considers as a second species of char, from Wales, which will be described
in an early number of his Briihh Fishes. We are as yet, however, uncertain whether he makes out the two common kinds to be iden-
tical, and has discovered a new species, or whether his observations merely go to prove that the said kinds (as formerly supposed) are
distinct from each other.

'^ The chief feeder or head stream of Windermere is composed of two branches, the Brathay and the Rothay, wliich meet a short
way above the lake, into which they speedily pour their united waters. The Brathay is the lefc-hand branch (as we ascend from the

lake), and draws its sources from the mountain vales of I^angdale, reaching Windermere without any resting place, while the

Kothay has previously formed and flowed from two consecutive lakes, Grassmere and Kydal. The char,' in ascending from Winder-
mere to spawn, invariably turn to the left, and ascend the Brathay (though to no great distance), and as invariably avoid the lake-
descended w aters of the Rothay. Tliey also spawn lower down the Lake of Windermere, at the mouth (or a short way upwards) of
the stream called Troutbeck, which is also derived from the flow of mountain tributaries, without any lesser or intermediate lake.

» The specimens above alluded to are now deposited in the Edinburgh College Museum.

VOL. XII. 2 D

210

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Abdomi-
nales.
Salmo-
nidae.

Malacop- ed with the science of Ichthyology, it is at the same time
terygii evident that the successful practice of that art necessarily
illustrates the food of fishes, and therefore makes us ac-
quainted with an important portion of their natural his-
tory. For this reason we insert the following memoranda,
transmitted to us by Mr John Wilson, junior: — '| The
season for fishing char (with rod and line) in Winder-
mere and Coniston commences about the end of May, and,
I should say, is over by the first or second week in July.
Trolling with a smallish minnow is by far the most suc-
cessful mode of angling for this fish. It may, however, be
taken with the artificial fly, the green and gray drake
being the favourites. I killed three one day in May last
with a small red professor} A Bowness fisherman on the
same day, trolling without intermission from six in the
morning till six in'the evening, killed six mid tioenty, being
the greatest number that has been taken in Windermere,
in a single day, by one person, for many years. In Co-
niston, where this fish is more abundant, I believe it is by
no means uncommon to kill three or four dozen in a day.
In regard to the size of char in Windermere, 1 should
say they average three to the pound. I never saw one
that was a pound. Billy Balmer told me that he once saw
one that was a pound and a quarter, and that it was the
largest ever taken in Windermere." In relation to the
same subject, in a different locality, we may also add the
following extract from another hand. " A small red char
is found in Loch Achilty, Ross-shire, on the property of
Sir George Mackenzie. It takes the fly greedily in warm,
still weather, and, w hat is singular, during all the summer
and autumnal months. I have captured eighteen in a
forenoon in July, — raising many more. My flies were of
various sorts, from a midge to one as large as a sea-trout
fly. The water of Loch Achilty is singularly deep and
transparent,— the soil is rich and loamy, and contains
large quantities of imbedded wood, — black oak especially.
It is supplied by numbers of minute streams, but has no
visible outlet, being supposed to discharge itself subter-
raneously. The chai- found in it average eight or nine
inches in length ; we, however, caught one much larger.
They rise with less velocity than the trout, and on miss-
ing the fly, unless injured, will return to the hook. In
Strathglass there is a Loch Bruiach, where char are
caught of a much larger size, but chiefly with the net, —
except in the month of October, when, as our informant,
the Rev. Mr Chisholm, told us, they may be taken in the
shallows with the rod, but at no other season.""-

On dissecting the char which we killed last summer in
Sutherland, with a view to ascertain their food, we found
the stomach usually empty, but the lower part of the in-
testine filled with green vegetable residuum. This we
found to be the remains of the cases of aquatic larvae
{Phryganidce), a few of which we discovered in a half di-
gested state in the upper portion of the intestinal canal.

Following the preceding groups, or Salmones properly
so called, Cuvier has placed the

Genus Osmerus of Artedi. Characterised by two rows
of teeth on each palate bone, the vomer with a tuft on the
fore part, the branchial membrane with only eight rays,
the body without spots, and the ventral fins placed a little
more forward than in the true salmon.

The best-knowii species is the O. eperlanus, Arted.,
Salmo eperlanus, Linn.; called spiTli7i in Scotland. It
is a small fish of delicate but brilliant colours, clear green
on the upper parts, passing into silvery on the sides and
belly. It fi-equents the sandy bays at the mouths of rivers,

which during the breeding season it ascends to spawn. It Malacop-
is abundant on the British coasts, and in many parts of terygii
Europe, and is taken in immense quantities, being much Abdomi-
esteemed for the table. "^^^^'

Genus Mallotus, Cuvier. Characterised by the teeth, ■ "'™-
which are fine, closely set, and nearly concealed ; eight rays i^^,.^
to the branchial membrane ; the body lengthened and co-
vered with minute scales ; the first dorsal and ventral fins
placed beyond the middle of the fish, pectoral fins very
large and round ; the male during the breeding season with
the scales of the lateral line furnished with lengthened ap-
pendages resembling hairs.

The only species is M. Groenlandicus, Cuv. ; .S'. Groen-
latidicus, Bloch ; Capelan, or Lodde. A small fish of from
four to seven inches in length, the under jaw longer than the
upper ; above of a greenish gray, changing to whitish be-
low ; and remarkable for the structure of the scales on the
lateral line, and the size of the pectoral fins. Abundant in
the Arctic Seas, where it is taken in immense profusion
when approaching the coasts to spawn, and is used as the
principal bait for cod. A few are cured and brought to
this country in barrels, where they are sold, and used as a
relish by the curious in wines.

Genus Thymallus, C\xv\ev ; grayling. Has been se-
parated from the Guiniads, principally on account of the
small scaling, and large dorsal fin. The species approach
nearer in form, colour, habits, and food, to the trouts.
They have the mouth with sides, that is, but slightly cleft,
the teeth very fine, the body spotted, the branchial mem-
brane with seven or eight rays. The stomach is very mus-
cular. They inhabit rivers, and feed on aquatic insects, &c.
England produces a beautiful species, commonly called the
grayling, or

Thymallus thymus,^ Salvianus. The grayling delights
in clear rapid streams, and is found in many of those bear-
ing that character in the more hilly or mountainous parts
of England, particularly in Shropshire, Yorkshire, and
Derbyshire, — reaching as far north as some of the tri-
butaries of the Tyne in Northumberland. The European
range of this fish seems extensive, if all the authors are
correct in their designation. According to the Flora
Lapponica, it is common in Lapland, and the viscera are
there used instead of rennet, with the milk of the rein-
deer. It is also found in Siberia, in Prussia, and Pome-
rania. It is a very beautiful fish, above of a dusky bluish
green, changing to a fine silvery gray. The lower edges
of the scales are dusky, which gives the appearance of
dark streaks running along the fish. The most marked
feature is the dorsal fin, of very large size, and darkly
spotted between the rays, in the form of transverse bands.
The ordinary size is from a foot to sixteen inches in
length, but instances of one or two from four to five
pounds are recorded. By some authors the grayling is
said to be a migratory fish, passing the winter in the open
sea, and the summer in the fresh waters. This may, how-
ever, be the habit of the fish in some countries only, as in
certain of the English rivers they seem to remain during
the winter. This species, as far as we know, appears to
be the sole example of the form in Europe ; and it is on-
ly seen again in North America, in a very beautiful fish,
the

Thymallus signifer, Cuv. ; Coregonus signifer, Rich-
ards. This grayling was met with by the expedition un-
der Captain Franklin, in the strong rapids and clear rivers
to the northward of Great Slave Lake, where it rose ea-
gerly at artificial flies, and afforded good sport from its

• A noted fly, so named in honour of the Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh,-
said to conjoin with various other accomplishments, considerable skill in angling.

"> From the manuscript of Mr Thomas Tod Stoddart, an ingenious angler, of the Scotch bar.
3 So named from its supposed scent or flavour resembling thyme.

gentleman who is

ICHTHYOLOGY.

211

Malacop- powerful motions in the water. Dr Richardson describes
its sides as tiiitjed with lavender purple, mixed with bhi-
ish gray, witiiout streaks ; the belly blackish gray, with
several irregular white blotches ; and there are five or six
longitudinal rows of uniform quadrangular spots of Prus-
sian blue on the anterior part of the body. There is a
large blue mark underneath the lower jaw on each side.
The dorsal fin, which forms a prominent feature in the
fish, is of a blackish-gray colour, with some lighter
blotches. Superiorly it has a narrow margin of light lake-
red, and posteriorly it is beautifully ornamented with
spots of Berlin blue. The ventrals are streaked with red,
and with whitish lines in the direction of their rays. The
scales are moderately large, and have no great lustre ;
their exterior margins are rotund and entire, or very slight-
ly undulated, those on the anterior part of the belly being
much smaller than the others. Of the fins the dorsal is
the most extraordinary, being, according to Dr Richard-
son, " probably by far the largest in this genus." Its co-
lours, as above mentioned, are beautiful, and, with its great
size, form the chief ornament of the fish. It contains twen-
ty-four rays ; the first two or three are small ; but the
others increasing rapidly in height, as their origin is more
posterior, become more and more branched, and cause the
fin to play loosely like a flag over the posterior part of
the body ; the insertion of the fin occupies about one third
of the length of the body, and the extremity of the poste-
rior ray, which is five inches long, reaches as far as the
adipose fin.' Specimens were taken sixteen inches in
length. Another American grayling, found in the same
northern localities, is the Thymallus tltymalloides, Cuv. ;
Coregonus tliymalhides, Richard. Resembles TIi. signi-
fer, but differs remarkably in the size of the dorsal fin.
The body is compressed, and of a bluish gray, with pur-
ple reflections when moved in the light. The dorsal fin
contains from twenty-two to thirty-four rays ; but the
posterior ones do not branch out in the same manner, and
scarcely exceed the others in height ; hence the fin has a
very different aspect. It is about one inch high, has a dark
bluish-gray colour, with several rows of spots, having pur-
ple centres and light-red borders. The usual length is
eight inches.-

Genus Coregonus, Artedi. Distinguished from the
last by the still finer teeth, larger scaling, and small dor-
sal fin ; live in shoals in lakes or still waters, and only ap-
proach the edges during spawning time. Of delicate
structure; feed much on entomostraca, and aquatic insects
and their larvae. Flesh white and delicate. The best-
known British species is the Guiniad, or

Cor. lavaretus, Salmo lavaretus, Linn. Frequent in the
lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland, and also found
in some of the Scotch lochs, — for example, Loch Lo-
mond, where, as in the north of England, it is termed the
schelky. According to the best authorities, it likewise
occurs in those of Alpine and Northern Europe. It does
not reach a very large size ; the average may be stated
from nine inches to a foot in length. The colours chaste
and delicate, of a greenish gray above, changing to whit-
ish, with a silvery lustre. The scales are of considerable
size, and, when examined narrowly, are seen to be cover-
ed with minute black dots. It is used for the table, but
is not so delicate as our other British species. It is known
under the name oi fresh-water herrbig in most of its loca-
lities.

Cor. marcBtiula, found in the Swiss lakes and some
other parts of the Continent of Europe, is a small species,
of nearly the same colours as the last. This fish was sup-
posed to be found in some parts of Britain, and the ven-

dace of the Lochmaben lochs was thought referrible to it.
When Scotch specimens, however, were shown to Mons.
Agassiz during the autumn of ISSJ', he considered them
distinct from the species known to the continental Ich-
thyologists as C. 7narai7nda, and the title of C. WUbigh-
bii was suggested for the Scottish kind. Continental spe-
cimens of C. marcinula have not yet been received by us,
and the distinctions, therefore, cannot at present be detailed.
The vendace of Lochmaben, whatever scientific name it
may ultimately receive, or whether it may be identical or
not with the species inhabiting the lakes of Continental
Europe, may be described as an interesting example of
the genus. It is one of the most elegant, though of a
small size, reaching from four to ten inches in length. The
head is of an angular shape, and small compared %vith the
size and depth of the body. The crown of the head is
very transparent, and the form of the brain, which is
heart-shaped, is seen through the integuments. This
peculiarity is one of the first things pointed out to the
stranger naturalist who visits Lochmaben to see this spe-
cies. The eye is large and brilliant ; the body rises grace-
fully to the back fin, and recedes with a gradual line to
the tail ; the under line is nearly straight from the gills to
the ventral fin. The upper parts are of a delicate green-
ish brown, shading gradually into a clear silvery white ;
the dorsal fin greenish brown, the anterior edge much
lengthened and pointed ; the lower fins all bluish white ;
the tail much forked. They spawn about the commence-
ment of November. The roe is minute and abundant, and
of a bright orange colour. The flesh is white and rich,
and highly prized as food ; but as it requires almost to be
eaten on the spot, it is not useful as a market commodity
when transmitted to any considerable distance. The
lochs of Lochmaben are the only authentic British habi-
tat for this species.

Several other species inhabit the Swiss lakes, and are
known chiefly from the works of the continental Ichthy-
ologists, particularly M. Jurine, who has devoted a paper
to the fishes of the Lake of Geneva. He there describes
C. fera and hyemalis (the latter so named from its ap-
pearing only in winter) ; and Baron Cuvier notices a third
from the Lake Neufchatel, under the title of C. palcea.
In America several species are found in the lakes and
rivers. The white fish of Dr Richardson seems to belong
to the genus. It is the C. albus of Lesueur, and is call-
ed by the Cree Indians Attihhawmegh, a name corrupted to
Tittameg by the traders. This fish attains a weight of
from three (the ordinary size) to twenty pounds. It
abounds in every lake and river, and is much esteemed
as food, in many parts forming the sole article of diet
for years together, without producing satiety. The sto-
mach is of great thickness, generally filled with earth
mixed with slender roots, and small white worms. It
spawns in October. Another species is C. quadrilateralis,
Richardson, of which the colour of the upper parts is in-
termediate between honey yellow and wood brown ; the
scales with a thin border of blackish gray round their ex-
terior margins ; the belly white, with a pearly lustre ; the
eye moderately large, the iris with a silvery hue ; the
mouth without teeth ; the fins are yellowish ; the adipose
fin attached for its whole length. The stomach not
thickened. The food small insects. Inhabits the Arctic
Sea, and the small rivers about Fort Enterprise. The
average size is about fifteen inches in length.

Under this division also appears to rank the Inconnu of
Mackenzie and the Canadian Voyagers, although it is
placed by Dr Richardson in the genus Salmo, under the
name of S. Machenzii. We therefore here record it as

Malacop.
terygii

Abdorai-
nales.
Salmo-
nidas-

' Eichardson, in the Appendix to Franklin's Juurucy to the Polar Sea, p. 711.

Ibid. p. 714.

212

ICHTHYOLOGY.

JlaUop-
terygii

Abdomi-

nales.

Salmo-

nidae.

the Coregonus Machenzii. The colour of the back and
sides changeable from bluish to greenish gray, according
as it is moved in the light. The belly bluish white ; the
scales sub-orbicular, four lines in diameter, and possess-
ing much pearly lustre. From the form of the body, the
size of the scales, the fineness of the teeth, and their
distribution, this fish evidently belongs to the genus Co-
regonus. It reaches a vceight of thirty or forty pounds.
The flesh is white but agreeable. It is found in Mac-
kenzie's River, and the lakes and streams which flow into
it ; also in Salt River, which, however, is its most south-
erly limit.'

Genus Argentina, Linn. The mouth small, depress-
ed horizontally ; no teeth on the jaws, but with a small
tuft on the vomer, and having the tongue with teeth ra-
ther strong and hooked, as in the trouts. Six rays to
the branchial membranes. The internal structure as in
the trouts. The genus is composed of a single species,
the

Arg. sphyrcena, Linn. Found in the Mediterranean
sea, and remarkable for the thickened coats of the swim-
ming bladder, which, as well as the scales, is plentifully
charged with that silvery secretion used in the manufac-
ture of " I'esseiwe d'orient," an article employed in the
formation and lustre of false pearls. For this purpose
the species is fished in great numbers along the coast of
Tuscany. It is a small fish, scarcely exceeding four or
five inches in length, of delicate tints,' — the integuments
being transparent, and giving a clear brilliancy to the co-
lours. The upper parts are grayish, the sides and lower
surface of a brilliant silvery lustre.

Following this fish, Cuvier adopts the genus Chara-
ciNus of Artedi, as a group to contain all the species of
the Linnsean Salniones, which have only four or five rays
to the branchial membrane, but as the form, toothing,
&c. vary in most of these fishes, he has thought it neces-
sary to subdivide them into subordinate genera. It is
remarkable that many of them have the caecal or pancre-
atic appendages, and at the same time the narrowing or
girth of the air-bladder, which is seen in many of the Cy-
prini. The first subdivision is

Genus Curimata, Cuv. In form the species resemble
Thymallus. The teeth are, however, variable, and the
divisions of this group may yet require examination. The
number of branchial rays not exceeding five, must be
remembered ; some of the species, with the exception of
that distinction, approaching very nearly to the genus
just named. They inhabit the rivers of South America.
As an example may be noted a new species, the Curi-
mata Gilbert of Quoy and Gaimard. This fish some-
what resembles a small Cyprinus, but is distinguished,
even on a superficial view, by the presence of the adi-
pose fin. The scales are rather large in proportion ; the
upper parts are bluish gray, changing into silvery; the
fins yellowish ; the body appears spotted, or rather blotch-
ed, with indistinct dark markings, conspicuous only when
placed in particular lights. This species was discover-
ed in the fresh waters of Brazil, near the river Macaca,
and appeared to prefer those |)laces which were of a marshy
character.

Genus Anastomus, Cuv. Characterised by combining
with the form of the graylings a mouth cleft somewhat
vertically, and furnished with fine teeth. It contains a
single species, a native (it is said) both of South America
and India, the Salmo anastomus, Linn. Is it not likely
that two species are confounded here ?

Genus Gasteropelecus, Bloch. With the mouth

placed vertically as in the last, but with the belly com- Malacop.
pressed. The ventral fins very small, and placed far back, tervpii
The first dorsal fin placed above the anal, which is very Abdomi.
long. Conical teeth in the upper jaw, in the lower sharp <,"| ^''
and cutting. "^■^^°;

Gast. sternicla, Bloch, is a very small species, scarce- v«»-^-«i^
ly two inches in length, which inhabits the waters of Su-
rinam. Its form is very much compressed, and sharply ca-
rinated beneath ; above bluish gray; beneath silvery." The
fins gray, ventrals extremely minute, the anal extending
nearly from them to the tail ; the tail much forked.'

Genus PiABucus, Margrave? Characterised by a length-
ened form ; a small head, with the mouth deeply cleft
and armed with strong teeth. The body compressed ; the
belly carinated, but smooth ; the anal fin much extended.
The species inhabit the rivers of South America, and are
carnivorous and voracious.

P. binmculatus. About four inches in length by about
two in breadth. Above brownish, lower parts silvery ;
fins jiale yellow ; on each side of the body beyond the
gills an oval spot of black, with a similar one at the base of
the tail. Inhabits the rivers of Surinam, and is esteemed
as food.''

Genus Serrasalmus, Lacepede. The body compress-
ed ; the belly carinated, and toothed or serrated on its
lower margin ; the teeth triangular and cutting ; some
species with a concealed spine before the first dorsal fin.

Ser. rhomhoides, Bloch. Above of a dusky red, mark-
ed with a few small scattered dusky spots ; sides and belly
silvery, the latter strongly carinated and serrated by a se-
ries of aculeated processes. The fins yellowish ; tail ter-
mniated by a black border. Found in the rivers of Suri-
nam, where it reaches a considerable size ; feeds on fish
and waterfowl ! Two other species, G. aureus and nigri-
cans, are figured in the work of Spix.

Genus Tetragonopterus. This group was formed by
Artedi, and after being thrown out by Ichthyologists, was
re-established by Cuvier as a sub-genus. The form con-
tinues compressed, the anal fin much extended, and the
teeth sharp and cutting ; but there are two rows of teeth
on the upper jaw, and the belly is neither carinated nor
serrated, as in the preceding.

Genus Chalceus, Cuvier. Characterised by the same
form of the mouth, and the same cutting teeth, as the pre-
ceding fishes ; but the body is of an oblong form, and nei-
ther carinated nor serrated beneath. The maxillary bones
have three small round teeth. Inhabit South America.
The species are C. macrolepidotus, Cuv., and C. angulu-
tus. Spix.

Genus Myletes, Cuvier. Characterised by the singu-
lar form of the teeth, in the shape of a triangular prism,
short, rounded at the corners, and with the upper surface
so hollowed by mastication, that the three angles form
three projecting points. The mouth small, with two rows
of teeth on the inter-maxillary bones. None on the max-
illaries. The under jaw with a single row of teeth. The
form elevated ; a spine before the vertical fins. The belly
carinated and serrated. Inhabit America and Africa.
Some of the species attain to a large size, and have the flesh
well flavoured.

M. Uasselquistii, Cuv., Salmo dcntex, Hasselquist, is
found in the Nile. It is a fish of a lengthened form, w ith
the dorsal fin occupying the position which corresponds
to the space between the ventral and anal fins. The teeth
are very strong. The colours above are brownish, with
three or four indistinct longitudinal lines upon the sides ;
the under parts silvery.^ M.paco is an American species.

Kichardson in the Appendix to Franklin's Journey to the Polar Sea, p. 707.
Schneider. » Shaw. ■* Schneider, Shaw.

* Schneider.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

213

Malacop.

terygii

Abdomi-

nales.

Saltno-

nidse.

Genus Hydrocyon, Cuvier. Extremity of the muzzle
formed by the inter-maxillary bones ; tlie maxillaries com-
mencing near or before the eyes, and completing the up-
per jaw. The tongue and vomer always smooth, but there
are conical teeth on both jaws. A large sub-orbitary bone,

* thin and bare as tlie opercle, covers the cheek.

Certain s|)ecies have a close row of small teeth on the
maxillary and palatine bones, the first dorsal fin corre-
sponding to the space between the ventral and anal fins.
They are of agreeable taste, and inhabit the rivers of the

• torrid zone. To this group belongs the Hyd. falcalus,
Quoy and Gaim. Above of a violet tint, beneath pale,
but tinted generally with a shade of silvery. A silvery
band extends the whole length of the body from the oper-
cle to the tail, and at each extremity is marked with a dark
spot. The fins gray at the base, and brown at the extre-
mity. The eyes of a golden red. The scales small and
deciduous. The specimens brought by Freycinet were
from five to six inches in length. They were taken in
Brazil.

Other species have a double row of teeth on the inter-
maxillaries and lower jaw, a simple row on the maxillaries,
and none on the palatine bones. The first dorsal fin is
placed above the ventrals. A Brazilian species, H. bre-
videns, Cuv., exemplifies this minor group.

Others again have only a simple row of teeth on the
maxillaries and lower jaw, but the teeth are alternately
small and very large, especially the two second from be-
low, which pass through hollows of the upper jaw when
the mouth is shut. The lateral line is composed of scales
of a larger size, and the dorsal fin is so placed as to corre-
spond to the interval between the ventral and anal fins.
H. scomberoides, Cuv. or Cynodon vulpanus, Spix, is an
example of this peculiar form.

Another form has the muzzle pointed, the maxillary
bones very sharp, and the inter-maxillaries and lower jaw
furnished with a single row of very close, small teeth ; the
body covered with strong scales. A Brazilian species, H.
lucius, Cuv. affords a characteristic example.

A fifth form has teeth only on the inter-maxillaries
and lower jaw, and these few in number, but strong and
pointed. The first dorsal fin is placed above the ventrals.
A single species from the Nile, the Characinus dentex of
Geof. (Pois. d'Egypte), presents the sole example of this
limited group.

Genus Citharinus, Cuvier. Characterised by their
depressed mouth, the upper edge formed entirely by the
inter-maxillary bones. The maxillaries small and without
teeth ; the tongue and palate smooth ; the adipose fin co-
vered H-ith scales, together with the greater part of the
tail. The species inhabit the waters of Africa.

Some have the upper jaw only fiirnished with very fine
teeth ; the body elevated as in Serrasalmus, but without
the carinated or serrated abdomen.

Salmo cyprinoides exemplifies this division of the genus.
Others have on both jaws a number of teeth, thickly placed
in several rows. These fish are more lengthened in their
form, and appear to lead to the next genus. Salmo ^Sgyp-
ticus, Linn, serves as an illustration.

Genus Saurus, Cuvier.' Distinguished by its length-
ened and cylindrical form, and by the large scales, which
cover also the cheeks and opercles. The edges of the
upper jaws are formed entirely by the inter-maxillaries ;
and on each, as well as on the palatine bones and the
tongue, are numerous pointed teeth, which are wanting
on the vomer. The first dorsal fin is placed much pos-
terior to the ventrals, which are large. The interior struc-

ture resembles that of the trouts. They are very vora- Malacop.
cious. tervifii

This form is illustrated by the Salmo saurus of Bloch AluU
and Linn., a native of the Mediterranean ; above of a
greenish blue, varied with numerous narrow undulated
transverse bands, reaching as far as the lateral line, which
is itself bounded beneath by a continued stripe of brown ;
abdomen silvery. The fins pale, the pectorals crossed
with a few brown bars."

S. variegattis, Lacepede, Quoy, and Gaimard. The
jaws, tongue, and palate with formidable sharp teeth. The
upper parts of a dull gray, banded transversely with eight
or nine brown bands, broad and irregular when ceasing at
the centre of the fish. The under parts tinted with rose
colour. The eye red and brilliant. In this fish the second
dorsal fin is so small as not easily to be perceived. Found
in the neighbourhood of the Sandwich Isles.^

«S'. gracilis, Quoy and Gaimard. A small species, reach-
ing only about four inches and a half in length. The co-
lours are unobtrusive, being a dull gray blotched with ir-
regular blackish spots, most defined on the sides and to-
wards the tail. All the fins are covered with brownish
specks, which on the pectorals are so disposed as to
form three transverse bands. This fish was also found in
the neighbourhood of the Sandwich Isles.*

Genus Scopeles, Cuvier. Mouth and opening of the
gills wide; thejaws furnished with very fine teeth ; the up-
per jaw formed entirely by the inter-maxillaries; the tongue
and palate smooth ; the branchial rays from nine to ten ;
the adipose fin small, but having a trace of bony rays. The
species are small in size, and live in shoals. They are
found in the Mediterranean Sea. The Sc. Humboldtii of
Risso offers a characteristic example.

Genus Aulopus, Cuvier. In this form the characters
of the Cod or Gadi, and Salmoiies, are united. The mouth
is widely cleft, the inter-maxillary bones, which form the
border of the upper jaw, are furnished, together with the
palatine bones, the vomer, and the lower jaw, with a nar-
row stripe of teeth en carde. The maxillary bones are
longer, and without teeth. The ventral fins are placed
almost under the pectoral fins, and have the outer rays
strong, and simply forked. The body, cheeks, and oper-
cles, are covered with large ciliated scales. Salmo Jilamen-
tosus of Bloch illustrates Aulopus.

Genus Sternoptyx, Herman. These curious fish have
by Cuvier been placed under the above title at the conclu-
sion of his Salmonidae. They embrace two forms, which,
he thinks, will eventually be converted into sub-genera.
They are of small size, the body high, and very compress-
ed ; the mouth directed upwards. The humeral bones
form on the fore-part a sharp crest or ridge, terminated be-
low by a small spine. The pelvic bones form another and
similar crest, also terminated by a small spine placed before
the ventral fins, which are so minute as to have escaped
the observation of the first observer. On each side of the
last ridge there is a row of small hollows, h hich has been
regarded as a fold of the sternum, and has suggested the
name oi' Sternoptyx. Before the dorsal fin there is a bag or
membranous ridge, and behind this fin there is a small
membranous projection, which is thought to represent the
adipose fin of the true Salmones.

The first form of this genus has very fine teeth, with five
rays to the branchial membrane, and is represented by St.
Hermannii. The second has the teeth hooked, and nine
rays to the branchial membrane. St. Olfersii exhibits the
only known example. Both species are from the warmer
parts of the Atlantic Ocean.

' Named from their lengthened Saurian or lizard-like form, and distinguished from the other groups derived by Cuvier from tie
genus Characinus of Artedi, by the branchial rays ranging from eight to fitteen in number.

• Shaw, General Zoology, vol. v. • Voyage dc Fref/cincl. * Ibid,

214

JTalacop-
terygii
Abdomi-

nales.
Clupids.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

FAMILY V.—CLUPID^.

Fishes allied to herrings are easily recognised by their
having no adipose fins ; their upper jaw is formed as in
trouts, — in the middle by inter-maxillary bones witliout
pedicles, and on the sides by the maxillary bones; their body
is always very scaly. The majority of the species possess a
swimming bladder and numerous caeca. Those which as-
cend rivers are comparatively few in number.

The great genus Clupea of Linnaeus may be known by
two well-marked characters ; 1st, by the narrow and short
inter-maxillary bones, which constitute only a small por-
tion of the upper jaw, the sides of which are completed by
the maxillaries in such a way that the lateral parts only are
protractile ; and, 2(1, by the comjiressed and sharp inferior
edge of the body, upon which the scales project like the
teeth of a saw. Besides, the maxillaries are divided into
three pieces. The branchial openings are very much cleft ;
and hence these fishes speedily die when removed from
their native element.

Their branchial arches are furnished on the side next
the mouth with pectiniform dentations. The stomach has
the form of an elongated pouch ; the swimming bladder is
long and pointed, and in some species sends forwards two
long and small processes, which communicate with the in-
ternal ear in a remarkable manner. Their ca;ca are nume-
rous. Of all fishes, these have the most numerous and the
finest bones.

Genus Clupea, Cuv. Herrings, properly so called.
The maxillary bones arched anteriorly, and longitudinally
divisible into several pieces ; the opening of the mouth of
modei'ate size ; the upper lip not emarginate.

C. /lareiifftis, Linn. The common herring ; le Hareng,
Fr. ; der Haring, Ger. Tiiis well-known fish has visible
teeth in both its jaws ; the carina of the belly is but slight-
ly marked ; the sub-opercle is rounded ; there are veins
on the sub-orbital, pre-opercle, and upper part of the
opercle. The attachment of the ventral fins corresponds
to the middle of the dorsal ; the head is one fifth of the
length of the whole fish, and by carrying backwards from
the first dorsal fin the distance of that organ from the snout,
we arrive at the middle of the caudal. The anal fin has
sixteen rays.

The investigation of the habits of this fish has not re-
ceived that attention which its importance as an article of
food to the inhabitants of this country demands ; and there
are several circumstances respecting its economy which
still require farther examination. It is generally believed
that the herring inhabits in winter the depths of the Arctic
Ocean, or other seas in northern latitudes, and that during
the rest of the year it makes migrations southwards. In
summer and autumn they appear on the north and west
coasts of Europe in immense shoals, and about the same
season they arrive at some parts of the coast of America
and Asia. It has been supposed that those coming from
the north divide into two detachments, one of which pro-
ceeds along Newfoundland to America, the other along
Norway to the south of Europe, and that one subdivision
of this second detachment goes up the Baltic, while the
other proceeds along Great Britain, Ireland, Germany, and
France, as far as the western coast of Spain.

This is the description of the annual migrations of the
herring given by Pennant ; but some doubts have been en-
tertained as to its accuracy, from the circumstances, \st,
that while in some places the herrings do not make their
appearance for years, in others they are taken in abundance
all the year round ; and, 2rf, that they have never been
observed on their return northwards. Other naturalists

suppose that they come merely from the deep into shallow Malacop-
water during the spawning season, and that in so doing ^'^T""''
they do not make any very lengthened journeys. In truth.

Abdonii-

we ai-e not as yet furnished with sufficient data to decide the ciuyidse
questiiin ; but, in the mean time, we do not feel inclined ^
entirely to reject the generally received opinion, that the
herrings migrate from north to south in summer and autumn.
In migrating, the herrings proceed in vast troops, — so
great, indeed, that the sea is sometimes covered with them
for miles, and that they have even been known to be
stranded or crushed in immense quantities in confined
bays, or when thrown by the wind or by currents upon
the shore. The shoals are said to be generally preceded,
sometimes for days, by one or two males. The largest
generally go first, to act in some measure as guides ; and,
as they proceed onwards, immense numbers fall an easy
and unresisting prey to rapacious birds, or to their own not
less rapacious kindred of the sea.

It is generally believed that the herrings captured far
north are larger, fatter, and of a better quality, than those
of the south ; and for this reason, in the month of July, our
fishermen go out to meet the shoals as far as Orkney and
Shetland. The greatest number are taken on the coasts
of Norway and Sweden, in the first of which countries it
is said that about 400 millions are taken in one year, and
sometimes twenty millions in a single fishery. The inha-
bitants in the neighbourhood of Gothenburg, in Sweden,
take as many as 700 millions in a year. Herrings are
fished also in great quantity in this country, Germany,
France, Holland, the United States, and Kamtschatka.

The average size of the herring is stated to be about ten
inches. According to Dr Knox, the females are consider-
ably larger than the males, — the largest female he found on
the east coast of Scotland measuring eleven inches, the
largest male nine inches and a half. It does not appear to
be precisely known at ^vhat age they attain their full size.
Considerable doubt has at all times prevailed regarding
the food of the herring. They were generally stated to
live on small crabs and fishes, and on a minute crustaceous
animal named by Fabricius Astacus harengum. But this
was chiefly matter of supposition, for most practical fisher-
men described the stomach of the fish when in good state
as quite empty, or, at most, as containing a little brownish
mucus ; and it has appeared difficult to reconcile the fact,
that it is when the stomach appears thus empty that the
fish is in its best condition, viz. fullest, with the finest fla-
vour, and most capable of keeping, — with the notion, that
when it appears upon our coasts it has quitted its natural
feeding ground, and has been longer and longer in a state
of starvation the more southern the latitude in which it is
found. Dr Knox's interesting observation, that the prin-
cipal food of the salmon and vendace consisted of minute
crustaceous animals, led him to examine carefully with the
microscope the brownish matter contained in the alleged
empty stomachs of the herring ; and he then formed the
opinion, that this matter consisted of the debris of a very
minute entomostracous animal.'

It is well known that the herrings caught upon the east
coast of Scotland are much inferior to those taken on the
west coast, and more particularly to those of Loch Fine,
and other lochs of Argyleshire. Dr Knox states that the
herrings taken near the Firth of Forth in July are foul, or
are engaged in spawning, while those of the west coast, in
the same season, have the organs of reproduction very
slightly developed ; and he conjectures that that species
of crustaceous animal which forms their appropriate and
most favourite food may exist abundantly in the bays on
the west coast of Scotland, and either not at all, or not in

It is figured iu the Edin. Phil. Trans, vol. xii. pi. x.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

215

Mt>lacop-

terygii
Abiiomi-

nales.
Clupidae.

sufficient quantities, along our eastern coasts. It appears
to be chiefly after these fishes have been absent for some
time from their proper feeding ])laces that they eat marine
worms and small fishes ; and when so feeding they lose
much of their flavour, and run rapidly into putrefaction
after being captured. The time of spawning seems to vary
considerably, both in the same and in different districts ;
so tliat we may have spring, summer, and autumn herrings,
as we know they have in some parts of tlic Baltic. Dur-
ing the s|)awning season they are seen to rub their bellies
against the rocks or sand. As many as 68,606 eggs have
been coimted in one female. The young do not accom-
pany tlie larger herrings in their migrations.

Of the genus Clupea, Cuvier makes four other species
besides the common herring, viz. tiie sprat, white-bait, pil-
chard, and sardine. Of these we shall now give a short
account.

Clupea sprattus, Bl. The sprat, mellet (Esprot, Haran-
guet, Fr.), bears a very close resemblance in form to the
herring, but does not attain the same size. The number
of its vertebrae is forty-eight, and the dorsal fin is placed
fartlier back tlian in the herring. It has no veins on the
opercle ; a gilded band runs along the sides in the spawn-
ing season. This fish is eaten in considerable quantity in
this country, both in the fresh and salted condition. It ap-
pears in the Thames from November to March.

Clupea latulus, Cuv. White-bait {Blanquette, Fr. ; die
Brcitliiig, Germ.) has the body more compressed, and the
belly sharper, than the herring. The length of its head,
and height of its body, are each one fourth of the whole
length of the fish. The dorsal fin is placed farther for-
wards, the anal is longer and situate nearer the caudal fin,
than in the herring.

Considerable difference of opinion formerly existed
among ichthyological writers as to the exact specific na-
ture of the white-bait. Pennant and Shaw considered it
as allied to the bleak, Cyprinus alburnus. Turton, Dono-
van, and Fleming, regard it as the young of tlie shad
Clupea olosa, an opinion which was generally received as
correct, until Mr Yarrell in 1828 ascertained that the num-
ber of vertebrae in the white-bait is invariably fifty-six, and
in the shad only fifty-five ; and he is thus supposed to have
demonstrated that the well-known ivhile-bait ought to be
regarded as a species distinct from every other. It is a
very small fish, seldom exceeding four inches in length.
It is of a very brilliant silvery colour, and has a black spot
on the end of the snout. The flavour of the white-bait is
considered as particularly delicate, and great numbers are
eaten by the Londoners in the month of July, at which
time innumerable quantities make their appearance in the
Thames.

Clupea pilchardus, Bl. The pilchard (k Celan, Fr.)
nearly equals the herring in size, and bears a considerable
resemblance to it in form. The sub-opercle is quadran-
gular, the pre-opercle and opercle striated ; the head pro-
portionally shorter than in the herring, and the dorsal fin
placed farther forwards. The ventral fins begin as it were
under the end of the dorsal ; the ana! consists of eighteen
rays ; and on each side of the caudal two scales longer than
the rest project. The habits of this fish seem to be near-
ly the same as those of the herring. It is believed, like it,
to reside in winter and spring in the northern seas, and to
proceed southwards in the beginning of summer. It is
fished in enormous quantities off the coast of Cornwall for
the purpose of salting and exporting to the Mediterranean,
especially to Naples. It appears there in July. Its flavour is
considered by some as even superior to that of the herring.
Clupea^ sardiTia, Cuv. The sardine, which is esteemed
for the extreme delicacy of its flavour, differs only in size
from the pilchard. Numbers are taken off the coast of
Brittany, and also in the Mediterranean.

tervjjii
vMidomi-

iiales.
Clupidae.

Genus Alosa, Cuv. This genus is distinguished from Malacop-
the herrings projierly so called, by an emargination in the
upper jaw ; its other characters seem in all respects the
same as those of the pilchard and sardine.

Alosa vulgaris, Cuv.; Clnpea alosa, Linn. Plate CCCV.
fig. 2. The shad is distinguished by the absence of sen-
sible teeth, and by an irregular black spot behind the gills.
This fish is much larger than the herring, attaining some-
times to the length of three feet. It is also of a much
flatter shape ; its tail is much forked ; and on each side of
the lower margin of the belly the scales are very large. It
is a native of the Mediterranean, as well as of the North
Atlantic and Caspian Seas. According to Pennant, the
best in this country are found in the Severn. The shad
ascends rivers in spring and the beginning of summer, and
it is then highly esteemed ; but it is of a dry and disagree-
able flavour when taken at sea. The Russians believe that
the shad has deleterious properties. The Arabs smoke-dry
it. This species lives chiefly on vermes, insects, and small
fishes ; and Dr Fleming informs us that he has taken small
herrings from its stomach. The number ascending rivers
varies very much in different years.

Alosa Jitita; Clupcajinta, hacep. The i^eaM of the Flem-
ish is more elongated than the shad, and has well-marked
teeth in both jaws ; there are five or six black spots along
the flanks. It is found as far south as the Nile. Its taste
is very inferior.

Genus Chatoessus, Cuv. The chatoessi are true her-
rings, with the last dorsal ray prolonged into a filament.
Some have the jaws equal and the snout not prominent,
and a small mouth devoid of teeth. In others the snout
is more prominent than the jaws ; an equally small mouth
with the preceding ; the upper combs of the first pair of
gills unite together so as to form a very singular pennated
point beneath the palate.

At the end of the true herrings Cuvier has placed some
foreign genera which resemble them in their sharp and
dentated belly.

Genus Odontognathus, Lacep. ; Gnathobolus, Schn.
Has the body much compressed, and very sharp dentations
along the whole of the belly ; the anal fin long, and pro-
jecting little ; the dorsal so brittle as to be almost always
destroyed ; six rays in the branchial covers. The maxil-
lary bone is somewhat prolonged into a point, and is arm-
ed with small teeth directed forwards. There are no ven-
tral fins.

One species only is known. It comes from Cayenne ;
resembles a small sardine, and is called by Lacepede the
Odontogiiathe Aiguillonne.

Genus Pristigaster, Cuv. Has the head and teeth
similar to those of the herrings ; four rays to the gill-covers,
and no ventral fins ; the belly much compressed, its lower
edge arched, and sharply dentated.

The Prist, tardoore and Prist, cayanus are mentioned
by Cuvier as known species existing in both oceans.

Genus Notopterus, Lacep. Was placed among the
Gyrmioti for some time, on account of a resemblance occa-
sioned by the extreme length of the anal fin. The spe-
cies have scaly cheeks and opercles ; the sub-orbitals,
lower part of the pre-opercles, the inter-opercles, the two
crests of the lower jaw, and the keel of the belly, dentated ;
there are fine teeth in both palates and jaws, and strongly
hooked teeth on the tongue. The branchiostegous mem-
brane has only one strong osseous ray. There are two
very small ventral fins, followed by an anal, which occu-
pies three fourths of the whole length of the fish, and unit-
ed as in the gymnoti to the caudal fin. A small dorsal fin
with soft ravs is placed opposite to the middle of the cau-
dal.

One species only is known, inhabiting the fresh-water
ponds of the East Indies.

216

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Malacop

lerygii

A)»(lnmi.

nales.
Cliipidse.

Genus Engraui.is, Cuv. Tlic Anchovirs differ con-
siderahlj' from the true lierrings in Iiaving tlie moutli cleft
far beliind the eyes ; the gills more open, with twelve or
a still greater number of rays ; the maxillaries straight and
/ elongated, and there projects in front of the mouth a small
pointed muzzle, under which are fixed very small inter-
maxillaries.

The best known have not the sharp-edged belly ; their
anal fin is short, and the dorsal is placetl opposite to the
ventrals.

Clupea encrasicolus, Linn. The common anchovy [TAn-
c/iois, Fr.) has the back of a bluish-brown colour, the
belly silvery. It measures from four to seven inches
long. The anchovy formed one ingredient of the f/arum,
a favourite sauce of the Romans ; and when pickled it is
much prized at the present day. It is fished in greatest
quantity in the Mediterranean, but is found as far north
as the coast of Holland. It lays its spawn near the shore,
from December to March, at which time it is supposed to
leave the deep sea and approach the coasts. E»f/rmilis
mdelta, Cuv., an inhabitant of the Mediterranean, is small-
er than the common anchovy. Among some remarkable
American species of this genus, the Eng. edentulus is with-
out teeth. Others, as the Chip, atherinoides, Clup. te-
lara, and Chip, pimsa, have the body compressed, and its
lower edge serrated.

Genus Thryssa, Cuv. Differs from the last-mention-
ed anchovies only in the great prolongation of the maxil-
laries. The species occur in the East Indies.

Genus Megaiops, Lacep. Differs from the herrings
in having the belly blunt, and the body not compressed.
The jaws and palatine bones are covered with small, even,
sharp teeth ; there are from twenty-two to twenty-four
rays in the gill-covers ; and the last ray of the dorsal fin,
as also often that of the anal, is prolonged into a filament,
as in Clialncssus.

One species is found in America, the Savalle or Apa-
like {Chip, cypriuoidcs, Bl.), which attains the enormous
length of twelve feet ; it has fifteen dorsal rays. Ano-
ther Indian species, Megalojic Jilamcnteux of Lacep., has
been confounded by Russel with the preceding, under tile
name of Apalihe. Its dorsal fin lias seventeen rays.

Genus Elops, Linn. Is very similar in structure to
Megaiops, but wants the elongated filament of the dorsal
fin. It has thirty or more rays in the branchiostegous
membrane ; a flat spine on the upper and lower edge of
the caudal fin. The species are found in both hemi-
spheres.

Elops saurus is described by Sir Hans Sloane as be-
longing to America. According to Cuvier, the Argentina
machnata, I'orsk., Mugil taUnoiieus, Forsk., the Tinagow,
Russ., Syiiode clmois, Lac, Mugil appendiculatiis, Bosc,
the Pounder, Sloane, and the Argentina Carolina, Linn.,
are all the same as Elops saurus, while the Sawns maximus,
usually confounded with it, belongs to a different genus.

Genus Butirinus, Commerson. Muzzle prominent
like that of the anchovies, and the mouth slightly cleft;
twelve or thirteen rays on the branchiostegous membrane ;
close and even teeth on the jaws ; and (a peculiar charac-
ter) the tongue, vomer, and palatines closely paved with
rounded teeth. These fishes arc described under various
names by different authors.

The Elopes and Butirini are found in both oceans.
They are pretty, silvery-looking fishes, and make excel-
lent soup.

Genus Chirocentrus, Cuv. Have thejaws formed like
those of the herrings; both maxillaries and inter-maxilla-
ries furnished with strong conical teeth, two of which
above and all below are very long. The tongue and
branchial arches are bristled with teeth like a comb, but
there are none on the vomer or palatines. Their gill-

covers have seven or eight rays, of which the external
are very broad. Above and below each pectoral fin is a
long, pointed, membranous scale, and the rays of those
fins are very hard. The body is elongated, compressed,
and sharp beneath, but not serrated. The ventral fins
are very small, and the dorsal shorter than the anal,
opposite to which it is placed. The stomach forms a long,
narrow, and pointed sac, the pylorus being near the cardia ;
no ca2ca ; the swimming bladder long and narrow.

One species only is known, of a silvery hue, and from
the Indian Ocean. It is the Esoce chirocentre, Lac, Clup.
dentex, Schn. and Forsk., Clup. dorab, Gmel., Wallach, Russ.,
and probably also the Parring or Chnees of the Moluccas.
Genus Hyodon, Lesueur. Possesses the general form
of the herrings, and their sharp belly, but that part is not
serrated. The dorsal fin is placed opposite to the anal ;
the gill-covers have eight or nine rays; hooked teeth on
the vomer ; palatines and tongue as in trouts.

Those which are known live in the fresh waters of
North America.

Genus Ebythrinus, Gronov. A range of conical
teeth in each jaw, some of which in front are longer than
the rest ; the palatines are covered with close even teeth.
The gill-covers have five broad rays ; the head is without
scales ; and the cheeks covered by hard sub-orbitals. The
body long, little compressed, covered with large scales
like those of the carp. The dorsal fin is placed above the
ventrals. The stomach forms a broad sac, and there are
numerous small ctca. The swimmingbladder is very large.
We may mention as a characteristic species the .Esoa;
Malaharicus of Bloch.

These fishes inhabit the fresh waters of warm climates.
Their flesh is agreeable.

Genus Amia, Linn. Similar to the preceding in many
respects, but with twelve rays in the gill-covers. Below
the lower jaw is an osseous buckler, which exists also in
Megaiops and Elops, though of smaller size in those ge-
nera. The dorsal fin, beginning between the pectorals
and ventrals, extends nearly to the caudal ; the anal is
short. Each nostril has a small tubular appendage. The
stomach is ample and fleshy; the intestine without caeca.
The swimming bladder is cellular, like the lung of a reptile.
Only one species, Amia calva, is known. It resides in
the rivers of Carolina, where it feeds on crabs. It is sel-
dom eaten.

Genus Sudis, Cuv. The characters of this group are
nearly the same as those oi Erythrinus, excepting that
their body is proportionally longer, and the dorsjl and
anal fins are placed opposite to each other, and, nearly of
ah equal size, occupy the posterior third of the length of
the body. The species live in fresh water.

Three kinds are now known. One, Sudis Adansonii,
Cuv., was found in Senegal by Adanson, and in the Nile
by Riippel. Another, of a much larger size, with great
bony scales and an oblong muzzle, is a native of Brazil, —
the Sudis gigas, Cuv. A third, Sudis Niloticus, discover-
ed by Ehrenberg in the Nile, has a singular spirally con-
voluted funnel adhering to the third gill, which may be
analogous to what has been observed in Anabas and neigh-
bouring genera.

Genus Osteoglossum, Vandelli. Distinguished from
Sudis principall}' by two barbels, which depend from the
symphysis of the lower jaw ; the anal and caudal fins are
united. 'I'he tongue is rendered very rough by a cover-
ing of short straight teeth, so that it may be used as a
rasp to reduce fruits to a pulp.

Osteoglossum Vandellii, Cuv., is a native of Brazil.

Genus Lepisosteus, Lacep. Muzzle formed by the

union of the maxillaries, inter-maxillaries, and palatines.

with the vomer and ethmoid, which the lower jaw equals

in length. The jaws have along their edge a row of lony

Malacop.

terygii
Abilumi-

nales.
Clupidte.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

217

Malacop-
terygii

Siib-lira-
'■hiati.

Claduloe.

and pointed teeth, and their inner surface is rendered
bristly by a coverinf; of sharp, rasp-like teeth. The gill-
covcrs are united below by a connnon membrane, having
three rays on each side. These fishes are covered with
scales of a stony hardness. The dorsal and anal fins,
which arc opposite to one another, are both situate very
far back. The two outer rays of the tail, and the first
ray of all the other fins, are furnished with scales so as to
make them appear dentated. The pylorus has many short
CKca. The swimming bladder is cellular, as in Amia.

There appear to be several species or varieties of this
fish. They inhabit the rivers and lakes of the warm parts
of America. They grow to a considerable size, and are
considered to be good eating. l)r Fleming observes, that
the claims of Lepisosteus osseus to rank as a British spe-
cies are ver)' doubtful. Berkenhout indeed has inserted
it in his Si/twpsis (yi. 81), with the habitat of Sussex coast ;
and Mr Stewart, in his Elements of Nat. Hist. (vol. i. p.
374), intimates its occurrence in the I'irtli of Forth ; but
we are not aware of its having been seen among us in re-
cent times. We here figure the Lepisosteus spatula of
Lacepede {Esox Cepediaiivs, Shaw), a native of the seas
and rivers of America. Plate CCCV. fig. 4.

Genus I'oLVPTEnus, Geoff. Distinguished at once
from other genera by a number of separate fins placed
along the back, each supported by a strong spine, to the
posterior edge of which are attached some soft rays. The
caudal fin surrounds the end of the tail, and the anal is
very near it; the ventrals are very far back. The body
is covered with bony scales like those of the preceding
genus, and the whole cheek is covered by an osseous
plate, shagreened in a similar manner to those on the rest
of the head. Around each jaw there is a row of conical
teeth, and behind some close or rasp-like teeth. Their
stomach is capacious, the intestine narrow, with a spiral
valve and one ca3cum. The swimming bladder is double,
with large lobes, particularly that on the lel't side, com-
municating by a wide aperture with the cesophagus.

Polypt. bichir (P. Niloticus, Shaw) may be named as a
species of the genus. It has.sixteen dorsal fins, and was
discovered by M. GeofFroy in the Nile. (See Plate CCCV.
fig. 3.) Polypt. Senegalus, Guv. is another species from
Senegal. It has only twelve dorsal fins. The flesh of
these fish is good eating.

ORDER III.— MALACOPTERVGII SUB-BRACHIATI.

This order is characterised by the attachment of the
ventral fins beneath the pectorals, — which latter may be
regarded as analogous to the arms, and hence the name
Sub-brachian. The pelvis is suspended immediately from
the bones of the shoulder.

This order contains as many families as Linnsan genera.

FAMILY I._GADID.E.

Comprehends the members of the great Linnaean genus
Gadus, containing the well-known cod and haddock.

The Gadi in general are recognised by the ventral fins
being pointed and attached to the throat. The body is
moderately elongated, slightly compressed, and covered
with soft and not very large scales. The head is well
proportioned, and without scales ; all the fins are soft.
The jaws, and the front of the von)er, are armed with
several rows of pointed, irregular, middle-sized, or small

teeth, forming a sort of currycomb or rasp. Their gill
covers are large, with seven rays. Most of the species
have two or three fins on the back, one or two behind the
anus, and a distinct caudal. Their stomach forms a large
muscular sac ; the ca;ca are very numerous. The swim- '
ming bladder is large, and lias strong parietes, frequently
dentated on the sides.

These fishes generally live in cold or temperate cli-
mates, and constitute a very important article of fishery.
The greater number are considered wholesome, and form
a light and agreeable food, — the flesh scjiarating easily by
boiling, into white flaky layers. The great sand bank of
Newfoundland is the most famous station of the cod fish-
eries, and is resorted to by English fishermen, who chiefly
use the hook and line. The fish abound in this place
probably on account of the great quantity of the sn)aller
animals which serve as food, viz. mussels, clams, &c.

The family of GauidjE has been divided by Cuvicr into
MouHHUA, or cods properly so called, Meklangus or
whitings, Merluccius or hakes, Lota or lings, Motella,
Brosmius, Buotula, Piiycis, and Uaniceps.

Genus Moriiiiua, Cuv. Has three dorsal fins and
two anal ; a tuft at the point of the lower jaw. The spe-
cies are extremely prolific.

M. vulgaris ( Gadus morrhua, L.). The common cod
{la Morue, Fr. ; Kabliau, Germ.) measures from two to
three feet in lengtli. The back is spotted with yellowish
brown. It inhabits the whole Northern Ocean, and occurs
in vast profusion.

This fish dwells in salt water only. It is not found
nearer the equator than the 40th degree of latitude. The
weight of the common cod varies from twelve to eighty
or even 100 pounds. It is extremely voracious, and its
digestive powers are seemingly very great. It feeds upon
smaller fishes, such as herrings, on MoUusca, worms, and
Crustacea, and even on the young of its own species. It
has a strong muscular stomach, and is said to possess the
power of rejecting by the mouth substances, such as wood,
&c. which it finds indigestible.

In spring they come nearer the shore in order to depo-
sit their spawn. This happens in January in England, in
February in Norway, Denmark, and Scotland, and in
March in Newfoundland. One female is said to contain
from four to nine millions of eggs !

The most extensive cod fisheries on our coasts are off
the Western and Shetland Isles, but they are still greater
in more northern countries. The cod has been fished on
the coast of Sweden since the year 1368, by the inhabitants
of Amsterdam. The English resorted to Iceland before
the year 1415; and it is stated that in the year 1792, 200
French vessels of a burden of 191,153 tons were employed
in the cod fishery. Every year more than 6000 European
vessels are employed in this fishery.'

The flesh of the cod has a good flavour, and may be
easily preserved. The tongue, salted and dried, lias been
considered a great delicacy. The gills are preserved and
used as bait. The liver is eaten, and is sometimes used
for the production of oil. The swimming bladder affords
a very good isinglass.

This important species constitutes a principal article of
food to the inhabitants in some parts of Iceland, Norway,
and other northern countries. In a dried state it is also
much used in some papal kingdoms of the south.

In the neighbourhood of the Isle of Man, and elsewhere,
there is a variety of the cod named the red or rock cod,
the skin of which is of a brightish vermillion colour. Its
flesh is much esteemed.

Malacop-
tcryf»ii

Sub-bia-
chi:jti.

Ciiiiliiioe.

' We cannot in this place enter upon the important subject oi Fisheries ; but the reader mav consult with advantage Pennant's
BrHish Zoology, vol. iii. and Duhaniel's Trailc Giniral del Peachu.

VOL. XII. 2 E

218

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Malacop-
tervgii

Sub-brc-
ciiiatL

Gadidae.

M. agkfinus (Gadus ceglefinus, Linn.). The haddock
(FEgrefin, Fr. ; ScholIfiscU, Germ.) is as nell known, and al-
most as important, as the cod in this country ; it is of a
smaller size, usually eighteen inches long. The back is
brown, the belly silvery, and the lateral line black. There
is a blackish spot behind the pectoral fin, which tradition
assigns to the impression of St Peter's finger and thumb
when he took the tribute-money out of the mouth of a fish,
supposed the haddock. The upper jaw is longest.

The haddock is found, like the cod, in the Northern
Ocean, but has not been seen in the Baltic. It annually
approaches the shores, in February and March generally,
in order to deposit its sjjawn. The regularity with which
it re-appears in some districts on a stated day is quite re-
markable. On the coast of Yorkshire, since the year
1766, they have annually made their appearance on the
10th of December. At this place they are supposed to
form an immense shoal three miles broad, and extending
eighty miles in length, — from Flamborough Head to the
mouth of the Tyne. It is in autumn that they visit the
shores of Holland and East Friesland, and the neighbour-
hood of Heligoland.

The haddock frequents our coasts during the greater part
of the year, although the largest are taken in winter. The
flesh is generally best in the months of May and June.

It is stated, that in the north, when the sea is frozen near
the shore, these fish collect in troops beneath any openings
in the ice, and the Greenlanders are thus enabled to catch
them in considerable numbers. The seals and foxes adopt
the same method of securing them for food. The food of
the haddock is very similar to that of the cod, which spe-
cies it resembles in its voracious habits.

M. callarias ( Gadus callarias, Linn.). The dorse (Faux
Merlan, Fr.) is smaller than the haddock, being only eleven
or twelve inches long. It is spotted like the cod, and has
the upper jaw longer than the under. The lateral line is
placed near the back. It resembles the whiting in taste,
and is considered by many as the best eating fish of all
the Gadus tribe. It is much sought after on the shores of
the Baltic.

This fish frequents the mouths of large rivers, which it
sometimes ascends along with the salt water. It is gene-
rally taken in June. The Icelanders salt and dry it, and
the Greenlanders are said frequently to eat it in a state of
semi-putrefaction.

To these fishes, which are among the best-determined
species of the old genus Gadus, may be added Gadus bar-
batus or whiting pout, a fish about eighteen inches or
two feet long, which is eaten by the Greenlanders, but
not much esteemed. Gadus minutits, the capelan or poor,
Gadus punclalus, the speckled cod, and Gadus luscus, the
bib, may be named as other species which occur along the
British shores.

Genus Meklangus, Cuv. The whitings have the same
number of fins as the cods, but they want the barbels.

M. vulgaris ( Gadus merlangus, Linn.). The whiting,
Merlan, Fr. ; Witliitg, Germ. The body a foot or more in
length ; upper jaw long ; pale reddish-gray back, and sil-
very belly ; lateral line yellow, nearly straight.

This fish ij very common on our coasts, and is valued
on account of its abundance, and the wholesomeness and
fine flavour of its flesh. It is often salted and dried in this
country, as well as in Holland. The shoals of whitings
sometimes occupy a space three miles long, and one and
a half broad. It is generally fished in summer in this
country, and is taken both with the line and net. The
food of the whiting is similar to that of the haddock. It
is more frequently found near the shore than that species.
M. carhoiiarius ( Gadus carbonarius, L.). The coal-fish
(Merlan nuir ou Colin, Fr. ; Kohlfisch, Germ.) is twice the
size of the whiting, and of a deep brown colour ; the upper

jaw shortest ; the lateral line straight and white. The flesh Alalacop.
of the young is rather delicate ; that of the adult is some- 'erygii
w hat leathery, but it is used when salted and dried, like the Sub-bra-
cod. This is the poilhy, silloch, cuddy, Sec. of our coasts. ci,A\AL
The young swarm along the British shores, and form a fre- '_^ -_<
quent sustenance of the lower orders of tlie Western High-
lands. On one occasion we killed thirty-three dozen with
the rod in a few hours, using a line with six small flies. By
giving the line one or two additional turns through the wa-
ter, we frequently pulled six ashore at once. It even consti-
tutes an important article of exportation from our northern
coasts. In Norway the poor ii^ed upon it ; and oil is made
from its liver. The adult fish is taken principally in sum-
mer ; it deposits its spawn in this country in February and
March. The coal-fish is found in the North Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans ; and sometimes, though very rarely, in the
Mediterranean Sea, — for example, near Nice.

M. pollachivs ( Gadus pollachius, L.). The pollock or
pollack, Merlan jaune, Fr. About eighteen inches long;
resembles M. carbonarius in its general form and struc-
ture of the jaws ; brown above and silvery beneath ; sides
spotted ; lateral line curved, black. The flesh of the pol-
lock is considered better than that of the coal-fish, and
inferior only to that of the dorse and whiting ; it inhabits
the Atlantic, and is gregarious. It is commonest on the
coasts of Norway and the north of England, and sometimes
occurs in the Mediterranean in winter. It is easily caught
with a white fly.

Gadus vireiu, Ascan., the sey, may also be included in
the genus Merlangus.

Genus Merluccius, Cuv. The hakes have only two
dorsal fins and one anal, and resemble the whitings in the
absence of the barbels.

M. vulgaris ( Gadus merluccius, L.). The hake (le Mer-
lus, Fr.) is generally from one to two feet long, but some-
times much larger. The back of a brownish-gray colour ;
the anterior dorsal fin pointed ; the lower jaw longest.

Great numbers are taken in the ocean, and in the Me-
diterranean. On the coasts of the Mediterranean it is
called merlan or whiting ; s.iul, when dried, it receives in
the north the name of stock-fish, in the same way as the
cod. It is said to be very abundant in tlie Bay of Gal-
way on the west of Ireland, and at Penzance in Cornwall.
The flesh is white and flaky, and its liver is considered a
delicacy.

Gadus magellanicus, Forst., and Gadus maraldi, Risso,
may be included in this group.

Genus Lota, Cuv. The lings have the same fins as
the hakes, but are also provided with barbels to a great-
er or less amount.

Lota molva (Gadus molva, L.) or common ling (la
Lingue, or Morue longue, Fr.), is the best-known species. It
measures from three to four feet in length, and sometimes
even attains the size of seven feet; it is named ling from
its lengthened shape. Olive above, silvery beneath. The
fins have a white margin; the two dorsal fins are of equal
height. The lower jaw rather the shortest, and furnish-
ed with a single barbel.

This fish spawns in June ; it inhabits the same seas as
the cod, and is fished in the same manner during the
spring months. It is preserved dry, and exported in con-
siderable quantity.

Lota Jluviatilis (Gadus lota, L.), river ling or burbot
(la Lolte commune, Fr.), is from one to two feet long. Its
colour yellow, marbled with brown ; a single barbel on
the chin. The two dorsal fins are of equal height, tlie
second extending to near the tail. The body is almost
cylindrical, and the head slightly depressed, so as to give
the fish a peculiar appearance, somewhat resembling that
of an eel ; hence its occasional name of Eel Pout. See
Plate CCCV. fig. 5.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

219

Malacop-
tervf^U

Sub-bra-
cbiati.

Ciacliclae.

This is the only Gadus which inhabits fresh water ; it
ascends rivers to a considerable distance, and inhabits
lakes. It is very abundiuit in North Asia and the Indies.
It is also well known in North America. In England it is
found only in a few rivers. Tiie flesh and liver of the
burbot are esteemed.'

To this sub-genus may be added Gadus Bacchus, Forst.,
Gadus Duwulosus, Lesueur, and Lola elongata, Risso.

Among the lings, Cuvier has distinguished another
small group named

Genus Motella, Cuv., in which the anterior dorsal
fin is so small as scarcely to be perceptible.

As species we may name Gadus 7nustcla, L. described
by Bloch as G. iricirrhatus. It is of a fawn-coloured
brown, with blackish spots ; two barbels on the upper
jaw, and a third on the lower one. Gadus cimbricus,
Schn. {G. qumquecirrhatus, Penn.) is also a Motella. The
species are called Gades by English writers.

Genus Buosmius, Cuv. The torsks or tusks have only
one dorsal fin, which extends nearly the whole length
from the head to the tail.

B. brosme, or Scotch torsk, seldom ventures farther
south than the Orkneys or Caithness ; it is very nume-
rous near the Shetland Isles. It is called Brosme by the
fishermen, from its resemblance to the blenny genus.
The name of torsk is applied in Norway and Sweden to
the Gadus callarias (a true Morrhua), which has three
dorsal fins. This circumstance has given rise to some
confusion. Donovan described the Scotch torsk from a
specimen sent him alive from Shetland. It is salted and
dried in the north.

Genus Brotula, Cuv. Dorsal and anal fins united with
the caudal, so as to form a single fin, terminating in a point.

One species only (JEncliehjopus barbatus of Bloch and
Schneider) is known. It has six barbels, and comes from
the Antilles.

Genus Phycis, Art. and Schn. Differs from the other
Gadi in having ventral fins with only one ray, — fre-
quently forked. The head is thick, the chin with one
barbel. Two dorsal fins, the second of which is long.
Some species are found in European seas.

Such is Phycis Mediterraneus, Laroche, sometimes call-
ed the sea tench (Blentiius p/ti/cis, Linn.). Anterior dor-
sal round, and not higher than the other ; the ventrals of
the same length as the head. This is a common species in
the Mediterranean.

Phycis blemioides, Schn., S. furcatus, or forked hake
of Pennant, occurs also in the ocean. The first dorsal
fin is more elevated, and its first ray considerably elon-
gated ; the ventral fins are twice the length of the head.
It is a British species, though a rare one.

Genus Raniceps, Cuv. The head more depressed
than in Phycis and the other Gadi ; the anterior dorsal fin
so small that it is lost in the thickness of the skin. Inha-
bits the ocean.

The trifurcated hake of Pennant belongs to this genus.

Genus Macroubus, B\. Lepidokprus, Risso. The sub-
orbitals unite in front with each other and with the bones
of the nose, so as to form a depressed snout, which pro-
jects above the mouth, and beneath which the latter pre-
serves its mobility. The head and body are covered with
hard and spiny scales. The ventral tins are small and
somewhat jugular ; the pectorals of moderate size ; the

first dorsal short and high ; the second dorsal and anal Malacop-

both very long, and uniting with the caudal ; very fine ''^'"yt!"
, ^ ^ ;^, . f. ■ Sub-bra-

short teeth m the jaws. chiati.

The species inhabit deep water, and when taken from it pi^,uroriec-
utter sounds resembling those of the genus Gristes. Only tjjjg.
two species have been as yet described, the Lep. calor- ^.^^.^^^
hynciius and trachyrynchus of Risso. They occur both in
the Mediterranean and along the oceanic coasts of France.

FAMILY II PLEURONECTID.E.

This family of the sub-brachian malacopterygian order
comprehends the great Linnean genus Pleuronectes,
which includes all those osseous species usually known un-
der the name oi flat Jish.

They are at once distinguished by a character unique
among vertebrated animals, viz. the want of symmetry in
the construction of the head ; both eyes being placed on
the same side, or on that which remains uppermost when
the animal swims, and which is always of a darker colour ;
while the side in which the eyes are wanting faces the
ground, and is always whitish, or very pale. Some of the
other organs participate in this irregularity of the orbits ;
thus the two sides of the mouth are unequal, and the two
pectoral fins are generally of different sizes. Their body
is much compressed, and raised vertically. The dorsal fin
runs along the whole of the back, the anal occupies what
may be regarded as the under part of the body, and the
ventrals have almost the appearance of continuing that fin
forwards, so much do they often appear as if imited toge-
ther. There are six rays in the branchiostegous mem-
brane. The abdominal cavity is small (the anus being far
forwards) ; but it is prolonged irrto a sinus in the thickness
of the two sides of the tail, in which some portion of the
viscera is lodged. There is no swimming bladder, and
these fishes seldom quit the bottom.

The Pleuronectid.*; furnish an agreeable and whole-
some food, and occur along the coasts of almost all coun-
tries. The disposition of the bones of the head is curious,
on account of the inversion which brings the two orbits to
the same side ; still we recognise in it all the pieces com-
mon to the other genera, but of unequal size. Individuals
termed reversed are sometimes found, having the eyes placed
on a different side from that on v\hich they are situated in
the rest of their species. Others, having the two sides of
the body of the same colour, are called double. The brown
or upper side is more frequently thus repeated than the
white one; but the rose-coloured flounder of Shaw pre-
sents an instance of the duplication of the paler side.'

The genus Pleuronectes was formerly subdivided ac-
cording as the eyes were placed on the right or left side of
the middle line ; but, on account of the irregularity of in-
dividuals in this respect, Cuvier has rejected the charac-
ter, and has distinguished various groups, as follows :

Genus Platessa, Cuv. Has on each jaw a range of
obtuse cutting teeth, and generally some teeth in the form
of pavement {en pares) on the pharyngeal bones. The
dorsal fin advances forwards as far as the upper eye, and
leaves, as well as the anal, a naked interval between it and
the caudal. The form of the body is rhomboidal ; the ma-
jority have the eyes on the right side. They have two or
three small caeca. Several inhabit the British seas.

' " On estime fort sa chair, et surtout son foie, qui est singulierement volumineux," observes Biron Cuvier, Beg'ie Animal, t. ii. p.
334. A different opinion, however, has been formed of it in the western world. " The burbot," says Dr Richardson, " is so little
esteemed as food, as to be eaten only in cases of necessity. Very good bread, however, may be made of the roe, and the livers are
always prized. Dogs will scarcely ever eat this Jish." {Appendix to Captain Franklin's first Journey to the Polar Sea, p. 7--4-) Dr R.
addsi that this species preys upon every kind of fish that it can swallow, and that in spring its stomach is generally so crammed with
cray-fish as to distort the shape of the body.

' Gen, Zool. vol. iv. part 2, pi. xliii.

220

Jlalacop-

tervtjii

Sub-bra-

chiati.

PleuroneC'

tidK.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

p. vtdgaris (Pkuronectes platessa, L.). The plaice
( Carekt, Fr. ; Scholle, Germ.) is recognised by six or seven
tubercles forming a line on the right side of the head be-
tween the eyes, and by spots of a bright yellow colour,
which relieve the brown of the body on that same side.
This fish is three times as long as it is high. Plate CCC V.
fig. 6.

The plaice grows sometimes to the size of fifteen or six-
teen pounds weight, but those weighing seven or eight
pounds are considered large ; its flesh is more tender than
that of any other species of the genus. It inhabits the Me-
diterranean, Baltic, and North Seas, and spawns in spring.

A large plaice, PI. borealis, Fabr., having the spine
behind the anus concealed under the skin, is described as
belonging to the northern regions.'

PL latus, Cuv. The broad plaice (la Plie large, Fr.)
is a much rarer species. It has the same tubercles as the
common plaice, and differs from it chiefly in being only
once and a half as long as it is high.

PL flesus, L. The flounder {le Flet on Picaud, Fr. ;
dfr Plunder, Germ.) has nearly the same form as the
plaice, with paler spots ; it has only small granular emi-
nences at the salient line of the head, and at the base of
each ray of the dorsal and anal fins there is a small rough
projection ; the lateral line has also bristly scales. Many
of this species occur reversed.

The flounder is taken in spring near the shore, and at
the mouths of rivers, into which it sometimes ascends a
considerable way ; it lives well in fresh water, and is kept
in ponds in Friesland. It inliabits the Baltic and North
Atlantic Seas. Its flesh is much inferior to that of the
plaice ; the best are said to be taken near Memel.

PI. pola, Cuv., is a fish described by Duhame! under
the name of La Vraie Limandelle. It is of an oblong
form, approaching to that of the sole, although broader.
It is distinguished from other Plalessa with sharp teeth,
by a smaller head and mouth. The body is smooth and
the lateral line straight. In France it is considered as
equal to the sole.

PI. limanda, L. The dab or bret {la Limande, Fr. ;
die Glahrhe, Germ.) is of a rhomboidal form, like the
flounder ; has large eyes, and a salient line between them.
Its lateral line is strongly curved above the pectoral fin.
Its scales are rougher than in the preceding species, and
to this character it owes its name (from livia, file). Its
teeth, though in a single row, as in other PlatesscB, are nar-
rower, and almost linear. The side on which the eyes are
placed is of a clear brown, with some indistinct brown and
whitish spots. This is a small fish, its length being less
than a foot ; but it is much esteemed. It is less common
than either the plaice or flounder. It spawns in May, and
is in season for the table during spring.

Genus Hippoglossus, Cuv, Has a form of body, and
fins, similar to the plaices ; the jaws and pharynx are
armed with sharper and stronger teeth. Their form is
generally more oblong,

H. vulgaris (PL hippoglossus, L,), The great holibut,
or halibut (le grand Fletan ou Helbut, Fr, ; die Heiligbutte,
Germ,), is one of the largest of this genus inhabiting the
northern seas. It sometimes attains a very great size,
for example, to the length of six or seven feet, and weigh-
ing three or four hundred pounds. The skin is smooth ;
it has the eyes to the right side ; the lateral line arched
above the pectoral fin ; there is a long spine before the
anal fin.

This is the most voracious of all the Pleuronectidoe,

preying on smaller fishes, Crustacea, Mollusca, &c. It in- Malacop-
habits the Mediterranean, as well as the northern seas, terygii
The flesh of the young is esteemed, and is not seldom sold Sub-bra-
to the uninitiated for turbot, to which, however, it is „]'*'''■
much inferior in every way. Indeed, when old, it is ex- wi2i.
tremely coarse.' v.^-y^>^

In the Mediterranean there are several smaller species,
of which some have the eyes to the left side. Such is PI.
macrolepidotus, Bl. — Citharits, Rond, ; distinguished by
the large size of its scales, its oblong form, and straight la-
teral line, (Plate CCC V, fig, 7.) Pl.cy7ioglossus\%Aescr\h-
ed by Shaw as a smaller holibut, found in considerable
quantity in Greenland, and superior to the common kind
as an article of food.

Genus Rhombus, Cuv. The turbots, like the holibuts,
have teeth closely set, or en carde, both on the jaws and
pharynx ; but their dorsal fin advances as far as the edge
of the upper jaw, and extends, in common with the anal,
to near the caudal fin. The greater number have the eyes
to the left.

In some the eyes are approximate, and in the interval
between them there is a slight projecting crest. The two
largest of our coasts are of this kind ; they are the most
esteemed as food of all the Pleuronectid^,

Ph. maximus {PL maximus. L,), The turbot, le Tur-
bot, Fr, ; Steinbutte, Germ, This fish, so highly prized on
account of its delicate flavour, and the wholesomeness of
its flesh, is distinguished by the rhomboidal shape of its
body, which is nearly as high as it is long. It is bristled
on the brown side with small tubercles ; has the lateral line
curved ; and the eyes on the left side.

This species is usually much smaller than the holibut ; it
is frequently two feet long, with a weight of twenty pounds ;
but it is stated sometimes to attain the length of five or six
feet. Extensive turbot fisheries are established on different
parts of our coast. The turbot is taken with the hook; it
is very voracious, and may be lured by various baits, such
as portions of herring or haddock, mussels, limpets, and
other shell-fish ; but all these must be very fresh. Indeed
the species very sensibly prefers live bait without hooks,
more especially the small river-lamprey. Mr Pennant has
particularly described the extensive turbot fishery at Scar-
borough. There are three men in each of the fishing-
boats, each man having three lines, and each line 280
hooks. All the nine lines are fastened together, and then
extend to about three miles in length ; they are laid across
the current, and are allowed to remain for six hours before
they ai'e hauled. This fish is called the water or sea-
pheasant, by the French common people, on account of its
fine flavour,

Rh. rhombus. The pearl or brill, la Barbue, Fr.
The body more oval than that of the turbot ; without tu-
bercles ; and distinguished besides by the first rays of its
dorsal fin being half free, with their extremities divided
into several strips. This fish is of a smaller size than the
turbot ; it has a delicate flavour, and is in gi-eat request.

Rh. punctatus ; PL l(i;ris, Shaw, The kitt {le Tar-
geur, Fr.) is much rarer than the preceding on our coasts.
Its shape is oval like the brill ; it has no strips on the rays
of its fins ; its scales are rough ; its teeth very fine ; its
cheek furnished with very close and even teeth ; and it
has black points and spots on a brown ground. It is said
to be more frequent in Shetland than along the other Bri-
tish coasts,

Rh. cardina. The whifF {la Cardine, or Calimande, Fr.)
is quite of an oblong form ; its first rays are free, but simple ;

' Uh, xxi. p. 8G8.

• Nevertheless it is generally called turlot in the Edinburgh market, where the true turbot passes under the classical cognomen of

ruun-Jkiilc.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

221

cliiati
Discoboli

Mnlacop- its teeth very close and even. It lias spots partly white
tervifii and [lartly blackish, scattered on a brown ground. This
Subbia- species is taken, though seldom, in the Ciiannel.

In the Mediterranean there is a small species, only a few
inclies long, — PL nudus, Risso ; Arnoglossum, Kond. ; and
another still smaller, which is quite transparent, — PI. can-
didissimus, Risso ; PI. diaphamts, Schn.

In other turbots the eyes are distant, the upper one
far back ; their interval is concave ; they have a small pro-
jecting hook on the base of the maxillary bone at the side
on which the eyes are placed, and sometimes another on
the inferior eye. There are several of this nature in the
Mediterranean, such as the PL podas of Laroche.' We
have figured PL argiis on Plate CCCV. fig. 8.

Genus Sole a, Cuv. The soles have, as a distinguish-
ing character, the mouth twisted to the side opposite the
eyes ; that side only being furnished with teeth, which are
fine, like the pile of velvet, or, according to Cuvier's fre-
quent expression, en velours ; the side on which the eyes
are placed is toothless. Their form is oblong ; the snout
round, and almost always projecting more than the mouth.
The dorsal fin commences at the mouth, and extends, as
well as the anal, to the caudal fin. The lateral line is
straight ; the side of the head opposite to the eyes is fur-
nished with a kind of villosity. The intestine is long ; it
forms several folds, but has no caica.

S. vulgaris (PL solea, L.). The sole (le Sole, Fr.) is a
species common on the European coasts, and luiiversally
esteemed wherever known. Bro\\n on the side which bears
the eyes ; the pectoral fin spotted with black. It is one
of our most valued fishes for the table, the flesh being
firm, white, and of delicious flavour. The sole generally
measures from one to two feet in length, and its weight
varies from one to seven pounds. It is a gregarious fish,
and is generally taken with the trawl-net. It inhabits the
Baltic, North, Atlantic, and Mediterranean Seas. There
is a large sole fishery at Brixham in Torbay, and a very
extensive one on the coast of Sardinia. The best soles are
said to be found at the Cape of Good Hope ; yet our
honoured friend Justice Menzies does not esteem them so
highly as he did those of his native Scotland.

There are many distinct species of this genus, besides
numerous varieties that have been too vaguely described to
admit of their being easily distinguished from each other.
We shall here merely name the Pallasian, Zebra (Plate
CCCV. fig. 9), Carolina, Ocellated, Ro7ideletian, Platessoid,
Silver, Smooth, Bearded, Marbled, Pavonian, and Variegat-
ed Soles.

Genus Monochibus, Cuv. Contains such soles as have
only a very small pectoral fin on the side of the eyes, the
one on the opposite side being either very minute, or
wholly wanting. There is one Mediterranean species, the
PL microchirus of Laroche.-

Genus Achikus, Lacep. Contains the species which are
w holly destitute of pectoral fins ; and which may again be
divided according as their vertical fins are distinct, as in
Achiri properly so called, or united to the caudal fin, as in
the sub-genus Plagusia.

FAMILY III.—DISCOBOLI.

Forms the concluding division of the sub-brachian ma-
lacopterygian fishes. They receive their name from the
disk formed by their ventral fins. This family comprehends
two genera, neither of which is numerous.

Genus Lepadogaster, Gouan. The ample pectoral fins

descend to the inferior surface of the body, and become
\mited together beneath the throat by a transverse mem-
brane, directed forwards, which is formed by the union of
the two ventral fins. The body is smootli and without scales ;
the head broad and depressed ; the muzzle projecting and
extensile ; the brancliial openings small ; the gill-covering
furnished with four or five rays. There is only one soft
dorsal fin, opposite to an anal of a similar kind. The in-
testine is short, straight, and without ca;ca. There is no
swimming bladder, but nevertheless the species swim ra-
pidly along the shores. The genus is divisible as follows :
~ \st, Lepadogaster properly so called. The membrane
already mentioned, which takes the place of the ventral
fins, extends circularly under the pelvis, and forms a con-
cave disk ; on the other hand, the bones of the shoulder
form a slight projection behind, which completes a second
disk with the membrane uniting the pectorals.

Several species inhabit the Mediterranean and neigh-
bouring seas. In some the dorsal and anal fins are distinct
from the caudal, « ith which tlicir membrane is however
sometimes continuous, though it at the same time becomes
narrower. Of this kind are the I^ep. Gouani, balbis, and
Decandolii. In others, these three fins are united, as in
L. Wildenovii. The Cyclopterus cormtbir.us of Shaw (Ja-
ra sucker of Pennant) belongs to the genus Lepadogaster.

2rf, GoBiESox, Lacep. Interval between the pectoral
and ventral fins not divided into a double disk, but form-
ing only a large single disk, cleft on both sides, and pro-
longed by the membranes. The dorsal and anal fins are
short, and distinct from the caudal. The branchial aper-
tures are larger than in the preceding. A British species,
known under the name of biniaculated sucker (Cyc.bimacu-
latus, Pennant), belongs to this genus. It is a very small
fish, not measuring more tlian an inch and a half. Mon-
tagu found it adhering to stones and old shells, and ob-
tained it in abundance, by dredging, near Forcross.^

Genus Cyclopterus, Linn. The circle-finned fishes,
commonly called suckers or lunip-Jish, have a well-mark-
ed cliaracter in their ventral fins, the rays of which, sus-
pended all round the pelvis, and united by a single mem-
brane, form an oval and concave disk, which the fish em-
ploys as a sucker to fix itself to the rocks. Besides this,
their mouth is wide, and furnished on both jaws and pha-
ryngeal bones with small pointed teeth. Their opercles
are small ; their branchial openings closed towards the
bottom, and furnished with six rays. Their pectoral fins
are very large, and unite almost under the throat, embra-
cing as it were the disk of the ventrals. Their skeleton
does not harden much ; and their skin, viscous and without
scales, has small hard grains scattered here and there upon
its surface. They have a stomach of considerable size,
many ca;ca, a long intestine, and a swimming bladder of
ordinary dimensions.

The Cyclopteri are divided by Cuvier into two sub-ge-
nera, as follows :

\st, LuMPus. Has a first dorsal fin, more or less per-
ceptible, though very low, and with simple rays, — and a
second one with branched rays opposite to the anal. The
body is thick.

CycL lumpus,'L. (PlateCCCV.fig.il.) The lump-
fish or sucker (le Lump, Gras Blollet, Fr. ; See Hase, Germ.)
has its first dorsal fin so much enveloped in a thick tuber-
cular skin, that externally it might be taken for a mere
hump on the back. It is furnished ^vith three rows of co-
nical tubercles on each side.

This fish is about eighteen inches long. It lives, espe-
cially in the north, on Medusae and other gelatinous ani-
mals. Its flesh is soft, insipid, somewhat oily, and is sel-

Malacop-
terygii

Siib-bia-
chiali.

UiscoboU.

' Ann. du Mus. xiii. xsiv. 14.

= Ibid. xm. 356.

Linn. Trafie. vol. vii. p. 293.

222

>[alacop-
tervgii

Sub-bra-
chiali-

Discoboli.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

dom used for food by those who can provide better. It is,
however, held in some estimation by tlie Greenlanders,
themselves an oily people, whose lines do not alw ays tail in
pleasant places. They also eat its roe (which is a very
large one), after having reduced it by boiling to a pulp. In
Ireland it is sometimes salted. This fish is very unwieldy,
and, possessing few means of defence, it generally remains
at the bottom of the sea, adhering to the rocks. It thus
becomes an easy prey both to seals and sharks. Large
placid oily spots upon the surface of the sea are often seen
above the places where the lump-fish have been seized and
slain. We also occasionally find their skins floating empty
along the shore, the flesh and blood having been previous-
ly extracted by their insatiate foes. The male is said to
preserve with great care the eggs which he has fecundat-
ed, and he has moreover been famed in fable for his affec-
tionate behaviour to the female. There does not, however,
appear to be any real foundation for this trait in his cha-
racter,— a very unfrequent one in that of any member of
the fishy tribes.

Cyclopt. spinosiis inhabits the northern seas. Cycl. mi-
nutits is found in the Atlantic, and C. nudus in the Indian
Ocean.

2rf, LiPARis, Artedi. Has only one dorsal fin, which, as
well as the anal, is rather long. The body is smooth, elon-
gated, and compressed behind.

Lip. vulgaris {Cyc. liparis, L.), the unctuous sucker
of Pennant, is a European species of variable size, not un-
common about the mouths of rivers, especially those of
the northern seas. It is a well-known British species, re-
markable not merely for dying, but for actually dissolving,
soon after it is taken out of the water. Liparis 3Iontagui
measures only about two inches in length.' It was disco-
vered by tlie naturalist whose name it bears, among the
rocks at Milton, on the south coast of Devon, during
some extraordinary low tides. Lip. gelatinosus is another
northern species, the flesh of which is not eatable, as de-
scribed by Pallas in his Spicilegia Zoologica. Its flesh is so
bad that not even dogs will eat it.

Genus Echeneis, Linn. This genus, so different from
its neighbours, might, like the old Linnasan genus Pleuro-
nectes, almost form a separate family of the sub-brachian
malacopterygian fishes. The species called Remoras are
remarkable for the flattened disk tliey bear upon their
heads, and by means of which they can adhere to other
bodies with considerable firmness. These disks are com-
posed of a certain number of transverse cartilaginous plates,
directed obliquely backwards ; dentated or spinous at their
posterior edge, and moveable in such a manner that the
fish can create a vacancy between them ; and thus, aided
also by the toothed margin, it fixes itself securely either to
rocks or floating bodies.

This genus has the body elongated, and clothed with
small scales ; a single soft dorsal fin op|)osite to the anal ;
the head quite flat above ; the mouth cleft horizontally,
and rounded ; the lower jaw placed more forwards, and
furnished, as well as the inter-maxillary bones, with small
pectiniform teeth. There is a row of regularly-set small
teeth, like cilia, along the edge of the maxillaries, which
form the external margin of tlie upper jaw ; the vomer is
furnished with cardiform teeth, as well as the tongue.
They have eight branchiostegous rays. Their stomach is
a wide cul-de-sac ; the caeca six or eight in number ; the
intestine wide, but short. They have no swimming bladder.
The species are few in number. Of these, Echeneis re-
mora, Linn., the famous Remora, or sucking fish, of the Me-
diterranean, is the best known. It has usually eighteen
plates in its cranial disk.

Sub-bra-

chiati.

Discoboli.

The extraordinary power possessed by this fish, of ad- Malacop-
hering tenaciously to any flattish surface, was known to terygii
ancient writers, as well as to the curious inquirers of mo-
dern times. Pliny luxuriates upon it with his usual dis-
cursive verbosity. The reader may possibly be amused
by Philemon Holland's translation of the passages in ques-
tion. " Having so far proceeded in the discourse of na-
ture's historic, that I am now arrived at the very lieigth of
her forces, and come into a world of examples, I cannot
chuse but in the first place consider the power of her ope-
rations, and the infinitnesse of her secrets, which offer
themselves before our eyes in the sea : for in no part else
of this universal frame is it possible to observe the like ma-
jestic of nature : insomuch, as we need not seeke any far-
ther, nay, we ought not to make more search into her di-
vinitie, considering there cannot be found any thing equall
or like unto this one element, wherein she hath surmount-
ed and gone beyond her own selfe in a wonderfuU number
of respects. For, first and foremost, is there any thing
more violent than the sea ; and namely when it is troubled
with blustring winds, whirlepuffs, storms, and tempests ?
or wherein hath the wit of man been more employed
(seeke out all parts of the known world) than in seconding
the waves and billows of the sea, by saile and ore ? Fi-
nally, is there ought more admirable than the inerrable
force of the reciprocall tides of the sea, ebbing and flowing
as it doth, whereby it keepeth a current also, as it were
the stream of some great river '

" The current of the sea is great, the tide much, the winds
vehement and forcible ; and more than that, ores and sailes
withall to help forward the rest, are mightie and powerfuU :
and yet there is one little sillie fish, named echeneis, that
checiceth, scorneth, and arresteth them all. Let the winds
blow as much as they will, rage the storms and tempests
what they can, yet this little fish commaundeth their furie,
restraineth their puissance, and, maugre all their force, as
great as it is, compelleth ships to stand still : a thing which
no cables, be they never so big and able as they will, can
perform. She bridleth the violence and tameth the great-
est rage of this universall world, and that without any
paine that she putteth herselfe unto, without any holding
or putting backe, or any other meanes save only by cleav-
ing and sticking fast to a vessell : in such a sort as this one
small and poore fish is sufficient to resist and withstand so
great a power both of sea and navie, yea and to stop the
passage of a ship, doe they all what they can possible to
the contrarie. What should our fleets and armadoes at
sea make such turrets in their decks and forecastles ?
what should they fortifie their ships in warlike manner, to
fight from them upon the sea, as it were from mure and
rampier on firme land ? See the vanitie of man ! alas,
how foolish are we to make all this adoe ? When one
little fish, not above half a foot long, is able to arrest and
stay per force, yea, and hold as prisoners, our goodly tall
and proud ships, so well armed in the beakehead with yron
pikes and brazen tines ; so offensive and dangerous to
bouge and pierce any enemie ship which they doe encountre.
Certes, reported it is, that in the naval battaile before Ac-
tium, wherein Antonius, and Ckopatra the queene, were
defeited by Augustus, one of these fishes staled the admi-
rall ship wherein M. Antonius was, at what time as he
made all the hast and meanes he could devise with help of
ores to encourage his people from ship to ship, and could
not prevaile, untill he was forced to abandon the said ad-
rairall, and go into another galley. Meanwhile the arma-
da of Augustus Casar, seeing this disorder, charged with
greater violence, and soone invested the fleete of Atitonie.
Of late dales also, and within our remembrance, the like

' Donovan's British Fishes, t. Ixviii.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Malacop- liappened to the roiall ship of the emperor Caiits Cali-
teryRii gula, at what time as he rowed backe, and made saile from
Astura to Antium ; wlien and where this httle fish de-
tained his ship, and (as it fell out afterward) presaged an
- unfortunate event thereby : for tliis was the h»st time tliat
ever this emperour made his returne to Rome : and no
sooner was lie arrived, but liis own souldiours in a niutinie
I'ell upon him and stabbed liim to death. And yet it was
not long ere the cause of this wonderfuU staie of his ship
was knowne : for so soon as ever the vessel (and a galliace
it was, furnished with five bankes of ores to a side) was
perceived alone in the ileete to stand still, prescntlie a
number of tall fellows leapt out of their ships into the sea,
to search what the reason might be that it stirred not ;
and found one of these fishes sticking fast to the very
helnie : which being reported unto Caius Caligula, he
fumed and fared as an emperour, taking great indignation
that so small a thing as it should hold him back perforce,
and check the strength of all his mariners, notwithstand-
ing there were no fewer than foure hundred lustie men in
his galley that laboured at the ore all that ever they could
to the contrarie. But this prince (as it is for certain
knowne) was most astonied at this, namely, that the fish
sticking only to the ship, should hold it fast ; and the same
being brought into the ship and there laid, not worke the
like effect. They who at that time and afterward saw
the fish, report that it resembled for all the world a snaile
of the greatest making : but as touching the form and sun-
drie kinds thereof, many have written diversly, whose
opinions I have set downe in my treatise of living crea-
tures belonging to the waters, and namely in the particu-
lar discourse of this fish : neither doe I doubt but all the
sorte of fishes are able to doe as much : for this we are
to believe, tliat Pourcellans also be of the same vertue,
since it was well knowne by a notorious example, that one
of them did the like by a ship sent from Periander to the
Cape of Gnidos : in regard whereof, the inhabitants of
Gnidos doe honour and consecrat the said Porcellane with-
in their temples of Venus. Some of our Latin writers do
call the said fish that thus staieth a ship, by the name of
Remora."

Anotherspecies,J5'cAe?jew7VaMcrato, Linn. (Plate CCCV.
fig. 10), commonly called the Indian Remora, has usually
twenty-two plates upon the head. In its habits it resem-
bles the preceding ; but it seems to be more frequent in
the seas of India and America, than in those of Europe.
The manuscripts of Commerson, as quoted by Count La-
cepede, inform us that it is common along the coasts of
Mosambique, where it is made use of in a singular way fiar
the purpose of catching turtles. A ring is first fastened
round its tail, and then a long cord is attached to the ring.
When thus accoutred, tlie fish, placed in a vessel of sea-
water, is carried out in a boat ; and as soon as the fisher-
men perceive a sleeping turtle, they row gently towards it,
and throw the remora into the water, with a sufficient
length of cord. It seldom fails speedily to attach itself to
the unconscious turtle, which by the tenacity of its ad-
herence is immediately drawn towards the boat and cap-
tured.

A third species of remora is described by Mr Archi-
bald Menzies as an inhabitant of the Pacific Ocean.' He
has named it Ech. lineata. It is distinguished by having
only ten transverse plates to its sucker. Mr Menzies
found it adhering to a turtle. A fourth species (and these
are all with which we are acquainted) has been more re-
cently discovered by Baron Cuvier. The rays of its pec-
toral fins are bony, compressed, and terminated by a slight-
ly notched /;a/toe. He names it Eeheneis osteochir?

ORDER IV.— MALACOPTERYGII APODES

which may be considered as constituting a single natural
family, the

223

MaUcop-

terygii

Apode*.

Angiiilli-

tbrme8.

ANGUILLIFORMES,

or fishes with an elongated shape; a thick skin, on which
scales are in general but indistinctly visible; and without
cteca to their intestines. Almost all are provided with a
swimming bladder, which often assumes a remarkable form.

The ancient unrestricted Genus Mur^ena of Linnae-
us is distinguished by the snake-like form of the body ;
the small opercles covering concentric branchiostegous
rays, buried in the skin, and only opening posteriorly by
a sort of tubular orifice. This structure, by giving a
more perfect command over the closure of the gills, ena-
bles them to remain longer out of water without injury
than the generality of fishes. They have scarcely-per-
ceptible scales, which are concealed in a tough skin, co-
vered with a slippery mucus. They all are destitute of
ventral fins and ca;ca, and have the anus placed very far
behind. Numerous subdivisions of the old genus Murmna
have taken place in modern times. We shall here note
the following:

Genus Anguilla, Thunbergand Shaw. Eels in gene-
ral, as distinguished from Muranue, are characterised by
the possession of pectoral fins, under which the branchial
aperture opens ; their swimming bladder has an elongated
shape, and near its middle a peculiar glandular body ;
their stomach has a long cul-de-sac ; their intestine is al-
most straight.

The more restricted genus Anguilla, or eel properly
so called, has the dorsal and caudal fins continued around
the tail, giving it a pointed form.

In the true eels, the dorsal begins a considerable dis-
tance behind the pectorals. Some have the upper jaw
shorter than the lower ; such as the Anguilla vulgaris, or
common eel. (Plate CCCVI. fig. 1.) This fish is uni-
versally distributed, and scarcely requires description.
The usual colour is an olive tint above, and a silvery co-
lour below ; but in some instances the back is spotted with
brown. We have observed these fish in considerable num-
bers leaving fresh-water lakes in the night time, and fre-
quenting meadows, seemingly for the purpose of preying
on slugs and snails. They easily move on the land, with a
motion resembling that of snakes. The eel grows to the
size of two or three feet, and is sometimes said to reach
five or six feet in length. It abounds in many European
rivers. Eels are caught in immense numbers in the rivers
emptying themselves into the Baltic ; and they form a con-
siderable article of trade. Two thousand are stated to
have been caught at one sweep in Jutland ; and in the
Garonne 60,000 were taken in one day by a single net.

" That eels migrate towards brackish water," observes
Mr Jesse, " in order to deposit their roe, I have but
little doubt, for the following reasons. From the month
of November until the end of January, provided the frost
is not very serious, eels migrate towards the sea. The
Thames fishermen are so aware of this fact, that they
invariably set their pots or baskets with their mouths
up stream during those months, while later in the spring
and summer they are set down stream. The best time,
however, for taking eels, is during their passage towards
the sea. The eel-traps, also, which are set in three dif-
ferent streams near Hampton Court (the contents of
which, at different times, I have had opportunities of ex-

Linn. Tram. vol. i. p. 1S7, pi. xvii.

' Rigm Animal, t. ii. p._348.

224

Malacep-

Apotles.
An<iuilli.
formes.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

amining), have invariably been supplied with eels suffi-
ciently large to be breeders, during the months I have
mentioned. This migratory disposition is not shown by
small eels ; and it may therefore be assumed that they
remain nearly stationary till they are old enough to have
spawn. I have also ascertained that eels are taken in
greater or lesser numbers during the months of Novem-
ber or December, all the way down the river to the brack-
ish water. From thence the young eels migrate, as soon
as they are sufficiently large and strong to encounter the
several currents of the river, and make their way to the
different contributary streams. I have also been able to
trace the procession of young eels, or, as it is called here,
the ee^/«iV, from the neighbourhood of Blackfriar's Bridge,
as far up the river as Chestrey, although they probably
make their way as far, or farther than Oxford. So strong,
indeed, is their migratory disposition, that it is well known
few things will prevent their progress, as, even at the
locks at Teddington and Hampton, the young eels have
been seen to ascend the large posts of the flood-gates, in
order to make their way, when the gates have been shut
longer than usual. Those which die stick to the posts ;
others, which get a little higher, meet with the same fate,
until at last a sufficient layer of them is formed to enable
the rest to overcome the difficulty of the passage. A cu-
rious instance of the means which young eels will have
recourse to, in order to perform their migrations, is an-
nually proved in the neighbourhood of Bristol. . Near that
city there is a large pond, immediately adjoining which
is a stream. On the bank between these two waters a
large tree grows, the branches of which hang into the
pond. By means of these branches, the young eels as-
cend into the tree, and from thence let themselves drop
into the stream below, thus migrating to far distant
waters, where they increase in size, and become useful
and beneficial to man. A friend of mine, who was a casual
witness of this circumstance, informed me that the tree
appeared to be quite alive with these little animals. The
rapid and unsteady motion of the boughs did not appear
to impede their progress."'

•' All authors agree," adds Mr Yarrell, " that eels are
extremely averse to cold. There are no eels in the arc-
tic regions, none in the rivers of Siberia, the Wolga, the
Danube, or any of its tributary streams. It is said there
are no eels in the Caspian or Black Seas, but they
abound in the Mediterranean ; and M. Risso has de-
scribed eight species in his work on the Natural History
of the Environs of Nice. There is no doubt, also, that
fishes in general, and eels more particularly, are able to
appreciate even minute alterations of temperature in the
water they inhabit. The brackish water they seek to re-
main in during the colder months of the year, is of a
higher temperature than that of the pure fresh water of
the river, or that of the sea. It is a well-known law in
chemistry, that when two fluids of different densities
come in contact, the temperature of the mixture is ele-
vated for a time, in proportion to the difference in density
of the two fluids, from the mutual penetration and con-
densation. Such a mixture is constantly taking place in
rivers that run into the sea, and the temperature of the
mixed water is accordingly elevated."^ As eels are well
known to breed in ponds, it may be inferred that their de-
scent to the brackish water, though customary, is not in-
dispensable. They sometimes attain a great size. The
species (or variety) called the sharp-nosed silver eel has
been taken near Cambridge of the weight of twenty-seven
pounds.

Some authors make a separate division of the Congers

{Conger, Cuv.), which chiefly differ from the common
eels in having the upper jaw the longest, and the dorsal
fin commencing almost over the pectorals. The chief
species are the following : Anginlla conger (Plate CCC VI.
fig. 3) grows to the size of six feet or more, and is as
thick as a man's leg. The conger is found around all our
coasts. The skin has a leaden hue above, and is white
below, with darker spots along the sides. The dorsal is
bordered with black. The teeth are sharp, and when cap-
tured the fish is capable of giving very severe bites. The
fishermen are stated also to dread injury to their legs from
a large conger twining round them. It has been said to
attack swimmers by coiling round them, and preying on
their bodies. It is voracious, and has not unfrequently
been found within the carcasses of dead animals, on which
it was evidently feeding. The conger fishery was at one
time of some consequence on the Cornish coasts, for the
supply of Spain and Portugal. The fish were cured by
drying, during which they lost much fat. Anguilla myrus
(Rondelet) has a sharp snout, a thin roundish body of a
dark colour, without spots, except toward the head, where
a few yellowish dashes are seen ; as also a whitish trans-
verse band on the occiput, and two rows of small specks
on the back of the neck. This species occurs in the Me-
diterranean, as do several other small congers, such as
A. balearica, mystax, and nigra. The last named lives
among the rocks near Nice, and attains to the weight of
forty pounds. Its flesh is more esteemed than that cf the
common kind.

The Genus Ophisurus, or snake-tail, differs from the
eels properly so called, by the dorsal and ventral fins
terminating abruptl}' before reaching the extremity of the
tail, which is thus deprived of fin, and ends in a sharpen-
ed point. The intestine resembles that of the eels ; but
a portion of it extends into the tail, farther back than the
anus. The teeth are sharp and cutting. Ophisurus ser-
pens is a Mediterranean species, marked by a triple chain
of large, dark-brown, oblong spots, on a silvery-white body.
It grows to the length of six feet, and is as thick as the
human arm. The snout is sharp ; the branchial membrane
has twenty rays. Ophisurus guttatus, a handsome spe-
cies from Guyana, belongs to this subdivision ; as does O.
ophis, the Murcena ophis of Bloch. In some Ophisuri the
pectoral fins are small, and sometimes almost impercepti-
ble ; a circumstance which assimilates them to the Murce-
ntB. Such are O. colubrinus,fasciatus, and maculosus.

Genus Mur^na, Thunberg. The species were unit-
ed by Linnseus to the eels ; but they are distinguished
sufficiently by the total want of pectoral fins. Their
branchial apertures are minute lateral holes ; their oper-
cles are so small, and their branchiostegous rays so slender,
and so concealed within the skin, that some able natural-
ists have denied their existence in this genus. Their
stomach is a short pouch ; and their swimming bladder is
small, oval, and placed towards the upper part of the ab-
domen. Some of them have the dorsal and anal fins dis-
tinctly visible ; some have obtuse, others sharp cutting
teeth, and the latter can bite severely.

The best known is Murcena Helena, or Roman murccna
(Plate CCCVI. fig. 2), which abounds in the Mediterra-
nean, and was introduced by the luxurious Romans of
antiquity, in crystal vases, to the table before being cook-
ed, that the guests might admire its variegated skin.
This fish is very voracious, and feeds on all sorts of ani-
mal matter. The Romans fed them in ponds, and Pliny
has recorded the atrocities of Vedius Pollio, who used to
punish his offending slaves by throwing them alive to his
muraena;. We have seen this fish repeatedly taken at

Slalacop-

tervgii

Apodea.

Anguilli-

tbrnies.

GUaninsii in Natural Ilktory, second series.

Ibid.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

225

MaUcop-
teryjjii
Apodcs.

Anguilli-
fornies.

Gibraltar, between three and four feet in lenptb. The
skin is beautifully marbled with yellow sub-anjjular mark-
ings on a rich brown ground. When captured in nets it
lives long out of the water, and is capable of biting very
severely, from the sharpness of its numerous teeth. A
very beautiful muraena with obtuse teeth, 31. cntenata, is
found in the rivers of Guyana ; its colours are brown and
white. In the same region is found 31. zebra, a species
beautifully marked, on a dark-brown ground, with trans-
verse, linear, distant bands, meeting irregularly beneath.
Other species are, 31. reticularis, 31. punctata, 31. unico-
Inr, 31. Haiii/, 31. pictn, 31. meleagrii, 31. grisea, M. afra,
31. gtdlata, M. wubdata, 31. sordida.

Genus Sphacebranchus, Bloch. This genus differs
from Murcena chiefly in having the branchial apertures
close together, and beneath the throat, instead of being on
each side of the neck. The snout is sharp, and projecting
far beyond the mouth ; the dorsal and anal fins, when per-
ceptible, do not commence until within one third of the
length of the fish from the extremity of the tail. Some of
them h.ave no ajipearance of pectoral fins ; others have
slight vestiges of those parts. One of them, Sph. catcus
(Genus Apterichtes, Dumeril), is absolutely without any
fins at all. The stomach has a long cul-de-sac ; the intes-
tine is straight ; and all have a long narrow swimming
bladder placed towards the posterior extremity.

The best known is Sphagehianclnis rostratus, first no-
ticed by Bloch. It grows to a length of nine inches.
Sph. imberhis was described by Laroche in Aim. du 3Ius.
xiii. as well as Sphag. cceciis, which he considered as a
murxna.

Genus Synbranchus, Bloch. This division is distin-
guished from the last by having only a single branchial ori-
fice, which is placed under the throat, and communicates
with the gills on each side. The fishes included in it are
totally w ithout pectorals, and their vertical fins are almost
entirely adipose. Their head is thicker than any part of
the body, and short ; the mouth is wide, lips fleshy, teeth
small, conical, and in several rows. Their opercles are
partly cartilaginous ; their branchial rays are very strong ;
their swimming bladder is long and narrow. They have no
csBca to the intestine, which is straight, and can scarcely
be distinguished from the stomach except by a kind of
pyloric valve. The species inhabit the seas of the hotter
parts of America, especially Surinam. Two only are known,
Synbranchus marmoretus (Plate CCCVI. fig. 4) and Syn.
iynmacvlatus. They have much the habit of water-snakes.
In succession to the preceding generic subdivisions of the
Linnaean 3iur(p.ncB, Cuvier places a singular and recently
discovered species, the Saccopharynx flagdJam of Dr
Mitchell. Its body is capable of great inflation. It is a
large and voracious fish, measuring about six feet in length,
with a deep cleft mouth armed witli sharp teeth. It has
hitherto been found only in the Atlantic Ocean, where it
floats on the surface by means of the inflation just allud-
ed to.'

Genus Gymnotus, Linn. The gymnotes, like eels,
have the gills partly shut up by a membrane, which, how-
ever, opens before the pectoral fins ; the anus is placed
near the head ; the anal fin nms along nearly the whole
under part of the fish, and generally reaches to the extre-
mity of the tail, but is not continued along its upper por-
tion.

In Gymnotus, Lacep. properly so called, the skin is
without visible scales; the intestine, in several convolu-
tions, occupies but a moderate space, and has many csca ;
the stomach is r. short, blunt sac, with numerous ruga;

A]ioile3.

Ans;uillU

i'ormes.

within. Some of them have two swimming bladders ; the Malacop.
anterior is ovate and bilobular, and lies on the oesophagus, terygii
at the top of the abdomen ; the posterior is cylindrical,
and occupies a sinus in the abdominal cavity. The true
gymnotes are confined to the rivers of America. The i^
best-known species is Gymnotus electricus, or electric eel
(Plate CCCVI. fig. 5). This animal has been well de-
scribed by Dr Garden of Charlestown, by John Hunter,
and by Humboldt. It is remarkable for the violence of
its electric shocks, which are often so powerful as to stu-
pify a man or a horse. The researches of Hunter detect-
ed an organ in the posterior part of this iish, resembling
the electric apparatus of the torpedo. See Plate CCCVI.
fig. 6. This organ consists of four longitudinal fasciculi,
which occupy one half the thickness of the part in which
they occur, and about one third of the whole animal. The
larger pair lie above, the smaller below. Each fasciculus is
composed of flat partitions or septa, with transverse divisions
between them. The outer edge of the septa appear in nearly
parallel lines in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the
body, and consist of thin membranes, which ai-e easily torn ;
they serve the same purpose as the columns in the analo-
gous organ of the torpedo, making the walls or abutments
for the perpendicular and transverse dissepiments, which
are exceedingly numerous, and so closely aggregated as to
seem almost in contact. The minute prismatic cells, inter-
ce|)ted between these two sorts of plates, contain a gela-
tinous matter ; the septa are about one thirtieth of an inch
from each other, and one inch in length contains a series of
240 cells, giving an enormous surface to the electric or-
gans. The whole ai)paratus is abundantly supplied with
nerves from the medula spinalis; and these nerves are
seen coming out in pairs from between the vertebra:. In
their course they give out branches to the muscles of the
back, and to the skin of the animal. In the gj^nnote, as
in the torpedo, the nerves supplying the electric organs are
much larger than those bestowed on any part for the pur-
poses of sensation or movement. Hunter thinks, how-
ever, that these nerves are more considerable in point of
size in the torpedo than in the gymnote. These organs
are attached loosely to the muscles of the back which lie
between the larger, and they are immediately connected
with the skin by a loose cellular texture. Humboldt has
given a very interesting and lively description of the mode
of capturing the electric gymnote, as practised in South
America, near the town of Calabozo.

These fish abound in the stagnant pools of that vicinity.
The Indians are well aware of the danger of encountering
the gymnote when its powers are unexhausted. They
therefore collect twenty or thirty wild horses, force them
into the pools, and when the fish have exhausted their
electric batteries on the poor horses, they are laid hold of
without difficulty. The horses at first exhibit ir.uch agi-
tation and terror ; they are prevented leaving the pool by
an enclosing band of Indians, who goad them with bam-
boos whenever they attempt to escape. " The eels," says
Humboldt, " stunned and confused by the noise of the horses,
defended themselves by reiterated discharges of their elec-
tric batteries. For some time they seemed likely to gain
the victory over the horses and mules ; these were seen
in every direction, stunned by the frequency and force of
the shocks, to disappear under water. Some horses, how-
ever, rose again, and, in spite of the active vigilance of the
Indians, gained the shore, exhausted with fatigue ; and
their limbs being benumbed by the electric explosions,
they stretched themselves out upon the ground." " I re-
member the superb ])icture of a horse entering a cavern.

VOL, xii.

' Ophiognalhut amfvUaceus of llr Ilariiwood, Pliil. Trans. 1827, seems to pertam to the same genus.

2v

226

Malacop-
terygii
Apodes.

Anguilli-
formes.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

and terrified at the sight of a lion. The expression of ter-
ror is not there stronger than what we witnessed in this
unequal conflict. In less than five minutes two horses
were already drowned. The eel, more than five feet
long, glides under the belly of the horse or mule ; it then
makes a discharge from the whole extent of its electric
organs, which at once attacks the heart, the viscera, and
especially the gastric plexus of nerves." " After this com-
mencement, I was afraid that the sport might end very
tragically. But the Indians assured us that the fishing
would soon be finished, and that nothing is to be dread-
ed but the first assault of the gymnotus. In fact, whether
the galvanic electricity is accumulated in repose, or the
electric organ ceases to perform its functions when fa-
tigued by too long-continued use, the eels, after a time,
resemble discharged batteries. Their muscular motion is
still equally active, but they no longer have the power of
giving energetic shocks. When the combat had lasted a
quarter of an hour, the mules and horses appeared less af-
frighted ; they no longer bristled up the mane, and the
eye was less expressive of suffering and of terror. They
no longer were seen to fall backwards ; and the gyninotes,
swimming with the body half out of the water, and now
flying from the horses instead of attacking them, began
themselves, in their turn, to approach the shore."

The electric gymnote is by no means fierce or voracious ;
but its electric organs are the instruments by which it pro-
cures its prey, and defends itself against alligators and other
enemies.

It has been several times brought alive to Europe, and
some experiments have been made on its electricity, —
which is conducted and insulated by the same substances
as common galvanism.'

So common is the gymnotus in some parts of South
America, that, in tlie neighbourhood of Uritucu, a route
at one time much frequented has been entirely abandon-
ed, in consequence of the necessity of fording a stream, in
which many mules were killed every year by these sub-
aqueous electric shocks.

The only other known species of gymnotus is the G.
aquilabiatus of Humboldt, which appears to differ from
the other in wanting the posterior swimming bladder.

The Genus Carapus was separated by Cuvier from
the gyninotes, with which they were formerly confounded ;
and the species are distinguished by a scaly compressed
body and a slender tail. The appellation is derived from
their Brazilian name. All the species live in the rivers of
South .'\merica, ov on the coasts of that country. Carapus
macrourus grows to the length of eighteen inches or two
feet, and is of a brown colour, with small eyes, and slen-
der tail. C. brachiurus vel fascialus is marked with
darker transverse bands. C. albus is of a whitish colour;
tail naked for about an inch ; upper lip with a lobule on
each side ; several pores on the sides of the head. C. ros-
tratiis has a body like that of C. macrourus, but the snout
is narrow, compressed, and tubular, with connate jaws ;
colour pale brown, variegated with darker spots ; the scales
not visible.

The Genus Sternarchus of Schneider was so deno-
minated from the anus being near the sternum. The anal
fin ends before it reaches the extremity of the tail, which
has a fin of its own ; but the most singular character in the
structure of this fish consists of a soft fleshy filament, con-
cealed in a furrow on the dorsum, beyond the middle of
the back, and retained in this groove by tendinous threads,
which admit of its having some motion ; a very singular

Apodes.
AnguiUi-
formes.

organ, of which we cannot conjecture the use. The head Slalacop'
is oblong, naked, and compressed ; neither opercula nor terygii
branchial rays are externally visible ; the rest of the body
is scaly ; the teeth are soft, short filaments, like velvet, on
the middle of each jaw. The only species is Sternarchus
albifrons, which was considered by Pallas, its first describer,
as a Gymnotus.

Genus Gymnarchus, Cuv. Body scaly and elongated,
gills but slightly open in front of the pectorals, as in Gym-
notus, but the back is furnished all along with a soft rayed
fin ; there is no fin behind the anus, nor beneath the tail,
which has a pointed termination. The head is conical,
naked, — the mouth small, and provided with a single row
of small cutting teeth.

Gymnarchus Nilotictis of Cuvier, discovered by M. Rif-
fault, is, as its name implies, an Egyptian fish, and is, we
believe, the only known species.

Genus Leptocephalus, Pennant. This genus differs
from the eels by being greatly compressed laterally, by a
larger branchial aperture opening before the pectorals, by
a head extremely small, and a pointed snout. The pec-
torals are almost invisible ; the dorsal and anal are very
small, and unite at the point of the tail. The intestines
occupy a narrow line along the inferior margin of the
body.

Only one species is known, a native of our own seas,
first described by Pennant. It is the Leptocephalus Mor-
risii, a small fish of four inches long by one tenth of an
inch in thickness, and so transparent as almost to exhibit
the form of the vertebra;, which may also be felt through
the integuments. This singular creature was first seen near
Holyhead by Mr William Morris, who transmitted it to
Pennant. Though still a rare species, it has since been
observed by several other British naturalists.

Genus Ophidiu.m, Linn. This genus has the anus far
behind ; the dorsal and anal fins join in a point at the
tail ; the body is long and compressed, and covered with
small irregular scales, scattered in the thickness of the
skin. But these fish differ from eels, in having open gills,
furnished with a large operculum, and a branchiostegous
membrane, with short rays. The dorsal rays are articulat-
ed, but not branched.

The genus is subdivided into two sub-genera, viz. Ophi-
dium proper, in which the throat is provided with two cirrhi
adhering to the point of the os hyoides. The best-known
species is Ophidium barbatum, which grows to eight inch-
es ; general colour silvery, but the vertical fins banded
with black ; the surface smooth, scales attached by their
centre to the skin ; two bifid cirrhi on the throat ; skin
spotted with small red spots. The swimming bladder is
oval, large, and thick, for the size of the fish, and is sup-
ported by three peculiar bones suspended under the first
vertebra, and moveable by particular muscles. This fish
abounds in the Mediterranean, where it is in request as an
article of diet. Ophidium Vassali is a small species, also
found in the Mediterranean ; but in the South Seas a large
species has been caught. It is named Oph. blacodes.
Enchelyopus (Fierasfer), Klein, differs in wanting the
beards of the true Ophidium. The dorsal fin is so slight
as only to seem a fold of the skin ; the swimming bladder
has but two supporting bones. Only one species is recog-
nised, Ophidium imberbe of Linn., which is also Gymno-
tus acus of several naturalists. As a British species, it was
first communicated to Pennant by the Duchess of Portland,
from Weymouth. It has since been found by Montagu on
the south coast of Devon.

^ ' Dr Traill informs us that he liad two ?ent to him from Demerary, but they died the day before the sliip made the coast of
England, and were unluckily thrown overboard.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

227

I.opJio- Genus Ammodytes, Linn. Has a thin and elongated
branchii. form. The dorsal fin is furnished with articulated rays,
^""'y^^ but is simple for a considerable part of its extent. There
is a second fin behind tlie anus, and a third at the end of
the tail, which is forked. These three fins are quite dis-
tinct, or separate from each other. The snout is point-
ed ; the upper jaw susceptible of extension, but the lower
is longer than the upper when the latter is not extended.
The stomach is angular and fleshy ; there is no swim-
ming bladder nor CKca. Only one British species is as
yet distinctly known, the Ammodi/tes tobianus (our com-
mon launce), a fish about eight or ten inches long, the
body somewhat of a square form, but the angles not
sharp, and the sides slightly convex. It is very frequent
on our sandy coasts. Its back is bluish, the rest rich sil-
very. This fish lives on vermes and other marine animals,
which it is believed to pursue by burrowing in the sand,
from whence it is often dug up at the depth of a foot. It is
prized as food, and is considered as an excellent bait for
turbot and mackerel. It is the favom-ite prey of the latter
fish ; and the porpoise ploughs up the sand at the bottom
of the sea with his nose, in the manner of a hog, in search
of this species, which has often been foimd in his stomach.
It is also sought for by salmon, which have been captured
in the sandy bays of Sutherland, by means of a hook
baited by a launce, commonly called the sand-eel.

It is extremely probable that two British species are
usually confounded by us under the name of launce.'

The various genera of fishes with which we have been
hitherto engaged, not only possess an osseous or fibrous
skeleton, and free and complete jaws, but their branchia;
are constantly pectiniform, that is, in the shape of lamina;
or combs. We now proceed to others, in which the re-
spiratory organs assume another form.

ORDER v.— LOPHOBRANCHII.

,7aws complete and free, as in the preceding orders, but
the branchiae, instead of being comb-shaped, are divided
into little rounded tufts, disposed in pairs along the bran-
chial arches. The branchiae have this further peculiarity,
that they are entirely enclosed beneath a large operculum,
attached all round by a membrane, which jiermits the wa-
ter to escape merely through a small hole, and exhibits
only vestiges of rays.

The genera of this order may be distinguished exter-
nally by the cuirassed aspect of their bodies, which are
strongly plated, very angular, and frequently furnished
with spiny projections. The species are meagre creatures,
of small size, and very extraordinary aspect. They have
scarcely any flesh upon their bones. The intestine is uni-
form, and without caeca ; the swimming bladder is thin,
but tolerably large in proportion to tlie other parts. The
order is almost entirely composed of the old genera Syng-
natlius and Pegasus of Linnaeus.

The genus Syngnathus of the great Swedish naturalist
consisted of a rather numerous assemblage of species, dis-
tinguished by a tubular muzzle, formed, like that of the
FisTULARiDvE, by a prolongation of the ethmoid, vomer,
and tympanic bones, of the pre-opercles, sub-opercles, &c.
and terminated by a mouth of the ordinary kind, but al-
most vertically cleft. The respiratory opening is towards
the nape of the neck, and the ventral fins are wanting. The
generative system is characterised by this peculiarity,
that the eggs slip into, and are hatched in, a kind of sac or

pocket, formed by a pursing of the skin — in some beneath Lopho-
thc belly, in others at the base of the tail. This pouch branchii.
opens in due time for the escape of the young. In this *""'^"~'
respect, then, these fishes may be said to connect the osse-
ous with the cartilaginous kinds, for the eggs arc hatched
internally, and the young are produced alive. This fact
was observed by Aristotle, and has lately been confirmed
(so far, at least, as concerns .S'. acus) by Cavolini. The
genus is now subdivided into three minor groups, as fol-
lows : —

\st, Genus Syngnathus properly so called. Body
very long, thin, and differing but little in its diameter
throughout. Several species occur in all our seas. They
differ in the character and mmiber of their fins.

2rf, Genus Hippocampus, Cuv. Body laterally com-
pressed, and obviously higher than at the tail. The sur-
face is raised into ridges, its edges are angular and incis-
ed, and the hinder parts of the body and tail have the ap-
pearance of being divided into segments. The caudal fin
is wanting.

Of this genus several species are found in the European
seas, and one or two occur along the British shores. The
greater number, however, are exotic. In the dried spe-
cimens the head is usually bent at right angles with the
body, the thorax curved, and the tail bent inwards. From
the peculiar aspect which they exhibit in this condition,
they have received the name of sea-horses. The most re-
markable species with which we are acquainted is the
Hippoeampus fofiatvs of Shaw, or foliated pipe-fish. (See
Plate CCCVI. fig. 7.) This rare and very singularly con-
structed fish is a native of the Southern Ocean. The
specimen described by Shaw was transmitted from New
Holland to Sir Joseph Banks. The one here figured
was sent to Professor Jameson from Van Diemen's Land.
We should not have hesitated to consider this species
as synonymous with S. tomiolalus of Lacepede (and the
more readily as they seem to be regarded as identical
by Cuvier") ; but on comparing it with the figure in the
Annales du Mits. we find that the Van Diemen's Land
specimen possesses two large appendages on the dorsal
outline, not represented by the author of the earlier Hist.
Nat. des Poissons.

3d, Genus Solenostoma, Seb. and Lacep. Differs
from Syngnathus chiefly in possessing very large ventrals
placed behind the pectorals, and united together and with
the body so as to form a kind of apron, which, like the pouch
of the genus just named, serves to retain the ova. There
is also a dorsal, with few rays, but elevated, and placed
near the nape ; another very small fin on the origin of
the tail ; and a large pointed caudal. In other respects
the genus bears a great resemblance to Hippocampus.
There is only a single species known, the Fistularia pa-
radoxa of Pallas.-"

Genus Pegasus, Linn. Projecting muzzle formed
by the same pieces as in the preceding genera, but the
mouth, instead of being placed at the extremity, is found
at the base, and, in its protractile nature, so far resembles
that of the sturgeon, although it is composed of the same
bones as the mouth of ordinary fishes.

The body in this genus is cuirassed like that of Hippo-
campus and Solenostoma, but the trunk is broad, depress-
ed, the branchial opening lateral, and there are two dis-
tinct ventral fins behind the pectorals, which are often
large and wing-like, and have given rise to the generic
name. The dorsal and anal are opposite to each other.
The species are chiefly from the Indian seas. See Plate
CCCVL fig. 10.

' See Regne Animal, t. ii. p. 360 ; and Bulletin des Scienets for September 1 824.
licgne Animal, t. ii. p. 363.

S Sficilcgia, viii. iv. 6.

228

Plectog-
nathi-

Gyninu-
dontes.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

ORDER VI.— PLECTOGNATHI.

The fishes of this order approach the great chondrop-
terygian division in the imperfection of their jaws, and
the slowness with whicli their skeleton hardens ; yet that
skeleton is fibrous, and its general structure resembles
that of the ordinary or osseous fishes. The principal dis-
tinctive character, however, of the Plectognathi, consists
in the maxillary bone being soldered or firmly attached
on the side of the inter-maxillary, which alone forms the
jaw, and in the palatine arch being connected by suture
with the cranium, which consequently renders it immove-
able. Moreover, the rays and opercles are concealed be-
neath a thick skin, which permits only a small branchial
cleft to be visible externall}'. The vestiges of ribs are
very slight. The true ventrals are wanting. The intes-
tinal canal is ample, but without ca;ca, and almost all the
species are provided with a rather large swimming blad-
der.

The order comprises two very natural families, cha-
racterised by the different armature of the jaws.

FAMILY I._GYMN01)0NT£S.

Instead of apparent teeth, the jaws are furnished with
a substance like ivory, divided internally into lamina? or
plates, the totality of which resembles the beak of a par-
rot, and is essentially composed of true teeth united to-
gether, and succeeding each other as they become used
by trituration. The opercles are small, their rays five in
number on each side, and the whole greatly concealed.
The species live on Crustacea and Fuci. Their flesh is
in general mucous, and slightly esteemed. Some indeed
are even poisonous, at least during certain seasons.

Two of the genera {Tetraodon and Diodon), commonly
called orbs or balloon-fish, possess a singular facult)' of
inflating their bodies by swallowing great quantities of
air. When thus swollen, they roll over and float upon
the surface, belly uppermost, apparently unable to direct
their course. They are not, however, defenceless, for the
spines with which their skin is armed project in all di-
rections. Their swimming bladder has two lobes, and
their kidneys, which arc placed very high up, have been
sometimes mistaken for lungs. There are but three bran-
chiae on each side. Each nostril is furnished with a
double fleshy tentaculum.

Genus Diodon, Linn. The undivided jaws exhibit
but one piece above and another below, — from whence
the generic name, which signifies two teeth. Behind each
cutting edge is a rounded portion, transversely grooved,
and forming a powerful instrument of mastication.' The
skin is armed on all sides by strong, pointed spines, so
that, when inflated, these creatures bear a resemblance to
a gigantic burr of a chestnut tree.

The species are numerous in the warmer seas. One of
the most common is the Diodon atinga of Bloch, which
measures about a foot in diameter. It inhabits the seas
of India, America, and Southern Africa, and feeds on the
smaller fishes, Crustacea, and shell-fish, the calcareous
covering of which it breaks with great facility, by means
of its robust and bony jaws. It is a dangerous species
to meddle with, owing to the sudden and hedgehog-like
manner in which it bristles up its spines. It seems s3'no-
nymous with D. hystrix of Linn., commonly called the
sea-porcupine, and ivas formerly a frequent and dusty ap-

pendage in the shop of the apothecary. (See Plate CCCVI. Plectog-
fig. 8.) Diodon liolocanthns inhabits almost all the seas nathi.
between the tropics. When taken by means of a hook, Gymno-
it exhibits the most ungovernable movements, — alter- '""'^s-
nately inflates and compresses its body, ascends and de-
scends with rapidity and violence, and is extremely dan-
gerous to lay hold of. It is fished for both in the Red
Sea and along the coast of Japan ; and, according to Du-
tertre, the hooks are baited with Crustacea. The bait, it
appears, is first approached with caution, then tasted,
left, returned to, and finally svvallowed. It no sooner,
however, finds itself fairly hooked, than it swells itself
up like a balloon, utters a dull sound like that produced by
a turkey-cock while making its wheel, and then becomes
exceedingly furious. It next has recourse to an opposite
mode of action, by lowering its spines, disinflating its
body, and becoming as loose and flabby as a wet glove.*
It resumes its activity, however, as soon as it perceives
the fisherman drawing towards it, or feels itself being
drawn towards the fisherman. In short it has a particu-
lar dislike to being killed.

Genus Tetraodon, Linn. Jaws divided in the centre
by a suture, so as to exhibit the appearance of four teeth
(from whence the name), two above and two below.
The skin is armed merely by small spines, which project
but little. Several species are regarded as poisonous.

The most anciently known is an Egyptian species, T.
lineatus, Linn., which is thrown by the floods in vast num-
bers over the prolific banks of the Nile, where it is after-
wards gathered as a plaything by the children. According
to Hasselquist, however, the Egyptians hold it in abhor-
rence, and believe that the use of its flesh as food is fol-
lowed by death. The prickles of its skin produce a sen-
sation like the stinging of nettles. In many iMahommedan
countries another species, called T.hispidushy Lacepede,
is fully inflated, then carefully dried, and afterwards sus-
pended from the pinnacle of the minarets, where it serves
the purpose of a weathercock. The hare tetraodon, as it
is called ( T. lagocephalus, Linn.), appears to have been
described by Pennant under the title of Globe Diodon.
Though a tropical species, it has occurred occasionally
along" the British coasts, particularly near Penzance in
Cornwall. We here figure a curious Indian species, the
Tetraodon patocaoi'Yitiia.mWto'n Buchanan. Plate CCCVI.
fig. 9.

Baron Cuvier has separated from the preceding, under
the generic title of Orthagoriscus (imposed by Schnei-
der, and synonymous with genus Cepltatus of Sliaw), the
peculiar species known to English readers under the
name of sun-Jish, the Poissons-ltmes of our continental
neighbours.^ The jaws are undivided, as in Diodon, but
the body, compressed and without spines, is unsusceptible
of inflation, and the tail so short, and vertical in its poste-
rior outline, as to convey the idea of an artificial trunca-
tion. The form is in consequence extraordinary and cha-
racteristic. The dorsal and anal fin, each high and point-
ed, seem to unite with the caudal. The swimming blad-
der is wanting, the stomach small, and penetrated direct-
ly by the ductus chokdocus. Beneath the skin we find a
thick layer of a gelatinous nature. The European seas
produce a species which sometimes measures more than
four feet in length, and weighs, in consequence of its
bulky proportions, above three hundred pounds. It is of
a fine silvery hue, and is named Tetraodon mola by Lin-
niEus, and the short sun-Jish by British writers. (See Plate
CCCVI. fig. 11.) It often exhibits during the night a high

' Baron Cuvier observes, that the jaws of these fishes are by no means unfrequent among pelrifactionB.
- Griffith's Animal K'tvijdotn^ vol. x. p. r)yl.

^ The title of Poisson-lune is however bestowed also on other .'jpecies by French writers, for ex.iniple on Lamprh gi'Uatus <i{ Ret-
zius, which is the Zcua liim of Gmeliji, and the Ojiah of Pennant.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

229

Pleetog.
nathi.
Sclero.
dermi.

degree of phosphoric splendour. We once came along-
side of one while swimming in the Mediterranean. It
got out of our way by sinking very slowly downwards.
The Diodon mola of Pallas {Spic. Zool.) is anotiier species
of the same genus.

The only remaining genus of the first family of Plec-
TOGNATin is named Tbiodon by Cuvier, from a species
discovered in the Indian seas by M. Reinward.'

FAMILY II._SCLEHODERMI.

Easily distinguished by the conical or pyramidal form
of the muzzle, prolonged from the region of the eyes, and
terminated by a little mouth armed with a small number
of distinct teeth on each jaw. The skin is generally
rough, or covered by hard scales. The swimming blad-
der is large and robust, and of an oval form.

Genus Balistes, Linn. Body compressed; eight
teeth upon a single row on each jaw, and generally of a
cutting kind ; skin scaly or engrained, but not absolutely
osseous ; first dorsal composed of one or more spines, ar-
ticulated on a special bone, which is attached to the cra-
nium, and presents a groove into which the spines are re-
ceived ; second dorsal soft and long, and corresponding in
its position to an anal fin of nearly similar form. Although
the ventral fins are wanting, we nevertheless perceive in
the skeleton a true pelvic bone suspended to those of the
shoulder.

The species occur in vast numbers in the torrid zone,
among rocks nearly on a level with the surface of the
water, where they shine with a brilliant lustre resembling
that of the beautiful chsetodons, formerly described.
Their flesh, at no time much esteemed, is said to become
dangerous as food while they themselves are nourished
by the polypi of the coral reefs. Cuvier however states,
that in such specimens as he had occasion to dissect, he
found nothing but the remains of marine vegetation. The
generic name is derived from balisla, an ancient imple-
ment of war, to which the inclined dorsal spine has been
regarded as bearing some resemblance. In modern times
the oiiginal genus has been divided into the four follow-
ing groups.

In Balistes (properly so called) of Cuvier, the whole
body is clothed by large, hard, rhomboidal scales, which
not being imbricated, or encroaching on each other, pre-
sent the appearance of compartments on the skin ; their
anterior dorsal has three spines, of which the first is much
the largest, the third being very small, and placed some-
what apart behind. The extremity of the pelvis is al-
ways prickly and projecting, and behind it are some spines
involved in the skin, which in the lengthened species have
been regarded as rays of the ventral fins. Some have no
particular armature on the sides of the tail ; others have
the lateral portion of that part armed by a certain num-
ber of ranges of spines curved forwards.

In MoNOCANTHUS, Cuv., the scales are very small, and
beset by close asperities ; the extremity of the pelvis is
projecting and spiny, as in the preceding group, but there
is only one large dentated spine to the first dorsal, or, if
the second exists, it is almost imperceptible.

In Aluteres, Cuv., the body is elongated, and covered
by scarcely visible, small, close-set grains ; there is a single
spine to the first dorsal ; and the pelvis is entirely sub-
cutaneous, not forming that spiny projection visible in the
other Balistes. See Plate CCCVI. fig. 12.

In Triacanthus, Cuv., the species are distinguished by
possessing a kind of ventral fins, each sustained by a large

single spiny ray, and adhering to an unprojecting pelvis. Chondrop-
The first dorsal, posterior to its principal spine, has three terypi.
or four smaller ones. The skin is covered by small, close- -"O"*^
set scales, and the tail is more elongated than in the other
groups. There is only one species known, a small fish
from the Indian seas, figured by Bloch (148, 2) under
the name of Balistes bi-aculeatut.

Genus Ostracion, Linn. Instead of scales, the species
of this genus have the head and body covered by regular
and bony compartments, soldered together so as to form
an inflexible cuirass, which leaves nothing moveable but
the tail, fins, mouth, and a small lip which borders the
gills. The majority even of the vertebral joints are also
as it were soldered. Each jaw is armed with from ten to
twelve conical teeth. The branchiae open only by a small
cleft, furnished with a cutaneous lobe ; but internally
they are provided with an opercle and six rays. Both the
pelvic bones and ventral fins are wanting, and there is
only a single dorsal and anal fin, each small of its kind.

These anomalous-looking fishes are sparingly supplied
with flesh ; but their liver is large, and yields an abundant
supply of oil. Some are suspected of being poisonous.
The species are called tnmk-Jish by our English writers.
We here figure the horned trunk-fish, Ostracion cornutus
of Linn, and Bloch, a native, like most of the genus, of the
Indian and American seas. Plate CCCVI. fig. 13.

SECOND great SERIES OF THE CLASS OF FISHES.

THE CHONDROPTERYGII, OR CARTILAGI-
NOUS FISHES.

This division of fishes, by the peculiarities of the organs
of hearing and generation in some genera, approaches to
the class of reptiles ; while others have a skeleton so de-
fective, and such simplicity of organization, that we might
almost arrange them with Vermes. We may thus consider
them, says Cuvier, as bearing the same relation to the
first series as the marsupial animals do to the other mam-
mifera furnished « ith claws.

Their skeleton is distinctly cartilaginous, destitute of
true bony matter, as the calcareous portion is not dis-
posed into a fibrous structure, but is deposited in grains
in a substance essentially gelatinous. The skull is com-
posed of a single piece, and consequently is destitute of
sutures, but possesses foramina, prominences, and fossuls,
like the cranium of other fishes. The facial articulations
are also wanting ; and it forms one of their characteris-
tics to want the maxillary and inter-maxillary bones,
which ordinarily support the teeth of the upper jaw ; or
they have only vestiges of these parts, while their functions
are performed by bones analogous to the palatines or the
vomer. In some the vertebral column, as in the lamprey,
forms but a single piece ; in others, as in certain rays,
several vertebra are joined together. The gelatinous in-
ter-vertebral substance, which in other fishes communi-
cates from one to another through a small foramen, is in
several of this series a cord of equal thickness, perforat-
ing all the vertebrae. Yet their nervous system, connected
with the organs of digestion, is as complete as in other
fishes ; and some of them have organs of copulation and
generation quite as perfect as in the class of reptiles.

This series is divided into two orders ; one distinguish-
ed by having the gills free, as in other fishes ; the other
with fixed branchia.

' See Rigne Animal, t. ii. p. 370 ; and Buperrey's Voyage, Foistoru, No. 4.

230

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Chondrop.

tervcu: ORDER I.— STURIOXES, OR CHONPROPTERYGII
Stur'iones. WITH FREE BRANCHIiE.

The few genera of tliis order approach to ordinary fishes,
by their gills being attaclicd only at one extremity. They
have but one branchial ajierture, which is very o])en ; they
have but one operculum, and are without rays to the mem-
brane of the gills.

Genus Acipenseu, Linn.; Sturgeon. The general
form of this genus resembles that of the sharks ; but they
are distinguished by longitudinal rows of bony plates or
bosses implanted on the skin ; the head is defended by
similar plates ; the mouth is small, and. as in sharks, placed
below the snout ; the palatal bones are lufited to the max-
illaries, and vestiges of the inter-maxillaries may be traced
in the lips, while the mouth is capable of some degree of
projection, by its position on a style with three articiilations.
Instead of teeth, the mouth is furnished with a sort of horny
process on the jaws. The nostrils and eyes are on the
sides of the head; the muzzle is furnished with vermiform
cirrhi. There is no vestige of an external ear, but the
labyrinth is perfect within the bones of the head. The
dorsal fin is behind the ventrals, and the anal immediately
below the dorsal. The caudal fin surrounds the extremity
of the s|)ine, and its upper lobe is longer than the lower.
Internally there exists the spiral intestinal valve, and the pan-
creas forming a single mass ; but we also find a very large
and strong swimming bladder, communicating by a wide
aperture with the gullet. They prey on the smaller fishes,
in pursuing which they can exert much speed ; but in the
rivers they frequent they are said to search for Vermes in
the oozy bottom, which they explore with their snout, like
swine.

Sturgeons are marine fishes, but at certain seasons they
ascend in vast numbers particular rivers, where they are
the subject of extensive fisheries, jiarticularly in the large
rivers that disembogue themselves into the Black Sea and
Caspian, and the rivers of France and Prussia ; they abound
also in the large rivers of North America, where the spe-
cies appear to be peculiar to that continent.

The European species are —

Acipenser sturio, or common sturgeon. Its ordinary
length is seven or eight feet, but sometimes they are caught
exceeding sixteen feet. Snout pointed, and furnished with
cirrhi ; body gradually tapering, pentagonal, from the dis-
position of six longitudinal rows of hard, bony, radiated, and
mucronated tubercles. Its skin, except the flat belly, is
rough, from small plates of a similar form ; mouth a trans-
verse oval orifice ; lips cartilaginous ; tongue thick ; gill-
covers consisting of an oval radiated plate ; pectorals oval ;
dorsal near the tail. Its flesh is white and delicate, re-
sembling veal. Its roe forms common caviar. This fish
was highly prized by the ancients, and is still an esteemed
food.

Acipenser rtdhenus, or sterlet, is the smallest of Euro-
pean sturgeons, rarely measuring more than three feet long.
It is very numerous in the Volga and Ural, and is uncommon
in the IJaltic. The lateral tubercles are very numerous,
and strongly carinated ; those of the under part of the body
are more flattened. The flesh resembles delicate veal, and
the roe forms the most highly prized caviar. See Plate
CCCVII. fig. 1.

Acipenser huso, or isinglass sturgeon, is the largest of
the genus, sometimes attaining the length of from twenty
to thirty feet, and weighing from 1300 to between 2000 and
3000 lbs. Its skin is much less tuberculated than the com-

mon sturgeon, and is covered with a viscid mucus ; the Chondrop-
snont and cirrhi are shorter. This species is chiefly found terygii.
in the Caspian and Euxine, or the rivers that flow into Sturiones.
those seas ; but the large sturgeons sometimes caught in ^'^"^^^"^
the northern seas appear also to belong to the same species.
The best isinglass is formed of its air-bladder.

The following species, which are found in the rivers of
North America, appear to be peculiar to that continent
(See Ainer. Trans, vol. i.) : Acipenser brevirostris, A.
o.rijrin/nchus, A. macvlosus, and A. rubicundus. The last
of these appears to be the American representative of the
A. riilhcniis, the preceding one of the A. sturio.^

Genus Polyodon, Lacep. ; Spatularia, Shaw. This
genus, which consists but of a single species, is at once re-
cognised by the enormous prolongation of its snout, which
has a dilated middle, something resembling the leaf of a
tree when viewed from above. The habit of the body re-
sembles the sturgeon ; but the spinal column is formed of
one piece, as in the lamprey. The upper jaw is formed of
the maxillary and palate bones \mitcd together, and the
pedicle of the mouth has two articulations ; the mouth is
small, and furnished with numerous minute teeth. The
spiracle is wide, and covered by a very large, soft opercu-
lum, extending to the middle of the body. The intestine
is provided with the spiral valve, so frequent among the
Chondropterygii ; but tlie pancreas exhibits the commence-
ment of a subdivision into lobules. The existence of an
air-bladder suificiently distinguishes it from the Scjuali. It
has only been found in the Mississippi, and does not exceed
a foot in length.

Genus Chimera, Linn. This genus has a strong affi-
nity to the Squall in general shape, and in the position of
the fins, but the gills have only one aperture on each side ;
yet, on inspecting more accurately, we see that the rays
are attached by most of the edges, and that there are really
five holes opening into the bottom of a general cavity. A
rudiment of an operculum is found in the skin ; the jaws
are still less complex than in the Squali, for the upper jaw
is represented only by the vomer, and the palate bones
and tympana are merely rudimentary, attached to the sides
of the muzzle. Instead of teeth, the mouth is fiu-nished
with undivided hard plates, of which four are above and
two below. The snout resembles that of the shark, and
also has regular ranges of pores. The first dorsal fin is
armed with a strong spine, and is placed over the pectorals.
The males, as in the Squali, are distinguished by the carti-
laginous appendages of the ventral fins, divided into three
branches, and have two spiny plates before the base of the
ventrals. These fish have also on their front a fleshy ca-
runcle, garnished with a group of small prickles. The in-
testine of this genus is short, and has a spiral valve. The
female lays eggs of a large size and coriaceous consistence,
flattened, and hairy. The only species is Chimcera borea-
lis, or northern chimera. It is found in the Northern Ocean,
where it is believed to feed on the numerous Mollusca and
Crustacea of that sea. It is rarely taken, because it keeps
much in deep water ; but it has been occasionally caught
among our northern islands, and is sometimes seen of
the length of three or four feet. Its head is the thickest
part of the body, whence it tapers imiformly to the tail.
It is most common on the coasts of Norway, where its eggs
are eaten, and the oil of its liver is used as a stimulant em-
brocation. It also occurs in the iMediterranean.

Genus Cali,oiuiynchus, Gronovius. Cuvier separates
this from the last genus, to which it was united by Linnae-
us. It is distinguished by its snout terminating in a fleshy,

' In a quarto work published some time ago at Berlin (Geltreiic Darstclhing, &c.). containing figures and description of the various
animals of use in Therapeutics, tliere is a MoiwgrajiU of the Sturgeons by Messrs Brandt and Rulzeburgh. See Anmles dcs Science}
A'at. for Feb. 1831, p. 223.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

231

Selaclii

Chondrop. flattened process, something in the form of a hoe. The
terygn. mouth is small, and below the snout. The second dorsal
fin commences over the ventrals, and terminates opposite
to the commencement of the low er part of tlie tail. The
only known species inhabits the Southern Ocean. See
Plate CCCVII. figs. 2 and 3.

ORDER II.-

-CHONDROPTERYGII WITH FIXED
BRANCH liE.

Instead of having the gills free at their external edge, in
this order we find them fixed all round ; and in respiration
water is emitted through as many apertures as there are
intervals between the rays. Another peculiarity of this
order consists in the small cartilaginovis arches suspended
from the soft parts at the outer edge of the branchiBe.

The Linniean genera Squalusand Baia are the principal
members of this order ; but Cuvier and the later Ichthyo-
logists have subdivided these into several genera, accord-
ing to marked peculiarities in their anatomical structure.

FAMILY I.— SELACHII, OR PLAGIOSTOMI.

The palatal and post-mandibular bones support the teeth,
while the bones corresponding to the jaws in other fishes
are merely rudimentary. A single bone connects these
jaws with the cranium, and represents at the same time
tympana, jugal, and temporal bones. The os hyoides is at-
tached to a single pedicle, and, as in ordinary fishes, sup-
ports the rays of the gills. The labyrintli is membranous,
and included in the cartilaginous substance of the cranium ;
the sac attached to it does not contain, as in fishes, the
porcelanous concretions, but masses that are easily pulve-
rized. The pancreas has the form of a conglomerate gland.
The intestinal canal is short ; but one part of the tube is
fvirnished internally with a spiral lamina, that seems intend-
ed to prevent the too rapid passage of the food.

The Selachii have pectoral and ventral fins ; the latter
placed behind the abdomen, and on the sides of the anus.

In some respects their sexual intercourse resembles that
of Mammifera. The females have well-developed oviducts,
which serve the purpose of a matrix in the species whose
young are perfected within the body ; while in others the
ova are covered by a tough and horny envelope, to the
formation of which a large gland surrounding each oviduct
is subservient. These eggs, especially in the Squali, have
the form of a parallelogram with long filamentous tendrils
at each corner, intended for attaching the egg to Fuci or
sub-marine rocks during the maturation of the young in-
cluded animals. Many of these eggs are found in a female,
but only two appear to be perfected at once. In these the
foetus is coiled up, and to its umbilical region is attached
a large pyriform bag, of a white colour, by a slender tube.
On opening this bag it is found filled with a yellowish, thin
liquid, like the yolk of a hen's egg, intended for the nou-
rishment of the foetus. When the young animal becomes
able to collect its own food, the coriaceous egg opens at
one end, the creature escapes, and soon the bag, now
empty and useless, drops off. Tlie males are provided
with two peculiar organs, placed at the inner edge of the
ventral fins. Some have supposed that these are intimately
connected with the generative process ; others regard them
as mere holders, by means of wiiich the female is more
closely embraced by the male.

Genus Squalus, Linn.; Shark. This forms the first
great genus of our present order. The general form is
elongated ; the tail is thick, with the spinal cohimn con-
tinued into the upper lube ; the pectoral fins are of con-
siderable size ; tlie spiracles are on the sidco of the neck ;

and the eyes on each side of the head. The muzzle is Chondrop-
supported by three cartilaginous projections, proceeding teryfjii.
from the anterior part of the cranium ; and we can easily Selachii.
observe in the skeleton the rudimentary jaws. The sea- """"'V^'
pula is suspended in the flesh behind the gills. Some of
the sharks are oviparous, while others are viviparous. Dis-
tinct but small branchial rays ; there are rudiments of ribs
along the spine ; and that column is divided into regular
vertebrae.

The original genus is numerous, and may be divided as
follows.

Genus Scyllium, Cuv. This division is characterised
by a short, obtuse muzzle, by nostrils near the mouth, con-
tinued in grooves which reach to the edge of the lip, and
more or less closed by one or two cuticular lobules. Their
teeth have a central point and two lateral prongs. They
have spiracles, partly over the pectoral fins. Their dorsal
fins are placed iiir back, the anterior not being before the
ventrals. All have an anal fin ; and, in some species, its
position corresponds to the interval between the two dor-
sals ; the tail is elongated, truncated, not forked.

The most common on our coasts are the following spe-
cies.

Sq. canicula, L. ; greater spotted dog-fish, P. This com-
mon and prolific species is very numerous on the northern
and western coasts of Britain. The colour of the male is
dusky, with numerous distinct small, blackish, spots : the fe-
male, of which some naturalists have made another species,
is larger than the male, of a more red hue, variegated with
deep-brown spots disposed in an ocellated pattern on the
sides. The ventral fins of this species have the edge cut
obliquely.

Sq. caivhis, et Sq. stellaris, are also the male and female
of another species not uncommon on our coasts. This
species differs from the last in size. The spots on its sur-
face are fuller and broader ; the ventral fins are more
square at the edge.

To this sub-genuS belong several other Squali, natives
of foreign seas. They are distinguished by the position
of the anal fin, which is placed behind the second dorsal ;
the spiracles are remarkably small ; the fifth branchial
aperture is often concealed in the fourth, and the lobes
of the nostrils are usually prolonged into cirrhi.

Among the species are Sq. pendulatus ; Sq. Isabella,
Shaw ; Sq. cirr/iatus, Linn. ; Sq. lobatus ; and Sq. tigrinus,
Lacep., or Squalus fasciatus of Bloch.

This last is one of the most beautiful of the order, and
has been observed of the length of fourteen or fifteen
feet, with a large and blunt head, and tapering body. (See
Plate CCCVII. fig. 4.) A kvf years ago one of them was
observed for several hours to follow a Liverpool East In-
diaman off Madagascar. It was elegantly transversely
banded with alternate whitish and dark brown or black-
ish fascia; ; and was further variegated by ocellated spots
or rings on various parts of its body, which seemed to be
about fourteen feet long. Its head appeared to be four
and a half feet across ; but the thickest part of its body
did not seem more than two feet in diameter. It was
accompanied by several pilot-fish, which often swam be-
fore, and returned towards it. Several attempts were
made to catch it with large baits of fresh meat, but it.
never ventured to seize one of them. The lower jaw
was distinctly visible whenever it opened its mouth, into
which the accompanying fishes seemed to tlie spectators
to enter and to leave at pleasure.

Genus Suualus properly so called, Cuv. This group
comprehends all those species with a pointed muzzle,
under which the nostrils are placed ; but the latter parts
are not terminated by a groove, nor are they furnished
with lobules. The tail has more or less of a forked shape.
We may farther subdivide this genus in accordance with

232

Chondrop-
terygii.
Selachii.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

■ the presence or absence of apertures behind the eyes, and
of an anal fin.

Without Air- Holes, with Anal Fin.

Cabcharias, Cuv. This well-known and numerous
group have extremely sharp-pointed teeth, often serrated
on their edges. Of these, their jaws are armed with se-
veral rows, which they have the power of elevating or de-
pressing, and can use with remarkable effect, from the
strength of the muscles moving the lower jaw. The first
dorsal fin is considerably before the ventrals, and the se-
cond is almost opposite to the anal. The posterior bran-
chial apertures are over the pectoral fins.

The best-known species is Sg. carrharias, or white shark,
the dread of seamen in hot climates, and not unfrequent-
]y seen on our own coasts. It is a very large fish, grow-
ing, it is said, to more than thirty feet, and often observed
to measure from fifteen to twenty-five feet. The teeth
are, in full-grown animals, in six rows ; those in the up-
per jaw are nearly isosceles triangles, with sharp, dentated
edges ; those in the lower jaw have a narrow lancet-
shaped point on a broader basis, with smooth-cutting
edges. From the position of the mouth in this species,
the animal turns on its side on seizing its prey. Its vo-
racity is well known, and it has been seen to leap out of
the water in its eagerness to snatch a suspended morsel.
The jaws are so powerful as to bite at once through the
body of a man. The gullet is very large, and the intes-
tine short. One killed near Marseilles is alleged to have
had the entire body of a man, and several fisli, in its sto-
mach ; and one captured oft' the island of St Margaretta
is even said to have contained the whole body of a horse.
This one had the enormous weight of 1500 pounds.

The sailors believe that the pilot-fish, which is so con-
stant an attendant on this species, directs him to his
prey ; and, by touching his head, warns him against a
baited hook. Certain it is, that the pilot-fish have been
repeatedly seen clinging to a shark wl ile he was hoisting
on deck, and appeared as if distressed on separation from
their formidable comrade, who has never been known, in
his utmost voracity, to attack his friendly guides. What
the instinct is that produces this attachment is unknown ;
but probably it depends on the pilot (Naucmtes ductor)
obtaining its subsistence from the remains of the shark's
prey, as the jackal does from that of the lion.'

Little of the age or development of this species is as-
certained. The female has been known to contain many
ova ; but only three or four are perfected at a time, and
impregnation may take place long before the fidl growth
of the animal. A shark ten feet long has been found to
contain forty ova, three or four of which were near ma-
turity.

Sq. vulpes, the thrasher, so called from the inordinate
length of his tail, which is almost half the length of the

Selachii.

animal. It is the upper lobe-which is thus elongated ;Chondrop-
and as it has the fin along its under side, it gives the or- }erygii.
gan some resemblance to a fox's tail. It grows, even in
our own seas, to a large size. Pennant measured one thir-
teen feet, of which the tail was more than six feet. The
body is round, the nose short but pointed ; the teeth are
small, but sharp.

It is this species which is said to attack various Cetacea,
which it harasses by dealing them violent strokes with its
tail, when they rise to the surface for the purpose of
breathing.

Sq. glaucus, the blue shark, is a very bold and vora-
cious fish, not unfrequent on our .coasts during the her-
ring season. It grows to ten, or even fourteen feet in
length ; is of a slaty blue above, and smoother than the
rest of the genus. Head large, muzzle very pointed ;
mouth large ; teeth almost triangular, long, sharply point-
ed ; the upper curvilinear, bent outwards ; the lower
straighter, and all dentated.

The nostrils are long and transverse. Artedi and others
have noticed a triangular fossule, with its apex downward,
on the lower part of the back.

To this subdivision we must refer the following species:

Sq. ustus, Dum. ; S. ocellatus ; Sg. ciliaxis ; and several
Indian species, described by Russel.

Lamna, Cuv. This subdivision is distinguished from
the last by having all the spiracles hefore the pectoral
fins, and by having a projecting pyramidal snout.

Sqtuilus corniibicus, portbeagle shark, is well known in
the Mediterranean and British seas, and is formidable on
account of its teeth and size. One caught in Ib34, on
the coast of Caithness, now in the College Museum of
Edinburgh, measures eight and a half feet, and is in girth
four feet eight inches. Its teeth are upwards of an inch
in length, extremely sharp, but not serrated. There are
three rows of teeth, of an elongated form, slightly bent
outward, and extremely sharp. The nostrils are under
the snout, two and a half inches from the eye.^ The cir-
cumference of the mouth round both jaws is about three
feet. This animal is confounded with the white shark,
both by seamen and naturalists ; but it differs in the form
of its teeth, as well as in the other circumstances noticed
in the character.

The colour of this species is deep bluish-black, and the
skin is smoother than that of most of its congeners.

Sq. jnonensis, Beaumaris shark, first described by Pen-
nant, was by some considered as a sexual difference only
of the last ; but this is a mistake. Though similar in
many respects, they are quite distinct, as the following
characters, taken from a fine specimen caught in Orkney
in 1833, will show. The colour of the upper parts a pale
leaden gray, the lower parts yellowish white. Skin
above covered with very minute granular roughnesses,
but less prominent than in the Squalus catulus and Sq.

' We liave already discussed the point above alluded to, at greater length, in a preceding portion of the present treatiae. See
p. 185.

' The following are the more detailed measurements of the specimen above mentioned : —

Inches

Extreme length along curvature of back....« 3

Girth at abdomen ' H

.it spiracles J 0

Width of mouth round upper lip 1 !)

round lower lij) 1 4

Length of teeth in upper jaw 0 1-5

in lower jaw 0 1-2

Length of muzzle from eye 0 ^•b

.^^^— . from upper lip 0 4-5

Eye in diameter about 0 1

Nostrils from eye 0 2 5

Ijength of spiracles 0 9

From snout to first dorsal 3 5'5

From tlrst to second dorsal 2 6

From second dorsal to caudal 0 0

First dorsal, high, .ilong its edge 1

perpendicularly 0

broad 0

Second dorsal, high 0

broad 0

Pectorals along edge I

broad (•

Caudal, upper lobe 1

lower lobe 1

spread 2

Ventral at outer edge 0

From pectoral to ventral 2

Keel near tail 0

Anal fin, broad 0

lDChC8.
1

10

9-5

1-8

1-5

5

9
10-5

3

0

4

4

<»-5

10

ICHTHYOLOGY. 233

Chondrop- cam'cafa. Form of the head obtusely conical, muzzle whalebone. The mouth is provided with small teeth; the Chondmp.
tervRii- blunt. The teeth were in three rows, two of which were muzzle projects far beyond it. Nothing has ever been terygii.
Selacliii. recumbent, rather than with sharp points and cutting found in its stomach except the remains of Fuei or Algae, Selacliii.
^•"^"^-^ edges, and two small processes at the bases of those of in the numerous instances in which it has been captured '^'^'y""^
the lower jaw. Numerous nasal pores were perceived on in various parts of Scotland. They grow to thirty or thir-
the snout, six of which on each side admitted a slender ty-six feet or more, and are fishes of great SLrength, but
probe to the depth of three inches ; but there were no are harmless, indolent, and not very sensible to slight
temporal apertures. A deep sulcus, eight inches long, wounds. They often lie on the surface of the water, with
extended from the ventrals to within two inches of the their large dorsal fin exposed, and permit the approach of
anal fin. This specimen was a male, with two holders, each boats until the harpoon can be securely fixed in their bo-
one foot two inches long, by one and a half in diameter, dies. They sometimes appear in shoals, but more cora-
As this species is rare, we shall give its dimensions. monly in pairs ; and enter the bays on the western and

Feet, inohes. northern shores of Britain in the months of June and Ju-

Extreme length along curvature of back 7 8 )y^ but retire from the land on the approach of cold wea-

Girth where thickest 4. 8 ther. The liver of a full-grown fish has been known to af-

Upper Up from muzzle 0 .5 ford eight barrels of fine oil; and on this account the bask-

Mouth along curvature of upper lip 1 1 ing shark is considered as a profitable capture.

Eye round, in diameter 0 1-7 xhis is the species to which Sir E. Home erroneously

First dorsal, placed a little behind pectoral 1 1 referred the supposed sea-snake, driven on shore in Ork-

Second dorsal, very small, over anal 0 2 ney in 1808; but the enormous length of that animal,

Anal fin 0 ~"5 the smallnessof the vertebrae of the neck, andof its whole

Pectorals along their curved edge 1 6 head, still preserved in the Museum of the University of

Tail lunated, extent across tips 3 0 Edinburgh, prove that idea to be inconsistent with the

Upper lobe of ditto 1 9 fact, and show that singular animal to have been some

Lower ditto of ditto 1 3 great species of cartilaginous fish as yet unknown to na-

Distance between ventral and anal 0 10 turalists,— a species in which we are to look for the proto-

Both this and the last species have, just above the tail, type of the famous sea-serpent of the Northern Skalds,

lateral projections, that in the centre rise into a blunt edge and the wild legends of the Sagas.

one inch from the general surface in the middle, and de- Cestracion, Cuv. This sub-genus has the temporal

cline gradually into the general surface at both ends, apertures, the anal fin, and rounded teeth of S. mustelus ;

These are about eight or nine inches long. but the mouth is terminal, or at the extremity of the point-
ed muzzle ; the middle teeth are small and pointed, those

With Air-Hoks and Anal Fin. at the angles of the jaw are very broad, and rhomboidal.

Galeus, or Tope. These chiefly differ from the true The only known species is a native of the Australian

Squall in having the temporal apertures. One species is seas, the Sq. Philippi, which has an elongated lobe on each

found on our coasts, and is not uncommon in the Firth of side of the head.

Clyde. It seldom exceeds, with us, five or six feet ; and o • • i ^ i r.- i ■ i a t^ <

there is reason to suspect that the accounts sometimes ^P^'''^^ without Anal Fm, but with Air-Holes.

given of its enormous size arise from confounding it with Spinax, Cuv. ; Dog-fish. The Sq. acanthias, one of our

other sharks. Its skin has a very rank, offensive smell ; most common sharks, is the type of this sub-genus. It

its colour above is light cinereous, below white ; nose has all the usual general characters of the Squali, but is

long, flattened, and sharp at the point. The muzzle without an anal fin ; it possesses the temporal apertures,

seems translucent toward the end ; the nostrils are near and is distinguished by a strong spine placed just before

the mouth ; the first dorsal is placed towards the middle each dorsal. The muzzle of our piked dog-fish is long ;

of the back, and is rather large ; the second is near the the teeth in two^rows, small, and cutting, bending from

tail ; the tail is finned beneath, and ends in a sharp angle about the middle of the jaw toward the corners of the

above. mouth. The tail is unequal ; the upper lobe much the

Mustelus, Hound. This subdivision combines the longest, but the lower lobe is finned for a considerable

characters of Carcharias and Galeus, but it has the tem- space beneath. The colour is of an ash-gray, dashed with

poral apertures and small rounded teeth. The species brown above and white below : when young, the sides are

are of moderate size : Cuvier thinks that Linnaeus has mottled with whitish spots,

confounded two distinct species in his Sq. mustelus. Several foreign species, especially those described by

NoTiDANUS, Dry-back. This subdivision is distinguish- Rafinesque, appear mere varieties of our Squalus spinax ;

ed from Galeus, to which it has much resemblance, by the indeed this author has multiplied species on very slender

want of the first dorsal fin. authority.

Sq. cinereus has a pointed muzzle, seven large bran- Centrina, Cuv. So called from their strong dorsal

chial apertures, with a smooth skin compared to most of spines. This subdivision has all the characters of Spinax,

the family of sharks : the teeth are compressed and sharp ; as far as the spines, want of the anal fin, and possession

the dorsal is in the middle of the back. Length about of temporal apertures ; but the body is less elongated,

three feet. the last dorsal is placed over the ventral, and the tail is

Sq. griseus. Colour, ash colour above, white below ; short. The best known is the

six wide branchial apertures ; teeth large, triangular Sq. cetUrina, Linn. A species uncommon in our seas,

above, serrated below; snout depressed and rounded; but occurring on various coasts of Europe. (Plate CCCVII.

anal fin half way between the ventral and the tail. These fig. 6.) The mouth is far beneath the snout ; the nose is

, two are natives of the Mediterranean. Another species blunt ; the head small ; in the upper jaw are three rows

of this subdivision is found in the Indian seas. of teeth, and one only in the lower, all of which are slen-

Selache, Basking Shark. Contains as yet only a single der and pointed. The dorsal fins are large ; the spine in

species, which unites to the general form of Carcharias, the anterior pointing forward, that in the posterior is di-

and to the air-holes of Galeus, large branchial apertures reeled backwards ; both project through the epidermis of

almost surrounding the neck. It is the gills of this spe- the fins,

cies that have been erroneously described as a sort of The Squalus squamosus belongs to this division. It is

VOL. XII. 2 a

234

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Chondrop- allied to Sq.c€ntrina,\)wt has conspicuous, ovate, hard, ca-
terygii. rinated scales.

belaehii. -j-j^g gj^jj,^ jjj^g jji^^ pj- jjjQgt other sharks, is rough, with
''"^"^ numerous sharp granular eminences.

ScYMNUs, Cuv. This subdivision has all the charac-
teristics of Centrina, except the dorsal spines.

The European species is the Sq. Americaniis of Brous-
sonet and Shaw. It occurs on the coasts of France, off
Cape Breton, which lias been mistaken for the transatlan-
tic Cape Breton. It appears to be identical with Risso's
Sq. Nicensis.

The formidable animal described by O. Fabricius, in his
Fauna Groenlandica, as Sq. carcharias, is now, from the
descriptions of Scoresby and others, to be referred to this
sub-genus. It is Scoresby 's Sq. borealis. It wants the
anal fin, but has the temporal orifices. It grows to the
length of twelve or fourteen feet, and is six or eight in
circumference. Scoresby mentions the singular appen-
dages which he invariably found attached to the cornea of
this animal. Some have supposed them to be parasitic
animals. If so, it is singular that they should be so uni-
formly in the same position, and of the same size, about
one or two inches long, and cleft at their fore extremity
into two parts. This shark is peculiarly attracted by a
dead whale, out of which it scoops at once masses of
blubber as large as a man's head. The sailors believe
this species to be blind, from its returning to feed on its fa-
vourite morsel, even after having aflensingkniferun through
its body ; but this only shows its fondness for whale
blubber, — to which circumstance we may also attribute the
comparative safety of Greenland sailors who have fallen
into the water when flensing the whale. But, if we may
credit Fabricius, when this delectable food is not present,
he will attack the slender bark of the Greenlanders.

To this division belong also the Sq. spinosus and La-
bordii.

Genus Zyg^na, Cuv. This genus, which has the ge-
neral form of body and fins of Carcharias, is distinguished
by the extraordinary form of its head, that has no analogy
in nature, except in some of the insect tribe. It is flat-
tened horizontall}', truncated in front, and extended late-
rally into two arms, at the extremity of which are the
eyes, giving to the animal the form of a hammer. The
mouth is below the centre of this singular head, and the
nostrils at its anterior edges on each side. The most com-
mon in Europe is the .S'^'. zygcena, or hammer-headed
shark, which often attains the length of sixteen or seven-
teen feet, and is formidable on account of its voracity
and strength. It is found also around the West Indies,
and in the Indian Ocean, especially at Taheite, where the
natives are said, from their dexterity in swimming, to hold
it in little dread. It is a very prolific animal. Two kin-
dred species are known : the Sq. Blochii, Cuv., which dif-
fers in having the nostrils nearer the middle of the head,
and its two dorsals much nearer the tail ; and Sq. tiburo,
or heart-headed shark, a much rarer species, which we
have received from the coast of Guyana. We here figure
ZygcEna Leivinii, a species captured off the south coast of
New Holland. Plate CCCVII. fig. 5.

Genus Suuatina, Dumer. ; Angel-fish. Has the tem-
poral apertures without the anal fin ; but its mouth is ter-
minal, and its eyes are both placed on its dorsal surface, in
which it differs from all the sharks. The head and body
are flattened ; the pectoral fins are extremely broad, and
project forward to the sides of the head, but are separat-
ed from it and the neck by a fissure, in which the bran-
chial apertures are placed ; the two dorsals are behind the
ventrals, and the tail is equally finned above and below the
spinal column.

The best-known species is the Sq. squatina, Linn., or
angel-shark, which grows to eight or ten feet. It is a bold

and voracious fish ; when captured, it bites with great Chondrojv
fury ; it preys much on flat fish ; it has tentacula on its terygii.
upper lip ; its eyes, placed obliquely, give it a sinister look- SelachiL
The English name has been given ironically to this hide-
ous creature, which is by seamen generally termed devil-
fish.

The teeth are slender, sharp, and dilated at their base ;
the dorsal fins very small, the pectorals very broad, the
ventral large, and enclosing the male organs. The upper
lobe of the tail longer than the lower. It is very prolific,
fourteen young being sometimes found in its belly ; twelve
frequently.

To this genus we raust also refer the Sq^ aculeatus of
the Mediterranean.

Genus Pristis, Lath. ; Saw-fish. This last genus has
the general form of the Squali, but is more flattened in
front, and has the branchial apertures beneath, like the
Rays. The most peculiar character, however, consists in
the great depression and extension of the snout, which
has on each side a row of strong teeth or spines, which
are trenchant on the fore-side, and mucronated. These
spines are not, however, their true teeth. These are
lodged in the mouth, and are very small and rounded.
But, with their formidable beak, they are said successfully
to attack the larger Cetacea. In the foetal Pristis the ru-
diments of these osseous spines are mere tubercles, and
the snout is folded up over the head of the embryon.
These spines are not, like the teeth of cartilaginous fishes,
attached by ligaments to the bones, but are firmly implant-
ed in the bone of the snout.

The best-known species is the Sq. pristis of Linn, or
Pristis antiqiiorum. It grows to a great size. We have
measured snouts more than ten inches in diameter, and
four feet seven inches in length, with sixteen or eighteen
spines on each side, some of which projected three inches.
The animal attains the length of sixteen or eighteen feet.
There are other species chiefly distinguished by the num-
ber and form of these spines : as Pristis cuspidatus, — Pr.
pectinatus, with numerous slender teeth, — Pr. microdon,
— P. cirratus, with alternate long and short teeth, — and
Pr. semi-sagittatus, a small Indian species, in which the
spines are deeply denticulated on the posterior edge.

Genus Raia (or Ray) of Linnaeus. This great genus of
the Selachii is very numerous, and the species often grow to
a vast size. They are readily recognised by their flattened
body, like the Pleuronectes, forming a horizontal disk, very
broad in proportion to its thickness, in consequence ofthe
body graduating into the enormous pectorals of the ani-
mal, which unite in front with the snout, and extend on
both sides of the abdomen to the base of the ventral
fins. See skeleton of the thorn-back (i?. clavata), Plate
CCCVII. fig. 9. The scapula of these vast pectorals are
articulated with the spine just behind the branchial aper-
tures. These apertures, the nostrils, and mouth, are on
the ventral surface of the fish ; the temporal orifices, and
the eyes, are on the dorsal surface. The dorsal fins are
usually placed on the tail. These animals are oviparous.
Their eggs are coriaceous, square, with long angles. The
subdivisions of Cuvier are the following.

Genus Rhinobatus, Sch. Distinguished by the length
of the snout ; connects the sharks and rays. They have a
thick and fleshy tail, like Squali, with two dorsal and two
caudal fins. Their snout and pectorals form a sharp rhom-
boid. Their teeth are placed in a quincunx arrangement.
In some the first dorsal is placed over the ventral fins, in
others it is placed farther back. The best known is the
IVIediterranean Raia rhinobatus, which is found four feet
in length. The others are, R. T/iouiniana (Plate CCCVII.
fig. 7), supposed by Cuvier a variety of that just named,
but it has such difference of form as to entitle it to be con-
sidered a distinct species ; R. djiddensis, Forsk. ; one de-

ICHTHYOLOGY.

235

Selachii.

Chondrop- scribed by Russel, R. suttivara ; and one from Brazil, R.
terygii. electricus, Marc, whicli, as its specific name implies, has
been said to possess some of tlie properties of the Torpedo.

Genus Rhina, Sch. This subdivision has a short,
rounded muzzle ; in other respects it is like the last nam-
ed. The species is R. anci/lostomus of Bloch.

Genus Torpedo, Dum. This subdivision is short, and
rather fleshy. The body appears a nearly circular disk,
the anterior edge being composed of two projections of
the muzzle, which stretch sidewise, and unite with the
pectorals. The space between these last and the head is
entirely filled with the very extraordinary electric appara-
tus first accurately described by John Hunter. It consists
of irregular columns, varying from one and a half inch to
one fourth of an inch in length by 0-2 broad. They are
irregular hexagons or pentagons, reaching from surface to
surface of the fish, and forming (in that dissected by
Hunter) an electric organ five inches long, varying in
breadth from three to about one and a half inches. Their
number on both sides is about 940 in a small fish ; but in
a large one there were 2364. Their coats are thin and
transparent ; they are horizontally divided by thin parti-
tions, so numerous that one inch of these columns con-
tained 150 dissepiments filled with fluid. This curious
apparatus is supplied with numerous nerves from the
eighth pair. The columns are firmly united by cellular
substance. When the skin covering this apparatus is
touched, the person receives a violent shock at each con-
tact ; and it is probable that in this way the species stuns
its prey. The animal can give the shock at pleasure ; but
if often reiterated, the shocks are weakened, until the ner-
vous energy of the fish is recruited by rest. This animal
electricity is conducted and intercepted by the same sub-
stances that conduct and intercept ordinary artificial elec-
tricity. Wehere figure T.Ba7icrqftii. ^PlateCCCVll.fig.S.

Several species occur in Europe, which Linna2us con-
founded together under the title of Raia torpedo. We
have Torpedo naske, distinguished by having no fleshy
dentations at the edges of its temporal apertures ; its dor-
sal spots vary from one to five : Torp. Galvmiii has seven
dentations round its air-holes, and is of an uniform brown,
sometimes marbled or spotted with darker tints : Torp.
marmorata is another Mediterranean species, described by
Risso. We know several foreign species, such as Torp.
temeree and Torp. nalatemeree of Russel, Torp. timlei? of
Bloch.

Genus Raia, properly so called. Has a rhomboidal
body united to a slender tail, which has near its extremi-
ty two small dorsals, with, in some instances, a vestige of
a caudal fin. The teeth are small, and disposed in a
quincunx arrangement on the jaws. Several species in-
habit the European seas, some of which are yet indiffer-
ently distinguished by naturalists. As articles of diet,
some of them are frequently used ; and though seldom
seen at the tables of the rich, they are by no means des-
picable food, especially their pectorals.

Raia clavata, or thornback, is a common species, dis-
tinguished by the roughness of its back, and the strong os-
seous oval plates, each furnished with a curved prickle, that
are irregularly scattered on both its surfaces. These plates
are variable in number, and therefore do not afford any
diagnostic character.

Raia rubus, rough ray. There is much confusion among
Ichthyologists respecting this and the next species. Cu-
vier seems to think that the Balls of Pennant and Rubus
of Lacepede are the same ; but Rubus of Pennant and
Willughijy is certainly different from the skate, and dis-
tinguished from the last by its less pointed nose and the
greater length of the tail, and is more thickly studded with
small spines, not only on the back, but on the fins and
belly, which are equally rough with the back. There are

Selachii.

three rows of large spines down the tail, the surface of Chondrop.
which is irregularly beset with small prickles. It is to this i^'.^K^.'-
species that we confine the name of R. rubus. It is less
common than R. batis, and is a much smaller fish. Found
among the Hebrides.

R. batis, the skate. One of the thinnest and broadest of
the tribe ; but sometimes growing to an immense size, and
weighing 200 pounds. The nose, though not very long,
is pointed. Sometimes the surface of the back is marbled
with dusky and white. Along the tail is one row of spines ;
a few are irregularly dispersed on the sides of the tail, and
the fins of the males have many small spines.

The spring is their season of love ; and when coupling,
both may be drawn into the boat, though one only has
taken the bait. The male holders appear to be true organs
of penetration, as we have been assured by fishermen. The
eggs have the form of coriaceous parallelograms, and are
vulgarly with us termed purses, which the females begin to
cast in May, and continue to perfect and cast till Septem-
ber. This species is often eaten, as well as the thornback,
both in the greatest perfection in spring.

R. oxyriiichus, the sharp-nosed ray. We do not agree
with Cuvier in confounding this with R. batis. The form
of the nose is much longer and narrower ; the body much
smoother than any species we have mentioned, though there
are triple rows of small spines along the tail. A single row
of small spines runs down its back, and a few are scattered
about the eyes. The teeth too, in this species, differ from
those of the skate, being bent inward, and less granular. It
is not inferior in size to the skate. Indeed specimens are
said to have been seen of the weight of 500 pounds.

Some species of this division have a sort of membra-
nous expansion, like a fin elevated in the middle of the
back. This has been seen also in rays in other respects
resembling the skate ; but it is particularly conspicuous in
R. Cuvieri. To this division likewise belong R. undulata,
Lacej)., R. fultonica, R. marginata, R. miraletus, Ronde-
let, R. picta, R. alba, and others.

Genus Trygon, Adans. Is characterised by having
the tail armed with a spine, finely serrated on both sides ;
and by the teeth, which are slender, and crowded in a quin-
cunx. Form of the disk obtuse ; some have the tail fleshy,
but in many it is very slender, and almost destitute of the
rudiment of a fin. Most of them have smooth bodies ;
their caudal spine long — a powerful weapon of offence and
of defence, which inflicts severe and dangerous wounds.

R. pastinacea, Linn. ; sting ray. Is found on the Euro-
pean coasts. Some have a few prickles on the back ; it is
tuberculated in others. In some species the lower part of
the tail has a broad membrane, — others have a short tail
terminated by a fin. The principal species are, P. tuber-
culata; P. Wolga Tenkee, Russ. ; P. sephen, Forsk. ; P. Ges-
neri, Cuv. ; P. lymna, P. Jamaicensis, Cuv. ; P. cruciata,
Lacep. ; P. kunsua, Russ.

Genus Anacanthus, Ehrenb. Has a general resem-
blance to Pastinaca, but is destitute of the spine and anal
fin. This sub-genus is formed from the description receiv-
ed of the large shagreen ray of the Red Sea, in which
the grains are stellular.

R. orbicularis, Bl. belongs to this division.
Genus Myliobatis, Dumer. This sub-genus has the
head projecting beyond the pectorals altogether ; and these
fins have a greater proportional breadth than in the other
rays, which gives these animals no small resemblance to a
bird with its wings extended ; but their name is derived
from the millstone-like form of their broad flat teeth,
planted on their jaws like the stones of a pavement : their
tail, long, slender, and tapering to a point, is armed, as
in Pastinaca, with a strong spine, toothed on both sides,
and is furnished, just above the spine, with a small dorsal
fin. In some instances there are two or more such spines.

236

Chondrop

terygii.

Cyclos-

tomi.

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Raia aquila, or eagle ray, grows to an immense size :
it has a projecting parabolic snout : the plates or teeth in
the middle of the jaws are in a single row, much broader
than long ; but the lateral ones are hexagons in three
ranges. The eyes are prominent, the tail very long and
slender. It has been known to measure fifteen feet in
length, and to weigh 300 lbs. It is said to swim with a
slow sailing motion, and when captured vibrates its tail
with great activity. It yields much fine oil. Inhabits the
Mediterranean, the Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. To this
division also we must refer the following species :

R. guttata, Shaw, Plate CCCVII. fig. 10, synonymous
with the Eel- Tenhee of Russel ; R. fasciata, Shaw ; Myl.
bovina, and Myl. marginaia, Geoff. ; which last has the snout
cleft into two short lobes, and belongs to the sub-genus
Rhirwptera of Kuhl.

Genus Cephaloptera, Dum. The last division of the
rays is distinguished by the bifurcation of the appendages
to the head, derived from the pectorals, which give the
species the appearance of being horned. The head is trun-
cated between these projections ; the teeth are less strong
than those of Pastinaca, and are finely crenulated on the
edges ; the tail, spine, and small dorsal fin, resemble those
of Myliohatis. ;

The best known is the gigantic Chephal. giorna of the
Mediterranean, the back of which is blackish, bordered
with violet. (PlateCCCVII.fig.il.) The animals which
are mentioned by Shaw as Raia manatia, R. fahroniana,
and R. Banksiana, are considered by Cuvier as doubtful
species.' It is probable that the R. diabolus of Willughby,
described by Duhamel, and said also to occur at the Azores,
may be a distinct species, or perhaps the same as the Ere-
goodoo-Tenkee of Russel, which Cuvier is disposed to con-
sider as a species well established. Ch. massena of Risso
is a Mediterranean species, twelve feet long and twenty-
seven in circumference. The female weighs 1250 lbs., the
male about 800 lbs. Top of the horns black, the base blu-
ish externally, and white on their inner sides. Of the pair
described by Risso, the female was first taken ; and the au-
thor adds, that the male continued constantly about the
boat for three days, as if bewailing the fate of his compa-
nion, and was then found floating dead.

FAMILY II.— CYCLOSTOMI, OR SUCKERS.

The suckers, as far as their skeleton is concerned, are the
most imperfect of all vertebrate animals. The bodies of
all their vertebra; are traversed by a single tendinous cord,
uniformly tapering from head to tail, which almost reduces

the vertebrae to cartilaginous rings, scarcely distinct from Chondrop."
one another, and not even cartilaginous through their terygii.
whole circumference. The body is terminated abruptly Cycles-
in front by a fleshy circular or semicircular mouth, sup- ^°'°''
ported on a cartilaginous ring formed by the union of the ^^'^~'-^
palatal and maxillary bones. No ribs are distinguishable :
there are no solid branchial arches ; but the small branchial
rays, scarcely recognisable in Squaltis and Raia, are in them
fully developed, and united together into a sort of lattice.
The gills, instead of the pectinated form they have in
almost all other fishes, exhibit the appearance of little
sacs, from the union of each gill with that adjacent. The
labyrinth is enclosed in the cranium, the nostrils have only
a single aperture, in front of which is a cul-de-sac, mistaken
by some authors for a temporal orifice. The intestine is
straight and narrow, with a spiral valve.

Genus Petromyzon, Linn. This genus is distinguish-
ed by seven branchial apertures on each side ; the skin
above and below the tail is elevated in a rayless fin. The
sub-genera are the following :

Genus Petromyzon, Dum. or Lamprey properly so
called. Maxillary ring armed with strong teeth, within which
are tubercles, with a hard enamel lining the lips. This ring is
suspended by a piece answering to an inter-maxillary bone.
The tongue is furnished with two longitudinal ranges of
small teeth, and is capable of vigorous motion. The tongue
acting like a piston in the circular mouth, is an essential part
of the mechanism by which the fish is enabled to attach it-
self firmly to stones, or to fasten itself to the larger fishes,
which it is thus enabled to suck and devour at its leisure.
In respiration, the water is carried from the mouth to the
gills by a canal under the gullet, and pierced with lateral
apertures. The dorsal fin is farther forward than the anus,
and a second unites with the tail. The European species
are,

P. tnarinus, the greater lamprey, which grows to the
length of more than three feet. (Plate CCC VIL fig. 12.)
It is considered as a delicate food, and is caught as it as-
cends rivers in the end of winter and spring.^ Colour yel-
lowish, marbled with brown. First dorsal fin very distinct
from the second. This fish is common in the Severn, and
in the mouths of many European rivers. Its supposed
hermaphroditism is mentioned by Sir Everard Home.^

P.Jiuviatilis, the lampern, or nine-eyed eel.'' Length from
twelve to eighteen inches ; olive back, silvery below ; first
dorsal distinct from the second. Two thick teeth, separate,
in the top of the maxillary ring. Ascends rivers from the
sea ; swarms in the Thames, Severn, and Dee. Vast quan-
tities taken in England are sold to the Dutch for the turbot
fishery. It abounds in the rivers on the southern side of

' There is no doubt, however, that one or other of those names refers to an existing though obscurely known species, of enor-
mous size. A specimen of the Bankiian ray is said to have been found on the coast of Barbadoes, of such a vast weight that seven
yoke of oxen were required to draw it. A figure of tlie Ceph. manatia was sent to Lac^pede, the original of wiiich was alleged to
be nearly twenty feet long. " It seems that it is to this species we may refer what Barrere and other travellers have said of the
enormous rays of the American and equinoctial seas, which spring above the surface of the water, and splash it to an immense
distance on falling into it. Levaillant, in his second voyage to Africa, speaks of having seen one, the smallest of three, which
swam round about the vessel, about twenty-five feet long and more than thirty wide; and Sonnini speaks of one which appeared to
him larger and wider than the ship in which he was sailing." " Colonel Hamilton Smith once witnessed the destruction of a soldier
by one of these Cephalopteri, off Trinidad. It was supposed that the soldier, being a good swimmer, was attempting to desert from
the ship, which lay at anchor in the entrance of the Bocca del Toro. The circumstance occurred soon after daylight ; and the man,
being alarmed by the call of a sailor in the main cross-trees, endeavoured to return to the vessel ; but the monster threw one of his
fins over him, and carried him down. The colonel is positive as to this fish being a Cephalopterus." (Griffith's Anivial Kingdom,
vol. X. p. G53.)

^ The death of Henry I. was attributed to a too plentiful meal of lampreys. They seem, however, to have continued in high
esteem in spite of that " untoward event ;" — at least we find Henry IV. granting protection to such ships as brought over lampreys
for his royal consorVs table ; and his successor issued a warrant to William of Nantes, for supplying himself and his army with these
fishes, wherever they might happen to march. {Rynier, ix. 544, as quoted by Pennant.)

3 Phil. Trans. 1815, 266.

•* " Whether," says Sir Thomas Brown, " Lampries have nine eyes, as is received, we durst refer it unto Polyphemus himself,
who had but one to judge it ; an error concerning eyes, occasioned by the error of eyes, deduced from the appearance of divers cavi.
ties or holes on either side, which some call eyes that carelessly behold them ; and is not only refutable by experience, but also re-
pugnant unto reason." (jPscudodoxia Epidemica.)

ICHTHYOLOGY.

237

Conclusion, the Baltic. Both these animals are very tenacious of life,
^"'"Y''*^ and will live many days out of water.

P. planeri. About ten inches long ; greatly resembles
the preceding ; but the two dorsal fins are united. It is
also an European river fish.

The other species described by Shaw appear to be but
mere varieties of the above.

Genus Myxine, Linn. This genus is properly separat-
ed from the lampreys, to which, however, it has much
resemblance. It is distinguished by having only two spi-
racles, and by wanting eyes. The species best known,
Mijxiiie glutinosa, Linn., or glutinous hag, was classed by
Linnaeus with the Vermes ; but its real place is among
chondropterygian fishes. The mouth is a membranous
ring, with a single tooth on its superior part ; while the
strong dentations of the tongue are arranged in two rows
on each side, so as to give to these animals the appearance
of having lateral jaws, like insects or nereides ; but the
rest of their structure corresponds with Petromyzon, and
their tongue in particular performs the office of a piston in
exhausting the mouth, so as to enable them to adhere to
other bodies, like the lamprey. The lips are furnished with
eight cirrhi, and above is an aperture commiuiicating with
the mouth ; the body is nearly cylindrical, and terminates
in a fin which surrounds the tail. The intestine is simple,
wide, and straight, as viewed externally ; but it is plaited
within : the liver has two lobes : the eggs grow to a con-
siderable size. When taken and confined in a large glass
jar, a single fish will pour so much mucus from its lateral
pores as to give the water the appearance of jelly.

Three species are known, which Cuvier makes the types
of a corresponding number of sub-genera, as follows :

\st, Heptatremus, Dumer. With seven branchial
apertures, as in the lamprey. This animal is the M. Dom-
beyi, found on the coast of South America by Dombey. It
has a rounded head ; the teeth are sharp, and arranged in
two rows, respectively of fourteen and twenty-two, and
with one longer than the rest in the upper part of the
mouth ; tail rounded at the extremity, and terminated by
a very shallow fin.

2(/, Gastrobranchus, Bloch. The intervals of the
branchial rays open into a common canal for each side,
and these two canals terminate in two apertures under the
heart of the animal, about one third of its length from
the head.

The only known species is the European Myxine gluti-
ttosa, Linn. On the Yorkshire coast the fishermen occa-
sionally find that it has entered the mouths of fish on the
hooks of the long lines, and devoured the flesh, leaving
only the skin and bones. They often catch it in the fish
thus emptied, and term it the sea-hag. It grows to the
length of six or eight inches.

3d, Ammocjetes, Dumer. Is destitute of a real skeleton ;
body cylindrical, with numerous annular lines around it,
that give it much the appearance of a worm. It lives in
the mud of rivers. Mouth cirrhated, toothless, lobated be-
low, and incapable of adhering by suction to other bodies ;
fins very shallow ; tail sharp at the tip ; no tracheal tube,
as in the rest, but the gills receive water from the oesopha-
gus. The only species is P. bra?ichialis, Shaw, the Pride
of Pennant, which grows to six or eight inches long, and
is as thick as a goose-quill. It inhabits the rivers of Ox-
fordshire, and occurs in various parts of tlie European con-
tinent.

We have now brought our exposition of the modern
system of Ichthyology to a close. The subjects of which
it treats are of deep and sustaining interest, in a philoso-
phical point of view, and of the highest and most imme-
diate importance when considered in relation to the eco-
nomical advantages derivable bji the humaa race. We

have endeavoured to combine with the precise and tech- Conchisicni.
nical expression of the generic and other characters such ^"■•~,-^~-'
miscellaneous information as could be collected from au-
thentic sources, with a view to render the subject more
palatable to the general reader ; — and if any great defi-
ciency in that department is observable, we hope it may
in some measure be attributed to the nature of this
branch of natural history, the objects of which inhabiting
another element from ourselves, have thus their on-goings
too often veiled from mortal sight by a " world of waters,"
— which no eye can pierce but the eye of Him who call-
ed the light out of darkness, and who created the " hea-
vens and the earth, the sea, and all that in them is."

We shall conclude with a brief allusion to a subject of
the highest interest to the naturalist, — one to which we
believe no reference has been made in the introductory
portion of the present treatise, and which, we regret, our
now exhausted space must prevent us from exhibiting at
greater length, — ^we mean the geographical distribution
of fishes. Our knowledge of the laws which regulate that
distribution is meagre in the extreme ; in other words,
the facts concerning their true localities are few, and
have never been properly generalised. From the immea-
surable extent and continuous nature of the fluid which
they inhabit, they are supplied by nature with greater faci-
lities of dispersion than most other animals ; and the greater
equality of the temperature of water, compared with that ot
earth or air, admits in several instances of the same spe-
cies inhabiting almost every latitude from pole to pole.
Those races especially, which, travelling together in vast
shoals, speedily consume the natural food which each par-
ticular spot affords, are obliged, like the pastoral tribes of
old, or the woodland hunters of America, to remove from
place to place in search of additional supplies ; and thus
the species acquires a more widely extended distribution.
It is thus that the cod and herring are spread over the
whole extent of the Northern Ocean, and in undiminished
numbers, notwithstanding the war of extermination which
man and other voracious animals appear to wage against
them. Those species which lead a solitary, and, as it may
be called, a stationary life, are frequently confined within
very narrow limits. The Chaetodons, for example, which
delight in rocky coasts covered with madrepores, attach
themselves to the torrid zone, which produces so abun-
dantly those magnificent ornaments of the sea. But
though thus confined to particular spots, from which the
individuals of the species seldom wander, the species itself
may be said to be repeated again in different regions, se-
parated from each other by almost insurmountable obsta-
cles. Thus many of what may be termed stationary spe-
cies are found identically the same along the coasts of
Brazil, in the Arabian Gulf, and over the multiplied
shores of Polynesia. It has hence been concluded, that
such species, incapable of colonizing themselves by leaving
their accustomed shores, and hazarding a journey across
unknown oceans, have either been created in more places
than one, or have been enabled to transport themselves by
means different from any of those that are now available in
the ordinary course of nature.

If the natural means by which the more powerful species
inhabiting the saline waters of the ocean have spread them-
selves from clime to clime, be to a certain extent within
the reach of our comprehension, it is otherwise with those
peculiar to rivers, and the waters of inland lakes. How
these have contrived to migrate from one region to ano-
ther, and to people with identical species the depth of far-
removed and solitary waters, separated from each other by
chains of lofty mountains, or wide extended wastes of de-
sert sand, is a problem which, in the present state of our
knowledge, we seek in vain to solve. It may indeed at
times happen that spawn or ova are carried by water-fowl

238

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Index, from one great central reservoir to another, and thus the fices to account for the general diffusion of certain species, Index.
^"^"^^ rivers of half a continent may be put in possession of spe- and still less for the narrow restriction of others equally ^-^'Y'^
cies unknown before ; — but this supposition scarcely suf- exposed to the chances of that aerial flight.' (t.^)

INDEX.

Page.

Abramis 198

ACANTHOPTERY-

GII 166

Acanthurus 190

Acerina 169

Achirus 221

Acipenser 230

Ageneiosi 202

Agriopus 174

Alepocephalus 200

Aleuteres 229

Alosa 21.5

Ambassis 168

Amia 216

Ammodytes 227

Ammocaetes 237

Amphiprion 176

Amphisile 197

Anabas 190

Anableps 199

Anacanthus 235

Anarrhichas 193

Anastomus 212

Anchor)/ 216

Ancylodon 176

Angel-Jish 234

Anguilla 223

Anguilliformes 223

Anthius 168

Apistiis 174

Apogon 168

Argentina 212

Argyreyosus 186

Aspidophorus 174

Aspredo 203

Aspro 168

Astrodermus 187

Atherina 192

Aulopus 213

Aulostoma 197

Auxis 183

Auxinurus 190

Bagrus 202

Balistes 229

Baloon-fish 228

Barbel 198

Barbus 198

Batrachus 195

Becher 177

Belone 200

Benticles 175

Bergylt. 174

Bervx 170

Bk'ak 199

Page.

Blcnnius 192

Bleimy 192

viviparous 193

Blepharis 186

Bonito 198

Boops 178

Braize 177

Brama 180

Bream 177

common 198

Mack ......177

little 198

sea 177

Spanish 177

Brill 220

Brocket 168

Brosraius 219

Brotula 219

BuCCiE LOKICATiE 172

Bull-head. ,.173

Buffalo-fish 179

Butirinus 216

Callionymus 194

Callorhynclius 230

Cantharis 177

Capros 189

Caranx 186

Carapus 226

Carcharias 232

Carp. 197

common 197

golden 198

CARTILAGINOUS

FISHES 229

Cataphractus 203

Catastomus 198

Cat-fish 202

Centrarchus 169

Centrina 233

Centriscus 197

Centrolophus 187

Centroporaus 168

Centropristis 169

Cephaloptera 236

Cepola 189

Cestracion 233

Chaetodon 178

Chalceus 212

Char 208

Characinus 212

Chatoessus 215

Chauliodus 200

Cheilinus 195

Cheilodactylus 176

Page.

Chelmon 178

Chimaera 230

Chirocentrus 216

Chironectes 195

Chironemus 169

Chirus 194

CHONDROPTERY-

GII 229-231

WITH FREE BRAN-

CHi« 2.30

WITH FIXED BRAN-

CHi« 231

Chorenemus 186

Chromis 196

Chrysophris 177

Cirrhibarbus 192

Cirrhites 169

Citharinus 213

Clepticus 196

Clinus 192

Clupea 214

Clupid* 214

Coal-fish 218

Cobitis 199

Cod 217

Colisa 190

Comephora 194

Coregonus 211

Coricus 196

Corvina 175

Coryphaena 186

Cottus 173

Crenilabrus 195

Curimata 212

Cybium 183

Cychla 196

Cyclopterus 221

Cyclostomi 236

CvPRINIDiE 197

Cyprinodon 199

Cyprinus 197

Dab 220

Dactylopterus 173

Dascyllus 176

Datnia 169

Deal-fish 189

Dentex 177

Devil-fish 234

Diagramma 176

Diodon 228

Diploprion 168

Dipterodon 180

Discoboli 221

Dog-fish 233

Page.

Dolphin 187

Doras 202

Dorse 218

Dory 188

Dragonet 194

gemmeous 194

sordid 194

Drums 176

Dules 169

Echeneis 222

Eel 223

common 223

conger 224

electric 225

sand 227

Egyptian herring 201

Elacate 186

Eleotris 194

Elops 196-216

Emperor of Japan 179

Enchelyopus 226

Engraulis 216

Enoplosus 168

Ephippus 179

Eques 176

Equula 189

Erythrinus 216

EsociD^ 199

Esox 199

Etelis 168

Exocetus 201

Fan-fish 184

Father lasher 174

Fishes.

Definition of. 151

Form and character of 153

Osteology of 154

Muscles and motions of 1 56
Nervous system of.... 157

Senses of 157

Nutrition, manduca-
tion, and degluti-
tion of 159

Circulating system of. 160

Respiration of. 161

Swimming bladder of.l61
Rank in the animal

kingdom 162

Classification of. 163

Tabular view of the
Cuvierian system... 165
Fistularia 196

FlSTULARID^ 196

' Consult M. Gaimard'3 Memnirc iitr la Distribution Geographique des Poiisons ; an Essay on Geography considered in relation to
natural history, in the seventh volume of the Diction. Classiqite cTHist. Nat. ,• and our lUiulrctions of Zoologij, letter-press preceding
plate XX.

= The author of the preceding treatise has to acknowledge his obligations to Sir AVilliam Jardine, Bart., for the use of his notes
on the Salmonida?, — to Professor Traill, for assistance in relation to the Apodal Malacopterygian, and Chondropterygian tribes,—
gnd to Dr Allan Thomson, for bis aid in drawing up the history of the Clupidse, and of the Sub-brachian Malacopterygians.

ICHTHYOLOGY.'

239

Index. rage.

k— ,- — ' Flat-fish 219

Flounder 220

Flying-fish 173

Mediterranean 173

Oceanic 201

Fundulus 199

Gadid^e 217

Gadus 217

Galeus 233

Gallichtys 186

Galaxias 200

Gar-fish 200

Gasteropelecus 212

Gasterosteus 175

Gastrobranchus 237

Gempylus 183

Gherad-el-hahir 174

Gilt-head. 177

Glyphisodon 176

Gobies 193

Gobiesox 221

Gobio 198

GOBIOID^E 192

Gobioides 193

Gobius 193

Gonorhynchus 199

Gramniistes 168

Grayling 210

Gristes 169

Gudgeon 198

Gunnel, common 193

Gunellus 192

Gurnards 173

Gyninarchus 226

Gymnetrus 189

GVMNODONTES 228

Gymnotus 225

Haddock 208

Haemulon 176

Hake 218

Harvest-fish 188

Heliases 176

Helostoma 190

Helotes 169

Hemilepidotus 174

Hemiraniphus 201

Hemitripterus 174

Henochius 178

, Heptatremus 237

Herring 214

Heterobranchus 202

Hippocampus 227

Hippoglossus 220

Histiophorus 184

Holibut 220

Holocaiithus 179

Holocentrura 170

Huro 168

Hydrocyon 213

Hynnis 186

Hyodon 216

Hypostoma. 203

Ichthyology 151

Definition of. 151

Historical sketch of... 151

Ikan-sumpit 180

Johnius 176

Page.

King-fish 189

King of the herrings 189

Kitt 220

Kurtus 188

Labeo 198

Labrax 167

Labrid^b 195

Labrus 195

Labyrinthiform Pha-
ryngeals 190

Lamna 2.32

Lampern 236

Lamprey 236

Lampris 189

Lampugus 187

Laimce, common 227

Lates 168

Latehis 176

Lebias 199

Lepadogaster 221

Lepidopus 183

Lepisosteus 216

Leptocephalus 226

Leuciscus 198

Lichia 186

Ling 218

Liparis 222

Loach 199

Lobotes 176

Lophotes 189

Lophius 194

LOPHOBRANCHII...227

Loricaria 203

Lota 218

Lucio-perca 168

Lump-fish 221

Lumpus 221

Luvarus 188

Mackerel 180

Macrourus 219

Macropodiis 1 90

Maigre 175

Malacanthus 1 96

Makaira 184

Malapterurus 203

MALACOPTERYGII

ABDOMINALES...197
MALACOPTERYGII

APODES 223

MALACOPTERYGII

SUB-BRACHIATI..217

Malarmat 173

Mallotus 210

Malthe 195

Mango-fish 171

Mastacomblus 186

Megalops 216

Mene 189

MenidvE 178

Merluccius 218

Memis 169

Mesoprion 169

Microstoma 200

Miller's thumb 1 73

Minnow 199

Molinesia 199

Monocanthus 229

Monocentris 174

Page.

Monochirus 22 1

Mormyrus 201

Morrhua 217

Motella 219

Movntsbay angler. 195

MUOILIDVE 191

Mullet. 172

red 172

striped 172

gray 191

MuUus 172

Murana 224

Mustelus 233

Myletes 212

Myhobatis 235

Myripristis 170

Myxine 137

Myxodes 192

Naseus 190

Nauclerus 186

Naucrates 185

Niphon 168

Nomeus 186

Norway haddock 174

Notocanthus 186

Notidanus 233

Notopterus 215

Odontognathus 215

Old wife 195

Olistus 186

Ophicephalus 190

Ophidium 226

Opistognathus 193

Ophisurus 224

Orthagoriscus 228

Osmerus 210

Osphronemus 190

OSSEOUS FISHES... 166

Osteoglossum 216

Ostracion 229

Otolithus 176

Pagellus 177

Pagrus 177

Parr 208

Parrot-fish 196

Peche madame 1 70

PfiCTOItALES PEDICU-

lati 194

Pegasus 227

Pelamys 183

Pelates 169

Pelor 174

Pentaceros 169

Perca 167

Percid.'e 166

jugular 170

abdominal 171

Perch 167

common 167

sea 167

black 187

Percis 171

Percophis 171

Periophthalmus 194

Peristedion 173

Petromyzon 236

Phycis 219

Page.

Piabucus 212

Pike 200

Pilchard 215

Pilot-fish 185

Pimelodi 202

Pinielepterus 179

Pinguipes 171

Plagiostomi 231

Plaice 220

Platax 179

Platessa 219

Platyccphalus 174

Platypteron 194

PLECTOGNATHI 228

Plectropoma 169

Plesiops 196

PLEUKONECTIDiE 219

Plotosus 203

Podley 218

Poecilia 199

Pogonias 176

Pogge 174

Pollock 218

Polyacanthus 1 90

Polynemus 171

Polyodon 230

Polyprion 169

Polypterus 217

Pomatomus 168

Pomotis 169

Porthoneus 186

Pomfret, black 188

Pomocentrus 176

Premnas 176

Priacanthus 169

Prionites 173

Priodon 190

Pristigaster 215

Pristipoma 176

Pristis 234

Psenes 186

Psettus 179

Pteraclis 187

Pterois 174

Raia 234

Raniceps 219

Ray 235

Remora 222

Rhina 235

Rhinchobdella 186

Rhinobatus 234

Rhombus 188-220

Roach 199

Rypticus 169

Rtiffe 169

Salanx 200

Salarias 192

Sa.mo 204

Salmon 204

Salmon iD,E 203

Sand-smelt 192

Sand-eel 227

Sargus 176

Saurus 213

Saw-fish 234

Scad 186

Scampirro 182

Scarus 196

Index.

240

Ichthvo-
phagi

ICHTHYOLOGY.

Page.

Sciaena 175

SciMmDS. 173

Schelley 211

Schilbus 202

SCLEItODERMI 229

Scolopsides 176

Scomber 180

Scomber-esox 200

SCOMBERID.* 180

Scopeles 213

Scorpaena 174

Scorpion 174

Scyllium 231

Scyranus 234

Scyris 186

Sea-cat 193

Sea-devil 174

Sea-wolf. 193

Sea-horse '. 227

Sea-liag 237

Sebastes 174

Selache 233

Selachii 231

Seriola 186

Serranus 168

Serrasalmus 212

Seserinus 188

Shark 231

white 232

blue 232

portbeagle 232

Beaumaris 232

baskinff 233

hammer-headed 234

Sharmuth 203

Sheeps-head 177

Siganus 189

Page.

Sillago 170

Sillock 218

SiluridjE 202

Silurus 202

electric 203

Skate 235

Skankarbauw 179

Skip-jack 186

Smoults 208

Solenostoma 227

Solea 221

Sole 221

Sorcerer-fish 174

SparidjK 176

Spirlin 210

Sphagebranchus 225

Spliyrajna 171

Spinax 233

Spirobranchus 190

Sprat 215

Squalus 231

Squammipennes 178

Squatina 234

Sterlet 230

Sternarchus 226

Sternoptyx 213

Stickle-back 175

Stomias 200

Stromateus 188

Sturgeon 230

STURIONES 230

Sucking-fish 222

Sudis 216

Sun-fish 169-228

Suckers 236

Swordfish 184

Page.

Synanceia 174

Synbranchus 225

Syngnathus 227

Synodontis 202

Tmviiowm 189

Tafel-visch 170

Taurichthys 179

Temnodon 186

Tench 198

Tenioides 193

Tetraodon 228

Tetragonopterus 212

Tetragonurus 192

Tetrapterus 184

Therapon 169

TheutidjE 189

Thorn-back 235

Tliresher 232

Thryssa 216

Thyraallus 210

Thynnus 182

Thyrsites 183

Tinea 198

Tope 233

Torpedo 235

Torsk, Scotch 219

Toxotes 180

Trachichtys 170

Trachinotus 186

Trachinus 170

Triacanthus 229

Trichiunis 183

Trichodon 170

Trichonotus 194

Trichopus 190

_, . , Page. Iconium

Ingla 173 ||

Triodon 229 Iconodas-

Trout 206 '^^s.

bull 206 *"^V*^

sea 206

white 206

salmon 206

common 207

Trumpet-fish 197

Trunk-fish : 229

Trigon 235

Tunny 182

Tarbot 220

Umbrina 176

Upeneus 172

Uranoscopus 171

Vendace 211

Vlagman 179

Vomer 186

Weever 170

Whiff. 220

White-bait 215

Whiting 218

Whitling 206

Wrasse 195

Xiphias 183

Xirichthys 196

Zanclus 179

Zeus 188

Zoarchus 193

Zygsena 234

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