PREG > a = q % E 2 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/introductiontozo00pattuoft SG \ \asY te ome ove BU Ob OG. oy; FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. INTRODUCTION TO ee | Qasr ¥, FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. ROBERT PATTERSON, PRESIDENT OF THE NATURAL HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF BELFAST, ETO, IN TWO PARTS, WITH UPWARDS OF 330 ILLUSTRATIONS, AND A GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS. LONDON:. SIMMS AND MINTYRE, 13, PATERNOSTER ROW; AND 26, DONEGALL STREET, BELFAST. 1854. PREFACE. I HAVE for years been anxious that NATuRAL History should be made a regular Branch of Education, because it exercises both the observant and the reflective powers; furnishes enjoyment pure and exhaustless; and tends to make devotional feelings habitual. The present little Work has been undertaken in the hope that it might conduce to such a result, In its preparation, I have aimed at conveying correct ideas of the peculiarities of structure by which the principal divisions of the animal kingdom are distinguished; and of the habits, economy, and uses of one or more of the most common native species belonging to each of these groups. Foreign species are occasionally mentioned in connexion with their respective classes, but the “‘home produce” forms the “staple com- modity.” The exercise of memory involved in the repetition of scientific names, or in the recital of anecdotes respecting the animals of the arctic or tropical regions, is, comparatively, of little importance. The great object should be to bring natural-history knowledge home to the personal experience of the pupil. To teach him to observe, to classify his obser- vations, and to reason upon them, and thus to invest with interest the Common Ossects which he sees around him. Small collections of natural objects, made by the pupils themselves, would, under the guidance of a judicious teacher, be of great value in this species of mental culture, and would form the much-prized ornaments of the school-room. The present volume has been prepared amid the scanty leisure inci- dental to the life of a man of business. It will, therefore, I hope, be regarded with indulgence, both by the Naturalist and by him who is prac- tically engaged in the important duties of the school-room. R. PATTERSON. Belfast, 3, College Square North, September 5th, 1846. Norte.—The illustrations, for the most part, are those employed in the “ Cours Flementaire de Zoologie” of M. Milne Edwards; a work adopted by the Council of Public Instruction in France. a PREFACE TO SIXTEENTH THOUSAND. ZooLoGicaL science has, during the last few years, made very considerable advances, especially as regards the lower or invertebrate animals. Some of the conclusions arrived at, though of high interest to the philosophic zoologist, cannot with propriety be introduced into a work so elementary as this. Others are briefly indicated, so far as the space allowable for foot-notes, without disturbance of the pages, would permit. In the text itself scarcely any change has been made. Recent discoveries regarding the development and struc- ture of these animals have brought to light unexpected affinities between different groups, which naturally suggest corresponding changes in arrangement and nomenclature, In fact, the best classification that can at any period be proposed must be regarded only as provisional; with the advance of knowledge it must be modified or changed. In some departments, such changes are even now approaching ; and ‘coming events cast their shadows befcre.” Belfast, College Square North, 10th May, 1854. CONTENTS. a Part I—INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS Page MEANING of the Term Zoology......... 1 Structure, the Basis of Correct Classification .. 2 Animals arranged in four primary Groups ... 3 RADIATA, or RAYED ANIMALS. Meaning of the Term...... 3 ‘Group divided into four Classes... 4 CLASS I.—INFUSORIA, or INFUSORY ANIMALCULES. Their Size and Distribution .. Arrangement in two Divisions — Advantage of "Scientific Terms— Polygastrica, or Many-Stomached ........0.0:.sc00cesssseesceseccees Experiments of Ehrenberg—Cilia... Rotifera, or Wheel-bearing—Their Tenacity of Life—Different Modes of Reproduction among the Infusoria .............ccc esses eeeeeee eee Physical Changes effected through their Agency ............ 0.00.02. 00 CLASS II.—ENTOZOA, orn INTESTINAL WORMS. Their Abodes—Variety of Structure—The Tape-worm ............0666- Multitude of Ova in another Species—These Creatures not produced by Equivocal Generation—Perfection of their Structure . CLASS III.—ZOOPHYTA, or POLYPES. Meaning of these Terms.. The Class subdivided into four Orders . Pend» OrveER I.—HyYDROIDA, OR THOSE RESEMBLING 1 vHE HypkA......... The Fresh-water Hydra ....... Appearance, Habits, and Modes of Reproduction... Bi Tubuluria, its living Flowers and diffusion of the young Germs Sertulariade, or those which resemble miniature Flowers .... Structure . Food, Ova, ‘Numbers, Luminositv.. iv CONTENTS. Ornper Il.—AstTrrorpA, or STAR-SHAPED POLYPES..........0000002. 20 Sea-pens ...... cs sunedchebeees sashes sae eeeagmente saree TAU Sea-fans; their “Flexibility .. aos ines eee ecsemusemeniosumensen/edoadinaae 21 Different Structures of the Isis and of the Red Coral ......... 22 Orper III.—HELIANTHOIDA, OR THOSE LIKE THE SUN-FLOWER... 22 Sea-anemones .. SaaeseaderscitesWenans nce meee Food, Longevity, Use a as s Barometers . ayaa pipe Power of enduring Injuries.—Coral- “building Polypes. iseosene 24 Coral Reefs.—Their Extent and Structure . Devaeeeseeoos LO Orper IV.—AscripiomwA, OR ASCIDIAN POLYPES ......cseeseeeeeeseee 27 Their Appearance and higher Organization ... - 27 Sea-mats—Their numerous Polypes—Affinity to the Mollusca 28 CLASS IV.—RADIARIA, or RAYED ANIMALS. Vow characterised—their Division into two Orders .........2eseeeeeee2e 29 ORDER J.—ACALEPHA, OR SEA-NETTLES .......cceseceeccscccesccceseee OO Their gelatinous Structure ...... Sasuke teteeeae Distribusion—Dipiya—Portuguese “Man-of-war - Bent ecco 31 Velella—its mimic Fleets... .......0.csscceesscesecscesseccsceasees OE Beroés, or Ciliogrades ...... aac 2 Their Movements, Habits, and Food . Ee dauslceasedeeess see eee Luminosity and Transparency .. 35 Meduse, or Pulmonigrades—Theit Dimensions, “Colours, Food 36 Development ... pagsis aC Raees meee Large proportion of Fluids i in 1 their Bodies . A areca 3k Phosphorescence «.......- sasichias glen elaaedonneeasoten=geeemanade 0 Numbers in the Arctic Sea .. Beamon alana stnieane mee acoe ann teed Utility .. 2b5 Scvcth iors terucusen ese ieie Orcer II. _ECHINODERMATA, 0 or R STAR- FISHES.. Sense d defor ectaee ee Their Integument, Transformations ......... Seecetencear sential Ova and their Development—Variety of Form . fo -Seccnoncsieer 44 Stone-lilies, Crinoidee—Their Beauty and former abundance 45 Supposed to be extinct in Europe—Discovery of aliving species 46 Sand Star, Ophiura—Structure—Diversity .. aH) “ Five-fingers,” Asteriade—Their Suckers and ‘their ‘Uses. . 48 Wrapilitye of 2a: oc. cstecree asa ddeananccenesa tans. Sevecoans pec Sea-Urchin, Echinus ...... Been OL! Mode of Progression—Structure of Shell Respiration | ~SeA 52 Jaws—Boring power of one Species.......... gesease ithe Sea-cucumber, Holothuria—Sipuncular Worns.. is ea iE ARTICULATA, orn ARTICULATED ANIMALS. Characteristics of the Group ..;- vecotsacktswann anciaa» naaedeeanancleceaesst 1D? Its, Division into five. Classes s.cssacsseudeaanndeesaansetaccnsdesssadactorsece) DO CLASS I.—ANNELLATA—LEECHES AND WORMS. Medicinal Leeches—Supply of them... aidenids cae qcateeneenanesseasseas OO Mouth, Stomach, Young... anos se ananeeneeaebesen oa se0 JO Karthworms—Their Food, their Utility 8 eproduction in Worms... 62 T,QD-WOTM socpncconcnpacoscnscocccacnqespressic cose opsecyanany eset sas shy scenes 64 Respiration in Serpulee. Habits of the Errantes s.csccsssssesese 65 Sea Long-worm, Sea-mouse ......... 66 Hair- worm, and traditionary Error. “Luminosity “of some Annelids 67 CLASS IL—CIRRIPEDA—BARNACLES AND ACORN SHELLS. Tradition respecting Barnacles ........++++++ fe cick cteta staan tease wa) OG Young state of Barnacles and of ‘Acorn-shells... Bassin dap anaarcese LO Their Transformations.—Formerly classed with “Mollusca . aeaaistan see 71 Cheapness of the Pleasures of Natural History ..... PCAs cee ea 22 CLASS ITI.—CRUSTACEA—CRABS, LOBSTERS, SHRIMPS, &c. Name, Distribution, Form, Characteristics ............s.egesessecreeeeee 73 Reproduction, Respiration ,,......-.ssccssscescencrecageresccetesereneesees 74 Vision, Eyes of Peers AE RR ARES 0 AS BA Se Oy | Metamorphoses...... RO a a oc a A Raia ni compte AO Land-crabs.... Soha eaamiehdadn daa caaaeness «ead OO Classification. wn Limulus c or r King Crab .. A wana sidseaaugass doaenicas eG L Spider-crabs... Ue oe a sus aang inane ape <= ana dnieeansexupte® nev Suen pinas 1. Edible Crabs .. Ce ccecsoaseneee stake tae Soacaasa ahaa ans~ oO Pea Crabs. —Hermit Crabs... pdocnadsaniiata-cn ust shandaceasaees c= gu OF Lobster.— Spiny Lobster .. See deel aaasen ose pO Cray-fish: its Food, Habits, Change of Shell. sn Ge shcabinsanasacaesens ode 86 Shrimps.—Prawn. .......cccsccescccsencecseccccessacsrcsccecaceseseesssesees 88 Sand-hopper. —Cyclops Se cnscencsasasradaas gine aanar aeons casvesheeemeecens semeae ome ceamate ac ease WP PHEMIGr aps on cco onsien ceases ocse corres uasapdeeeeeeaveneerdeas cancers 119 -OrpER 1V.—HyMeEnorTrERA—BEEs, ANTS, ETC. perssdecese nL Saw-flies, Gall-flies... os SO. ed Dead-sea Apples—Iechneumons—Telr Services . wosevesscveucs 121 IN Ners\es eves aces cs saes 165 CLASS II.—BRACHIOPODA. Meaning of the Term. ie ageat GF Strdctuterct. wiccse.cees- veoas time, regains its original length, y, Pr In Ascaris lumbricoides, the most ee SS common intestinal parasite of the ‘\, SQ *) human body, Dr. Eschright had F Xe Z estimated the number of ova, which \ t ant one mature female contained, at “>= By NX 64,000,000. When creatures of Ya, 5 4) structure and habits so singular iY, iF were first found in the bodies of URN birds, fishes, quadrupeds, and other “J PY Ee | } a) animals, it was naturally a subject 4 r\ ey &\\ f of wonder how they got there,and ‘\ \ i \; ‘dl some naturalists imagined that / } :9) it) ‘A they were produced by the tis- \ Ei gy f } ¥ sues of the animal body—in fact, =) | ay g/) by equivocal generation. When, }) £7 fh & \ however, it was discovered how \ £7 1 \) a elaborate was their construction, ¢ Si) 3) (\an 4 and that each animal contained YJ py i) millions of fertile ova, the truth of } t) F | t¥) iF ) this theory was disproved, and the / | naturalist was taught to attribute & Qf) their production, through the re- L) oy lays gular laws of generation, to Him & ( WS, th who created the highest as well } Ys Sy as the lowest order of beings. ‘« iY) If we turn to any works in which = Z rout few See the Entozoa are figured, it is im- SSS possible not to be struck with their Fig. 6—Tarewoux. great diversity, and with the ela- borate delicacy of some of the organs with which they are furnished. Such examination, even when not followed up by that aid which the microscope affords, will convince the most unthinking of the accuracy of the following very beautiful passage from Professor Owen’s “ Lectures on the Invertebrate Animals:”——“In creatures surrounded by, and having every part of their absorbent surface in contact with, the secreted and yitalised juices of higher animals, one might have antici- 14 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. pated little complexity and less variety of organization. Yet the workmanship of the Divine Artificer is sufficiently com- plicated and marvellous in these outcasts, as they may be termed, of the Animal Kingdom, to exhaust the utmost skill and patience of the anatomist in unravelling their structure, and the greatest acumen and judgment in the physiologist in determining the functions and analogies of the structures so discovered. What also is very remarkable, the gradations of organisation that are traceable in these internal parasites reach extremes as remote, and connect them by links as diversified, as in any of the other groups of Zoophyta, although these play their parts in the open and diversified field of Nature.” Crass ZOOPHYTA, or POLYPES. “Here, too, were living flowers, Which, like a bud comparted, Their purple cups contracted; And now in open blossom spread, Stretched like green anthers many a seeking head. And arborets of jointed stone were there, And plants of fibres, fine as silkworm’s thread, Yea, beautiful as mermaid’s golden hair Upon the waves dispread. Others that, like the broad banana growing, Raised their long wrinkled leaves of purple hue, Like streamers wide o’erflowing.”—SouTHEY. THE animals belonging to this class were formerly regarded as vegetables. They were afterwards considered to be partly of an animal and partly of a vegetable nature, which idea is still conveyed in the term Zoophyte, a word derived from the Greek, and literally meaning “ animal-plant.” It is to the labours of John Ellis, a London merchant, who devoted much of his leisure to Natural History, and has shown that such studies are not incompatible with commercial pursuits, that science is indebted for the series of accurate observations which, about a century ago,* established the true position of these singular creatures as members of the animal kingdom. In the two former classes, the Infusoria and the Entozoa, *1754, 1755. ZOOPHYTES. 15 no radiated structure was externally apparent. In the present class, it begins to be manifested, not in the form of the body, but in the arrangement of the parts surrounding the mouth. These organs, or tentacula, being capable of considerable distension, and being used for the capture of food, probably suggested to the Greek naturalists the application to the animals of the word ‘‘polypi,”” the same which they applied to the many-armed Cuttle-fishes, to which externally they bear some resemblance. The Zoophytes or Polypes, for by both of these terms are they still designated, may be arranged in four great divisions, to each of which in turn our attention may be briefly directed. Orper IL—H YDROIDA.* In the first family (ZH 'ydraide) of the present order, is found the common fresh-water Hydra (#19. 7), a singular being, whose history is more strange than the strangest fairy tale. Two species are abundant in pouls and ditches during warm weather; one (H. Jusca), fur- nished with tentacula capable of being distended many times the length of its body; the other (H. viridis), witha shorter tentacula, and of a greenish colour. Seen in its contracted state, on the lower side of a leaf or a twig, floating on the water, it appears a little piece of jelly, not larger than the half of a pea. By extending and contracting its body, it can move along, and change its place at pleasure, executing Fig. 7.—Hypras, a variety of movements not unlike those of the Caterpillars hereafter mentioned as the “‘geometric.”” When it is engaged in taking food, its favourite position seems to be the vertical, which is maintained by a singular proceeding. The tail, or * The term means “ Hydra-like.” 16 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY, terminal sucker is exposed to the air until perfectly dry, in which state it repels the water, and thus becomes an instru- ment for sustaining the body of the little animal in a perpen- dicular position. In this attitude, the tail being at the surface of the water, the head underneath, it stretches out its ten- tacula, like so many fishing-lines, for the capture of its prey. These tentacula, there is reason to believe, possess the power of communicating some electric shock, or otherwise stunning the minute inhabitants of the water with which they come in contact a (7g. 8). The most common mode of re- production in the Hydra is that by gemmation or buds. Little . tubercles are observed to arise on the surface of the animal, Be which ere long assume the ap- pearance of the parent, and then separate; but not unfrequently, even while attached to the body we of the parent, the young Hydras ein ecckivens. throw out buds themselves. In this way, three or four young may be seen at the same time depending from the sides of the mother, and in different stages of growth— ‘‘Where some are in the bud, Some green, and rip’ning some, while others fall.” For our principal knowledge of the habits of the Hydra we are indebted to Trembley, of Geneva, a naturalist who lived in the last century, and devoted much time and attention tothe study of this class of animals. His discoveries were published in 1744; and some of the facts he elicited were so astounding that, at first, naturalists refused to give credit tothem. He found, for instance, that if a Hydra were divided into two parts, each division became a perfect Hydra, and that the same'thing occurred if the creature were cut into forty pieces. Further, he found that if one Hydra were taken, and, by careful management, pulled into the inside of another, the two became incorporated, or formed one body; and that the only ZOOPHYTES. 17 apparent difference, after the change had been effected, was in the increased number of tentacula which the animal ex- hibited about the mouth. The metamorphoses of which the Hydra was susceptible did not, however, end here. It might be turned inside out, as if it were the finger of a glove, so that what was the skin would become the stomach, and what had been the lining of the stomach would be converted into the skin. Trembley relates the following circumstance. On one occasion two Hydra—one stronger than the other—had seized a worm. Neither would let go its hold of the prey, and each went on devouring it. At length, however, the stronger Hydra made short work of it with his rival; for he not only swallowed the small worm, but his opponent also. It might be supposed that this tragic occurrence put an end to, at least, one of the combatants, but such was not the fact; for, after an hour or so, the smaller Hydra came forth unhurt. The Hydra is perfectly naked, having no kind of shell nor cover whatever, differing in this respect from the animals of the next family (Z'ubulariade). Two species of Tubularia, taken off the Irish coast, present the appearance of a number of convoluted tubes, each sur- mounted by a head of scarlet flowers, which the polype has not the power of withdrawing into the tube. It is difficuit to convey an idea of the beauty of these sea-born blossoms, when suddenly drawn up by the dredge from a depth of several fathoms, each seeming petal indued with life, and possessing a distinct power of motion. It has been observed* that, when those animals were kept in the same water for a day or two, the heads dropped off; but, if the water was then changed, new heads appeared, so that a succession of heads might be produced from one stem, with this difference, however, that each new head would have a smaller number of tentacula than the original one. The young are produced by means of germs, and as soon as they are endued with life they are observed to have rudiments of tentacula, but they do not use them for the purpose for which they are employed by the mature animal. It is an object on which 2 great degree of providential care is bestowed, that the young of marine animals should be widely diffused through * By Sir J. D. Dalyell. Vide Dr. Johnston’s ‘‘ History of British Zoophytes,” from which valuable work most of our information has been derived. Part I. B 18 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. the sea, at a distance from the places where the parents are fixed, and where they live and die. Were it not for this wise arrangement, the locality would, in time, cease to supply the conditions requisite for their existence, and the species must perish. The young Tubularie use the tenta- cula as feet, and, by their aid, remove themselves to a fitting distance from the locality of the parent. The polypes of the third family (Sertulariade*) resemble the Hydra in shape, and are retractile within their cells. Their common habitat or “polypidom”t assumes a tree-like aspect, reminding us, in some species, of miniature ferns and other vegetable productions. These are the corallines, whose fea- iy thery tufts decorate the ex- i terior of the common Oys- ter or Mussel to which they are frequently attached. The cells, numerous as they are, are each inha- bited by a polype, not as a mere occupant of the cell, and possessed of the power of leaving it at plea- sure, but forming, with the cell, the stem, and the root, one living mass. Each polype is connected by a thread with the medullary matter in the centre of each branch, and thus all the parts are united into a compound animal, fur- nished with a multitude of mouths; for each indi- = dual polype contributes, by the food he takes, to the nutriment of all. This structure will be easily understood by the magnified respresentation of one of these animals given in Fig. 9. The repetition of any Fig. 9.—SERTULARIAN ZOOPHYTE. * From sertulo, a little nosegay, wreath, or chaplet of flowers. + The term is applied to the horny sheath with which the soft body of the polypes is invested. ZOOPHYTES. 198° organ is indicative of a comparatively low grade of organiza- tion, and is found only in the lower divisions of the radiate group. An example of this occurs in the numerous stomachs of the polygastrica, and in the ova-producing segments of the body of one of the Entozoa. The multitude of hungry mouths, each collecting food for the entire group, may be regarded as another instance of the same kind of structure. All the cells are not alike. Among them are some of a larger size and different form, which, from their containing the germs or ova, are termed ‘‘ ovigerous vesicles.” The ova found in these vesicles are covered with hair-like cilia, which have the power of vibrating continually. By means of these, they are able to diffuse themselves over the bottom of the sea, and to swim about for a day or two, until they find a fitting place for their future habitation, and for the establishment of new and populous colonies. When the animal becomes fixed, it first spreads a little, so as to form a@ secure base; next, cells are observed; then branches teeming with their busy occupants are developed, and the coralline assumes the form characteristic of the species. Some calculations have been made respecting the number of individual polypes contained in some of these structures. A single plume of a species found upon our shores has been estimated to contain 500. ‘A specimen of no unusual size has twelve plumes; thus giving 6,000 polypes as the tenantry of a single polypidom! Now, many such specimens, all united too by a common fibre, and all the offshoots of one common parent, are often located on one sea-weed; the site, then, of a population which nor London nor Pekin can rival!* With regard to the growth of these corallines, it has been observed that the lower cells are developed soonest, and after a season drop off altogether. But ‘there are facts which appear to prove that the life of the individual polypes is even more transitory; that like a blossom they bud and blow, and fall off, or are absorbed, when another sprouts up from the me- dullary pulp to occupy the very cell of its predecessor, and, in its turn, to give way and be replaced by another.’’t Many of these animals possess luminous properties. If some of them, on the frond or broad-spreading leaf of a sea- weed, are subjected to a sudden shock, they give out an * Plumularia cristata. Johnston's Zoophytes, page 144. t+ Idem, page 89. 20 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. instantaneous flash—a peculiarity alluded to by Crabbe, with his usual minute accuracy :— ’* See, as they float along, th’ entangled weeds Slowly approach upborne on bladdery beads: Wait till they land, and you shall then behold The fiery sparks those tangled fronds unfold— Myriads of living points; th’ unaided eye Can but the fire, and not the form, descry.” Orper IL—ASTEROIDA. “ We'll dive where the gardens of coral lie darkling, And plant all the rosiest stems at thy head.”—Moore. THE animals of the present order are all marine. They are Fig. 10.—AsvEROID POLYrEs. never found singly, but in a com- munity, forming altogether a polype- mass, variable in form, strengthened in different ways, and having on its surface the cells in which the polypes live, and which open on the surface in a star-like figure, whence the order takes its name (F7g. 10). To this order belong the family of Pennatulide, or Sea-pens. One species, taken in abundance on some parts of the Irish coast, is the Vzr- guaria mirabilis, a name which denotes the beauty and singularity of its appearance, for it literally means ‘wonderful little rod.” It is dredged from a muddy bottom, in water a few fathoms deep, and comes up so perfectly clean, that fishermen sup- pose it stands erect at the bottom, with one extremity fixed in the mud. From the summit to the base of the Virgularia runs a long white, cal- careous substance—an axis uniform in thickness throughout. This is the first instance which has as yet come before us of an animal possessing the power of secreting calcareous ZOOPHYTES 21 matter; a power so remarkably developed in those polypes which are the builders of the coral reefs. If one of the wing- like expansions or “ pinnze” of the Virgularia is injured, the rest shrink as if all were hurt. The creature seems, however, to possess no motion beyond that of the pinne; nor, if put into a glass of water, does it change its position. To the same order belongs the group under which the ‘““Sea-fans”? are included. The species most commonly exhibited in museums is the Gorgonia flabellum, which has occasionally been thrown ashore on different parts of the coast of England and Scotland. As usually seen, the surface consists of a hard calcareous material; but originally this was covered with an irritable living membrane, in the cells of which the polypes lived. If the Sea-fan were formed throughout of a hard, unyielding substance, it must be broken to pieces by the waves; this danger is obviated by the central axis being composed of concrete albumen, a substance resembling horn, which bends under the force of streams and cwrents, and is Fig. 11.—Rep Corat. 22 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. thus preserved. An American poet has referred to this with equal beauty and accuracy,— ‘There, with a light and easy motion, The Fan-coral sweeps through the clear deep sea; And the yellow and scarlet tufts of ocean Are bending like corn on the upland lea.” In another species (Jsis Aippuris) may be observed an example of the varied but equally effective means by which the same security is attained. Here the stem is composed in part of a horny and in part of a calcareous substance, arranged in alternate joints, and thus uniting strength and flexibility. When recently taken, the stem is covered with one continuous living membrane, in which are the polype-cells. The common Red Coral resembles the Isis, in having a living rind in which the polypes find shelter (#%g. 11). Inside of this is found the calcareous substance known as the Red Coral of the Mediterranean. Its growth is slow, and its short, stunted stems require not, for their protection, the beautiful and effectual contrivances exhibited in the Gorgonia and the Isis. Orver IIl.—HELIANTHOIDA.* “ Seas have— As well as earth—vines, roses, nettles, melons, Mushrooms, pinks, gilliflowers, and many millions Of other plants, more rare, more strange, than these, As very fishes, living in the seas.”—_Du Barras. THE name of the present order denotes that the animals it in- cludes bear a resemblance to such flowers as the daisy, the marigold, and others, which the botanist terms ‘“‘compound” (/’7g. 12, 14). The most common native species are single,—with a fleshy body, live only in the sea, and have the mouth encircled with tubular tentacula. , Fig. 12.—SRA-ANEMONE. The common Sea-anemone, which is generally to be seen in the rock-pools round our shores (Actinia mesembryanthemum), may be taken as a * Like the Sun-flower. ZOOPHYTES. 23 familiar example, and one which will illustrate some of P the most striking structural peculiarities of the order. Viewed when the tide has receded, and the rocks are left dry, the Actinias,* which adhere to them, appear as fleshy, inert, hemispherical bodies, of an olive tinge, or of a liver- coloured vermillion, the tint being variable. But when the advancing tide has again covered them, they are roused to more active life, unfold their tentacula, and present the appearance of expanded flowers, as described by the poet: — ‘“* Meantime, with fuller reach and stronger swell, Wave after wave advanced ; Each following billow lifted the last foam That trembled on the sand with rainbow hues; The living flower that, rooted to the rock, Late from the thinner element Shrunk down within its purple stem to sleep, Now feels the water, and again Awakening, blossoms out All its green anther necks.”—SouTHey. Though found attached to the rocks, they are not fized there permanently, but can shift their place at pleasure. Some species are used as food for man, and, when boiled in sea-water, are saidtohave both thesmellandtaste of Lobster. They live upon small aquatic animals of every kind, includ- ing crustacea and shell-fish ; the hard and indigestible parts being rejected by the mouth, about ten or twelve hours after being swallowed. By the mouth, also, we have seen the young Actinias expelled, as miniature representatives of the parent, and furnished even then with minute tentacula. By attention in changing the water and supplying the necessary food, they can be kept alive for a considerable period, under the observation of the naturalist. Sir John G. Dalyell, of Edinburgh, bas had one living under his roof for a period of seventeen years.; They are said to exhibit, under such circumstances, great sensibility of atmospheric changes; so much so, indeed, that a French philosophert asserts that they might be of use as sea- barometers ; and he describes, in detail, the manifestations which indicate high winds and agitated waters, fair weather and a calm sea, and their intermediate states. Perhaps, however, no circumstance connected with these animals is more remarkable than their power of bearing mutilation. * The word literally means “‘a ray.” + This was in Aug., 1845; in 1848 it was still living and vigorous. } Dicquemare—quoted in Johnston’s Zoophytes, page 225. 24 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. If the tentacula be destroyed, others are soon after formed. If the animal be cut across into two distinct portions, the upper part continues to take food as usual, though for a time unable to retain it. If severed longitudinally, each half becomes perfect, so that two Actinias are produced; nay, if it be so destroyed that not a fragment is left except a portion of the base, a fresh offspring is soon raised up to fill the place of the parent. The following characteristic occurrence is related by Dr. Johnston:—“TI had once brought to me a specimen of Actinia gemmacea, that might have been originally two inches in diameter, and that had somehow contrived to swallow a valve of Pecten maximus,* of the size of an ordinary saucer. The shell fixed within the stomach was so placed as to divide it completely into two halves, so that the body, stretched tensely over, had become thin and flattened like a pancake. All communication between the inferior portion of the stomach and the mouth was of course prevented; yet, instead of emaciating and dying of atrophy, the animal had availed itself of what had un- doubtedly been.a very untoward accident to increase its enjoyments and its chances of double fare. A new mouth, furnished with two rows of nume- rous tentacula, was opened up on ~ what had been the base, and led to y the under-stomach. The indivi- dual had, indeed, become a sort of Siamese twin, but with greater in- timacy and extent in its unions!” Belonging to the same order, but to a different family from the Sea- anemones (Actiniide), are the Coral-building Polypes of tropical ase (Madrephylliwa), some of : : which have been taken in deep Pe water off the Bra went (Fig.13). Their structures have been the wonder of the navigator and the theme of the poet; and while Science endeavours to reveal the process by which they are upreared, she but adduces another example that, under the dispensations of Providence, the mightiest of works can be executed by the weakest of agents. _ The great extent of some of the coral reefs is very re- * The common Scallop, ZOOPHYTES. 95 markable. One on the east coast of New Holland is known to be nearly 1000 miles in length, and unbroken for a distance of 350 miles. Some groups in the Pacific are 1100 to 1200 in length, by 350 to 400 in breadth, and these are not formed in an expanse of deep and tranquil waters, but in the midst of an ocean which is ever breaking upon the barrier which the little architects are silently building in the midst of its uproar. “The ocean,” says Mr. Darwin, “throwing its breakers on these outer shores, appears an invincible enemy; yet we see it resisted, and even conquered, by means which seem at first most weak and inefficient. No periods of repose are granted, and the long swell caused by the steady action of the trade-wind never ceases. The breakers exceed in violence those of our temperate regions; and it is impos- sible to behold them without feeling a conviction that rocks of granite or quartz would ultimately yield and be demolished by such irresistible forces. Yet these low, in- significant coral islets stand, and are victorious ; for here another power, as antagonist to the former, takes part in the contest. The organic forces separate the atoms of carbonate of lime one by one from the foaming breakers, and unite them into a symmetrical structure; myriads of architects are at work day and night, month after month, and we see their soft and gelatinous bodies, through the agency of the vital laws, conquering the great mechanical power of the waves of an ocean which neither the art of man northeinanimate works of Nature could successfully resist.” It was formerly supposed that the coral-building polypes worked in unfathomable depths, and in the course of ages reared their pile to the surface of the water ; and it was also conjectured that the oval or circular form of the Lagoon islandsmight becaused by their being based upon the craters of extinct submarine volcanoes. Both these hypotheses are now abandoned. Recent and widely-extended observations have led to the conclusion that all the phenomena attending the growth and structure of coral reefs may be explained by reference to the combined operation of three causes :-— 1st,—That the species of polypes most efficient as coral- builders, work only at limited depths, not exceeding twenty or thirty fathoms.* * This may seem at variance with the fact, that in the immediate vicinity of some of tae Coral islands, the sea is of great, and sometimes 26 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. 2d,—That in the Pacifie and Indian oceans are tracts where a gradual subsidence of the bottom of the sea is going on; and \ 3d,—That the Polypes work most efficiently at the outer edge of the reef, where the water is the purest and best aérated, and where their food is most abundant. To enter into further details upon this subject would here be out of place. But this brief notice of the labours of Coral-building Polypes cannot receive a more appropriate close than that which has been furnished by the poet:— ‘Millions of millions thus, from age to age, With simplest skill and toil unweariable, No moment and no movement unimproved, Laid line on line, on terrace terrace spread, To swell the heightening, brightening, gradual mound, By marvellous structure climbing tow’rd the day. »Each wrought alone, yet all together wrought. Unconscious, not unworthy instruments, By which a hand invisible was rearing A new creation in the secret deep. Omnipotence wrought in them, with them, by them; Hence what Omuipotence alone could do Wornis did. Isaw the living pile ascend, The mausoleum of its architects, Still dying upwards as their labours closed: Slime the material, but the slime was turned To adamant by their petrific touch; Frail were their frames, ephemeral their lives, ’ Their masonry imperishable.”—MontTGoMEry’s PELICAN Ist.anp of unfathomable depth. Butif, according to Mr. Darwin’s theory, the polypes began originally to build at moderate depths, and the founda- tions of their structure were gradually carried downwards by the pro- longed subsidence of the bottom of the sea, itis obvious, from his state- ments, that the ceaseless labours of the pclypes are capable, in the lapse of time,of producing all the phenomena described. Vide Darwin’s interesting work on the Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, and an able analysis of his theory in Lye!l’s Principles of Geol., vol. iii. Fig. 14.—dea AntMone. ZOOPHYTES, 27 Orpver IV.—ASCIDIOIDA. THERE is among the molluscous or soft-bodied animals, which in popular language are known as “shell-fish,” a numerous order in which the animals are covered, not with calcareous shells, but with a soft membranous covering or tunic, and are hence called tunicated mollusca. Among them is a genus bearing the name of “ Ascidia,” one species of which is everywhere abundant round our coast. To this the Zoophytes of the present order bear such resemblance in structure, that the name “Ascidioida” is employed todenote the likeness.* Fig, 15.—P?’LoMaTeLLA.—a, natural size.—2d, a group, magnified. These Polypes are not separated, but aggregated; their polypidoms are very variable, both in form and in material; sometimes enamelling with delicate net-work the frond of a seaweed or the exterior of a bivalve shell, at others rising into the aspect of miniature plants, or broad leaf-like expansions. They are furnished with distinct orifices for the reception of food, and for throwing off its undigested remains (J%g. 15). Round the mouth is a circle of retractile tentacula covered with * May, 3854. Recent investigations have shown that this is not a mere resembiance, but a real affinity—that they are formed on the true molluscan type, and should be placed with the MoNusca Tunicata, 28 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. cilia, from which circumstance the order has been aptly termed ‘‘ciliobrachiata.” These cilia are “contrived a double debt to pay,” for they not only create currents which bring their food within the reach of the Polypes, but they are organs of respiration, and find in the aérated water which surrounds them the means of fulfilling their appointed functions. To this class of Zoophytes belong the “ Sea-mats;” or, to use a more scientific term, the species of the genus “ flustra,” a word derived from the Saxon, and signifying to weave. Some of these encrust shells or seaweed, others present a foliated appearance of a determinate pattern. They furnish another example of the great abundance of animal life in some of the lower tribes. Though not thicker than common letter- paper, they exhibit, either on one or both sides, successive rows of cells, each of which has been occupied by its own inhabitant. In one species found on the Irish coast, and with cells upon one side only, Dr. Grant calculates “there are more than eighteen cells in a square line, or 1,800 in a square inch of surface, and the branches of an ordinary specimen present about ten square inches of surface; so that a common specimen of Flustra carbasea presents more than 18,000 polypi, 396,000 tentacula, and 39,600,000 cilia.” The spectacle presented by one of these polypidoms, when in a saucer containing sea-water, and placed under the micro- scope, is full of interest.’ Whether the animals -lie in a state of repose, or with the tentacula expanded and in full activity, their aspect and motions are all indicative of happiness. This conviction enhances the pleasure with which we regard them; for truly has the poet said,— ‘The heart is hard in nature that is not pleased With sight of animals enjoying life, Nor feels their happiness augment his own.”—-Cowren. To the scientific zoologist, it is highly instructive te con- template the affinities which connect these Polypes with creatures so highly organised as the Mollusca. Many similar examples occur in his researches, linking together in close relationship beings which are widely severed in his classifi- cation, and showing that ‘the chain of beings” of which the poet has sung has no real existence in nature. 29 Crass RADIARIA, on RAYED ANIMALS. “The firmament : Was thronged with constellations, and the sea Strewn with their images.”—James MontGomeryY. Fig. 16.—Star-Fisn. WE have now reached the fourth, or highest class of the radiated animals. In these the radiated structure is not con- fined to the nervous system, or to the arrangement of the parts surrounding the mouth: it extends to the form of the body, and is strikingly manifested in the common Jelly-fish, or in any one of the various Star-fishes (Fig. 16) so abundant on our coast. The two examples just mentioned point to an obvious and very natural division of the class. The soft and gelatinous tribes belong to a group of animals whose domain is the wide and open sea; the Star-fish and the Sea-urchin, to a community whose members feed upon garbage and shell-fish, at fathomable depths. The integument or covering of each of these groups of animals is suited to the situation which they are destined to occupy. That of the gelatinous Radiaria is soft and membranous; that of the other is hard, coriaceous, and prickly; thus furnishing a defence against the perils which those species must encounter whose habitat is on coasts exposed to the violence of the ocean. To the former of these two groups, distinguished, because of their stinging powers, by the term Acaléphe, a Greek word signifying nettles, our attention may in the first instance be directed. 30 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. OrpER ACALEPHE, OR SEA-NETTLES. “ Awhile to wait upon the firm fair sand, When all is calm at sea, all still at land; And these the ocean’s produce to explore, As floating by, or rolling on the shore; Those living jellies which the flesh inflame, Fierce as a nettle and from that its name; Some in huge masses, some that you may bring In the small compass of a lady’s ring; Figured by hand Divine—there’s not a gem Wrought by man’s art to be compared to them; Soft, brilliant, tender, through the wave they glow, And make the moonbeam brighter where they flow.” —CrarpE. There is much in the structure of these creatures to excite our surprise. Their frail and gelatinons bodies (F%g. 17) seem little else than a mass of vivified sea-water. or some analogous fluid; ‘ For,” says Professor Owen, * “Jet this fluid part of alarge Medusa, which may weigh two pounds when recently removed from the sea, drain from the solid parts of the body, and these, when dried, will be repre- sented by a thin film of membrane, not ex- ceeding thirty grains in weight.” They baffle the skill of the Fig. 17.—PELacia. anatomist by the very simplicity of their structure. Feeble as they appear, fishes * Lectures on the Anatomy of the Invertebrate Animals, p. 102. It is to this work we refer in cases where we merely give the name of its distinguished author, without special mention of some one of his other muunerous contributions to scielce. RADIARIA. 31 and crustacea are quickly dissolved in their stomachs. The organism of their stinging power is yet but imperfectly understood, and the luminosity which many species possess equally demands investigation. They are found in all seas, and please the eye, both by their glassy transparency and by their brilliant hues. ; To the different species of Acalephex, as to those of other animals, whether inhabitants of the land or of the water, there is allotted a certain range of geographical distribution, They are known within certain boundaries, and beyond these they are rarely found. Now and then, indeed, the winds and the currents bring to our shores marine animals, the inhabitants of warmer climates; and such are, of course, objects extreme interest to the naturalist. Some of these may here be mentioned, because they exem- plify the great variety of aspect which species belonging to the present division assume, and afford examples of some of its most remarkable families. In 1838, an animal (Diphya elongata*) not previously known as an inhabitant of European seas, was captured in Belfast Bay. Its length was about an inch and a half, and its transparency such that the eye could scarcely detect its presence, when the creature was swimming about in a vessel of sea-water. The most remarkable peculiarity in its structure seems to be the facility with which it divides into two parts, each of which continues to exercise powers of voluntary motion, leaving the spectator in doubt whether he is more correct in saying, that it is one animal which easily separates into two, or two animals usually found conjoined in one. Another inhabitant of the seas of warmer latitudes is the Physalia, or Portuguese Man-of-war, fleets of which are some- times wrecked upon our southern shores. It exhibits a crest which rises above the surface of the sea, and is enriched with tints of the richest blue and purple. Sometimes it happens that the sea of our northern shores is enlivened by the mimic fleets of another navigator, the little Velella. On a bluish oval dise it exhibits a snowy, cartila- ginous crest, fixed obliquely across, which has been compared to the lateen-sail of the Malay boatmen. Thus propelled, the * Hyndman in Annals of Nat. Hist. vol. vii. page 164. 32 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. living squadrons of this little mariner (Jig. 18), have been observed while passing the picturesque headlands of the Giant’s Causeway, or the basaltic bulwarks of the harbour of Ballycastle, on the coast of the County Antrim. SQ wee " = SSRN ; LL pa a re We see, iy nee Fig. 18.—VELELLA. Upon the southern shores it is, however, of more frequent occurrence. There the specimen was taken of which, by the kindness of Professor Allman, we are enabled to give a figure of the natural size. The original drawing by that gentleman was from a living Velella, respecting which he remarks:— “The individual who sat, or rather floated, for his likeness, was one of a fleet of countless multitudes, which, in the Autumn of 1836, was driven upon the coast of the County of Cork. On the subsidence of the gale, which had been blowing strongly from the south-west, the coast for miles round was strewn with the remains of the shipwrecked fleet.” The occurience of species such as those mentioned, is rare ; and it is, therefore, desirable to convey some knowledge of the structure and habits of the Acalephx, not by those which may seldom or perhaps never be observed by the generality of men, but by those which are abundant on our shores, and may be seen and studied by all. If, during the fine weather of summer or autumn, a gauze towing-net be attached to a boat which is rowed gently along, it is probable that, if the net be examined after a short time, there will: be found among its contents some transparent bodies, differing in size, but in general about as large as a boy’s marble. Externally they exhibit ridges like those of a BEROES. 33 melon, and are in form not unlike an orange or an apple, from which circumstance they take their specific name (Cydippe pomiformis, Fig. 19).* If gently lifted from the net, and placed in a glass of sea-water, the little animals will begin to move by means of eight bands of vibratile cilia, which extend Fig. 19.—CypiprPe. from the upper to the lower extremity of the body. From this peculiar mode of locomotion, they are termed ciliogrades, and constitute a family which is distinguished by the classic appellation of Beroé, from one of the fabled sea-nymphs. Specimens of the Cydippe, when recently taken, form most attractive objects, even tothe unscientific. Their cilia, which act like so many little paddles on the water, produce a beau- tiful iridescence, and suggest, as not inapplicable, the language of the poet,— ‘“‘ Gay creatures of the element, That in the colours of the rainbow live.’ *_Miirox, Their movements are incessant and ever-varying. The little animals can rise or fall at pleasure, executing, as they meve up and down, a whole series of gyrations; or without actual * Transactions of Royal Irish Academy, vol. xix. p. 91. PART L. C 34 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. change of place, can perform with rapidity and ease a rotation which would put to shame the most finished pirouettes of the opera-dancer. During these movements the form of the body is not uufrequently altered, and the lobes of the mouth become more or less distended. These diversified aspects are further increased by the distension or the retraction of two tentacula, furnished on one side with cirri, which are sometimes spread out like delicate hairs, and, at others, are spirally convoluted. By these singular organs the little Beroé can attach itself to the sides or bottom of its glassy prison, and ride, as if at anchor, moored by these singular and delicate cables. Its food appears to consist of small crustacea,* which may be seen in the transparent stomach for some time after being swallowed. Insensibility to pain, and a continuance of vitality for a long period in mutilated parts, seem to prevail in this, as in some of the other animals already mentioned. When, after a storm, Beroés are taken in a shattered condition, each fragment of their body continues the action of its cilia unim- paired. On one occasion, the author severed one of these fragments into portions so minute, that one piece of skin had but two cilia remaining attached to it; yet the vibration of these organs continued for nearly a couple of days afterwards. On another occasion, a species of Medusa or small jelly-fish, which was furnished with four arms, came in contact with a Cydippe confined in the same glass; the arms immediately closed, and the Cydippe was a prisoner. The diameter of the Medusa was not much greater than that of a sixpence; but it maintained its hold, though we endeavoured to liberate the captive by pushing its conqueror with the stick of a camel-hair pencil. When, at length, it had regained its liberty, the Medusa was found to have cut away a piece fully equal to the one-third of that side it had seized, or a sixth of the entire bulk of the body; yet the Beroé seemed quite unconscious of this mutilation, and did not evince any diminution of its activity or its enjoyment. It is one of the advantages of natural history pursuits, that they furnish occupation and enjoyment when, from recent indisposition or other causes, either mind or body is unfit for * We saw them, in May, 1835, feeding on two species then undeseribed, but now named and figured by Templeton in the Trans. of the Entomo- - logical Society, vol. ii. MEDUSZ OR JELLY-FISH. 35), laborious exertion. At such a period, in a retired locality on the Antrim coast, the ever-graceful Beroés first attracted our attention, and made the summer day seem too short for the inquiries and researches which they suggested. A species larger than the Cydippe, and different in form, is also generally diffused round our coast. Its occurrence is more rare, yet it sometimes appears in such abundance, that in Bangor Bay, County Down, we took, on one occasion, one hundred and thirty of them in twenty-five minutes. Its body is more fragile, its movements less active, and it is furnished with four ear-like appendages, which are ever changing in their form. When the water in which it is kept is shaken at night, or in a dark place, splendid coruscations, of a beautiful greenish light, are emitted, especially under the several bands of cilia. On one occasion we placed some specimens of this species (Bolina Hibernica)* in a jar on the chinmey-piece, and so transparent were the bodies, that the blossoms of some flowers which were also there were distinctly seen through them. It was impossible to look upon these bright-tinted blossoms of earth, and on those colourless, yet not less delicate children of ocean, and not feel that both must have enjoyed the guardianship of Him from whom all their loveliness was derived;—that He who had for ages preserved the flowers from perishing by frost, or wind, or rain, had likewise saved the Beroés from destruction, amid the wild tempests of the ocean. The other great division of the Acalephe is that to which the jelly-fish, which is so abundantly strewed upon the beach during the summer months, belongs. This group is divided into Many genera, comprising about three hundred species. Some are furnished with a central peduncle, and resemble a mushroom with its stalk; others have its place supplied by prehensile arms; some have one simple central mouth, in others both its structure and position are different; in some the margin is furnished with long contractile tentacula, whence the well-known stinging secretion is supplied; in others, this formidable apparatus is altogether wanting. These differences, which are easily observable, enable the naturalist to classify the gelatinous Medusz, for such is their collective appellation. Their locomotion is effected by the contraction and expansion * Trans. ft. I. Academy, vol. xix. p. 156. 36 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. of the outer margin of the disc, the animal striking the water in the opposite direction to that in which it is moving. The motion is easy and graceful, admitting of progress in any direction, The lower surface of the dise is covered with a delicate net-work of vessels, in which the circulating fluids are exposed to the oxygen contained in the sea-water. Each contraction of the margin, therefore, not only impels the animal in its course, but assists in the process of respiration; and, as the moving and the breathing are thus dependent on the performance of the same act, the term pulmonigrades* has been applied to these animals; a term no less descriptive than that of “ciliogrades,” which, as already mentioned, has been bestowed upon the preceding group. The Medusz differ extremely in size. Some are occa- sionally thrown upon our coast which are as large as a good- sized umbrella. While writing these pages, we have before us, in a jar of sea-water, several which are not larger than peas, and some which scarcely exceed in dimensions the head of a large-sized pin. Some species are adorned with brilliant colours, and equal in the richness of their hues the brightest of our garden flowers. When, from a small boat, they are beheld rising and falling at pleasure, in a glassy and transparent sea, and oceasionally turning over in the apparent exuberance of en- joyment, they are so very attractive as to excite the as- CEE tonishment of the child, while they furnish matter for the contemplation of the na- turalist. g Considerable variety pre- vails in the organs for the re- ception andassimilation of the food. In the genus Rhizos- toma (Fig. 20), the arms or peduncles which hang down from the lower surface of the umbrella-shaped disc, are : furnished at their extremity Fig. 2U.—itnizosi oma. with a multitude of pores. By these, the minute animalcules, or the juices of decaying * Pulmo, a lung; and gradior, I walk, or advance. MEDUS£ OR JELLY-FISH. 37 animal substances of larger dimensions, are imbibed, and form the nutriment of the animal. In the genus Cyanea, which is so extremely abundant on our coast, the food is taken by one four-lipped mouth, and is of a coarser kind, consisting prin- cipally of crustacea and small fishes. A provision for throwing off the undigested portions is therefore required, and we ac- cordingly find that no less than eight canals lead from the centre of the dise to the outer margin, and are appropriated exclusively to this use; an apparatus which, in the other genus, was not wanted, and which, accordingly, had no existence. To the minute and laborious researches of modern natu- ralists, we are indebted for a knowledge of the fact, that the sexes in these animals are separate, and that the ova, or eggs, undergo a singular and highly interesting series of trans- formations before assuming the likeness of the parent. The species of Medusa most abundant on our coasts during the early part of the summer (Cyanea aurita) is well known by the four conspicuous lunar or heart-shaped figures which it exhibits. These are of a pinkish or purplish colour, and are, in fact, the ovaries. Four pouches are observed on the lower surface of the body. To these the young, at a certain period, are transferred from the ovaries, and undergo a species of development analogous to that of the young qua- drupeds of Australia in the marsupial pouch of the mother. After changes in their size and colour, they exhibit a change of form, become clothed with vibratile cilia, and, leaving the maternal pouch, swim freely about, the larger extremity being always in advance (fig. 21). The little creature soon at- 21. 22. 23. - 24. DEVELOPMENT OF THE MEDUS2. taches itself to some fixed object (Fig. 22), and four arms appear, surrounding a central mouth (/%g. 23). The arms lengthen, four additional ones are developed, all are highly con- tractile, covered with cilia, and actively employed in the capture Pd 38 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. of food. The number of these arms increases until it reaches twenty-four or thirty; and the body, originally about the size of a grain of sand, becomes a line, or the twelfth part of an inch in length. The animal, in its free state, swims about in the manner of the Polygastric animalcules; in its present con- dition, it presents an analogy to the habits of the Rotifera. During the winter months, it remains in security, ‘‘ where the waves have no strife,”” and even throws out germs, or buds, which in time become perfect Meduse (Jig. 24). But, with the approach of spring, the body becomes marked with trans- verse lines (Fig. 25), which gradually assume a wrinkled or furrowed appearance. These furrows become deeper, dividing the body into from ten to fifteen distinct portions, which, for a time, remain in contact, but without organic connexion, “like piled-up cups”* Jig. 26). After complete separation, 25. 27. 26. DEVELOPMENT OF THE MEDUSE&. each part swims freely about, presenting an appearance so unique, that the young, in this state, has been figured and described as belonging to a new genus (/%g. 27). The last change observable is its putting on the appearance of the perfect animal, and under the influence of the sun, the waves, and the currents, becoming a mature Medusa. ‘ We thus see,”’ says Professor Owen, ‘‘that a Medusa may actually be generated three successive times, and by as many distinct modes of generation—by fertile ova, by gemmation, and by spontaneous fission—before attaining its mature condition.” Our admiration of the various functions performed by the * Such is the expression employed by Steenstrup in his Memoir “on the Alternation of Generations ;” published by the Ray Society, 1845 The facts and illustrations we give on the authority of Steenstrup, Sars and other distinguished naturalists. MEDUS OR JELLY-FISH, 39 Acalephe is much increased when we reflect upon the ex- tremely small quantity of solid matter which enters into their composition. This fact admits of easy illustration, both in the Beroés and in the Meduse. On one occasion we took a dead Cydippe, and placing it on a piece of glass, exposed it to the sun. As the moisture evaporated, the different parts appeared as if confusedly painted on the glass, and when it was become perfectly dry, a touch removed the only vestiges of what had been so lately a graceful and animated being. With regard to the Medusx, we may mention an anecdote which we learned from an eminent zoologist, now a professor in one of the English universities. He had, a few years ago, been delivering some zoological lectures in a seaport town in Scotland, in the course of which he had adverted to some of the most remarkable points in the economy of the Acalephe. After the lecture, a farmer who had been present came forward, and inquired if ke had understood him correctly, as having — stated that the Medusx contained so little of solid material, that they might be regarded as little else than a mass of ani- mated sea-water? On being answered in the affirmative, he remarked that it would have saved him many a pound had he known that sooner, for he had been in the habit of employ- ing his men and horses in carting away large quantities of jelly-fish from the shore, and using them as manure on his farm, and he now believed they could have been of little more real use than an equal weight of sea-water. Assuming that so much as one ton weight of Medusz recently thrown on the beach had been carted away in one load, it will be found that, according to the experiments of Professor Owen already men- tioned,* the entire quantity of solid material would be only about four pounds of avoirdupois weight, an amount of solid material which, if compressed, the farmer might, with ease, have carried home in one of his coat pockets! Perhaps there is no circumstance connected with this class of animals more attractive or more remarkable than the power they possess of emitting a beautiful phosphorescent light; and, in some of the larger Mednsz, this is of such intensity, that they have been compared to balls of fire suspended in the water. * Vide ante, page 30. 40 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. To those who delight in the contemplation of such pheno- mena, it affords high gratification to observe from a boat, on a calm night, the effulgence which these creatures shed over the depths below. We have always, at such times, been re- minded of the wild and beautiful lines of Coleridge:— ‘“« Beyond the shadow of the ship I watched the water-snakes ; They moved in tracks of shining white, And when they reared, the elfish light Fell off in hoary flakes. “« Within the shadow of the ship I watched their rich attire: Blue, glossy green, and velvet black; They coiled and swam, and every track Was a flash of golden fire. “OQ happy living things! ne tongue Their beauty might declare: A spring of love gushed from my heart, And I blessed them unaware.” Professor Rymer Jones, in speaking of the luminosity of the ocean, which is principally owing to the Acalephe, remarks :—‘* We have more than once witnessed this pheno- menon in the Mediterranean, and the contemplation of it is | well calculated to impress the mind with a consciousness of | the profusion of living beings existing around us. ‘The light is not constant, but only emitted when agitation of any kind disturbs the microscopic Medusx which crowd the surface of the ocean; a passing breeze, as it sweeps over the tranquil bosom of the sea, will call from.the waves a flash of brilliancy which may be traced for miles; the wake of a ship is marked by a long track of splendour; the oars of your boat are raised dripping with living diamonds; and if a little of the water be taken up in the palm of the hand, and slightly agitated, luminous points are perceptibly diffused through it, which emanate from innumerable little Acalepha, scarcely perceptible without the assistance of a microscope. All, however, are not equally minute; the Beroés, in which the cilia would seem to be most vividly phosphorescent, are of considerable size; the Cestum Veneris, as it glides rapidly along, has the ap- pearance of an undulating ribbon of flame several feet in length; and many of the larger Pulmonigrade forms shine with such dazzling brightness, that they have been described MEDUS OR JELLY-FISH. 4) by navigators as resembling ‘ white-hot shot,’ visible at some depth beneath the surface.” * The phenomenon is not, however, confined to warmer lati- tudes. Sir Walter Scott, in his ‘* Lord of the Isles,” has de- scribed it in our own seas:— “« Awaked before the rushing prow, The mimic fires of ocean glow, Those lightnings of the wave; Wild sparkles crest the broken tides, And, flashing round the vessel’s sides, With elfish lustre lave, While, far behind, their livid light To the dark billows of the night A gloomy splendour gave.” The power of emitting light is possessed by several species of marine animals, among the Polypes, Annelids, Crustacea, and Mollusca. It was formerly a question, to what cause the ‘luminosity of the sea was to be attributed ? By some philo- sophers it was supposed to be owing to the decay of animal substances which it contained; while others conjectured that it arose from a kind of electricity peculiar to itself. These hypotheses are now abandoned, and it is universally admitted, that the phosphorescence of the sea is owing to that of its living inhabitants, more especially of those which belong to the present order; and it has been found, that the species of Meduse most instrumental in producing the luminosity of the ocean, are those which are the most minute. Perhaps no writer has succeeded in giving a clearer idea of the myriads of small Medusez with which great tracts of the sea are peopled, than Scoresby. On examining a bucket of the olive-green water of the Greenland sea, he found its pe- culiar colour was owing to the multitude of minute Meduse which it contained. ‘They were about the one-fourth of an inch asunder. .In this proportion, a cubic inch of water must contain 64; a cubic foot, 110,592; a cubic fathom, 23,887,872; and acubical mile, 23,888,000,000,000,000!” * Provided the depth to which they extend be but 250 fathoms, the above immense number of one species may occur in a space of two miles square. It may give a better conception of the amount of Medusz in this extent if we calculate the * Outline of the Animal Kingdom, page 77. 42 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. length of time that would be requisite, with a certain number of persons, for counting this number. Allowing that one person could count a million in seven days, which is barely possible, it would have required that 80,000 persons could have started at the creation of the world, to complete the enumeration at the present time!” ‘What a stupendous idea this fact gives of the immensity of creation, and of the bounty of Divine Providence in furnish- ing such a profusion of life, in a region so remote from the habitations of men! But if the number of animals in a space of two miles square be so great, what must be the amount requisite for the discolouration of the sea, through the extent of perhaps twenty or thirty thousand square miles?’”’* Even if the learned author, from whom this extract is taken, should prove to be incorrect in his supposition as to the depth to which the Medusz extend, the spirit of his argument would remain unshaken. His observations prove, that they people, in countless multitudes, tracts of ocean which, without them, would be uninhabited, thus filling its vast expanse with life, and with the enjoyment by which life is accompanied; while, at the same time, they furnish an inexhaustible supply of food to whales and other cetacea, and many of the less bulky in- habitants of the deep. Thus, minute though they are, they indirectly contribute to the welfare of man, and exercise an influence on his social relations. GLASS RADIARIA—CONTINUED. OrpER EcnINODERMATA, OR STAR-FISHEs. “ As there are stars in the sky, so there are stars in the sea.”"—LINK. Tue second great division of the rayed animals comprises all those which have a hard coriaceous integument (Jig. 28), covered, in some species, with prickles like those of the hedgehog. The word ‘“ Echinus” means hedgehog; the word ‘‘derma,” a coat or covering. Hence the compound word “‘ Echinodermata” is an appropriate and characteristic * Scoresby’s Arctic Regions, vol, i, page 179. STAK-FISHES. 43 term, as applied to all those creatures whose integument is coriaceous or prickly. The Echinodermata exhibit, in many respects, .an entire contrast to the Acalephe. That of their covering is obvious to the most cursory observer; that of their internal structure 18 not less remarkable. The anatomist is baffled by the seeming simplicity and uniformity of texture in the gelatinous Fig. 28. —STaR-FISH. Radiaries; in the harder, or spine-clad species, the extreme complexity and diversity of their constituent parts is found to be no less perplexing.* All the animals of this class are marine, and in their adult state move freely about. The sexes are distinct, and the young are produced from ova, which, in a certain stage of their development, become covered with minute cilia. They then come forth as ciliated gemmules, are diffused over the bottom of the sea, and undergo a series of transformations analagous to those described in the Meduse. The observations of a Norwegian naturalistt have made us aware of an interest- * Owen, page 112. { Sars, vide Annals Nat. Hist. Oct. 1844, page 233, and plate III: 44 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. ing fact respecting the maternal solicitude evinced in a species of Star-fish, found upon our own shores (Cribella oculata, Fig. 29). The mother, by bending the arms and the lower surface of the body, forms a receptacle which, in its uses, may be compared to that of the marsupial animals, or to the pouckes of the Meduse. Here the ova are hatched; and for the space of eleven successive days, during which this process is going eee on, the female Star-fish has re- Mitts mained in the same recurved and contracted state, and without the possibility of taking nourish- ment during that period. We do not, at present, know any other example of an animal voluntarily forming a receptacle for the development of its young exterior to its own body, and enduring the privations consequent upon such a pro- cedure. In this group, we find animals of extremely dissimilar appearance associated together. One species is attached for a certain period to a stem, and resembles a Polype with its waving and sensitive arms. In the common Star-fish, or “‘five-fingers,” we have the arms radiating from a common centre. In the Sea-urchins, there are no arms, and the form of the body is globular, and, passing over some intermediate gradations of figure, we reach creatures which, in external aspect, resemble worms, and have even been classed as such. At one extremity of the range, the Echinodermata remind us of Polypes—creatures of inferior organization; at the other extremity, they approach the annulose* animals, whose struc- ture is of a higher grade. Those occupying the centre of the group may be regarded, therefore, as the types or represen- tatives of the class. In Professor Forbes’ ‘ History of the British Star-fishes,”’t the entire class is divided into six families. The first of these includes those animals which, in a fossil state, are known as = = Fig. 29.—Eyvep CRIBELLA. * A term derived from annulus, a ring, and applied to animals which like the Earth-worm are composed of a succession of rings. ¢ John Van Voorst: London. This is one of that beautiful series of Natural History works, for which we are indebted to that enterprising publisher. From it we have copied figures 31 and 32; the latter reduced. STAR-FISHES. 45 “stone-lilies” (Fig. 30), and the term (Crinoidee) applied to the family is one which simply means “‘lily-like.”’ The abundance of these animals in former ages, and their present scarcity, have suggested the following paragraph, which we extract from the work just referred to. ‘One of the most remarkable phenomena displayed to us by the researches of the geologist, is the evidence of the existence, in primeval times, of animals and plants, the analogues of which are now rare or wanting on our lands and in our seas. Among those tribes which haye become all but extinct, but which once presented numerous generic modifications of form and structure, the order of Crinoid Star-fishes is most pro- minent. Now scarcely a dozen kinds of these beautiful animals live in the seas of our globe, and individuals of these kinds are comparatively rarely to be met‘ with: formerly they were among the most nu- merous of the ocean’s inhabitants;—so numerous that the remains of their skele- tons constitute great tracts of the dry land as it now appears. For miles and miles we may walk over the stony fragments of the Crinoidee; fragments which were once built up in animated forms, encased in living flesh, and obeying the will of creatures among the loveliest of the in- habitants of the ocean. Even in their present disjointed and petrified state, they excite the admiration, not only of the naturalist, but of the common gazer; and the name of stone-lily, popularly applied to them, indicates a popular appreciation of their beauty.” Fig. 30.—ENcRINITE. We have already seen, among the Zoophytes, instances of the secretion of calcareous matter within a living body. If we suppose a Polype on a long-jointed stalk, extending five pair of arms, composed of a vast number of pieces, all uni- formly shaped and jointed together, we shall have some idea of what these animals were in their living state. The detached i 8 ; s . \) 46 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. vertebra are well described by the common English name of ‘‘wheel-stones.” ‘The perforations in the centre of these joints, affording a facility for stringing them as beads, has caused them, in ancient times, to be used as rosaries.* In the northern parts of England, they still retain the appellation of St. Cuthbert’s beads.” Sir Waiter Scott has, with his usual felicity, referred to the circumstance in his poem of Marmion :— “ But fain St. Hilda’s nuns would learn If, on a rock by Lindisfarn, St. Cuthbert sits, and toils to frame The sea-born beads that bear his name.”—Cawnro IT. The race of Crinoid Star-fishes was believed to be altogether extinct in European seas, when, in 1823, Mr. J. V. Thompson \ announced the discovery, in the / Cove of Cork, of a diminutive species measuring only three- quarters of an inch in length. In 1836, the same gentleman pro- claimed that this was the young state of the Star-fish known as the Rosy-feather-star (Comatula rosacea, Fig. 31). The actual change of the animal, from its fixed and pedunculated state into its free condition, had not actually been seen by this intelligent ob- server. But at length the matter was placed beyond any possibility of doubt. “When dredging,” says Pro- fessor Forbes, “in Dublin Bay, in August, 1840, with my friends Mr. R. Ball and Mr. W. Thomp- son, we found numbers of the Phytocrinus or polype state of the Feather-star, more advanced Fig. 31.—PoLype STATE OF THE FEATHER-STAR (MAGNIFIED). than they had ever been seen before; so advanced that we saw the creature drop from its stem, and swim about a true * Buckland’s Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i. page 424. STAR-FISHES. 47 Comatula; nor could we find any difference between it and the perfect animal, when examining it under the microscope. * The species which formed the subject of these interesting observations has five pair of beautifully pinnated arms, and is of a deep rose colour, dotted over with minute brown spots, which are regarded as the ovaries. It is dredged up on many parts of the Irish coast, and is occasionally found upon the strand. The first specimen we ever possessed was taken on the beach about six miles from Belfast, and was brought to that town alive. Anxious to secure so attractive a specimen for the cabinet, we placed it in a shallow vessel of fresh water, and found, to our surprise, that it emitted a fluid, which imparted to the water a roseate tinge. The second family consists of those Star- fishes which have a roundish central body, furnished with five long arms, not unlike the tails of Serpents (Fig. 32) ; and as the word ophiura means a Ser- pent’s tail, the term Ophiuride las been adopted as the family apellation. § These arms are not furnish- ed with suckers, like those of the next division, nor do they contain any prolonga- tion of the digestive organs. They are merely arms external to the body, and easily separated from it at the pleasure of the animal; from which circumstance the English name of “‘ Brittle-stars” has been bestowed upon the tribe. Its members differ very much in size and appearance. Some of them measure as much as sixteen inches in diameter; others are so small, that a score or two of them might be displayed on an ordinary visiting-card. Those who have looked upon such objects only in the dried and rigid aspect they present in our museums, can form no idea of the flexibility, variety, and beauty which they present in the living state. We have, on * Ophiura terturata. Forbes, p. 22. Fig.32.—ComMon Sanb-5Tak. * 48 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. many occasions, seen a dredge come up half filled with a spine-covered species (Ophiura rosula) everywhere abundant round the coast, and can bear testimony to the accuracy of Professor Forbes’ description :—‘“ Of all ournative Brittle-stars, this is the most common and the most variable. It is also one of the handsomest, presenting every variety of variega- tion, and the most splendid displays of vivid hues arranged in beautiful patterns. Not often do we find two specimens coloured alike. It varies also in the length of the ray-spines, the spinousness of the disc, and the relative proportions of rays and disc; and in some places it grows to a much greater size than in others. It is the most brittle of all Brittle-stars, separating itself into pieces with wonderful quickness and ease. Touch it, and it flings away an arm; hold it, and in a moment not an arm remains attached to the body.” The word aster means a star, and the term Asteriade is applied to the third family; that to which the true Star- fishes, or those which are typical of the class, belong. If we take from our cabinets a dried specimen of the common Cross-fish, or ‘ Five-fingers,”’ we find the mouth on the lower surface of the central disc, and five rays, with deep grooves throughout their entire length. Each groove contains a multitude of small orifices, through each of which, when alive, the animal could protrude a tubular organ, capable of adhering to the surface of any body to which it was applied. By such means, its prey can with ease be overcome, dragged into the oral orifice in the centre of the rays, and devoured. But these suckers, which render the Cross-fish so formidable ap. assailant, are not only organs of prehension—they are also organs of locomotion. To appreciate them aright, they must be seen in action; for words alone will not convey an adequate idea of the singularity and beauty of their mechanism. On this subject, we prefer the words of Professor Rymer Jones to any which we ourselves could employ* :—‘ Let any of our readers, when opportunity offers, pick up from the beach one of these animals, the common Star-fish of our coast, which, as it lies upon the sand, left by the retiring waves, appears so incapable of movement, so utterly helpless and inanimate ; let him place it in a large glass jar, filled with its native element, and watch the admirable spectacle which it then * Outline of the Animal Kingdom, p. 14i. STAR-FISHES. 49 presents; slowly he perceives its rays to expand to its full stretch, hundreds of feet are gradually protruded through the ambulacral* apertures, and each apparently possessed of independent action, fixes itself to the sides of the vessel as the animal begins to march. The numerous suckers are soon all employed, fixing and detaching themselves alternately, some remaining firmly adherent, while others change their position; and thus, by an equable, gliding movement, the Star-fish climbs the sides of the glass in which it is confined, or the perpendicular surface of the sub-marine rock.” It has been remarked, that the Star-fishes are furnished with five rays; and although individuals are met with which have four or six rays, the five-rayed predominate so much, that, among the problems proposed by Sir Thomas Browne, is one, ‘‘ Why, among Sea-stars, Nature chiefly delighteth in five points?” Throughout all the animals of this class, five is the governing number, regulating even the plates of which the “shell” of the Sea-urchin is composed. In the Medusa, the governing number is four; and each Jelly-fish, with but few exceptions, exhibits, in the arrangement of its parts, the number four, or some multiple of that number.t Although the rays of the Crossfish, or ‘‘ Five-fingers,” are not mere arms, but true prolongations of the body, and, in many species, have an eye well defended by spines at the extremity, they are frequently broken off, and in such cases are reproduced. The oyster fishermen believe that it loses its rays in attempting to seize the oyster at a time when the shell is incautiously left open. That it is injurious to oyster-beds may be true, for it is known to feed upon different kinds of Mollusca; but it would appear to overpower its prey, by applying some poisonous secretion, and pouting out the lobes of the stomach, so as to convert them into a kind of proboscis, and thus suck the Molluses from their shells. A species which Mr. Ball has taken in great abundance about Youghal seems to emulate the Brittle-stars in the faci- lity with which it can fling off its rays. It is appropriately named Luidia fragilissima, and has been so graphically delineated by Professor Ed. Forbes, that it would be doing * A term derived from the Latin word ambulacra, from a fancied resemblance which the rows of apertures bear to the walks, alleys, or avenues of some of our old mansions. + Forbes, Intr. page i5. ' Parr L D 50 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. injustice to the reader not to present him with the portrait which that gentleman has furnished:—“It is the wonderful power which the Lwidia possesses, not merely of casting away its arms entire, but of breaking them voluntarily into little pieces with great rapidity, which approximates it to the Ophiure. This faculty renders the preservation of a perfect specimen a very difficult matter. The first time I ever took one of these creatures I succeeded in getting it into the boat entire. Never having seen one before, and quite unconscious of its suicidal powers, I spread it. out on a rowing bench, the better to admire its form and colours. On attempting to remove it for preservation, to my horror and disappointment I found only an assemblage of rejected members. My conservative endeavours were all neutralized by its destructive exertions, and it is now badly represented in my cabinet by an armless disc and a discless arm. Next time I went to dredge on the same spot, determined not to be cheated out of a specimen in such a way a second time, I brought with me a bucket of cold fresh water, to which article Star-fishes have a great anti- pathy. As I expected, a Luidia came up in the dredge, a most gorgeous specimen. As it does not generally break up before it is raised above the surface of the sea, cautiously and anxiously I sank my bucket to a level with the dredge’s mouth, and proceeded, in the most gentle manner, to introduce Lidia to the purer element. Whether the cold air was too much for him, or the sight of the bucket too terrific, 1 know not; but in a moment he proceeded to dissolve his corporation, and at every mesh of the dredge his fragments were seen escaping. In despair I grasped at the largest, and brought up the extremity of an arm with its terminating eye, the spinous eyelid of which opened and closed with something exceedingly like a wink of derision.” The members of the fourth family, that of the Sea-urchins (F%g. 33) are furnished with spines, and, from the resem- blance in this respect to the Hedgehog (echinus), the family bears the name Echinide. Here the arms have disappeared, and the form has become more or less rounded, according to the species. The spines do not grow from the “shell,” or, to use a more correct term, the integument, as thorns do on the branches of the common hawthorn. They are attached to tubercles, and move upon them in the manner of so many ball-and-socket joints. The Sea-urchins are also furnished SEA-URCHINS. 51 with retractile suckers, similar to those described in the Star- fishes; and, by the joint action of their spines and suckers, Fig. 33.—SEA-URCHIN (EXTERIOR). * they can move in any direction they please, or can mvor themselves to the surface of sub-marine rocks. The calcareous covering of the Sea-urchin exhibits a sin- gular and beautiful contrivance for the progressive growth of the animal. It is not one piece, as the word “shell,” so commonly applied to it, would lead us to suppose. It is formed of a multitude of pentagonal pieces, accurately fitted together, some rows of them bearing the tubercles to which the spines are attached, and others pierced with hundreds of minute orifices, through which the tubular suckers are pro- truded. A living membrane, analogous to that found in some of the Polypes, covers the entire surface, and dips down between the several plates. It has the power of depositing a calcareous secretion, which, being added to the edges of the plates, augments all in an equal ratio; and thus, whatever may be the size of the Sea-urchin, the relative proportion of the several parts is uniformly maintained. It is impossible to contemplate the admirable mechanism of the spines and suckers, and the elaborate structure of the shell, without at once feeling the conviction that in them we behold a portion of ‘the works of the Lord, and His wonders ® Fig. 33.—The spines have been removed from the left side for the purpose of exhibiting the arrangement of the pieces composing the “shell” underneath. 52 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. in the deep.” And this feeling increases with the increased minuteness of our examination. “In a moderate-sized Urchin I reckoned,” says Mr. Forbes, “sixty-two rows of pores in each of the ten avenues. Now, as there are three pairs of pores in each row, their number inultiplied by six, and again by ten, would give the great number of 3,720 pores; but, as each sucker occupies a pair of pores, the number of suckers would be half that amount, or 1,860. The structure in the Egg-urchin is not less complicated in other parts. ‘There are above 300 plates of one kind,,and nearly as many of another, all dovetailing together with the greatest nicety and regularity, bearing on their surfaces above 4,000 spines, each spine perfect in itself, and of a complicated structure, and having a free movement on its socket. Truly the skill of the Great Archi- tect of Nature is not less displayed in the construction of a Sea-urchin than in the building up of a world!” Respiration is secured in these animals by the free admis- sion of sea-water through the pores in the external covering, and by its propulsion, by means of cilia, over every portion of the body. A large portion of the interior of the shell is, at certain times, occupied by vessels filled with the ova, which, in the Mediterranean and elsewhere, are much prized as an article of food; but, at other times, the ordinary observer finds in the interior only a tube wound twice round the circum- ference, and containing the stomach and intestine (fg. 34). In every step we make towards a knowledge of the structure and habits of these animals, we experience a feeling of surprise and pleasure at the peculiarities they exhibit. Thus, on one occasion, we had cut horizontally into two nearly equal parts a large Sea-urchin, for the purpose of examining the intestines and ovaries. These being removed, the shell was thrown on the deck of our little vessel, as being no longer of any service. It chanced, however, that we afterwards picked up the parts and placed them in a shallow vessel of sea-water. To our surprise, the suckers were soon extended, and the animal walked about, apparently as unconcerned as if the loss of intestine and ovaries had been an every-day occurrence. At one extremity of the alimentary canal is a singular apparatus, which performs the functions of teeth and jaws, and which, in its detached state, is known as “the lanthorn of Aristotle.” Any teeth, fixed in sockets as ours are, would speedily be worn away by their action on the shell-fish, &c.; SEA-CUCUMBERS. 53 upon which the Sea-urchins feed. They are, therefore, con- stituted with a continual growth, as in the case of the gnawing animals, and the points have all the hardness of enamel. Five jaws, admirably adapted to act as grinders, are furnished with bony pieces, ligaments, and muscles, so contrived and arranged as to draw from Professor Rymer Jones the remark, “‘ these jaws, from their great complexity and unique structure, a , LM MAL( SS Fig. 34.—Sea-UR CHIN (INTERIOR). form perhaps the most admirable masticating apparatus met with in the whole animal kingdom” (Fg. 34). One species of our native Sea-urchins is remarkable for its habit of boring, principally into limestone rocks, and living in the excavation thus formed. It is gregarious, and was found in abundance by Mr. Ball and Mr. Thompson, when visiting the south Isles of Arran, in 1834. ‘It is always stationary ; the hole in which it is found* being cup-like, yet fitting so as not to impede the spines. Every one lived in a hole fitted to its own size—the little ones in little hales, and the large Fig. 34.—Anatomy or Sea-curcHIN ( Echintes). a, Mouth, with the teeth and jaws.—d, CEsovhagus.—c, Stomach, or first por- tion of the intestine.—¢d, Intestine.—e, Ovary.—/, Ambulacral vesicles.—g, Shell with spines. 54 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. ones in large holes; and their purple spines and regular forms presented a most beautiful appearance studding the bottoms of the gray limestone rock-pools.” The individuals of the fifth family ({olothuride) are not likely to attract the notice of the casual observer, and are of comparatively rare occurrence even to the naturalist. The English term, Sea-cucumbers (J/g. 35), gives some idea of their general form. In them the spines have disappeared; but, as the covering of the body is soft, they can move by the extension or contraction of its parts, as worms do; and, like the Sea-urchins, they continue to employ the aid of suckers. They are remarkable for their power of casting off and of reproducing parts that would seem the most essential. Sir J. G. Dalyell* has known them to lose “the tentacula, with the cylinder (dental apparatus), mouth, cesophagus, lower intestinal parts, and the ovarium, separating from within, and leaving the body an empty sac behind. Yet in three or four months, all the lost parts are regenerated.” Mr. Forbes states,—‘‘ It is this animal which the Malays of the Oriental Isles seek so diligently for the supply of the China market, where it obtains a good price when well pre- served. It is employed by the Chinese in the preparation of nutritious soups, in common with an esculent sea-weed, Sharks’ fins, edible birds’ nests, and other materials, affording much jelly. Jaeger says the intestines are extracted, the animal then boiled in sea-water, and dried in smoke.” A species found off the coast of Cornwall, and first described * Paper read at Glasgow Meeting (1840) of British Association. ECHINODERMATA. 55 by Mr. Peach at the York Meeting of the British Associa- tion, in 1844, bears the singular name of “the nigger,” from its dark colour, and the ‘‘ cotton-spinner,’’ from its long white threads.* The members of the sixth family (Sipunculid@) in external appearance resemble worms; but, from anexamination of their internal structure, it is ascertained that they must, in reality, be classed among the Star-fishes. They are not furnished with suckers, nor do they exhibit any quinary arrangement of parts; and their movements are so entirely those of worms, that they are, with great propriety, termed ‘* Vermigrade Echinodermata.’’ Some are found under stones, some burrow in sand, and some select as their mansion an empty univalve shell; their habits, however, are as yet imperfectly known. We have now completed our proposed sketch of the radiate animals, commencing with the microscopic animalcules, and advancing to those in which the radiated structure attains its highest perfection. To all we may apply the remark with which Professor Forbes concludes the excellent work from which we have so largely quoted. ‘«‘ Among the British Echinodermata we have seen some of the most extraordinary forms in the animal kingdom; some of the most wonderful structures and of the strangest habits. Much yet remains to be done towards their elucidation, and the investigation of them, both structurally and formally, pre- sents a wide field of inquiry to the student of nature, as yet but imperfectly explored. The great naturalist of Denmark, * Mr. C. W. Peach is one of those lovers of natural history whose ardour in the pursuit surmounts all difficulties. At the time we first made his acquaintance, in 1841, he held a very subordinate situation in the coast guard, and had a numerous family dependent on his scanty pay. He was the schoolmaster of his own children, and the superin- tendent of the Sunday school of the village of Goran Haven, Cornwall, where he then resided. Yet, notwithstanding his ceaseless avocations, and the laborious night and day duties of his situation, natural history was never neglected; and in his solitary rides along the beach, his eye, trained to observe, was ever on the alert. Thus he collected the mate- rials for several communications on Geology and Zoology, made by him at successive meetings of the British Association. We are happy to add that some of the influential members of that body, appreciating his exertions, represented them to government in such colours, that he was appointed to a situation of comparative ease and comfort in the custom- house at Fowey. He has since been promoted, and is now at Wick, Caithness-shire. ay 56 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. Miiller, long ago said that we need not resort to distant regions and foreign climes for rare or wonderful creatures ;— that the fields, the woods, the streams, and the seas of our native lands, abounded-in wondrous evidences of God’s power and wisdom. The investigation of our native animals must ever be a chief source of sound zoological knowledge; for it is there only we can watch, under favourable circumstances, for the observation of their development, their habits, and their characters. The naturalist whose acquaintance is confined to preserved specimens in a cabinet, can form but a vague idea of the glorious variety of nature, of the wisdom displayed in the building up of the atoms of matter to be the houses of life and intellect; and, unless we study the creatures living around us, how can we gain that delightful knowledge? The passing note of an animal observed during travel is an addition to science not to be scorned; the briefly characterizing of a new species from a preserved specimen, if done with judgment, is of importance; but the real progress of natural history must ever depend on the detailed examination of the beings gathered around us by the laws of geographical distribution, living and multiplying in their destined homes and habitats.” Notes.—1854. Entozoa, page 11. The Entozoa might with great pro- priety be placed among the articulated animals, as many of them exhibit in their structure more of the articulated than of the radiate type. A very re- markable fact with regard to their development has been discovered —that some which continue as cysteid worms in the bodies of certain anirals become changed into the higher form of the Tenia or Tape-worm, if transferred to the bodies of other animals. Vid. Siebold, translated from Ann. Sci, Nat, into Annals Nat. Hist., Dec. 1852. Pave 431. ZoorpnyTes, pave 17. Mrpwus2, p. 38, connexion between them. Recent discoveries would go far to show that the separation of these classes “is unnatural, and that the Hydroid Zoophytes, at least, are very closely allied to, if not belonging to, the same natural order with the Pulmograde Meduse. “In what livht are we to regard the relationship between the Medusa and the Polype? The oneis not the larva of the other, as often unproperly said, hecause there is no metamorphosis of the one into the other, The first is the parent of the last, and the last of the first; but neither is a stage of an individual's existence, destined to begin life as a Medusa, and end it as a Polype, and vice versa,” “IN THF CASE OF AURELIA, &c. a The medusa produces eggs. The eges produce infusoria. The infusoria fix and hecome hydroid polypes. The hydroil polypes produce mednse by gemmation. IN THE CASE OF CORYNE, &c. The zoophytes produce medusz by gemmation. The medusxz produce cers. The eg ss prodiice infusoria, ‘The infusoria fix and become zoophytes.” Professor Edward Forbes, Monogiaph of the British naked-cyed Medusx, published by the Ray Society. ROS S92 SB ARTICULATA. ARTICULATED, orn JOINTED ANIMALS. “Whatever creeps the ground, Insect or worm; those waved their limber fans For wings, and smallest lineaments exact In all the liveries deck’d of sammer’s pride, With spots of gold and purple, azure and green; These, as a line, their long dimensions drew, Streaking the ground with sinuous trace.” Minton. Tue traveller who passes the line of demarcation which se- parates two adjacent kingdoms, does not at once perceive any obvious change in their physical features or their natural pro- ductions, nor see anything in the manners or customs of the inhabitants to tell him that he has entered a new realm. Such is the case with the naturalist who.has been an observer of the radiate animals, and enters the dominions of the arti- culated. The Leeches OF Worms, among which’he has come, present very much the same aspect as the vermiform or worm-shaped Echinodermata, from which he has parted. ‘‘Why,’’ he asks, ‘‘should they be thus divided?” The question is best answered by an examination of the internal struc- ture. A difference in the nervous system is at once apparent. It is no longer arranged on the radiate type, but presents the brain in the form of a ring surrounding the throat (Fig. 36); a double nervous thread extends along the body at its lowest side, united at certain distances by Fig. 36.—Nrrvous System or CaRabus. 58 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. double “ ganglions,” as these nervous masses are termed, from which are given off the nerves that proceed to the extremities. From the symmetrical disposition of these nervous centres, Mr. Owen has given to this sub-kingdom the name Homogangliata.* The body in general presents a cor- responding symmetrical form, and consists of a repetition of rings or segments, as in the Earth-worm, or the Millepede (Julus, Fig. 37). Ld47. Ys} 087 WH Fig. 37.—JuLvs. The articulated animals are arranged in the following classes :— Annellata, leeches, Earth-worms, &c. Cirripéda, Barnacles and Acorn-shells. Crustacea, Crabs, Lobsters, &c. Insecta, Beetles, Bees, Butterflies, &c. Arachnida, Spiders, Scorpions, and Mites. *From two Greek words, one signifying “similar,” the other “a ganglion,” or knot, being the mass of nervous matter from which the nerves diverge. 59 CLASS IL—ANNELLATA. LEECHES, EARTH-WORMS, ETC. “Her divine skill taught me this, That from everything I saw I could some instruction draw, And raise pleasure to the height, Through the meanest object’s sight."—G. Wrrner. Tne most obvious external character of the Leech or the £arth-worm is the number of little rings of which the body is composed; and hence the Latin word “‘annellus,” a little ring, suggests an appropriate and descriptive term for animals of this class. The medicinal Leech and the common Horse-leech of our ponds are so well known, that the most incurious cannot fail, Fig. 28.—Leecn. at some period or other, to have noticed the singular disc with which these creatures are furnished at each extremity of the body, and which, at the will of the animal, can be used as a sucker, and thus converted into a support or point of attachment. Leeches are of many species; but these pre- hensile discs may be regarded as “the badge of all the tribe.” They are destitute of external organs for locomotion, and move by the expansion and contraction of the segments of the body. In the water they can swim with ease and rapidity. Respi- ration is effected by a series of membranous sacs, which are analogous to internal gills, and to which water is freely ad- mitted by minute orifices on the lower surface of the body.* The medicinal Leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is not indigenous to Ireland; it is found in some parts of Britain, but is now becoming very rare.. It is still seen in the lakes of Cumber- * Jones’s Nat. Hist. of Animals. 60 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. Jand, but even there is rapidly disappearing. This fact is mentioned by Wordsworth’s leech-gatherer, in a stanza which casually notices, at the same time, the manner in which they are collected. “He with a smile did then his words repeat; And said, that, gathering leeches, far and wide He travelled; stirring thus about his feet The waters of the pools where they abide. Once I could meet with them on every side, But they have dwindled long by slow decay ; Yet still I persevere, and find them where I may.” Resolution and Independence. The supply of leeches used in these countries is derived from France, Sweden, Poland, Hungary, the frontiers of Russia, and Turkey; and the great extent of the trade thus carried on may be judged of from the fact, that ‘four only of the principal dealers in London import 7,200,000 annually,’’* When we find that the medicinal Leech has been applied to the use of man from a remote antiquity, and now constitutes so important an article of commerce, we are naturally led to inquire, ‘‘to what peculiarity of structure is its utility owing?” The first and most obvious is that by which its wound is inflicted. Just within the margin of the mouth “are situated three beautiful little semicircular horny saws, arranged in a triradiate manner, so that their edges meet in the centre.”’t ‘* No sooner is the sucker firmly fixed to the skin than the mouth becomes slightly everted, and the edges of the saws thus made to press upon the tense integument, a sawing movement being, at the same time, given to each,’’ they cut their way to the sluices of blood beneath. Nearly the entire body of the animal consists of a series of chambers into which the blood thus taken is received. They are eleven in number, perfectly distinct, and in the first eight the blood may remain for months unchanged either in colour or fluidity, the creature merely allowing so much to pass into the alimentary canal as is necessary to preserve its existence.{ Hence the repugnance of the animal to repeat the operation, until the store of food with which it is thus gorged has been consumed. The term Leech (derived from the Anglo-Saxon verb * Penny Cyclopedia, Article Leech. + Jones's Natural History of Animals, vol. i. page 322. } Owen, page 135. ANNELIDS. 61 lace, to cure, to heal) was applied by our old writers, not only to the animal, but also to persons, both male and female, who were skilful in the art of healing. Thus, in the ancient Ballad of Sir Cauline, the king calls upon the princess to exercise her skill on behalf of the wounded knight :— “Come down, come down, my daughter deare, Thou art a leeche of skille; Farre lever had I lose half my landes, Than this good knight sholde spille.” The young of the leech are produced from cocoons* depo- sited by the mother towards the end of summer. ‘The winter is passed by our common horse-leech (Hemopsis sanguisuga) in a state of torpidity, in the mud at the bottom of the ponds or ditches where it resides. This habit gave origin, on one occasion, to a somewhat singular scene, which we chanced to witness. On the morning of the 27th March, 1838, a part of the footway on one of the most crowded thoroughfares adjoining the town of Belfast, was so covered with leeches, that it was scarcely possible to walk without trampling them under foot. So great was their abundance that some of the passers-by remarked, that it seemed as though a shower of leeches had fallen. They extended for about 100 paces in this profusion; on both sides of this space they were less numerous. The phenomenon continued for the two following mornings, but with diminished numbers. A slight examina- tion served to explain its cause. The ditch on the side of the fence which separated the footway from the adjacent fields had been cleaned out the preceding day. ‘The leeches had been buried in the slime, and on this being placed on the top of the fence, they had struggled out, and spread themselves over the adjoining footway. The earth-worms represent another tribe of Annclids. In them suctorial discs, such as those of the leeches, do not exist; but a mechanical contrivance of a different kind may be ob- served. The rings, of which their body is composed, are no longer perfectly smooth; but are furnished with minute bristles, or recurved hooks. These, as the creature pushes its way, catch upon the soil, and form fixed points of support, by which the worm is enabled to maintain its place while drawing * Owen, page 145. 62 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. forward the remaining parts of the body. Earth-worms move but little abroad during the day-time, except when disturbed. The young are produced from eggs, which, previous to their being deposited by the mother, have undergone acertain degree of development.* Their blood is red; but in some species it is yellow, and in one it is a pale green, so that the mere colour of the circulating fluid does not seem to be of the zoological importance attached to it by Aristotle. The mouth of our common Earth-worm (Lumbricus terres- tris) has a short proboscis, but is destitute of teeth. Its food consists of the decaying particles of animal and vegetable matter, ‘the crumbs thatfall from nature’s bounteous table.” t By the ordinary process of chemical decomposition, these par- ticles would be dissolved and lost. Swallowed by the Earth- worm, they become converted into nutriment, are assimilated to the substance of its body, and in this state minister to the support of beings of higher organization—to that of birds and fishes. On this subject, the Rev. Gilbert White, in his delightful ‘Natural History of Selborne,’”’ has long since made the following judicious observations: — ‘«* The most insignificant insects and reptiles are of much more consequence, and have much more influence in the eco- nomy of nature, than the incurious are aware of; and are mighty in their effect, from their minuteness, which renders them less an object of attention, and from their numbers and fecundity. Earth-worms, though in appearance a small and despicable link in the chain of nature, yet, if lost, would make a lamentable chasm. For, to say nothing of half the birds, and some quadrupeds, which are almost entirely supported by them, worms seem to be the great promoters of vegetation, which would proceed but lamely without them, by boring, perforating, and loosening the soil, and rendering it pervious to rains and fibres of plants, by drawing straws and stalks of leaves and twigs into it, and, most of all, by throwing up such infinite numbers of lumps of earth called worm-casts, which being their excrement, is a fine manure for grain and grass,”’ The correctness of these views has recently received a * Owen, page 146. t+ Rymer Jones, page 328.. ANNELIDS. 63 curious confirmation, in a paper communicated by Mr. Darwin* to the Geological Society of London, in Nov. 1837. He ob- serves that, in a pasture field which has long remained undisturbed, not a pebble will be seen, although, in an adjoining ploughed field, a large proportion of the soil may be composed of loose stones. This he attributes to the working of worms, and states his conviction, that every particle of earth in old pasture land has passed through the intestines of worms; and hence that, in some senses, the term ‘“ animal mould”? would be more appropriate than ‘‘ vegetable mould.” It has been estimated that, in eighty years, the marl laid upon a field for manure, has been covered with soil to the depth of thirteen inches, by the operations of these creatures. “It is commonly supposed,” says Dr. Carpenter, ‘ that the earth-worm may be multiplied by the division of its body into two pieces, of which each will continue to live. This, however, does not appear to be the case with regard to the common species. If it be divided across the middle, when in motion, each part will continue to move for a time; but only the piece which bears the head will be found alive after a few hours. This forms a new tail, and soon shows little sign of injury. But if the division be made near the head, the body will remain alive, and will renew the head; and the head, with its few attached segments, will die?’ The power of reproduction is enjoyed by many other Annelids to a much greater extent. A smal! worm (Lumbricus variegatus) was cut by Bonnet, a French naturalist, into twenty-six parts, and “ almost all of them reproduced the head and tail, and became so many new and perfect indivi- duals. It sometimes happened, that both ends of a segment reproduced a tail. Wishing to ascertain if the vegetative power was inexhaustible, Bonnet cut off the head of one of these worms, and, as soon as the new head was completed, he repeated the act; after the eighth decapitation, the unhappy subject was released by death.” f In some species, the propagation reminds us of that of which we saw examples in the Infusoria. Thus, ‘in the Vais,§ * Vide Note to White’s Selborne, edited by Rev. L. Jenyns, 1843, and Penny Cyclopedia, art. Lumbricus. + Zoology, vol. ii. page 310. + Owen, page 143. The accuracy of such statements has been denied by Dr. Williams (Rep. Brit.Ass.,1851), and affirmed, as regards the Earth-worm, by the late G. Newport, Esq. (Annals Nat. Hist. May, 1854, p. 423.) § Carpenter’s Physiology, page 549, 64 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. one of the marine worms, the last joint of the body gradually extends, and increases to the size of the rest of the animal; and a separation is made by a narrowing of the preceding Fig. 39. ARENICOLA. They are joint, which at last divides. Previously to its separation, however, the young one often shoots out a young one from its own last joint, in a similar manner, and three generations have thus been seen united.” It is a curious circumstance, that the same tail serves as the tail of successive individuals, and seems thus to enjoy an exemption from the ordinary laws of mortality. Respiration in the earth-worm is carried on by means of pores and internal sacs, similar to those of the leech. In the ‘lob-worm,”* or “lug of fishermen (J%g. 39), a portion of the body is fur- nished with little arborescent (tree-like) tufts, to which the blood is conveyed, and there purified, by coming into contact with the air diffused through the sea-water. In the next tribe of Annelids, a new modification of the respiratory organs is exhibited, one ad- mirably adapted to their peculiar habitats and modes of life. All the individuals of this assem- blage dwelk in tubes, consisting either of calcareous matter, secreted from their own bodies, or, as in the Terebella, of particles of sand and gravel agglutinated together to serve as a habitation. Under these altered circumstances, the only place to which the vivifying principle of the sea-water could freely have access, would be that adjacent to the exterior orifice of the tubes; and here, accordingly, we find the respiratory apparatus arranged, often extremely graceful in its form, and enriched with brilliant colouring. The small con- torted tubes which encrust, in so fantastic a man- ner, the old bottles or dead shells dredged up from any of our bays, form an example of this class. the dwellings of one of these sedentary worms, * This was formerly classed with the earth-worm, under the name of Lumbricus referred to marinus; but, from its difference of structure, it is now a different order (Dorsibrenchiata), and bears the namo Arenicola piscatorum. ANNELIDS. 65 bearing the name of Serpula (Fig. 40). ‘If, while the con- tained animals are alive, they be placed in a vessel of sea- water, few spectacles are more pleasing ap a whick they exhibit. The mouth of the tube is first seen to open by the raising of an exquisitely constructed door, and then the creature cautiously protrudes the anterior part of its body, spreading out, at the same time, two gorgeous fan-like ex- pansions of a rich scarlet or purple colour, which float elegantly in the surrounding water, and serve as branchial or breathing organs.”’* The minute convoluted shells . (spirorbis), which are seen like whitish specks upon almost every piece ofsea-weed, exhibit an instance nolessstriking of the same exquisite design, the same admirable adapta- tion of means to the required end. i The fourth tribe present, in their Fig, . 40—Grour or SerPULa. habits, a complete contrast to the last. They are formed for locomotion, and some among them can swim with considerable swiftness (J/g. 41). The roving life they lead has induced CW ST ys — Cw = iy ~ ¢ ee, ayy ~~ ; rhe - Birceenits 7) uae Y “at Wy 5 TS a ny Ae ne es Ne f >i i> 5 a befits Fig. 41.—NEREIs. Milne Edwards, the eminent naturalist, whose classification we have followed, to bestow on them the characteristic appellation of Errantes.t * Jones’s Natural History of Animals, page 313. + Recherches pour Servir 4 1’Histoire Naturelle du Littoral de la France. Paris, 1834. Part I. E 66 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. They present considerable diversity in size. In one tribe (Nemertina) there are individuals not more than one or two inches long, while others, of the same fraternity, attain the enormous length of fifteen feet,* or, when artificially dis- tended, of more than twenty yards.t The sea long-worm, for so this species is named (Nemertes Borlasiz), contracts in spirits to one or two feet in length, and the thickness of an ordinary quill. One was taken by Captain Fayrer, “ holding on to a bait on his long line, when he was fishing for cod off Portpatrick.”f In contrast with the freebooter, thus made prisoner while on a predatory excursion, we may mention a species which is so much broader and thicker than other Annelids as to have lost its worm-like aspect. It is common around our coast, and is popularly known as the sea-mouse (Aphrodita aculeata). Besides being furnished with numerous fasciculi, or bunches of stiff, sharp-pointed bristles, employed both as organs of motion and weapons for defence, it is decorated with numerous soft, silky hairs, of the most brilliant metallic colours, and highly iridescent. Strange it may seem to us, that a worm, living in the midst of the slime at the bottom of the sea, should have a vesture which rivals, in the splendour of its hues, the wing of the butterfly, or the plumage of the humming-bird! But the beauty impressed on even the humblest of created beings seems boundless as the beneficence of Him who called them into being. We have enumerated four tribes of Annellata:— I. The Suctorial, comprising the Leeches; II. The Terricolous, including the Earth-worms ; Ill. The Tubicolous, which inhabit tubes; IV. The Errantes, which are the most highly organized, and the most locomotive.§ In respect to some worms, there are traditionary errors * Dr. Johnston in Mag. of Zoology and Botany, 1837, page 536. } This we state on the authority of Mr. R. Ball, who took one at Clifden, Co. Galway, which he ingeniously caused to distend itself, and was thus enabled to ascertain its measurement. { W. Thompson in Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. ii. No. 13. § Their respiratory organs are placed upon the back; hence the term applied to them by Cuvier, Dorsibrunchiate, from Dorsum, the back; and branchia, gills. ANNELIDS. 67 which are still current. Thus, there is a species, called the Hair-worm (Gordius aquaticus), which is abundant, during a part of the summer, in rivulets in the North of Ireland and elsewhere. Its length is about eight or ten inches, and the common superstition about it is, that horse-hairs placed in water become vivified, and are changed into these worms. This notion, with the addition that the Hair-worm was the young state of the serpent, was prevalent in the days of Queen Elizabeth, for we find it is thus recorded by Shakspeare,— ‘Much is breeding, Which, like the courser’s hair, hath yet but life, And not a serpent’s poison.” The writings of the same poet furnish us with examples of the comprehensive manner in which the word ‘ worm” is used, and of its application to objects different from those to which it is restricted by the naturalist.* Among these humble animals are some which possess luminous properties: one has been observed in Ireland on some of the extensive tracts of bog; and to Mr. R. Ball we are indebted for the following notice of a similar power in one of the marine species:—‘ The most beautiful instance I ever saw, of luminous animals, occurred when I was passing at night, between the Islands of Arran, in the Bay of Galway. My attention being attracted by spanglings of light on the field of Zostera (grass-wrack) below, I let down my small dredge. On its touching the bottom, a blaze of light flashed from the Zostera, and as the boat was pulled along, the dredge seemed as if filled with liquid molten silver. On drawing it up, I found the light to proceed from numbers of a very small species of Annelid; these little animals were bright red, and so soft that they could not be taken out of the dredge. Any attempt at preservation would have been vain. By day-light, it is probable, their very existence would have been unnoticed, so little conspicuous were they. An idea of the size and *“ The worms were hallowed that did breed the silk.” -OTHELLo. * A convocation of politic worms.” HAMLET. ~* Hast thou the pretty worm of Nilus here, that kills and pains not?” ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA. “Your worm is your only emperor for diet.”—-HAMLET. “There the grown serpent lies; the worm that’s fled Hath nature that in time will venom breed.” ——-MacBetn. “ Eyeless venom’d worm.”—Trmon or ATHENS, 68 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. luminosity of the Annelid may be formed, by supposing its body to be represented by the slit in a silver spangle, and its luminosity by the disc of the spangle.”* Some among these creatures occasionally present themselves to our notice in situations where they would be least expected. Thus, Templeton describes one (Spio calcarea) “living in minute tubular cavities, in our limestone rocks, the tentacula alone projecting, and kept by the animal in constant motion.”’T We have noticed the same, or some allied species, in rock pools on the County Down coast, where there is no limestone. There the pinkish substance, now regarded as vegetable,t that lined the pools, formed the materials of its dwelling, and the minute waving tentacula gave animation and interest to the otherwise quiet little basins. CLASS II.—CIRRIPEDA. BARNACLES AND ACORN-SHELLS. “There are found in the north parts of Scotland and the islands ad- jacent, called Orchades, certain trees, whereon do grow certain shells of a white colour, tending to russet, wherein are contained little living creatures; which shells in time of maturity do open, and out of them grow those little living things, which, falling into the water, do become fowls which we call Barnacles.” Tue words which we have selected as the motto for the pre- sent chapter occur in Gerardes’ “‘ Herbal, or General History of Plants,” a work published in 1597, and regarded for more than a century afterwards as one of the best sources of botanical information. Its author resided in Holborn, and established there a ‘‘physic garden” of his own, which was probably, at that period, the best of its kind in England for the number and variety of its productions. The transformation above mentioned he gives on the authority of others. ‘‘ Thus KD a) As all our readers may not be familiar with the ornament to Fis which our friend, Mr. Ball, has referred, we annex a wood-cui, which will render his illustration more perfectly understood. t Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. ix. page 233. } Millepora polymorpha. ANNELIDS. 69 much by the writings of others, and also from the mouths of people of those parts, which may very well accord with truth.” He then proceeds in a strain which marks the downright sincerity of this honest and laborious old naturalist, who had mistaken the soft parts of the barnacle for a bird. ‘ But what our eyes have seen and our hands have touched, we shall declare. here is a small island in Lancashire, called the Pile of Foulders, wherein are found the broken pieces of old and bruised ships, some whereof have been cast thither by shipwreck, and also the trunks and bodies, with the branches, of old and rotten trees cast up there likewise, whereon is found a certain spuwe or froth, that in time breedeth unto certain BARNACLES. Fig. 42.—Suevt or Lepas. Fig. 43.—Bopy or Lepas. shells in shape like those of a mussel, but sharper pointed and of a whitish colour; wherein is contained a thing in form like a lace of silk finely woven, as it were, together, of a whitish colour, one end whereof is fastened unto the inside of the shell, even as the fish of oysters and mussels are; the other end is made fast unto the belly of a rude mass or lump, which in time cometh to the shape and form of a bird: when it is perfectly formed, the shell gapeth open and the first thing that appeareth is the foresaid lace or string; next come the legs of the bird hanging out, and, as it groweth greater, it openeth the shell by degrees, till at length it is all come forth, and hangeth only by the bill. In short space it cometh to _ full maturity, and falleth into the sea, where it gathereth feathers and groweth to a fowl bigger than a Mallard and lesser than a Goose.” 70 INTRODUCTION TU ZOOLOGY. The specific name, Anatifera, or goose-bearing, by which the most common kind of barnacle-shell (Lepas) is distin- guished, commemorates this old traditionary error, which is still current. On more than one occasion, when we have been examining a sea-borne piece of timber, with its crowd of suspended Barnacles, some casual spectator has volunteered to point out to us the bill and feathers of the future bird! We may smile at the extravagance of these ideas, and wonder how fancy could have devised such tales. But the wildest stretch of imagination could not venture upon anything more wonderful than the real and simple facts respecting the transformations of these animals. Before the shelly covering of that Barnacle was secreted, the creature, not fastened as now by its fleshy pedicle, was free and locomotive, with members well adapted for swimming, and fur- nished, like the fabled Cyclops, with one central eye (Fig. 44). The animal of that acorn-shell, now fixed so immoveably upon the rock, had, at one time, an elliptie figure, two eyes mounted upon footstalks, and six pair of jointed legs, which, keeping stroke like so many oars, pro- pelled it onwards (J%g. 45). At a certain period its erratic habits were laid aside, its future resting-place was selected, and then, attaching itself securely to the place thus chosen, its shelly covering was secreted, and as the process went on, the visual powers, no longer need- ful for the welfare of the animal, were extinguished for ever. To Mr. J. V. Thompson, whose name we have already had occasion to mention, we are indebted for the discovery of these metamorphoses, which the researches of other observers Fig. 44.—Youne or Lepas. Fig. 45.— Youne or BALAnNvs. BARNACLES, 71 haveamply confirmed.* Mr. Thompson, in the spring of 1826, took, in a small towing-net, a number of minute translucent creatures about the tenth of an inch in length and of a some- what brownish tint.t They were taken on the first of May, and kept alive in a glass of sea-water. They appeared like small crustacea. On the night of the eighth, two of them had thrown off their outer skin, and were firmly attached to the bottom of the vessel, when they rapidly assumed the apparel of the sessile Barnacles or Acorn-shells (Balanus pusiilus). The pedunculated Barnacles, or those with the long pedicle, present, in their young state, an appearance very dissimilar; but, in all essential particulars, the change from their transitory swimming condition to their permanently adhesive state is precisely similar. In their perfect state (Figs. 42, 43) they are described by Mr. Owen as being ‘‘symmetrical animals, with a soft unarticulated body enveloped in a membrane. They are provided with six pair of rudimentary feet, obscurely divided into three joints, and terminated each by a pair of long and slender, many-jointed, ciliated tentacles, curled towards the mouth, and thence giving origin to the name of the class”’ (Cirripeda, curl-footed).t The Acorn-shell is based on a deposit of calcareous matter, and has a shell composed of many pieces, and thus capable of enlargement according to the wants of the animal. It was formerly classed with the Barnacle among the Multivalve shells, the contained animals being regarded as Mollusca, or to use a more common phrase, as ‘‘shell-fish.”’ Their structure and their changes being now better understood, they constitute of themselves a small but interesting class, allied to that of the crustaceous animals, which constitute the next division. The sexes have been ascertained to be distinct.§ The cheapness of the pleasures which natural history affords should of itself form a reason for the general cultivation of such pursuits. They are within the reach of the most humble, and are not dependent on costly or complicated apparatus. By means so simple as a glass of sea-water, we have caused the Balani or Acorn-shells to exhibit a series of movements, which we have never shown to the youth of either sex without * Vide ante, page 46. t Zoological Researches, Memoir iv. page 78, plate xi. ft Lectures, page 155. § H. D. Goodsir, in Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, July, 1843. 72 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. hearing from them expressions of. the most unfeigned delight. Let the reader try the experiment. Go at low water to a rock on the beach, choose a few of the oldest and largest Limpets, left uncovered by the receding tide, and encrusted with the Acorn-shells. As the enclosed animals have then been without nourishment for two or three hours, they will be quite ready.for another meal. Throw the Limpet-shells into the glass of sea-water, and in a minute or two the Acorn-shells upon them will begin to open. Presently a beautiful feathered apparatus (Balanus, Fig. 46) will be extended, then with- drawn. It will again be put forth, and again retracted; but with such grace, regularity, and precision, that the eye regards it ‘with ever new delight.” And when the same exquisite mecha- nism is exhibited by every one of them, either in succession or simultaneously, and when we consider that it thus minis- ters, at the same moment, both to respiration and nutrition, a train of ideas is excited, which rises from the humble shell to Him by whom it has thus wondrously been fashioned. Fig. 46. Ba anvs. Notr.—A valuable monograph on the Cirripedes, by Darwin, is now (May, 1854) in course of publication by the Ray Society. Crass III.—CRUSTACEA. Crabs, Lopsters, SHRiImMps, &c. “What is man, If his chief good, and market of his time, Be but to sleep and feed? A beast—no more. Sure He that made us with such large discourse, Looking before and after, gave us not That capability and godlike reason To fust in us unused.” —SHAKSPEARE. “Tue name of this class,” says Professor Owen, ‘refers to the modification of the external tegument by which it acquires due hardness for protecting the rock-dwelling marine species from the concussion of the surrounding elements, from the attacks of enemies, and likewise for forming the levers and points of resistance in the act of supporting the body, and 0 eee —_ lll UL lwdLmLlLl—Ee oe ——— CRUSTACEA. 73 moving along the .firm ground. In the Crab and Lobster tribes, the external layer of the integument is hardened by the addition of earthy particles, consisting of the carbonate, with a small proportion of the phosphate, of lime.”* In the smaller species it is more iets resembling the texture of horn or parchment. Distribution—The Crustacea are universally diffused, not only throughout the ocean, but through ponds, lakes, ditches, and running waters. In the polar seas they are found in great abundance, though the number of species is very limited. In the equatorial regions, while they are no less numerous, they present a greater diversity of form, attain a larger size, and exhibit, in the highest perfection, those peculiarities of structure by which the several groups are characterised. But though “the world of waters is their home,” they are not confined withiu its boundaries, for there are some species which are occasional visiters to the land, and others which make it their permanent residence. Form.—Their figures, when most faithfully delineated, present a variety of form so great that at first sight they seem in some cases to be the offspring of a fantastic fancy, rather than the correct delineation of hving animals. We find legs so formed as to do the work of jaws (Fig. 56—60) ; others so constituted as to perform the function of gills; while some are so long and so slender that, were we to judge merely from appearance, they would seem quite disproportioned to the size of the body to which they are appended. Characteristics.—As, in the radiated animals, we found the radiated structure most apparent towards what may be con- sidered the centre of the group, so here we may point to the Crustacea as examples of the complete development of the jointed or articulated structure. In them we find the re- spiratory apparatus existing as branchie or gills, however varied its position or arrangement. The sexes are distinct, and all the individuals are free and locomotive. “It is the combination of branchie with jointed limbs and distinct sexes which constitute the essential characters of the clasg Crustacea.”’* Integument.—As the integument is inelastic, and does not admit of enlargement to suit the growth of the animal, a * Lectures, page 163. 74 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. beautiful provision exists, by which it is from time to time tnrown off, and its place supplied by one of larger dimensions. In two or three days, the new covering assumes the hardness of the old one; and, until then, the animal, as if conscious of its defenceless state, avoids, as much as possible, all exposure. We shall revert to this subject in treating of the best known native species. Reproduction.— All of them possess the capability of repro- ducing extremities which are injured. Thus, if the leg of a Crab be fractured, it throws off the injured limb, near to the body. ‘It has the power of doing so apparently for two purposes—to save the excessive flow of blood which always takes place at the first wound, and to lay bare the organ which is to reproduce the future limb.* As soon as the injured limb has been thrown off, the bleeding stops; but if the animal is unable, from weakness or any other cause, to effect this, the result is fatal. The growth of the new limb is slow, until after the period of the next moult, when it rapidly assumes its full proportions.” Respiration.—Every one who has opened the *‘shell”’ of the common Crab, has noticed a number of leaf-like organs, regularly arranged in two parcels, with the points of the little leaves or plates in each parcel brought nearly to- gether (Fig. 47). These are the branchiz or gills, organs admirably adapted to the aquatic life of the animal. In the Lobster the arrangement of the parts is different (Fig. 48), being accommodated to the different form of the body, but providing no less effectually for the zration of the circulating fluid, In other Crustacea, the gills are formed like feathery tufts, and float freely in tue water (F%g. 49); while, in one Fig. 49.—Squitta. * H. D. S. Goodsir, on “the Mode of Reproduction of Lost Parts in the Crustacea.” Anatomical and Pathological Cbservations. Edinburgh, 1845. CRUSTACEA. 75 Fig. 47.—ANaToMY OF Cras. Fig. 47.—p, Part of the lining membrane of the shell—’, The heart.— a, Arteries.—}, Branchie in their natural position.—d’, Branchixe turned back ‘to show their vessels.—s, Stomach.—m, Muscles of stomach.—/, Liver. Fig. 48.—CrrcuLatory APPARATUS OF LOBSTER. Fig. 48.—A, Heart.—g, g, Sinus or dilated vein receiving the blood which comes from different parts of the body, and is thence sent to the branchie 6, from which it returns to the heart by the branchial veins, ». ———— 76 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY, division, termed, from the circumstances, ‘ gill-footed,’’* the surface of the legs is extended, and made subservient to re- spiration. From this cause, in the minute tribes in which this structure prevails, the feet are sometimes seen in motion when the body is at rest. The more actively the body moves, the more brisk will be the circulation; ‘‘and since,’ as Mr. Owen remarks, ‘‘ the muscular energy directly depends upon the amount of respiration, the two functions are brought into direct relation with each other by the simple connexion of their respective instruments.’’f In those tribes that live partially or altogether on the land, the respiratory apparatus is modified, but is still in its most essential features, aquatic. In the Wood-louse (Oniscus,ft Fig. 50), which lives in dark and damp situations, respiration is effected by a abdomen.§ In the Land-crabs, contri- vances of different kinds exist, to retain so much water as will supply the gills with the amount of moisture needful for the due performance of their functions. But the quantity of oxygen which water only can furnishis insufficient for animals whose respiration is so active. They must have access to air, or they inevi- tably perish. Hence we are able to understand why it is that they are drowned, if immersed for any long time in water. Vision.—In the eyes of the Crustacea a great diversity of structure is exhibited. Some species are furnished with two placed upon distinct peduncles or stalks; others have eyes of the same formation, but the peduncle is wanting; such eyes are therefore described as being ‘‘sessile”’ or sitting. In one Fig. 50.—OnIscus. * Phyllopoda. + Lectures, page 182. ft The Oniscus is well-known, in the North of Ireland, by the provincial name of Slater. § Some of these animals have been found in a fossil state in Wiltshire, in those secondary rocks termed the Wealden formation. The eyes which, like those of the Trilobite, hereafter mentioned, are composed of a num- ber of separate lenses, form beautiful objects when magnified. They are sometimes found not attached to the head, but loose in the limestone.— Fossil Insects in the Secondary Rocks of England, by the Rey. P. B. Brodie. London, 184. series of plates, at the lower side of the’ CRUSTACEA. 77 genus (Daphnia) a ‘‘smooth, undivided cornea protects and transmits the rays of light to an aggregation of small ocelli,””* or eye-specks; while in a fossil species (Asaphus caudatus, Fig. 51) we have an example of the cornea itself being divided into at least 400 compartments, each supporting a circular prominence, the whole being so arranged that where the dis- tinct vision of one ceases, that of another begins. Among the crustaceous animals now extinct, but whose remains are found in some parts of England and Ireland, and in other countries, is one tribe which, from the three longitudinal divisions of which the body is composed, is known TRILOBITES.f Fig. 51. Fig. 52. by the name of Trilobites (Figs. 51, 52). In these fossils, one of which has been mentioned in the preceding paragraph, the compound structure of the eyes is so well developed and preserved, that we are enabled to compare it with that of existing species. Thiscireumstance happily suggested to the very Rey. Dr. Buckland a train of reasoning respecting ‘‘the condition of the ancient sea and the ancient atmosphere, and the relations of both of these media to light,’’ which furnishes so admirable an example of the manner in which knowledge in one department throws light upon researches in another, that we give the passage in full. ' “*With respect to the waters in which the Trilobitest main- tained their existence throughout the entire period of the * Owen, page 175, ¢ Fig. 51.—Asaphus caudatus. Fig. 52.—Calymene Blumenbachii. { Bridgewater Treatise, vol, i. page 401. 78 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. transition formation, we conclude that they could not have been that imaginary, turbid, and compound chaotic fluid, from the precipitates of which some geologists have supposed the materials of the surface of the earth to be derived; because the structure of the eyes of these animals is such, that any kind of fluid in which they could have been sufficient [ for vision | at the bottom, must have been pure and transparent enough to allow the passage of light to organs of vision, the nature of which is so fully disclosed by the state of perfection in which they are preserved. With regard to the atmosphere, also, we infer that, had it. differed materially from its actual condition, it might so far have affected the rays of light, that a corresponding difference from the eyes of existing Crustaceans would have been found in the organs on which the impressions of such rays were then received.” “* Regarding light itself, also, we learn from the resemblance of these most ancient organizations to existing eyes, that the mutual relations of light to the eye, and of the eye to light, were the same at the time when Crustaceans, endowed with the faculty of vision, were first placed at the bottom of the primeval seas as at the present moment. “Thus we find, among the earliest organic remains, an optical instrument of most curious construction, adapted to produce vision of a peculiar kind, in the then existing repre- sentatives of one great class in the articulated division of the animal kingdom. We do not find this instrument passing onwards, as it were, through a series of experimental changes, from more simple into more complex forms; it was created, at the very first, in the fulness of perfect adaptation to the uses and condition of the class of creatures to which the kind of eye has ever been, and is still, appropriate.” Ova.—All crustacea are produced from fertilized ova, which the female, after they have passed from the oviduct, continues to carry about with her until they have attained a certain amount of development. Various are the appendages employed for this purpose; perhaps no example will be more generally known than the one afforded by the common lobster when “ in pea.” Metamorphoses.—The young do not, on their liberation from the ova, present a miniature resemblance to the species to which they belong. The contrary opinion was formerly entertained, and it was even regarded as one of the charac- CRUSTACEA. 79 teristics of the higher crustacea, that they did not undergo a metamorphosis. It will not be uninstructive to advert briefly to the observations, which have led to more eorrect ideas on this subject. In a Dutch work, published in 1778, there appeared the figure of a small crustaceous animal (Fig. 53), unlike any previously known. Ss — »?” wees MOLLUSCA. 175 We now proceed to notice, with equal brevity, some of the best known examples of the different classes of the encephalous Mollusea, or those which have a distinct head. The classes, as already mentioned (page 162), are three in number. _ I.—PTEROPODA. Fig. 162..HyaLma. Tue little Mollusks belonging to this order are furnished with two membranous expansions, like fins or wings (J. 162), and hence the compound term, which signifies “‘ wing-footed,” points out the obvious distinguishing characteristic of the class. There are several genera, but the species best known (Clio borealis) is about an inch in length, and so abundant in the Arctic seas as at times to colour the surface for leagues, and to form an important supply of food to the great whale. Our knowledge of its structure is principally derived from the researches of Professor Eschricht, of Copenhagen. The head is furnished with six retractile appendages, which are of a reddish tint from the number of distinct red spots distributed over their surface, and amounting on each to about 3,000.* When examined under a high magnifying power, each of these specks is found to consist of about twenty suckers, each mounted on a footstalk, so as to be projected beyond the edge of their sheath, and applied to their prey. ‘Thus, to use * Vide Owen, page 293; Carpenter, p. 359; Jones, p. 425. / 176 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. the words of Professor Jones, ‘‘ There will be (3,000 X 206 X6) 360,000 of these microscopic suckers upon the head of one Clio; an apparatus for prehension perhaps unparalleled in the creation.” IL—@ASTEROPODA. Fig. 163.—VoOLUTE (THE ANIMAL REPRESENTED IN MOTION). Ir we look at the common Snail, as it crawls along, we notice that the only organ it possesses as a substitute for legs is a broad muscular disc, forming the lower surface of the body. Hence the compound term Gasteropoda (belly-footed) indicates the peculiarity of its locomotive structure, and is used as the name of the class in which a similar structure prevails (Figs. 147, 153, 163). The class is extremely numerous, and is conveniently dis- tributed into orders distinguished by modifications of their respiratory organs.* Into any minute details of these structural * It may be convenient to enumerate, in one place, the orders into which the class is divided, accompanied by an explanation of the scientific names. Nudibranchiata .................ss00e00-e. gills naked. Inferobranchiata, ...+...-.ssj0.-seesssseaess gills inferior or lower. Cyclobranchiata................s0.0..0+++. gills round the body. Tectibranchiata .............s.ssss0e2e0e2- gills covered by mantle. Pulmonata .........s0e.eeeseeeeseeeeeeeeee breathing by lungs. Scutibranchiata .....................e02. gills with a shield. Tubulibranchiata ........................ gills with a tube. Pectinibranchiata ..................+..s0e gills like a comb. The order last mentioned is the highest in point of organization; in it the sexes are distinct. MOLLUSCA. 177 characteristics it is not our intention to enter; still less do we purpose giving any enumeration of. the genera into which the several orders are subdivided. We shall merely endeavour to convey some idea of the principles on which the classification is conducted, and relate some particulars with regard to the habits, structure, or uses of a few well-known species. In two orders the animals are all marine, and are destitute of any shelly covering. In that t® which the term Nudi- branchiata is applied, the gills are also naked or unprotected, and are arranged in various forms, and attached to different parts of the body. The animals are found upon the rocks and seaweeds on our shore, and floating with the foot uppermost, on the smooth surface of our bays; they are also dredged up from considerable depths. When placed in sea-water, they exhibit figures of great delicacy, variety, and elegance, and with a beautiful diversity of colouring. Their size is very different, some of our native species being Jess than half an inch in length, while others measure so much as four inches.* The eggs of many are in the form of a delicate spiral ribbon-shaped coil, and are attached to stones near the shore or to corals in deep sea-water, according to the habits of the species.t Some gaily-coloured members of this group are found in the Mediterranean and the Indian seas, and swim with great rapidity. The common Limpet fomns an example of a Mollusk of a different order, in which the gills extend like a fringe round the lower edge of the body, and between the body and the foot rig. 164.—Kotrs, (Cyclobranchiata). Those who see the Limpet only when left uncovered by the tide have no idea of the ease with which it can march about when the returning waters once more surround its dwelling. Its little excursions are not, however, ‘‘idlesse all;” they are undertaken for the important * R. Ball. Vide W. Thompson, on Mollusca of Ireland, in Annals of Nat. Hist. 1840. { Vide an elaborate Monograph on the British Species of Nudibranchiate Mollusca, by Messrs. Alder and Hancock, now in course of publication by the Ray Society. It is illustrated with figures of exquisite delicacy. Parr. M 178 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. object of procuring food. This consists of sea-weeds of different kinds, which it rasps down by means of a ribbon- shaped instrument longer than its entire body, and covered with minute recurved hooks. The first time we chanced to Fig. 165.—LimPert.* Fig. 166.—Cuirton. see this, we mistook it for some strange species of worm ~ but, on examining several Limpets, the supposed worm was seen in all; and great was our astonishment when we discovered that we had, in every case, been looking at the tongue of the Limpet, and nof at any intruder into the privacy of his conical fortress. The shell of the Limpet consists of one piece; but in the Chiton (Fig. 166), an allied genus found near low water mark, and under stones, the shell is composed of a number of distinct plates. These are so arranged that the edges overlap -like the slates of a house, and the ligaments possess such flexibility, that the shell can, at the pleasure of the animal, be rolled into a ball. That order which is characterised by having the gills concealed under a fold of the mantle (Zectibranchiata) may be illustrated by reference to a creature not uncommon on our shores, the Aplysia or Sea-hare, the Lepus marinus of the * Fig. 165.—The animal of the Limpet, as seen from below.—2, Head.—e, Edge of shell.—_m, Mantle.—é, Branchiw.—/, Foot. MOLLUSCA. 179 ancients (7g. 167). The first which our dredge brought up was placed on one of the rowing benches of the boat, and emitted a rich purplish fluid so copiously that it ran along the Fig. 167.—APpLysIA. board. Being transferred to a phial of sea-water, the purple dye was still given off in such abundance that the creature soon became indiscernible. It was not until the water was changed that we had the opportunity of observing the ease and grace with which it moved about, elevating and depress- ing its mantle, altering the outline of its body, and extending and retracting its tentacula so incessantly, that an artist would have found a difficulty in catching its characteristic figure. It is probable that the form of the upper pair of tentacula suggested the idea of the ears of the hare, and thus gave origin to its common title. The body of this species (A. depilans) was marked with numerous brownish spots, of irregular size and form; but when the animal died and the body was placed in spirits, the beautiful spotted epidermis disappeared off the larger portion. This creature, it was once believed, held such antipathy to man that its touch would cause the hair to fall off; and it also was said to supply a poison, the operation of which was speedy and inevitable. Time has stripped this inoffensive creature of these imaginary powers. ‘ Of the tribes which breathe by lungs (Pulmonata) the common Slugs and Snails offer familiar examples. Even of these species, which are aquatic, many come to the surface for respiration, and float or move with the back downwards. “On a Summer’s day,” says Dr. Johnston,* * any one may * Mag. Nat. Hist vol. iii. page 531. 180 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. see the Lymnea and Planorbes (Figs. 147, 168) thus Gia Fig. 168.—PLANORBIS. traversing the surface of ponds and ditches, in an easy undu- lating line, or suspended there in luxurious repose, perhaps “To taste the freshness of heaven’s breath, and feel That light is pleasant, and the sunbeam warm.” The soft skin of those species which are unprotected with shells might naturally be supposed to be possessed of great sensibility, but such does not appear to be the case. ‘ Baron Férussac, for example, states that he has seen the terrestrial Gasteropods or slugs allow their skins to be eaten by others, and, in spite of large wounds thus produced, show no sign of pain.”* They possess, in a high degree, the power of repair- ing injuries and of reproducing lost parts. Many species, in their young state, can suspend themselves from any object by means of a thread emitted for the purpose, and in some this thread-producing power continues during life} Those who have not examined the internal structure of these animals may perhaps be surprised to learn that in each there exists a small rudimental shell. If we are asked ‘‘ what is the use of it?” we can only answer, “‘ we cannot tell;” but, in many other animals, we can point to a rudimental structure apparently of no use in the organization of a certain species, yet, in others with which it is nearly allied, becoming, in its full development, of great importance to the economy and habits of the animal. Thus, in the present case, though we find only a rudimental shell in the Slug (Zima), we meet with a conspicuous ex- ternal covering of shell in the Snail (Heliz). The species belonging to the latter family (Hedicide) are very numerous, * Quoted by Owen, page 306. + Rev. B. J. Clarke, on the Irish species of the Genus Limaz. Annals Nat. Hist. vol. xii. page 341. MOLLUSCA. 181 no less than forty being known in Ireland alone.* In a little wooded glen, we have, in a couple of hours, collected more than a dozen of species, some of them, though minute, of great beauty when examined under the microscope. The larger species afford a plentiful supply of food to two of our favourite songsters, the blackbird and the thrush. Those with thin shells are, of course, the most in request, and are brought to some flat .stone, and there broken to pieces. We recollect how tantalising, on one occasion, it seemed, when searching with a friend for a very elegant native species, which is found in wooded districts (7. arbustorum), while the shells we discovered were ‘‘ few and far between,” the recent fragments strewed plentifully about the stones, used by the thrushes for their demolition, showed that the birds were much more suc- cessful in their search than the naturalists. About the sandy slopes and hillocks which extend for con- siderable distances along the coast, several creatures of this family may be found; and he who examines them critically will notice that, although the habitat appears of the same character, species will be abundant in one locality which are wanting in another, and their presence or absence does not seem to depend upon any law of geographical distribution. How constantly do the phenomena of nature make us feel the limited extent of our knowledge, and say, in a manner not to be misunderstood, ‘‘ Be humble!” It is a general belief that these little snails are eaten, in vast numbers, by the sheep which graze upon the scanty pasturage of the sandy knolls, and that they form a very fattening kind of food. The Helices are not, however, used only as food for birds, or for sheep and other quadrupeds, such as the hedgehog. There is a species, found in the southern and midland counties of England, which has been considered a delicacy by man himself (7. Pomatia). ‘ From the time of the Romans, who fattened them as an article of food, they have been eaten by several European nations, dressed in various ways. Petronius Arbiter twice mentions them as served up at the feast of Tri- malchio (Nero), first fried, and again grilled on a silver gridiron. At one time, it seems, they were admitted at our own tables; and Lister, in his Historia Animalium Anglia, p. 111, tells us the manner in which they were cooked in his time. They are *W. Thompson. Report of British Association, 1843. 182 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. boiled in spring-water, and when seasoned with oil, salt, and pepper, make a dainty dish.”* Fig. 169 represents a species belonging to a different order Fig. 169.—VERMETUS. (Tubulibranchiata). Such shells occur in groups, and are always found attached to other bodies. They bear some re- semblance to the tubes of the serpule (2%. 40), though the contained animals are widely different. Of those which possess comb-shaped gills (Pectinibranchiata) the common Whelk, or, to use the term employed in the North of Ireland, the “ Buckie” (Buccinum undatum) is perhaps the best known example. It is carnivorous in its habits, and is furnished with a singular kind of proboscis, well adapted for boring into the shells of other Mollusks. On some parts of the Irish coast it is taken in wicker baskets containing offal, and is then extensively employed by the fishermen as bait. From its abundance and its size, it is very frequently used by children in the manner described in the exquisite lines of Wordsworth :— ““T have seen A curious child applying to his ear The convolutions of a smeath-lipped shell, To which, in silence hushed, his very soul Listened intensely, and his countenance soon Brightened with joy; for murmuring from within Were heard sonorous cadences, whereby, To his belief, the monitor express’d Mysterious union with its native sea. Even such a shell the universe itself Is to the ear of faith, and doth impart Authentic tidings of invisible things; Of ebb and flow, and ever-during power; And central peace subsisting at the heart Of endless agitation.” Another shell, even more plentiful on our rocky shores, is the Dog-whelk (Purpura lapillus). It is remarkable for furnishing a purplish dye, which makes an indelible marking- ink. This is contained in a whitish or straw-coloured vein, * Turton’s Manual, edited by John Ed. Gray, pages 135, 136. MOLLUSCA. 183 close to the head, and when applied to white linen when the sun is bright, is first green, then blue, changing to a reddish tint, and finally purple. It is not, however, to be supposed that this fluid is identical with that dye for which Tyre was so celebrated when its ‘“‘merchants were princes, and its traffickers the honourable: of the earth;’? and which was re- served for the brilliant hangings of temples, or the costly robes of priests and kings. By what species of shell this dye was produced, and how it was extracted, have been questions respecting which much difference of opinion has prevailed. Our latest information on the , subject is derived from Mr. Wilde,* who, when visiting the ruins of Tyre, in 1838, found on the shore ‘‘a number of round holes cut in the solid sandstone rock, varying in size from that of an ordinary metal pot to that of a large boiler.” Within these, and on the ad- jacent beach, he found large quantities of shells broken, ap- parently by design, but subse- quently agglutinated together. Hence he inferred, that the shells had been collected, in large masses, into these holes or mortars, to be pounded in the manner mentioned by Pliny, for the purpose of extracting the fluid which the animal con- tained. This opinion received confirmation from his finding that the broken shells of this conglomerate proved, on exa- mination, to be the Murex trunculus, one of the species from which the Tyrian dye is known to have-been obtained; and, also, that several of the recent shells, exactly agreeing with these, were found on the adjoining beach. The genus contains shells of great beauty (J”%g. 170), some of which are furnished with long and delicate spines. Fig. 170.—Movrex. * Narrative of a Voyage to Madeira, Teneriffe, &c. 2d edition, page 378; and Appendix to the same work, page 629. 184 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. III.—CEPHALOPODA—CUTTLE-FISHES. Fig. 171.—CaLamary. Ir we look at a Cuttle-fish (/%g. 171), we notice that the head is surrounded by a number of appendages; and this peculiarity is implied in the term “ Cephalopoda.”’* It is *restricted to the third division of the encephalous Mollusca; to that class which is the most elevated in organization. Its superiority is manifested in the muscular, the respiratory, and the nervous systems, and also in the existence of a true in- ternal skeleton of a peculiar structure, the first approach towards the most obvious characteristic of the vertebrate animals. Though the shell of the Pearly Nautilus (Nautilus Pompi- lius, Fig. 172) is common in museums, the capture of the Fig. 172.—P£aRLY NAUTILUS, WITH THE SHELL LAID OPEN, Fig. 172—t, Tentacula.—f, Funnel.—g, Foot.—m, Part of mantle.—e, Kye.— s, Siphon. * From two Greek words, signifying head-feet. MOLLUSCA. 185 living animal is of rare occurrence. One was taken, when floating in the South Seas, and being presented to the College of Surgeons, London, was there dissected by Professor Owen, who published an elaborate memoir on its structure, and its relations to other families, both recent and extinct. We learn from this source that it has four gills (Zetrabranchiata), in which respect it differs from all other existing species of Cuttle-fish, that it occupies the outer chamber of its shell, and that it can rise 'to the surface or descend at pleasure. Similar in structure and in powers were the Ammonites (J%gs. 173, 174), which at former periods of the earth’s history, Fig. 173. Fig. 174. AMMONITES. must have been living in its seas, though now known only as fossil; and alike in general organization, though different in form, are those large tapering chambered fossils (Orthoceratites) which, in some parts of Ireland, are so abundant in the limestone quarries. The other Cuttle-fishes (Dibranchiata) abound in all seas, and are arranged in two divisions, according as they have eight or ten arms. To the latter group belong the Loligo or Calamary (Fig. 171)—the common Sepia or Cuttle-fish— and the Loligopsis (fig. 175), so remarkable for the great length of one pair of its arms. All possess a shell or internal skeleton differing in form and structure in different species; all are furnished with a powerful horny beak for tearing up their prey, and with an ink-bag, from which, at pleasure, they can emit a fluid which darkens the water and fayours their escape from their i Fig. 176. enemies, BELEMNIgTR. 186 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. To this division belonged the Belemnite (Fig. 176), whose remains are abundant in the white limestone of the County Fig. 175.—Lo.igorsis. Antrim. The flinty conical body we now behold constituted part of the internal skeleton of the living animal. The remains of a Belemnite have been found in England in such a state of preservation as to show the head, the arms, the ink-bag, and the internal shell.* From a careful examination of its struc- ture, Mr. Owen is of opinion that it possessed the power of swimming backward and forward with great vigour and pre- cision, could rise swiftly and stealthily to infix its claws into the belly of a fish, and then perhaps as swiftly dart down, drag its prey to the bottom, and devour it. How strange it is to gaze upon that fossil entombed in masses of limestone, and, in imagination, picture that flinty structure gifted with life, and forming part of a carnivorous animal, who, in the primeval seas, ere these lands were upheaved from the bed of ocean, carried on his career of rapine, the voracious de- stroyer of the weaker inhabitants of the deep! * Owen, pages 337, 339. MOLLUSCA. 187 Fig. 177.—ARGOoONAUT, OR Paper NavTILvs. Of the eight-armed division, the most interesting species is the Argonaut or Paper Nautilus, regarded as giving to man the first example of the art of navigation. It has been usually represented as in the annexed figure (Jig. 177), with six arms extended over the sides of its little vessel to act as oars, and two others upraised as sails. Such being the universal belief among naturalists, it is to be expected that 1&8 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. poets would not fail to celebrate its nautical capabilities. * Thus, Pope bid us “Learn of the little Nautilus to sail, Spread the thin oar and catch the driving gale.” And Montgomery, in his “ Pelican Island,” gives a picture so exquisitely finished, that even the naturalist can scarcely bring himself to wish that it were different :— “Light as a flake of foam upon the wind, Keel upward from the deep emerged a shell, Shaped like the moon ere half her horn is fill’d; Fraught with young life, it righted as it rose, And moved at will along the yielding water. The native pilot of this little bark Put out a tier of oars on either side, Spread to the wafting breeze a twofold sail, And mounted up and glided down the billow In happy freedom, pleased to feel the air, And wander in the luxury of light.” It is now ascertained that the Nautilus never moves in the manner here described. The account, though so universally accredited, is altogether fabulous. It moves backwards through the water by the action of its arms, like other Cuttle-fish. It can creep along the bottom, and, like many other Mollusks, it can rise to the surface; but there, the arms are never em- ployed as oars. Nor are those which have the broad expanded membranous disc ever used as sails; their true function, as ascertained by M. Rang, and confirmed by the experiments of Madame Power, is the secretion of the substance of the shell. They are stretched tensely over its surface, and, when accidental injuries arise, they deposit for its repair the needful quantity of shelly matter. To do this, and to supply what is wanted for the enlargement of the shell with the growth of the animal, is their appointed duty; one similar to that of the mantle of the bivalve shells. * Byron’s well-known description is too beautiful to be omitted:— ‘The tender Nautilus who steers his prow, The sea-born sailor of his shell canoe, The ocean Mab, the fairy of the sea, Seems far less fragile, and, alas! more free. He, when the lightning-wing’d tornados sweep The surge, is safe—his port is in the deep— And triumphs o’er the armadas of mankind, Which shake the world, yet crumble in the wind.” THE IsLanp. MOLLUSCA. 189 The species of Octopus (0. vulgaris, Fig. 178) found on the British shores, and known as the common Poulpe, is of rare occurrence on the Irish coast.* Its strange figure and staring eyes cannot fail to excite astonishment when seen for the first time, more especially when its twisting arms are ‘ig. 178.—OctTopus or PouLre. employed in the act of walking, or in that of swimming, by means of the contractions of their connecting membrane. These arms have, however, another office, for which they are elaborately adapted; and as the description given of them by Professor Jones is equally applicable to other Cephalopods, we shall adopt the language of that eloquent writer :— “The feet or tentacula appended to the head are not, how- ever, exclusively destined to effect locomotion; they are used, if required, as agents in seizing prey, and of so terrible a cha- racter, that armed with these formidable organs, the Poulpe becomes one of the most destructive inhabitants of the sea; for neither superior strength nor activity, nor even defensive armour, is suflicient to save its victims from the ruthless ferocity of such a foe. A hundred and twenty pair of suckers, more perfect and efficacious than the cupping-glasses of human contrivance, crowd the lower surface of every one of the eight flexible arms. If the Poulpe but touch its prey, it is enough; * Another species (Eledone ventricosa) takes its place, and often its name.—R. Ball. 190 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. once a few of these tenacious suckers get firm hold, the swift- ness of the fish is unavailing, as it is soon trammelled on all sides by the firmly- -holding tentacula, and dragged to the mouth of its destroyer. The shell of the lobster or crab is a vain protection, for the hard and crooked beak of the Cepha- lopod easily breaks to pieces the frail armour.” * An instance of its powers, both of attack and escape, feli under the observation of Mr. Broderip, of London. He. attempted, ‘“‘ with a hand-net, to catch an Octopus that was floating within sight, with its long and flexible arms entwined round a fish, which it was tearing to pieces with its sharp hawk’s-bill. The Cephalopod allowed the net to approach within a short distance of it before it relinquished its prey, when, in an instant, it relaxed its thousand suckers, exploded its inky ammunition, and rapidly retreated, under cover of the cloud which it had occasioned, by rapid and vigorous strokes of its circular web.” T Besides the power of thus escaping when pursued, it also possesses, in common with others of its class, a protection against being discovered, which, conjoined with the other, surpasses the cloak of darkness in the fairy tale. It can change its colour to that of the adjacent objects; so that, like the Ptarmigan in the snow, it becomes comparatively incon- spicuous. Mr. Owen remarks, that ‘the power which the Cephalopods possess of changing their colour, and of har- monizing it with that of the surface on which they rest, is at least as striking and extensive as in the Chameleon, in which it seems, from the latest observations, to be produced by a similar property and arrangement of pigmental cells.” { The prepared ink of the Cuttle-fish is capable of being made into a pigment, and, even after being entombed for centuries, preserves its powers. Dr. Buckland supplied some of this fossil ink to an eminent painter who immediately inquired from what colour-man such excellent sepia might be procured. The internal bone is used in making erasures, and is manu- factured into the article known as ‘‘ pounce” in the shops. The flesh, especially that of the arms, is considered very nutritious. It was highly prized by the ancients, and, though not used in these countries, is still much sought for in other * Outline of the Animal Kingdom, page 431,, { Owen, page 346. f Page a43. MOLLUSCA. 191 parts of the world, and occasionally exposed for sale in the market at Naples and elsewhere. Our most common species (Loligo vulgaris) forms the bait with which one-half of the cod taken at Newfoundland is caught.* During violent gales of wind, hundreds of tons of them are thrown up there on the beach. Other species appear elsewhere to be no less numerous. Mr. Bennett t describes them as forming a dense shoal on the surface of the water, extending several hundred yards on each side of the ship he was in; and also gives an animated description of the flights of the flying squid, a name given to another species because of their manner of leaping from the water. Stories are told of gigantic Cuttle-fish throwing their arms over luckless vessels, the thickness of each arm being equal to that of the mizen-mast. But it is the business of science to dispel these exaggerations, and patiently and laboriously to seek out the truth, hailing with joy each new light which may shine on the subject of inquiry. In the College of Surgeons, London, are preserved portions of the largest specimen of a Cuttle-fish which any of our museums contain. The carcass was found during Captain Cook’s first voyage, floating on the sea, surrounded by aquatic birds, who were feeding on its remains. ‘* Comparing the size of this animal, from the parts existing, with that of the smaller perfect animals, its body must have been at least four feet long, which, added to the tentacula, would make it seven feet in length.”{ We have, in these countries, no positive evidence of the existence of any Cuttle-fish of larger dimensions, but the general prevalence of such belief inclines naturalists at present not to deny the possibility of their occurrence. The ova of the Cuttle-fish are contained in vesicles, which, in some cases, are clustered together, and known as “ sea- grapes.” On one occasion, our dredge brought up a large mass of them, so mature that, in the act of throwing it into a vessel of sea-water, many of the ovisacs_burst, and, to our astonishment, we beheld the fluid swarming with minute Cuttle-fish, whose dark eyes were singularly conspicuous. In April, 1845, we found, on a sandy bank, in Belfast bay, a number of detached vesicles, which had been left uncovered * Dr. Johnston in Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. iii. page 163. + Narrative of a Whaling Voyage round the Globe. London, 1840. tf Owen, vid. Atheneum, 1840, page 676. 192 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. by the retiring tide. Each had a thread-like extremity, buried in the sand to the depth of two or three inches, and highly elastic. We have been unable to ascertain to what kind of Cuttle-fish they belonged.* Mr. R. Ball has recorded, as occurring in the Irish seas, twelve species of Cephalopoda, three of which were previously undescribed. f The remains of animals of this family have been found along with the undigested portions of the food of the gigantic saurian reptiles of remote ages; and thus, in the words of Dr. Buck- land, “the general Jaw of nature, which bids to eat and be eaten in their turn, is shown to have been co-extensive with animal existence on our globe; the carnivora in each period of the world’s history fulfilling their destined office, to check excess in the progress of life, and maintain the balance o creation.” The brief space devoted to the Mollusca cannot be closed without adverting to their great importance in a geological point of view. Their shells, which, in a fossil state, are found in the secondary rocks, are different from those of any animals of the same tribes now existing. They may belong to the same families, in some cases to the same genera, but zavariably the species is extinct. In the older tertiary rocks, we meet, for the first time, with shells in a fossil state, which are specifically identical with some now living. But the number of such is so small, that it has been estimated at only three and a half per cent. of the entire. As we approach the more recent strata, the number of shells of species still living continues to increase, until, in those tertiary rocks which are the most recent, it constitutes nine-tenths of the entire number. Hence shells have, with great propriety, been termed ‘the medals principally employed by Nature in recording the chronology of past events.” f An aid in the detection of generic resemblances between different fossil shells, and also between recent and fossil, has * They have so much resemblance to the ovisacs contained in the ovary of Rossia palpetrosa, figured by Professor Owen in the appendix to Ross’s voyage, that we are inclined to surmise they must have been those of some species of the same genus—a conjecture the more probable as to this genus belong two species, added to our Fauna by Mr. Ball. Ovisacs described to us as similar to what we have noticed were found by Miss Ball on Clontarf strand. t Proceedings Royal Irish Academy, 10th Jan. 1842. } Lyell’s Principles of Geology, vol. i. page 283. MOLLUSCA. 193 of late been afforded by the microscopic investigation of their structure by Dr. Carpenter, an investigation which is still in progress. ‘That gentleman observes, “‘that marked differences in the structure of shell go along with marked difference in general characters, and that a close correspondence in the structure of the shell may be held to indicate a tolerably close natural affinity.”’* And he enumerates certain genera “which may be at once distinguished from each other, and from all other shells, by the characters supplied by a fragment of shell which a pin’s head would cover.” Should more extended observations warrant the broad inferences to which such in- quiries at present point, and be found applicable to the Crus- tacea and Echinodermata, no less than to the Testacea, how clear is the light which they will cast into “the palpable obscure,” which sometimes baffles the most anxious and persevering efforts of the geologist! Another series of observations, of a nature totally unlike these, has given additional importance to the shells of stratified rocks, by teaching us better to understand the circumstances under which they have been originally deposited. These investigations were carried on by Professor Edward, Forbes, T in the A2gean Sea, on board H. M. S$. Beacon, Captain Graves, and continued for eighteen months. By means of the dredge, the Mollusca and Radiata of that region were explored, at all depths of water between the surface and 230 fathoms. Nearly 7U0 species were thus found, and, in different regions of depth, they were associated in such a manner that each of these regions presented its own peculiar and characteristic association of species, just as on lofty mountains the character of the vegetation changes in proportion to the altitude. Those species which had the widest range of geographical distribu- tion, had also the most extensive range with regard to regions of depth; and some were discovered living, which had pre- viously been known only as fossil. Both with regard to vegetable and animal life, species were found to attain, at certain depths, a maximum size, then gradually to diminish, and finally to disappear, their places being supplied by similar forms, specifically distinct. Genera, in like manner, were found to be replaced by corresponding genera. So that the * Annals Nat. Hist. December, 1843. { Report to British Association. Cork meeting, 1843. 194 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. exploration of this sea exhibited, in regard to depth, a series of phenomena similar to what had been already observed by geologists with regard to successive periods of time, or to de- grees of latitude in geographical distribution; thus showing that the study of the characters which Nature now exhibits furnishes the key to that series of ciphers in which she has written the history of the past. It will be seen, therefore, that, in the study of the Testacea, the naturalist rises from the determination of species to inductions which lead him to examine the structure, habits, and distribution of extensive groups; to investigate the con- ditions under which they are found to exist; and, uniting in one series the past and the present, to aim at generalizations sufficient to task, to their utmost capability, the limited powers with which man, in his present state of existence, has been endowed. END OF PART L INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. PART II. VERTEBRATE ANIMALS, _ ‘‘ arth in her rich attire, Consummate, lovely, smiled; air, water, earth, By fowl, fish, beast, was flown, was swum, was walk’d.” Mritton’s ParaviseE Lost. We have had our attention directed to the three groups of animals termed “ Invertebrate,’ from the absence of the vertebral * column; and we are now prepared to enter upon the examination of the more highly organized beings which constitute the fourth great division of the animal kingdom. These have a more complex structure and a higher intelli- gence ; many of them by their great strength and vast propor- tions must excite our amazement; and in this class, after passing many inferior grades, we reach to man himself, “the paragon of animals.” The most obvious character by which the Vertebrate Ani- mals are distinguished from the lower tribes is, as the name denotes, the possession of a skull and back-bone; or rather by their “ having the brain and principal trunk of the nervous system included in a bony articulated case, composing the skull and vertebral column.’’ + There are other important * “ Vertebral, as consisting of segments of the skeleton, which turn one upon the other, and as being the centre on which the whole body can bend and rotate; from the Latin verto, vertere, to turn.”—Professor Owen’s Lec- tures on the Vertebrate Animals. + Manual of British Vertebrate Animals. By the Rey. Leonard Jenyns, M.A. 0 196 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. though less striking characteristics. Vertebrate Animals pos- sess red blood, a muscular heart, distinct senses, a mouth fur- nished with two jaws moving vertically, and limbs which, however modified in form, never exceed four in number. The skeleton of Vertebrate Animals presents considerable variety, not only in its form, but in the material of which it is composed. Bone consists of animal matter, chiefly gelatinous, hardened by a general diffusion of earthy particles. The proportion of the animal and of the earthy parts, or, in other words, the proportion of the organic and inorganic matter, varies in different classes. ‘Fishes have the least, birds the largest, proportion of earthy matter ;” “the mam- malia, especialy the active predatory species, have more earth, or harder bones, than reptiles.’’ In each class there are differences in the density of bone among its several members. For example, in the freshwater fishes the bones are lighter, and retain more animal matter, than in those which swim in the denser sea; and in the dolphin, a warm-blooded marine animal, they differ little in this respect from those of the sea fish.* The Vertebrate Animals are distributed into four classes, namely :— J. Fisnes. Il. Rerriuus (Tortoises, Lizards, Serpents, Frogs.) III. Brros. IV. Mamuartay (Man, Bats, Whales, Quadrupeds.) Two of these, Fishes and Reptiles, are, with few exceptions, cold-blooded; and the remaining two, Birds and Mammalia, are warm-blooded. * Professor Owen’s Lectures on the Vertebrate Animals, p. 25. + Most of the animals belonging to this Class, being four-footed, it is not unusual in systematic works of a popular character, to speak of them all (including the bats and whales) as “‘ Quadrupeds,” instead of using the more scientific term “ Mammalia.” 197 CLASS I. PISCES.—FISHES. “They that go down to the sea in ships, and oceupy their business in great waters ; ‘These men see the works of the Lord, and his wonders in the deep.” PsaLms. How widely different are the ideas suggested by the word “ Fish ” to the minds of the angler, the epicure, the fisherman, and the naturalist! The last is here to be our guide; and, according to his definition, fishes are cold-blooded animals, eminently and specially adapted for living as inhabitants of the water. The body is, in most instances, covered with scales ; they have fins instead of feet; and respiration is car- ried on by gills. The young are produced from eggs. Distrreution.—Fishes are found in rivers, lakes, and seas, and, according to the laws of geographical distribution, have certain limits within which they range, and beyond which they seldom pass. Some live habitually in temperatures far above that which we would have ventured to suppose. Thus, fishes have been observed in a hot spring at Manilla, which raises the thermometer to 187°, and in another in Barbary, whose usual temperature is 172°;* and Humboldt mentions that, during his researches in tropical America, he found them thrown up alive from the bottom of an exploding volcano, along with water at that time so hot as to raise the thermo- meter to 210°, or within two degrees of the boiling point. An observation, made under such circumstances, does nos, however, furnish any evidence as to the temperature of the water in which such fishes habitually lived. When the vital actions are suspended by excess of cold, and the fish congealed in a mass of ice, life does not appear to be permanently extin- guished. With the gradual thawing of the ice, all the powers of life return: hence, in the northern parts of Europe, Perch and Eels are conveniently transported from one place to another while in a frozen state. Even the same species seems * See Notes to Dr. W. F. Edwards’ work ‘‘On the Influence of Physical Agents on Life.’’ 198 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. capable of bearing considerable extremes of heat and cold. The delicate-looking Gold-fish thrives and breeds to excess in water the temperature of which is so high as 80°, and has been known to be frozen into a solid body of ice, and revived by the gradual application of warmth.* Form.—The great variety of form observable among fishes may be illustrated by reference to some of our most common native species—the Kel, the Plaice, and the Haddock. Some fishes have aspects so strange and grotesque that the names “ Widdle-fish,” “yed-riband,’”’ and ‘“ Hammer-head,”’ have been bestowed on them, as indicating their resemblance to some well-known object. There are some, which to a certain extent, can vary the form of their body at pleasure. ‘Thus the Diodon,t or Globe-fish (4%. 179), by swallowing air, Fig. 179.—GLoBE- Fisu. can inflate itself like a balloon. The air passes into the first stomach, which occupies the lower surface of the body. This part, becoming the lightest, is that which remains uppermost, and the fish floats on the surface with its usual position re- versed. But, while thus floating without effort, it is in the most perfect security from all its usual enemies: for, owing to the distension of the skin, the numerous spines with which it is beset become erect, and present a bristling front on every * Jesse's Second Series of Gleanings in Natural History. { This fish belongs to a family which has no true teeth, but in which the gums are covered with a substance resembling ivory. The enamel in each jaw is without any division, so that the fish appears to have but two teeth— whence its name Diodon. FISHES. 199 side to all assailants.* Cuvier doubts whether the Diodon, when in this position, is able toswim; but Mr. Darwin’s observations show that it can not only move forward in a straight line, but that it can also turn to either side.t Covrrtya.—Most fishes are covered with scales, which dif- fer considerably in their shape, and are yet so uniform in each particular kind that they serve as valuable aids in the discrimi- nation of species. Those along the well-marked line observ- able on both sides of the body are distinguished from the others in shape, and each of them is found to be pierced with a small hole, which is, in fact, the extremity of a tube. Through these orifices a mucus or slime is emitted. This forms a coat- . ing to the body, and diminishes the friction of its passage through the water. These apertures are, in general, larger and more numerous about the head than over the other parts, and may be regarded as one of those beautiful provisions of Nature which we are permitted so frequently to observe and to admire. ‘“ Whether the fish inhabits the stream or the lake, the current of the water in the one instance, or progression through it on the other, carries this defensive secretion back- wards, and spreads it over the whole surface of the body.’’t The scales are sometimes marked with minute lines, possess a varying metallic lustre, and exhibit a diversity of brilliant colours, which render them highly attractive objects. The poet is perfectly accurate when he describes fishes, which, —— “Sporting with quick glance, Show to the sun their waved coats dropt with gold.”—-MILTon. Thus the wide-spreading sea has in its waters tribes of beings fitted for that element, and scarcely, if at all, inferior in rich- ness of colouring, variety of figure, or grace of movement, to those which are the admired denizens of the air. * M. Edwards’ “Elémens,” p. 305. Roget's Bridgewater Treatise, p. 433. - + Darwin’s Journal, p. 13. ‘ Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle.”’ t Yarrell’s History of British Fishes, p. 4. § The brilliant metallic colours of the scales of fishes are thus accounted for by Dr. J. L. Drummond:—‘ The scales of fishes are pellucid; and their brilliant appearance is owing toa thin film which covers the under side of each scale, and is entirely formed of spicula, as is easily proved by scraping off a quantity of scales, and agitating them in water with a stick or other body, so as to detach the films. The water will then be found to contain thousands of moving spicula, which in the sunshine may be discerned 200 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. But, although we may convince ourselves of the truth of this remark, by an examination of those on our own shores, we should not limit our view to them, but extend it to those of other seas. There, with new forms we find new vestments. Thus, the Trunk-fish* (Ostracion, Fig. 180), and the Pipe- fishes of our own shores (f%g. 182), in- stead of being covered with flexible scales, are clad in a covering of bony plates firmly united together, re- Fig. 180.—TrunK-FIsH. minding us of a tes- selated pavement; and if we look back to those which in re- mote eras were the inhabitants of these seas, and whose re- mains are found imbedded in rocks of marine formation in different parts of these islands, we find numerous tribes whose coats of mail did not consist of bone but of enamel. Senszs.—The sense of feeling can scarcely be exerted in its fullest extent by the bodies of fishes, covered as they are with their scaly integuments. From this remark, however, we should except the long cirri or feelers of certain fishes, which are placed about the mouth. “These appendages,”’ says Mr. Yarrell, “are to them delicate organs of touch, by which all the species provided with them are enabled to ascertain, to a certain extent, the qualities of the various substances with which they are brought in contact ; and are analogous in fune- tion to the beak, with its distribution of nerves, among cer- tain wading and swimming birds which probe for food beyond their sight; and may be considered another instance, among the many beautiful provisions of Nature, by which, in the case of fishes feeding at great depths, where light is deficient, com- pensation is made for consequent imperfect vision.”+ As the with the utmost ease by the naked eye. The scales of the Salmon answer best for the purpose, as they are large and easily detached.’’—‘ On certain Appearances Observed in the Dissection of the Eyes of Fishes.”— Trans. Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh. 1815. The slender, flat, silvery bodies, here named “spicula,’’ are perfectly opaque, and must therefore be examined under the microscope by reflected not by transmitted light: when thus seen, their brilliancy is almost too great for the eye to sustain.—/dem. * M. Edwards’ ‘ Elémens,” p. 303. Roget, p. 432. { British Fishes, p. 30. FISHES. 201 prey of fishes is seized by the mouth, and retained there until swallowed; and as the mouth at the same time admits the stream of water to the gills, but little mastication can possibly take place; there is, consequently, but little exercise of the sense of taste. Its existence is, however, indicated in some species both by the structure of the skin which covers the palate, and by the supply of nerves. The sense of smell would appear to be enjoyed in great perfection, not only from the development of the olfactory nerves, but also from observations respecting habits. Mr. Jesse states of fish which he kept in a pond suitable for the purpose, that they preferred paste and worms that had been prepared by particular perfumes. The existence of the sense of hearing in fishes has been questioned ere now, because there is no external organ ana- logous to an ear. But the pleasing writer just quoted informs us, that he has seen fishes suddenly move at the report of a gun, though it was impossible for them to see the flash ;* and we know that the Chinese summon their Gold-fish to their food by the sound of a whistle. The researches of the ana- tomist would, however, be sufficient of themselves to remove such a doubt, if it were ever seriously entertained. He reveals to us the existence of a special apparatus for the purpose, pre- senting great diversity in its arrangement; and we learn that in cases such as those just mentioned, the sonorous vibrations of the water were communicated to the organ of hearing through the medium of the solid parts of the body. In many species there is a communication between the ear and the air- bladder; and it has hence been inferred that the air-bladder, among other uses, serves to increase the intensity of the undu- lations communicated through water to the body of the fish.T With the parts of the auditory apparatus, called the ofolites, or ear-bones, every one is familiar. The sense of sight exists in great perfection ; but the lenses of the eye are modified to suit the denser medium through which the rays of light must pass. In general, the eye is much rounded, and the pupil is large, so as to allow the greatest possible quantity of light to enter. But while such careful arrangements are made for the sense of vision, in all cases where that power can be exerted, the economy of nature, * Gleanings in Natural History, p. 74. t Miiller, quoted in Owen’s Lectures, p. 211. 202 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. which gives nothing in vain, has withheld the gift from those species whose dwelling-place is such as to preclude the possi- bility of its exercise. An instance of this is supplied to us from Kentucky, where there is a cavern, known because of its great dimensions by the name of the Mammoth Cave.* It is said to extend to a distance of upwards of twenty miles, and has obviously been excavated by the long-continued action of a subterranean river. There is an expanse of this river, about four miles from the entrance, forming a subterranean lake. Here the sense of sight would be useless; and it is found, accordingly, that the fishes which inhabit those gloomy waters are without eyes;f or, to speak more correctly, the visual organs exist only in a rudimentary condition. The capture of these fishes is, nevertheless, difficult, because of the great acuteness of their sense of hearing. The eyes of fishes exhibit striking peculiarities. They are without eyelids, properly so called ;{ and as the eye is at all times washed by the surrounding water, that gland which supplies moisture to the eye of the higher vertebrate animals is not required, and therefore doesnot exist. The colours of the eye are of great beauty, varying through various shades of black, blue, red, yellow, and richest orange. Locomorion.—We now turn to the consideration of the various structural peculiarities, by means of which fishes are enabled to move through the waters with the same, or even greater ease, than the Hawk and the Swallow wing their course through the air. The first bears reference to the weight of the body of the fish, compared with that of the medium in which it lives. This specific gravity, to use the proper term, is nearly the same in both; or, in other words, the weight of the body of the fish is nearly the same as that of an equal * There is a popular description of the Mammoth Cave in Chambers’ Edinburgh Journal, 1837, vol. vi.—and again, in 1843, vol. xii. + W. Thomson’s Notice of the Blind-fish, Cray-fish, and insects from the Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. Annals of Natural History, vol. xiii. p. 112. some of these blind-fish are preserved in the Belfast Museum. Not only the fish, but the crustacea and insects, are specifically distinct from those found else- where ; and in all of them the eyes are apparently wanting, or greatly dimin- ished in size. The ‘“ Blind-fish”’ (Amblyopsis speleus) is described in Silli- man’s American Journal of Science, July, 1843, p. 94; and in Annals Nat. Hist., Oct. 1843. t The fold of the skin observed on the eyes of the Dog-fish and other Sharks, is not generally regarded as a true eyelid. FISHES. 203 bulk of water. If the specifie gravity should be increased the fish would necessarily descend, without any muscular exer- tion ; or, if diminished, the fish would become lighter than the water, and would, therefore, rise to the surface. A. beautiful arrangement, by which the fish can thus rise or sink at plea- sure, and without exertion, is exhibited by a singular and effectual piece of mechanism, provided apparently for this purpose. It is a membranous bag, placed at the lower side of the spinal column, and known as the “swim-bladder”’ or * air-bladder.”’ In the Cod-fish it is the part which is called the “sound.” It differs much in form, and sometimes con- sists of two or more membraneous bags, with small connect- ing apertures, or with the divisions quite distinct, or with prolongations from the sides or ends.* But whatever be the form, the principal use seems to be the same—namely, that of enabling the fish to regulate the specifie gravity of its body. Professor Owen regards it as the representative in fishes of the true lung of the air-breathing vertebrate animals. It is brought as we have seen (p. 201), into connexion with the chamber or labyrinth of the organ of hearing; and in a few fishes it is subservient to the production of sounds, which are caused by the air passing from the air-bladder, by means of an air-duct, into the gullet (wsophagus). It appears also to act in some cases, as a safety-valve against high-pressure, when the fish sinks to great depths, and to a limited extent as a pro- tection against the too sudden expansion of the gas, when the fish rises to the surface.t When we begin to examine to what extent this mechanism prevails among fishes, we find it is by no means universal. It: is not observed in the Plaice, the Turbot, the Sole, and other flat fishes; and as these different species live near the bottom of the water, we are at first inclined to say it is not given to them for that reason, but that it is given to those which are in the habit of rising and sinking. A little further examination, however, shows that we are mistaken. Fels, which live near the ground, have the swimming-bladder well developed: while the Red Mullet, which has no swimming- * Lectures, p. 227. + The gas in the air-bladder is found to consist of nitrogen and oxygen, the constituents of atmospheric air in varying proportions. No hydrogen has ever been detected. Owen's Lectures, p. 277, 204 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. bladder, seems, in its habits, to be similar to fishes which are thus provided. Nay, of two species of Mackerel found on the British coasts, both of which swim near the surface, and with - apparently the same ease and swiftness, one has a swim-bladder and the other has not.* The external organs of motion act in a manner more easily understood. They consist of the tail and fins. We use the word “ tail’’ as expressing not only the lower extremity of the body, but also the fin by which the body is terminated, appropriately called the “ caudal fin’? (Latin, cauda, a tail). This is the most efficient organ in progression. It acts upon the water somewhat like the oar of the boatman, when he propels his little craft by that alternate movement of the oar which is called “sculling.” The tail—placed vertically in fishes, but horizontally in whales—is a very powerful instru- | ment of motion. To its movement a great part of the mus- cular power of the fish can be applied ; and the great flexibility of the skeleton largely adds to the effect. The fins on the upper and lower portions of the body bear their part in the exertion, or unite with those nearer the head in retarding, stopping, or changing the direction of the movement. The annexed figure of the Perch (fig. 181) exhibits the fins, and also the spiny processes by which they are supported. Fig. 181.—SKELETON OF THE PERCH. The fins upon the back of the fish are naturally termed the “dorsal’’ fins (dorsum, the back), and if there be more than * Yarrell’s British Fishes, vol. i. p. 39. FISHES. 205 one, that nearest the head is distinguished as “ the first dorsal.” Those near the gills, on what might be called the shoulders of the fish, are the “‘ pectoral,’ * and the pair nearest to them, but on the lower surface of the body, are of course the “ ventral.” + Thus the fins, in all cases, are named from the part of the body to which they are attached. In the summer of 1846 we had an opportunity of observing the capability of the fins and tail in enabling a fish to achieve a movement of a very unusual kind. We had taken in a tow- ing-net one of the Pipe-fishes (Syngnathus acus, Fig. 182), which had been swimming near the surface, and had placed it in a basin of sea-water.t One of the long-bodied crustacea Fig. 182.—PireE-FIsH. which are abundant during fine weather, and had been captured at the same time, was placed in the same vessel. It was a species of Gammarus,§ and about an inch in length. The Gammarus would seem to have got tired of swimming, and, * Latin, pectoralis, of or belonging to the chest. + Venter, ventris, the belly. ‘The fin or fins between the tail and the vent are called the “anal.” t Among the pleasant circumstances connected with the preparation of this little book, I reckon the kindness with which my efforts have been encouraged and assisted. Among those to whom_my obligations are thus due, I must make especial mention of Mr. Yarrell and Mr. Van Voorst, by whose liberality I have been permitted to copy some of the beautiful illustrations of the “ British Fishes.” They are the figures numbered 182, 183, 191, 194, 195, 204.— ee § Its appearance will be best understood by the annexed figure of Gammarus locusta. 206 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. for a resting-place, it fixed itself on the back of the Pipe-fish, close to the tail. The fish had not been a consenting party to this arrangement, and soon evinced its dissatisfaction, by lash- ing the tail with great violence on each side, to dislodge the intruder. He, however, kept his hold; and so soon as the tish ceased for a few seconds, he crept a little farther up on the back, as if aware that the velocity of movement was less near the centre of the circle. The fish lashed the water again with great violence, but without any good result; and so soon as it stopped, the Gammarus crept up a little nearer to the head. The Gammarus seemed to be the marine prototype of the Old Man of the Mountain, whose pertinacity in retaining his place on the back of Sinbad the Sailor is a portion of that lore of our boyhood that is never afterwards forgotten. The Pipe-fish then changed its tactics. Instead of lashing with its tail, it gave to its whole body the kind of movement it might have had if fixed on a Lilliputian spit, and in the act of being roasted. The body was made to revolve round and round on its longitudinal axis; but the Gammarus still held on, and, at each interval of rest, made a few steps farther in advance. This was more than once repeated, until, pitying the poor Pipe-fish, we removed the cause of its annoyance to another vessel. In the Flying-fishes (example Exocetus volitans, Fig. 183), Fig. 183.—FLYINnG-FIsH, more than one species of which have been taken off the British coasts, the pectoral fins are extremely large, and remind us of wings. But in reality the fins never act as wings; nor can these fish, with correctness, be said to fly. They have the power of springing out of the water with such force, that FISHES. 207 Capt. Hall has seen them pass over a space of 200 yards ; but they cannot alter the direction of their course, and the expanded fins, when in the air, serve only to make the descent more gradual.* Resprration.—The heart of fishes is composed of two cavities only. It receives the blood which has circulated through the system, and propels it to the gills. These are the great organs for respiration, and in the greater number of fishes are arranged in the form of arches on each side of the hinder part of the head. The water is taken in at the mouth, and passes out between these arches, where. the venous blood in the gills is purified by the air diffused through the water. The delicate membrane by which the minute ramifications of the blood-vessels are supported, forms no obstacle to the free action of the water on the impure or carbonated blood. The details connected with the circulation will be more easily understood by an examination of the annexed figure (184) than by any formal description. The true cause of death in a fish kept out of water is an interesting question, which appears to have been satisfactorily answered by M. Fleurens, a French physiologist. Though the gill-cover be raised and shut alternately, the gills themselves are not separated. Their fine filaments rapidly dry and cohere together. The blood can no longer circulate through them, and hence it is not affected by the vivifying influence of the oxygen of the air. “The situation of the fish is similar to that of an air- breathing animal enclosed in a vacuum, and death by suffoca- tion is the consequence.” + The gills vary considerably in form and arrangement. Some are convoluted, some are in little tufts, some are enclosed in cavities, with circular orifices, and others furnished with gill-covers composed of distinct bones, to which certain fixed names are appropriated. Foop.—Some fishes live upon marine vegetables. The species of one genus (Scarus) are known to browse upon the living polypes which built up the coral reefs; and as the polypes retreat, when touched, into the star-shaped cavities of their support, these fishes are furnished with a dental apparatus * Fragments of Voyages and Travels. Second series, vol. 1, p. 220. A more recent writer asserts that the fins are used as wings; vide Note in Edinburgh Phil. New Journal, April, 1847, p. 384, from Gardner’s Travels in Brazil. t Yarrell, vol. i. p. 67. Owen, p. 60. 208 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. sufficiently powerful to reduce it to a pulp. To some the dead animal body seems to be not less acceptable than the , Vessels of the Gills AETES Dorsal Artery ---- Dorsal Artery saat Fig. 184.—CrmcuLaTING APPARATUS OF FISH. living. Star-fishes, crustacea, and such mollusca as are not too bulky or too well defended, constitute a large portion of the food of many fishes; and to this must be added the young FISHES. 209 ‘and weaker animals of their own class. One of our justly popular poets has said :— ‘‘Even tiger fell, and sullen bear, Their likeness and their lineage spare ; Man only mars kind Nature's plan, And turns the fierce pursuit on man.” RokeEsy, canto iii. stanza 1. Such a remark is altogether inapplicable to the voracious tribes of which we at present treat, and we would refer to it here only to show how much more completely “kind Nature’s plan’ is carried out by the present arrangement. As it is, “the multitudinous seas” are peopled with their finny tribes ; and we cannot doubt that the exercise of their various powers in the pursuit of prey, the escape from danger, and all else that is essential to their well-being, is fraught with happiness. They have no apprehension of death ; and when it does come by the jaws of a more powerful assailant, the pain is brief and transient. The pleasure has extended throughout the dura- tion of life ; the final pang endures but for a moment. Great, therefore, in the aggregate, is the amount of happiness secured under these wise and bountiful dispensations of Providence. Did fishes not constitute the food of fishes, how few compara- tively could exist! The naturalist consequéntly beholds, in all the havoe and destruction of life by carnivorous animals, a merciful dispensation, and is prepared to give his assent to the reflections of the poet :— ‘“‘ Harsh seems the ordinance, that life by life Should be sustained; and yet when all must die, And be like water spilt upon the ground, Which none can gather up, the speediest fate, Though violent and terrible, is best. “Twas wisdom, mercy, goodness, that ordained Life in such infinite profusion. —Death So sure, so prompt, so multiform.” —- Montcomery’s “ PELICAN IsLaNnp.” To those who have never considered the omnivorous appe- tite of fishes, the examination of the stomach of a few of those which are most commonly used as food, will furnish very sufficient evidence of their habits. Perhaps the fact cannot be better exemplified than by quoting a passage from a 210 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. lecture delivered by Dr. Houston of Dublin, before the Royal Zoological Society of that city:— “This preparation (for the fidelity of which I can vouch, as it belongs to the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, and which may be taken as a fair average specimen of a fish’s breakfast party, captured at an early hour of the morning) will serve as an illustration of the voraciousness of their habits. Here is the skeleton of a Frog-fish, two-and-a-half feet in length, in the stomach of which is the skeleton of a Cod-fish, two feet long; in whose stomach again are contained the skeletons of two Whitings of the ordinary size; in the stomach of each Whiting there lay numerous half-digested little fishes, which were too small and broken down to admit of preserva- tion. The Frog-fish, with all these contents, was taken last summer by the fishermen, and offered for sale in the market, as an article of food, without any reference at all to the size of its stomach, which to them is an every-day appearance.”’* Trrru.—From considering the food of fishes, we naturally turn to the means by which that food is taken. Here we per- ceive at once that we have got into a new country, and that the tribes by which it is peopled secure their prey by modes very different from those which we have hitherto witnessed. In some of the lower tribes, the action of parts adjoining to the mouth caused currents in the water, and thus supplied the animal with food. The suckers of the Star-fish and the Sea- urchin held fast the prey on which the creatures fed. The lower jaws of the carnivorous beetles maintained their hold while the upper jaws performed their office of laceration. The larger crustacea had feet which did the same duty. The Cuttle-fish, by means of its suckers, rendered escape impossible, and held its struggling captive firm as in a vice, while its parrot-like beak tore it to pieces. But fishes are destitute of all these appliances. The teeth must seize the prey, and must , retain the struggling and slippery victim until swallowed; and admirably are they fitted for the performance of their appointed functions; so much so, indeed, that the anatomist finds difficulty in obtaining the command of language sufficiently varied to portray the singular diversity and beauty which they exhibit. “The teeth of fishes, in fact, in whatever relation they are considered—whether in regard to number, form, substance * Saunders’s News-Letter. FISHES. 211 structure, situation, or mode of attachment—offer more various and striking modifications than do those of any other class of animals.’’* The teeth of some fishes, as the true Red Mullet, are so fine and close set, that they may be felt rather than seen, and have been compared to plush or velvet. Others, a little coarser, resemble the hairs of a fine brush; when stronger, they are like stiff bristles; and some are bent like hooks and barbed. Some of those in the Pike are shaped like the canine teeth of carnivorous quadrupeds ; and some molar teeth are elliptical, oblong, square, or triangular. To such teeth, those of the Sharks (/igs. 185, 186) shaped obviously for piercing, cutting, and holding, offer an interesting contrast. ? Fig. 185. Fig. 186, TEETH OF SHARK (Notidanus.) TRETH OF SHa4RK (Odontaspis.) Nor is the variety in point of numbers less than that of form. The Lancelet, the Sturgeon, and the Pipe-fish are without teeth. The Wolf-fish, on the contrary, has a mouth so paved with teeth that it breaks shells to pieces, and lives on the contained animals, separating the one from the other so effectually, that the food, without further preparation, is ready to be consigned to the stomach. “In all fishes the teeth are shed and renewed, not once only, as in mammalia, but fre- quently, during the whole course of their lives.”’t At the back part of the mouth, the upper end of the gullet (esophagus) is expanded and forms a cavity known as the pharynx. In many species of fish this is furnished with teeth, and it becomes an interesting question—what can be their use in such a situation? A recently-swallowed fish, taken from the stomach of a Pike, may show marks of the * Owen’s Odontography, page 1. It is from this splendid work and the more recent Lectures of the same eminent author, that our information respecting the teeth is derived. t Yarrell. 212 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. large canine teeth, but has obviously not undergone any further subdivision. It has now been ascertained that the coarser portions of the food, from time to time, return into the cesophagus, and are brought within the sphere of the teeth with which the pharynx is furnished; and, after being there carded and comminuted, are again swallowed. In the Carp, the Tench, the Eel, the Pike, and many other fishes, we have thus an action analogous to that of rumination in the cattle of our pastures.* Repropuction.—A few fishes are brought forth alive—as, for example, the young of the Viviparous Blenny; but such instances are rare; and, as a general rule, it may be stated that fishes are produced from eggs deposited by the female, and fertilized by the male. The lobes containing the ova are those to which we are accustomed to give the name of “ pea”’ or “roe,” and the corresponding but softer lobes in the male fish, are those which are equally well known as the “ milt.”’ It has been found by experiment, that when the spawn of both sexes has been taken from dead fishes and mixed together, the ova, placed under water and kept in a proper situation, will produce young. This fact may serve, as Mr. Yarrell remarks, to explain how it is that ponds in the Hast Indies, which have become perfectly dry and the mud hard, have been found, after the rainy season, with fishes in them, although there did not exist any apparent means by which fish could be admitted. The impregnated ova of the fish of one rainy season continued unhatched in the mud while the pond is dried up; but then vitality remains unimpaired and the young are produced under the influence of circum- stances favourable to their development when the rainy season has again arrived. We can thus explain, by the operation of natural causes, what was regarded as a puzzling phenomenon, for the solution of which many hypotheses have been framed, alike destitute of any solid foundation. Disrripution.—The researches of naturalists have shown that certain fishes are not merely limited in their range, ac- cording to the laws of geographical distribution, but also have depths to which they are in a great degree re- stricted. Hence, some are most usually found at or near the surface; some are ground-feeders, and are taken at consider- FISHES. 213 able depths; and some occupy various intermediate stations. When we reflect on the great amount of animal life which the ocean in its several zones of depth must thus support, and con- sider that by far the greater number of young fishes never attain maturity, but form the appointed food of their more powerful neighbours, it is obvious that the young fry must be produced in numbers sufficient to bear this ceaseless destruc- tion, and yet to have among them a sufficient number of indi- viduals which escape these perils to attain a certain degree of maturity, and, by the deposition of their ova, prevent the species from perishing. And accordingly we find here, as in every other department of nature, that Hr who framed the mighty scale of created beings, has so arranged the living mechanism, that the continual production is equal to the, con- tinual waste. The number of ova which some of our native fishes produce is so very astonishing that it would be regarded with doubt, except on the most unimpeachable testimony. So many as 280,000 have been taken from a Perch of only half a pound weight. Mr. W. Thompson found 101,935 ova in a Lump-sucker (Cyclopterus lumpus) of fifteen inches in length,* and the Cod-fish is said to produce several millions. In general, with the deposition of the spawn the care of the parents for their future offspring terminates; but this is not invariably the case. The statement of Aristotle, that there was a fish (Phycis) in the Mediterranean which makes a nest and deposits its spawn therein, has been confirmed ; and Olivi adds, that the male guards the female during the act of ovipo- sition, and the young fry during their development. Dr. Han- cock has observed similar habits in some Demerara fishes called “ Hassars.” ‘“ Both male and female remain by the side of the nest till the spawn is hatched, with as much solicitude as a hen guards her eggs; and they courageously attack any assailant. Hence the negroes frequently take them by put- ting their hands into the water close to the nest ; on agitating which, the male Hassar springs furiously: at them, and is thus captured.” + But we need not go so far as the West Indies to find ex- * Annals Nat. Hist., vol. iii. p. 44. t Quoted in Owen’s Lectures. A nest of the Hassar, with the spawn and the parent fish, is in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, London. 214 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. amples of fishes constructing nests, and evincing a remarkable degree of care and anxiety for their young. The observations of Mr. Couch prove, that, on our own shores, “ nests are built, in which the ova are deposited, and over which the adult fish will watch till the young make their escape.” On one occa- sion this gentleman visited daily for three weeks a nest of the Fifteen-spmed Stickle-back (Gasterosteus spinachia), formed of sea-weed and the common coralline, and invariably found it guarded; nor would the old fish quit its post so long as he remained.* MEANS OF ESCAPE, DEFENCE, AND ATTACK.—In some tribes safety is to some extent secured by the colour of the skin being inconspicuous. It was an old belief, when the real fructifieation of the ferns was unknown, that the possession of the seed gave supernatural powers of concealment; and hence Shakespeare says:—“ We have got the fern-seed; we walk invisible.’” Without possessing the fern-seed, there are cer- tain fishes that enjoy, to some extent, the gift which it was supposed to bestow; and such fishes are living in great abun- dance on our own shores. We allude to some of the most common flat-fishes. Let any one try to see them as they lie upon the bottom, and he will be convinced it is not an easy matter. When in motion they are of course detected, and occasionally the white side of the body shows for an instant as they glide along; but as soon as they stop, and by the action of the fins have settled down into the sand, they are so similar in colour to the surface on which they rest that they escape detection, unless the eye has watched the movement. All parts of the beach, are not, however, of the same material, and therefore are not of the same colour ; but, whatever it may be, the upper surface of the fish exhibits a correspondence which is very remarkable. We have seen it of a uniform dark tint, similar to that of the muddy bottom on which the fish had been found; while on others it was of a mottled or pepper-and-salt colour, like the gravel of the little bay in which it had been captured. The Flying-fish springing into the air when pursued by the Bonito, is an example of a different mode by which danger is avoided. Others, however, do not content themselves with * Notes on the Nidification of Fishes, by R. Q. Couch, Esq., published in “The Zoologist,” vol. ii. p. 795. 1844. FISHES 215 concealment or escape, but wield with energy their peculiar weapons of defence. The Skate has a tail armed with sharp spines ; the point of the nose and the base of the tail are bent towards each other, and the tail, when lashed about in all directions, is capable of inflicting severe wounds. The Weaver (Trachinus draco) is furnished with spines on the gill-cover and on the first dorsal fin, which have the power of inflicting severe wounds, and even of imparting a venomous secre- tion. This power, which has been questioned by modern writers, was well known to the ancients, though they attri- buted venomous powers to some species which are certainly harmless.* —_—___——__——— * Cruel spines Defend some fishes, as the Goby, fond Of sands and rocks, the Scorpion, Swallows fleet, Dragons and Dog-fish, from their prickly mail Well named the spinous. These in punctures sharp, A fatal poison from their spines inject.’’—Oppran. Pennant says that he has seen the lesser Weaver direct its blows with as much judgment as a fighting cock. The Picked cr Spined Dog-fish (Acanthias vulgaris) is dis- tinguished from all other Sharks by a single spine placed in front of each of its two dorsal fins. “This fish,’ says Mr. Yarrell, ‘‘ bends itself into the form of a bow, for the purpose of using its spines, and by a sudden motion causes them to spring asunder in opposite directions ; and so accurately is this intention effected, that if a finger be placed on its head, it will strike it without piercing its own skin.” These spines, which are three-sided, and very sharp, are perfectly developed in the young fish prior to birth, and Mr. Ball has made known to us a beautiful provision by which they are prevented at that time from lacerating the mother. Each point is covered with a small knob of cartilage, fastened by straps of the same material, one of which passes down each of the sides of the spine, so as to be easily detached at birth, thus allowing the little animal (like the goddess of classic fable) to commence life effectively armed.t * Dr. G. J. Allman, Annals Nat. Hist., vol. vi. p. 161. He had suffered acute pain from a wound inflicted by the spine attached to the gill-cover of the Weaver. ¢ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 27th April, 1846. Mr. Ball exhibited at the same time two perfectly-formed young, which he had taken from the mother on the 30th of the preceding November. 216 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. The common Stickle-back * (Gasterosteus, Fig. 187) of our Fig. 187.—STIcKLE-BackK. streams seems to be provided with a weapon, which to its opponents would prove no less formidable. At the lower surface of the body, it has a stiff, sharp spine, which can be erected at pleasure, and so firmly that it may be said, in military phrase, to “fix bayonets.”+ The Stickle-back is an irritable and pugnacious little fellow; and with this bayonet of his has been seen to rip up the \ belly of an unfortunate antagonist, so that Zj he sank to the bottom and died of his wound. An active species of Shark has the teeth within its mouth small and obtuse, and wholly inadequate to destroy the prey on which it subsists ; but this deficiency is compensated by a singular and formidable weapon, with strong lateral projections, with which the front of the head is provided. Its saw-like edge has gained for its owner the appropriate name of Saw-fish (Pristis, Fig. 188). The Sword-fish (Xiphias gladius) has occasionally been taken upon the British coasts, and is furnished with a weapon, more formidable than perhaps any other species. Daniel, in his “ Rural Sports,” states that a man while bathing in the Severn, was struck by, and actually received his death-wound ; from a Sword-fish. The elongated upper Fig.1188.—Saw-risn. Jaw (7%. 189) forms the sword, which is fre- * Called Sprittle-bag, or sprickly-bag, in the North of Ireland—Pinkeen in the South. 7 Drummond’s Letters to a Young Naturalist. FISHES. 217 quently found three or four feet in length. The fish occa- sionally attains a length of more than twelve feet, and a weight of more than four hundred pounds. It is said to entertain great hostility to the whale; and some of them will joirt in stabbing it below, while the Fox-sharks will fling themselves several yards into the air, and descend upon the back of their unhappy victim. It is a commonly-received notion, that it is in consequence of mistaking the hull of a ship at sea fora whale that the Sword-fish occasionally thrusts his sword-like beak into the vessel. * Fig. 189.—Sworb-FIsH. The force with which this is done must be very considerable : many museums contain planks thus pierced either by the Sword-fish or others nearly allied to it. A portion of its sword, about nine inches in length and two inches diameter,’ was sent to the Belfast Museum,+ taken from the Huphemia, a vessel which had become leaky on her passage to Brazil. It had been driven not only through the copper sheathing, but also through nine inches of the solid timbers. Other instances are recorded of vessels having suddenly sprung a leak, and being with difficulty got into port, the Sword-fish having been the origin of the calamity. Fig. 190.—Evecrric Siturvs But a still more remarkable mode of defence is exercised by some species of fish, in the power they possess of giving a severe electric shock. One of these is the Electric Sidurus or Malepterurus of the Nile (Fig. 190), a fish to which the Arabs * Yarrell, p. 145. + Thompson, in Annals of Natural History, vol. xiii. p. 235. 218 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. give a name signifying thunder.* Another is the Torpedo or Bleetie Ray of our own shores (/ig. 191); and a third is the Gymnoius or Electric Eel of the South American rivers, whose shock is sufficiently powerful to stun and even destroy horses. Humboldt gives a most graphic picture of the scene attending their capture; the livid yellow Eels swimming near the surface and pursuing their enemies, the groups of Indians surrounding the pond, and the horses with their manes erect and eyeballs wild with pain and fright, striving to escape from the electric storm which they had roused, and driven back by the shouts and long whips of the excited Indians. Viratiry.—There are some fishes which die almost imme- diately when taken out of the water, and others which exhibit symptoms of life after a lapse of several hours. In reference to this subject Mr. Yarrell remarks, “that those fish that swim near the surface of the water have a high standard of respiration, a low degree of muscular irritability, great necessity for oxygen, die soon—almost immediately—when taken out of the water, and have flesh prone to rapid decomposition. On the contrary, those fish that live near the bottom of the water have a low standard of respiration, a high degree of muscular irritability, and less necessity for oxygen; they sustain life long after they are taken out of the water, and their flesh remains good for several days.”+ The phenomena connected with this law are highly interesting, and excite the attention of the most incurious. Mackerel are so perishable that they are permitted to be cried through London for sale upon the Sunday. MHerrings die so instantaneously on their removal from the water, that the saying “ dead as a herring,” has become proverbial. Perch, on the contrary, live for some “They are constantly exhibited in the markets of Catholic countries, and, if not sold, are taken back to the ponds from which they were removed in the morning, to be reproduced another day.”t The Anglesey Morris, a small fish of rare occurrence, has been known to survive after being * Milne Edwards’ “ Elémens,”’ p. 281. + Yarrell, vol. i. p. 3. ¢ Idem, vol. i. p. 22. Fig.191.—ToRpPEDo. FISHES. 219 wrapped in brown paper, and carried for three hours in a per- son’s pocket.* The Carp is so exceedingly tenacious of life, that it is a common practice in Holland to keep it alive for three weeks or a month, placed in wet moss, and in a net kept in a cool place. A little water is occasionally thrown over the net, and the fish are fed with bread steeped in milk. ERRORS AND TRADITIONS.—To those who now enter on the study of fishes, with access to the stores of knowledge accu- mulated by earlier labourers, and having for their guidance the light reflected from other departments of science, the ideas with which some species of fish have been associated cannot but seem strange, incongruous, and unreasonable. But this assumption of superiority is one that a wider range of study assuredly dispels; and it teaches us, at the same time, to hold our own views with humility, seeing how great were the errors of inquirers who were certainly not less able nor less intel- ligent. The subject is one to which we can only advert, yet it cannot but prove instructive. Thé Mackerel Midge, one of the most diminutive of our native fishes (Motella glauca), is only about an inch and a quarter in length. “This seems,” says Mr. Couch, “to be one of the species spoken of by the older naturalists under the name of apua, and which, from their minute size, and the multitudes in which they sometimes appeared, they judged to be pro- duced by spontaneous generation from the froth of the sea, or the putrefaction of marine substances.’’ + The notions with respect to the origin of Eels were not less fanciful. Aristotle believed that they sprang from mud; Pliny, from fragments which were separated from their bodies by rubbing against rocks ; others supposed that they proceeded from the carcases of animals; Helmont believed that they came from May-dew, and might be obtained from the following process :—“ Cut up two tufts covered with May-dew, and lay one upon the other, the grassy sides inwards, and thus expose them to the heat of the sun; in a few hours there will spring from them an infinite quantity of Eels.” Horse-hair, from the tail ofa stallion, when deposited in water, was formerly believed to be a never-failing source of asupply of young Eels.t The ear bones of the Maigre (Sciwna aquila), a fish which attains the length of five or six * Loudon’s Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. vi. p. 330, + Vide Yarrell, vol. ii. p. 193. } Idem, vol. ii. p. 289. 220 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. feet, and has been occasionally taken on the British shores, were supposed to possess medicinal virtues. “ According to Belon, they were called cholic-stones, and were worn on the neck, mounted in gold, to secure the possessor against this painful malady: to be quite effectual, it was pretended that the wearer must have received them as a gift—if they had been purchased, they had neither their preventive nor curative power. The Opah, or King-fish (Lampris guttatus), a beautiful spe- cies of rare occurrence in the British seas, is by the Chinese termed Tai, and is esteemed as the peculiar emblem of happi- ness, because it is sacred to Jebis or Neptune. The John Dory (Zeus faber, Fig. 191*) belongs to the same family, Fig. 191*.—Joun Dory. and contends with the Haddock (Morrhua cglefinus) for the honour of bearing the marks of St. Peter’s fingers—each being supposed to have been the fish out of whose mouth the Apostle took the tribute money, leaving on its sides, in proof of the identity, the marks of his finger and thumb. In many of the ports of the Mediterranean, the Dory is hence called “St. Peter’s Fish.’* The fishermen of the Adriatic term it i] Janitore, “the gatekeeper,” a word which * Cuvier et Valenciennes. Histdire Naturelle des Poissons, vol. x. p. 6. FISHES. 221 may have given origin to the English name; or it may have been derived from the French dorée or jaune dorée, having reference to its peculiar golden colour. We might greatly enlarge these notices of traditionary lore, as applicable to fishes, but shall merely mention one other example. The Remora (Echeneis remora, Fig. 192) is re- Fig. 192.—REMORaA. markable for an adhesive or sucking disc, which covers the upper part of the head, and enables it to adhere to the body of another fish, or to the bottom of a vessel. But so great were its fabulous powers, that it was said to be able suddenly to arrest a vessel, even in her most rapid course. CLAsstr10aTIon.—To Cuvier we are indebted for that classi- fication of fishes which is most generally adopted. It is founded upon the nature of the skeleton, and on the structure and position of the fins. The following table exhibits Cuvier’s arrangement :— OSSEOUS FISHES, OR THOSE WITH THE SKELETON OF BONE. I. ACANTHOPTERYGH, or fishes with spiny rays in the fins. Exam- ples—Perch, Gurnard. This group is not subdivided except into families, genera, and species. Malacopterygii; or, fishes with flexible fin-rays. This group is divided into the three following orders :— II. MALACoPTERYGII ABDOMINALES, with the ventral fins beneath the abdomen. Examples—Pike, Salmon, Herring. Ill. Mav. Sus-pracuiaes, ventral fins beneath the pectoral. Examples —Cod, Whiting, Ling. IV. Mav. Aropgs, ventral fins absent. Examples—Eel, Conger Eel. V. Loryosrancun, the gills arranged in tufts. Example—Pipe-fish. VI. Precrocnarui, jaws as if soldered together. Examples—Globe- fish, Trunk-fish, CARTILAGINOUS, OR THOSE WITH THE SKELETON OF CARTILAGE. VII. Srurrones.—Sturgeons.—Branchie pectinated (Comb-shaped), free with one large aperture. : VIII. Puaciosromt.—Sharks and Rays.—Branchie pectinated, fixed; gill apertures distinct and transverse. IX. CycLostom1.—Lampreys.—Branchie purse-shaped, fixed; gill aper- tures distinct and circular. 229 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. In some fishes, as the Skate and the Shark, the skeleton is cartilaginous, or composed of gristle, being so far analogous to the skeleton of the young of the mammalia before the earthy particles which convert the cartilage into bone have been deposited. In others, as the Perch, the Trout, and the Cod, the skeleton is formed of bone. This points out an obvious division of fishes into two primary groups—the cartilaginous and the bony. The latter admit with facility of further division. If we examine the Perch and the Trout, we find the bones of the same material, and the gills formed after the same model. ‘The back in each is surmounted by two fins, but the resemblance ceases when we come to examine the structure of these organs. In the Perch, the first of these dorsal fins, or that which is next to the head, is composed of stiff spines united by a membrane, as shown in the annexed figure (Fig. 193), or in that of the entire fish (Fig. Fig. 193.—Dorsax Fm. 181) ; while in the Trout the corresponding fin is formed of soft flexible rays, dividing into branches. A difference of the same kind is ob- servable in the anterior or front portion of some of the other fins: the tail fin consists, in both cases, of the most flexible rays. ‘This difference in the dorsal fin (Latin, dorsum, the back) may seem a very trivial matter; but it enables the naturalist to divide the osseous or bony fishes into two orders —those with the fins partly of hard or spiny rays (Acanthop- terygii), and those with the fins entirely of soft rays (M/alacop- terygv).* These orders are again subdivided, according to the presence or absence of certain fins—the difference in their relative positions—the variety in the structure of the gills and gill-covers, and other details of secondary importance. By these characteristic distinctions the ichthyologist, or in other words the naturalist who makes fishes his peculiar study, ar- ranges them in groups, distinguished as orders, families, and — genera. * These scientific terms are both derived from Greek words, signifying, in the one case, fins of sharp or spinous rays, and in the other, fins soft or of flexible rays. PE i ISEB! ODO a 223 CARTILAGINOUS FISHES. From the peculiar structure of the skeleton, these form an interesting group, holding a place between the Cuttle-fish, in which there is but the rudiment of a skeleton, and the osseous fishes, in which the vertebrated structure in this class of ani- mals reaches its full development. Among them there is great diversity. One little fish, of rare occurrence, the Lance- let (Amphioxus lanceolatus), which is not much more than an inch in length, has no skeleton, properly so called, but merely a membranous thread; in the Lamprey the divisions of the vertebre are marked, so that they resemble beads placed on a string; in the Shark and the Sturgeon, the divisions of the vertebrz are complete. Perromyzip%.*—The family of the Lampreys (Fig. 194) Fig. 194.—Rrver LamMpPrey. comprises the Lancelet, the fish just mentioned. Some of them dredged up in deep water, off the southern coasts of England, by Mr. MacAndrew, were exhibited by Professor Edward Forbes at the Southampton meeting of the British Association, September, 1846. They have, ere now, been ranked with the Mollusca, and exhibit peculiarities of a nature so remarkable as to be objects of the highest interest to the * That is, the family of the ‘“ Stone-suckers,” an appellation bestowed on them because, by means of their circular mouths, they can adhere to stones. Like other terms, it is derived from two Greek words. 224, INTROLUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. comparative anatomist. These little fishes had devoured some Jarger ones of a different species, which had been confined in the same vessels with them, eating off their bodies what they required at one time, and returning, in the Abyssinian fashion described by Bruce, for another supply when wanted. a eg —— = Fig. 195.—EG¢-BaG, WITH YOUNG SHARK. Squatipm, Rarm#z.—The Sharks and the Rays, though differing so much in external form, belong to a group of fishes of which the gills are fixed, and the water, passing through the mouth, escapes from the gills by a series of longitudinal incisions. The ova, which are few in number, are not depo- sited on the sand or gravel, but each egg is enclosed, for greater safety, in a horny case, attached by long tendrils to the larger sea-weeds; and among the Sharks of the largest size, some bring forth their young alive. The empty egg-cases are frequently found on the sea-shore, and are well known by the name of “sea-purses,” “ mermaids’ purses,” and other local terms. The longer and narrower-shaped (Fig. 195) belong to the Sharks and Dog-fishes ; the broader and shorter ones to the Skates or Rays. Water is admitted into them by means of slits or openings at each end of the purse. In two large clusters* dredged up in Strangford Lough, and sent to the Belfast Museum, the cases were obviously of three very dis- tinct ages, the most recent being yellowish, semi-transparent, and the contents resembling those of a newly-laid hen’s egg. Our figure, which is copied from that given by Mr. Yarrell, represents the case laid open, and the young Dog-fish attached to the “yolk, or membranous bag of nutriment, which is gradually absorbed as the growth proceeds. * They were regarded as the ova of the Large-spotted Dog-fish—W. Thompson, in Annals Nat. Hist. vol. xiv, p. 23. : FISHES. 225 The history of fishes furnishes many curious examples of certain kinds being held in high estimation in some places as food, and quite despised in others. This is the case with the Rays, of which there are eight native species. In the London market they are much valued, and in some parts of the coasts they are considered delicate and well-flavoured; while, in other localities, they are not used at all, or employed only as bait for catching crabs and lobsters. Colonel Montagu mentions a similar fact respecting the Sand-eel, known as the Sand Launce (Ammodytes Lancea). At Teignmouth it was in great request as food, while on another part of the south coast of Devon- shire it would not be eaten even by the poorest people. The Dog-fishes of our own coasts belong to the family of the Sharks (Squalide). In these rapacious fishes, “as among the truly predacious birds, the females are larger than the males; and almost all the species have received some name resembling Beagle, Hound, Rough Hound, Dog-fish, Spotted Dog, &e., probably from their habit of following their prey, or hunting in company or packs. All the Sharks are exceedingly tenacious of life. Their skins, which are of very variable degrees of roughness, according to the species, are used for different purposes; in some instances by cabinet-makers, for bringing up and smoothing the surfaces of hard wood.’’* The Small-spotted Dog-fish (Scyllium Canicula, Fig. 196), Fig 196.—SMALL-spotTED DoG-FIsH. the species most abundant on our shores, is an object of great dislike to fishermen, who try in various ways to avenge the injury which they believe it causes to their fishing. In tropical seas, the capture of the White or of the Blue Shark, the terror of mariners, is always to them a source of great exultation. The first act of the sailors, when their enemy is hauled up on * Yarrell, vol. ii. p. 369. 226 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. the deck, is to chop off its tail, as danger is to be apprehended from the great strength with which it is used. Captain Basil Hall gives a most animated and seamanlike description of the entire scene.* Some of the Sharks attain a great size. ‘The Basking Shark, a species found off these coasts, has been known to measure thirty-six feet in length, and is one of the largest of the true fishes.t The Blue Shark has been celebrated for its affection for its young ; and the belief yet prevails that the young are accustomed to seek safety from danger by entering the mouth of the parent fish, and taking shelter in its belly. That they have been found alive in the stomach, is admitted; but that they went there voluntarily, or for safety, seems more than doubtful.t A beautiful example of beneficent design is afforded by a peculiarity of structure observable in the young of Sharks and Skates, whilst still imprisoned in the egg-case. From the gills there are projecting filaments ; each of these contains a minute blood-vessel, and serves thus to expose the blood to the purifying action of the water within the horny egg-case. These appendages, like those of the Tadpole hereafter men- = tioned, are only temporary; but they fulfil, at an early period of growth, the function which is after- wards so efficiently performed by the gills. A more striking example of pro- vidential care is perhaps afforded by the arrangement which furnishes to the Sharks the means of keeping their formidable array of teeth (Fig. 197) fit to execute at all times their fearful office. They must be liable to be displaced and broken, and if fixed in sockets as our teeth are, and no means provided for a suc- cessive series, it is obvious that these formidable monsters of the deep would in time perish, from ina- Fig. 197._Heap oF SHarK. bility to seize their prey. But this * Fragments of Voyages and Travels. Second Series, vol. i. p. 267. 7 Yarrell, p. 396. t Yarrell, p. 381. ae 7 \ << er Ie i 1 3 i | | 12 oe: | i ni ) FISHES. 227 is avoided by the teeth not being fixed in sockets, but attached to a cartilaginous membrane. The first row of teeth stands erect, the others are laid flat behind. The membrane con- tinues to grow, and advance forward, the outer teeth drop out, the membrane itself is thrown off or absorbed, and the row which was originally second takes the place of the first, all the teeth in it standing erect, until, in the course of time, they make way for a third series, which is followed by others in succession. Srurronip*#.—The only remaining fish we shall mention belonging to the cartilaginous group is the Sturgeon (Acipenser Sturio, Fig. 198), and it approaches to the other families of Fig. 198.—SruRGEON. fishes in being oviparous, and in having the gills free. Its ex- ternal appearance is striking, and the series of bony plates upon the surface of the skin is very remarkable. In comparing the figures of the Sturgeom(Fig. 198), and of the Dog-fish (/%g. 196), with that of the Perch (Fig. 181), the appearance presented by the tail is extremely different. In the perch, the vertebral column ceases at the tail-fin, which if the line of that column were continued, would be divided by it into two equal parts. In the Sturgeon and others, the vertebral column is continued into the upper portion of that fin, and symmetrical appearance in the organ is therefore wanting. This is one of the obvious external characters by which the cartilaginous fishes may be distinguished from the osseous. In remote periods of the earth’s history, this peculiarity of struc- ture appears to have prevailed universally : it is found in every fossil fish whose remains are preserved in the magnesian lime- stone, and in strata of older formation. The Sturgeon, when caught in the Thames, within the juris- diction of the Lord Mayor, is considered a royal fish ; the term being intended to imply that it ought to be sent to the king.* One taken in 1833, in Scotland, measured eight feet six inches in length, and weighed 203 Ibs. Pennant mentions * Yarrell, vol. ii, p, 362. Q 228 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. the capture of one in the Esk, weighing 464 lbs. In the nor- thern parts of Europe, where the fish is more abundant, caviare is made of the roe of the female, and isinglass from the dense membrane forming the air-bladder. OSSEOUS FISHES, WITH THE RAYS OF THE FINS FLEXIBLE. ‘Our plenteous streams a various race supply, The bright-eyed Perch, with fins of Tyrian dye, The Silver Eel, in shining volumes roll’d, The Yellow Carp, in scales bedrop’d with gold, Swift Trouts, diversified with crimson stains, And Pikes, the tyrants of the watery plains.’’—Porr. Havine already noticed the Globe-fish (Fig. 179) and the Trunk fish (Fig. 180), which are members of a group con- nected by some points of structure with the osseous,* and by others with the cartilaginous fishes, we proceed to a small but interesting order (Lophobranchii) in which the gills are arranged like little tufts. To %,, this belongs the Hippocampus or Sea-horse " (Fig. 199), and the Pipe-fishes (Syngnathide), one of which has been noticed in connexion with its powers of movement (p. 206). This species is the largest of our native Pipe-fishes (S. acus, Fig. 182), and is furnished with a marsupial pouch. The idea of such a pouch is connected with that of the female. We know that it is thus the female Kangaroo car- Fig: 199. ___yies and pretects her young ; but in natural his- Hiprocamrcs. . tory we are for ever meeting such strange oc- currences, that it has been well said, “ the naturalist has no need to invent ; Nature romances it for him.” In the Pipe-fish, con- trary to what we find in other tribes of animals, the marsupial pouch belongs to the male. The sexes come together in the month of April; the ova pass from the female and are transferred into the sub-caudal pouch of the male, the valves of the pouch Hon 10806 |! TT me ( oa * They belong to the order Plectognathi, of Cuvier, characterized by hay- ing the jaws as if soldered together. FISHES. 229 immediately closing over them. ‘In the month of July, the young are hatched and quit the pouch, but they follow their father, and return for shelter into their nursery when danger threatens.”’ * We have taken Pipe-fishes very abundantly by means of a small dredge towed over an expanse of mud-banks, thickly covered with grass-wrack (Zostera). Here there were doubt- less small mollusea in abundance, affording a kind of food well adapted for the long tubular jaws of the Pipe-fishes. Anguillide, the family of the Eels—The pectoral fins in fishes are the representatives of the members which we call the arms in monkeys, and the wings in birds. The ventral fins are, in like manner, regarded as the representatives of the legs and feet. In the Eel tribe the ventral fins are wanting, and hence the term Apodes, a word signifying “ without feet,” has been applied to denote this peculiarity.+ The two species of Sand-eels are alike in their habit of burying themselves in the moist sands of the sea-shore ; and we can speak from experience of the fun, frolic, and activity that prevailed when, on a summer night by a bright moon, some of our merry school companions turned up the sand, while others darted at each fish as it showed its silvery side for a moment in the light and then disappeared. At Dundrum Bay, County Down, and on other parts both of the Irish and English coast, they are taken in such abundance as to consti- tute a valuable article of food. The smaller and more common species (Ammodytes Lancea) is usually from five to seven inches in length, and offers a great contrast to another member of the same family, the Conger Eel of our coasts, which some- times attains the weight of 100 or even 130 Ibs., and measures more than ten feet in length.t There is a notion yet current that common Eels going into the sea remain there, and grow into Congers: an idea as unfounded as that of the child who supposes that ducks will grow into geese. The permanence of species is a truth which increasing knowledge every day confirms. Three species of freshwater Eels are described as British. Some of these remain permanently throughout the year in certain ponds or rivers, and there deposit their spawn; but * Owen’s Lectures, p. 304. + The Order is named Malacopterygii Apodes. t Yarrell, ii. p. 306. 230 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. this is the exception to the rule. The Eels may, in general terms, be described as making a migration to the sea in the autumn of the year, for the purpose of spawning. It is at this time that they are taken in the largest quantities for the table. In the north of Ireland, one great place for their cap- ture is Toome, on the Lower Bann, a river connecting Lough Neagh with the sea. The fishermen there assert that the Eels (Anguilla acutirostris) avoid the moonlight, and that “arun” of fish takes place only when the night is dark, and that even a flash of lightning will stop their progress. We are informed by Mr. Finiston, of Toome, that he has “ completely stopped their progress, by placing three large lamps, so that the rays of light fell on the surface of the water, directly over the entrance to the net.”* A “run,” as it is termed, occurs only two or three nights in the season, but the quantity then taken is very considerable. So many as 45,000 small Eels have been taken in one night; and there are generally about sixty middle-sized Eels and ten large to each thousand of small. They are taken in nets, which may be compared in shape to sugar-loaves with the tops cut olf, each from four- teen to sixteen yards long, and placed between weirs. At an early period of the summer it is an interesting sight, at the Cutts, near Coleraine, on the same river, to mark the thou- sands of young Hels there ascending the stream. Hay ropes are suspended over the rocky parts to aid them in overcoming such obstructions. At such places the river is black with the multitudes of young Eels about three or four inches long, all acting under that mysterious impulse that prompts them to push their course onwards to the lake. “There is no doubt that Eels occasionally quit the water, and, when grass meadows are wet from dew or other causes, travel during the night over the moist surface in search of Frogs and other suitable food, or to change their situation.” Eels have been known to be frozen and again revive, yet they seem in other ways very susceptible of cold. They are not found in the arctic regions nor in the rivers of Siberia. In our latitudes they take shelter from the inclemency of the winter by burying themselves in the mud. But this does not always protect them. In February, 1841, during a hard frost, large quantities of dead Eels, of the common sharp-nosed * The family of this gentleman were for many years the lessees of the fishery at Toome. FISHES. Se species, came floating down the Lagan, and were taken in great abundance about the quays and wharfs of Belfast. ‘The tem- perature for three days, as observed by Mr. Thompson, was then 273°, which was ten degrees higher than during three suc- cessive days in the preceding month, when none were known to have suffered from cold; but at the time the Eels were killed, a strong easterly wind dried up the moisture of the banks, and probably occasioned their death by the extreme cold arising from evaporation.* The Conger Eels near Cork seem to have suffered from a similar cause at the same time. Passing by the Remora (Fig. 192), the representative of another family (Hcheneide), and whose singular sucking-disc, placed on the crown of the head, has been already referred to (p. 221), we come to a family (Cyclopteride) in which the ventral fins are not wanting, as in the Eels, but are i es beneath the body and form a concave disc, by which the fish ean with ease adhere to stones or other bodies. Of this group the Lump-sucker (Cyclopterus lumpus, Fig. 200) is the best Fig. 200.—LUMP-SUCKER. known species, as his uncouth shape, red eyes, and body in which bright tints of blue, purple, and orange, struggle for precedence, arrest the attention of the most incurious. We have taken in rock pools the young fish when less than an inch in length, and by changing the sea-water regularly, have kept them alive for several days, and have thus had oppor- _. tunities of observing the rapidity with which they could adhere * Annals of Natural History, 1841, vol. vii. p. 75. + F. M. Jennings, Idem. p. 237. _ 2382 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. to the sides of the glass vessel in which they were kept, or cast themselves free and pursue their course. Many of these marine creatures are highly interesting objects for observation, and after being kept for a day or two, may be returned to the sea uninjured ; so that death is not the necessary consequence of their temporary imprisonment. Pleuronectide.* —To this family belong the Plaice (Platessa vulgaris, Fig. 201), the Flounder (Platessa flesus), the Sole (Solea vulgaris), and other well-known flat- fish. Few are perhaps aware of their importance, regarded merely in the re ee light of a marketable com- AALS modity. It is stated that Fig. 201.—Pratce. for Turbot (Rhombus mazi- mus, Fig. 202) brought to the London market, the Dutch are paid £80,000 a-year; and that the Norwegians receive from £12,000 to £15,000, annually for sauce for this luxury, extracted from one million of lobsters taken on the shores of Norway. The Turbot is considered to have been the Rhombus of the ancient Romans; s and Juvenal alludes in his Fig. 202,—Turpor, “Satires” to one of enor- mous size, taken in the reign of Domitian, who ordered a consultation of the senate, to devise the best mode of bringing it to table :— “No vessel they find fit to hold such a fish, And the senate’s convoked to decree a new dish.” The next family (Gadide) contains a number of species which yield a most abundant supply of nutritious food, and give employment even on the British coasts to many thousands of hardy boatmen and mariners. It includes the Cod (Fig. 203), the Haddock, the Whiting, the Hake, the Ling, and others. * The term is compounded of two Greek words, signifying to swim on one side, which is the well-known moyement of these fishes. FISHES. 233 The common Cod is so very voracious, that five-and-thirty . crabs, none smaller than half-a-crown, have been taken out of Fig. 203.—Cop. the stomach of one fish.* But this very voracity makes the capture more easy, as almost any bait is acceptable. The great value of the Newfoundland Cod fishery is well known. The produce in 1836 was 860,354 quintals of fish, + each quintal being a hundred pounds. The oil which they yield is also a product of commercial and medicinal importance. Clupeide, the family of the Herring. {—KEvery reader of a newspaper must be familiar with the term, “ Whitebait din- ner,’§ as indicating a repast held in high estimation by the Lord Mayor and Aldermen of London, and by the learned Fellows of the Royal Society ; and for which the ministers of the Sovereign pay annually a visit to Blackwall. This little fish (Fig. 204), so prized for its delicious flavour, was for- Fig. 204.—W2HITEBAIT. * By Mr. Couch. Yarrell, vol. ii. p. 145. + Fenny Cyclopedia. t In the Cod, the Haddock, the Whiting, and other fishes belonging to the families we have been considering, the ventral fins are immediately below the pectorals. In the Herring, the Salmon, the Pike, and others belonging to families now about to be enumerated, the ventral fins are at- tached to the abdomen, and are situated far behind the pectorals. This circumstance enables us to divide such of the soft-rayed fishes (malacop- terygii), as are possessed of ventral fins into two groups—the abdominal and sub-brachial, according to the situation of the fins. § “Feasts which would have made the ichthyophagous epicures of old die of envy.”’-—Forsrs aNp Spratt’s Lycra, vol. ii. p. 91. 234 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. merly supposed to be the young of the Shad, but has now had its claims established by Mr. Yarrell to rank as a distinct species (Clupea alba). The Sprat (Clupea sprattus), another member of the same family, is valued, not so much for its deli- cacy as for its extreme abundance. It is taken during the winter months; the coasts of Kent, Essex, and Suffolk being those which are most productive. It is not used only as an article of food; after that demand has been fully supplied, the numbers are so great that the fish is used as manure. Many thousand tons are in some seasons sold to farmers, at sixpence to eightpence per bushel, for this purpose; forty bushels of Sprats being spread over an acre of land.* The Pilchard (Clupea pilchardus), another of the family, is even more important. The number of persons to whom this fishery gives employment on the Coast of Cornwall has been estimated at 10,621; and the capital invested in boats, nets, and cellars for curing, at £441,215. The quantity taken is sometimes almost incredibly large. “An instance,” says Mr. Yarrell, “has been known where ten thousand hogsheads have been taken on one shore, in one port, in a single day ; thus providing the enormous multitude of twenty-five millions of living creatures drawn at once from the ocean for human sus- tenance.” + The vast multitudes in which they occasionally appear realize the description of the poet :— ‘“t Forthwith the sounds and seas, each creek and bay, With fry innumerable swarm, and shoals Of fish that with their fins, and shining scales, Glide under the green wave, in sculls that oft Bank the mid sea.”—MIi.tTon. Ranking still higher as an object of national importance is the Herring fishery, which gives occupation to thousands around the British coasts, and supplies to hundreds of thousands a cheap and favourite article of diet. The space to which we * Yarrell. . + This calculation is made on the supposition that each hogshead con- tains 2,500 fish, which is about the average quantity. It is stated by R. Q. Couch, Esq., in a paper read by him before the Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society, that the number of hogsheads exported for the last ten years amounts to 176,168, and upwards of a third more is used for home consumption. During the present year, 33,959 hhds. have been exported—3,052 of which were sent to Genoa; 8,499 to Leghorn; 1,368 to Civita Vecchia; 13,309 to Naples; and 7,731 to the Adriatic. —Penzance Gazette, 10th Feb., 1847. FISHES. 235 are necessarily restricted compels us to limit our notice of this well-known fish to one single point in its economy—its appear- ance on our coasts. By Pennant, the approach of the Herring (Clupea harengus) has been described as that of a mighty army, which, coming from the arctic circle, divides at the Shetland Isles into two great bodies, one of which fills the creeks and bays of the east coast of Britain, while the other, passing along the west, sepa- rates towards the north of Ireland into two divisions—* one of which takes to the western side, and is scarcely perceived, being soon lost in the immensity of the Atlantic ; but the other, which passes into the Irish Sea, rejoices and feeds the inhabit- ants of the coasts that border on it.”’ This account, though circumstantial, is altogether incorrect. The Herring does not abound in the arctic seas ; and the divi- sion of the mighty army into brigades which pursue their way along the eastern and western shores, is purely imaginary. The Herring does perform a migration, but of a limited range. It comes to the shores for the purpose of spawning; the in- creased temperature and greater supply of oxygen being neces- sary for the development of the young. The ova being de- posited, the Herring forsakes the shore for the deeper water, where it habitually dwells. It is not a visitant from a distant region, but a constant dweller in our own seas. It comes to the coast for a specific purpose, and that purpose being fulfilled, it again retreats to the deep water. The Pilchard was, like the Herring, supposed to migrate from remote seas. Modern research has stripped the history of both fishes of much that was marvellous; but the mere emotion of wonder which is thus destroyed, is, on a little reflection, succeeded by one of a deeper, more reverential, and ‘more abiding character. Under the impulse of the law by which certain species of fishes are, at successive seasons, im- pelled to approach the shores, the most effectual means are provided for the continuance of each of the several kinds ; and while the perpetuation of the species is thus secured, man is furnished with a varied and successive supply of food, abundant, nutritious, and brought from the depths of the ocean within the sphere of his activity and skill. ‘This constantly-recur- “ering, yet ever-varying phenomenon has in its nature nothing of chance. It is a beneficent law, and reveals a beneficent Author. 236 INTRODUCTION TO zOOLOGY. Salmonide.—The Salmon is the acknowledged head of a well-known family of fishes. Among them is one that by common observers is referred to a different race, and is not unfrequently called the “Freshwater Herring.” We refer to the Pollan (Fig. 205), an Irish species found in Lough Derg, Fig. 205.—Poan. Lough Erne, and Lough Neagh, and first described by Mr. W. Thompson, as distinct from other species of the same genus in Lochmaben, and in the Cumberland lakes.* I¢ approaches the coasts in large shoals, not only during spring and summer, but when the autumn is far advanced. In September, 1834, the greatest “take”’ of Pollan ever recollected at Lough Neagh took place, where the Six-mile-water enters the lake. “At either three or four draughts of the net, 140 hundreds,—123 fish to the hundred +—or 17,220 fish were taken. More were taken at one draught than the boat could with safety hold, and they had, consequently, to be emptied on the neighbouring pier. They altogether filled five one horse carts, and were sold on the spot at the rate of 3s. 4d. a hundred, producing £23 63. 8d. They are brought in quantities to Belfast, and when the supply is good, the ery of ‘fresh pollan’ prevails even to a greater extent than that of ‘fresh herring,’ though both fishes are in season at the same period of the year.” In the nets with the Pollan are taken the Common Trout (Salmo fario) and the Great Lake Trout Salmo ferox). There * The local name is Pollan, which has been retained in the scientific appellation, Corregonus Pollan. The information given respecting the fish is entirely derived from Mr. Thompson’s researches, as republished in Yarrell’s Fishes, 2d edition, vol. ii. p. 156. The figure is copied from that originally published in Annals of Natural History, vol. ii. t The English long hundred is six score, or one hundred and twenty. FISHES. 237 is a variety of these, not a distinct species, called in the neigh- bourhood of Lough Neagh the Gillaroo Trout, and said by common rumour to have a gizzard like that of a fowl. This notion must have originated in common observers having mis- taken for a gizzard the skin of the stomach, which becomes hardened, possibly from the large numbers of a univalve shell (Paludina impura) used as food. The Great Lake Trout sometimes exceeds a yard in length and thirty pounds in weight. The large individuals are known at Lough Neagh by the name of Buddaghs, and the smaller as Dolachans. Among the delightful fictions of the Arabian Nights’ Enter- tainments is one of a lake, in whose waters were fishes of four different colours. Local causes seem to act upon the colour of the common Trout, so as to produce effects scarcely less sur- prising. This fish is distinguished for its bright and speckled skin; but we have seen, at Lough Katrine, Trout so black, that they seemed as if they had gone into mourning. The author of “ Wild Sports of the West’? mentions a similar cir- cumstance with regard to the Trout of a small lake in the county of Monaghan, the water being bounded on one shore by a bog, and on the opposite by a dry and gravelly surface. On the bog side the Trout are dark and ill-shaped; on the other they are beautiful and sprightly, like those inhabiting rapid and sandy streams. “Narrow as the lake is, the fish appear to confine themselves to their respective limits—the red Trout being never found upon the bog moiety of the lake, nor the black where the under service is hard gravel.” But the brief space which we can devote to the Salmonide renders it needful that we should proceed at once to the most important of the family, the Salmon (Salmo salar). During the floods of winter and early spring, this fish descends the river to the sea, lean and ill-conditioned, and returns in a few months, plump, well-conditioned, and greatly increased in size, from the abundance of food derived from small crustacea, fishes, and other marine animals and their ova. It is on their return from the sea for the purpose of spawning that the Salmon are taken. This occurs during the summer and autumn months, the precise time being different in different rivers, » Impelled onwards by the instinct which prompts this migration, the Salmon endeavours to surmount all obstacles that lie in its course, and flings itself over ledges of rock ten 238 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. feet or more in height above the surface of the water. It is said that at the falls of Kilmorac, in Inverness-shire, the Frazers of Lovat, the lords of the manor, caused this power to be occasionally exhibited in a singular manner for the enter- tainment of their guests. On a flat rock at the south side of the fall, and close to the edge of the water, a kettle was kept boiling, and the company waited until a Salmon fell into the kettle and was cooked in their presence.* We never witnessed the singular spectacle thus recorded, but can imagine nothing in its way more attractive than the drawing of the nets at the salmon fishery called the Cranagh, on the Lower Bann, about a mile below the town of Coleraine. As the fishermen pull the net nearer to the shore, the struggles of the fishes in their efforts to escape, and now and then the vigorous leap which sets a captive free, are in the highest degree exciting. During two days which we spent there in June, 1823, the value of the fish taken, estimated at one shilling per lb., exceeded £400. We were informed by a re- lative, who had at that time the care of the fishery, that on the 5th of July, 1824, four hundred Salmon were taken at one “haul,” and three hundred and fifty at the next. The entire weight of the fish captured that day amounted to two tons. The fish are packed in ice, and are thus brought to market in good condition. But several years ago, when this practice was unknown there, it is said that the enormous number of 1,500 Salmon were taken at a single pull, and sold in Coleraine and the neighbourhood for three farthings per pound. It was formerly supposed that the young Salmon fry de- scended to the sea the same season they escaped from the egg, and returned later in the year, their growth having been extremely rapid. But by a number of experiments and observations, made with great care, and ingeniously varied, this has been proved by Mr. John Shaw not to be the case.t The young fry does not go down to the sea until after it has completed its second year, nor does it until then assume what Mr. Shaw terms its migratory dress. What, then, is its appearance during the earlier period of its existence? From the time it is one inch in length it has —in common with different species of Trout—the lateral markings that have been considered as characteristic of the * Mudie’s British Naturalist. + Transactions of Royal Society, Edinburgh, 1840. FISHES. 239 Parr. These it retains until it has completed its second year, and reached the length of six or seven inches. These markings then disappear—the old name is laid aside with the old dress, and it is in future known, not as the Parr, but as the Salmon smolts or fry. The fish, therefore, which has hitherto been called the Parr, and believed to be a distinct species, proves to be merely the early state of the Salmon; and thus one name is struck from our list of native species. A remarkable fact is mentioned by Mr. Shaw, that “the milt of a single male Parr, whose entire weight may not ex- ceed one ounce and a half, is capable, when confined in a small stream, of effectually impregnating all the ova of a very large female Salmon.” The young fry are descending the rivers in March, April, and May—a fact referred to in popular couplets :— ‘“‘ The floods of May Take the smolts away.” They most generally return to their native rivers. The fishermen acquire such habits of quick and accurate observa- tion, that they point out with facility one that is a stranger, and name, in most cases, the place from which it came. This we have repeatedly seen them do at the fisheries on the Bann, and so promptly and decidedly, as to show they entertamed no doubt on the subject. Esocide—The Flying-fish is nearly allied to the present family, that which is represented by the Pike (Zsoa Lucius). This is a strong, fierce, active, and voracious fish, of whose audacity many stories are told. Gesner relates that a Pike in the Rhone seized on the lips of a Mule that was brought to water, and that the beast drew the fish out before it could disengage itself.* “At Lord Gower’s Canal at Trentham, a Pike seized the head of a Swan as she was feeding under water, and gorged so much of it as killed them both; the servants perceiving the Swan with its head under water for a longer time than usual, took the boat and found both Swan and Pike dead.” It was formerly a rare fish in these countries ; so much so, that Edward I. fixed its value higher than that of Salmon, and ten times greater than that of the best Turbot or Cod; and, in the reign of Henry VIII., a large one sold for double the * Yarrell, vol. i. All the information here given on the Pike is de- rived from that author. 240 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. price of a house Lamb in February, and a Pickerel, or small Pike, for more than a fat Capon. “Pliny considered the Pike as the longest lived, and likely to attain the greatest size of any freshwater fish. Pennant refers to one that was ninety years old; but Gesner relates that, in the year 1497, a Pike was taken at Hailbrun, in Suabia, with a brazen ring attached to it, on which were these words in Greek characters: ‘I am the fish which was first of all put into this lake by the hand of the Governor of the Universe, Frederick II., the 5th of October, 1230.’ This fish was, therefore, 267 years old, and was said to have weighed 350 lbs. The skeleton, nineteen feet in length, was long preserved at Manheim as a great curiosity in natural history. The lakes of Scotland have produced Pike weighing 55 lbs. weight ; and some of the Irish lakes are said to have afforded Pike of 70 lbs. Cyprinide.-—The family of the Carp includes the Minnow, the Bleak, the Rudd, the Bream, the Tench, the Gudgeon, and other well-known freshwater fishes. The Golden Carp (Cyprinus auratus)—Gold and Silver-fishes, as they are more generally called—has been originally imported into these countries, but authors are not agreed as to the precise year. The Carp (Cyprinus carpio) itself is also a naturalized species, but introduced at so remote a date that, in the “ Boke of St. Albans,” printed at Westminster in 1496, it is men- tioned :—“ The Carpe is a dayntous fisshe, but there ben but fewe in Englonde.”’ The Bream is in such repute on the Continent, that an old French proverb says, “he that hath Bream in his pond is able to bid his friend welcome.”’ And it may be inferred from a couplet in Chaucer’s Prologue to the Canterbury Tales, that the feeding and eating of Bream was more in fashion in the days of Edward III. than at the present time— “Full many a fair Partrich hadde he in mewe, And many a Breme, and many a Luce * in stewe.’’ To one class of our young readers, it may perhaps be more interesting to know that from the silvery-looking scales of this family of fishes, the material is derived for making the gorgeous necklaces of artificial pearl which are so temptingly displayed in the toy-shops. * Pike. 241 SPINY-FINNED FISHES. THE remaining fishes belong to Cuvier’s first Order (Acan- thopterygii). ‘They have the skeleton of bone, and the dorsal fins, as already mentioned (p. 222), supported in part by rays which are spinous and undivided. In all of them the gills are arches, presenting the pectinated or Comb-like structure so well known in our most common and valuable fishes. Labride.—The first family we shall mention is that of the Wrasse, of which there are many species possessing brilliant colours—blue, green, orange, and red—and one, a Mediter- ranean species, which has been taken on the English coast, has so many bright tints intermingled in his costume, that he is appropriately termed the “ Rainbow Wrasse.” The Ballan Wrasse (Labrus maculatus) is sometimes taken off the rocky parts of the coast of Down and Antrim, measuring about eigh- teen inches in length. We have heard it called in the Belfast market the “ Old Wife.” In Plymouth market, the females of the Blue or Grey Skate (7aia batis) are called “ maids” and “ good wives.” We have already mentioned the Fishing Frog (Lophius piscatorius, p. 210), a species which belongs to another family (Lophiade), and stated that it is also called the Angler. But these are not its only names, for it has as many aliases as other persons of equivocal character, being known as the Sea Devil, and in Scotland by the expressive though not very eu- phonious, appellation of ‘‘ Wide Gab.” Gobioide —Among the Gobies and Blennies of this family, there is one species which brings forth its young alive, and is hence called the “‘ viviparous Blenny.” Some are remarkable for their tenacity of life. Mugilide—In connexion with the family of the Mullet, an interesting fact has been established—that the Mugil chelo, or thick- lipped Grey Mullet of Cuvier—a species of extreme rarity on the southern coast of England—is that which is most abun- dant on the eastern shores of Scotland, and also along the eastern coast of Ireland. In the Bay of Belfast they are very plentiful, especially where the waters of the river Lagan mingle with those of the sea. Mr. Thompson states that, on Ist of 242 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. May, 1838, 7 ewt. of these fish were taken at a single draught ‘of the net; and on the same night 9 cwt. were secured by the crew of another boat. A Mullet of large size will occasionally weigh so much as 10 or 12 lbs. ; and one specimen is recorded as being so much as 14% lbs.* The Mullet was believed by the ancients to be the most innocent of fish, and one that did not select as food anything that had life. But the Grey Mullet of Belfast Bay has habits so very much the reverse, that Mr. Thompson remarks, after an examination of the stomachs of many individuals, that they presented “many hundred-fold greater destruction of animal life than he had ever witnessed on a similar inspection of the food of any bird or fish. From a single stomach he had taken as many univalve and bivalve mollusca as would fill a large- sized breakfast cup ; so that one of these stomachs may justly be regarded as quite a storehouse to a conchologist.” - In clear moonlight, and by day, Mullet of every size often clear the net, sometimes springing five or six feet over it, and when one has set the example, nearly all are sure to follow it. Having sur- mounted the meshy barrier, they sometimes take two or three additional leaps, and skim the surface beautifully, before again subsiding beneath it. Tenioidei.;—We shall not dwell on the family of the Riband-shaped fishes, as it contains but about half-a-dozen of native species, and but little is known respecting their habits ; we shall merely quote one fact to show how appropriate is their Fig. 206,—Rep BAND-FISH. name. A specimen of the Red Band-fish (Cepola rubescens, Fig. 206), as we are informed by Mr. W. Thompson, was, in * On Fishes new to Ireland—Annals of Natural History, July, 1838. From this paper the information here given on this Mullet is extracted. + The term denotes, like a band or stripe. FISHES. 243 November, 1837, when penny postages were unknown, sent to him through the post-office, although nineteen and a half inches long; it was folded up like a riband, and passed in a franked letter of the ordinary size and legal weight—under an ounce.* A dead specimen of another species was picked up on the beach at Cairnlough, County Antrim, in 1836, by Dr. J. L. Drummond, author of “ Letters to a Young Naturalist,” &e., and being transmitted to Belfast, was found to be so per- fectly unique as to require the establishment of a new genus for its reception. Some of the young for whose use this little book is especially written, may yet, in like manner, be so for- tunate as to enrich our Fauna with species of which no other specimens are known to be extant. f Scomberide—The next family contains the Opah, the Dory, and the Sword-fish, all of which have been already mentioned (pp. 217, 220). To this belongs the Pilot-fish (Naucrates ductor, Fig. 207), celebrated for its attendance on Fig. 207.—PILoT-FIsH. the large Sharks, and supposed by the ancients to have pointed out to navigators their desired course, and borne them company during their voyage. Here also must be placed the Bonito (Thynnus pelamys), one of the ruthless pursuers of the Flying-fish; and the Tunny (Thynnus vulgaris, Fig. 208), a fish of large size, though here represented by a very diminutive Fig. 208.—Tusnr. figure. One killed at Inverary weighed 460 lbs., and measured * Magazine of Natural History, 1838. + It was described and figured by Mr. W. Thompson, in the Transactions of the Zoological Society, vol. ii., the species being named in honour of the discoverer, Echiodon Drummondii. _ Another dead specimen was found on the coast of the County Kerry 23rd January, 1852. R 244 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. seven feet ten inches in length. These fish visit the shores of the Mediterranean in great shoals, and give origin to an exten- sive and valuable branch of commerce. Both the species just mentioned swim near the surface, are great consumers of oxygen, and maintain a high temper- ature. The Tunny is always spoken of by the fishermen of the Mediterranean as warm-blooded ; and Dr. Davy* mentions, that he has known the temperature of the Bonito to be 99°, when the water at the surface of the sea was only 80°5. We have here, therefore, a curious example of a fish with blood as warm as that of a man. Highly prized though of so much smaller dimensions, is the Mackerel (Scomber scomber) of our own shores. Mr. Yarrell states that the success of this fishery, in 1821, was beyond all precedent. “The value of the catch of sixteen boats from Lowestoffe, on the 30th of June, amounted to £5,252; and it is supposed that there was no less an amount than £14,000 altogether realized by the owners and men concerned in the fishery of the Suffolk coast.’’ A favourite bait for this fish is a slip of red leather or scarlet cloth; and a scarlet coat has therefore been called a Mackerel bait for a lady. Sparide.—The sea Breams are furnished with strong jaws, and a great profusion of rounded teeth, by means of which they grind down the shells of the mollusca on which they feed. The Stickle-back (Gasterosteus, Fig. 187), and the Gurnard (Trigla), exhibit a peculiarity of a different kind. The head appears as if mailed or armed, and hence the term Loricati, indicating this peculiarity, is that by which they are distinguished. ‘The species known as the “ Fifteen-spined ” (ante, p. 214), inhabits the sea, and is apparently fond of coming to the surface in fine weather, for we have taken it in a small towing-net, and on one occasion we saw it captured by a sudden plunge of the hand into the water. The Gur- nards emit a peculiar sound when taken from the water; and hence one of them bears the appellation of “the Piper,’’ and another that of the “ Cuckoo Gurnard.”’ + The Dactylopterus of the Mediterranean (Trigla volitans, * Researches, Philosophical and Anatomical. t The “Drum-fish” of the United States is so called from its loud drumming noise. It is sometimes found three feet in length, and 35 Ibs. in . weight: in calm weather the’sound which it emits is heard at a considerable distance. FISHES. 245 Linn., Fig. 209) is a very singular and beautiful species, swimming in shoals, and sometimes rising out of the water in the manner of the Flying-fish, expanding at the same time its pectoral fins, which are large and transparent, of an olive green, with numerous bright blue spots. Fig. 209.—DACTYLOPTERUS. Percide.—The last family we shall mention includes the Perch (Perca fluviatilis), and also the true Mullets of the Mediterranean ; one of these, the striped Red Mullet (Mudlus surmuletus), is a constant inhabitant of the southern shores of England. So much were they prized by the Romans, that a Mullet of six pounds weight is said to have been sold for a sum equal to £48 ; one still larger, £64; and even £240 were given for three of very unusual size, procured on the same day, for a repast of more than usual magnificence. The Perch is common throughout all the temperate parts of Europe, and is one of the most beautiful of all our freshwater fishes. The bright vermilion of the tail and lower fins contrasts strikingly with the markings and tints of the other portions of the body. It is a bold and voracious fish. Mr. Jesse tells us that he had placed some, Perch in a vivarium (an artificial pond), and in a few days they came freely and took worms from his fingers. It is interesting, in regarding the class of fishes, to con- template the variations of structure which connect it with other groups, both of higher and of lower rank in the animal kingdom. We have seen’ (p. 223) that one small fish—the Lancelet—has been described as a mollusk. There is another —the Lepidosiren— which has been regarded as a reptile. Perfect unanimity does not prevail among naturalists with regard to its true place, but, following Professor Owen, we include it among the fishes. Of this animal two species are ~ at present known—one found in the river Gambia, the other 246 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. in the Amazon. That of the Gambia (LZ. annectens, Fig. 210) inhabits a part of the river which overflows extensive tracts. ’ Such individuals as do not follow the retreat- ing waters, escape from the scorching rays of the African sun by burrow- ing in the mud, which is soon baked hard above them. There they remain, ina torpid state, until the return of the rainy season again awakes them to ac- Fig. 210.—LEPIDOSIREN. tivity. * We have endeavoured, with great brevity, to exhibit one class out of the many by which ‘the world .of waters” is peopled. But our knowledge of the recent tribes is imperfect unless we add to it that of the extinct; and, accordingly, the study of the fishes found in a fossil state is a subject of high philosophical research, involving as it does, the question not only of what were their forms, but what were the conditions under which they existed. To this inquiry M. Agassiz, of Neufchatel, has devoted himself; and, in the vast series of investigations which it required, has combined the discrimin- ating eye of the naturalist and the profound generalizations of the philosopher. By him all fossil fishes are arranged in four primary groups, according to the form of their scales :-— Ist, Ganoid, with scales shining, as the Sturgeon. 2nd, Placoid, with scales broad-plated, as Sharks and Rays. 3d, Ctenoid, with scales comb-shaped, as the Perch. 4th, Cycloid, with scales of circular or smooth edges, as the Cod and Herring.t The researches of Agassiz haye led him to infer, that there * For details connected with its organization, vide Professor Owen’s Lectures, and Memoir in Trans. of Linn. Society, vol. xviii., part iii. It is regarded by him as the representative of a distinct order—Protopteri— occupying a position between the one containing the Sturgeon and that with the Sharks and Rays. + These terms are all derived from the Greek; the literal meanings being nearly those which are here given. FISHES. 247 is a constant correspondence between the characters of the seales and the internal organization of the fish. When the number of fishes now living and possessing scales of these different forms, is compared with the number of those which formerly existed, we find that species and genera, which in countless multitudes swam in the ocean which then covered our existing continents, have long since passed away. Those whose vestments of enamel have bid defiance to the hand of Time, exhibit, sculptured on their scales, ornaments of micro- scopic beauty and diversified pattern. As an example of the singular forms presented by some of these fossils, we shall quote one brief paragraph, descriptive of some of the fossil fishes of the Old Red Sandstone. “ A stranger assemblage of forms has rarely been grouped together ;—creatures whose very type is lost—fantastic and uncouth, and which puzzle the naturalist to assign them even their class ;—boat-like animals, furnished with oars and a rudder ; fish plated over like the Tortoise, above and below, with a strong armour of bone, and furnished with but one rudder-like fin; other fish, less equivocal in their form, but with the membranes of their fins thickly covered with scales ; —creatures bristling over with thorns ; others glistening in an enamelled coat, as if beautifully japanned—the tail, in every instance among the less equivocal shapes—-formed, not equally as it is in existing fish, on each side the central vertebral bone, but chiefly on the lower side, the bone sending out its dimin- ished vertebre to the extreme termination of the fin. All the forms testify of a remote antiquity—of a period whose ‘fashions have passed away.’ The figures on a Chinese vase or an Egyptian obelisk are scarcely more unlike what now exist in nature than the fossils of the Lower Old Red Sand- stone.’’* Nore.—On THE IMPROVEMENT OF FISHERIES, AND THE EDUCATION OF FisHERMEN.—In an economical point of view, Zoology could not be turned to better account than in the right direction and promotion of the fisheries, * From a delightful and highly instructive. volume, entitled, ‘The Old Red Sandstone, or New Walks in an Old Field,” by Hugh Miller. The first chapter tells us that the author was himself a working man, and describes ‘the quarry in which he wrought.” It was while labouring in that humble vocation that his attention was first roused to the fossils of the ‘Old Red Sandstone;’’ a formation with which his name is now indis- solubly connected. 248 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. This was forcibly put forward by Mr. R. Ball, in 1839, in a lecture de- livered before the Royal Zoological Society of Ireiand,* in which he showed how much science might be made to conduce to the welfare of fishermen, by affording them information on the nature and habits of fish, their migration, and food, viewed in connection with the geological character of the coast. He at the same time proposed a plan for imparting to them scientific and practical instruction by means of nomadic or wandering schools. Subsequently the application of science to our fisheries has been ably urged, both in Londont and Dublin,t by that eminent naturalist, Professor Edward Forbes. He has shown that the North Atlantic Ocean may be divided into certain zoological provinces; that each province owes its char- acteristic features to geological changes which occurred in a certain order, and that “the dispositions of the great sea-fisheries of Europe depend upon the disposition of the existing zoological provinces of the European seas.” To the last point the learned lecturer called particular attention, and strongly advocated scientific inquiry properly directed, and the training and instruc- tion of fishermen, as suggested by Mr. Ball. The great importance of this subject in its bearing upon the British fisheries, and more especially upon those of Ireland, gives additional interest to the following extract from the Thirteenth Report of the Commissioners of National Education in Ireland. “VII. 33. The same practical character which we are anxious to give to our country schools, by the mixture of agricultural with literary instruction, we shall endeavour to give to such of our own schools as are situated on the coast, by uniting instruction more peculiarly applicable to maritime districts, with the ordinary school education. With the view of promoting this ob- ject, and of testing its practicability, we have made a larger grant towards the establishment of.a school in the town of Galway, at the fishing station called the Claddagh. In this school it is proposed that the pupils shall devote a portion of their time to acquiring a knowledge of navigation and of the art of fishing, and shall be employed in manufacturing nets and the various other articles required by fishermen in their trade.” * Saunders’s News Letter, 24th May, 1839. ¢ At the Royal Institution, 14th May; see Athenszeum, 22nd May, 1847. t Before Zoological Society of Ireland, Saunders’s News Letter, 29th May, 1547. 249 CLASS II REPTILIA.—REPTILES, Tur Class Reptilia constitutes another of the great groups of vertebrated animals. Respiration is effected in some of the Reptiles by lungs and gills; in others by lungs only. The blood is cold. The heart consists of three cavities. The young are produced from eggs. The great majority of these creatures are regarded by man with suspicion and distrust; yet there is no class of verte- brated animals which presents the same variety of form and structure. Among quadrupeds, the tiny Field-mouse (Mus messorius) that suspends her nest from a blade of corn, re- sembles, in all essential points of structure, the ponderous elephant. Among birds, in like manner, the diminutive Wren claims a place in the same phalanx with the majestic Condor of the Andes. But who, except the naturalist, could venture to affirm that the flexile Snake should be class-fellow to the shell-covered Tortoise ? Reptiles are most numerous in the countries of the torrid zone, a few only being found in those of more temperate regions. It has been well remarked, that “they can more easily bear the rigours of a severe winter than suffer the absence of a hot summer.” The number of living species which is known and described amounts to six hundred and fifty-seven. They are divided by Cuvier into four orders ; and, although some changes have been proposed by naturalists whose opinions are entitled to great respect, it will better suit the simplicity which is desirable in an elementary work, to ad- here to the former arrangement, and treat of them as Tortoises, Lizards, Serpents, and Frogs. 250 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. The number of species belonging to each of these orders is very different, and may be thus stated : *— Tortoises (Testudinatd).......-0ccecccsscoscccsssssesscoseses sere 69 Tigards (SAM IG)..56.00.sava-ccceewessdes anbsceauseacteedoesaaee 203 Serpents (Ophidea) :.c<..ccaesse ue -aseaneessprenas-deeseuaeuren 265 ropes, ((CAmphilia..ccsc.csccssscncocetnsedhebonscessustnes as 120 657 Tt is interesting to remark the manner in which, according to Berghaiis, the number of species diminishes as we pass from the sunny regions of the East to the duller and more cloudy climes of Western Europe. Thus Italy with her islands can number forty-seven species; France has thirty- one; Great Britain, fourteen ;f and Ireland, it may be added, not more than five. It has been stated that the blood of reptiles is cold, or in other words, their power of producing animal heat is so feeble, that we do not notice any difference between the temperature of their bodies and that of the air or water by which they are surrounded. The same was observed in the preceding group of cold-blooded Vertebrata—the fishes—but arose from a dif- ferent cause. In the fishes the blood is imperfectly aérated, owing to the small quantity of oxygen with which it comes in contact in the gills. In the highest of the reptile tribes, which breathe exclusively by lungs, these organs are supplied with only a portion of the blood that has circulated through the veins ; the other portion is returned into the circulation with- out being purified by exposure to the air. ~ The arteries con- sequently contain a mixture of blood rendered impure by its previous circulation, and blood recently aérated in the lungs. * Berghaiis and Johnston’s Physical Atlas, from which admirable work all the information here given, as to the distribution and number of species, is derived. + Namely, two Turtles, two Lizards, one Blind-worm, two Snakes, two Frogs, two Toads, and three Newts In a Memoir read before the Royal Society, by Mr. Higginbottom, entitled, ‘‘ Researches to determine the number of species and mode of development of the British Triton, the author stafqs, that only two species of Tritons or Newts are met with in England, anv that the animals require four years to attain their full growth. ‘The Triton,” he remarks, ‘ pos- sesses the power of reproducing its lost limbs, provided the temperature be within the limits of 58° and 75° Fahrenheit; but at lower temperatures, and during the winter, it has no such power.”—Atheneum, April 3, 1847; An- nals of Natural History, July, 1847. REPTILES. 251 “ Hence,”’ says Professor Bell, “arises the circumstance that these animals have what is called cold blood; for, as it is from respiration that the blood derives its heat and the temperature of the body is thereby sustained, in animals which have more perfect respiration, it follows that where this function is but imperfectly performed, the animal heat, muscular force, and all other functions dependent on respiration will be diminished.”’* In the last class to which our attention was directed—that of fishes—the circulation throughout life was suited to their residence in water. The first we shall notice in the present class are likewise fitted for aquatic respiration. We shall next proceed to those which in their very early stages breathe by gills, but afterwards by lungs; and thence pass on to those which at all periods possess aérial respiration. Orpver I—AMPHIBIA. “The swimming Frog, the Toad, the Tadpole, the Wall-Newt, and the water.” —SHAKSPEARE. Tue Amphibious Reptiles (order Batrachiat of Cuvier) may be separated into two divisions—those which possess both lungs and gills throughout the entire period of life, and those which have gills in their young state, and acquire lungs as they approach maturity.t The former group possesses some animals of very singular structure and habits; as the Proteus, which inhabits subterranean lakes in the Tyrol, the Axolotl * History of British Reptilese—Van Voorst; another of that attractive series of works illustrative of the natural history of these countries. In the opinion of the learned author of that work, the structural peculiarities of the Amphibia are such as to justify their being regarded as a distinct class, in- stead of being merely ranked as one of the orders in the class Reptilia. Mr. Jenyns has thus arranged them in his ‘‘ Manual.” 7 From the Greek word signifying a frog (Lat. Batrdchus). The term Batrachian means, therefore, a frog-like animal. t~ Those in which the gills are permanent are termed PERENNIBRAN- CHIATE (Latin, branchie, the gills, and perennis, permanent, lasting, staying all the year round), Those in which the branchie disappear, are termed CADUCIBRANCHIATE, the word caducus meaning perishable, falling of itself, &e, 252 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. (Fig. 211), the flesh of which is regarded as an article of luxury by the inhabitants of the city of Mexico, near to which it is taken. It is, however, to the latter group that we wish more particularly to call attention; for in the Frogs, Toads, and Newts of these countries, we have the opportunity of watching the successive steps by which they become fitted for breathing air, instead of continuing to use an apparatus adapted, like that of fishes, for aquatic respiration only. * Fig. 211.—AXoLorL. Let us give our attention, in the first instance, to the changes which take place in the common Frog, (ana tempo- raria). The eggs are deposited at the bottom of a pool of water, each egg consisting of a black centre, surrounded by a covering of glutinous matter. This covering absorbs water ; the mass swells, so that the central portions appear like black dots, separated from each other by a transparent jelly; and owing, as Professor Bell states, to some partial decomposition, and the consequent disengagement of a gas, the entire mass becomes lighter than the surrounding water, and rises to the surface. It is in this stage that we have taken some of the spawn, and kept it in glass vessels for the purpose of watching the subsequent changes, which are much influenced by the temperature of the apartment. When the little Tadpole has burst from its prison, the gills begin to develope themselves, and increase rapidly in size until they attain their greatest development. They are now objects of singular beauty viewed through the microscope ; for such is their transparency that the course of every blood-globule, as it passes up or down the main stem, or enters the inlets presented by each leaf, is dis- tinctly visible. The delight with which this spectacle is regarded by children, and the interest they henceforward take in the previously-despised Tadpole, are matters of which we can speak from personal experience. This period of expan- REPTILES. 253 sion is, however, more temporary than that of many of our cherished garden flowers. The tufted gills shrink in size, until, like the gills of fishes, they are concealed within the branchial sacs. The little Tadpole (F%g. 212) begins to feed on decaying vegetable matter; the tail has become a large and powerful organ for locomotion, and a rapid increase in the size of the body is perceptible. After a time the hinder feet become developed (fig. 213); then the anterior extremities bud forth* (f%g. 214); the tail shrinks; the form of the perfect animal is assumed (Fig. 215); the remaining vestige of the tail disappears (/%g. 216); and instead of an aquatic animal breathing by gills, and subsisting on vegetables, we have a terrestrial animal, breathing by lungs and altogether carnivorous, Fig. 212. Fig. 213. ; @ = si (avg anf z Fig. 214. Fig. 216. Fig. 216. The food of the Frog consists of insects of various kinds and of small Slugs; the number which is thus destroyed is so considerable, that the Frog might prove a valuable assistant to the farmer or the gardener. The manner in which the food is taken is worthy of notice. In the Frogs, as in the Toad, the tongue is doubled back on itself. The point, covered with a viscid secretion, is thrown forwards upon the insect and drawn back again with such rapidity as scarcely to be detected without careful watching.t In some of the countries of both temperate and tropical regions there are Frogs which, from their habitation, are called * We are informed by a friend, who has watched the metamorphosis with great attention, that the left fore leg is perfectly developed before the other appears. t Bell's Reptiles. 254: INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. Tree-frogs (Hyle, Fig. 217). They are described as beautiful and active little animals, not unlike in their colours to those of the trunks and foliage, and furnished at the end of their toes with small cushions or pads, by means of which they can adhere to smooth surfaces. Some of them utter a pleasing chirp, which in the cool evenings swells into a kind of concert, the Cicadee and Crickets taking part in the per- formance.* The respiration of the Frog is not carried on by the lungs alone, but also by the skin; and .S : in order that the skin din may be always kept Fig. 217.—Trrz-Froa, moist, and in a state fit to perform this important function, the creature is furnished with an internal reservoir of pure water, absorbed and there deposited when fluid is abundant, and given back to the skin when additional moisture is required. ‘There is a peculiarity even in the pulmonary respiration: it cannot be carried on in the Frog by the expansion and contraction of the chest, for it is destitute of ribs. The air is taken into the mouth, and the nostrils and throat being closed, it is forced down into the lungs. As this movement can only be performed when the mouth is shut, the poor creature would perish for want of pulmonary respiration if gagged with the mouth open.t The Frog is believed to have been introduced into Ireland in the early part of the last century. The common Toad (Bufo vulgaris) is there unknown, its absence being accounted for, according to popular tradition and song, by the malediction of St. Patrick. The smaller species, the Natter-jack (B. ca- lamita), does not appear, however, to have been banished with the rest of “the varmint,”’ as it is found in three or four localities in the County Kerry, especially at Rosshegh, a small inlet or creek of Dingle Bay. Both Frogs and Toads pass the winter in a state of torpidity. * At Rio de Janeiro. Darwin’s Journal, p. 34. + Bell. Berghaiis and Johnston mention that the common Frog (Rana temporaria) is found on the Pyrenees at an elevation of 7,700 feet. REPTILES. 255 The remainder of the British Amphibia belongs to the family Salamandride, and consists of four species of Newts, of which one only (Lissotriton punctatus) appears to be gene- rally distributed in Ireland, In the northern parts it is well known by the name of “ Mankeeper,” and is regarded by the uneducated with apprehension, from the erroneous idea that it is prone to jump down the throat of any one whom it may find sleeping. The metamorphosis of the Newts is so similar to that of the Frogs, that any detail on the subject is unnecessary. ‘The leaf-like tufts that float in the water (Fig. 218) are different in form, though alike in function. But it is not only in ex- ternal figure that the changes of the amphibia are remarkable; those in internal structure are to the physio- logist even more interesting. The important function of circulation must of course be adapted to that of respiration. Each change in the one necessarily involves a corres- ponding modification of the other. It is not our intention to go into any minute anatomical details; we would only refer to the accom- panying figures to show the nature and extent of these in- ternal changes. In the first (Fig. 219) the blood-vessels of Fig. 218. Fig. 219. the Tadpole are shown in an early stage; the second (Mig. 220) in a more advanced state, and with those arteries which are to convey the blood to the lungs greatly increased in size. 256 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. Sa uly Fig. 220. In the third (fig. 221) the gills have disappeared, and the respiratory circulation is carried on by the arteries of which the development was exhibited in the previous figure. The Newts, like the Frogs and Toads, are carnivorous, preying upon aquatic insects, larve, worms, and wmollusca ; nor do the larger species hesitate at laying hold of and devouring their weaker and smaller bre- thren. The Tadpole of the Frog forms also an important item in their bill of fare. When it is considered that all the amphibia are harmless to man, and many of them actually useful, by keeping in bounds the diminutive assailants of his crops and pastures, it may seem strange that they should have been so generally re- garded as disgusting and pernicious. Perhaps no individual among them has been so slandered as the Toad ; and if we did not know, in other instances, how imagination takes the place of reason, it might seem incredible that this unoffending reptile should have been regarded as “ highly poisonous, and this not only from its bite—its breath and even its glance were fraught ~ with mischief or death.’”’* It was natural, therefore, that * Bell’s Reptiles. Fig. 221. REPTILES, 257 Shakspeare, living at a time when such ideas were still cur- rent, should embody them in his writings, and speak of the Toad as “loathsome,” “ venomous,” and “ poisonous,”* should place it first in the cauldron of the witches, and add thereto, “Eye of newt and toe of frog.” f Such records, “figuring the nature of the time deceased,” are of high interest and value, for they serve most impressively to mark the varying phases of popular belief at different epochs. In one passage the poet has given us a singular though erro- neous tradition, and a profound moral truth— ‘* Sweet are the uses of adversity, Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous, Wears yet a precious jewel in his head.” ; As You Liz Ir, Act ii. scene 3. There is evidence of the former existence in these countries of a gigantic reptile of the present order. From the peculiarly convoluted structure of its teeth, it has received from Professor Owen the highly descriptive appellation of Labyrinthodon: a term compounded of two Greek words, signifying “a laby- rinth” and “a tooth.” It has left the mark of its footsteps, resembling the impression of a hand, on the moist sand-beach of the ancient seas, which sand is now consolidated into what is termed “new red sandstone.’ The impressions vary in size, but those of the hind feet are invariably much larger than those of the fore. In some cases their length is so much as twelve inches, while that of the smaller is about four inches. ’ At the Storeton Hill, near Liverpool, on the west side of the Mersey, similar marks have been found, along with those left by five or six smaller reptiles. * “ As loathsome as a toad.’’—Trr. Anp, Act. iv. scene 2. “ As venomed toads.”"—Third Part K. Henry VI. Act ii. scene 2. “ This poisonous hunch-backed toad.”—Ricuarp ITI. Act i. scene 3. + For convenience of reference, the passages referred to are extracted :— First Witch—“ Toad, that under the cold stone Days and nights hast thirty-one, Swelter'd venom sleeping got, Boil thou first i’ the charmed pot! Second Witch—Fillet of a fenny snake, : In the cauldron boil and bake: Fye of newt and toe of frog, Wool of bat and tongue of dog, Adder’s fork and blindworm’s sting, Lizard’s leg and owlet’s wing.”’ Macsera, Act iy. scene 1, 258 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. Orper II.—OPHIDIA.—_SERPENTS. Fig. 222.— ANATOMY OF A SNAKE.* THe internal structure of one of the Serpents is represented in the preceding figure (fig. 222). We shall only add, that * 7, tongue and glottis; @, cesophagus, divided at @ to show the heart, &c.; i, stomach; ?’, intestine; cl, cloaca; jf, liver; 0, ovary; , o’eggs; ¢, trachea; p, prin- cipal lung; p’, undeveloped lung; vw, ventricle; c, left auricle; c’, right auricle; ag, left aortic arch,; ad, right aortic arch; a’, a’, ventral aorta; ac, carotid arteries; v, vena cava superior; vc, vena cava inferior; vp, pulmonary vein. REPTILES. 259 in order to endow these tribes with the greatest possible flexibility, the number of joints in their spinal column is even greater than in the Eels. In the Rattle-snake (Crotalus, Fig. 223) there are about two hundred; and above three hundred have been counted in the spine of the Viper (Natrix torquata).* Thus furnished they can glide along with silence and rapidity, climb trees, and leap with considerable vi- gour and agility. The number of Serpents, like that of other reptiles, increases towards the tor- rid zone, while compara- tively few are ‘found in cold regions. They do not appear to advance so far northwards as Frogs and Lizards. “One of the most cu- ee rious facts in the distribu- Fig. 223.—RATTLE-SNAKE. , tion of Serpents, viewed in relation to different parts of the globe, is their total absence from the numerous isles of the Pacific Ocean—a phenomenon the more remarkable, since the neighbouring isles forming the great Indian Archipelago belong to those regions of the earth most abounding in Serpents. Another interesting fact is, that the Serpents, and indeed all the reptiles of America, are specifically different from those of the Old World; while, on the other hand, a great many birds and several mammiferous animals of North America are pre- cisely the same as those of Europe and a great part of Asia.’’+ Some Serpents live amid the foliage of trees, some inhabit fresh waters, some poisonous tribes live in the seas of tropical Asia and New Holland, but by far the greater number are terrestrial. According to Schlegel, there are at present 265 known species, and of these only 58 are venomous; so that the proportion of the harmless ophidians to those which are * Roget’s Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i. p. 450. + Schlegel, ‘Essai sur la Distribution Géographique des Ophidiens,’’ as abridged in Berghaiis, Physical Atlas. 8 260 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. venomous is nearly as four to one. This is contrary to popular opinion, and it was especially so in the “olden time.” Thus, whenever Shakspeare mentions one of those animals, it is always as a creature to be shunned as hateful or venomous :-— “He is a very serpent in my way ; And wheresoe’er this foot of mine doth tread, He lies before me.” Kine Joun, Act iii. scene 3. The gigantic Boa-Constrictor belongs to those which are not venomous. It kills its prey by the enormous compression it exerts when coiled round the body ot its victim, which it then proceeds to swallow entire. The teeth are sharp, point backwards, and thus retain the food. And here comes into use a curious and bountiful provision with which snakes are : furnished. The lower jaw is not united to the upper; it is hung to a long, stalk- shaped bone, upon which it is moveable (Fig. 224) ; and this bone has also a power of motion, being attached to the skull by muscles and ligaments. By means of this apparatus, which is common to all -true Serpents, they can swallow ani- mals larger than themselves. This being done they remain in a quiescent state until digestion is completed, and the calls of hunger again excite them to exertion. In addition to this elaborate contrivance, the venomous tribes are fur- nished with poison-fangs, Fig. 224. SKULL OF RATTLE-SNAKE. Fig. 225.—Poison APPARATUS OF RATTLE- ; : = SNAKE.* ‘constituting perhaps the most terrible weapons of attack met with in the animal crea- tion”’+ (Fig. 225). They are two in number, fixed to the upper jaw, or, to use more precise language, one is fixed to * Fig. 225.—p, poison gland; its duct terminates in the large moveable tooth or fang, 7; m, rouscles which raise the lower jaw and compress the poison gland. + Jones's Outline of the Animal Kingdom. —— ~ REPTILES. 261 each superior maxillary bone. When not in use, they lie flat upon the roof of the mouth, concealed by a fold of the skin. In each fang is a channel, which opens, not at the point of the tooth, but near to it, by a longitudinal fissure. Through this passage the poison flows. When the animal is irritated the poi- son-fangs are erected in a moment; and when they are struck into the victim, it is easy to imagine how forcibly the poison must be injected into the wound; for the powerful muscles which elevate the lower jaw serve at the same time to com- press the poison-bag. Behind the large poison-fang in actual use are the germs of several others, ready to supply its place if accidentally broken off, each of which is soon “adapted in all respects to take upon itself the terrible office of its predecessor.”’ The poison itself is neither acrid nor burning. On the tongue it only produces a sensation like that of fatty matter, and it may be swallowed without danger ; but introduced into the blood in sufficient quantity, it causes death with fearful rapidity, though*the power varies, according to the species, and other circumstances. ‘To avoid such consequences, the best pre- caution is that which is adopted in these countries for the bite of a dog supposed to be mad: the immediate cutting out and cauterising of the wounded part. In one genus of the poisonous Serpents there exists a pro- vision which puts the unwary on his guard, and discloses the proximity of the dangerous reptile. We allude of course to the Rattle-snake (Fig. 223). Its tail is terminated by a series of horny rings, loosely put together, which rattle with the slightest movement of the animal, and even with the vibrations of the tail when the creature itself lies in conceal- ment.* Among the venomous Serpents is one which possesses a classical and historical interest, associated, as it is, with the death of Cleopatra—the Egyptian Naja or Asp (fig. 226). It is at present much used by the Egyptian jugglers in their exhibitions. One of a nearly allied species, the Cobra-di- - Capello, has a curious mark on the skin of the neck, not unlike a pair of spectacles. A specimen of this Snake was presented to the Belfast Museum, by Major Martin (mow residing at Ar- * The information here given respecting the poisonous Serpents is almost entirely derived from Jones’s Outline, Carpenter’s Zoology, and Milne Edwards’ “ Elémens de Zoologie.” 262 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. | drossan, Ayrshire), who narrated to us the following interest- ing occurrence :—While stationed in Ceylon, his servant one morning ran into his room and informed him that a favourite Hen was lying dead in her nest, and that the twelve eggs on which she had been sitting were taken away. Supposing it must have been by a Snake, immediate search was made throughout the hen-house and other adjoining premises, when a Cobra-di-Capello was found under a piece of wood, and was immediately killed; being opened, the eggs were found in its belly. Nine out of the twelve eggs were broken ; the remaining three were immediately put under another Hen that was sitting, and in due time a chick was produced, and the race of the feathered favourite thus preserved from extinction. Some of the great Snakes found in India incubate, or sit on their eggs. This fact was observed in the case of a female (Python bivittatus) in the menagerie of the Museum at Paris. Her body was coiled round the eggs (fifteen in number), forming a cone, at the top of which was her head. The temperature of the body was sensibly augmented while incubation was going on, which lasted for nearly two months. During the whole of this period she ate no- thing, but drank greedily several times. As soon as the young were hatched she left them to themselves, evincing no further affection for the offspring over which she had so sedulously brooded.* The remains of Serpents of this tribe, and of that of the Boa-Constrictor, have been found in the London clay, thus proving the former existence in these kingdoms of reptiles which are now only known in tropical countries. No snakes Fig 226.—Eerptian Nasa. * Annales des Sciences Naturelles, tome xvi. p. 65. Quoted in Note to Jenyns’s Edition of White’s Selborne, p. 69. REPTILES. 263 of any kind whatever exist in Ireland. In England, the harm- less tribes are represented by the Common or Ringed Snake (Natrix torquata), and the venomous by the Adder or Common Viper (Pelius berus). The injurious results of the bite of the latter reptile would appear to be much exaggerated. Professor Bell states that he has never seen a case which terminated in death, nor has he been able to trace to an authentic source the numerous reports of such a termination. Both species lie torpid during the winter, concealed under hedges, or the hollow roots of a tree, or any other sequestered and sheltered situation. The numbers that thus remain coiled together are sometimes so considerable that Dr. Carpenter mentions an instance which came within his own knowledge, of 1300 Ringed Snakes being found in an old limekiln.* The return of a more genial season and a higher temperature again rouses them to activity. Hence the remark of the poet— “Tt is the bright day that brings forth the adder, And that craves wary walking.” —SHAKSPEARE. These reptiles possess, as is well known, the power of changing or casting off their skin. Before it is cast off—a process which appears to take place at uncertain intervals— the colouring is dull, and the animal seems blind. When the new skin is completely formed and hardened underneath, the old one bursts or splits asunder, about the neck, being removed as the animal passes through any tangled copse. A remarkable difference exists between the Common Snake and the Viper with regard to the production of their young. The former is oviparous, and deposits from sixteen to twenty eggs, which are vivified by heat. The latter is ovo-viviparous ; that is to say, the young are produced from eggs; but in the very act of deposition, the membranous covering of the egg is rent asunder, and the young—which vary in number from sixteen to twenty—come forth alive. Dr. Clarke, in speaking of the Common Snake, remarks— “The movements of this species are highly elegant. Its course among grass or underwood is performed in a zigzag direction ; the head and neck are thrust forward alternately to the right and left, while the rest of the body follows precisely the same course. In its progress the head pushes aside the blades of grass or other yielding bodies, and the remainder of the body * Zoology, vol. i. p. 569. 264 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY follows without communicating any motion to them; and in this way a snake will often steal across a meadow, or through a thicket, unperceived bya person standing at a little distance.’’* In contrast with the clear and simple statement here given of the movements of the common English Snake, it is interesting to place the magnificent description so well known to every reader of “ Paradise Lost ”’ :— «So spake the enemy of mankind, enclosed In serpent, inmate bad! and toward Eve Addressed his way; not with indented wave Prone on the ground as since, but on his rear Circular base of rising folds, that tower’d Fold above fold, a surging maze! his head Crested aloft, and carbuncle his eyes, With burnished neck of verdant gold, erect Amidst his circling spires that on the grass Floated redundant.”—Book ix. Like many other now exploded specifics, the flesh of Ser- pents, or the liquid, especially wine, in which they were in- fused, was held of peculiar efficacy for the cure of disease, and as an antidote to poison. These ideas, preposterous as they may now appear, were not discarded until the last century was far advanced. In Dr. Owen’s work on Serpents, published in London in 1672, we are informed that “their flesh, either roasted or boiled, the physicians unanimously prescribe, as an excellent restorative, particularly in consumptions and leprosy.” There is another reptile equally inoffensive, and not less maligned than some already mentioned—the Blind-worm, or Slow-worm of Britain, described as the “eyeless venom’d worm” by Shakspeare. Yet it has in fact no poison fangs, and is naturally of so timid and gentle a disposition, that only under circumstances of great provocation will it attempt to bite. It is unknown in Ireland; but in Scotland we have seen it broken in two by the blow of a slight rod, thus illustrating the correctness of the Linnzan appellation—Anguis fragilis—the Fragile Snake. To the systematic naturalist this creature is interesting from its exhibiting in certain points the character of two distinct classes of reptiles. The body is destitute of legs, in that re- spect resembling the true Serpents, while at the same time the * Magazine of Natural History, 1838, p. 479. REPTILES. 265 jaws and cranium are consolidated, thus resembling those of the Lizards. The great altitude at which some Snakes are found is worthy of notice, as it necessarily involves their capability of living at a lower temperature than might have been expected. It is stated that two species of Viper, one of them the Common Adder of England, are found on the Alps at an elevation of 5300 feet; and the Blind-worm nearly as high as 6000 feet. . Orver III.—SAURIA,.—LIZARDS. In this order the body and tail are elongated, the jaws are fur- nished with teeth, the skin is covered with scales, and the ani- mals have generally four feet. About two hundred species are known, which are distributed by naturalists into nine or ten families, and numerous genera. The flesh of many of the foreign Lizards, when cooked, is white, and is relished as very good food. Humboldt has re- marked that all the South American species within the tropics, and inhabiting dry regions, are esteemed delicacies for the table. Their habits present considerable variety. Mr. Darwin mentions one (Amblyrhyncus cristatus) that swims out to sea at the Gallipagos Islands, and feeds upon a sea-weed that grows at the bottom; and another (A. sub-cristatus) that makes burrows on the land. He watched one of these for a long time while making its excavation. ‘‘I then,” continues he, “‘ walked up and pulled it by the tail ; at this it was greatly astonished, and soon shuffled up to see what was the matter, and then stared me in the face, as much as to say, ‘ What made you pull my tail ?’” 266 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY The genus which comprises the greatest number of species is that of the Iguanas (Fig. 227), which are found only in } luau | Fig. 227.—IGUANA ‘ the New World. Some of these are so much as five feet in length, and the colour a beautiful green of a variety of shades. They have a singular crest along the back, and a hanging pouch, like the dewlap of oxen, under the chin. This pouch they have the power of inflating with air. They live among the branches of trees, and feed principally, but not exclu- sively, upon leaves and fruits. Eggs and insects form a por- tion of their diet.* Darker in colour and more repulsive in aspect are the Fig, 228.—GEcKo. Geckos (Fig. 228) or Nocturnal Lizards. “Though timid and harmless, they are always regarded by the vulgar as * A gigantic fossil reptile discovered in the South of England, in 1834, by Dr. Mantell, is named the Iguanodon, from its resemblance in many points of structure to the Iguana. En, ¥ REPTILES. 267 venomous and highly dangerous. Besides the depressed form of the body, they are eminently distinguished by having the feet palmated, or rather lobed and dilated into discs.” * In consequence of this peculiarity of structure they can ascend walls, and even run along ceilings. They lurk in crevices during the day, and come forth at night in pursuit of their insect food. Perhaps, however, there are no reptiles to which a greater degree of popular interest attaches than to the Chameleons (fig. 229). They are exclusively natives of the warm parts Fig. 229.—CHaMe.eon, of the Old World, and exhibit several structural peculiarities. Like other Lizards they have five toes; but they are divided into two parcels, and thus adapted for climbing. The tail also serves as an instrument for prehension. The eyes have such independent powers of motion that they can be turned in the most opposite directions at the same time. The tongue is of great length, and is terminated by an adhesive disc, which they dart out with unerring aim at their insect prey. We have watched for hours their sluggish and almost inanimate appearance, though even at such times they occasionally mani- fest the singular changes of colour for which they are so cele- brated. These, however, are not to the extent set forth in a well-known poetical composition, with which every school-boy is familiar ; but after all allowance for poetical exaggeration, the phenomenon is sufficiently curious to have been for a long time one that naturalists were unable to explain. It was re- served for Milne Edwards to solve the problem.+ He has shown that there exist, in the skin of these animals, two layers * Swainson on Fishes, Amphibia, and Reptiles. t Annales des Sciences Naturelles, January, 1834. 268 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. of membranous pigment, or colouring matter, so arranged that both may be visible at the same time ; or that the lower layer may appear in varying proportions amid the upper ; or that it may be altogether concealed beneath it. This mechan- ism is similar to that which exists in some of the Cuttle-fish, to whose changes of colour we have already referred (Part I., p- 190). The Lizards, which are regarded as the true types or repre- sentatives of the order, do not belong to any of the families yet mentioned, but to the Zacertide. These have long, slender, forked tongues, and are the attractive and nimble reptiles which greet the eye of the traveller in France and Italy. The family is not confined to Europe, some of its members are found in each of the four quarters of the globe. It is to this group that the two species of English Lizard be- long—Lacerta agilis and Zootoca vivipara. Between them a difference exists similar to that which has been mentioned in the two species of Snakes (p. 263). The larger Lizard (L. agilis) is oviparous; the smaller (Z. vivipara) brings forth her young alive: or, to speak more correctly, is ovo- viviparous. * Perhaps no one circumstance connected with their economy is more surprising, when seen for the first time, than the facility with which the tail separates from the body. Great is the astonishment of a person unacquainted with this peculiarity, when he grasps the tail and finds it remaining in his hand, while the swift-running reptile effects its escape. The following characteristic occurrence is narrated by Dr. J. L. Drummond :—* Being on the sea shore at Pulo Bay, in Sardinia, and searching for specimens of natural history, I observed a large Lizard running for shelter under a heap of stones. I was just in time to seize it by the end of the tail ; but suddenly the resistance made by the animal to my attempt to drag it from its hiding place ceased, and I gave it up for lost; but as suddenly had cause for alarm myself, on seeing what appeared to be a smal] Snake leaping with great agility about my feet, and springing as high as my knee. I instantly started out of its way, and watched it at a respectful distance, when I found that it was the tail of the animal, which I was not before aware could so easily separate.” + * The meaning of this term has been already explained, vide p. 263. 7 ‘First Steps to Anatomy,’’ p. 86. REPTILES. 269 As these animals come forth in sunny weather, decked in bright colours, and gifted with the power of rapid movement, it is not strange that, in more southern countries, where they are more numerous than here, they should be mentioned among the peculiarities and attractions of the scenery. “The green hills Are clothed with early blossoms, through the grass The quick-eyed lizard rustles, and the bills Of summer-birds sing welcome as ye pass.” CuILDE HARo_D, canto iv. st. exvii. ——_ From the most popular of the order, we turn to the most formidable, the Crocodiles. Of these, “the Alligators or Caymans are peculiar to America, the true Crocodiles to Africa, and the Gavials to Asia.”* The Crocodile of the Nile formed one of the innumerable idols of the ancient Egyptians. His great strength is almost proverbial. ‘He esteemeth iron as straw, and brass as rotten wood. The arrow cannot make him flee; sling-stones are turned with him into stubble. Darts are counted as stubble; he laugheth at the shaking of a spear.”"t Yet this formidable reptile is endued with habits which render him one of the great benefactors of the human race. “In the grand policy of nature, the scavengers are by no means the least important agents. In hot climates especially, where putrefaction advances with so much rapidity, were there not efficient and active officers continually employed in speedily removing all dead carecases and carrion, the air would be perpetually contaminated with pestilential effluvia, and entire regions rendered uninhabitable by the accumulation of putre- fying flesh. Perhaps, however, no localities could be pointed out more obnoxious to such a frightful cause of pestilence than the banks of tropical rivers—those gigantic streams which, pouring their waters from realm to realm, daily roll down towards the sea the bloated remains of thousand of creatures which taint the atmosphere by their decomposition.’ t Such are precisely the situations inhabited by the various species of Crocodiles and Alligators. They are specially de- * Berghaiis’s Physical Atlas. By several naturalists the Crocodiles are formed into a distinct order, termed, from their peculiar covering, Loricata, or mailed. ¢ Job xli. 27-29. t Jones's Outline, 559. 270 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. signed by nature to feed upon putrefying materials, and so strong is this impulse, that when they drown a living animal, it is said not to be devoured immediately, but dragged into some place where it can be kept until decay has set in.* But though, like other gourmands, the Crocodile keeps his game until it has acquired the racy flavour and tenderness of muscle which come with decay, the organ of taste, the tongue, has not the usual freedom of motion; it is flat and fleshy, and is attached to the mouth so much that the ancients supposed it was altogether wanting. We can account, therefore, for their idea respecting the tongue, but there were other notions current respecting the reptiles which cannot be so easily explained; such as their uttering piteous cries to allure travellers to the water, and there destroying them, weeping while they did so. To this tradition Shakspeare alludes in the passage— —_—-_-—-— “Gloster’s show Beguiles him, as the mournful Crocodile With sorrow snares relenting passengers.” Second Part Kine Henry VI., Act iii. scene 1. In the “ Voiage and Travaile of Sir John Maundeville, Knt.,” between the years 1322 and 1356, we are furnished with an- other example of the prevalence of these old errors :— “Tn that contre and be all yonde, ben great plenty of Cro- kodilles, that is a manner of a long Serpent, as I have seyd before. These Serpents slew men, and thei eaten hem wepynge; and whan thei eaten, thei meven the over jowe, and nought the nether jowe: and thei have no tonge.”’ The Crocodile sometimes attains the length of thirty feet, but Mr. Swainson remarks, “that it is only dangtrous when in the water; upon land it is a slow-paced and even timid animal, so that an active boy, armed with a small hatchet, might eusily despatch one.’ He elsewhere adds, that on land, “so far from attacking man, they fly from his presence.” The beneficent provision by which the teeth are kept at all times in full order for their appointed functions, is not less complete or effectual than in the Shark (p. 226) or the Serpent (p. 261): a successive series of new teeth is ever growing throughout the entire period of life; each grows through the central portion of its predecessor, which is partly * Swainson. REPTILES. 271 absorbed and finally thrown off. It was supposed by one writer that the Crocodile had so many teeth as there are days in the year. Professor Owen* remarks that the number of teeth developed by a Crocodile, throughout its entire life, would doubtless exceed even this liberal allowance. But with regard to those which are in use at any given time, the number is now well ascertained: the Crocodile of the Nile has sixty-eight; the common Alligator (A. lucius), seventy-six ; and the great Gavial (Gavialus Gangeticus), one hundred and eighteen. This notice of saurian reptiles, however slight, cannot be closed without some reference to the strange forms and gigantic proportions of the fossil species discovered in these countries. Fig. 230.—IcuHTHyosauRus. One of them, the Jchthyosaurus (Fig. 230), or Fish-lizard, received that name from some resemblance of the vertebrae to those of fishes. Seven or eight species are now known, ex- hibiting singular combinations of structure, such as are no longer found united in any living animal. Some of these individuals were not less than thirty feet in length. They were marine reptiles, preying upon fishes, whose scales and bones, found in hardened masses in the interior of the skele- tons, and strewed elsewhere in great abundance, unfold a tale respecting the former inhabitants of the ancient ocean from which these islands were upheaved. Fig. 231.—PLESIOSAURUS. Another genus is that of the Plesiosaurust (Fig. 281). “To the head of a Lizard is united the teeth of a Crocodile ; * Odontography, p. 286. { From two Greek words, meaning “near to”’ and a ‘ Lizard.” 272 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. a neck of enormous length, resembling the body of a Serpent; a trunk and tail having the proportions of an ordinary quad- ruped; the ribs of a Chameleon, and the paddles of a Whale.’’* The Plesiosauri appear to have lived in shallow seas and estuaries, and to have breathed air like the Ichthyosauri, or like the Whale and the Porpoise. The most remarkable character is the extraordinary extension of the neck, to a length nearly equalling that of the body and tail together, and surpassing, in the number of its vertebre (thirty-three), that of the Swan. It is supposed to have “swum upon or near the surface, arching back its long neck like the Swan, and occasionally darting it down at the fish which happened to float within its reach.” The Pterodactylest (Fig. 232) constitute another genus. ~ st \ . ‘. ‘ Fa Fig. 232.—PTERODACTYLE. About eight species are now known, the size varying from that of a Snipe to that of a Cormorant. They were consi- dered by Cuvier the most extraordinary of all the extinct animals that had fallen under his observation ; and such as, if we saw them restored to life, would appear most unlike to anything that exists in the present world. These flying reptiles resembled, in some degree, our modern * Dr. Buckland’s Bridgewater Treatise. We use the words of that elo- quent writer, so far as our limited space will permit. t From two Greek words, signifying ‘‘wing-fingered,” some of the finger-joints being of such a length as to have served as the supports for a membranous wing. ‘The dotted lines in the figure (232) indicate the sup- posed outline of this wing, and of the skin of other parts of the body. REPTILES. 273 Bats. Most of them had the nose elongated, like the snout of a Crocodile, and the mouth armed with conical teeth. Fingers, furnished with long hooks, gave them the means of climbing trees, or hanging in the manner of the Bat and the Vampire. The eyes were of enormous size, apparently as a provision for nocturnal flight. From the remains of insects found with the bones of Pterodactyles near Oxford, some confirmation of the conjecture is derived, that their food was insects ; but the larger species of Pterodactyle had head and teeth so much larger and stronger than such prey required, that they may possibly have fed on fishes, darting down upon them from the air. It is probable, therefore, they possessed the power of swimming; and thus qualified for all services and all elements, they realized Milton’s description :— ——_____——‘ The fiend O’er bog or steep, through straight, rough, dense, or rare, With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way, And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies.” ParapisE Lost, Book ii. line 947. OrvER 1V.—TESTUDINATA.*—TORTOISES. “ And in his needy shop a Tortoise hung, An Alligator stuffed, and other skins Of ill-shaped fishes,’—SHAKSPEARE. Ler it not excite surprise that, in the passage just quoted, the word “fishes” should be applied to reptiles. It is still used by the uneducated in speaking of warm-blooded mammalia, which, like the Whale, live in the sea. And let us not look with scorn upon those fallacies; for ever, as our own know- ledge increases, we should become more sensible of its limited extent, and more indulgent towards the errors of others. Tortoises are distinguished from all other reptiles by having * Latin Testudo, a Tortoise. The Greek chelys signifies a Water Tortoise; the term chelonian reptiles, which is hence derived, is applied both to land and to water species. 274 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. the body enclosed between two shields, with apertures for the head, the tail, and the four legs. The jaws are horny and without teeth. If we look upon one of the common Land Tortoises, slowly pacing along, and clad in its unyielding armour, we are in- clined to ask, “ Why should it be called a vertebrate animal ? Where are the vertebre and the ribs ?” If we examine the under side of the shield that covers the back of the animal (Jig. 233), the question may with ease be answered. The structure of that shield—or, as it is termed, the carapace—reveals the vertebre and ribs, but Fig. 233.—SKELETON OF TORTOISE.* * Fig. 233.—SkeLeTON oF Lanp Tortoise with the plastron or lower shell re- moyed.—ve, cervical yertebre; dv, dorsal vertebrae; 7, ribs; s7, sternal ribs, or mar- ginal pieces of the carapace; 0, scapula; c/, clavicle; co, coracoid bone; p, pelvis; ¥, femur; ¢, tibia; 7, fibula. REPTILES. 275 strangely altered. The vertebre have become immovable, and the ribs so widened as to touch each other throughout their entire length. Still the anatomist can trace, under these and other modifications of structure, the parts with which he is familiar in other animals. In the lower shell, or plastron (Fig. 236), he can, in like manner, recognize tae breast-bone (sternum), modified in its structure, so as to form a large oval plate. The number of species at present known is sixty-nine ; and these, arranged according to their habits, may be conveniently spoken of as— Land Tortoises, of which there are 15 species. Freshwater Tortoises ............. re Oe. The animals of this order are, more than any other reptiles, limited to the warmer portions of the globe; yet three of the marine species, having at different times been borne by the waves and currents to different parts of the shores of these countries, are, according to established custom, entitled to rank with our indigenous animals. Among the species thus added to our -Fauna is the Hawk’s-bill Turtle* ((Chelo- nia imbricata, Fig. 234). The one best known to epi- cures is the Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas); but the former species is that which supplies the valuable Tor- toise-shell of commerce, and to it our observations must be restricted. “The structure of the whole family is admirably adapted to their marine habits. The body is flattened Fig 234.—Hawk's-BiLe TURTLE. so as greatly to facilitate their progress through the water; the feet are formed into the most perfect oars, by means of which they are propelled * The other two species are the Coriaceous Turtle—Splhangis coriacea and Chelonia caouana. T 276 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. with considerable force and velocity.”* “The Green and Hawk-billed in particular,’ says Audubon, “remind you, by their celerity, and the ease of their motions, of the progress of a bird in the air.”” They feed on sea-weeds, fishes, mol- lusea, and crustacea. The jaws are strong and firmly arti- culated; the horny beak, which bears some resemblance to the bill of a Hawk, is very hard, and the edge sharp. The annual resort of the various species of marine Turtles to the land, for the purpose of depositing their eggs, is one of the most interesting points of their history. On the island of Ascension, on the shores of the Gulf of Florida, and in many other places, innumerable multitudes arrive for this purpose during the early part of the summer. The eggs, amounting to one hundred and fifty or two hundred, are laid in a hole seraped on the beach, they are then covered with sand; and the Turtle, having accomplished the object of her mission, retreats with all speed to the water. As the flesh of this species is not considered very palatable, the Tortoise is pursued and captured solely for the value of its shell. It is taken on the west coast of New Guinea, at Cuba, and at various other localities; but the Tortoise-shell which comes from the Pacific Ocean is considered much more valu- able than that of the Atlantic. The River Tortoises (Trionycide) are exclusively carnivo- rous, and eat their food in the water. They are without scales, and are hence called “soft Tortoises.” In the Ganges they are very numerous, and prey like the Gavials on the bodies of the natives floating down the stream.{ The feet are webbed. The Marsh Tortoises (EZmyde@) are found about lakes, ponds, and small rivers, and swim with considerable * Bell’s British Reptiles, p. 2. + The description given by the poet is too appropriate to be omitted :— “The pregnant Turtle, stealing out at eve, With anxious eye and trembling heart, explored The loneliest coves, and in the loose warm sand Deposited her eggs, which the sun hatched ; Hence the young brood, that never knew a parent, Unburrowed, and by instinct sought the sea; Nature herself, with her owa gentle hand, Dropping them, one by one, into the flood, And laughing to behold their antic joy, When launched in their maternal element.” { Swainson, p. 116. Monreomery’s “ Prttcan Isuanp ” REPTILES. 277 facility. In them also the feet are webbed. The food con- sists of Fishes, Amphibia, Insects, Mollusca, and carrion. Some which inhabit the waters of Carolina and South America are called Alligator Tortoises, and are remarkable for their activity and for the great strength of their jaws. The Land Tortoises (Yestudinide) are entirely herbivorous ; the feet are blunt, and furnished with short claws. The species best known in this country is the Testudo Greeca (Figs. 235, 236). When at liberty, it buries itself towards LAND TORTOISE. 235.—Upper Surface, 236.—Lower Surface. the beginning of winter, and remains in its dormitory until spring The great longevity of these creatures seems to be one of the most remarkable circumstances in their history. One is recorded as living at Peterborough whose age must have been about 220 years. “Bishop Marsh’s predecessor in the see of Peterborough had remembered it about sixty years, and could recognize no visible change. He was the seventh bisho who had worn the mitre during its sojourn there.”’* The weight of this animal was 134 Ibs. yet it moved with apparent ease, though pressed by a w eight of eighteen stone. Mr. Darwin mentions the creat abundance of Tortoises in all the Islands of the Galapagos Archipelago. These creatures sometimes grow to an immense size; he had been told of some so large that six or eight men were "required to lift them from * Extracted from Murray’s “Experimental Researches,” as quoted in a foot-note to Sir William Jardine’s edition of * White’s Selborne.”’ 278 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. the ground. They are fond of water, travel great distances for it to springs on the elevated grounds, and drink large quantities. From this circumstance it occasionally happens that the inhabitants of the lower district, when overcome with thirst, will kill a Tortoise for the sake of the contained water. “They believe,’ says Mr. Darwin, “ that these animals are absolutely deaf; certainly they do not hear a person walking close behind them. I was always amused, when overtaking one of these great monsters as it was quietly pacing along, to see how suddenly, the instant I passed, it would draw in its head and legs, and, uttering a deep hiss, fall to the ground with a heavy sound, as if struck dead. I frequently got on their backs, and then, upon giving a few raps on the hinder part of the shell, they would rise up and walk away; but I found it very difficult to keep my balance.”’* Were we to give full credence to the authority of Pliny, we could not doubt, notwithstanding what has just been mentioned, that Tortoises have sadly dwindled from their former amplitude; for he expressly informs us, “there be found Tortoises in the Indian Sea, so great, that only one shele of them is sufficient for the roufe of a dwelling-house.’’+ Exaggerated as this statement may appear, if applied to existing species, it is literally true respecting some which lived in remoter periods—another instance of how the light of Fiction “pales her ineffectual fire’ before the brightness of Truth. The fact to which we advert may be briefly told. In the north of India, and from the Sewalik Hills, which from a lower chain of the Himalaya Mountains, great numbers of the fossil remains of vertebrate animals were discovered by Dr. Falconer and Major Cautley. Among these were numerous fragments of a gigantic fossil Tortoise, which after their arrival in London were exhibited at a meeting of the Zoological Society, { and are now in the British Museum. From the relative size of the bones, and portions of the shell of this extinct reptile, as compared with the corresponding parts of recent species, it was estimated that the lower shell (plastron) had been nine feet four inches long, and the upper shell or buckler (carapace) twelve feet three inches; eight feet in * Journal, p. 464. The species spoken of is the Testudo Indicus. ¢ Pliny’s Natural History. London, 1634, Vol. ii. p. 431. } Vide Proceedings, 26th March, and 14th May, 1844. REPTILES. 279 diameter, and six feet in height. The foot of the animal when living must have equalled in size that of the largest Rhinoceros. The entire length of the Tortoise, from the most careful admeasurement, was inferred to have been about eighteen feet, and its height more than seven. These remains were collected during a period of eight or nine years, along a range of eighty miles of hilly country. From the circumstances under which they were met with, in crushed fragments, contained in elevated strata which have undergone considerable disturbance, no perfect “shell,” nor anything approaching to a complete skeleton, was found. In 1835, when the first of these fossil remains were discovered, there was no record of any colossal reptiles of this order; and it became a question, “'To what animal could these enormous bones have belonged?” Vain, for a long time, was all research and all conjecture; the problem was still unsolved, and the interest attached to its solution continued daily to increase. At length a small Land Tortoise furnished to the investigators the data for its solution. One of its diminutive leg bones resembled in form one of the immense fossils. And, as in the “Castle of Otranto” the helmet which filled the court-yard, the gigantic foot, the colossal hand, and the sword which required a hundred men to carry it, were all associated together; so, when the creature which had borne this pon- derous fossil had been discovered, the mystery was revealed, and no difficulty was felt. in assigning to every other bone its proper place.* ‘The researches of geologists have shown that several species of both Land and Freshwater Tortoises lived, in former times, in these countries ; and the remains of the marine species dis- covered have been so numerous as to prove that our own seas were at one period more abundantly provided with Turtles, of different kinds, “than the sathe extent of ocean in any of the warmer parts of the earth at the present day.” t Having presented the Tortoise to our readers under so many * The name bestowed on this fossil Tortoise was Colossochelys Atlas: the first term—literally, ‘‘ Colossal Tortoise’’—having reference to its size; the second to an Indian tradition, of the world having been placed on the back of an elephant, which was sustained on a huge tortoise; the creature thus performing the duty of Atlas, who, according to classic fable, supported the world on his shoulders. ft Professor Owen, in a paper read before the Geological Society, 1841 280 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. different aspects, we cannot conclude better than by exhibiting his behaviour when in love! The words are those of Professor Edward Forbes :— ‘ “ Among Lycian reptiles the Tortoise is the most conspi- cuous and abundant. The number of these animals straying about the plains, and browsing on the fresh herbage in spring, astonishes the traveller. In April they commence love-making. Before we were aware of the cause, we were often surprised, when wandering among ruins and waste places, at hearing a noise as if some invisible geologist was busily occupied close by, trimming his specimens. A search in the direction of the noise discovered the hammer in the shape of a gentleman tor- toise, who, not being gifted with vocal powers, endeavoured to express the warmth of his affection to his lady-love by rattling his shell against her side.”’* * Travels in Lycia, by Lieut. Spratt, R.N., and Professor Edward Forbes, vol. ii. p. 67. The species were Testudo Greca and marginata. 281 CLASS III. AVES.—BIRDS. ‘“‘ Birds, the free tenants of land, air, and ocean— Their forms all symmetry, their motions grace.” JAMES MONTGOMERY. WE have arrived at a new region, of a character altogether different from any that we have hitherto traversed. At other times, on crossing the line of boundary, we found the aspect of the country unchanged, and the inhabitants nearest to the frontier so like those from whom we had just parted, that at first sight they seemed members of the same fraternity. But such is not the case here; the cold-blooded reptiles can never be mistaken for the warm-blooded birds. We have reached a new land; we have come among a strange people. Let us observe their ways, and ask how they have been described by those who have made them an especial object of study. Birds are oviparous animals; in other words, they are pro- duced from eggs. They breathe by lungs, have warm blood, and a heart with four cavities—namely, two auricles and two ventricles. The body is covered with feathers, and is fur- nished with two wings and two feet. Connected with this higher organization, we see in birds the power of flight in its fullest development. This alone would separate them from any other class of vertebrate animals. It is displayed in their long migrations, in the rapidity of their course, and in the force with which the Eagle, “towering in his pride of place,’ swoops upon his quarry. This power of flight is, of itself, a singular and interesting subject, connected with the feathered tribes. It is one of those wonders which may be viewed every day, would we but open our eyes to see and our minds to-consider them. Let us, for a few moments, endeavour to divest ourselves of our familiarity with the phenomenon. “Let us,” to use the words of the Bishop of Norwich,* “suppose a person to * Familiar History of Birds, vol. i. Introduction, p. 3. 282 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. have grown from infancy to manhood, without ever having heard of a bird. He sees that the light snow-flake is unable to remain suspended in the air; that the still lighter thistle- down, when no longer supported by the breeze, has a tendency to fall to the ground; and yet he is told that there are tenants of the air, countless as those of earth and water; that some, of considerable size and weight, can journey on their way above the clouds, and with a facility and speed far exceeding that of the swiftest-footed animal. He may, indeed, from observing that cork and light bodies, when plunged in water, rise to the surface, conceive the possible existence of a lighter substance than air, capable, by the same laws of nature, of rising above the earth ; if a philosopher, he may even discover the inflammable and lighter gas by which a balloon ascends, with the weight of a man attached; but how shall he lift a substance heavier than the air—and how guide its progress through the air? Show him the weighty body of an Eagle or a Swan ;* tell him their living history, and he may reason- ably doubt your fact, and deny that these things could be.” To understand the nature of the mechanism by which flight is effected, let us attend, in the first instance, to the structure of the skeleton of birds; and next, to the peculiarities con- nected with their respiration. Skeleton.—The neck of birds is, in general, longer and more moveable than that of quadrupeds. As it is by means of the beak that their food is picked up from the earth, the neck, or cervical part of the vertebral column, is longer in pro- portion as the bird is more elevated by the length of its legs. In swimming birds, which, like the Swan, plunge their head into the water to take their prey, the length of the neck sur- passes that of the trunk. The number of vertebre differs much, according to the different species of birds. It is com- monly twelve or fifteen; but in the Sparrow it is only nine, while in the Swan it reaches the extraordinary number of twenty-three. It is to this bountiful provision that this bird owes much of its grace and elegance: and this characteristic feature is therefore justly noticed by the poet :— “ The Swan, with arched neck Between her white wings, mantling proudly, rows Her state with oary feet.’,—Parapisge Lost, Book vii. * The Wild Swan weighs about 25 Ibs. BIRDS. 283 The joints of the neck are not only numerous, but are made to work on each other with great ease and freedom, and are furnished with numerous projections, to which the muscles are attached. Some of these are shown in the annexed figure (Fig. 237). Fig. 237.—SKELETON OF THE OSTRICH. For the vertebrae of the back a different arrangement is required ; strength, not flexibility, is the object; and, accord- ingly, in most birds they are united together, and are consequently immovable. They thus serve not merely as supports for the ribs, but have the solidity which is needful to furnish points of support for the wings also. So beautifully, however, are those structures modified, that in birds which do not fly, the consolidation of the joints of the back-bone does not take place, and some degree of movement is thereby secured. 284 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. This is exemplified in the Ostrich (Figs. 237, 249), and in the Cassowary (Jig. 238). Fig. 238.—CassowaRy. Another peculiarity prevails in the birds just mentioned. The breast-bone (sternum, Fig. 239) never presents the pro- Fig. 239,—SrTERNUM, OR BREAST-BONE.* jecting ridge, or keel, which we notice on the birds used as food in these countries. This keel serves an impor- tant office, as it increases the power of action in the muscles by which the wing is moved. It is large in proportion to the power of | flight; but in birds which cannot possibly fly, and have only the rudiments of wings, the keel is altogether want- ing. * s, sternum; sc, scapula; f, clavicle; &, keel; c, coracoid; 7, sternal ribs. — BIRDS. 285 On each side of the well-known bone which is called the “merry-thought”’ (/urculum), is one of a less symmetrical form, one extremity being thin and flat, while the other is spread out into a stronger and broader shape. If these bones be examined with reference to their uses in the framework of the bird, we find that the thinner side of the last mentioned is, in fact, one bone,* the broader side another bone,t constituting the great support of the shoulder ; and that the “ merry-thought”’ is com- posed of two joined together,t forming a figure like that of the letter V, the whole being so many buttresses to keep the shoulder joint firm and steady. It may not be uninteresting to contrast the skeleton of the strich (Fig. 237) with that of the Vulture (Jig. 240), and to Fig. 240.—SKELETON OF THE VULTURE.$ observe the difference they exhibit in the bones of the wing, and several other particulars. : The bones of birds are not, however, remarkable only for their form or arrangement, but also for a peculiarity of struc- * The Scapula. t The Coracoid. t The Clavicles. § vc, cervical vertebra; vs, sacral vertebra; vg, caudal vertebre; s¢, sternum; cl, clavicles; h, humerus; 0, bones of the fore-arm ; ca, carpus; ph, phalanges; 7, femur ; t, tibia; ¢a, tarsus. 286 . INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. ture by which great lightness is combined with strength, and the hollows of the bones in the adult birds are filled not with marrow, but with air. This remark is inapplicable to aquatic birds like the Penguin, which are unable to fly, but refers to those which, like the ‘Eagle or the Swift, have the power of flight in its full development. In them, the bones, even to the extremities of the body, can, at the pleasure of the bird, be filled with air, the buoyancy of which is increased by the high temperature of the interior of the body. Thus we observe the opposite qualities of great strength and great lightness so admirably combined, that the greatest architects or engineers would here find their utmost skill surpassed, and learn how imperfect is human mechanism, compared with that evinced in the structure of every individual of those countless myriads by which the air is traversed. Temperature.—The circulation of the blood in birds need not here be dwelt upon; its leading features are shown in the accompanying figure (Fig. 241); but it is worthy of remark, that the temperature of their bodies is, in some instances, several degrees higher than that of man. The blood heat of the human body is 98, and a thermometer held in the hand will not reach to within two or three degrees of that tempera- ture ; but, placed under the wings of different birds, it will rise to upwards of 100, and sometimes even to 110. This great amount of internal warmth gives to birds a power of enduring cold which, to our ideas seems incompatible with their habits. As an instance of this, we may mention that, on the bleak shores of Terra del Fuego, Humming-birds were seen during a snow-shower, hovering over the expanded blossoms of a Fuchsia.* What a strange sight! The Humming-birds and the snow—the representatives of the Tropic and the Arctic regions—united in the same picture. Respiration.—The lungs of birds (Fig. 242) do not fill the cavity of the chest; they adhere to the ribs and have many openings through which tubes pass, conveying the air to the numerous air-cells distributed throughout the body. By means of this apparatus every part of the body can be inflated, the bones themselves rendered buoyant, and air propelled even into * T owe the knowledge of this fact to the kindness of my valued friend, Captain Thomas Graves, R.N., H.M.S. Volage, who at the time was one of the officers in the expedition under command of Captain King, in whose ‘* Voyages” it is also recorded. BIRDS. 287 the quills of the feathers. In the case of a wounded Heron, respiration was carried on for an entire day through a broken portion of the wing-bone.* Covering.—Feathers, the peculiar and appropriate vesture of birds, present every variety of texture and of tint that the eye could desire, and far more than the imagination could Lingual artery. Trachea. External carotid artery. Subclavian artery. Mammary Aorta. : artery. Renal artery. Ischiatic artery. Femoral artery. Sacral artery. Fig. 241.—ARTeRIAL System oF A Birp. conceive. We see them in the Eagle compact and firm, in the Ostrich loose and curling, in the Penguin reduced to rudi- * Linnean Transactions, vol. xi. p. 11. 288 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. ments, resembling the scale-like covering of a fish, rather than =, that of a bird. The poet, in his description of their plumage, has in no way “o’erstepped the modesty of nature : ’’— “Tn plumage delicate and beautiful, Thick without burthen, close as fishes’ scales, Or loose as full-blown poppies to the breeze ; With wings that might have had a soul within them, They bore their owners by such sweet enchantment.” Monreomery’s *' PELICAN IsLaND Fig. 242._Lunes or a Brrp.* By man, in a rude state of society, feathers were used for trimming his arrows, for decorating his person, and on all occasions of unusual ceremony and state. At present, they are no less valued. Wanting them, the most splendid pageants would lose much of their effect, and “the plumed troop’’ be shorn of a grace which no other part of its panoply could supply. We must at present consider feathers rather in relation to the birds themselves than to the purposes of use or ornament to which they are applied by man. One obvious advantage to the birds is that of maintaining the warmth of their bodies, or that of their eggs at the time of incubation. All their uses, however, we can but faintly imagine; we know not in «7, trachea; p, pulmonary vessels; 0, one of the orifices of the bronchial tubes. The lung v, at the left hand side of the figure, is shown in its natural state; that on the other side is represented as partly laid open, so as to exhibit the bronchial tubes bb’, by which its substance is traversed. | BIRDS. 289 how many ways their difference of structure and of colour may cause them to be acted on by the absorption or radiation of heat, the action of light, or of electricity. Viewed merely as a covering for the body, we find in aquatic birds a wise provision to convert them into efficient non-conductors of heat, by rendering them impervious to the water. Certain glands, situated near the tail, secrete an oily matter, which is spread by the bird over its feathers, and constantly renewed. By this means the plumage remains unwet, even in the water and the stratum of air between the body of the bird and the surface of the feathers being a bad conductor of heat, the vital warmth of the body is not dissipated. Limiting our con- sideration to another of their most obvious uses, let us view them as portions of the wings. The feathers of the wing are named according to the part from which they have their origin, and the bones are re- garded as representing those of the fore-leg of quadrupeds, or the arm of man. Those feathers that grow on the t . part which corresponds to Fig. 243.—WN@ oF Faicox.* our hand are called the primaries (Fig. 243); those on what may be called the fore-arm the secondaries; and those on the part analogous to that between our elbow and our shoulder (humerus) are named the tertiaries. Every one has noticed the quickness with which the wings can be closed or expanded, and the compact space in which they are shut up when not in use; but, regarded merely as a piece of mechanism, their perfection is, perhaps, still better evidenced by the number of hours during which they can eon- tinue in active operation, without fatigue to the bird by whose exertions they are moved. The Swallow forms a good and familiar illustration of this remark. During the time this bird is employed in building its nest, or catering for its young, its activity is ceaseless, and is interrupted only by the brief in- tervals of rest attendant on the delivery of the material or of the food. Perhaps the most striking illustration of long-sustained powers of flight is afforded by the Frigate or Man-of-war- ® p, primaries; s, secondaries; ¢, tertiaries. 290 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. bird (Fig. 244), which abounds both in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The extent of wing is, probably nine or ten feet, though twelve, and even fourteen feet have been stated. With these ample pinions it fearlessly wings its way over the n> Vitis ttttds Fig. 244.—FrigaTeé-Birp. ocean, and is frequently found leading a life of ceaseless rapine at a distance of more than a thousand miles from the nearest shore. Its support is derived exclusively from the sea, yet it is never known to rest upon its surface. ‘Supported in its unlimited flights by the strength and expansion of its wings, and aided by the singular mechanism of its tail, and the buoyant nature of the inflated sac which distends its throat, it seems to be an inhabitant of the air rather than of the land, where it resorts alone for the duties of its nest, or of the water, over which it only hovers for its prey.’’* When navigators give us detailed accounts of the habits of a bird which even the naturalist describes as an inhabitant of the air rather than of the land or of the water, it is not surprising that the idea was at one time current, that in the sunny islands of the East there were birds whose lives were passed upon the wing, and to whom, as they never perched, feet would have been unnecessary appendages. We allude, of course, to the Birds of Paradise, more fully noticed hereafter. * Vigorsin Linn, Trans., vol. xiv. p. 419. BIRDS, * 291 The elaborate provision made for the buoyancy of birds is so remarkable a characteristic of their structure, that we shall bring forward another example of its perfection in the Gannet or Solan Goose (Sula bassana, Fig. 245), of our own shores. Fig. 245.—GaAnnert. This bird is very abundant in Norway and in the Hebrides ; and, farther south, the Craig of Ailsa, the island of St. Kilda, and the Bass Rock in the Firth of Forth, are favourite breeding-places. So great are their numbers that the inhabi- tants of St. Kilda, according to Martin, consume annually 22,000 young birds of this species as food, besides an immense quantity of the eggs.* In more remote localities, the birds are not less numerous. The Gannet, when searching for food, flies a short way above the suface of the water, and, on seeing a fish, rises into the air, and descends with such rapidity and force as to secure its prey. Some idea of the power of its descent may be formed from a cireumstance related by Pennant. One of these birds, flying over Penzance, saw some pilchards spread out upon a * Buchanan, in his View of the Fishery of Great Britain, conjectures that the Gannets of St. Kilda destroy, annually, one hundred and five millions of herrings. In Sir Walter Scott’s ‘‘ Antiquary,” this bird is mentioned as “tHe relishing Solan Goose, whose smell is so powerful that he is never cooked within doors.” The figure of this bird (/%g. 245), and that of the Diver (Fig. 281), are copied from Yarrell. U 292 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. fir plank about an inch and a-half thick, and which was used in the curing of the fish, and darted down with such violence that it struck its bill quite through the board, and broke its neck. Pennant adds, that these birds are sometimes taken at sea by a similar deception, a fish being fastened for the purpose to a floating plank. But perhaps a juster estimate of the impetus of the descent may be formed from the depth to which it propels the bird in the water. Respecting this we possess the means of accurate information ; for Gannets are not unfrequently found entangled in fishing-nets, and the depth at which these nets are fixed is ascertained. Thus, at Ballintrae, on the west coast of Scot- land, and not remote from the Craig of Ailsa (which has been mentioned as one of their haunts), the Gannets are not un- frequently taken in nets sunk to the depth of from nine to twenty fathoms, and sometimes to that of thirty fathoms.* On one occasion, so many as 128 of these birds were thus captured at one time, and in their struggles brought the nets with their sinkers and fish to the surface. The Gannet swims high in the water, buoyant as the foam which crests the wave on which it rides. Its flight and its swimming evince its extreme lightness; its force of descent no less establishes its possession of a certain degree of density. How are these opposite qualities united in the same individual? On this point we are not left to conjectures, but can appeal to facts which anatomists have made known from a careful exami- nation of its structure. Thus, a Gannet which died in the Zoological Gardens of London was examined by Professor Owen, chiefly with reference to the air-cells, which, in this bird, as in the Pelican, have a most extensive distribution. By means of a gentle but continued inflation through the wind- pipe, the integuments of the whole of the lateral and inferior parts of the body rose, and the air-cells seemed completely filled, especially that which is situated in front of the merry- thought. Further investigation showed that a free communi- cation existed among these, with the exception of that in front of the breast. This cell was found to be of a globular form, about four inches in diameter, and communicating directly with — the lungs themselves. Numerous strips of muscular fibre * A fathom is six feet. The facts are recorded by Mr. Wm. Thompson, Magazine of Natural History, vol. ii. No. 13. { Proceedings of Zoological Society, 1831. BIRDS. 293 passed from various parts of the surface of the body, and were attached to the skin; and a beautiful fan-shaped muscle was also spread over the anterior surface of the large air-cell just mentioned. “The use of these muscles appeared to be to produce instantaneous expulsion of the air from these ex- ternal cells, and by thus increasing the specific gravity of the bird, to enable it to descend with the rapidity necessary to the capture of a living prey, while swimming near the surface of the water.” This is one of those beautiful adaptations of means to an end which Natural History records in every department. “'The descent of the Gannet on its prey has been, not inaptly, compared to that of an arrow, the beak of the bird forming the arrow head, and the body and wings the feathered shaft of the weapon—we here have the secret of its heavy fall; the same machinery restores the buoyancy at the proper moment, and the bird rises with its fish aloft.” Moulting—The plumage of birds is periodically renewed, and the process of this change of feathers is termed “ moult- ing.” The aspect of the bird, in many instances, changes, not only with age, but also with the season; the summer dress, as we shall have occasion to mention, is often very unlike that of the winter. The changes in the plumage of birds have been investigated with great care by Mr. Yarrell ; and, in the opin- ion of that able zoologist, the different appearance which it presents may be explained,— lst. By the feather itself becoming altered in colour ; 2nd. By the birds obtaining a certain addition of new fea- thers, without shedding any of the old ones ; 3rd. By an entire or partial moulting, at which old feathers are thrown off, and new ones produced in their places ; and, 4th. By the wearing off of the lengthened lighter-coloured tips of the barbs of the feathers on the body, by which the brighter tints of the plumage underneath are exposed. In spring, the change which takes place prior to the pairing season is to be attributed to the first two modes; and at that time, also, there is a partial moulting of old feathers—a laying aside, as it were, of a portion of the warm garments of winter. The entire moulting is that absolute change of feathers which takes place in autumn. 294 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. Digestive Organs.—If, quitting for a moment the considera- tion of the feathered tribes, we cast our eyes on those of the next and highest division of vertebrated animals, we find the mammalia subsisting on a great variety of food—on grasses, grain, fruit, seeds, and herbage—on insects, worms, and mol- lusca—on the flesh of various reptiles, fishes, birds, and on that of animals of their cwn class; and, if we examine the structure of their mouths, we find that they are furnished with teeth so especially adapted for the several varieties of food, that the habits of the animal can with certainty be predicted from a glance at these efficient organs. Had we never seen a bird, and were required to describe the structure necessary to enable a race of feathered, two-legged animals to subsist on the like variety of food, we would probably consider a supply of teeth, resembling those of the mammalia, but less in size, as the very first requisite. These teeth would require to be fixed in jaws of corresponding strength and weight, and these jaws to be worked by muscles of sufficient power—an arrangement inconsistent with the lightness which is absolutely essential. This problem we have supposed has already received its solu- tion. The organs we would have thought most needful are altogether omitted, and their functions are performed by an apparatus so unlike in structure, and yet so efficient in its working, that it declares, on the part of its Artificer, an amount of skill, of knowledge, and of power alike unlimited. The bill, being the instrument by which food is taken, first demands our examination. It is, externally, of a horny tex- ture, and exhibits great variety in its form, and no less in the uses to which it is subservient. In some tribes, it is simply an organ for prehension, used in picking up grains or worms. In others, it is employed to separate the seeds from the husks. In the Ibis (4%. 278), it is long and bent downwards; in the Avocet (Fig. 246), it is long, and curved upwards ; in the Snipe it is a probe; in the Swallow, a fly-trap; in the Duck, a shovel, and at the same time.a strainer ; by the parrot it is used as a help in climbing; by the Vulture (Fg. 255) as a carving knife for his gory feast. But, supposing the food to be procured, it is needful, in Fig. 246,--BILL OF AVOCET, BIRDS. 295 the next place, that there should be some convenient receptacle into which it can be instantaneously transferred, until wanted. In some birds, which, like the Swift, live upon insect prey, seized when on the wing, the upper part of the throat is so large as to answer for this purpose. In the Pelican, a peculiar pouch is attached to the lower jaw (ig. 247), and in this a goodly store of fish can be carried about. In the Cormorant, the gullet itself is dilated, so that it is not unusual, when the bird has got a fish too large to be swallowed at once, to see the tail hanging for a time out of its mouth. But the plan which is most usual, is that which may be exemplified in the digestive system of a common fowl (Fig. 248). The gullet, (esophagus) is suddenly expanded, forming a bag or chamber, known as a crop. Beneath this there is a slighter expan- sion, which forms the second or membranous stomach, in which the food is softened by the action of what is called the gastric juice. From this the food passes on to the third stomach, in which the process of digestion is com- pleted. In flesh-eating birds, this stomach is thin and mem- branous; but in those which feed on grain, the sides of it are of considerable thickness, and, being moved by powerful muscles, act as a mill in grinding down the food. Many who see the gizzard of a fowl at table know that it serves in the economy of the bird as a grinding machine ; but comparatively 296 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. few know that the gizzard is actually the stomach itself, which, thickened in its coats, performs the same office as the teeth of the graminivorous quadrupeds. Fig. 248.—D1GeEsTIVE APPARATUS OF A FOWL.+ The action of the gizzard is expedited by small pebbles and other hard substances swallowed by the fowl. In the Ostrich (Fig. 249), this instinctive action prevails to such an * e, esophagus; C, crop; v, ventriculus succenturiatus® g, gizzard; 7, liver; gb, gall-bladder; 6, bile-ducts; », pancreas; d, duodenum; c¢, ceca; s, smull intes- tine; L, large intestine: O, oviduct. BIRDS. 297 extent, that in the stomach of one were found pebbles sufficient to fill a large glass bottle; and as the Ostrich will swallow metals with equal readiness, ‘popular credulity, in former times, went so far as to assign to it the power of digesting these substances; and many are the allusions in the older writers to this supposed power of “ the iron-eating Ostrich.’’* Fig. 249.—APFRICAN OsTRICH. Senses.—The two senses which appear to be developed in the highest degree in birds are those of sight and of smell. The arrangements connected with the eye, regarded as an optical instrument, are, in all their details, replete with evi- dence of design. It has to perform a variety of functions, and demands a corresponding variety in the adjustment of its several parts. It must be fitted for vision at the altitudes to which birds of prey soar, and equally fitted for vision near at * Mr. Bennett, in ‘Gardens and Menageries,” quotes the following lines, as illustrative of the prevalence of the belief. The author is Skelton, a laurelled poet of the reign of Henry the Eighth :— “The Estridge that will eate In the steade of meat ; An horsehowe? so greate, Such fervent heat 1 Horse-shoe. His stomake doth freat.” 298 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. hand. It must be adapted for rays of light passing through media of very different densities, and of different degrees of transparency. Conditions have, therefore, to be fulfilled with regard to the eye of birds, which are not required in the best optical instrument of human construction; and, at the same time, it is needful that the focal distance, fitted for near or for distant vision, should be adjusted with a rapidity very different from the “rack and pinion” adjustments of our most skilful opticians. Details connected with this subject would here be out of place, and must be sought for in works of a less ele- mentary character.* One obvious peculiarity may, however, be mentioned: birds possess, not two, but three eyelids. The third, termed the nictitating membrane, lies in the inner angle of the eye when not in use. By the action of powerful muscles, it can in a moment be swept over the surface of the eye, and then by its own elasticity spring back to its former place. It is mem- branous, and somewhat transparent; and some authors who describe the Eagle as gazing on the sun, assert that he does so by means of the protection which this membrane affords.t Smell.—The sense of smell in birds has been subjected to various experiments, to ascertain the extent to which it exists ; and the development of the olfactory nerves in more than one species has been examined by Professor Owen.{ A Vulture, which formed the subject of one of his investigations, was the Turkey Buzzard (Vultur aura), a bird extremely abundant in Jamaica, where it is known by the familiar name of “John Crow.” It feeds on carrion, and its services are considered so valuable, that the killing of one within a certain distance of the principal towns is an offence punishable by fine. The notes of Professor Owen prove the existence in this Vulture of a well-developed organ of smell. The same fact is established by the observations of Mr. Sells. It is to be recollected that, in hot climates, the burial of the dead commonly takes place in about twenty-four hours after death, on account of the rapidity with which decomposition takes place. “On one * Jones’s ‘‘ Outline,’’ p. 609. Yarrell’s “ Birds,’’ 1st edition, vol. i. p. 11, 14, and 138. + The poet thus refers to the popular belief :— ‘‘ Nay, if thou be the princely Eagle’s bird, Show thy descent by gazing ’gainst the sun.” Kine Henry VI., Part iii. Act ii. scene 1. } Proceedings of Zoological Society, March, 1837. BIRDS, 299 occasion,’ says he, ‘‘I had to make a post-mortem exami- nation of a body within twenty-four hours after death, in a mill-house completely concealed; and while so engaged, the roof of the mill-house was thickly studded with these birds’’* (the Turkey Buzzards). On another, “the family had to send for necessaries for the funeral to Spanish Town, distant thirty miles, so that the interment could not take place until noon of the second day, or thirty-six hours after his decease; long before which time—and a most painful sight it was—the ridge of the shingled roof of his house, a large mansion of but one floor, had a number of these melancholy-looking heralds of death perched thereon, besides many more which had settled in the vicinity. In these cases, the birds must have been directed by smell alone, as sight was totally out of the question.” + The obtuseness of the sense of smell, in another species, seems to be no less clearly established. Mr. Darwin saw, at Valparaiso, between twenty and thirty Condors, which were kept in a garden there, and fed once each week. The Con- dors were tied, each by a rope, in a long row at the bottom of a wall; he was thus enabled to try the following experi- ment :—having folded up a piece of meat in white paper, he walked backwards and forwards, carrying it in his hand, at the distance of about three yards; but no notice whatever was taken. He then threw it on the ground, within one yard of an old cock bird, which looked at it for a moment with atten- tion, but then regarded it no more. Mr. Darwin pushed it closer and closer with a stick, until the Condor touched it with his beak; the paper was then instantly torn off with fury, and, at the same moment, every bird in the long row began struggling and flapping its wings. The controversy between some authors, as to whether Vultures are guided to the carrion on which they feed by the sense of sight or that of smell, is like the combat of the two knights, as to whether the statue bore a shield of gold or of silver. It was composed of both, And, in like manner, there seems no good reason for doubting that both senses are made * Penny Cyclopedia, article Turkey Buzzard. t Zoological Proceedings, March, 1837. The same evening on which Professor Owen's communication on the development of the olfactory nerves was read. ¢ Journal, p. 222. Voyage of the Adventure and Beagle. 300 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. to contribute to the welfare of the birds, by directing them to their prey. The far-sighted eye sees it from the clouds, and the characteristic flight of the Vulture, as it descends to the feast, reveals to its brethren the fact that a repast is spread for them; and from all quarters they hasten to participate. And, again, when near at hand, under the screen of cliffs, or the thick-tangled vegetation of tropical forests, the sense of smell reveals the hidden carcase, and tempts around it those who act an important part as agents for its removal. Different species may be supposed to possess these powers in varying degrees of perfection, so that each may most efficiently per- form its allotted duty. mY’ The Vultures are not the only birds by which the removal of decaying animal matter is carried on; it is shared by those be- ‘longing to other orders. Thus, in India, there is another whose services are no less valuable, and whose appearance is altogether different. It is a gigantic Crane, called the Adjutant (Jig. 250). This bird, and a species found in Senegal, furnish the valuable marabou feathers. It is called the Pouched Adjutant, from a bag or pouch on the middle of the neck, and which pouch has been likened by Cuvier to “a large sausage.” Its utility as a sca- venger is so great, that the bird is not only permitted to remain Fig. 250.—PoucuEp Apguranr. unmolested, but is held in great estimation, and, from superstitious feelings, even regarded with reverence. It is a voracious feeder, and gulps down its food whole. It has been known to swallow a leg of mutton, five or six pounds weight; and Sir Everard Home states, that in the stomach of one a Land Tortoise ten inches long, and a large black Cat, were found entire. Removal of Decaying Animal Matter.—We would wish here to call attention to the provision so abundantly made for BIRDS. 301 . the removal of putrefying substances, which would soon taint the atmosphere, and spread disease and death around. Many birds, besides those we have named, share in this labour, con- verting into nourishment that which would otherwise prove baneful. Among the mammiferous animals, we find some that prey upon the helpless and the dead; and thus the carni- vorous tribes, both of birds and quadrupeds, carry into effect the same beneficent provision. But they are not the sole, though they are the most powerful, workers ; there are others, ‘both on land and water, whose diminutive size is more than compensated by their countless numbers. Let us revert to some of the invertebrate animals, whose habits have been briefly noticed, and see how numerous are these labourers, how different their structure, yet how effectually they all work together. Even in the brief space to which we have been restricted, we have enumerated, as devourers of organized matter in a state of decay, Infusoria, Star-fishes, Earth- worms, Crustacea, Insects, Mollusca, Fishes, Crocodiles, and we now add Birds and Mammals. Lach individual acts for himself alone ; yet all unconsciously co-operate in carrying out one harmonious design. Without the ceaseless efforts of these heterogeneous labourers, the air, the rivers, and the seas would alike become loaded with impurities, and the earth would soon be converted into one great charnel-house. The wisdom by which a comprehensive scheme for preventing this result has been formed, and the providence by which it has been sustained, speak alike of Him by whom these animated tribes have been called into existence, and have been gifted with their several capacities. Migration—At the approach of winter, there are various birds which make their appearance pretty nearly at the same time each year, and leave us early in the spring. They have arrived from regions farther north, and have made our islands the southern limit of that periodical change of residence to which we give the term “ migration.’’ There are others whose appearance in spring we welcome, not only because of the beauty of their flight or their plumage, or the cheerfulness of their notes, but because we know from experience that these feathered visitants are the harbingers of brighter skies and renovated verdure. These lovely heralds of the spring stay with us during tne summer, and then wing their way to the south. The British Islands constitute the northern limit of — 802 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. their migration. It is now ascertained, that the greater number of these summer birds leave these kingdoms for the north and west of Africa,* whence they return annually, with such punctuality, that their appearance is looked for with confidence within a day or two of the particular time. These few simple facts are nearly all that we can be said to know with certainty on the mysterious subject of migration. It has been asserted that birds change their quarters because of inclement seasons, scarcity of food, and other evils, which are avoided by their change of residence. But if these sup- posed explanations be scrutinized, they will be found un- satisfactory. The truest philosophy is candidly to avow our ignorance of the subject, and to regard birds as acting under an impulse implanted in their constitution by the Creator. — Observation only corroborates, that “the Stork in the heavens knoweth her appointed times, and the Turtle, and the Crane, and the Swallow observe the time of their coming.” + Several observers have stated, that migratory birds, when in confinement, though plentifully supplied with food, show evident symptoms of restlessness when the period arrives at | which their fellows take their departure. So powerful is this migratory instinct, that birds will forsake their young and leave them to perish, rather than not accompany their com- panions. This proceeding, so contrary to all that we see of the devoted attachment of the parent birds to their offspring, was first observed by Mr. Blackwall, who statest that, in the spring of 1821, a pair of House-martins, after taking posses- sion of a nest which had been constructed in the preceding summer, drew out the dried bodies of three nearly full-fledged nestlings which had perished in it. About the same time, another pair of House-martins, being unable to dislodge the young, closed up the aperture with clay. This suggested * Several British species were observed, on their migration northward, by Mr. W. Thompson, when on his passage from Malta to the Morea, in H.M.S. Beacon, in April, 1841. Annals Nat. Hist., vol. viii. p. 125. + The lines of Pope are highly descriptive and appropriate :— ““ Who bid the Stork, Columbus-like, explore Heavens not his own, and worlds unknown before? Who calls the council, states the certain day, Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way ? God in the nature of each being sounds Its proper bliss, and sets the proper bounds.”’ t In his Researches in Zoology. BIRDS. 303 examination in future years, after the Martins and Swallows had taken their departure ; and, each time, several nests were found containing dead nestlings which had been abandoned by the parents. Upon these interesting facts Mr. Thompson remarks :—‘“In the instances above alluded to, the young broods and eggs were deserted late in the season, and I should suppose at the migratory period. The paramount object would then seem to be migration; and, when favourable weather and wind prevail, the love of offspring yields to the stronger impulse, and the parents take their departure. Had this favourable time been long enough protracted, they would have continued to tend their offspring, and bring them to maturity.’’* Affection for their Young.—The instances just mentioned are the exceptions to that ardent attachment to their young which birds evince. If danger threaten, the most timid becomes bold, and is ready to give battle to the assailant.t In the cold-blooded vertebrate animals, the mother, in most eases, is satisfied with depositing the spawn in a suitable situation, or the eggs in what seems a place of security. With this her care for the future progeny is ended, and she ex- periences nothing of the actual cares or pleasures of maternity. But the proceedings of birds, prior to the exclusion of the young from the egg, and afterwards in regard to the attention bestowed upon them, is in every respect so sedulous, so unceasing, and so replete with tenderness, that it is not in the power of language to convey a picture of affectionate solicitude beyond that which is employed in reference to their ordinary habits.| The exertions made by the parent birds to procure for their helpless young the supply of the requisite food, are so unceasing, and are carried on with such entire forgetfulness of self, as to excite the admiration even of the most incurious. When, therefore, the poet recounts the simple facts which * Annals of Natural History, vol. ix. p. 378. ——————"' The poor Wren, The most diminutive of birds, will fight, Her young ones in the nest, against the Owl.’’ SHAKSPEARE. $ The reader will recall to mind, as an example of this, the memorable words—“ O Jerusalem, Jerusalem! which killest the prophets, and stonest them that are sent unto thee: how often would I have gathered thy chil- dren together, as a hen doth gather her brood under her wings, and ye would not !’’—LukeE xiii. 34, 304 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. observation reveals, he wakens into activity some of our purest sympathies; nor can the naturalist present a picture more faithful than that which is arrayed in the garb of verse: the truth and the poetry are one. “ Some sought their food among the finny shoals, Swift darting from the clouds, emerging soon With slender captives glittering in their beaks ; These in recesses of steep crags constructed Their eyries inaccessible, and trained Their hardy brood to forage in all weathers. Others, more gorgeously apparelled, dwelt Among the woods, on Nature's dainties feeding — Herbs, seeds, or roots; or, ever on the wing, Pursuing insects through the boundless air ; In hollow trees or thickets these concealed Their exquisitely woven nests, where lay Their callow offspring, quiet as the down On their own breasts, till from her search the dam With laden bill returned, and shared the meal Among her clamorous supplicants all agape; Then, cowering o’er them with expanded wings, She felt how sweet it is to be a mother.” Monrcomery’s “‘ PELIcAN IsLAND.” Nests—We turn from the young birds to those singular habitations in which they are hatched. The smallest amount Fig. 251.—Nest Of GOLDFINCH. geniously concealed from view; or the neat of observation makes manifest to every one, the great diversity of their situa- tion, structure, and materials. As examples, we may mention theexposed nest of the Sky-lark, built upon the ground, com- pared with the globular edifice of the Wren, constructed in sheltered situa- tions, and in- and elaborately BIRDS. 305 finished nest of the Goldfinch (Fig. 251) contrasted with the coarser edifice of the Rook or the Magpie. But, regarded merely as a work of art, some of the nests from foreign countries appear more ingenious and more artisti- cal, though, of course not better adapted to the wants of their respective occupants. Thus the nests of the Baya, a bird of Hindostan, are formed of long grass woven together in the shape of a bottle (ig. 252), and suspended “to the extremity of a flexible branch, the more effectually to secure the eggs and young brood from serpents, monkeys, squirrels, and birds of prey. These nests contain several apartments, appropriated to different purposes.”’* The entrance is at the lower part, so that the parent birds reach it only when on the wing. Another species, called, with great justice the Tailor-bird (Sylvia sutoria), collects from the cotton-plant fibres of cotton, Fig. 252.—NeEsT oF THE Bara. Fig. 253.—NEsT OF THE TAILOR-Birp. g and with them sews two leaves together, the bill being used as aneedle. The nest is concealed in the space between the two leaves (Fig. 253). * Forbes’s Oriental Memoirs, vol. i. p. 48. 306 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. In the former part we mentioned (p. 137), that some Cater- pillars spin a snow-white canopy, and dwell together in social communities. Among birds we have an example of their united efforts being, in like manner, employed in the construc- tion of acommon covering. ‘This is observable in the Sociable Grosbeak (Lowxia socia), a species found about the Cape of Good Hope. These birds construct a roof of grass matted together ; and beneath the eaves of the shed thus formed by their joint labour, the individual nests are built (Fig. 254). Some idea of the size and solidity of these structures may be formed from the fact mentioned by Vaillant,* that having observed one of enormous size, he despatched some men with a waggon to bring it, and on its arrival he cut it to pieces with a hatchet. Fig. 254.—Nest oF SocIABLE GROSBEAK. Organs of Voice—The period when birds are about build- ing their nests, and engaged in attending to the callow young, is that in which our groves become “ prodigal of harmony.” This may, therefore, be a fitting place to make some remarks on the organs of voice. In birds they consist of a wind-pipe. which divides at the lower part into the two branches called the bronchial tubes—one leading to each lung (as shown in * Travels, second series, vol. iii. BIRDS. 307 Fig. 242). At the upper part of the wind-pipe is an organ (the glottis, or superior larynx) by which the size of the aper- ture seems to be regulated. At the lower part is placed the true organ of voice in birds (the inferior larynx); and, in all those which possess the vocal powers in the highest perfection, this part is furnished with five pair of nerves. “The tube of the wind-pipe,” says Mr. Yarrell, “is composed of two mem- branes, enclosing between them numerous cartilaginous or bony rings, forming a cylinder more or less perfect from end to end.”’* The tube differs in its length, its diameter, and its substance, in different species ; and in some it exhibits convolutions which modify its powers. “The principle upon which the organs of voice in birds is founded, is that which prevails in wind instru- ments generally; the notes in the ascending scale being pro- duced by a corresponding contraction of the diameter or the length of the tube, and vice versd.”’ Such is the description given by physiologists of the mecha- nism which produces the loud note of the Wild Swan, the booming of the Bittern, the cawing of the Rook, the hooting of the Owl, and the wild screams which, heard amid the native haunts of the sea-fowl, harmonize with the surging sea. Birds, as we all know, can be taught to imitate the tones of the human voice ; nor is this limited to the Parrot; the power is enjoyed, among our native birds, by the Raven, the Magpie, the Jay, and the Starling. So distinctly have Ravens been taught to articulate short sentences, that one living at Chatham, “in the vicinity of the guard-house, has more than once turned out the guard, who thought they were called by the sentinel on duty.’’+ The power of imitation reaches, perhaps, its highest per- fection in the Mocking-bird of America. So perfect is his performance, that not only the experienced ear of the fowler is deceived, but even birds themselves are imposed upon. Ina domesticated state he finds equal scope for the versatility of his powers, and his doings have been most graphically recorded by Wilson, in his American Ornithology :—“ He whistles for the dog; Cesar starts up, wags his tail, and runs to meet his master. He squeaks out like a hurt chicken, and the hen hurries about, with hanging wings and bristled feathers, cluck- ing to protect its injured brood. The barking of the dog, the * British Birds, vol. ii. p. 71. + Quoted by Mr. Yarrell, from Swainson and Richardson, x 308 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. mewing of the cat, the creaking of a passing wheelbarrow, follow with great truth and rapidity.” . Distribution —To one who regarded only the powers of flight which birds possess, it might seem easy for beings so endowed to change their abode at pleasure, and not, like the more slow-moving mammalia, be restricted to certain regions ; but here, as in every other department of Zoology, the laws of geographical distribution are more potent than the mandate of the king who placed his chair upon the beach, and forbade the approach of the waves—“ Thus far shalt thou come, and no further.” The number of species is supposed to be about four times greater than that of quadrupeds; and, with the exception of fishes, they are more widely distributed than any other class of vertebrated animals. Mammalia and reptiles are, to a great extent, limited to the warmer regions; but birds are found in every part of the earth, from the equator to the oles. ‘ The number of species is greatest towards the equator, except among the aquatic tribes. Europe is regarded as re- markably rich in the number of its birds, the species amount- ing, according to a catalogue* published in 1840,+ to 490, arranged in thirty-four families, and one hundred and sixty-four genera. It is interesting to observe the comparative numbers belonging to the leading groups :— Rapacious Birds. . . | |.) 64 species: Perching and Climbing Birds . . . 209 ‘ Scraping Birds . . PH SES TZ BBY Wading Birds" 1. NOT Oe be eee ond Swimming Batis! COO BERS hao ee Toran . . . 490 species. Classification —The number of species at present known to naturalists is in some degree doubtful, for the same bird has frequently appeared under more than one name, in the works of successive authors. Lesson has enumerated 6,266 species ; but Mr. Strickland is of opinion that 5,000 species are pro- * This and all other information on the subject of distribution is derived from Berghaiis’s and Johnston’s Physical Atlas: a highly valuable work, which has been referred to on the distribution of reptiles. + By Keyserling and Blasius. BIRDS. 809 bably all that can be said to be accurately known.* This number is divided into about a thousand genera, and the names and limits of these genera have, from time to time, undergone considerable modification. This will not seem surprising when it is borne in mind that genera are merely contrivances adopted _ by writers for the purpose of conveniently grouping together those species which most nearly resemble each other. The word “species” is applied to “such individuals as are sup- posed to be descended from a common stock, or which might have so descended.”’+ A species has a real existence in nature. A genus is an abstract idea, a creation of the mind, liable to be overthrown or upreared, contracted or expanded, according to the mutability of human knowledge. In this little book we do not purpose entering upon the comparative merits of different systems of classification. That system is the best which is founded, not upon any one set of characters, but upon an intimate knowledge of all. The only true foundation on which it can be reared is that which is afforded by the anatomical structure. Each change of external character is accompanied by a corresponding change of inter- nal organization. ‘‘The external parts afford an index to the internal.” { ‘The shape of the organs by which the food is taken indicates the form and structure of those by which it is swallowed and digested. Hence, “if we find a bird having a short-beaked bill and curved claws, we shall not be wrong in inferring that it has a wide cesophagus (gullet) and a large membranous stomach.” § But our information is incomplete, and our classification imperfect, unless to a knowledge both of external and internal structure, we add that which is to be acquired by the study of the living objects seen in their native haunts. Thus only can we ascertain to what extent each modification of structure is accompa- nied by a corresponding change of habit: and until this be done, with regard to foreign as well as to native species, we must not suppose that our classification is perfect and unchangeable. * Vide his excellent ‘‘ Report on the Recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology,” Report of British Association, 1844. t+ Archbishop Whately’s Logic, book iv. chap v. t Macgillivray’s British Birds. § Idem. This work contains an instructive and interesting series of plates, exhibiting the modifications of the seyeral parts of the alimentary canal in a large number of native birds. 310 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. Such are the principles which seem now to be generally recognized, even when there exists considerable difference of opiuion as to the details by which they can most successfully be reduced to practice. The following arrangement is that which has been adopted by some of our leading British orni- thologists :— Order I. Raptores—Birds of Prey, as Vultures, Eagles, Owls. II. InsrssornEs—Perchers, as Sparrows, Linnets, Crows. III. Rasores—Scraping Birds, as Pheasants, Fowls. IV. GrartatorEs—Waders, as Herons, Bitterns. V. Natarorrs—Swimmers, as Geese, Divers, Gulls. According to the general plan we have pursued, we should commence with the swimming birds, and gradually ascend to that group which contains the Falcons and the Eagles, which are regarded as the nobles and the kings of the feathered tribes; but the birds usually placed lowest in the scale, such as Gulls and Terns, do not present the slightest resemblance to the creatures which rank highest, and were the last men- tioned in the preceding class. Between certain mollusca and fishes we found so great a resemblance, that a question had arisen as to whether a certain species should be regarded as a mollusk or a fish: between fish and reptiles, again, a similar difficulty occurred ; but between reptiles and birds, or between birds and mammalia, there can be no such question. The separation is so well marked, that there is no debateable ground, no border territory. The birds stand out apart from the groups on either side, distinctly isolated. No advantage, therefore, accrues from placing the lowest of the birds next to the reptiles, nor those regarded as the highest next to the quadrupeds. Such an arrangement is also open to the ob- jection, that by most writers the different classes are treated of in the order in which they have been here enumerated ; and it is desirable that the learner should be accustomed to the same succession of family and genera, in this elementary work, that he will meet with in those of a higher character. For these reasons we have resolved on following the course that is most generally pursued, and beginning with the birds of prey. Pe eee —— Oe BIRDS. 311 We can notice only the leading groups, and even these with great brevity. This must be apparent, when it is recollected that the number of species at present known is perhaps between five and six thousand (p. 308); and that those oc- curring even in the British Isles amount to between three and four hundred.* We shall therefore only attempt to state what are the points of structure by which the principal divisions are characterized, and bring forward a few of the individuals belonging to each, as exemplifying the habits or economy of their respective families. Orper J.—RAPTORES.—BIRDS OF PREY. Tue Raptorial Birds are distinguished by a strong hooked bill and stout muscular legs. Three of the toes are directed forward, and one backward; they are rough below, and armed with powerful, sharp, curved, retractile talons. They are arranged in three families—the Vultures, the Falcons, and the Owls. I.— VULTURIDZ.—VULTURES. “* Above, the mountain rears a peak Where Vultures whet the thirsty beak ; And theirs may be a feast to-night Shall tempt them down ere morrow’s light.” Byron. The Vultures have the claws, in general, less curved than either the Falcons or Owls, the feet generally naked, and the head in a greater or less degree divested of feathers. None of them are indigenous in these countries; yet as two have been taken here, they are of course included in our Fauna. * The Irish species, according to Mr. W. Thompson’s Report, published in 1840, were then about 230; and fourteen or fifteen have since been added. + “Whet the thirsty beak.’’ The idea of whetting the beak, though current, is erroneous. 312 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. One of these is the Griffon Vulture, of the Alps and Pyre- nees (Vultur fulvus, fig. 255), caught near Cork Harbour, in 1843.* The food of this species is carrion, on which it gorges to repletion, rarely quitting the prey while a morsel of 2, alee Fig. 255.—GRIFFON VULTURE. flesh remains ; so that it is not uncommon to see it perched upon a putrefying corpse for several successive days. It never attempts to carry off a portion, even to satisfy its young, but feeds them by disgorging the half-digested morsel from its maw. It frequents the North of Africa, as well as Europe, and congregates in considerable numbers when the carcase of some large quadruped forms the banquet.t ~ The other is the Egpytian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus, Fig. 256), one of which is recorded by Mr. Selby to have been shot in Somersetshire, in 1825. It is this species which Mr. Bruce men- tions as frequent in Egypt and about Cairo, where it is called by Europeans “ Pharaoh’s Hen.’ These birds are never Fig. 256.—Neornrox, molested by the natives, but encouraged and protected, because of their services in clearing away filth and offal. “Every group of the natives has a pair of these Vultures attached to it. The birds roost * Thompson, in Annals of Natural History, vol. xv. + Bennett. 7 , : BIRDS. 313 on the trees of the vicinity, or on the fences which bound the enclosures formed for their cattle.”* They differ in size and other particulars from the true or typical Vultures, such as that just mentioned. The Condor (Sarcoramphus gryphus) represents another group remarkable for the “caruncles’” or fleshy appendages of the neck (Fig. 257), somewhat akin to those seen on the Turkey-cock. Beneath is a white ruff ; of downy feathers, forming the line of separation between the naked skin above and the true feathers covering the body below. At the early part of this century, such exaggerated ideas, respecting the size of this bird, were current, even among naturalists, that it was compared to the Roe of eastern fable. It was reserved for Humboldt to destroy these exaggerated ideas, . Fig. 257.—Conpor. and to reduce its powers and dimen- sions to their true limits. The extent of the wings, when expanded, is usually from nine to eleven feet. Humboldt did not himself see any which exceeded nine: one shot by Mr. Darwin + measured only eight and a half; but it is still said that some attain so great a size as fourteen feet.{ Borne on these wide-spreading pinions, the Condor may be seen soaring at an elevation of from ten to fifteen thousand feet above the level of the ocean. One is stated to have been seen by Hum- boldt so high as twenty-two thousand feet. “These birds generally live by pairs; but among the inland basaltic cliffs of St. Cruz,” says Mr. Darwin, “I found a spot where scores most usully haunt. On coming suddenly to the brow of the precipice, it was a fine sight to see between twenty and thirty of these great birds start heavily from their resting-place, and wheel away in majestic circles.’’ He describes their flight as beautiful; the Condors moving in large curves, sweeping in circles, descending and ascending without once flapping their wings. ; The species of Vulture which seems to form the connecting link between this family and the Eagle, is that which the * Yarrell, vol. i. 7 Patagonia. Journal, p. 220. } Bennett, ‘‘ Gardens and Menageries.” 314 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. natives of the German Alps name the Lammergeyer, or Lamb Vulture. It resembles the Hagle in its confident and upright bearing, and is the largest of European birds of prey, measur- ing, when fully grown, upwards of four feet from beak to tail, and in the expanse of its wings no less than nine or ten.* Tt frequents the highest mountain chains in both Asia and Africa. Of its audacity Bruce relates a striking instance. While that celebrated Abyssinian traveller and his servants were at dinner in the open air, with several dishes of boiled goats’ flesh before them, one of these Vultures came flying slowly along the ground, and sat down close to the meat, with- in the ring which the men had made round it. ‘ There were two large pieces, a leg and shoulder, lying upon a wooden platter ; into these he trussed both his claws and carried them off.” He was shot on his return for a further supply. ——— I1.—FALCONIDZ.—FALCONS. “ Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle wheeling uear its brow, O’er the abyss; his broad expanded wings Lay calm and motionless upon the air, As if he floated there without their aid, By the sole act of his unlorded will, That buoyed him proudly up.” J. Suermwan Know tes’ “Wituram Tevy.” This group is distinguished from the preceding by the sharp curved claws, and by the head being in all cases eovered with feathers. It includes the Eagles, Falcons, Kites, and Buzzards. In entering upon this subject, there is one source of error we should sedulously avoid. It is that which invests with human feelings and passions the inferior animals ; which makes us prone to regard one as brave, noble, generous, and humane, and another as cowardly, base, selfish, and unpitying. Tried by such a standard, the Eagle embodies all that is great, the Vulture all that is despicable. We forget that both are birds of prey, destined to fill important, though different, parts in the scale of being, and both alike destitude of those higher motives which the use of such phraseology on our part would imply. With this brief caution, we shall not hesitate to avail * Bennett. BIRDS. 315 ourselves of the language of the poet, nor seek to deaden the warm tints which glow upon his pictures. Two species of Kagle—the Golden and the White-tailed— are known as permanent residents in these countries. The addition of another to our Fauna was an occurrence of some interest to ornithologists. This third species is an inhabitant of the Apennines, and other mountains of central Europe, and is known as the Spotted Eagle (Aquila nevia). Mr. R. Davis, of Clonmel, states * that it was shot in the month of January, 1845, on the estate of the Earl of Shannon, county of Cork, and was at the time in a fallow field, devouring a rabbit. Another bird, similarly marked, but reported to have been of a lighter shade of brown, was shot at the same place within a few days afterwards, but was not preserved. Fig. 258.—GoLpEN EaGLe. The White-tailed, or Cinereous Sea Eagle (Halicétus albicilla), is somewhat less in size than the Golden Eagle. It is much more abundant, and it seems in its habits to approach more nearly to the Vultures. We shall, therefore, convey a better idea of the habits of “the wide ruling Eagle,” by appropriating our limited space to the Golden Eagle (Aquila chryswétos, Fig. 258). * In a letter to Mr. Yarrell—vide British Birds. 316 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. This species, though occasionally taken in England, haunts more especially the mountainous districts of Scotland, and of the north and west of Ireland. In Mr. Selby’s splendid illus- trations of British Ornithology, are two figures of this bird. These have suggested to a reviewer * of that work a descrip- tion so vivid, that it enables the reader at once to realize, in his own mind, many of its characteristic features. “The Golden Eagle leads the van of our birds of prey, and there she sits in her usual carriage when in a state of rest. Her hunger and her thirst have been appeased—her wings are folded up in dignified tranquillity—her talons, grasping a leafless branch, are almost hidden by the feathers of her breast—her sleepless eye has lost something of its ferocity—and the Royal Bird is almost serene in her solitary state on the cliff. “ But, lo, the character of the Golden Eagle when she has pounced and is exulting over her prey! With her head drawn back between the crescent of her uplifted wings, which she will not fold until that prey be devoured—eye glaring with cruel joy—neck plumage bristling—tail feathers fan- spread, and talons driven through the victim’s entrails and heart—there she is new alighted on the edge of a precipice, and fancy hears her yell and its echo.” “The week-old Fawn had left the Doe’s side but for a momentary race along the edge of the coppice—a rustle and a shadow, and the ~ burden is borne off to the cliffs of Ben Nevis.” The power of vision in this tribe is very extraordinary. This fact has been long known; so long, indeed, that the classical reader will at once remember that it is mentioned by Homer, in his description of Menelaus :— —_———_—" The field exploring, with an eye Keen as the Eagle’s, keenest-eyed of all That wing the air, whom, though he soar aloft, The Lev’ ret ’scapes not, hid in thickest shades, But down he swoops, and at a stroke she dies.”’ In1ap, CowPer’s TRANSLATION, Xvii. 674. Fawns, Lambs, and Hares, with smaller quadrupeds and birds of various kinds, constitute the food. It generally kills its ‘ own game, but not invariably. Mr. Thompson + records the . * Blackwood’s Magazine, Nov., 1826. + Papers on the Birds of Ireland, in the Magazine of Zoology and Botany and Annals of Natural History. To this series, with permission of the author, we make frequent reference. ] BIRDS. 317 capture of three of these birds at Glenarm Park, County Antrim, the bait employed in each instance being the body of a Duck or a Lamb. So great is the quantity of food they collect, when rearing their young brood, that a poor man in the county of Kerry * got a comfortable subsistence for his family, during a time of famine, by robbing an Eagle’s nest. A similar occurrence took place at Glenariff, county of Antrim, in the early part of the present century. “One of a pair of Eaglets, taken from a nest there, was so placed that during the summer its parents supplied it with Rabbits and Hares in such abundance, that its owner obtained a sufticiency of animal food besides for himself and family.”’+ When intent on following his game, the Eagle evinces great boldness. On one occasion an Eagle appeared above a pack of hounds, as they came to a fault on the ascent of Devis, the highest of the Belfast mountains, after a good chase. “As they came on the scent again, and were at full cry, the Eagle for a short time kept above them, but at length advanced, and carried off the Hare when at the distance of three to four hundred paces before the hounds.” { With similar audacity he dashes down among a “ pack’’ § of Grouse, and so “ puzzles and confuses the birds, that he seizes and carries off two or three before they know what has happened, and in the very face of the astonished sportsman and his dogs.’’ || It may be observed, that the prey is invariably seized with the talons, the beak being used for the purpose of tearing it up. This is contrary to popular belief; and the error deserves to be pointed out, as we find it pervading the descriptions of some of our most gifted poets; as for example, in the mag- nificent simile employed by Byron :— ‘* Even as the Eagle overlooks his prey, And for a moment, poised in middle air, Suspends the motion of his mighty wings, Then swoops, with his unerring beak.” Marryo Fautero. * Smith’s History of Kerry. yt Thompson. t Idem. § The little assemblages of birds, consisting of the parents and full- fledged young, are indicated by sportsmen by names which differ accord- ing to the particular birds spoken of, as a covey of Partridge, a pack of Grouse. || St. John's Wild Sports and Natural History of the Highlands, p 84. 318 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. From the small number of Eagles we possess, compared with that of most other native birds, we consider ourselves fortunate in having, on one occasion, come suddenly upon four Eagles, amid their own wild haunts. It was in September, 1833, when ascending Mangerton mountain, at the Lakes of Killarney, near to the little lake called the “ Devil’s Punch- bowl,” we found four of them preying on a full-grown sheep. They rose majestically into the air as we approached. The people who were with us supposed the sheep, being perhaps sickly, had been killed by the Eagles. The flesh of the neck was completely removed, although that of every other part — was untouched. We were assured that two Eagles will — occasionally pursue a Hare, one flying low, coursing it along the ground, the other keeping perpendicularly above the terrified animal. When the lowest Eagle tires, they change places, and pursue the same system of tactics, until the Hare is completely wearied out. We were told the same circum- stance a few days afterwards, near Tralee, and again near Monasterevan. Our informant, in every instance, stated the fact as having fallen under his own knowledge, and not as a matter of hearsay. The nest or eyrie of the Eagle is associated in our minds with highly poetic imagery;* but it is regarded in a different light by those who live in the vicinity, and suffer by the predatory habits of its inmates. By them it is viewed as the abode of the spoiler, and the nursery of a future race of aérial tyrants. Various means for its destruction are accordingly resorted to ; among others, that of lowering a lighted brand into the nest. This was the plan pursued on one occasion at Roshen, County Donegal: the nest was consumed, three unfortunate Eaglets fell scorched and dead to the ground, : “T was born so high, Our aiery buildeth on the cedar’s top, And dallies with the wind, and scorns the sun.’’ RicuarD III. Act i. scene 3. —-' The Eagle and the Stork On cliffs and cedar tops their eyries build.” ParapisE Lost, Book vii. ‘‘ When the proud name on which they pinnacled Their hopes is breathed on, jealous as the Eagle Of her high aiery.”’ Marino Facrero, Act v. scene 1. BIRDS. 319 and the old birds from that time deserted the mountain.* A similar mode of destruction has been resorted to at times in other localities ; and this, no doubt, suggested to Campbell the splendid description of the burning eyrie, in the Wizard’s prophetic warning to Lochiel.t The true Falcons are distinguished by the upper mandible of the bill being strongly toothed (Fig. 259); by the short, strong legs ; the feet with retractile claws of nearly equal size; and the relative proportions of the principal quill-feathers of the wing, the second being the longest. Six species are recorded as British: { we shall select for description that which is the most celebrated, the Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus). It breeds in rocky districts, and has a wide geographical range. In the British Islands it is found in Scotland, in Wales, in Devonshire and Cornwall; and in other localities where there are high rocks adjacent to the coast. In some parts of Ireland it is not uncommon. “In the four maritime counties of Ulster it has many eyries ; and in Antrim, whose basaltic precipices are favourable for the purpose, seven at least might be enumerated.’’§ But notwithstanding its predilection for the coast, this bird frequents occasionally more inland localities; and Sir J. Sebright states, that num- bers of them take up their abode at Westminster Abbey, and * Thompson. t We subjoin a portion of the passage referred to: — “Ha! laugh’st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn? Proud bird of the mountain, thy plume shall be torn! Say, rush’d the bold Eagle exultingly forth, From his home in the dark-rolling clouds of the north ? Lo! the death-shot of foemen outspeeding, he rode Companionless, bearing destruction abroad : But down, let him stoop from his hayoc on high! Ah! home let him speed—for the spoiler is nigh. Why flames the far summit ?—why shoot to the blast Those embers like stars from the firmament cast ? Tis the fire shower of ruin, all dreadfully driven From his eyrie that beacons the darkness of heaven.”’ Fig. 259. } They are the Jer Falcon, Peregrine Falcon, the Hobby, the Orange- legged Hobby, the Merlin, and the Kestrel. The last, Mr. Thompson remarks, ‘‘is common and resident in Ireland, and is of more frequent occurrence than any of the Falconide,’’ § Thompson. 320 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. other churches in the metroplis, and make great havoc among | the flocks of tame pigeons in the neighbourhood.* The Peregrine Falcon is the species which, in former el was most used in these countries for the amusement of hawking. This arose from the docility of the bird, and from its being much more numerous, and, therefore, more easily procured than the Jer Falcon. “The length of the adult Peregrine Falcon is from fifteen to eighteen inches, depending on the size and age of the bird.’ + The female bird is of much greater size and strength than the male, and to her, in the language of Falconry, the term “ Falcon,” was exclusively applied. The male was the “'Tiercel,’’ or “'Tassel;”’ the reclaimed male the “Tassel gentle.’ { The female was flown at Herons, or Ducks; the male at Partridges, Magpies, and Rails. The full-grown birds in the wild state, or while unreclaimed, were called “ Haggards.”’ § In the training of the Falcons, great care, skill, and patience were expended. They were taught to come at the “ call,” or attend to the “lure”’ of the keeper.|| They were carried to the field upon “the fist,” a thick and often a highly orna- mented glove being used to prevent the hand from receiving injury from the strength and sharpness of the claws. At such times, their eyes were covered, or “ hooded,” with a leather covering, usually surmounted by a small ornamental plume of feathers. Bells of brass or silver were attached to the legs; and through small rings, likewise fixed there, leathern or silken strings were passed, and wound round the hand of the * Observations on Hawking. + Yarrell. t “Oh, for a falconer’s voice to lure this Tassel gentle back again ! RoMEO AND JULIET. § “As coy and wild as Haggards of the rock.” Mucu Apo azsour NorHine. || To this Shakspeare alludes :— ““My Falcon now is sharp and passing empty; And, till she stoop, she must not be full gorged, For then she never looks upon her lure, Another way I have to man my Haggard, To make her come, and know her keeper’s call.” TAMING OF THE SHREW. Any one who has read the ‘ Abbot,” will remember the quarrel between Roland Graeme and Adam W oodeock, about the feeding of a Hawk. In another of Sir Walter Scott’s Tales, ‘‘The Betrothed,” there is a spirited description of a Hawking-match, in which two Falcons are flown at a Heron, oo : BIRDS. 3821, Falconer until the time for “ casting off’’ the bird. When the “ quarry ’’* was seen, the hood was pulled off, the jesses drawn from their rings, and the Falcon at the same time launched into the air. It tried in all cases to soar above and pounce upon the prey, which it transfixed with its powerful talons. Old records show the great value which was placed in former times upon these birds, and the high prices at which they were occasionally sold. In several places in the “ Domesday Book,” ten pounds is made the optional payment instead of finding a Hawk. It is said that in one instance, about two hundred years ago, so much as a thousand pounds were paid for a pair. By the 34th Edward III., it was made felony to steal a Hawk; and to take its eggs, even on a person’s own grounds, was punishable with imprisonment for a year and a day, besides a fine at the king’s pleasure. Thus prized and protected, and used only by the wealthy and the noble, these birds became the appendage of their state as well as of their pastime. References to Hawking, and its details, are of constant oc- currence in our old ballads.t Shakspeare, who so invariably “holds the mirror up to nature,” hesitates not to introduce the language of Falconry, in giving utterance to the perturbed and distracting meditations of Othello :— ————“‘ If I do prove her haggard, Though that her jesses were my dear heart-strings, I'd whistle her off, and let her down the wind To prey at fortune.” The rapid flight of the Faleon is very remarkable. An Instance is recorded of one belonging to Henry IV., King of France, which traversed the distance between Fontainebleau and Malta, not less than 1,350 miles, in twenty-four hours. In this case, supposing it to have been on the wing the whole time, its rate of flight must have been nearly sixty miles an hour ; but, as Falcons do not fly by night, it was probably not more than sixteen or eighteen hours on the wing, and its rate must, therefore, have been seventy or eighty miles an hour. * The bird flown at by a Hawk was so named, - + Vide the Gay Goshawk, and the Broomfieldhill, in Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border. Sometimes the epithet, ‘‘ gay Goshawk,” is ap- plied figuratively; thus, in the ballad of Fause Foodrage, in the same collection :—- ‘“* And ye maun learn, my gay Goshawk, Right weel to breast a steed.” 322 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. The Peregrine Falcon resembles the Golden Eagle in the indifference evinced occasionally towards sportsmen and dogs. An instance of this is thus narrated by Mr. Thompson :— ‘Mr. Sinclaire, when once exercising his dogs on the Belfast — mountains, towards the end of July, preparatory to Grouse- shooting, saw them point; and, on coming up, he startled a male Peregrine Falcon off a Grouse (Tetrao Scoticus) just killed by him; and very near the same place my friend came upon the female bird, also on a Grouse. Although the sportsman lifted both the dead birds, the Hawks continued flying about; and on the remainder of the pack, which lay near, being sprung by the dogs, either three or four more Grouse were struck down by them, and thus two and a-half or three brace were obtained by means of these wild birds, being more than had ever been procured out of a pack of Grouse by his trained Falcons.” We record, from the same source, another illustrative anecdote :—“ In October, 1833, a female Peregrine Falcon of Mr. Sinclaire’s—a bird of that year, and, consequently, but a few months old— got loose in the hawk- yard, and killed a male of her own species, a year or two older which had _ the power of moying at least a yard from his block. She had nearly eaten him when a person entered the yard to feed them, which he did once daily, at a regular hour. This female bird Fig. 260.—GosHawk. than herself, and — was ‘full fed’ the day before, and had never got more — than one meal in the day.” The Hawks, as distinguished from the true Falcons, have the legs more slender, the wings shorter, the fourth quill the BIRDS. 323 longest, and the middle toe much longer than the lateral ones. There are but two British species, the Goshawk (Fig. 260) and the Sparrowhawk. The Goshawk (Astur palumbarius) is equal in size to the largest of the Falcons. Its flight is low, and it was formerly flown at Hares, Rabbits, Grouse, and Partridges. Its prevailing tint is greyish ; hence the line in one of the Border Ballads :— “The boy stared wild, like a grey Goshawk.”—FausE FooprRaGE. The Sparrow-hawk (Accipiter fringillarius) has been well characterized by Mr. St. John as a “bold little freebooter,” and he thus records examples of its audacity :—“ A Sparrow- hawk pursued a Pigeon through the drawing-room window, and out at the other end of the house through another window, and never slackened his pursuit, notwithstanding the clattering of the broken glass of the two windows they passed through. But the most extraordinary instance of impudence in this bird that I ever met with, was one day finding a large Sparrow- hawk deliberately standing on a very large Pouter-pigeon, on the drawing-room floor, and plucking it, having entered in pur- suit of the unfortunate bird through an open window, and killed him in the room.”* The Kite (Milvus Ictinus, Fig. 261) “jis readily distin- guished among the British Falconide, even when at a dis- tance on the wing, by its long and forked tail,’ and by its easy and graceful flight. “Tt has now become comparatively rare in England.’ + In Ireland, according to Mr. Thompson, the bird is extremely rare, though the name is applied to other species of the family, and particularly to the Common Buzzard (Buteo vulgaris). The Honey Buzzard, a native of the south of Europe, and of eastern climes, has been shot on several occasions in England, and has, in one instance, occurred in the vicinity of Belfast.t The Harriers form the remaining group of “the Falcon Fig. 261.—Krre. * Wild Sports and Natural History of the Highlands. { Yarrell ¢ Thompson. = 3824 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. family.” One of them, the Hen-Harrier, is a most skilful rat-catcher. “Skimming silently and rapidly through a rick- yard, he seizes on any incautious Rat that may be exposed to view; and, from the habit this Hawk has of hunting very late in the evening, many of these vermin fall to his share. Though of so small and light a frame, the Hen-Harrier strikes down a Mallard without difficulty, and the marsh and swamp are his favourite hunting-grounds.”* We may here remark, that the whole of the predaceous birds have the power of rejecting from their stomach, in the form of oblong balls, the undigested portions of their food, consisting of bones, hair, and feathers. I1I.—OWLS.—STRIGIDA. “The Owl shriek’d at thy birth: an evil sign.” —SHAKSPEARE. Kine Henry VI. Part iii. Act v. scene 6. The nocturnal birds of prey form the third and last division of the present order, and constitute the well- marked family of the Owls (Fig. 262). In the dusk of the evening they sally forth, with eyes eminently adapted for the diminished light, and with wings whose movement is so inaudible, that, to use the words of an eloquent writer, “a flake of snow is not win- nowed through the air more softly silent.” Their strange appearance, grotesque atti- Fig. 262.—OWL. tudes, discordant screams or continuous hootings, have made them be regarded by the uneducated as birds of ill omen.t The progress of know- ledge dispels these idle fears, and converts a source of terror into one of the countless rills of poetry and tradition. * St. John’s Wild Sports of the Highlands. + Thus among the prodigies which portended the death of Caesar :— “‘ Yesterday, the bird of night did sit, Even at noonday, upon the market-place, Hooting and shrieking.’’—JuLius Cazsar, Act i. scene 3. BIRDS. 325 Owls differ much in dimensions, some even approaching in size to the Eagles. Among these the Snowy Owl stands conspicuous ; it is a native of high northern latitudes, but has been taken on many occasions in these countries. The species most common in England and Ireland is the White or Barn Owl (Strix flammea). They frequent not barns only, but unoccupied buildings of any kind. The “ivy-mantled tower’”’ is a congenial abode. They leave their retreat about an hour before sunset, to hunt for mice, which form the principal food of themselves and their young; and in doing so they “ beat the fields over like a setting dog.”’* ‘The numbers of mice destroyed by a breeding pair of Owls must be enormous, and the service they thus perform very great, to the farmer, the planter, and the gardener. “I knew an instance,” continues Mr. St. John, + “where, the Owls having been nearly de- stroyed by the numerous pole-traps placed about the fields for the destruction of them and the hawks, the rats and mice increased to such an extent on the disappearance of these their worst enemies, and committed such havoc among the nursery-gardens, farm-buildings, &c., that the proprietor was _ obliged to have all the pole-traps taken down; and the Owls being allowed to increase again, the rats and mice as quickly diminished in number.” Mr. Thompson mentions that a pair of White Owls had their nest and young in a loft appropriated to Pigeons in the town of Belfast. On the shelf beside the young Owls, the number of dead mice and rats observed remaining after the night’s repast, varied from six to fifteen. No attempt was ever made by the Owls to molest either the Pigeons or their young; and there is strong reason to believe that it is only in the dearth of other prey that this Owl attacks any of the feathered tribe. In this particular it differs from the Eagle Owl, a species which inhabits the north of Europe, and has occasionally been taken in these countries. A Swedish gentleman, who lived near a high mountain on which a pair of these birds had built their nest, was witness of the following instance of their affectionate solicitude for their young:—One of the young birds, which had quitted the nest, was taken by his servants, ‘}and shut up in a hen-coop. “On the following morning a * Natural History of Selborne. ¢ Wild Sports of the Highlands. 326 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. fine young Partridge was found lying dead before the door of the coop. It was immediately concluded that this provision had been brought there by the old Owls, which, no doubt had been making search in the night-time for their lost young one. And such was, indeed, the fact; for night after night, for fourteen days, was this same mark of attention repeated. The game which the old ones carried to it consisted chiefly of young Partridges, for the most part newly killed, but some- times a little spoiled.”’* In South America there are Owls which live in burrows excavated by themselves, or by a little quadruped allied to the Rabbit. Orper I].—INSESSORES.—PERCHING BIRDS. “ The ousel-cock,t so black of hue, With orange-tawny bill : The throstle, with his note so true; The wren, with little quill; The finch, the sparrow, and the lark; The plain-song cuckoo grey.’’—SHAKSPEARE. Tue “ Perchers,” or, to use the scientific term which has the same meaning, the Jnsessores, are those birds which are not predaceous like the Falcon; which do not scrape the ground like the barn-door fowl; which are not wading birds like the Heron, nor swimming birds like the Duck. The tribe may be thus indicated by a series of negatives; and it embraces a great variety of birds, differing widely in structure and habits. Even within the narrow limits of our islands, above a hundred species belonging to the present order are enumerated. It is obvious that these birds have no exclusive claim to be regarded as Perchers ; for Owls, Eagles, and other birds, perch also. But this habit, taken in connexion with peculiarities of structure, suggests a term which, though not strictly appli- cable to them alone, is a very convenient one, and not likel to mislead. It naturally suggests a question—* How do birds perch ?”—by what especial contrivance are they enabled to maintain a firm hold even in sleep, at which time, we know, * Familiar History of British Birds, vol. i. p. 192. t The Blackbird is sometimes called by this name, and is the species here referred to.— Vide Yarrell, note on Ring Ouzel. BIRDS. 327 our hands so soon relax in their power of grasping? The mechanism is, at the same time, the most simple and the most effectual. Every one has probably seen the lower part of the leg of a Turkey when cut off,* preparatory to the fowl being cooked; and, if so, may have, when a boy, amused himself by pulling the tendons, which, acting upon the claws, enabled him to make them contract or open at pleasure. What he has done by pulling the tendons is done in the perching birds by the bending of the leg, and, by this simple act, the bird, without effort, retains its hold, and does so securely, even on one leg. The placing of the head under the wing brings the centre of gravity more nearly over the feet, and thus gives additional stability. From the number of species comprised in the Insessores, it is convenient to divide the order into four groups, which are again subdivided into families, genera, and species. The four groups are established on very obvious characters, connected principally with the form of the beak or of the foot. Some, as for example the Thrush and the Robin, have on the upper mandible of the bill, a notch or tooth, somewhat similar to that of the Falcons (Fig. 263). These constitute the group of tooth-billed birds; but the man of science, instead of the English term, which would only be understood here, = employs a compound Latin term (Denti- oy aie rostres +), which means the same thing, and is understood by men of science in every part of the world. The Sparrow has a bill of a different shape (Fig. 264) ; it is conical. Hence the Sparrow belongs to another group, those with cone-shaped bills (Conirostres). The third consists of those birds which are remarkable for their powers of climbing. In them the toes are most usually arranged in pairs, two turned forwards and two backwards, as may be * It may here be remarked that the true leg of a bird is the part to which that name is given when a fowl is brought to table. The part called the leg in the living bird lies between the leg, properly so called, and the foot, and is analogous to that part of our foot which lies between the ankle and the toes. { Latin—Dens, a tooth; rostrum, a beak. 328 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. seen in the foot of the Cuckoo or the Woodpecker (Fig. 272). The term applied to the group is that of Scansores or climbers. The fourth is composed of those birds whose beaks are so wide and gaping that they appear as if cleft ; hence they are named J%ssirostres. The Swallow or Swift, in chase of their insect prey, are familiar examples of this structure. A much maligned bird, that also feeds upon insects, exhi- bits this peculiarity. We allude to the Goatsucker (Caprimulgus Europeus, Fig. 265), which popular credulity has accused in Italy of sucking goats, and here of sucking cows, and inflicting a fatal distemper upon weaning calves. We have thus four tribes of perching birds :— I. Tooth-billed, Dentirostres. II. Conical-billed, Conirostres. II1. Climbers, Scansores. IV. Gaping-billed, Fisstrostres. We shall now notice some well-known individuals of each of these tribes, though necessarily with great brevity, devoting our space principally to those which are natives, in preference to the more brilliant inhabitants of foreign climes. Tre I.—TOOTH-BILLED BIRDS.—DENTIROSTRES. ‘‘ Brisk Robin seeks a kindlier home ; Not like a beggar is he come, But enters as a looked-for guest, Confiding in his ruddy breast, As if it were a natural shield Charged with a blazon on the field, Due to that good and pious deed, Of which we in the ballad read.” —-W orDSWwoRTH. Laniade.*—The Shrikes or Butcher-birds bear some resem- blance in habit, and in the curved projection of the upper part of the bill, to the birds of prey. ‘The Grey Shrike,” says Mr. Yarrell, “feeds upon mice, shrews, small birds, frogs, lizards, and large insects; after having killed its prey, it fixes * Latin—Zanius, a butcher. i i —— ee BIRDS. 329 the body on a forked branch, or upon a sharp thorn, the more readily to tear off small pieces from it. It is from this habit of killing and hanging up their meat, which is observed also in other Shrikes, that they have been generally called Butcher- birds. They are not plentiful in these countries. Passing by the Fly-catchers (Muscicapide), of which there are only two native species, we come to that of the Thrushes (Merulide). To this family belongs the Water Ouzel (Cin- clus aquaticus), a bird which frequents rocky streams, and the banks of rapid rivers in mountainous districts. ‘“ With the romantic and picturesque in scenery,” says Mr. Thompson, “this bird is associated, frequenting the stream only so far as it can boast of such charming accompaniments; whenever it descends to the lowlands to move sluggishly through the plain the Water Ouzel forsakes it, to continue in its upland haunts.” A question has arisen in reference to the habits of this bird, whether it can or cannot walk underneath the water. Mr. St. John, the latest writer upon the question, expressly states, in opposition to Mr. Waterton, that on two or three occasions he has seen the Water Ouzel walk deliberately down into the water, and run about on the gravel at the bottom, scratching with his feet among the small stones, and picking away at all the small insects and animalcules which he could dislodge.* The Missel Thrush (Zurdus viscivorus) is in England con- sidered only as an early songster, but in Ireland its song may be heard at every season of the year, with the exception of the moulting season. That of the Fieldfare, a migrating Thrush that arrives from the north towards the end of October, and remains in these countries in large flocks during the winter, is described as soft and melodious. But the present genus contains two species, which bear away the prize in minstrelsy from any of their associates—the Song Thrush (7Z'urdus musicus), and the Blackbird (7. merula), “The Mavis and Merle” of the Border Ballads. The poet has in one line characterized both the song and the haunts of the one last mentioned :— “The Blackbird whistles from the thorny brake.” THomson’s SEASONS. The Thrush usually haunts woods and small plantations, but we have heard its song poured out on one of the wildest * Wild Sports of the Highlands. 330 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. mountain tracts in the County of Antrim, the singer being perched upon a ragweed. Mr. Thompson records an instance in which one of these birds built five nests in the course of one season, and reared seventeen young. We have already adverted (p. 181) to the tantalizing proof we experienced of its partiality for one of our most beautiful land shells, or rather for its occupant, as food. Sylviade.—The family we have next to mention is the most musical in Europe, and some of its members have attained the highest reputation as vocalists. Among those best known may be mentioned the Redbreast, Sedge- Warbler, Nightingale, Blackeap Warbler, and Willow Wren. The brief notice we can give shall be bestowed upon the Redbreast and the Nightingale. We have been taught to love the Robin Redbreast (Sylva rubecula), associated as it is with recollections which the wear and tear of after life can never efface.* Those who have lived in this country have seen him during the summer feeding on earth-worms, caterpillars, berries, and fruits ; and in winter presenting himself to receive from the hand of man the food which the frozen earth withholds. His habits, when he first ventures into the cottage to pick up the proffered crumbs, have been truly described by Thomson :— “Then hopping o’er the floor, Eyes all the smiling family askance, And pecks, and starts, and wonders where he is.’’ “The sprightly air of this species,” says Mr. Yarrell, “the full dark eye, and the sidelong turn of the head, give an appearance of sagacity and inquiry to their character, which, aided by their confidence, has gained them friends ; and the Robin has accordingly acquired some familiar domestic name, in almost every country of Europe.” The bird seems at times to have indulged in some whimsical fancies as to the situation of his nest. “A pair took up their abode in the parish church of Hampton, in Warwickshire, and affixed their nest to the church Bible, as it lay on the reading- * Shakspeare mentions the bird by the old Saxon name—the Ruddock, .and refers to its performance of the same office as that attributed to it in the well-known ballad :— “ The Ruddock would, With charitable bill, bring thee all this, Yea, and furred moss besides, when flowers are none, To winter-ground thy corse.”—CyMBELINE, Act iv. scene 2. — anew ——_ BIRDS. 331 desk. The vicar would not allow the birds to be disturbed, and therefore supplied himself with another Bible, from which he read the lessons of the service.”’** One pair built repeatedly adjoining a blacksmith’s shop; but neither the noise of the adjacent forge, nor frequent visits disturbed them.t Another constructed the nest in a hole in the timbers of a vessel under- going repairs in the dry dock at Belfast, while the deafening process of driving in what are called the tree-nails was carried forward, occasionally close to the nest.t But a more extra- ordinary selection was made by one which had been frequently expelled from a bird-stuffing room, where the window was kept open, and is thus recorded by Mr. Thompson :—“ Finding that expulsion was of no avail, recourse was had to a novel and rather comical expedient. My friend had, a short time before, received a collection of stuffed Asiatic quadrupeds, and of these he selected the most fierce-looking Carnivora, and placed them at the open window, which they nearly filled up, hoping that their formidable aspect might deter the bird from future ingress; but the Redbreast was not to be so frightened from its ‘propriety,’ and made its entrée as usual. Its perseverance was at length rewarded by a free permission to have its own way, when, as if in defiance of the ruse that had been attempted to be practised upon it, the chosen place for the nest was the head of a shark!” The Nightingale (Sylvia luscinia, Fig. 265, a.) stands pre-eminent in all the re-, quisites for first-rate song. The volume, quality, and execution of its voice are unrivalled among British birds, and its powers appear still more extraordinary, taken in connexion with the diminutive size of the musician.§ It is a native Fig. 265, A.—NiGuTiNGate. * From the pleasing little volumes to which we have more than once referred, the ‘‘ Familiar History of Birds,” by the Bishop of Norwich, vol. ii. p. 35. The fact is given on the authority of a writer in Magazine of Natural History, No. 31. t Yarrell, from the Field Naturalists’ Magazine, $} Thompson. The vessel was the Dunlop. § Yarrell, 332 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. of southern climes, and appears in England in April, the arrival of the males preceding that of the females from ten to fourteen days. It is by no means generally distributed. It does not appear to frequent Cornwall nor Wales, and is rarely heard to the north of Warwickshire ; it is consequently absent from Scotland and the adjoining islands, and is altogether unknown in Ireland. The song of woe,* which the poets have attributed to the Nightingale, is entirely fanciful. To the solitary and senti- mental muser, the notes may have seemed plaintive in the extreme, and suggested the idea of the widowed bird mourning for her mate. But the songs of birds are not the vehicle of sorrow, but the expression of joy; and in most cases they proceed from the male bird, either while wooing his partner, or cheering her in the performance of her maternal duties. The song of the Nightingale is the outpouring of joy, and not of sadness, and is due mainly, if not exclusively, to the male. The beautiful golden-crested Wren (S. regulus), the various species of Titmice (Parus), the vivacious and attractive Wagtails (Motacilla), can only be mentioned. To them suc- ceed the Pipits (Anthus) frequenting the wood, the meadow, or the coast, according to the different habits and food of the several species. They lead by easy stages to the True Larks, which commence the next group — those which have the bills conical. Before, however, giving attention to them, we would like to pause for a mo- ment on _ tropical birds remarkable for their slender bills, and hence spoken of Fig. 266,—HuoinG-prep by some writers by a * “Here can I sit alone, unseen of any, And to the Nightingale’s complaining notes Tune my distresses and record my woes.” Two GENTLEMEN OF VERONA, Act. vy, scene 4, ee BIRDS. 333 term denoting this peculiarity (Tenuirostres). They cannot be better exemplified than by the Humming-birds (Jig. 266), a tribe which includes some of the smallest and most beautiful of the whole feathered race, combining the richness of flowers and the brilliancy of gems. They take their name from the manner in which they hover over flowers, keeping up a hum- ming-noise by the vibration of their wings, the motion of which at such times is so rapid as to be scarcely visible. Mr. Darwin says they reminded him of the sphinx moths, and considers that insects rather than honey are the objects of their search —an opinion which an examination of the stomachs of several specimens which were shot confirmed, as the remains of in- sects were found in all.* Trize Il.—CONICAL-BILLED BIRDS.—CONIROSTRES, —E a “The Daw, The Rook and Magpie, to the grey-grown oaks : * ° ee their lazy alent THomson’s “SuMMER.” Tue first bird we shall mention—the Sky-lark—does not exhibit that form of bill which gives name to the tribe; the true representatives of the group must be sought, not upon he outskirts, but towards the centre of the territory. The hinder toe is apparently disproportioned to the others by its reat length; but this peculiarity, which unfits the Lark for perching, enables it to walk with ease upon the grass, and spring upwards ere the wings are expanded for flight. The ood consists of seeds, worms, and insects. The bird delights in dusting itself; a process in this as in others resorted to, for the purpose, it is supposed, of freeing themselves from small arasitic insects. In autumn, Larks collect in large flocks, become fat, and in some parts of England are captured by aets in large numbers, and sold as a delicacy. But it is not any one of these circumstances, nor all of hem together, that gives the Lark its fascinations, when in arly spring we listen to the flood of music it pours on the * Journal, pages 37, 330, 334 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. awakening earth, or hearken to the cheerful influence of its song as described by Milton :— “To hear the Lark begin his flight And singing startle the dull night ; From his watch-tower in the skies, *Til the dappled morn doth rise, Then to come in spite of sorrow, And at my window bid good-morrow.” L’ ALLEGRO. Calculations as to the usefulness of the bird are lost sight of; and a part from them altogether, men, by universal consent, pay homage to the joy-inspiring minstrel, whose note is ever fresh and ever gladsome. By Thomson he is described as ———__——“ The messenger of morn, Ere yet the shadows fly, he mounted sings, Amid the dawning clouds, and from their haunts Calls up the tuneful nations.” —Sprine. The Lark is universally distributed over Europe, and descriptions akin to these are everywhere current. Who then could wish that the Zoologist and the Poet should move in separate paths? Who would not desire that the Poet should proclaim the truths which the objects around him teach, and lead man to regard them as volumes which the Creator has unfolded for his perusal ? Fringilide.*—Associated with the Larks in one extensive family containing nearly thirty native species, are the Buntings, the Finches, Sparrows, Grosbeaks, and some who as songsters are justly prized, as the Goldfinch, the Linnet, and the Bull- finch; also the singular Crossbill, whose beak would seem deformed and useless, did not a knowledge of the manner in which it is employed in opening the cones of the fir-tree show that it is in reality a most efficient instrument for its destined purpose. Sturnide.—The Common Starling (Sturnus vulgaris,t Fig. 267) is the representative of another family. It is well known for its power of imitating sounds ; and from an early age has in our minds been associated with Sterne’s well-known words, * Latin Fringilla, a Chaftinch. { This figure, and that of the Gull (284) are copied from Bewick. | a ee BIRDS. $35 “T cannot get out;’* and with the angry resolution of Hotspur. ¢ The Starling is a migratory species; but a difference of opinion prevails among naturalists as to the extent and regu- larity of the migration. The most recent record on the sub- ject is that afforded by Mr. W. Thompson, ¢ relative to the appearance of the Starling in the neighbourhood of Belfast. He informs us that this occurs towards the middle or latter Fig. 267.—STARLING. end of September, and continues for about six or eight weeks ; that the flocks are seen every fine morning coming from the north-east and continuing the same course; and that each flock consists of from half-a-dozen to two hundred individuals, and arrives generally between eight and ten o’clock. “ At the season of their earliest appearance there is daylight between four and five o’clock in the morning, and their not being seen before eight o’clock, leads to the belief that they have * “ The Captive.” *J'll have a Starling shall be taught to speak 8 Nothing but Mortimer.” Kine Henry IV., Part i, Act i. scene 3. } Annals and Megazine of Natural History, 336 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. left some distant place at an early hour.” The greatest num- ber ever seen in one day in their course of flight, amounted to 1500; and the entire number thus seen during the migratory period, to about 15,000. Mr. Yarrell mentions localities in which these birds con- gregate by thousands; in one case in the vicinity of Bristol, by millions. Their food consists of worms, insects, snails, berries, and grain. They build in ruins, old trees, church- steeples, rocks, and holes about buildings; and Mr. Ball has remarked, that the celebrated round towers of Ireland are favourite nesting-places. The evolutions of a large body of Starlings before retiring to rest have been so graphically de- scribed in the “ Familiar History of Birds,” that it would be doing injustice to the learned and right reverend author, not to give the words there employed. “At first they might be seen advancing high in the air, like a dark cloud, which in an instant, as if by magic, became almost invisible, the whole body, by some mysterious watch- word or signal, changing their course, and presenting their wings to view edgeways, in- stead of exposing, as before, their full expanded spread. Again, in another moment, the cloud might be seen de- scending in a graceful sweep, so as almost to brush the earth as they glanced along. Then once more they were seen spiring in wide circles on high, till at length with one simul- taneous rush down they glide, with a roaring noise of wing, till its vast mass buried itself unseen, but not unheard, amid a bed of reeds projecting from Fig. 268.—Brrp OF PARADISE. the bank, adjacent to the wood. For no sooner were they perched than every throat seemed to open itself, forming one incessant confusion of tongues.” This is perhaps the place where reference may be made to the Birds of Paradise (Fig. 268), which, according to Eastern ‘ Pai BIRDS. 337 fable, lived upon dew and vapour, and carried on without de- scending to earth all the functions of life, even to the produc- tion of their eggs and young. They have justly been said, from the extreme beauty of their plumage, to hold the highest rank among the feathered glories of the creation. They are limited to New Guinea, or as it is frequently called, the country of the Papuas, and some of the adjacent islands of the South Pacific Ocean. The natives of these countries, when prepar- ing and drying the skins, were in the habit of removing the feet of the bird. The skins in this state were sold to the Malays, carried into India, and thence conveyed into Europe. Here we have the origin of the superstitious ideas with which these birds were formerly associated, arising from the supposed want of legs. The legend has been commemo- rated by Linnzus, who applied to the best known species the appellation, “ footless ;’’* and it has been enshrined in the har- monious lines of the poet :— “« The footless fowl of heaven that never Rest upon earth, but on the wing for ever, Hovering o’er flowers their fragrant food inhale, Drink the descending dew upon its way, And sleep aloft while floating on the gale.” Sourney’s “ Curse or Krnama.” Corvide.—The Starling, which has been already noticed, and the Raven, the Magpie, and the Jay, which are members of the present family, possess the power of imitating the human voice in a higher degree of perfection than any other British sirds. One example of this has been mentioned in a preced- ng page (p. 307). The Raven labours under the misfortune of being regarded a bird of ill omen.t High rocks and other places, where anger may best be descried, are his favourite haunts. His ood is various, emmets, reptiles, birds and their eggs, fish, and arrion ; like other species, he is partial to chickens and young ucks ; and we were assured on one occasion by a credible vitness that he had seen a Raven alight among a flock of full- — * Paradisea apoda. : ‘ *s Fig. 288.—Atr-Tuprs, AND Lungs or Man. Fig. 289.—Porcurine. defensive covering of the Armadillo (Fig. 311). 23 372 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. Skeleton.— By far the greater number of the animals be- longing to this class move on the ground by the action of four feet, from which circumstance the name quadruped has been restricted to them. It is occasionally used in a more eneral sense, as synonymous with the scientific term mam- malia. The outline of the skeleton conveys, in most cases, an idea of that of the body ; but occasionally, as in the hump of the Camel (Fg. 290), there exists in the living animals Fig. 290,-SKELETON OF CAMEL.* some peculiarly striking feature, which is not represented in the bony framework. The hump, in the present instance, consists of fatty tissue, and is well known to diminish in size, and nearly to disappear when the animal is exposed to long- continued privation. The possession of four feet used for the purposes of loco- motion, though general in the mammalia, is by no means * Fig. 290.—Skeleton of the Camel on a black ground, exhibiting an outline of the animal; vc, cervical yertebre; vd, dorsal vertebre; v/, lumbar vertebra; vs, sacral vertebre; vg, caudal vertebre; e, ribs; 0, scapula; A, humerus; cu, bone of forearm ; ca, carpus; mc, metacarpus; ph, phalanges; fe, femur; ro, patella; ti, tibia; ¢a, tarsus; mt, metatarsus. In fig. 291, the corresponding parts are indicated by the same letters as in jig. 290, MAMMALIA, 373 universal. In the true Monkeys, all the extremities are shaped like hands, and are used for prehension as well as for locomotion. In the Bats, that part of the anterior extremities which corresponds to the fingers of the human hand, is enormously developed, and forms the bony framework of the | wings (J/g. 334). In the Seals (Fig. 291), the extremities are converted into paddles; and there are some warm-blooded herbivorous animals inhabiting the sea, in which the hinder legs are altogether wanting. h a ‘ * \ we Se, sues eas? Fig. 29!.—SKELETON oF SEAL.* The number of vertebre or joints in the spinal column varies much in the several tribes, the difference depending principally upon the presence or absence of the tail, and the varying number of its parts. A remarkable uniformity pre- vails in the structure of the neck. The short thick neck of the Elephant, and the long slender neck of the Giraffe, contain precisely the same number of vertebrw, namely, seven. This is the invariable number, though there are a few apparent exceptions. The mammalia present in this respect a singular contrast to birds (ante, p. 282), and show how in the mechan- ism of the animal frame, similar results may be attained by the most opposite arrangements. . Head.—The head differs greatly, not only in size and form, but also in what may be regarded as its appendages. The Tapir, an animal allied in many respects to the Hog, has the snout prolonged into a fleshy proboscis (Fig. 292), which is * For description, vide foot-note, p. 372. 374 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. capable of extension or contraction, but does not act as an instrument of prehension. The Elephant, on the contrary Fig. 292.—HEaD OF TaPIR. (Fig. 322), is furnished with an organ remarkable for its varied powers of action, combining in the highest de- gree delicacy and strength. In both these instances the proboscis is a pro- longation of the muscular fibre and covering, and not a distinct appen- dage. The Rhinoceros (fig. 293) has a weapon which is found adhering to the skin, not growing Fig. 293. —RHINOCEROS. from the skull; it is regarded as hair growing in a mass, and Fig. 294.—-HkAp oF REINDEER. presenting the appearance of a solid horn. The Giraffe has bony protu- berances, the rudimental representa- tives of the curved or branching horns with which other tribes of ruminat- ing animals are furnished. In the Stag the horns have at first a hairy skin; when this has worn away and the horns have remained bare for a time, they are thrown off, and their place is supplied by others. In structure they resemble solid bone, MAMMALIA. 375 from which circumstance the animals of the Deer tribe are termed Solid-horned Ruminants. 'The quantity of bony matter thus annually secreted is very remarkable. In the large extinct species, popularly known as the “Irish Elk,” the Antlers weighed from 60 to 70 Ibs. and as in the existing males, were the growth of a single year. In the Ox and the Goat (Fig. 295), these organs are formed of the elastic substance which we call horn, and which is analogous to that of the hair and hoofs. They are hollow within, cover the bony axis like a sheath, and “ continue to grow throughout life, but Fig. 295.—Heap or Goat. only at intervals, depending upon the season of the year, the age of the individual, and the supply of food.”’* ‘To these animals the name of Hollow- horned Ruminants has been applied; the bony core of the horns is formed of cells, which communicate with the nose, and are thus filled with air. By this arrangement lightness is added to strength. The tusks of the Elephant, though appendages exterior to the head, are in reality a part of the dental system of the animal, and are the representatives of those teeth which in man are known as the cutting or incisors. ‘“'They not only surpass all other teeth in size, as belonging to a quadruped so enormous, but they are the largest of all teeth in proportion to the size of the body.”+ Tusks of the Mammoth, an extinct species of Elephant, have been found from nine to eleven feet in length, and one has been known to weigh so much as one hundred and sixty pounds. The importance of these tusks as an article of commerce may be estimated from the fact, that in 1737, an account was published of the Mammoth’s bones and teeth found in Siberia; and of the uses to which the tusks were applied; and “from that time to the present there has been no intermission of the supply of ivory furnished by the tusks of the extinct Elephants of a former world.” * Ogilby. Monograph of the Hollow-horned Ruminants. Transactions of the Zoological Society of London. + Owen’s Odontography. ¢ Idem, 376 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. Another appendage to the head, and of great value in a commercial point of view, is that which is popularly, though not very correctly, termed “ whale-bone.”’ It is not bone, but a series of horny plates, the substitutes of the true teeth, which in the whale are altogether wanting. The position of these plates is is shown in the annexed figure (Fig. 296); they form a complete fringe suspended from the margin of the upper jaw, and when the whale closes its enormous mouth, they act as a seive, permitting the water to pass through, and enabling the animal to retain the small gelatinous and mol- luscous creatures on which it lives. The “ Baleen’’ or Whale- bone, is so important an article of trade, that hundreds of tons are annually brought into Britain, won by her intrepid mariners among the perils of the Arctic seas. Teeth_—We now pass on to the teeth, viewed as instruments for the mastication of food. In man they are thirty-two in number, when the series is complete; and the number is the same both in the Orang and Chimpanzee.* They are of three Fig. 296.—SKULL OF WHALE. Fig. 297.—TEeTH OF MAN. Se oe SES Satta, — Molars. Premolars. Canine. Incisors. kinds, the incisor or cutting teeth, the canine, which attain a large development in the Dog and carnivorous animals, and hence derive their name ;+ and the molar or grinding teeth. * Owen's Odontography. + Latin, canis, a dog. MAMMALIA. 377 There are eight on each side of the upper, and also of the lower jaw; thus amounting in all to thirty-two.* A. few species of mammalia, as the Ant-eaters, are entirely devoid of teeth ; in others there is a great diversity as to their number. The female Narwhal has two teeth, and both are concealed in the substance of the jaw. The Australian Water- rats have twelve. Most gnawing animals have twenty; but the Hares and Rabbits have twenty-eight. The Porpoise has between eighty and ninety, and the true Dolphins from one hundred to one hundred and ninety.t It is found that the arrangement of the teeth varies, accord- ing as the food is to consist of animal or vegetable substances, of soft flesh or horny covered insects ; of tender herbs, or wood of greater or less degree of hardness. Hence it is possible, merely by an inspection of the teeth, to determine, with con- siderable certainty, the diet, the habits, and even the general structure of most of the mammalia.t{ We never meet in nature with an incongruous union of parts. A Lion with the hoof of a Horse, could not subsist ; Fig. 298.—SKuLL oF A GNAWING ANIMAL. Fig. 292.—SKULL or A Boar. it would die of hunger from inability to seize and retain its prey. In like manner, a Horse, with the teeth of a Lion, would starve in the midst of the finest pastures, from being unable to crop and triturate its food. * Zoologists have adopted a formula for expressing the number of teeth possessed by different animals at each side of the mouth, distinguishing those in the upper jaw from those in the lower jaw.- The dental formula of man is written thus :— 2—2 1—1 2—2 3—8 Incisors——; Canines; Premolars———_-; Molars——-; = 382. 2—2 1—1 2—2 3—3 t Owen’s Odontography. t~ M. Edwards’ Elémens, 378 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. Bearing these facts in mind, let any one but look at the re- presentations here given of the skulls and teeth of three of the most common quadrupeds, and he will at once be struck with the diversity of form and arrangements they exhibit, and the modifications of internal structure they indicate. Fig. 300.—SKULL oF a Horse. We are desirous, even at the risk of some repetition, that this matter should be clearly understood. The researches of the zoologist and the comparative anatomist, have proved the perfect dependence of one part of the animal form upon another. To this there is no exception ; all living beings testify the same truth, and establish the unity of plan evinced by their organiz- ation. The geologist, in bringing to light the remains of the animals that in former ages were monarchs of the earth, adduces, amid all their diversity of form, no example that is not in ac- cordance with the same great truth. Hence, it is obvious that if there are structural laws, to which all are subject, the comparative anatomist may from portions of the frame infer the size, the structure, and the functions of all the rest, and describe the conditions under which the animal had lived. To the genius of Cuvier we are indebted for pointing out this mode of investigation, and showing the important results to which it leads. The path which he thus opened has been successfully explored, and has revealed much that was pre- viously unknown. It has brought to light forms and propor- tions too strange for Fancy to imagine, but not for Science to delineate. The fossil bone has in the hands of the zoologist become instinct with life, and told the tale of its existence. It has furnished him with a spell more potent than the “open sesame”’ of the eastern tale, and unlocked the portals within which the history of a former world lay recorded. The necessary dependence of one part of the animal frame MAMMALIA, 379 upon another, is a principle that should ever be kept in view, and with which the mind of the learner should become familiar. We have seen, that, according to the nature of the food, there is an adaptation of parts both internal and external ; these are accompanied by corresponding habits. Hencethe organs needful for the providing of food—or in other words, the teeth and the extremities—furnish, so far as external characters are con- cerned, a sound basis for classification; and as such they were regarded by Cuvier. While, however, the system laid down by that distinguished naturalist, in the last edition of his Régne Animal, is here adopted, it is not implicitly followed in every particular. Since the publication of that work, vast accessions to our knowledge of animals have been received, and impose the necessity of some changes in the classification. It would be contrary to the spirit of Cuvier not to concede what is thus demanded.* The following distribution of the inferior animals into ten orders, is that which is sanctioned by the writings of two British naturalists, whose opinion on such matters is entitled to the highest respect.t Man is also included under the dis- tinctive term applied to that of which he is the sole represen- tative, thus making eleven orders in all. I. Bimana (two-handed) Man. II. Quadrumana (jfour-handed) Monkeys. III. Cheiroptera (finger-winged) Bats. IV. Insectivora _—(tnsect-eating) | Hedgehog, Shrew. V. Carnivora (flesh-eating) Lion, Tiger, Bear. VI. Cetacea (whale-like) Whale, Porpoise. VII. Pachydermata (thick-skinned) Elephant, Rhinoceros, VIII. Ruminantia (ruminating) Ox, Deer. IX. Edentata (toothless) Sloth, Ant-eater. X. Rodentia (gnawing Rat, Hare, Squirrel. XI. Marsupiata = (pouched) Opossum, Kangaroo, It is quite impossible in any linear arrangement such as the * The principal change is the separation of the Bats (Cheiroptera) and the Hedgehogs, &c. (/nsectivora), from Cuvier’s order of “ Carnassiers,” or flesh-eating animals, and the elevation of those groups from the ranks of Families to that of distinct Orders. There are also changes with regard to the Marsupial animals. ¢ Professor Owen, in Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology; and G. R. Waterhouse, Esq., in Magazine and Annals of Natural History. 350 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. above, where the several orders follow each in regular succes- sion, to convey an idea of the affinities which sometimes con- nect families that belong to orders widely separated in the scale. The same difficulty presents itself in every extensive assemblage of animals, showing, as has already been remarked (p. 28), that “the chain of beings of which the poet has sung, has no real existence in nature.” The number of animals belonging to the class mammalia, has been variously estimated, from 1149 to 1500; the latter number is that adopted by the learned authors of the “ Phy- sical Atlas,” as the basis of their calculations respecting the proportionate number of the species. The species described as British,* amount to between eighty and ninety, and those recorded as Irish, to little more than one-third of that number.t In the limited space to which we are restricted, we shall not attempt to introduce those anecdotes illustrative of the habits of the Elephant, the Tiger, the Reindeer, &c., which are scat- tered throughout elementary works in general use. Our object shall rather be to point out how the different orders are char- acterized, and in what manner they are distributed. With the laws affecting their geographical distribution, we are as yet but imperfectly acquainted. One of the most obvious causes which limit the growth of vegetables, and the range of animals within certain bounds, is temperature. Heat and moisture stimulate the growth of plants, and wherever vegetation is most luxuriant, there the land animals are most abundant. They are confined within certain limits by the intervention of seas and of continuous ranges of mountains. But even when such obstacles do not exist, animals appear subject to certain climatic conditions, and pass not the limits which the Author of the Universe has fixed as the bounds of their habitation. Thus in North America, Sir Charles Lyell observes there are “several distinct zones of indigenous mam- malia, extending east and west on the continent, where there are no great natural boundaries running in the same direction, such as mountain ridges, deserts, or wide arms of the sea, to check the migration of species. The climate alone has been sufficient to limit their range. The mammiferous fauna of New York, comprising about forty species, is distinct from that of * Professor Bell's British Quadrupeds. ¢ Thompson’s Report on the Fauna of Ireland. Toe MAMMALIA. 881 the arctic region, six hundred miles north of it, and described by Dr. (now Sir John) Richardson. It is equally distinct from that of South Carolina and Georgia, a territory about as far distant to the south.’’* Our notice of the several orders of mammalia shall be com- menced with those which are lowest in the seale, and gradually ascend to man, gifted as he has been with dominion “over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.” Orper MARSUPIATA.—MARSUPIAL or POUCHED ANIMALS. “‘ Deform’d, unfinish’d, sent before my time Into this breathing world, scarce half made up.” —Ruicuarp III. Tue greater number of the mammalia are nourished prior to birth, by a network of blood-vessels named the placenta.+ This is altogether wanting in the group now under considera- tion. While others do not come into the world until they are provided with all their organs, these are brought forth in an extremely imperfect state. ‘The female in most instances is furnished with a peculiar pouch (Latin, marsupium, a purse or bag), whence the scientific name for the order. In this pouch the immature young are received and nourisbed, and to it they afterwards retreat on the approach of danger. Certain bony projections, termed the Marsupial bones, are found in both sexes, even in those species in which the characteristic pouch does not exist. “The order Marsupiata,” says Mr. Waterhouse, “ embraces a large assemblage of quadrupeds, amongst which are those animals familiarly known as Opossums and Kangaroos. At * Travels in North America, vol. i. p. 172. - The extract is given in Berghaiis and Johnston’s Physical Atlas, from which all our information on the numbers and distribution of species is derived. ¢ The mammalia which are thus nourished are termed placental; the others the non-placental. Some naturalists regard this distinctien of so great importance, that they consider the two divisions should rank as distinct classes. 382 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. the present period the great metropolis of the order is Australia; certain species of the group, however, are found in the Molucca Islands, and one genus, containing many species,” (the Opos- sums) “is peculiar to the New World.” ‘Their remains have been found in a fossil state in Europe, as well as in Australia and South America.* This order “presents a remarkable diversity of structure, (and consequently habits) containing herbivorous, carnivorous, and insectivorous species; indeed, we find among the Marsu- pial mammals analogous representations of most of the other orders of mammalia.’’ Its most striking peculiarity is the pre- mature birth of the young, and consequently the imperfect state of their development at that period. Professor Owen examined the young of the great Kangaroo, twelve hours after birth, and found its whole length from the nose to the end of the tail did not exceed one inch and two lines.t The corre- sponding measurement of a full-grown male would be between eight and nine feet.t “ An animal so little advanced at the time of its birth as the young Marsupial, requiring a constant supply of food, and so ill fitted to bear the exposure which the more advanced young of other mammalia are subject to, must, it would appear, perish, were not some peculiar provision made for its safety. In the pouch of the female we find this provision.” Here the young remain firmly attached to the nipple of the mother, and supplied without effort and in perfect security, with the nutri- ment it requires. ‘This pouch, when the animal is very young, has its orifice closed, and glued as it were, to the body of the parent by a peculiar secretion. When the young animal is more advanced, this secretion disappears, and the young fre- quently leave the pouch to return at will.” It has long been a question among naturalists in what man- ner is the young transferred to the pouch? On this point, an observation made on one of the female Kangaroos, at Knowsley, the seat of the Earl of Derby, gives the first precise informa- * Our information is derived from a valuable work now in course of publication, Natural History of the Mammalia, by R. G. Waterhouse, Esq., and when practicable, we give the words of the original, marked by inverted commas. t A line is the twelfth part of an inch. t The body, measured from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail, being, according to Mr. Waterhouse, 63 inches, and the tail 42 inches. : MAMMALIA, 883 tion. Immediately on the birth of the young one, the mother took it up in her fore-paws, opened the pouch with them, and deposited the young within. ‘In five minutes she was jump- ing about the place as if nothing had happened.” * Above one hundred and twenty species of Marsupial animals have been recorded, forming about one-twelfth of the entire number of mammalia. In size there is great diversity, ranging from a diminutive Opossum, which is little larger than the common Mouse, to the great Kangaroo t+ already mentioned ; and the disparity in size is still greater if we extend our view to extinct species, as Professor Owen, from the fossil remains of one brought from Australia, is of opinion that the animal must, when living, have been of bulk superior to that of the Rhinoceros. Some Marsupial animals are so inferior in certain structural peculiarities to the rest, and approach so much in these points to birds and reptiles, that they form a distinct section bearing a distinct name (Monotremata).t To this division belong the Fig. 301—OgnrirHoryncvs. * Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 12th Nov., 1844. Letter from the Rt. Hon. the Earl of Derby, President of the Society. In the instance referred to, the period of Utero-gestation was under one month. ¢ Didelphys pusilla. ¢ Signifying one orifice or outlet. 384 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. Echidna and the Ornithoryneus * (Zig. 801). The former is a little ant-eating animal, bearing externally some resemblance toa Hedgehog; the latter, a creature so anomalous, that when the first specimens of it arrived in Europe, and naturalists saw the body of a quadruped joined to the bill of a bird, they naturally suspected that the union was an artificial one. The real animal was in fact more wonderful than that which any dealer in “strange beasts,” would have ventured to fabri- cate. The Ornithoryncus is about eighteen inches long, and is called by the natives of Australia the water-mole. It frequents tranquil waters, seeking its food among aquatic plants, and excavating its burrows in the steep and shaded banks. The motions of its mandibles when procuring food are similar to those of a duck under the same circumstances.t The Kangaroos of Australia, form the family (M/acropodide)t best known to Europeans. “They are vegetable-feeding ani- mals, browsing upon herbage like the Ruminants, and it appears that in some cases they chew the cud like those animals. Some are of great size, being nearly as tall as a man when in their common erect position ; others are as smail as the common Hare, and indeed greatly resemble that animal in general ap- pearanee.”§ About the beginning of the present century, but three species of the present group were known. They are now regarded as a family, subdivided into many genera, and con- taining numerous species. We have a very vivid recollection of a scene we once wit- nessed at the Surrey Zoological Gardens. On the abdomen of a large bluish-grey coloured Kangaroo, we noticed two appen- dages, which a second glance told us were the fore-feet of the young one. In another moment the head peeped out, and the young creature began gazing around. The mother then bent down, and with great tenderness, began licking its face and head. These endearments being finished, the young one came out, and was amusing itself on the ground, when alarmed by a sudden noise, it jamped into the pouch, and was seen no more, leaving us as much astonished, as when, in our boyish days, we * From two Greek words, the one signifying a bird, the other a beak. It is sometimes called the ‘ Duck-billed Platypus,” (flat-foot.) + A most interesting account of its habits is given by Mr. George Bennett in the Transactions of the Zoological Society of London, vol. i. t The generie term Macropus, signifies long-footed. § Waterhouse. MAMMALIA. 385 Fig. 802.—KaANGARoo. first saw Harlequin escape from his pursuers by jumping through a picture. Passing by the family (Phalangistide) which includes the “Flying Squirrel,” we come to that of the Opossums (Didel- phide). The Opossums are peculiar to America, and are found diffused from the southern border of Canada to Chili and Paraguay. ‘The largest known species scarcely equal in size the Common Cat, and by far the greater number, approaching more nearly to that of the Common Rat.” “Their food con- sists chiefly of insects; but small reptiles, as well as birds and their eggs, are attacked by the larger species.”’ The feet are shaped like hands, and the hinder feet are furnished with op- posable thumbs.* Some of the Opossums have no pouch,t or at least this receptacle for the young is found only in a very rudimentary condition in certain species, and the young, which at first re- main firmly attached to the nipples, are subsequently carried upon the back of the parent. Such is the case in the species represented in the annexed figure. (/ig.303). It might puzzle us to imagine by what means the young could retain their places, while the mother was rapidly changing her position * Waterhouse’s Mammalia, From this circumstance they are included by Mr. Ogilby in the same order as the Monkeys, and regarded as belonging to that division to which he has given the name Pedimana. 386 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. Fig. 303.—MErrIAn’s OPossum.* among the branches of a tree. But the young Opossums adopt a ready mode of guarding against the danger of a fall, by entwining their long tails round the tail of their mother. OrpER RODENTIA.t—RODENTS or GNAWING ANIMALS. THE preceding order was composed exclusively of animals be- longing to foreign countries. The present is well represented among our native quadrupeds, as the British species amount to fourteen in number, and are illustrative of some of the most important families. The characteristics of the group are so well developed in the Rat and the Mouse, that the family to which they belong is regarded as typical of the order. In the precise language of Mr. Jenyns the order is thus defined :—* Incisors two in each jaw, large and strong, remote from the grinders; tusks none; toes distinct with small coni- eal claws.” { The total number of species is six hundred and four, being two-fifths or nearly one-half of the entire number of mammalia known at the present time.§ * Fig. 303. Didelphys dorsigera, a native of Surinam, described and figured by Madame Merian, in the year 1719. { From the Latin rodere, to gnaw; rodens, gnawing. The term glires is also applied to the present order, from the Latin glis, gliris, a Dormouse. t Manual of British Vertebrate Animals. § G. R. Waterhouse, Esq., in Berghaiis and Johnston's Physical Atlas. MAMMALIA. 387 Geographical Distribution.—On this subject Mr. Waterhouse remarks, that “species of the same group most frequently have a wide range in the same, or nearly the same parallels of lati- tude; but when the species are inhabitants of the high ridges of mountains they will follow the course of the mountains, though that course may be in the opposite, or north and south direction.” We learn from the same authority that the fa- mily of the Squirrels (S° ide, Fig. 304) .vains no less than 153 species. Few are found in South Ame- rica; they are chiefly natives of the northern Fig. 304.—SQuirkeL. parts of that continent. Two, or perhaps three species occur south of the equator, but on the eastern side of the Andes only. They also become rare in the southern parts of the eastern hemisphere. The family (Muride) to which the Rats and Mice belong, contains 306 species, and has the greatest geographical range. That to which the Porcupine is referred (Hystricid@) is, on the con- trary, essentially American. ‘Out of about eighty-seven ' species appertaining to this family, seven only are found out of the South American province, and these belong to the most highly organized divisions of the family.” The groups of islands comprehended under the term Polynesia, have no re- presentatives of the present order, except such as there is reason to believe have been introduced by shipping. If instead of considering the Rodentia with reference to the great divisions of the globe, we limit our view to their distri- bution within the British Isles, we shall find that, out of four- teen species enumerated by Professor Bell, seven, or one half of the entire number, are absent from Ireland. This is a singular fact when we consider how small an arm of the sea separates the two countries. rp annexed figure (305) repre- 19) 358 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. sents one of the Voles, little animals, which in many points exhibit a greater affinity to the Beaver than to the Mouse, with which in popular language they are associated. Of these there are in England three species ; yet the genus (Arvi- cola) to which they belong, is altogether unrepresented in Treland.* AD. Fig. 305.—SuorT-TAILED FIELD Movse. Teeth We turn from the geographical distribution of the Rodentia to the most striking characteristic of the order, the structure of the teeth. The Molar or grinding teeth, have Fig. 306.—MoLar TEETH OF THE Fig. 307.—Motar TEETH OF THE ARVICOLA. BEAVER. ridges of enamel variously arranged (Fig. 306, 307), which keep up the inequality of surface, as they wear less rapidly than the other portions. The incisor teeth, with their chisel- shaped edges, are, however, more remarkable. If a carpenter * The number actually recorded in the History of British Quadrupeds is fifteen; but since the publication of that valuable and beautifully illus- trated work, Mr. W. Thompson has taken one from the number, by showing that the Irish and the Alpine Hare, instead of being distinct, are one species. To the ‘‘ Report” of the latter gentleman on the Fauna of Ireland, we are indebted for the means of enumerating the British species which are not indigenous in Ireland. They are— 1. The Squirrel (?) (Sciurus vulgaris). 2. The Dormouse (Myoxus avellanarius). 3. The Harvest Mouse (?) (Mus messorius). 4. The Water Vole (Arvicola amphibius). 5.) The Field Vole (Arvicola agrestis). 6. The Bank Vole (Arvicola pratensis). 7. The Common Hare. (Lepus timidus). MAMMALIA. 389 could lay hold of the wishing-cap of the fairy tale, and desire to possess a chisel which would never wear out, and would never become blunt, we might suppose that the handle of such a tool would have in itself the means of secreting the iron and the steel of which the blade is formed, of welding them together, and of giving them at the same time the needful polish and smoothness. And as such a gift would not partake of the imperfections of human workmanship, the new material would be deposited just in proportion as the old wore away, and the temper of the chisel would be neither too hard nor too soft, so that the edge would not be liable either to break or to turn, but remain at all times in working order. Such in reality is the mode of growth in the incisor teeth of the Rodentia (Fig. 298). New matter is ever added at the base, the tooth is ever growing, the enamel is deposited on the outer edge, the softer or inner portions of the teeth wear away, and thus the bevilled or sloping edge of these most efficient tools, is in- variably preserved. Knowing these facts, we cannot examine the teeth of the Rabbit, nor of the common Mouse, without being struck with the amount of design they exhibit, the care for the wants of the animal which they manifest, and the perfection in which the continual growth compensates for the constant wearing away. And these ideas become more vivid, and the convic- tions to which they lead more indelible, if we observe what takes place in cases where the usual order of things is inter- fered with. ‘When,’ to use the words of Professor Owen, “by accident an opposing incisor is lost, or when by the distorted union of a broken jaw, the lower incisors no longer meet the upper ones, as sometimes happens to a wounded Hare, the incisors continue to grow until they project like the tusks of the Elephant, and the extremities, in the poor animal’s abor- tive attempts to acquire food, also become pointed like tusks : following the curve prescribed to their growth by the form of their socket, their points often return against some part of the head, are pressed through the skin, then cause absorption of the jaw-bone, and again enter the mouth, rendering mastica- » \ tion impracticable, and causing death by starvation.” * Hybernation—We have in this order several examples of animals which hybernate, or pass the winter in a greater or less * Odontography, p. 411, vide also plate 104, Fig. 5, in same work. 390 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. complete state of torpidity. Thus the Marmot (Fig. 308) of the Alps and Pyrenees dozes away the winter, until the sunshine Fig. 308. —Makmor. and the showers of April rouse it from slumber. The Ham- ster of the North of Europe, lays up in its winter quarters a plentiful store of grain, which it conveys from the fields in its capacious cheek pouches. The pro- vident instincts of both the Squirrel and the Dormouse of England, need only be referred to. The Jerboa, or Jumping Rat of Egypt(#7g. 309), although it does not hybernate,esta- blishes maga- zines of grain ; and thus “pro- videth her meat in the i aa summer, and Sieg — gathereth her Fig. 309.—JERBOA. food in the harvest.” Utility.—The annoyance, and occasionally the serious injury inflicted by some members of the present group, is universally admitted. On the other hand we should consider that substances which would soon be decaying. and offensive, are removed by their agency; that the fur of some is much valued, and forms an extensive branch of trade, and that man himself, and many carnivorous beasts and birds, derive from different species of these animals an important supply of food. MAMMALIA. 391 If we should be inclined to question which is greater, the good or the evil of which they are the unconscious instruments, we must not limit our attention to one species, one country, or one period, but let our views be wide, comprehensive, and unprejudiced, ever bearing in mind, that after all, we only “know in part,’ and “see as through a glass darkly.” And this considered, we shall probably arrive at the conclusion, that here, as in all other departments of nature, so far as we are capable of observing, there springs “From partial evil universal good.’’ In concluding our notice of Rodent animals, we may briefly refer to one or two well-known species. Professor Bell remarks, in treating of the Common Squirrel of England (Sciurus vulgaris):—“ The form and habits of this elegant and active little creature combine to render it one of the most beautiful and entertaining of our native animals.” In Ireland we are debarred from the opportunity of witnessing its gam- bols ; for in that country it is not now indigenous. There is a tradition that the Squirrel was common in Ireland before the destruction of the native woods. “It was re-introduced a few years ago into the county of Wicklow, where it is said to be fast increasing in number ;’’* and it abounds in some places in the counties of Longford and Westmeath.t The fur of the English and Scotch Hare is well known as valuable to the hatter, while that of the Irish Hare is worth- less. It is only of late years that it has been ascertained that the difference is not confined to the fur, but that the two animals are specifically distinct;t and still more recently, Mr. W. Thompson has arrived at the conclusion that the Hare of Ireland is identical with that known as the Alpine, or varying Hare of the Scotch mountains, notwithstanding the great difference in locality and habits. In this opinion Mr. Waterhouse concurs; so that it may now be regarded as an established fact, there are in reality but two species of Hares in these islands. The Beaver (Fig. 310) is an animal associated in our minds with the wondrous labours and social instincts which it mani- * Thompson's “ Report.” + My authority for this fact was the late Miss Edgeworth—or to use that name by which her memory is endeared to the young, ‘* Maria Edgeworth."’ t Bell's British Quadrupeds. Thompson on the Irish Hare. Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. xviii. 392 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. fests, in the solitudes frequented by the North American hunters. Professor Owen has, however, proved from historic and legendary evidence, the former existence of a species ot ESAs. Fig. 310.—BEAVER. Beaver (Castor Europeus) in the British Islands; besides the still more conclusive proof afforded by the remains of that animal associated with those of other denizens of the forest, the Wild Boar, the Deer, and the Wolf.* OrpEr EDENTATA.—TOOTHLESS ANIMALS. A Frew of the animals belonging to the present order are destitute of teeth. In this respect they resemble the Ant-eater of South America, whose long cylindrical tongue, covered with glutinous saliva, furnishes the means of entrapping its insect prey. But with few exceptions the Edentata cannot be described as toothless, the true characteristic is the absence of teeth from the front part of the jaw, where in the preceding group they were so fully developed. The present order is composed entirely of foreign species, and has been divided into three groups, one represented by the Ant-eater, a second by the Armadillo (Fig. 311), and the third by the Sloth (Fg. 312). The Armadillos (Dasypus) are peculiar to the New World ; no animals encased in a similar bony covering are found in * History of British Fossil Mammalia and Birds. —— MAMMALIA. 393 any other part of the globe. They extend from the banks of the Orinoco, through the whole of South America, and oceupy the lower regions of see the Andes, to the same elevation as the Sloths, about 3000 feet.* Their food is partly of animal and partly of vegetable substances and fruits. NITHPHRY oases One species known as Fig. 311.—Anmavitto. the Giant Armadillo, . is more than three feet in length. The others are small in size, and compared with the remains of an extinct species, now in the Museum of the College of Surgeons, London, are as diminutive as the existing Tortoises, contrasted with the re- mains of that colossal species already mentioned (ante, p. 278) from the Himalayan mountains. The Sloths (Bradypus), of which there are only four species, are found from the southern limits of Mexico to Rio de Janeiro.t Their food consists exclusively of leaves and fruits. The Sloth has been spoken of by naturalists of high reputation as disproportioned in its parts, grotesque, imperfect, to whom existence must be a burden. Such opinions have been exploded by a better knowledge of the habits of the animal. It is not destined to live upon the earth, but among the branches of trees, and not on them like the Squirrel, but under them. These things being known, its supposed defects turn out in reality to be perfections; and all its structural peculiarities but so many new adaptations of the animal frame to new functions, each declaring how presumptuous is man, who in his ignorance dares to question the consummate wisdom and perfection displayed in all the works of Nature. We are indebted to the kindness of Mr. R. Ball, the zealous * Berghaiis and Johnston's Atlas. + It is fully described by Professor Owen in a separate memoir, and named Glyptodon, from the Greek Glyptos, sculptured; odous, tooth. Dasypus, from the Greek dasys, hairy; pous, a foot. { Bradypus, Gr. bradys, tardy, slow; pous, a foot, being nearly the same as the Latin term Tardigradus, slow- paced. Some of the flesh-eaters being in the habit of rooting for their food, have been termed Effodientia, or diggers. These terms are not in all cases descriptive of the habits. B94 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. secretary of the Royal Zoological Society ‘of Ireland, for the accompanying figure (Jig. 312). It represents the Unau, or two-toed Sloth,* the first ever seen alive in these countries, and is copied from a prize drawing belonging to that Society. Fig, 312.—Unav, on Two-Torp Storu. “The Sloth,’ Mr. Waterton remarks, “is the only known quadruped that spends its whole life suspended by his feet from the branches of trees. The Monkey and the Squirrel seize a branch with their fore-feet, and pull themselves up, and rest or run upon it; but the Sloth, after seizing it, still remains suspended ; and, suspended, moves along under the branch till he can lay hold of another.’ The rapidity of the move- ment is well illustrated by Mr. Waterton in the following anecdote :—“ One day as we were crossing the river Esse- quibo, I saw a large two-toed Sloth on the ground upon the bank. How he got there nobody could tell ; the Indian said he never had surprised a Sloth in such a situation before ; he could hardly have come there to drink, for both above and below the place the branches of the trees touched the water, and afforded him an easy and a safe access to it. Be this as it may, though the trees were not twenty yards from him, he * This animal formed the subject of a highly interesting Lecture, delivered by Mr. Ball at one of the evening meetings of the Society. It was published in Saunders’s News-Letter, April 15, 1844, and gives a general view of the Sloths, recent and fossil. MAMMALIA. 395 could not make his way through the sand time enough to escape before we landed. As soon as we got up to him he threw himself upon his back, and defended himself in gallant style with his fore legs. ‘Come, poor fellow,’ said I to him, ‘if thou hast got into a hobble to-day, thou shalt not suffer for it. I'll take no advantage of thee in misfortune. ‘The forest is large enough both for me and thee to rove in. Go thy ways up above, and enjoy thyself in these endless wilds ; it is more than probable thou wilt never have another interview with man. So fare thee well.’ On saying this I took a long stick, which was lying there, held it for him to hook on, and then conveyed him to a high and stately mora tree. He ascended with wonderful rapidity, and in about a minute he was almost at the top of the tree. He now went off in a side direction, and caught hold of the branches of another tree, proceeding in this manner towards the heart of the forest. I stood looking on, lost in amazement at this singular mode of progress. I followed him with my eyes till the intervening branches closed in between us, and then I lost sight for ever of the two-toed Sloth.” Among the extinct animals of the present order, is one whose massive skeleton has procured for it the expressive appellation of Megatherium.* Its length, including the tail, must have been more than fourteen feet, and its height upwards of eight feet. The thigh bone was twice the thickness of that of the largest Elephant; the fore-foot must have measured more than a yard in length, and more than twelve inches in width, and was terminated by an enormous claw. The width of the upper part of the tail could not have been less than two feet.t Other extinct quadrupeds allied to this in many points of structure have been discovered, and the group deriving a name from its colossal leader, is spoken of as that of the Megatherioid animals. Their structure and general habits are most ably treated of by Professor Owen, in a memoir upon one species (Mylodon} ro- bustus), of which the skeleton is now in the splendid museum of the College of Surgeons, “set up” in the attitude shown in the annexed. figure (Fig. 313). In the course of this volume examples have been adduced of the exercise which the study of natural history gives to the * Gr. Mega, great; therion, a beast. + Dr. Buckland’s Bridgewater Treatise. Vide also Penny Cyclopmdia. t Gr. myle, a mill; odous, a tooth. 396 INTROPUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. observant faculties, the habits of arrangement which it requires, the generalizations to which it leads, the inexhaustible pleasures which it affords, and the devotional feelings with which it is associated. We would now wish the reader to regard it in a new light, as affording for the reasoning powers a field for their exertion not less beneficial than other departments of science, Fig. 313.—Myzopon. whose claim to be admitted into our schools and colleges have long since been recognized. As an instance of inductive reasoning, we now bring forward Professor Owen’s admirable memoir on the Mylodon. MAMMALIA. 397 “From the structure of the teeth he infers that both the Megatherium and Mylodon must have been phyllophagous, or leaf-eating animals ;* whilst from their short necks, the very opposite extreme to the Camelopard, they never could have reached the tops of even the lowest trees. Cuvier had sug- gested that they were fossorial or digging animals. Dr. Lund, a Danish naturalist, had considered the Megatherium to be a scansorial or climbing animal; in short, a gigantic Sloth. After a multitude of comparisons, Professor Owen rejects the explanation of all his predecessors. He shows that the monstrous dimensions of the hinder parts of the body, and the colossal and heavy hinder legs, could never have been designed either to support an animal which simply scratched the earth for food, or one which fed by climbing into lofty trees, like the diminutive Sloth; and he further cites the structure of every analogous creature, either of burrowing or climbing habits, to prove, that in all such, the hinder legs are com- paratively light. What then was the method by which Mee extraordinary monsters obtained their great supplies of food ?”’ The bones which correspond with those termed in the human body the hip-bones, were of enormous size, and were conjoined with muscular masses of unwonted force. “ Pro- fessor Owen supposes that the animal first cleared away the earth from the roots with its digging instruments, and that there seated on its hinder extremities, which, with the tail,t are conjectured to have formed a tripod, and aided by the extraordinary long heel as with a lever, it grasped the trunk of the tree with its fore-legs. Heaving to and fro the stateliest trees of primeval forests, and wrenching them from their hold, he at length prostrated them by his side, and then regaled himself for several days on their choicest leaves and branches, which till then had been far beyond his reach.” t * They form the family Gravigrada, ‘heavy paced,” of Owen. t There is scarcely a doubt, that the tail of the Mylodon was supplied with an arrangement of arteries similar to that which is known to exist in the arm of the Sloth, and which serves to enable the animal to maintain without fatigue his position, when suspended from the branch of a tree, This is confirmed by the discovery by Dr, Allman, of a similar arrangement in the tail of the Armadillo; and it is known that this animal can stand for a short time tripod-like, upon the tail and hind-legs. Mr. Ball, in the lecture referred to, regards this arterial arrangement as typical of that which must have existed in the Megatherioid animals. } The substance of Professor Owen's Memoirs on the Mylodon has been 398 INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. The theory thus proposed is, as Professor Owen remarks “strictly in accordance with, as it has been suggested by, the ascertained anatomy of the very remarkable extinct animals, whose business in a former world it professes to explain ;” and he sums up his reasoning in the following words :—* All the characteristics which exist in the skeleton of the Mylodon and Megatherium, conduce and concur to the production of the forces requisite for uprooting and prostrating trees, of which characteristics, if any one were wanting the effect would not be produced.” Orper RUMINANTIA.—RUMINATING ANIMALS. ‘“* Mightiest of all the beasts of chase, That roam in woody Caledon, Crashing the forest in his race, The mountain Bull comes thundering on. “‘ Fierce on the hunter's quiver’d band, He rolls his eyes of swarthy glow, Spurns with black hoof and horn, the sand, And tosses high his mane of snow.”’ Scott's “Capyrow CastTLe.”’ “Tne order Ruminantia is distinguished from all the other orders of mammalia, by the existence of four stomachs, arranged for the act of ruminating or chewing the cud. These animals are essentially herbivorous, and are all possessed of the cloven hoof; and it is only among them that species are met with whose foreheads are armed with horns. This order, which is one of the most natural and best defined* of all the primary groups into which the mammalia have been divided, is principally represented by the Ox, the Sheep, the Goat, and the Deer; but it is usual also to classify with them the Giraffe, Camels, Antelopes, Llamas, &c. They are subdivided into nine genera, comprising in all one hundred and forty-eight species, so ably abstracted by Sir R. I. Murchison, in his Address as President of the Geological Society, 1845, that we have, as far as possible, availed ourselves of the language employed by that eminent geologist. * This opinion, though expresssd by Cuvier, and generally received, has been called in question by Professor Owen, from evidence principally afforded by his researches into the structure of extinct species of Ruminantia and Pachydermata. MAMMALTA, 399 forming about one-tenth of all the mammalia.* Following the general law of distribution, the Ruminantia are most numerous in equatorial regions; but, as if created expressly for the use of the human family, they are distributed over all latitudes in the northern hemisphere, at least from the equator to the regions within the arctic circle; so that, wherever man is found, he is accompanied by those animals most necessary for the supply of his wants and comforts, and most Fig. 314.—Res-peer.t * The following table is extracted from that given by Mr. Waterhouse in Berghaiis and Johnston’s Physical Atlas :— 1." (Camnelus)'?... 00s 20 eet Camels.........-. Ee 2 2. (Auchenia)....c.e.cscseveess PINTER 5 acoarces esa osak soe tesace 38 3. (Moschus) .....++- sbvncasdes Musk Deere ..05.25--ssesecasdece 7 4, (Cervus)...... ao pcb gutted DGGE. cox Diphya elongata ...ss.ee00-04- Bl Hemopsts sanguisuga........... 61 DEDT ARCHING jascietasive as isciss GLE Holothuria .......20005 pecceer 2-8 54 OUP TERA, Sontscacicciserselestaclecize cen) aah Homarus vulgaris ......c.ccec00e 85 MOP-“WHENKe ladies cc cocsaiecleras) vies Soll AOMCY-CE Wi aececs aaa een one . 123 Dor-beetle, sense of smellin...... 47 | Horse-Leech ............c0..ccccceecee 61 —— flight—habits ........... 108 | House-flies ..... Saipabienea sane see 144 Dragon-fly, its power of flight ..... 105 | Humble Bees ...............se00ce0ee - 129 transformations—habits 116| Hyas aranea...... ee 82 MITONC BEG sc sconces eeveasetvsws see ssve LOO WEL Gra sei cesebs haan wae cusbinemetars 15 Dytiscus marginalis .......004 . 107} Hyprorpa ...... aaeeee Seat a 15 TAY MIGN OPERA sss go rsce oer ineniet ode 119 E Earth-worm .........00s00. Seneca fehl I Echinus ...... Reon enehadepaagecces 50 Tchn€umonid@ .....0cccececeeeee See EcuINODERMATA MCh euMON iz oc cee nsesase cases ese aeeee 121 Emperor Moth......... 5 MINAGD oss cenescaceeneaceon comes asaca- 100 EoNcrinitey. xcscunces e+ so nsuccesee ANPUSORUA sp euascccacssosss=<-aceo ae TERCCDRALGN eee oct sena seins oman asee TGAVENSECTS 5. .cccccconccoe Spondon pene FINTOZOAscscveouccccees Isis hippuris ........ nena ee pea, TOUS eroscueasbessests Ephemera .... ......+0. Jelly-fish ... Epeira fasciata ......... Bee cmaeaae Julus ........ F K Poeather=ttari. 3 ..scscsaeacesouen se sa) AG) RIDE-CYAD ss. canonacnceqenecmenne capa (ol Field-crickets, Song ry payee 98, 114 s ines aoa nets Saanpoanen ser t49 L Flesh Flies ... Scienceneaede 144 | LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.,.......... sees) JOG lea Ros cgueerectuenosaecades Senge Flustya CATDASCE ...0.eseseevees Fusus antiquus........ ERE TES WiNG-CUBS cocasemcvere= st cles sehen -. 80 TGarV ac ats ssanack cocsmacccaessares os . 100 Leaf-cutter Bees ..........0.-005 pray) TPAD UNSOC cocessareccses ace G Gad-filcs) scagsscennesuttestustsmancsee alee Gall-ies eo. c blvis oie io ricle (olale'io’s RCA-UATC 45,01 eisinia & wielvistee’eel elsis sta Sea Long-worin ...... +. esceese Sea-mats.....202cecees Sea-MOuSe opie 0. cece wn eewcecss es Sea-netiles coon... clcconisinl=ainslee es Sea-pensis.00cc ccc. Sea-urchinus ...... Sepia .. Le SS SRO COE Sertulartad@ ...esevecevees Shells of Infusoria ...........+-0 Shells, Structure of............+- SHrWMP aioe laches ids .s alae eslelelse, ste Silk-worm Moth ..........ee0e8- Sipunculid@ ...sevececees Slugs and Snails ........2..00:0+ Sphinx of vine ..........- = SPIders ys cae calosiosisicienaacsMetocte Spider-crabs ........ Spiny Lobster .......cecccceeees Spio, Calcarea ....+. Sptv Orbis ..secccccesecccseccres Spring-tails .......ccecceee SQUiUG .ecceccccreccrees Star-fishes......ee0. Btylops cc cccccccessse SUCTORIA ccccocecccccceesececssencess eee tee wees ee Ce see wees 7 TADANtIA cececcsscreccccsesccccons TQlitrus ceccccccccne coscccesessses PAGE TAPCWOTI Sc atcoccsbads: 2s +asqcsscnare he DeChiDranchiaea sc . 000 seueacyerees OED PERCHING BIRDS’ ...0. ctucadevécanes@oastecs suceaaveee 419 BGP essence tduivcsadsasers sean 855 Stormy Petrel ......cessscsereseeee 364 St. Peter’s Fish ......-. +20 220 SUrigid® — cacccceeecceseceseseee -» 324 Strix flammea ..........0+0+ nea eatvess 825 SUrvuthionide ....cceccceceseceeres 851 Sturgeon .......0- eee ee eeee D1], 227 Senso eR is saavea ne te ce nOeed: STURNIDE 2. cece cececccess 3834 Sturnus Vulgaris ...cccececeeees 834 Swallow..........0. dxcocesveewess 289, 345 SAI so csadoudsanencncay¥nskonces 282, 358 wifk:, catcssasacausseckune ai 295, 846 Swim-bladder ....... - 203 SwIMMING BIRDS .....--eeeeeeeeeee 356 SWINE ....cccccccccccdseveeseosereesuse 406 Sword-fish .....2s-eeeeeeee+ 216, 243 Sylvia SULOTIA — ceccccccececcoeses 805 Rubecelay:: ict 330 LUscinia ....0cceeceeseeeee B31 ————_ Regulus... sssesseeseres «- 832 SylViad®....esseccvereecesereveners 830 Syngnathus GCUS s.+++ 0+ 205, 228 x Tadpole of Frog ......+sseeeees Gasgei eae Of Newt ..cceseccseees neadons 200 INDEX. PAGE Tail of Whales ..........06+ versace Ad: PURO RUE aces meee scaeeekansnaces cds 305 WOUNGE tasddpdesscevinenscarosese - 422 PRPIE See oe cake acess cmeeatte ees 374, 406 JE lapse ty et OE 359 Teeth in Fishes ............-211, 226 in Mammalia ..........s0s006 - 376 OfAMlepHANE oo. ccc0scccececse 407 Temperature of Fishes ...... 197, 244 of Reptiles ......... 250 Of Birds ‘wesecs0s vey QOG of Mammals ......». 369 EBenCh so ostee. os 212, 240 SENS oetecsseeesehecuacnetaxw pare se O62 PERSTUDINATAs: x2). a biesioicln's Soe ces ce ae Tooth-billed Birds ...........ccecses 328 WOLPCAGN slactos oa ismisia/oio)be 218 IPOPLOINCS teeteaal ose. Jncscueasess sees 273 Gigantic Fossil ......... 278 Touch in Fishes ..... 200 Trachinus draco o...cescecceees 215 Tree-frog ..... seen esa cawekeeratn e 254 Prignyctdd) \s2.0s20+--00000 Seog AE Troglodytes as eae Honanoce Bee Trout. -- 222, 236 Msiink fis se), prota sfaletera\aini “++ 200, 228 Tunny .. SARC ee - 243 Turbot . Rea rice +203, 232 areas VISCIVOTUS ..cccereccccses 329 WIET Ue cscocas oceanside 829 DUOSICUS | senadseenacseos 329 Turkey Buzzard ....0..ccceceecrceces 298 Turtle-dove ........ceeceseseeececee 849 Tusks of Mammoth ,........seeeee 375 Two-toed Sloth ...cceseeseeseeseseee 894 U LOSS nae eee isbaaneas seeccrce 394 UTHAE. Fenncesucee et iiss : vi Vempire Bat ....... wh rentes steal 426 Vanellus Cristatus .ecrccccssesses OOO | PAGER Vertebrate Animals—what they are 195 » how arranged 196 Vespertilio a anelae osessasen Md WAGER pees secapceetenmeves paovuns 259, 263 Vitality of Fishes . saree ee aexseuces Viviparous Blenny ........... 212, 241 Voles Suaasséssecedtuccrdiplatedomuns 387 Woltare > 2... ss-p1.