o tv} wef a) wy OO) fees “_ifnelagees a ee eee cite = | ree “athWe Cs A 088. | pes ae Nas S20 gin: SIO) i vi By aS Sy I ae ve Abt: 1 2 } ui vs | ene oe sh bie Ai eae Ren, [ose ere, F f oieticdony the: Saher: o. Bew ih 2: Girogvetar Sire et. NS Wy ZO Vem Decomber, - Ges BESTS DOSey os O78 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Patrons — His Excellency the Right Honourable Sir Ninian Stephen, A.K., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., K.B.E., K.St.J., Governor-General of Australia. His Excellency Air Marshal Sir James Rowland, K.B.E., D.F.C., A.F.C., Governor of New South Wales. President — Dr R.S. Vagg Vice- Presidents — Professor T. W. Cole, Dr G. S. Gibbons, Mr M. J. Puttock, Professor BoA: Warren Hon. Secretaries — Mr E. K. Chaffer Mrs M. Krysko v. Tryst (Editorial) Hon. Treasurer — Dr A. A. Day Hon. Librarian — Mr J. L. Griffith Councillors — Dr R. S. Bhathal, Mr D. S. King, Associate Professor J. H. Loxton, Associate Professor D. H. Napper, Dr F. L. Sutherland, Mr M. A. Stubbs-Race, Dr W. J. Vagg New England Representative — Professor S. C. Haydon Address:— Royal Society of New South Wales, PO Box N112 Grosvenor Street, NSW 2000, Australia. THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES The Society originated in the year 1821 as the Philosophical Society of Australasia. Its main function is the promotion of Science through the following activities: Publication of results of scientific investigation through its Journal and Proceedings; the Library; awards of Prizes and Medals; liaison with other Scientific Societies; Monthly Meetings; and Summer Schools for Senior Secondary School Students. Special Meetings are held for the Pollock Memorial Lecture in Physics and Mathematics, the Liversidge Research Lecture in Chemistry, and the Clarke Memorial Lecture in Geology. Membership Is open to any interested person whose application is acceptable to the Society. The application must be supported by two members of the Society, to one of whom the applicant must be personnally known. Membership categories are: Ordinary Members, Absentee Members and Associate Members. Annual Membership fee may be ascertained from the Society’s Office. Subscriptions to the Journal are welcomed. The’current subscription rate may be ascertained from the Society’s Office. The Society welcomes manuscripts of research (and peeasional review articles) in all branches of science, art, literature and philosophy, for publication in the Journal and Proceedings. Manuscripts will be accepted from both members and non-members, though those from the latter should be communicated through a member. A copy of the Guide to Authors is obtainable on request and manuscripts may be addressed to the Honorary Secretary (Editorial) at the above address. ah 0035-9173 "1983 Royal Society of New South Wales. 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JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES PARTS 3 and 4 VOLUME 116 (Nos. 329 and 330) 1983 LIBRARIES ISSN 0035-9173 ) ee PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY PO BOX N112, GROSVENOR STREET, NSW 2000 Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 116, pp. 53-70, 1983 ISSN 0035-9173/83/020053 — 18 $4.00/ 1 Sydney Southern Star Catalogue DAVID S. KING AND NICHOLAS R. LOMB ABSTRACT. A catalogue of 26926 star positions to be known as the Sydney Southern Star Catalogue (SSSC) has been produced at Sydney Observatory, principally covering the declination range between -51° 00' and =63° 30'. Some 3244 faint Astrographic Catalogue stars were included to supplement the stars at fainter magnitudes. The standard error of a catalogue position based on four images is 0N10 in either coordinate. The reference catalogue used was the WL50. INTRODUCTION Due to the recent decision by the New South Wales Government to cease astronomical research at Sydney Observatory, it became urgent to publish the results of our astrometric programme over the last few years. Although some 1452 plates have been taken since 1964 covering from declination -36 degrees to the south celestial pole, only 501 were able to be measured. Measuring commenced when the Grubb-—Parsons photoelectric measuring machine became operational in 1975. The results of the measurement of the declination zones centred on =53° SON -56° OON =58° 30', -61° 00' and =630 30' are presented here and are available on microfiche and computer tape. A catalogue covering the zone -48° to -54° based on plates taken at Sydney Observatory has recently been published by Eichhorn (SPC). THE PLATES The plates were each exposed for six minutes with the 23cm Taylor, Taylor and Hobson camera with manual guiding in right ascension only. The lens has a focal length of 1776.6mm. The plates are 20cm square Ilford Rapid Process Experimental Emulsion, allowing a possible sky coverage of six degrees square with a scale of 116"1 per millimetre. A 2.3 magnitude diffraction grating was used to produce side images shifted from the central image in declination. A central spot is placed on each plate before removal from the plate holder. The plates have full overlap in both right ascension and declination. Table 1 gives the plate information for each zone. Detailed information for each plate is available on the computer tape containing measured positions. TABLE 1 ZONE FIRST R.A. PLATE NUMBER EPOCH RANGE OF CENTRE SEPARATION OF PLATES -53°30! ohoo™ 16m 90 1966.803 - 1967.836 56°00! ohogm 16” 90 1968.730 - 1969.668 58°30! oNoam 18™ 80 1969.515 - 1981.093 -61°00! oMog™ 19” 80 1970.501 - 1982.573 ~63°30! ooom 20 71* 1971.630 - 1972.546 * The plate 20%yo™, -63°30' has not been taken. MEASUREMENT The stars selected for measurement were compiled from the Cape Photographic Catalogue for 1950 (CPC), International Reference Stars (IRS), Cape Zone Catalogue for 1900 (ZC), Albany General Catalogue (GC) and the Sydney Astrographic Catalogue (AC). The AC was used to obtain supplementary faint stars so that about one star per square degree is in the photographic magnitude range 11.0 to 11.5. All these stars were given a magnitude of 12.0 to distinguish them as AC stars. In the area south of =63°30". only the IRS Stars were selected for measurement. This was to give complete plate coverage for the determination of plate constants for plates centred at -~63°30'. CPC stars and AC stars were selected for measurement between declinations 252° and =63030'. Between -51° and =52°° the measuring list was prepared by Supplementing the few CPC stars in this area with ZC stars, GC stars and IRS stars. In general, stars brighter than photographic magnitude 6.0 were excluded and stars brighter than photographic magnitude 8.1 had their first order side images measured as well as the central image, giving three measurements. All the catalogue coordinates were converted to standard coordinates which represent the first order 54 DAVID S. KING AND NICHOLAS R. LOMB predicted position of the stars on each plate. The plates were then measured in a Grubb—Parsons photoelectric measuring machine. The plate centre spot is given the x-y coordinates (100000, 100000), the units being in microns. On this plate scale, one micron represents 0.12 seconds of arc. The x and y axes are approximately parallel to right ascension and declination respectively. Stars are only measured if both the x and y coordinates are between 15000 and 185000. The first 20 stars measured on the plate were selected so as to cover a large area of the plate and a magnitude range from 8.1 to 10.5. When these stars were measured, their standard and measured coordinates were compared with an eight plate constant solution of the form:- Ax Ay —E-x mo esy. Ax + By + C + M(m-10) Dx + Ey + F + N(m-10) where &," are the standard coordinates and m is the photographic magnitude. This plate constant solution was then used to convert the stars'standard coordinates into a second order predicted position. These computations were all carried out on a Diehl Alphatronic programmable calculator which was connected through an interface to the x-y coordinates of the measuring machine. For each subsequent image, after the first 20, the measured and predicted position were compared to assure the correct image was measured. Any difference greater than 60 microns produced a warning tone so that the result could be checked and if necessary, corrected. After each 100 images were measured, a check star was remeasured to check for measuring machine drift. If the difference exceeded three microns, then the plate was remeasured. After successful completion, the plate was rotated 180 degrees, still with the emulsion downwards. The same measuring procedure was again followed with the first measurement positions known as direct coordinates, replacing the original standard coordinates. The second set of measured positions are known as reverse coordinates. The reverse coordinates were then converted into the same coordinate system as the direct by using six reverse to direct plate constants applied to the first 20 stars. That is:- AX = Xq > xX = 8h, 2% by, +c Ay VQ vee dx, + ey, + f The average of the direct and reverse positions is given by:- ee (2x, - ax Z - by, - e)/2 iG Yq =, (2¥q = dx, Sey, = £)/2 and these values were then stored on magnetic tape. The purpose of averaging the direct and reverse measures in this manner is to avoid the introduction of magnitude terms produced by the measuring machine. REDUCTION The plates centred on declination -53°30! were the first to be measured. At that time the measured positions of each star were not interfaced immediately into the microprocessor. As a result, about 30% of the stars were either incorrectly measured at the time or incorrectly typed into the microprocessor later. This meant that almost every plate in this zone had to be remeasured. The remeasured stars were compiled from the reference stars on the plate and the previously incorrectly measured stars. It then became necessary to convert at least two sets of measurements into the one coordinate system. This was done by excluding the incorrectly measured stars from the first set of measurements and then applying a ten plate constant solution of the form:- —E- xX = ax + by +c + px + qxy n-y=a'tx + bly + c!' + p'xy + qty to the Perth 70 reference stars. Subsequently all the measured positions were converted into right ascension and declination coordinates. The same procedure was followed for the second set of measurements. Then, using the second set of plate constants, the first set of right ascensions and declinations were converted back into their predicted x-y positions on the second measurement run. Thus, when the second set of plate constants is used on all the x-y coordinates, the previously calculated right ascensions and declinations are produced. For the plates in the -53°30' zone centred at right ascensions 5hoym and 7hyom to 16h ygm no plate constants were kept, only the final spherical coordinates, even though there was at least one remeasurement of each plate. In these cases the right ascensions and declinations were converted to x-y positions assuming that each of the ten plate constants was zero. Plate constant solutions were derived for all plates using Perth 70 reference stars and the above ten plate constant solution. The plate constants, average positions and the magnitudes were all transferred SYDNEY SOUTHERN STAR CATALOGUE ap) via a telephone modem onto hard disk on the New South Wales Public Service Burroughs 7700 computer. The remainder of the reduction was carried out on this computer. Machine readable tape versions of the CPC, Perth 70 and Washington El Leoncito (WL50) catalogues were also placed on computer. The ZC, GC and IRS stars that were measured north of declination -52 degrees had their catalogue identification numbers, right ascensions, declinations and magnitudes all punched onto the computer by hand. Once on computer, all the side image pairs were then averaged to give a single position which corresponds approximately with the central image position. This side image average position was, for the time being, considered as a separate image to the central image. A star type register (IBS) is used to record whether the image stands alone (0), is a central image (1) or is the average of the two side images G2) s Using the existing plate constants derived using the Perth 70 reference stars, the right ascensions and declinations of each image was then computed. These computed right ascensions and declinations were then used to search for their corresponding identification numbers in the existing catalogues. If the closest catalogue star was within a preset radius, then the image was given the catalogue star's identification number and photographic magnitude. If there was no photographic magnitude present on the CPC catalogue, then the visual magnitude was converted to a photographic magnitude using the following formulas :- if SPEC < 30 Mog = M, - 0.35 If SONG SPEC << i65 Mpg = M, - 1.194 + 0.02914 x SPEC if 65. << SPEC M = Le —- 2.355 + 0.04700 x SPEC a Pg SPEC is the two digit spectral number code present on the CPC tape. These formulas were derived by fitting three lines to a graph compiled by averaging 36 randomly selected colour indices for each of the spectral types BO, B5, AO, A5, FO, F5, GO, G5, KO, K5 and MO from the CPC, Due to the likelihood that the Perth 70 IRS stars have a systematic difference from the fundamental reference frame defined by FK4, it was decided to use the WL50 catalogue instead. The plate constants were subsequently recomputed using only seven distinct constants. The plate constant solution is discussed in the next section. Right ascensions and declinations were then all recomputed using the new plate constants. This completed the machine readable version of a computer tape which shall be known as Sydney Measured Positions. For each of the eight magnitude ranges of 5.00-5.99, 6.00-6.99, 7.00-7.99, 8.00-8.99, 9.00-9.99, 10.00-10.99, 11.00-11.99 and 12.00 all the relevant image results were extracted from the Sydney Measured Positions tape. All the AC stars being designated as magnitude 12.00 to separate them from the rest. The Side image and central image positions on the same plate are averaged giving twice the weight to the side image position than the central image position. At this stage a comparison between central and side image positions was made. The difference between central and side image positions in the sense central minus side, for 9173 stars averaged out as -0"0203 + 00027 in right ascension and +0"0379 + 00026 in declination. If the difference between central and side image positions was greater than 2 seconds of arc, the central image was rejected. If results existed for the same identification number on two or more plates, then the right ascensions, declinations and epochs were averaged and the standard deviations calculated. If any standard deviation exceeded 0.6 seconds of are in either right ascension or declination then the plate which resulted in the largest deviation from the average was rejected from the average calculation. This was continued if necessary until both right ascension and declination standard deviations were less than 0.6 seconds of arc. If only two plates remained and either of the standard deviations still exceeded 0.6 seconds of are then that star was totally rejected. The following table shows both the number of images and the number of stars rejected as a result of this procedure for each magnitude range. TABLE 2 Magnitude Range Final Number of Number of Percentage Number of stars images used images rejected rejected 5.00- 5.99 67 5 7.46 3 6.00- 6.99 1770 8 0.45 8 7.00- 7.99 6461 31 0.48 16 8.00- 8.99 19106 62 Omse 51 9.00- 9.99 34237 72 0.21 68 10.00-10.99 28113 63 0.22 32 11.00-11.99 3648 26 0.71 y 12.00 11157 150 1.34 119 ALL 104559 417 0.40 301 All the faint AC stars and stars south of declination -63°930' were then separated from the remainder of the star positions. This was because neither have proper motions calculated and the stars south of 56 DAVID S. KING AND NICHOLAS R. LOMB -63°30' are incomplete since they are primarily reference stars. Thus, the py amey Southern Star Catalogue is comprised of three sections. First, 23287 stars between -51°00! and 63" 30', secondly 3244 faint AC stars and lastly 395 stars south of =63-30". The method of determining the proper motions of the first section is described later. THE PLATE CONSTANTS The relationship between the standard coordinates (&,n) and the measured coordinates (x,y) of the stars' images on a photographic plate is given by a model of form E (x,y,m,c) n (X;¥5M,c) m~m mou where m is magnitude and c is colour index. In the initial reduction of the measurements using the Perth 70 catalogue the following model was used:- ax + by +cCc + px + QqXxy a'x + b'y + ec! + p'xy + qty? mom | x nou Before the final reductions were made using the Washington El Leoncito (WL50) catalogue the opportunity was taken to re-examine the question of the most appropriate model. Magnitude dependent terms are best found using the objective grating technique (Eichhorn, 1974). A coarse grating with a grating constant of 2.3 magnitudes had been used for all plates. The difference between the mean of the side midges and ene central image was found for all stars on 12 plates in the -58°30' zone with centres from 15°00" to 18 oem Denoting the differences in x as ax and y as ay, the model Ax = K Ay = k,' + ko'y was fitted to the data by least squares. Here ky ky! are equivalent to magnitude terms and Ky Hos €e coma terms. The k, and ky! terms were not significant at the 20 level on any of the plates. The ky and the ky terms were each significant on 3 of the plates. In order to get an average value for these: terms the data from the 12 plates were combined and Uae above model fitted to this combined data. After rejecting one star with a high residual, k, and k were found to be not significant while k,' and k were. The values of both k,' and k, were small, equivalent to 0.14 microns/magnitude and 0.2 microns/magnitude (at the edge of the plate), especie Thus magnitude and coma terms were disregarded in the plate constant solution. Terms involving x and y were examined using 17 plates in the -58°30' zone from oMgo™ to yAy gm | Eleven different models were calculated using reference stars taken from both the Perth 70 and the WL50 catalogues. The models are given in Table 3, which also show the rms residual for both € and n meaned over the 17 plates for each model. The rms's were calculated taking into account the number of degrees of freedom used up by each model. The terms with coefficients P, Q and R (and P',Q'and R') allow for various distortions in the lens, such as radial and decentering distortions. For these terms to have physical reality they should have the same values on all plates and the same value for ¢ andn. In fact, these terms were rarely significant at the 20 level and did not seem to be correlated from plate to plate. As can be seen from Table 3 their contribution to the reduction in the rms is small. The p and q terms in model 1 are significant on most plates, although still very small. They result in a somewhat greater reduction in the rms than the P, Q and R terms. Thus it was clear that model 1 is basically the best model. It is important to try to reduce the number of parameters of the fit to a minimum, especially as the WL50 catalogue contains slightly smaller number of stars than Perth 70. Within the errors the b coefficient and the negative of the a' coefficient were generally equal. Model 10 was then calculated in which they were forced to be equal. The fit of this model was only slightly worse than that of model 1. The p and q terms of models 1 and 10 are only physically meaningful if they are equal for —& andn, in which case they can be regarded as due to tilt. In model 11 they were forced to be equal. The fit of this model with only seven parameters was worse than the fit of models 1 or 10, but still better than most of the other models. Thus it was adopted as the final model. The smallness of all terms other than the basic a, b and c terms for the Taylor, Taylor and Hobson lens was not surprising. Fifteen plates taken by the TTH lens were utilised in the Yale catalogue for declinations -40° to -50° (Hoffleit, 1970). The least squares plate solutions, which include full second order terms as well as magnitude and coma terms, were published. In these solutions, apart from the basic a,b,c coefficients, the rest of the coefficients were significant on few, if any, of the plates. SYDNEY SOUTHERN STAR CATALOGUE D7 TABLE 3 No. MODEL rms,WL50_ —=rms,Perth 5 (microns) (microns) 1 — —- xX = ax + by +c + px + aXy,, 1.701 1.382 n -— y =a'lx + b'y +c! + p'xy + q'ly 1.909 1.951 2 BE - xX =ax + by +c + px + qxy + ry? 1.681 W307 -yza'x + bly +c! + p'x2 + q'xy + rly? 1.928 1.936 3 —E - xX = ax + by +c + px° + qxy + ry? + Rx (x + y°) 1.681 1.358 - y= a'x + bly +c! + p'x2 + q'xy + rly? + R'y(xe + y°) 1.929 1.930 4 —E -xX = ax + by +c + aXY,, + ry? + Rx (x os y 2, Metal 1.449 n-yzatx + bly +c! + p'x° + q'xy + R'y (x? + y 1.971 2.026 5 UE =X Sax + by +0 + P(x? + y@) + RX(X? + y2) 1.948 1.595 n - ys atx + bly +c! + P'(x? 4 y?) # Rly(x? 4 y2) 1.991 2.053 6 —E - xX = ax + by +c L972 1.670 n= y =a'x + b'y «+c! 1.989 24100 id —E -X = ax + by +c + Q(x? at ¥ oi 1.942 1.609 n-yez=a'x + bly +c! + Q' (x? + y 1.990 2.059 8 bE - xX = ax + by +c + qxy iO 1.468 Woy = ax eb y+ Cog xy 1955 2.051 9 E - xX = ax + by +c + qxy + Q(xe + ee tarde) 1.432 n-yst atx + bly +c! + qtxy +Q'x2 4 y2)!+5 1.963 2.014 10 bE - xX = ax + by +c + px- + QXxy erie 1.377 ~y=-bx + dy +e + p'xy + q'y? 1.914 1.968 n 11 —E- xX = ax + by +c + px° + axy 1.739 1.393 n- y = -bx + dy +¢ + pxy + qy 1.946 ase | The procedure adopted for calculating the final plate constants on each plate was as follows:- (a) the model—é - x = ax + by +c + px + QXxy n- y= a'x + b'y +c! + p'xy + qty? was fitted to the reference stars. If any star had a residual in & and n greater than 4 microns the star was rejected and the model recalculated. This was continued until there were no stars with residuals greater than 4 microns. (b) the model ¢ - x ax + by +c + px- + qx n- y -bx + dy + e@ + pxy + qy was fitted to the remaining reference stars. In calculating the model the weights used for — - x and n-y were the inverses of the variances calculated for each equation in step (a). ERRORS When the observations of each star on different plates were combined, the standard deviation from the mean was calculated for each star in right ascension and declination. These results are plotted as histograms in figures 1 to 14. For each magnitude from 6 to 12 the figures show separately for right ascension and declination the standard deviation for stars with 2, 3, 4 and 5 observations and for all stars. In order to look for systematic variations the standard deviations were averaged (by summing the variances) in terms of magnitude and number of observations. These are shown in Table 4. No clear trend with number of observations can be discerned. The standard deviations of stars with 2 observations seem Slightly lower than the rest, but this is probably artificial. There is, however, some variation as a function of magnitude. The standard deviation of bright star, magnitude <6 and faint star, magnitude 211, observations are somewhat higher than for the rest of the stars. 58 DAVID S. KING AND NICHOLAS R. LOMB TABLE 4 STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL OBSERVATIONS* MAGNITUDE RANGE NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS <6 6 if 8 9 10 11 12 ALL n 11 80 347 1355 1731 1134 122 847 5627 2 ao. 30 21 18 18 17 17 20 22 18 Os 21 20 lies 15 14 14 20 21 16 n 4 21 58 227 369 281 47 260 1267 3 Os 20 22 21 21 19 21 27 29 22 eet 17 19 17 16 18 Zaye as 20 n 2 189 666 1860 3410 2849 380 2002 11358 4 a. 2/ 23 19 21 20 21 24 26 21 5 21 23 16 16 15 lif 24 26 19 n 5 134 536 1513 2894 2484 309 135 8010 5 Ty 28 25 20 21 20 22 26 aT 21 § 22 22 18 V7 te 18 25 26 18 n - 19 38 112 246 187 33 - 635 6 (o) - ay 22 22 22 2e 26 - 22 Os - 25 19 19 18 19 25 - 19 n - 1 3 4 6 8 - - 22 7 oF - 12 31 25 18 17 - - 21 os = 6 30 18 17 18 - - 20 a = = 1 5 1 - - ff 8 On. 8 = - = 22 26 9 2 = 24 os os = - 18 19 16 - - 18 n 22 yyy 1648 5072 8661 6944 891 3244 26926 ALL (os 28 23 19 20 19 21 24 25 21 Os 2] 22 17 16 16 17 24 25 18 *(units of standard deviation 0"01) The data were combined on the basis of the above results into a table, Table 5, giving the standard error of any catalogue position. It was assumed that the standard deviation of a single observation is not dependent on the number of observations, but only dependent on which of three magnitude ranges the star falls in. The standard error of a mean position was calculated by dividing the appropriate standard deviation of a single observation by the square root of the number of observations. TABLE 5 POSITION STANDARD ERRORS* NUMBER OF MAGNITUDE RANGE OBSERVATIONS <6 7 = 40 all el %¢ Fy os Py %% 2 16 16 14 11 18 18 3 13 13 12 9 14 14 4 12 qa 10 8 13 13 5 10 10 9 Tt 11 11 6 9 9 8 7 10 10 te 9g 8 8 6 as a 8 - - if 6 - - *(units of standard error 0"01) SYDNEY SOUTHERN STAR CATALOGUE 59 Ss Figures 1 - 14. Histograms of standard deviation a (in O01 units) from the mean for stars with o : ° 2 observations ---—- © 3 observations — — 4 observations — — 5 observations ——-— o ali -svars aa °o o © FIG. 1 =} ro R.A @ a = MAG. = 6 zs © vr kt 5 VAN m VA Ss Na 3 te AN = / ie 7* Se N le . zn A aN N af *~ _ _ ~ S|.) awe ae Zo ee Coe ee ee “0.00 8.00 16.00 24.00 32.00 40.00 48.00 56.00 STANDARD DEVIATION ) o ro) © FIG. 92 o DEC. =) MAG. = 6 o @ °o o apr lu @M 5 zs 0 vr 16.00 32.00 a ~ ] — x \ io 0.00 0.00 8.00 16.00 24.00 32.00 40.00 48.00 56.00 STANDARD DEVIATION 60 NUMBER 240.00 560 400.00 480.00 320.00 160.00 160.00 240.00 80.00 DAVID S. KING AND NICHOLAS R. LOMB FIG. 3 R.A. MAG, = 7 i Yk te SS Desa SAD ieee —*— -—*. -H- ee ee ee 8.00 16.00 24.00 32.00 40.00 48.00 56.00 STANDARD DEVIATION FIG. 4 DEC. MAG. = 7 Be ——— —_*s-— —_—— 8.00 16.00 24.00 32.00 40.00 48.00 56.00 STANDARD DEVIATION «10! 80.00 100.00 120.00 140 NUMBER 60.00 SYDNEY SOUTHERN STAR CATALOGUE FIG. 5 (=) : aN (=) + 4 aN Ne Or \ S ma ° aN S i > ae NA we ease SS * SM =) -— a “k= ek By 2S 0.00 8.00 16.00 24.00 32.00 40.00 48.00 STANDARD DEVIATION (o) + 3 (o} x FIG. 6 DEC. ([o) o 3 MAG. = 8 - 9 o°? —_—- Oo ¢ [ee] ~ oS =o UES > © =a y NS 8 [~~ eo] oS é = 9° pes 7, NN b= 4 / ae \ ey me XN Se Ne g| x ~*~ *~ ~~, _~ 5 Sa "a == = 0.00 8.00 16.00 24.00 32.00 40.00 48.00 STANDARD DEVIATION 56.00 56.00 61 62 DAVID S. KING AND NICHOLAS R. LOMB (=) @ NWN (=) ? 9 WN FIG. 7 =) R.A ° a MAG. = 9 (=) ee > } So — 0 t - Wo Ww Oo faa) = dD =— =z 8 Vie (=) : Ne a] x / (=) _—- — + / mo NK > eo Ne S —e— ee ye ET eS “0.00 8.00 16.00 24.00 32.00 40.00 48.00 STANDARD DEVIATION 4 N 8 ° nN FIG. 8 DEC. [o) i < MAG. = 9 N (o} - 2 Oo —o s- — —_ ae =e SS —— 8.00 16.00 24.00 32.00 40.00 48.00 STANDARD DEVIATION 56.00 56.00 280 NUMBER #10! 120.00 160.00 200.00 240.00 80.00 40.00 00-00 NUMBER #10! 40.00 80.00 120.00 160.00 200.00 240.00 280 00 QO. SYDNEY SOUTHERN STAR CATALOGUE 63 -00 8.00 16.00 24.00 32-00 40.00 48.00 56.00 STANDARD DEVIATION FIG. 10 DEC. MAG. = 10 S ‘ ; a i if - —-— -—*_ 0.00 8.00 16.00 24-00 32.00 40.00 48.00 56.00 STANDARD DEVIATION 64 NUMBER 120.00 NUMBER 120.00 200.00 240.00 280 160.00 80.00 40.00 90-00 -00 200.00 240.00 280 160.00 DAVID S. KING AND NICHOLAS R. LOMB *— 8.00 4 ES op ot ee FIG. R.A. MAG. SS a — 16.00 oe 24.00 32.00 40.00 STANDARD DEVIATION —*— ie — ye 24.00 32.00 40.00 STANDARD DEVIATION ie a 48.00 56.00 NUMBER 300.00 NUMBER SYDNEY SOUTHERN STAR CATALOGUE 65 500.00 600.00 700 400.00 200.00 100.00 0.00 8.00 16.00 24.00 32.00 40.00 48.00 56-00 STANDARD DEVIATION 300.00 400.00 500.00 200.00 0.00 8.00 16.00 24.00 32.00 40.00 48.00 56.00 STANDARD DEVIATION 66 DAVID S. KING AND NICHOLAS R. LOMB PROPER MOTIONS First epoch positions for calculating proper motions were taken from the catalogues from which the Stars were selected. Stars from the ZC catalogue were precessed from 1900 to 1950 while the stars from the GC catalogue were taken back from epoch 1950 to their original epoch, using the proper motions in the GC. None of the catalogues are in the FK4 system and so they had to be converted to that system. ZC stars were first reduced to the system of the GC using the tables given in the GC. Next, the ZC and GC stars were reduced to the FK3 system using Kopff's (1939) tables. Finally, the tables "FK4-FK3" published in the FK4 were used to reduce the ZC, GC and CPC stars to the FK4 system. No interpolation was applied during any of these conversions. Proper motions were calculated using the formulae ee (( eoe=nay en 0 bent) yee Cota eet LC Uo ie where a1 , 6; and t, are the first epoch right ascension, declination and epoch, respectively anda9 , 62 and to are the SSSC right ascension, declination and epoch, respectively. An epoch of 1903.0 was assumed for the Gc and ZC stars. All large values of a9-a1 andi9-6, were examined to see if the cause was a large proper motion or an error in the first epoch catalogue position or in the SSSC. A number of errors in the CPC were found in this way. These are listed in Table 6 along with some errors found at earlier stages of the preparation of the SSSC. TABLE 6 ERRORS IN THE CPC On Magnetic Tape Only IDNO 603657 should be -53°49'41"8 not 19! 603682 epoch 38.2 not 68.2 702797 should be -59°51'01"3 not 10"3 703264. should be 11"0001515 not 10 TO4U62 should be -58°10'05"6 not 00"6 705050 should be -59°53'22"2 not 33! 707236 should be -59°02'25"7 not 22! In Printed Catalogue IDNO 609032 should be -53°45'34"6 not 43! 700627 + ~should be 2"20"53820 = not ~=—- 50820 700761 should be -56°42'02"0 not 41! 700961 should be -56°39'22"2 not 59°36! 702141 should be 8"06"26897 not 27597 706946 should be -56°09'47"8 not 59° 707615 should be -58°54'33"5 not 13" 802809 should be -60°31'49"1 not 51! The proposed corrections have been checked against the CPD positions. As well as errors in the printed catalogue, a number of errors were found which only appear on the magnetic tape version of the CPC. These are also listed in Table 6. A comparison was also made between the new proper motions and the proper motion, if published, in the GC, ZC or the CPC. Ignoring cases where the published value is much higher than in the SSSC, as these are likely to be spurious, a number of cases remain where the SSSC value is much larger than that in published catalogues. These are listed in Table 7. TABLE 7 PROBLEM STARS IDNO SSSC PROPER MOTION PUBLISHED PROPER MOTION* u ie u u' (in units, of (in units of (in_units of (in units of 0°0001/yr) 0"001/yr) 0°0001/yr) 0"001/yr) 513281 205 314 Gig) (© 38) 514488 278 210 (4) (-19) 604954 -327 -7 -5 8 703166 -247 5 88 -4 704322 ~181 -4 121 =2 706921 -442 -35 59 -27 706953 33 aeT 31 62 707400 380 -42 (-37) (16) 801445 151 =217 3 10 *from CPC except for values in brackets which are from ZC or BPM. SYDNEY SOUTHERN STAR CATALOGUE 67 The mean differences and the root mean square of the differences between the SSSC proper motions and the CPC proper motions (converted to the FK4 system) were calculated for those stars which had CPC proper The results, subdivided on the basis of the size of the CPC proper motion are given in Table 8. motion. TABLE 8 COMPARISON BETWEEN SSSC AND CPC PROPER MOTION us - uy (in units of 0°9001/yr) us'- uy! (in units of 0"001/yr) mean rms number mean rms number OceehkSOh we =1.1 225.6) Hebe O150 --6.8 = 44.8 168 As motion increases. shown in the table there is a considerable increase in the rms difference as the CPC proper likely it is to be spurious. A likely explanation is that the higher the value for the proper motion, the more The mean difference for the majority of stars with low values of CPC proper motion is small, =0°000141 in right ascension and -0"0037 in declination. The uncertainties in the proper motions vary for each star dependent on the position uncertainty in the first epoch catalogue and in the SSSC as well as the difference in epoch. An average value can be calculated for stars from each catalogue. The formula used is 2 2.4 = None a) - t, ) io} u 2 1 ao a where o1,is the standard deviation of the position at the first epoch t, andosis the standard deviation of the position in the SSSC at epoch to. Adopting a representative value for the SSSC of 9% = 010 and ON5 for the ZC, «615 O%2 for the GC, o; = 017 for CPC 52° - 56° and o; = O14 for CPC 56° — 64° we obtain O1= for ZC stars ao. =0"008 or 020009 per year for GC stars 0. = 0"003 or 020003. ~per year for CPC 52°-56° o =0"007 or 020008 per year for CPC 56°-60° o =0"007 or 0°0009_ per year for CPC 60°_64° o = 08007 or 020010 per year The proper motions for the 13 stars taken from the IRS are taken directly from that catalogue. TAPE AND MICROFICHE DESCRIPTIONS There are two machine readable tapes available to prospective users. Both tapes are available for the cost of the tape plus postage. The tapes are at present 9 track, 1600 bpi, labelled in EBCDIC format. Other formats may be arranged if necessary. The tapes are known as the Sydney Southern Star Catalogue (SSSC) and Sydney Measured Positions (SMP). The SSSC is intended for all users of the positional and proper motion data. The SMP is only useful for users who wish to repeat the reductions using a different reference star catalogue, for example, the final version of IRS, or wish to use the full plate overlap method to re-evaluate the positions. Copies of both tapes have been sent to the Centre des Donnes Stellaires in Strasbourg, France, the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut in Heidelberg, West Germany and the Department of Astronomy, University of Florida in Florida, U.S.A. The microfiche version of the SSSC appears essentially the same as the tape version except the right ascensions and declinations appear in their usual formats. Sydney Southern Star Catalogue This ascension tape and microfiche catalogue consists of 26926 records. The first 23287 records are in right order of stars between declinations -51°00' and =63° 30" The next 3244 records in right ascension order are of faint Sydney Astrographic Catalogue stars presumed to be in the photographic magnitude range 11.0 to 11.5, although they are all designated magnitude 12.00. The last 395 records in right ascension order are of the stars south of declination =63-30! that were primarily used as reference Stars. The first four records appear below with their corresponding column headings and column limits marked:- 68 IDNO MAG R.A. DEC. MUD DAVID S. KING AND NICHOLAS R. LOMB IDNO. MAG R.A. DEC; EPOCH N MUA MUD 700001; 943; 9755120541594 {69445 {5 | 121 —4 700002; 927; 10128 1 2084831916944515; -31!} -20 700003; 997; 20475 1212615391 70087151 ~ 1071 -2 800001; 997; 22928 | 22734208171314151 -261; -19 This six digit identification number is a unique number for each distinct star. The first digit indicates the origin of the identification number displayed in the following table. First digit of IDNO Catalogue Sydney Astrographic Catalogue (AC) International Reference Stars (IRS) Albany General Catalogue (GC) Cape Zone Catalogue for 1900 (ZC) Cape Photographic Catalogue for 1950 (CPC), Zone -52° to -56° Cape Photographic Catalogue for 1950 (CPC), Zone -56° to -60° Cape Photographic Catalogue for 1950 (CPC), Zone -60° to -6y° Cape Photographic Catalogue for 1950 (CPC), Zone -64° to -68° OONDWN LFW = For Sydney Astrographic Catalogue stars, the second digit indicates the declination zone in which it lies. The zones are designed as follows:- Second digit of IDNO Zone for AC stars =51°00" “to -=53°30! -53°30' to -56°00! -56°00' to -58°30! -58°30' to -61°00! =61°00? to =63°30" -63°30' to -66°00! MaNEWNhwM— oOo The remaining four digits for the AC stars were allotted sequentially in right ascension order for each zone. It is hoped that in future these numbers will be cross-referenced with the original AC numbers and plate centres. The remaining five digits for the other catalogues simply make up the identification number given to the star in the relevant catalogue. This four digit number gives the photographic magnitude in units of 0.01 of a magnitude. All the AC stars are given MAG equal to 1200 even though their true photographic magnitude should lie in the range 11.0 to 11.5. The remaining stars have their photographic magnitude as it appears in its relevant catalogue. As previously indicated, some photographic magnitudes were not present in the CPC and had to be derived from the visual magnitude using the spectral type. The right ascension as an eight digit number in units of 0.001 seconds of time. The equinox is 1950 and the reference system used was Washington El Leoncito 1950. On microfiche the right ascension is in hours, minutes and seconds. The absolute value of the declination as an eight digit number in units of 0.01 seconds of arc. The equinox is 1950 and the reference system used was Washington El Leoncito 1950. On microfiche the declination has the correct sign and is in degrees, minutes of are and seconds of arc. This five digit integer gives the epoch of the position in units of 0.001 years after 1900. Gives in one digit the number of plates which were used to give the right ascension, declination and epoch. It ranges from two to eight. Five digit proper motion in right ascension in units of 0.0001 seconds of time per year. Five digit proper motion in declination in units of 0.001 seconds of are per year. Sydney Measured Positions For those few users who wish to use it, the tape has a plate by plate format. The records for each plate are kept separate and are preceded by a plate heading and the plate constants. The plate heading has the following information:- A B Cr SDE 13 G H I J K L M N O P 1024} -53301409;16118; 011871188; 0150031 1967296; 102571731204 ;450; -1 SYDNEY SOUTHERN STAR CATALOGUE 69 A Right ascension of the plate centre, the first two digits being the hours and the last two being the minutes. B Declination of the plate centre, the first three digits being the degrees and the last two being the minutes of arc. C Total number of stars on the plate. D Number of faint AC stars north of the declination centre. E Number of faint AC stars south of the declination centre. F Number of non-faint stars north of 2°30' north of the declination centre. G Number of non-faint stars with declinations between 2°30' north of the declination centre and the declination centre. H Number of non-faint stars with declinations between 2°30! south of the declination centre and the declination centre. I Number of non-faint stars south of 2°30! south of the declination centre. J Plate number. K Epoch of the plate in units of 0.001 years. Ls Barometric pressure in millibars of the time of exposure. M Percentage relative humidity at the time of exposure. N Temperature at the time of exposure in units of 0.1 degrees Celsius. 0) The telescope focus setting at the time of exposure. P The hour angle at the middle of the exposure in minutes West. Following the plate headings are two lines of 5 plate constants each, which are for a plate constant solution of the form:- _ 2 —E- X = ax + by + c + px” + qx n- y = -bx + dy + e + pxy + qy These constants can be read in Fortran with the format 10F14.8 For example:- -14164122E-03 .24O046714E-02 = .14442351E+00 —. 34047301E-06 -. 18221255E-06 -.24046714E-02 .15413496E-03 -.10739198E+00 -.34047301E-06 -. 18221255E-06 Then each image on the plate has a record with the following measurement data:- IDNO IBS RA. DEC. X Ve MAG. The IDNO, R.A., DEC. and MAG. all have the same meaning as for the Sydney Southern Star Catalogue. The additional data is:- IBS The star type register. 0 : No side images were measured and the star was not used as a reference star. 1 : The central image measurement and the star was not used as a reference star. 2 : The average of the two side image measurements and the star was not used as a reference star. 5 : No side images were measured and the star was used as a reference star. 6 : The central image measurement and the star was used as a reference star. 7 : The average of the two side image measurements and the star was used as a reference star. X,Y The seven digit measured average x,y coordinates of the image in units of 0.1 microns with (1000000, 1000000) representing the plate centre. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We wish to thank the previous astronomers at Sydney Observatory who initiated this project, namely Dr. H. W. Wood, W. H. Robertson and K. P. Sims. Other Observatory staff who helped with the measuring and typing were Mrs A. Brown, Miss E. Burdis, Ms. J. Garland, Miss R. Skeers, Miss D. Teale and Miss J. Westaway. We would also like to thank Dr. R. Hunstead of Sydney University who assisted in the repair of the plate measuring machine at a crucial stage in the completion of the -63~30' zone, Mr. P. Halasz of the 70 DAVID S. KING AND NICHOLAS R. LOMB University of N.S.W. who provided considerable assistance with microcomputer software and hardware and Dr. C. de Vegt of Hamburg Sternwarte who helped in determining the reduction scheme. REFERENCES Catalogues CPC Jackson, J. and Stoy, R.H. 1954-1958. Cape Photographic Catalogue for 1950.0. Ann. Cape Obs. Vor 19, <52° to =56°: vol 20; -=56° fo =62°. Stoy, R.H. 1966. Cape Photographic Catalogue for 1950.0. Amn. Cape Obs. vol 21, -64° to =60° « CPD Gill, D. and Kapteyn, J.C. 1897-1900. Cape Photographic Durchmusterung, Parts II-III. Ann. Cape Obs., vOl. 4, =38° to —52°- Wor 5, -=55° fo =89°. GC Boss, B. 1937. General Catalogue of 33,342 Stars for the Epoch 1950, vols 2-5. Carnegie Inst. Washington, publ, no. 468. Le Gill, D. and Hough, S.S. 1923. Zone Catalogue of 20,843 Stars, Equinox 1900. Royal Obs., Cape of Good Hope. Spencer Jones, H. and Jackson, J. 1936. Proper motions of Stars in the Zone Catalogue of 20,843 Stars, 1900. Royal Obs., Cape of Good Hope. FK4Y Fricke, W. and Kopff, A. 1963. Fourth Fundamental Catalogue. Veroff. Astron. Rechen-Inst. Heidelberg, No. 10. AC Nangle, J. and Wood, H.W. 1925-1971. Astrographic Catalogue 1900.0 Sydney Section vols 1-53. PERTH 70 Hogg, E. and Von Der Heide, J. 1976. Perth 70 A Catalogue of Positions of 24900 stars. Abhandlungen Aus Der Hamburger Sternwarte vol 9. BPM Luyten, W.J. 1937. Bruce Proper Motion Survey. The General Catalogue vols 1-2. IRS For details see: Scott, F.P. 1962. Status of the International Reference-Star Programs. Astron. J. 67 p690. WL50 On magnetic tape only, courtesy of USNO. For details see: Smith, C. 1978. Some results of Observations with the Scott seven-inch Transit Circle at Leoncito. JIAU Coll. 26), Modern Astrometry, p447. SPC Eichhorn, H. 1983. Catalogue of 20457 Star Positions Obtained by Photography in the Declination Zone -48° to -54°. Astron. J. 88 pd46. General Eichhorn, H. 1974. Astronomy of Star Positions. Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., New York. p77. Hoffleit, D. 1970. Catalogue of the Positions and Proper Motions of Stars between Declinations -40° and -50°. Transactions of the Astronomical Observatory of Yale University, vol 30. Kopff, A. 1939. Vergleich des FK3 mit dem General Catalogue von B. Boss. Astron. Nachr., Vol 269, p160. Sydney Observatory, Observatory Park, Sydney, N.S.W., 2000 (Manuscript received 26.10.1983) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 116, pp. 71-76, 1983 ISSN 0035-9173/83/020071 — 06 $4.00/ 1 The Technological Revolution In Communications and Computing T. W. COLE ABSTRACT. discussed in a world context. INTRODUCTION An address like this gives an all too rare opportunity to distance oneself from the intimate details of research and teaching, to step back, and to take an overall and sweeping view of the techno- logies with which one is concerned. One can attempt to place these technologies in both a world and an Australian context, and to reflect on the implications for the future. Yet even the title of the talk gives difficulties since the subject is an enormous one with wide ramifications. The concept of a technological revolution needs to be discussed before placing Australia in its context. To do this, one technology will be used to illustrate in detail the dramatic rate of technological advance which is occurring. The technology chosen is microelectronics whose main product is the integrated circuit- the ‘silicon chip’. Develop- ments in microelectronics will be seen to have had a profound effect on both computing and communi- cations. Projections of this technology, its social impact, and specific consequences for Australia need then to be seen as a personal view, one coloured by an immersion in the rapid develop- ments and one influenced by the need to arrive at an educational and social policy which will have relevance to an Australia of the year 2000 and beyond. THE COMMUNICATIONS REVOLUTION It is not possible to define exactly what is meant by a technological revolution. One can but draw on the day-to-day experiences of everyone to realise that the society is undergoing rapid and extensive change as technological developments modify our working habits, our recreation, and the way we look at the world around us. In a way indicative of the rapidity of change, one can reflect that it is not uncommon in Australia to have had grandparents already having migrated halfway around the world on months-long ship voyages when Marconi broadcast over the Atlantic. Yet only one lifetime later the point has been reached where, for example, photographs of the Earth taken from the Moon have coloured forever the attitude humans have of their own planet. Communi- cation satellites and rapid air transport have removed the concept of isolation from the rest of the world that Australia might have experienced *Presidential address delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales , 6th of April , 1983. The field of microelectronics and its main product the silicon chip (integrated circuit) are used to illustrate rapid advances being made in technology. computing changes are described which will have profound effects on society. In communications and Some of these are The main conclusion is that change must be considered inevitable. just that lifetime ago. Any change spreads rapidly over the globe accompanied by an inability on the part of society to put up the shutters in a vain attempt to shield that society from change. On another level, one can see developments in molecu- lar biology and cosmology changing the moral and religious outlooks of us all. A demystification has occurred based on an increase in knowledge and on high technology applications of that knowledge. The rate of the change also increases and with it the spectre of an increasing gap between those communi- ties with and those without these advances. The concept of the technological rich and the techno- logical poor are of importance to Australia. The problem of identifying into which of these groups Australia falls is discussed below. Six nations dominate world science and technology and hence world development. These are the USA, USSR, UK, Japan, West Germany, and France. Together these countries have the major part of the world's research- and development- manpower and contribute almost all of the World's research expenditure. The Third World has little of this manpower and is continuously losing it by emi- gration. The revolution as such is then in the European based civilisation and in Japan. The question to be addressed is:- where does Australia fit into the picture? Will the above mentioned countries be the countries to continue to lead? Who will inherit the fruits of the Technological Revolution? AUSTRALIA IN A DEVELOPING WORLD Australia clearly possesses a high level of development with modern communications on land, sea, and air as well as modern telecommunications. This has contributed to a coherent language, economy, culture and politics despite the distance barrier. Australia takes its place in the world scene of trade with its agricultural products, its minerals, its services and some selected manu- factures. To place this standard of development in perspective, it is fruitful to talk in terms of the Gross National Product (GNP) per capita, i.e. the total amount a country earns per man, woman, or child in a country (Payne, 1982). In 1788 the Indus- trial Revolution was beginning and Australia, like Britain at that time had a GNP/capita of $200, a sum which corresponds in real terms with the GNP/capita of today's India and China where 72 T. W. COLE traditional cultures resisted the modern technol- ogies. As early as 1860, Australia's GNP/capita was 50% above that of the UK and is now around $10 000 or 50 times that of the average Indian. It might be considered comforting that we are ahead of the world average which is about $2 000, but there is a gap of 40 times between rich and poor countries and the possibility exists that this gap may be broadening. Australia is the ‘lucky country' but the world scene is not static. There are developments of critical importance to Australia, as will be illustrated by consideration of Australia's trading patterns. About 802 of the trade goes to the advanced and rapidly developing nations of the Pacific with little to the Indian and Chinese nations. Trade has moved from the markets in Europe to the world's third largest economy - Japan. This country, along with Hong Kong and Singapore represent a new class of economy, low on resources but very high on rapid industrialisation. It is not often appreciated that the GNP/capita of Taiwan and of Korea have been growing at 10% per year for the last decade while that of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines have been growing at 5% for 20 years. Last year Australia's growth was essentially zero. These countries in the Pacific region are the markets of Australia with our exports to them having doubled and our imports from Europe having halved over the last 20 years. Such a changing scene demands that Australia's market strengths must adapt in the face of the increasing competitiveness of these developing countries. Traditional low cost shipping, labour and tourism has been displaced while the middle technologies of steelmaking, shipbuilding, and the production of trucks,home appliances, shoes and clothing are more economical elsewhere. It is in selected areas of technology that our enterprise has at least some form of edge: scientific agri- culture, scientific mineral exploration and exploitation, complex services, and high productivity manufacture can stand Australia apart. Australia stands apart also in another sense. The large distance to the markets of the world accent- uates the penalties Australia pays in its export trade. A point will be made that knowledge is easily exported, certainly more easily than a tonne of coal or iron ore. The major factor in knowledge export is telecommunications. EMERGENT TELECOMMUNICATIONS Some key dates for telecommunications are 1944, 1947, and 1966. The first is the year in which Arthur C. Clarke proposed the concept of the geostationary satellite, the means to the provision of large bandwidth communication links around the world. In 1947 the first transistor was demon- strated in Bell Laboratories and it was only 13 years later that the first integrated circuit or IC or silicon chip was developed at the Fairchild company in the USA. The last of these dates, 1966, represents the work of Kao at the company ITT in putting forward the practical concept of optical fibres for cheap and wide bandwidth communications. These apparently simple and recent develop- ments have led to digital hardware, to the field of opto-electronics (photonics), to software, and to the converging fields of computers and communi- cations. None of these technologies have matured yet, all are developing rapidly. It is impossible to project them far into the future without an understanding of the basic elements of the technology. MICROELECTRONICS At the base of all modern computing and communications is the field of microelectronics and its product the silicon chip. 'Microelectronics' has the literal meaning of electronics on a small scale. The scale is indeed small and is measured in microns or millionths of one metre. As Figure | indicates by comparison with a human hair, to say that the 'wiring' and transistors on a modern silicon chip can be finer than | micron in width means that one is dealing with astonishing compactness. Being able to compact circuitry to HAIR 50 microns LSI 1 micron To illustrate the small scales in micro- electronics, the micron size of the features on an integrated circuit are shown against the size of a human hair. Fig. ‘1. this scale leads to enormous complexity. The source of the power of microelectronic processing lies in the fact that a silicon chip is fabricated by a sequence of similar steps 'printing' different geometrical patterns as successive layers on the slice of silicon crystal which forms the substrate of the device. Figure 2 shows by example just one corner of a design. The relative positioning of the diffusion, polysilicon, 'cuts', metal, and implant layers can create individual transistors and their interconnection in a straightforward sequence of operations. As the techniques of fabrication developed and as the necessary solid-state physics evolved, the maximum complexity which could be fitted into a single silicon chip grew. The rate of the growth can be illustrated by an analogy. The wiring on the individual silicon chip is considered analogous to the pattern of the streets criss-— crossing a city. In 1963 the silicon chip was no more complex in its wiring pattern than the streets of a city centre, a complexity with which we can all cope. At that time the features were 25 microns in width and the overall chip was only | mm square. But by 1978 techniques had developed to the point where 5 mm square chips with features 5 microns wide could provide complexity corresponding to the THE TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION 73 W OOS GLEN: SN SSRs XOOYyY YA eel see See ee eee ed QQ VPLS DS x — TREN, EEN OOO VY OPO SSI 7 Te BS @) S27 DROPS we. OB. @.O.O.O99 x es ili POLYSILICON DIFFUSION y Fig 2. layers of differing geometrical arrangement. layers partially indicated by different hatchings. A transistor is formed whenever the polysilicon path crosses an area of diffusion. diffusion. street pattern of the entire Sydney metropolitan area. It is rare to find even a taxi driver who can understand the complexity of that level of patterning. But work demonstrated in the labora- tories tells us that the techniques are already established to produce, by 1985, chips 10 mm square with features of 1 micron width. This level of complexity is analogous to an area of the whole of New South Wales covered with a roadway pattern of the same density as central Sydney. What of the future? The recognised fundamental limits lead one to wiring patterns of 0.1 micron width over even larger chips.The analogy would then reach the incredible stage of complexity of having the entire Australian continent covered with roads at the same density as central Sydney. There is absolutely no way that an individual could conceive of the intimate details of such complexity. But when appropriate new approaches developed specifically for the management of com- plexity are applied to the design of such devices, the raw complexity is capable of providing astonishing computing and processing power. Of some importance is the fact that such complexity is provided at lower and lower cost but with ever increasing reliability. It can only be designed and produced by using powerful computers as tools in the fabrication. The field of microelectronics is an iterative process in which its products are used as tools to help the development of even more powerful products. The functionality which can be placed on a single chip has been doubling every year, while the cost per operation halves every two years. It is now possible to place approximately one million transistors on a single silicon chip. Had a similarly rapid development occurred in the car industry, it would have led to cars costing one dollar and needing service every | million kilo- metres. An alternative analogy is that passenger planes having as many as 500,000 passengers would be flying across the Atlantic with a fare of only 25 cents. 4 | (cab liecat < Pe ey A small part of an integrated circuit layout shows the concept of a device made up of successive The nMOS process illustrated here has three main These would be metal, polysilicon and Elements of this story of development can be found in other technologies but few can match microelectronics in the speed at which key ideas and skills matured along developmental curves like those shown in Figure 3 (Mead,1981). It seems to be an historical fact that a subject will be first identified by one or two individuals and then follow a rapid development. Each subject then enters a period of maturity and stabilisation. The necessary technology for fabrication of the silicon chips has already reached the mature state. The skills needed to handle the complexity and to design a desired functionality into the silicon is developing rapidly. The application of the tremen- dous power of the devices is a young subject and will clearly have effects far beyond those we see now. device physics logic & circuit design computer architecture eee ooo KNOWLEDGE ——s TIME Fig 3. Any field of study can be argued as following development curves of the general form shown. The critical fields for integrated circuits are identified. 74 T. W. COLE It has been said that by 1990, microelectronic circuitry will be of the same compactness as the circuitry of the human brain and that by the turn of the century computing capacity will pass the level of human capacity. Future directions lie in new architectures arranging this complexity as a myriad of interconnected processors each with their special function which, overall, provides a range and variety of activities far beyond that possible with a single processor. Such an architecture is essentially a communications system, a network of information transfer, held together as in all computer systems by software, the computer programme ‘glue’. Comparison with human capacity is approp- riate: a number of nations pursue the development of a 'Fifth Generation Computer', to incorporate the concepts and ideas of artificial intelligence. The result is to be a system useable by the un- trained, noncomputer person, programmable by the user, and able to converse with the user while jointly arriving at a workable computer solution to the problem at hand. Expert systems, voice synthesis, voice recognition, vision analysis are all there on the rising part of the development curves of Figure 3. Who dares to predict the scope of application and impact such developments will bring? Who still denies the existence of a new revolution? DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS The developments in microelectronics have had a major impact on communications as it now takes advantage of the cheapness, reliability and flexi- bility of a digital approach. The Australian tele- communications network is changing to one based on the digital or computer concept and increasing use is being made of the facilities offered. There is a clear convergence between the areas of computing and communications, a convergence recognised now for some time but which has important ramifications for the teaching areas and the traditional compart- mentalisation of subjects. The elements of this convergence are reinforced by a realisation that the largest computer system in the world is actual- ly the Bell Telephone switching system. In the large telephone exchanges of that system, six million transactions take place in the busiest hour, and the reliability of the exchange is such that failures occur for only one thousandth of one percent of the time. This system is run by a huge computer programme which, for the entire Bell net- work, contains 18 million lines of instructions! Most computers are difficult to use but this particularly complex computer is actually used and accessed by over 200 million people using a rather simple computer terminal, the telephone (Ross,1982). It is this 'user-friendliness' which can now be incorporated in computing in a way which can bring processing power to all in ways still to be defined. EDUCATION Such rapid change, such potential for appli- cation, creates enormous difficulty in the definition of an optimum training programme for technologists whose working career will stretch into the next century. General outlines only can be given. It will always be necessary to have a broad and basic background in the sciences and mathe- matics but already one sees quite dramatic shifts in the type of science and mathematics relevent to the new areas of processing and communications. The availability of plentiful and cheap computing power has meant that this resource replaces the drawing board and the slide rule, even the pencil. The computer is the tool with which to handle the complexity of design. The level of complexity now is such that in several weeks of work a modern engineer can outstrip the complexity of an entire lifetime's output of an engineer of only a few years ago. The pervasiveness of the technology and the breadth of the application of the products of the technology have other implications. One of these is the role of the technologies in national economics. Different countries have quite different prior- ities. For example,in the USA of every 10,000 citizens, 20 are lawyers, 40 are accountants, and 70 are engineers. The corresponding figures for Japan are | lawyer, 3 accountants and 400 engineers. In the USA 5 to 7% of the Bachelors' degrees are awarded to engineers whereas the co~ rresponding figure for Japan is 20%. Such prior- ities and the products of the technology will have wide ranging effects. EFFECTS ON OUR SOCIETY The experience of the last 200 years can offer some insight into the effects the current changes might have on our society. There have been two main shifts in employment patterns during this time. Firstly, agricultural employment declined as the major employment sector. Its place was taken by employment in the newly establishing industrial area. Manufacturing industry underwent a continual rise between 1760 and about 1890. It became the dominent employment area for the 'modern' societies. This industrial era has been displaced now by the rapid rise from about 1930 to the present by employment in the 'services' areas such as administration, welfare, education and transport. Australia has a very high proportion of its workforce in this sector. The developments in technology and communications have a major impact on the service sector and its primary goal of information collection, collation, processing, storage and distribution. For example, several overseas reports predict dire employment shifts affecting the areas of insurance and banking over the next decade. For instance France will see 30 to 40% fewer 'jobs' of the current type in these areas during the above mentioned time span (Nora and Mine,1978). Similar conclusions could be expected for other countries. Projections can identify an advanced country as a Post-Industrial Society with highly productive and automated manufacturing and service industries requiring a far smaller employment base but one of much higher level of skill than in the past. The consequences indicate the need to find alternatives to the routine employment tasks which currently are the fate of most of our advanced societies. If leisure is to be the replacement, then one has an interesting departure from the leisured classes of the past who were invariably the upper and priviledged classes. One could predict a major part of the community being at leisure but a significant number of people still representing a highly skilled and long- THE TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION WS working elite. This elite copes with the complexity of the systems and will provide the productivity and services funding the leisure of the majority. Displacement of both people and job opportunities has not been easy in the past. Study of the cotton mills of northern England and the industrial areas in central England shows the nineteenth century filled with much distress and trauma, relieved eventually by migration and alternative lifestyles. Not all societies have, however, been able to successfully navigate the change. Of some concern is that widening gap between rich and poor in the world, between those forming a part of the rapid changes and those outside change. The major question is to ask with which group is Australia aligning itself as the end of the century draws near. EXPERIENCE OF THE PAST The Industrial Revolution grew out of the Dark Ages of Western Europe and not out of the flourishing areas of civilisation of the Greeks, Arabs, Indians, or Chinese. A period of stagnation in the world had meant that little was added to the world store of knowledge and skills until well into the sixteenth century. Even after the Renaissance in Europe and well into the eighteenth century, China, India, and the Arabs could well have taken the initiative in establishing the industrial revolution but did not. Yet China had had for a long time the key developments on which an industrial society could develop. Gunpowder, metallurgy, paper, and the compass were the most critical elements. The Arabs had the accumulated knowledge of the Greeks and Romans as well as being close to the Renaissance changes in Europe. They had a large empire and had a well developed trading pattern. The Europeans acquired all the key elements of knowledge and skill via the Arabs but no-one other than the Europeans were able to appreciate the implications of change. The Indian, Chinese, and Arab societies were locked into rigid attitudes and ways. They were self-confident and arrogant in a way interestingly revealed in a letter from Emperor Ch'ien Lung of China to King George III of England in 1793 (Rajaratnam, 1982). In it is shown the self-confident and arrogant manner of one blind of the changes occurring in the world around one. "You, O King, live beyond the confines of many seas; nevertheless impelled by your humble desire to partake of the benefits of our civilisation, you have despatched a mission respectfully bearing your memorial....the earnest terms in which it is cast reveal a respectful humility on your part, which is highly praiseworthy..... "If you assert that your reverence for our Celestial Dynasty fills you with a desire to acquire our civilisation..... (then) even if your envoy were to acquire the rudiments of our civilisation, you could not possibly transplant our Manners and customs to your alien soil...... "Strange and costly objects do not interest me. I....have no use for your country's manufactures....Our Celestial Empire possesses all things in prolific abundance and lacks no products within its own borders. There is therefore no need to import the manufactures of outside barbarians in exchange for our own produce. But as the tea, silk and porcelain which the Celestial Empire produces are absolute necessities to European Nations and to yourselves, we have permitted, as a mark of favour, that foreign trading centres be established at Canton....so that your country (can) participate in our beneficience.... "Do not say that you were not warned in due time. Tremblingly obey and show no negligence." The ruling classes were smug and had the wrong temperament and psychology. Europe on the other hand had no golden age to reflect on. Europe could look forward to change, to improving Man's lot in the world. Of concern in Australia is that signs of the same stagnation, of the same reflection on a passing golden age is manifestly evident. Instead of silk, tea and porcelain it is wool, meat, iron ore and coal. Australia inherited the best of the Industrial Revolution and did much to look after the rights of man and woman, rights of free enquiry, of government by consent. Yet it is not at all clear that these are the values most appropriate to the task of judging the fruits of this new revolution. Change needs to be looked on as a positive thing, something to be accepted with challenge, not just rejected on the basis of past situations. It also means that new bases to the generation and distribution of resources throughout our society need to be found. The consequences of failure to respond to this change could be severe. There are already identifiable countries around Australia without the encumbrance of a golden past who have accepted the challenge, who are diminishing the gap between the rich and their own poverty. The gap between rich and poor will widen, with new definitions of who is rich and who is poor. CONCLUSIONS The technological revolution in communications and computing is important. It is an important factor in the re-shaping of our society. It can be a major factor in the way our future resources are created. It can be one way of absorbing the displaced workers from the industries of the past era. In education, is seen a major need to inject this attitude of adventure and challenge, to pursue with confidence these new technologies. The graduate needs a solid basic training on which to build. But the realisation is emerging that a spirit of adventure and confidence is just as important. It is a frightening prospect to think of one's children growing up in a country being left on a downward slide by nations who have accepted the challenges of the technological revolution. 76 T. W. COLE REFERENCES Mead, C.A.,1981. VLSI and technological innovations, in VLSI 81, pp.3-l1l. J.P.Gray (Ed.). Academic Press, New York. Nora, S. and Mine, A.,1978. L'INFORMATISATION DE LA SOCIETE, La Documentation Francaise, Paris. Translated as THE COMPUTERISATION OF SOCIETY, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1980. Payne, T. O., 1982. Australian transport and communications- the context. Transport and Communications. Proc. Sixth Invitation Symp., Aust, Acad. Technol. Sciences, 1982, 27-35. Rajaratnam, S.,1982. Who shall inherit the Third Wave? The Australian Consulting Engineer, 11 (3), 5=7- Ross, I.M.,1982. Microelectronics, software and communications. Proc. Sixth Int. Conference on Computer Communication, London, Sept. 7. School of Electrical Engineering, University of Sydney, N.S.W. 2006. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 116, pp. 77-103, 1983 ISSN 0035-9173 /83/020077 — 27 $4.00/ 1 Restite, Xenoliths and Microgranitoid Enclaves In Granites* R. H. VERNON ABSTRACT. Microstructural evidence of restite is meagre or absent in high-level metaluminous (I-type) granitoid plutons, and is limited in high-level peraluminous (S-type) granitoids. The microgranitoid enclaves (autoliths, ''cognate xenoliths") that occur abundantly in both metaluminous and peraluminous granitoids are probably formed by quenching of magma in the plutonic environment. The enclaves are best explained by mingling and quenching of globules of more mafic magma in the host granitoid magma, although some may be solid fragments of quenched magma. Several quenching processes are feasible, provided incorporation of partly liquid material is postulated. However, mineralogical and microstructural evidence of hybridism suggests that many microgranitoid enclaves may be the result of magma mixing, either in the same reservoir as the host granitoid or elsewhere. Mingling of magma blobs with the granitoid magma is consistent with all the characteristic features of microgranitoid enclaves. INTRODUCTION The honour that attends an invitation to deliver the Clarke Memorial Lecture is intensified for me by the fact that four of my teachers have been so honoured. They are A.H. Voisey, K.S.W. Campbell and J.F.G. Wilkinson, who taught me at the University of New England, and the late A.B. Edwards, who continued my education at the Gest. RO: For the last four years, R.H. Flood and I, assisted by W.F. D'Arcy, have been investigating granitoid microstructures at Macquarie University. Many of our specific results have been published or soon will be (e.g., Flood & Vernon, 1979; Vernon & Flood, 1982; Vernon et al., 1983). This lecture is partly an extension of our published work on the evidence for restite in graintoid rocks and partly a presentation of my own ideas on the nature and origin of micrograintoid enclaves (autoliths, ''cognate xenoliths"). First, I examine the microstructural evidence for restite in high-level graintoid plutons, concluding that generally it is absent, weak or limited. Then I discuss the origin of "microgranitoid enclaves", concluding that they are not of restite origin, as has been suggested, but that they result from quenching of magma in the plutonic environment. Finally, I suggest that magma mingling may be the best way of forming the enclaves, although other processes may also contribute. THE RESTITE HYPOTHESIS The "restite hypothesis" for the development of granitoid suites (Bateman et al., 1963; Piwinskii, 1968; Presnall & Bateman, 1973; Wyllie et al., 1976; Wyllie, 1977; White §& Chappell, 1977; Chappell, 1978) holds great sway at present, especially in Australia, but also in some quarters overseas. Excellent field, chemical * Clarke Memortal Lecture; deltvered 21 September, 1983. and isotopic investigations, especially in eastern N.S.W. (e.g., Chappell, 1978; White et al., 1977; ~Hine et al., 1978; Griffineet al., 1978; Shaw §& Flood, 1981), have revealed the existence of suites of related granitoid plutons in high-level batholiths, and that some of the chemical variations within and between related plutons are commonly linear. This linear variation implies that mixing may have dominated over crystal fractionation (Harker, 1909). The restite hypothesis explains the linear variation by progressive unmixing of restite (unmelted solid residue) brought up with felsic "minimum melt" from the source area ("'restite unmixing"). However, in my opinion, much of the microstructural evidence relevant to the restite hypothesis has been misinterpreted or minimized, in favour of chemical evidence, and so this paper deals with microstructures in some detail. As stated by White (1983, p.992), ''we have too long ignored simple petrography and relied only on geochemistry to solve our problems". The concept underlying the restite model is that "the products of partial melting (both melt and restite) can move upwards, en masse, to form granitoid plutons or volcanic rocks" (White & Chappell, 1977, p.8). This is really an assumption at this stage, much depending on the ratio of melt to residue, the viscosity of the melt, and doubt- less other factors, but this problem is outside the scope of this lecture. In the extreme application of the restite hypothesis, phenocrysts in volcanic rocks have been regarded as modified restite. For example, Wyborn et al. (1981, pp.10341-2) contended that all phenocrysts (quartz, plagioclase, biotite, garnet, orthopyroxene and cordierite) in peralumi- nous volcanic rocks of the Hawkins Suite in the Lachlan Fold Belt, S.E. Australia, are of restite origin, presumably modified by overgrowths precipitated from the melt, to produce the observed euhedral shapes. This interpretation, if accepted, alters the traditional view of volcanic rock microstructures. Normally petrologists regard uniformly dispersed, euhedral phenocrysts in 78 R. H. VERNON volcanic rocks, occurring, as they do, in rocks of ultramafic to felsic composition, as products of magmatic crystallization under conditions of slow rates of homogeneous nucleation at small degrees of undercooling. Furthermore, the supposed restite phenocrysts are consistently isolated from each other, whereas much of the material inferred to be restite in granitoids (e.g., the mafic aggregates referred to later) and in extrusive rocks (e.g., Flood et al., 1977) occurs in aggregates. However, interpretations of restite grains completely converted to igneous-looking crystals by magmatic reactions are difficult to disprove by using microstructural evidence. Presumably phenocrysts of plagioclase in basalts are exempt from the interpretation of Wyborn et al. (1981), since plagioclase is not a stable mineral in the source rocks. Furthermore, the experiments of Green (1976) and Clemens § Wall (1981) have shown that cordierite, orthopyroxene, almandine-rich garnet and biotite can crystallize from the melt in peraluminous granitic magmas, confirming the microstructural interpretation of Brammall §& Harwood (1923, 1932) and the recogni- tion of White and Chappell (1977, p.18) that euhedral cordierite and some garnet in peralumi- nous granitoids may be magmatic. In view of these considerations, the extreme interpretation of Wyborn et al. (1981) is highly questionable. MICROSTRUCTURAL EVIDENCE OF RESTITE IN GRANITOIDS Microstructural evidence commonly advanced for the presence of restite in granitoid plutons consists of (1) mafic aggregates (''clots"), (2) corroded plagioclase cores, and (3) dark enclaves or ''xenoliths" (Presnall § Bateman, 1973, p.3197; White & Chappell, 1977; Pitcher, 1979, p.635). I will consider each of them. Restite should tend to equilibrate with the melt as the magma rises (White § Chappell, 1977, p.18), so that, in theory, microstructural evidence for restite tends to be progressively removed. However, examples of partly equilibrated restite are commonly cited, and so these at least must be evaluated. Mafic Aggregates Presnall & Bateman (1973, p.3197) and Chappell (1978, p.274) contrasted separate, euhedral crystals of hornblende and biotite with anhedral grains of the same minerals in aggregates ("clots") in metaluminous granitoids of the Sierra Nevada, U.S.A. and southern New England, N.S.W., suggesting a restite origin for the clots. Similarly, White § Chappell (1977, p.17) interpre- ted euhedral crystals of hornblende in the non- minimum melt Jindabyne Suite, N.S.W., as being magmatic, presumably in contrast to the supposedly minimum melt Moruya Suite. However, I have observed euhedral hornblende in the Tuross Head Tonalite of the Moruya Suite. So evidently only some of the mafic material, even in supposedly minimum-melt suites, conceivably could be interpreted’ as restite. White §& Chappell (1977, p.11) inferred that pyroxene cores in amphiboles in some metaluminous (I-type) granitoids represent restite (granulite facies) pyroxene partly equilibrated with hydrous felsic melt. However, identical microstructures may be produced by ordinary reaction relationships between magmatic pyroxene and melt, producing hornblende (e.g., Cawthorn § O'Hara, 1976). Furthermore, as noted by Vernon § Flood (1982) and detailed by Flood et al. (in prep.), clinopyroxene grains partly replaced by amphibole in at least one granitoid pluton show oscillatory zoning and so result from magmatic crystallization. Flood et al. (1977) interpreted pyroxene- plagioclase aggregates in a rhyodacite as being either restite equilibrated with the melt at temperatures and pressures higher than those at which the normal phenocrysts crystallized, or as cumulate material. Therefore, some mafic aggre- gates in chemically related granitoids (Flood et al., 1980) may have a similar origin. A reasonable conclusion is that though some mafic aggregates in metaluminous granitoids could be of restite origin, unambiguous microstructural evidence is generally absent. Furthermore, even where mafic aggregates of doubtful origin exist, euhedral mafic grains typically are present also, suggesting that at least some of them crystallized from the melt. Even if overgrowth on restite xenocrysts is postulated, precipitation from the melt must still be involved. Therefore, the extreme view that all mafic grains in granitoids are modified restite is untenable. Similar reasoning applies to mafic clots in peraluminuous (S-type) granitoids, in which a reaction relationship between magmatic orthopyro- xene and melt to produce biotite is predicted by the experiments of Green (1976) and Clemens § Wall (1981). Microstructural evidence of this reaction is rare in granitoids, although it is present in some microgranitoid enclaves in the Cowra Granodiorite (Vernon et al., in prep.). Rectangular aggregates rich in biotite and quartz in peralumi- nous granitoids of the Bundarra Suite, New England Batholith, N.S.W., originally may have been magmatic orthopyroxene that reacted with K-feldspar and water components in the liquid to produce biotite and quartz, although no orthopyroxene relics have yet been found. With regard to biotite grains and aggregates in a peraluminous granitoid, Phillips et al. (1981, pp.52-3, fig.3a) have stated that "features expected in restite micas (sillimanite inclusions and coarse, foliated aggregates) are entirely lacking in the Strathbogie biotites''. This typical absence of foliated aggregates also could be used to argue aginst a restite origin for biotite aggregates in metaluminous granitoids. Restite (i.e., metamorphic) cordierite in pera- luminous granitoids may be expected to show inclu- sions of sillimanite (White & Chappell, 1977, p.18) and/or spinel (Phillips et al., 1981, p.59), as well as being anhedral and rich in inclusions (Phillips et al., 1981, p.53). Some cordierite of this type in the Strathbogie Batholith, Victoria, may be restite, but most of the cordierite is euhedral, and its grainsize correlates with that of the enclosing rock, suggesting a magmatic origin (Phillips et al., 1981, p.53). Similarly, almandine- rich garnet with many inclusions, especially sillimanite inclusions, may well be restite, RESTITE, XENOLITHS AND MICROGRANITOID ENCLAVES 79 particularly if associated with rutile, which association indicates confining pressures of >700- 800 MPa (7-8 kbar) according to Clemens § Wall (1981, p.118). However, euhedral, inclusion-free garnet could well be magmatic, as could anhedral garnet devoid of evidence of reaction and inter- grown with felsic groundmass minerals in porphyri- tvceeranitords (Phillips et @i., 1981, p.53)- “ = 8 SS ee 85 86 Fig. 9. R. H. VERNON Chilled margin to microgranitoid enclave (above and right) against granitoid host (bottom-left). Marulan Granodiorite, N.S.W. Crossed polars; base 4.4 mn. _” i. ail, > Local flow alignment of plagioclase laths, adjacent to area of quartz poikilitically enclosing plagioclase and biotite, ina microgranitoid enclave from the Bathurst Batholith, N.S.W. Crossed polars; base 4.4 mn. RESTITE, XENOLITHS AND MICROGRANITOID ENCLAVES 87 Fig. 11. Microgranitoid enclave, consisting of euhedral, oscillatory zoned phenocrysts of plagioclase, set in a groundmass consisting mainly of random plagioclase laths, biotite and interstitial quartz. Marulan Batholith, N.S.W. Crossed polars; base 4.4 mm. Fig. 12. Large rounded grains (?xenocrysts) of quartz rimmed by fine- grained mafic (orthopyroxene-rich) aggregates in a microtonalite enclave with phenocrysts of orthopyroxene (bottom-left) and altered plagioclase (right). Cowra Granodiorite, N.S.W. Plane-polarized light; base 4.4 mn. 88 Salve yee R. H. VERNON mafic minerals, as shown in Fig.12 (e.g., Pabst, 1928, p.348; Wells & Woolridge, 1931, p.204; Thomas & Smith, 1932; Vernon et al., in prep. Jk. They may or may not show evidence of replace- ment of pyroxene by hornblende, hornblende by biotite, and orthopyroxene by biotite (e.g., Thomas & Smith, 1932, p.283). They have compositionally and microstructu- rally similar counterparts of similar size in calcalkaline volcanic rocks (e.g., Wilkinson et al., 1964, pp.469-70); some of these contain interstitial volcanic glass and skeletal, zoned crystals of hornblende and plagioclase, indicating a magmatic condition (Eichelberger, 1978; 1980, fig.1). Some show chilled rims, and acicular apatite is common. Composition 53% 34. Dot SOK. ihe Sele Tis They are darker and finer-grained than their host granitoids (Figs.3-6; e.¢., Phillips, 1880; Pabst, 1928). Though they are consistently more mafic than their host granitoids, they generally are not strictly mafic (although they are often referred to as such), but are intermediate to silicic in composition (e.¢., Didier, 1973). Chemically they fall on or near variation trends for their host granitoids, with a wide range in 510, percentages; ¢.g., 55-74 for microgranitoid enclaves in the Dartmoor granitoids (Brammall § Harwood, 1932, fig.5); 52-65 for the Moruya suite, N.S.W. (unpubl. data), and 52-65 for the Cowra Granodiorite, N.S.W. (Vernon ¢¢ al.,.in prep.) They have the mineral assemblages and abun- dances of quartz diorites, quartz monzonites, quartz syenites, tonalites, granodiorites and adamellites (e.g., Didier, 1973, fig.97). Hornblende and biotite are the typical mafic minerals in microgranitoid enclaves in meta- luminous (I-type) plutons, whereas biotite + orthopyroxene + cordierite are the typical mafic minerals in microgranitoid enclaves in peraluminous (S-type) plutons (e.g., Vernon er al., in prep.s, -Fvg. 2). Their mineral assemblages are generally the same as those in the surrounding granitoid, but the proportions may be different (e.g., Phillips, 1880; Pabst, 1928, p.343) and the compositions are generally slightly but con- sistently different (e.g., Vernon et al., in prep.), especially for plagioclase, which is commonly more calcic in the enclaves (Pabst, 1928, table 3). Particular mineralogical features of a granitoid, such as sphene or phenocrysts of hornblende, may be reflected in the enclaves (Pabst, 1928, p.358). The enclaves have a relatively large range in composition in a single pluton (e.g., Pabst, 1928). 40. Microgranitoid enclaves in the Cowra Granodio- rite, N.S.W. contain magmatic plagioclase, orthopyroxene and cordierite, indicating crystallization at less than 200 MPa (2 kbar), according to the experimental data of Clemens §& Wall (1981). Therefore, at least some microgranitoid enclaves crystallize at grani- toid emplacement levels. IGNEOUS MICROSTRUCTURE In my opinion, the most important feature of microgranitoid enclaves is their igneous microstruc- ture. This was clearly recognized by Phillips (1880), Harker & Marr (1891), Harker (1909) and Pabst (1928). The common presence in the enclaves of (a) euhedral phenocrysts of plagioclase with oscillatory zoning (Figs.11, 12), hornblende, quartz, and orthopyroxene (in peraluminuous varieties (Fig.12)), (b) abundant zoned plagioclase laths (Figs.7-12; Pabst, 1928. —p2345) ,-(e)) porkila— tic quartz (Figs.8, 10), K-feldspar or biotite (Fig.8), and (d) flow alignment of plagioclase laths (Fig.7) or phenocrysts (Pabst, 1928, p.342), favours an igneous, rather than a metamorphic micro- structure. Hornfels xenoliths (including those of igneous parentage) can readily be distinguished from the microgranitoid enclaves on the basis of their metamorphic microstructures, as emphasized by Grout (1937). Moreover, minor intrusions of undoubtedly igneous origin (e.g., Joplin, 1964, figs.49c, 52c) can be matched microstructurally with the microgranitoid enclaves, as pointed out for lamprophyre dykes near the Shap Granite by Harker (1909). The acicular apatite that is so characteristic of the microgranitoid enclaves (Fig.2; Phillips, 1880, pp.18, 19; White’§& Chappell, 1977) andicates a magmatic quench origin, according to the experi- ments of Wyllie et al. (1962), which are supported by the common occurrence of acicular apatite in the mesostasis of rapidly cooled volcanic and subvolcanic rocks. Williams et al. (1983, p.84) described euhedral, very elongate (commonly greater than 10:1 in aspect ratio) crystals of zircon in some microgranitoid enclaves in a metaluminous granitoid pluton. The zircon crystals resemble those in some volcanic rocks and tuffs, suggesting a quench origin. Williams et al. (1983) suggested that the zircon crystallized from partly molten enclaves late in the history of the enclosing magma, but presumably this would imply slow cooling, which is inconsistent with the shape and volcanic similarities of the zircon crystals. Intuitively, zircon, being among the most refractory minerals, would be expected to be one of the most likely members of a restite assemblage. Yet here it is magmatic, indicating that a restite origin for the enclaves is most unlikely. The fine grainsize in an otherwise plutonic environment suggests that the microgranitoid enclaves represent quenched magmatic rocks. The question is: how did the quenching occur? Several possible mechanisms are discussed below, after a consideration of the role of contamination in the formation of the enclaves. RESTITE, XENOLITHS AND MICROGRANITOID ENCLAVES 89 THE ROLE OF CONTAMINATION For most of this century, thoughts on enclaves and hybridism have been dominated by the concept that they develop by "reciprocal reaction" between granitic magma and solid rock, following the theo- retical analysis of Bowen (1922), as developed by Nockolds (1933). The basic idea is that solid rock fragments are converted to igneous-looking rocks and the granitic magma is enriched in mafic components by chemical exchange with, and physical breakup of, enclaves. A detailed summary has been given by Didier (1973). The reasoning seems to have been that because enclaves were assumed to be fragments of various types of solid country rocks, they must have undergone extensive changes while in the magma, in order to explain the observed mineralogical simila- rities to the host granitoid. Grout (1937) put the viewpoint most strongly by stating that because most country rocks are sediments, and shale is the most common sedimentary rock, it follows that most microgranitoid enclaves, of necessity, are trans- formed shales. Ironically, four years later he found it difficult to accept the idea that igneous- looking granitoid rocks could be formed by graniti- zation (Grout, 1941). The main problem with these interpretations involving contamination is that the microgranitoid enclaves have igneous microstructures, whereas metamorphic microstructures should be the result of recrystallization and neocrystallization in the solid state, even if metasomatism was involved. Nockolds (1933) invoked intimate penetration and crystallization of felsic melt in the enclaves, in order to explain the interstitial, commonly poiki- litic quartz and K-feldspar. However, I know of no clear microstructural evidence for this process. Grout (1937; p.1555) tried to minimize jthe problem by suggesting that igneous microstructures are not easy to recognize. However, he emphasized strongly that metamorphic microstructures are distinctive, and these are lacking in the micro- granitoid enclaves, although they are present in the few accompanying hornfels xenoliths (including hornfelses of igneous origin), as clearly pointed out by Pabst: (1928, pp.356, 358, plate 54). Another problem with the contamination hypo- thesis is that the enclaves are consistently finer- grained than the host granitoid. Why should this necessarily be so if they underwent high- temperature alteration in the solid state, appa- rently in the absence of deformation? The main question that must be asked is whether much reaction between xenoliths and magma ever occurs, at least as far as the microgranitoid enclaves in high-level plutons are concerned. Microgranitoid enclaves generally show no clear evidence of such reaction (e.g., Pabst, 1928, p-351). Those in the Cowra Granodiorite commonly have orthopyroxene, whereas this mineral is absent from the host granodiorite, biotite having been stable instead (Vernon et al., in prep.). In some enclaves, orthopyroxene apparently has been partly replaced by biotite, but the degree of replacement is unrelated to the edges of the enclaves, and so it may well have been a magmatic reaction of the type to be expected in peraluminous granitoid magmas (e.g., Green, 1976; Clemens G4 Wall, 1981). A Similar interpretation may apply to the partial replacement of pyroxene by hornblende in metalumi- nous microgranitoid xenoliths (e.g., Thomas §& Smith, 193255 .285) - Although examples of physical breakup of enclaves by penetration of discrete tongues of granitoid magma have been described (e.g., Phillips, £8805 p.205 Pabst, 1928) p,542; “Nockolds.. 1955; Didier, 1973), it appears that, once formed, the microgranitoid enclaves were sufficiently stable in the magma to avoid pervasive chemical and microstruc- tural modification, as recognized by Larsen (1948, p-162). Similarly, most metasedimentary schistose and hornfelsic xenoliths generally show little evidence of reaction with the magma and little or no tendency towards rounding-even xenoliths of high- grade metamorphic origin. This shows that enclaves that have spent most time in the granitoid magma need not be much altered. It could be argued that the microgranitoid enclaves were in the magma for only a relatively short time, but in view of the Similarity between the minerals of the enclave and the host granitoid, they must have had the same cooling period. Therefore, the resistance of the enclaves to recrystallization and increase in grain- size must be due to stable minerals and grain- boundary configurations, as well as to an absence of strain. The foregoing discussion is not meant to deny the possibility of some recrystallization and neocrystallization in true xenoliths and of chemical interaction between certain reactive rock-types and granitic magma (e.g., Pabst, 1928, p.355; Grantham, 1928, pp.518-9; Osborne, 1931), especially calcareous and ultramafic xenoliths (Didier, 1973). However, the evidence indicates that many types of enclave, and microgranitoid enclaves in particular, do not show evidence of much or any solid-state reaction with the host magma. The ''zoned enclaves" interred by de Albuquerque. (1975, p.491) to be restite xenoliths modified (i.e., granitized) round their edges by the enclosing magma, in fact appear to be double enclaves composed of a metasedimentary xenolith surrounded by a peraluminous microgranitoid enclave with an igneous, not a metamorphic, micro- SEructure de Albuquerque, 19/73." p.455, plates Ei IV). Double enclaves consisting of hornfels xeno- liths inside microgranitoid enclaves are relatively common (e.g., Didier, 1973), and, because the two are separated by a sharp contact, they do not support the idea that microgranitoid enclaves result from the action of granitoid magma on hornfels xenoliths. A preferable explanation is that dislodged hornfels fragments are accidentally incor- porated in the microgranitoid material, whatever its cause (Thomas & Smith, 1932, p.290; Pitcher §& Berger, 1972, p.139; Vernon & Flood, 1982). In a review of assimilation, McBirney (1979) gave many detailed examples of assimilation of igneous and sedimentary rocks in mafic magmas. However, equivalent examples for granitic magmas were not given, apart from xenocrysts, which could equally well be explained by magma mixing (see later), and the Brittany enclaves of Thomas & Smith (1932), which, as McBirney (1979, p.323) noted, may have been partly molten when mixed with the granitoid. This absence of clear examples also suggests that 90 R. H. VERNON contamination of granitoids by solid rock may have been greatly overestimated. MICROGRANITOID ENCLAVES AS MAGMA GLOBULES The fine-grained, igneous microstructures of the microgranitoid enclaves, together with their commonly rounded shapes and the evidence of magmatic flow of many of them, suggest that the material that gave rise to the enclaves was magma that crystalli- zed rapidly. Walker & Skelhorn (1966, pp.99-100), Eichelberger (1978, 1980) and Hibbard (1981) have suggested that the enclaves may be the result of the mingling of mafic magma globules with a grani- toid magma. Their interpretation is confirmed by my analysis of more comprehensive evidence, apart from their suggestion that the globules are mafic, because most enclaves are intermediate or silicic, as noted previously. However, as pointed out by McBirney (1980), evidence for the coexistence of magmas does not indicate by itself how the magmas were formed. Therefore, any process capable of supplying magma globules of the right compositional range could contribute to the enclave magmas. For example, numerous local, fine-grained margins and apophyses to plutons have been descri- bed (é.¢.., Bateman et al. , 1963. posDls; Didier, 1973) and this material is a possible source. So are small intrusions chilled against cool country Tock (€.g:, Goodspeed, 1948, p.519; Grout, 1937, p.1564; Wiebe, 1968, p.702; Flood G Vernen, 1979; Vernon §& Flood, 1982). However, if these intrusions are the main source of the enclaves, why aren't hornfels xenoliths just as common (Flood § Vernon, 1979; Vernon §& Flood, 1982)? Alternatively, the enclaves may represent parts of the main pluton itself that crystallized rapidly against the upper walls and roof, and around detached fragments of the upper parts of the magma chamber, while becoming differentiated from the host granitoid magma (Phillips et al., 1981; Vernon & Flood, 1982). Conceivably, this could involve thermal quenching or pressure quen- ching; the pressure quenching model has been outlined by Vernon § Flood (1982) and is being elaborated by Flood (in prep.). The large size of most granitoid plutons raises questions about the ability of thermal quenching to produce rucks of appropriate grainsize, especially in view of the absence of chilled margins around the main, lower parts of granitoid batholiths. Hibbard (1981, p.158) has questioned both forms of marginal quenching, stating that ''... quenching in the plutonic environment requires a cooling mecha- nism independent of conductive heat transfer to wall rock and also independent of sudden loss of volatile phases that could only occur late in the crystallization of most magmas and therefore after much dendritic plagioclase had already been formed"' (referring to rapid growth of plagioclase in grani- toid and enclaves). Hibbard (1981) presented detailed evidence that magma mixing is involved in the formation of enclave magmas, as discussed later. If fragments of solid, fully crystalline marginal or external quench material are inferred to be the main source of the enclave material, presumably they would require rounding by solution or other forms of attrition in the granitoid magma, in order to explain the commonly rounded shapes of the enclaves. However, hornfels xenoliths generally show little evidence of rounding (e.g., Phillips, 1880), and so the rounded shapes may well be primary features of the enclaves. Of course, the less common angular enclaves could be due to the incorpo- ration of solid quench fragments. On the other hand, magma can break, like pitch, if rapidly deformed (Walker, 1969; Blake et al., 1965), and so angular enclaves could have been magmatic when incorporated, as are some of the enclaves in clear examples of magma mingling described later. Enclaves with flow structures (Figs.7, 10) and distorted enclaves with no evidence of crystal plasticity or recrystallization (Figs.6, 7) are best explained by inferring that they were magma globules when being deformed. An alternative might be to postulate flaking off of very flat pieces of solid quenched rock that happened to have a strong prefer- red orientation of the constituent minerals, but then the degree of elongation of these fragments would not be related to the intensity of flow of the magma, aS is the situation (e.g., at Tuross Head, discussed later). Flaking off of flat fragments has been suggested by Chapman (1969) and Taylor (1976), but Taylor's photograph shows that the enclaves are ellipsoidal to lenticular, favouring flow of magma globules. As mentioned previously, the microgranitoid enclaves are almost invariably more mafic than their host granitoid. Therefore, the magma globules inferred to be their forerunners would have been hotter than the granitoid magma. Consequently, mingling of the enclave globules in the cooler grani- toid magma results in loss of heat, increase in viscosity, and increase in the degree of undercooling of the enclaves. The increased viscosity inhibits mixing of the magmas and produces dominantly rounded enclave shapes, and the increased undercooling causes a finer grainsize in the enclave than in the grani- toid. Even a small increase in the degree of under- cooling can be effective, as discussed later, so that even enclaves that are only slightly more mafic than the host granitoid can have finer grainsizes than the granitoid. Distinction should be made between magma mingling or commingling (Harker, 1909), which involves interpenetration of two or more magmas without pervasive mixing of the melts, and magma mixing, which involves homogenization of melt phases and the conversion of any pre-existing crystals to minerals stable in the hybrid melt, or their armouring by stable minerals. Complete miscibility in common calcalkaline melts is indicated by phase equilibrium experiments (e.g., Bowen, 1928) and mixing experiments (Yoder, 1973; Kouchi §& Sunagawa, 1982, 1983). It is confirmed by experimental and natural evidence of chilling of mafic against felsic magma, since thermodynamically immiscible liquids should coexist without chilling (Taylor et al., 1980, p.433). Therefore, any failure of two calcalkaline melts to mix completely in nature must be due to kinetic factors, related principally to viscosity differences. Before discussing this process for the plutonic environment, it is worth examining examples of magma RESTITE, XENOLITHS AND MICROGRANITOID ENCLAVES 9] mingling and mixing in the subvolcanic environment, which provide some of the clearest evidence of the process in an arrested state. MAGMA MINGLING IN THE SUBVOLCANIC ENVIRONMENT A clear example of magma mingling occurs in a granite porphyry ring dyke that cooled quickly enough to preserve incipient stages of the process, in New Hampshire (Reid et al., 1980). Droplets of basalt occur in the felsic rock, the basalt being variolitic, with skeletal plagioclase, ilmenite and apatite. The grainsize decreases towards the margins of the droplets, indicating chilling. Lobes of basalt appear to have engulfed K-feldspar phenocrysts of the felsic rock. Many other examples of the mingling of mafic and felsic magmas in composite intrusions in the subvolcanic or highest-level plutonic environments have been described, as reviewed by King (1964), Blake et al. (1965), and Walker § Skelhorn (1966). Some of the earliest descriptions were those of Harker (1904; 1909, pp.343-346), who discussed examples of intimate mingling of basalt and grano- phyre in Tertiary composite intrusions of the western isles of Scotland. He inferred that in some examples the basalt was "not wholly crystalli- zed"' and that "basic and acid magmas were intruded almost simultaneously" (Harker, 1909, p.344). The main features shown by these occurrences are: (a) the mafic magma is chilled against the felsic magma; (b) the felsic magma commonly intri- cately veins the mafic rock, and there may be flow structure in the felsic vein and chilling in the mafic margin to the vein; (c) the felsic magma stays molten longer than the mafic magma, and is highly mobile, so that it may vein fractured, solid mafic rock, in which case the mafic rock does not show chilling against the felsic veins; (d) mafic enclaves occur in the felsic rock, the enclaves being rounded (pillow-like) to wispy, commonly with crenulate margins; (e) the mafic enclaves generally are finer-grained than the main body of mafic rock, and some have chilled edges; and (f) the local occurrence of double enclaves and of enclaves somewhat unlike the adjacent mafic rock suggests that some enclaves were brought in from elsewhere (King, 1964, p.286). The fluidity of the felsic melt - evidenced by the intimacy of the net-veining and the flow structure in some felsic veins (Blake et al., 1965) - may be enhanced by a separate gas phase, Since druses with hydrous minerals occur in some granophyres, and since some mafic pillows show a change from pyroxene in their interiors to horn- blende and even biotite at their margins, sugges- ting transfer of water from the felsic magma. However, most of the mobility is probably due to transfer of heat from the mafic magma, as indicated by the chilling. The higher viscosity of the mafic magma rela- tive to the felsic magma is evidenced by the general absence of mafic veins in felsic rock, the absence of felsic enclaves in mafic rock, and the pillow- like shapes of the mafic enclaves. Locally a mafic dyke cuts felsic rock, which can occur if the felsic material becomes so viscous that it fractures, like pitch, under the action of a rapidly applied stress (Blake ev al., 1965) p.40)- McSween et al. (1979) interpreted composite lamprophyre-granophyre dykes in South Carolina as the result of magma mingling (producing pillow-like structures and net-veining) and local magma mixing (producing small amounts of hybrid biotite grano- phyre melt). Across contacts that are gradational on the thin-section scale, the biotite composition remains constant, but the plagioclase is more calcic towards the lamprophyre. MAGMA MINGLING IN THE PLUTONIC ENVIRONMENT Harker (1909, pp.340-3) discussed examples of hybridism in plutonic complexes of the British Tertiary suite, in which mafic and felsic rocks are in close association, enclaves of mafic rock occurring in the felsic rock. He described intimate veining of mafic by felsic rock and evidence of acidification of the more mafic rock and basifica- tion of the more felsic rock. In places, the heterogeneous mass of mingled mafic and felsic rock has been drawn out by contemporaneous flow to produce a "'gneissic banding", as in the Tertiary "oneisses'' of Rum. Harker envisaged softening of formerly solid gabbro by 'metamorphism, by fusion and recrystallization, and by partial impregnation". Following Bowen (1922, 1928), we now know that melting of solid gabbro by felsic magma is very unlikely, and so the mafic fraction in the layered complex was probably magma from the start of the mingling process. Harker obviously appreciated the need for coexisting magmas to explain the layered structure. These ''gneisses'' may be the plutonic equivalents of layered, mingled mafic/intermediate- felsic volcanic rocks and of the interlayered mafic and felsic melts produced experimentally by Kouchi & Sunagawa (1982, 1983). A clear example of magma mingling in the plutonic environment was described by Wells & Woolridge (1931) on the island of Jersey, where at the well exposed upper contact, a granitoid pluton has intricately penetrated and dislodged enclaves from a roof of gabbro. They noted that the enclaves are commonly rounded, with serrated outlines, some showing transitions into a schlieren-like interfin- gering with the granitoid (Wells §& Woolridge, 1931, fig.16). They also observed that the enclaves are commonly finer-grained towards their margins, and stated that ''the impression is conveyed that the xenoliths have been actually chilled against the invading magma, which is of course absurd" (Wells & Woolridge, 1931, p.190). Nowadays this interpreta- tion is not absurd, but the idea was so repugnant to Wells §& Woolridge that they clung firmly to Bowen (1922) and explained the enclaves and their variety by the incorporation of fragments of solid gabbro, followed by varying degrees of reaction with the felsic magma. However, their photomicrograph (6192239 .204) of a "hybrid: rock". vuilustrates 4 6 & In os 6 6 rere Ae BERRY SILTSTONE | ILLAWARRA CHARBON CULLEN BULLEN SUBGROUP Fig. 3. Stratigraphic section at Browns Gap illustrating the new nomenclature for the Illawarra Coal Measures in the Western Coalfield. (Scale in metres) I) ILLAWARRA COAL MEASURES IN THE WESTERN COALFIELD *utseg Aoupds oy} JO uTSIvW UL9ISOM dy} IeoU dnoin UsABYTBOYS pue dnorsqns uUseT[Ng UsT{ND 9sYy UTYIIM sdtTYysUOTIeTOL SoTOeFOUITT IT] ewMeIZEeTG ee iam, el aa Oi as CIS MOUs gy oo Ong {py ory using ua] [ND BOuUURA] 2e14 SueUWp9De|g oouebuewell SdIHSNOILV 13aqu SSINDVAOHLIT qanows-ans NaTTwinNsa Naina 116 C.S. BEMBRICK ilawarra Coal Measures Stratigraphy In Type Bore ELN DDH 31, Newnes Plateau LITHGOW 1:50000 SHEET, 8931-111. 221925mE 1310965 mN (1.S.G.) COLLAR:1082 m (A.H.D.) T.D.: 475-98 m NARRABEEN GROUP FARMERS CREEK FORMATION GAP SANDSTONE STATE MINE CREEK FORMATION ANGUS PLACE SANDSTONE BAAL BONE WALLERAWANG i I ] Fine and medium grained, quartz - lithic; mudstone clasts and coaly fragments. Very fine grained, argillaceous; grades to unit below. V., MEASURES * Laminated and bioturbated Silty lenses and laminae; siderite; bioturbated. y > 10) & 9 FORMATION GLEN DAVIS FORMATION NEWNES FORMATION IRONDALE COAL * “o" Pebbles -"dropstones” SUB « * rn Ha PAL! Very fine grained, argillaceous, thinly V bedded, bioturbated, grades to unit below. ILLAWARRA CHARBON i LONG SWAMP laminated, sandy and silty lenses; bioturbated. FORMATION | | | CULLEN LITHGOW COAL corel MARRANGAROO GROUP CONGLOMERATE ae BERRY SILTSTONE Fine, medium and coarse grained, quortrose, pebbles, mudstone clasts. He HEHE | | Page a: Illawarra Coal Measures stratigraphy as illustrated in the type bore ELN DDH 31 on the Newnes Plateau, north of Lithgow. (Scale is in metres) ILLAWARRA COAL MEASURES IN THE WESTERN COALFIELD ey above what is generally called the ''Middle River Coal" (e.g. at Browns Gap - see Figure 3). In the Ulan area the equivalent seam is actually truncat- ed by the Narrabeen Group (Shiels and Kirby, 1977), and field mapping (Bembrick, 1979b) indicates that conglomerate-filled washouts occur even lower in the coal-bearing sequence. This relationship is displayed in the Cumbo Creek area, 16 km south- east of Ulan where Narrabeen Group conglomerates are erosive into equivalents of the State Mine Creek Formation. To the east and northeast, in a basinward direction, more and more thin coals appear above the top of the Middle River Coal and some coaly sediments may even occur above the "Katoomba Coal Member"'. The relationship between structure and sedimentation is apparent in both the Nile Sub- group (Bembrick and Holmes, 1972) and the Wallerawang Subgroup. The latter has apparently been affected by the northerly continuation of the Mt. Tomah monocline. As that structure is crossed the Farmers Creek Formation thickens considerably with the addition of thicker fine grained clastic units between the thin coals. Much of this clastic material appears to be possibly tuffaceous in origin. CONCLUSION A workable stratigraphic subdivision for the Illawarra Coal Measures in the Western Coalfield has been identified and presented. This has enabled correlations and similarities in sedimentation with other areas to be made more readily apparent. Basically, the Western Coalfield presents a sequence of shoaling lower deltaic sedimentation with relatively minor fluvial channel conglomerates developed near the base. Thick, fine grained, laminated, acritarch-bearing units which are interpreted as interdistributary bay and pro-delta sediments dominate the redefined Charbon Subgroup, which makes up the bulk of the sequence in the Western Coalfield. Arenacous foraminifera are present in the Baal Bone Formation and a cold water marine bay environment of deposition is suggested for this part of the succession. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS An investigation such as this would not be possible without the willing co-operation and support of many mining companies and government organisations. In this regard, I must extend my thanks to Coalex Pty. Ltd., Austen and Butta Ltd., British Petroleum Co. of Australia (incl. Clutha Development Ltd.), Blue Circle Southern Cement Ltd. and the N.S.W. Electricity Commission for providing basic geological data. Thanks are also due to personal from various firms connected with the mining industry, including McElroy Bryan and Associates, Laurie, Montomerie and Pettit, Peter Stitt and Associates. Special thanks must go to the Coal Section of the N.S.W. Geological Survey (now the Coal Strategy Division of the Department of Mineral Resources) and the Sydney Office of the Joint Coal Board for putting up with my endless enquiries and requests for data. Much of this work was carried out while on 12 months study leave from Robertson Research (Australia) Pty. Ltd. and was undertaken while studying for an M. App. Sc. Thesis at the N.S.W. Institute of Technology. The proposed sub-division has been tested by Coalex Pty. Ltd. in geological studies in several parts of the Western Coalfield (C.R. Ward, pers. comm.) and found to be highly successful in evaluation of borehole data for the area. REFERENCES Bembrick, C.S., 1973. Katoomba 1:50,000 Geological Sheet 8930-1, Provisional 1st Edition (revised) Geol. Surv. N.S.W., (in press) Bembrick, C.S., 1979a. Notes of the Permian Stratigraphy of Bores on the Katoomba 1: 50,000 Geological Sheet, 8930-1. Rep. Geol. Surv. N.S.wW., GS 1979/401, (unpubl). Bembrick, C.S., 1979b. The Ulan-Wollar Region of the Western Coalfield - Parts I §@ II. Robertson Research (Australta) Pty. Ltd., Rep. 512 (unpubl). Bembrick, C.S., 1980. Geology of the Western Blue Mountains. In Herbert, C. §& Helby, R. (Eds.) A Guide to the Sydney Basin. Bull. Geol. Surv. W.S.W., 26, 135-161. Bembrick, C.S., 1981. Stratigraphic subdivision and sedimentary environments of the Illawarra Coal Measures, Western Coalfield, in abstracts of Western Coalfield Symposium, Coal Geology Group. Bembrick, C.S., and Holmes, G.G., 1972. Further occurrences of the Nile Subgroup. @. Notes Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 6, 5-10. Bembrick, C.S. and Holmes, G.G., 1978. Comments on the geology of the Katoomba 1:50,000 Geologi- cal Sheet, 8930-1 Rep. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., GS 1978/296 (unpubl. ) Bowman, H.N., 1980. Southern Coalfield, Upper Shoalhaven Group and Illawarra Coal Measures. In Herbert, C., §& Helby, R. (Eds), A Guide to the Sydney Basin. Bull. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 26, 116-132. Branagan, D.F., 1960. Structure and Sedimentation in the Western Coalfield of New South Wales. Proc. Australas. Inst. Min. Metall., 196, 79- LNG: Bryan, J... Mcklroy, Cs 1: and Kose, G., 1967; Explanatory notes on the Sydney 1:250,000 Geological Sheet, 3rd Edition. Geol. Surv. V.S.W., Sydney. Bunny, M.R., 1972. Geology and Coal Resources of the Southern Catchment Coal Reserve, Southern Sydney Basin, New South Wales. Geol. Surv. Nooo Weg e DULL 2a. Carne, J.E., 1908. Geology and Mineral Resources of the Western Coalfield. Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Geol. 6. 118 Cox, R., O'Dea, T.R. §& Graylin, R.K., 1980. Economic Geology of the Wolgan Coking Coal Deposit, Western Coalfield, N.S.W., Australia, Proc. Australas. Inst. Min. Metall., 273, 1- Ze Goldbery, R., 1972. Geology of the Western Blue Mountains. Geol. Surv. W.S.W., Bull. 20. Helby, R.J., 1961. Contributions to the Geology of the Lower Burragorang District. M.Sc. (Qual.) Thests, Univ. Syd., (unpubl.). Helby, R.J., 1970. A biostratigraphy of the Late Permian and Triassic of the Sydney Basin. Ph.D. Thests, Univ. Syd. (unpubl. ) Helby, R.J., 1973. Review of Late Permian and Triassic Palynology of New South Wales. Publs, Geol. Soe. Aust., 4, 141-155. Spec. Herbert, C., 1972. Southern Sydney Basin. WoS.Ws, 12(1), 5-18. Palaeodrainage Patterns in the Ree. Geol. Surv. Holmes, G.G., 1976. Goulburn Valley Coal Drilling. @) Wotes Geol. Sumv. NS. We, 26. Hunt, J.W., 1982. Relationship between Micro- litotype and Maceral Composition of Coals and Geological Setting of Coal Measures in the Permian Basins of Eastern Australia. Aust. Coal Geol... 4(2)4 484-502; McElroy, C.T., 1957. Explanatory Notes on the Sydney 4-mile Geological Sheet. 1st Edition. Explan. Notes Bur. Miner. Resour. Geol. Geophys. Aust. McMinn, A., 1980. Permian Palynology of ELN 31. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Palynol. Rep. 80/3 (unpubl) Robertson Research (Australia) Pty. Limited, 14th Floor, 77 Pacific Highway, North Sydney, N.S.W., 2060, Australia. C.S. BEMBRICK McMinn, A., 1981. Palynostratigraphy of the Late Permian Coal Sequence of the Sydney Basin. Abstracts Wo. 3, 8th Aust. Geol. Convention, Perth, McMinn, A., 1982. Late Permian Acritarchs from the Northern Sydney Basin. J. Proc. R. Soc. N.S.W. 115, 79-86. Morris, F.R., 1975. Western Coalfield, tm ECONOMIC GEOLOGY OF AUSTRALIA AND PAPUA NEW GUINEA 2. Coal. Australas. Inst. Min. Metall., Monograph 6. Rayner... O.4. 19542 ern Coalfield. 1950, 78-81. Marrangaroo Valley Area, West- A. Rep. N.S.W. Dept. Mines for Rayner, E.O., 1956. Preliminary Report on the Blackman's Flat area of the Western Coalfield, N.S.W., with special reference to open-cut possibilities. A. Rep. W.S.W. Dept. Mines for 1948, 89-91. Shiels, 0.J. & Kirby, B.C., 1977. Geological Report on the Joint Drilling Program - Ulan Area. Rep. Jt. Coal Bd., LR 77/1 (unpubl) Stephens, W., 1883. Notes on the Geology of the Western Coalfields, Part II. Proe. Linn. Soc, 7, 598-606. Taylor, A.A., 1954. A review of the Western Coalfields of New South Wales. Proc. Aust. inst. Min. Metall. ;, 1735, 99. Whiting, J.W. and Relph, R.E., 1969. Southwestern Coalfield, tm G. Packham (ed.) THE GEOLOGY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. Jour. Geol. Soc. Aust., 16 (1), 379-381. (Manuscript received 28.3.1983) (Manuscript received in final form 26.10.1983) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 116, pp. 119-121, 1983 ISSN 0035-9173/83/020119 — 03 $4.00/ 1 Lambdarina (Rhynchonellacea) from the Upper Visean of Queensland RODERICK NAZER ABSTRACT. brachiopod described from Australia. Although sediments of late Visean to earliest Namurian age are relatively common in the Carbonif- erous succession of eastern Australia, the Killala Creek Limestone is one of the few carbonate units of this age. This being so, it is not surprising that it should yield a somewhat different fauna from contemporaneous clastic formations. Of particular interest are the abundant articulated specimens of Lambdarina grantt sp. nov. which have been obtained from acid residues of bioclastic lime- stone from several horizons in the upper 100 m of the formation. The Killala Creek Limestone is the uppermost unit of the Caswell Creek Group in the Mundubbera district (Whitaker et al., 1974) and belongs to the Margintrugus barringtonensts Zone of the eastern Australian biostratigraphic scheme. The late Visean to earliest Namurian age of this zone is well established by conodont, ammonoid and brachio- pod studies (Campbell §& McKellar, 1969; Jones et al., 1973; Roberts, 1975; Roberts et al., 1976). Lambdarina grantt is noteworthy not only for its small size and unusual morphology but also as it is the first reported cardiarinid brachiopod outside the United States and Britain. Lambdartina mantfoldensts Brunton and Champion, 1974, from the Lower Visean strata of north Staffordshire, is very similar to the Australian species. This adds to the faunal similarities in Visean times between eastern Australia and western Europe, similarities which Roberts (1981) points out lasted longer in Queensland than in New South Wales. Cardtartna cordata Cooper, 1956, from the Pennsylvanian Magdalena Formation of New Mexico, is also similar to the present species. Thus the presence, in the Killala Creek Limestone, of Lambdarina, together with Dorsoscyphus and Margitntrugus (Nazer, 1977) points to stronger faunal ties with the American Cordillera in the late Visean than were previously suspected. SYSTEMATIC PALAEONTOLOGY Superfamily Rhynchonellacea Gray 1848 Family Cardiarinidae Cooper 1956 Remarks In size and morphology Lambdartna is very Similar to Cardiaritna Cooper, 1956, yet it is excluded from the Cardiarinidae as defined by McLaren (1965, p. H592) as it lacks 'an elaborate Lambdartna grantt sp. nov. is described from the Upper Visean Killala Creek Limestone of the Yarrol Shelf near Mundubbera, southeastern Queensland. It is the first cardiarinid parathyridium'. However, although there is no external development of such a structure in Lamnbdartna, the brachial interior requires only. little modification to form one. Moreover, as these features sometimes appear in other families, e.g. in Uncttes (Rudwick, 1974) and Amphipella (Cooper §& Grant, 1976, p. 1948; where these authors call the structures ‘apracatrwva’): they are noe reliable as a basis for family classification. Therefore the definition of the family should exclude reference to the parathyridium and emphasis should be given to the long beak, double sinus and well-developed symphytium, as implied but not stat- ed by Brunton §& Champion, 1974. LAMBDARINA Brunton § Champion 1974 Lambdartna mantfoldensts Brunton §& Champion, 1974 Type Species: LAMBDARINA GRANTI sp. nov. Derivation of Name This species is named in honour of Dr. R.E. Grant of the Smithsonian Institution. Material ANU 35681 (holotype); ANU 35682 through ANU 35685/20 (23 paratypes). All type material is housed in the Geology Department, Australian National University. Location The location is registered with the Department of Geology and Mineralogy, University of Queensland, as L3944 and lies on the eastern flank of a small hill approximately 1.5 km north of Mr. W. Wengel's homestead and 2.5 km northwest of Mundubbera (Nazer, 1977); GR 431822 Mundubbera 1:250,000 Sheet SG 56-5, Queensland. Description Minute, heart-shaped biconvex shell with rectimarginate or sulcate commissure. Shell surface smooth; shell substance impunctate. Pedicle valve beak elongated, perforated apically by round foramen; symphytium flat to slightly arched. Deep sulcus developed on anterior half or two-thirds of valve, frequently with low median fold (Fig. 1, F). Valve moderately convex, with indented anterior margin corresponding to sulcus. Thin dental 120 RODERICK NAZER Fig. 1. Lambdartna grantt sp. nov. A, Internal view of brachial valve, X25, ANU 35682. B, Internal view of brachial valve with portion of pedicle beak attached, X28, ANU 35683. C, Dorsal view of articulated specimen (holotype), X28, ANU 35681. D, Lateral view of articulated specimen, X28, ANU 35684. E, Oblique internal view of pedicle valve, X18, ANU 35685/1. F, Oblique external view of pedicle valve showing median fold in sulcus, X18, ANU 35685/2. G, Oblique internal view of pedicle valve showing symphytium and dentition, X50, ANU 35685/1. LAMBDARINA (RHYNCHONELLACEA) plates, partly or completely fused to sides of valve, extending from umbonal region as far as teeth, which longitudinally elongate and concave inwards (Fig. 1, E,G), remainder of valve interior smooth. Brachial valve moderately convex with weakly developed umbo; sulcus developed in anterior half producing indented anterior margin. Brachial interior with inner socket ridges integrated with cardinal process and extending antero-laterally to meet valve margin at half the valve length; small cavity beneath anterior end of cardinal process (Fig. 1, A,B); remainder of valve interior smooth. Measurements ANU 35681 (holotype) 2.5 ANU 35685/4 Papal ANU 35685/5 25 ANU 35685/6 2.4 ANU 35685/7 2.8 Discussion Outer socket ridges appear to be absent in this species, the teeth being inserted between the described socket ridges and the valve wall. Articulation is assisted by the curvature of the teeth. The depressed areas in the illustrated brachial interiors (Fig. 1, A,B) are interpreted as preservational features. Lambdarina grantt is very similar to the type species L. mantfoldensts. Indeed, it would be difficult to separate these two species if they occurred in the same geographic area. The main differences appear to be the better developed socket ridges in the brachial valve of the Australian species, its slightly larger size and broader lobes. The intermittent recovery from acid residues of numerous specimens of Lambdarina granti suggests that the species lived in clusters, attached by a functional pedicle throughout life, in the relat- ively quiet water carbonate environment (Nazer, 1977). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Scanning electron micrographs were taken by the S.E.M. Departments of the University of Queensland and the Australian National University. The author is grateful for assistance received from Dr. K.S.W. Campbell and Dr. P.A. Jell. Roderick Nazer, Canberra Grammar School, Monaro Crescent, Red Hill, A.C.T., 2603. 121 REFERENCES Campbell, K.S.W. & McKellar, R.G., 1969. Eastern Australian Carboniferous invertebrates: sequences and affinities. In Strattgraphy and palaeontology. Essays tn honour of Dorothy Hill, K.S.W. Campbell, ed., Aust. Nat. Univ. Press, Canberra, 77-119. Cooper, G.A., 1956. New Pennsylvanian brachiopods. J. Paleont., 30, 521-530. Cooper, G.A & Grant, R.E., 1976. of West Texas, IV. Smithson. Zale Permian brachiopods Contr. Paleobtol. Brunton, C.H.C. § Campion, C., 1974. A Lower Carboniferous brachiopod fauna from the Manifold Valley, Staffordshire. Palaeontology 17 (4), 811-840. Jones,.P.J., Cambell, K.S.W. & Roberts, J., 1973. Correlation chart for the Carboniferous System in Australia. Bull. Bur. Miner. Resour. Geol. Geophys. Aust., 156A, 40p. McLaren, D.J., 1965. ?Family Cardiarinidae Cooper, 1956. In R.C. Moore, ed., Treattse on tnverte- brate paleontology, Part H, Brachtopoda, vol. 2, Geological Society of America §& University of Kansas, Lawrence, 592. Nazer, R., 1977. Late Visean brachiopods with Western Australian affinities from the Yarrol Shelf. @d. Govt. Min. J., 78, 126-131; Roberts, J., 1975. zones of Eastern Australia. 22, 1-32. Early Carboniferous brachiopod J. geol. Soc. Aust Roberts, J., 1981. Control mechanisms of Carbon- iferous brachiopod zones in eastern Australia. Lethaia 14, 123-134. Roberts, J., Hunt, J.W. § Thompson, D.M., 1976. Late Carboniferous marine invertebrate zones of eastern Australia. Alcheringa 1 (2), 197- 225. Brood Pouches in the Geol. Mag. 101 Rudwick, M.J.S., 1964. Devonian Brachiopod lMmcttes. (4), 329-333. Whitaker, W.G., Murphy, P.R. & Rollaston, R.G., 1974. Geology of the Mundubbera 1:250 000 Sheet area. Rep. Geol. Surv. Qd., 84. (Manuscript received 28.9.1983) o oy ri Me Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 116, pp. 123-127, 1983 ISSN 0035-9173/83/020123 — 05 $4.00/1 Dextral Movement on the Demon Fault, Northeastern New South Wales: A Reassessment J. McPHIE AND C. L. FERGUSSON ABSTRACT. the eastern part of the New England Orogen. The Demon Fault is a meridional transcurrent fault extending for at least 200 km in The southern margin of the Late Permian Coombadjha Volcanic Complex, and contacts between units within it, are displaced for 23 km in a dextral sense along the Fault. fractures. INTRODUCT ION The Demon Fault (or Fault System) was recogn- zed by Shaw (1969) to be a major transcurrent fault in the New England Orogen of northeastern New South Wales (Fig. 1). The Fault extends from Ebor in the south for 200 km following a northward meridional trend. Shaw (1969) estimated dextral strike-slip movement amounting to about 30 km on the basis of the displacement of the Stanthorpe Adamellite. Korsch et al. (1978) documented the general characteristics of the Demon Fault and described its effects in detail for two sites. They reject- ed Shaw's estimate in favour of offset amounting to only 17 km. This figure was arrived at by matching the contact between the Dundee Rhyodacite and the Bungulla Porphyritic Adamellite on either side of the Fault in the Timbarra River area (their Fig. 3, 1978). Further fieldwork in the Timbarra River area, herein reported, indicates 23 km of dextral move- ment on the Demon Fault since the time of emplace- ment of the Early Triassic Dandahra Creek Granite. Details of the character of the Fault in this area and at one other locality (Cooraldooral Creek) are also described. DISPLACEMENT OF THE COOMBADJHA VOLCANIC COMPLEX The Coombadjha Volcanic Complex is comprised of Late Permian terrestrial silicic volcanics and related granitoids preserved adjacent and to the east of the Demon Fault in the upper reaches of Coombadjha and Washpool Creeks (Fig. 2). The Complex has a mappable internal stratigraphy and structure which suggest that it is the eroded remnant of a volcanic cauldron (McPhie, 1982). Only those features relevant to the Demon Fault movement are described here. Volcanic and plutonic rocks of the Complex along its southwestern margin are intruded by the Dandahra Creek Granite, and all these rock units are truncated by the Demon Fault. Three of the five informal volcanic units of the Coombadjha Volcanic Complex can be traced to the Fault. The two older units (Units A and C of McPhie, 1982) are both outflow sheets of welded ignimbrite. In the field these units are distinguishable from In the Cooraldooral Creek area the Fault consists of at least four major This contrasts with the Timburra River area where the trace of the Fault is marked by an elongate zone of sheared rock 500 m wide. each other on the basis of the mineralogy and proportion of crystal fragments, and on the char- acter of the pumice lenticle foliation. The young- est unit is a representative of the Dundee Rhyodacite, a widespread and distinctive crystal- rich ignimbrite characterised by tor-like outcrops and textures similar to those of porphyritic granitoids. These three volcanic units are pendent to the north or northwest at shallow angles (10-25") The contact with the Dandahra Creek Granite is sharp, and dipping steeply to the north. These same three volcanic units and the Dandahra Creek Granite have been located to the north on the west side of the Demon Fault (Fig. 2). Contacts between the volcanic units, and between the volcanics and the Dandahra Creek Granite on the east side of the Fault are consistently offset for 23 km in a dextral sense to the Boundary Creek area. The quality of the outcrop in this area west of the Fault is poorer, particularly within the Dundee Rhyodacite. Further west, the Complex is intruded by the Billyrimba Leucoadamellite. To the north in the Demon Creek area, the Dundee Rhyodacite outcrops in isolated patches surrounded by microgranite forming the shallow east-dipping roof zone of the Bungulla Porphyritic Adamellite. No single straight line contact exists in this area between the Dundee Rhyodacite and the Bungulla Porphyritic Adamellite (ef. “Korsch ev -al.., 1978, Fig. 3). THE DEMON FAULT IN THE TIMBARRA RIVER AREA Here the Demon Fault separates the Coombadjha Volcanic Complex to the east from undifferentiated complexly deformed Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks to the west (Fig. 3). One main fracture is present, marked by poor exposure. For 500 m to the west of this fracture, the deformed Palaeozoic rocks are pervasively sheared with many randomly oriented shear surfaces and complete destruction of sedimentary layering. The volcanics on the east side within 50 m of the fracture are closely jointed The complexly deformed rocks on the west consist of argillite, argillite-tuff, massive tuffaceous(?) rock, thin-bedded turbidite and massive greywacke. Bedding in much of this sequence is near vertical and striking northwest. Sparse exposures of graded bedding and micro-cross- 124 J. McPHIE AND C. L. FERGUSSON FIGURE 2 |e sae Locality map, northeastern New South Wales Tb - Tertiary basalt. lamination indicate northeasterly younging direct- ions. Slaty cleavage is sporadically developed in argillite. THE DEMON FAULT IN THE COORALDOORAL CREEK AREA There are two major arms of the Demon Fault in the Cooraldooral Creek area (Fig. 4), each marked by prominent air photolineaments. These fault branches are entirely within complexly deformed sedimentary rocks. Two informal units of the Coffs Harbour beds occur east of the fault (Fig. 4): a northeastern unit (Chb,) of argillite and less abundant thin-bedded turbidite and mass- ive greywacke, and a southwestern unit (Chb,) of thin-bedded turbidite and massive greywacke in Similar proportions. To the west of the fault the sequence is dominated by argillite with less abundant thin-bedded turbidite, massive greywacke and intermediate volcanics. Areas of sheared rocks are exposed in Barool Creek 1 km west of the fault. Bedding on both sides of the fault is steeply dipping and northwesterly striking, with most younging directions facing towards the north- east. In the Coffs Harbour beds there are at least two tight to isoclinal fold pairs, with west-younging limbs up to 500 m across, and sporadically developed slaty cleavage in argill- ees. Two additional fractures to the west of the main arms of the fault offset an east-west trending, vertical, quartz-feldspar porphyry dyke (Fig. 4). The dyke is up to 100 m thick and forms a cliffline, the displacement of which is easily seen on air photos. CONCLUSIONS Detailed mapping of silicic volcanics either side of the Demon Fault has revealed 23 km of dextral strike-slip movement. The relationships herein described support Shaw's (1969) conclusion that this movement occurred after the cessation of Permo-Triassic silicic volcanic and intrusive activity within the region. Prior existence of the Fault is unlikely, since there is no evidence of its influence on either the original stratigraphy or primary structure of the Coombadjha Volcanic Complex. Study of the tectono-stratigrphic units of the Coffs Harbour Block has enabled correlation of this area with the Texas-Warwick area (Fergusson, 1982; Flood and Fergusson, 1982). Extrapolation of boundaries of the equivalent tectono-stratigraphic units of each of these areas gives a result consistent with the 23 km of movement indicated from this study of the Fault. Pz 29°20'S THE DEMON FAULT 125 F++++++ tee teet+e setts +++¢¢¢t¢t¢e¢¢¢eeeete ttt tttteteetttettes +++ ttttett+tetetttt+ ++ +++ Py ttt t+ Pee + ht +44 4+¢4¢44+4444 +++++4++4+444+ +++44444 +++4++4+ +++ UNDIFFERENTIATED Ihe ++ Fag, 92 GRANITOIDS DANDAHRA CREEK GRANITE A vara COOMBADJHA VOL- CANIC COMPLEX The geology of the Timbarra River area showing the 23 km of dextral displacement of the Coombadjha Volcanic Complex along the Demon Fault. 126 | Sf eater J. McPHIE AND C. L. FERGUSSON Grovels - Tertiary Silicic Volcanics - Permian Undifferentiated - Palaeozoic Sheared Rocks Fault Detailed map of the Demon Fault along the Timburra River. See Fig. 4 for a key to structural symbols. THE DEMON FAULT Intermediate to silicic plutonic rocks. Silicic dyke Younging / determined Faults XL Sheored rock Fig. 4. 2) Detailed map of the Demon Fault in the Cooraldooral Creek area. PS - undifferentiated Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks. Chb,.and Chb. - subunits of the Coffs Harbour beds. il 2 Equal-area stereogram, 58 bedding poles contoured at 5-10-15-20% per 1% area. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Peter Flood for helpful discussions and his review of the manuscript. Rhonda Vivian kindly typed the draft. REFERENCES Fergusson, C.L., 1982. An ancient accretionary terrain in eastern New England - evidence from the Coffs Harbour Block, tm NEW ENGLAND GEOLOGY, pp. 63-70. P.G. Flood and B. Runnegar (Eds). Department of Geology, University of New England and AHV Club. Flood, P.G. and Fergusson, C.L., 1982. Tectono- stratigraphic units and structure of the Texas Coffs Harbour region, tm NEW ENGLAND GEOLOGY, pp. 71-78. P.G. Flood and B. Runnegar (Eds). Department of Geology, University of New England and AHV Club. Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W., 2351, Australia. Korsch, R.J., Archer, N.R. and McConachy, G.W., 1978. The Demon Fault. J. Proc. Rk. Soc. N.S.W., 111, 101-106. McPhie, J., 1982. The Coombadjha Volcanic Complex: a Late Permian cauldron, northeastern New South Wales, tm NEW ENGLAND GEOLOGY, pp. 221- 227. P.G. Flood and B. Runnegar (Eds.) Department of Geology, University of New England and AHV Club. Shaw, S.E., 1969. Granitic rocks from the northern portion of the New England Batholith, tm THE GEOLOGY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, pp. 285-290. G.H. Packham (Ed.) J. Geol. Hoc. Aust., 16: (Manuscript received 11.7.1983) (Manuscript received in final form 26.10.1983) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 116, pp. 129-140, 1983 ISSN 0035-9173 /83/020129 — 12 $4.00/1 The Teaching Hospital: Past, Present and Future JOHN B. HICKIE* ABSTRACT. Teaching hospitals have recently been under attack in Australia, Great Britain and the United States (Rogers § Blendon, 1978; Westerman, 1980). Much criticism arises from a lack of knowledge and understanding of the origin, history and multiple functions of these institutions. HISTORICAL REVIEW Europe During medieval times medicine in Europe developed mainly in the Universities. From the middle of the 13th century students gathered around teachers from the monastery schools at Oxford and Cambridge and were given occasional theoretical lectures. They were then apprenticed to private practitioners or came to London for unorganised clinical teaching. As a result teach- ing in medicine in England developed outside the universities primarily in hospitals. Addenbrookes Hospital, Cambridge, was founded in 1766. There were difficulties with funds and there were too many students for the size of the hospital, a situation not dissimilar to that in some of our teaching hosptials today (Poynter, 1966). The first teaching hospital was probably at the University of Padua in the 15th century, where della Monte (1489-1552) began bedside teaching at the hospital of St. Francis in Padua. The first effective clinical teaching occurr- ed about 1636 at Leyden when in turn Franciscus Sylvius and later Hermann Boerhaave attracted local and foreign students. Although Boerhaaave gave instructions on patients in only 12 beds, he had a major influence on the foundat- ion of the Edinburgh School of Medicine with its strong clinical component (Singer §& Underwood, 1962). Scotland never possessed a medieval school of medicine such as Oxford or Cambridge. The Scott- ish Universities especially Edinburgh, established in the 15th and 16th centuries, developed strong anatomical and clinical traditions within their Royal infirmaries which were established in the 18th century. They were particularly influenced by clinical teaching at Leyden and they in turn had a large influence on the hospital and medical school traditions of both Australia and the United States. Students from Oxford and Cambridge who came to London as well as the need to train apothecaries and surgeon-barbers lead to the development, between 1746 and 1914, of private medical schools * Based on a Lecture delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales on 6th October, 1982. in London. Students also individually attended St Bartholomew's Hospital from 1662 (Paynter, 1966) and St. Thomas' Hospital included in its hospital standing orders in 1699 that "no skillet carriers (students) are allowed except at the surgeons charge'' (Graves, 1947). The London Hospital Medical College was founded in 1785 to be a complete medical school within a hospital (Poynter, 1966). During the first part of the 18th century, as the population of London increased, the rich became increasingly aware of the sick poor. St. Bartholomews and St. Thomas' Hospitals were rebuilt, the Westminster, St. George, Mr. Guys, the London and the Middlesex Hospitals were founded. They were run by laymen boards with a few philantrophic- ally minded medical men among them. Although there was much genuine philanthropy, the interests of many were not entirely altruistic. Being on the board might help one climb the social ladder and being an honorary was a hall mark of medical success. As the teaching hospitals developed they provided more practical experience and the"private medical schools" in London slowly faded out. The first whole-time academic unit for teaching and research in England was established at University College Hospital under Sir Thomas Lewis in 1915 (Miller, 1969). Up until the Haldane Commission in medical education in London in 1913, medical education was dominated by the hospitals. The universities had a more dominant role in the provinces and in Scotland. Following the Haldane Commission, and submissions by Abraham Flexner, the conceipt of University support and influence in teaching hospitals was accepted. In continental Europe two different kinds of medical school developed. In France particularly Paris the clinical-hospital school with outstanding teachers and the "demonstration of hundreds of cases each year in ward rounds or in special clinics" (Singer §& Underwood, 1962) attracted students. In Germany, Austria, Holland, Scandanavia and parts of Switzerland, from 1850 to 1900 there was much greater emphasis on research. The clinical professor's clinic in hospital was a university department. The professor was expected to be a medical scientist rather than a well known practit- ioner. The hospitals used by medical schools came to be dominated by professorial departments. 130 JOHN B. HICKIE America The first medical school in the new world was founded in Philadelphia in 1765 at the College of Philadelphia. The College trustees invited Dr. John Morgan who had earned the M.D. degree at the University of Edinburgh to give the commencement address. He laid down guide lines for the develop- ment of medicine as a university discipline includ- ing "hospital instruction should form an integral part of instruction in medical school and teachers should have time to experiment and search for the secrets of nature"! (Norwood, 1965). The McGill Medical School in Montreal founded by Scotsmen, had from its conception closely followed the educational methods in vogue at Edinburgh. Osler stated "when I began clinical work in 1870 the Montreal General Hospital was an old coccus - and rat ridden building, but with two valuable assets for the students - much acute disease and a group of keen teachers" (Cushing, 1925). When the Johns Hopkins Medical School was founded in 1909, it was in the Edinburgh and German tradition with a close affiliation between the medical school and univer- sity. This was in contrast to most other American medical schools which were mainly privately run money-making institutions with poor standards. This situation was revolutionized by the Flexner Report in 1912. Following this report two types of teaching hospitals developed. One, the hospital "closely integrated physically, administratively and financially with the medical school with which it shares common objectives....'' and two, ''The affiliated hospital that functions as a separate institution but grants privileges to a variable degree to the medical school so. 6AShryrock, 1965). Many of the former developed into the "University Medical Centre" (Rogers § Blendon, 1978), a joint effort of the health services, the medical school and the university with private funding an important part of the cost structure. Probably because of Flexner, Johns Hopkins and American visits to Europe for postgraduate study, the German-American pyramidal system of academic control of medical staff and research, evolved (Shryrock, 1965). There are now 120 academic medical centres in the United States and 61 of them are centres in the centre of the 40 largest cities. The American teaching hospitals have influenced Australian medicine in the last 10 - 15 years, especially in the development of specialis- ation and clinical research. Australia Many of the traditions of Australian medical schools and Australian teaching hospitals arose initially from doctors and nurses who trained in teaching hospitals in Britain and Europe. These and local graduates were influenced by visits to Britain and Europe and in the years following the Second World War by visits to the United States. It is relevant that British and American hospitals now have similar problems to Australian teaching hospitals re site, funding referral patterns, community obligations, specialisation and administration. Australian teaching hospitals were establish- ed as benevolent institutions developed by individuals who were concerned with providing medical care for the "sick poor" and hospital facilities for their medical staffs. Melbourne University Medical School began in 1862. The rules of the hospital for 1863 had already provided that "pupils to the medical and surgical practice of the hosptial will be admitted after payment of fees to be arranged by the medical officers with approval of the Board'(Inglis, 1958). The first clinical school began in 1864 but the hospital did not become an offical teaching hospital until 1888. Dr. A.C. Brownless who was a member of the Univers- ity Council and an Honorary Physician to the Hospital "hoped that medicine at Melbourne would be taught not as it was taught at either Oxford or Cambridge or in the English Hospitals; he hoped to reproduce that harmony of theory in practice, at the university and hospital, which he had found in Europe - and in Scotland, in which in education as in other affairs it was more sensitive than England to winds that blew from the Continent. But the Melbourne Hospital, to Brownless' disappointment was in no way attached directly to the University. It was-a mile away and run by men who were no more prepared to be dominated by the university than was the university council ready to let its affairs be managed by the hospital. It was not until 1910 that the hospital and the university was able to establish a satisfactory arrangement for the train- ing of doctors" (Inglis, 1958). This was in the London tradition. The Alfred Hospital was opened in 1871 south of the Yarra. One of its objectives was to improve the opportunities for students, yet no constitution- al provision was made for students, in fact the students protested at the standard of the teaching. The hospital was an even greater distance from the university campus and initially the staff were hostile to both students and the university. The standard of medical care was poor, and the hospital was known as "The Butcher Shop" in 1876. It was however, the first hospital in Australia to allow female medical students and residents. In 1926, the Baker Medical Research Institute was opened as a pathology and biochemistry department. ''The presence of modern laboratories and specialised staff stimulated the flow of clinical work from the hospital wards. Within a year research scientists at the Baker Institute were complaining that too much of their time was absorbed by routine work for the hospital. Thomas Baker exercised his option and oblighed the hospital to contribute towards Institute costs. This move was resented by members of the hospital board and the crisis which precipit- ated it, namely the conflict between research aims and routine needs damaged relations between the two institutions until 1949" (Mitchell, 1977). The Sydney University Medical School did not begin until 1883. "In 1868 during the visit of H.R.H. Prince Alfred to Sydney, he was shot and seriously wounded; upon his recovery as an expression of public thankfulness, it was decided to raise a fund to be appropriated to the provision of a suitable memorial. It was decided that this should take the form of a hospital, to be known as the Prince Alfred Memorial Hospital. A controversy arose as to how and where the proposed hospital should be erected. A proposal that it should take the form of a new front to the THE TEACHING HOSPITAL 13] old Sydney Infirmary came to nothing. Finally, some wise person saw an opening for the erection of a hospital on the area known originally as "Grose Farm"'....By arrangement between the Committee for the Memorial Fund and the Senate of the University an Act was passed in 1873 to provide for the foundation of the hospital.... the Act stipulated that the medical staff of the hospital should be appointed by a Conjoint Board.... and that students of the medical school (still proposed) should be allowed to attend the hospital for clinical teaching" (Epps, 1922). Anderson Stuart became Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in the Univer- sity of Sydney in 1882 and the medical school began with his arrival in Sydney in 1883. He was also Dean of the Medical School, a member of the Board of Directors of the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital from 1883 till 1920, and its Chairman from 1901. His position highlights one of the differ- ences in the teaching hospitals of Melbourne and Sydney. The former were developed in the London tradition and still have clinical titles similar to London. The Sydney scene and especially the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital followed the Edinburgh tradition with much closer university involvement. "The hospital was funded as a University hospital built on University grounds.... the relations with the University have always been harmonious as they should be between great public institutions so closely interrelated in their work and objects" (Schlink, 1933). Despite the university traditions there were no full time professors in clinical disciplines until the appointment of the first full clinical professors in Australia, Professor H.R. Dew, as Professor of Surgery, and Professor C.G. Lambie, as Professor of Medicine in 1930. It was not till the 50's that full time professors were appointed in Adelaide, Brisbane and Melbourne. Sydney Hospital, the oldest hospital in Australia, probably began on its present site in about 1816. Under the provisions of the Sydney Hospital Act of 1881 medical students were permitt- ed to attend the practice of the hospital, but there was little advantage to them because their attendance was not encouraged by the honorary medical staff many of whom resented their presence. Early in 1909 the Board of Sydney Hospital approach- ed the Senate of the University of Sydney with a view to opening the hospital to medical students. The report of Sydney Hospital of 1909 states "Sydney Hospital should be thrown open to medical students so that medical students should have the choice of attending either Sydney or the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital ---- it must be an advantage to the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital to have the pressure on its resources relieved'' (Stokes, 1960). A Board of Medical Studies was appointed on which the hospital seems to have had the major represent- ation. Professor Anderson Stuart at the time of the opening of the Sydney Hospital Clinical School in 1909 said "it was a very good thing for the hospital to come into connection with the medical school of the university because it stimulated work there" (Stokes, 1960). Mother Berchmans Dalley, the Superior General of the Order of the Sisters of Charity, negotiated in Melbourne in 1909 the affiliation of St. Vincent's Hospital, Melbourne with Melbourne University and in 1923 carried through a similar negotiation with the University of Sydney. St. Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, the first hospital to have trained nurses in Australia, began in 1857 and took medical students unofficially from 1886. Sir Douglas Miller in narrating the early formation of the clinical school, states ''in the forming of the school it was essential that the University should be satisfied with the status of the teaching staff and this required termination of some appointments and the supersession of others. The condition that the University should have a decisive voice in future appointments, necessitated the relinquishment in large measure of the rather cherished function of the sisters to choose their own medical staff. The agreement gave the sisters the right to advertise the appointment and to sub- mit their choice in order of preference to the University Senate" (Miller, 1969). The Hospital Report of 1923 summarises the advantages to the patients of a teaching hospital "lecturers in a clinical school must look to their laurels; nobody there can live on an unearned reputation. They must be ever on the alert, for keen ears are listening, keen eyes watching and keen brains appraising their work. The patients in a teaching hospital are assured of the best attention that doctors can give. Ailments are subjected to the scrutiny first of junior medical officers, who are jealous of their own diagnoses; symptoms are weighed; advice is sought; opinions are tossed from mind to mind ---- the patient may have reassurance that all that is humanly possible has been done'' (Miller, 1969). The University of Adelaide was established in 1874 and was the third Australian university. The Royal Adelaide Hospital developed through "four hospitals" from the beginning as the ''Colonial Infirmary" in 1841 (Estcourt Hughes, 1967). It entered the field of medical education in 1887 although the Adelaide Medical School began in 1885 with a five year course which produced its first four graduates in 1889. It is unique in the history of Australian medical education and teaching hospitals. Due to a "hospital row" in 1894, all the honorary medical staff resigned in 1896, teach- ing was disrupted until 1901 and medical students had to complete their medical course elsewhere. Some comments in 1967 from J. Estcourt Hughes in his ''A History of the Royal Adelaide Hospital" under ''The Hospital and Medical Education" are relevent to the changing scene in Australian teach- ing hospitals in the last thirty years. ''When the University of Adelaide decided to appoint professors in the principal clinical subjects, the move was widely, but not unanimously, approved. It was recognised that the world trend in medical education was towards either having university teaching hospitals e.g. hospitals which the universities controlled - with professors in charge of the various departments.... or alternatively, to establ- ish professorial units in teaching hospitals which the university did not control.... the staffs of which would devote their whole time to teaching, research and liaison with other university departments.... There were however, certain reservations.... These were mostly concerned with the questions of how far the professors should be allowed to dominate the hospital scene and to what extent they should be allowed to engage in private practice.,... lt 1s. to be hoped that the tradition 132 of teaching commonsense matter in commonsense way will continue'' (Estcourt Hughes, 1967). These were the major teaching hospitals in Australia with the exception of the Royal Brisbane and the University of Queensland (1936) up till the Second World War. In the majority, the clinical teaching was dominated by the honorary medical staff and even those who had university appoint- ments were in private clinical practice. The teaching was concerned with training and was along the hospital dominated medical school traditions of Britain and France, especially London. The students learned by precept and example. The aim was to produce fully trained general practioners. Many of those who were teaching within the hospitals had come in to consultant practice through general practice. ''Considering the amount of clinical material dealt with at the hospital.... the staff contribution to the advance in medical knowledge.... had been very small indeed" (Estcourt Hughes, 1967). Following the Second World War, there was an increase in the number of medical schools in Australia and an explosion in academic departments within teaching hospitals. World wide medicine became more scientific. Rapid developments in technology influenced diagnosis and treatment. Greater emphasis was placed on research, especially clinical research, postgraduate training, continu- ing education and the development of specialist departments. The staff of the teaching hospitals were increasingly influenced and received post- graduate training within American medical schools. The aim of undergraduate training was to produce graduates who following internship could undergo graduate and postgraduate training. Today undergraduate medical education is provided in Australia in ten university based medical schools (Rotem, Craig, Cox § Garrick, 1979) (Table 1). There are 24 major teaching hospitals and about 53 associate, special, or affiliated teaching hospitals (Table 2). The major teaching hospitals are also generally large referral hospitals. The use of the term associate, affiliate and special has caused confusion. These latter hospitals are institutions which provide some supplementary teaching and clinical experience for medical students but they do not have academic departments, a large compliment of full time staff, and are not active in clinical research. They have been developed both in Australia and the United States in response to increased enrolments, more training positions and different kinds of exper- ience for students. The title may help hospitals attract better staff but it has confused Health Administrators and complicated University Hospital relationships (Cohen, 1981). THE MODERN TEACHING HOSPITAL - CHANGES IN RECENT YEARS In recent years the type of patient treated in a teaching hospital has changed from the ''sick poor" to patients from all sections of the community. The concept of the sick poor has to be seen in a broader context. The community requires and expects the sophisticated diagnostic and therapeutic techniques of modern medicine. The district hospital needs to be able to refer complicated JOHN B. HICKIE medical and surgical problems to major centres. Unfortunately, some health authorities regard the teaching hospital as a tower of high technology, of dubious service value created at enormous expense to meet the needs of teaching and research and providing inadequate facilities to a local population. Others who do not understand the inter- relationships of good patient care, teaching and research see referral centres as separate from teaching hospitals. The teaching hospital as part of the medical school has two functions separate from but inter- woven with patient care. There are training on the one hand, education, and the advancement of medicine on the other (Ellis, 1918). Training needs clinical services and examples of current practice and commonly occurring conditions. Education and the advancement of medicine requires a substantial supply of unusual and difficult clinical problems with appropriate technology and scientific back up. The Todd Report on medical education in 1968 stated "A teaching hospital's education functions will require a full range of general and special departments and these must be big enough to provide adequate and economical care, they will often have to be larger than this in order to meet either service needs or the needs of eduction - but they will be limited by the number of patients who need treatment and by the staff and money available. A teaching hospital will always have special facil- ities which must be available to patients from outside its own district. The local population served by a big single University Hospital should therefore be smaller than that served by an ordin- ary district hospital the same size" (Ellis, 1918). Todd saw that there could be conflict in teaching hospitals in meeting both the community needs and fulfilling their roles as centres of clinical excellence. It is a matter of priorities and each institution has to decide how to resolve the priorities and minimise the conflicts. The history of all the teaching hospitals in Australia indicates that they have changed over the last 100 years in response to a variety of community needs. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF AN AUSTRALIAN TEACHING HOSPITAL Australian teaching hospitals have the follow- ing characteristics: 1. Size. They are large. ‘Thesbedsize usually exceeds 400 and some have in excess of 1000 beds (Duckett, Scarf, Schmiede §& Weaver, 1981). 2. Complexity. There is a conglomerate of general and highly specialised medical services. In Australia they are all located in large cities especially the State capitals (Duckett, Scarf, Schmiede §& Weaver, 1981). 3. . Size of the Staff. There is usually a large intern, resident and registrar staff related to the large number of beds, the complexity of the case-mix and post-gradu- ate training. 4. Referral Hospitals. There is a wide range of special units or divisions within the THE TEACHING HOSPITAL TABLE 1 MEDICAL SCHOOLS IN AUSTRALIA Medical School Year Established University of Melbourne (Vic) 1862 University of Sydney (NSW) 1883 University of Adelaide (SA) 1885 University of Queensland (Qld) 1936 University of Western Aust. (WA) 1957 Monash University (Vic) 1961 University of New South Wales (NSW) 1961 University of Tasmania (Tas) 1965 Flinders University SA) 1974 University of Newcastle (NSW) 1978 TABLE 2 * UNIVERSITY TEACHING HOSPITALS UNIVERSITY TEACHING HOSPITALS Major Sydney New South Wales Newcastle Melbourne Monash Queensland Adelaide Western Australia Tasmania TOTAL * Source University Calendars, 1982 RFP RFP NO WW NY FP NY HB WH No £ Length of Course years years years years years years years years years years Student Numbers Intake (1977) 220 250 120 245 120 160 240 48 64 64 (1978) TOTAL: 153 Associate, Special, Affiliated 16 53 [338 134 10. JOHN B. HICKIE subdivisions of medicine and surgery. These provide complicated diagnostic and therapeutic services for patients referred from other hospitals. This function cannot be separated from teaching. Laboratory Facilities. These are wide in both their scope and intensity. They often serve as referral or reference laboratoes for the State. Outpatient and Casualty Departments. These are very large and active. Clinical Research. There is a very active programme of clincial research and an academic department involved in clinical research. There may also be a special research institute. The investigational ethic is basic to the true teaching hospital. University Affiliation. They all have a close link with a university. The staff are integrated with the medical faculty and many of the hospital staff have either clinical teaching appointments or conjoint academic appointments. Full Time Staff. There is a nucleus of full time staff specialists especially in internal medicine. All the ancillary services have full time salaried chiefs of staff. Finance. The financial arrangements within the teaching hospitals are complicated. The hospital usually receives major fund- ing from the State and Commonwealth health services but also receives additional funding from private patient fees, Hospital Contributions Funds, the Universities, private donors and research funding bodies such as the National Health and Medical Research Council. THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A TEACHING AND A DISTRICT HOSPITAL A teaching hospital is distinguished from a district hospital by the following characteristics: 1. The Standard of Medical Care. This is usually higher because the leading members of the medical and nursing pro- fession mainly practice in teaching hospitals. There is critical comment from students and postgraduates re the standard of patient care backed by high technology and clinical research. The staff of district hospitals do not have the same critical approach and they are not expos- ed to the same peer review. This is not to denigrate the high standards of care which occur in the majority of district hospitals. Case-mix Complexity. There is a greater range of complicated and unusual medical disorders. Complicated medical problems are often referred from district hospitals. The staff at teaching hospitals become more adept at treating these difficult problems. The case-mix complexity might be expected to be an important factor in the costs of teaching hospitals (Ament, Kobrinski and Wood, 1981). 3. Super-Speciality Units The staff of teaching hospitals are initiators and pioneers in the changes of modern medical care. As a result special- ised units and sophisticated medical equip- ment develop in these institutions. 4. Teaching The presence of students, undergraduate and post-graduate medical, nursing and paramedical raises standards. They ask questions, and provide constant clinical audit. 5. Clinical Research Improvements in patient care can only be made if there is continuing medical research. This is part of the tradition of all great teaching hospitals. It requires a nucleus of keen thinking hospital staff who will respond to questions, criticisms and the latest overseas and local research. 6. Leadership Role The staff of district hospitals look to the teaching hospitals for leadership, guidance and advice re changes in modern patient care. Techniques and changes in patient care developed in the teaching hospital will eventually be applied in the district hospital and in the community. 7. Tradition There is a tradition in all great teaching hospitals of the pursuit of excellence. This is not generally to be found to the same degree in a district hospital. 8. Bioethics The teaching hospitals with a strong Christian tradition, are particularly concerned with maintaining Christian ethical principles in a scientific human- istic society. They are the leaders in grappling with many of the bioethical problems caused by rapid social and scientific change. The character of a teaching hospital has been well summarised by Sir William Osler: ''The work of an institution in which there is no teaching is rarely first class. There is not that keen interest, nor the thorough study of cases nor amid the exigencies of busy life is the hospital physician able to escape clinical slovliness unless he teaches and in turn is taught by assistants and students. It is I think safe to say, that in a hospital with THE TEACHING HOSPITAL students in the ward, the patients are more care- fully looked after, their diseases are more fully studied and fewer mistakes are made" (Aequanimitas, 1906). THE UNIQUE ORGANISATIONAL SETTING OF TEACHING HOSP ITALS Teaching Hospitals are best understood in the context of their unique organisational setting (Butler, Bentley §& Knapp, 1980). This has three major characteristics: iis Multiple Objectives. These are patient care, education and clinical research. The success of a teaching hospital in meeting its mission is dependent on an ongoing critical review of the standard achieved with each of these objectives. The interdependence of these functions requires skillful decision making and resourse allocation. The potential to excel in any one of these areas is extremely limited if performance in the others is mediocre. External Controls. There are multiple external organisations and agencies that influence the teaching hospital. There is government control by the State and Commonwealth health depart- ments. The Universities have an important influence through appointment committees, boards of studies, academic departments and the student body. The Royal Colleges establish standards and requirements with regard to graduate education which influences intern and registrar programmes, The Nurses Registration Board regulates nursing education. Medical benefit organisations and medical insurance schemes have lead to expanded revenue and accounts departments unheard of in the days of the charitable hospital. Unions demand awards for lay and paramedical staff, nursing staff, residents, registrars and even full time medical staff. Finally, research organisations such as the National Health and Medical Research Council and the National Heart Foundation, regularly review both the standards and the ethical principles of research within the teaching hospitals. Complex Medical Authority Structure Patients in a teaching hospital are treated by a large number and variety of medical staff. There are visiting staff, full time and part time staff specialists and academic staff with limited rights of private practice, physicians in training, residents, fellows and multiple health professional groups. All participate in the care of patients. The relative role of each is not always clear. There are divided physician loyalties - institution- al (hospital versus medical schools) and physician groups (with varying concerns for patient care education, research and Na)s administration). This calls for complex management, decision making processes. The three dimensions of this organisational environment have varying impacts depending upon the institution. THE PROBLEMS OF THE TEACHING HOSPITAL TODAY Te Misunderstanding There has been criticism of teaching hospitals by health economists, administr- ators, the medical profession, bureaucrats, politicians and enthusiasts for community health care. Much of this criticism comes from people who have no knowledge of the development and the role of teaching hospitals. They have never been in a teaching hospital and have no experience of patient care. Teaching hospitals must respond to this criticism. They will respond in different ways according to their particular super speciality and community roles. Unfortunately, some health authorities would wish to bring all hospitals down to a level of mediocrity. These problems would be less if there was a regular interchange of lay and medical administrators between health departments, district hospitals and teaching hospitals. University Clinical Departments Historically,teaching was added to the role of most of our present teaching hospitals. The University clinical depart- ment was grafted onto the hospital structure initially in the thirties but mainly in the fifties. It was usually seen aS a separate service unit in the British tradition (Peart, 1970). The expansion of academic departments since the early fifties has lead to some diffi- culties between academic and visiting staff. This is gradually changing. In many teaching hospitals the academic staff are now well integrated with other members of the medical staff and occupy positions as rotating chairman of divisions and directors of medicine and surgery. This is a move from the British tradition to the American practice where the chiefs of staff, especially in medicine and surgery, are usually full time professors. This was suggested by Blackburn (1965) in the 1960s. It is advantageous provided the professor is weighed down by political and financial problems and lack of adequate administrative support as described by Petersdorf (1980). The funding of these departments remains hazy and often a contentious issue between hospital, university and Departments of Health and Education. During the period 1953 to 1981, there has been an enormous growth of full time staff specialists and academic clinical staff in Australian teaching hospitals. There are 123 (June 1980) full clincial professors in Australia and approximately 1200 associate professors and senior 136 JOHN B. HICKIE lecturers. This has had an effect on the role, number and quality of those avail- able for appointment to the visiting staff The result has been a reduction in the influence of the visiting staff in teach- ing hospitals leading in some cases to ill feeling, frustation and problems in staff relationships (Andrew, 1972). Hospital Staff and the University There are advantages to the hospital, the University and the individual in fuller participation by medical staff in the university environment. In recent years, full time hospital staff specialists have been increasingly appointed to conjoint positions which give them an equivalent university status at senior lecturer or associate professor level. However, in most medical schools, the problem of integration of the many excellent members of the visiting staff remains unresolved. This is surprising as they provided the initial clinical staff of our medical schools and there were no full time clin- ical professors until 1930. Academic colleagues in universities do not under- stand the complicated medical system and are often threatened by the university medical faculty with its large component of off campus staff. University/ hospital relationships have been a continuing problem in all countries and in all hospitals since teaching hospitals began. The town and gown problem is not easily resolved. Geographic Full Time Staff In the past the visiting staff, for economic reasons, were often attached to several hospitals. With the gradual development of medical centres there is an increasing tendency for the part time staff to become geographically full time. This must be encouraged and should become mandatory for appointment to a teaching hospital. Chairmanship The lines of command and responsibility in many departments in teaching hospitals are traditionally blurred. This is again historical and related to the "Honorary system" and partially to a lack of modern administrative methods. Some of these problems have been highlighted by B. Hudson in his A.W.T. Edwards oration (Hudson, 1971). Who is chairman? Is he to be appointed or elected? Is the appointment made on the grounds of years of service or administrative ability? Who is responsible for the hiring and firing of both medical and lay staff - the chief of the division or the lay or medical administrator of the hospital? Who has the ultimate responsibility for seeing that all members of the staff ful- fil their duties with regard to patient care, teaching,research and administration? Appointments in Perpetuity The problems of administration and responsibility are accentuated by appointments in perpetuity, of visiting medical staff, staff specialists and academics. Administrative Structure and Medical Staff Organisation Teaching or referral hospitals are the most complex of hospitals and have a place amongst the most intricate organisations society has derived. The administrative structure of many of our teaching hospitals with annual budgets in excess of $5-10 million is unsatisfactory (Duckett, Scarf, Schmiede, Weaver, 1981). It is not comparable to similar organisations in industry and the hospital board is not responsible to its share holders. Hospital boards although enthusiastic are too often composed of retired business men with little experience or understanding of hospitals and medicine. Up until recently there has been too few of the young executive type with experience and or degrees in commerce and economics. Further the members of such boards are often uncertain of their role, the hospital objectives, and the principles of hospital management. The lay administration of hospitals is sadly lacking in those with imagination and real economic and management skills. Medical administrators have too often been medical graduates who have drifted into medical administration as a compromise from other careers. Fortunately, there is a gradual change in both of these areas. Job specifications need to be made more attractive to bring very able people into this difficult area of administration. As already mentioned there is also a real need for more interchange of staff between teaching hospitals and regional and central health administration. Visiting, part- time, full-time and academic medical staff are an awkward group to integrate and lead. Their administration is difficult when the majority are not salaried staff of the institution and have a varying degree of committment to the hospital beyond limit- ed patient care. Communication This is a major problem within the complex hospital structure, and outside with Health Departments and the medical and lay community. Teaching and Case Mix The development of large district hospitals in outer suburbs and the concentration of specialist units in teaching hospitals has changed the case mix in teaching hospitals in the last twenty years, especially in New South Wales and Victoria. HO; dt, THE TEACHING HOSPITAL This meant that the student is less likely to see common medical and surgical condit- ions and was the subject of considerable discussion in the seventies (Ewing, 1972; Med. J. Aust., 1972). It has to some extent been overcome by the use of assoc- iated teaching hospitals and elective terms. The increasing trend to private hospitals, especially for elective surgery, may accentuate this problem in future. Funding and Expenditure The funding of teaching hospitals is complex. Funds come from multiple sources. There is a continuing saga of fiscal crisis compounded by weak management, poor accountancy, limited prerogatives, lack of an identifiable stewardship and no reward for efficient management. Health depart- ments should reward efficiency and not regularly "bail out'' teaching hospitals that overspend. This has been a nagging problem in both N.S.W. and Victoria. The expenditure on teaching hospitals makes up a large percentage of the total public hospital expenditure. This varies from state to state (Table 3). New South Wales has the lowest national expenditure on teaching hospitals and the highest expend- iture on non-teaching hospitals, but there is an appreciably higher cost/occupied bed/ day in teaching hospitals (Table 4). The high cost of teaching hospitals is not related to undergraduate teaching but is more related to the complicated case mix and the development of high technology and associated staff salaries (Ament, Kobrinski & Wook, 1981). This has also led to increased hospital costs in non-teaching large district hospitals (Andrews, 1976). Even within one state there may be unusual differences in cost/occupied bed/day. The variation between the costs/occupied bed/ day for the four major teaching hospitals associated with the University of Sydney as compared with the University of New South Wales (Table 5) are not easily explained on the basis of bed numbers, bed occupancy, case mix or student numbers. Teaching hospitals and health departments need to constantly look critically at the control of these costs without lowering the standards of health care. The dis- agreement between Health and Education departments re the costs of health care and teaching of medical students,nurses and paramedical staff must be resolved. Alternatively, as in Britain teaching hospitals should receive special funding from a federal body. Laboratory Tests During the seventies the excessive use of laboratory tests was one of the factors that increased health costs. This world wide trend began in patients hospitalised in the teaching hospitals and was transferr- ed to district hospitals and community practice. Strenuous efforts both locally and overseas have halted and are reversing this trend (Grimer, 1979). Continued [37 administrative and educational strategies directed towards optimum use of the laboratory must be maintained in the teaching hospital. THE FUTURE OF THE TEACHING HOSPITALS Teaching hospitals are an essential and vital part of helath care delivery and health education. In order to cope with rapidly changing medical care in a no-growth limited finance society they must be efficient, innovative, imaginative, adaptable and communicative. This has not been their outstanding characteristic in the past or present but is consistent with their historical development. The change must start at the top. Health and education authorities must agree to work together re objectives and funding. Health department administ- rators must be constructive and not destructive. The teaching hospital board must be composed of efficient administrators, accountants, and representatives of the university and medical staff. The hospital administration should be in the hands of those lay or medical personel recognized for their administrative skill and imagination and they must be paid accordingly. The medical and nursing staff organisation must be reviewed and reorganised so as "to be a relection of interaction of the hospitals' historical development, the influence of key individuals who currently hold power, the communication mechanisms developed to consider the issues, the recently technological developments within the hospital, and its plans for future developments and the economic and political environ- ment within which the hospital operates" (Duckett, Scarf, Schmiede § Weaver, 1981). There must be regular reviews of medical, nursing and lay staff with reference to individual contributions to patient care, teaching, research, and hospital function. Teaching hospitals do not function for the good of the staff. Their functions are patient care, teaching and research. Funding for capital costs, salaries, rebuilding, replacement and additional high technology equipment will be a continuing problem. This requires imagination and the co-operation of government, private institutions, industry and individuals. The limited public service - treasury financial mental- ity will not be able to cope with the high-cost medical technology of the future. It must be replaced with a co-operative compromise. Change must and will occur but in this environ- ment the traditional high standard of patient care in teaching hospitals must be maintained. It has developed over 100 years in many famous Australian teaching hospitals. It has played a vital educative and research role in producing the high standard of medical and nursing care for which we are world renowned. The words of John Billings as he opened the John Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, in 1889 are applicable to the Australian teaching hospital today. '"'The teaching hospital is a living organism made up of many different parts having different functions, but all these must be in due proportion and relation to each other and to the environment to produce the desired general results. The stream of life which runs through it is incessantly 138 JOHN B. HICKIE TABLE 3 PROPORTIONS OF PUBLIC HOSPITAL EXPENDITURE IN TEACHING AND NON-TEACHING HOSPITALS, 1976-77 * STATES NSW WN QLD SA WA TAS AUST No. of Teaching Hospitals 10 12 5s) 6 5 2 50 Proportion of Expenditure in Teaching Hospitals 34...2 516 56.2 71.9 69.3 55 7 59.5 No. of Non- Teaching Hospitals 234 142 155 US) 91 20 709 Proposition of Expenditures in Non-Teaching Hospitals 65.8 48.2 43.8 2 el S07. 44.3 50.5 * Jameson, 1980. TABLE 4 TABLE 5 COST/OCCUPIED BED/DAY * COST/OCCUPIED BED/DAY * NEW SOUTH WALES 1980-81 NEW SOUTH WALES 1980-81 State Average $135.79 HOSP Tate Teaching Hospitals $170.17 Royal Prince Alfred $193.25 Non-Teaching North Shore $196.94 Hospitals (10) $124.63 Sydney $199.45 Westmead $223.74 * Health Commission of New South Wales Statistics and Financial Data Public Hospitals 1980-81 Av. $203.34 Prince Henry- Prince of Wales $185.18 St. Vincent's $177 202 St. George $148.32 Ave $170.17 Overall Average $189.12 * Health Commission of New South Wales Statistical and Financial Data Public Hospitals 1980-81 THE TEACHING HOSPITAL 139 changing; patients, nurses and doctors, come and go. Today it has to do with the results of an epidemic, tomorrow with those of an explosion or fire. The reputation of its physicians or surgeons attracts those suffering from a particular form of disease and as one changes so do the others. Its work is never done; its equipment is never complete; it is always in need of a new means of diagnosis, of new instruments and medicine; it is to try all things and hold fast to that which is good" (Strauss, 1968). REFERENCES 2nd Ed. P. Blakiston's Son Pp. 352-555. Aequanimitas, 1906. §& Co. Philadelphia. Ament, R.P., Kobrinski, F.J. and Wood, W.R., 1981. Case Mix Complexity Differences Between Teaching and Non-Teaching Hospitals. J. Med. Educ., 56, 894-903. Andrew R.R., 1972. in Medical Education. 962-970. The Role of the Visiting Staff Med... Aust. 5. 1, Andrews, R., 1976. Hospital Staffing and Hospital Gosts. Med. J. Aust., 2, 222-225. Blackburn, C.R.B., 1965. The University Teaching Hospital. Med. J. Aust., 2, 179-184. Butler, P.W.-, Bentley, J.D. and Knapp, R.M., 1980. Todays Teaching Hospitals: Old Stereotypes and New Realities. Amn. Intern. Med., 93, 614-618. Cohen, P.D., 1981. Medical School and Hospital Affiliation Relationships: An Interorganizat- ional Perspective.H.C.M. Review. Winter, 43-50. Cushing, H., 1925. The Life of Sir William Osler. London, Clarendon Press. Duckett, S.J. Scarf, C.A., Schmiede, A.M. & Weaver, C.T., 1981. The Organisation of Medical Staff in Australian Hospitals. Longman Cheshire, Melbourne. Editorial, 1972. Hospital. The Role of the Teaching Med. J. Aust., 1, 953-954. Ellis, J., 1918. The Responsibility of Medical Schools for Teaching Hospitals and the Provision of Clinical Services. Med. Educat., Jo, 171-183. Epps, W., 1922. Anderson Stuart. Robertson, Sydney. Angus and Estcourt Hughes, J., 1967. Adelaide Hosptial. South Australia. A History of the Royal Griffin Press, Netley, Ewing, M., 1972. Hospitals. A Plea for our Teaching Med. J. Aust., 1, 957-961. Graves, C., 1947. The Story of St. Thomas's. Faber and Faber, London. Grimer, P.F., 1979. Use of Laboratory Tests in a Teaching Hospital: Long Term Trends. Ann. Intern. Med, 90, 243-248. Gross, P., 1982. The Economics of Hospitals. A.M.A. Gazette, 41-45. Hudson, B., 1971. Clinical Departments in Teaching Hospitals - A Graft Versus Host Reaction. Proc. of Aust. Soc. Med. Research, 9-19. Inglis, K.S., 1958. Hospital and Community - a History of the Royal Melbourne Hospital. Melbourne University Press. MacKenzie, A.S., 1979. Administration of Teaching Hospitals. lLaneet, 314-15. Massam, A., 1980. London's Hospital Teaching Under Fire. C.M.A. Journal, 122, 1300-1301. Miller, D., 1969. A Story of St. Vincent's Hospital, Sydney. Angus and Robertson, Sydney. Mitchell, A.M., 1977. The Hospital South of Yarra. Griffin Press, Netley, South Australia. Norwood, W.F., 1965. Critical Incidents in the Shaping of Medical Education in the U.S. J.A.M.A., 194, 715-718. Peart, W.S., 1970. Death of the Professor of Medicine. Lancet, 1, 401-402. The Evolution of NW. Engl. J. Med., Petersdorf, R.G., 1980. Departments of Medicine. 503, 489-496. The Evaluation of Medical Pitman, London. Poynter, F.N.L., 1966. Education in Britain. Rogers, D.E. and Blendon, R.J., 1978. The Academic Medical Centre: A Stressed American Institution. W. Engl. J. Med., 298, 940-950. Rotem, A.4"Cramg, Pe, Cox, K.j.and Garrick, Cc, 1979, The Organisation and Management of Medical Education in Australia. Centre for Medical Education Research § Development, University of New South Wales. Royal Commission on Medical Education, 1968. Her Majesty Stationery Office. Royal Prince Alfred Hospital: Aust. pchlinksHelis, 1935; Its History and Surgical Development. Noe he OU, 5, elon O Shryrock, R.H., 1965. European Backgrounds of American Medical Education, (1600 to 1900). deAsM As. 1042, /09-729., Singer, C., §& Underwood, C., 1962. A Short History of Medicine. Larendon Press, London. The Jubilee Book of the Angus & Stokes, E.H., 1960. Sydney Hospital Clinical School. Robertson, Sydney. 140 JOHN B. HICKIE Strauss, M.B., Editor, 1968. Familiar Medical Westerman, J.H., 1980. A Requiem for the University Quotations. Little Brown and Co., Boston, Hospital. H.C.M. Revtew Spring, 17-24. pp. 219-220. John B. Hickie, AO, FRACP, FRCP, FACC, Professor of Medicine, University of New South Wales, P.O. Box 1, Kensington, 2033, Australia. St. Vincent's Hospital, Darlinghurst, 2010, Australia. (Manuscript received 28.9.1983) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 116, pp. 141-142, 1983 ISSN 0035-9173/83/020141 — 02 $4.00/ 1 Speech at the Annual Dinner of the Royal Society of New South Wales* JOHN M. WARD Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen, I am grateful to have the honour of moving your Toast tonight. At The University of Sydney the Vice-Chancellor belongs to each and every Faculty. He is required to ba a scientist and a lawyer, a physician and an engineer, a dentist and a humanist. In this circumstance I want to move your Toast by reminding you of your origins and of the close relations between your origins and the foundation of The University of Sydney. There is no more fitting place to do so than in this famous Great Hall, that was completed in 1859. The sixth Governor of New South Wales, Sir Thomas Brisbane, was a scientist as well as a soldier. His interest in astronomy was and still is well-known. When he came here in 1821 he brought with him scientific equipment and also a good astronomer, Dr. Charles S. Rumker. Brisbane, when not watching the southern skies, was a sociable person and took an active role in establishing the predecessor of the Royal Society of New South Wales. In the year of his arrival and with his active encouragement there was formed the Philosophical Society of Australasia. The grand name indicated objectives and intentions, rather than actual achievements. In its early years the Society was a small scientific club of not more than ten members, who met in one another's houses, read papers and discussed science in its broadest aspects. The members were united in a belief that Australasia offered a uniquely challenging field to scientific enquiry. ''When we consider that we are speaking in the nineteenth century", they announced, "and reflect on ... the rejection and adoption of various systems of every branch of natural history, and the security which, it was fancied, that scientific arrangement had at last attained, we are almost inclined to believe that Nature has been leading us through a mazy dance of intellectual speculation, only to laugh at us at last in this fifth continent". With so much new to discover and to classify, the members proposed to exchange information with one another and with learned bodies overseas. They also did honour to Captain James Cook and to Sir Joseph Banks, who had come to Australia with Cook as a freelance gentleman botanist, and who was President of the Royal Society for forty years. That little club of gentlemen, united in the pursuit of scientific knowledge, resolved that "polemical divinity and party politics" should be forever excluded from its proceedings. Despite that attempt at built-in security, the Society expired after only one year. Its members had been * Speech by the Vice-Chancellor and Principal of the University of Sydney, Professor J.M. Ward at the Annual Dinner of the Royal Society of N.S.W., held in the Great Hall, Wednesday, 2nd March, 1983. very much in earnest. They had charged one another £5 admission fee, six shillings for non-attendance, and £10 for failing to read a paper when scheduled to do so. Those were good strong penalties and not even dinner at Government House was accepted as an excuse for not reading a paper. What threw this zealous band of amateurs into disarray was, in the words of one of its members, Judge Barron Field, "The baneful atmosphere of distracted politics". There was in fact a mixture of financial crisis and political controversy, such as has been known before and since; the members had too many urgent problems of their own to continue meditating on the problems of science. The Society expired, not with a bang, but a whimper. One of the founding Fathers of this first Society had been Henry Grattan Douglass, a medical doctor. He was, indeed, the Society's Foundation Secretary. In some ways his own troubles probably helped to put his beloved Society into what its friends called "suspended animation" and its critics called death. Douglass was publicly charged with having maintained improper relations with a comely convict lass, Ann Rumsby, whom he had taken into his household. The incident and others of a more directly political kind that followed, at least showed how public and private affairs were as closely mixed up with one another in colonial Sydney as they are today. Douglass was away from the Colony from 1828 to 1848 and on his return set about two important tasks, that are highly germane to the toast that I am to move tonight. Douglass had decided that New South Wales needed a university, further, that the Philosophi- cal Society, which he saw as the intellectual companion of the University, should be revived. The Society was revived in 1850, the year in which the Act founding The University of Sydney was passed. In its new form the Society was call- ed the Australian Philosophical Society and its objects were rather different from those of the original body. Applied science was emphasised in the statement of objectives: ''the encouragement of Arts, Sciences, Commerce and Agriculture in Australia". '"Arts'' meant not the humanities, but the applied Arts. The Society treated itself as continuous with the original Society of 1821-22. Its Patron was the Governor-General, Sir Charles Fitzroy, who was also the Visitor of The University of Sydney. The Vice-Provost of the University, Sir Charles Nicholson, was Vice-President of the Society. In 1855, after the Gold Rushes had subsided and after Victoria had been separated from New South Wales and Moreton Bay had begun its movement for separation, the Society changed its name from the Philosophical Society of Australia to the Philosophical Society of New South Wales. Accord- ing to Professor Elkin, who wrote a paper on the history of the Royal Society, the peak year of the Philosophical Society was 1858, with 186 members. 142 JOHN M. WARD A decline followed until the doldrums of the early 1860s produced through decisive acts of leadership the Royal Society itself. Our best guide is the Reverend W.B. Clarke, Vice-President of the Philosophical Society and its acknowledged leader. Clarke was a geologist of good standing, who feared that the Philosophical Society would never attract support in a colony where leisure was "'generally given to the frivolit- ies of ephemeral excitement ... sensational knowledge ... and railway literature", whatever that might have been, probably the mid-nineteenth century counterpart of paperpack fiction. Clarke believed that the name "philosophy" scared people away. Already philosophy and natural philosophy had grown apart at least so far as the general public was concerned. Clarke himself was a clergyman; he was also an empirical scientist, and something of a politician. He advised the Society to give up speculation about the nature of the universe, and to concentrate on making discoveries in "things visible, hoping thus to obtain an insight into which mere Philosophy can never reach". With a large concession to the commercial spirit of the age, he added: ''We ought to be labouring for the development of the physical character of the country we live in'', to discover its natural history and its resources, ''since this appears to be now admitted as the special object of our researches". For these reasons the name "Philosophical" was dropped from the Society's title and the name ''Royal" was inserted in its place. The Governor, Sir John Young, made the necessary representations to Queen Victoria and on 12 Sepatember, 1866, the last meet- ing of the old Philosophical Society and first meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales was held. The Fundamental Rules of the new Society repeated the original objectives of receiving papers on Art, Science, Literature and Philosophy and added "especially on such subjects as tend to develop the resources of Australia, and to illustrate its Natural History and Production". An Annual Meeting is altogether a suitable occasion for recording one's origins. Is not an annual meeting rather like a birthday? The humble beginnings of the Royal Society of New South Wales were laid by men of goodwill, who belonged to a generation when men took it for granted that science and literature, philosophy and geology were all intricably linked. So they are, and that is why we value so highly the individuals among us who can see the links and stimulate the imaginations through them. I congratulate the Society on a history of which Douglass and Clarke would be proud and invite you to drink the toast to the Society that we all honour. The Royal Society of New South Wales! (Manuscript received 3.11.1983) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 116, p. 143, 1983 ISSN 0035-9173/83/020143 — O01 $4.00/ 1 Index to Volume 116 Annual Dinner, 1983: Address by Professor J.M. Ward, Vice-Chancellor and Principal, The University of Sydney, 141 Annual Report of Council, 1982-83, 69 Basement /Cover Relations and Silurian I-Type Intrusive, 25 Bembrick, C.S., Late Permian Illawarra Coal Measures, 105 Brophy, Joseph, M., and Lassak, Erich V., Volatile Leaf Oils, 7 Clarke Memorial Lecture, 1983 delivered by R.H. Vernon, 77 Coalfield, Western, Sydney Basin, New South Wales, 105 Cobar, New South Wales, Silcretes, 17 Cobar, New South Wales, Basement/Cover Relations and Silurian I-Type Intrusive, 25 Cole, T.W., Technological Revolution (Presidential Address, 1983), 71 Communications and Computing, 71 Demon Fault, New South Wales, 123 Dulhunty, J.A., Lake Dieri, South Australia, 11 Fault, Demon, New South Wales, 123 Fergusson, C.L. and McPhie, J., Demon Fault, New South Wales, 123 Financial Statements of Society, 42 Galactic Clusters, 33 Glen, R.A., and Hutton, J.T., Silcretes, Cobar, New South Wales, 17 Glen, R.A., Lewington, G.L. and Shaw, S.E., Basement/Cover Relations and Silurian I-Type Intrusive, Cobar Lucknow, New South Wales, 25 Granites, Restite, Xenoliths and Enclaves in, 77 Hickie, John B., Teaching Hospital, 129 Hospital, Teaching, 129 Hutton, J.T., and Glen, R.A., Silcretes, Cobar, New South Wales, 17 Intrusive, I-Type, 25 King, David S., Mass Segretation and Membership Probabilities in Galactic Clusters, 33 King, David S. and Lomb, N.R., Sydney Southern Star Catalogue, 53 Lake Dieri, South Australia, 11 Lambdarina (Rhynchonellacea), 119 Lassak, Erich V. §& Brophy, Joseph M., Volatile Leaf Orlss 2 7 Leaf Oils, Volatile, 7 Lewington, G.L., Shaw, S.E., and Glen, R.A., Basement/Cover Relations and Silurian I-Type Intrusive, Cobar Lucknow, N.S.W., 25 Lomb, N.R., Minor Planets, 1982, 1 Lomb, N.R. and King D.S., Sydney Southern Star Catalogue, 53 Mass Segregation, Galactic Clusters, 33 McPhie, J. and Fergusson, C.L., New South Wales, 123 Demon Fault, Melaleuca, Leaf Oils of, 7 Nazer, Roderick, Lambdarina, Queensland, 119 Obituary of O'Connell, D.J.K., 50 Observatory, Sydney, 1, 33, 53 Oils, Volatile Leaf, 7 Permian Illawarra Coal Measures, Sydney Basin, New South Wales, 105 Pleistocene, Environment of Sedimentation, Lake Kieri, South Australia, 11 Planets, Minor, Precise Obervations of, 1982, 71 Presidential Address, 1983 by T.W. Cole, 71 Restite, xenoliths and enclaves in granites, 77 Royal Society of New South Wales Annual Report, 1982-83, 41 Medals awarded, 48 Shaw, S.E., Glen, R.A. and Lewington, G.L., Basement/ Cover Relations and Silurian I-Type Intrusive, Cobar Lucknow, New South Wales, 25 Silcretes, Cobar, New South Wales, 17 Silurian I-Type Intrusive, 25 South Australia, Lake Dieri, 11 Star Catalogue, 53 Sydney Basin, New South Wales, Coal Measures, 105 Sydney Southern Star Catalogue, 53 Technological Revolution, Communications and Computing, 71 Vernon, R.H., Restite, xenoliths and microgranitoid enclaves in granites (Clarke Memorial Lecture) Td Visean, Upper, Lambdarina in, 119 Ward, J.M., Address at Annual Dinner of Society, 1983, 141 Xenoliths in granite, 77 JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES PARTS 1-4 VOLUME 116 (Nos. 327-330 1983 ISSN 0035-9173 PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY PO BOX N112, GROSVENOR STREET, NSW 2000 Royal Society of New South Wales OFFICERS FOR 1982-1983 Patrons HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HONOURABLE SIR NINIAN STEPHEN, A.K., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., K.B.E., K.St.J., GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF AUSTRALIA HIS EXCELLENCY AIR MARSHALL SIR JAMES ROWLAND, K.B.E.. D.F.C., A.F.C., GOVERNOR OF NEW SOUTH WALES. President R. S. VAGG, M.Sc. (NSW), Ph.D. (Macq), F.R.A.C.I. Vice-Presidents T. W. COLE M. J. PUTTOCK G. S. GIBBONS B. A. WARREN Honorary Secretaries E.K. CHAFFER M. KRYSKOv. TRYST Honorary Treasurer A. A. DAY Honorary Librarian J. L. GRIFFITH Members of Council R.S. BHATHAL D.S. KING J. H. LOXTON D. H. NAPPER F. L. SUTHERLAND M. A. STUBBS-RACE W.J. VAGG New England Representative: S.C. HAYDON CONTENTS Parts 1 and 2 LOMBN.R. Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney Observatory during 1982 BROPHY Joseph M. and LASSAK, Erich V. The Volatile Leaf Oils of Melaleuca armillaris, M. dissitiflora and M. trichostachya d DULHUNTY, J. A. Lake Dieri and its Pleistocene Environment of Sedimentation, South Australia 11 GLEN, R. A., and HUTTON, J. T. Silcretes in the Cobar Area, New South Wales 17 GLEN, R. A., LEWINGTON, G. L. and SHAW, S. E. Basement/ Cover Relations and a Silurian I-Type Intrusive from the Cobar Lucknow Area, Cobar, New South Wales 25 KING, David S. Astrometric Determination of Mass Segregation and Membership Probabilities in Galactic Clusters 33 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 4] Parts 3 and 4 KING, David S. and LOMB, Nicholas R. Sydney Southern Star Catalogue a3 COLE, T. W. The Technological Revolution in Communications and Computing (Presidential Address 1983) rn VERNON, R. H. Restite, Xenoliths and Microgranitoid Enclaves in Granites (Clarke Memorial Lecture, 1983) Teal BEMBRICK,C. S. Stratigraphy and Sedimentation of the Late Permian Illawarra Coal Measures in the Western Coalfield, Sydney Basin, New South Wales 105 NAZER, Roderick Lambdarina (Rhynchonellacea) from the Upper Visean of Queensland 119 McPHIE, J. and FERGUSSON C. L. Dextral Movement on the Demon Fault, Northeastern New South Wales: A Reassessment 123 HICKIE, John B. The teaching Hospital: Past, Present and Future 129 WARD, J. M. Address on the Occasion of the Annual Dinner of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 2nd March, 1983 141 INDEX 143 Dates of publication Parts 1 and 2: August, 1983 Parts 3 and 4: December, 1983 N LIBRARIES TL 8 4884 > Qi ne SY Contents VOLUME 116, PARTS 3 and4 — KING, David S. and LOMB, Nicholas R. Sydney Southern Star Catalogue 53 COLE, T. W. The Technological Revolution in Communications and Computing (Presidential Address, 1983) 71 VERNON, R. H. Restite, Xenoliths and Microgranitoid Enclaves in Granites (Clarke Memorial Lecture, 1983) Tet BEMBRICK, C. S. Stratigraphy and Sedimentation of the Late Permian Illawarra Coal Measures in the Western Coalfield, Sydney Basin, New South Wales 105 NAZER, Roderick Lambdarina (Rhynchonellacea) from the Upper Visean of Queensland i: McPHIE, J. and FERGUSSON, C. L. Dextral Movement on the Demon Fault, Northeastern New South Wales: A Reassessment E23 HICKIE, John B. The Teaching Hospital: Past, Present and Future 129 WARD, J. M. Address on the Occasion of the Annual Dinner of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 2nd March, 1983 141 INDEX 143 Publicity Press (NSW), 66 O'Riordan St, Alexandria, Sydney.