SPA SASS Thal eta ne oP apoio ‘ wah Sal Soe 9 showy cepa reemeny Wyant te Fs eae : Pacha ae! Sot gate wien ‘Joie pice Droceedines of the Royal Society New SouthWeles "VOLUME 111 - 1978- PARTS 1 and.2 Published by the Society Science Centre, 35 Clarence Street, Sydney Issued 14th July, 1978 Royal Society of New South Wales OFFICERS FOR 1978-1979 Patrons His ExCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF AUSTRALIA, THE HONOURABLE SIR ZELMAN COWEN, A.K., G.C.M.G., K.St.J., Q.C. His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF NEW SOUTH WALES SIR RODEN CUTLER, V.c., K.C.M.G., K.C.V.O., C.B.E., K.StJ- President F. C. BEAVIS, B.SC., PH.D., F.G.S. Vice-Presidents E. K. CHAFFER W. H. ROBERTSON, B.Sc. D. H. NAPPER, M.SC. (SYD.), PH.D. (CANTAB.), W. F. SMITH, M.SC., PH.D., M.INST.P. ACR ACT, D. J. SWAINE, M.SC., PH.D., F.R.A.C.I. Honorary Secretaries . M. J. PUTTOCK, B.SC. (ENG.), M.INST.P. M. KRYSKO v. TRYST, B.Sc., GRAD.DIP., A.M.AUS.I.M.M. Honorary Treasurer A. A. DAY, B.SC., PH.D., F.R.A.S., M.AUS.I.M.M. Honorary Librarian W. H. G. POGGENDORFF, B.Sc. (AGR.) Members of Council HELENA BASDEN, B.SC., DIP.ED. J.-W. G. NEUHAUS, M:SC., A.R.L:C.;cF RAG G. S. GIBBONS, M.SC., PH.D. . §. J. RILEY, B.sc. (HONS.), PH.D. G. C. LOWENTHAL, B.A., M.SC., PH.D., _ LAWRENCE SHERWIN, M:Sc. F.A.INST.P. F. S.. STEPHENS, B.SC., PH.D. F. L. SUTHERLAND, M.Sc. New England Representative: R. L. STANTON, M.SC., PH.D. South Coast Representative: G. DOHERTY, B.SC., PH.D. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 111, pp. 1-12, 1978 Proper Motions in the Region of NGC 3532 D. S. KING ABSTRACT. Relative proper motions of stars in the region of the galactic cluster NGC 3532 based on plates taken with the 33 cm astrograph, are determined with the aim of identifying stars in the area of the cluster which are non-members. The relative proper motions have an average standard error of 0"'13/century and reveal 265 likely non-members and 382 likely members. INTRODUCTION The open cluster NGC 3532 (R.A. = ie 0222 Weeze=—-5on 08', 1900; 2 = 257.4, b = +1.5) has been investigated photovisually by Martin (1933). The present investigation seeks to identify from their proper motions, those stars that are not members of the cluster. THE PLATES The plates were taken with the 33 cm standard astrograph (scale 1' = 1 mm) as follows: Plate No. Date Taken Exposure 1 746s 1693 Feb: 25 6 m 2 746s PSOSe heb. 25 3 m 3 226RH 1900 Mar. 8 3 m 4 7530Sa 1976 Apr. ZO 16 m 5 7546Sa 1976 Apr. 30 10 m 6 7622Sa SL eee AWE 3 m h All plates are centred at R.A. 11° 00" Dec. -58° 00! (1900). The last three plates were taken through the glass. MEASUREMENT The plates were bound together in pairs, one old and one new, film to film, three pairs being Mead 2 — 6, 5 --5.- i The distances apart in x and y of the old and new images were measured in a short screw Repsold measuring machine adjusted to Keep x and y parallel to the R.A. and Dec. axes. In addition, the plates 3 and 5 were measured in a Grubb-Parsons photoelectric measuring machine and the measures converted to the same system as the Repsold measured pairs. Each plate pair was measured twice in both direct and reverse with the average being recorded. All stars measured were selected from the published coordinates in the Astrographic Catalogue (Sydney Observatory 1954, plate N822) in the area between 6.0 - 18.0 in x and 37.0 - 46.0 in y. The plates were measured by Mrs. A. Brown, Miss J. Fitt, Miss D. Teale and Mr: D. King. REDUCTIONS AND PROBABILITIES If X,, X, are the measures of x on the new and old plates, u is the annual proper motion and t is the time interval between the plates, then we can write: - Xx) - X, =Siteteax + by + ¢ + dm wath a2 Similar expression for Y, - Y, where x, y and m (magnitude)were taken from the Astrographic Cata- logue. A least squares solution without the proper motion term was then obtained using all the stars measured. The solution was performed for each set of. measures with a Diehl Alphatronic programmable calculator. Those stars whose residuals exceeded 2.5 times the standard deviation of the residuals were then eliminated from the solution and a fur- ther solution sought of the remaining stars. This was continued until the standard deviation of the residuals was comparable with the average standard error of the measurements. The resultant plate constants were then used to give the proper motions relative to the mean motion of the cluster.) Uhas is then converted to a centennial proper motion by multiplying by 100k/t where k is the scale factor to convert the measured differences to seconds of arc. To determine the weight to be assigned to each of the plate pairs, the method of Sanders (1971) was used to determine the distribution parameters of a bivariate gaussian frequency function which would represent the calculated field and cluster star relative proper motions. The cluster star disper sion was assumed circular and its value was used as the weight of its corresponding plate pair. Thus, the weighted mean proper motions and standard errors were determined. The distribution parameters in arc sec./century after eliminating 16 stars with very large proper motions were: G=s 26 N. = 249 X 0.025 2 OF 5:5i7/ f ie x O.161) N. = S829°¥ 2 =--0005i 2. G=0noiy Gc e i y @ is the rotation angle of the observed proper motions (+u_ to +u_) into a new co-ordinate system defined by the prihcipal axes of the apparent ellip- soidal distribution of field and cluster star motions. All the other parameters are defined in this new co-ordinate system. o_ is the dispersion of the cluster star motions; Nes No are the number Of field and cluster stars; xX, Y.~ the centre of the field star proper motion distribution; 2, 2 : : : Xow ey: the field star proper motion dispersions. These parameters were then used to determine a star's probability of membership. oO The standard errors for individual stars have been grouped by their magnitudes, and the mean of the standard errors o_, o_ determined for different groups are as follows:- 2 D. S. KING Magnitude oO, oF No. of stars Cole Standard errors of centennial proper motion (Unat OUOl/eene) in units of 0"'01/cent. P Probability of membership. LOR lala, 15.4 14.7 251 Notes 2°= On by, ewo. plate. pains: OZ OF = L026 122.0 1390 144 Se tnGece plate: pards. 50, Ss Ie) kes) AGES) 7S 5 - suspected eclipsing variable: LoS 20 eis) TS 36 135 79 6 - not used in calculation of distribution parameters. All IL SS 13.42 647 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS An attempt at determining the absolute proper motion of the cluster by comparison with 26 Cape catalocuesstars yielded 1.0694: 0217"/cent. Im R.A. and +0.14 + 0.21"/cent. in Dec. I wish to thank W. H. Robertson for suggesting this research and for his constant encouragement and interest in this project. 1 would also. lake, to The observational data follows in table l. thank the staff of Sydney Observatory who epee The various columns are:- with the measuring and reduction. No. The number from th Astrogra hic Catalogue, Sydney Section aif 00" - age centre). SREECENG ES ME Glo [peste ote Weekes cies es Ae Otc aS see pauses Ay Martin, W.C., 1933. Bull. Astron. Inst. Neth., 7, the image diameter. 61 pp ann Ri : : ; : Soe eee carom ley Coe evel at aeee Sanders, W.L., 1971. Astronomy and Astrophystcs, 14, Dec.) from the astrographic place, brought to 226 pp eee Sydney Observatory, 1954. Astrographic Catalogue Cre Sydney Sectton, 26, 94 V Photovisual magnitude from Martin. Deed z ‘ PP: Mies 1 Centennial proper motion in units of 0"'01/ y Genta, ihesaxessane parallel. to RA. and Dec: TABLE 1 THE OBSERVATIONAL DATA No. Mag. R.A. Dec. CPD No. V vl u Oo fo) P Notes x ye X y 579 OS f06458 -58 41 40 -13 -30 6 9 66 580 10.8 TOC S:7 -58 43 17 Sul 2 Zi Ly. ae) 581 85.9 12.06; 50 -58 41 18 -58°3199 0 26 13 18 81 So 10.8 1106-35 -58 45 43 8 -20 6 25 82 583-1028 11 06 34 -58 43 13 ite 60° — —45 13 27 0 3 584 Tes LT 06927 -58 42 17 =58 3189 39 9 57. 55 46 586 LON 1106 18 -58 42 39 41 -23 13 23 17 587 10.8 Li 06% 16 -58 42 14 30 =(6)1! 2h Me) 0 588 LORS eOGe 12 -58 42 56 Si - 7 8 £2 62 589 10.6 iO Ge e2 -58 43 40 101 -30 i Ti 0 590 10.8 106 10 -58 44 55 82 - 33 25 11 0 S91 HORE. 11 06 09 -58 41 35 -31 -16 17 19 59 592 ORY LE 0650:6 -58 44 37 és - 1 0 iE aS) 91 593 Oa £05) 57 =96, 45-535 -58 3175 5 -42 21 20 36 594 10.6 11 05 46 -58 42 15 20 -13 15 9 79 595 10:5 aN OS022:9 -58 43 10 $) -24 24 10 Ti 596 10.8 MI O55-22 s90 45 05 1 0 12 1S, 90 59i/ HOR? if 105.420 -58 42 44 5 ~39 16 4 35 598 10: 7 S059 -58 43 06 14 = 5 16 28 88 599 oF 5 1105: £1 =90 4lbt59 BSG 5d55 =a mS) 8 22 91 600 10.8 14-05-08 -58 45 42 39 => (4 £5 19 44 3 601 10.8 11 04 49 = SOF 49,555 - -10 12 5 23 88 602 oo, it 045 02 =98 45 55 -58 3098 - 1 Sif 25 TS 76 603 10.8 05" 57 =96 45°20 =25 il 11 25 78 604 10.8 11.03 55 -58 44 34 -60 = SXe) 28 28 0 605 10.8 112035 -45 -58 45 11 25 6 13 9 82 606 10.8 105.244 =58 45° 20 23 -24 18 11 59 607 LOTS IAGO SA -58 44 05 6 0 -12 10 20 89 608 OS 11403. 55 -58 41 35 -58 3076 10.26 HS -12 ila UES 86 609 HORS OSs 5:2Z -58 44 24 43). eA 5 30 2 5 610 O53 PESOS 22 -58 43 49 & -24 8 16 10 78 611 OFS TOS 14 -58 46 00 - 58 5060 = ih - 3 14 19 90 612 IORI 1103: 14 -58 42 34 -58 3061 =20, abs) 7 19 80 613 10.8 OS yO2 -58 42 31 178 -78 iby) 9 0 5 No. 614 615 616 617 618 619 620 621 622 623 624 625 626 628 629 630 631 632 633 634 635 637 688 689 690 691 692 693 695 696 697 698 699 700 761 702 703 704 705 706 707 708 710 ial GAZ 713 714 715 716 Pal] 718 719 720 721 LD) 125 724 729 726 Weld 728 729 750 WOntwoOWm Or OD UI CO WO UF COW WOMNWNINFR WAWWUMO NNW DAN RFPrRPUNWWNAINWONINONOMNOUWWOrFR WM OrFH~A1C0 OHM PROPER MOTIONS IN THE REGION OF NGC 3532 00 00 54 52 43 38 30 26 25 22 17 08 47 36 34 33 15 12 10 32 25 42 01 30 24 24 20 07 43 42 38 29 03 50 49 48 43 31 Bil 27 oT 17 08 03 00 58 58 57 52 51 47 45 43 42 29 29 26 24 19 58 56 55 54 -58 -58 =30 -58 =56 =59 250 =50 = Ke) -58 =30 =o5 -58 -58 -58 =50 =o =e) 30 -58 -58 =56 = 36 0 -58 axe) =55 =55 =o =50 -58 rey) -58 = 5h) 0 =58 20 -58 =30 =58 =20 -58 =56 = 0) =55 =e) =o Ais, 55 -58 -58 -58 -58 -58 Sie) =o -58 -58 58 = sie) -58 =30 -58 TABLE 1 continued GPR BNoz -58°3048 -58°3047 -58° 3039 -58°3033 =58, 3029 -58°3008 -58°2996 -58 =95 -58 -58 2984 2981 2980 2961 fe)" (2) te) (©) -58°3188 3186 3178 SHIA 3168 3166 =99 -58 =50 30 @) @) Oo Oo S5G.. 258° 3147 258 31150 E58 3119 -58°3097 -58°3091 = 5803067 -58°3065 -58°3045 V 10-76 Eos) OG 10. 26 60 00 dials 08 Bioid/ FOR) Pays fy, Altes alae 1 10. LO lle 08 53 60 08 30 FA 07 ios) Notes ON No. 735A 732 755 734 735 736 737 738 759 740 741 742 743 744 745 746 747 748 749 750 Jou 7o2 753 754 E59 756 V7, 758 To 760 761 810 811 812 813 814 815 816 817 818 819 820 821 822 823 824 825 826 827 828 829 830 831 S52 833 834 835 836 837 838 839 840 841 Mag. R.A. LOZ9 fA 02 OF? Pe O2 10.7 tT 202 O83 102 10.8 AO 2 10.8 LAN OZ 929 LV RO2 OK 7, hs OZ O55 L102 LOS 17 02 10.6 1d 02 TORS le Oi One eed: 1O).37 seat 10;.'8. LAL NOT HO 7, LAS On 825 agp 10.8 1104 10:25 11 00 10.8 1100 10.8 1 00 TOL 11 00 1023 11 00 oe 5 11 00 10.8 11 00 10.7 £1200 LOZ 7 11 00 LORS 11 00 10.8 1100 105 L059 10.6 10. 59 LOS 14,07 10.8 EOF, 10.8 1707 Sa7 11 06 Sous) P05 cha 11 06 (Shae) 1106 10.8 tt 06 O59 11 06 Oo 105 Siu, IEE O15) Set fi G5 Shih 11 05 TOS 1eUOS 10:8 11£705 HOS 1105 TORS tl.05 10.6 SOS 1O'38 IES OS os) ti 05 TO 11.05 10.6 1105 oral £105 NOs TOS O21 10'S Ot 11 04 95 11 04 5 3) 11 04 So 11 04 10. 3 11 04 (had 11 04 10.8 11 04 53 50 49 49 45 43 35 35 16 16 09 59 49 48 14 12 06 03 52 52 52 50 41 39 37 21 20 14 10 56 51 05 03 00 45 42 35 16 11 07 56 51 43 41 37 26 on 21 20 14 13 09 08 05 03 03 54 49 35 30 My fh 15 -58 -58 =510 -58 mos) =55 =5'8 =58 -58 =58 =58 eis) =a) =56 =90 ~58 -58 = 50 =90 -58 ye: =56 -58 -58 -58 =50 30. =98 =56 S56 ye) -58 -58 -58 -58 =98 -58 -58 = 50 -58 -58 =996 =96 -58 =56 =56 -58 =90 350 90 =58 = 5%) -58 =58 =56 -58 -58 -58 -58 98 -58 = ie) -58 08 16 35 21 49 47 06 35 56 41 18 20 50 56 iS 46 21 43 14 48 Z3 18 36 24 00 02 07 28 16 03 26 18 21 48 39 47 07 19 54 02 00 42 52 32 aka 25 59 14 06 43 00 24 41 00 15 40 38 05 56 25 Da, 04 Si. D. S. KING TABLE 1 continued CPD No. 1 250.5) 0A0 seals: =58° 3006 10. 10. 258, 2007) =.) 10) -58°2979 25807077 -58° 2966 -~58° 2964 -58°3198 -58°3197 -58-3194 5873183 =580 3179 S59°3074 -58°3170 10. JCS°silove. sil0r ESoaoted i 10 -58°3154 40). 258. 31S OMeceel: 11 25805 14806 10 -58°3145 9. 259° 31138 9 -58°3134 10 -58°3125 10 -58°3123 Gn 56,3118 jl: e5e. S44 8. 08 06 Za 70 34 14 96 - 40 250 96 00 . 06 . 86 68 . 84 aval . 24 59 18 81 Notes No. 842 843 844 845 846 847 848 849 850 851 852 853 854 855 856 857 858 859 860 861 862 863 864 865 866 867 868 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876 877 878 879 880 881 882 883 884 885 886 887 888 889 890 891 892 893 894 895 896 897 898 899 900 948 949 950 951 ONIN ONIWNODDAIWOWMMNOHrHOrFMNAUM ON WOON AYN UMMNWAD OWN OF RPN MRNA OD CW WO COON UH OF YC WO CON MC PROPER MOTIONS IN THE REGION OF NGC 3532 07 06 06 01 59 54 49 48 47 45 41 55 34 30 30 Zo 26 20 18 16 12 06 OS 01 Bo se) od 42 38 a5 55 35 Se 29 27 24 Zi 18 16 10 09 08 01 59 55 35 50 49 43 42 35 58 46 41 40 38 04 52 35 02 52 42 36 25 25 56 S)) aS 38 56 TABLE 1 continued CPD No. 253 3104 =58°3103 ~58°3095 -58°3086 -58°3084 -58°3079 168° 2075 -58 = 58) 558) = Sie) =o° “58 = ss) -58 3063 3059 S055 3051 3050 3041 3040 @) (@) 0) Oo (@) @) oO °3038 -58°3020 -58°3015 ase 50 iT -58°3004 -58°3002 -58°3000 -58°2999 -~58°2998 -58° 2963 -58°2948 -58°2943 2583203 258°3195 V . 84 . 06 a 0) = A6)) 6 . 06 . 06 ON ills 69 . 38 .44 0) . 26 - 48 . 60 ae) OG wou aathall 1G Bis) 3915 OO 1 10. 58 76 .94 nOF SS) 290) =16 Notes No. 952 9355 954 955 956 957 958 959 960 961 962 965 964 965 966 967 968 969 970 O71 972 073 974 O75 976 O77 978 O79 980 981 982 983 984 985 986 987 988 989 990 enh 992 995 994 995 996 997 998 999 1600 1001 1002 1003 1004 1005 1006 1007 1008 1009 1010 1011 LO12 1013 1014 —_ js Hb (Or “O07 XO 00° OQ: S17 COP =) OO (OO COr@ pet OWOWFRNOAWONNUNWOWMUOONWUWNN WDANIAWAANINMNTW UN WOrRUMNAWAAOWMNUOWWMO OOM ANI UN © OW WO CO WO CO UC} ON M 34 25 22 06 02 00 43 41 38 Ba, 36 36 34 30 10 04 02 00 59 58 56 53 53 52 47 47 45 41 38 28 21 20 13 08 05 04 04 03 01 01 58 51 50 44 44 42 40 36 33 32 31 30 29 26 22 15 11 11 10 08 07 04 01 ye) -55 =50 98 -58 = 50 =38 =58 =o0 =6 -58 =56 -58 =58 -58 -58 -58 -58 =58 =58 =NeKe) =90 =I0 -58 =56 -58 =58 -58 =0 =56 =58 -58 =30 -58 =96 -58 =58 -58 -58 =98 -58 50 -58 -58 -58 -58 -58 -58 -58 -58 30 -58 =58 -58 90 -58 =58 -58 =56 -58 =56 =56 -58 D. S. KING TABLE 1 continued CPD No. -58°3193 S58 95 1877 +580 51169 25805162 -58°3161 e580 c160 -58°3146 ~58°3144 =90 -58 -58 =58 -58 =58 -58 3143 3142 3139 S137, 51356 LoS 3132 OO Oe OF OOF © -58°3128 -58°3127 =58 31:20 =00 =58 =58 =38 -58 -58 3110 3106 SLO5 5102 3100 (0) @) Oo 0) Oo °3101 -58°3090 ~58°3089 -58°3081 3074 50735 5072 3070 -58 3071 -58 3069 -58 3066 =00 = 5\S) =56 -58 OROLOT CRO OrSO 5B 057, -58°3056 -58°3054 -58°3049 V Ais be S/S) Notes No. 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 1024 1025 1026 1027 1028 1029 1030 1031 1032 1033 1034 1035 1036 O37 1038 1039 1040 1041 1042 1043 1044 1045 1046 1047 1048 1049 1050 1051 PALOSZ 1053 1054 1055 1056 1098 1099 1100 1101 LOZ 1103 1104 1105 1106 1107 1108 1109 TANG) AGM dad2 Het aS Ta be! eS 1116 ee, Lies Mag. tap =a COM OOO) (SOOO) (Oho Ono eS lo oan) NDUNRWBSNoNIN ORR UNUOUWONNRFPONNWNHNWNUO WO WN WONIMNMR FP WODAIWNM ONMNNY NF ONFH ORIN WW OA © CO PROPER MOTIONS IN THE REGION OF NGC 3532 00 57 54 48 47 43 43 36 38: 34 30 aS) Za 20 i? iS 06 54 52 47 46 38 29 27 2. 20 23 14 Tat 01 58 52 49 48 41 36 =) 51 24 1h8) 18 OS 07 58 56 Sy) 34 52 27 26 24 iS iS 09 07 57 45 27 26 09 08 00 51 =56 nye) -58 -58 =58 = bys! =36 8) =5o =30 -58 38 30 06 47 56 Sil 47 28 47 od 38 08 56 9) Sal Se) 30 oe) Sf 43 O1 04 56 36 26 04 oy 18 03 ahet 42 a2 29 56 08 32 58 51 1S 27 Die 18 10 09 1) 06 48 36 20 26 Se 35 41 Ze 54 10 45 52 dA 5D 04 Si 28 TABLE 1 continued CPD No. = Sie) =O ©3042 3037 -58 3036 =58 5051 -58°3034 =O. 002s =o) S022 =58 3017 Sieh SLOG Sie) sae, 3009 3007 (@) @) =96 35003 -58°2995 B53 2006 -58°2987 -58°2986 AS) EES “582973 -58°2971 -58°2970 -58°2959 -58°2954 2582055 ~58°2949 -58°3192 -58°3191 SONS -58°3187 ss) ai -58°3180 -57°4329 4319 S57 =—5/ 4510 = Somat =507 5150 =) // O =58. O O O 257 4908 HO} HO! oF ok 22 13 10 85 88 =206 1 = 2a 3 Notes No. TLS, 1120 1121 22 1123 1124 125 1126 127, 28 29 1130 IES 1132 SS 1134 135 1136 1137. 1138 1139 1140 1141 1142 1143 1144 1145 1146 1147 1148 a9 1150 PLS1 1152 LSS 1154 T1S5 1156 1S 7; 1158 £59 1160 1161 1162 1163 1164 1165 1166 1167 1168 1169 1070 7a ileal 2. i173 1174 1175 1176 abi 7. 1178 1179 1180 1181 jp WOmMWDUWUODOUAWDNUNU AWD WO — Xe) MONI WOWOWUNNIDMWAIWNIWOWONWOND CONF ONIUMRPRPHDWO WOW WOWONUINRPNWWYUNINWNWODUOWNONINNODA UH 48 43 43 42 40 38 35 DS 21 20 18 16 12 12 04 03 02 01 00 59 58 56 49 47 46 45 43 42 38 32 28 27 15 13 12 10 09 59 56 55 52 49 44 44 41 40 38 Sa) 33 32 28 27 Dy) 26 16 14 37 30 29 26 56 49 45 =56 -58 =98 als) -58 -58 -58 56 -58 =5o =510, =58 -58 -58 -58 =30 =50 ek) aie) =58 50 -58 =58 -58 -58 =I = S%e) =90 -58 =56, -58 = 56 -58 =56 -58 =58 -58 =56 56 -58 -58 -58 -58 =58 -58 -58 =96 -58 -58 -58 -58 250 -58 -58 =50 =00 -58 -58 516 -58 -58 -58 =58 D. S. KING TABLE 1 continued CPD No. -57°4289 ESB sisi BS 7° A285 Sy AoA =580 3112 -58°3111 -~58°3109 258° 5107 57 4261 -58°3099 =0.7 =u =F =50 -58 -58 4258 4257 4256 3094 5092 3087 -58 3085 -57 4253 =o7 4201 OOF ONO! (O70 (O7.070 =58 -58 =57 =58 3080 3077 4238 3068 OnOrO TS -57°4228 -58° 3058 257 A095 -58°3044 258. 3043 -57°4208 ac A905 25792203 -58°3028 -58°3027 2374196 -58°3019 BES si! -57°4188 -58°2991 -58° 2968 aay pty DmAUWWONIOrF WOW OO CF HH Notes No. 1182 1183 1184 i185 1186 1224 1225 1226 1227 1228 1229 1230 PZ 5 1232 1233 1234 1235 1236 1237 1238 1239 1240 1241 1242 1243 1244 1245 1246 1247 1248 1250 1251 L252 1255 1254 1255 1256 12577 1258 259 1260 1261 1262 1263 1264 1265 1266 1267 1268 1269 1270 127 WZ 7.2 1273 1274 1275 L276 WPA) 1278 1279 1280 1281 1282 OMMWO MNF WONIWOWONINWWOOWONUNUAWUUDWUOWN UWA WO OO NIW OO UW W OO OO J C1 CO MO COW WO OO NI CO CO CO CHO WO COND O11 © PROPER MOTIONS IN THE REGION OF NGC 3532 41 29 08 56 38 58 BS) 13 12 30 06 19 02 48 36 355 24 17 she 10 08 51 50 46 41 41 59 SIS) 29 28 24 18 07 06 56 47 40 59 29 26 TL 11 56 48 42 42 41 41 40 38 36 PL 09 08 58 oe 5A 30 24 25 08 00 44 50 =J0 =5i8 =o =90 -58 -58 =58 50 =) -58 -58 =30 =90 =58 =90 -58 -58 -58 =e: -58 = ais) -58 =50 -58 =o5 6 -58 = 8 30 -58 -58 =o -58 =56 =30 = ais) =55 S10 -58 =58 50 -58 =55 =05 = Eis) = 36 -58 =58 =oo =55 -58 =o5 ris) =96 =e) =36 =36 - 58 =98 3° =58 -58 TABLE 1 continued CPD No. -58 2957 -58°2950 -58° 2946 -57°4344 -57°4297 -57°4288 257 °4979 mp obi -57°4254 -57°4245 BS) 24 0AG =57°A239 Boy eT -57°4233 -57°4221 -57°4220 -57°4210 B57 A006 257° 4001 -57°4186 -57°4183 SSI gds -57°4169 -57°4168 eT ANG BEANS 6 -57°4142 S67 VAISS 257 (AG eto) -57°4118 Biya aoe) = 5 Notes 10 No. 1283 1284 S27. 1328 529 1330 13541 1332 1333 1334 1335 1556 1337 1338 1339 1340 1341 1342 1343 1344 ~ 1345 1346 1347 1348 1349 1350 PS55/ 1352 1353 1354 1355 1356 L357 1358 T3559 1360 1361 1362 13563 1364 1365 1366 1367 1369 1370 PSL 1372 1575 1374 1375 1376 S77 1378 1379 1380 1381 L332 1383 1384 1385 1386 1387 1388 WNW OWWOUMNIMNUNUNON WONINNOUMWNUNWNWOUO ADF WOrUDWAUOUMO WA AWAUNNIANMWUWOWNIUMNDNONWWNNF WNP OWN NN © 36 35 02 00 42 28 24 5) 39 BS 22 08 04 04 01 00 59 54 49 47 39 21 18 16 15 Ibe) Hal 10 39 54 43 4] 38 Si 55 Pah 19 02 58 S7 54 59 37 Bs) 29 2H 16 08 07 59 Sv 48 4] 34 29 20 ais) 11 54 2 45 44 33 -58 -58 -58 Sere) =58 5x8) =30 ae) =58 -58 =o0 =56 -58 =98 =58 Ss) -58 -58 =59, =56 -58 -58 Siete) =56 56 -58 -58 =58 -58 =58 =98 mye) =56 -58 -58 -58 =58 -58 -58 =58 -58 -58 =56 =56 = 00 Sos) -58 hs) =5.0, =o 99 ie) =98 -58 50 Do -58 =58 =55 —30 -58 =50 390 Dec. 18 18 {5 11 13 15 TS 13 12 14 12 12 ie 12 15 14 12 11 akal 14 15 14 1s) 1S 14 14 12 16 12 15 13 16 aha 13 13 1s) 16 15) tS 12 I 14 12 12 iS iS 1 fF ial 12 13 12 15 16 12 13 Ike 13 11 13 11 14 13 56 39 59 16 20 44 28 46 Sil 08 10 15 48 39 24 18 04 34 52 28 5 00 23 37 09 08 13 27 49 48 25 16 43 17 59 05 31 57 44 51 18 0S 20 05 44 35 25 oy) 39 27 24 42 53 20 56 39 22 08 55 22 42 20 00 D. S. KING TABLE 1 continued CPD No. -57°4346 2 BASS =O, So, -57 O17 = oy) 4337 4336 4322 4315 4312 -57 4306 ='9,/ 4300 =o 24299 Ox OLOZO OL ONOr©: ©57°A296 -57°4293 4157°4290 B74 089 Bed TO -57°4271 257°4970 -57°4249 557 74247 S57 A248 =57 A949 267 OD AST AIT S101. =O =15i/, 34202 54199 24193 -57°4192 -57°4191 -57°4189 Bead eth =O =5// =o/ ao =) /) Or Oe, 4173 4167 4161 4157 4151 4145 4144 OVO OT Oo TOTO! SET OA 1 SG -57°4133 a7 Ato V . 64 11. 30 Ake) 25 HOE 59 5 ois: a) OF tale 36 Notes No. 1389 1429 1430 1431 1432 1433 1434 1435 1436 1437 1438 1439 1440 1441 1442 1443 1444 1445 1446 1447 1448 1449 1450 1451 1452 1453 1454 1455 1456 1457 1458 1459 1460 1461 1462 1463 1464 1465 1466 1467 1468 1470 1471 1472 1473 1474 1475 1476 1477 1478 1479 1480 1481 1482 1483 1485 1486 1487 1488 1489 1490 1518 1519 CON WWW AWA MNRPNWOWOUNHRNF OFM WONIMNOWW OW ONIN ON FPNINRFOWOWWAUO WON WA IMA OW IAWONAUNNYPH WAHAUM PROPER MOTIONS IN THE REGION OF NGC 3532 26 47 27 24 21 20 14 08 02 01 51 48 40 34 31 17 04 03 00 55 43 32 29 22 17, 14 13 12 09 04 04 02 Be 48 24 2S 15 09 05 04 21 06 01 59 56 49 47 47 30 28 14 peel 10 OS 04 36 Sil 25 57, 36 36 04 55 = 8) =59 = 215 = Sys) = 3) = 539) = 535) =50 = ys) = Sy) -58 -58 -58 =o5 50 -58 -58 =58 =56 =30 -58 -58 =58 -58 0 =55 -58 = 38) -58 = oe) -58 -58 -58 -58 -58 =o0 =58 -58 ats) 0 = is) = Si) =08 -58 =58 =56 -58 =59 = oie! -58 =590 =30 -58 =50 =58 = -58 =00 -58 -58 =56 = 6 = aye) Dec. TS 09 08 08 09 08 09 08 08 09 10 07 10 07 07 10 07 sll 07 11 10 10 09 Aba 08 10 11 09 09 08 07 09 10 09 td 09 08 08 07 08 06 09 09 10 10 09 08 07 08 09 10 10 09 07 07 10 08 11 08 08 07 02 03 59 12 iS 24 13 42 00 eh) Ss) 14 56 54 TABLE 1 continued CPD No. 57.4124 -57°4341 257 74555 ey) oe BE 24526 =57 A521 57 A346 -57°4313 B57. 4oat 2574295 867-4078 5g 4075 -57°4268 -57°4266 a5 7.24267 -57°4264 =57° 4934 -57 4230 Oa 222 -57 4218 @) @) (@) 267 A207 ~57°4177 Se Gps Sey Aas ST AA L S57 A107 257-4347 a) ~— We DONDUIDADADWWO ~I U1 CO NIWO TOG (OS Ox LO" © [os — 66 Notes 11 12 No. Mag. R.A. 1520 LORS: 11 06 S21 10.6 LA ROG S22 LOX 11 06 1523 1073 11 06 1524 10.6 11206 1525 9:5 AIP (0h) 1526 HOS 1105 1527 10.8 LOS 1528 LOS 7 11 04 1529 10.8 11 04 1530 Oa, 11 04 1531 10.8 11 04 L532 Ne7 11 04 1535 10-8 11 04 1534 10.8 11 04 L535 10.8 11 04 1536 10.8 11 04 1537 9.1 11 04 1538 10.8 11 04 1539 10. 7 it 0s 1540 10.8 TOS 1541 OR 7, 11303 1542 10.6 1103 1543 LORS 103 1544 Sia, 103 1545 HOS iOS 1547 1O!*7 Ii: 02 1548 LOs.7 102 1549 HON, 11702 1550 10.8 Pi O2 US5a LOS P62 S52 10.8 ale {oya | S55 LOSS {100 1554 SIS) Te-Or 1555 9.5 OM 1556 10.8 1502 1557 LORT 11 00 1558 10.8 E00 1559 Os: 11 00 1560 Ore 11 00 1561 10.8 11 00 T5622 10.8 Ti 00 1563 ofS C106 1564 LO/8 10 59 1565 10.3 10 59 1566 Oo TOSS Sydney Observatory, Observatory Park, 26 20 16 02 00 40 34 12 59 59 49 42 41 38 So 26 18 06 04 35 20 14 10 06 01 01 50 24 23 21 12 58 Si; 52 16 09 42 52 28 25 18 14 01 55 45 43 SYDNEY N.SoWe. §2000 -58 =58 -58 =56 -58 -58 -58 =30 =50 -58 -58 -58 =) -58 =90 =50 =o0 -58 =e) aise) = 56 -58 =56 =58 -58 =58 male) -58 -58 -58 -58 50 -58 a0 -58 -58 -58 -58 -58 -58 -58 -58 =99 -58 =190 re! 40 07 02 42 55 44 24 25 21 56 24 21 16 itil 10 11 31 57 19 53 35 1G) 09 34 14 54 18 15 38 03 27 DB 24 30 41 04 15 38 58 13 22 25 06 03 39 13 (Manuscript received 22.2.1978) D.S. KING TABLE 1 continued CPD No. V u -57°4332 77 Sy ey 16 E574 Sly -68 -57°4284 2 -57°4260 9 -57°4185 Al -57°4159 30 =57 4148 es -57°4125 Ex S674 03 17 25794006 1G SS 7 Ata = 35 Notes Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. I11, pp. 13-17, 1978 Stratigraphic and Igneous Units in the Rockvale-Coffs Harbour Region, Northern New South Wales R. J. KORSCH ABSTRACT. A separate stratigraphic nomenclature is developed for three distinct structural blocks in the Rockvale - Coffs Harbour region of New South Wales, and several units are defined for the first time. In the western Rockvale Block the term Girrakool Beds replaces the invalid term Lyndhurst Beds. The Dyamberin Block, located between the Wongwibinda and Demon faults, is subdivided into the Dyamberin Beds and the Sara Beds. In the eastern Coffs Harbour Block the term Coffs Harbour Beds is discarded and the unit is subdivided into the Moombil Beds, Brooklana Beds and Coramba Beds. Four previously undescribed igneous intrusions from the Coffs Harbour Block are also defined. INTRODUCTION The stratigraphy for most of the Rockvale - Coffs Harbour region is defined here for the first time, although some of the nomenclature has been introduced previously by Binns and others (1967) and by Leitch et al. (1971). The absence of fossils from most of the region, together with a lack of continuous outcrop and the inaccessibility of some districts, causes difficulties in determ- ining detailed stratigraphic subdivisions. This note is an attempt to clarify the stratigraphic nomenclature of the region, over which there has been much confusion in recent years. All major units are termed Beds rather than Formations, as recommended by the Australian Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature (1973), because the relationships between some units have not been established conclusively. Most boundaries between units have not been observed in the field and hence their positions are only approximate. Further work involving detailed mapping of small areas may result in subdivision of the units described here and the raising of some of them to formational status. No type sections are defined but representative localities, displaying typical rocks, are listed for each unit. The Rockvale - Coffs Harbour region has been subdivided into three structural blocks by Korsch (1975). The western Rockvale Block is separated from the central Dyamberin Block by the Wongwi- binda Fault, and the eastern Coffs Harbour Block is separated from the Dyamberin Block by the Demon Fault. A different lithostratigraphy for each block has been proposed because each block has had a separate development during deposition and orogenesis, and is now exposed at different levels of erosion. Hence the stratigraphy of each block will be described separately. Figure 1 indicates the distribution of the blocks and stratigraphic units which are discussed below. STRATIGRAPHY OF THE ROCKVALE BLOCK Rocks from this block have been divided into the low-grade metamorphosed sediments around Rockvale (here termed the Girrakool Beds) and the high-grade metamorphic rocks of the Wongwibinda Complex (see Binns, 1966). Girrakool Beds Synonymy: Lyndhurst Beds, Binns (1966), Voisey and Packham (1969). Girrakool Beds, this note. According to the Australian Code of Strat- igraphic Nomenclature (1973) the name Lyndhurst is invalid, it having been used for the Lyndhurst Formation (Coats, 1964) in South Australia. Derivation: Girrakool homestead (GR 50082- 408, Dorrigo 1L:250 000). Lithology: Indurated mudstone, siltstone and lithic to feldspathic greywacke derived from a volcanic source area. Definition of Boundaries: The Girrakool Beds are intruded by the Hillgrove Adamellite in the south and by the Tobermory Adamellite and assoc- iated granitic plutons in the north. The beds become increasingly metamorphosed to the east until they are truncated by the Glen Bluff Fault. To the west unsuccessful efforts have been made by the author and others to define the contact between the Girrakool Beds and the Sandon Beds in the vicinity of Armidale. The line of contact seems to be defined only by gross changes in lithology, notably a rapid decrease in the amount of chert in passing from the Sandon Beds to the Girrakool Beds. There is no evidence for a major fault as inferred by Leitch et al. (1971) and the inferred line of contact appears to be parallel to bedding in the two units. However no exposure of the contact has been observed, and the contact may be transitional. Representative Section: This unit is well exposed along Rockvale Creek from GR 49542449 to where the sediments are intruded by the Rockvale Adamellite-Granodiorite at GR 50002386, Dorrigo 1:250 000. Thickness: A large area of the Girrakool Beds has been overturned and has suffered three deformations. The intense folding has made the defining of a section impracticable and hence no estimate of the thickness can be given. It is possible that a very thick sequence of sediments iS) PLeSeEne. Age: R.J. Gunthorpe found fossil fragments near Rockvale homestead which were identified by 14 R. J. KORSCH Quaternary alluvium Tertiary basalt Late Palaeozoic granitoids DYAMBERIN BLOCK COFFS HARBOUR BLOCK Girrakool Beds Sara Beds Coramba Beds A Emerald Beach Adamellite [Rs] Rampsbeck Schist [Db] Dyamberin Beds Brooklana Beds B- Tallawudjah Leucoadamellite Moombil Beds C Kellys Creek Leucoadamellite BROOMES, HEAD / ; ROCKVALE BLOCK Redbank River Beds D Dundurrabin Granodiorite Hp Cb 7 a i 7 83 7 8 ES aS ge le i —— Bb is ay / i ———y U can iG Jens = -_ Pe ae ey \ + + RQ U gen 5 ~\ 78 AWA ‘ I Lae vig ye y > 8 774 {WOOLGOOLGA Ri) Sa E-Ye) 7 RS Ves aT, / Tm: 82 a ae 7 / Lon! ! g x oy Bb / / WS rn I Maw SIF @ Db Mien pce oe / he / cb / AY a a a eee ze ma Haze & % Vv Vv _ oe 2 te HARBOUR —— Geological boundary “ S + N + Vv — established + ) 10 | 20 30 — — Fault inferred : pr ee ae eee —- Dip and strike ee ae | km p Fig. 1. Geology of the Rockvale - Coffs Harbour region, showing the distribution of the stratigraphic units and location of igneous intrusions. Runnegar (1970) as Atomodesma sp. indicating a Permian age. and mudstone with horizons of diamictite. In places the finer rocks show a well developed cleavage. Diamictite with either a sandy or muddy matrix is more abundant than orthoconglomerate. Voisey (1950) recorded tuff and acid lava flows. STRATIGRAPHY OF THE DYAMBERIN BLOCK The Dyamberin Block has not been examined in detail previously, because it is rugged, heavily forested and of difficult access. It has been possible to subdivide this block into two con- Definition of Boundaries: The Dyamberin Beds are bounded on the west by the Wongwibinda Fault and on the east by the Demon Fault. To the south formable stratigraphic units. The older unit occurs to the south and the name Dyamberin Beds proposed by Binns (1966) is retained here. However, Binns did not define this unit. The northern, younger unit is here termed the Sara Beds. Dyamberin Beds Previous References: Binns (1966), Voisey and Packham (1969). Binns named the rocks immediately to the east of the Wongwibinda Fault but did not define the unit. Derivation: Dyamberin homestead (GR 52592- 5608, Dorrigo 13250 000). Lithology: Interbedded greywacke, siltstone they are intruded by the Round Mountain Leuco- adamellite and overlain by Cainozoic basalt. To the north they are conformably overlain by the Sara Beds. A typical contact of the Sara Beds and Dyamberin Beds is at GR 53472726, Dorrigo 1:250 000). Representative Section: Along Kangaroo Creek from GR 52322568, Dorrigo 1:250 000 to its junction with the Aberfoyle River. Thickness: Folding and slaty cleavage, and the absence of continuous outcrop hinders determin- ation of thickness, but the steep north dip of bedding planes suggests a thickness of several thousand metres. Age: The fossil locality at Kangaroo Creek (GR 52492622, Dorrigo 1:250 000) has been ascribed STRATIGRAPHY OF THE ROCKVALE-COFFS HARBOUR AREA 15 a Permian age by Voisey (1950). Runnegar (1970) recollected the material and listed the following fossils, indicative of an Early Permian age (equ- ivalent to the Allandale fauna of Runnegar, 1969): Deltopecten tllawarensts (Morris) Trtgonotreta Sp. A Fletchertthyrts sp. ind. fenestrate polyzoans. Sara Beds Name and Derivation: New name, derived from the Sara River which flows eastwards from the New England Plateau until it joins the Guy Fawkes River at GR 53432911, Grafton 1:250 O00. Lithology: Orthoconglomerate horizons and associated siliceous mudstone, siltstone and greywacke derived from the erosion of volcanic rocks. Rare basic and acid volcanics occur also. Definition of Boundaries: The Sara Beds are bounded on the east by the Demon Fault and to the north and west by granitic rocks of the New Eng- land Batholith sensu stricto. They conformably overlie the Dyamberin Beds to the south. The Sara Beds are characterised by orthoconglomerate and only contain rare diamictite, and hence can be readily distinguished from the Dyamberin Beds. Representative Section: Good, although not continuous, exposures occur in the Guy Fawkes River in the vicinity of the junction with the Sara River from GR 53582884 to GR 53542949, Grafton 1:250 000. Thickness: Not determined, but steep dip and wide outcrop width of beds, together with lack of evidence of changes in facing direction, indicate that a thick sequence is probably present. Age: Structural relations indicate that the Sara Beds conformably overlie the Dyamberin Beds and hence it is assumed that they are also of Permian age. The only fossils found were crinoid stems at GR 53502734, Dorrigo 1:250 000 and in a loose boulder in the Guy Fawkes River. STRATIGRAPHY OF THE COFFS HARBOUR BLOCK Palaeozoic sediments of the Coffs Harbour Block have been subdivided previously into the Redbank River Beds and the Coffs Harbour Beds by Korsich (1971): Leitch et az. (1971) in compiling the Dorrigo - Coffs Harbour 1:250 000 Geological sheet introduced a three-fold subdivision of the Coffs Harbour Beds into the Moombil Beds, Brook- lana Formation and Coramba Beds but they did not define their divisions. The present author is satisfied that the three units of Leitch et al. (1971) are recognisable subject to minor boundary changes, and hence it is proposed that the term Coffs Harbour Beds be abandoned in favour of the three-fold subdivision of Leitch et al. (1971). To clarify the situation the three units will be defined here. Moombil Beds Synonymy: Leitch et al. (1971). This unit was previously part of the Coffs Harbour Beds, the synonymy of which has been discussed by Korsch (1971). Derivation: Mt Moombil (GR 59272448, Dorrigo 13250 (000)): Lithology: Black massive argillite with minor sandstone and siltstone. Bedding is rarely present and other sedimentary structures were not observed. Definition of Boundaries: The lowermost part of this unit is faulted against the Nambucca Slate Belt of Leitch (1975). Structural evidence indicates a conformable relationship with the over- lying Brooklana Beds, and the boundary between these units has been displaced in numerous local- ities by faulting. Representative Section: Leitch (1972) consid- ered that typical rocks are well exposed along the road leading to the summit of Mt Moombil. Thickness: Indeterminate because of the massive nature of the lithologies and discontinuous outcrop. The steep dip and wide outcrop width of beds, together with lack of evidence of changes in facing directions, indicate a thick sequence is probably present. Age: The Moombil Beds predate the possibly Late Palaeozoic Brooklana Beds. Brookland Beds Synonymy: Brooklana Formation (Leitch et al., 1971). The name is revised in accordance with the Australian Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature (1973) because no type section has been designated. This unit was previously part of the Coffs Harbour Beds. (For previous synonymy see Korsch, 1971.) Derivation: Village of Brooklana (GR 59522- 506, Dorrigo 12250 000). Lithology: Thin-bedded siliceous mudstone and siltstone with rarer sandstones. Dark highly- cleaved mudstones in beds from one cm to several metres thick occur interbedded with lighter coloured more siliceous rocks which may be finely laminated. Sandstones are more common than in the Moombil Beds. Definition of Boundaries: No contacts were observed in the field but a conformable relation- ship between the Brooklana Beds and the underlying Moombil Beds and overlying Coramba Beds was deduced from structural evidence. The Brooklana Beds are distinguished from the Moombil Beds by the absence of black massive argillite, and from the Coramba Beds by the predominance of siliceous mudstone and siltstone over sandstone. A thin sliver of rocks similar to the Brooklana Beds occurs along the Demon Fault about 10 km south of Newton Boyd School. Representative Section: Leitch (1972) con- sidered the Brooklana Beds were characteristically exposed around the village of Brooklana. The type section for the rocks previously called Coffs Harbour Beds was the quarry and cliffs on the south side of the town of Coffs Harbour. These rocks occur within the Brooklana Beds and must be regard- ed as the representative section (GR 62542449, Coffs Harbour 1:250 000). Thickness: Unknown, but because bedding dips 16 R. J. KORSCH mainly steeply north, a sequence of several thous- and metres is suggested. Age: No fossils have been found but a Late Palaeozoic age is postulated on the tenuous basis of lithological correlation with sediments of known Late Palaeozoic age (e.g. Girrakool Beds). Coramba Beds Synonymy: Leitch et al. (1971) named this unit and indicated its areal extent but did not define it. The term Coramba Granite (Kenny, 1936) is here redefined to Coramba Beds because the rock described by Kenny is a very coarse-grained horn- blende-bearing feldspathic sandstone and not a granite. This unit was previously part of the Coffs Harbour Beds, the synonymy of which has been discussed by Korsch (1971). The segment of the Coffs Harbour Beds described by Korsch (1971) corresponds to the Coramba Beds as defined here. Derivation: Village of Coramba (GR 61222559, Coffs Harbour 1:250 000). Lithology: Lithic and feldspathic greywacke derived from a volcanic source area, with minor siltstone, siliceous siltstone and mudstone. Calcareous siltstone and acid and basic volcanics are rare. Definition of Boundaries: Structural evid- ence indicates that the Coramba Beds conformably overlie the Brooklana Beds and are unconformably overlain by the Clarence-Moreton Basin. No contacts were observed but the Coramba Beds are distinguished from the Brooklana Beds by the predominance of sandstone over siltstone and muds tone. Representative Section: The Coramba Beds are typically exposed along the Coramba to Dorrigo road immediately west of Coramba village (GR 61222559, Coffs Harbour 1:250 000), (Leitch, 1972). Excellent exposures can be observed in the head- lands along the coast such as Woolgoolga Headland (GR 63302692, Coffs Harbour 1:250 000). Thickness: Unknown because of lack of con- tinuous outcrop, mesoscopic folding and small scale reverse faults. A regionally consistent steep dip to the north suggests a thickness of several thousand metres. Age: The only fossil found was a fragment of a polyzoan of unknown affinities at GR 62982770, Coffs Harbour 1:250 000. Attempts at conodont extraction from a calcareous siltstone have been unsuccessful. It is postulated that the age of the Coramba Beds is possibly Late Palaeozoic. Igneous Intrusions It is proposed to define three previously undescribed igneous intrusions in the Coffs Harbour Block, and one which has been named (Dundurrabin Granodiorite, Binns and others, 1967) but not formally defined. Emerald Beach Adamellite Synonymy: New name. This intrusion was described by Korsch (1971) but not named or defined at that stage. Derivation: Coastal resort of Emerald Beach (GR 63052619, Coffs Harbour 1:250 000). Lithology: Slightly-porphyritic medium- grained adamellite. Definition of Boundaries: This is a small intrusion which occurs only at an unnamed headland between Bare Bluff and Signal Hill, and extends eastwards beneath the sea for an unknown distance. It intrudes the Coramba Beds producing biotite- grade hornfels. Type Area: Unnamed headland between Bare Bluff and Signal Hill (GR 63112630, Coffs Harbour 1:250 000). Age: Unknown, possibly Late Palaeozoic - Early Mesozoic. Tallawudjah Leucoadamellite Synonymy: New name, as intrusion was previou- sly undescribed. Derivation: Tallawudjah Creek, west of Glen- reagh village. The creek cuts the intrusion at GR 60462738, Dorrigo 1:250 000. Lithology: Porphyritic leucoadamellite with vhenocrysts of white feldspar set in a fine-grained groundmass of feldspar, quartz and mafic minerals. Definition of Boundaries: The intrusion has been emplaced into the Coramba Beds and its western boundary is covered by the Mesozoic Clarence-Moreton Basin sediments. Type Area: The vicinity of Tallawudjah Creek where it cuts the intrusion. Age: Unknown, but thought to be Late Palaeo- zoic because it intrudes the Coramba Beds and is covered by the Late Triassic Mill Creek Siltstone. Kellys Creek Leucoadamellite Synonymy: New name, as the intrusion was previously undescribed. Derivation: Kellys Creek, which enters the Nymboida River in the western half of the pluton at GR 58192724, Dorrigo 1:250 000. Lithology: Two textural variants of leuco- adamellite occur: coarse-grained porphyritic rock with phenocrysts up to 10 mm in a fine-grained groundmass and, coarse to fine even-grained leuco- adamellite. Definition of Boundaries: The pluton intrudes the Coramba Beds and has produced a contact aureole of biotite-cordierite hornfels. Type Area: The vicinity of Kellys Creek where it cuts the intrusion. Age: Unknown, possibly Late Palaeozoic or Early Mesozoic. STRATIGRAPHY OF THE ROCKVALE-COFFS HARBOUR AREA I7 Dundurrabin Granodiorite Synonymy: Binns and others (1967) named this intrusion but did not define it. Derivation: Village of Dundurrabin (GR 56222605, Dorrigo 1:250 000). Lithology: Predominantly coarse- to medium- grained granodiorite and adamellite. Phenocrysts of K-feldspar occur frequently, and xenoliths are abundant in the coarse phases. Dioritic phases also occur. Definition of Boundaries: The pluton intru- des the Moombil Beds and Brooklana Beds producing biotite-cordierite hornfels adjacent to the contacts. Type Area: Road cuttings on the Grafton to Ebor road just to the east of Dundurrabin, and outcrops in the Blicks River where the road crosses the river. Age: Unknown, possibly Late Palaeozoic. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The final copy was kindly typed by Mrs Rhonda Vivian and the figure was draughted by M.R. Bone. REFERENCES Australian Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature, 1973. Reprinted, with Corrigenda and additional notes, from J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 11(1), 165-171, 1964. Binns, R.A., 1966. Granitic intrusions and regional metamorphic rocks of Permian age from the Wongwibinda district, North-eastern New South Wales. Jd. Proc. R. Soc. N.S.W., 99, 5-36. Binns, R.A. and others, 1967. NEW ENGLAND TABLE- LAND, SOUTHERN PART, WITH EXPLANATORY TEXT, GEOL. MAP NEW ENGLAND 1:250 000. Univ. New England, Armidale. Coats, R.P., 1964. Umberatana Group. Geol. Surv. Sth. Aust. Quart. Geol. Notes, 9, 7-12. Department of Geology, University of New England, ARMIDALE, N.S.W. 2351. Kenny, E.J., 1936. Geological reconnaissance of the North Coast region. W.S.W. Mines Dept. ANNs HCD. 3.92. Korsch, R.J., 1971. Palaeozoic sedimentology and igneous geology of the Woolgoolga district, North Coast, New South Wales. J. Proc. R. Soc. N.S.W., 104, 63-75. Korsch, R.J., 1975. Structural analysis and geological evolution of the Rockvale - Coffs Harbour region, northern New South Wales. Ph.D. Thests, Untv. New England, Armidale. (Unpub1. ) Leitch, E.C., 1972. The geological development of the Bellinger-Macleay Region: A study in the tectonics of the New England Fold Belt. Ph.D. Thests, Untv. New England, Armidale. (Unpubl.) Leitch, E.C., 1975. Zonation of low grade regional metamorphic rocks, Nambucca Slate Belt, North- eastern New South Wales. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 22(4), 413-422. Leitch, E.C., Neilson, M.J. and Hobson, E., 1971. Ist Edn 1:250 000 Geological Sheet SH56 10-11, (Dorrigo - Coffs Harbour). N.S.W. Geol. Surv. Sydney. Runnegar, B.N., 1969. The Permian faunal succes- sion in eastern Australia. Geol. Soc. Aust. Spec. Pubs, 2, 73-98. Runnegar, B.N., 1970. The Permian faunas of north- ern New South Wales and the connection between the Sydney and Bowen Basins. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 16(2), 697-710. Voisey, A.H., 1950. The Permian deposits of Jeogla and Kangaroo Creek, N.S.W. Set. J. (Journal of the Science Society, New England University College) 6, 20-21. Voisey, A.H. and Packham, G.H., 1969. The New England Region - Permian System, tm THE GEOLOGY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, pp. 265-270. G.H. Packham (Ed.). J. Geol. Soe. Aust., 16(1). (Manuscript received 23.7.1977) (Manuscript received in final form 20. 2.78) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 111, pp. 19-27, 1978 The Geology of Brushy Hill, Glenbawn, New South Wales ARTHUR MORY ABSTRACT. A finer subdivision of the strata at Glenbawn is proposed. The lowest exposed beds are distinguished as the Chateau Douglas Sandstone Member and contain a small conodont fauna suggesting an early Carboniferous age. The remainder of Oversby and Roberts! (1973) Kingsfield Beds, accorded formation status as the Kingsfield Formation, lacks marine fossils and consists in part of red sediment for which non-marine conditions of sedimentation are proposed. Conformably overlying the non-marine sediments is a newly distinguished unit, the Macqueen Formation characterised by a fauna dominated by bivalves, gastropods and rhynchonellid brachiopods. Dangarfield Formation. This unit was previously included as the base of Oversby and Roberts! (1973) Barrier sands of the Wroxley Lithic Sandstone Member (new name) overlain by the Brushy Hill Limestone Member comprise the basal units of the conformably overlying Dangarfield Formation. The large vertical displacement across the Brushy Hill Fault, in the order of 1000 mn, is a result of remobilisation of a pre-existing NNW trending fault, subsequent to all other deformational events in the area. INTRODUCTION This paper presents an account of the early Carboniferous sedimentary sequence within Brushy Hill, covering about 15 km* on the western fore- shores of Lake Glenbawn, near Scone, in the Hunter Waltey, NoS.W.. (Fig. 1). The area lies near the western margin of a zone of N to NNW trending folds and faults (Basin belt of Voisey, 1959, Zone "A" of Leitch, 1974) delineated by the Hunter-Mooki Thrust to the west and the Peel Fault to the east. The earliest published work including the area of the present study, was that of Osborne (1928) on the Rouchel District. It was later incorporated in a regional synthesis of the Hunter-Manning-Myall province (Osborne, 1950). The construction of Glenbawn Dam in the fifties was preceded by a limited amount of geological mapping largely restricted to the site of the dam wall, an account of which was published by Wilson and Scott (1957). In 1970 Branagan et al. published a short informal description of the stratigraphy of the Glenbawn area. In another short communication Oversby and Roberts (1973) revised the strati- graphic succession and proposed formal names for rock units. In the same year a more detailed palaeogeography than previously reconstructed in Packham (1969) was published by these authors. Later (in 1974) Roberts and Oversby reiterated and expanded upon their work of the previous year. In the present study the recognition of a finer subdivision of the stratigraphic sequence within Brushy Hill has led to modifications of the formal names proposed by the previous workers. Table I compares the previous nomenclature used in the area with that of this paper. KINGSFIELD FORMATION The Kingsfield Formation, previously the Kingsfield Beds (Oversby and Roberts, 1973), exposed over an area of 4 km* within Brushy Hill is the stratigraphically lowest formation in the area. The unit comprises 160 m of largely reworked crys- tal tuffs composed of fragments of complexly twinned plagioclase and embayed quartz, inter- calated with red beds. The top of the Kingsfield Formation is re- defined as the highest occurrence of purple or red beds in any locality rather than the highest red shale in the type section (GR 113 454) as proposed by Roberts and Oversby (1974) because that parti- cular bed cannot be traced further than 250 m south from the type section. The presence, in the overlying Macqueen Formation, of specimens of Stphonodella sp. similar to those found in the basal member of the Kingsfield Formation suggests that if any break in sedimentation occurred between the deposition of the fossiliferous layers it was of short duration. While the Kingsfield Formation is equivalent to the Kingsfield Beds of Oversby and Roberts (1973) described in the text of their paper, their map, however, shows the boundary bet- ween the Kingsfield Beds and overlying Dangarfield Formation to coincide with the top of the Macqueen Formation, which overlies the Kingsfield Formation as defined and mapped in this paper. Unit 1 of Branagan et al. is defined as a member at the base of the Kingsfield Formation and given the name Chateau Douglas Sandstone Member after the nearby Chateau Douglas estate. The type locality of the member is situated 150 m south of the airstrip (GR 115 432) where there: 1s the .only relatively continuous vertical section, 10 m thick, through the unit (Fig. 2, section 5). The lower- most 8 m exposed consists of coarse angular lithic sandstone with scattered volcanic pebbles. Two 20 ARTHUR MORY Branagan et al. 1970 (after. figure 75) Litho logy Conglomerate-volcanic sequence Mudstone crinoidal- coral limestone sequence Oolitic limestone sequence Member Lithic sandstone sequence Kingsfield Beds Volcanic sequence Sandstone §& ironstone Isismurra Formation Brushy Hill Limestone Oversby and Roberts 1973 (after figure 2) This paper Isismurra Formation Brushy Hill Limestone Member Wroxley Lithic Sandstone Member Macqueen Formation Kingsfield Formation i= e) od Fe) : (o) ioe ua eo oO cc G4 ta) o OL Ge is} (=) Dangarfield Formation Chateau Douglas Sandstone Member TABLE I COMPARISON OF THE STRATIGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF PREVIOUS WORKERS TO THOSE OF THIS PAPER metres from the base calcareous nodules are dis- persed through the lithic sandstone. The early Tournaisian (Early Carboniferous) conodont Stphonodella sp. has been recovered from nodules 150 m north along strike at the same level (GR 114 434). The excellent preservation of the fragile specimens argues against significant transportation and thus indicates a marine deposi- tional environment for at least the lower beds of the Chateau Douglas Sandstone Member. Outcrop is so poor that it is impossible to determine, even at the type locality, whether or not the boundary between the lithic sandstone and the overlying magnetite sandstone within this member is gradational or sharp. The magnetite- rich sandstone contains up to 70% rounded to sub- rounded magnetite grains with minor lithic frag- ments in a chlorite-rich matrix. To explain this concentration of heavy minerals Roberts and Oversby (1974) considered the magnetite-rich sandstone to represent reworking in a beach or related environment. The axial location of the Chateau Douglas Sandstone Member within the Brushy Hill Anticline (Osborne, 1950) accounts for the small area, 0.4 km?, over which it is exposed and the non- exposure of its base. The upper boundary of the (NOT TO SCALE) Member is defined as the last occurrence of magnetite-rich sandstone and the first appearance of dacitic tuffs and lavas. While the type section below the dam wall (GR 110 453 - 113 454) of the Kingsfield Beds of Oversby and Roberts (1973) provides good exposures of the uppermost 70 m of the unit, there is a gap of approximately 80 m between the Chateau Douglas Sandstone Member and the lowest beds in the type section. This gap is largely due to the discon- tinuity of outcrop south of the type section where the. lowermost 90 m of the formation is exposed, and the lack of suitable marker horizon to corre- late away from the type section. In the type section the sequence is dominated by dacite deri- vatives, mainly reworked felsic tuffs usually with minor lithic fragments and cross-bedded crystal tuffs with a hematite matrix. The crossbeds indicate a current direction predominantly from the west. Except for rare vascular plants found in the top 10 m and the conodonts near the base, the Kingsfield Formation is otherwise barren of fossils. The lack of marine fossils and the presence of red beds in the upper part of the formation suggest a non-marine environment of deposition; the uppermost purple tuffaceous shale THE GEOLOGY OF BRUSHY HILL, GLENBAWN, N:S.W. 21 in the type section has been interpreted as of possible intertidal or alluval overbank origin by Roberts and Oversby (1974). A basic igneous intrusion at this level in the type section has obliterated the internal bedding and any associ- ated sedimentary structures thus creating diffi- culties in assessing either interpretation. MACQUEEN FORMATION The type section of the Macqueen Formation (new name), below the wall of the Glenbawn Dam (GR 113 454 - 114 455) comprises 64 m of lithic sandstones and siltstones grading into calcareous skeletal mudstones and wackestones (sensu Dunham, 1962) with subordinate lithic sandstone. The formation takes its name from the County of Macqueen which encompasses the greater part of Brushy Hill. The lower contact of the Macqueen Formation in the type section is at the top of red beds of the Kingsfield Formation. The upper contact in the type section is the stratigraphically highest occurrence of calcareous skeletal mudstones and wackestones, which are abruptly overlain by mass- ive, relatively unfossiliferous lithic sandstone and minor mudstone at the base of the overlying formation. The macrofauna of the Macqueen Formation is a restricted assemblage of marine invertebrates dominated by thin walled mytiliform bivalves, rhynchonellid brachiopods and gastropods. Brachiopod and bivalve shells are often articul- ated and, as with the gastropod shells, are most common in the fine grained rocks. She lly material is absent from the basal 10 m of the formation where lithic sandstone is more common than higher in the sequence. In the lowest beds the concentration of carbonaceous material in the siltstones andthe lack of a shelly fauna suggest that sediment was derived from an environment analagous with modern intertidal or supratidal mangroves. Conodonts, as well as fish teeth and plates, are rare in the Macqueen Formation, having been recovered only from calcareous concretions in the upper beds. The conodonts consist entirely of a dwarfed or juvenile fauna of Stphonodella sp., apparently the same species as that found in the lower beds of the Chateau Douglas Sandstone Member. While only platform elements are repre- sented, the wide size range of associated fish teeth suggests that the dwarfed fauna is not a result of selective bottom sorting. Preservation of the macrofauna, due to both depositional and post-depositional events, is generally poor. On the same horizon preserva- tion varies from articulated to fragmented, with the angularity of shell fragments suggesting that little transport had taken place. The fragmenta- tion of shells may have been the result of predation, but no remains of a possible predator were found; the shells showed no signs of boring. A more likely explanation is that sporadic periods of agitation during storm activity at the site of deposition resulted in the breakup of shells and poor sorting of fragments. Because the majority of the thin walled shells of this formation are usually complete, but contorted, much of the inferior preservation can be attributed to compac- tion of the enclosing fine grained sediments. Towards the top of the Macqueen Formation there are a number of massive unfossiliferous lithic sandstone beds, similar to those of the overlying Wroxley Member. At the southern end of Brushy Hill on the eastern limb of the anticline, lithic sandstone is dominant within the Macqueen Formation, shelly material being present only in thin beds at the base and top of the unit. On the western limb the uppermost 45 m of the forma- tion is exposed in a cliff section on the bank of Rouchel Brook (Figure 2, Section 3). Here, massive lithic sandstone is also dominant but shelly material is a little more common than in the east and is restricted to thin beds of calcareous skeletal mudstone and wackestone. These sections contrast strongly with those farther north where lithic sandstones constitute only a small propor- tion of the unit. The largely fine grained nature of the sedi- ments in this unit, the apparent lack of continuous periods of agitation at the site of deposition and the generally delicate nature of the skeletal material suggest a near-shore protected environment such as a lagoon or protected embayment open to the sea. Fragmentation of shells may have resulted from storm activity and possibly predation. Relatively unfossiliferous thin lithic sandstone beds within the unit may represent influxes of sands from nearby environments. DANGARFIELD FORMATION The Dangarfield Formation was previously defined by Oversby and Roberts (1973) as the thick sequence of mudstone and subordinate lithic sand- stone and oolitic and crinoidal limestones over- lying the tuffs and tuffaceous sandstones of the Kingsfield Beds. In the present paper the name is restricted to the sequence overlying the Macqueen Formation, itself newly distinguished as a separate Unit. The basal contact is between the highest calcareous skeletal mudstones and wackestones of the Macqueen Formation and rarely fossiliferous massive lithic sandstone of the lowest member of the Dangarfield Formation. The upper contact with the overlying Isismurra Formation lies outside the Brushy Hill area here described and has been defined by Oversby and Roberts (1973, p. 198). Two members, the Wroxley Lithic Sandstone Member (new name) and the Brushy Hill Limestone Member are recognised at the base of the formation, underlying a thick predominantly mudstone sequence. The Wroxley Lithic Sandstone Member is named after Wroxley homestead, 2.5 km south-west of the Glen- bawn Dam. In the type section next to the dam wall (GR 113 456 - 114 456) it comprises 62 m of monotonous massive lithic sandstone with minor mud- stone. The lower contact in the type section is marked by unfossiliferous calcareous lithic sand- stone abruptly overlying calcareous skeletal mud- stones and wackestones of the Macqueen Formation. The upper contact, where exposed, is nearly always gradational with the overlying Brushy Hill Lime- stone Member. The gradational nature is produced 22 to Scone Fig. 1(a) ARTHUR MORY GEOLOGICAL CROSS SECTIONS Geology of the Brushy Hill Area, Glenbawn. Fig. 1(b) adjoins at the base of Fig. 1(a). THE GEOLOGY OF BRUSHY HILL, GLENBAWN, N.S.W. GEOLOGY of the BRUSHY HILL AREA GLENBAWN INTERPRETATION MAP — A t GEOLOGICAL | Be igoaiog BOUNOARIES Mic, \ \3s ee Inferred ae Inferred a» Dip and Strike XX Anticline Xx Syncline 45 eee Accurate { FAULTS ae ad a \\sismurra Formation ===] Dangarfield Formation Brushy Hill Limestone Member Wroxley Lithic Sandstone Member LOWER CARBONIFEROUS Chateau Douglas Sandstone Member Fig. 1(b) Geology of the Brushy Hill Area, Glenbawn. Fig. 1(a) adjoins at the top of Fig. 1(b). 24 ARTHUR MORY by the increasing proportion of ooliths to un- coated lithic fragments found with ascent through the strata. Within the Wroxley Member fossils are rare, consisting largely of broken and worn fragments of marine invertebrates, mainly crinoid ossicles. Worn disoriented specimens of Ltthostrontton willtamst Pickett, Syringopora septattstphon Pickett and Naotdes rangartensis Pickett were found in a calcareous pebble sandstone 14 m below the top of the member at GR 085 500 (Figure 2, Section 4). The stratigraphic position of this member between near-shore protected marine sedi- ments below and an oolitic facies above suggests that it was deposited as a barrier bar. The Brushy Hill Limestone (Osborne, 1950) was placed within the Dangarfield Formation by Oversby and Roberts (1973). In the type section located in the large quarry south of the dam wall (GR 118 460) this member consists of 22 m of thinly cross- bedded oolith and skeletal grainstones with minor mudstone. Generally the contact with the under- lying Wroxley Lithic Sandstone Member is grada- tional, but in the large limestone quarry it is marked by a lithic sandstone bed with oolith grainstones above and lithic grainstone below. The upper contact is defined by the abrupt change between skeletal oolith grainstone and the over- lying monotonous brown and grey mudstone. In the vicinity of the type section this contact is also marked by a large number of disoriented solitary rugose corals and disarticulated brachiopods. In the large limestone quarry the Brushy Hill Limestone Member can be divided into three levels which are not only lithologically distinct but are separated by two mudstone beds (note: these sub- divisions are not shown in Figure 2). The lower beds in the type section consist of 9 m of thinly crossbedded oolith grainstones. Crossbeds were observed to dip not only to the east but also to the west indicating a strong tidal influence. Ooliths at this level comprise well over 90% of the allochems and are typically small, less than 0.33 mm in diameter. Macrofauna is sparse with only rare worn crinoid ossicles present. Above the lower beds about 3 m of massive skeletal oolith grainstone constitutes the middle beds. Here the ooliths are up to 0.5 m in diameter. Away from the large limestone quarry these beds are indistinguishable from the upper beds of this unit. The upper beds of the Brushy Hill Lime- stone Member in the type section consist of 9 m of thinly bedded oolith and skeletal grainstones. Ooliths, which constitute between 10% and 80% of the allochems, are typically large (up to 1.25 mm in diameter) with a relatively small nucleus. The diverse and abundant invertebrate fauna pre- sent at this level, make up the rest of the allochems. In the lower beds of the BrushyHill Limestone Member ooliths constitute well over 90% of the allochems, a composition best compared with that of modern oolite shoals (Purdy, 1964). The low taxonomic diversity of the lower beds is consist- ent with sediments on a shoal or reworked from such a shoal with little invading macrofauna. The upper beds appear to be analgous to outer platform sediments or the mixed oolite facies of modern Bahamian oolite shoals where the sediment is largely derived from the shoal and supports a diverse fauna of invading invertebrates. Variations in the nature of the ooliths from small thinly coated lithic grains in the lower beds to larger thickly coated grains in the upper beds reflects a decreasing supply of lithic sands to the oolite shoal allowing ooliths to grow over a longer period. It may be that the oolite shoal developed directly from barrier sands similar to those of the Wroxley Lithic Sandstone Member with fewer such grains becoming available for coating as the oolite shoal widened in extent. The absence of ooliths in the Macqueen Formation also points to an oolite shoal developing subsequently to barrier sands because the lagoonal facies adjacent to modern oolite shoals contains a high ooid content caused by the relative strength of the flood tide over the ebb tide (Purdy, 1964). Conformably overlying the Brushy Hill Lime- stone Member a thick sequence of brown and grey mud stones with minor crinoid coral limestones, conglomerate and lithic sandstones comprises the remainder and major part of the Dangarfield Forma- tion. The abrupt lithological change from grey/ blue skeletal oolith grainstone, into brown and grey mudstones, with a disoriented fauna of solit- ary rugose corals and brachiopods suggests the sudden influx of the enclosing muds. Pyrite lined worm burrows in the numerous calcareous concretions above the Brushy Hill Limestone indicate reducing conditions during the deposition of the muds in contrast to the presumably well oxygenated condi- tions in the oolite facies. DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY Deposition of shallow water near-shore marine sands and magnetite-rich beach sands took place during the early Carboniferous forming the Chateau Douglas Sandstone Member. Subsequently volcanic and volcanically derived sediment accumulated in a non-marine environment; this sediment now com- prises the remainder of the Kingsfield Formation. Following the end of non-marine sedimentation marine sedimentation commenced with transgression from the east. Basal carbonaceous siltstones and lithic sandstones of the Macqueen Formation may have been deposited in a marginal marine environ- ment. Protected near-shore marine conditions prevail for the remainder of this unit as inferred from calcareous skeletal mudstones and wackestones containing a restricted fauna of rhynchonellid brachiopods, mytiliform bivalves and gastropods. These carbonates pass southwards into lithic sand- stones indistinguishable from those of the conform- ably overlying Wroxley Lithic Sandstone Member. Fig. 2: Measured sections from within the Brushy Hill area. Sections 1(a), 1(b), 1(c) and 5 are type sections of the Macqueen Formation, the Wroxley Lithic Sandstone Member, the Brushy Hill Limestone Member and the Chateau Douglas Sandstone Member respectively. THE GEOLOGY OF BRUSHY HILL, GLENBAWN, N.S.W. 25 Section Ic Section 3 Lo [] Oolith pie. grainstone Section 2 Y Section 4 Sectionilb BRUSHY HILL Bias LIMESTONE Lithic Pefeton as MEMBER sandstone no WROXLEY sandstone Ets era ot LITHIC : ee SANDSTONE Severe ZR Etats nies | MEMBER wackestone SS ein ro, a ae ass z . . . Mud stone : 25 q “a+ *"1Section a MACQUEEN FORMATION | Tuffaceous -'| sandstone Purple .| tuffaceous sandstone Conglom. _-*| Calcareous concretions Magnetite 7 KINGSFIELD sandstone eae FORMATION Grod. ~~ brit) ree ory MEASURED SECTIONS Covered FROM Bey eal gE Se ae BRUSHY HILL AREA Section 5 pune: CHATEAU DOUGLAS SANDSTONE Vertical scale. MEMBER 26 ARTHUR MORY The poorly fossiliferous massive lithic sandstone of the latter unit is interpreted as having been deposited as barrier sands from its stratigraphic position between protected near-shore carbonates and an oolitic limestone. Increase in the pro- portion of ooliths relative to uncoated lithic grains towards the top of this unit indicates the development of an oolite shoal offshore from the barrier bar. Transgression continued during the deposition of the Brushy Hill Limestone Member with the oolite facies widening in extent as fewer lithic grains became available for coating. STRUCTURE OF BRUSHY HILL Brushy Hill consists of two en-echelon, asymmetrical concentric, NNW trending anticlines with steeply dipping western limbs. Faults trending to the NNE, E and NE, named the Brushy Hill Trend, the Davis Creek Trend and the Woolooma Trend respectively by Oversby and Roberts (1973), cut the anticlines (Fig. 3). TN Fig. 3: Analysis of the 36 faults in Brushy Hill using 10° intervals. The structure, previously named the Brushy Hill Anticline (Osborne, 1950) is non-cylindrical, consisting of several folds displaying variations in plunge over small distances, especially in the northern half of Brushy Hill. The overall trend of the fold nose axes is 17° plunging towards 347° (Fig. 4) with the variation being 0° to 35° N to- wards the N to NW. In the southern half of Brushy Hill the single anticline forming the Brushy Hill structure displays a near horizontal axis. Fig. 4: 600 poles to bedding from 10 fold noses within Brushy Hill. As ole % contours per 1% area. Bie Aint S48 In the northern half of Brushy Hill two asymmetric concentric anticlines with steeply dipping and occasionally overturned western limbs are separated by a tight asymmetric concentric syncline. The syncline and western anticline are restricted to the northern half of Brushy Hill being truncated by the Brushy Hill Fault (Osborne, 1928) just north of the Brushy Hill road (GR 084 480). Some NNW trending faults in the northern end of Brushy Hill appear to peter out towards fold axes of approximately the same bearing (e.g. at GR 077 505 and GR 087 493) suggesting a genetic relation between the two. In Figure 1 the crosscutting faults, which postdate the fold axes and NNW trending faults, are shown as displaced by the Brushy Hill Fault. Decisive observation is prevented by extensive soil cover. The inferred relationship is largely based on the work of Roberts and Oversby (1974) who show that the well defined NE trending faults at the southern end of Brushy Hill near Rouchel Brook abut against the Brushy Hill Fault near Dangarfield. The NE trending crosscutting faults evident just north of Rouchel Brook do not displace the resistant ignimbrite ridge of the Isismurra Formation 1.5 km to the SW. The Brushy Hill Fault, which brings the Isis- murra Formation against the stratigraphically lowest units (Macqueen and Kingsfield Formations) on the western side of Brushy Hill, is sigmoidally shaped, trending between NNW and WNW with a vertical dis- placement in the order of 1000 m. This displace- ment contrasts strongly with the NNW trending faults to the east, within Brushy Hill, which have dis- placements generally less than 100 m. No direct evidence can be seen for horizontal movement along the Brushy Hill Fault, nor can its inclination at depth be determined by surface geological methods in the area mapped. Previous workers in the area have related the steeply dipping nature of the western limb of the Brushy Hill Anticline to its proximity to the Brushy Hill Fault (Branagan et al., 1970; Oversby and Roberts, 1973; Roberts and Oversby, 1974). This relationship infers that the folding and the initial movement along the Brushy Hill Fault were part of the same episode (Marshall, 1974). This inference apparently conflicts with the relationship implied by the Brushy Hill Fault truncating the two western fold axes and the cross cutting faults. The apparent conflict is best explained by remobil- isation of an already established NNW trending fault. It is suggested that only one phase of strong compressional stress perhaps followed by an episode of tensional stress affected the Glenbawn area. Both phases were presumably within the Hunter-Bowen Orogeny. the only known major orogeny affecting the area. The large displacement across the Brushy Hill Fault appears to represent the last deformational event in the area although no evid- ence exists in the Brushy Hill area for the post- Triassic age Osborne (1950) assigned to this movement . ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is indebted to Dr. T. B. H. Jenkins of the Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney, for supervision of this work and for constructive criticism of the manuscript. The helpful co-operation of Mr. W. Oakley of the Soil Conservation Services and Mr. A. Turner of the Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission during the course of the field mapping is also gratefully acknowledged. My sincere thanks are due to my sister Louise who typed the early drafts and to THE GEOLOGY OF BRUSHY HILL, GLENBAWN, N.S.W. Dai Miss S. Binns who typed the final manuscript. REFERENCES Branagan, D. F., Jenkins, T. B. H., Bryan, J. H., Glasson, K. R., Marshall, B., Pickett, J. W., and Vernon, R. H., 1970. The Carboniferous sequence at Glenbawn, N.S.W. Seareh 1(3), 127-129. Dunham, R. J., 1962. Classification of Carbonate rocks according to depositional texture, tn CLASSIFICATION OF CARBONATE ROCKS, A SYMPO- SIUM, pp. 108-121. W. E. Ham, (ed.). Mem. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol., 1. Leitch, E. C., 1974. The Geological Development of the southern part of the New England Fold Belt. desgeol. Soc. Aust., 21(2), 133-156: Marshall, B., 1974. Brushy Hill Structure. Search, 5(5), 197. Osborne, G. D., 1928. The Carboniferous rocks in the Muswellbrook-Scone district with special reference to their structural relations. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 58, 588-597. Osborne, G. D., 1950. The Structural Evolution of the Hunter-Manning-Myall Province, N.S.W. Department of Geology and Geophysics, The University of Sydney, N.S.W. 2006. Roy. 300. NoS.W. Mons, 1, 80 pp: A Revision of Search 4(6), Oversby, B., and Roberts, J., 1973. the sequence at Glenbawn, N.S.W. 198-199. Packham, G. H. (ed.), 1969. The Geology of New South Wales. J. geol. Soc. N.S.W. 16(1), 258- Zon Fundy, ie. Ge, ) 1964 Sediments as substrates, 7m APPROACHES TO PALEOECOLOGY, pp. 238-271. J. Imbrie and N. D. Newell (eds.) Wiley, New York. Roberts, J., and Oversby, B., 1973. The Early Carboniferous palaeogeography of the Southern New England Belt, N.S.W. J. geol. Soc. N.S.W., 20(2), 161-174. Roberts, J. and Oversby, B., 1974. The Lower Carboniferous Geology of the Rouchel District, N.S.W. Bull. Bur. Miner. Resour. Geol. Geophys. Aust., 147, 93 pp. Tectonic Evolution of North Proce. Linn. Soe. Voisey, A. H., 1959. Eastern N.S.W., Australia. N.S.W., 84, 191-203. Wilson, N.A., and Scott, H. S.., 1957. The Design of Glenbawn Dam. Journ. I.E. Aust., 29(dec.), 333-343. (Manuscript received 4.4.1977) (Manuscript received in final form 4.4.1978) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 111, pp. 29-31, 1978 A q-Expansion Formula B. M. AGRAWAL AND VIRENDRA KUMAR* ABSTRACT. An extension of a q-expansion formula of Carlitz is obtained for an analytic func- tion, and is illustrated by some simple special cases. INTRODUCT ION Carlitz (1973) proved the q-expansion formula: yp 2 Uke ee COE GO.aldteae 2 Oa 2 where f(z) is an analytic function of z about z = 0; m is a_non-negative integer; (q)n= (1-q)(1-q 2) Cle q 3) .(1-q™) (n>0), (q)o =1; (2), = (1-z) (1-qz) (1-q2z)... (1-q™~!z) (n>0), (z)g=1; operators A, and Va are defined as: AY (x) = = {¢ (x) - £(qx)}, n and a_X n hee is all ioe = ie a a x “n=0 (ae N=m n-m (q),, Carlitz remarks that the formula (1) reduces to n 2" [an ae a eX) al aa f(z) = £(0) +), aaa CER ai (2) for m = -l, and gives an independent proof of this formula. In the present paper we shall establish a general formula which gives (2) as a special case. DERIVATION In this section we shall prove the following formula: n _,n-m, ,m A A ° f(z) = ae [art (x) ] : Za Se Seen ners 0le (3) = x=0 (q), n=m (q), (2) n-m+1 where m is a non negative ee lal < a |z | < 1; £(2) is an analytic function Oe z about z = 0; (ado = 1, (qn = (1-q) (1-97) (1- q3).. . (1-q N) (n>0); (2Jo = 1, (2), = (1-2) (-qz) Q-q 27)...(1-q?-12); operator A, is defined as: 1 iS £(x) = = {£(x) - Ag Proof Since f(z) is an analytic function of z about z = 0, we have = ane f(t eG On (4) Therefore L : : n Gi @a. An £(x)*(x)_ = b a oy eee ee eee x* x n n=0 nem (q) J (k=0 (Vy (VM . since k bk (k-1) n (-1) (q) 44 k (= }i io TeEGie Gare 2 Rearranging the above result we get * communicated by W.E. Smith 30 B. M. AGRAWAL AND VIRENDRA KUMAR K 4K (K-1L) Am £(x)+(x)_ = be ) pete Ua “t+m-k xt x n t=0 “k=0 (q), (a) (Vk k 45k (k-1) = te) (aaa aes #7] t=n+1 “k=0 (4), CV), , (Qo ; Thus we get n-m, ,m ‘ _ yn-m k on 3k (k-1) Bath Ec) Ge ee ie ae Gia ote reel eran ae where eae (q),, See COMCIERS, Putting n-m = N we get _ oN k ae N 5k (k-1) [Asse f(x) A008 eval 2) (a ee vaca as eine (5) This formula admits of a simple inverse, namely ie N- ky qm iar Sb ee a ral ee Vai Te OOF Wee edt (6) which is an instance of the equivalence of k 5k (k-1 ye ee eeu Calera a cen and Ae re 0 Gay a (q),, where m is a fixed non-negative integer. From (6) we have N+m n+m © co N N,5-N+m ey ~ = Yeo Ta Deco Slog iartes Kta™ £(x) +(x) ae N=0 an+N a N=0 (DV vam k=0 k m+N-k =0 N+m+k _ 2 om ae N+k.- N,om i Meo “N=0 (q) [ k Ia, {ay £(x) (0) nan’ xe0 m+N en, aan 1 ne CaNta™ £(x)* 00 heey STO N=0 (q) 4 20 (yey Ga eal <6). Replacing N by n-m we get n n, ,n-m,; ,m a ans = a : pax ue BOO) (0), tI 29 n=m (q, n=m (a, (2) or; n,-,n-m, ,m n Ze Auer CxO) 0X) oe ey = at can a@Oi1 : z g ne x x Th x=0 n=0 "x x=0 (q),, ° on=m CEG aan If we take m=l1 we get (2). SPECIAL CASES The function e(z) is defined as: o n .-l e@) =. GCN q) 2) Ciql= 25) [Zio DE n=0 We also know the formulas: n z 2(2) = liao Tq), and A q-EXPANSION FORMULA Sl Zn 2 Nia Sere) (Carlitz 1976) e(az) n=0 (are Using these results we get some results as special cases of the formula (3). For f(z) = z° (s > m) we have from (3), So n-s ,-n-m, 4(n-s) (n-s-1) 2" . s z = ee (-1) Eee Cae (s>m, m2>0). () For f(z) = e(z) we have from (3), aT ee _ ene e(z) = ar (a), + eae cane clemae (m= 0,P 2 |< 12 \qilie!) (8) or s 32 30 n(n+m) aaa a > 0 1 1). UE (ee Vz Qi (m ie ales cle aly) (9) E, 1e(2Z) For £2), = Ban have from (3), : ae an nee e(z) mene ope or ee eee Se cae GAS (10) e (az) n=O)" iq) n=m (q) C2 (Git = "Ohya | 23 ala ad) We n n q 4n(n+2m-1) ° Caan zs cadets) (ae a n=0 (q) n=0 Cmca (m 205 12] < 15 lq| = 2). REFERENCES Carlitz, L, 1973. Some q-Expansion Formulas. Glasntk Matematicki, 8 (28), 205-214. , 1976. The Saalschutzian Theorems. The Fib Qua., 14 CORT SS (Manuscript received 23.3.77) (Manuscript received in final form 1.8.77) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 111, pp. 33-34, 1978 A Carboniferous Echinoid Archaeocidaris SP. Indet. From New South Wales GRAEME M. PHILIP ABSTRACT. Wales is illustrated and described. Fossil echinoids are extremely rare in the Palaeozoic rocks of Australia. Brown (1967) has described a Lower Devonian lepidocentroid as Cavanechinus warrent. Thomas (1967) illustrated Oltgoporous (?) sp. from the Carboniferous of Western Australia and Etheridge (1892) described and illustrated two species of Archaeoctdarts of Permian age from New South Wales. Other records of Australian Palaeozoic echinoids are based on indeterminate fragments (cf. Brown, 1967). The Carboniferous echinoid recorded here was collected by I. Lavaring from Mt Breakneck, Carrow Brook district, southern New England (Camberwell Military Map 000313) N.S.W. and is lodged in the Australian Museum (F58896). It is from the Rhtptdomella fortimuscula Zone of early Carboni- ferous (late Visean) age. It is a poorly preserved flattened internal mould which, however, shows the essential characters of the genus Archaeoctdaris. The interambulacra consist of four columns of plates each presumably bearing a large primary tubercle. There are two columns of simple plates in each sinuous ambulacrum with approximately ten plates opposite each ambital interambulacral plate. The test was clearly imbricate, although the junctions between plates are not strongly bevelled. The apical system which is now lost was apparently very wide (Fig. 2). The lantern is preserved, but only the distal ends of the demipyramids are visible (Fig. 3). The distal slides are extremely wide, implying the presence of shovel-shaped teeth. Department of Geology and Geophysics, The University of Sydney, N.S.W. 2006. A specimen of Archaeocidaris sp. indet. from the Lower Carboniferous of New South Archaeoctdarts is particularly well repre- sented in the Carboniferous of Europe and North America. As was pointed out by Jackson (1912) its test characters are extremely conservative, the various species being distinguished in the charac- ter of the radioles. Until more material becomes available more detailed comparisons are not possible. I am obliged to Dr. Alex Ritchie who passed on the specimen for examination, and Mr. Richard Sealy who prepared the illustrations. REFERENCES Brown, I. A., 1967. A Devonian echinoid from Taemas, south of Yass, N.S.W. Proce. Linn. DOCs doe... oo lov = hod. Etheridge, R. Jnr, 1892. A monograph of the Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous Invertebrata of New South Wales, Pt. 11. Mem. geol. surv. W.S.W. Palaeont., 5, 678. Jackson, R. T., 1922; The phylogeny of the Echini, with a revision of Paleozoic species. Mem. Boston Soc. nat. Hist., 7, 1-443. Thomas, G. A., 1965. An echinoid from the Lower Carboniferous of north-west Australia. Proe we HOY... SOC. VVICU., «fo, 175-178. (Manuscript received 19.12.1977) (Manuscript received in final form 28.2.1978) 34 GRAEME M. PHILIP Archaeoctdarts sp., Australian Museum F58896; Rhtptdomella fortimuscula Zone: Mt Breakneck, Carrow Brook district, southern New England, N.S.W. Eatoge ls Oral views =x 35/4: Figiagy2:. Apical view, x 3/4 ou Sie View of Aristotle’s dantern, x i572 Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 111, pp. 35-39, 1978 \ Silurian Conodonts from Blowclear and Liscombe Pools, New South Wales JOHN PICKETT ABSTRACT. Conodont assemblages indicate a Late Llandoverian age for the Liscombe Pools Limestone, and a Middle Ludlovian age for strata probably referable to the Milpose Volcanics. INTRODUCTION During the course of the preparation of a correlation table for Silurian strata in N.S.W., many samples of limestone from areas of Silurian outcrop within the State were treated for conodonts. Yields from almost all of these were either nil, or so low that the faunas recovered were useless for purposes of age diagnosis. The two assemblages discussed in this article represent rare exceptions. One of them was mentioned briefly by Percival (1976). The major work on Silurian conodonts in N.S.W. is that of Link and Druce (1972); other reports are those of Cooper (1977), De Deckker (1976), Bischoff (tn Talent et al. 1975), Nicoll and Rexroad (1974), Owen et al. (1974) and Whaite § Whaite (1972). Assemblage A The assemblage was obtained from a limestone considered to be a lens in the Millambri Formation by Ryall (1965), but more recently named the Liscombe Pools Limestone by Percival (1976). The sample was taken at GR 181844, Bathurst 1:250,000 sheet, just north of the crossing on Licking Hole Creek. Percival recognised a disconformity between the limestone and the underlying Millambri Formation; from near the top of the latter he records Glyptograptus tamartscus Nicholson, Monograptus jonest Rickards, Pseudoclimacograptus (Metaclimacograptus) hughest (Nicholson), P. (M) undulatus (Kurck) and P. (Clinoclimacograptus) retroversus Bulman and Rickards, taken as indicating a Middle Llandovery age, most probably in the zone of M. gregartus. The limestone itself contains an abundant macrofauna, chiefly corals and stromatoporoids, including Halysttes cratus Eth. f., Halysttes gambooliecus Eth. f., Liscombea tnsolens Phillips, Favosites spp., Multisolenia sp. and heliolitids. The following disjunct conodont species have been recognised, the more distinctive of which are illustrated on plate 1: Astropentagnathus trregularis Mostler Aulacognathus kuehnt Mostler Diadelognathus excertus (Nicoll § Rexroad) Dtstacodus obliquicostatus Branson § Mehl Distomodus curvatus Rhodes? Distomodus kentuckyensis Branson §& Branson Distomodus sp. Exochognathus caudatus (Walliser) Ligonodina ? vartabtlis Nicoll §& Rexroad Ltgonodina sp. Lonehodina walltsert Ziegler Neoprtontodus excavatus (Branson § Mehl) Neospathognathodus cellont (Walliser) Neospathognathodus latus Nicoll §& Rexroad Neospathognathodus pennatus (Walliser) Ozarkodina adiutricts Walliser Ozarkodtna adtutrtcts? Walliser? (sensu Nicoll & Rexroad 1968) Ozarkodina media Walliser Panderodus stmplex Branson § Mehl Panderodus stauffert Branson, Mehl §& Branson Roundya detorta Walliser Trtchonodella trichonodellotdes (Walliser) Tritchonodella sp. The multi-element genera represented in this assemblage would include Llandoverygnathus (sensu Walliser 1972), Oulodus (sensu Sweet § Schdnlaub 1975), ?Distomodus (sensu Jeppsson 1972), possibly Delotaxis and Walltserodus (sensu Cooper 1975) and of course Astropentagnathus and Aulacognathus. It is obvious that many elements must be missing from the assemblage, if indeed all these genera are represented. The assemblage is referable to the Iertodella tneonstans zone of Aldridge (1972), the Neospathognathodus cellont assemblage zone of Nicoll and Rexroad (1968), or the cellont-Zone of Walliser (1964). According to Mostler (1967) Astropentagnathus and Aulacognathus are characteristic of the lower cellont-Zone; Aldridge's (1972) results from the British Silurian indicate a horizon near the middle of his Iertodella tneonstans assemblage zone, which on his correlation is equivalent to late cellont-Zone. Altogether the Similarity of the assemblage is with samples Gullet 1 - 3, Gullet 4 and Hollybush of Aldridge, all from the Telychian C-5 division of the British Llandovery. Fifteen of the twenty-three forms from the present assemblage occur in one or more of those samples. The Telychian division C-5 has been tied to the graptolite zone of Monograptus gretstontensts (Jones et al. 1969). Although there is a general Similarity to the British assemblages, the presence of Neospathognathodus latus and the branched form of Ozarkodina adtutricts may be indicative of North American affinity. This latter form was reported by Nicoll and Rexroad (1968, p. 49) as probably pathological. In the present sample it is represented by two large specimens, while there is only a single specimen of the normal 0. adtiutricts. Conodont faunas of approximately similar age have been reported by Nicoll § Rexroad (1974); the presence of Ozarkodina gaertnert and Pterospathodus anorphognathotdes implies a slightly younger age, although older elements are also present in the assemblage (Ambalodus galerus, Apstdognathus 36 JOHN PICKETT tuberculatus, Astrognathus cf. tetractts and Pygodus lyra). This mixed fauna appears to be similar to that reported by Bischoff (tn Talent et al. 1975) from the Rosyth Limestone Member at Borenore; Bischoff records a zone in which assemblages include forms from both the cellont- and amorphognathotdes-Zones, below the amorphognathotdes-Zone proper. Assemblage B The geology of the area in which the second sample was collected is still imperfectly elucidated. The locality lies below the unconformity at the base of the Late Devonian Hervey Group sediments on the eastern limb of the Tullamore Syncline, at GR 599922, Narromine 1:250,000 sheet, about 25 km east of Trundle. Outcrops are poor in the area, particularly to the east of the line of outcrop of the Hervey Group. On the Narromine sheet (Brunker 1972) the locality is shown as Early Devonian Trundle Beds; more recent mapping a short distance to the south (Bowman 1976) suggests that it is sediments associated with the Late Silurian Milpose Volcanics. The latter situation would be more in accord with the age suggested by the conodonts. The only additional palaeontological evidence bearing on the age is that of Foldvary (1970), who described, as Chetrurus (Crotalocephalus) regtus, a trilobite from a locality about 1.5 km to the south of the present locality, and probably more or less on strike with-it. Foldvary considered the age of the locality to be Eifelian, on the basis of a presumed correlation with beds of that age further west; a correlation of the trilobite and conodont localities is by no means established. In addition to the conodont elements listed below, the limestone at this locality includes a small fauna of tabulate corals (Syrtngopora, Favosttes, thamnoporids) and brachiopods. Disjunct conodont elements include the following forms: Dtstomodus curvatus Rhodes Dtstomodus curvatus var. dentatus Rhodes Dtstomodus suberectus Rhodes Drepanodus sp. Htndeodella confluens Branson § Mehl Htndeodella sp. Lonehodtna sp. Neoprtontodus btcurvatus (Branson § Mehl) Neoprtontodina sp. nov. Ozarkodina typtca Branson § Mehl Panderodus untcostatus (Branson §& Mehl) Plectospathodus elegans Rhodes Rotundacodtna dubta (Rhodes) Spathognathodus primus (Branson § Mehl) Trtchonodella sp. In terms of whole apparatuses, the assemblage clearly represents the species Ozarkodina econfluens, Distomodus dubtus and probably Ligonodina excavata excavata (Branson §& Mehl) sensu Jeppsson (1972); that other species were present is indicated by the presence of panderodids and in particular by the presence of an N-element, so far undescribed. The assemblage is closely similar to that described from the Aymestry Limestone by Rhodes (1953), eight of the thirteen elements reported occurring there as well. O. confluens in Britain ranges from the top of the Wenlock Limestone through the whole of the Ludlow and into the Downtonian; elements of Distomodus dubtus do not appear until the upper Bringewoodian (Mid- Ludlovian) according to Aldridge (1975). The Aymestry Limestone is correlated with the Bringewood Beds (Middle Ludlow) by Ziegler et al. (1974). The P-elements of 0. confluens are similar to those of the a-morphotype described by Klapper and Murphy (1974). This occurs in Nevada in that part of the Roberts Mountains Formation correlated with the upper ploeckensts-, stlurtcus- and lattalatus-Zones of the Cellon profile of Walliser (1964). The same morphotype occurs in the Bainbridge Formation in Missouri, at a horizon within the stlurtcus-Zone (Rexroad and Craig 1971). At neither of these occurrences 1S there Distomodus dubtus, but it is uncertain if this is of stratigraphic significance. Ozarkodtna confluens is known to accompany Distomodus dubtus in the stlurtcus-Zone on Gotland, and in Scania to range from that zone into the base of the eostetnhornensts-zone (Jeppsson 1969, 1972). According to Jeppsson, there is evidence that D. dubtus prefers deeper water (at least for the larger specimens) as it is more abundant in the shalier sequences of Scania than on Gotland, while the reverse seems to be the case for 0. confluens. There is some support for this from local material, as the P-element of O. confluens in the Yass succession is known from only three specimens from the Bowspring and Euralie Limestone Members, which are probably the shallowest horizons in that part of the section within its range, while elements of Dtstomodus are much more widespread (Cliftonwood Limestone to Yarwood Siltstone Member) (Link §& Druce 1972). Ozarkodtna confluens has recently been described from the Yarrangobilly Limestone (Cooper 1977) from a horizon similar to that of the present assemblage. It was absent from De Deckker's (1976) samples from the Kildrummie Formation. In summary, assemblage B indicates an age between the latest ploeckensts- and earliest eostetnhornensts-zones, probably in the lower part of this range. In terms of the British stages this is mid-Ludlovian; upper Laidlaw Formation or Silverdale Formation in the Yass succession. This article is published with the permission of the Under Secretary, N.S.W. Department of Mines. REFERENCES Aldridge, R.J. 1972. Llandlovery conodonts from the Welsh borderland. Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), Geol. 22(2);, 127-231) pir oe Aldridge, R.J. 1975. The stratigraphic distribution of conodonts in the British Silurian. J. geol. Soc. Lond., 131, 607-618 pits el—3 SILURIAN CONODONTS a7 Bowman, H.N. 1976. Forbes 1:250,000 Metallogenic Map. Sheet SI/55-7 Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Sydney. Brunker, R.L. 1972. Narromine 1:250,000 Geological Map. Sheet SI/55-3 Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Sydney. Cooper, B.J. 1975. Multielement conodonts from the Brassfield Limestone (Silurian) of southern Ohio. J. Paleont., 49(6), 984-1008. Gooper;,BeJ.+1977. Upper Silurian conodonts from the Yarrangobilly Limestone, south-eastern NesaW.: Proc. roy. Soc. Vic., 89(2), 183-194, pl. Low 7. De Deckker, P. 1976. Late Silurian (Late Ludlovian) conodonts from the Kildrummie Formation, south of Rockley, N.S.W. J. Proce. POY moo. NISW., L09(l-2), 59-69. Foldvary, G.Z. 1970. A new species of trilobite, Chetrurus (Crotalocephalus) regtus n. sp. from the Early Devonian of the Trundle Diserict, central N:S.W. J. Proc. roy. Soc. Neosat LOS(2), 85-86, pl.l. Jeppsson, L. 1969. Notes on some Upper Silurian multielement conodonts. Geol. Foren. Stockholm Forhandl., 91, 12-24. Jeppsson, L. 1972. Some Silurian conodont apparatuses and possible conodont dimorphism. Geologtca et Palaeontologtea, 6, 51-70, Plea l-2.. Jones, R.K., Brooks, M., Bassett, M.G., Austin, Ricks G Aldridge; R.J., 1969. An Upper Llandovery Limestone overlying Hollybush Sandstone (Cambrian) in Hollybush Quarry, Malvern Hills. Geol. Mag., 106, 457-69. Klapper, G., & Murphy, M.A. 1974. Silurian-Lower Devonian conodont sequence in the Roberts Mountains Formation of Central Nevada. Untv. Galaf. Puble: géol. Set., 117, 1-62, pl. 1-12. Link, A.G. & Druce, E.C. 1972. Ludlovian and Gedinnian conodont stratigraphy of the Yass Basin, N.S.W. Bur. Miner. Res., Geol., Geophys: , Bull., 164, 1-136, pl. 1-12. Mostler, H. 1967. Conodonten aus dem tieferen Silur der Kitzbtihler Alpen (Tirol). Osterr. paldont. Ges., Kuhn-Festschrift. Vienna. 295-303. Tat. 1. Nicoll), AR.o.',G Rexroad, C.B. 1968. Stratigraphy and conodont palaeontology of the Salamonie Dolomite and Lee Creek Member of the Brassfield Limestone (Silurian) in south- eastern Indiana and adjacent Kentucky. Umndeana Geol. Surv. Bull.,' 40, 1-73, pl. 1-7. Nicoll, R.S., & Rexroad, C.B. 1974. Llandovery (Silurian) conodonts from southern N.S.W. Geol. Soe. Amer., Abstracts with Programs for 1974, 6, 534-535. Owen, M.; Gardner, D.E:, Wyborn, D., Saltet, Jas € Shackleton, M.S. 1974. Geology of the Tantangara 1:100,000 sheet area, Australian Capital Territory and New South Wales. Bur. Miner. Res., Geol., Geophys., Rec., 1974/176 (unpubl .). Percival, 1.G..1976. The geology of the Licking Hole Creek area, near Walli, central western Neal Gis LrOe,. POU DOC. Nica L0G Ca2), 72:34 Rexroad,, G2 Bo, G Craag..WsW. 1971 testudy of conodonts from the Bainbridge Formation (Silurian) at Lithium, Missouri. J. Paleont., 45(4), 684-703, pl. 79-82. Rhodes, F.H.T. 1953. Some British Lower Palaeozoic conodont faunas. Phtl. Trans. roy. Soc. Lond., BES7 (647), 261-354, pl. 20-25. Ryall, W.R. 1965. The geology of the Canowindra Bast. area, Noo aW se) da PvOee POY. OC. Nase 98(3), 169-179. sweet, W.C., G Schonlaub, H.P. 1975.. Conodonts of the genus Oulodus Branson §& Mehl 1933. Geologtea et Palaeontologica, 9, 41-60, pl. eae Talent., dA. 4 eberry.,.WeBeNe,, G BOuUcOt, 1.d. 0) 97a. Correlation of the Silurian rocks of Australia, New Zealand and New Guinea. Geol. poe. Amer. sopec. fap... 100, 1-108. Walliser, O.H. 1964. Conodonten des Silurs. Abh. hess. L.-Amt Bodenforsch., 41, 1-106, pl. 1-32. Walliser, O.H. 1972. Conodont apparatuses in the Silurian. Geologtea et Palaeontologica, SB1, 75-80. Whaite, J.L., §& Whaite, T.M. 1972. Fossil records from the Bungonia Caves area. in: Bungonia Caves: Sydney Speleol. Assoc., Occas. Pap., 4, 147-149, Ziegler, A.M., Rickards, R.B., & McKerrow, W.S. 1974. Correlation of the Silurian rocks of the British Isles. Geol: Soc. Amer. Spec. PQpeg ist al 54-, Dpe Alia) Wikelereie Geological Survey of New South Wales, Geological and Mining Museum, 36 George Street, SYDNEY; °N.S.1W. 2000 (Manuscript received 30.11.1977) 38 JOHN PICKETT EXPLANATION OF PLATE 1 All Illustrations x 30 Originals of Figures 1-21 from possible Milpose Volcanics, 25 km east of Trundle, GR599922, Narromine 1:250,000 sheet. Originals of Figures 22-34 from Liscombe Pools Limestone, GR 181844, Bathurst 1:250,000 sheet, just north of the crossing over Licking Hole Creek. Figures 1-21 are named using apparatus taxonomy; Figures 22-34 are named as single elements. Figures 1-9 Ozarkodina confluens (Branson §& Mehl). I outer lateral view of P element MMMCO1402; 2, inner lateral view of P element MMMCO1390; 3, aboral view of P element MMMCO1385; 4, inner lateral view of O element MMMCO1391; 5, outer lateral view of O element MMMCO1403; 6, inner lateral view of Aj, element MMMCO1393; 7, inner lateral view of N element MMMCO1398; 8, inner lateral view of A» element MMMCO1392; 9, inner lateral view of A3 element MMMCO1397. Figures 10-17 Distomodus dubtus (Rhodes). Homologies of the component elements are incompletely worked out, so no terminology is applied. 10; anner lateral view of MMMCO1400; 11, 12, inner and outer lateral views of MMMCO1404; 13, oblique view of MMMCO1388; 14, inner lateral view of MMMCO1394; 15, inner lateral view of MMMCO1399; 16, outer lateral view of MMMCO1387; 17, outer lateral view of MMMCO1395. Figures 18-19 Ltgonodina excavata excavata (Branson §& Mehl). sensu Jeppsson 1972. 18, inner lateral view of "hi element'' MMMCO1401; 19, inner lateral view of "p)1 element'' MMMCO1389. Figure 320 Unassigned N element MMMCO1396, inner lateral view. Figures 21) Unassigned N element MMMCO1386, inner lateral view. Figures 22-23 Exochognathus caudatus (Walliser). 22% oblique view of MMMCO1406; 23, lateral view of MMMCO1412. Figures 24-25 Neospathognathodus pennatus (Walliser). 24, oral, and 25, lateral views of MMMCO1411. Figure 26 Neospathognathodus cellont (Walliser). Oral view of MMMCO1409. Fagure +27, Ozarkodina adiutricts Walliser. Outer lateral view of MMMCO1410. Figure 28 Aulacognathus kuehnt Mostler. Oral view of MMMCO1408. Figure 29 Astropentagnathus trregularts Mostler. Oral view of MMMCO1407. Figure 30 Unidentified element, oral view, MMMCO1416. Figure 31 Neospathognathodus latus Nicoll § Rexroad. Oral view of MMMCO1414. Figure 32 Diadelognathus excertus Nicoll §& Rexroad. Oblique aboral/internal view of MMMCO1405. Figure (353 Trichonodella tritchonodellotdes (Walliser). Inner lateral view of MMMCO1413. Figure 34 Ozarkodina adtutrtets ? Walliser (sensu Nicoll §& Rexroad, 1968). Inner lateral view of MMMCO1415. SILURIAN CONODONTS Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 111, pp. 41-47, 1978 Lead in the Environment* D. J. SWAINE ABSTRACT. geochemical cycle. coals, and fertilisers. Various aspects of the geochemistry of lead are discussed in terms of the Values are given for concentrations of lead in rocks, soils, water, vegetation, Lead tends to be concentrated in surface soils, probably because of the insolubility of the common lead minerals and of the lead complexed with some forms of organic matter. The same properties also govern the general unavailability of lead to plants and the low concentrations of lead in natural waters. Lead in solution in waters and lakes also depends on reactions at the sediment-water interface and on the pH and oxidation-reduction potential. discussed. Pollution is seen as something imposed on a natural background; The mean content of lead in coal is about 10 ppm Pb, and most of this is retained with fly-ash after the combustion of pulverised coal. The sources of lead in the body are also the proper assessment of the effects of lead and other heavy metals depends on reliable geochemical data and on careful interpretation. INTRODUCTION Recently, while listening to Smetana's symph- onic poem, Vltava, an idea occurred to me of how to approach the subject of this address. Just as he based his music on the progress of the river from the mountains to the plains, I will base this address on the journey, so to speak, of lead in the environment. This approach is in keeping with V.I. Vernadsky's description of geochemistry as the history of terrestrial atoms. The tasks of geo- chemistry, as envisaged by V.M. Goldschmidt, cover a wide range, as shown in the following scheme: GEOCHEMISTRY > COMPOSITION DISTRIBUTION MIGRATION ee | ee ~ UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES | THEORY EXPERIMENTATION The attainment of an understanding of the geo- chemistry of an element requires an interdisciplin- ary approach, chemistry, geology and biology being especially important. This is shown in a recent study of lead in the environment (Boggess and Wixson, 1977). Any consideration of an element in nature should be made against the broad background of what is known about the geochemistry of that element. Lead will be used as an example of the general approach to the geochemistry of any element. * Presidential address delivered to The Royal Soctety of New South Wales at the Setence Centre, Clarence Street, Sydney, on 6 April 1977. GEOCHEMICAL CYCLE OF LEAD An abridged form of the geochemical cycle of lead is given in Fig. 1. Lead occurs in rocks either as a discrete mineral or for example, in SOILS ROCKS WATERS 7 ne y a ANIMALS ne ae \ RAIN PETROL COAL Eagar edle Geochemical cycle of lead feldspars and micas where the lead ion Pb?t+ may replace the potassium ion Kt of similar ionic radius. Although there are more than 200 minerals of lead, few are common; probably the most important economically are galena (PbS), cerussite (PbCO3), and anglesite (PbSO,). During weathering, lead moves into soils and waters, albeit in minute amounts. Some lead is assimilated by vegetation and eventually by animals. In addi- tion to natural sources, man is exposed to lead from various industrial sources, an important one being the combustion of petrol containing a lead antiknock additive. In this connexion, it should be noted that coal-burning contributes less than 0.5 per cent of the lead emitted to the atmosphere by the combustion of petrol. It seems that volcanoes and other natural sources release less lead to the. atmosphere than man's activities. Rain scavenges lead from the air and returns it to the Garth's surface. 42 D. J. SWAINE TABLE 1 LEAD CONTENTS IN NATURAL MATERIALS Lead content (ppm Pb) ROCKS Basaltic 6 Granitic 17 Shales 20 Sandstones 7 Carbonates 9 SOILS 2 - 200 WATER River 0.0006 - 0.12 Ocean 0.00003 PLANTS OL = 30 COALS up to 60 Although it is difficult to generalise by calculating mean values for lead in various earth materials, such figures do give some idea of the order of the levels to be expected in many cases. Values (as parts per million Pb) taken from several publications are given in Table 1, those for rocks being mean values (Swaine, 1955, 1975; Lovering, 1976). Most values referred to in this address will be given as parts per million (ppm), 1 ppm being equivalent to 0.0001 per cent or 1 ug/g or 1 g/tonne, or for dilute aqueous solutions 1 mg/2. The mean value for lead in the continental crust, known as the clarke, is 13 ppm Pb. For soils developed on granitic rocks in the north-east of Scotland the mean value is 15-20 ppm Pb, close to that for many granites. In general, oils have less lead than coals, the mean contents being less than 1 and about 10 ppm Pb respectively. Results for a suite of basaltic rocks (dolerites) from north-east Ireland were less than 10 ppm Pb (Patterson and Swaine, 1957), while samples of granites from the Aar-massif in Switzerland had 10-30 ppm Pb (Htgi and Swaine, 1963) in keeping with the generalisa- tions of Table 1. The low concentrations of lead in natural waters are a consequence of the gradual removal of lead from rocks and soils in relatively small amounts, and the insolubility of most of the common lead minerals and of lead complexed with some forms of organic matter; some lead is also removed by sorption on particulate matter. The very low value for ocean water probably refers to deep offshore waters, slightly higher values (up to a few micro- grams per litre) being reported for surface and inshore waters. The range of values for plants is not surpris- ing. In general, the uptake of metals by plants depends on several factors, including the pH and moisture of the soil, and the species of plant. There are also seasonal effects and the metal content varies within the plant, often being highest in leaves. The range of values for coals refers to most of the published values, higher levels being associated with the presence of increased amounts of galena (PbS). LEAD IN SOILS During the formation of a soil some lead will be derived from the parent rock and may be taken up by plants, eventually being returned to the soil in decay products from the plants. Natural accumulation was found in uncultivated, organic-rich surface soils in north-east Scotland; in one soil, the surface (20-70 mm) had 550 ppm Pb compared with 30 ppm at a depth of 100-150 mm and in the parent rock. Another interesting example of the accumula- tion of lead in the surface of a soil was found in a rudimentary soil in Caenlochan Glen, Angus, Scotland, remote from industrial and agricultural influences (Swaine, unpublished). The material was coarse and was taken from a ledge on a crag, 800 m above sea level, the vegetation being small shrubs of the Dryas species. The -2 mm fraction had 100 ppm Pb in the surface layer (0-20 mm) compared with 10 ppm Pb in the underlying material (20-170 mm) and 10 ppm Pb in the unweathered parent rock (calcareous schist). In general, the lead content of most soils is in the range 2-200 ppm Pb (Swaine, 1955), with a mean of about 20 ppm. It seems that lead in plant residues is fixed in the surface soil, possibly as an insoluble lead- organic matter complex or as a lead sulphate, a basic lead carbonate, or a lead phosphate. In the original soil, lead was probably partly in the crystal lattice of minerals like feldspars and partly adsorbed on clay minerals, iron oxides and manganese oxides. A decrease in pH to give acid conditions would favour the release of lead in a form which could become more available to some plants. Also, as shown by Swaine and Mitchell (1960), many elements, including lead, are mobilised in poorly-drained soils, and this may favour increased uptake by plants. This mobilised lead may be lead released from iron and manganese oxides and even clays under reducing conditions which favour desorption. A measure of easily-mobilised lead is gained by extracting soil samples with dilute acetic acid (0.5 N). For soils from north-east Scotland, levels of this soluble lead varied from a maximum of about 2 ppm Pb in freely-drained surface soils to a maximum of about 6 ppm Pb in the lower horizons of poorly-drained soils. It is clear that the main factors affecting changes in availability to plants of several trace elements adsorbed on clays and the like are pH and oxidation-reduction potential. Zones of accumulation of lead and certain other elements occur in some peat deposits, possibly because of mobilisation from nearby poorly-drained soils. Impeded drainage in swamps, prior to coal- formation, may have favoured the movement of lead and other trace elements and also increased the uptake by plants. In general, the parent rock material is the source of lead in soils, but pedogenic factors during soil formation give rise to a distribution of lead in the soil profile, often culminating in accumulation in the surface. Climatic and topo- graphic effects and the activities of micro-organisms modify the chemical processes of soil formation. Hence, there are general guidelines to aid the assessment of the lead status of soils, but detailed investigations are often needed for soils developed on various parent materials in particular locations. This may be important for a proper appraisal of the effects of air-borne or water-borne pollution on soils. In many cases, lead added to soils from external sources will be immobilised. LEAD IN THE ENVIRONMENT 43 LEAD IN VEGETAL LON Although lead is found in vegetation, it has not yet been shown to have a role in plant nutri- tion. The uptake of lead by plants depends on various factors mentioned earlier. A decrease in pH to acid conditions favours dissolution of lead from soil minerals and that adsorbed on clays and iron and manganese oxides,. but lead associated with organic matter may remain relatively unavailable to plants. Under some conditions, phosphate-deficient plants may accumulate lead. During plant growth there is a translocation of lead within the plant, which may produce quite different concentrations of lead in different parts of the plant. For example, in a study of a grass (cocksfoot, Dactylts glomerata), Davey and Mitchell (1968) found at the flowering stage about 4 ppm Pb in the leaf, 1 ppm in the sheath and less than 1 ppm in the stem, values being in dry-matter. The uptake of lead is likely to be greater on mineralised areas than on unmineralised areas, and mining activities may also increase the avail- ability of lead to some plants. Such areas are small and are not used for agriculture. Just as chelation does not always mean increased solubility or availability, so increased solubility of lead per se does not necessarily mean increased avail- ability to plants. Although extraction tests with acids and the like are often useful guides to the availability of metals to plants, the only sure way of ascertaining the uptake by plants is to analyse specimens from a particular area or to do pot experiments or plant trials under relevant condi- tions. Some species can thrive on soils with higher-than-normal lead. There are changes in lead contents of the various parts of plants during the’ growing season, an important factor to be con- sidered when sampling plants for analysis. In some cases there are variations in different parts of the leaf, as shown in Fig. 2 for a eucalyptus leaf (Pickering, 1975). It is well established that vegetation grow- ing near roads has increased conten*s of lead, derived from motor-car exhausts, but it is not known precisely whether the lead is taken up from the soil or directly from the air into the leaves. There are certainly finely-divided particles of lead compounds on the surfaces of plants growing near busy roads, in keeping with the fact that lead bromo- and chloro-compounds are emitted from car exhausts. It should be noted that diesel fuel is not leaded. It is necessary to wash samples of vegetation before determining lead and before eat- ing fruit or vegetables grown near busy roads. Curtin et al. (1974) showed that metal complexes, including lead, are given off by vegeta- tion during growth, but the extent and the import- ance of this in the geochemical cycle have not been established. Ferguson and Bubela (1974) carried out experiments with suspensions of algae and aqueous solutions of lead salts; lead ions were taken up by the algae mainly by sorption onto the particles of organic matter. A wastewater treat- ment method, based on the removal of heavy metals including lead, by algae, is used in the Missouri Lead Belt (Wixson and Jennett, 1975), The term "heavy metal" is often used to designate elements of specific gravity higher than about 4, especially LEAD CONTENT 4g Pb/g Mi >s50 M0 35-50 GJ 20-35 ZA <10-20 Fig. 2. Distribution of lead in a eucalyptus leaf those which are regarded as possibly toxic under some conditions. In general, most lead in soils is unavailable to plants. However, there is always some lead present in plants, the amounts depending on several factors mentioned before. It is not easy to estimate a value for what could be regarded as normal plants, but most values would be in the range 0.1-10 ppm in dry matter. Most normal trees, shrubs and grasses have 10-100 ppm Pb in ash, but lichens and mosses may have up to 1000 ppm Pb in ash. Cannon (1976) has reviewed several aspects of lead in vegetation. LEAD IN NATURAL WATERS A proper discussion of lead in natural waters should include lead in bottom sediments and particulate matter, because the level of lead in solution depends on equilibria between these solids and water. The concentration of lead in water is also governed to a large extent by the insolubility of lead compounds, such as carbonate, sulphate, sulphide and phosphate. In terms of these compounds, the solubility of lead in dilute aqueous solution should not exceed 10 ug Pb/& at ordinary tempera- tures, a pH of 7.6 to 12.6 and a bicarbonate concentration of more than 60 mg/& (Hem, 1976). Increased solubility occurs under acid conditions, and in very saline waters, where lead chloro- complexes could be formed. Hence, in general, the release of lead during weathering tends to be a slow process. In a river, lead may be present in various forms, namely (a) in solution, (b) in particulates, (c) associated with organic matter, and (d) in living matter. Lead ions are not present in water as free entities; lead in solution is probably partly as simple inorganic hydrated ions and perhaps complexes with inorganic and organic matter. The alkalinity of water is an important factor in the complexing of lead. Particulates may contain inherent lead in their crystal structure, for example, lead in feldspar replacing some of the potassium, as well as surface-adsorbed lead on clays and on iron and manganese oxides. There is insuffi- cient evidence on the nature of organic matter in water to more than conjecture that some complexes of lead with organic matter may be insoluble. Nissenbaum and Swaine (1976) found up to 600 ppm Pb (on a dry-weight basis) in humic material from Ad D. J. SWAINE WATER YL Ids SEDIMENT CI va 7 i Mie || pees METALS FeS ORGANISMS Fig. 3. The sediment-water interface marine reducing environments; variations in con- centrations are possibly related to changes in the ability of the organic matter to fix lead due to changes in the nature of the organic matter at different stages of diagenesis. Living matter, plant and animal, contains some lead which is eventually returned to the bottom sediments. Lake-bottom sediments normally contain lead at the several parts per million level, higher values being associated with drainage from a mineralised area. Gorham and Swaine (1965) found 200-800 ppm Pb (on a dry-weight basis) in reduced muds from Windermere and Esthwaite Water in the English Lake District: Some oxidate crusts’ from bottom sedi- ments in the same lakes had up to 8000 ppm Pb, probably because of drainage from areas where there had been lead mines for several centuries. These samples were mostly high in iron and manganese, and iron and manganese oxides as concretions or thin layers on other particles are known to scavenge metals, including lead, from water. In rivers and lakes, reactions at the sediment-water interface are important in the Gecycling! Of trace elements. “The situation’ as shown in Fig. 3. In the sediment just below the interface, there is intense activity and change. Organic matter, comprising dead plant and animal debris, is being degraded biologically and micro- biologically thereby depleting the oxygen level, producing carbon dioxide and in some cases lowering the pH. The resulting reducing conditions will favour the mobilisation of lead which can then be returned to the overlying water layer by movement of the interstitial water in the sediment. Such movement may be caused by burrowing organisms and by fish stirring the surface layers of the sediment. At the same time the particles are aerated before falling back into the sediment. The whole process continues until there is no organic matter left for degradation, thereby limiting the oxygen-consuming reactions, lessening the evolution of carbon dioxide and stabilising the pH. At this stage, compaction of the sediment under the hydrostatic pressure can take place. During the above changes in oxidation-reduction potential, hydrated iron oxides formed during the oxidation stage will adsorb some lead, but this will be desorbed during the reduction stage, when an iron sulphide (FeS) forms from bisulphide ions and hydrogen sulphide. The breakdown of the organic matter and the reduc- tion of sulphate enables lead and other metals to form insoluble sulphides, including galena. Heavy metals are probably finally fixed in most sediments ED? RAIN ese : INDUSTRIAL 5 | AGRICULTURAL | DOMESTIC = —————— i? ee | ——— i 4 : Ci. = Xx SS SS =SS= Fig. 4. Sources of lead: in» ayriver as sulphides. As well as postulating what may be happening during the early stages of sedimentation, the above sequence of reactions may explain how a sediment is consolidated. In other words, the main controlling factor is the biological or micro- biological oxidation of organic matter. There is laboratory evidence for the formation of tetramethyl lead, (CH3),Pb, by the action of certain micro-organisms on samples of some sediments (Wong et al., 1975), the conversion being entirely biological and probably being favoured by the higher oxidation state of lead (Pb**). As yet, the relevance of this to lead in sediments itn sttu has not been established. It is interesting to postulate what happens to lead in rivers. The various possible sources of lead are shown in Fig. 4. Lead in the atmosphere comes from dust, volcanic gases, sea spray, forest fires, vegetation, smelters, brass manufacturing, coal combustion and the combustion of petrol con- taining lead-alkyls as additives, the latter being the main source. Hence, there is a constant addition of lead in rainfall, some ultimately reaching rivers. Weathering of rocks and soils and decomposition of vegetation and animal-matter will also provide small amounts of lead. Fertilisers, especially phosphate-types, and insecticides are probably the only agricultural sources of lead, albeit at trace levels. Industrial operations contribute some lead in effluents, while the main domestic sources are sewage and old paint. As pointed out already, lead is unlikely to remain in true solution for long, because of the insolubility of several inorganic compounds, the adsorption on particulate matter and possibly the formation of insoluble lead-organic matter complexes. Eventually, particles are deposited on the river bed. However, flooding may stir up some of these bottom sediments and move them along the river bed, perhaps changing conditions so that there is an increase in solu- bility, for example, a change to lower pH may eventuate from a change to still conditions where biological breakdown of organic matter can occur. Hence, the fate of lead in rivers is governed by factors which generally tend to keep the concentra- tion of soluble lead low. It is important to realise that the system is a dynamic one, and to be aware of this before taking samples for analysis. The common practice of filtering water samples through a 0.45 um filter before analysing the filtrate means that a measure is obtained of soluble lead, which includes some colloidal lead. At the same time, lead adsorbed on particulate matter ——— LEAD IN THE ENVIRONMENT 45 (clays, iron and manganese oxides, organic material) is not determined, although it may be important under other conditions in the same river. LEAD IN COAL Although coal (mean content about 10 ppm Pb) contains more lead than oil (less than 1 ppm Pb), the combustion of coal does not contribute as much lead to the atmosphere as the combustion of petrol, because petrol contains lead-rich additives. For example, in the U.S.A. in 1968, lead emissions from petrol combustion comprised 181,000 tonnes compared with 920 tonnes from coal combustion (Lovering, 1976). Research on Australian bituminous coals has given much information on lead and other trace elements (Brown and Swaine, 1964). The range of values for most New South Wales and Queensland bituminous coals is 2-40 ppm Pb, with a mean value of about 10 ppm in air-dried coal, some of the lead occurring as galena (PbS); most Victorian brown coals have less than 5 ppm Pb. This means that many coals have less lead than many shales (mean content of 20 ppm Pb). Values are sometimes given in terms of coal ash, the range for New South Wales and Queensland coals then being 20-200, with a mean of about 60 ppm Pb. It has been. estimated in the U.S.A. that up to 6 per cent of the total lead in coal may be released into the atmosphere during combustion (Lovering, 1976). During the combustion of coal in lump form on grates, using spreader-stoker or chain-grate methods, lead is set free and finally fixed in the slag, ash and in deposits on various parts of the ATMOSPHERE STACK ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS SUPERHEATERS PULVERISED COAL g. Co) FURNACE Pictorial representation of a modern pulverised-coal-fired boiler boiler. Some deposits on superheater tubes show great enrichment in lead, one sample having 2 per cent Pb, which represents a two thousand-fold concentration from the coal. Some deposits show differences in composition between the inner layer next to the superheater tube (1 per cent Pb) and the outer layer (0.004 per cent Pb). Perhaps the lead is present as a lead phosphate, by analogy with boron phosphate (BPO,) and boron arsenate (BAsO,) in solid solution in boron phosphate which have been found in some deposits (Swaine and Taylor, 1970). In the modern method of coal combustion for the generation of electricity, pulverised coal is fired under conditions yielding predominantly fly- ash. Fly-ash is the incombustible residue, mostly of micron and sub-micron size, which is formed from up to 90 per cent of the inorganic matter in the coal. Most of the fly-ash is retained by the electrostatic precipitators (Fig. 5), although small amounts reach the atmosphere with the stack gases. The fate of lead during combustion is shown diagram atically in Fig. 6. Lead in coal particles and in galena and possibly that in feldspar and similar COAL Combustion v7 BOTTOM ASH + FLY-ASH + GAS Large Small amount amount (>99%) (<1%) DISPOSAL ATMOS PHERE SOME USED Fig. 6. The distribution of lead after combustion minerals, is released at the temperatures of combustion (1600-1700°C). The bottom ash contains some lead, probably as a complex silicate, while fly-ash has a similar lead content to coal-ash. Swaine (1977) has postulated that lead is removed from the cooling flue gases and fixed on the sur- face of fly-ash particles, either by sorption or by reaction to form lead sulphate. Some lead may reach the atmosphere in very finely divided fly-ash. Hence, efficient electrostatic precipitation is an important restriction on the amount of lead emitted with the stack gases. Any lead reaching the atmosphere is dispersed widely, eventually being returned to the earth in rain. Fly-ash in rain will scarcely affect the levels of lead in soils, as fly-ash from Australian bituminous coals has 30-300 ppm Pb, which is similar to the lead content of most soils, 2-200 ppm Pb (Swaine, 1955). Although lead is dispersed widely in the atmosphere, varying in concentration at different places, no marked effect was found at Macquarie Island, South Pacific Ocean, where samples of peaty material had 2 ppm Pb and lead was not detected (less than 10 ppm Pb) in samples of morainic material and weathered rock (Swaine, 1957). 46 D. J. SWAINE LEAD IN FERTILISERS Cultivated soils may gain some lead from certain insecticides, but the amounts from fertilisers rarely affect plants. Most potassium and nitrogen fertilisers have less than 1 ppm Pb, calcium fertilisers less than 10 ppm Pb and phosphorus fertilisers up to about 100 ppm Pb (Swaine, 1962). A simple calculation will show the negligible effect of lead added to soil ina fertiliser. The addition of 100 kg per hectare per year of a fertiliser containing 100 ppm Pb increases the concentration of lead in the surface 20 cm of soil by a mere 0.01 ppm Pb. Sewage sludge is sometimes added to soils as a fertiliser, and this may increase the contents of some trace elements in plants after repeated additions of sludge. However, no trouble has been reported for lead, which is present in sewage sludges in the range of 120-3000 with a mean of 700 ppm Pb in dry material (Swaine, 1962; Berrow and Webber, 1972). SOURCES OF LEAD IN THE BODY The foregoing discussion of the geochemistry of lead has indicated the widespread occurrence of lead, hence it is not surprising that the body may derive lead from several sources, summarised in Fig. 7. Some lead reaches the body in food, water and air. Food derives lead from plants and animals PLANT =< OO!L BOO) 5 ee ana cee WATER PROCESSING a GS crea WASTE DISPOSAL AIR Se A AIR ey Wy INDUSTRY SEA Fig. 7. Sources of lead in the body and possibly from processing, but the levels are not high, except perhaps for some vegetation adjacent to busy highways. Water acquires very small amounts of lead from rocks, rain and possibly from waste disposal in certain areas. The treatment of water to purify it for drinking purposes removes most of the lead. As well as input from some industries and from petrol, the air receives some lead from volcanoes, wind-borne dust and sea-spray. In general, there is an awareness of the need to restrict unwarranted emissions of lead into the environment. The toxic effects of exposure to undue amounts of lead are known, and precautions are taken to protect workers in industries where there could be occupational health problems. It should be remembered that the body has always been exposed to some lead; the intake of a so-called "normal'' person is said to be 300-500 ug Pb per day. Some lead is retained, mostly in the bones. There are some local sources of lead that may be troublesome. For example, the use of lead pipes for domestic water supplies may give some soluble lead if the water is of low hardness. Ceramic ware with lead glazes and cigarettes are other sources of lead for some people. Lead poisoning may come from the ingestion of flakes of lead-based paint by children, especially in old houses. The level of lead in paint in Australia is controlled by law to prevent toxic effects. In certain countries there is legislation to reduce the amount of alkyl-lead additives in petrol, but this is not a simple matter, as leaded petrol has advantages over other petrol. The production of lead-free petrol of high-octane value, which is necessary for high-efficiency engines, uses more crude oil and increases costs. A more realistic approach would seem to be the reduction of lead in exhaust gases by means of a filter, thereby attain- ing conservation of oil and a reduction in atmo- spheric lead, as well as retaining the desirable properties of a leaded petrol. If particulate lead from the combustion of petrol is easily absorbed by the body, then there would seem to be a case for lowering the lead content of petrol, consistent with efficiency and economy. CONCLUDING REMARKS Pollution should be regarded as something imposed on a natural background. For example, in the case of lead, a consideration of the geochemical cycle, as outlined above, gives a perspective which should prevent a hasty judgement on possible untoward effects of lead. Unfortunately, there are gaps in the quantitative understanding of geochemi- cal cycles, including that of lead. This limits the impact of geochemistry on the assessment of some practical pollution problems. Current research is closing many of these gaps and there is now a realisation of the importance of geochemistry in environmental science. Good data are a prime need. In this connexion, the statement by I.P. Pavlov in his "Letter to Youth" is pertinent: "No matter how perfect a bird's wing may be, it could never lift the bird to any height without the support of air. Facts are the dit sOte selence!! A proper consideration of pollution on the local and on the global scale depends on a sound knowledge of geochemical cycles and of natural background levels, always remembering that we are dealing with dynamic systems, where biological factors are often dominant. As well as many uses in industry, several metals, for example copper and zinc, are necessary in life processes. They have a dual role, namely, essentiality (usually in very small amount) and possible toxicity. Sometimes there is a narrow boundary between what is regarded as essential and what may be toxic. There are rarely doubts about acute toxicity, namely, that brought about by a relatively large dose, but it is difficult to establish what are the conditions for chronic toxicity, namely that arising from the ingestion of small amounts over a long period of time. Brown (1976, page 63) has stated that "it should be recognised that all living things are in one sense "accumulations" of chemicals and it is only when substances, such as heavy metals, are absorbed at rates faster than those at which they can be excreted, and which are more or less constantly in the environment at levels significantly above "natural" levels, that they are likely to exceed LEAD IN THE ENVIRONMENT 47 tolerable levels in the tissues and be harmful". In a review of a recent conference, Freedman (1977) has included ''possibly lead" in a list of trace elements essential for mammals. Kothny (1973) has warned against condemning ''trace elements with apparently no value'' before the metabolic process is properly understood. It is salutary to recall that the essentiality of selenium and chromium for animal life has been established in the last decade (Underwood, 1977). However, the requirements of such elements are usually very low, and it is clear that if lead is shown to be essential, then only small amounts would be required. Let me conclude with a plea for careful scientific consideration of matters concerning trace elements in the environment where pollution or possible toxic effects are in question. Perhaps a proper perspective and degree of common sense can be summed up in a pseudo-chemical equation, namely Cc. ===") Conservation REFERENCES Berrow, M.L. and Webber, J., 1972. Trace elements in sewage sludge. J. Set. Food Agric., 28, 93-100. Boggess, W.R. and Wixson, B.G., (Eds.), 1977. Lead in the environment. NSF/RA-770214, 272 pp. Brown, H.R. and Swaine, D.J., 1964. Inorganic constituents of Australian coals. J. Inst. Fuel, 37, 422-440. Brown, V.M., 1976. Aspects of heavy metals toxicity in fresh waters, tm TOXICITY TO BIOTA OF METAL FORMS IN NATURAL WATER, pp. 59-75. R.W. Andrew, P.V. Hodson and D.E. Konasewich (Eds.). International Joint Commission, Duluth. Cannon, H.L., 1976. Lead in vegetation, in Lead in the Environment, T.G. Lovering (Ed.). Uno, Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., 957, 53-72. Curtin, G.C., King, H.D. and Mosier, E.L., 1974. Movement of elements into the atmosphere from coniferous trees in subalpine forests of Colarado and Idaho. J. Geochem. Explor., 3(3), 245-263. Davey, B.G. and Mitchell, R.L., 1968. The distribu- tion of trace elements in cocksfoot (Dactylts glomerata) at flowering. J. Set. Food Agric., 19, 425-431. Ferguson, J. and Bubela, B., 1974. The concentra- tion of Cu(II), Pb(II) and Zn(II) from aqueous solutions by particulate algal matter. Chem. Geol., 13, 163-186. Freedman, J., 1977. Trace-element geochemistry. Geotimes, 22(1), 22-23. Gorham, E. and Swaine, D.J., 1965. The influence of oxidizing and reducing conditions upon the distribution of some elements in lake sediments. Limnol. and Oceanogr., 10(2), 268-279. Hem, J.D., 1976. Inorganic chemistry of lead in water, ) U.S. Geot. Surv. Prof. Pap., 957, 5-11. Htigi, Th. and Swaine, D.J., 1963. The geochemistry of some Swiss granites. J. Proc. R. Soc. N.S.W., 96, 65-71. Kothny, E.L., 1973. Trace elements in the environ- ment. Am. Chem. Soc., Adv. Chem. Ser., 123, vii. Lovering, T.G. (Ed.), 1976. Lead inthe Environment. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., 957, 90 pp. CSIRO Fuel Geoscience Unit, NORTH RYDE, N.S.W. 2113. Development Nissenbaum, A. and Swaine, D.J., 1976. Organic matter-metal interactions in Recent sediments the role of humic substances. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 40, 809-816. Patterson, E.M. and Swaine, D.J., 1957. The Tertiary dolerite plugs of north-east Ireland - a survey of their geology and geochemistry. Trans. HR. Soe. Edinb., 63, Part Il, 317-331. Pickering, W.F., 1975. in university and college teaching. Aust. Chem. Inst., 42, 5-10. Swaine, D.J., 1955. The Trace-element Content of Soils. Commorw. Bur. Sotl Set., Harpenden, Tech. Commun. No.48, 157 pp. Swaine, D.J., 1957. The trace-element content of some soils and rock from Macquarie Island, South Pacific Ocean. Rep. Aust. Natl. Antarct. Res. haped.,| lil, Ser. A, 10 pp. Swaine, D.J., 1962. The Trace-element Content of Fertilizers. Commonw. Bur. Sotls, Harpenden, Tech. Commun. No.52, 306 pp. Swaine, D.J., 1975. Trace elements in coals, tn RECENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOCHEMISTRY AND ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, pp. 539-550. A.I. Tugarinov (Ed.). John Wiley and Sons, New York. Swaine, D.J., 1977. Trace elements in fly-ash. BULL wm Netlist) oleate Be ta eer =o les Swaine, D.J. and Mitchell, R.L., 1960. Trace- element distribution in soil profiles. i. MOTE Cts ym tl (2547508. The place of trace analysis Proce. ki. Swaine, D.J. and Taylor, G.F., 1970. Arsenic in phos- phatic boiler deposits. J. Inst. Fuel, 43, 261. Underwood, E.J., 1977. TRACE ELEMENTS IN HUMAN AND ANIMAL NUTRITION. 4th edn. Academic Press, New York, 545 pp. Wixson, B.G. and Jennett, J.C., 1975. The new lead belt in the forested Ozarks of Missouri. Envtron. Set. Technol., 9(13), 1128-1133. Wong.) P21 .S.4 Chau, Y. K. and. Luxon, Pol. , 1975. Methylation of lead in the environment. Nature, 253, 263-264. Report of Council for the Year Ended 31st March, 1978 Presented at the 111th Annual General Meeting of the Society held on Sth April, 1978. INTRODUCTION The year has seen the settling-in of the Society in the Science Centre. The office arrangements have worked smoothly and effectively and the financial situation, whilst still of concern to Council, shows the benefits arising from the economies put in train the previous year. Sir John Kerr requested that he be permitted to retire from the office of Patron of the Society upon relinquishing his appointment as Governor General of Australia, and Council acknowledges with appreciation the support Sir John had given to the Society by his patronage. Council has much pleasure in announcing that His Excellency, Sir Zelman Cowen, A.K., G.C.M.G., K.St.J., Q.C.,; Governor General of Australia, has graciously granted his patronage to the Society. MEETINGS Council held 11 meetings during the year and dealt with all the business matters of the Society. Attendance of members of Council at these meetings ranged from 13 to 17. Nine general monthly meetings were held during the year, together with two special meetings, namely ''The Clarke Memorial Lecture and "An Evening at the Macleay Museum". Abstracts of these meetings will be published in the Journal and Proceedings; abstracts of the lectures have already been published in the Society's Newsletter. Average attendance at the general monthly meetings was 40. Council considers this figure to be disappointingly low considering the excellent standard of the lectures and urges members of the Society to take advantage of the opportunities that these lectures provide, of becoming better informed on a wide variety of interesting topics. Council expresses its sincere thanks to all the speakers who contributed to a thoroughly interesting series of lectures. ANNUAL DINNER The Annual Dinner was held in the Sydney Hilton Hotel on 17 March 1978 and was attended by 90 members and guests. The guest speaker was Sir Asher=Joel, K.B.E., M.L.C., F.R.S.A., the title of his address being "The Political Permutations of Housey-Housey". AWARDS The following awards for 1977 were made: - Emeritus Professor Irvine A. Watson Professor R.A. Antonia James Cook Medal Edgeworth David Medal Clarke Medal Dr. A.F. Trendall The Society's Medal Mr. J.W.- Humphries Walter Burfitt Dr. Allen Kerr Medal § Prize Clarke Memorial Lectureship Professor J.F.G. Wilkinson SUMMER SCHOOLS The two Summer Schools held during January for fifth form Secondary students again proved successful with a total of 52 students attending. The Chemistry School, ''Chemistry and the Swimming Pool", was held in conjunction with Macquarie Univers Ucy aS AN previous years. 9 The second school was in the field of Geology with the theme title 'Man, Mining and the Environment". Council expresses its sincere thanks to all who contributed to make these schools a success. MEMBERSHIP The membership at 31 March 1978 was: Honorary Members ie Life Members 37 Members 339 Associate Members 50 Company Member 1 Professor Sir John Cornforth was elected to Honorary Membership in 1977. PUBLICATIONS Volume 110 of the Journal and Proceedings was published during the year. There were also nine issues of the Society's monthly Newsletter. This continues to be a successful medium for communicating information on Society activities to members and the special feature articles are of particular interest. The assistance of Dr. J. Dulhunty in collecting and editing these feature articles is gratefully acknowledged. LIBRARY The Library has continued to meet the demands made upon it and 143 requests for material were received; of these, 94% were from Commonwealth and State Departments, Universities, Colleges, Companies, Hospitals and similar organizations, and only 6% from members of the Society. Some 2,321 items were received and processed; these comprised periodicals on exchange from 368 societies and institutions in addition to donations and purchases. The library has continued to be open only two full days per week and Librarian, Mrs. G. Proctor, has maintained the library services at a haph level: FINANCE The accompanying financial statements show that a deficit of $420 was incurred on operations during the year. This amount was affected by the abnormal circumstance that the Government subsidies for both 1976 and 1977 were received during 1977. If the subsidy attributable to 1976 is credited to the deficit for that year the 1976 deficit becomes $9271 and the deficit for 1977 becomes $2920. The improvement is considerable and is largely due to a strenuous effort to contain costs. The interest received from general investments was sharply reduced due to the need to draw on invested capital 50 REPORT OF COUNCIL to finance the deficits of 1976 and 1977. At the close of the year the Society received its share of the estate of the late Dr. J.F. Codrington, whose will (in 1940) had nominated the Society as a joint beneficiary, subject to life- time legacies. The sum will be invested to provide income to assist in maintaining the Society's operations. Unless unforeseen circumstances arise, it should thus be possible to avoid a deficit in the coming year and the assistance in achieving this aim provided by Dr. Codrongton's generous bequest is gratefully acknowledged. The provision for longservice leave liability was discontinued by Council because the Society has no present liability nor will it have in the foreseeable future. Further, the Council resolved to capitalize a substantial part of the accumulated revenue of the trust funds since there had been no previous action to sustain their capital value despite the ravages of inflation. The change will increase the interest revenue of each fund and thereby facilitate the proper execution of the donor's wishes. Members and friends of the Society are remind- ed that maintenance of the Library costs the Society in the vicinity of $5000 per annum, excluding floor rental. Attempts to gain direct Government assistance with the costs associated with this nationally important collection have all so far failed. However, all donations of $2.00 or more to the "Royal Society of New South Wales Library Fund" are tax deductible and will be appreciated. SCIENCE CENTRE The Science Centre has made significant progress during the year. It now provides secretarial facilities to some 16 kindred organizations and its conference and lecture room facilities are steadily becoming more and more used. The financial situation of the Science Centre however, continues to be grave. The Fund Raising Appeal has so far failed to attract sufficient donations to make any realistic impact on the overall indebtedness to the Commonwealth Bank. This situation is of very real concern to your Council and to your four Directors on the Board of the Centre and a number of avenues are being explored which may lead to an improvement. Your Council continues to believe that the concept of the Science Centre is inherently sound and is determined to do its utmost to ensure that that concept shall be carried forward successfully and that the future of this Society shall be ensured. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Council once again acknowledges the excellent work of Mrs. Judith Day in the general running of the Society' office and of Mrs. Grace Proctor in the running of the Society's Library. Council also wishes to record its appreciation to all those who contributed to the organization of, and the success of, the various activities of the Society during the year. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE NEW ENGLAND BRANCH OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES OFFICERS Chairman: S.C. Haydon Secretary Treasurer: R.E. Gould Committee: R.L. Stanton, N.T.M. Yeates (resigned during year), R.D.H. Fayle, “N.H: Fletehem Representative on Council: R.L. Stanton MEET INGS The following meetings were held: 21 June 1977 "Reconstructing Triassic Vegetation of Eastern Australia", Mr. G.J. Retallack, Geology Department, University of New England. "Coal, Sugar Cane and Uranium; energy policy options for Australia”, Dr: “1. Lewe,.thesOpen University, London, England. 8 September, 1977 "'Environmental Pollution by Heavy Metals - their effects on human and animal health", Prof. H. Bloom, Professor of Physical Chemistry, University of Tasmania. 16 September, 1977 "The Witwatersland Goldfield - changing ideas", Prof. D. Pretorius, Professor of Economic Geology, University of Witwatersland. 13, August, 1977 FINANCIAL STATEMENT Balance as at 31 December 1976 $204.50 Credit - Interest to 29 June 1977 3.57 Royal Society of N.S.W.- Council Grant 100.00 - Interest to 29 Dec. 1977 4.14 ee AA Debit - Advertising $ 5.60 - Miscellaneous 5.67 Stl 27 Balance as at 31 December 1977 $300.94 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SOUTH COAST BRANCH OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES OFFICERS Chairman: B.E. Clancy Secretary Treasurer: Representative on Council: G. Doherty G. Doherty No meetings of the Branch were held during i977. FINANCIAL STATEMENT Balance as at 31 December 1976 $ 48.25 Credit - Interest to 24 June 1977 0.78 $ 49.03 $ 49.03 Balance as at 31 December 1977 REPORT OF COUNCIL 5] CITATIONS EDGEWORTH DAVID MEDAL The Edgeworth David Medal for 1977 is awarded to Professor Robert Anthony Antonia for distinguished contributions to engineering research. This award is restricted to scientists under the age of 35. Professor Robert Anthony Antonia holds the Chair of Mechanical Engineering, University of Newcastle, New South Wales. Aged 34, Professor Antonia already has an established international reputation. His research has been primarily in the field of fluid flow, with particular reference to turbulance. He has published 67 papers, all but one of which are based on work carried out in Australia. Professor Antonia graduated B.E. (Sydney) in 1964 and obtained his Ph.D. (Sydney) in 1970. In 1972 he was appointed Lecturer in Mechanical Engineering and in 1975, Senior Lecturer within the University of Sydney. He was appointed to the Chair at Newcastle in January 1976. In awarding the Edgeworth David Medal to Professor Antonia, the Royal Society of New South Wales recognizes in him one of Australia's most brilliant young scientists. His achievements to date have been outstanding. THE JAMES COOK MEDAL The James Cook Medal for 1977, for outstanding contributions to Science and Human Welfare in and for the Southern Hemisphere, is awarded to Emeritus Professor Irvine Armstrong Watson. Professor Watson retired from the University of Sydney in 1977 being at that time the first Director of the Institute of Plant Breeding and Head of the Department of Agricultural Botany. During his distinguished career of some 39 years at the University of Sydney he made important, and internationally acclaimed, contributions to knowledge of the genetics of the interaction of the wheat plant and wheat rust fungi. Additionally he made significant contributions to agriculture by the development of new wheat varieties of high quality and rust resistance. Professor Watson's early research was concerned with the genetics of virulence in wheat rust organisms and the genetical nature of the resistance to them in the wheat plant. He showed that when specific resistance in the host was considered, a number of loci could be established in the host which controlled this resistance. This laid the groundwork for the broad genetic approach to breeding rust resistant wheats. Professor Watson developed the concept of the negative relationship between genes for virulence on the one hand and genes for fitness on the other. He also carried out very significant work on the nature of asexual variation in the wheat stem rust organism, and the techniques he developed have been followed by other workers to demonstrate the same processes in other organisms. The work on breeding of new rust resistant varieties of wheat was given significant impetus in the 1950's when cytogenetical studies were begun to determine the feasibility of combining genes. The success of this work is evidenced by the now extensive cultivation of new wheats in which several genes have been combined; in the traditional rust areas of northern N.S.W. and Queensland there have been no significant losses from rust in 25 years, although, during the same period, major losses have been recorded on three separate occasions in other parts of N.S.W. Rust resistance has been combined with improved and stabilized yields. Over one third of Australia's wheat area is now planted with these new wheats. Professor Watson has published widely and has received recognition as a leading authority in wheat breeding, not only nationally but internationally; he has received a number of distinguished awards including election as a Foreign Member of the Soviet Academy of Agricultural Sciences (1972). Professor Watson is indeed a worthy recipient of the James Cook Medal. THE CLARKE MEDAL The Clarke Medal for 1977 for distinguished work in the natural sciences is awarded to Dr. Alec Francis Trendall. After graduating from Imperial College, London, and from Liverpool University, Dr. Trendall spent some time as a geologist with South Georgia Survey and with the Geological Survey of Uganda. In 1962 he joined the Geological Survey of Western Australia where he is currently Deputy Director. Following some sound work on the Precambrian basement in Uganda, Dr. Trendall carried out an original study on laterite and erosion surfaces. However, his main research has been on the banded iron-formations of the Hamersley Basin, where his detailed stratigraphic and petrographic work has led to significant 52 REPORT OF COUNCIL CITATIONS advances, recognized internationally and summarized in his paper on "Three great basins of Precambrian banded iron formation deposition: a systematic comparison.'' The ramifications of this work are given in his paper "Revolution in earth history,'' published in 1972. His current research, including geochronological studies with J.R. de Laeter, is helping to elucidate the Precambrian of Western Australia. Dr. Trendall is very active professionally. He has been President of the Geological Society of Australia and of the Royal Society of Western Australia. He is currently a member of the Australian National Committee for Geological Sciences of the Australian Academy of Science, and has served as a member of the Australian National Committee for the Upper Mantle Project and International Geological Correlation Programme (1.G.C.P.). It is fitting that a geologist of the scientific and professional standing of Dr. Alec Trendall should receive the one hundredth award of the Clarke Medal. THE SOCIETY'S MEDAL The Society's Medal for 1977 is awarded to Mr. J.W. Humphries for his work on precision measurements in physical metrology, and particularly for his contribution and service to the Society. Mr. Humphries is a New Zealander and it was in his capacity as an officer of the New Zealand D.S.1.R. that he was first involved with precision measurements and, during the war years, with maritime navigational equipment. Coming to Australia to join the C.S.I.R.O. National Measurement Laboratory he has continued his work on precision measurement, and he has had the responsibility for the custodianship and maintenance of the Australian National Standard of Mass, this has resulted in him being involved in work where precision and accuracy of one part in one hundred million is the requirement. Mr. Humphries joined the Society in 1959 and has served for many years on Council, being President in 1964. He has been an office bearer and has served on most of the Society's Sub-committees, and was Honorary Secretary from 1972 - 1976. In addition Mr. Humphries represents the Society as a Director on the Board of Science House Pty. Limited. Many new members and visitors have been grateful to Jack Humphries for his ability to make them feel so much at ease and welcome at our meetings; this ability together with his willingness to serve our Society in so many different ways indeed makes him a very worthy recipient for the Society's Medal. WALTER BURFITT PRIZE The Walter Burfitt Prize for 1977 is awarded to Dr. Allen Kerr of the Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Adelaide, for his work on biological control of crown gall in stone fruit trees. This is the first time the award has been made in the field of agriculture. The Walter Burfitt Prize is awarded at intervals of three years for original work of the highest scientific merit in pure or applied science, carried out in Australia or New Zealand, by a worker resident in one of these countries. Dr. Kerr's work on biological control of crown gall is unique and the scientific and economic implications of his discovery are far-reaching. Dr. Kerr's basic finding, described in an article in New Setentist as "almost too good to be true", is that by treating seedlings with a non-virulent strain of the causative agent, not giving rise to any disease symptoms, trees are enabled to grow healthily, even in soils infected by the disease-producing bacterium. Dr. Kerr has successfully integrated several lines of research to provide the first really useful means of controlling crown gall of stone fruit, and to provide a brilliant theoretical analysis of the inhibition of the pathogenic agrobacteria by a non-pathogenic, antibiotic-producing strain. The rapid acceptance of Dr. Kerr's non-polluting biological control technique by overseas scientists is a measure of the trust placed in his work. Financial Statements for 1977 7,200 416,991 93,822 AUDITORS REFORT TO THE MEMBERS In our opinion: (a) the attached balance sheet and income and expenditure account are properly drawn up in accordance with the Rules of the Society and so as to give a true and fair view of the state of affairs of the Society at 31st December 1977 and of the results of the Society for the year ended on at date; and (b) the accounting records and other records, and the reqisters required by the Rules to be kept by the Society have been properly kept in accordance with the provision of those Rules. WYLIE & PUTTOCK Chartered Accou BALANCE SHEET as at 31/12/77 RESERVES Library Reserve (note 2(¢i)) Resumption Reserve (note ° 2(ii)) LIBRARY FUND (note 2¢(iii)) LONG SERVICE LEAVE FUND TRUST FUNDS (note 4) ACCUMULATED FUNDS TOTAL RESERVES & FUNDS CURRENT ASSETS Petty Cash Imprest Debtors for Subscriptions 1,605 Less Provision For Doubtful Debts 1,605 Other Debtors & Frepayments Interest Bearing Deposit Cash at Bank Less: CURRENT LIAGILITIES Sundry Creditors & Accruals Life Members Subscriptions —- Current Fortion Membership Subscriptions Faid in Advance Subcriptions to Journal Faid in Advance NET CURRENT ASSETS ntants. 61 By ALAN M. FPUTTOCK Registered under the Fublic Accountants Registration Act, 13,671 512,495 512,496 565,988 $3 i945 as amended. Add: FIXED ASSETS Furniture, Office Equipment, etc.- at cost less Depreciation Lantern - at cost less Depreciation Library - 1926 Valuation Fictures - at cost less Depreciation Add: INVESTMENTS Commonwealth Bonds & Inscribed Stock Interest Bearing Deposits Add: ASSOCIATED CORPORATIONS (note 3) Shares - at Cost Advances & Loans - Unsecured Less: NON-CURRENT LIAGILITIES Life Members Subscriptions - Non-Current Fortion NET ASSETS W. H. ROGERTSON Honorary President A. A. DAY Honorary Treasurer 26,580 40, 000 66, 580 515,238 79 515,159 FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 54 ST986 CEBLSS keTo} 2a § 00926 cc ccBLé$ 827c 00s B86TL46 L£yse ost OOTvS LOLt £6226 $ $ L£L6T 9L6T T669TYS O6469TY T TE69THS T6469TY $ LL6t 00cLE 00c2 $ L£L6T 82e T4669T7S 22gZz spun} [Teuauab ao} Bbutmg spuoy Y4}yTeamuouwog “UOF}PEYOdIOD pa}etIosse 0} SUPOq yueq }& yseg :Aq pazpUuasauday ZZ6T Jaquarzaqg STE YE adueTeYg Xaput yIaFqns 4o0 uotyeuedaud as spun} Teuauad 0} adUueApY SAFPFT FIC} ANCuGTFT ay pre, sOurzyty Ayeuqry saseysund Ayeuqty ssaq }SSsazpPUF yYyueg pue suot}euog ppy 226 Avenues 3ST }eE sduepeyg puny AJC4NGt] (FFF) WOFPE4OdIOD payetrzosse 0 sueOoq UOFPEYOdIOD pazetIOsse UF saueYs :4q pazuasauday ZZ6T 4aquazag ysTe ye adueTeYg Yeak puauyuNy yFItyap Buryeuvadg '@4 spun} pazyetnunsse O} Pauyajysueyy, ssaq 2267 Auenuer 4yspT 7e adueTeg SAsasay uotzydunsay (FF) 2267 4aquaceg 4yste ye adueTey ButnboTeyedau Ayeugty ;@4 spun}y pazyet_Nunsde 0} pasvajssueuy ssaq 226) Avenues 7ST YE aruepey BAsvasay AVeuqty (Ff) SAANSS3IY ONY SNOISIAONS NI SLNAWSAOW °S (f PUS (FFE)Z SBzZOU OsSTe sas) *SzTITyap Burjpessdo yasu 0% pazyeIOTTE AT[N} uaaq sey “p37 "Add ssnoy aduatos 9% 066°9THS DUFPUST JSzPFE *ansasay uorzduNsay ay, yo a2ueTeq ayy SUOTZEUadG WOUFs ZEITSZAqQ (q) yUuSeUdENbA a3t¥4Gg Sunzpruung :84@ Asn UF sazeu Tenuue yedtoutud ayy "sueak Ja}ET UT $3509 uTedau pazyedrirzue so} moTTe O} SP OS SFSEG SNTEA UMOP US}zPTIM EB UO pazetTNITed st UOT PEt audag Pa}dope osTe auam satoIttod burzunos3e yons *“49qua39q YSTy papusa sveak ayy so} sqzunor3e S}F 84} Aq Ppajydope satoztF{od Bbutyzunoz7ze PFUCDFYTU UOFPERIAUdag (e) “weak burpazaud ayy ut “P9ZE}S astmuayzo ssartupn "ZL61 $O UOTYEYEdaud ayy Ut KYaTIOS BTS 84} ave sapunauvay yno 7aS SATIIIOd INILNNOIDY LNYIISINIIS 4O ANYWWNS “T 2261 ‘saquacxag yst¢ papua ueak BYU} soy SLINNGIDY SHL 430 LYN¥.4d INIWNOS GNY OL S3LON MES, PUS4IND-SGNNA GSLYINWNIDY zea ‘se foe ‘tT SStPTT HIE, AVeuqry = $O UOFSTAOUY sO} PUsUAeY puny Ayeugt] 0} ywassueuy Foe sT NOILVINdONddY MOS JIAVTIIVAY (SHO ‘ZE) yea, eze‘ze yO Butuutbay-spuny pazyetnunsosy puny aaeaq - a2tAUSaSg Bu07q wou}y vaysueuy SAsasay €2Zg42Z uot}dunsay wou}s yassueul puny AJe@sgt] wou}y vassueuL B7Z BAJasay AVEUGT] wou}y yvaysueu, OFg‘T uoz,butupoy - "43 "f "4d 9327 830359 spaar0uyg puny 4yveuqry = goer ‘tT O} PSauazpuT BY suotzeuog Jeak sos LIDISSG T22‘TT 2267 saquaceg Te papug yea, ayz vo04 SQNN4 G3LYINWNIDY JO LNAWSLYLS 35) FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 3. ASSOCIATED CORPORATIONS The Society has entered into a joint venture with the Linnean Society for the establishment of a Science Centre for New South Wales and to facilitate this, a company, Science House Fty. Limited, has been formed in which each Society has 50% interest. Advances and loans to the company have been on an interest free basis repayable at call. No material repayments are anticipated prior to 3ist December, 1978 Total amount advanced Less Repaid during year Balance at 3ist December 1977 Representing: Resumption reserve Library fund Accumulated funds 4. TRUST FUNDS 1976 Capital Balance at ist January 1977 7000 Capitalisation of accumulated revenue Balance at 3ist December 1977 $7000 Revenue Revenue income for period Less Expenditure Add Balance from 1976 3652 Less Capitalisation Total Revenue $4374 Total Trust Funds 1976 $ 12495 Clarke 1977 $ $12495 92500 $419995 Walter Liversidae Olle Memorial Burfitt Bequest Bequest Frize $ $ $ $ 3600 2000 1400 ~ 1200 1000 600 1300 $4800 $3000 $2000 $1300 464 290 193 247 S555 27 - 67 (91) 263 193 180 1291 1099 629 1355 1200 1362 822 1535 1200 1000 600 1300 $NIL $3462 $222 $235 $4800 $3362 $2222 $1535 Total 1976 $ SOURCE OF FUNDS Operating deficit for the year = Add: Items not involving the outlay of funds in the current period: Depreciation of fixed assets = Provision for doubtful debts = Funds derived from operations Donations and interest to library fund Withdrawal of investments Trust fund income Reduction in working funds Life membership subscriptions Loan to associated company repaid Proceeds Estste Late Dr. J. F. Codrington APPLICATION OF FUNDS Operating deficit for the year 11771 Less: Items not involving the outlay of funas in the current period: Depreciation of fixed assets 252 Provision for doubtful debts 1014 Funds applied to operations Loan to associated company Purchase of furniture & equipment Reclassification of life members subscriptions in advance Increase in investments Trust fund expenses Fayment for provision of library facilities Increase in working funds 1976 $ FUNDS STATEMENT FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31ST DECEMBER 1977 1977 1977 1462 FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 56 Ocy weak ayy JO} LTDIIRG TZZ Ty9 ‘ee 6Z0 ‘8z £TL auoydsta, 19¢ S ssakotdug 9TZ - SUOTFPNGEIZUOD UuoTFPeENUUeVadns £88 SaItAsJaS Tetye~suIaS «GHZ yT6°S SSTYETES 9469 TET SIUPUSUTEW yg suteday gg BS ‘Z yay 29L SY yLZT*T $399Q 1N$}qQN0g vO} UOTSTADIG YTO‘T vel Telausa) ] 24S 25 bets 139 ORS 57.43) 2°45 Sih 996 LOST 140 Ew. 57, 355 44 17 989 9.41 141 7 #2 57. 555 43 03 988 142 8.6 57 24 44 14 985 8.21 143 Ora Diluee 43 45 981 9.50 145 On 56,067 §-47724 967 1505 146 LSS 56-498 = 245005 962 25 147 9/0 56 49 46 21 961 8.78 148 Oe 56 48 45 42 958 il{o)e Sal 151 OS 56 22 45 11 949 9.46 52 10.9 56-152 45 356 154 10.9 55. 44 45 02 157 OF5 SYh We) eae SY, 927. 176 9.3 HIS VSS 15 1023 9.15 W7GBen tO 2 59 13 38 00 997 IIE tle 59, 0672-41709 , 178 oS 58237 4.59: .30 1017 9.60 C No. Wy Hy a oy P Notes 32 - 4 4 8 6 99 33 6 - 6 4 8 99 34 6 -10 8 5 99 8 10 9 8 99 6 11 9 3 99 98 3 = 35 4 5 99 99 -20 -17 10 9 94 4 -12 Sy 3 6 99 149 244 12 T 0 6 33 5 1 5 67 -15 3 10 7 99 28 - 1 6 4 2 99 69 8 12 10 1 99 56 - 2 2 7 12 99 35 2 - 4 i 3 99 36 11 3 5 6 99 - 4 21 3 16 98 37 7 -10 5 6 99 38 8 =v 8 8 99 B - 8 -17 8 11 98 96 7 14 10 11 99 2 - 1 - 5 5 10 99 97 -25 5 5 4 96 3 - 6 5 5 2 99 68 -139 11 13 0 19 -91 3 4 0 - 4 0 3 9 99 63 -20 -196 5 9 0 6 64 -23 -198 Seale 0 6 3 -13 11 8 99 24 0 i. 7 5 99 No. 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 188 189 190 192 193 194 196 198 199 200 201 202 203 205 206 207 208 241 212 213 214 215 216 217 219 220 244 245 248 250 251 252 255 254 299 256 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 Zod 292 295 294 295 296 297 F298 300 302 303 304 305 PROPER MOTIONS IN THE REGION OF THE GALACTIC CLUSTER NGC 2516 TABLE 1 continued — bh eS a = ODWUWUDTDUOWOrFRRrRWOUWONIOAWArFOMWOrFR WOW OO WO WOO CO COCOMONNUMINIUN MNP WWDNINOWNINO UR UON WNAIDRPWNIPPOWUOUNIDUNOUNAIBPONWWW DPR RP OUUNWNANINWeH bh ra re LCOlLNO LONGO a OSS) 10. C No. 22 59 90 91 =r ry ONUNANIWAANWNNINWONNNAIANIFNIFANUANIUNUNODNINUDOHPAWONAAADADHPOUWAAHPNADNANONONINIANNAUNOFHKrRON WH K = DOUWDADUNODOOFHFWOAIWWAOMNAYIFNNIADAMDOAINVDANIPSPAIAHDAWOAAWHAPUMNANIDWOAIANTNAWADA ANIA UNUNAAIKFPUONOWNAP NWP DHAPA SX (Ss) e ee RN ra — — = ere — ea Notes 63 64 No. Mag. 306 OF 307 OF 308 iba 310 ABE 311 8. S13 Os 314 9. 316 Tele 318 LO. 344 6. 348 8. 349 Ge 55,0) It. 351 10. Soe Se 559 die. 354 LER 356 10. 358 LO. 359 IOS 361 We 362 10. 363 o: 389 OF Sydney Observatory, WNOrFR ONIN RPRPRPWNWOWOUOWFHANIN DP PUNY Re 56 56 56 56 56 yy) Se) 55 54 58 58 58 oF Sy 57 57 56 56 5D 55 DD a5) 54 55 A. 53 41 55 t3 04 52 28 2A 36 46 24 02 53 47 44 M4 58 28 46 33 28 13 Ay 01 Observatory Park, N.S.W. SYDNEY. 2000 D. S. KING TABLE 1 continued CPD No. V C No. Wy 964 9.44 14 - 5 955 9.21 12 5 11.44 92 7. 11.31 108 -20 947 8.16 13 - 4 943 19 936 - 5 17 928 214 1018 5.21 110 20 1012 8.38 20 14 1008 9.78 17 = 5 -304 999 10.94 109 8 995 9.67 16 -20 8 20 951 10.32 101 -10 = 940 2 935 8 933 11 924 -101 930 -55 (Manuscript received 22-2-78) Q HH PUP HRWNIFP OR UONNTUOONONDADAAOAHHAD << a a Notes Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 111, pp. 65-70, 1978 Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney Observatory During 1977 T. L. MORGAN ABSTRACT. Positions of 2 Pallas, 3 Juno, 11 Parthenope, 18 Melpomene, 39 Laetitia, 148 Gallia and 704 Interamnia obtained with the 23 cm camera are given. The programme of precise observations of selected minor planets begun by W.H. Robertson in 1955 is being continued and the results for 1977 are given here. The methods of observation are described in the first paper (Robertson 1958). All the plates were taken with the 23 cm camera (scale 116" to the millimeter). Four exposures were taken on each plate, except those for 704 Interamnia which had two exposures. inwlabbe I sareygiven the means of the posi- tions for all the exposures for each of two sepa- mate: groups of reference stars*at the mean of the exposure times. The differences in the results for the two groups of reference stars average 0°028 sec 6 in right ascension and 0''50 in declination. Thais; leads ito probable errors for the mean of the two results on the one plate of 02012 sec 6 in right ascension and 0"'21 in declination. The result for the first pair of images was compared with the results for the last pair by adding the motion computed from the ephemeris for the plates with four exposures and by comparing the first and last image for the plates with two ex- posures. The means of the differences were 0°020 sec 6 in right ascension and 0''24 in declination. It is expected that the two results will be com- bined before they are used. However, they are pub- lished in the present form so that any correction to the positions of the reference stars may be con- veniently applied by using the dependences from Table*2. No correction has been applied for aberration, light time or parallax, but the factors give the parallax correction when divided by the distances. The column headed ''0-C'' gives the differences be- tween the measured positions (corrected for paral- lax) and the position computed from the ephemeri- des supplied by the Institute for Theoretical Astronomy in Leningrad. In accordance with the recommendation of Com- mission 20 of the International Astronomical Union, Table 2 gives for each observation the positions of the reference stars and the dependences. The column headed "R.A." and ''Dec."' give the seconds of time and arc with the proper motion correction sup- plied to bring the catalogue position to the epoch of the plate. The column headed "Star" gives the Durchmusterung number taken from either the AGK3 or SAO catalogue. The first column gives a serial number which cross-references Table 1 and Table 2 and also the catalogue from which the reference stars were taken. All plates were reduced by both the methods of dependences and by first order plate constants using the same six reference stars. The r.ms. siduals of the reference stars were 0"'3 for AGK3 stars and O'S for SAO stars. Ges The plates were measured by Mrs A. Brown, Miss J. Fitt and Miss D. Teale who also assisted with the reductions. The observers at the tele- scope were D.S. King (K), T.L. Morgan (M), W.H. Robertson (R) and K.P. Sims (S). References Robertson, W.H., 1958. Precise observations of minor planets at Sydney Observatory during 1955 candi 1956." . J..fHoy. SOC. Nao. We O25 oe Sydney Observatory Papers No. 33 TABLE 1 POSITIONS OF MINOR PLANETS Reve No. (195050) hee mies re) 2 Pallas 1977 U.T. 1507 Mar. 10.47240 08 37 22.845 -07 1508 Mar. 10.47240 08 37 22.834 -07 1509 Mar. 14.46362 08 37 30.851 -05 1510 Mar. 14.46362 08 37 30.814 -05 1511 Mar. 22.45160 08 39 16.052 -02 1512 Mar. 22.45160 08 39 16.043 -02 Dec. Parallax 0-C GiS'50. 0) Factors U " Ss "! Ss " 29 38.74 -0.003 -3.86 -0.05 -0.5 M 29 39.28 a5 25.7 +0.003 -4.10 -0.07 -0.9 M 45 24.55 26 04.97 +0.030 -4.55 -0.10 -0.5 R 26 05.53 66 No. 1513 1514 1515 TS 26 Joya I 1518 1519 1520 P52 1 W522 1523 1524 1525 1526 U527 1528 15,29 1530 Sit 1532 1533 1534 1535 1536 LSS 1538 1539 1540 1541 1542 1543 1544 1545 1546 1547 1548 1549 1550 Alisysyih ES5:2 15519 1554 1555 1556 S57, 1558 1559 1560 1561 1562 2 Pallas (Cont. ) LOW aires Apr. Apr. 04. 04. 3 Juno VOT 7 Winks: Mar. Mar. Apr. Apr. May May June June June June July July July July Aug. Aug. 40865 40865 . 72678 . 72678 - 69118 209118 «5/7019 ~5/019 - 47076 - 47076 - 46176 -46176 sO 9N- ee BES IAC + 37852 rae 04. 04. 5/832 34867 34867 11 Parthenope 1977: U. 1. Apr. Apr. May May June June June June July July July July Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. Zits De: 24. 24. 16. Ik a2. 22 13. 1% ilhe - 49543 43951 -43951 41692 - 41692 - 40700 - 40700 75743 T5743 69034 69034 59115 59715 57473 57473 51837 liSSy, 49543 18 Melpomene OT Tie. Mar. Mar. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. May May June June July July July July - 76360 . 76360 a/29 10 . 72910 . 68156 . 68156 199720 209 1.20 . 50973 OOS - 42386 -42386 -42012 42012 h 08 08 16 16 15 15 iS) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 5 15 15 ibs) 18 18 18 18 18 18 17 le, 7, LNG sly if 197; Iki sd iy Te, 17 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 LS 15 LS 15 R. (1950. 0) m 46 46 A. aS) Oe 07. T. L. MORGAN TABLES. (Cont, ) POSITIONS OF MINOR PLANETS 264 229 ~495 . 540 742 aa aol ~ Le2 li S2 . 034 . 048 LO 714 -854 . 876 . 916 20 2 0 - 506 . 666 . 646 “528 2595 962 7999 - 069 ~114 = 195 . 760 412 - 403 2250 . 260 . 876 ~ 950 -540 . 560 ahs) 534 . 658 . 706 .678 . 666 . 674 . 660 . 104 ; 095 F tek) - 830 . 262 SPAS) O +02 -06 - 06 -05 -05 -01 -01 (0) -01 -01 = (01 —O2 -02 -02 = 02 -03 -03 -18 -18 -18 -18 -18 -18 -18 -18 -19 -f9 -19 =1'9 -20 =2) -21 aa ail -21 -09 =09 -08 -08 -07 =077 =(0}55 -05 -04 -04 -06 - 06 -06 -06 Dec. (1950 ! 18 18 " 25: 25. -0) 74 UP +0. +0. Parallax Factors " .008 -5.15 sO140. —3.98 022 \=4.20 J058 > =4:565 2022 7-470 .006 -4.70 .001 -4.59 O00) ~=4553 .018 -4.39 SOS2S> 255 2058 -=2559 020% = 2) 51 007) 5-228 BOS) sear dA) O2Z55 =D l2 .004 -2.00 O16" ,=1.92 016 -1.89 O19: % =3.:56 OOS Tie o a4 “O16 = — 31 91 .004 -4.18 .032 -4.24 .027 -4.05 BOO SR 99 OZ #03 . 03 On =07 ~ OF .O1 202 . 06 05 .05 nOm 05 «= O7, . 06 01 . 04 . 03 -O1 305 02 a2 02 -O1 . 00 +0. +0. No. 1563 1564 1565 1566 1567 1568 1569 1570 1571 1572 1573 1574 1575 1576 1S,77 1578 1579 1580 1581 1582 1583 1584 1585 1586 1587 1588 1589 1590 1591 1592 1593 1594 1595 1596 1597 1598 1599 1600 1601 1602 1603 1604 1605 1606 PRECISE OBSERVATIONS OF MINOR PLANETS h m 18 Melpomene (Cont. ) 197 7. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. U.T. 08.37191 OG. 57491 1557287 US. S72 87, 39 Laetitia 1977 U.T. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. May May June June June June July July Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. 13. 76183 13.76183 18. 74688 18. 74688 ISIS I PLPR SS Ziel 2295 24. 66737 24. 66737 16. 56836 16. 56836 22.55638 22.55638 13.49756 13.49756 04.41807 04. 41807 08.41876 08.41876 148 Gallia 1977 U.T. Sep. Sep. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. 704 Interamnia 12.77134 12.77134 05.73068 05.73068 17. 68099 17.68099 07.62367 07.62367 16.58588 16.58588 05.55012 05.55012 08.53774 08.53774 197 Ue Feb. Feb. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Apr. Apr. 14. 65233 14. 65283 16.54730 16.54730 21.54774 21.54774 18.44713 18.44713 15 tS 16 16 R. Ae (1950.0) S 934 . 890 .819 . 804 . 560 584 645 . 680 . 288 OLS . 598 . 634 ~145 bplialiG hoz o70 = 706 2092 710 Odie . 834 .810 252 ~279 .651 - 630 as ehs) 934 976 . 946 -470 548 . 188 = As ayleg 2 SZ anand) . 628 Ory . 888 wot 576256 OATES, «51 So 32991629 so O2-S1Oi/ . 338004 . 267788 OL6.5I015 ~415850 Be Sb) - 344316 - 336554 2091005 - 341467 Bef iSie Mey 72 jf . S0S7C2 wO2 aS - Sa040 pea dlesyil ats) O77 DO ~ 57 0:69) - 358060 - 349002 - 292938 . 971636 : 5038 5:6 - 924508 Beagles) ak 7S 5d 250 2559958 = 5 Def Sat - 5/2 216'66 1S Gi7.518 SSSA SIS) . 360836 . 286826 . 313746 Beavis) . 290378 BAAS = .J42 > SES) .524 -065 7-3 chal Aes) .416 .842 BS!) no OG . 840 . £65 eS oz .147 ~Oroy/, . 862 eA .061 oo 20 1'59 apd) - 340 eG .862 eden) .605 .174 2918 .638 FO Sel elu 038 ~ 324 . 380 jib g/ .638 2613 ~ 747 ~452 ~495 .924 BS AS enOreel: . 380 5176 Co -940 . 394 =9'O9 ~492 02.5 298 - 628 es? . 088 3» S97 . 606 Bree kies ~465 + AS) Se) Sy oy ete) SOOO OS) OOOO SE) SNOT OOO) OS) KS OSS) (Oe S) CO ere@) eeonen ey te Se yO) (SS) (OOS) LOMO) (e) te) fe) fee) eye (Te) yee) PRECISE OBSERVATIONS OF MINOR PLANETS Depend. ~ 324682 . 311884 - 363433 - 340304 es DS . 287660 soo l07 1 . 287248 - 381681 nO DGS S0 SAMOS 150 La60 ~412950 - 308934 278116 - 446689 PADI ESTAS KS) moO oal2 ~o48 175 « 549613 . 302214 eZ gore 14 . 376084 wo20 7 02 ~ 354465 OO L » 322010 - 400824 oO DOO 2 . 266174 eo 4224:8 mo 2.08/02 55.6950 ~56/ 505 - 557830 . 294867 «556200 917-3286 72905 £3 tom 7 S010 O27 45 Pee prey epi) <0 0025 = 220080 - 343091 5:75:01 1 p29 O72 . 297416 Toma 8 0 - 340826 - 344394 20 246i) » 350489 - 397074 EELS: » 352654 oA SISO 9.9 2071050 - 397002 ~o 15 249 OnLy 2.0.5 - 350034 - 334684 - 360024 - 351808 - 288168 TABLE 2 (Cont...) REFERENCE STAR POSITIONS AND DEPENDENCES Soule - 002 . 000 Oral . 746 . 884 .652 .002 Dec. No. Star 1 W CO CO WO CHO NI CO CO DW CO DW CO NJ CD NI CO NJ CO NI ON] ON 4515 4624 4540 4521 4533 4538 4462 4482 4483 4612 4478 4485 4447 4612 4468 4600 4456 4471 4414 4527 4429 4522 4417 4427 4502 4316 4460 4305 4510 4518 4442 4510 4323 4501 4315 4456 802 851 825 844 805 828 839 768 852 829 769 875 Bis 900 867 837 886 832 1490 1495 1523 1488 1509 1512 1432 iat 1739 1686 1729 1468 SFOS). OOO OO OC OO Oo Oo OOo) Oo OO Of OO OOO CO OG O'S CO OO SC Go Oo OC OO) 2 oO OO O10 O10 C1 OO, OO OOo CO OC O70 OC O'S Depend. e042 - 314906 Oy2, Lipo sous foo) pes) IRS OE POC0SSS - 348316 . 290846 . 274534 05 45'5.0 PaSTA OR Ales » 574530 Hoo Zoe 5 USES sits) Ooo) . 300494 FO ODD EOIN 2 . 280301 ~ 960598 - 306814 LOLS 96 ol 290 - 351840 BeOS I - 359084 . 35:4:23.6 - 404676 - 241086 » 330044 BOS O20 7 ~ 5591688 . 264580 - 418403 ook OMG SS 0K 06) - 274813 . 342120 #269065 wo9 6150 «5510706 S510 . 372476 ~ SHOL 69 ~ SOI SG 2541759 -o 19035 Servis Os - S435892 20S - 299208 RES YocHO Vad 7 lel . 238464 7599667 . 361848 SISTA - 408182 294575 a SMES - 304030 - 342814 «02/7 160 . 377458 Zo ooo L 5 MASE Pa oye eg 0 OF woo ee Eee = 0iG0 »029 ey. 2505 eZ, ~459 aol lars OO .048 woul A PRPAE eA -905 . 036 ~345 . 488 .018 .947 a299 “2016 ESS) ASE - 440 - 446 woes) nO Fes) BS oey wou oO . 204 oo /alee HENS 309 Aha) « Lo/ ace shen 1 0 O02 . 040 .499 only 0.00 ae iia TIES aya > 166 OD Bers 7788 or e208 S51 ee ee ao) te O27 7006 w/18 6 70 No Star 1595 -21 695 SAO -22 1336 -23 1591 1596 -22 1310 SAO -21 704 =D) lid 5:S 1597 = 6/7, SAO -22 1309 =22 1347 1598 -22 1293 SAO -21 687 -21 704 1599 -17 3324 SAO -18 3143 -17 3351 1600 -18 3131 SAO -16 3211 -17 3352 Sydney Observatory, Observatory Park, SYDNEY. 2000 SASSO) (SOS) ooo Oey) CPCS Depend. oO 16 Fee ie alesye al LAL 9:2 - 350646 - 367338 - 282015 - 337634 nO 28098 - 334268 SO LLL2ZS 9 29'7,5'5.9 SHES ALIS) » 352442 . 313816 2555742 2 590:29'5 - 304896 - 344810 R. (Manuscript received 30.8.1978) A. 25.07 .988 . 604 . 675 ~645 .418 0,9)2 BSNS) . 344 119 elo.0 .645 3505 ~ 2/76 ~ 889 nt 23 250) oF kis} T. L. MORGAN TABLE, 2. (Cont. REFERENCE STAR POSITIONS AND DEPENDENCES Dec. Se 53. Zor. O07: O'S. 06. 2h 54. Dlg Ze 56°. Ok OW. Zoe: Se 43. ASr. MSs, No. 1601 SAO 1602 SAO 1603 SAO 1604 SAO 1605 SAO 1606 SAO Star -16 BAG =h7 -16 =1y) -16 15 Balt) -16 -16 ais -16 =) -14 Be Ets =e 213 3130 3143 3259 S36 S252 3145 ZesiL 3244 3136 Sled: 3140 aS 9 3138 3146 3170 3138 3149 SA7e2 Sere oe ye oye) fe) Sy CS) SS) KS) OS) Depend. - 342352 - 330204 . 327444 - 345780 oo 228 « SOOO GZ - 342638 . 327800 »- 329562 - 383842 - 340320 2/9858 - 348870 . 384314 . 266816 . 341871 BATA . 381858 .074 2o9 . 249 .004 . 793 .588 ys) . 184 . 004 . 560 pial - 856 2 OZ - 247 Fakes) - 986 . 499 7 870 a AS 84 - 40 oy 36 -49 Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 111, pp. 71-75, 1978 The Minor Planets* W. H. ROBERTSON ABSTRACT. The discovery and observation of the minor planets is summarised and a review given of our present knowledge of their orbits, masses, diameters and surface properties. HISTORICAL The history of the minor planets or asteroids, dates from the discovery of a regularity in the orbits of the planets, often referred to as Bode's Law, but which was first formulated by Johann dartius,ini1772. Jf the distances of the planets are set out in order, then approximately, if the mean distance of Mercury from the Sun is taken as 4 units, the distance of Venus is 4 + 3 = 7, Earth 1s 4+ 6 = 10,/ Mars.4 + 12 = 16 and so on. The system works quite well as far as Saturn, except that there was a very obvious gap at the point 4 + 24. When Uranus was discovered by Herschel in 1781 and was found to fit the scheme quite well, it strengthened the idea that a missing planet could exist in the gap. It should be mentioned that the scheme breaks down completely in the case of Neptune and Pluto. Around the end of the 18th cen- tury a search for the missing planet was organised by a German astronomer, von Zach. A number of European astronomers began searching the sky for such a body but the final discovery of the first minor planet came about accidentally on the first day of the 19th century - Ist January, 1801, when Piazzi was observing stars at Palermo on the island of Sicily to form a star catalogue. He first no- ticed a star-like object, measured its position, and on the next night found that it had apparently moved. He continued to observe it for some time and initially thought it might be an unusual kind of comet; he did not inform other astronomers until 24th January and as the mails were rather slow, nobody else was able to observe it before it became lost in the evening twilight. Piazzi him- self was able to observe it only until 11th Feb- ruary, after which he was taken ill. Thus there was a considerable risk that the object which had now been called Ceres would be lost so soon after it had been discovered. Several people tried to calculate orbits but they differed considerably from one another. The challenge was taken up by Carl Friedrich Gauss, who although quite a young man was already known for his work in mathematics - especially in algebra and theory of numbers. He had had some ideas on the subject of calculating the orbit of a planet from a limited number of observations and when he heard of the discovery of Ceres, he set to work to perfect the theory and applied it to the urgent problem. His orbit fitted the observations *Presidential address delivered to the Royal Society of New South Wales at Science Centre, Clarence Street, Sydney on 5th April, 1978. which Piazzi had made very much better than those which others had calculated, and he predicted where the planet would be at the end of 1801 on its next apparition. Using the predictions of Gauss, Zach first observed it again for certain on Ist January, 1802, and now that it was found there was no risk that it would be lost again. Gauss went on to im- prove the orbit and to calculate the perturbations caused by the gravitational attraction of the other planets. His method of calculating orbits is still the basis of the methods used for getting the orbits of newly found comets. Olbers, an amateur astrono- mer in Bremen, in 1802 discovered a second minor planet which was given the name Pallas, and two more were discovered in a fairly short time - Juno in 1804 by Harding and Vesta in 1807, again by Olbers. Thus there were four little planets where only one had been expected. This led to the idea that the newly discovered planets were fragments of a larger planet which had somehow broken up, and the search for other bodies was continued for some time. How- ever, no success was achieved and the idea was dropped unti 1845 when Hencke found the fifth one, Astraea. By this time much better star charts were available and this made it easier to recognise a newly discovered star-like object as a stranger, and since 1847 not a year has passed without at least one, and often scores of new asteroids being discovered. The method of discovery was first to search the sky and compare the appearance in the telescope with the best available star chart. If a new object was found, it would be checked for move- ment and after a few weeks sufficient observations might be obtained for a preliminary orbit to be calculated. DISCOVERY AND POSITIONAL OBSERVATION A much more powerful method became available by the use of photography. A long exposure photograph was taken of an area of the sky and if the telescope was guided carefully, the stars would produce small, round images on the photographic plate. However, any asteroid which was present would show up as a short trail because of its motion relative to the stars. Fainter objects can be detected if the photographic plate is moved at the expected speed of a minor planet, because then the light is con- centrated at one place on the plate and not spread out into a trail. A device for this purpose de- Signed by Harley Wood, was constructed at Sydney Observatory - not for discovery, but for observation of the fainter asteroids. Concentrating the light of the minor planet means the star images now appear 7) W. H. ROBERTSON as short straits. Mhettarse observer.to use pote: graphy was Max Wolf, who discovered a minor planet in this way in 1891. Since then, great numbers of minor planets have been found and the number which have orbits sufficiently accurate for unmistakable prediction has now passed 2000. As can be seen from the examples already given, the names given to the minor planets were first taken from goddesses and other female persons of the Greek and Roman mythology, With the increasing number of dis- coveries, the supply of such people from all kinds of mythology began to run out and astronomers chose names from many other sources. They were usually given a feminine ending, although in recent years even this idea has been dropped. The exception to the feminine rule was that planets with unusual or- bits were often given male mythical names, for ex- ample - Eros, Icarus and the recently discovered Chiron. Each planet is also given a number, for example : 1 Ceres, 433 Eros and 1566 Icarus. In recent years the allotting of a permanent number is not done until a sufficiently reliable orbit has been computed and usually not until the asteroid has been seen on three different apparitions. When the? planet as first discovered,!1t.1s ogiveniaspre- liminary number of the form 1976 AA where the first A indicates that it was found jin the first half of January, 1976, and the second A means that it was the first planet found in that period. After the allotment of a permanent number, the original dis- coverer has the right to give it a proper name. The numbers near 1000 were given rather special treatment, thus 998 is called Bodea, 999 Zachia, 1000 Piazzia, 1001 Gaussia and 1002 Olbersia. A similar plan has been adopted for those near 2000; thus 1996 Adams, 1997 Leverrier, 1998 Titius, 1999 Hirayama, 2000 Herschel, 2001 Einstein, 2002 Euler, 2003 Harding, 2004 Lexell, 2005 Hencke. Many discoveries turn out later to be redis- coveries of bodies which have been found years be- fore, but which have not been followed sufficiently for accurate orbits to be obtained. Until the ad- vent of modern computing methods, the number of known minor planets had become something of a nui- sance in that it was difficult to keep track of even those which were already known - let alone the continual flood of new discoveries. This situation was aggravated during the Second World War when computing and observing were very much reduced. However, from 1946 onwards, a number of observat- ories began again to observe the asteroids and the use of modern computers greatly speeded up the cal- culation of the orbits and perturbations by the major planets. The centres for the collection of observations, computing of orbits and calculation of ephemerides have been at the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut in Berlin from 1893 to 1945 and since 1946 at Cincinnati Observatory in the United States, and the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy at; Leningrad U.S.S.R. The, work at. Cincinnati: as now being passed over to the Harvard Smithsonian Centre for Astrophysics at Cambridge, Massachusetts. Cincinnati maintained a file of all observations and the calculation and improvement of orbits and issued a series of Minor Planet Circulars which tabulated this information. Leningrad, also cal- culates improved orbits and publishes a yearly volume of ephemerides which gives for those minor planets which have permanent numbers their pre- dicted positions for 10-day intervals for a period of 70 days around the time of opposition, as well as extended predictions for those of special interest. At Sydney Observatory we first engaged in ob- serving the general field of asteroids to secure observations which would lead to improved orbits. However, more recently the planets which need orbit improvement are almost all very faint objects which cannot be reached from an observatory in the centre of a city where long exposure photographs are impos- sible. Consequently, we have concentrated on get- ting more precise observations of a number of the brighter planets which are being used by the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy at Leningrad to obtain improved determination of fundamental con- stants of astronomy, such as the position of the equator and the equinox. Such observations help to determine corrections to the observed positions in star catalogues. The position of Sydney enables us to observe the asteroids in the southern part of their orbits where they are less accessible to ob- servatories in the northern hemisphere. ORBITS The orbits of the minor planets lie mainly be- tween Mars and Jupiter, with periods ranging between 3% and 6 years, but their orbits are not as regular as those of most of the major planets, and there are some with high inclination and high eccentricity. Some of these latter ones can come well inside the orbit of Mars and in some cases approach fairly close to the Earth. As for the distances from the Sun and therefore of the periods, the distribution is not at all smooth, with significant gaps at the points where there is a resonance with Jupiter, that is where the period would be a fraction in small whole numbers of the period of Jupiter. Thus, gaps occur where this ratio is 1:3, 2:5), (32/7 candaile These gaps are known as the Kirkwood gaps after their discoverer, and the explanation is that an asteroid with such a period would receive oft re- peated perturbations by Jupiter which is the most massive planet in the solar system, and thus would be forced into an orbit with a period either slightly longer or slightly shortex. sie has also been shown by Hirayama that a considerable fraction of the minor planets could be grouped into ''fami- lies" of planets which had similar orbits. This idea was extended by Brouwer and one possible ex- planation is that the members of a family were once parts of a larger body which broke up because of a collision, though this cannot be regarded as proved. Another notable grouping is known as the Trojan asteroids. In his work on celestial mechanics, Joseph Lagrange predicted in the 18th century, that bodies at the same distance from the Sun as Jupiter, would be in stable orbits if they occupied positions either ahead of or behind Jupiter, in such a posi- tion that Jupiter, the Sun and the third body formed an equilateral triangle. The first body to satisfy this relationship was 588 Achilles, discovered by Wolf in 1906 and since then more than twenty Trojans have been discovered. They are called Trojans be- cause their names are selected from heroes of the Trojan war described by Homer in the Iliad, and it is conventional to have Greek names for those near one Lagrangian point and Trojan names for those near the other. In fact, the planets do not keep strictly to the exact equilateral points but can depart considerably from them. For one thing, THE MINOR PLANETS 73 Jupiter's orbit is not a circle and perturbations by Saturn also have a considerable effect. MASSES Because they are so small, it has proved very difficult to determine directly the mass of even the largest minor planets. The mass of an astro- nomical body can be determined only by its gravi- tational attraction on some other body. Thus, the mass of the Sun can be calculated when we know the distance of the Earth and its period around the Sun. Similarly, the mass of a planet can be found from the period and distance of its satellites. Where a planet has no satellites, its mass can be determined by its attraction on one of the other planets, which causes perturbations from the simple ellipse which the planet would follow around the Sun if there were no other forces acting on it. This method was applied in the case of Mercury, Venus and Pluto, but much more accurate masses of Mercury and Venus have now been obtained by measuring their attraction on space vehicles which have passed close by. Obser- vations of spacecraft have also given the most accu- rate measures of the masses of the Moon and Mars. The perturbations of some of the minor planets have given good determinations of the mass of Jupiter. It was not until 1968 that the first measure of the mass of a minor planet, namely 4 Vesta, was made by Hertz. He used the fact that Vesta has a resonance with a small planet 197 Arete, which was discovered im 28792 Four periods ofArete total 18.13 years and five periods of Vesta total 18.15 years, so 6 times since the discovery of Arete - namely in 1885, 1903, 1921, 1939, 1957 and 1975 Vesta came within 6 million km of it. This has meant that the at- traction of Vesta was sufficient to show up in the motion of Arete and to enable the mass of Vesta to be measured. A similar resonance was found between 1 Ceres and 2 Pallas which have the same period to one part in a thousand and although they do not have such close approaches as Vesta and Arete do, the long interval over which they have been observed en- abled Schubart to determine their mutual attractions and so calculate their masses. The possibility of using the near equality of the periods of Ceres and Pallas to determine their masses was first suggested by Gauss soon after their discovery. The most re- cently determined values for these three planets ex- pressed as fractions of the Moon's mass, are Ceres 0.0160 + .0008, Pallas 0.0030 + .0006 and Vesta 0.0032 + .0003. No other suitable resonances are known, and in any case these are certainly the most massive of all the minor planets. In fact, it has been estimated from the measures of their sizes that more than half of the mass of the whole system of minor planets is contained in these three bodies. PHYSICAL OBSERVATIONS A great deal of information about the physical condition of the minor planets has been obtained by measuring the changes in their brightness. The ob- served brightness of an asteroid will depend on its size and reflectivity and will vary as its distance from the Sun and the Earth vary. The reflectivity of a planet is usually called the albedo, which is defined as the total amount of sunlight reflected from the body in all directions as a fraction of the amount that falls on it. For the Moon and Mer- cury this figure is about 0.07, for cloud covered planets 1t 1s much higher --up to 0.59. for Venus. A further factor affecting the brightness is the phase angle which is the angle at the planet be- tween the Earth and the Sun. The variation in brightness with phase angle depends on the rough- ness of the surface and most minor planets are even rougher than the Moon. Careful measurements show that in addition to these variations already men- tioned, a number of asteroids show variations of short period (a few hours). These can be inter- preted as due to the rotation of the body and con- tinued observation will give a reasonably accurate value for the rotation period. In some cases the amplitude of the variation has been found to vary in different parts of the planet's orbit, and this indicates that we are observing the rotation from a different aspect with respect to the planet's pole. Thus, if the Earth were in the line of the pole of rotation, the variation would be zero and if we were in the plane of the equator, the variation would be a maximum. In a few cases, using considerations of this sort, it has been possible to make a rough de- termination of the direction of the pole. The vari- ations of brightness are mostly rather small - from a few percent up to about 50 percent, and only since the use of photoelectric methods has much success been achieved. There are some notable exceptions such as 433 Eros with a brightness ratio of four to one and 1620 Geographos six to one. Because they are so small, it has not been possible Until recent times! to determiner the dia— meters of more than a few of the minor planets. Between 1894 and 1900 Barnard, using a filar micro- meter attached to the large telescopes at the Lick and Yerkes Observatories, measured the diameters of the first four and obtained figures as follows:- Ceres 770 km, Pallas 490 km, Juno 195 km and Vesta 390 km. However, since the visible image of even these was very small, it was always recognised that the results were very uncertain. In the last ten years, new methods have been used to determine the diameter of quite a large number of asteroids. The first method depends on measuring the amount of polarization of the reflected light from the aster- oid. The light is only slightly polarized by a few percent, but the polarization varies with the phase angle and not with distance from the Sun or the Earth or with rotation. The curve of variation of polarization with phase angle is compared with the curve determined in the laboratory from various sub- stances, including powdered materials from meteor- ites and from the Moon. There are considerable variations in the shape of the curves for different materials which can be correlated with the reflec- tivity of the material. So the reflectivity or al- bedo of the planet is determined and its size can then be calculated from its brightness knowing its distance from the Earth and the Sun. A second method, which now gives good agree- ment with the polarization method, is to measure the brightness of the minor planet in visible light, and also in infrared at a wave-length of about 10 um: Of the light received by a planet, part is reflected and the remainder is absorbed and heats the surface of the planet. The amount of heat radi- ation at a wave-length of 10 um is determined by the planet's surface temperature. Clearly, a dark body will reflect poorly at visible wave lengths and ab- sorb more of the light with increase of temperature 74 W. H. ROBERTSON and so give off a greater amount of heat. By these means it has been found that the minor planets can mainly be divided into two groups which are referred to as S and C class. The S class have an albedo of approximately 0.15 comparable to the reflectivity of silicate rocks, whereas the C asteroids with an albedo of about 0.035 probably have a high carbon content as they are about as black as a piece of coal. Similar bodies have been found among the meteorites. There are a few aster- oids which do not fit into these two main classes and some even have albedos as high as about 0.4. 4 Vesta is an example of the non-conformists with an albedo of 0.23. Once the albedos have been determined, the diameters can be calculated from the total amount of light reflected and it turns out that the figures obtained by Barnard were rather too small. The most recent results, using a mean of the polarimetric and radiometric methods, give for the diameter of the first four, Ceres 1003 km, Pallas 608 km, Juno 247 km, Vesta 538 km. Of these, Ceres is C type, Juno is S type and Pallas and Vesta are unclassified. A survey.which gives re- sults of varying quality for 187 minor planets, lists a total of 14 with diameters greater than 250 km and another 14 with diameters between 200 km and 250 km, though this second list is almost cer- tainly incomplete. Among the first asteroids measured by these methods, the S type predominated, but more recent results show that the C class are much more numerous, especially in the outer part of the main helt. Diameters as small as 1 km have been measured for close approach planets such as 1566 Icarus and 1976 AA. For such small bodies the quantity measured should be called the effective diameter, as they are quite certainly not spherical as is shown by the variations in brightness with rotation. An additional method of obtaining infor- mation about the material in the surfaces of aster- oids is by observing the reflectivity as a function of the wave-length in the region from 0.4 um to 1.0 um in the visible and near infrared. This spectrophotometry correlates with the albedo figures derived from the other methods. The most inter- esting fact is that the curves for some of the S type asteroids show a dip at 0.9 um, corresponding to pyroxene minerals, notably pigeonite. The varia- tion with wave-length shows that the S type aster- oids are reddish brown while the C type are more neutral coloured. Another method of checking on the diameters of minor planets is to observe occultations of the stars by a planet. Since the minor planets have such small diameters, the width of the shadow track caused by them, will necessarily be quite narrow and more often than not will occur in rather a re- mote place. So far only a few observations of this type have been made but there has been an upsurge of interest in the method and a number of predic- tions have been made for the next few years. For best results the timing should be done photo- electrically. An alternative is to observe the occultation of a minor planet by the Moon. Here too photoelectric observing will give the best re- sults because the total time of disappearance, even for the largest asteroids, is only about 1 or 2 seconds. Unfortunately, these events are rather infrequent and can be observed only for the brightest minor planets. The picture we get of an asteroid is a body with a very rough surface, pro- bably pitted with craters like Phobos and Deimos, the two moons of Mars and most likely covered in dust. Because of their small mass they would be quite unable to retain an atmosphere. NOTABLE ASTEROIDS Finally, a little about a few particularly interesting minor planets. 433 Eros was dis- covered in 1898 and because of its close approaches to Earth has received much attention since then. Close approaches occurred in 1931, 26 million kn, and 1975, 22.6 million km. In 1931 an international campaign was mounted to measure the distance of the little planet in order to improve the accuracy of the astronomical unit which is the mean distance of the Earth from the Sun. The attraction of the Earth, especially at the time of close approach, causes considerable perturbations to the planet's motion, and this too was used indirectly to give a measure of the astronomical unit. These methods have since been superseded by radar determinations of the distances of the nearer major planets, es- pecially Venus. Consequently, no special effort was made to measure the distance of Eros in 1975, but extensive physical observations were made by all available methods. It was even detected by radar. When Eros is close enough, it is possible to see its shape and its rotation. This confirmed the large variations in its brightness as it rotates in a period of 5 hours 17 minutes. The observations of its size are best fitted by a spheroid whose longest and shortest diameters are 36 km and 12 km. 1566 Icarus was discovered in 1949 when it was quite close to the Earth. It was moving very rapidly but sufficient observations were obtained to enable an orbit to be calculated. It has a very elongated orbit which takes it beyond the orbit of Mars, but at its closest to the Sun inside the or- bit of Mercury. Its orbit is considerably tilted and when it crosses the Earth's orbit the two orbits are separated by 6 million km. Its period is just over one year and 18 of its periods are almost ex- actly equal to 19 years. This means that close approaches occur every 19 years, the most recent one being in 1968 and at that time it was very ex- tensively observed. 1976 AA was discovered at the beginning of 1976 at Palomar Mountain as a result of systematic searching for objects which come close to the Earth. It was the first asteroid discovered with a mean distance and period less than that of the Earth; it has a period of 0.950 years. At the time of its discovery it was only 18 million km from the Earth, which is as close as it can come. Because of the similarity of the two orbits, 1976 AA moved away from the Earth relatively slowly and this made it possible to obtain an unusual number of physical observations during its discovery apparition. It has an albedo of 0.18 and an effective diameter of approximately 900 m. Because of the period of 0.950 years, its position relative to the Earth goes through a cycle of 19 years. After its dis- covery in January, 1976, it is seen each year a little earlier at an increasing least distance until from 1981 to 1989 it is effectively unobser- vable on the far side of the Sun, and then in 1995 it will come very close to the Earth again. THE MINOR PLANETS 1D 1976 UA has an even smaller orbit and a period of Uranus are 9.54 AU and 19.18 AU. The largest orbit only 0.775 years. Just before its discovery in previously known was that of 944 Hidalgo with a mean October, 1976 it was only 1.165 million km from the distance of 5.8 AU and a period of 14.0 years. Earth which is three times the distance of the Moon. 1977 UB has now been allotted a name, it is to be called Chiron. Because it is so far away it must be At the other end of the scale, 1977 UB was a fairly sizable body to appear as bright as it is, discovered in October, 1977 and proved to be moving but because of the uncertainty of its albedo, the so much more slowly than the usual minor planets, best guess we can make is that it probably has a that its orbit seemed likely to be well beyond diameter of a few hundred kilometres. Saturn and almost as far as Uranus. As more obser- vations were obtained over a period of a month or REFERENCES more, a preliminary orbit was calculated. Plates taken in earlier years were searched and images of Gehrels T. (Editor), 1971. PHYSICAL STUDIES OF the planet were found on plates taken in 1941 and MINOR PLANETS. N.A.S.A. Washington 687 pp. ia as zone act uaa eee; ae gS Me) ee ees Marsden B.G., 1977. Carl Friedrich Gauss, positions, quite a good orbit has now been calcu- Metronciion. LR. Abt. .So6. Gay... 2ime S00 203 lated and the planet has a period of 50.7 years. : ee” : ° a : It has a moderately elongated orbit with a mean Morrison D., 1977. Asteroid Sizes and Albedos. distance of 13.69 astronomical units (AU) and Tearus, 31, 185-220. greatest and least distances of 18.88 AU and 8.51 AU. For comparison the mean distances of Saturn and Mouel WE TG SEs SESE UP AMINO QUANT Se Faber & Faber, London, 128 pp. Sydney Observatory, Observatory Park, SYDNEY. 2060 (Manuscript received 2-8-78) Pai’ ier rae i Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 111, pp. 77-88, 1978 Late Quaternary Deposits of the Newcastle-Port Stephens Area as Revealed by Grain Size Analysis and Scanning Electron Microscopy CHENG K. Ly* ABSTRACT. Modern sediments of the Newcastle-Port Stephens area were examined by grain size analysis and scanning electron microscopy to determine their characteristic differences. Sands from the nearshore marine, beach and frontal ridge, transgressive dune, and river environments are differentiated by their grain size characteristics and surface textures of quartz grains. The differences obtained in the modern environments were applied to the older Quaternary deposits of the area in order to reconstruct their depositional environments. Each Holocene or Pleisto- cene sequence is composed of relict deposits of nearshore marine, beach, frontal ridge, and river sands. INTRODUCTION Depositional environments of unconsolidated ancient sediments are generally interpreted from either sedimentary structures or fabric in undis- turbed cores. When these cores are not available, physical properties of sediments are probably the only sedimentological evidence from which deposi- tional environments can be interpreted. Techniques to differentiate sedimentary environments of modern sands have been developed. Among these techniques grain size analysis and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) appear to have received more atten- tion than the others. Despite the claim made by Shepard §& Young (1961) that grain size parameters were of no use in environmental determination ,many authors have demonstrated that grain size para- meters, particularly skewness, are environmentally sensitive and can be used in determining deposi- tional environments of unconsolidated sediments: (see Mason §& Folk, 1958; Friedman, 1961; Duane, 1964; Moiala & Weiser, 1968). At the same time surface textures of quartz sand grains as revealed by SEM have increasingly become a tool to study depositional environments of sands (see Nordstrom §& Margolis, 1972; Krinsley §& Doornkamp, 1973; Krinsley, Biscaye & Turekian, 1973). Most of the studies have been concentrated on collecting data from modern environments. Contro- versy exists on the usefulness of these data when they are applied to older deposits. Chappell (1967) concluded from a sieve analysis with 0.25 phi intervals that beach sands were negatively skewed and dune sands positively skewed with the resolving power of skewness decreasing as the in- tensity of diagenesis of sediments increased. Hails & Hoyt (1969) sieved the unconsolidated Holocene and Pleistocene sediments of the lower Georgia Coastal Plain at 0.25 phi intervals and found that skewness was environmentally sensitive. Against this, Omara, Bishara §& Nasr (1974) who used data from one phi interval sieving, found that grain size parameters as determined by Several methods were not successful in allocating the Nubia sandstones of Egypt to certain paleo-environments. Less controversy exists in the use of surface tex- tures of quartz grains to determine depositional environments, although diagenesis has been con- sidered as the main obstacle in the study of ancient sediments (Margolis §& Krinsley, 1974). * communicated by M. Krysko v. Tryst This paper is an attempt to reconstruct the depositional environments of the late Quaternary deposits of the Newcastle-Port Stephens area. Be- cause of the lack of information on sedimentary structures of the deposits below sea level and be- cause of the existing controversy, two steps were undertaken in the study. First, samples collected from the modern environments (nearshore marine, beach, frontal ridge, transgressive dune and river) were examined by the grain size analysis and SEM to determine characteristic differences. Second, using the same procedures of analysis, relict sedi- ments were analysed and examined, and their de- positional environments were inferred from the data obtained from modern environments. GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND The deposits of the Newcastle-Port Stephens area are the products of marine, eolian and terres- trial processes which have operated during the late Quaternary. The marine-eolian deposits are con- tained in two sand barriers known as the Inner Barrier and the Outer Barrier. Figure 1 illustra- tes the positions of these barriers relative to the shoreline. The Inner Barrier which now stands higher than the present sea level is last inter- glacial in age (Thom, 1965; Roy & Thom, 1975) and composed of beach ridges and longitudinal dunes. A series of subdued beach ridges occurs at the eastern end of the barrier and stands approximately 0.5 - 2 m above swales. Most of the ridges are covered by low vegetation, whereas the swales are mostly wet and contain peat less than one metre thick. The beach ridges have been reworked since the last interglacial into parabolic and longitu- dinal dunes. The individual dunes 1-2 km in length and up to 30 m high are now stabilized by vege- Catron, The Outer Barrier relates to the postglacial transgression and has developed during the last 10,000 years as suggested by numerous radiocarbon dates (Thom, 1974; Sheperd, 1974). It is sepa- rated from the Inner Barrier by a swampy inter- barnier depression. Unlike=the Inner Barrier, the Outer Barrier shows sharp relief with little modi- fication following dune stabilization by vegetation. Beach ridges occur at the eastern end of the barrier while in the other parts, they have been buried under transgressive dunes. 78 NEWCASTLE Fi39;. ule. The estuarine deposits occur in tidal creeks and flats, which are either represented by deltas such as that of the Hunter River or basins which receive relatively little terrestrial charge. The upper part of the estuarine deposits of the Hunter River are characterized by brackish swamps crossed by tidal creeks. Vegetation plays a part in the geomorphological evolution of the lower part of the estuarine deposits, which is crossed by numer- ous tidal creeks and covered by scrubs on the low relief mudflats and, where the relief is slightly higher, by mangrove and salt marsh plants. In the sheltered parts of Port Stephens and along the interbarrier depression, tidal processes have lead to the deposition of fine sediments and the de- velopment of mudflats with brackish and fresh water swamp deposits. In Port Stephens, the sand transported by nearshore currents and waves is deposited along the estuarine shoreline and form beaches. In the Hunter river valley which drains into the area, the fluvial deposits are composed of sediments of flood plains and alluvial terraces. The flood plains of the lower Hunter have a gentle undulating relief and are characterized by active and abandoned channels and levees, crevasse splays, flood basins and back-swamps. In the lower reaches of the river, alluvial terraces are com- posed mainly of sand mixed with silt and clay and occupy most of the valley floors. Four active sedimentary units have been rec- ognized in the modern open ocean environments of the Outer Barrier: nearshore marine, subaerial beach, frontal ridge, and transgressive dune (Fig. 2). The nearshore marine zone is an active area seaward of the beach to depths of approxi- mately 15 m below mean sea level. The zone is CHENG K. LY PORT STEPHENS a Bedrock (Perm. & Carbon.) eee Inner Barrier ( Pleistocene ) 1.Beach ridges 2.Vegetated dunes ee Outer Barrier (Holocene ) 3.Beach ridges 4.Vegetated dunes 5.Mobile transgressive dunes 6.Beach and frontal ridge [a] Vegetated dunes (Pleistocene ) & swamps pea Swamps Map showing surface morphology of the Newcastle-Port Stephens area divided into the inner part and the outer part. The inner part (0-10 m) is an active zone, and is characterized by bars and troughs, which are con- stantly changing their shapes and sizes in adjust- ment to wave regime. The outer part (greater than 10 m) is characterized by sporadic movements, and possesses a gently inclined slope of varying gradient. The beach is subjected to periods of erosion interspersed with periods of deposition. A re- lationship has been observed between mean size of sediment and beach gradient with beach slope tend- ing to be steeper where there is coarser beach material (Ly, 1976). Bedding characteristics are observed in the sand cliffs formed during phases of beach erosion. The frontal ridge occurs in a morphological zone landward of and parallel to the beach. The ridge is an ephemeral feature subject to periodic destruction by high energy waves. During periods of non-erosion the sand is transported primarily by onshore wind from the beach to accumulate around herbaceous plants. The sedimentary structures include short and steep dipping crossbeds as well as discontinuous low angle dipping laminae. The mobile transgressive dune includes the free moving sand sheet which covers the areas land- ward of the frontal ridge. This sheet is seasonably reworked into elongate asymmetrical ridges of the "reversing dune'' type. The dune sand is charac- terised by a combination of steeply and gently dipping laminae associated with leeward and wind- ward slopes respectively. Individual crossbed units attain a thickness of up to 5 m. LATE QUATERNARY DEPOSITS ~““SS ESSER B & 60 , Omnia 2 70 / —— Se ing 4 Phi Horizontal scale Metres Vegetated| transgres.|Mobite transgressive Frontal dune dune i _ ridge (Beach, Eigen?’ PROCEDURES Surface samples from the beach, frontal ridge and transgressive dune were collected by hand, whereas those from the nearshore marine zone were taken by a dredge and by diving. The sub-surface samples were collected by drilling with a power auger. The samples were washed to remove salt and humate. They were then oven dried and sieved at 0.25 phi intervals for 20 minutes on a Ro-tap machine. The weights of the sieved fractions of each sample were converted to weight percentages which were then put into a computer. The pro- gramme of Schlee & Webster (1965) was used to com- pute the four moment parameters (mean, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis) of each sediment sample. The procedures used for cleaning quartz sand grains for SEM examination are those described by Krinsley §& Doornkamp (1973). With the aid of a binocular microscope between 10 and 15 grains of different external appearance were selected from the cleaned sample and mounted on the SEM sample holder using double-sided adhesive tape. The size of the particles taken for the SEM examination was determined by the grain size distribution of the sample. In the case of unimodal sand, the grains were selected from the 0.25 phi modal range, where- as in the case of polymodal sand, the grains were taken from each of the different modes. The samples were gold coated and viewed with a JEOL-S50A scanning electron microscope. 3 Phi a level Inner nearshore marine a — Saltation population b — Suspension population c — Rolling population Depth % p 90 Mad 80 60 8 40 20 73 3 Phi SRESBER SZ & Bree: Outer nearshore marine Zone of relict deposits Grain size distributions of the modern marine sediments of the Newcastle-Port Stephens area MODERN SEDIMENTS Nearshore marine sand The nearshore marine sands are quartzose and medium to fine-grained. The sands become finer with increasing depth in the range 0-15 m, below which they tend to be coarser (Fig. 3). These coarse sands, which are similar to the present day beach sands (in size and composition) probably represent the relict beach sand deposited on the continental shelf during a lower sea level stand. Quartz grains are typically angular in the outer zone, whereas sands from the inner zone are com- posed of rounded to sub-rounded grains. Figure 2 illustrates a typical cross section showing the variations of grain size distribution in the various parts of the open ocean environment. The samples from the outer nearshore zone are characterized by three or four populations: one rolling, one or two saltations and one suspension (see Visher, 1969). Higher amounts of rolling population are usually observed in the inner nearshore zone where they can be up to 20-25% at the bar. In this zone the amounts of suspension population are low and always less than one per cent, whereas in the outer near- shore zone they can reach 20%. The nearshore marine samples are well to moderately sorted. The best sorted samples are transported by saltation. The addition of a coarse rolling population in the bar zone or a fine suspension population in the outer nearshore zone makes the sediments more poorly sorted (Fig. 3). The sign of skewness de- pends on the relative abundance of the coarser and finer ends of the grain size distribution. In the inner nearshore zone where the coarse population 80 CHENG K. LY Mean size Standard deviation Skewness 1.0 1.5 2.0 04 #05 O06 O7 -06 -04 -0.2 0 Ory, =e ry a Oa a Cra ee sealer, [ Se aL ay —— L ef Depth below mean sea level (m ) is higher, the sediments are negatively skewed whereas in the outer nearshore zone where the finer fraction predominates over the coarser end, the sediments become positively skewed. Contents of marine mollusc shells usually vary from 4 to 6% in the inner nearshore zone, but higher amounts up to 10% are often observed in the outer nearshore zone. The surface textures of quartz sand grains from the nearshore marine environment are characterised by both mechanical and chemical features. In the low energy outer nearshore marine zone, chemical features are predominant and are characterized by various etch cavities (Fig. 4A). Oriented etch forms were observed for the first time by Biederman (1962) in New Jersey and were believed to had been produced during chemical attack by alka- line sea water. The mechanical features composed mainly of v-shaped pits were also observed but their number is minor with less than one pit per yw? in the outer nearshore zone. Increase in size and num- ber of mechanical pits was observed on the quartz grains from the more active inner nearshore zone (Fig. 4B). Beach and frontal ridge sand The beach sands are quartzose, coarse to fine- grained, and are composed primarily of rounded grains, They are characterized by one or two salta- tion populations, which are truncated with or with- out a small suspension population (always less than one per cent). The rolling population usually occurs in the samples from the high energy section of the beach (i.e. western end). The beach sands are usually very well to well sorted (Fig. 5). Higher values of standard deviation are found in the sands from the western end of the beach where a rolling population is found at the coarser end of the size distribution. Approximately 90% of the beach samples showed a negative skewness (Fig. 6), and the remaining samples were either normal or slightly positively skewed. The removal of most of the finer fraction from the size distribution due to winnowing action in the high energy beach zone causes the beach sands to be negatively skewed (Friedman, 1961). Shell content of marine molluscs varies from less than one percent in the areas most exposed to wave action to as high as 30% in protec- ted areas, but is normally in the order of 2-7%. The frontal ridge sands are medium to fine- Inner nearshore res Fig. 3. Variations of grain size parameters in the nearshore marine zone Outer nearshore zone Relict deposit zone grained. They are usually characterized by two saltation populations and a suspension population. In all the samples the saltation population rep- resents about 99% of the distribution. The frontal ridge samples are very well to well sorted. About 80% of the samples analysed were negatively skewed. In the high energy beach and frontal ridge, the surface textures of quartz sand grains are primarily characterized by mechanical pitting. The most diagnostic features are the v-shaped pits, which are from 0.2 to 3u in diameter with an aver- age of 0.5y (Fig. 4C). The pits number on the order of 3-4 pits per u*. The presence of these pits on the quartz grains from the beach environment has led to the general belief that they are due to the impact between grains in this turbulent aqueous high energy environment. The exact mechanism how- ever is still not clear, but Margolis §& Krinsley (1974) have mentioned the incipient cleavage of quartz as a significant factor. The other mechani- cal features include straight or curved grooves and conchoidal breakage patterns (Fig. 4D). The grooves can be best seen at magnifications between x1l000 and x2000. Their length ranges from a few microns to as much as 15y. They are found associated with mechanical v-shaped pits, and therefore are con- sidered to be of similar origin by Krinsley §& Doorkamp (1973). Conchoidal breakage patterns are usually small (3-5y in average diameter) and are sometimes observed on the surfaces of beach sand grains. As these features occur only in the high energy beach environment it is possible that they are impact features between sand grains in a turbu- lent aqueous medium. Chemical features such as etch cavities can be seen on the quartz grains from the beach and frontal ridge sands. These cavities are irregular in shape, and are usually smaller than those observed in the outer nearshore marine zone. Dune sand The mobile transgressive dune is composed of quartzose, medium to fine sand, with rounded to well rounded grains. The sand is characterized by more than 99% of saltation population. The general lack of competence of the onshore wind action to move sand particles by rolling appears to be responsible for the very small percentage or absence of the coarse population. The dune sands are very well sorted LATE QUATERNARY DEPOSITS 8 | Fig. 4. Scanning electron micrographs of the surface textures of quartz grains from the modern environ- ments of the Newcastle-Port Stephens area. (A) Outer near- shore sand with predominant chemical etching by sea water (a). Scale bar = 10u. (B) Inner nearshore sand. Mechanical pits (b) are more predominant than chemical features. Scale bar = 25u. (C) Beach sand with mechani- cal v-shaped pits (b) and small conchoidal breakage patterns (c). Scale bar = Su. (D) Beach sand with mechanical v-shaped pits and curved grooves (d). Scale bar = 10u. (E) Dune sand with sub- dued mechanical pits. Scale bar = 10u. (F) River sand with large conchoidal fractures (e) and im- bricated breakage blocks (f). Scale bar = 100n. Fine sand Hig. (9..9o0catter plot of mean size against sorting (standard deviation) for samples from - the modern environments of = the Newcastle-Port Stephens = area. Dune sands are always a 3 better sorted than nearshore a8 marine sands. Nearshore mar- ae ine sands are usually finer co than beach sands. $ S + Mobile = transgressive dune z o Frontal ridge B Beach o v Inner nearshore marine s 4 Outer nearshore marine O 2 3 A 5 6 aq 8 Very well sorted! Well sorted Moderately sorted Standard deviation (phi units ) 82 CHENG K. LY Mean size ( phi units ) + Mobile Fig. 6. Dune sands tend to be finer than beach sands. The former are almost always positively skewed whereas the latter are commonly negatively skewed. transgressive dune e Beach -.6 -.4 -.2 0 +.2 +4 Skewness (phi units ) Hunter River Dalles AeA Grain size distributions of river sands. (Fig. 5). Out of thirty three samples collected, only two were negatively skewed and one unskewed; the remaining samples were positively skewed (Fig. 6). The dune sands are almost free of shells with a content usually less than 2%. Mechanical features such as v-shaped pits and straight or curved grooves are still visible on the quartz grains from the mobile transgressive dune (Fig. 4E). At low magnifications, the grains appear very similar to those from the beach zone. However, at higher magnifications (greater than x2000) the mechanical pits are slightly modified by chemical action, and show irregular boundaries. River sand Sediments from the lower Hunter River are com- posed of medium to fine sands mixed with varying amounts of muds. The sand fraction is lithic and composed primarily of angular grains. It is characterized by a suspension population which usually comprises 5 to 10% of the distribution, a +6 Hunter River 0 1 2 3 PHI poorly sorted saltation population, and a coarse rolling population (Fig. 7). The diagnostic feature of the river sand is probably the absence of "micro" mechanical or chemical pits. However, these sands are characte- rized by large conchoidal fractures and imbricated breakage blocks (Fig. 4F). Evidences of mechanical pitting and chemical action have been found super- imposed on the above features in the samples from the lower estuary. RELICT SEDIMENTS The late Quaternary deposits of the Newcastle- Port Stephens area consist of two sequences: Pleistocene and Holocene (Fig. 8). The lower part of the Pleistocene sequence is composed of clays interbedded with river sand and gravel, and is believed to overlie unconformably the Newcastle Coal Measures of the Permian System (Osborne, 1945). The characteristics of these Pleistocene clays are similar to those of the modern estuarine LATE QUATERNARY DEPOSITS 83 muds of the area, and are therefore interpreted as to have been deposited in a sheltered marine en- vironment, i.e. estuarine. These estuarine clays are overlain in most parts by marine sediments of the Inner Barrier, which were deposited during the last interglacial periods (Roy §& Thom, 1975). The Inner Barrier is composed of quartzose, coarse to fine sand. Its upper part is strongly affected by podzolization during the last glacial period of low sea level with well developed A horizon of leached grey to white incoherent sand, 0.5 to 4 m thick. This leached sand overlies a dark brown to black humate impregnated sand (average 6-8 m thick), often indurated (B horizon). The presence of hum- ate well below the present sea level suggests that the humate developed during periods of the last glacial lower sea level (Thom, 1965). The Holocene sequence of the Outer Barrier which is separated from the underlying Pleistocene sequence by a disconformity is composed of quart- zose, medium to fine sand. Podzolization is less intense than that observed in the Pleistocene se- quence. No indurated sand has been observed in the Holocene sequence. The processes of podzolization may cause con- siderable changes of the primary properties of sedi- ments. Figure 9 illustrates that the introduction of humate in sands tends to increase the values of skewness. Standard deviation is less affected by the organic diagenesis than the skewness, whereas the mean size does not change greatly. Therefore, for environmental interpretation, the post deposi- tional humate component had to be removed from the sediments before depositional environments were interpreted. The elongated, shore-parallel depression be- tween the Inner Barrier and the Outer Barrier was filled by Holocene estuarine mud and sand. The sand fraction is generally less than 50%, and is quartzose with abundance of subrounded to rounded grains similar to marine or dune sand grains. Kaolinite is the main clay mineral in the mud, al- though minor amounts of illite and montmorillinite are sometimes found. mineral. At the landward side, the deposits of estuarine mud and sand overlie the Pleistocene sur- face, whereas at the seaward side they grade into the Holocene marine deposits. Table 1 summarizes the characteristic differ- ences between the modern sediments of the Newcastle- Port Stephens area. When these differences are applied to the sediments of the late Quaternary deposits of the area, several sedimentary units of different depositional environments can be identi- fied (Fig. 10). Nearshore marine sand The nearshore marine sand occurs as a tabular unit which occupies the lowest part of each Pleistocene or Holocene sequence (Fig. 10, units A and E). In the Pleistocene sequence, the unit occurs on top of the estuarine clay deposits, and in the Holocene sequence it overlies disconformably the Pleistocene surface of the Inner Barrier or the discontinuous, thin estuarine mud and sand deposits (Fig. 8). The thickness of the unit ranges from Pyrite is a common authigenic . 8 to 14 m in each sequence. The unit is usually free of humate and whole shells of molluscs are often encountered. The sand is quartzose, medium to fine-grained, well to moderately sorted, and is composed of rounded to angular grains. In each sequence the outer nearshore marine sand can be distinguished from the inner nearshore marine sand by the grain size and surface textures of the quartz sand grains. The former is finer than the latter. In size distribution the outer nearshore sand usually contains a larger suspension popu= lation than the inner nearshore sand, though the difference is sometimes not very great in the Holocene sequence. The nearshore sand tends to be less well sorted with depth in the Pleistocene se- quence. The SEM reveals that quartz grains are characterized by chemical as well as mechanical features. Strong chemical etching is observed in the outer nearshore sand (Fig. 11 A §& B) in which etch cavities are large and deep, on the order of several microns in size. The intensity of mechani- cal pitting decreases with depth. The v-shaped pits are usually of the order of 0.2-0.3yn in size, and their average number varies from two pits per u2 in the inner near-shore sand to less than one pit per u* in the outer nearshore sand. Beach - frontal ridge sand In each Pleistocene or Holocene sequence, the inner nearshore sand grades upward to the beach - frontal ridge sand (Fig. 10, units B and F). It occurs as a continuous layer, less than 5 m thick. In the Pleistocene sequence, the upper part of the layer is often affected by humate impregnation and the sand is organically stained and brown in colour. When the sand is free of humate, it is yellow or grey. Shell gragments are often found in the Holocene beach - frontal ridge sand. The beach - frontal ridge sand is quartzose, coarse to mediun- grained, well sorted and negatively skewed. It is composed primarily of rounded to subrounded grains. Although a real boundary does not exist be- tween the inner nearshore marine unit and the over- lying beach-frontal ridge unit, the grain size analysis and SEM of quartz grains usually show gradual changes in sediment properties between these two units. The inner nearshore sand (i.e. samples 4 and 5 in the Holocene sequence, and sample 10 in the Pleistocene sequence; Fig. 10) is generally finer-grained and more poorly sorted than the over- lying beach sand (samples 2, 3 and 9). The size distribution of this beach-frontal ridge sand is similar to that of the modern beach sand, and is characterized by a rolling, one or two saltation, and usually a small suspension population (Fig.10B and F). The surface textures of quartz grains from the beach-frontal ridge sand are characterized primarily by mechanical v-shaped pits and less often by straight or curved grooves (Fig. 11, C and D). The number of the pits per w* in this sand tends to be higher than that observed in the underlying near- shore marine sand. The pits with an average size of 0.5u vary in number from two to three pits per u2 in the Pleistocene sequence, and up to four pits per u2 can be seen in the Holocene sequence. 84 CHENG K. LY INNER BARRIER OUTER BARRIER Pleistocene Holocene Outer Barrier Inner Barrier Estuarine mud & sand Estuarine clay unit (Pleistocene ) Fluvial sand & gravel Fa ovo Changes of sediment properties before and after removal of humate. Depth ANUI20 Mean Stand. deviat. Skewness -4 -.2 0 +.2 HOLOCENE PLEISTOCENE 4 4 4 (Phi units ) Fig a Se Cross section of the late Quaternary deposits of the Newcastle-Port Stephens area. —2 0 42+4+46 Phi units Sediment + humate Sediment without humate Fig. -10 Sedimentary units of the late Quaternary deposits of the Newcastle-Port Stephens area, as determined from size analysis. Table l. ENVIRONMENT Dune Beach §& frontal ridge Inner near- shore Outer near- shore River LATE QUATERNARY DEPOSITS TYPICAL MEAN SIZE RANGE Medium to fine sand Mo= 1.35-2.25 Coarse to medium sand Mo= 0.63-1.90 Medium sand Mod = 1.20-1.80 Medium to fine sand Md = 1.80-2.60 Medium to very fine sand. Md = 1.20-3.00 TYPICAL SORTING RANGE Very well sorted ob= 0.21-0.37 Very well to moderately sorted Og= 0.25-0.57 Well to modera- tely sorted. o> = 0.40-0.59 Well to modera- tely sorted od= 0.42-0.79 Usually well to poorly sorted op = 0.4-1.20 SKEWNESS Usually - positive Usually - negative Often negative Often posit- ive or unskewed Positive and nega- tive SIZE DISTRIBUTION A large saltation population Small suspension and rolling population. A large rolling and a small suspension population. One or two sub- saltation popu- lations. Similar to beach and frontal ridge sand. A small rolling and a large sus- pension popu- lation. -One or two sub- saltation popu- lations -A large suspen- sion population. -Two or more sub- saltation popu- lations. 85 Characteristics of the modern sediments of the Newcastle-Port Stephens area SEM OF QUARTZ GRAINS Subdued mechanical pits Mechanical pits are predominant; v-shaped pits, straight or curved grooves and small conchoidal breakage blocks. -Mechanical pits (v-shaped pits, and straight or curved grooves). -Solution features (irregularly- shaped etch cavities) -Solution features are predominant: large and irregu- larly shaped etch cavities, -Large conchoidal fractures and imbricated break- age blocks, and absence of mechanical or chemical "micro" textures, 86 CHENG K. LY 1b While Ee Dune sand Dune sand occurs on top of each sequence and overlies conformably the beach-frontal ridge sand (Fig. 10S. units CrandeG) 1) in Che Pleistocene: se-— quence, the sand above sea level represents a con- tinuous unit covered by vegetation, but drilling has revealed that, below sea level, this sand unit becomes discontinuous and thinner (Fig. 12). The dune sand is affected by podzolization with a higher intensity of development in the older Pleistocene sequence. The colour of the sand varies from white or grey in the leached zone to brown or black in the humate deposited zone. In both Pleistocene and Holocene sequences, the sand is completely free of shells. The sand is quartzose, medium to fine- grained, very well sorted, and is made up of well rounded to rounded grains. It is almost always positively skewed, and is distinguished from the underlying beach sand which is negatively skewed. The size distribution is often characterized by a single saltation population terminated by a suspension population at the finer end and some- times by a small rolling population at the coarser end (Fig. 10, C and G). Fig. 11. Scanning electron micrographs of the surface textures of quartz grains from the late Quaternary deposits of the New- castle-Port Stephens area. Nearshore sands are characteri- zed dominantly by etching fea- tures (a): (A) Pleistocene sand. Scale bar = 13u . (B) Holocene sand. Scale bar = 20yu . Beach sands are characterized primar- ily by mechanical v-shaped pits (b) and curved grooves (d): (C) Pleistocene sand. Scale bar = Su; (D) Holocene sand. Scale bar = 6.5u . (E) Pleistocene leached sand. Mechanical pits are almost completely removed from the grain surface. Scale bar = 20u . (F) Pleistocene sand from B Horizon. Precipi- tation features as smooth sur- faces (g) are found associated with mechanical features. Scale bar = 20u . Differences in surface textures of quartz grains have been observed in the soil profile of each sequence. In the leached zones, the mechanical features are almost completely removed by the solu- tion-precipitation action during podzolization (Bios elles In the zones of deposition, the solu- tion-precipitation features occur together with the subdued mechanical v-shaped pits and straight or curved grooves (Fig. LIF). Backbarrier sand In addition to the relict sands of the near- shore marine, beach-frontal ridge, and dune depos- its, the so-called backbarrier deposits have also been recognized (Fig. 12). These deposits occur behind the Outer Barrier as an elongated, shore parallel, sand body and are characterized by simi- lar properties to those of the open ocean beach and dune deposits, but are differentiated from the latter by the occurrence of usually 1-2% silt and clay. They thin landward and grade into estuarine deposits. The deposits which have deposited in shallow water, or intertidally behind a low relief barrier by washover and aeolian processes, are no longer active. LATE QUATERNARY DEPOSITS INNER BARRIER (Pleistocene ) Outer Barrier Dune sand Beach sand Nearshore sand Backbarrier sand Inner Barrier Dune sand Beach sand Nearshore sand Estuarine mud & sand i G ; Es Cc B ea — Swamp Estuarine clay Fig. 12. Generalized cross-section + OUTER BARRIER 4 (Holocene ) al Le LA Bt Foe fae Fluvial sand & gravel showing the sedimentary units of the late Quaternary deposits of the Newcastle-Port Stephens area. CONCLUSIONS from The following conclusions may be summarized the study: 1) Grain size analysis of the modern sands from the Newcastle-Port Stephens area reveals that mean size, sorting and skewness are en- vironmentally sensitive. Ninety per cent of beach sand samples are negatively skewed and more than ninety per cent of dune sand sam- ples are positively skewed or unskewed. Frontal ridge sands are usually negatively skewed and cannot be differentiated from beach sands. Inner nearshore marine sands are usually finer and tend to be more poorly sorted than beach sands. Outer nearshore mar- ine sands are finer than inner nearshore mar- ine sands. 2) Modern sands are also differentiated by the grain surface features of quartz. Mechan- ical v-shaped pits are the most diagnostic features of the beach, frontal ridge and inner nearshore marine sands. Solution features are predominant in the outer nearshore marine sands. In dune sands, mechanical pits are subdued by solution-precipitation of silica. 3) The application of data obtained from the modern depositional environments of the Newcastle-Port Stephens area reveals that each Holocene or Pleistocene sequence of the area is predominantly regressive, and is usually composed of three distinct units. A near- shore marine sand occurs at the base of each sequence. It is overlain by a coarser and better sorted beach and frontal ridge sand. The latter is in turn overlain by a finer and better sorted dune sand. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express his gratitude to Professor B.G. Thom and Dr. G. Bowen of the Faculty of Military Studies, Duntroon, Australia, for their suggestions and critical review of the manuscript. REFERENCES Distinction of shoreline J, Sedim. Petrol., Biederman, E.W. (1962) environments in New Jersey. 525° 181-200. Chappell, J. (1967) lines from grain size analysis. PetnOla. 57 slo /=l65,. Recognizing fossil strand J. Sedtm, Duane, D.B. (1964) Significance of skewness in recent sediments, West Pamlico Sound, North Carolina. /a Sedim. Petrol, ,, 54, 864-874. Friedman, G.M. (1961) Distinction between dune, beach and river sands from their textural characteristics. «J. Sedim. Petrol., 31, 514-529. Hails, J.R. §& Hoyt, J.H. (1969) The significance and limitations of statistical parameters for distinguishing ancient and modern sedimentary environments of the Lower Georgia coastal plain. ~<. Sedim. Petrol, 39, 559=580). Krinsley, D., Biscaye, P.E. §& Turekian, K.K.(1973) Argentine Basin sediment sources as indicated by quartz surface textures. J. Sedim. Petrol., AS 2 257 88 CHENG K. LY Krinsley, D. §& Doornkamp, J.C. (1973) Atlas or quartz sand surface textures, pp 91. Cambridge Univ. press, London: Ly, C.K. (1976) Depositional and mineralogical studies of Quaternary sedimentation in the Newcastle-Port Stephens area of New South Wales, pp 269. Ph.D. thesis, Geol. Dept., Univ. Newcastle, Australia. Margolis, S. & Krinsley, D. (1974) Processes of formation and environmental occurrence of microfeatures on detrital quartz grains. Am. J. Set. 274, 449-464. Mason, C.C. & Folk, R.L. (1958) Differentiation of beach, dune and aeolian flat environments by size analysis, Mustang Island, Texas. he moeCatmes \PEtVrO ba. » Cota =22 6% Moiala, R.J. & Weiser, D. (1968) Textural para- meters: an evolution. J. Sedim. Petrol., v. 38, 45-53. Nordstrom, C. & Margolis, S. (1972) Sedimentary history of Central California shelf as re- vealed by scanning electron microscopy. Je MOCaLM, “PEGrOL. m1 42 pe Dei = 55 0G O Mara, S., Bishara, W.W. & Nasr, M. (1974) Grain size parameters and paleoenvironments of the Nubia sandstone: J. Sedim. Petrol., 44, 136-144. Osborne, G.D. (1945) Geological report to Hunter District Water Board, pp 11, unpubl. report, Geol. Dept., Univ. Newcastle, Australia. Department of Geology, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, N.S.W. 2308, Australia. Present address: Department of Geology, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana. Roy, P.S. §& Thom; B.G. (1975) The N3S.Wassnete and coast. A model for the development in the late Quaternary. ANZAAS, 46th Congress abstract, section 3, Geology. Schlee, J. §& Webster, J. (1965) A computer program for grain size data, pp 20. Tech. Rep. Wood Hole Oceanogr. Instn., 65-42. Shepard, F.P. §& Young, R. (1961) Distinguishing between beach and dune sand. J. Sedim, Petrol., 31, 196-214. Sheperd, M.J. (1974) Progradation of a Holocene sand barrier in N.S.W. oggneh, 5, 210-211. Thom, B.G. (1965) Late Quaternary coastal morphology of the Port Stephens-Myall lakes area, N.S.W. oJ. Foy. SOC amis eo 25-50% Thom, B.G. (1974) Coastal erosion in Eastern Australia. Seareh, 5, 198-209. Visher, G.S. (1969) Grain size distributions and depositional processes. J. Sedim. Petrol, 39, 1074-1106. (Manuscript received 10.5.78) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 111, pp. 89-96, 1978 Regional-Scale Thermal Metamorphism Overprinting Low-Grade Regional Metamorphism, Coffs Harbour Block, Northern New South Wales RUSSELL J. KORSCH ABSTRACT. Two regional metamorphic events are recognised in the rocks of the Coffs Harbour Block in northeastern New South Wales. The first event (Ml) is a progressive low-grade regional event with metamorphic recrystallisation increasing southwards towards the Bellinger Fault. In the southern part of the block Ml has been overprinted on a regional scale by a static thermal event (M2). Four metamorphic zones are recognised. Zones I and II contain rocks affected by Ml only, whereas zones III and IV contain rocks affected by both Ml and M2. The sequence of facies produced by Ml is indicative of low-pressure II facies series, whereas the,.M2 facies belongs to the low-pressure I facies series. Ml is considered to be a part of paired metamorphic belts recognised in New England. M2 is post tectonic and possibly related to the intrusion of post tectonic batholiths. INTRODUCTION The Coffs Harbour Block in northeastern New South Wales comprises a thick sequence of grey- wackes, siltstones, mudstones and massive argil- lites. These rocks are considered to be Late Palaeozoic in age (Korsch, 1971). They have been divided into three stratigraphic units by Leitch et al. (1971), namely the Moombil Beds, Brooklana Beds and Coramba Beds. The degree of metamorphic recrystallisation in the block increases south- wards towards the Bellinger Fault, as does the intensity of deformation of the rocks (Korsch, 1973). The metamorphism is a part of a low-grade regional metamorphism principally associated with a Permian orogeny occurring over a wide area of New England and reported by McKee and Leitch Co7t., Intthis: paper the details of the meta- morphic history of these rocks are deduced from the relationships of metamorphic minerals to structural elements, and textural relationships of coexisting minerals. Using these features, two major metamorphic episodes have been recognised in the Coffs Harbour Block. Incipient to low-grade regional metamorphism produced prehnite-pumpellyite facies to lower greenschist facies in the rocks, and this has been overprinted in the southern part of the block by the results of a regional-scale thermal event which produced randomly-oriented biotite grains Similar to those observed in contact metamorphic aureoles. Contact metamorphic aureoles also occur around the granitic intrusions but this paper will concentrate on the low-grade regional metamorphism (M1), and the regional-scale thermal metamorphism (M2) which occurs over an area of approximately 2500 km* (Fig. 1). PETROGRAPHY The metaclastic lithologies show a wide variation in the degree of textural reconstitution but, because of the paucity of metabasic rocks in the sequence, no really diagnostic minerals are developed. Hence it is difficult to demonstrate that an increase in metamorphic grade closely accompanies textural reconstitution. The coarser fraction of the psammites shows little microscopic evidence of deformation or recrystallisation, the lower boundary of metamorphism being indicated mainly by the presence of a finely divided mixture of granoblastic quartz and albite, small granules of epidote, thin threads of chlorite and white mica and rare opaque minerals. At the lowest grade there is no distinct pre- ferred orientation of the new mineral phases. Veins consisting of variable combinations of quartz, albite, chlorite, prehnite, calcite and epadote have formed in many rocks. Also at the lowest grade, detrital grains are little modified, with restricted albitisation of plagioclase, development of minor epidote, hornblende partly altered to chlorite and some volcanic lithic fragments devitrified to fine-grained granoblastic quartz and feldspar. The detrital grain boundaries still retain their original sharp outlines. Prehnite occurs both as a vein mineral and as a spongy aggregate in the matrix. Pumpellyite is confined to the matrix as tiny randomly-oriented grains usually associated with epidote which appears tc have developed as a reaction corona. Chlorite is commonly associated with both prehnite and pumpel- lyite. With increasing grade the micaceous groundmass becomes coarser and starts to develop a noticeable preferred orientation, and prehnite and pumpellyite are lacking. Granular phases such as epidote become coarser in the matrix. The coarse detrital fragments develop a dimensional orientation parallel to the preferred orientation of white mica but still show little marginal alteration. Much of the lithic debris is converted to a granoblastic quartz-feldspar aggregate obliterating many of the relict volcanic textures. Mudstone fragments tend to develop minute flakes of white mica. With further increase in grade some of the textures are masked by the overprinting of thermal biotite and associated minerals. The low-grade regional features appear to be defined by the modification of detrital grain boundaries with both albitised plagioclase and quartz being embayed and fine-grained aggregates developing at the margins. 90 RUSSERES. METAMORPHIC ZONES COFFS HARBOUR BLOCK KORSCH IN THE N on 20 5 | 15 25 Km LEGEND | Tas \ I53°TE. Fault 0 \ Il A I ve /1 ~ 1 : sje o : Za “A e E Zone I Z } ae VA CLARENCE 2 prehnite-pumpellyite zone S ee I we [oe Sine Disappearance of prehnite 7 Ye E and pumpellyite | 4 “ Vi 2 Zone IL =) IL | — epidote-chlorite- white BA =([_ mica zone s S oo 7-7-7 Appearance of biotite Sie eae Zone Ia “wa /~ da £ biotite - epidote - chlorite- Nee = = white mica zone : V4 5|—--— Disappearance of epidote Wess aoe 5 ZoneIb a ae a ee Mb || IIb) _ biotite- chlorite- white | > Ame Va F mica zone \ Ww , by Wet eae Ss : . W a \ Coram Filoaa Disappearance of chlorite \ : /a y*. ’ »/ aa : v. VON & Zone IW N ae are EME =u biotite-white mica zone \ fa aN yh Ib ~ = bE oh ; Contact hornfels associated E> ee ™,) Brooklana / with granitic rocks (mainly \ Tt) as a Ty: a albite - epidote hornfels and \ i a ne W aye | hornblende hornfels facies) Ve UU 4 lMoombil / _._._ Outer limit of contact BELLINGER FAULT_ AW hornfels Ebor te Fig. 1. Metamorphic zones recognised in the Coffs Harbour Block, and the isograds definin The rocks consist of relict detrital fragments "floating" in a quartz-albite rich metamorphic "sroundmass"' with an average grainsize of about 0.03 mm. White mica flakes have become much coarser and show a strong preferred orientation which occasionally swirls around the relict grains. Detrital quartz grains are breaking down to grano- blastic aggregates of finer crystals. The coarsening of groundmass phases, and continued modification of detrital grains with preferential destruction of plagioclase detritus, are indicative of the highest grades observed in the psammitic rocks. Complete textural recon- stitution of the rock does not occur and it is still possible to observe some remains of a relict sandstone texture. Pelitic rocks have been reconstituted mainly to micaceous phases and they resemble the matrix of the psammites. With increasing metamorphic grade these rocks show a textural progression from laminated mudstones to cleaved rocks. In the least affected pelites some flattening may have occurred and a weak foliation may be present. With increase in grade a network of lepidoblastic white mica crystals shows a well developed folia- tion occasionally overprinted by spongy aggregates of xenoblastic calcite. The white micas completely enclose the small relict detrital quartz fragments which now show a marked dimensional orientation. The highest grade observed in the pelites is the development of a foliation due to the segregation g zone boundaries. of minerals into bands of quartzo-feldspathic layers and this has involved the almost complete reconstitution of detrital material. Biotite appears in both pelitic rocks and in the matrix of psammites at approximately the same grade. In pelites it consists of randomly oriented single grains and small clusters of lepidoblastic crystals. In psammites biotite occurs as large clusters (up to 2 mm) of numerous small randomly oriented flakes in the matrix and is located pre- ferentially at boundaries between detrital grains and the matrix. At this early stage there is some breakdown of the margins of detrital grains, particularly of quartz. The biotite rapidly becomes a major component of the matrix of the psammites and the remainder consists of granoblastic quartz and feldspar with some chlorite, epidote and white mica. At the highest grades biotite is accompanied by large grains of muscovite. This muscovite differs from the white mica produced by the earlier low-grade regional event in that it has a platy rather than acicular form, it does not have a preferred orientation but is randomly oriented, and it is occasionally observed overprinting the Ml white mica. In many higher grade rocks a foliation produced by the alignment of white mica is still present but has been overprinted by randomly oriented biotite grains which tend to grow METAMORPHISM IN THE COFFS HARBOUR BLOCK oi preferentially around boundaries of any grains that have not been reconstituted into the grano- blastic groundmass. In some thin sections spongy blebs of calcite developing simultaneously with the biotite, grew across the white mica foliation. Only in rocks of fine-grained parentage has the reconstitution been almost complete and here the biotite often occurs as stringers, presumably being controlled by the bands of parent mineral(s) from which the biotite is growing. ’ Biotite occurs in all lithological types but is more abundant in pelitic than psammitic rocks. White (1964) described stilpnomelane from the Brisbane Metamorphics which had previously been identified as biotite. Several authors (e.g. Iwasaki, 1963; Brown, 1967; Leitch, 1975) have described stilpnomelane from rocks of similar metamorphic grade to the Coffs Harbour Block. Because of this several samples were crushed and the brown mica separated to a concentrate which was X-rayed in an attempt to distinguish between stilpnomelane and biotite. All samples examined showed a strong 10°A peak indicating the presence Of Bilotite (N = 15,;.mean = 10.26°A, S.D. = 0:09). Stilpnomelane was not observed in any specimen from the Coffs Harbour Block. The metamorphic mineral assemblages and their observed distribution in the zonal scheme (see later) are shown in Table 1. Restriction of assemblages to certain zones does not necessarily imply that they are critical to the recognition of that zone. Restriction of a number of these assemblages (e.g. 18, 19, 23, 32) to one zone might be a result of incomplete sampling and some assemblages can be expected to range over several zones. Ml AND M2 METAMORPHISM The first major metamorphic episode (M1) produced low-grade regional effects throughout the whole of the Coffs Harbour Block. This episode coincided with a regional deformation which mainly produced mesoscopic folding and an axial plane cleavage. At higher grades of Ml the alignment of white mica defines a foliation which is parallel to the axial plane cleavage. The lower-grade parts of the block have been affected only by Ml. The products of Ml are not typical in that two diagnostic minerals (actin- olite and stilpnomelane) in:rocks presumed to be of similar grade of metamorphism elsewhere have not developed in the Coffs Harbour area. The effects of M2 occur in the southern part of the Coffs Harbour Block and are marked by the development and growth of randomly-oriented biotite and, less commonly, white mica. These micas occur as fine cross-cutting porphyroblasts Overprinting the earlier aligned white micas of Ml. M2 has only affected the higher-grade rocks of the Ml episode. Ml AND M2 METAMORPHIC ZONES The overprinting by thermal biotite and associated minerals has masked, to a considerable extent, the minerals and textures produced by Ml. Recognition of mineral zonations in these rocks is also hampered because mineral phases with restricted stability are not developed to any great extent, probably because of the extremely limited occurrence of suitable lithologies, such as meta- basic rocks. Nevertheless, it has been possible to divide the rocks of the block into four mineral- ogical zones of metamorphism (Fig. 1). In order of increasing grade these are: Zone: prehnite-pumpellyite Zone: 112 epidote-chlorite-white mica Zone IIIa: biotite-epidote-chlorite-white mica Zone Iilb: biotite-chlorite-white mica Zone. iV: biotite-white mica. Zones I and II contain rocks affected by Ml only, whereas zones III and IV contain rocks affected by both Ml and M2. Critical assemblages in zone I all include prehnite or pumpellyite or both (Table 1, Fig. 2). This zone is developed only in the northern part of the block. Zone II is a transitional zone lacking diagnostic minerals such as prehnite and pumpel- lvite..= Eprdote, chlorite and white mica are the main metamorphic minerals present. The incoming of biotite heralds the start of zone III and this isograd marks the most northerly extent of M2 over- printing Ml. This zone is subdivided tentatively into two subzones. In subzone IIIa epidote, chlor- ite and white mica are all present along with randomly oriented biotite blebs. Subzone IIIb differs from subzone IIIa in that epidote is lacking. In zone IV chlorite is absent and definitive assemblages contain only biotite and white mica as diagnostic minerals. Zone boundaries used to construct the above zones are defined by (i) the disappearance of prehnite and pumpellyite, (ii) the incoming of biotite, (111) the disappearance of chlorite. Sampling problems over the Coffs Harbour Block (approximately 5000 km’) and the absence of critical assemblages in some rocks have made accurate mapping of zone boundaries difficult, and in some places they have been inferred. ZONE I MINERAL | ZoNEI| zone ZONE _ oe aw ae Sawai rere ALBITE PREHNITE PUMPELLYITE EPIDOTE CHLORITE WHITE MICA BIOTITE Fig. 2. Zonal distribution of main metamorphic mineral phases in metaclastic rocks from the Coffs Harbour Block. OF RUSSELL J. KORSCH TABLE 1 METAMORPHIC ASSEMBLAGES IN THE METASEDIMENTARY ROCKS OF THE COFFS HARBOUR BLOCK Assemblage quartz-albite-white mica-prehnite quartz-albite-epidote-pumpellyite-(+chlorite) quartz-albite-chlorite quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote-(twhite mica) 10. quartz-albite-chlorite-white mica ll. quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote-calcite OMNI DNHWNDN 12. quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote-white mica-calcite 13. quartz-albite-chlorite-white mica-calcite-opaques 14. quartz-albite-white mica 15. quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote-actinolite-(+calcite) 16. quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote-(+white mica) 17. quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote-tourmaline 18. quartz-albite-chlorite-calcite-(tepidote) 19. quartz-albite-epidote 20. quartz-albite-epidote-white mica-(+tourmaline) 21. quartz-albite-chlorite-white mica-calcite 22. quartz-albite-white mica-calcite 23. quartz-albite-chlorite-biotite-(+epidote) 24. quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote-white mica-biotite-(+tourmaline) 25. quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote-calcite-biotite-(+white mica) 26. quartz-albite-epidote-biotite-sphene- (+chlorite) 27. quartz-albite-chlorite-white mica-biotite-sphene 28. quartz-albite-epidote-biotite-(+white mica and/or calcite) 29. quartz-albite-biotite 30. quartz-albite-chlorite-white mica-biotite 31. quartz-albite-white mica-biotite-(+calcite) 32. quartz-albite-chlorite-white mica-calcite-biotite 33. quartz-albite-white mica-biotite-garnet 34. quartz-albite-chlorite-white mica-garnet The disappearance of prehnite at a stage within the prehnite-pumpellyite facies, and the disappearance of pumpellyite at the upper boundary of the facies, have been recorded in the Sanbagawa Schists (Seki et al.., 1972); in the’ Otago, Schists (Bishop, 1972) and in the Nambucca Slate Belt (Leitch, 1975). Other workers (Seki et al., 1969, in the Tanzawa Mountains; Smith, 1969, in the Lachlan Geosyncline) have recorded the disappear- ance of prehnite and pumpellyite simultaneously. With more detailed sampling in parts of the Coffs Harbour Block it may be possible to recognise two isograds, one marking the disappearance of pre- hnite, and the other marking the disappearance of pumpellyite. However, because the psammitic rocks on either side of the prehnite-pumpellyite isograd appear to be of similar composition, it is inferred that the disappearance of the two min- erals is controlled by metamorphic grade. Biotite produced by M2 appears to develop in both the matrix of psammitic rocks and in pelitic rocks at approximately the same place and hence appears to be grade dependent with littie litho- logical influence. By contrast, Mather (1970) found that in greywackes in Dalradian rocks biotite developed at a lower grade than in pelites, and therefore in that region it appar- ently is chemically controlled as well as grade dependent. The disappearance of chlorite after the quartz-albite-prehnite-calcite-(+chlorite or epidote) quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote-prehnite-(tcalcite) quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote-white mica-prehnite-(tcalcite) quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote-prehnite-pumpellyite quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote-white mica-pumpel lyite-(+calcite) Zone I II IIIa IIIb IV X xX X xX X xX X xX X X X X xX xX X xX X X X xX X xX X X X X X xX X X xX xX X X X X X X xX xX X xX X X xX X X xX X xX X X X X X X X X X disappearance of epidote in the Coffs Harbour Block contradicts most recorded assemblages. James (1955) inferred, however, that biotite probably forms from chlorite because the amount of biotite increases as the amount of chlorite decreases. Hence the dis- appearance of chlorite at the zone IV boundary is thought to be a grade-dependent event but the possibility of lithological dependence cannot be overlooked. The disappearance of epidote within zone III deserves comment. The subdivision of zone III into two subzones is based on the absence of epidote in the higher-grade subzone. This situation is un- usual because in many metamorphic terrains epidote exists at higher grades after the disappearance of chlorite (Miyashiro, 1958, in Abukuma Plateau; Banno, 1964, in Sanbagawa Schists; James, 1955, in Michigan; Seki, 1957, in Arisu contact aureole,- Kitakami Mountains). However the converse, described here, has also been noted by Seki et al. (1969) in the Tanzawa Mountains. The more frequent development of epidote and chlorite in psammitic rocks than in pelitic rocks of the Coramba Beds shows that the development of those minerals is controlled by lithology to a certain extent (Fig. 3). The Coramba Beds, which occur in the northern part of the block, were examined closely in a large number of samples (432) partly because of the virtual absence of the effects of M2 overprinting Ml. The development of epidote is concentrated in psammitic rocks, occurring in 82% of them but in METAMORPHISM IN THE COFFS HARBOUR BLOCK vie 100 100 E Bi > 50 A [_] cuuorrre a fs] WHITE MICA (0) 0 PSAMMITES PELITES Fig. 3. Development of metamorphic minerals in psammitic and pelitic lithologies from the Coramba Beds. only 15% of the pelites. The disappearance of epidote at the subzone boundary can be related to the parent lithologies in the three formations. Korsch (1978) has shown that a progressive coarsen- ing of the grainsize of the sediments occurs from south to north. Psammitic lithologies dominate in the Coramba Beds but constitute only 12% of the Moombil Beds, which occur in the southern part of the block. Hence epidote, which is lithologically confined to mainly psammitic rocks, would be rare in the pelite-dominated Brooklana Beds and Moombil Beds. Therefore the subzone boundary is probably controlled by lithology with little or no depend- ence on metamorphic grade. Metamorphic Facies The presence of prehnite and pumpellyite and the absence of zeolites and actinolite place the rocks of zone I in the prehnite-pumpellyite facies of Coombs (1961). The absence of both prehnite and pumpellyite in rocks of similar composition to those of zone I Suggests that rocks of zone II do not belong to the prehnite-pumpellyite facies. The typical assemblage of quartz-albite-chlorite-epidote-white mica indicates that the rocks occur in the lowest part of the greenschist facies below the biotite isograd. Actinolite is not developed and pumpel- lyite is lacking as well as prehnite. Hence the transitional pumpellyite-actinolite facies of Hashimoto (1966) is considered to be absent. It is possible that the pumpellyite-actinolite facies was not recognised because of the absence of meta- basic lithologies in which actinolite commonly develops. However, Seki et al. (1969) and Coombs et al. (1970) both consider the pumpellyite- actinolite facies to be suppressed in areas of low-pressure - high geothermal gradient conditions and this has been confirmed experimentally by Nitsch (1971) and Liou (1971). The incoming of biotite overprinting the previously developed white mica foliation presents a problem of assigning the rocks of zone III to a facies. As far as can be determined all rocks of zones III and IV were metamorphosed by M1 to lowest greenschist facies. The presence of biotite is indicative of either upper greenschist facies or albite-epidote hornfels facies (Turner, 1968). The regional scale of this metamorphic event weighs against inclusion in the albite- epidote hornfels facies and it is preferred to place M2 in the low-pressure greenschist facies of Miyashiro (1973a). Rocks of zone IV are similar to zone III and have suffered greenschist facies regional meta- morphism (Ml) which was later overprinted by a regional-scale thermal metamorphism (M2) of low- pressure greenschist facies grade. The concept of facies series introduced by Miyashiro (1961) and extended by Seki (1969) can be applied to rocks of the Coffs Harbour Block. The sequence of facies produced by Ml of prehnite- pumpellyite to greenschist, with the absence of pumpellyite-actinolite is indicative of low pressure II facies series of Miyashiro (1973a, p. 298) and may be compared with the Tanzawa Mountains (Seki Cr al., 1969). The M2 metamorphism of low-pressure green- schist facies belongs to the low-pressure I facies series of Miyashiro (1973a) and may be compared with the rocks from the Iritono area of the central Abukuma Plateau (Shido, 1958). CONTACT METAMORPHISM Contact metamorphic aureoles occur around most of the granitic intrusions in the Coffs Harbour Block. The grade of metamorphism varies from albite-epidote hornfels facies to hornblende- hornfels facies of Turner (1968). Pyroxene- hnornfels facies has not been recognised in the area. The albite-epidote hornfels facies is difficult to distinguish particularly in the southern part where thermally-produced biotite has developed on a regional scale. Albite-epidote hornfels facies has been described previously in incompletely recon- stituted sediments near the margins of the Emerald Beach Leucoadamellite by Korsch (1971). Contact zones around the plutons (Fig. 1) define the limits of reconstitution of sediments into hornfels and do not represent the lower boundary of the hornblende-hornfels facies. The typical mineral assemblage observed in completely reconstituted hornfels is quartz-albite-biotite- muscovite- (opaques) - (cordierite) - (garnet). DISCUSSION Ml appears to have been caused by rapid accumulation of the ''geosynclinal pile", which caused a rapid increase in PH20 accompanied by a high geothermal gradient. The alignment of minerals might be attributed to a directed pressure present during deformation. For the conditions of meta- morphism for Ml, a geothermal gradient of 40°C/km is consistent with the conclusion that Ml is a low pressure facies series, but would be inconsistent if the metamorphism was of medium pressure similar to that described by Leitch (1975) for the Nambucca Slate Belt, and Bishop (1972) from Otago. Both these authors require a geothermal gradient of 15°C - 25°C/km to produce their metamorphic assemblages. M2 is a product of a regional-scale static thermal event, which is probably post-tectonic in origin. The new metamorphic minerals developed in an area of low confining pressure and high heat flow. It is possible that the heat flow was from a large concealed batholith but there is no real RUSSELL J. KORSCH 94 evidence for or against this suggestion. The age of the thermal event is not known but is assumed to be Late Palaeozoic. M2 has not affected the Nambucca Slate Belt and other regions to the south, which suggests that it was not an accom- paniment of the Mesozoic rifting of the Lord Howe Rise from Australia and the formation of a spreading ridge in the Tasman Sea. It is possible that the extensive belt of biotite-grade rocks (up to 40 km wide) may be due to a subhorizontal biotite isograd produced by a subsurface source of heat such as an extensive, continuous concealed batholith. Age of Metamorphism and Relation to Deformation In the southern part of the Coffs Harbour Block the slaty cleavage results, in part, from the preferred orientation of metamorphic phases, particularly white mica. Consequently there is a close temporal relationship between M1 and D1 episode of deformation. M2 is post-tectonic, occurring as a static thermal event producing randomly oriented biotite after the directed pressure of Dl had been removed. There is evidence that, although most of the metamorphic phases occurred during and after Dl, crystallisation extended over a longer period. Quartz veins varying in age from pre-Ml to post-M2 have been recognised. It is considered that Ml is contemporaneous with the metamorphism in the Wongwibinda Complex (Binns, 1966) and the Nambucca Slate Belt (Leitch, 1975) and hence is probably Middle Permian in age. Leitch and McDougall (in Leitch, 1978) has determined an age of 250 m.y. for the metamorphism in the Nambucca Slate Belt. M2 is possibly associated with the intrusion of the New England Batholith in Late Permian time. Tectonic Implications of Ml The metamorphosed sediments of the Coffs Harbour Block are considered to be a part of paired metamorphic belts, consisting of a low- pressure belt and an intermediate-pressure belt, which are recognised in the New England region (Fig. 4). The arcuate belt of low-pressure meta- morphism extends from the Coffs Harbour Block through the Wongwibinda Complex (Binns, 1966) to the Tia Complex (Gunthorpe, 1970). A parallel belt of intermediate-pressure metamorphism extends from the Bellinger-Macleay region (Leitch, 1975) to the Warnes River district (Fisher, 1969). These arcuate belts are restricted in extent and are remnants of formerly more extensive, linear features. Radiometric ages listed by Binns (1966) indicate that the low-pressure metamorphic rocks at Wongwibinda developed during the Permian, and geological evidence cited by Leitch (1974) supports a Permian age for the intermediate- pressure metamorphic rocks in the Bellinger- Macleay region. Miyashiro (1973b) recognised the tectonic Significance of paired metamorphic belts. He showed that low-pressure metamorphic rocks re- present zones of ancient volcanic chains or mag- matic arcs where high heat flow regimes accompanied the rise of granitic magma, and that high-pressure metamorphic belts represent ancient subduction zones along trenches. Miyashiro also made the Significant observation that Palaeozoic high- pressure belts are rare, being represented by intermediate-pressure metamorphic belts, possibly because the rate of plate descent was slower in the Palaeozoic than in later geological time. The low- pressure metamorphic belt, and an associated magmatic arc in which there was both volcanism and plutonism, were above the inferred Benioff Zone. The volcanics are preserved as extensive remnants on the tablelands north of Armidale (Fig. 4) and have calc-alkaline continental-margin affinities (Langham, 1973). The granitic rocks are more complex, and have been divided into four suites by Korsch (1977). Both the Hillgrove and New England suites are postulated to have formed as a result operating in and above the palaeo-Benioff Zone. Radiometric dates (Fig. 4), taken from the literature, show that the Hillgrove suite is older than most of the New England Batholith, and that the plutons of the New England Batholith in general become younger northwestwards from the Wollomombi plate boundary. The youngest are the Mole and Gilgai granites which are highly acid, potassic and tin-bearing. Hence the metamorphic belts can be attributed to processes operating on opposite sides of a Permian plate boundary. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Drs H.J. Harrington and N.C.N. Stephenson for many useful discussions during the course of this work. The diagrams were draughted by M.R. Bone and K.C. Cross. Mrs Rhonda Vivian kindly typed the final copy. REFERENCES Banno, S., 1964. Petrologic studies on the Sanbagawa crystalline schists in the Bessi-Ino district, central Sikoku, Japan. Tokyo Untv. Fac. Set. J. Sec. 2; 15, 205-519" Binns, R.A., 1966. Granitic intrusions and regional metamorphic rocks of Permian age from the Wongwibinda district, North-eastern New South Wales. <<. Proc: #: soe. Nis.We, Jo, 5-36. Bishop, D.G., 1972. Progressive metamorphism from prehnite-pumpellyite to greenschist facies in the Dansey Pass Area, Otago, New Zealand. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 86, Siv7-sI9S. Brown, E.H., 1967. The greenschist facies in part of eastern Otago, New Zealand. Contr. Mineral. Petrol. , 145° 259-292). Fig. 4. Location of paired metamorphic belts and associated igneous rocks in New England. This map is modified from the 1:1 000 000 Geological Map of New South Wales, and some geological components, particularly the Tertiary basalts, have been omitted. The radiometric ages shown are in millions of years. METAMORPHISM IN THE COFFS HARBOUR BLOCK 95 I53°/E. Low — pressure metamorphic belt Intermediate — pressure metamorphic belt Hillgrove Plutonic Suite New England Batholith Permian volcanic rocks Radiometric age ~\ S\Bellinger SN Complex District Rw 96 RUSSELL J. KORSCH Coombs, D.S., 1961. Some recent work on the lower grades of metamorphism. Aust. J. Set., 24 (o7). 205-215. Coombs; DuS..,-Horodyski; Ri. and Naylor, R.G., 1970. Occurrence of prehnite-pumpellyite facies metamorphism in northern Maine. Amer. wel, ~208,) 142-156), Fisher’, De; 969".", Avstructural study-ot ‘the Warnes River district. B.Se. (Hons) Thesis, Untv. New England. (Unpubl.) Gunthorpe, R.J., 1970. Plutonic and metamorphic rocks of the Walcha-Nowendoc-Yarrowitch District, Northern New South Wales. Ph.D. Thests, Untv. New England. (Unpubl.) Hashimoto, M., 1966. On the prehnite-pumpellyite metagreywacke facies. gd. Geol. Soc. Jap., 70i,2 180-85. Iwasaki, M., 1963. Metamorphic rocks of the Kotu- Bizan area, Eastern Sikoku. Tokyo Univ. Fac. SCU wan See. 2, lo. 1-90" James, H.L., 1955. Zones of regional metamorphism in the Precambrian of Northern Michigan. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 66, 1455-1488. Korsch, R.J., 1971. Palaeozoic sedimentology and igneous geology of the Woolgoolga district, North Coast, New South Wales. J. Proc. R. Soc. N.S.W., 104, 63-75. Korschs ReJ.o se 19735* )-Structural-analysis.of the Palaeozoic sediments in the Woolgoolga district, North Coast, New South Wales. J. Proc. Re SOCl N.SeW..s 106; 998-1053. Korsch, R.J., 1977. A framework for the Palaeozoic geology of the southern part of the New England Geosyncline. J. Geol. Soc. AUS GE. OKO) e, So9-555. Korsch, R.J., 1978. Petrographic variations within. thick turbidite sequences: jan example from the late Palaeozoic of eastern Australia. Sedimentology, 25(2). Langham, A.C., 1973. Permian acid volcanic and Tertiary basic volcanics of the Wandsworth area, New South Wales. B.Se. (Hons) Thesis, Untv. New England. (Unpubl.) Leitch, E.C., 1974. The geological development of the southern part of the New England Fold Belitta Geol. = SOCS AUS Ted. Obl) al So) 5 On Leatch,.EaG.., 1975.) Zonationvot lowsgrade regional metamorphic rocks, Nambucca Slate Belt, Northeastern New South Wales. J. Geol. Soe. Aust., 22(4), 413-422. Leitch, E.C., 1978. Structural succession in a Late Palaeozoic Slate Belt and its tectonic significance. Tectonophystcs, 47, (in press): Leitch, E.C., Neilson, M.J. and Hobson, E., 1971. 1:250 000 Geological Sheet SH56 10-11, Dorrigo-Coffs Harbour. N.S.W. Geol. Surv., Sydney. Liou, J.G., 1971. Synthesis and stability relations of prehnite, CazA1Si30;)(OH)>. Amer. Mineral., 56, 507-531. McKee, B. and Leitch, E.C., 1971. Low-grade meta- morphism in northeastern New South Wales, Australia. Geol. Soc. Amer. Abstr. Prog., 5(7), 643-644. Mather, J.D., 1970. The biotite isograd and the lower greenschist facies in the Dalradian rocks of Scotland. J. Petrol heZ ee 55-275) Miyashiro, A., 1958. Regional metamorphism of the Gosaisyo-Takanuki district in the central Abukuma Plateau. Tokyo Untv. Fac. Set. J. Sec... 2auhl , 2NO 27.28 Miyashiro, A., 1961. Evolution of metamorphic belts.: J. Petrol.) 2a acim Miyashiro, A., 1973a. METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC BELTS. George Allen and Unwin, London, 492 pp. Miyashiro, A., 1973b. morphic belts. Paired and unpaired meta- Tectonophystes, 17, 241-254. Nitsch, K.H., 1971. Stabilitatsbezrvehungen von prehnit-und pumpellyithaltigen paragenesen. Contr. Mineral Petrol., 30, 240-260. Seki, Y., 1957. Petrological study of homfelses in the central part of the Median Zone of Kitakami Mountainland, Iwate Prefecture. Sattama Univ. Rep., Ser. B., 2, 307-361. Seki, Y., 1969. Facies series in low-grade meta- morphism. J. Geol. Soc. Jap., 75, 255-266. Seki, Y:, Oki, Y., Matsuda, T.);.Mukama [ake 7and Okumura, K., 1969. Metamorphism in the Tanzawa Mountains, central Japan. Jd. Jap. Assoc. Mineral. Petrol. Econ. Geol., 61, 1-24 and 50-75. Seki, Y.; Onuki, H., Oba, T: and Morrie Reo Sanbagawa metamorphism in the central Kii Peninsula. Jap. J. Geol. Geogr., 41, 65-78. Shido, F., 1958. Plutonic and metamorphic rocks of the Nakoso and Iritono districts in the central Abukuma Plateau. Tokyo Univ. Fac. Set. ds SC Ca: dina le ene baal Ua Smith, R.E., 1969. Zones of progressive regional burial metamorphism in part of the Tasman Geosyncline, Eastern Australia. J. Petrol., 10, 144-163. Turner, F.J., 1968. METAMORPHIC PETROLOGY: MINERALOGICAL AND FIELD ASPECTS. McGraw- Hill, New York, 403 pp. White, A.J.R., 1964. Stilpnomelane in the Brisbane Metamorphics. Aust. J. Set. 26(10), 324. Department of Geology, University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W. 2351. (Manuscript received 31.3.78) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 111, pp. 97-100, 1978 The Use of Inflection Surfaces in Descriptions of Folds RUSSELL J. KORSCH ABSTRACT. for theoretical fold profiles. The form of inflection surfaces for both fold trains and fold stacks are developed The fold train inflection surfaces for symmetrical folds are always normal to the axial surfaces but the fold stack inflection surfaces can be normal, oblique or parallel to the axial surfaces. For asymmetrical folds the above conditions need not apply. Inflection surfaces for field examples of mesoscopic folds are compared with the theoretical models. INTRODUCTION In the description of folds attention has been paid mainly to folded surfaces or single folded layers and the relationships of folded surfaces or layers in fold trains and fold stacks are often neglected. The most useful way of des- cribing fold shape up to the present has been by thickness parameters, 7 and t (Ramsay, 1962) and dipyasogonss (Elliott, +1965). Ramsay (1967) presents a comprehensive coverage of these two topics and his work has been extended by Hudleston (1973 a, b) particularly for single layer folds. A useful parameter for describing one aspect of the geometry of folds is the locus of the lines of inflection of the limbs in a fold stack. This has been termed the inflection surface by Ver- hoogen et al. (1970, p. 153), who also took the inflection line as the limit of a single fold in the surface. This note expands the concept of inflection surfaces and examines the form of inflection surfaces both in theoretical fold profiles and actual field examples. THEORY Most folded surfaces have a variable curvature in the profile plane. dy/dx is a measure of the gradient of the curve and d*y/dx* is the rate of change of the gradient of the curve. The crest (Point B in Fig. 1) has dy/dx = 0 and is a-max- imum turning point whereas the trough (Point A) is a minimum turning point. A point of inflection (Point C) is defined as the point where d*y/dx* = 0 and dy/dx does not change sign on either side of the point. For some folds the limbs are Straight and hence the gradient does not change over this distance. Consequently d*y/dx* = 0 for the entire length of the limb. Ramsay (1967, p. 347) defines the inflection point on such a_ limb as the midpoint of the straight portion, but that device is not rigorous because a single point of inflection does not exist. In this note two "change points" for each straight limb are used and are defined as points where d*y/dx* = 0, and on one side of the point towards the hinge d7y/dx’ is changing, and on the other side away from the hinge d-y/dx* = 0. For folds with straight limbs between the hinge zones, a zone of zero curvature .and constant O0 = 0°. Here SIS is parallel to AS and the folds are similar folds. Two special cases occur within this category: (a) Idealised symmetrical similar folds (Fig. 2a). The 77S for an idealised symmetrical similar fold constitute a series of parallel lines perpendicular to AS. The TIS will be equidimension- ally spaced only if the layers all had the same initial thickness. SIS also constitute a series of equidimensional spaced parallel lines. However the SIS are parallel to the AS and are midway between them. The spacing between SIS and the spacing between 77S differs, depending on AX, A and the thickness of individual layers. (b) Symmetrical angular folds (Fig. 2b). Again we have $ = 0° and SIS normal to TIS. However the main difference from the idealised symmetrical similar folds is that AS and SIS are coincident. For a single folded surface in a symmetrical fold the two TIS are separated by a distance Z and the two JIS are coincident with the enveloping surfaces which define the outer limits of a fold. (2)i<6"=" 90°. SIS is normal to AS and these folds are idealised circular arc parallel folds (Fig. 2c). The surfaces in the central zone have not suffered the effects of shortening and thick- ening, and hence all SIS are coincident with each other, and perpendicular to AS. Also within this zone the TiS are coincident with the SIS. Con- sequently class 1B folds of Ramsay (1967) have all SIS coincident with all TIS and perpendicular to AS. However, on moving out of the central zone into layers with class 1A style, then SIS becomes parallel to AS, and coincident with it in places, and the TIS becomes equidimensionally spaced per- pendicular to AS. (3). 0° < ¢ < 90°. This condition occurs with some fold surfaces of class 1C and class 3 (Figs 2d and 2e). The centres of the folds have become non-linear. Here 7IS remains normal to AS but SIS defines a zigzag locus from one centre to the Mexte in Pig. 2d) o) =" 50° and in Fig. 2e > = Gree Johnson and Ellen (1974, Fig. 11) illustrate lines of discontinuity in ideal "concentric" folds. Their line of discontinuity is the same element as the SIS for paraboloidal parallel folds illustrated here (Fig. 2d). This indicates Johnson and Ellen's ideal "concentric" fold is not a pure circular arc parallel fold but is a paraboloidal parallel fold. In conclusion, the fold train inflection surfaces of theoretical symmetrical fold profiles are always normal to the axial surfaces but the fold stack inflection surfaces can be normal, oblique or parallel to the axial surfaces. For symmetrical folds, these conditions need not apply. FIELD EXAMPLES The inflection surface parameters developed above have been applied to specific field examples. Figs 3 and 4 show examples of SIS and TIS deter- mined for mesoscopic folds from the Coffs Harbour Block (Korsch, 1975). Im Fig. 3 all folds were produced by the first period of deformation and the angle between the axial surface and TJS is, in al- most every case, 90° whereas values for ¢ range from >to Si (Fold A), 51 tov56 . (Fold4B)) and 4~ to 56° (Fold C). Values of Z are very consistent within individual folds. In comparison the folds in Fig. 4 produced by a second period of deformation show SIS almost parallel to AS and are almost coincident with them. This is typical of angular folds. The TJS, because of the asymmetry of the folds are not perpendicular to the AS. The angles range from 65° to 85°. For these folds Z approximates very closely to 2A. Hence, in this example too, inflection surfaces for fold trains and fold stacks can be used to achieve an insight into the shape of folds. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank Dr H.J. Harrington for discus- sions on this work and K.C. Cross for draughting the diagrams. The final copy was kindly typed by .Mrs Rhonda Vivian. REFERENCES The quantitative mapping of Se nGeOl asm On Elliott, D., 1965. directional minor structures. 865-880. Hudleston, P.J., 1973a. Fold morphology and some geometrical implications of theories of fold development. Tectonophystcs, 16, 1-46. Hudleston, P.J., 1973b. An analysis of "single- layer'' folds developed experimentally in viscous media. Tectonophysics, 16, 189-214. Johnson, A.M. and Ellen, S.D., 1974. A theory of concentric, kink, and sinusoidal folding and of monoclinal flexuring of compressible, elastic multilayers. I. Introduction. Teetonophystes, 21, 301-339. Korsch, R.J., 1975. Structural analysis and geol- ogical evolution of the Rockvale - Coffs Harbour region, northern New South Wales. Ph.D. Thests, Univ. New England, Armidale. (Unpubl.). 100 RUSSELE.J; KORSCH cm AS sis pte, Be TIS (antitormal) ——— TIS (synformal) Fig. 4. Inflection surface patterns for mesoscopic folds produced by the second period of deformation in the Coffs Harbour Block. Ramsay, J.G., 1962. The geometry and mechanics of formation of "'similar'' type folds. J. Geol., 70, 309-327. Ramsay, J.G., 1967. FOLDING AND FRACTURING OF ROCKS. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. 568 pp. Verhoogen, J...-Turner, F-J2,Werssiabo Wahrhaftig, C. and Fyfe, WsS:5 19702. THE EARTH - AN INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. Holt, Rinehart §& Winston, Inc., New York. 748 pp. Fig. 3. Inflection surface patterns for some Department of Geology, mesoscopic folds produced by the first University of New England, period of deformation in the Coffs ARMIDALE, N.S.W. 2351. Harbour Block. (Manuscript received 7.12.77) (Manuscript received in final form 26.4.78) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 111, pp. 101-106, 1978 The Demon Fault R. J. Korscu, N. R. ARCHER AND G. W. MCCONACHY ABSTRACT. The Demon Fault is a major north-south trending ancient fault extending for over 200 km in length in the New England mobile belt in northeastern New South Wales. The most impressive feature is the consistent linearity. Previous authors have invoked strike-slip movements ranging from 30 km to 200 km, but it is possible conclusively to prove movements of the order of 17 km in a dextral sense. The Demon Fault is a fracture which has existed for a long period of time but along which there has been relatively little movement. It has possibly controlled sedimentation patterns and the emplacement of plutons. INTRODUCTION The Demon Fault, named by Shaw (tm Packham, 1969) is a near north-south trending ancient fault extending for over 200 km in the eastern part of the New England mobile belt in northeastern New South Wales (Fig. 1). The only faults of greater length in New England are the Peel Fault and the Hunter-Mooki Thrust which both occur in the western part of the belt. The Demon Fault which occurs in the Tablelands Complex of Korsch (1977) is a principal Palaeozoic and Early Triassic discon- tinuity cutting plutons of the New England Batholith (sensu strtcto) and Stanthorpe Plutonic Suite as well as several stratigraphic units. HASTINGS BLOCK A dextral strike-slip movement of 30 km on this fault in the Tenterfield region has been ey proposed previously by Shaw (tn Packham, 1969) but the present authors have proved movements of only 17 km. This amount of movement was based on the 4 displacement of plutons, and hence the estimate is N only a record of movement since the time of em- | placement of the plutons. We consider that move- ment has possibly also taken place on this fault | prior to the emplacement of the plutons. We have not been able to correlate stratigraphic or igneous units across the southern part of the fault. In the northern part correlations across the fault have been possible for some plutonic bodies. « x x x x x x« x x MX MeL OX, CEE — Geological boundary — Fault Because of the paucity of correlations of units across the fault no direct evidence for the f F : i ti amount of movement is available. This lack of See ae oes correlation has led authors such as Scheibner and Permian Volcanics Glen (1972), Runnegar (1974) and Leitch (1975) to a infer a dextral strike-slip movement of the order . *] Stanthorpe Suite of 100 km to 200 km. ke) New England Batholith (sengu stricto) a! The southern end of the Demon Fault is hidden QQ Hillgrove Plutonic Suite SS beneath the Tertiary basalt pile near Ebor and its FA “Ip reappearance south of this pile has not been eee paca recognised. Leitch (1975) postulates that a north- [_] Nambucca Association west trending fault in the Nambucca Slate Belt is a southern extension of the Demon Fault. However others such as Scheibner and Glen (1972) and Runnegar (1974) imply that the Demon Fault ends at the western extension of the east-west trending Bellinger Fault. In the north the fault dies out in plutons of the Stanthorpe Plutonic Suite with- Fig. 1. Geological setting of the Demon Fault in out any recognised extension of it into southern the New England mobile belt. Nomenclature of the Queensland. geological units follows Korsch (1977). f. 4 Coffs Harbour Association ull) Silverwood Association 102 R. J. KORSCH AND OTHERS No previous detailed account of the fault exists. The results reported here are based on reconnaissance work over the length of the fault and detailed field mapping of two representative areas. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FAULT The Demon Fault is an obvious linear feature on LANDSAT imagery and aerial photographs, and is clearly expressed in the topography. Fault line scarps occur at localities in both the northern and southern parts and deep V-shaped valleys along the faultline occur at other localities. The most impressive feature of the fault is its consistent linearity in that it has a relatively straight trace across the terrain for its entire length. As a fault it is predominantly a discrete fracture but at various places along its length it splits into two or more parallel or subparallel arms that dip nearly vertically. Cataclastic effects of the Demon Fault are limited to a narrow zone a few metres to a few hundred metres wide. This fault zone is charact- erised by a lack of outcrop due to the preferential weathering and erosion of brecciated, deformed and weakened rocks. The linear nature of the fault trace indicates a subvertically dipping plane. A thrust inter- pretation can be ruled out because characteristics which thrust planes exhibit on intersection with topography are absent. NEWTON BOYD AREA In the Newton Boyd area (Fig. 2) the Demon Fault consists of a discrete fracture in the north which bifurcates in the south into discrete sub- parallel arms along which acid dykes have been intruded. To the west of the fault the Mt Mitchell Adamellite (Brunker et al., 1969) has been emplaced into the Sara Beds (Korsch, 1978) which are a Permian sequence of coarsely-bedded chaotic con- glomerate and thinly-bedded greywacke, siltstone and mudstone. Contact metamorphism of the Sara Beds up to the hornblende hornfels facies occurs in the aureole of the Mt Mitchell Adamellite. A K-Ar age of 245+5 m.y. for biotite from the Mt Mitchell Adamellite was reported by Rowley (1975). To the east of the fault the Brooklana Beds (Leitch et al., 1971), which consist of thinly- bedded mudstone, siltstone and rare greywacke, have been intruded by the Newton Boyd Granodiorite (new name, see Appendix) and the Chaelundi Complex (Binns and others, 1967). The Newton Boyd Grano- diorite was mapped previously as a portion of the Mt Mitchell Adamellite occurring to the east of the Demon Fault. However, partial chemical analyses for several samples suggest that they are separate unrelated intrusions (Archer, 1975). The Chaelundi Complex is a large composite body which is largely unmapped because of its in- accessability. At least three phases of intrusion are evident in outcrops along the Guy Fawkes River south of the Newton Boyd area. Between the two parallel fault planes of the Demon Fault a sliver of highly ruptured sediments 152° 15'E. CN 26ue=- . a gzeenny pe 7~—~ Creek ES Felsic dykes ~~— Road Chaelundi Complex — Geological boundary Newton Boyd Granodiorite — Fault X..*] Mt Mitchell Adameliite (eal Sara Beds Brooklana Beds Geological map of the Newton Boyd area showing the distribution of units on either side of the Demon Fault. Ps Orme occurs in association with the acid dykes. It is considered that these sediments have affinities with the Brooklana Beds. As can be seen from Figure 2 it is not possible to match stratigraphic or igneous units across the Demon Fault in the Newton Boyd area. This suggests that either the amount of horizontal displacement — of units has been considerable or that the fault has existed for a long period of time and has exhibited some control over sedimentation patterns. If the fault existed prior to the intrusion of the plutons it might have aided their emplacement and then produced a truncated appearance by subsequent movement on the fault plane. DEMON CREEK AREA In the Demon Creek area (Fig. 3) the Demon Fault consists of a single fracture for most of its THE DEMON FAULT 103 ee + ee als eee oe wine os + + &) + + + ta ata a ae ol \ + + + + + + = ("1 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + \N + + + + + + + V / + + + $+ + + + | | + + + + + + “+ Let + + + + + + + \ + + + + + + +f7, + at an + aP ot vy >| + + + + 4+70,\ (8 ar +f + aP ee VN t ene + + ar +7 a a ee (e7RENS PV aeeIN eee WN % is as NYG ae eee + ea ee ie x Speke Vie re KX KK ® / eR NS \ — DEXA, Ki Ky IK ia ss ~) Vs | ee (es NG Ns ee ES ZX KE XG AXES Ky sy Ne ANA _o- x xX x x x7 S Aver —y / Za \ s a x x xe x \ ss e Sh i CEO EY : a x x f Z oA / \ — 7 x e SEs ) ae - / Bx ° E Ges Sy See ie ot oe Nine GRO S, vo» | -=~Creek “=== Geological boundary —--- Road ——Fault [[[][[Jovkes y [* ,. *] Stanthorpe Adamellite es |.” |Billyrimba Leucoadamellite v v x adamellite km [._]Bungulla Porphyritic Adamellite / VY vi| iy Dundee Rhyodacite | ee Palaeozoic sediments Fig. 3. The geology of the Demon Creek area showing the 17 km displacement of the boundary between the Dundee Rhyodacite and the Bungulla Porphyritic Adamellite. length which in the south bifurcates into two sub- parallel fault planes. The eastern margin of the fault zone has suffered intense fracturing sub- parallel to the strike of the fault which is 357°. This zone consists of narrowly spaced chevron-type shears which are slightly oblique to the orientat- ion of the fault. Slickenside orientations within these shears plunge 5° to 005°. Several individual plutons have been mapped in this area, most of them being truncated by the Demon Fault. In the southern part of this area a large mass of sedimentary rocks occur to the west of the Demon Fault. These are indurated mudstone and sandstone and have been examined only in recon- naissance fashion. No fossils were found. A penetrative cleavage persists in the mudstone sub- parallel to bedding, suggesting the presence of isoclinal folding but because of poor outcrop and inaccessability no large scale folding has been detected. Korsch (1977) tentatively placed these rocks in his Nambucca Association. The several discrete masses of the Dundee Rhyodacite (Flood et al., 1977) have been regarded previously as parts of an intrusive adamellite- porphyrite (e.g. Wilkinson et al., 1964) but the presence of distorted glass shards which are now devitrified suggest that the bodies had an ignim- britic origin. The Dundee Rhyodacite has been dated using K-Ar techniques as 242 m.y. by Evernden and Richards (1962). The two masses of the Dundee Rhyodacite which occur in the Demon Creek area have been intruded by the Bungulla Porphyritic Adamellite, and also by the Billyrimba Leucoadamellite and its associated adamellite (McConachy, 1975). However, the Bungulla pluton is not spatially adjacent to the Billyrimba masses and hence no inference can be made as to their order of intrusion. Finally, in the Demon Creek area the Stanthorpe Adamellite intrudes the Bungulla Por- phyritic Adamellite. Rb-Sr ages of 237 m.y. and 222 m.y. for the Bungulla Porphyritic Adamellite and Stanthorpe Adamellite respectively were deter- mined by Shaw (1964). DYNAMIC METAMORPHISM Dynamic metamorphic effects, associated with movement on the Demon Fault have been recognised only in a narrow belt adjacent to the fault plane. The terms used here mainly follow Spry (1969). Consistent effects were observed in the granitic plutons along the entire length of the fault. The first noticeable effects are the devel- opment of strained extinction in quartz, growth of secondary calcite and fracturing of plagioclase with minor granulation at some feldspar boundaries. The next stage produces severe fracturing and a crush breccia. There is some veining, biotites have been chloritised and severely kinked, feldspars have been fractured and quartz shows strain ex- tinction. This stage grades into a protocataclasite where there has been chloritisation, kinking and shredding of biotite and fracturing and granulation of feldspar. A rock flour is beginning to develop. Adjacent to the fault cataclasites occur. There has been severe brecciation, fragmentation and granulation of quartz and feldspar to produce a very fine-grained green matrix. Minor relict quartz and feldspar are enclosed in the amorphous rock flour. The first noticeable effect of the Demon Fault in the sedimentary rocks is kinking of cleavage in the fine-grained sediments. Adjacent to the fault there is severe granulation of the sediments to produce a cataclasite-like rock which still retains some original texture. Fracturing of the sediments is common, with the voids being infilled with quartz. The acid porphyritic dykes associated with the fault in the Newton Boyd area were emplaced both before and after the movement had ceased. Some dykes show deformational effects such as strain extinction in quartz and minor fracturing of feldspars while others show no evidence of cata- Clasise EVIDENCE OF MOVEMENT The determination of the amount of slip on the Demon Fault depends on establishing a mismatch in the rocks on either side of the fault and then correlating accurately those stratigraphic and igneous units which were once continuous entities. Shaw (tm Packham, 1969) proposed a dextral strike-slip movement of 30 km based on the dis- placement of the Stanthorpe Adamellite east of Tenterfield. However in the same area the authors 104 R. J. KORSCH AND CTHERS can prove a maximum determinable horizontal dis- placement of only 17 km with the east block moving south relative to the west block. The authors base this movement on the displacement of the contact between the Dundee Rhyodacite and Bungulla Por- phyritic Adamellite. However this only indicates that there has been a strike separation of 17 km since the emplacement of the Bungulla Porphyritic Adamellite about 237 m.y. ago. Because the Stanthorpe Adamellite has also been displaced the movement was later than 222 m.y. ago. It does not give any indication of the possibility of movement on the fault prior to the emplacement of the plutons and nor does it give any indication of a vertical component to the movement. Slickensides in the fault zone plunge shal- lowly to the north. In the Demon Creek area they plunge 5° to 005° while those in the Newton Boyd area plunge 18° to 342°. This suggests that there has been a slight vertical component to the move- ment. The: plutonic: rocks: in, ther vacanitysot the Demon Fault are heavily fractured and in the Demon Fault area these fractures differ in orientation across the fault. The dominant orientation in the western block is 065° although subsidiary orient- ations of 010°, 040° and 145° were also observed. In some cases sinistral strike-slip displacements of up to 15 m occur along some of the 065° fractures. To the east of “the fault the predom- inant strike for fractures is 035° although a subsidiary orientation of 140° occurs also. This suggests that there has been some anti-clockwise rotation of the fractures east of the fault relative to those west of the fault (McConachy, 1975): In the Newton Boyd area Archer (1975) measured subvertical joints from plutons on both sides of the fault and also lineaments on aerial photographs. In the Mt Mitchell Adamellite the predominant orientation for joints was 135° with subsidiary orientations of 160° and 040°. For lineaments the predominant orientation was 060° with subsidiary orientations at 035° and 005°. To the east of the fault in the Newton Boyd Grano- diorite the predominant joint orientation was 070° with subsidiaries at 015° and 160° and the main lineament orientation was 135° with a secondary orientation of 005° which is subparallel to the fault plane. The confusing picture presented by the joint and lineament patterns from both sides of the Demon Fault does not allow the establishment of a concise movement pattern. More detailed work over the whole length of the fault will need to be carried out before a comprehensive understanding of the relationship of the fractures to the fault is reached. Since the Early Triassic the Demon Fault appears to have been extinct, although it is possible that associated with the uplifting of New England in Tertiary times there was approximately 120 m of dextral strike separation as is suggested by offsets in tributaries of the Demon Creek which flow from east to west across the fault zone. Several authors have postulated a much greater strike-slip movement on the Demon Fault than the here presented evidence shows. Scheibner and Glen (1972) invoked a large unspecified amount of dextral movement on the Demon Fault to account for the intense deformation and regional metamor- phism in the Nambucca Slate Belt. Runnegar (1974) correlated rocks in the Texas region in southern Queensland with those in the Coffs Harbour Block and assumed that all structures to the east of the Demon Fault have been displaced 100 km to 150 km dextrally during the Permian or Triassic. The correlation of rocks in the Texas area with those of the Coffs Harbour Block has not been proved and is not supported by Korsch (1977). Leitch (1975) also invokes a dextral dis- placement of at least 200 km for the Coffs Harbour Block but correlatives of these rocks to the west of the Demon Fault in the border rivers region or southern Queensland has not been established conclusively. Hence although movements on a large scale on the Demon Fault might have occurred prior to the emplacement of plutons of the New England Batholith sensu stricto and Stanthorpe Plutonic Suite no definitive correlations have been made to indicate the amount of displacement. TECTONIC IMPLICATIONS As outlined above, most previous tectonic models for New England invoke a large dextral strike- slip movement of the order of 100 km to 200 km for the Demon Fault. The authors proved a horizontal displacement of at least 17 km. The matching of geological features across the fault over distances postulated by previous authors has not been possible. Such a movement, if it occurred, will only be proved after much more detailed work, involving the structural mapping of all rocks, chemical analyses, and radiometric dating of the plutons, has been undertaken. Until such a displacement is conclusively proved the authors prefer an alternative interpre- tation which does not invoke strike-slip movements of such a large amount. The authors suggest that there have been no large scale movements. Instead, the fault was a linear feature which persisted for a long period of time, with the rocks adjacent to it being subjected to minor horizontal and vertical displacements from time to time. The fault possibly controlled sedimentation, particularly of Permian rocks such as the diamictite, conglomerate and finer-grained sediments of the Nambucca Association. The Wongwibinda Fault (Fig. 1) defines the western boundary of the Nambucca Association in the southern part of the area. The Abroi Granodiorite, migmatites and Rampsbeck Schists of Binns (1966) occur to the west of the Wongwibinda Fault and are now more deeply exposed than the Nambucca Associat- ion sediments, suggesting that on the Wongwibinda Fault the major vertical component of movement was western block upwards. A complementary movement on the Demon Fault of eastern block upwards might have led to the development of a trough in which the sediments of the Nambucca Association were deposited. On the other hand the Demon and Wongwibinda faults may have been coincident reaching their present positions by rifting apart thus producing a trough THE DEMON FAULT 105 in between them. Mylonite produced by movement on the Wongwibinda Fault is considerably different to the dynamic metamorphic products of the Demon Fault and hence does not support this possibility. The fault probably controlled the emplace- ment of many of the plutons because several plutons abut against the fault but do not appear to have a conjugate displaced portion on the opposite side. The fault might have bounded their emplacement and subsequent minor movements produced the dynamic metamorphic effects which are now observed. The nature of strike-slip faults is the subject of debate currently occurring in the literature. Wilson (1965) introduced the term transform fault for a fault which he regarded as fundamentally different from a transcurrent fault. This approach has been followed by others such as Hill (1974) and Freund (1974). However, some authors such as Wellman (1971) and Garfunkel (1972) regard the terms transform and transcurrent as being synonymous suggesting only one kind of strike-slip fault. Freund (1974) lists sixteen properties to distinguish transform from transcurrent faults. Several of the properties are difficult to apply to ancient faults because they have been derived from active faults and hypothetical models. The Demon Fault exhibits properties which fit descriptions for both transform and transcurrent faults. The single, straight nature suggests a transform but the small amount of displacement and absence of adjacent parallel faults suggest a transcurrent nature. Transforms terminate at structural features such as ridges or trenches and there are only six types which can occur (Wilson, 1965). A problem arises in trying to recognise either a ridge or trench system at the extremities of the Demon Fault, and there appears to be no geological structures in these areas which could possibly be’ anterpreted as either a ridge or a trench. Hence the exact character of the Demon Fault is uncertain. It is not possible to deter- mine whether the Demon Fault is a transform or transcurrent fault. In conclusion, the authors find no evidence to suggest that there has been large-scale movements of a strike-slip nature on the Demon Fault. Consequently, tectonic models may have to be revised to account for a Demon Fault along which there are only small strike-slip displacements. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank Dr H.J. Harrington for many fruitful discussions and his interest shown in this work. The diagrams were draughted by Mr M.R. Bone. REFERENCES The Demon Fault and surround- B.Se. (Hons) Thests, (Unpub1. ) Archer, N.R., 1975. ing rocks at Newton Boyd. Untv. New England, Armidale. Binns, R.A., 1966. Granitic intrusions and regional metamorphic rocks of Permian age from the Wongwibinda district, North-eastern New South Wales. 5-36. J. Proe. R. Soe. N.S.W., 99, Binns, R.A. and others, 1967. NEW ENGLAND TABLE- LAND, SOUTHERN PART, WITH EXPLANATORY TEXT, GEOL. MAP NEW ENGLAND 1:250 000. Univ. New England, Armidale. Brunker, R.L., Chesnut, W.S. and Cameron, R.G., 1969: 1:250 000 GEOLOGICAL SHEET SH 56-6 GRAFTON, N.S.W. Geol. Surv., Sydney. Evernden, J.F. and Richards, J.R., 1962. Potassium- argon ages in eastern Australia. J. Geol. Soc. AUS eo l-49R Flood, .R.H., Vernon, R.H., Shaw, S.E. and Chappell, B.W., 1977. Origin of pyroxene-plagioclase aggregates in a rhyodacite. Contrib. Mineral. PECLO Ca mO0 a 2993509. Kinematics of transform and Tectonophystcs, 21, Freund, R., 1974. transcurrent faults. 93-134. Garfunkel, Z., 1972. Transcurrent and transform faults: a problem of terminology. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 83, 3491-3496. Hill, M.L., 1974. Transform faults, tm ASSESSMENTS AND REASSESSMENTS OF PLATE TECTONICS, pp. 240- 243. C.F. Kahle (Ed.) Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Mem. 23, Tulsa, Oklahoma. Korsch, R.J., 1977. A framework for the Palaeozoic geology of the southern part of the New England Geosyncline. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 25, 339-355. Korsch, R.J., 1978. Stratigraphic and igneous units in the Rockvale - Coffs Harbour region, northern New South Wales. J. Proc. FR. Soc. NAS Wes tity 15-1 /: Leitch, E.C., 1975. Plate tectonic interpretation of the Paleozoic history of the New England Fold Belt. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 86, 141-144. Leitch, E.C., Neilson, M.J. and Hobson, E., 1971. lst Edn 1:250 000 GEOLOGICAL SHEET SH56 10-11 DORRIGO - COFFS HARBOUR. N.S.W. Geol. Surv., Sydney. McConachy, G.W., 1975. The Demon Fault and surrounding rocks of the Demon Creek - Upper Rocky River district, New South Wales. B.Sc. (Hons) Thests, Untv. New England, Armidale. (Unpub1. ) Packham, G.H., 1969. (Ed.) The geology of New South Wales. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 16, 1-654. Geochronology Report. AMDEL (Unpub1. ) Rowley, D.K., 1975. Report AN 3898/75. Runnegar, B.N., 1974. The geological framework of New England. Geol. Soc. Aust., Qd. Div., Field Conference New England Area, 9-19. The Peel Geol. Surv. Scheibner, E. and Glen, R.A., 1972. Thrust and its tectonic history. N.S.W. Quart. Notes, 8, 2-13. Shaw, S.E., 1964. The petrology of portion of the 106 R. J. KORSCH AND OTHERS New England Bathylith. Ph.D. Thests, Untv. New England, Armidale. (Unpubl.) Spry, A.H., 1969. METAMORPHIC TEXTURES. Pergamon Press, Oxford*: .°350 pp: Wellman, H.W., 1971. Reference lines, fault classification, transform systems, and ocean- floor spreading. Tectonophystes, 12, 199-209. Wilkinson, J.F2G.; Vernon, R:H. and Shaw; S.E-., 1964. The petrology of an adamellite- porphyrite from the New England Bathylith (New South Wales). J. Petrol., 5, 461-488. Wilson, J.T., 1965. A new class of faults and their bearing on continental drift. Nature, 207, 343-347. Department of Geology, University of New England, ARMIDALE, N.S.W. 2351. APPENDIX DEFINITION OF THE NEWTON BOYD GRANODIORITE Derivation of Name: Newton Boyd School (GR 537304, Grafton, 1:250 000). Synonymy: Previously considered to be part of the Mt Mitchell Adamellite occurring to the east of the Demon Fault. Partial chemical analyses suggest that these are two separate plutons. Lithology: Medium-grained biotite grano- diorite, mainly of equigranular texture but becoming slightly porphyritic near its margins. Definition of Boundaries: The pluton intrudes the Brooklana Beds producing a narrow albite- epidote hornfels zone. The western margin of the pluton has been truncated by the Demon Fault. Type Area: In the Boyd River to the east of Broadmeadows homestead at GR 539303 (Grafton T2250 000). Age: Unknown, but it intrudes the Brooklana Beds which are postulated to be Late Palaeozoic. (Manuscript received 31.5. 78) (Manuscript received in final form 12.6. 78) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 111, pp. 107-119, 1978 The Permian and Mesozoic of the Merriwa-Binnaway-Ballimore Area, New South Wales F. C. LOUGHNAN AND P. R. EVANS ABSTRACT. In the Merriwa-Binnaway-Ballimore area a succession of essentially horizontal, fluvial strata, ranging in age from Late Permian to Middle Jurassic, forms a thin veneer draped over the structural high of Carboniferous granite and Middle Palaeozoic geosynclinal rocks that separates the northwestern Sydney Basin from the Coonamble Embayment of the Surat Basin. Subdivision of these strata has been possible by use of two key units; the Wollar Sandstone of mainly Triassic age, and the Ukebung Formation, which over most of the area forms the base of the Jurassic succession. The Ukebung Formation is of particular interest in that it comprises predominantly kaolinite clayrock or flint clays that form the principal source of refractory kaolinite in Australia. Coal occurs in the Upper Permian Dunedoo Formation and is also associated with the kaolinite clayrocks of the Ukebung Formation but at present it appears of little commercial value. From examination of microfloral assemblages, the Ukebung Formation is of Toarcian (Late Early Jurassic) age whereas the youngest Triassic strata in the area, those of the Wallingarah Formation, were laid down in the Early Anisian (Early Middle Triassic). A hiatus in sedimentation of about 30 m.y., therefore, preceded deposition of the Ukebung Formation. INTRODUCTION The Merriwa-Binnaway-Ballimore area, which is located 200 km to 300 km northwest of Sydney, ex- tends across the broad structural high of folded, Middle Palaeozoic , geosynclinal strata and Carboniferous granite that separates the north- western Sydney Basin from the Coonamble Embayment of the Surat Basin. Overlying these eroded base- ment rocks with a marked angular unconformity is a relatively thin succession of Late Permian and Mesozoic fluvial sediments that for the most part are essentially horizontal although in close prox- imity to some of the basement inliers dips of the order of 30 degrees have been noted. Until :rather recently these sediments attrac- ted little attention and, apart from early re- connaissance surveys by Kenny (1928), Kenny § Lloyd (1935) and Lloyd (1935), and subsequent papers by Dulhunty (1939a, 1939b), little had been published on the geology of this extensive tract of country. However, between 1971 and 1975 students at the University of New South Wales, namely Higgins (1971), Arditto (1972), Bell (1973), Corkery (1973), Kemp (1973), Dixon (1974), Cosis (1975), Dale (1975) and Wallin (1975), undertook detailed geological mapping in the area extending from Binnaway in the north (Fig. 1) to the vicinity of Sandy Creek south of Cobborah. Their work together with the results furnished from subsurface explora- tions by Newbold General Refractories Ltd., near Merrygoen (Callender, 1974) and by Australian Consolidated Industries Ltd. (Pollington, 1973) between Cobborah and Elong Elong, has established the presence of at least two relatively persistent key units. The first of these, termed the Boulderwood Conglomerate by Higgins (1971), repre- sents the westward extension of the Lower Triassic Wollar Sandstone (Hind §& Helby, 1969), which crops out prominently in the Goulburn Valley to the south of Merriwa, whereas the younger Ukebung Formation (Higgins, 1971) comprises mainly flint clays or kaolinite clayrocks, that are being exploited at several localities for use in the manufacture of refractories. With the aid of these key units Higgins §& Loughnan (1973) subdivided the strati- graphic succession in the area between Merrygoen and Digilah (Table 1). Essentially the same se- quence was recognised by Dulhunty (1973), who un- fortunately, in naming some of the units, gave new meanings to several of the older terms of Kenny (1928) and Lloyd (1935). The work of these authors has been extended with field and laboratory studies and from the results it is apparent that some modifications to the stratigraphic nomenclature are necessary. The revised scheme, devised after consultation with representatives of the N.S.W. Geological Survey, is also given in Table l. PERMIAN Liamena Volcanics Throughout most of the area the Middle Palaeozoic basement rocks are immediately overlain by fluvial strata of the Upper Permian Dunedoo Formation. Nevertheless, in places, notably around some of the basement inliers, the Permian has been overlapped by Mesozoic sediments and, moreover, near Liamena and extending southwest across the Talbragar River to the Dunedoo-Cobborah road, a distance of about 6 km, is a succession of hori- zontal volcanic rocks that appear, at least in part, to underlie the Dunedoo Formation. Kenny (1928) termed these the Ltamena Rhyoltte and concluded that they comprise about 10 m of extensively al- tered, porphyritic, acid lavas, which, during em- placement, incorporated angular blocks of the base- ment. Bell (1973) however, found volcanic sand- stone interbeds within the lavas whereas Kemp (1973) noted that the groundmass of the volcanic rocks is composed mostly of welded shards and con- cluded that ignimbrites constitute part of the 108 succession. In view of these findings the unit has been renamed the Ltamena Volcantes. The volcanics are poorly exposed and their relationship with the Dunedoo Formation has not been resolved. Possibly they correlate with either the Late Carboniferous Rylstone Rhyolite, which crops out extensively in the area to the east and south east of Mudgee, or the Early Permian Boggabri Volcanics of the Gunnedah Basin to the northeast of Binnaway. However, Kenny (1928) reported that a bore near Liamena penetrated the complete thickness of the volcanics and encountered what appeared to be Permian conglomerate ("boulder beds'') below. Hence, the formation has been tentatively grouped with the Dunedoo Formation. Dunedoo Formation The Dunedoo Formation (Higgins § Loughnan, 1973) crops out mainly on the floors and sides of pre-Late Permian valleys cut into the basement rocks. Nevertheless, in the northern part of the area it is also exposed around the margins of a number of inliers that mark the extension of the basement high (Higgins, 1971; Arditto, 1972: Dixon, 1974). The thickness of the formation is generally between 30 m and 50 m but considerable variation occurs depending upon the basement topo- graphy. Thus, it has been overlapped by Triassic strata at several of the inliers (Higgins, 1971; Arditto, 1972) and by the Pilliga Sandstone north- east of Leadville whereas in the vicinity of Ballimore it is probably in excess of 100 m. The formation comprises a variety of fluvial sediments some of which contain abundant Glossopteris impressions. In the type section F.C. LOUGHNAN AND P. R. EVANS described by Higgins § Loughnan (1973) the base- ment rocks are immediately overlain by a breccia composed of fragments of the basement and this, in turn, is succeeded by petromictic and quartz- pebble conglomerate above which is a variable se- quence of sandstone, cherty siltstone or porcellanite, dense kaolinite clayrock, carbonaceous shale and lenticular seams of coal and torbanite. Kenny (1928) believed that the basal breccia repre- sents tillite but close examination of these rocks by Higgins (1971), Bell (1973), Corkery (1973) and Kemp (1973) failed to verify the presence of striated boulders or to reveal other evidence indi- cative of ice transport. Moreover, as Higgins §& Loughnan (1973) and Bell et.al. (1974) stressed, the association of these rocks with sediments com- posed almost exclusively of kaolinite, a mineral that is generally considered characteristic of warm, humid regions (Millot, 1964), is difficult to re- concile with glacial conditions. Furthermore, where the Permian has been overlapped by the Triassic, a similar breccia frequently forms the basal beds of the latter system. It would appear more likely that the breccia in the basal Permian is of colluvial origin and that its development was essentially a function of the basement topography. Nevertheless, as Wallin (1975) and Dale (1975) suggested, it is possible that the breccia repre- sents reworked Carboniferous fluvioglacial deposits. The sandstones vary from fine- to coarse- grained and contain in places channel structures, trough crossbedding and lag conglomerates. They range from quartzose to quartz-lithic and quartz- feldspathic but the matrices with few exceptions are predominantly kaolinitic. Of the finer grained rocks the porcellanites TABLE 1 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PERMIAN, TRIASSIC AND JURASSIC HIGGINS AND LOUGHNAN (1973) PILLIGA PILLIGA SANDSTONE SANDSTONE DIGILAH FORMATION MIDOLE LOWER BALLIMORE COAL MEASURES MERRYGOEN BEDS JURASSIC UKEBUNG CREEK CLAYSTONE UPPER MIDDLE LOWER i UPPER TRIASSIC LOWER MERRYGOEN BEDS LOWER BALLIMORE BEDS DUNEDOO COAL MEASURES DUNEDOO FORMATION WALLINGARAH CREEK FM. BOULDERWOO CONGLOMERATE DULHUNTY (1973) THIS PAPER PILLIGA SANDSTONE COMIALA SHALE MEMBER MERRYGOEN IRONSTONE MB. BUTHEROO SHALE MEMBER BOOTHENBA SS. MB. SAXA SHALE MB. RIVERS SS. MB. DIGILAH FM. UKEBUNG FM. PURLAWAUGH FM GARRAWILLA VOLCS. TALBRAGAR FM WOLLAR SANDSTONE WALLINGARAH FM. WOLLAR SANDSTONE DUNEDOO FORMATION ULAN COAL MEASURES 109 THE PERMIAN AND MESOZOIC, N.S.W. “Role OLOWTT [eg-ACMEUUTYg-eMTIIOW oy Jo dew YdOYS [TeITZOTOaDH Sev os A SINISSYOA A x > e Tan es L SLINVYS SNOYXSSINOGYVO “SPQ UDIIOD puod spag uDiyON{ ‘Wy YBlajsayD — NYINOA3Q-OUnNTIS ‘ij COpauNg puD sdiUDIIOA OUaWODI 7 ‘W4 yosobuljjOM PUD auoj;spUuDS A1D];}0M SIIUDIIOA DI |IMD1I09 ‘w4 yoll6iq puo w4 bungayn @uoyspuoSs DBIIIIg HOSsDg - QN39431 NVIWY3d JISSVIYL JISSVENer AYVILYS3L AINGASA/ a ie) ~~ sO 5S =N3ZO9A yyw 3YyOWII IVE Lee” spooy ~_— $4, WoOlly 110 F.C. LOUGHNAN AND P. R. EVANS are the most conspicuous. They are similar to those forming part of the Illawarra Coal Measures along the western margin of the Sydney Basin in that they consist of chalcedonic, kaolinitic silt- stone and frequently contain plant remains. In- deed, at several localities, notably "Oakfield" (G.R. 224033) to the east of Cobborah, quarries have been developed to exploit these fossil leaf impressions. Tree stumps are also common in the porcellanites and in a creek bed on "Goodiman", located between Spring Ridge and the Gulgong- Dunedoo Road to the southeast of the area shown in Fig. 1, Wallin (1975) counted more than 30 3 sites of tree growth in an area less than 100 m’. The kaolinite clayrocks occur in beds up to a metre thick, although few exceed 25 cm, and like the porcellanites with which they are commonly associated, represent overbank accumulations. They are mostly light-coloured, very fine-grained and particularly dense although Cosis (1975) described several such beds located within a few metres of the overlying Wollar Sandstone in the Sandy Creek area (G.R. 223015) where the bulk of the rock con- sists of vermicular kaolinite crystals, many of which are in the form of rouleaux. The matrix bonding these crystals comprises similarly oriented kaolinite microlites that yield aggregate bire- fringence and extinguish parallel to the bedding. Quartz is a common contaminant of the fine-grained kaolinite clayrocks and may constitute as much as 15%, whereas hematite is sufficiently abundant in places to impart a red-brown colour and these clay- rocks are similar in appearance and composition to the "chocolate shales" of the Triassic Bald Hill Claystone in the southern part of the Sydney Basin. The coal is of low to medium bituminous rank and generally has a high ash content. It occurs in thin lenticular seams, many of which have been explored either by shafts or adits but the only serious attempt at commercial exploitation was near Saxa Crossing (G.R. 195015) where a seam, varying in thickness up to 2.1 m, was worked about the turn of the century for the local market (Jones, 1919). PERMIAN-TRIASSIC Wollar Sandstone Throughout much of the area the Wollar Sand- stone forms bold outcrops and, coupled with a limited thickness, it has proven useful for field mapping. It comprises mainly massive and cross- bedded sandstone and pebbly conglomerate with some shaly interbeds but where it laps on to the base- ment inliers, breccia with clasts up to 25 cm in diameter (Corkery, 1973), is the dominant lithology. The conglomerates, which apparently represent braided stream accumulations, are mostly petro- mictic near the base but higher in the succession quartz pebbles become increasingly abundant. The sandstones have a variety of sedimentary structures including ripples, channel-lags, scour- and-fills and fining-upward sequences and, as Wallin (1975) and Dale (1975) observed, originated at least in part, as point-bar accumulations. They are composed of subangular to subrounded quartz grains with subordinate amounts of rock fragments and decomposed feldspars set in a predominantly kaolinitic matrix although illite, generally de- graded in part, is frequently present. Hematite and limonite are common cementing agents and in places fill joints and other fractures in the rock. According to Hind and Helby (1969), the Wollar Sandstone in the upper Goulburn Valley has a thick- ness of about 360 m. But, considerable thinning takes place to the west and in the area between Turill and Ballimore the formation rarely exceeds 20 m and frequently is less than 5 m. It is believed to be conformable with the underlying Dunedoo Formation but because of abundant talus the contact is rarely observed. Furthermore, since it overlaps the Dunedoo Formation around some of the basement inliers, possibly a disconformity separates the two formations. TRIASSIC Wallingarah Formation This unit, previously termed the Wallingarah Creek Formation by Higgins §& Loughnan (1973) and the Talbragar Formation by Dulhunty (1973), conform- ably succeeds the Wollar Sandstone but, unlike the latter, outcrops are poor and frequently the only surface manifestation is a litter of ferruginous nodules and concretions. Nevertheless, close exami- nation of sporadic exposures in creek beds and road cuts has revealed that the strata are of fluvial origin and comprise channel-fill sandstone and conglomerate in addition to over-bank deposits such as shale, siltstone, ironstone, infrequent thin beds of kaolinite clayrock and, in the Ballimore area, sparse coal seams. It is also apparent that the lithological succession undergoes considerable regional variation. Thus, in the Goulburn Valley to the southwest of Merriwa, the formation is 40 m thick and consists mainly of flaggy sandstones with inter-bedded siltstone, shale, ''chocolate shale" and kaolinite clayrock. Dulhunty (1973) termed this facies the Rivers Sandstone Member. West of Turill however, the flaggy sandstones are either sparse or absent and silty shale containing numerous sideritc concretions, predominates. This shaly facies is well-exposed on the northern bank of Butheroo Creek at "Langdon" (G.R. 239069) where the thickness is more than 25 m, and also in a roadside quarry 0.5 km north of Merrygoen (G.R. 217063). But, to the north and south of the Merrygoen-Butheroo Creek area fur- ther facies changes are apparent with massive sand- stone and conglomerate becoming increasingly abund- ant (Higgins, 1971; Arditto, 1972; Corkery, 1973; Kemp, 1973; Dixon, 1974). In the Sandy Creek area Wallin (1975) recognised three unnamed subunits within the formation, the lowermost of which tends to be lenticular and consists mainly of ferruginous shales and argillaceous sandstones. This is succeeded by up to 12 m of sandstone that resembles the Wollar Sandstone in forming bold outcrops. Cross-bedding, ripples and scour marks are prevalent in this sandstone and both Wallin (1975) and Dale (1975) established from measurements made on these structures that sediment transport was from the east and south east. The uppermost subunit is composed of shale, siltstone and sandstone with sporadic thin beds of fine- to coarse-grained kaolinite clay- rock and, a little above the base, a prominent ichnite horizon, which Cosis (1975), Dale (1975) and Wallin (1975) found useful as a marker. Both THE PERMIAN AND MESOZOIC, N.S.W. Higgins (1971) and Bell (1973) recorded the pres- ence of similar ichnite horizons at approximately the same stratigraphic level in the Merrygoen and Cobborah areas respectively. Near the top of the formation in the vicinity of Ballimore is a light-coloured sandstone, which Dulhunty (1973) named the Boothenba Sandstone Member. It has a Probable maximum thickness of 25 m and is composed of abundant angular rock fragments, many of which have been derived from the basement, with subordinate amounts of quartz set in a predominantly kaolinitic matrix. Over much of the area the thickness of the Wallingarah Formation rarely exceeds 40 m. Never- theless, Cosis (1975) reported that near Medway (G.R.217028) it is more than 120 m and, from examination of the logs of the two bores sunk at Ballimore Hill (G.R. 186021), Lloyd (1935) estima- ted a similar thickness for what he termed the "Lower Ballimore Beds". It would appear therefore, that the Wallingarah Formation thickens appreciably to the southwest of the area covered in Fig. 1 and, if this trend is maintained, a considerable de- velopment of Triassic strata must underlie the younger Mesozoic rocks in the south-east sector of the Coonamble Embayment. Near Bong Bong Creek (G.R. 257057) toward Coolah, the Wallingarah Formation thins appreciably and eventually is overlapped by younger Strata. TRIASSIC-JURASSIC Garrawilla Volcanics The Garrawilla Volcanics are mainly developed in in the Mullaley-Tambar Springs area between Gunnedah and Coonabarabran (Bean, 1974). Never- theless, they extend to the southwest at least as far as the Castlereagh River near Binnaway where they overlie the Wallingarah Formation and in turn, are succeeded by the Ukebung Formation (Dixon, 1979). According to Bean (1974), the volcanics have a maximum thickness of 180 m and comprise vesicular and nonvesicular alkali basalt, including hawaiite and mugearite, with soda trachyte and pyroclastic material. However, in the Borah Creek Bore,which penetrated a complete sequence of the formation about 70 km north of Binnaway, interflow sediments that are mostly red and vary in composition from quartzitic to kaolinitic and montmorillonitic, are particularly abundant. Moreover, many of the individual flows can be observed passing upward into fossil soil horizons. Dixon (1974) has shown that the volcanics in the vicinity of Binnaway were laid down on an eroded s surface and, in at least one locality, they over- lap the Wallingarah Formation and rest directly on the Wollar Sandstone. On the western side of the Castlereagh River to the south of Binnaway, some of the basalts mapped as Tertiary in age (Fig. 1) are overlain by montmorillonitic clay and near "Sherbourne" home- stead (G.R. 229090), by red kaolinitic claystone that does not differ appreciably in appearance and Ll composition from some of the interflow sediments of the Garrawilla Volcanics evident in the Borah Greek Bore. Hence, 1 is possible that: the Garrawilla Volcanics extend farther to the south and west than is shown in Fig. 1. Pertinent in this respect, Arditto (1972) recorded the presence of basaltic sills at the base of the Wallingarah Formation near the Bullinda inlier (G.R. 244064) and considered that they are probably referable to the Garrawilla Volcanics. By use of the potassium-argon dating method, Dulhunty and McDougall (1966) and Dulhunty (1972) have established ages for the Garrawilla Volcanics fanging from 201.5*m.y. to 171.5 m.y. It would appear therefore, that the extrusions extended from Late Triassic to Middle Jurassic. JURASSIC Ukebung Formation The Ukebung Formation, which represents a sequence of braided-stream, channel-fill and flood- plain deposits, is composed mainly of kaolinite clay-rocks with variable amounts of quartz-lithic sandstone, shale, ironstone and coal. The clay- rocks are of particular interest for not only do they form the principal source of refractory kaolinite in Australia but furthermore, their dis- tinctive mineral composition renders easy recog- nition and hence, they are particularly useful for field mapping. Originally the formation was termed the Ukebung Creek Claystone by Higgins (1971) and Higgins §& Loughnan (1973), and subsequently, the Butheroo Shale Member of the Purlawaugh Formation by Dulhunty (1973) but, since the bulk of the rocks is neither claystone nor shale, both terms were considered inappropriate. The formation has been traced by intermittent outcrop from "Rothbury" (G.R. 313015) near Merriwa, westward to beyond Ballimore, a distance of nearly 120 km, and to the north as far as Binnaway. Never- theless, the clayrocks are not particularly resist- ant to erosion and, as a result, exposures fre- quently are poor. Moreover, in places they can be observed grading laterally into quartzose and quartz-lithic sandstones that are virtually indis- tinguishable from many such rocks occurring within the Wallingarah Formation. Arditto(1972) believed that the formation is discontinuous on the southern side of Butheroo Creek and certainly to the north- west of Leadville and also in the Sandy Creek area it has been overlapped by younger strata. The contact of the Ukebung and Wallingarah Formations is rarely observed in outcrop. Never- the less, Corkery (1973) found evidence in the "Berowra' area (G.R. 2455054) of a disconformity separating the two units and certainly this is con- sistent with the palynological data. But, in the exposure on the northern bank of Butheroo Creek at "Langdon" (G.R. 239069) and also in the cores of many of the bores in the Merrygoen area (Callender, 1974), the contact appears completely conformable. The type section for the formation has been taken as the interval between 7.54 m and 18.33 m in the core of Newbolds General Refractories DH3 Bore (Fig. 2), which penetrated a complete 2 F. C. LOUGHNAN AND P. R. EVANS DIGILAH FORMATION Doona Sandstone Mb. Coal uw ; iW Top special claystone Coal and clay Coarse kaolinite clayrock UKEBUNG FORMATION ————————“ Coal Coarse kaolinite clayrock Ironstone Coal Coarse kaolinite clayrock WALLINGARAH FORMATION Fig. 2. Type section of the Ukebung Formation in Newbolds General Refractories' DH3 Bore (G.R. 218062). sequence of the unit 0.56 km east of Merrygoen (G.R. 218062). In this area the formation comn- prises variable lenticular beds of arenaceous and rudaceous kaolinite clayrock with some shale and thin stringers of coal overlain by a conspicuous unit, 0.48 m thick, of unusually dense, fine- grained claystone known in the refractory industry as "special claystone''. Above this is 0.2 m of coaly matter succeeded by nearly 3 m of kaolinitic, quartzose sandstone loosely referred to as the "Main Sandstone! but which Arditto (1972) formally named the Doona Sandstone Member. The clasts in the coarser grained clayrocks vary from brecciated to well-rounded and, whereas the majority are devoid of internal characteristics, a few have relict volcanic textures. The kaolinite matrix frequently comprises small, rounded kaoli- nite clasts with minor amounts of silt-size quartz and sporadic coal fragments. In contrast, the "special claystone' is composed of elongated masses of fine-grained kaolinite with numerous, smaller rounded aggregates that resemble the "graupen'' of the European kaolinite tonsteins (Guthorl et al., 1956), set in an abundant kaoli- nite matrix. Many of the elongated masses ter- minate in frayed or "fish tail'' edges and mostly they appear isotropic although some are composed of parallel-aligned kaolinite microlites and have the optical properties of a single crystalline mass (Loughnan and Corkery, 1975). These elonga- ted masses are believed to represent intraclasts derived from the reworking of overbank accumula- tions. The Doona Sandstone Member, although lacking the lateral extent of the kaolinite clayrgcks, has been traced over an area of nearly 500 km“ be- tween Bong Bong (G.R. 257057) and Merrygoen (Higgins, 1971; Arditto, 1972; Corkexy A1973- Callender, 1974). It is light-coloured, fine- to medium-grained and composed of angular quartz grains, chert fragments and kaolinite clasts bon- ded by a kaolinite matrix. Crossbedding, animal trails, ripple marks and rootlet casts are common and presumably the deposit represents a point-bar accumulation, The "special claystone" bed and the Doona Sandstone Member are well exposed in a series of quarries near the upper reaches of Dinnykymine Creek (G.R. 233067) where the formation has a thickness of 4 to 5 m, but at "Langdon" (G.R. 239069), 6 km to the northeast of this area, the sandstone is absent and the claystone grades upward almost imperceptibly into the base of the overlying Digilah Formation. At the latter expos- ure the Ukebung Formation is 4.9 m thick and the kaolinite clayrocks below the ''special claystone" are contaminated by appreciable amounts of silt- size quartz and, toward the base, illite becomes progressively more abundant. At "'Berowra' (G.R. 249054) the Doona Sandstone Member is about 2.5 m thick and is underlain by nearly 2 m of dense kaolinite clayrock, the re- mainder of the section being obscured by soil and talus. However, 9 km to the east near the upper reaches of Bong Bong Creek (G.R. 258050), the Ukebung Formation has overlapped the Wallingarah Formation and rests directly on the Wollar Sand- stone. In the latter area the Doona Sandstone Member is reduced to about 0.4 m thick and whereas the clayrocks immediately underlying the sandstone are dense and light-coloured with sporadic worm burrows, they grade downward into dark coloured material containing coaly bands and abundant plant remains. Fragments of dark coloured kaolinite clayrock associated with blocks of cannel coal were found in the bed of a tributary of Miangulliah Creek, 6 km north of Bong Bong Creek (G.R. 257057) and significantly, Jones (1920) described an occurrence of ''coal and shale" underlying the Pilliga Sand- stone at this locality. A thorough search of the area however, failed to reveal an exposure of the Ukebung Formation. Farther to the east and extending into the northwestern sector of the Sydney Basin, the clay- rocks of the Ukebung Formation grade into illitic and quartzose sediments making recognition of the unit difficult. Moreover, at Farr's Hill (G.R. 264021), 15 km southwest of Uarbry, the re- nowned Talbragar fish- and plant-bearing porcella- nites occur at approximately the stratigraphic interval of the Ukebung Formation and it would appear that in this area the kaolinite clayrocks of the Ukebung Formation have been replaced by cherty sediments. Nevertheless, at "Rothbury" (G.R. 313015), 11 km southwest of Merriwa, Harbison-A.C.I. Pty. Ltd. sank a bore through more than 8 m of quart- zose kaolinite clayrock containing several coaly THE PERMIAN AND MESOZOIC, N.S.W. 113 bands and in places, abundant leaf impressions. Part of this sequence is exposed in a cutting along the Merriwa-Wollar road (G.R. 312016). In the vicinity of Cobborah the Ukebung Formation has apparently undergone a similar facies change. This is evident from the results of ex- tensive shallow-hole drilling carried out by Australian Consolidated Industries Pty. Ltd. (Pollington, 1973) near Medway (G.R. 213028), southwest of Cobborah, where intermittent beds only of kaolinite clayrock were encountered, and also from the investigations of Bell (1973) northeast of Cobborah where the only evidence of the clayrocks is the presence of blocks and clasts of kaolinite within a relatively persistent quartzose sandstone. This sandstone can be obser- ved in a quarry to the side of the Boomley-Cobborah road (G.R. 217036). Near Boomley, however, and extending along both sides of Boomley Creek and also the western bank of the Talbragar River to beyond Ballimore, the kaolinite clayrocks are reasonably well ex- posed. In this area the Doona Sandstone Member is absent and the clayrocks are mostly coarse grained although dense material somewhat resembl- ing the "special claystone" of the Merrygoen area, is evident in places while coal seams and sporadic sandstone and ironstone lenses are relatively common. In the rail cutting immediately north of Boomley (G.R. 205038) and also in the creek bed 400 m farther to the north, 2.5 m of kaolinite clayrock are exposed but in the CH4 Bore (G.R. 201034) of Australian Consolidated Industries Ltd., located 6 km southwest of Boomley, Pollington (1973) recorded a thickness for the formation in excess of 10 m. At Riley's Gully (G.R. 196027), situated on the western bank of the Talbragar River, 1.5 km west of Elong Elong, two coal seams, each between 1 m and 2 m thick and separated by 8 m to 9 m of strata, occur within the Ukebung Formation. These seams were explored by shafts in the early part of this century (Carne and Morrison, 1915) but, mainly because of high ash contents, exploitation was limited. The shafts have since been filled but from examination of the spoil, it is apparent that the coal is intimately associated with kaolinite clayrocks. The numerous claystone bands shown in the sections of the seam by Carne and Morrison (1915) are probably also of kaolinite clayrock and hence, correspond to the European tonsteins. About 11.5 km southwest of Riley's Gully the Talbragar River has cut an escarpment into the side of Ballimore Hill (G.R. 182021) exposing the uppermost 12 m of the Ukebung Formation as well as a complete section of the overlying Digilah For- mation. The Ukebung Formation in this area con- sists mostly of interbedded kaolinite clayrock and coal but, more massive beds of coarse-grained clayrock frequently contaminated by siderite, are also present and toward the base of the exposure tend to predominate. The full extent of the clay- rocks is unknown but from the logs of the two bores put down in the 1880's (Carne and Morrison, 1915), it is apparent that the Ukebung Formation has thickened appreciably in this area. Lloyd (1935) estimated the combined thickness of the Ukebung and Digilah Formations (the Ballimore Coal Measures) in these bores at 71.7 m and since the Digilah where exposed, measures 28.5 m, the Ukebung must be of the order of 43 m. Neverthe- less, there is evidence that some of the coal in the Ukebung Formation has been burnt and possibly the anomalous thickness calculated by Lloyd is attributable in part to collapse of superimcumbent strata. Dulhunty (1973) separated the lower part of this succession in this area and designated it the Ballimore Formation but, since these rocks appear of the same facies as the overlying mater- ial, such subdivision would seem unwarranted. Arditto (1972) traced the Ukebung Formation, including the Doona Sandstone Member, north of Merrygoen to Butheroo Creek but beyond that area the sandstone is apparently absent and outcrops of the clayrocks tend to be poor. Nevertheless, near the intersection of the Mooren and Merrygoen- Binnaway roads, 7 km north of Nielrex (G.R.229079), the formation is exposed over a wide area. Here the clayrocks are relatively coarse-grained and greenish due to partial replacement of aluminium by chromium in the octahedral part of the kaoli- nite lattice. Another interesting feature of the clayrocks in this area is the presence of particu- larly well-rounded quartz pebbles, 5 to 10 cm in diameter. A bore put down by Harbison - A.C.I. Pty. Ltd. 500 m southeast of the road intersection penetrated about 11 m of kaolinite clayrock much of which is coarse grained and is associated with coaly stringers. Coarse grained kaolinite clayrocks also crop out on the side of a small hill adjacent to the railway line 1.8 km south of Binnaway (G.R.233094) where exploration by bore holes has again proven a considerable thickness for the Ukebung Formation (Loughnan, 1971). The source of the kaolinite for the Ukebung Formation is unknown at present. Possibly as Dixon (1974) suggested, soils developed on the Garrawilla Volcanics supplied the detritus but positive evidence to this effect is lacking. Digilah Formation The Digilah Formation, which conformably overlies the Ukebung Formation, is farther removed from and has been less influenced by the basement topography than any of the preceding stratigraphic units. As a result, the thickness and lithology tend to be somewhat more uniform. Nevertheless, outcrops are mostly poor and, like those of the Wallingarah Formation, are generally marked by ferruginous debris. Consequently, where the Ukebung Formation is absent, recognition of the Triassic-Jurassic boundary is difficult. The formation varies in thickness from 20 to 30 m and is composed mainly of shales and iron- stone lenses indicative of a backswamp environment, with sporadic thin beds of sandstone and kaolinite clayrock (Higgins § Loughnan, 1973). Worm burr- ows, plant and carbonaceous fragments and fossil tree stumps (Arditto, 1972) have been found in the shales. 114 F.C. LOUGHNAN AND P. R. EVANS PILLIGA SANDSTONE Shaly sandstone Clay ironstone Claystone with thin sandstone interbeds Clay ironstone Sandy claystone Clay ironstone Mudstone Clay ironstone Mudstone Sandstone Mudstone Clay ironstone Siliceous mudstone Clay ironstone Mudstone Clay ironstone "Chert' (buchites) Fine kaolinite clayrock with coaly bands Coal Fine kaolinite clayrock Coarse kaolinite clayrock Coal and bands Fine kaolinite clayrock Ironstone Kaolinite clayrock Coal and bands Coarse kaolinite clayrock Fine kaolinite clayrock UKEBUNG FM.—\— —“———————_/ DIGILAH FORMATION Coarse kaolinite clayrock Fig. 3. Section of the Digilah Formation and upper part of Ukebung Formation at Ballimore Hill. Near the base of formation the shales are predominantly kaolinitic but higher in the sequ- ence, quartz is more abundant and illite is fre- quently present. An exception to this trend is apparent at "Langdon" (G.R. 239069) where kaoli- nite constitutes the bulk of the shales and clay- stones immediately underlying the Pilliga Sand- stone. Moreover, at the Ballimore Hill exposure (Fig. 3) the lowermost 5 m of the formation con- sist of remarkably hard, white to pink ''cherts". Examination of these rocks by X-ray diffraction, petrographic and chemical means has revealed that cristobalite is the dominant mineral constituent with mullite, quartz and glass, and apparently they represent sediments that have been subjected to elevated temperatures, probably in excess of 1000 C, brought about by the burning of coal seams in the upper part of the Ukebung Formation. Simi- lar buchite-like rocks have been described pre- viously from the Early Permian Greta Coal Measures of the Hunter Valley (Loughnan and Craig, 1961; Loughnan, 1973). Unlike the latter however, the cristobalite in the ''cherts' at Ballimore Hill has the X-ray diffraction pattern of the beta form, which is generally believed stable only at temperatures above 275°C whereas below 210°C it should invert instantaneously to the alpha form. Nevertheless, according to Florke (1955), alpha cristobalite that has formed in the presence of certain ions, frequently develops a disordered structure which has an X-ray diffraction pattern similar to that of beta cristobalite but, after heating at 1200 C for several days, the true pattern for the alpha form should develop. Poss- ibly the mineral in the ''cherts' at Ballimore Hill is disordered alpha cristobalite although the X-ray pattern lacks the diffuseness that generally characterises disordered structures and, further- more, the thermal treatment recommended by Florke failed to produce a detectable change to the mine- rad. Most of the kaolinite clayrocks in the Digilah Formation are fine-grained and occur in thin persistent beds, which, although not associa- ted with coal, are remarkably similar in texture, composition and structure to the kaolin coal- tonsteins (Burger et al., 1962) of the Westphalian Coal Measures of Europe. They are well-exposed in the rail cutting at Merrygoen (G.R. 217061) and also on the southern side of the Bullinda inlier (G.R. 244064). Pilliga Sandstone An eroded surface separates the Digilah Formation from the overlying Pilliga Sandstone, which resembles the Triassic Hawkesbury Sandstone of the Sydney Basin in that not only does it com- prise massive and crossbedded quartzose sandstone with quartz-pebble conglomerate and sparse silt- stone and shale but furthermore, in places it contains appreciable amounts of dickite (Arditto, pers. comm.). Ferruginous beds are not uncommon in the unit and between Dubbo and Gilgandra, to the west of Ballimore, fossil lateritic soils that were once worked for ochre, are interbedded with the sandstones. In the Merriwa-Binnaway-Ballimore area the maximum thickness is probably 100 m but the forma- tion is known to thicken appreciably to the north- west where it forms the main aquifer for the east- ern part of the Great Artesian Basin (Mulholland, 1944). PALYNOLOGY Wallingarah Formation Fossiliferous samples of the Wallingarah Formation were obtained from Newbolds General Refractories' DH3 Bore (G.R. 218062) at a depth of 18.69 m from the collar of the bore (i.e. 0.36 m below the base of the Ukebung Formation) and also from the exposure on the northern bank of Butheroo Creek at ''Langdon'" (G.R. 239067) at about 6 m above the level of the creek where the material is unusually fresh. Both samples contain diverse and essentially similar microfloral assemblages (Table 2) that are characteristic of Triassic associations in Australia generally and which have been variously termed the Pteruchtpollenttes Assemblage by Balme (1964), the palynological unit Tr3 by Evans (1966) and the Ipswich Microflora by Dolby & Balme (1976). THE PERMIAN AND MESOZOIC, N.S.W. rs de Jersey (1968, 1970) and de Jersey §& Hamilton (1967) have documented Triassic assemb- lages from bore cores in the Bowen Basin in terms of their distribution between gross lithostrati- graphic units, the Rewan Formation, the Clematis Sandstone and the Moolayember Formation. The stratigraphic ranges in Queensland for the forms identified in the Wallingarah Formation are summa- rised in Table 2 and it will be observed that de- spite the absence or near absence of Letotriletes spp., Aratrisporttes spp. and Osmundactdtites spp., the association of abundant Alisporites australts, very rare forms of striate saccate pollen and rare Lophotrtletes novicus, Acctnetisporites ligatus, Rugulattsporttes trtstnus, Chordaspori tes australtensts, Tigrisportites playfordit, Foveosporites mimosae, Nevestsporttes limatulus and Duplextsporites sp. of D. gyratus favour correla- tion of the Wallingarah Formation with the Upper Clematis Sandstone or Lower Moolayember Formation. On the other hand, the presence of Gutheorlisporttes cancellosus suggests a somewhat older age for the Wallingarah Formation, that of the Clematis Sandstone at the youngest. But, this species is present in the Brady Formation at Poatina, Tasmania (Playford, 1965) and also in the Leigh Creek sequence (Playford §& Dettmann, 1965), both of which are younger than the Moolayember Formation of the Bowen Basin (de Jersey, 1975; Dolby & Balme, 1976) and hence, the species would appear of dubious correlative value. Similarly, Indospora clara appears to be confined to the Clematis Sandstone or older beds. However, de Jersey (1972) recorded the presence of this species in the Esk Beds, which he regarded as correlatives of the Moolayember Formation. Furthermore, Helby (1970) described an association of Indospora clara with Cardagasporites senectus, which de Jersey § Hamilton (1967) failed to find in strata below the Moolayember Formation. It should also be noted that the Wallingarah assemblage contains a speci- men of the genus Ammultspora that apparently is absent from the Moolayember Formation (de Jersey § Hamilton, 1967) but rather makes its first appear- ance in the younger Ipswich Coal Measures of the Moreton Basin. Thel Wallingarah Formation therefore, corre- lates: reasonably well with the Upper Clematis Sandstone or Lower Moolayember Formation of the Bowen Basin, an interval which de Jersey (1968, 1970, 1972) considered from comparison with Euro- pean microfloral assemblages, referable to the Early Anisian (Early Middle Triassic). Conse- quently this age has been assigned to the Wallin- garah Formation. A similar or at least compatible conclusion may be reached by comparison of the microfloral assemblages of the Wallingarah Formation with those from Triassic strata in the Carnarvon Basin, West- ern Australia. Thus, the presence of abundant Altsporites (Falctsporites), rare striate pollen and Tigritsporttes playfordit in the Wallingarah Formation are certainly suggestive of the Tigrtsporttes playfordii Zone of the Carnarvon Basin that, according to Dolby § Balme (1976), based on conodont evidence, ranges through "much of the Smithian, all of the Spathian and probably part of the Anisian stages''. However, the assemblage obtained from the TABLE 2 MICROFLORA FROM THE WALLINGARAH FORMATION I 2S 4 goa dO SPORES * Annultspora sp. + Aptculattsporites sp. a Aratrisporites sp.cf. A. granulatus + + Biretitriletes sp. + Calamospora tener + + + + Calamospora sp. + + Converrucostsporttes sp. + Cyathtdttes breviradiatus + Cyathtdites minor + + Dietyophyllidites mortont + + + + + + *Duplextsporites sp.cf. D. gyratus + *Foveosporttes mtmosae + + ha ae *Gutheorltsporttes cancellosus oP Ge ae *Indospora clara sp GF *Lophotriletes novicus eet Matonisporites sp. + Neoratstricktas + *Nevestsporites ltmatulus z Osmundactdttes spp. sae at Polypoditsport tes tpswtchtensis oe Punctattsporites sp. wa Retitriletes sp. + Retusotriletes praetexta = 4 *Rugulattsporites trtsinus + + + + Rugulattsporites sp. 2 Steretsporites sp. ee as Tigrtsporttes playfordit + POLLEN *Acctnettsporttes ltgatus + 7? + + + *Altsporites australts G *Chordaspori tes australtensts Rost ot eee Cycadopttes ntttdus se ae ei ea: Platysaccus queenslandt Ree cr Gees)

Beecroft, 2119° M. F. Clarke, Macquarie University, North Ryde, 2113. Peter Jamieson, New South Wales Institute of Technology, sydney ,- 2000. REFERENCES Buurman, P., 1972. Mineralization of fossil wood. sertptarGeol., Ww. Jit <4 Coulter, J.M. and Chamberlain, C.J., 1910. MORPHOLOGY OF THE GYMNOSPERMS. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago. Hall, L.R., 1969. Cenozoic rocks outside the Murray Basin and south coast, south of the Tuross River... J. Roy. SOG). Neouwen Un S55 Jeffrey, E.C., 1917. THE ANATOMY OF WOODY PLANTS. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago. Leo, R.F. and Barghoorn., ESS. Sls7o. Silicification of Wood. Bot. Mus. Leaflets, Harvard Untv., 253. lesen McElroy, C.T., 1969. Cenozoic rocks outside the Murray Basin: north of the Tuross River. J. Geol. Soe., Aust., 165 "555% Phillips, E.W.J., 1948. IDENTIFICATION OF SOFTWOODS BY THEIR MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE. D.S Lok. FoP.Re Bulle NOrsaar Scurfield, G., Segnit, E.R. and Anderson, C.A., 1974. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY PART II. IIT Research Institute, Chicago. Wellman, P. and McDougall, I., 1974. Potassium- argon ages on the Cainozoic volcanic rocks of New South Wales. J. Geol. Soe., Aust., 21, ZAT ate (Manuscript received 31.5.78) FIGURE CAPTIONS No cell wall material is present. Showing details of the replicas of pit chambers and portions of tracheid Figs. 1 - 4: Scanning electron micrographs. Specimens coated with carbon and gold/palladiun. lpabfeta sale Partially fossilized wood Araucartoxylon showing the rod-like siliceous replicas of the longitudinal tracheid lumina. X 630. Bathe Same as Fig. 1. lumina. X3200. A, pit aperture; BP, bordered pit; T, tracheid. Pigs 33 Surface of contemporary non-fossilized wood of Araucarta cunnitnghamit. The surface has fractured along the middle lamella of the longitudinal tracheids exposing the pit chamber (PC). Portions of some ray parenchyma (RP) cells are present. X1400. Hatton = 4's Surface of completely fossilized wood of Araucartoxylon. Portions of longitudinal tracheids and a number of ray parenchyma cells are present. No voids are present. X420. AN UNUSUAL SPECIMEN OF FOSSIL WOOD £32 R. K. BAMBER AND OTHERS h38 ADDENDUM: - In Volume 111 Parts 1 and 2 the affiliation of the authors B.M. Agrawal and Virendra Kumar was inadvertently omitted:- A q-expansion Formula by B.M. Agrawal and Virendra Kumar Government Science College, Gwalior, India. JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES VOLUME 111 1978 PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE CENTRE, 35 CLARENCE STREET, SYDNEY Royal Society of New South Wales OFFICERS FOR 1978-1979 Patrons His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF AUSTRALIA, THE HONOURABLE SIR ZELMAN COWEN, A.K., G.C.M.G., K.St.J., Q.C. His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF NEW SOUTH WALES SIR RODEN CUTLER, V.c., K.C.M.G., K.C.V.O., C.B.E., K.St.J. President F. C. BEAVIS, B.SC., PH.D., F.G.S. Vice-Presidents E. K. CHAFFER . ROBERTSON, B.Sc. W.H D. H. NAPPER, M.SC. (SYD.), PH.D. (CANTAB.), W. E. SMITH, M.SC., PH.D., M.INST.P. A.R.A.C.I. D. J. SWAINE, M.SC., PH.D., F.R.A.C.I. Honorary Secretaries M. J. PUTTOCK, B.Sc. (ENG.), M.INST.P. M. KRYSKO v. TRYST, B.sSc., GRAD.DIP., A.M.AUS.I.M.M. Honorary Treasurer A. A. DAY, B.SC., PH.D., F.R.A.S., M.AUS.I.M.M. Honorary Librarian W. H. G. POGGENDORFF, B.SC. (AGR.) Members of Council HELENA BASDEN, B.SC., DIP.ED. J. W. G. NEUHAUS, M.SC., A.R.LC., F.R.A.C.I. G. S. GIBBONS, M.SC., PH.D. S. J. RILEY, B.Sc. (HONS.), PH.D. G. C. LOWENTHAL, B.aA., M.SC., PH.D., LAWRENCE SHERWIN, M.SC. F.A.INST.P. F. S. STEPHENS, B.SC., PH.D. F. L. SUTHERLAND, M.Sc. New England Representative: R. L. STANTON, M.SC., PH.D. South Coast Representative: G. DOHERTY, B.SC., PH.D. CONTENTS Parts 1-2 Astronomy: Proper Motions in the Region of NGC 3532. D. S. King Geology: Stratigraphic and Igneous Units in the Rockvale-Coffs Harbour Region, Northern New South Wales. R. J. Korsch The Geology of Brushy Hill, Glenbawn, New South Wales. Arthur Mory Mathematics: A q-expansion Formula. B. M. Agrawal and Virendra Kumar Palaeontology: A Carboniferous Echinoid Archaeocidaris sp. indet. from New South Wales. Graeme M. Philip Silurian Conodonts from Blowclear and Liscombe Pools, New South Wales. John Pickett Presidential Address, 1977: Lead in the Environment. D. J. Swaine Report of Council, 31st March, 1978 Parts 3-4 Astronomy: Proper Motions in the Region of the Galactic Cluster NGC 2516. D. S. King Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney Observatory during 1977. T. L. Morgan The Minor Planets. Presidential Address, 5th April, 1978. W. H. Robertson Geology: Late Quaternary Deposits of the Newcastle-Port Stephens area as revealed by Grain Size Analysis and Scanning Electron Microscopy. Cheng K. Ly Regional-Scale Thermal Metamorphism overprinting Low-Grade Regional Metamorphism, Coffs Harbour Block, Northern New South Wales. R. J. Korsch The use of Inflection Surfaces in Descriptions of Folds. R. J. Korsch The Demon Fault. R. J. Korsch, N. R. Archer, and G. W. McConachy The Permian and Mesozoic of the Merriwa-Binnaway-Ballimore area, New South Wales. F. C. Loughnan and P. R. Evans Early East-southeast Trending Folds in the Sofala Volcanics, New South Wales. C. McA. Powell, M. A. Gilfillan, and N. M. Henry Palaeontology: An Unusual Specimen of Fossil Wood. R. K. Bamber, M. F. Clarke, and P. Jamieson Addendum: 7 89 97 101 107 121 129 133 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES The Society originated in the year 1821 as the Philosophical Society of Australasia. Its main function is the promotion of Science through the following activities: Publication of results of scientific investigation through its Journal and Proceedings; the Library; awards of Prizes and Medals; liaison with other Scientific Societies; Monthly Meetings; and Summer Schools for Senior Secondary School Students. Special Meetings are held for the Pollock Memorial Lecture in Physics and Mathematics, the Liversidge Research Lecture in Chemistry, and the Clarke Memorial Lecture in Geology. Membership is open to any interested person whose application is acceptable to the Society. The application must be supported by two members of the Society, to one of whom the applicant must be personally known. Membership categories are: Ordinary Members $18.00 per annum plus $3.60 application fee. Absentee Members $15.00 per annum plus $3 application fee. Associate Members (spouses of members and persons under 25 years of age): $5.00 per annum plus $1.80 application fee. ee Members (with Journal): $12.00 per annum plus $1.80 application gee Subscription to the Journal, which is published in four Parts per year, issued twice yearly in May and November, for non-members is $22 p.a. plus postage. For application forms for membership and enquiries re subscriptions, write to: The Royal Society of New South Wales, Science Centre, 35 Clarence Street, Sydney, 2000, N.S.W. The Society welcomes manuscripts of research (and occasional review articles) in all branches of science, art, literature and philosophy, for publication in the Journal and Proceedings. Manuscripts will be accepted from both members and non-members, though those from the latter should be communicated through a member. A copy of the Guide to Authors is obtainable on request and manuscripts may be addressed to the Honorary Secretary (Editorial) at the above address. Contents Astronomy: Proper Motions in the Region of the Galactic Cluster NGC 2516. D. S: King 61 Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney Observatory during 1977. T. L. Morgan 65 The Minor Planets. Presidential Address, 5th April, 1978. W. H. Robertson 71 Geology: Late Quaternary Deposits of the Newcastle-Port Stephens Area as Revealed by Grain Size Analysis and Scanning Electron Microscopy. Cheng K, Ly a4 Regional-Scale Thermal Metamorphism overprinting Low-Grade Regional Metamorphism, Coffs Harbour Block, Northern New South Wales. R. J. Korsch Cian es - 89 The Use of Inflection Surfaces in Descriptions of Folds. R. J. Korsch 0 The Demon Fault. R. J. Korsch, N. R. Archer and G. W. McConachy 101 The Permian and Mesozoic of the Merriwa-Binnaway-Ballimore Area, New South Wales. F. C. Loughnan and P, R. Evans 107 Early East-southeast Trending Folds in the Sofala Volcanics, New South : Wales. C. McA. Powell, M. A. Gilfillan and N. M. Henry Jv23 | Palaeontology: | im An Unusual Specimen of Fossil Wood. R. K. Bamber, M. F. Clarke and : P. Jamieson nae 129.. Addendum: | | pe ee ee ote Publicity Press Ltd., 29-31 Meagher Street, Chippendale, Sydney. Journal and Droceedings : of ete Royal Society ew South os VOLUME 112 1979 PARTS 1 and 2 Published by the Society Science Centre,-35 Clarence Street, Sydney Issued 12th October, 1979 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Patrons — His Excellency the Governor-General of Australia, The Honourable Sir Zelman Cowen, A.K., G:C.M.G., KiStJ., O:C. His Excellency the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Roden Cutler, V.C., KCM:G., K-CV-O.,, G-BEin Kool: President — D. H. Napper, Ph.D.(Cantab.), M.Sc., A.R.A.C.I. Vice-Presidents — F. C. Beavis, E. K. Chaffer, M. J. Puttock, W. E. Smith, D. J. Swaine Hon, Secretary — J. C. Cameron Hon, Secretary (Editorial) — M. Krysko vy. Tryst Hon, Treasurer — A. A. Day Hon, Librarian — W. H. G. Poggendorff Councillors — H. Basden. D. G. Blaxland, G. S. Gibbons, P. H. W. Korber, S. J. Riley, W. H. Robertson, L. Sherwin, F. L. Sutherland New England Representative — S. C. Haydon South Coast Representative — G. Doherty Address:— Royal Society of New South Wales, 35 Clarence Street, Sydney, N.S.W., 2000, Australia. THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES The Society originated in the year 1821 as the Philosophical Society of Australasia. Its main function is the promotion of Science through the following activities: Publication of results of scientific investigation through its Journal and Proceedings; the Library; awards of Prizes and Medals; liaison with other Scientific Societies; Monthly Meetings; and Summer Schools for Senior Secondary School Students. Special Meetings are held for the Pollock Memorial Lecture in Physics and Mathematics, the Liversidge Research Lecture in Chemistry, and the Clarke Memorial Lecture in Geology. Membership is open to any interested person whose application is acceptable to the Society. The application must be supported by two members of the Society, to one of whom the applicant must be personally known. Membership categories are: Ordinary members, Absentee Members and Associate Members. Annual Membership fees may be ascertained from the Society’s Office. Subscriptions to the Journal are welcomed. The current subscription rate may be ascertained from the Society’s Office. The Society welcomes manuscripts of research (and occasional review articles) in all branches of science, art, literature and philosophy, for publication in the Journal and Proceedings. Manuscripts will be accepted from both members and non-members, though those from the latter should be communicated through a member. A copy of the Guide to Authors is obtainable on request and manuscripts may be addressed to the Honorary Secretary (Editorial) at the above address. JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES VOLUME PART 1 PZ LSI, PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY SCIENCE CENTRE, 35 CLARENCE STREET, SYDNEY VOLUME 112, PART 1 BEAVIS, F. C. Engineering Geology of Farm Water Storages. (Presidential Address) KING, D. S. Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney Observatory during 1978 KING, D. S. Proper Motions in the Region of the Galactic Cluster N.G.C. 4103 KORSCH, R. J. An Explanation for a Systematic Change in the Plunge of Fold Axes Within an Axial Surface of Constant Orientation KORSCH, R. J. The Use of Amplitude and Wavelength to Compare Successive Folded Surfaces ROBERTSON, W. A. Palaeomagnetic Results from some Sydney Basin Igneous Rock Deposits POWELL, C. McA, and FERGUSSON, C. L. Analysis of the Angular Discordance across the Lambian Unconformity in the Kowmung River — Murruin Creek Area, Eastern New South Wales MARSHALL, Brian Folding and Faulting at Brushy Hill, Glenbawn, New South Wales. (Discussion) 25 31 a7 43 Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 112 pp. 1-6, 1979 Engineering Geology of Farm Water Storages F. C. BEAVIS ABSTRACT. The geological factors influencing the safe siting and construction of farm water storages in arid regions are discussed. An example of engineering geological Mapping are dis- cussed, An example of engineering geological mapping for the location of farm dams and tanks, from near Broken Hill, is described. INTRODUCTION In the post-war impetus to civil engineering works in Australia, engineering geology finally established itself in this country as a necessary aspect of the design and construction of large structures. Before the 1939-45 war, with a few exceptions, lip service only had been paid for the Most part by. civil engineers to geology. With the hydroelectric development in Tasmania, Victoria, and the Snowy Mountains, and with other important works in Queensland, South Australia, and Western Australia, engineering geology came to take a major role in the safe and economic construction of dams, tunnels, underground power stations, pipelines, roads, airfields and bridges. Particularly in the twenty-year period from 1945 to 1965, Australian engineering geologists made a significant contribu- tion to the development of this nation. Since 1965 the tempo of major development has slowed, and engineering geologists are tending to become more involved in environmental issues. Australia has a most enviable record in civil engineering works, with major engineering failures due to geological factors almost, if not totally, zero. The same is not true of one group of minor structures - farm dams. Here, the failure rate from various causes runs, in Australia, as high as 30% in some areas, and averages, throughout the country, over 25%. This is a field which obviously requires study and investigation; it was to this that my attention was turned about 1970, and it is an area in which and with which I have become vitally interested and concerned, following the pioneering work of GsS.1.R.0. If a major dam fails, it is a national dis- aster. Property is destroyed and damaged, lives may be lost. If a farm dam fails - who cares? The farmer, of course, is affected. At present, even a modest dam on a farm costs upward of $10,000 to $40,000. If it fails, the farmer has suffered a very serious loss. If we extend this to 25% of the dams built on farms in Australia, the loss reaches serious economic proportions, not only in wasted capital expenditure, but in lost production. Despite my exploration colleagues' best efforts, Australia's economy is still highly dependent on farm production. The loss in production due to the high rate of dam failures on the farm can then be regarded as a very serious matter indeed. * Presidential address delivered to the Royal Society of New South Wales at Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, on April 4, 1979. The problem appears to be most serious in the arid and semi-arid regions where, of course, water is a more vlluable commodity than it is elsewhere. My own research has tended to be restricted to such regions, and, in this address, I am going to speak mainly of the problems in arid and semi-arid zones - which constitute a very large proportion of the Australian continent (Figure 1). io as Australia, showing 10-inch (250 mm) and 15-inch (375 mm) isohyets which define the boundaries of the arid and semi-arid zones. CAUSES OF FAILURE OF FARM WATER STORAGES The failure of farm water storages is consid- ered to be dué to one or more of the following: (a) Inadequate and/or unsuitable catchment area (b) Excessive evaporation (c) Excessive seepage (d) Inadequate spillway provision (e) Poor methods of construction in relation to the materials available, especially inadequate compaction (f) Water quality unsatisfactory (g) Structural failure due to piping as a result of the use of unsatisfactory materials. 5 F. C. BEAVIS Of these, the geologist is concerned with all but failure due to excessive evaporation. All of the other causes involve, to a greater or lesser degree, the soil and rock, their weathering, com- position, structure, fabric and behaviour when processed. The weathering - both depth and degree, will influence the quantity and quality of runoff from a catchment, and the availability, and mech- anical properties, of the soils used for construc- tion. Structures in the rock-soil mass will con- trol seepage losses. The fabric and composition of the soils will also influence seepage losses as well as bank stability and water quality. Know- ledge of catchment geology combined with climato- logical and hydrological data will have a role in the provision of adequate spillways, while the geological control of landform may influence the location of the spillway. TYPES OF FARM WATER STORAGES Four main types of storage are used on farms in Australian arid and semi-arid regions (Figure 2): (a) tank (b) turkey's nest dam (c) dam (d) a combination of tank and dam. (a) Tank (b) Turkey nest dam aA (c) Dam (d) Tank ond Dam Sections through typical farm water storages in dry regions. Balle Ac The aim is to provide a storage with a low surface area - depth ratio to reduce the effects of evaporation. For this reason, the dam is not al- ways the proper solution, since the surface area - depth ratio is almost always high. It is for this same reason that a tank, with its low surface area - depth ratio is often combined with a dam, and is located adjacent to the dam where the water will be deepest and, hence, evaporation losses less criti- cal. The turkey's nest dam is used, in general, for the storage of pumped ground or surface water. It can be located anywhere provided soil is avail- able - but of course it must be adjacent to the productive bore, or other source of pumped water. GEOTECHNICAL ASPECTS OF SITE SELECTION AND DESIGN The ultimate storage capacity of the tank or dam, the quantity and quality of water, and the de- velopment of soil erosion in the catchment and, hence, siltation of the storage will all be influen- ced by the surface conditions and soils of the catchment. Lewis (1964) cited the catchment re- quirement per 1 million gallons (4.456 x 10° litres) storage as: Grassed catchments 100 acres (40.5 ha) Roaded catchments 25 acres (10 ha) Rocky catchments 10 acres (4 ha) These estimates assume a minimum catchment gradient of 1:400. The catchment condition is important since insufficient yield can result in hydrological failure. In Australian arid regions, in any case, no substantial runoff occurs for rainfall events of less than 0.5 inch (12 mm), even under the best geological conditions. The excavated tank is constructed using a bull- dozer; the excavated material is either pushed a- side, or used for the construction of banks, or of the nearby dam if this is proposed. The tank is located in, or close to, a stream channel, so that, if the catchment erodes, a silt trap will be re- quired to minimise siltation of the tank. The tank must be located in soil or highly weathered rock to permit cheap excavation. Stable and impervious walls and floor are essential. Soils with a clay content of less than 10% are not satisfactory because of high permeability; however, since the clay content of many soils in arid regions tends to increase with depth, the lower level soils can be used to seal the higher levels of the tank wall. Salinity also tends to increase with depth (Stace, 1969); if this is the case, the transfer of low level soils to higher levels is undesirable, since it can increase the salinity of the higher level water. Seepage through the floor and walls of a tank can be quite serious, and this is especially so if the soils contain expansive clays. Under such con- ditions (30% expansion/shrinkage has been recorded in desert soils: Beavis, Beavis and Reade, 1978) cracking occurs when the tank empties, and on refill- ing, initial seepage losses are aggravated, and the stability of the walls may be reduced. The dam site requires a suitable topographic location, to- gether with a suitable impervious foundation and suitable materials for construction. It is impera- tive that the mechanical properties of the soils be known so that adequate compaction can be achieved ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF FARM WATER STORAGES 3 (inadequate compaction is one of the major causes of structural failure), stable slopes designed, and filter zones incorporated or other remedial procedures adopted if the soil is likely to fail by piping. WATER LOSSES FROM TANKS AND DAMS Evaporation and seepage are the two most sig- nificant causes of water loss. In the case of tanks, seepage losses can exceed or equal losses due to evaporation, but proper construction and foundation treatment should ensure that the seepage through small earth dams is minimal. Ingles (1974) has shown that seepage losses from tanks are not always fully appreciated. He showed that, for a tank with a capacity of 6 x 10° gallons (2.67 x 10 litres) a breadth-depth ratio of 8 and a soil mass permeability of 10 ‘cm/sec; the seepage losses amount to 0.5 inch (12 mm) per day. Since it is not uncommon for arid soils to have a permeability of 10 6 cm/sec, seepage losses could amount to 5 inches (127 mm) per day. Good construction with a soil of adequate clay content can achieve a perme- ability of 10-8 cm/sec with seepage losses reduced to 0.05 inch (1.27 mm) per day. Seepage losses are greatest through the floor of a tank and beneath and around a dam. The tank floor and soil founda- tion of a dam should be compacted with special care, or, in the case of fissured rock, a well compacted clay blanket should be provided. 7 Flocculated red clayey desert soils high in lime and/or gypsum have a very high permeability, and tanks excavated in such soils have high seepage losses. Seepage is aggravated by solution of the soluble minerals, which results in an increase in voids. STRUCTURAL FAILURES OF FARM DAMS If structural failure due to overtopping is excluded, structural failure of farm dams is due, in most cases either to inadequate compaction, and to piping. It is essential that a soil in a dam be compacted as closely as possible to maximum den- sity. A clear relationship is known to exist be- tween moisture content, density and permeability (Figure 3) and, if the best compaction is to be achieved, the soil must be placed, and compacted, at optimum moisture content. In Figure 4 it can be seen that some soils have flat moisture content- density curves, while curves for some other soils are much steeper. Those soils with the steep curves require careful treatment in placing and compaction, since even * 1% moisture content can seriously affect the density achieved. In the event of poor compaction, failure of the embank- ment becomes a distinct possibility, while, of course, the higher the degree of compaction, the greater the density and the lower the permeability. No matter how well compacted a soil may be, it is still permeable, and water will flow through it, and the foundation. If there is a concentra- tion of seepage, with high hydraulic gradient, soil particles will be eroded from the downstream face of the dam, or from the foundation. This erosion works its way upstream, parallel to flow lines, at an increasing speed, towards the source of the water. In this way a pipe is develo- cm /sec PERMEABILITY Ib/cu ft DRY DENSITY 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 MOISTURE CONTENT per cent Fig. 3. Relationship between moisture content, density and permeability of a desert soil. ped. Once the pipe breaks through to the storage, the opening is rapidly enlarged, water discharge increases, and structural failure follows almost immediately. Cohesionless soils such as sands and fine silts are particularly susceptible to piping. Clays resist piping since the interparticle bonds help to prevent the particles washing away. Most soils, as we know, are a mixture of various size grades ranging from clay to sand, and it is often difficult to assess the susceptibility of the soil to piping. Considerable research has gone into developing tests, which, for the purposes of farm dams, must be simple. Figure 5 shows a chart based on experience and on laboratory testing. Although this chart is use- full, I, and my co-workers have found it to be as unreliable as the simple rule of thumb which says the plastic limit of a soil is * 1% optimum moist- ure content. We have found plastic limits of -16% optimum in thixotropic desert soils, and soils which Figure 5 suggests are safe from piping to be extraordinarily susceptible to piping! What is necessary from the researcher is the establishment of simple, reliable tests for sus- ceptibility to piping, and for optimum moisture content, and to make the farmer aware of the limi- tations of these tests. It is also important to develop simpie tests for compaction using e.g. penetrometers so that the farmer can assure himself DRY DENSITY Mg/m> PLASTICITY INDEX F. C. BEAVIS O 5 10 15 20 MOISTURE CONTENT % Fig. 4. Moisture content-density relations for five desert soils, near Broken Hill. [oMO) Resistance Category, 2 [o} 0 10 20 30 40 50 LIQUID LIMIT SOIL INDEX TESTS IN RELATION TO SUSCEPTIBILITY FOR PIPING FAILURE IN DAMS SHERRARD greatest resistance to piping categori | -i intermediate resistanc to piping categori 2 © least piping resistance categori 3 © COLE & LEWIS sound > failed o Figas5: Relationship between index properties of soils and susceptibility to piping. that his dam is being properly constructed. Too often, moreover, the farmer builds his dam of the one material. The incorporation of a downstream filter zone will certainly reduce, if not eliminate, the possibility of failure by piping; the cost of transporting and placing the filter sand is neg- ligible compared to the cost of failure. SALINITY OF SOIL AND WATER Sodium chloride in solution has a stabilizing effect on the soil. However, when saline soils are used in dam embankments, and if the water is non- saline, the dam stability is reduced and failure by piping becomes a highly probable event, Even if the water has a very low salinity, storage tends to increase the salinity. Beavis, Beavis and Reade (1978) reported, from an area north of Broken Hill, the following data: CATION CONCENTRATIONS Nasi ral Gat Mg’? ppm Stream 13.0 7.0 15.0 0.3 Storage 33.0 4.1 Sen 0.2 ANION CONCENTRATIONS HCO, co, Cl SO, NO, ppm Stream 68.4 - 25.6 4.0 0.42 Storage 122,04 4.8.. 926. j627e/2.0 OLS which shows a certain degree of concentration, par- ticularly of some ions, in the stored water, al- though it is apparent that some ions have a lower concentration under storage conditions, Have they been adsorbed onto clays? With its greater density, saline water tends to accumulate in the lower levels of a deep storage. This low level saline water may not, therefore, be available for use since the salinity may exceed the tolerance of both animals and humans. Saline water tends to promote flocculation of the soil and hence to increase permeability, and therefore, seepage losses. It has the beneficial effects of inhibiting the dispersion of the soil clays into the water, thus reducing the chance of bank failure. In excavated tanks, saline water seems to protect the walls against sliding. GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS Having outlined some of the principles involved, it is necessary now to consider the investigation work required of the geologist so that adequate data may be available for safe and economic construction. The mott important criteria are: (a) the depth to which excavation can be made using bulldozer and ripper; (b) the nature of the materials and their proper- ties; (c) the geology of the catchment. Unit Ela Elb E2 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF FARM WATER STORAGES 5 ° FOWLERS GAP TANK Pre-Cambrian shales, with some quartzite and dolomite. Rock CW to 15 metres. Cover of colluvium: saline; thixotropic. Volume expan- sion on wetting >30%. Not suitable for con- struction. Shale soils with salt, lime, gypsum to 2 metres; 12% volume expansion to 3 m, 5% below 3m. Bulldozer excavation to 12+ metres. Suitable for tanks. Shale soils OMC 16%, MD 1.782 Mg/m . Compact at OMC + 1%-2%. Perme- ability 6.5 x 10 cm/sec. LL 29%-45%, PL 16%-27%. Soil liable to piping. Rock mass closely jointed. Blanket CW rock in tanks. Rock CW to 5m only. Tank excavation below 5 m requires use of explosives. Otherwise as forse Lay. Pre-Cambrian interbedded shales, quartzites, marble and dolomite. Rock CW to 2+ metres. Cover of colluvium as for El. Unsuitable for tank excavation. Rock highly jointed. Good topographic dam sites, but foundation treat- ment to reduce leakage necessary. Leakage losses from existing dam high. Inadequate quantities of soils for construction. Soils saline. Volume expansion 14-32%. Some soils Fig. (63 Unit E3a E3b E4 SCALE IN KILOMETRES fe) ! 2 3 4 5 ee ted > thixotropic., OMC 14%, MD 1.920 Mg/m>. Com- pact at OMC - 1.5%. Permeability 6 x 10 cm/sec. LL 36%, PL 19%. Soils liable to piping. Unconsolidated Tertiary sediments. Red clayey silty sand up to 16 metres thick. Suitable for tank excavation, but soils relatively permeable. Soil thixotropic. Volume expan- sion 5% to 21%. OMC 14%, MD 2.190 Mg/m .Com- pact at OMC - 2%. Permeability 2 x 10 “cm/sec. LL 32%, PL - not determinable due to thixotropy. LL value doubtful. Unconsolidated Tertiary sediments up to 150 m thick. Highly variable. Suitable for tanks. est seach site. Cretaceous and Devonian shales,sandstones and quartzites. Rock CW to 4 m maximum, Tank exca- vation requires use of explosives. Good topo- graphic dam sites, but foundation treatment re- quired to prevent excess leakage; soils thin and volumes readily available inadequate for dam construction. OMC 10.5%, MD 2.050 Mg/m 4 Compact at OMC - 1.5%. Permeability 1 x 10 cm/sec. LL, PL not determined. Engineering geology (water storage feasibility) map of Fowler's Gap Arid Zone Research Station. 6 F. C. BEAVIS The initial stage of the investigation is the catchment survey which records rock types, rock outcrops, surface conditions; soil types; soil chemistry; and slopes. Runoff characteristics need to be assessed. At the sites, some drilling is desirable to determine the depth and degree of weathering, and to sample for testing. In sub- surface investigation, particular attention must be given to: (i) occurrence of zones of high permeability; (11) occurrence of highly impervious zones; (iii) the position of the water table (if present at the depth studied) ; (iv) bedrock level and the weathering profile; (v) concentrations of salt, lime, gypsum. Field permeability tests may be carried out. These can be quite sophisticated, but we have found quite rough tests to be adequate, e.g. the time taken for the water level to fall 1 metre in a borehole. Samples taken should be tested in the labora- tory for behaviour on wetting and drying (is the soil a collapsing type; highly swelling, or thixotropic?); clay mineralogy, including ion ex- change capacity and sodium absorption ratio; permeability; density; compaction; consolidation; shear characteristics and Atterberg limits. Data from such tests permit safe and economic design and construction, THE SITUATION WITH THE FARMER Now of course, you may rightly ask: ''Is the farmer to engage an engineering geologist and a design engineer? Surely this is a grossly imprac- tical academic dream?" My answer to the first question is "no'' and to the second "'yes''. What we are aiming to achieve is the recognition, within a given region, of "types'’ for which clear speci- fications can be laid down, and which the farmer may follow, perhaps in consultation with an exten- sion officer. We certainly do not envisage each farmer having a detailed site study made for each dam, but rather, having available a district geo- technical study. Within the area shown in Figure 6, four main units exist; these are clearly defined on the map. For each unit, detailed studies have been carried out, and for each is specified the general geo- technical situation, and the conditions which should be followed in excavation and construction. Precautions which should be taken are clearly stated, and warning signs to be noted, and for which professional advice should be sought, are given. This has been established on a pilot scale, for an area of 160 square miles, north of Broken Hill. A dam-tank system has been constructed School of Applied Geology, University of New South Wales, Kensington, N.S.W. 2033 successfully. This is a very small area indeed, but one of varying geology: it is, on a small scale, what one could expect to achieve on a large scale. At the present time, specifications for farm storages have been written by State authori- ties, but these take no account of the specific geotechnical conditions in the site region. As a result, many problems arise both during construc- tion and when the storage is in service - and the failure rate remains high. CONCLUSIONS If the farmer, and, in the final analysis, the country's rural industry, is to avoid costly failures of water storages, especially in arid and semi-arid areas, considerable research will be necessary to establish simple criteria for the sit- ing and construction of water storages. I person- ally see this to be as great, if not a greater, challenge as that facing the engineering geologist on a large dam project. It is a challenge which few recognize, not least those providers of re- search funds; it is one which I regard as of per- haps not vital, but nonetheless considerable, im- portance to our community. One small team of re- searchers cannot hope to cover adequately more than a small region. If we are on the verge of estab- lishing generally applicable principles, it is im- portant that these principles be tested and applied on a wider scale. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The work completed to date has been a team effort. I gratefully acknowledge the assistance of my co-workers: my wife, Joan, and Lee Reade. Associate Professor F.C. Loughnan determined the mineralogy of the soils. Part of the research de- scribed here, and extensions of it, are supported by grants from A.R.G.C., and the Reserve Bank of Australia. The figures were drawn by Marianne Horvath, and the manuscript typed by Diane McCloskey. REFERENCES Beavis, F.C., Beavis, J.C., and Reade, L.M., 1978. "Engineering geology of small water storage structures in Australian arid regions". @. Jl. Engng. Geol., li: 279-290. Inglis, 0.G., 1974. "Surface catchment tanks and dams". Thtrd Sympostum Studies Aust. Arid Zone. C.S.1.R.0O. Australia Rangelands Research Unit, 215, pp. Lewis, J.G., 1974. "Construction of small earth dams in south-west Western Australia". Coll. on failure of small earth dams. CESARE Or Stace, H.C.Y., 1969. "A handbook of Australian soils''. Rellim, South Australia, 435 pp. (Manuscript received 4. 4. 1979) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 112 pp. 7-11, 1979 Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney Observatory during 1978 D. S. KING ABSTRACT. Positions of 1 Ceres, 3 Juno, 4 Vesta, 39 Laetitia, 51 Nemausa, 532 Herculina and 704 Interamnia obtained with the 23 cm camera are given. The programme of precise observations of selected minor planets which was begun in 1955 is being continued and the results for 1978 are given here. The methods of observation were described in the first paper (Robertson 1958). All the plates were taken with the 23 cm camera (scale 116'' to the millimeter). Four exposures were taken on each plate, except those for 704 Interamnia for which there were two. In Table 1 are given the means of the posi- tions for all the exposures using all six refer- ence stars at the mean of the exposure times. The result for the first pair of images was compared with the results for the last pair by adding the motion computed from the ephemeris for the plates with four exposures. The means of the differences were 0.007 sec 6 in right ascension and 0%'12 in declination. No correction has been applied for aberration, light time or parallax, but the factors give the parallax correction when divided by the distance. The column headed ''0-C'' gives the differences be- tween the measured positions (corrected for paral- lax) and the position computed from the ephemerides supplied by the Institute for Theoretical Astronomy in Leningrad. The ephemeris for 51 Nemausa was ob- tained from L. K. Kristensen (University of Aarhus, Denmark). In accordance with the recommendation of Commission 20 of the International Astronomical Union, Table 2 gives for each observation the positions of the reference stars and the six star dependences. The reference star positions were con- verted to standard coordinates for the calculation of six star dependences. The column headed ''R.A." and ''Dec.'' give the seconds of time and arc with the proper motion correction applied to bring the catalogue position to the epoch of the plate. The column headed "Stars" gives the Durchmusterung number taken from either the AGK3 or SAO catalogue. The first column gives a serial number which cross- references Table 1 and Table 2 and also the cata- logue from which the reference stars were taken. All plates were reduced by both the methods of dependences and by first order plate constants using the same six reference stars. The r.m.s. residuals of the reference stars averaged at 0''24 for AGK3 stars and 0''56 for SAO stars. The plates were measured by Mrs. A. Brown, Mrs. J. Close, Miss D. Teale and Miss J. Westaway. The obServers:.at the telescope were D. S. King (K); T. L. Morgan (M), W. H. Robertson (R) and K. P. Sims (S). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank T. L. Morgan for his assistance and Mrs. J. Close for doing the reductions. REFERENCES Robertson, W.H., 1958. Precise observations of minor planets at Sydney Observatory during 1955 and 1956. <¢. Roy. Soc. N.S.W. 92, 18-23 Sydney Observatory Papers No. 33. TABLE 1 POSITIONS OF MINOR PLANETS R.A. No. (1950.0) hm s (e) 1 Ceres 1978 U.T. 1607 May 08.76780 19 43 05.436 -24 1608 June 06.69324 19 41 02.790 -26 1609 June 13.68548 OST L7e745 -27 1610 July 03.60321 19 21 13.749 -29 1611 July 10.58380 19 14 30.794 -29 1612 July 24.55059 19 01 25.939 -30 1613 July 31.51062 18 55 46.304 -30 1614 Aug. 09.47595 18 49 54.975 -31 Dec. Parallax O-C (1950.0) Factors ! "W Ss W S " 42 15.33 -0.022 -1.38 +0.01 +0.1 M 45 27.34 -0.002 -1.07 +0.03 +1.1 K 23 28.39 +0.046 -0.98 +0.08 0.0 S 12 03.67 -0.011 -0.69 -0.02 +0.6 K 45 20.79 +0.004 -0.61 +0.01 +0.5 R 37 15.27 +0.054 -0.49 -0.05 +2.3 S 54 56.95 -0.006 -0.43 40.02 +1.5 M 09 54.90 -0.027 -0.40 +0.03 +0.3 K No. 1615 1616 1617 1618 1619 1620 1621 1622 1623 1624 1625 1626 1627 1628 1629 1630 1631 1632 1633 1634 1635 1636 1637 1638 1639 1640 1641 1642 1643 1644 1645 1646 1647 1648 1649 1650 1651 1652 1653 1654 1655 1 Ceres (Cont. ) 1978 UCT. Aug. 21.45984 Sep. 15.38839 3 Juno 1978 U.T. June 06.72958 June 13.71447 July 03.64047 July 10.61592 July 24.58282 Aug. 21.48917 Sep. 15.41503 4 Vesta 1978 U.T. Apr. 10.74711 Apr. 18.72449 May 01.70286 June 06.57919 June 13.56258 July 03.48696 July 10.47725 July 20.44623 July 25.43482 IuULy Si. 40512 Aug. 09.38291 Aug. 21.38035 39 Laetitia 1978 U.T. Aug. 14.76439 Sep. 05.70922 Sep... 12471052 Sep. 27.64810 Oct. 09.61329 Oct. 23.56627 Nov. 21.48788 Dec. 05.43218 51 Nemausa 1978 U.T. Feb. 16.64447 532 Herculina 1978 U.T. Apr. 10.70366 Apr. 18.67243 May 01.61980 June 07.50962 June 23.43894 July 03.42120 July 10.41661 July 21.39234 July 31.36259 704 Interamnia 1978 U.T. June 08.50011 July 04.41633 h 18 10 14 14 R. A. (1950.0) m 4S 47 55 45 37 Ss 13: SSE 40. 11. 53. 884 228 - 467 . 292 779 014 . 669 216 . 659 sOA7 - 946 .815 . 130 HG . 184 BALTES 2982 594 .554 . 180 57, . 803 724 . 804 . 082 aly) .571 .074 498 367 614 LON - 999 . 334 . 146 - 500 oo bt - 000 026 588 218 D. S. KING TABLE 1 (Cont. ) POSITIONS OF MINOR PLANETS oO -31 -31 -03 -03 -03 -03 -04 -07. -10 -15 -15 -15 -15 -16 -17 -17 -18 -19 -19 -20 -21 +05 +03 +02 +00 -00 -02 -04 -04 +00 +05 +06 +07 +04 +02 +00 -00 -02 -04 -33 -30 Dec. (1950 ! 18 05 44 19 08 wt 08. 08. 22s 40. 10. .0) 53 24 26 27 88 S +0. +0. +0). +0. -0. -0. +0. +0. +0. -0. -0. +0. +0. +0. +0. +0. +0. +0. -0. -0. +0. -0. -0. +0. -0. -0. -0. +0. -0. +0. +0. +0. +0. +0. -0. +0. +0. +0. +0. +0. +0. Parallax Factors " 044 -0. 026 -0O. 011 -4. 026 -4. 013 -4 019 -4, 022 -4. 015 -3 011 -3 00S -2. OLS 2 032 -2 011 -2 035 -2 002 -2. 039 -2. 030 -2 036 -2 018 -2 014 -2. 062) --1% 018 -5S. 020 -S. 043 =-S 014 -4 00s -4. 010 -4. 030 -4. 019 -4. 044 -4 065 -S. 045 -S. 013 «=-5 048 -S 024 -5S 00s -4. 046 «=-4. 054: «=-4.«. 033 «4. 061 -O. 032 -O. 38 41 295 06 53 -0. -0. -0. ='0'. 02 05 .01 .03 305 02 -02 02 «02 Ou .05 .00 06 04 +0. +1. +0. +0. NOWFRFOWOWWON ofwWUuUUMNsN ORPrRUN AND NODDARrRPrROUMM DANAADAZ DA NEA ZANANANADA NNNDAAA ANANAANADA aA PRECISE OBSERVATIONS OF MINOR PLANETS TABLE 2 REFERENCE STAR POSITIONS AND DEPENDENCES No. Stars Depend. R.A. Dec No Stars Depend. R.A. Dec 1607 -25 14264 0.172817 16.950 50.04 1618 - 4 5124 0.178652 24.702 44.57 SAO -24 15531 0.189586 35.498 12.36 SAO - 3 4900 0.173620 28.331 05.32 -25 14320 0.148756 54.984 04.90 - 4 5147 0.169821 Son Ls 40.41 -23 15724 0.191851 15.552 02.68 - 4 5156 0.163331 39.581 48.33 -23 15782 0.168490 23.810 13.54 - 3 4928 0.158253 50%229 44.00 -25 14375 0.128499 37.710 58.97 - 3 4930 0.156322 1527, 41.93 1608 -27 14177 0.107237 54.088 06.63 1619 - 3 4838 0.175514 12.984 46.56 SAO -26 14421 0.223791 38.589 06.42 SAO - 3 4840 0.160533 38.885 09.00 -27 14230 0.086619 16.759 A Sealy - 4 5087 0.198848 21.160 55.03 -26 14460 0.260804 28.864 18.61 - 3 4848 05150217 48.708 25207, -27 14254 0.121169 14.522 US .1S - 3 4860 0.152698 Bil. 2335 52000 -26 14504 0.200379 56.712 50.19 - 4 5110 0.162190 30.809 235.85 1609 -27 14128 0.240744 S54 47.94 1620 - 4 5042 0.178151 26. 824 23.70 SAO -27 14144 0.192810 52.361 38. 68 SAO - 4 5043 0.137903 SZ. 00S 39.19 -27 14190 0.205466 43.251 45.16 - 3 4818 0.193433 36.117 58.62 -26 14421 0.107288 38.589 06.42 - § 5189 0.129509 00.589 35.93 -27 14230 05157877 16.759 43.17 - 3 4840 0.202512 38.885 09.00 -27 14239 0.095815 48.248 34.02 - 4 5087 0.158492 21.160 55.63 1610 -29 16056 0.187505 58.962 08.70 1621 - 5 5124 0.091148 17.781 16.81 SAO -29 16059 0.196694 48.027 40.50 SAO - 4 4984 0.122514 Sle 55 31.74 -28 15753 0.186605 50.539 05.50 - 4 4998 0. 188866 56.724 45.50 -29 16104 0.154362 55.224 28.97 - 5 5140 0.163386 05.304 00.99 -28 15797 0.156061 50.1229 51.55 - 4 5007 0.212376 22.591 33.41 -29 16144 0.118772 58.326 28.34 - 5 5156 0.221709 25.106 16.47 1611 -30 16800 0.164564 26.225 06.13 1622 - 8 5050 0.259793 29.954 10.78 SAO -29 15872 0.187980 30.441 48.73 SAO - 7 $024 LO) be iAsyk 7 59.216 21043 -30 16826 0.142527 yy Se! 09.76 - 8 5073 0.207233 54.348 48.03 -29 15977 0.194050 17.050 49.83 - 7 $042 0.109558 22026 38.28 -30 16903 0.136088 45.182 40.17 - 7 5047 0.117097 30.582 43.96 -29 16021 0.174790 13.440 04.21 - 8 5085 0.148802 34.271 49.02 1612 -31 16267 0.190084 10.454 38.41 1623 -10 5097 0.100857 3771602 305.52 SAO -30 16580 0.172707 44.783 09. 64 SAO -11 5030 0.160546 2 Onele7al 56.02 -30 16595 0.158096 Son o7L L752 -10 5111 0.127010 44.835 58.47 -31 16312 0.177065 352, 829 24.86 -11 5044 0.195018 38.649 06.52 -30 16665 0.144104 02.519 18.15 -10 5131 0.182423 05.974 1262 -30 16671 0.157944 IXs)o Le) 50.50 -11 5062 0.234146 01.433 50.91 1613 -30 16396 0.159917 16.104 46.71 1624 -15 4502 OL 27.7516 24.274 09.76 SAO -29 15525 02177528 12.497 25.81 SAO -14 4598 0.185862 225207 46.60 =o 16152 0.149297 US. 27a 16.89 -15 4511 0.248504 25.618 46.00 -32 14762 0.153.287 16.127 44.80 -14 4615 0.061914 53.678 46.08 -31 16267 0.175029 10.454 38.41 -15 4521 0.145384 20.699 34.93 -30 16580 0.184942 44.783 09.64 -14 4619 0.080819 05.128 Homey) 1614 -30 16310 0.248104 46.583 20.82 1625 -14 4585 0.190213 29.509 41.99 SAO -31 16066 0.209117 34.869 25.65 SAO -15 4502 0.156457 24.274 09.76 -31 16075 0.169708 23.495 08.80 -15 4511 0.129509 25.618 46.00 -30 16396 0.175407 16.104 46.71 -14 4619 0.182185 05.128 16.27 -31 16152 0.083019 1S. 271 16.89 -14 4644 0.190934 535.451 12.09 -31 16155 0.114644 17.940 59275 -15 4554 0.150703 172500 42.42 1615 = 5115913 0.209122 23.944 07.90 1626 -14 4585 0. 308619 29.509 41.99 SAO -30 16169 0.139552 52.952 33.89 SAO -15 4502 0.197485 24.274 09.76 -31 15973 0.215888 57.542 41.83 -15 4513 0.061025 46.557 40.06 -30 16264 0.118108 09.615 59°.23 -15 4534 0.073417 43.509 52.92 -31 16071 0.134061 127599 52.19 -14 4644 0.243822 53.451 12.09 -31 16075 0.183269 23.495 08.80 -15 4554 O.at56s1 177500 42.42 1616 -31 15951 0.130563 03.606 ERS) 1627 -15 4393 0.182771 25.776 24.25 SAO -30 16225 0.123295 58.693 46.92 SAO -16 4353 0.211450 29.478 10.95 -32 14530 O..175,725 08.080 17.48 -14 4492 0.152585 13.968 11.67 -30 16323 0.147632 L827 40.42 -16 4371 0.183262 08.606 40.34 -31 16108 0.228659 152.1352 40.64 -14 4512 0.119047 30. 684 36.94 -30 16396 0.194129 16.104 46.70 -15 4421 0.150886 31.073 23.67 1617 - 4 5146 0.156711 50.065 10. 84 1628 -15 4365 0.074339 40.820 35.38 SAO - 3 4912 0.089496 16.331 46.16 SAO -16 4327 0.081740 41.363 18.34 - 4 5153 0.312215 03.047 01.61 -14 4476 0.148614 48.195 03.02 - 3 4923 0.036139 20.534 56.94 -17 4631 0.183498 40.151 17.80 - 4 5166 0.254564 23.682 30.03 -15 4393 0.249372 23.776 24.25 - 4 5168 0.150875 46.123 21.47 -16 4354 0.262437 Sons 01.65 Ke) 10 1630 SAO 16ST SAO 1632 SAO 1633 SAO 1634 SAO 1635 SAO 1636 AGK3 1637 AGK3 1638 AGK3 1639 AGK3 ++ etter ee te ete tee tee ttt DOOR DORNRFWNNNWRFANWFEWUWU FS ‘+ | + SPOR EO OO tO 207 1141 O2O O32 4814 OOO sO OrOrOr OOO) OO OOO SOlOre: OLS Or, COLO OF OO. Or@ OOO" Oro (Or) Or (OOF Oi S20) OC, S2One Depend. . 240491 . 174940 . 125758 - 307654 . 022189 . 128969 - 087700 ZO 997 . 026716 «1295155 #099719 . 208733 - 70091 . 195998 . 143430 ~ £89213 . 169817 1151451 . 148922 . 127086 . 188969 . 141216 . 166742 - 227065 ~ 221705 - 236008 . 106328 . 218632 . 103195 . 114132 ~ 062561 . 132694 . 118416 w225719 - 224929 - 235682 . 134987 - 155381 . 161475 . 178376 . 180289 . 189491 167182 236442 . 077504 255025 . 108440 wal OS 205.51 . 158012 2205 ou . 119907 . 174669 et 31730 . 221050 - 245697 136555 . 206481 + 075099 SLES . 208568 . 100848 - 259443 - 083598 . 230184 . 117360 D. S. KING TABLE 2 REFERENCE STAR POSITIONS AND DEPENDENCES No. 1640 AGK3 1641 SAO 1642 SAO 1643 SAO 1644 AGK3 1645 AGK3 1646 AGK3 1647 AGK3 1648 AGK3 1649 AGK3 1650 AGK3 t+eeteteeteteeeteeeteeeee eee etereee terete teeter teeter tert Ht Ht Ht Stars 27. 272 345 310 291 320 260 298 287 SZ 281 328 218 271 216 282 247 296 220 271 216 237 285 287 2504 2507 2606 2503 2721 ZZ 3085 3087 3066 3089 3078 3096 2980 3066 2997 3083 3085 3007 2961 3048 2969 3053 3054 2975 2937 2943 2953 2945 295.2 2962 2875 2948 2882 2955 2887 3001 3259 2992 3264 3002 3276 3005 RPRORORPOPRPNWNWNH UPA UMP RPNIDADNADNNIADANADANADUAUNADADADOOYPKPRKRPUNHWYHA UF UWUNFSPNWNFNWORFRONH EH SEOLOrOV S19 LOO Oso, OrO. eS Or ores. OOOO Ore OO.) ©. OrO OO Or OL OOre! ©) CLO TON Oro" OS) ©. OL OOO 2O! ©. OC OS Ot OLOF OOO ORO Depend. 193505 . 215396 . 151134 . 189046 . 109859 . 141050 . 154777 . 136993 - 184107 . 154774 . 187049 . 182299 122878 . 164152 . 111216 . 208049 “61572 HZ OZO 95 . 243929 . 228409 . 187826 127491 . 121284 091061 . 187940 . 126621 «171738 . 222638 . 156006 LS 5057 . 287394 235201 . 168714 . 154407 077474 . 076810 + LS1652 2b 7012 250d ~174555 - 248808 . 106493 . 274434 . 087524 - 391429 . 019646 - 088083 . 138884 . 266675 086911 . 369183 . 037781 . 060368 «179082 - 099263 . 176067 . 148152 . 207588 . 201166 . 167764 . 207667 . 207595 .175914 .157811 . 125347 . 125667 < 55 . 796 ILS 055 .981 A uSys: . 618 No. 1651 AGK3 HOS 2 SAO 1653 SAO Sydney Observatory, + PUWUNWUWNWNNWPEDNOWNOCODCSO Stars 2897 3264 2902 3276 2906 2910 3698 3921 3006 3707 5956 3717 3713 3999 3726 4011 3735 3818 PRECISE OBSERVATIONS OF MINOR PLANETS Oe SS: SSS SOOO Oriole Oro Ovo Sydney, N.S.W., 2000. Depend. “ii 2079S . 119279 . 204196 LOA Sa . 211762 - 187760 . 154378 HLL OZ - 223036 . 119036 . 167720 - 124249 071605 sol 799 SZ 7S . 218031 . 194593 »251190 TABLE 2 REFERENCE STAR POSITIONS AND DEPENDENCES R.A. 14, 12. Ol. 08. 49. OS. 06. 06. 26. Bic 26. 07. 02. Boe ile ESTs 56. 56. 405 632 131 158 629 357 3 736 698 318 344 792 345 689 233 325 341 575 No. Stars 1654 SAO =e -33 -32 = oe = 35 515 -29 -30 -28 -29 -29 -29 1655 SAO (Manuscript received 7-3-79) 10330 10043 10347 10397 10113 10115 P22 11604 10870 11246 11252 11260 SiS ey eyo ee) fe es S) =) Depend. miSoLSS . 162709 . 134627 ~ 165627 . 209001 194851 . 227474 . 229468 . 116005 . 172843 S59 136851 1] beg OES A A Wielabde S raed Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 112 pp. 13-17, 1979 Proper Motions in the Region of the Galactic Cluster N.G.C. 4103 D. S. KING ABSTRACT. Relative proper motions of stars in the region of the galactic cluster NGC 4103 based on plates taken with the 33cm astrograph, are determined with the aim of identifying stars which are non-members. The relative proper motions have an average standard error of 0''08/century and reveal 102 likely non-members and 69 likely members. INTRODUCTION plates were measured by Mrs J. Close, Miss D. Teale, ar Miss J. Westaway and Mr. D. King. The open cluster NGC 4103 (R.A. = 12 01.5, Dec. = -60 41', 1900; Z = 29796, b = +0192) has REDUCTIONS AND PROBABILITIES been studied photometrically by Wesselink (1969). The present investigation seeks to identify from If X,, X, are the measures of x on the new and their proper motions, those stars that are not old plates, yw is the annual proper motion and t is members of the cluster. the time interval between the plates, then we can write:- X, - Xo = ut + ax + by + c + dm with a THE PLATES similar expression for Y; - Y2 where x, y are taken from the new plate measures and m (magnitude) is The plates were taken with the 33cm standard taken from the Astrographic Catalogue. A least astrograph (scale 1' = 1 mm) as follows: squares solution without the proper motion term was then calculated using all the stars measured on Plate No. Date Taken Exposure Plate Pair that plate pair. The solution was performed with a 1 1326s 1894 Mar. 25 5H 8 Diehl Alphatronic programmable calculator. Those 7 1326s 1894 Mar. 25 Te 7 stars whose residuals exceed 25 microns are elimi- 3 2360s 1895 Mar. 25 Lee Ps nated from the solution and a further least squares 4 2360s 1895 Mar. 25 seth 5 solution sought of the remaining stars. This was 5 2875s 1896 Mar. 17 30 m 1 repeated for successive limiting residuals of 10, Eres S605 1897 May 3 30 m 3 725 and 5 microns. The final standard deviation of 7 252RH 1900 Mar. 9 aoe 12 the stars in the solution is usually approximately 8 252RH 1900 Mar. 9 1% m 11 Zenverons te. 0.2. elne resultant proper motion 9 N1042 1924 Mar. 31 Ric 4 plate constants were then used to give the proper 10 N1042 1924 Mar. 31 ie 3 motions relative to the mean motion of the cluster. 11 N1178 1925 Mar. 17 Aa 10 This is converted to a centennial proper motion by 12 N1178 1925 Mar. 17 ae 9 multiplying by 100k/t where k is the scale factor 13. -7717Sa 1978 Mar. 14 Gaon 5 to oss measured differences to seconds of arc 14 7727Sa 1978 Apr. 18 12m 7 (k = 04'059735/micron). 3 ee ree nee 5 i : A weight was assigned to each of the 12 plate 17 7733Sa 1978 Apr. 27 16 m 9 pairs by averaging the proper motion for each star 18 7734Sa 1978 Apr. 27 10 m 11 and taking the difference between the individual 19 7735Sa 1978 Apr. 27 20 m i motions and the average as a residual for that 20 +7736Sa 1978 May 1 20 m 1 plate pair. Then the variance of these residuals 21. «-7737Sa 1978 May 1 20 m , over all the stars measured on that plate pair . 22 -7742Sa 1978 May 24 20 m 10 gives weights both in x and y for that plate pair. 23 7743Sa 1978 May 24 20 m 12 The method of Sanders (1971) is then used on the 24 7744Sa 1978 May 24 182m 3 weighted averages to determine the distribution parameters of a bivariate gaussian frequency Plate pairs 1-6 were centred at R.A. 12ho8™ function which represents the calculated field and Dec. -61900' (1900). Plate pairs 7-12 were cluster star relative proper motions. The distri- centred at R.A. 12700" Dec. -60°00' (1900). bution parameters in arc sec./century after elimi- nating 15 stars with very large proper motions were: aoe 6 = -8°11 N, = 87 X_ = -0.041 2, = 0.333 The plates were each measured in a Grubb- o = 0.103 N_ = 69 Ye = 0.028 < = 0.225 Parsons photoelectric measuring machine in both < y direct and reverse positions. The reverse posi- 8 is the rotation angle of the observed proper tions were converted into direct measures using Motions (+ux to +Hy) into a new coordinate system plate constants and the average was recorded. defined by the principal axes of the apparent el- All stars measured were selected from the pub- lipsoidal distribution of field star motions. All lished coordinates in the Astrographic Catalogue the other parameters are defined in this new co- (Sydney Observatory 1954, plate N1042). The ordinate system. o, is the dispersion of the 14 clusterstar motrons;- "Ne; Ne are the number of field and cluster stars; Xe, Ve the centre of the field star proper motion distribution, ~-2,, ry the field star proper motion dispersions. These para- meters were then used to obtain a star's probabil- ity of membership. The standard errors for individual stars have been grouped by their magnitudes, and the mean of the, standard errors,o,, Oy determined for different ranges are as follows:- Magnitude fo) Oo No. of stars x Y (Unit 0''01/cent) A Se— Lal 8.72 9.04 74 W0F =e, 4 La2S 720 44 10.0 - 10.9 6.50 6. 38 24 90° = 91.19 5.94 5.63 16 ToS = Use? 6.08 5.46 1S All 7550 7.60 ugfal There were not enough Cape Catalogue stars measured to give an accurate absolute proper motion. The observational data follows in table 1. The various columns are:- D. S. KING R.A. Right ascension (1950), all prefixed by 12 hours. Dec. Declination (1950). CPD No. Prefixed by - 60°. V Photovisual magnitude from Wesselink. W No. Wesselink number. Hoh Centennial proper motion in units of 0''01/ cent. The axes are parallel to R.A. and Dec. Os Standard errors of centennial proper motion in units of 0"'01/cent. P Probability of membership. Notes 1 - Al Crucis, an eclipsing variable. 6 - Not used in calculation of distribution parameters. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank the staff of Sydney Observatory who helped with the measuring and typing. REFERENCES Sanders, W.L., 1971. Astronomy & Astrophystes, 14, 226-232. Sydney Observatory, 1954. Astrographte Catalogue, Sydney Sectton, 39, 1-8. Wesselink, 1969. Mon. Not. R. astr. Soc., 146, 329-338. No. The number from the Astrographic Catalogue, Sydney Section (12) 08™ - 61° centre). Mag. The magnitude of the star as determined by the image diameter. TABLE 1 THE OBSERVATIONAL DATA No. Mag. R.A. Dec CPD No. V W No. u u fo} fo} IP Notes X uv x Mf 1082 LOSS SOS Sie 6 10.45 35782 6 11 7 7 75 1083 18 05°45." «61.09.05 -29 2 4 13 12 1084 DlSe— OStAtT Ae 61 10255 292 -70 3 8 0 6 1085 UG. MOSM So. Ol) 926 -51 1 12 8 0 1086 doy men O lor cil -61 08 24 5 -31 6 8 15 1087 Se 05 235555 61509) 257 6) - 2 8 7 85 1088 TiS 05 4 -= 61. 082 51 43 -16 ial 14 0 1089 118) 05,1002" =—617:08 10 23 25 12 14 5 1090 16 04253 >— 615.0837, 20 ab 8 9 53 1091 Le 04M Se e610 7eaL0 -26 -13 6 6 iL 1092 9.5° 04 45 -61 07 42 3760 14 3 6 5 72 1093 11.3 04 34 -61 06 20 -99 -35 7 7 0 1094 TAD 04427" 69.06 257. 9 = 5 9 10 81 1095 11.6 04 18 4-61 07 20 - 26 2h i oeabat 2 1096 1S? OAT ie = 6. Om t 59 5 10 9 0 1098 9.5 03 57 -61 09 49 3734 6 0 5 4 84 1099 fie 7 0S. 58= 61 09857 22 11 7 9 32 1100 TSS 305403 29 =61):09506 - 28 39 ital 13 0 1101 LES TO 2 258 -61 08 34 -323 43 6 9 0 6 1102 11.4 02 58 4-61 08 16 -45 i 8 8 0 1104 12% WO2ZS50 -61 07 18 -32 20 6 7 1 1105 De 02 52 6 08 454: 73 2 11 10 0 1106 1is4 020 27— —ol 05744 10 -12 7 6 71 alal{oly/ Of 2a O22. -61 06 29 3700 - 3 - 9 6 4 81 1108 10.4 02 22 £-61 05 44 3698 -58 -10 Zi i 0 1187 D125 5 20 Sa cl Ol Olas -24 9 7 4 24 1188 1078" 9 105. 129) -=619 055211 3765 -53 - 9 a, 5 0 1190 11.8 O05 01 £-61 04 57 - 5 8 10 10 79 ibe 11.8 04 47 --61 03 28 2 -41 10 10 il PROPER MOTIONS IN THE REGION OF THE GALACTIC CLUSTER NGC 4103 — 15 TABLE 1 continued No. Mag. R.A. Dec. CPD No. V W No. u u fo} Oo P Notes x y x y 1192 i279 04 25 2-61.03 14 Sfot = 12 6 6 5 83 1193 iss 7 04°23 - -61 04 10 82 0 10 6 0 1194 LLss O46. - 61.05 13 -42 i 2 10 0 1195 11.7 04 00 -61 04 45 3 40 6 10 1 S77 ide 05 54 =61 01 01 12.22 55 16 -19 vE 8 38 1200 HOS 205° 29 =61 03 37 S724 12 4 4 7 75 1201 2e 035.08 -61 05 40 - 8 4 8 7 80 1202 iro 102 259 -61 04 25 -15 i 11 5 54 1204 Soop 02 51 =61 03 56 Se -93 83 6 5 0 6 1205 i1s2-—-02 49. -61 01 11 -189 -35 7 6 0 6 1206 HOc0 er02146 . =61 03 -22 3709 14 - 5 5 6 Tal 1207 11.2 02 44 -61 02 21 3708 0 =n fg) 7 9 82 1208 Hey 02 42,61) 02 07 -10 52 8 eS 0 1209 Oeu/ee O2658 -61 01 28 5707 2 - 3 5 4 85 1210 NERS) 02 34 -61 04 56 =13 -22 12 7 31 1211 i SS) O2 529 -61 03 41 1 54 Z 12 0 1294 O00, 205-51 -60 58 20 3780 elt 23 6 6 17 1295 HOO (05)50- - -61 01 03 3770 -20 -10 5 5 40 1296 10.8 05 24 -60 58 13 3768 -10 1 4 4 78 2917 ie .05508" =-61 00°50 28 -16 if 4 9 1298 1.8 05°06 ~--61 01 -00 11 27 9 8 16 1299 a2 05 06 -60 59 11 10 2 5 7 79 1300 lee 05: (01 -61 00 41 13 = Os) 11 10 4 1302 1122" 104.39 -60 56 16 SY59 0 - I 6 8 85 1303 11.6 04 37 -60 59 48 9 = IES 6 9 71 1304 Se Oem 04 55 -60 59 09 SST O06 10 5 - 9 6 5 80 1505 Tyee wO4.27 —60 56 56 3754 neh seh) 9 8 5 Ul i 80 1306 On6 04 24 4-61 00 55 3749 10. 01 14 Z - 3 6 6 83 1307 8e4 . 04 21 260" 59) 21 3748 9.43 11 5 3 5 5 83 1308 IS 04519)" -60° 57 34 12.61 49 Ly iS 11 6 41 1309 11.8 04 18 -61 00 47 12592 US -17 31 7 7 4 1310 2a O04 7" =60 “58°59 iss 47 10 2 8 7 WS 1311 7.7 04 16 -60 59 32 3746 9220 12 = 2 5 4 84 eSue2 ee r04 16 - —60 57 135 208 50 6 = ibs if 6 74 1315 iiss 04 15... -60 5/7 54 13n 2 254 15 = 6\l 8 14 7 1316 18> 04-14 =-60 57 03 15.10 299 -14 47 4 11 0 S17 hee) ec OAn 2 =60 5/7 38 0 apes = 3 =22 6 6 50 1318 9.8 04 11 -60 59 57 3745 10.47 13 iS 7 6 7 70 1319 Vile 04 T -60 57 O1 Iba SSI) 337 -18 1 8 7 57 1320 ine 2 04 10) -=60 58°49 ie 9 ileal 9 - 9 7 7 Wi 1321 NOES) (04 10 ---60 58 40 3743 11.82 To2 8 - 8 fi 8 79 1522 iiliesee 304 105> —60°56 20 12.69 496 - 4 - 3 12 6 84 S25 11.8 04 10----60 56 51 Ise PAS) 559 -17 -24 10 10 16 1324 9.0 04 06 -60 57 43 3742 SES 6 - 5 - 1 6 6 84 1325 10.8 -04-06 .-60 58 12 3740 thike tual 46 - 3 11 10 7 fa 1326 ieee O42061> 3-60 a7 29 11.61 245 5 - 4 7 6 84 S27 iu, 04::06) » -60-56 09 22 AS 0 =10 11 4 81 1328 O55 | 04 06. -60 56 51 3738 TOeS0 333 2 =75 vi 4 85 1329 9.0 04 05 -60 58 34 So OMS 2 5 - 9 2 7 7 YES) 1330 11.6 04 04 -60 59 57 12.54 41 0 14 9 9 Yu L551 .8 104 04 -60 59 33 iL SiealkS 43 10 ~35 11 12 5 15352 930'" = 204-04 - -60 57-00 5738 10.20 7 5 17 6 6 62 SSS jaca (O04 047° -60 58 12 125106 39 1 41 8 9 il 1334 iss) 04°04 =60°57 10 12.43 296 teil ee 4 9 40 1335 1158 04.02 -60 58 36 11.41 38 -31 3 14 9 7 1336 1.8 04°01 -60 59 57 13:2 40 28 - 9 9 7 16 M537, 11.4 04 01 -60 59 33 12522 42 10 14 6 8 63 1338 11.8 04 00 -60 56 55 ee 740) 36 22 = 8 8 8 39 1339 Hie2e no 05: 59 -60 57 34 11.99 35 6 -13 7 8 74 1340 Feo. 05258" 60 56 43 3735 10.31 330 ile 2 4 6 78 1341 ts 050-57 00% 59; 1:7, 12.13 34 8 9 ©) a 76 1342 10.8 03 56 -61 00 36 3732 ORS 2 80 o - 7 7 5 nS 1343 67 0Se57. - 60 56 43 LAG SZ 329 -15 -32 9 10 5 1344 9.0 03 55 -60 57 52 57 SM 10.00 4 12 - 6 i 6 75 1345 LAsSS 05955 —~-60' 59 16 135.02 28 20 ~27 11 8 8 1346 18. 2035.55) ~-=60°57 15 12.74 33 1 10 14 TS 79 1347 1050" ~ 03.53. -60 56 24 3730 10.93 31 - 1 - 6 6 7 84 1348 1349 1350 1351 1352 13553 1354 1355 1356 1557 1358 1359 1360 1361 1362 1563 1364 1365 1366 1367 1369 1370 1443 1446 1447 1448 1449 1450 1451 1452 1453 1454 1455 1457 1458 1459 1460 1461 1462 1463 1465 1466 1467 1468 1469 1470 1471 1472 1473 1474 1475 1476 1477 1478 1479 1481 1556 1558 1559 1560 1561 1562 1563 1564 1565 1566 11567 CORN WODPRPWONNN OUR HPWOAINIWONAOAARAHPA AHR AWAAOANADANF AN WOAWADUNANMNNAIFAUNIWHAWONADHDWAOAN AW HKAIN © Of OC CPD No. S29 Size S25 Aly) Bile 3785 IAS 3769 3767 3762 3758 3752 3744 3728 3726 3710 3706 3704 3699 3786 3773 Si iz 3736 3733 S725 Drs7 KING TABLE 1 continued V SE . 64 . 30 gil 450) .70 Q i WNUNM C x Hb HPP ; ORPFONNANUN ro bh es bh WONNDAITIWUMIONDAUMNAWANAONNDOANAWUAARAAPNA HP CWA AMWUMOANUAHFPANONWAWUNAFNA ra ra He — WDONDHDNINWNNAODA X< ere PHP = = NO = rv b = ONNDOWODODADAARWAMANUWOUWONOUUNHAONDOUADUNNNWNOANWIYIDANUMNAINWMYNYNO ONIN = a Notes PROPER MOTIONS IN THE REGION OF THE GALACTIC CLUSTER NGC 4103 No. 1569 STA Loy 1 572 573 1574 Nees) 1576 Sydney Observatory, Mag. 11. abies 11. pie 10. he 10. 10. PAN WONN AWD R.A. 03 03 03 03 02 02 02 02 Observatory Park, SYDNEY. N.S.W. 05 03 01 00 SS) 51 S55) 32 2000 -60 -60 -60 -60 -60 - 60 -60 - 60 Dec. 49 47 48 50 46 47 46 49 oT 13 39 15 55 50 11 18 TABLE 1 continued CPD No. V W No. Wy = §} 25 -30 -32 3715 3 Sy 7AlAl -174 S05 -14 3703 -446 (Manuscript received 7.3.79) CONAN AMNWYO XK NANrNINMNANDOAMNA X< Notes L7 Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 112 pp. 19-23, 1979 An Explanation for a Systematic Change in the Plunge of Fold Axes Within an Axial Surface of Constant Orientation R. J. KORSCH ABSTRACT. A theoretical model is developed to explain geometrically a systematic change in the plunge of fold axes within an axial surface of constant orientation. If a folded surface was originally horizontal, then as the intensity of folding increases, the dips of the folded surface must become steeper. If the strike of the folded surface is constantly at an angle other than zero to the strike of the axial surface, then as deformation proceeds the dip of the folded surface becomes steeper and the plunge of the fold axis changes from 0° towards 90°. Even a difference of 1° in the strikes of the folded surface and axial surface causes remarkable changes im) the plunge of the fold axis, when the dip of the folded surface is close to the dip of the axial surface. INTRODUCTION One problem encountered during field mapping and analysis of structural data from the Coffs Harbour Block in northern New South Wales was to explain why the plunge of Dl mesoscopic fold axes changed systematically while the orientation of the axial surface remained relatively constant. Korsch (1973, Fig. 2B) showed that the plunges of the fold axes were subhorizontal in the northern part of the block and these changed systematically to be steeply plunging in the southern part of the block. This was accompanied by a distinct and progressive tightening of the folds, with the interlimb angles varying from those of open folds in the north to those of tight folds in the south (Korsch, 1973, Fig. 2A). This problem of the origin of steeply plunging folds is a geological problem difficult of solution, and the problem of explaining a change in the plunge of fold axes has been discussed by many workers. Lillie (1961) proposed two mechanisms for the growth of steeply plunging folds from the Southern Alps of New Zealand, namely the rotation of partly formed folds with continued steepening of the limbs, or the development of new folds on limbs that were already steeply dipping because of an earlier fold episode. He did not envisage any simple rotation of earlier formed folds and attributed the folding to a strike-slip regime associated with the Alpine Fault. Waterhouse (1972), also working in the Southern Alps, invoked the formation of schuppen to steepen the dip and tectonically thicken the sequence, followed by two periods of folding associated with a strike-slip regime in a subduction zone to produce the steeply plunging folds. Ditterential flattening in the\axial plane or in both the axial and ac planes was proposed by Ramsay (1962) to account for fold axes with a variable orientation in theoretical folds of Wsimitar. type.: Borradaile (1972) invokes a, pro- gressive irrotational constrictive deformation to explain variably oriented folds in the Scottish Highlands. However these folds have a large var- tation in the plunge of the: fold axes. Crosby and Link (1972) invoke stress reorientation to explain curved and steeply plunging fold axes in Wyoming. Roy (1972) interprets variable plunges and trends of the axes of upright folds in western India as a product Of the interference of two periods of fold- ing. Garnett and Brown (1973) prefer a single period of protracted heterogeneous strain to produce a progressive change from subhorizontal to steeply plunging mineral-clast lineations and hinge lines, in a constant vertical axial surface, in Canada. All of the above explanations for a change in the plunge of fold axes, while possibly suitable for the areas where the change was described, are not applicable to the change in the Coffs Harbour Block where the mesoscopic structures present a simple geometrical picture. There is no evidence to indicate a widespread second period of folding, although localised evidence on a small scale was observed. Hence some of the possibilities outlined above are not relevant, and the explanations out- lined by Crosby and Link, and Garnett and Brown are considered to invoke stresses of too complex a nature to explain the relatively simple geometry of the mesoscopic structures in the Coffs Harbour Block. The differential flattening mechanism developed by Ramsay was for "'similar'' type folds whereas the folds from the Coffs Harbour Block are mainly of “narallel'' type (Korsch, 1973). Also, the mechanism refers to changes in plunge within one fold and does not account for progressive changes in the plunge of axes of mesoscopic folds over a distance of several kilometres. Consequently a novel explanation will be outlined in an attempt to offer an alternative solution to this problem. THEORY If one supposes that a folded surface (SF) was originally horizontal, then as the intensity of folding increases, the dips of the folded surface must become steeper, until finally the bedding could become vertical and isoclinal folds could be formed. It is convenient for further analysis to assume that the axial surface (or generated surface, SG) maintains a constant orientation during de- formation. Variable factors, upon which the following discussion rely, are: 20 R. J. KORSCH AShx SG) | Fig. 1. Diagrams illustrating use of nomenclature and symbols in determining relationships of the marker horizon to the axial surface. For full explanation see text. a. dip of SF, plus dip direction (only one limb of a fold being considered) ; b. angle between the strike of SF and the strike of SG; and c, Using the direction cosines: 1. Plane SF. Using the normal to the plane, trend = 01, plunge = $1, and direction cosines are: a1 = cos 0, Sin 0; bi = cos $1 cos 0; C= sin 1 2. Plane SG. Using the normal to the plane, trend = 02, plunge = $2, and direction cosines are: ao = cos do Sin 09 be = cOS oo.. cos 82 Co = Sin Oo Hence the simultaneous equations are: ayxX-+ biy TM CaZ = Q---- - (1) agox + boy + CoZ = QO ---- - (2) Xo ey (3) Using equations (1) and (2), = k(bic2 - Ciba) = ki(age ye aye>) = k(aib2 - a2bi) Substitute (4) into (3), k = 1/-(byc2 - '¢yb2)7%+2(aper ua neo ieme (aiby - agb,)* - - - - By substituting (5) into (4) the values of x, y and z are found. As x, y and_z-are, the’ dixection cosines for the resultant vector OA, the plunge (3) and trend (03) of OA are derived. N “< 2 By substitution of different values for the plunge and trend of the normals to SF and SG, it is possible to calculate a series of values showing the systematic variation of the plunge of the inter- section of the two planes. The results presented in the following discussion have been calculated by computer program SAVSB, information on which can be obtained from the author. An alternative very tedious method is to plot intersections of SF and SG on a stereographic projection to obtain the plunge and trend of the resulting lineation. Using the results from computer program SAVSB, it is possible to construct a series of graphs for different fixed dips of SG and changing dips of SF. If 10° intervals are used for SG then nine graphs representing the dips of SG from 10° to 90° could be presented, but for brevity only three examples are actually presented, using values for the dip of SG of! 902, 80° and 30° (Fig. 2): “Onjeach@eraph a set of curves shows the changes in plunge of a lineation produced by the intersection of an SF of variable dip and fixed strike with an SG of fixed orientation. The dip of SF on each graph ranges from 0° to 90° in the direction of the dip of SG, and then from 90° to 0° in the opposite direction to the dip of SG. This is represented *bys the figures 0. to, 180" on Fig? 2: From Fig. 2 it is evident that the plunge of FA is controlled by the dips of SF and SG if the two surfaces have different strikes. Only very CHANGES IN THE PLUNGE OF FOLDS pa PLUNGE OF FOLD AXES DIP OF SG- 30° DIP OF SF higg 2. » Change an plunge of an) FA produced by, the intersection of an SF of variable dip and fixed Strike with an SG of fixed orientation. The numbers on the curves (eg. 1, 10, 40 on the top graph) represent the fixed angle between the strike of SF and the strike of SG. Sidi diiterences am Strike produce effects: even a difference of only 1° causes remarkable changes imithe pilunge-of FA when the dip of SF is close to the-dip of SG. In the general case, if the marker horizon (SF) is horizontal, and a vertical axial surface (SG) develops then the resultant fold axis (FA) is horizontal. If SF is slowly deformed, the limbs o£ the developing fold become steeper. Keeping SF with a constant strike, it can be seen that the plunge of the FA depends on the dip of SF. Now if the strike of SF is constantly at an angle of 10° to the strike of SG then as deformation proceeds, the dip of SF becomes steeper and the plunge of FA changes from 0° when SF is horizontal to 90° when or as “Vertacal.» GHence it 1s possibile using the geometric arrangement described above, to have the plunge of FA changing progressively from 0° to 90° even though SG retains a constant orientation. The only constraint is that the strikes of SF and SG must not be parallel. Figure 3 shows diagramatically the migration of lineations caused by a progressive steepening of a form surface. In the model outlined above the orientation of SG remains constant. However, on the stereographic projections of Fig. 3 the cyclographic traces of SG are shown in different positions for each change in the angle between the Jap) DIP OF SG - VERTICAL R. J. KORSCH DIP OF SG- 80° DIP OF SG- 30° strikes of SF and SG. This is done to avoid over- printing of the movement paths of the lineations. Sander (1970) briefly outlined the geometry of the intersections of meridians and parallels, and then elaborated to show the changes in the position of B if the strike of the s-surface or the axial trend altered. “If we vary the dip opis Gwon 0" to 90°, the axtal plunge with constant axial trend changes at an tnereasing rate’ (Sander, 1970, p. 167). He was concerned with showing that errors in the measurement of s-surfaces caused large errors in the determination of the plunge of FA, particul- arly if only a small divergence occurred between the Strikes of SF and ‘SG. Apparently he did not realise that his analysis could also solve the problem of changes in plunge that are real (and not artefacts of errors in attitude measurements). The black dots in Fig. 63 of Sander (1970) show the same pattern as in Fig. 3 and his figure is a specific example of the model outlined above (SG vertical SF variable dip and strike). Ramsay (1967) showed that if the angle between the axial surface of second generation folds and a previously folded surface was small, then any variation in the folded surface could produce a large variation in the direction of the fold axis. Ramsay related this to the direction stability of second generation folds which developed in a previously deformed form-surface, and did not refer to the possibility that it could also solve the change in plunge in first generation folds. DISCUSSION The above theory presents a geometrical solution to the problem but does not take into account the mechanics of the situation. Because SF is being deformed into folds whose axial surface is SG, it is topologically inconsistent in a single folding act for the strike of SF to get far out of parallelism with the strike of SG. The theory will work, however, if there are large volume changes in the hinge regions of jthe steepening folds.) lees also difficult to envisage how the strike of a bed can change with respect to the strike of the cleavage during a single deformation. However a major assumption of the theory is that the strike of SF is kept at a constant angle to the strike of SG, and this angle need be only 1°. If the strikes are not parallel then as the dip of SF steepens, the plunge of the fold axis will change. The change in the plunge of the: fold axisvis more pronounced with the steeper the dip of the axial surface. For changes in dip of SF of only 1° or even fractions of a degree there are marked changes in the plunge of the fold axis, and thus infinitesimal strain increments do cause the plunge of the fold axis to progressively increase. Hence within one "domain" the above theory can explain the variations in observed fold axes. It is realised that outside the domain there are mechan- ical problems, the solution of which might lie on a different scale to the scale of the folds. Fig. 3. Structural movement paths of lineations for intersection of SF and SG. For full explanation see text. CHANGES IN THE PLUNGE OF FOLDS The geometrical solution outlined above can also be applied to other mechanical situations. For example, if the bedding layers were initially tilted (or had an initial palaeoslope), then bucklefolding (where the generated axial surface i SsimenelLy Oolugue to the strike line of the tilted sequence) could result in steepening fold axes as the deformation proceeds. There would be no need to maintain a constant strike of the folded surface during the tightening of the fold. In the general case this model involves rotation about an axis oblique to the folded surface and therefore there is no need to specify an initial tulcime, of the folded surfaces. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to Dr H.J. Harrington for many helpful discussions during the. course of this work. The diagrams were kindly draughted by K.C. Cross, and Mrs Rhonda Vivian kindly typed the manuscript in its final format. REFERENCES Borradaile, G.J., 1972. Variably oriented co- planar folds. Geol. Mag., 109, 89-98. Stress re- Geol. Rundschau. , Crosby, G.W. and Link, P.K., 1972. orientation during folding. 61, 413-429. Garnett, J.A. and Brown, R.L., 1973. Fabric variation in the Lubec-Belleisle Zone of southern New Brunswick. Can. J. Earth Sect., 10, 1591-1599. Department of Geology, University of New England, ARMIDALE. N.S.W. 2351. B23) Korsch, R.J., 1973. Structural analysis of the Palaeozoic sediments in the Woolgoolga District, North Coast, New South Wales. J. Proc. R. Soc. N.S.W., 106, 98-103. Lillie, A.R., 1961. Folds and faults in the New Zealand Alps and their tectonic significance. PrOGe HemisOCe Ws Da O90 suo) 1048s Ramsay, J.G., 1962. formation of "Similar' type folds. 70, 309-327. The geometry and mechanics of J. “Geol. ’, FOLDING AND FRACTURING OF 568 pp. Ramsay, J.G., 1967. ROCKS. McGraw-Hill, New York. Roy, A.Bs; 1972: ‘Significance of varirabile plunge and trend of small-scale upright folds in the type Aravalli rocks around Udaipur, Rajasthan (Western India). Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 83, 1553-1556. Sander, B., 1970. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF FABRICS OF GEOLOGICAL BODIES. Pergamon Press, Oxford. 641 pp. (Translation by Phillips, F.C. and Windsor, G. of EINFUHRUNG IN DIE GEFUGEKUNDE DER GEOLOGISCHEN KORPER, Springer- Verlag, Vienna, 1948 and 1950). Waterhouse, J.B., 1972. Folds of the Mount Cook National Park, New Zealand, and their origin under a wrench regime acting in a subduction zone. od. Roy. Soe. N.Z., 2, 413-430. (Manuscript first received 30.7.78) (Manuscript received in final form 7.12.78) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 112 pp. 25-30, 1979 The Use of Amplitude and Wavelength to Compare Successive Folded Surfaces R. J. KORSCH ABSTRACT. Theoretical models have been developed to explain some systematic changes in the morphology of mesoscopic folds in a field area in northern New South Wales. Equations for det- ermining the wavelength, amplitude and percent shortening in both symmetrical and periodic asymmetrical folds have been derived using the parameters of interlimb angle, chord length and halflength of a fold. Theoretical fold profiles to simulate systematic changes in interlimb angles and chord ratios are useful as a preliminary check in the field to delineate profitable areas for more detailed analysis. Graphs comparing interlimb angles with the amplitude and wavelength ratios of individual form surfaces allow comparisons of the fold shapes produced by different deformational episodes or fold shapes found at different field locations. Significant differences in fold shapes, as determined on the graphs, for folds from two spatially related stratigraphic units from northern New South Wales possibly suggest that the folds developed during two separate periods of deformation. INTRODUCTION chord of the arc; It 1S possible to describe the dimensions of (2) a = length of straight portion of limb periodic folds by three components: amplitude (A), produced to the point of intersection with wavelength (A) and interlimb angle (0), (Fleuty, the straight portion of the other limb; 1964). The wavelength (Fig. 1) is the length of a and periodic unit, measured from one point to the corresponding point on the next fold, and the amplitude is half the perpendicular distance between the two enveloping surfaces. The inter- limb angle is "'the minimum angle between the limbs, as measured in the profile plane" (Fleuty, #964, p. 469): This parameter does not define the Bbsolute scale of the fold but can describe the degree of acuteness of the fold. Matthews (1958) provided a method whereby asymmetrical folds can be described by the short and long limb lengths and axial plane separations for both the short and long limbs. Nevertheless, the terms outlined above are preferred because of their relative simplicity. It is assumed that for symmetrical folds the two limbs are of equal length and the axial surface is normal to the enveloping surface and that for asymmetrical folds the limbs are of unequal lengths and the axial surface is not normal to the enveloping surface. Assumptions are that for buckle folding the length of the neutral surface (L) within a marker horizon has remained constant throughout the deformation (Ramsay, 1967) and that A, and 6 have K changed systematically. For slip folding it is assumed that remains constant and L, A and 86 change systematically. In the general case, it is possible to derive equations for the calculation of A, A and percent- age shortening (V, defined as original length minus final wavelength, expressed as a percentage @i the original length). Furtak §& Richter (1967) have provided equations for determining V for angular, circular and rounded folds using the following parameters: Fig. 1. Dimensions and components of symmetrical (1) a = angle between tangent to limb and folds (A) and asymmetrical folds (B and C). 26 R. J. KORSCH (3) n = length of straight portion of the limb. The method presented here differs from that of Furtak §& Richter in the choice of the three variables. For symmetrical folds the following variables are used: (1) 6 = interlimb angle; (2) ec = chord length, that is, length of chord subtending the arc in the fold; and (3) £ = halflength of fold, that is, twice the length of the limb of a fold from thespoint of anfléctionstos the chord, plus’ the length of anc: c and f can be measured in the profile plane in the field using a flexible tape measure, or in the laboratory from a specimen or photograph using a flexible ruler. It is considered that the parameters described here are easier to measure in the field or derive from photographs or sections measured in the profile plane than are those of Furtak § Richter. The subsequent calculations are more tedious. It is possible to computerise the data, and computer program SHORTNIN, available from the author, provides values of A and V for differing values of 8 and C in symmetrical fold models. C is defined as the ratio of the chord length to the half fold length, that+is, 0-3 Wavelength Ratio (4 J 0-1 Amplitude Ratio 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Interlimb Angle (6°) Fig. 2. Values of A/L and A/L versus 0 for differing values of C. Heavy line in i/L versus 6 graph is curve for 4 = C. 8 is position of pure circulaf are parallel folds. AMPLITUDE AND WAVELENGTH IN FOLDED SURFACES zy fee <= C- —,- This is the general case for rounded symmetrical (paraboloidal) folds. A special case occurs when 0 = 0 and the falds are semi-circular (de Sitter, 1958). For this special case 4 = 2c = 0.64, A = 0.16 and V = 36%, and the folds are in class 1B (parallel folds) of Ramsay (O67). fo. @ = 1. For -this case A = L and 6 = 180°. In other words, the folded surface remains plane and has not been buckled, or deformed in any way. Results calculated by computer program SHORTNIN have been graphed for differing values of mead 9 (Fig. 2). For circular-arc parallel folds be- 0 and V = 36%. This plots as a point on the graphs. It is not possible to delineate other classes of folds of the Ramsay classification on the graphs because the graphs are produced for folded surfaces and not for a single layer or groups of layers. An alternative to the graphs of Fig. 2, utilizing 2A/A versus V has been used by Currie et al. (1962). The formula for X, A and V can be applied not only to buckle and flattened folds but also to folds produced by the slip mechanism and other periodic symmetrical folds, providing the interlimb angle, chord length and half fold length are known. For similar folds 4, A and 9 remain constant in a stack. However for paraboloidal parallel folds A and 6 vary up and down the stack as A remains con- stant. ASYMMETRICAL FOLDS For periodic asymmetrical folds, using Figs. 1B and 1C, the sine rule, cosine rule and simple trigonometry, 1 - cosé a 2 2 Sa h=2 Stee lc, tan (2) .(s +2) + Y eae e7(1 - cos8) 2tan® (%) = =25.4.1cOso € 2sin9O EXP1 = DAK = arcsin 4/1 + 2tan (2) ---(1) : 5 8 Sam @lsO.- = (—) - EXP1) A EXP2 = = ae eee sin (EXP1) 2cos (5) -sin(5) Cc Using equations (1) and (2): Cc A = sin(EXPl1). |s + - EXP2 2tan (5) Because of the complex nature of these for- mulae for periodic asymmetric folds, the quickest method of deriving results is to computerise the formulae and insert data for various folds. Because of space limitations a discussion on the shapes of asymmetrical folded surfaces is not included, but the technique to be followed is the same as presented here for symmetrical folded surfaces. When s = 1 the limbs are of equal length and the fold is symmetrical. A chord ratio, defined as: C=c/ s+ + Tc. (180° - 8) /360c0s (5) ; can be used to define three types of folds. (1) C = 0, the folds are asymmetrical angular folds. (2) 30) Ge this. 1s “the cenceralrcase and the folds are rounded asymmetrical folds. (3) C = 1, here C = total length of fold and is a straight line, 6 = 180° and no folding has occurred. SHAPE OF FOLDS The shape of a fold is taken as the shape of the folded layer or layers in the profile plane. Fleuty (1964) considers that fold shapes can be described by the nature of the hinge zone, form of the limbs, and relationship of the two adjoining fold surfaces. Using the values of i, A, C and 9 calculated by computer program SHORTNIN, a series of symmetrical folds of varied shapes in the profile planeshas beenvconstructed here (rig. 3), On this diagram two trends in fold shape variation can be delineated: (1) For a constant § there is a spectrum of folds varying from angular towards rounded for differing values of C between 0 and 1. Two special cases occur when C = 0 (angular folds) and C = 1 (straight line) and the value of C determines the degree of roundness of a fold. (2) For a constant C there is a spectrum from open to isoclinal folds with differing values of 0 between 0° and 180°. Two special cases occur when @ = 180° (Straight line) and 8 = 0° (isoclinal folds). The interlimb angle determines the degree of acuteness of a fold. INTERLIMB ANGLE 160 140 120 100 40 20 O ee Oi ee aN Oe INN VI ee a ON NON 0-8 —<——_—$ ————— ran ON 0 A Fig. 3. Shapes of symmetrical folds for changing values of C and 9, using A and A values calculated by computer program SHORTNIN. 28 R. J. KORSCH For certain values of 6 and C a relationship exists where the chord ratio is greater than the wavelength (Fig. 3). This unusual field where G.> A might bevaccounted=for by ‘one Gof “the following explanations: (1) The situation is not real, the folds cannot form, and hence the field is a forbidden one. (2) Fracturing, shearing or thrusting may occur to compensate for the greater length of the chord. Foresimilaretoddss (espe Dennis eo.) oa 2)) eas Q approaches zero there is considerable atten- uation of the limbs and consequently shearing frequently develops: (3) The folds might occur only in interference patterns resulting from superposed deformations, or resulting from cross folding during a single period of folding. Figure 3 1s very useful as a chart in the field for making direct visual comparisons with mesoscopic folds in order to determine an approx- imation of the interlimb angle and ratio of chord length to half fold length. A check of the approximations obtained will then lead to a decision as to whether a full analysis of the shapes might be fruitful. COMPARISON OF SUCCESSIVE FOLDED SURFACES The *eraphs of -Fig. ~2 can be used topanducate the shape of successive folded surfaces in a foldedustack. In’ theory, for pure crreular—arc parallel folds the inteérlimb: angle 1s zero and the surfaces plot as a point. Similar folds have surfaces which maintain essentially the same shape Fig. 4. Theoretical model of an idealised paraboloidal parallel folded stack. 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 Wavelength Ratio (i/L) 0.2 180 120 80 KO 0 Interlimb Angle (8) Fig. 5. Migration path of surfaces 1 to 6 of the folded stack illustrated in Fig. 4. through the stack and consequently all surfaces will be represented by only one position on the graphs. Of more interest here are surfaces in an idealised paraboloidal parallel folded stack (Fig. 4). These surfaces have a constant wavelength and hence A varies depending on the values of C and 0. However while A remains constant the ratio A/L changes for each folded surface up and down the stack, and hence each surface will occupy a different position on the graphs. A progressive change in the position of surfaces 1 to 6 of Fig. 4 occurs on the graph of A\/L versus 8 (Fig. 5). Hence the graphs are a use- ful tool in comparing successive folded surfaces in a stack and progressive variation in fold shape. APPLICATION TO A SPECIFIC FIELD PROBLEM In the Coffs Harbour Block in northern New South Wales, two stratigraphic units consist of very different lithologies and have both suffered the effects of two periods of deformation. The Redbank River Beds (Korsch, 1971) consist of cherts, jaspers and a basic lava in contrast to the Coramba Beds (Korsch, 1978), which are a thick sequence of turbidites consisting predominantly of greywackes with interbedded mudstones, siltstones and minor siliceous units. Macroscopic structural analysis by Korsch (1973) suggests that the deformations in the Redbank River Beds cannot be related to the deformations in the Coramba Beds. Several representative mesoscopic symmetrical folds from both stratigraphic units were selected for geometric analysis. In the Redbank River Beds the second period of deformation produced only gentle warps which occurred on the limbs of the tight folds, and in the Coramba Beds the second period of deformation produced mainly asymmetrical monoclinal flexuring and kink bands. Hence only folds produced by the first deformations were examined. For eight folded surfaces from three AMPLITUDE AND WAVELENGTH IN FOLDED SURFACES 1-0 @) o [—) on a So = 0-3 Wavelength Ratio 0-2 (t) (—) = on Amplitude Ratio 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Interlimb Angle (6°) Fig. 6. A/L and A/L versus 9 curves showing positions of eight folded surfaces from three fold stacks in the Redbank River Beds. separate fold stacks in the Redbank River Beds the ratios of wavelength and amplitude to total fold length (A/L and A/L, Fig. 6) remain relatively constant even though there are variations in real dimensions. The amplitudes range from 0.2 m to 25 mand the wavelengths from 0.33 m\to 2.15 m. Interlimb angles are consistent and the low values of C indicate the folds tend towards angularity in the hinges. Hence although the folds vary in size they maintain a constant shape relative to each other. In the Coramba Beds Korsch (1973) showed that a distinct and progressive tightening of the 0:9 (®, 0-6 0:5 Wavelength Ratio 0-2 (t) .—] = wo Amplitude Ratio 0:05 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Interlimb Angle (6°) Fig. 7. A/L and A/L versus 9 curves showing positions of seven folded surfaces from three’ fold stacks in the Coffs Harbour Beds. mesoscopic folds occurs, and that the interlimb angles vary from those of open folds in the north to those of tight folds in the south. This suggests an increase in the intensity of deform- ation which produced the folds towards the south away from the location of the Redbank River Beds. Most of the folds are symmetrical although a few asymmetrical folds were observed. Three fold stacks with interlimb angles rang- ing from gentle (146°) to tight (20°) were selected as representative examples of symmetrical mesoscopic folds produced by the first deformation in the Coramba Beds. The heavy lines joining 30 R. J. KORSCH numbers on Fig. 7 link surfaces which occur in a single stack. Values for C indicate that the folds are rounded paraboloidal folds. The dis- persion of the A/L and A/L values when plotted against 0 on Fig. 7 1s such that these folds occupy an extremely large field on the graphs, in contrast with the very limited field for the folds in the Redbank River Beds. Consequently these results support the conclusions of Korsch (1973) that the first deformation of the Redbank River Beds cannot be correlated with the first deform- ation of the Coramba Beds. In conclusion, the graphs and formulae presented here have practical applications in comparing successive folded sur- faces within fold stacks, and as indicators of variability of shape. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank Dr H.J. Harrington for his encouragement and advice throughout the duration of this work. The diagrams were prepared by M.R. Bone and K.C. Cross, and the final version of the manuscript was kindly typed by Mrs Rhonda Vivian. REFERENCES Currie, J.B., Patnode, H.W. and Trump, R.P., 1962. Development of folds in sedimentary strata. Bulls geol. Soc... Amy, 9755 650-074. Dennis, J.G., 1967. International tectonic dictionary, English terminology. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geols Mem. £87 196.pp' Department of Geology, University of New England, ARMIDALE. N.S.W. 2351. de Sitter, L.U., 1958. Boudins and parasitic folds in relation to cleavage and folding. Geologie Mignb.., 20, 277-286. Fleuty, M.J., 1964. The description of folds: Proc. geol. Assoc. , 7o, 461-492. Furtak, H. & Richter, D., 1967. Relations between fold form and tectonic shortening in flexure folds. Geol. Mitt., 7, 109-128. Korsch, R.J., 1971. Palaeozoic sedimentology and igneous geology of the Woolgoolga district, North Coast, New South Wales. J. Proc. R. Soc. NaS, 104. 65=75s Korsch, R.J., 1973. Structural analysis of the Palaeozoic sediments in the Woolgoolga district, North Coast, New South Wales. Jd. Proce. RR: Soc. N.S W.s 106, 798—l0Se Korsch, R.J., 1978. Stratigraphic and igneous units in the Rockvale - Coffs Harbour region, Northern New South Wales. J. Proce. R. Soe. NaS Wee (Cin. press); Matthews, D.H., 1958. Dimensions of asymmetrical folds. Geol. Mag. ; 95, ‘Si leSi3e Ramsay, J.G., 1967. FOLDING AND FRACTURING OF ROCKS. McGraw-Hill, New York, 568 pp. (Manuscript first received 30.7.78) (Manuscript received in final form Ve U5 33) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 112 pp. 31-35, 1979 Palaeomagnetic Results from some Sydney Basin Igneous Rock Deposits W. A. ROBERTSON ABSTRACT. The remanent magnetism of nine igneous deposits from the Sydney Basin has been measured and its stability investigated using alternating field and thermal demagnetisation techniques. Variations in the directions of magnetisation demonstrate that the deposits were formed during a number of discrete igneous episodes beginning as early as the Jurassic. INTRODUCT ION PALAEOMAGNETIC PROCEDURES Many small igneous bodies occur in the Sydney Samples were collected to cover as wide an area, Basin. They form the main reserve of road metal in and hence in most cases as long a time of cooling, the Sydney area, and some of the larger deposits as possible, over the outcrop of each occurrence. contain working quarries, a major source of crushed- Core samples were drilled with a 25 mm diameter rock also used in concrete manufacture. The re- rock drill, and oriented with a core-orienter and serves at the operating quarries are limited and it sun-compass using standard techniques (e.g. see is important to investigate techniques which bear Collinson et al., 1967). The cores were sliced into on the temporal and spatial relationships of the specimens (22 m long) that were measured on a known deposits in order to provide guidelines for Digico Complete Results Rock Magnetometer. The co- future exploration. ercive force spectrum and the related properties of stability of magnetisation were investigated with a This paper presents the results of an invest- Schonstedt alternating field demagnetizer (GSD-1). igation into the rock magnetism of some of the deposits, with a view to establishing a chrono- Nine deposits were sampled, of which five were logical classification. A sample of nine intrusives volcanic necks, two (Collaroy and Barrenjoey) were has been studied. dykes, and two (Erskine Park and Kulnura) were sills (see Table 1). A number of specimens, one from each GEOLOGICAL SETTING separately oriented drill-core sample (ranging in number from three to sixteen cores from each deposit) The mainly flat-lying sandstones and shales of were stepwise demagnetised as listed in Table 1. the Sydney Basin are cut by many small igneous Specimens from the remaining lengths of core were bodies (Crawford, 1973). These take the form of then treated in the field in which the pilot group diatreme-like volcanic necks, dykes and sills. The showed minimum dispersion, shown asterisked, in volcanic necks (Hamilton, 1970) range in size from Table 1 as maximum precision, using Fisher's (1953) a few hectares to more than 16 ha, and in composit- best estimate of precision (k). ion from volcanic breccia to massive basalt. The dykes, which are commonly basaltic in composition The blocking temperature temperature spectrum (Crawford, 1973) are less than 2 metres wide, and was investigated by treating selected specimens at are not easily seen except on coastal sections. incremental temperatures up to 700°C, in the TABLE 1 PRECISION OF PILOT GROUPS AFTER CLEANING IN ALTERNATING FIELDS Deposit N NRM 5 mT 10 mT 15 mT 20 mT 30 mT 40 mT 50 mT 60 mT St Mary's 16 68.9 - - - 106* - - - - Hornsby 6 Zils 29:26 62.6 STE 88) LPT. 148 266* LOT Syl Collaroy 7 173.6 43.9 124 159% MES) 1520 TSO) 2.0 - Erskine Park 6 - Sey. 61.8 TOF 74.2 70.7 74.0 63.58 DHa0) Kulnura 4 24.0 196 280 DNA 242 202 OHNE 289 - Peat's Ridge 1 8204) 227. Sot 199 - 182 270 - eyih Mogo Hill 6 b0) - 47.0* - O°. 8.8 - - - Barrenjoey a - 18.5 118 200* US 679 LOR2 - - Minchinbury Brie 215 142 488 = 258 2400* 619 - - N is the number of specimens used. The headings of the columns are the peak alternating fields used in de- Magnetising the specimens. The numbers in the columns represent Fisher's (1953) best estimate (k) of the precision of the group about the mean value. 32 W. A. ROBERTSON TABLE 2 MEAN DIRECTIONS AND PRECISIONS AFTER OPTIMUM CLEANING Alternating Field S.Pole Position Thermal Temp. Lat. Long. Ce) N D I k 095 Sil 144 500 5 028 -84 147 6.3 66 92 400 S054: -60 169 5) 53 180 600 4 255 -82 28 17.6 23 15a 500 4 188 -86 78 10.4 63 91 300 4 032 -59 239 5.9 66 98 300 4 GS EOS) 21 20 S5i/ 138 200 3 305 +79 10 40.1 53 182 600 3 148 +59 Sl 6029 56 179 500 3 290 -76 146 10.2 Schonstedt (TSD-1) batch oven. The same minimum dispersion technique was used to obtain the optimum cleaning temperature. RESULTS The precision of directions about the mean for pilot groups for each formation (Fisher (1953) k), are given in Table 1 for peak alternating fields up to 60 mT. The fields yielding the maximum precision ranged from 10 mT for Peat's Ridge and Mogo Hill up to 40 mT for Hornsby and Kulnura. The maximum value, asterisked in the table, indicates the appropriate demagnetising field for the remaining material. The resultant mean directions, precision (k) and cone of the half-angle of confidence (Fisher's ag5) are shown in Table 2. The magnetic characteristics of the deposits varied greatly. The initial directions from Mogo Hill were random, whereas from St Mary's, Peat's Ridge and Minchinbury they were tightly grouped. Alternating field cleaning improved the precision of directions of all formations. Specimen directions from all the igneous bodies studied grouped with low scatter after cleaning in peak alternating fields of either 10 or 15 mT. It seems likely-that much of the initial scatter was caused by soft, viscous com- ponents. The alternating magnetic field demagnetisation Deposit Hook P jetoileh. MEN= | 0 I ko? Soe (mT) St Mary's 20 2a 014 -81 960 Sie5 Hornsby 40 Ome ysO29 -62 191 4.8 Collaroy 15 i 322 -75 159 4.8 Erskine Park 15 12 184 -84 81 4.8 Kulnura 40 8 032 -62 552 ZES Peat's Ridge 10 14 208 +63 333 Darel Mogo Hill 10 Ww 249 +84 41 6.8 Barrenjoey 15 q 142 +74 200 4.2 Minchinbury 30 8 320 -75 55 thes N = number of specimens D = declination I = inclination k = precision parameter (Fisher, 1953) dg5 = half-angle of cone of confidence at the 95% probability level 12 oF @ (9) led Hornsby Breccia A (8) 1420 Collaroy Dyke vy Vv (3) 804 Collaroy Baked Sst yo a See eunaeere 0 0-8 A =, > “ SS = 02 ——— erento 2 10 0 30 40 50 60 X (4) 14300 Kulnura Basalt 2 1-4 (b) O (6) 1210 Peat's Ridge Basalt o A (8) 1700 Barrenjoey Dyke ” Vv Barrenjoey Baked Sst - cs fa] Mogo Hill Basalt Sel atl 0:8 =k 6 0-4 0-2 0 10 20 30 40 0 60 Peak Alternating Field (mT) Figure 1. Normalised alternating magnetic field de- Magnetisation curves for deposits studied. (a) curves for Hornsby, Erskine Park and Minchinbury breccias, Collaroy dyke and Collaroy baked sediment (b) curves for Kulnura, Peat's Ridge and Mogo Hill basalts, Barrenjoey dyke and Barrenjoey baked sediment. Figures in brackets de- note number of specimens used in de- riving the curves. Unbracketed figures denote mean NRM intensities for same specimens in mA m-! (gauss x 10-°) curves for each formation, shown in Fig. 1, reveal a wide range of coercivity spectra. The Kulnura and Mogo Hill basalts contain large low coercivity com- ponents (Fig. lb), but they also have high initial intensities and therefore large components remaining in the high coercivity range. The baked sediments at Barrenjoey (Fig. 1b) and Collaroy (Fig. la) have very high coervicity components that are thought to be due to the presence of hematite. The increase in intensity for Peat's Ridge after cleaning in an alternating field of 5 mT is thought to be due to the preferential removal of a viscous component in the opposite sense to the reversely magnetised rock. The Hornsby, Erskine Park and Minchinbury breccia PALAEOMAGNETIC RESULTS PALAEOMAGNETIC RESULTS 33 1-0 sty m= (5) 491 St. Marys Breccia sei @ (3) 12:8 Hornsby Breccia ————¢ A (2) 2150 Collaroy Dyke 0-9 x Vv (2) 1040 = Collaroy Baked Sediment ® (4) 5700 Erskine Park Breccia 0. (0) Minchinbury Breccia a eS Intensity (4) 14700 Kulnura Basalt O (4) 1390 Peat's Ridge Basalt QO (3) 1640 ~— Barrenjoey Dyke oO (3) 397 Mogo Hill Basalt Normalised 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Temperature ( °C) Figure 2. Normalised thermal demagnetisation curves for deposits studied (a) St Mary's, Hornsby, Erskine Park and Minchinbury breccias, Collaroy dyke and Collaroy baked sediment. (b) Kulnura, Peat's Ridge and Mogo Hill basalts and Barren- joey dyke. Figures in brackets denote number of specimens from which curves were derived. Unbracketed figures denote mean NRM for same specimens in mA m7! pipes have a wide range of coercivity spectra (Fig. la) which may be related to their explosive mode of formation. Three to five specimens from each deposit were thermally demagnetised in steps (Fig. 2) up to 700°C for Barrenjoey, Mogo Hill and Collaroy baked sediment are thought to be due to chemical alter- ation during the heating. The increase of intens- ity for Peat's Ridge and Mogo Hill after cleaning to 100° and 200°C is probably due to the removal of low blocking-temperature components acquired in the present field direction; this opposes the ambient field direction at the time of formation. The large blocking-temperature components in the range 400° to 550°C for St Mary's, Minchinbury and Erskine Park indicate that these breccias con- solidated in temperatures in excess of 400°C, if we assume that the remanent magnetisation is of thermo- remanent origin and acquired when the magnetic crystals cooled through these blocking temperatures. On the other hand, Hamilton et al (1970) suggest that, on the evidence of coal reflectance figures from fragments found in these breccias, the temper- ature of formation must have been less than 100°C. Two possible solutions to this inconsistency may be considered. Firstly, the temperature within the breccias may have varied from less than 100° to more than 400°C at the time of consolidation. Secondly, chemical alterations in the low temperature ranges may have caused the formation of magnetic minerals, most probably iron oxides that acquired a chemical remanence which itself had higher blocking temperatures. DISCUSSION The mean directions for the nine deposits are shown in Fig. 3. All are normally magnetised except Mogo Hill, Barrenjoey and Peat's Ridge, which are reversely magnetised. It is not possible to tell how much of secular variation has been averaged by the time spread of the samples, as the rate at which the acquisition of the magnetisation spread through the deposits is not known. Hence an unknown, but probably small, secular variation error is likely to be present in all the results. Bearing this in mind, Figure 3. Mean directions of magnetisation for each deposit, using results from the alternat- ing magnetic field that produced the high- est precision, plotted on a Schmidt equal area net. Open (solid) circles are north- seeking directions on the upper (lower) hemisphere of the net. Areas outlined in broken lines represent the cones of con- fidence (Fisher, 1953). BJ = Barrenjoey dyke’, GO ="Collaroy dyke, EP = Erskine Park sill, HO = Hornsby volcanic neck, KU = Kulnura sill, MH = Mogo Hill volcanic neck, MI = Minchinbury volcanic neck, PR = Peat's Ridge volcanic neck, SM = St Mary's volcanic neck 34 W. A. ROBERTSON Figure 4. Equal area projection of the southern hemisphere of the earth, showing pole positions calculated from the directions shown in Fig. 3. Also shown are the pole positions for Gibraltar, GIB, Gingenbullen, GIN, and Prospect, PRO (Boesen et al., 1961); Luddenham, LUD, and Peat's Ridge, PREAM (Manwaring, 1963); and the mean Jurassic role (MJP) of Schmidt (1976). MJP now supercedes GIB, GIN and PRO. the mean directions fall into two distinct groups (Fig. 4). Hornsby, Kulnura and Peat's Ridge form one group, and contain a Tertiary field direction. The fact that the Peat's Ridge direction is re- versed indicates that the deposit cannot be exactly contemporaneous with Kulnura and Hornsby but, on the present palaeomagnetic evidence, it is not possible to say which is the older. The other group consists of Collaroy, Minchinbury and Barren- joey, consistent with a Jurassic age. Pole posit- ions for the deposits at Mogo Hill, Erskine Park and St Mary's are scattered. The intrusions into the Sydney Basin came in several pulses, the first of which was not long after the deposition of the basin. The radiogenic dating of one or more of these palaeomagnetically 'older' intrusions would be of great interest. Pole positions for other intrusions into the Sydney Basin, of which the directions had been previously determined, (Boesen et al., 1961; Manwaring, 1963) are also shown in Fig. 4. PALAEOMAGNETIC RESULTS 35 Gilbraltar, Prospect and Gingenbullen have been radiogenically dated (Evernden and Richards, 1962) and appear to have been intruded during the Jurassic. Recent work by Schmidt (1976) demon- strates that the pole positions from this earlier palaeomagnetic work result from directions in which secondary components have not been entirely elimi- nated, and his mean Jurassic pole position (MJP), from rocks subjected to more severe laboratory treatment, is also shown in Fig. 4. The results of this preliminary study show that there are significant differences in remanent magnetisation directions between different in- trusions into the Sydney Basin. They are consist- ent with a hypothesis that the intrusions into the Sydney Basin came in several pulses (Manwaring, 1963) that can be differentiated, in some cases, by differences in their magnetisation directions and the pole positions calculated from them. This technique may -1l provide a simple method of di- viding such intrusions into broad age groups. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank Harry Brown and David Stait for a great deal of help, both in collecting the samples, and processing them in the laboratory; I also thank Lloyd Hamilton and Jon Huntington for help -ineselecting sates and collecting samples. 1 am grateful to the quarry managers who, without exception, gave me great cooperation and consider- ation. Finally, I thank Brian Embleton for reading the manuscript and making valuable suggestions for its improvement. CSIRO Division of Mineral Physics, NORTH RYDE, N.S.W. 21035 REFERENCES Boesen, R., Irving, E. and Robertson, W.A., 1961. The palaeomagnetism of some igneous rock bodies in New South Wales. J. & Proc. R. Soc. N.S.W., 945 227-252: Collinson, D.W., Creer, K.M. and Runcorn, S.K.(Eds.), 1967. METHODS IN PALAEOMAGNETISM, Elsevier, Amsterdam. 609 pp. Grawtord, BeAj. 1975.2 loneous: rock deposits, central Sydney Basin. Geol. Surv. Rept. GS1973/441, Geological Survey of New South Wales, Department of Mines, 37 pp. Evernden, J.F. and Richards, J.R., 1962. Potassium- argon ages in eastern Australia. J. Geol. Soe. AUST os Late PUsner. Rata, L958 Wasperst on Oneasphere= , roc. Roysncoc. Lond.AA), 2175 295-505. The volcanic rocks of Sydney; Bull. Volecanoligtque, Hamilton, L.H., 1970. a preliminary account. o2 5, 1358-1359. Hamilton, L.H., Helby, R. and Taylor, G.H., 1970. The occurrence and significance of Triassic coal in the volcanic rocks near Sydney. J. & Proc. BR: Soc. NeS.W., 102, lo9=17 1. Manwaring, E.A., 1963. igneous rocks of the Sydney Basin, N.S.W. Proe. Re Soc. NeaoeW., 96, W41=iSile: The palaeomagnetism of some J. & Schmidt, P.W., 1976. The non-uniqueness of the Australian Mesozoic palaeomagnetic pole position. Geophys. J.R. Astron. Soc., 47, 285-300. (Manuscript received 7.2.79) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 112 pp. 37-42, 1979 Analysis of the Angular Discordance across the Lambian Unconformity in the Kowmung River — Murruin Creek Area, Eastern N.S.W. CHRISTOPHER McA. POWELL AND CHRISTOPHER L. FERGUSSON ABSTRACT. Nineteen measurements of the angular discordance between the Late Silurian to Early Devonian volcaniclastic rocks and the Late Devonian Lambie Group in the Kowmung River - Murruin Creek area range from 8° to 49° with a mean of 24°. This mid-Devonian angular discordance is intermediate between the low-angle discordance found further north in the northeastern Lachlan Fold Belt and the high-angle discordance found near Taralga. These data, considered with data from other areas, suggest that the mid-Devonian angular discordance across the Lambian Uncon- formity increases southward, and are consistent with the postulate that the northeastern Lachlan Fold Belt is at the perimeter of the area of influence of mid - Devonian deformation that is more intense in the southeastern part of the Lachlan Fold Belt. INTRODUCTION Recent work on the nature of the angular dis- cordance across the Lambian Unconformity in the northeastern Lachlan Fold Belt (Powell and Edgecombe, 1978) shows that where the Lambie Group overlies Early Devonian rocks, the angle of dis- cordance is low. Only 3 of 130 measurements of the discordance exceed 30°, and 2 of the occurrences were inthe Kowmung River area at the southern edge of the area mapped. Subsequently, Powell and Fergusson (1979) have shown that in the Taralga area, 50 km further south, the mid-Devonian angular discordance increases to high values that locally exceed 90°. In this paper we analyze angular dis- cordances of intermediate values in the Kowmung River - Murruin Creek area, which lies between the Taralga area and the northeastern Lachlan Fold Belt. GEOLOGICAL SETTING The Early Devonian Lambie Group inthe Kowmung River - Murruin Creek area overlies, with erosional unconformity, three major stratigraphic successions fuer leyeeScheibner, 1973; Powell et al., 1977): (1) Late Ordovician to Early Silurian quartz sand- stone, siltstone and slate (Triangle Group), (2) Late Silurian silicious mudstone and siltstone with minor sandstone and discontinuous’ limestone and breccia units (Taralga Group), and (3) Early Devonian feldspathic to volcanolithic siltstone, sandstone, boulder conglomerate and lenticle tuff (Kowmung Volcaniclastics, new name - defined in Appendix). The Triangle Group is multiply deformed, and is separated from the Taralga Group by a highangle unconformity. Recent mapping shows that the Taralga Group and Kowmung Volcaniclastics ,previous- ly shown as being separated by a _ low - angle unconformity (Scheibner, 1973; Powell et al., 1977, Fig. 4), are actually a conformable succession. The mean grain size and thickness of individual beds increases progressively up-sequence, and the sub- division of the Kowmung Volcaniclastics from the underlying Taralga Group is taken at the base of a thick unit of feldspathic sandstone that can be mapped throughout the area (Fig. 1; see Appendix). Several mappable units occur withinthe Kowmung Volcaniclastics, and by tracing them we have been able ‘to outline folds (that existed prior to depo- Sition of the Lambie Group (Figs. 1 and 2). Late Silurian fossils have been recovered from the Taralga Group (Scheibner, 1973), and earliest Devonian conodonts from the basal unit of the Kowmung Volcaniclastics (Quilty, 1977, written communication). The basal part of the Lambie Group contains fossil brachiopods and plant stems, and by correlation with nearby areas, is Late Devonian, probably Frasnian (Roberts et al., 1972; Pickett, IEMA E The deformation that produced the angular discordance between the Lambie Group and _ the Kowmung Volcaniclastics is thus mid-Devonian. STRUCTURE The regional structure 1s part” of the meri-— dional latest Devonian to Early Carboniferous folding that affected the eastern Lachlan Fold Belt (Powell et al., 1977). In the Kowmung River - Murruin Creek area, these regional folds trend north to northeasterly, and have awestward- dipping axial-surface cleavage in the fine - grained rocks. Stereograms of bedding show that, in the map area (Fig. 3), the fold axis in the Lambie Group varies from a shallow south-southwesterly plunge (Domain IV} to a gentle north-northeasterly plunge (Domain ye The fold axes in the Kowmung Volcaniclastics (Domains II and III) plunge consistently north - northeast. Just northeast of the map area, the axis of the Kowmung Anticline in the Lambie Group (Fig. 1, inset) plunges 33° towards 026° (Powell and Edgecombe, 1978, Fig. 8). The average orientation of axial - surface cleavage in Domain III (50° towards 300°) agrees with previous measurements inthe Taralga Group and Kowmung Volcaniclastics along Murruin Creek, and has approximately the same orientation as the axial -surface cleavage (56° towards 290°) in the ad- jacent Cookbundoon Synclinorium (Powell et al., 19775. Fro: 5). CHRISTOPHER McA. POWELL AND CHRISTOPHER. L. FERGUSSON 38 UDUN|IS Jaddn UDIUOAAQ B|PPIW c 0} J8M07 UDIUOAAG addy dNOY9 VO IWYVL SOILSV 19 -INVOIOA ONNWMO- dNOd9 JIGWV | Sjlun 019981q PUD aUojSawl| ajDia snonuljUuodSIP PUD -Wo|bu0d<> ‘QuojspuDS JOUIW Japjnog YIM BUOIS|IS IIDIIIS JoDjUu0D ajqOw40ju0) ——__ {sda ul ajqoddow oe Jlun paulosb - aul4 a}D1aWwojhu09 awWwos UIIM QUOIS}|IS PUD aUO;SPUDS IYy;Odspja} paposs DIDDGIG DIUDIJOA IIIS ajO1aWO|bu0d Japjnog pajloddns - \sb|9 jluQ yn} - ajoyuaq AjiwsojuoduQ) udIqwo7) ajDJaWO}Hu0d |jOSOq UJIM Sauo|spuds Zj10NG FJONANOAS IIHdVYOILVYLS auo|s “PNA abunjd yim ! ouilonts UIOUY dosdjno ul paulwiajap pee Hulbuno, bulppeg = pausnjaag eee iybuidy Saasbap ul ‘Ajlwsojuodu UDIqWD 7 $S019D a9UDpIONSIP 1OjnbuYy SadJaWO|ly os a naa 4 ARSE ia é@ | SYIOY J9A0D (WYdd) Build] - 404 SPIO} 1UD IO) (GYVD) UO!DWsOJap - |SOq (?9 aiqwo ) wntuouljauks A30 N/ YoopuNngyo05 4 uInLuNy Geological map of the Lambian Unconformity and subjacent Late Silurian to Early Devonian rocks. 1. Fig. THE LAMBIAN UNCONFORMITY 39 Metres No vertical exaggeration Legend as in Fig. |. Fig. 2. Cross-section along line A - B in Fig. 1. The Kowmung Volcaniclastics are preserved in a triangular area with a baseline of 14 km and a Structural height of about 1.5 km (Fig. 2). Ins- pection of the basal Lambie Group’ shows that any facies changes across the area are slight and gradational, and that there is no evidence that the Kowmung Volcaniclastics formed a hill during depo- sition of the Upper Devonian.It is thus reasonable to assume that the base of the Lambie Group in the Kowmung River-Murruin Creek area was approximately horizontal, and that consequently the mid-Devonian structure of the Kowmung Volcaniclastics was syn- clinal with a gently folded enveloping surface. As the map trace of the units within the Kowmung Volcaniclastics shows, there were several low - amplitude parasitic folds of 3 to 4 km wave-length within this broad mid-Devonian syncline, and thus dips on the Imbs of the individual parasitic folds were probably steeper than the shape of the en- veloping surface. ANGULAR DISCORDANCES ACROSS THE LAMBIAN UNCONFOR- MITY Angular discordances across the Lambian Un- conformity have been determined in 19 locations (Fig. 1: Table).:‘ Outcrop is good, in many cases approaching continuous exposure in creek beds, and thus the separations between adjacent outcrops either side of the unconformity are small compared with most others previously measured (Powell and Edgecombe, 1978). In 3 locations the unconformity is exposed (Table; Fig. 4; Powell and Edgecombe, O78, Fags. 9). The Kowmung Volcaniclastics were restored to their orientation priorto deposition of the Lambie Group using the stereographic technique described by Powell et al. (1978, Appendix). The pre-Lambie dips on the Kowmung Volcaniclastics range from 8° to 49°, with a mean of 249. When plotted on a stereogram (Fig. 5), the 19 restored bedding poles define a fold axis plunging gently to the west- southwest. As shown from the spread of bedding poles along the m-circle (Fig. 5),these folds were gentle, with interlimb angles greater than 120°. DISCUSSION The angular discordances reported here (19 measurements, ranging from 8° to 499, with a mean of 249°) are intermediate in value between the low angles reported further north in the northeastern Lachlan Fold Belt (n=124, range 2° to 28°, mean 14.59) and the high angles from the Taralga area (n=l Tange W1°r tor 132°, mean 55°) .This southward increase in the mid - Devonian angular discordance across the Lambian Unconformity is consistent with a Similar trend in the Hervey Range - Parkes area (Powell et al., tn prep.), and suggests that limb dips on mid-Devonian folds increase southward. The trends of the mid-Devonian folds from the various areas are less consistent. No trend can be deciphered from the restored bedding orientations in the northeastern Lachlan Fold Belt (Powell and Edgecombe, 1978), and the reconstructed mid - Devonian fold axis plunging 14° towards 253° in the Kowmung River-Murruin Creek areais nearly at right angles to the mid-Devonian fold trend of 350° near Taralga (Powell and Fergusson, 1979). Early folds in the Hervey MENACS = Parkes area, lf present; trend towards 032°, and are also oblique. Clearly further data from other areas are required to determine whether there is a_ consistent regional pattern. These angular discordance data support the idea that the northeastern Lachlan Fold Belt is at the perimeter of the area of influence of mid - Devonian deformation that is more intense in the southeastern part of the Lachlan Fold Belt (Powell and Jones, 1978). 40 CHRISTOPHER McA. POWELL AND CHRISTOPHER L. FERGUSSON TTS° » 1I5°/024° S0' 23 pis. Bligaeuo ee ete . joe Mean Si 56°/290° So 75 pts 3I S! poles Contours |,3,6,9, per |% area ¥* Tr °° 24°/020° SO, = (Sinis x 5 Si poles Te I57024° Mean Si SOS S00r S02 123 pis I9 Si poles Contours |,3,6 pfs per |% area. Equal-area stereograms of bedding (S,) and cleavage (S,) in four domains across the Lambian Unconformity. THE LAMBIAN UNCONFORMITY 4| TABLE: BEDDING COUPLETS ACROSS THE LAMBIAN UNCONFORMITY Regional Restored Location * SOG) a Om Gln) eo lid AxaS 750" (in) Comment Ne. 1256-9508 55/515 72/3506 33/026 22/292 <5 m separation NG 125 929 47/309 84/307 33/309 31/309 contact exposed (Powell and Edgecombe, 1978, Fig. 9) Ye. 103 909 40/330 43/311 33/026 17/026 wide separation > 100 m iY 084 907 37/346 57/345 33/026 17/343 separation ~ 50 m Ns 066 903 57/347 73/340 33/026 28/354 Separation ~ 50 m Y. OSS5R902 4447342 32/310 33/026 20/019 separation ~. 30 m a, O522 901 ~40/358 25/3352. 33/026 19/7182 separation ~. 10m VG 033 901 18/032 16/010 20/024 8/262 separation . 60 m Nes 016 895 31/336 41/307 20/024 18/273 separation .150 m oa 008. 886 31/332 65/321 20/024 Boyle separation ~ 50 m \e 005 883 34/304 43/304 10/024 9/288 separation ~-200 m ns 0035876 35/300 71/315. 6/204 42/328 separation ~ 400 m G. Wo2-2109-20/ 3035 20/353 6/204 18/034 separation ~-200 m G. 761 207 21/310 38/290 6/204 7/502 separation ~-100 m G. 755 203 35/290 62/295 6/204 28/302 separation ~ 60 m G. 754 200 51/280 70/296 6/204 22/304 separation ~ 50 m Mecca 755 196 53/300 82/305 6/204 2 /e57. separation < 10 m MeeAue 756192 - 54/270. 81/117 6/204 49/296 contact "exposed (Fug. 4) Mt. A. 752 188 53/280 78/285 6/204 DI IY contact exposed *Wocatzons are six-figure grid references to 1:31,800 Yerranderie (Y.) topographic sheet, and to the 1:25,000 Gurnang (G.) and Mt. Armstrong (Mt. A.) topographic sheets. So (U) and So (L) refer to bedding in the rocks above and below the Lambian Unconformity, respectively. The regional fold axis is determined from data in Powell et al. (1977), Powell and Edgecombe (1979, and unpublished data, and the method of restoring So (L) to its pre-Late Devonian orientation is outlined in Powell et al. (1978). > Restored Soi.) Poles (19 pts) Equal Area Fig. 5. Equal-area stereogram of bedding poles in the Late Silurian and Early Devonian rocks restora to their presumed orientation prior to deposition of the Lambie Group (see Table). Fig. 4. Lambian Unconformity exposed in Murruin Creek area(Location: 753 192 Mt. Armstrong 1:25 000 sheet). The underlying beds are graded feldspathic sandstones facing west (i.e. towards the right in photo), but overturned to dip steeply east «312 towards 117°). The overlying conglomerate contains angular to subrounded cobbles up to 20 cm in dia- meter, and fines upward into medium-grained, cross- bedded quartzite dipping 54° towards 270°. 42 CHRISTOPHER McA. POWELL AND CHRISTOPHER L. FERGUSSON ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by Australhan Research Grants Committee, C.S.I.R.0O. (Division of Mineral Physics) and Macquarie University. Much of the data were gathered during the Macquarie University field geology course in the period 1976-1978. We thank " P. J. Conaghan, J. G. Jones and E.,Scheibne for critical comments. Rosemarie Powell typed the final manuscript. REFERENCES Cas, ACE. , Fergusson, €.0o,9 Fergusson, J. ,~Jones,; G., Powell, C.McA., Roots, W.D. and Royce, Sedimentology of the Kowmung Vol- (in pmep:.)l Late Devonian (Frasnian) cono- lee EeOCK R. Ii Ke ’ caniclastics. Packets cdias LOW: donts from Ettrema, New South Wales. ROY, G06. NedieWas 1005, Sl= 7. Powell, C.McA. and Edgecombe, D.R., 1978: Mid- Devonian movements in the northeastern Lachlan Fold Belt. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 25, 165-84. Powell, C.McA. and Fergusson, C.L., 1979: The relationship of structures across the Lambian Unconformity near Taralga, N.S.W. Jd. Geol. Soc. Aust, 26. Glin press). Powell, C.McA., Fergusson, C.L. and Williams, A.J., Structural relationships, including conical folds, across the Lambian Unconfornity in the Hervey Range-Parkes area, N.S.W. Proc. Linn. soc. {in iprep..)”. Powell, C.McA. and Jones, J.G., 1978: Timing of regional deformation of the Hill End Trough: Reply to Discussion. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 24 110-1: Powell, C.McA., Edgecombe, D.R., Henry, N.M. and JONES, J.G., 19772) "Timing “of; regional. de- formation of the Hill End Trough: a reassess- ment. «J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 28, 407-21. Powell, C.McA., Gilfillan, M.A. and Henry, N.M., 1978: Early east-southeast trending folds in the Sofala Volcanics, N.S.W. ed. Proc. Roy. SOC. NsSisWas tl dse hod Br Roberts.) Ji), JOncS mbeJ ae Jel lence encinsi albe H., Marsden, M.A.H., McKellar, R.G., McKelvey, BC. and. Seddon... G:, 1972: =Correlation, of the Upper Devonian rocks of Australia. Jd. Geol. Soe. Aust., 18, 467-90. Scheibner, E., 1973: 1:100 000 sheet, 8829. 79 pp. C. McA. POWELL C. L. FERGUSSON * Geology of the Taralga Geol. Surv. N.S.W., School of Earth Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, N.S.W. 2113 * Present address: Department of Geology, University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W. 2351 APPENDIX: DEFINITION OF A NEW STRATIGRAPHIC UNIT NAME OF UNIT: KOWMUNG VOLCANICLASTICS DERIVATION OF NAME: Kowmung River (see Yerranderie 1:31800 Topographic Sheet 8929-IV-N). DISTRIBUTION: The unit is exposed over approximate- ly 20 km? as a triangular wedge beneath the Late Devonian Lambie Group in the Kowmung River and Murruin Creek area. TYPE SECTION: The type section is along the Kowmung River from grid ref. 075 889 to grid ref. 053 902 (1:31800 Yerranderie Topographic sheet). Another well-exposed representative section occurs in Cobra Creek, from grid ref. 991 842 (1:31800 Bindook Topo- graphic Sheet 8929-IV-S) to 762 201 (1:25000 Gurnang Topographic Sheet 8829-1-N). LITHOLOGY : The formation is composed dominantly of coarse quartzo-feldspathic sandstones from a dacitic volcanic source. Boulder detritus and mudstones are lesser components. The grain size and sedimentation- unit size increase upwards to single sedimentation units more than 100 m thick containing boulders. Altered volcanic - glass lenticles and allochthonous limestone blocks are also present. THICKNESS : Type section 770 metres; Cobra Creek section 820) metres. Maximum preserved thickness probably a little more than 1 km. RELATIONSHIPS AND BOUNDARY CRITERIA: Overlies con- formably mudstones and graded - bedded arenites equivalent to the Late Silurian Taralga Group (Scheibner, 1973). Its base is identifiable by the incoming of the first massive feldspathic sandstones above the mudstones and sandstones of the Taralga Group. It is overlain with medium-angle unconformity by the Late Devonian Lambie Group. The formation is thought to be related genetically to the Bindook Volcanic Complex (Scheibner, 1973). AGE AND STRUCTURE: Early to possibly Middle Devonian. Conodonts from limestone boulders from the base of the boulder conglomerate member are of earliest Devonian age (Quilty, pers. comm.). The overlying Lambie Group elsewhere contains brachiopods of Late Devonian, probably Frasnian age (Roberts etal. , 1972), and conodonts of Frasnian age (Pickett, 1972). No other fossils have yet been recovered from the Kowmung Volcaniclastics. REVISION OF OLD TERMS: The Kowmung Volcaniclastics is a mappable formation, formerly classified within the Bindook Volcanic Complex. Four informal members have been mapped, v7tg. ( bottom to top ) the feldspathic-sandstone member, the silicic volcanic- breccia member, the boulder-conglomerate member and the lenticle-tuff member. The formation is composed dominantly of detritus likely to have been derived from the rhyodacitic to dacitic volcanic complexes near Yerranderie, Bindook and Wombeyan Caves, but as this relation needs to be demonstrated further, it is best mapped as a separate unit. FURTHER DESCRIPTION: The detailed stratigraphy and sedimentology of the unit will be discussed in Cas et al. (in prep.). (Manuscript received 1.2.79) (Manuscript received in final form 23.6.79) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 112 p. 43, 1979 Folding and Faulting at Brushy Hill, Glenbawn, New South Wales (Discussion) BRIAN MARSHALL ABSTRACT. Mory (1978) has suggested that re-activiation of a previously established NNW trend- ing fault is essential if Brushy Hill Fault and Brushy Hill Anticline are to be parts of the same movement-picture. Alternative interpretations of Mory's field relations, based on progressive deformation concepts at high crustal levels, and likely behaviour at the transition from cylin- drical to non-cylindrical fold systems, allow the conclusion that Mory's suggestions are possible but not essential. Mory (1978, Fig. 1 (a) and 1 (b)) has produced an excellent interpretative map of the Brushy Hill area. However, certain of his comments on the structural significance of the map merit additional consideration. Mory (op. cit., p. 26) refers to an apparent conflict between the suggestion (Branagan et al., 1970; Marshall, 1974) that folding and the Brushy Hill Fault are part of the same movement-picture and: (i) truncation of the western antiformal hinge line by the Brushy Hill Fault; (ii) truncation of cross-cutting faults, that post-date the Brushy Hill Anticline, by the Brushy Hill Fault. Mory suggests that these relations are best reconciled by invoking remobilization of an already established NNW trending fault. Without wishing to reject Mory's suggestion, I would draw attention to: (a) the positions and relations of much of the Brushy Hill Fault and most of the apparently truncated cross-cutting faults, relative to the Brushy Hill fold, being largely inferred; (b) the likelihood that later cross-cutting faults of relatively small displacement (less than 100m) would terminate at the earlier large-displacement (approximately 1000m) Brushy Hill Fault; (c) the concepts of progressive deformation and brittle-ductile transition (Hobbs et al., 1976), within which evolving over- lapping movements on faults and folds at high crustal levels are quite feasible; (d) having shown that Brushy Hill folding is Department of Applied Geology, The New South Wales Institute of Technology BROADWAY NSW 2007 non-cylindrical in the northern half of the area, that is where the western hinge line is truncated, Mory does not apparen- tly acknowledge the consequences of such inhomogeneity. It is perfectly feasible, particularly where non-cylindrical folds are decreasing in amplitude and plunging out, as is to be expected at the interface between the northern non-cylindrical part of the Brushy Hill fold and the southern cylindrical portion, for hinge line trends to be transgressed by faults of the same movement-picture. Because of the foregoing items, I suggest that mapped relations at Brushy Hill are compatible with fault and fold having the same movement-sense and being parts of a progressively evolving phase of deformation. Mory's explanation of the relations, and his conclusion that the large displacement on the Brushy Hill Fault is the last deformational event in the area, are possible but not essential. The constructive comments of G. S. Gibbons, R. Rogerson and C. R. Ward, who critically read the typescript, are acknowledged. REFERENCES Branagan, D. F., Jenkins, T.B.H., Bryan, J. H., Glasson, K. R., Marshall, B., Pickett, J. W., and Vernon, R. H., 1970. The Carboniferous sequence at Glenbawn, N.S.W. Search, 1 (3), 127-129. Hobbs, B. E., Means, W. D., and Williams, P. F., 1976. AN OUTLINE OF STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 57I1pp. Marshall, B., 1974. 5 (5), 179. Brushy Hill Structure. Mory, A., 1978. The Geology of Brushy Hill, Glenbawn, New South Wales. 3, 19-27. (Manuscript received 28.3.1979) JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES VOLUME PART 2 T12 SES, PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY SCIENCE CENTRE, 35 CLARENCE STREET, SYDNEY VOLUME 112, PART 2 FREEMAN, H. C. Elegance in Molecular Design: The Copper Site of Photosynthetic Electron- Transfer Protein. (Liversidge Research Lecture). RUSSELL, T. G. A Reappraisal of the Late Devonian Bective Unconformity MARTIN, Helene A. Stratigraphic Palynology of the Mooki Valley, New South Wales. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL 45 63 71 79 Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 112 p. 45-62, 1979 Elegance in Molecular Design: The Copper Site of Photosynthetic Electron-Transfer Protein* HANS C. FREEMAN ABSTRACT. green leaves and in some algae. copper atom in each molecule of the protein. plastocyanin is about a hundred times as blue as 'normal' cupric compunds. Plastocyanin is an intensely blue protein which is essential for photosynthesis in The blue colour is associated with the presence of a single In terms of the absorbance per copper atom, In addition, the protein has an unusual electron spin resonance spectrum and an anomalously high redox potential. The combination of these properties occurs in some other copper-proteins but has not yet been mimicked in any model compound of low molecular weight. The recent X-ray crystal structure analysis of plastocyanin has revealed a molecule ideally suited to the biological function which it performs. The nature of the copper site is such as to produce the high redox potential which is required for electron-transfer between plastocyanin and its neighbours in the photosynthetic chain. The location of the copper site in the protein molecule provides at least two reasonable electron-transfer pathways. The exterior of the molecule has distinctive features which suggest that the protein interacts in specific ways with its redox partners and/or its environment. INTRODUCTION I have the honour to be the present custodian of a copy of the Sydney University Calendar issued 100 years ago. This copy is particularly important. The top right-hand corner of the cover bears the signature of Archibald Ltverstdge. Like all University Calendars, the version of 1878-9 includes a list of the Professors. Liversidge was Professor of Mineralogy, Lecturer in Geology, and Demonstrator in Chemistry. The Hon. John Smith, M.D., was Professor of Chemistry and Experimental Physics. A little while later the Hon. John Smith dropped one of his resonance forms and became simply Professor of Experimental Physics. Liversidge was transformed into the Professor of Chemistry. It is a pity that the increasing com- plexity of Science and the need for ever greater specialisation have reduced the opportunities for such moves. In these days, when even the adjectives which precede some Chairs of Chemistry are jealous- ly guarded, there is much to admire in the multi- disciplinary agility of Sydney's Professors of 100 years ago. Two pages of the 1878-9 University Calendar are annotated in Liversidge's own hand. Ona scale of course fees, the sum of '1 guinea per term'' for Mineralogy has been crossed out, and "2 guineas'' has been substituted. (Chemistry with Practical Chemistry was rated at 6 guineas.) And on the page of regulations for the conduct of examinations, Liversidge has underlined: '"'and the Professor or Lecturer in the School mst be satisfied wtth (the student's) behavtour tn class"! Continuous assessment has been with us for longer than some of us may have suspected. * The Liverstdge Research Lecture, delivered before the Royal Soctety of New South Wales, 19th July, 1978. The Liversidge Lecture was bequeathed to us so that we might talk about research of the past and research of the future. What I am going to say will involve aspects of chemistry, biology and physics. I should therefore like to begin by establishing a common vocalbulary for what comes later, even though this may involve considerations which many of you will find elementary. THE JARGON OF PROTEIN STRUCTURES A protein is a polymer composed of amino-acid sub-units which differ from one another only by their side-chains, -R (Table 1). There are 24 types of -R which occur naturally. If the 24 natural amino-acids were the letters of an alphabet, then we could use them to write anything from simple words to complicated sentences. Nature uses the 24 amino-acids to assemble a vast variety of molecules representing many levels of complexity. "NH,-CH-CO-NH-CH-CO Eee Sane NH-CH-CO -NH-CH-C0O™ | | Rt Re pro Rn "Amino terminus" "Carboxyl terminus" Protein Chemical Structure The sequence of amino-acids in a protein molecule is called the primary structure. The local configuration of the 'back-bone' (the -CONH-CH-CONH-CH-CONH-CH- chain) in a Specific region of a protein molecule is called the secondary structure. The tertiary structure is that arrangement of the primary structure with its elements of secondary structure which minimises the free energy, i.e., it is the molecular structure of the protein. The best-known element of secondary structure is the a-helix, discovered by Pauling and Corey in the early 1950's. This is a cork-screw arrangement Side-chain GaR) Non-functional: -CH,-C eH. from Cy to N -ring HANS C. FREEMAN SIDE-CHAINS OF SOME IMPORTANT AMINO-ACIDS Unlikely to TABLE 1 Amino-Acid Code Name interact with metals Gly Glycine Ala Alanine Phe Phenylalanine Pro Proline Functional: Potential metal-binding groups és -COO~ CH, COO -(CH.)2=C00" 22 ~CH,-CONH., - (CH) ,-CONH., + - (CH,,) ,-NH, ~CH,-C NH, ~ CH, -C (HOH -CH,-SH - (CH,) ,-S-CH, Asp Aspartate Glu Glutamate Asn Asparagine Gln Glutamine Lys Lysine His Histidine Tyr Tyrosine Cys Cysteine Met Methionine Form at pH7, type Non-polar Non-polar, hydrophobic Non-polar, hydrophobic, aromatic Non-polar, hydrophobic, cyclic Acidic, hydrophilic Acidic, hydrophilic Uncharged, hydrophilic Uncharged, hydrophilic Basic, hydrophilic Basic, pseudo-aromatic Uncharged, polar, aromatic Uncharged, polar Non-polar, hydrophobic ELEGANCE IN MOLECULAR DESIGN 47 of the protein backbone held together by hydrogen bonds. The side-chains stick out at the sides. A second important element of secondary structure is one in which the protein backbone is in an extended configuration. Alternate side- chains fall below and above the backbone. If two such backbone segments are adjacent to each other and run in oppostte directions then there are excellent opportunities for lateral hydrogen- bonding. This arrangement is called ‘antiparallel 8-structure'. If the adjacent backbone segments run in the same direction, the hydrogen bonding is a little less favourable but still effective. We then have 'parallel 8-structure'. Several strands of protein backbone may form what is called a "B-sheet'. . Portions of 8-sheet frequently occur at the surfaces of protein molecules. The side- chains of each backbone segment then extend alternatively into the solvent and into the "interior' Of the protein. SOME ASPECTS OF COPPER CHEMISTRY The aspects of copper chemistry which are most relevant to the present story concern some differences between the two most common oxidation states of the metal, +I and +II. Cu(I) complexes (3d!9) arr diamagnetic while Cu(II) complexes (3d?) are paramagnetic. In the 'HSAB' (hard-soft-acid- base) classification, Cu(I) is 'soft'. Cu(II) belongs to the 'intermediate' category between ‘soft! and 'hard'. The most common coordination geometry in Cu(I) complexes is tetrahedral. Linear coordination (coordination number 2) also occurs. The characteristic coordination geometry of Cu(II) is based on an approximately square and planar arrangement of four ligand atoms. In addition there may be two, one or no additional ligand atoms lying on an axis perpendicular to the plan of the other four. The axial bonds, if any, are generally longer than the four ‘equatorial’ bonds. The resulting geometry is elongated octahedral (two axial ligands), square-pyramidal (one axial ligand) or square-planar (no axial ligand). The crystal structures of many Cu(II) complexes with amino-acids and peptides (i.e., protein sub-units) have been studied. Some interesting correlations between ligand-types, coordination numbers and spectroscopic properties have emerged (Freeman, 1967; Billo, 1974). On the other hand, we have never been able to crystallise and determine the structures of amino-acid or peptide complexes of Cu(I). Our closest approximation to studying Cu(I) has been a series of structure analyses of the corresponding complexes of another d!° metal, Ag(I). The Ag(T) complexes provide examples of linear, trigonal and tetrahedral coordination (Acland and Freeman, 1971; Acland, Flook, Freeman and Scudder, 1972). SOME PROPERTIES OF COPPER-CONTAINING PROTEINS Proteins which interact with metal atoms can be divided into two categories: (i) Proteins which do not contain metal atoms but which are stabilised or potentiated in some way when they combine with metal ions. Such proteins are large organic ligands in equilibrium with metal ions. We shall not consider them further. (ii) Proteins which have metal atoms as part of their molecular structure: metalloproteins. The metalloproteins in which the metal is copper have four types of function: Electron transfer. Dioxygen binding. Catalysis. Copper transport. PWNF Functions 1, 2 and 3 all make use of the fact that Cu can exist in two oxidation states which differ by one electron. The number of Cu atoms per protein molecule (or per active subunit where there are several subunits in the molecule) is related to the function of the protein. In electron-transfer Cu-proteins it is 1; in O9- carriers it is 2; in Cu-enzymes it appears to be 1, 2, 4 or 8; and in ceruloplasmin (a protein whose functions include Cu-transport) it is 6 to 8. The Cu atoms in most Cu-proteins are distinguished by spectroscopic and redox properties which are bizarre in comparison with the behaviour of Cu(I) and Cu(II) in normal (i.e., low-M.W.) complexes. In the present lecture we shall deal with a 'Type 1' Cu centre. There also exist "type 2‘ and ‘Vypers' (Gu centres. The molecules of some of the multi-Cu proteins contain Cu centres of all three types. We shall concentrate on the electron-transfer Cu-proteins because they contain only one Cu atom per molecule, and that Cu belongs to ‘Type 1'. The properties which distinguish a 'Type l1' Cur centre are: (a) An absorption maximum near 600 nm with an absorption coefficient ¢« of the max order of 5 x 103 M7lem7?}. This value is about 100 times higher than for a typical low-M.W. Cu(IT) complex. (b) An abnormally small hyperfine splitting constantsAy im “the PRospectrum. The value of AL for a 'Type 1' Cu-protein is characteristically 0.003-0.008 cm for a normal Cu(II) complex it is 0.012-0.020 cm™!. 1. (c) A high redox potential, E°, in the range 0.3-0.8 v, compared with the Value Ocl7 wv. tor Cu(l)/Gugll)) couple in aqueous solution. The property which is most likely to be connected with the biological role of 'Type 1' Cu-centres is the redox potential. The intense blue colour and the small hyperfine splitting constant are useful symptoms which help us to diagnose whether we have a 'Type 1' centre or not, but there is no obvious connection between the blue colour of the EPR spectrum and what the proteins HANS C. FREEMAN 48 900°0 ‘T00°0 jueucduns sqerpAyoqrzes 900’g8~ SaPNTOUT, Al Oar ‘80°Z eae OSL EPP GO°Z sare O8Z 06h cP 7 SOc GE? L8L 02S G02¢ 18.0 6G 0S8 OSP 6€ EG GOs Zz 97°2 028 LOP ms) (NC, hp tes i \ Drv Vv fe) & (wu) eeu SNIALOUd-UAddOO (,5NTd,) .T AdAL, JO SAILYadONd Ze ATAVG OOT‘OT 00S‘0T 009‘PFT 000‘0Z2 000‘PT (s8ut[psess Laqunon9) NIGLOdd NoGYD-anId OISvd (szse [dortoTy9) NINWAOOLSW1d (JOOL ysSTpet asioy) NINWAOGUWN (oiefrorusaa snyy) NINVAOWTTALS (osourlnian *Sd) NIYNZV (9d1n0s) utTejOrg ELEGANCE IN MOLECULAR DESIGN 49 are intended to do. The function of Cu-proteins wiechvassingle ‘Type 1’ centre - at least in the cases where we think that the function is under- stood - is to transfer electrons from one redox partner to another. The property which measures the tendency of a molecule to accept or donate electrons is the redox potential. A number of single-Cu 'Type 1' proteins are shown in Table 2. Agurtn is a bacterial electron- transfer protein. Stellacyanin is obtained from the Japanese lacquer tree. It is an outlier in the Table because its redox potential is only 0.18 v. Umecyantn was isolated from horse-radish in Ume8, Sweden. Plastocyanin occurs in the leaves of green plants and in some photosynthetic algae. Finally, a baste blue-green protetn was isolated at about the same time from cucumber seedlings in California and from cucumber peelings in the UcS.S.R. THE CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC STUDY OF PLASTOCYANIN: INTRODUCTION (LENTO) AND SCHERZO (ALLEGRO) Even at the present time (July 1978), despite intense efforts in a number of laboratories, no one has synthesised any low-M.W. complex which mimics the unusual combination of properties associated with “Type 1' Cu centres. It was obvious as long ago as 1970 that the 'Type 1' Cu-proteins have properties which are startlingly different from those of simple model compounds prepared from Cu(II) and amino-acids or peptides. The model compounds are capable of providing much useful, precise and fundamental information, but the structure analysis of a 'Type 1' Cu-protein seemed to offer the only chance of discovering what makes the proteins so different from the models. The choice of plastocyanin for a structure analysis was not an accident. Firstly plasto- cyanin has all the properties which are character- istic of -the 'Type 1' Cu-proteins. Secondly, at the time when we had to make a choice, plasto- cyanin had the lowest molecular weight of all the "Type 1' Cu-proteins, so that the number of atoms which we had to find was minimised. (A marginally lower molecular weight was reported a little later for the blue-green protein from cucumbers. ) Thirdly, in comparison with the other 'Type 1' Cu-proteins, plastocyanin has a relatively well defined biological function; if the photosynthes- ists are to be believed, then plastocyanin transfers an electron from cytochrome f to pig- ment P700 in one of the steps between Photosystems I and II. Fourthly and finally, a great deal of information about the amino acid sequences of plastocyanins from higher plants and algae was available even in 1971 from the laboratories of Professor Donald Boulter at Durham and Dr. Richard Ambler at Edinburgh. Much of the primary structure (the amino acid sequence) of plasto- cyanin was known to be more or less invariant. We hypothesised - correctly, as it turned out - that the variations in primary structure would be unimportant in relation to the function of plastocyanin but would be associated with signifi- cant differences in crystallisation behaviour. Our first step in the structure analysis of plastocyanin was to provide ourselves with the the experimental material. The isolation and purification of plastocyanin from French bean leaves had been reported by Milne and Wells (1970) at the University of Adelaide. The Hawkesbury Agricultural College was persuaded to sow a crop of French beans. In due course we harvested the leaves. The first preparation of the protein in our laboratory was carried out late in 1971 by an Honours B.Sc. student, Donald Fensom, with help and advice from a number of our friends (see Acknowledgements). The early experiments did not yield any crystals, but taught us - inorganic chemists and small-molecule crystallographers that we were - some of the facts of life concerning protein chemistry. Three years, several French bean crops, and three Research Assistants later we obtained our first crystals of French bean plastocyanin. There was a brief period of euphoria when everybody admired the beautiful, deep-blue crystals - followed by a long period of gloom: The crystals were long, thin, fragile needles which were unsuitable for diffraction measurements. Then started the long search for the ideal vegetable: a plant species which is genetically coded to produce plastocyanin molecules with just the right primary structure to give inter-molecular contacts conducive to good crystallisation. Plastocyanins from thirteen plant species were extracted, purified, and subjected to systematic crystallisation experiments over a wide range of conditions. After a while, our agricultural activities were transferred from the Hawkesbury Agricultural College to the University Research Farms at Camden. Silver beet, cauliflower, carrot topsi,) lettuce, English spinach, cucumber, zucchina, barley, alfalfa .... This work owed a great deal to the enthusiasm and persistence of two Research Fellows, Dr. John Ramshaw and Dr. M.P. Venkatappa. John Ramshaw never tired of picking up leaves and extracting plastocyanin from them. 'Ven' Venkatappa carried out most of the painstaking crystallisation experiments. There came a day when the University gardeners pruned the oleander bushes in front of the Chemist- ry School. The plastocyanin from the oleander leaves yielded beautiful, chunky, stable crystals. Once again success seemed to be within our grasp, until X-ray diffraction photographs revealed that all the crystals were multiple twins and therefore unsuitable for the structure analysis. We were never able to produce un-twinned crystals of the oleander protein. The leaves which brought this odyssey to an end came from the poplar trees on the edge of St. Paul's College oval. Poplar plastocyanin yielded large, well-formed crystals (Chapman et al, 1977a). The crystals were highly stable in the X-ray beam. They gave X-ray reflections at high angles of reflection corresponding to resolution of 1.6A. (Note 1) There were some uncertainties concerning the antecedents of the poplar trees on St. Paul's oval. It was conceivable that the trees did not belong to the same strain. The crystals used in 50 HANS C. FREEMAN the structure analysis were therefore grown from a second batch of protein which was extracted from the leaves of a clone (a genetically homogeneous group) of poplar trees in a State forest at Upper Colo. The details of the structure analysis (Colman et al., 1978) do not concern us here. The preparation of isomorphous heavy-atom derivatives, the recording of data, the massive calculations, and the fitting of a model to the glectron- density map at a resolution of 2.7A, required a year of intensive work. (Note 2) The persons most directly responsible for the success of the structure analysis are Dr. J. Mitchell Guss and Miss Valerie Norris. It was very helpful, especially in the crucial early stages of the research, that Dr. Peter Colman was working in our laboratory as a Queen Elizabeth II Fellow, so that we could call on his accumulated experience and wisdom. GENERALITY OF THE STRUCTURAL RESULTS There is a potential criticism which I should like to answer before I describe the results of the strucutre analysis. It is true that we had indulged in a chemical lottery. We had bet - correctly, as it turned out - that somewhere in the world there was a plastocyanin which would crystallise. Are we entitled to craw any general conclusions about plastocyanin from the structure analysis of the protein from a single plant species chosen in such a haphazard way? The available evidence indicates that we are entitled to do so. (i) Each plant or other organism which produces plastocyanin is coded so that its plastocyanin has a distinctive aminoacid sequence. The plastocyan- in molecule has about 100 residues, and there exist 24 aminoacids. A lot of combinations are theoretically possible. However, not all the possible combinations occur. There are some positions in the protein chain - for example, position 6 - where the same aminoacid is always found. At such a position a particular aminoacid has been " conserved": The primary structure of the protein has changed in response to evolution- ary processes, but residue 6 has never been chang- ed successfully from Gly to anything else. Presumably mutants that have a different aminoacid at residue 6 do not survive. Similarly, all the plastocyanins that are found in Nature now have a Phe at position 41, an Asn at position 38, and so on. There are, in fact, 28 residues whitch never vary (Boulter et al., 1977). If we omit the algal plastocyanins and concentrate on the plastocyanins from higher plants, then there are 55 residues which are invariant and another 15 where the type of residue (hydrophobic, acidic, etc.) is conserved. The invariance of so much of the plastocyanin molecule supports the hypothesis that the struct- ure of poplar plastocyanin represents plasto- cyanins in general. (ii) Further evidence comes from a long series of high-field 'H n.m.r. measurements which Dr. Peter Wright in our Department made last year with the collaboration of Dr. John Ramshaw and Miss Valerie Norris (Freeman, Norris, Ramshaw and Wright, 1978). The proteins used for the measure- ments were the residues of the earlier unsuccessful crystallisation experiments. The availability of relatively large quantities of plastocyanins from about a dozen different plants turned out to be very useful. The spectra were recorded both for the reduced (Cu(I)) and oxidised (Cu(II)) forms of each protein. In Cu(I)-plastocyanins the metal is diamagnetic so that all the accessible proton signals are recorded. An immediate conclusion from the spectra of the Cu(I)-plastocyanins is that a great deal of the molecular structure must be the same in all of them. There are certainly some significant differences between the spectra: this is to be expected, since no two plastocyanins have precisely the same aminoacid sequence and hence precisely the same proton environments. Despite these differences, there are many n.m.r. resonances which persist in the spectra of all the Cu(I)-plastocyanins, showing that the environments of many protons are conserv- ed. In Cu(II)-plastocyanins the metal is para- magnetic. This has the result that the proton resonances are broadened differentially depending on the distances of the protons from the paramagn- etic centre. The resonances of protons close to the Cu(II) atom are broadened beyond detection. When the (properly scaled) n.m.r. spectrum of a Cu(II)-protein is computer-subtracted from the spectrum of the corresponding Cu(I)-protein, those resonances which are mot broadened in the spectrum of the oxidised protein disappear. The resonances which are left in the 'difference spectrum' are those which are broadened in the spectrum of the oxidised protein, i.e., the resonances of protons close to the Cu(II) atom. The n.m.r. difference spectra of a series of plastocyanins are almost identical. This shows that, even though there may be variations elsewhere in the plastocyanin molecules, the environments of the Cu atoms in all of them are effectively the same. "TYPE 1' Cu CENTRES: EVIDENCE FROMp "SPORTING? METHODS Even before Dr. Peter Wright's elegant work there had been useful !H n.m.r. experiments on plastocyanin and other 'Type 1' Cu-proteins. Following a visit to our Department by Dr. H.A.O. Hill from Oxford in 1973, Don Fensom (by now a post-graduate student) spent six weeks in Dr. Hill's laboratory during 1974. Working with Dr. Hill and his colleagues, Don Fensom recorded the high-field n.m.r. spectra of Cu(I)- and Cu(II)- plastocyanins at a series of pH's. The chemical shifts of two of the proton resonances in the spectrum of the Cu(I)-protein had pH dependences which suggested that the protons belonged to the imidazole rings of two histidine residues. These particular resonances were among the first to be broadened beyond detectability when the protein was oxidised to the Cu(II) form. More extensive experiments of the same kind were reported by Dr. John Markley at Purdue. This was the first evidence that two imidazole groups are close to the Cu atom (Beattie et al., 1975; Markley et al., 1975). ELEGANCE IN MOLECULAR DESIGN 51 Applications of other spectroscopic techniques also led to interesting conclusions concerning the Cu site in plastocyanin. In one ingenious experiment, Dr. Harry B. Gray and co-workers at the California Institute of Technology recorded and compared the ESCA spectra of Cu(II)-plasto- cyanin, Co(II)-substituted plastocyanin and metal- free ('apo-') plastocyanin (Solomon et al, 1975). A major peak in the spectrum of apo-plastocyanin was identified as arising from the 2p electrons of three sulfur atoms. This observation was consistent with the presence of one cysteine and two methionine residues in the aminoacid sequence. The sulfur 2p peak was reduced by about one-third in the Cu(II)- and Co(II)- plastocyanin spectra; simultaneously a satellite peak appeared, with an integrated area about one-third as large as the original peak. It was concluded that one of the three sulfur atoms in the molecule - probably the thiol sulfur of the cysteine side-chain - is bonded to the Cu atom. It is unfortunate that a subsequent reassessment revealed a flaw in the ESCA experiment and that the original observations have a different explanation. Nevertheless, at the time when the ESCA results were reported they were consistent with two other pieces of evidence for the involvement of a cysteine thiol group in Cu-binding. Firstly, it had been shown earlier that apo-plastocyanin recombines easily with Cu(II) but that the recombination is prevented by thiol-specific mercurial reagents. Secondly, a thiol-Cu bond could account for the very high extinction co- efficient of the absorption band near 600 nm. This band could then be attributed to S — + Cu charge- transfer. The existence of a strong CT chromophore led logically to the recording of resonance Raman spectra for a number of 'Type 1' Cu-proteins. Similar spectra were reported by two laboratories. Dr. T.G. Spiro and co-workers at Princeton inter- preted the spectra on the basis of a trigonal- bipyramidal coordination geometry involving four nitrogen or oxygen donor atoms in addition to a cysteine sulfur (Mistowski et @/,, 1975). Dr. M.N. Young's group at Ottawa obtained an explana- tion (equally plausible, so far as I can judge) by using a tetrahedral Cu geometry with only three donor atoms in addition to the sulfur (Siiman, Young and Carey, 1976). The cumulative result of all these experi- ments was that three of the Cu-binding groups in plastocyanin were tentatively identified as two histidine imidazole groups and a cysteine thiol group. Two further experiments led to the suggestion that the Cu atom forms a fourth bond to the de-protonated nitrogen atom of an amide group in the protein backbone. One of these experiments involved the recording of the infra- red spectra of Cu(I)-, Cu(II)-, Co(II)- and apo-plastocyanin (Hare, Solomon and Gray, 1976). ominonse slaty evidence for Cu-amide binding came from the 13C n.m.r. difference spectrum for the Cu(I) and Cu(II) forms of a related protein, azurin (Ugurbil et al., 1977) A 1976 'state of the art' diagram of the Cu site in plastocyanin showed an approximately tetrahedral arrangement of a cysteine sulfur, two imidazole nitrogens and amide nitrogen (Solomon, Hare and Gray, 1976). THE STRUCTURE OF PLASTOCYANIN On the afternoon of Sunday, September 2, 1977 Mitchell Guss and Valerie Norris finished the job of fitting the first complete model of plastocyanin to the electron-density map at 2.7 resolution. The results were telephoned to me in London (where it was still Sunday morning). I spent the rest of the day building a wire model according to the telephoned data. The structure was unveiled at the International Congress on Photosynthesis in Reading three days later (Colman et al., 1977c). It was enormously gratifying that the audience included two friends who had in different ways shared the frustrations of the long period when we had no crystals: Dr. Allen Hill, who drove from Oxford, and Dr. John Ramshaw, who flew in from Harvard. I have said that the structure, in the form in which it was reported at Reading and subsequently published, was solved-"at 2.7 A resolution. It as important for chemists and biologists to appreciate what '2.7A resolution" means. It means that the structure is viewed as though we used a magnifying glass which can resolve objects only when they are separated by distances larger than about 2.7A. For example, the carbon atom and oxygen atom of a C=0 bond, 1.38 apart, will not be resolved. On the other hand, the resolution is sufficient to make a distinction between the -CH3 side chain of an Ala and the -CH»CgHs side chain of a Phe, and in many cases there will be bumps in the electron-density at places where the amide C=O groups protrude from the protein backbone. In the case of plastocyanin, the electron density map at 2.7A resolution told us what the chemical ligands of the Cu atom are, but did not yield meaningful values for the bond-lengths and bond-angles. The poplar plastocyanin molecule comprises about 800 atoms. The structure is most easily understood if it is initially represented in a highly idealised way. Let us delete all the side- chains, leaving only the protein backbone; let us then delete the amide groups, leaving only the C atoms; let us smoothe out the kinks and ia irregularities in the chain; and let us finally adapt what is left to the surface of a flattened barrel, which happens to be the regular object that it most closely resembles (Fig. 1). The molecule is seen to consist of eight strands of protein backbone with bends between the strands. These eight strands form the walls of what we have just described as a barrel. Starting at the NH3-end of the protein chain, strand 1 goes up along the front of the barrel. Strand 2 goes down. Strand 3 goes up and over the top, and strand 4 comes down on the other side. Strand 5 (up, at the back of the barrel) is irregular. Strand 6 (down, at the side) leads to a loop under the barrel. Strand 7 (up) ends in the double loop, after which strand 8 continues down to the -COO terminus. The seven strands other than strand 5 have considerable 8 character. At 2.7A resolution the details of the hydrogen bonding are not yet defin- ed with precision, but many of the side-chains are clearly visible in the electron-density map. The D2 HANS CG; FREEMAN Figure 1. Highly schematic representation of the plastocyanin molecule. The *NH3-terminal residue is denoted by N, and the COO - terminal residue by C. The Cu atom is represented by the black ball. Figure 2. ELEGANCE IN MOLECULAR DESIGN The plastocyanin molecule, drawn by linking the C_ atoms of the 99 amino-acid residues. Small numerals identify every tenth residue. Large numerals identify the four Cu-binding residues. The Cu atom is shown with the four donor atoms to which it is bonded. (This drawing was made in March, 1979 using the atomic coordinates obtained by refinement at 1.6A resolution. ) 54 HANS C. FREEMAN evidence for 8 character is that alternate side- chains appear on opposite sides of the backbone. Strand 5 is quite irregular. It appears to have no 8 character, and hangs a little outside the rest of the barrel. The Cu atom lies near one end of the barrel, slightly below the boundary defined by the loop between strands 3 and 4 and the double loop between strands 7 and 8. Figure 2 is a diagram in which the protein chain is drawn by connecting the actual - not idealised - positions of the C. atoms. Individual amino-acids are represented by their C_ atoms. Some of them are labelled to indicate their positions in the sequence. The Cu atom is coordinated by the side-chains of residues 37, 84, 87 and 92. The coordination geometry of the Cu atom has been drawn to resemble a tetrahedron, but all that we can say at 2.7A resolution is that it is irregular: it is less unlike a tetrahedron than it is unlike a square! The four donor atoms bounded to the Cu atom are - the 6-nitrogen of the imidazole group of His. 37, - the 6-nitrogen of the imidazole group of His 87, - the thiol sulfur of Cys 84, and - the thioether sulfur of Met 92. The participation of the two His nitrogens and the Cys sulfur is in accordance with the predictions from spectroscopic and chemical observations. The ligand group which surprised almost everybody was Met 92. Indeed, for some days after its discovery as a ligand, the thioether group of Met 92 was a distinct embarrassment. It is worth making a small digression to explain why this was so. Among the plastocyanins which had been sequenced at Durham was the plastocyanin of a weed called 'dock'. It differed from the other plastocyanins which had been sequenced in having a Leu instead of a Met at residue 92. This result had two possible implications. If, as seemed likely, all plastocyanins used the same function- al groups to coordinate the Cu atom, then Met 92 could not coordinate the Cu atom in any of them since it was absent in dock. Alternatively, if Met 92 was a Cu-binding residue in one or more plastocyanins, then there was at least one species which had to coordinate the Cu atom in some other way; the generality of the structure analysis of poplar plastocyanin would be lost. On the Sunday when Mitchell Guss transmitted the structure to me by phone from Sydney to London, he also called John Ramshaw in Cambridge, Mass. Ramshaw took the next convenient flight to England, so as to be present when the structure was announced at the International Congress on Photosynthesis. After arriving in England he called at the University of Durham and, with Professor Boulter's permission, checked the original laboratory records of the aminoacid sequence determination for dock plastocyanin. It turned out that there had been an error in the interpretation of the sequence. Dock plastocyanin, like all the other plastocyanins of which we are aware, has a Met at residue 92. THE USEFULNESS OF 'MODEL' COMPOUNDS To what extent could a distorted tetrahedral coordination with two nitrogen and two sulphur donors have been predicted from properties of Simpler complexes? In retrospect, all the main features of the Cu coordination in plastocyanin were predictable and had been predicted. What caused difficulties was not a lack of predictions, but an excess. (1) Several authors had pointed out that there is a possible analogy between the intense visible absorption bands of 'blue' Cu-proteins and the S—3Cu charge-transfer bonds of certain Cu(II)- thiol complexes. For example, the structure of a Cu(I), Cu(II) mixed-valence complex of 8,8-dimethyl- D--cysteine (D-penicillamine) was solved by Dr. Paul Birker in our laboratory in 1976 (Birker and Freeman, 1977). Each of the six Cu(II) atoms in the complex is coordinated by two thiolate sulphur atoms and two amino groups. The extinction coefficient at 518 nm is about 5000 M ‘cm! per Cu(II) atom. (ii) The abnormal EPR spectra of 'Type 1' Cu-proteins are another property for which a plausible explanation could be (and had been) found from low-M.W. complexes. Gould and Ehrenberg (1968) in Stockholm examined the effect of irradiating tetrakis- (acetonitrile)-copper (I) perchlorate with y-rays. The complex is colour- less. The Cu(I) atoms are diamagnetic, i.e., they are EPR-inactive. The coordination geometry of the Cu(I) atoms has been shown to be tetrahedral by structure analysis. y-Irradiation knocked an electron out of some of the Cu(I) atoms, thereby creating Cu(II) centres in tetrahedral environ- ments. The Cu(II) centres were paramagnetic and EPR-active. In the EPR spectrum of the irradiated complex, the hyperfine splitting constant A, was 0.008 cm! - at the upper Limit: for “typeri, Cu- proteins, and well below the limit for normal Cu (II) complexes. (iii) A number of reasonable explanations of the high reduction potentials of 'Type 1' Cu- proteins were embodied in a series of E measure- ments for the Cu /Cu® couple in aqueous solutions containing various organic ligands (James and Williams, 1961). In the absence of ligands the value of E is 0.167 v. Run-of-the-mill aminoacids cause a drop to negative values since they stabilise Cu(II) by forming excellent chelate complexes. In the presence of imidazole the value of E is increased to 0.35 v., close to the values for some of the 'Type 1'Cu-proteins. A high redox potential is also found in the presence of 2,9- dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline. This ligand and Cu(II) form a strong 2:1 complex in which the normal square-planar coordination geometry of Cu(II) is distorted towards a tetrahedron, due to steric hindrance between the methyl groups of the two ligand molecules. The tetrahedral distortion de-stabilises Cu(II) with respect to Cu(I). Yet another ligand which causes a large increase in E is ethylenebisthioglycollic acid, which has two thioether groups. In other words, long-establish- ed data on model compounds included evidence that ELEGANCE IN MOLECULAR DESIGN 3) coordinated imidazole groups or coordinated thio- ether groups or a tetrahedral distortion (or presumably a combination of any of these factors) are consistent with the high redox potentials of tlie." Type 1', Cu=proteins. (iv) A series of Cu(II) complexes with cyclic thioether ligands had been reported by Dr. David Rorabacher at Wayne State University in 1975 (Jones et al. 1975). In these complexes the number of sulfur donors per Cu(II) ranges from 1 to 4. All the complexes have high redox potentials in the same range as the 'Type 1' Cu-proteins, and exhibit intense charge-transfer absorptions (though these occur at slightly shorter wave-lengths than in the case of the proteins). The crystal structure analysis of one complex had shown that the Cu(II) atom has a square-planar geometry. This work had drawn attention to thioether coordination- and had queried the importance of thiol coordin- ation and tetrahedral distortion - as a possible cause of the spectroscopic and redox properties of the ‘Type 1' Cu-proteins. In summary, model compounds would have enabled us to understand the 'Type 1' Cu-proteins if we had known which models we should take seriously. ELEGANCE IN MOLECULAR DESIGN The title of this lecture is ‘Elegance in Molecular Design'. Nature 'designs' things by trying out random variations and getting rid of the variants which don't work. In the case of plasto- cyanin, the result is a splendid example of structure idealised for function. Consider the Cu-binding site (Fig. 3). Above the Cu (or, if you prefer, to the North) lies the imidazole ring of His 87. This 1s all that separates the Cu atom from the world outside its molecule. Below the Cu (or towards the South, in the direction of the body of the molecule) are the imidazole group of His 37, the thiolate sulphur of Cys 84, and the thioether sulfur of Met 92. How is this combina- tion of ligands related to the function of the protein? The function of plastocyanin is to transfer electrons. Electron-transfer clearly depends on reversible changes between the two oxidation states of the Cu atom. The first achievement of the molecular design process is that the Cu atom has been given two sulfur donor atoms which are ideal for Cu(I) and acceptable for Cu(II), and two rather basic imidazole nitrogen atoms which are ideal for Cu(II) and acceptable for Cu(I). Changes from Cu(II) to Cu(I) and from Cu(I) to Cu(II) can almost certainly be accommodated by minor local conformational changes, without the breaking and making of metal-ligand bonds. The coordination sphere excellently suits a Cu atom whose purpose in life is to undergo reversible changes in oxidation state. Reactions in which a metal changes its oxid- ation state without the rupture or formation of metal-ligand bonds are called ''outer-sphere' elect- ron-transfer reactions. Outer-sphere electron- transfer means that two complexes come into suffic- iently close contact to establish significant orbital overlap, and that an electron is delocalised from the metal centre of one complex to the metal centre of the other. The 'northern'/edge of the imidazole ring of His 87 would be a useful point of contact between plastocyanin and an outer-sphere redox partner, because the imidazole ring provides a conjugated pathway to and from the Cu atom. A feature of the Cu site which may make some inorganic chemists feel uneasy is the distorted coordination geometry. We shall not know the precise geometry until the structure is refined, but even at 2.7A reduction we can see that the coordination of the Cu stom is grossly distorted from the square-planar geometry preferred by Cu(II) towards the tetrahedral geometry preferred by Cu(TI). As we have already seen in the case of low-M.W. complexes, a distortion from square-planar coordin- ation geometry increases the redox potential of the Cu(I)/Cu(II) couple, i.e., increases the tendency of Cu(II) to accept an electron. This is just what is needed in plastocyanin, which has to provide the electron-transfer link between two high-potential components of the photosynthetic chain. By the standards of small-molecule geometry, the coordination of the Cu atom is strained; but the strain is built into the Cu site as part of Nature's molecular design. What is the origin of the strain energy? Protein molecules have more sources of free energy than the small molecules with which inorganic coordination chemists usually deal. A protein molecule has many hydrogen bonds, interactions between side-chains bearing opposite charges, and contacts between hydrophobic groups. Free energy saved in one part of the molecule can be used to pay for strain which is needed in another part. This is the entatic state hypothesis (Vallee and Williams, 1968), and the Cu-binding site in plastocyanin provides a good example of it. INVARIANT AMINO-ACID RESTDUFS Special interest is attached to those 55 amino-acid residues which are conserved in the higher plant plastocyanins (Fig. 4). Presumably each one of them is conserved for good reasons. It is possible to test this hypothesis by making a close inspection of the model of the plastocyanin molecule. Let us, however, keep in mind that our present model is fitted to the electron-density at a resolution of only 2.7A. (i) Invariant Gly residues. Nine Gly residues are totally conserved. Another is conserved with only one known exception. Gly residues are subject to fewer geometrical constraints than amino-acids with bulkier side- chains. For this reason they facilitate the formation of bends or turns in the protein backbone. In plastocyanin, nine of the ten conserved Gly residues are found in seven of the bends where the protein chain changes direction (Table 3(a)). (ii) Invariant Pro residues. The geometry of Pro is constrained in a special way by the cyclic side chain, so that Pro residues frequently occur at the ends of secondary structures such as a-helices and 8-sheets since they cannot be accommodated in the middle. All four conserved Pro residues in plastocyanin occur HANS C. FREEMAN TABLE 3 SOME AMINO-ACID RESIDUES WHICH ARE INVARIANT IN HIGHER PLANT PLASTOCYANINS RESIDUE LOCATION OF RESIDUE OR FUNCTION OF SIDE-CHAIN (a) Invariant Glycines Gly 6, Gly 10 Bend between strands 1 and 2 Gly 24* Bend between strands 2 and 3 Gly 34 Bend between strands 3 and 4 Gly 47 Bend between strands 4 and 5 Gly 67 Bend between strands 5 and 6 Gly 78 Bend between strands 6 and 7 Gly 89, Gly 91 Bend between strands 7 and 8 Gly 94 8-structure (* Residue 24 in beetroot plastocyanin is Ser.) (b) Invariant Prolines Pro 16 Bend in strand 2 Pro 36 Beginning of strand 4 Pro 47 End of strand 4 Pro 86 Loop between strands 7 and 8 (3) "Hydrophobic Patch! Gly 10 Rim of Cu pocket eur 2 Rim of Cu pocket Ala/Val 13 Rim of Cu pocket Phe 14 Side of Cu pocket Gly 34 Rim of Cu pocket Pro 36 Side of Cu pocket Leu 62 Side of Cu pocket Pro 86 Rim of Cu pocket Gly 89 Rim of Cu pocket Ala 90 Rim of Cu pocket Gili 291 Rim of Cu pocket (d) Invariant Polar Uncharged Residues Asn 31 Function ? Asn 32 Contact with solvent Asn 38 Link from strand 3 to Ser 85 in strand 7 Ser 56 Function ? Asn 64 Contact with solvent Tyr 80 Interior of molecule Tyr 83 | Contact with solvent near 'negative Gln 88 patch' Thr 97 Contact with solvent ,i Asn/Gln 99 Contact with solvent, -COO terminus (e) Invariant Basic Residues Lys 30 Contact with solvent Aisees7 Cu-binding group Lys 54 Contact with solvent His 87 Cu-binding group Lys 95* Contact with solvent (* Residue 95 in broad bean plastocyanin is Gln) (f) Invariant Acidic Residues Asp/Glu 2 Function ? Glu/Asp 25 Contact with solvent ELEGANCE IN MOLECULAR DESIGN TABLE 3 (CONT) Asp 42 Glu 43 Contact with solvent, side-chains Asp 44 form part of 'negative patch' Glu 45* Asp 51 Contact with solvent Glu 59 Contact with solvent, side-chains Asp/Glu 61 form part of 'negative patch' Glu 68 Function ? Cys 84 Cu-binding group (* Residue 45 is reported to be Ser in poplar plastocyanin) Figs 3. Detailed view of the Cu atom and the four Cu-atoms binding groups in plastocyanin. Black bonds are in the amino-acid side-chains. Bonds not drawn in black are parts of the protein back-bone. 57 HANS C. FREEMAN 58 “99S ‘pauztaduod ST (°9390 fdTJeWOIe “S6 pue Sv ‘vz Senprtset ynoqe sajou IOF ¢ JTqGe], ‘LoAemMOY ‘ze Tod-uou “QTptoe) uLeyd-apts Fo odkj oy. se eZ OS panrtasuod ele SONpIseL psut[Lopun ATSuIS ‘eJep aouonbas aAey OM YOTYM LOF suLueAd0jSeTd Juetd roys1y ay. I1lW UL peALeSUOD ae SONpISet peutTZepun AT qnog EEE EE EEE ee *seouenbes utuedo04setd 19ay20 YiztIm ASoTeue Aq potepio useq savy sjUSWZES JIOYS MoF B UL SONpTset osyy ‘*(usy 10 dsy = xsy ‘uly 10 NID = XTD) PpeATOSeL oq 03 ULeWeL sat}INSique LOUTWU SWOS *ain}dnNIZSs 9Yy} FO sisApTeue ayy UL pesn se “(UOT}eOTUNWWOS TeUuOSIed ‘Xe, quy *y) utuedd04se{d tetdod yo ad.uenbas ptoe-outwe du *p oin3sTj JONANDSS NINVADOLSWV]d (VOT TWLI "YVA VESTN SNINdOd) YWIdOd —= —=—> =—=—=_=_ es — — 06 4aS-N3]-W1y-TWA-119-3Hg-4H | -N719-A19-SAT-VIy- GL OL G9 === = — —— ——— — — ——— =— —S—=—= iO TWA-A19-4aS-0Nd-31] -YaS-dSy-N19-dsy-43 0S St Ov = = —_—_— — sy-n — ——— a i -n34-xs -1W\-31]-NSW-SI}H-OUd-3Hq-A719- WIW-NSW-NSY-S SA]-3 —_ = — = —_—_— A19-WW-A19-N19-S I}]-OUd-Y3S-SA)-4A | - JH4-Y3S-YA | -N19-A19-SAT-NSY $8 08 == — o—— = —. _——— a 4 = SYW-X19-X19-YaS-L3h|-Y3S-3T] -SA]-Yas-Wy-dsy 09 GS S— oa ——— ~WA-31]-SA] Ge O€ A9-A19-OUg-Y4S-3T] -Y3S-3H4-719-YaS-ONg-TWA-3Hg-VIy-n3]-43S- A19-dSlj-dS-W1y-A19-Ng]-n3]-IvA-dsy- a7] G2 O¢ Sil OL S ELEGANCE IN MOLECULAR DESIGN 59 at places where the protein backbone undergoes a turn (Table 3(b)). Two of them, Pro 36 and Pro 86, appear to have a special function which will be mentioned shortly. (ii1) Conserved non-polar residues. In addition to the four Pro residues mention- ed above, there are 22 other conserved non-polar residues (Ala, Ile, Leu, Met, Phe and Val). They include Met 92, one of the four residues to which the Cu is attached. There are another five positions in the sequence which are always occup- ied by one of the non-polar residues Ala, Ile or Val. In other words, 31 residues are invariant as to hydrophobic character, and 26 of them are totally invariant. In seventeen cases, the hydrophobic side- chains of these residues point into the interior of the molecule. The molecule is not only a flattened barrel. It is a flattened o7l barrel. This result is not particularly remarkable. Many other protein molecules are known to have predominantly hydrophobic interiors. On the other hand, a number of the hydrophobic residues in plastocyanin are associated with a distinctive patch near the Cu site. The Cu atom is located at the bottom of a shallow crater. The rim of this crater is lined by four hydrophobic residues and four Gly's. Three more hydrophobic residues lie on the sides of the crater. All these residues are conserved. They include two of the invariant prolines, Pro 36 and Pro 86 (Table 3(c)). In this region of the molecule there are no charged side-chains at all. The function of the hydrophobic patch near the Cu site may be etther to orient the plasto- cyanin molecule in or on the thylakoid membrane, or to make the business end of the molecule recognisable by one or other of plastocyanin's redox partners. The need for a recognition patch is suggested by the high degree of specificity which has been reported to exist between plasto- cyanin and its natural redox partner, cytochrome f. Electron transfer from cytochrome f to plastocyanin has been found to be 30 times faster than from any other cytochrome; and electron transfer from cytochromes is generally 1000 times faster than from artificial reducing agents such as inorganic complexes. (iv) Invariant polar uncharged residues. There are ten conserved polar uncharged residues (Asn, Gln, Ser, Thr, Tyr) (Table 3(d)). In only one case can we See a clear reason why the residue is conserved: Asn 38 has the C=O of its side-chain amide group hydrogen-bonded to the nitrogen of the backbone amide group cf Ser 85. Asn 38 is adjacent to the Cu-binding residue His 37, while Ser 85 is adjacent to the Cu-binding residue Cys 84. The side-chain of Asn 38 thus stabilises the configuration of the Cu-site by linking two strands of the protein backbone near two of the Cu ligands. Six of the remaining conserved polar uncharged residues appear to be in contact with the solvent. Two of them, Tyr 83 and Gln 88, will be mentioned again later in connection with the "negative patch' on the plastocyanin molecule. The side-chain of Tyr 80 points to the interior of the molecule. (v) Invariant basic residues. The amino-acids which have ionisable side- chains are distributed unequally throughout the plastocyanin molecule. In poplar-plastocyanin there are only six basic residues: two His and four Lys. Five of these residues are conserved in higher plant plastocyanins (Table 3(e)). They are (i) His 37 and His 83, which bind the Cu atom through their imidazole groups, and (ii) Lys 30, Lys 54 and Lys 95, which point from the surface of the molecule into the solvent. (vi) Invariant acidic residues The amino-acids conventionally described as acidic are Asp and Glu. In the case of plastocyan- in we may add Cys (which is usually included in the 'polar uncharged' category), since the thiolate group of Cys 84 functions as a Lewis acid by binding the Cu atom. There are then eleven positions in the plastocyanin sequence where an acidic residue is always found: ten Asp/Glu and one Cys (Table 3(f)). Some doubt is still attached to residue 45 which is conserved as Glu, except in poplar plastocyanin where it is reported to be Ser. _In eight of the ten conserved residues with -C0OO groups, the side-chains are directed into the solvent. — This 1S as expected. wWhaters perhaps unexpected is. that the acidic residues are significantly more on one side of the molecule than on the other. Six of the conserved Asp/Glu residues, plus Gln 88 (which is also conserved - see above) form a distinctive, elongated, negative patch. We have asked ourselves whether such a distinctive structurai feature has a functional significance. Plastocyanin should have two electron-transfer pathways - one to get an electron 7”, and the other to get it out. Since two different redox partners are, involved in these processes it is unlikely that they make contact with the plasto- cyanin molecule at the same place. One possible contact point, namely the exposed edge of the His 87 imidazole ring, has already been discussed. The patch of conserved negative residues on the side of the plastocyanin molecule may be another. This idea was first suggested to us by Dr. Peter Wright. A conserved tyrosine residue, Tyr 83, has its aromatic side-chain in contact with the solvent at about the centre of the negative patch. From that point to the Cu atom there appears to be a straight channel lined by the methylene group of Gly 94, the phenyl rings of Phe 14 and Phe 82, and the aliphatic side-chain of Val 93. Such a channel filled with a medium having a low dielectric constant is a requirement for electron-transfer by ''quantum mechanical tunnelling". The existence of a hydrophobic channel does not prove that quantum mechanical tunnelling occurs. It merely satisfied one of the prerequisites. 60 HANS C. FREEMAN It may be objected that, since most of the interior of the plastocyanin molecule is filled with hydrophobic side-chains, there are many paths through regions of low dielectric constant. What makes the path from the negative patch to the Cu so special is that the four residues which I have mentioned are tnvartant. We note that they include Gly 94 which, unlike the other nine invariant Gly's in plastocyanin, is not found in a bend of the protein chain. The need for a hydrophobic channel from the Cu atom to a negatively charged recognit- ion patch on the surface of the molecule would provide a reason why these four particular residues, including Gly 94, are conserved. SUMMARY The tentative conclusions which we draw from the poplar plastocyanin structure at 2.7 resolution are as follows: The plastocyanin molecule has evolved to produce a Cu centre which can accept and give up electrons without changes in coordination and with minimal changes in geometry. The Cu centre is not in direct contact with the world outside the protein molecule. There are at least two pathways along which elect- rons may be transferred to and from the Cu centre by mechanisms which are compatible with the contemporary folk-lore of inorganic electron- transfer reactions. Both these pathways terminate in recognisable patches - at present, the only recognisable patches - on the surface of the molecule. (Note 3). FUTURE PROSPECTS A Liversidge Lecture should indicate some directions in which research might proceed from here. (1) We hope to continue our calculations, incorporating higher resolution data which have already been recorded. This will make the structure analysis more precise. We shall then be able to attach meaningful values to the metal- ligand bond-lengths and bond-angles; we shall be able to study the details of the §-structure (because we shall know just where the hydrogen bonds are); and we shall be able to describe the intermolecular contacts in the crystal, which may lead to an understanding why poplar plastocyanin crystallised so nicely but thirteen other plastocyanins did not. (ii) If the 'refinement' calculations in (i) lead to a sufficiently precise knowledge of the structure, then it will probably be possible to detect how the protein responds structurally to various chemical changes. For example, we already know that Cu(I)-plastocyanin is isomorph- ous with Cu(II)-plastocyanin. The measurement of X-ray diffraction data for Cu(I)-plastocyanin to high resolution should therefore enable us to calculate the changes in electron-density (i.e. changes in structure or conformation) which accompany electron-transfer. Similarly it may be possible to determine whether the protein conformation is affected by pH; and it may be possible to locate the binding sites of certain inorganic redox reagents which are known to associate strongly with the protein before elect- ron transfer takes place. (iii) It would be interesting to study the structure of stellacyanin, a glycoprotein with a Type 1' Cu centre. This protein lacks Met residues completely so that at least one of the ligand groups at the Cu centre cannot be the same as in plastocyanin. We have not yet succeeded in crystallising stellacyanin, but we do have crystals of a new basic green-blue protein from cucumber seedlings (Colman et. al., 1977b). Both stella- cyanin and the cucumber protein have spectroscopic properties which are significantly different from those of plastocyanin. An understanding of the structural reasons for the spectroscopic differ- ences between plastocyanin, stellacyanin and the basic cucumber protein may help to improve the predictive values of the various spectroscopic techniques when applied to metalloproteins. (iv) In the long term it will be necessary for someone to study the structures of Cu-proteins with 'Type 2' and 'Type 3' Cu centres. The enzyme laccase is particularly attractive from this point of view since it contains a "Type" ‘centre, a "Type 2' centre and a (double Cu) 'Type 3' centre. At this time no one has been able to induce laccase to crystallise in a form which diffracts X-rays. It is a chastening epilogue to this lecture that the nucleation of crystals - a chance event which we cannot yet understand, predict or control - still stands between us and the investigation of Nature's molecular designs. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am pleased and grateful that this Liversidge Lecture gives me the opportunity to acknowledge the contributions and assistance of many colleagues. First and foremost I thank those who have worked on the plastocyanin project; Donald (now Dr. D.J.) Fensom (Honours student, 1971), who isolated our first specimen of French bean plasto- cyanin and later - as a Ph.D. student - recorded high-field n.m.r. spectra at Oxford and kinetic data at the California Institute of Technology; Tad Bohdanowtez (Research Assistant, 1972); Elizabeth (now Dr. E.J.) Woodeoek (Research Assistant, 1973); Dr. Graeme Chapman (Professional Officer, 1974-5), who set up our protein chemistry laboratory in its present form; Dr. John Ramshaw (Research Fellow and Professional Officer, August 1974 - February 1977), who brought to the research a superb feeling for Cu-protein biochemistry, and maintained a passion for purifying plastocyanin from all sorts of leaves until poplar plastocyanin finally yielded crystals; Dr. M.P. Venkatappa (Research Fellow, 1975-7), whose patience and attention to detail were essential for the long series of systematic crystallisation experiments and the production of isomorphous heavy-atom derivatives; Alan Watson (Research Assistant, 1975); Dr. Peter Colman (Queen Elizabeth II Fellow and later N.H. §& M.R.C. Research Fellow, 1975-8), a distinguished protein crystallographer working on his own project in our laboratory, who gave us a great deal of his know-how and active collaboration; Dr. Mitchell Guss (Professional Officer, 1975 --), who deserves most of the credit for the structure analysis; Valerte Norris (Research Assistant (1976 --); and Dr. Mitsuo ELEGANCE IN MOLECULAR DESIGN 61 Murata (Professional Officer, 1976--). The three last-named colleagues are still continuing the work. Dr. James K. Beattte, Dr. Peter Wrtght and Dr. Carolyn Wrtght-Mountford are departmental colleagues who were particularly helpful when we came to evaluate and interpret our results. Dr. Jultan Wells at the University of Adelaide, who isolated and characterised French bean plasto- cyanin in 1971, gave us helpful telephoned advice during our early protein isolation experiments. Dr. Btll O'Sullivan (now Professor W.d. O'Sullivan of the School of Biological Sciences at the University of New South Wales) was the person who first pushed Milne and Wells' plastocyanin paper under my nose. Mr. J. Sumeghy at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College showed us how to grow French beans in 1971 and 1972. Dr. Frank Crofts, Director of the Sydney University Research Farms at Camden, made fields, advice and labour available for the production of crops of numerous vegetables from 1973 to 1976. Experimental facilities at the C.S.I.R.O. Division of Food Research, North Ryde, were made available through the courtesy of Mr. M.V. Tracey, Chief of the Division, in 1971-2 when we had not yet established our own protein laboratory. For some years beginning in 1971 we also benefited from having Mr. Malcolm Smith at the C.S.1I.R.O. Division of Food Research to hold our inexperienced inorganic hands while we extracted and purified our protein specimens. Much of our laboratory's folk-lore concerning protein crystallisation dates back to a very use- ful one-month visit by Mr. Larry Steker in 1975. For the purpose of that visit he was helpfully released from his normal duties in Professor Lyle Jensen's laboratory at the University of Washington, Seattle. Professor Jan Drenth at Groningen and Professor Robert Huber at Munich supplied us with computer programs which were subsequently adapted to our needs and computer configuration and used in the structure analysis. Dr. Richard Ambler at Edinburgh determined the amino-acid sequence of poplar plastocyanin. Two of my friends in the Cu-protein business, Dr. Allen Hill at Oxford and Professor Harry Gray at the California Institute of Technology, provided challenge, stimulation and encouragement over a long period. An unforgettable example of fraternal gener- osity was provided by Professor Hans Jansonius at the Biozentrum in Basel, Switzerland. I was visiting Basel in 1976 when Mitchell Guss cabled me that poplar plastocyanin had been successfully crystallized at last. Due to an ambiguity in the cable I thought that we had only ten crystals and that the next Australian poplar season was a year away. Basel, however, was full of leafy poplar trees. Although Professor Jansonius was busy preparing an important lecture for an international meeting, he immediately mobilised his research group, obtained the official bless- ing of the Canton of Basel, and stripped the cantonal poplars of their leaves. In the end we did not take advantage of this supply of raw material: the apparent lack of poplar leaves in Sydney was shown to be the result of a misunder- standing, and the Basel poplars turned out to belong to a different species than those in Sydney. Finally, it is a pleasure to record that the study of the crystal structures of metalloproteins at Sydney University has been supported by the Australian Research Grants Committee, by the University of Sydney through the University Research Grant and a General Development Grant, and in 1978 by a donation from Esso Ltd. NOTES Note 1. The diffraction process is governed by the Bragg equation, mA=2dsinO. The larger the angles 0 at which reflections can be recorded, the smaller are the spacings d which can be resolved. Note 2. X-ray data sets were recorded for the native protein and for three heavy-atom derivatives which were isomorphous with the protein. The derivatives were obtained by soaking protein crystals in solut- ions of mercuric acetate, uranyl acetate for 23 h, and uranyl nitrate for 10 d, respectively. The X-ray data were initally recorded to a resolution of 2.7%. The measurements for the derivatives includ- ed anomalous dispersion data. The crystals were extremely stable so that a single crystal lasted for the entire week which was required for each set of X-ray measurements. Standard computational techni- ques were used to calculate an electron-density map. A model was then fitted to the electron-density in a Richards optical comparator, using scaled model- building components. Note 3. (added in March, 1979) Subsequent refinement of the structure at 1.68 resolution has produced more precise values for the positions of the protein backbone and side-chains, and has cast doubt on the description of a hydrophobic channel from Tyr 83 to the Cu atom. REFERENCES Chem. Acland, C.B., and Freeman, H.C., 1971. Commun. , 1016-1017. Acland, C.B., Flook, R.J., Freeman, H.C. and Scudder, M.L., 1972. Acta Cryst., A28, S75- S76. Beattie, J.K., Fensom, D.J., Freeman, H.C., Woodcock, E., Hill, H.A.O., and Stokes, A.M., 1975. Btochim. Btophys. Acta, 405, 109-114. Biden weadernmlon4’. 613-617. Inorg. Nucl. Chem. Lett., 10, Birker, PiJ.M:W.L.. and Freeman, H.C.;, 1977... J. Amer. Chem. Soe., 99, 6890-6899. Boulter, D., Haslett, B.G., Peacock, D., Ramshaw, J.A.M., and Scawen, M.D., 1977. Int. Rev. Btochem., 13, 1-40. Chapman, G.V., Colman, P.M., Freeman, H.C., Guss, J.M., Murata, M., Norris, V.A., Ramshaw, J.A.M., and Venkatappa, M.P., 1977a. J. Mol. Biol. , 110,218 7=189% 62 HANS C. FREEMAN Colman, P.M., Freeman, H.C., Guss, J.M., Murata, M., Norris, V.A., Ramshaw, J.A.M., Venkatappa, M.Poe and: Vackery,, be. slO77D cl eMOr: BLOLa, 1125.649=6505 Goldman? PoM. sakreeman. eH. Ce. “Gussie. Miss Mumaitay: M., Norris, V.A., Ramshaw, J.A.M. and Venkatappa, M.P., 1977¢c. In Photosynthests 77: Proceedings of the Fourth Internattonal Congress on Photosynthests (eds. Hall, D.O., Coombs, J. & Goodwin, T.W.), 809-813. (Biochemical Society, London). Colman, P.M., Freeman, H.C., Guss, J.M., Murata, M., Norris, V.A., Ramshaw, J.A.M. and Venkatappa, M.P., 1978.. Wacure, 272, 319-324: Freeman, H:C:,-1967. Advane. Prot. Chem., \22, 257-424. Freeman, H.C. Norris, V.A., Ramshaw, J.A.M., and Weights. PwEl, 1978. (Rebs Lette, 80G el Sil e555 Gould, DC. “and Ehrenberg, A-5 1968.) furs. Biochem, 5, 451-455. Hare, JW, “Solomon, Es Ly andsiGray. JHB. 97.6; J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 98, 3205-3209. James, B.R. and Williams, R.J.P., 1961. J. Chem. S0e:,, 2007-2019. Department of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Sydney, Sydney, N.S.W., 2006. Jones, T.E. Rorabacher, D.B. and Ochrymowicz, L.A., 1975. oJ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 99, 6730-6739. Markley, J2K., Wilraichs, EAL. . Bexmeeeonbemanre Krogmann, D.W., 1975. Btochemtstry, 14, 4428-4433. Milne, P.R. and Wells, J.R.E., 1970. J. Btol. Chem, 245, 1566-1574. Miskowski, V. Tang, S.P.W., Spiro, T.G., Shapiro, E. and Moss, T.H., 1975. Btochemtstry, 14, 1244-1250. Siiman, O., Young, N.M. and Carey, P.R., 1976. J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 98, 744-748. Solomon, E.1I., Clendening, P.J., Gray, H.B. and Grunthaner, F.J., 1975. of. Amer. ‘Chem. Soe. , 97, 3878-3879. Solomon, E.1., Hare, J.Wosand: Grays sHaBS 976. Proce. Natl. Acad. Sev. -UsSoAws— 7a oso= 115915. Ugurbil; K., Norton, R.S., Allerhand, A. and Bersohn, R., 1977. Btochemtstry, 16, 886- 894. Vallee, B.L. and Williams; s#ReJ.P.5 IS68seeeroc: Natl. Acad. Set., USA., 59; 498-505. (Manuscript received 7.5.79) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 112 pp. 63-69, 1979 A Reappraisal of the Late Devonian Bective Unconformity T. G. RUSSELL ABSTRACT. Re-investigation of the Bective Unconformity beneath the Late Devonian Keepit Conglomerate reveals that there is insufficient conclusive evidence for the designation of this unconformity as a significant angular discordance of regional extent. The basal contact of the Keepit Conglomerate varies from, in the west of the Tamworth Belt (the basin edge), a disconformable contact between predominantly terrestrial and underlying marine sediments, passing eastwards (basinwards) to initially an abrupt, often disconformable contact beneath coarse redeposited sediments, thence to a gradational and conformable contact with the underlying mudstones. It is concluded that the Bective Unconformity is a basin edge disconformity, which passes basinwards to a disconformable contact beneath coarse resedimented deposits. The duration of the hiatus at the basin margin lies entirely within the Famennian. Further towards the basin depocentre the unconformity is nonexistent. INTRODUCTION The Tamworth Belt (Harrington, 1974; Korsch, 1977) is an arcuate zone of mildly deformed strata ranging in age from Cambrian (Cawood, 1976) to Permian (Packham, 1969), situated to the west of the more complexly deformed Central Complex (Harrington, 1974). The Tamworth Belt and Central Complex together constitute the southern part of the New England Fold Belt (Leitch, 1974). The Tamworth Belt contains a dominantly terrigenous sequence of predominantly Devonian and Carbonifer- ous age within which a number of unconformities have been recognised. The Bective Unconformity is a Late Devonian hiatus which separates the Late Devonian Keepit Conglomerate from underlying Late or Middle Devonian strata (Table 1). It is the intention of this paper to review the status of the Bective Unconformity, and to present new data on the nature of the basal contact of the Keepit Conglomerate deriving from a gegional study of this unit (Russell, 1977). THE BECTIVE UNCONFORMITY The Bective Unconformity was formally defined by White (1964c) as an angular unconformity between the Baldwin Formation and the overlying Keepit Conglomerate. Its existence was first postulated from the Somerton-Attunga area, with subsequent extension to other parts of the Tamworth Belt largely through the regional studies of Leslie (1963), McKelvey and White (1964) and White (1964a, b, c; 1965, 1966). An unconformity recognised at the base of the Keepit Conglomerate in the Timor Valley, the Isis Unconformity of Manser (1968), has been equated with the Bective Unconformity (Manser, 1968; Ellenor, 1971). ENGLAND @ Armidale COMPLEX Agung > CENTRAL Somerton ott Tamworth 2S FOL Vv 5 D BELT eS , wey Liverpool om Timor Range Valley S e) Se CEN Newcastle Filo Wl Location of the Tamworth Belt Evidence for the Unconformity The existence of the Bective Unconformity was based by various workers on the following evidence: 1. White (1964a, c) considered the structural trends of the Baldwin Formation to differ markedly in places to the trends 64 i GeRWSSPEE Discussion Lithology Probably the most noticeable feature of the Bective Unconformity is the sudden change in lithology from mudstone to coarse conglomerate (McKelvey, 1966; Manser, 1968), upon which the existence of the unconformity is often unwisely based. This, however, need not indicate an unconformable relationship or significant time lapse, as pointed out by McKelvey (1966). The rapid and drastic change in the grade of sediment being deposited simply reflects a marked coarsening of the sediment being supplied to the depositional basin, and results from tectonic activity within the source area (Russell, 1977, and in prep.) rather than indicating a period of deformation of the depositional basin and its fill. Angular Discordance Evidence relating to the angular discordance is dubious. Of the grid references to the unconformable contact given by White (1964c) one plots upon his map entirely within the Baldwin Formation (map ref. 106E, 250N) while another upon field inspection can be seen to be a fault (map ref. 153E, 169N) (Map references are quoted from White 1964c, p.211). This latter situation appears to be the cited instance of "an angular discordance that may be as great as 90 "' (White, 1964a). However, in this outcrop shallow dipping Keepit Conglomerate can be seen to be in fault contact with vertical Baldwin Formation. The exposure of the supposed angular discordance cited by Leslie (1963), a road cut on the Oxley Highway, was re-examined. No trace could be found of the Keepit Conglomerate and hence the nature of any contact was indeterminate. One can only infer the quality of the exposure of any unconformity has deteriorated or subsequent roadwork has obliterated the contact. Close examination of the locality cited in McKelvey and White (1964) shows the stratification of the underlying thin bedded and laminated sequence of mudstones and sandstones to be parallel to the overlying Keepit Conglomerate sandstones. Some basal scouring was observed, but no angular discordance was found. The angular discordance reported by Osborne et al. (1948) has not been substantiated either by later workers or by myself. I therefore consider there is insuff- icient evidence for the existence of a strong angular unconformity beneath the Keepit Conglomerate. Cross Folding Cross folding is developed not only in the Baldwin Formation but also in the Keepit Conglomerate, although occurring in the latter as large scale basins and domes (White, 1964c). However, smaller scale cross folding as that in the Baldwin Formation, is more likely to be detected in outcrops of the argillites of this unit than in the poorer quality outcrops of massive conglomerates and sandstones of the Keepit Conglomerate. As both the Baldwin Formation and Keepit Conglomerate are cross folded I consider that the presence of cross folding is not conclusive evidence for the deformation of the Baldwin Formation prior to deposition of the Keepit Conglomerate, nor for the existence of the Bective Unconformity. Stratigraphy That the Keepit Conglomerate overlies the Eungai Mudstone, the Lowana Formation and the Baldwin Formation in different parts of the Tamworth Belt is of little value as evidence for a regional unconformity. No evidence exists for the upper horizons of the Baldwin Formation in the Somerton-Attunga area being of different age to the Eungai Mudstone in the northern part of the belt. The Eungai Mudstone together with the underlying Lowana Formation and Noumea Beds are correlated with the Baldwin Formation (McKelvey and White, 1964; McKelvey, 1974). The occurrence of the Keepit Conglomerate overlying both the Eungai Mudstone and the Baldwin Formation simply reflects the differing stratigraphic nomenclature used in different parts of the Tamworth Belt (Table 1).. The Keepit Conglomerate is mapped at two localities by McKelvey and White (1964) and White (1965) as overlying the Lowana Formation rather than the Eungai Mudstone. Given the quality of outcrop in these two areas, I could find no evidence to prove or disprove their interpretation. It is conceivable that locally submarine erosion has cut through the Eungai Mudstone. However, it is equally possible that facies variation within the Eungai Mudstone has resulted in sandier ''Lowana-like'' Eungai Mudstone does become both thinner and sandier from east to west (McKelvey, 1966; White, 1966). Hill (1973), mapping in this area, chose not to differentiate the Eungai and Lowana due to their similarities and treated tham as one informal unit. Whichever interpretation is correct, a regional unconform- ity is not indicated. The Bective Unconformity in the Timor Valley The change in sedimentation type, as discussed above, is considered unreliable evidence for the existence of the Bective Unconformity, while the greater degree of induration and quartz veining probably reflects in part the typically more siliceous, cherty nature of this part of the sequence (Crook, 1959a; Manser, 1968). To date, no unequivocal exposure has been reported of the Bective Unconformity in the Timor Valley. Further- more, this unconformity which separates Late Devonian from Middle Devonian strata has been placed at different horizons within the sequence, as shown by a study of the maps of Osborne et al. (1948) and Manser (1968). Strata included beneath the unconformity by Osborne et al. are placed above the unconformity by Manser. Manser's comments on the similarity of the deformation style above and below the unconformity would seem to argu against any markedly different deformational histories which could be expected in view of the proposed nature and duration of the unconformity. Perhaps the most convincing evidence presented for the existence of the Bective Unconformity in the Timor Valley, and also for its being here a major erosional feature of some duration, is the apparent absence of the Baldwin Formation and part of the Yarrimie Formation (Manser, 1968) and the BECTIVE UNCONFORMITY 65 of the overlying sediments. He noted cross folding in the Baldwin Formation, and assumed deformation of this unit occurred prior to deposition of the overlying sediments. Angular discordance between the Keepit Conglomerate and the underlying formations (Osborne et al., 1948; Leslie, 1963; McKelvey and White, 1964; White, 1964a, c). In different areas of the Tamworth Belt the Keepit Conglomerate overlies the Eungai Mudstone, the Lowana Formation, the Baldwin Formation and the Yarrimie Format- ion (McKelvey and White, 1964; White, 1965, 1966; McKelvey, 1966; Manser, 1968; Ellenor, 1971). This has been taken to indicate pronounced erosion on a regional scale. In the north of the Tamworth Belt no structural discordance has been recognized and the Bective Unconformity was consider- ed to be a disconformity marked by a sudden prominent lithological change with an erosional contact present in some localities (McKelvey, 1966). In the Timor Valley the Bective Unconform- ity (Isis Unconformity of Manser, 1968) separates the Keepit Conglomerate from the underlying Middle Devonian Yarrimie Formation. An unconformity between the Middle and Upper Devonian within the Timor Valley was first suggested on the basis of scant data by Osborne et al. (1948). The Isis Unconformity, separating Late Devonian strata from the underlying Middle Devonian Yarrimie Formation, was named by Manser (1968) and correlated with the Bective Unconformity of White (1964c) occurring further north. Manser (1968) gave the greater degree of induration and quartz veining of the Middle Devonian sediments (criteria of Osborne et al., 1948) and the change in sedimentation type as evidence for the Isis Unconform- ity, adding that ''there is only a slight structural break across the unconformity . but the style of deformation does not appear to differ’ (Manser, 1968). Manser considered erosion associated with the unconformity removed local equivalents of the Baldwin Formation and cut in to the Yarrimie Formation. Ellenor (1971) assumed, on the basis of palaeontological data, the upper horizon of the Timor Limestone to be a time plane to demon- strate the existence of an erosion surface with relief in the order of 200 metres (the Bective Unconformity) cut into the Yarrimie Formation. He considered the Keepit Conglomerate to be deposited upon this surface. The Bective Unconformity has thus been considered to be a significant Late Devonian hiatus of regional extent (Leslie, 1963; White, 1966), but of variable nature (McKelvey, 1966) throughout the Tamworth Belt. Crook (1959a, 1961), however, in his study of the area from Tamworth to the Timor Valley, did not record an unconformity at the stratigraphic level of the Bective Unconformity. The Bective Unconformity is considered to be of appreciable duration by White (1964c) and Ellenor (1971), although McKelvey (1966), points out the disconformity in the far north of the Tamworth Belt may represent only a short time gap, its recognition being due to the marked contrast in lithologies. Subaerial erosion is considered to have occurred by Ellenor (1971) for the Timor region, While White (1964c) and McKelvey (1966) invoke submarine erosion. The concept of submarine unconformities has been discussed by Crook (1959b) who stressed that such unconformities need not imply either subaerial erosion or tectonic upheavals. TABLE 1 THE STRATIGRAPHIC POSITION OF THE KEEPIT CONGLOMERATE AND BECTIVE UNCONFORMITY Mandowa Mudstone Keepit Conglomerate Mandowa Mudstone Keepit Conglomerate Mandowa Mudstone Keepit Conglomerate Late —— Bective Unconformity ——— Devonian Eungai Mudstone Lowana Formation Baldwin Formation Noumea Beds Middle el : : Yarrimie Formation Devonian A Northern part of Tamworth Belt (McKelvey and White, 1964) B Somerton-Attunga area (White, 1964c) C Timor Valley (Manser, 1968; Ellenor, 1971) 66 TPGeaRU SSE: erosional surface cut into the Yarrimie Formation, as described by Ellenor (1971). This erosional surface is based on a diagram (Ellenor, 1971, Fig. 11.4) showing the thickness of sediment between the top of the Timor Limestone, assumed to be a time plane on the basis of conodont zonation, and the base of the Keepit Conglomerate. The distance covered by this diagram is an area on the western limb of the Timor Anticline where the Keepit Conglomerate is thin, intermittently exposed from beneath Tertiary basalts, and lacking a readily recognisable basal contact, unconformable or not, with the underlying sediments. Ellenor has joined a limited number of points to define a channel-like erosional surface. For much of the distance covered by the diagram, including all of the channels southern) slope,. the Keepit Conglomerate is exposed, no evidence of erosional Contacts) canbe found: Ini tact,. the Keepit Conglomerate lacks a well defined basal contact in this area and appears to be both conformable and gradational with the underlying strata. The Keepit Conglomerate is shown in Ellenor's diagram as thinning into and up the northern flank of the erosional channel. This thinning, atypical of coarse, channel fill “deposits, 1s- considered further evidence against the erosional surface as suggested by Ellenor (1971). An alternative to this erosion surface is the occurrence in this area of the Keepit Conglomerate as a number of discontinuous lenses of coarse sediment at several different stratigraphic levels within a sequence of predominantly mudstone. This is supported by the presence of conformable basal contacts, and the observation by Ellenor (1971, p- 42) that in this area the Keepit Conglomerate "is discontinuous, and only restricted conglomer- ate lenses (9m thick) are developed". Lftthis “interpretations is correct, ithe Baldwin Formation, present some 8 km to the north on the other side of the Liverpool Range (Crook, 1959a; Offenber, 1971), could exist in the Timor Valley but only as a thin mudstone dominant sequence occurring conformably between the Yarrimie Formation and the Keepit Conglomerate. Alternatively, the Baldwin Formation may never have been deposited in this region, and time equivalent strata would be present in the upper horixons of the Yarrimie Formation and/or the lower portion of the Keepit Conglomerate. Palaeontological data which might provide support for either of these two possiblities are currently unavailable. Both conformable and disconformable contacts occur between the Keepit Conglomerate and the underlying strata in and to the south of the Timor Valley (Deroubaix, 1977; Russell, 1977). The disconformable contacts occur beneath coarse redeposited sediments while the conformable contacts occur where the Keepit Conglomerate is of finer grade. Summary It is considered that the evidence for the existence of the Bective Unconformity as an extensive unconformity of often marked angular discordance, implying ''major tectonic disturbance as well as considerable erosion" (White, 1966, p. 222) is unreliable. Within the Timor Valley the situation is less obvious. The presence of both conformable and disconformable contact, together with doubtful value of the evidence of Manser (1968) and Ellenor (1971) argues against the existence here of the unconformity as conceived by these authors. The occurrence of the Bective Unconformity in the Timor Valley as an unconformity of significant duration rests upon the absence of the Baldwin Formation. From the discussion above, evidence for the absence of this unit due to erosion is not convincing. I consider the Bective Unconformity within the Timor Valley to be a locally developed disconformable contact of unknown relief occurring between coarse redeposited sediments of the Keepit Conglomerate and the underlying strata. No evidence exists for a period of subaerial erosion having occurred. Conformable and gradational contact of alee Ao Keepit Conglomerate and Eungai Mudstone. The Eungai Mudstone contains thin medium bedded Keepit Conglomerate-type sandstones which rapidly become thicker and closer spaced at the expense of the mudstone. GR34342950 Inverell 1:250 000 Sheet SH56-5. THE BASAL CONTACT OF THE KEEPIT CONGLOMERATE Of the measured sections of the Keepit Conglomerate (Russell, 1977) 46% (19 sections) have exposed a basal contact with the underlying | unit. Two types of non faulted basal contacts may BECTIVE UNCONFORMITY 67 be recognized: 1. Conformable and gradational. 2. Disconformable and/or marked by an abrupt lithological change. In the first case the underlying Eungai Mudstone passes up to the Keepit Conglomerate by an increase in the number and thickness of sand- stone beds. The basal contact of the formation is taken at the base of the first thick sandstone bed. In this instance the contact is clearly conformable (Fig 2). In the second case coarse sandstone or conglomerate of the Keepit Conglomerate sits sbruptly upon mudstones of the underlying units. Depending on the nature of the outcrop, an erosional contact may be recognized. The scale of erosion in outcrop is usually in the order of a few metres. No significant attitude difference exists between the Keepit Conglomerate and the underlying sediments, although it is often difficult to obtain reliable dips in the conglomer- ate. Two aspects of the disconformable contact may be recognised. In the first, predomantly terrestrial sediments (Russell, 1977, and 7%” prep.) disconformably overlie marine sediments in the liake .Keepiit-area, (Fig. 3). The duration of time represented by this hiatus can be said to lie within the Famennian. Famennian fossils have been recorded from the Baldwin Formation beneath the Keepit Conglomerate (Pickett, 1960; Jenkins, 1966) and from the Mandowa Mudstone above the Keepit Conglomerate (Pickett, 1960; Jenkins, 1968). No evidence exists as to the geographical extent of probable subaerial erosion. Fant, Ss Disconformable contact between terrestrial coarse conglomerage of the Keepit Conglomerate and marine mudstones of the Baldwin Formation. GR34441826 Manilla 1:250 000 Sheet SH56-5. In the second situation the disconformity takes the form of submarine erosion or scouring at the base of redeposited sediments (Fig. 4, 5), as orginally conceived by White (1964c) and McKelvey (1966). The scale of erosion in outcrop is usually Disconformable contact between marine conglomerate of the Keepit Conglomerate and marine mudstones of the Eungai Mudstone. Manilla 1:250 000 Sheet Sh56-9. Fig. 4. GR33652740 x SK Disconformable contact between marine coarse sandstones of the Keepit Conglomerate and marine finer sediments of the Baldwin Formation. GR 36841773 Manilla 1:250 000 Sheet SH56-9. ss in the order of a few metres, but deeper larger channelling may be present as indicated by the presence in some sections of large mudstone blocks considered to be derived from channel walls, and the occurrence within the Keepit Conglomerate of channels in the order of 10 metres deep (Russell, OTe he Sections illustrating the second type of disconformable contact usually lie to the east of those possessing a conformable contact. The basal contact of the Keepit Conglomerate thus varies from a disconformable contact between terrestrial and marine sediments near the basin margin to initially an abrupt, usually disconformable contact beneath coarse redeposited marine sediments thence to a conformable and gradational contact in a more basinwards location. 68 Ts G-RUSSEEL CONCLUSIONS I consider the Bective Unconformity to be a basin disconformity which passes basinwards (eastwards) to an erosional contact beneath re- deposited strata. As such it differs to the original concept of an angular unconformity (White, 1964a) based largely on equivolcal criteria. No reliable evidence exists for major tectonic disturbances affecting the depositional basin prior to deposition of the Keepit Conglomerate. The extent of subaerial erosion appears to have been local, limited to the western margin of the Tamworth Belt (the basin edge). The amount of subaerial erosion is unknown. The precise duration of the hiatus is not easily determined but lies within the Famennian. The disconformity need have no temporal significance when resulting from erosion beneath redeposited sediments. The scale of erosion in these latter instances may be in the order of ten metres or more. Towards the basin depocentre the Bective Unconformity is absent and the Keepit Conglomerate is conformable upon the underlying strata. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work forms a small part of a regional study of the Keepit Conglomerate, carried out dur- ing the tenure of a Teaching Fellowship in Geology at the University of New England. I wish to acknowledge the financial support provided for this study by the University. Special thanks are due to fellow research students and the technical and teaching staff of the Geology Department for their generous assistance during this study. REFERENCES Cawood, P.A., 1976. northern New South Wales. 318. Cambro-Ordivician strata, Search, 7(7), 317- Crook, K.A.W., 1959a. the Twmworth Trough. New England. (Unpubl.) The geological evolution of PRED mAInes7s, UNL = sOfn Crook, K.A.W., 1959b. Unconformities in turbidite Sequences. J. Geol., 67(6), 710-713. Crook, K.A.W., 1961. Stratigraphy of the Parry Group (Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous), Tamworth-Nundle district, N.S.W. Jd. Proc. ROY. SOCAL Ne SsWe 5 945 189-2074 Deroubaix, D., 1977. Contribution a l'etude geologique de la region de Timor Waverley (Nouvelle-Galles du Sud, Australie). Docteur de Trotsteme Cycle These, L'Untverstte des Setences et Techniques de [ille. (Unpubl.) Edienor, DW, 1974). Sedimentology of the Middle Devonian Timor Limestone and associated sediments. Ph.D. Thests, Untv. New England. (Unpub1. ) Harrington, H.J., 1974. The Tasman Geosyncline in Australia, in the Tasman Geosyncline - a symposium pp. 383-407. Denmead, A.K., Tweedale, G.W., Wilson, A.F. (Eds.) Geol. SOC. “AUSite, Ode Dive eT IL I Sh IDS 5 * SIT oe Selected aspects of the Upper Devonian-Carboniferous sedimentation west of Barraba, N.S.W. B.Sc. (Hons. ) Thests, Univ. New England. (Unpubl.) Jenkins, T.B.H., 1966. The Upper Devonian index ammonoid Chetloceras from New South Wales. Palaeontology, 9(3), 458-463. Fammenian ammonoids from Palaeontology, 9(3),458-463. Jenkins, T.B.H., 1968. New South Wales. Korsch, R.J., 1977. A framework for the Palaeozoic geology of the southern part of the New England Geosyncline. <. Geol. Soc. Aust., 25(6), 339-355. Ledtch eh iCis LOU. the New England Fold Belt. Aust...) 2i(2)3 W35-i56s The geological development of J. Geol. Soe. Leslie, R.B., 1963. Geology of the Tamworth Trough area, N.S.W. Frome-Broken Hill Co. Pty. Ltd., Report No. 6000-G-20, 28 pp. Manser, W., 1968. Geological Map of New England 1:1000,000, Wingen Sheet (No. 320), with marginal text. Univ. New England. McKelvey, B.C., 1966. Stratigraphy and petrology of a Devonian and Carboniferous Sequence in northeastern N.S.W. Ph.D. Thesis, Untv. New England. (Unpubl.) McKelvey, B.C., 1974. Devonian and Carboniferous sedimentation on the Tamworth Shelf. Geol. Soc. Aust., Qld. Div., Field Conference Gutde Book, New England, pp. 20-22. McKelvey, G.C. and White, A.H., 1964. Geological Map of New England 1:100,000, Horton Sheet (No. 290) with marginal text. Univ. New England. Offenberg, A.C., 1971. Geological Sheet. Tamworth 1:250,000 Geol. Surv. N.S.W. Osborne, G.D., Jopling, A.V. and Lancaster, H.EF., 1948. The stratigraphy and general form of the Timor Anticline, N.S.W. J. Proc. Roy. Soe. N.S.W., 82, 312-318. Packham, G.H. (Ed.), 1969. The geology of New South Wales. J. Geol-Soc. Aust. T6(t) s=654. Pickett, J.W., 1960. zone of New South Wales. 237-241. A clymeniid form Wocklumeria Palaeontology, 3, Russell, T.G., 1977. Ph.D. Thests, Univ. New England. The Keepit Conglomerate. (Unpub1. ) White, A.H., 1964a. Geological Map of New England 1:100,000, Tamworth Sheet (No. 331), with marginal text. Univ. New England. White, A.H., 1964b. Geological Map of New England 1:100,000, Attunga Sheet (No. 321), with marginal text. Univ. New England. White, A.H., 1964c. The stratigraphy and structure of the Upper Paleozoic sediments of the Somerton-Attunga district, N.S.W. Proc. Linn. BECTIVE UNCONFORMITY 69 Soe. NoSaW., 822), 203-217. White, A.H., 1966. An analysis of Upper Devonian and Carboniferous sedimentation in part of the White, A.H., 1965. Geological Map of New England western foreland of the New England 1:111,000, Tareela Sheet (No. 3000), with Eugeosyncline. Ph.D. Thests, Univ. New marginal text. Univ. New England. England. (Unpubl). T.G. Russell, Department of Geology, University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W. 2351. Present Address: Department of Geology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vac. , 35052: (Manuscript first received 17.7.78) (Manuscript received in final form 7.12.78) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 112 pp. 71-78, 1979 Stratigraphic Palynology of the Mooki Valley, New South Wales HELENE A. MARTIN ABSTRACT. The palynology of over twenty bores in the Mooki Valley are reported. The bedrock contains either (1), Stage 5 (or the Dulhuntytspora assemblage) which is Upper Permian and equivalent to the 'Upper Coal Measures' or (2), the Protohaploxypinus rettculatus assemblage, which is equivalent to the basal lithologic units of the Narrabeen Group. The Cainozoic valley fills contain either Pliocene or Pleistocene assemblages with the exception of one anomolous sample which may be late Miocene. In two, possibly three bores, the Pliocene sediments directly overlie bedrock. This suggests that deposition did not start until the Pliocene and that Tertiary uplift along the Mooki Thrust System may be a late Miocene-Pliocene event. The pollen assemblages and abundance of predominantly brown clays suggests a dry type of closed forest and a climate with a marked seasonal drought. INTRODUCTION The Water Resources Commission of New South Wales has sunk many bores in the alluvium of the Mooki River Valley in its programme of exploration for underground water. This paper presents the results of the palynological study of the Mooki Valley. Of thirty bores examined, approximately twenty yielded workable assemblages of spores and pollen. Several bores just north of the Namoi River have been included as they are in close proximity to the Mooki Valley. In Mooki Valley which is located in the Sydney-Bowen Basin, the useful undergound water is found=1in the Tertiary valley fills. One of the problems of drilling in this area is the detection of bedrock which is highly weathered and friably hence shows little difference to the overlying unconsolidated sediments. Since most bores have penetrated the Permian bedrock its palynology is included here. GEOLOGY The Mooki Valley is located in the Gunnedah Basin which is one of the sub units of the Sydney- Bowen Basin. Outcrops of Permian and Triassic rocks are widespread throughout the Sydney-Bowen Basin. In the area of this study, the ''Lower Coal Measures" (Lower Permian), marine Permian, and, "Upper Coal Measures'' (Upper Permian) and the equivalents of the Narrabeen Group (Late Permian and Triassic) are found. Fig. 1 shows these out- crops. The valleys are filled with Tertiary- Recent alluvium (Menzies, 1975; Branagan, 1969). rs BORE LOCATION NARRABEEN GROUPS EQUIVALENTS UPPER COAL MEASURES ' F AA! SECTION IN FIGURE 3 v7, @ 3006) & <5) \ @ 30183} - x Fig. 1. Location of bores and the major geological features of the Mooki Valley. A 72 H. A. MARTIN The upper part of the bores penetrate the unconsolidated alluvium. The bore logs show clays and gravels. Some bores are almost entirely clay, some mostly gravel, whereas others show alternate banding of clays and gravel. Sand and silt are present as minor components. The colours are pre- dominantly brown, yellow brown, khaki and orange brown, occasionally reddish and whitish. Grey clays and carbonaceous clays are unusual but they have been encountered in several bores. This upper part extends down to bedrock which may be weathered conglomerate, sandstone or shale. Frequently the bedrock is almost indistinguishable from the overlying unconsolidated sediments. Coal, carbonaceous material and grey clays are commonly encountered in the bedrock. Selected logs are shown in Fig. 3. Only the grey clays, carbonaceous clays and coal were found to be suitable for palynology. Pollen has not been recovered any of the brown, yellow, orange or red clays unless thin bands of grey or carbonaceous clays are present. It is thought that the brown (etc.) clays indicate that the conditions of deposition were too oxidising for pollen preservation. This study area is just west of the Mooki Thrust System which is part of the border thrusts of the New England Plateau. Movement occurred along this thrust System in the Permian, and possibly earlier. It is thought that the elevated region east of the Mooki Thrust System controlled the deposition of coal in the Gunnedah Basin (Brownlow, 1978). There were a number of upward movements following the outpouring of basalts during Oligocene time (Voisey, 1969). PALYNOST RAT IGRAPHY Permian Balme (1964) described the Dulhuntytspora assemblage of the Upper Permian. A major micro- floral break was interposed between Upper Permian and Triassic assemblages. Helby (1973) described the Protohaploxyptnus reticulatus assemblage from the basal lithologic units of the Narrabeen Group which he placed in the Upper Permian, between the older Dulhuntytspora assemblage and the Triassic. Several other workers have constructed stratigra- phic schemes, and of these Stage 5 with a number of sub-units, is equivalent to the Dulhintytspora assemblage. All of these schemes are reviewed by Kemp et al., (1977) who proposes an additional unit, the Weylandites Zone which occurs between Stage 5 and the P. rettculatus assemblage. With the exception of two samples, the assemblages contain an abundance of bisaccate pollen of both the striatid and non-striatid types. Poor preservation in some of the samples has limited specific identification and the diversity of bisaccates is probably greater than that indicated by the list in Table 1. A few monosaccates are present, but not nearly as abundant as the bisaccates. Spores are common and generally better preserved than the bisaccate pollen. The distinctive Didecitriletes ericanus is found in practically every sample. The palyno- morphs and their occurrance are listed in Table 1, and the zone or stage of each sample is shown shown in Fig. 3. Dulhuntytspora parvitholus, found in some of the samples restricts the assemblages to Upper Stage 5. Those that do not contain D. parvttholus do not differ in their overall characteristics so this species absence may be a chance ommission. The presence of Polypodttdttes cteatricosus and Dulhuntytspora duthuntyt £. 296 restrict Bores 36124 and 36131 to the Upper Stage 5a. The assemblages found in Bores 30141 and 30061 are poorly preserved and there is low divers- ity. Bisaccates are present but not as abundant and Osmundacidites is common. These characteris- tics and the presence of Nevestsporites fossalatus indicates the P. rettculatus assemblage. No paly- nomorphs which first appear in the Triassic are found. These assemblages are listed in Table 1 also. Cainozoic Tertiary spore pollen zonation for the Gippsland Basin, of south eastern Australia has been described by Stover and Partridge (1973). This scheme extends to about the end of the Miocene. Several Pliocene assemblages have been described from western Victoria (Harris, 1971) and Queensland (Hekel, 1972). Both Pliocene and Pleistocene occur in south western New South Wales (Martin, 1973, 1969). The relevant parts of the latter stratigraphic scheme is shown in Fig. 2, in Martin (1977). The Trtporopollenttes bellus Zone (Stover and Partridge, 1973) contains an abundance of Nothofagus in the lower part of the zone but it becomes less common in the upper part. Of the characteristic zone species only Haloragts haloragorotdes is applicable to this study. It first appears in the upper part of the zone, which is late Miocene, possibly extending into the Pliocene. Several 'phases' have been described from the Pliocene. There are two Myrtaceae-Casuarina phases, one older, one younger and their main paly- nological characteristics are almost identical. The Nothofagus phase is found above the older Myrtaceae-Casuarina phase. In western New South Wales, only the menztestt and fusca pollen types of Nothofagus occur in the Wothofagus phase, and the brassit type which is common in the Miocene, is absent. A number of other pollen types associated with Wothofagus in the Miocene also reappear with it in the Pliocene. The Wothofagus phase is followed by the Gymnosperm phase, in which gymno- sperms become more abundant, which is then followed by a return to the younger Myrtaceae- Casuarina phase. The Wothofagus and gymnosperm phases are thought to be Upper Pliocene. It is not known whether the older Myrtaceae-Casuarina extends back to the beginning of the Pliocene. It appears that the Pliocene can be disting- uished from the Pleistocene on the basis of the abundance of the "herbaceous group'', as shown in Table 2. Three main pollen types constitute the herbaceous group, viz. the chenopod-type, Compositae and Gramineae. Each herbaceous pollen- type is more abundant in the Pleistocene than the Pliocene, although there is some overlap. v3 PALYNOLOGY OF MOOKI VALLEY v° 6s + + + + 7VLOS “uTeIIOIUN SOJEDIESTG + + 9 696 + s + + + (fe + + + OCTOZ L°88 O619¢ LEro¢ = UI) 6° 68 Ee2c 8°06 - vZL9S (uw) yadep 5 eL0g — — ee oO & WG OV I I = bh — No uw (oe) (oe) (4 CeLor “S Wtet ax + byy +c tedm with a similar expression for y, - y, where m is the magnitude taken from either the Cape Photographic Catalogue or the Sydney Astrographic Catalogue. A least squares solution without the proper motion term is then calculated using all the stars measured on that plate pair. Those stars whose residuals exceed 25 microns are eliminated from the solution and a further least squares solution is sought of the remaining stars. This is repeated for successive limiting residuals of 10, 7.5 and 5 microns. The final standard deviation of the stars in the solution is usually approximately 2 microns i.e. 012. That is, the dispersion of the cluster stars together with the measuring errors amounts to approximately 0''12 per 80 years. The resultant proper motion plate constants are then used to give the proper motions relative to the mean motion of the cluster. THE WEIGHTS Assigning a weight to each of the plate pairs subjectively, is not the best method. If the plate quality is low, then it should be obvious by the variance of its results from the average of all plate pairs. Therefore, an easy way of quantifying the accuracy of the measurement for a particular plate pair is to calculate the variance of the difference between the individual motion and the average motion, both in seconds of arc per century. This should be calculated when there are at least four plate pairs. The average of plate pairs excluding the one whose weight is being determined, could be used instead of the average of all plate pairs if so desired. For a reasonable number of plate pairs this makes very little difference to the weights. THE PROBABILITIES A method for computing membership probabilities has been devised by Sanders (1971). This involves representing the observed proper motions as two overlapping bivariate gaussian frequency functions (one circular for the cluster and one elliptical for the field.) The frequency function is given by the following equation; f c O(u;,V;) Om ach) é. 2 Ee 2 2 2 =a We XD, = z ie S ake + err roa + 5 exp = Z Ea eee 2 2nd 2 ie a 2no° a6 N N = if be ot, eo 102 D.S. KING where I have taken the cluster centre to be the origin, which it should be from the calculation of the least squares solution o, is the dispersion of the cluster star motions; Nr, Nc are the number of field and cluster stars; Xp, Y¢ the centre of the field star proper motion distribution; ,, 2, the field star proper motion dispersions; uj, vj the centennial proper motion for the ith star. All the parameters as well as the coordinates of the motion are defined in the rotated coordinate system defined by the principal axes of the apparent ellipsoidal distribution of field star motions. The method of maximum likelihood gives the following nonlinear equations of condition. Pad rh C~-I 2 < -h Mm |e g =r C ! ~< Fh SE | S (i= Xpohe Sey a. = =i | = 0 ee {ye cy eZ f } He get = - 1 = 0 y ) % | 52 Yi ae? yi (Pe oan Z Oe yi 5 ‘ = +2 | = 0 ae The summation being over the known total population (N. + Ne)- It is also desirable to include an additional equation that will enable the calculation of the rotation angle 6. Contrary to W.L. Sanders, this equation does not result in "undesirable complications". The equation is: Es ss a ( Yalty-Xel uylri-Yel eee eT eae =—0 £2 ie x Me The previous seven equations are solved by assuming initial values, then calculating the value of the asso- Ciated parameter of each equation in turn. After several iterations the parameters converged in all cases studied. Thus, the probability of membership is determined for the ith star as: chao Pp. = cae ike 3 One aspect has so far been neglected, and that is if the field star distribution is not a normal one. Local motion and differential galactic rotation cause some stars to depart from the normal distribution. These should first be removed from the calculation of parameters in order to satisfy the model. Without the correct amount of pruning it is found that the proper motions do not fit the calculated distribution given by the statistical parameters. I have used a chi-squared test to determine whether the parameters are actually fitting a binormal distribution. This involves dividing both the field and cluster stars into seven parts according to the number of standard deviations they are away from the centre of the field and cluster motion. Then the probability of either field or cluster membership are summed for all the stars with motions in each particular range. These numbers can then be compared with the expected numbers for a normal distribution. For example, the solution for NGC 4103 after already eliminating two field stars, gives the results in Table 1. Thus, the value of X?2 for the field is 17.49 and for the cluster is 18.23. There are six degrees of freedom so there is only a 1% chance that if we reject the solution it was the correct one for either clus- ter or field. Hence pruning of the stars is continued, choosing those stars which are the largest number of standard deviations away from the field centre. In this case the two stars which produced the numbers denoted by "'*"". Attention is drawn to the fact that these numbers are not integers, since they represent the sum of the probabilities that stars in this range are field stars. Pruning in this example was contin- ued until 15 stars were eliminated and the values of X? were 2.22 for the field and 0.55 for the cluster. DETERMINATION OF PROBABILITIES 103 TABLE 1 - x2 TEST RANGE OF FIELD CLUSTER STANDARD RANGE OF EXPECTED EXPECTED ACTUAL EXPECTED ACTUAL DEVIATIONS a OR B PERCENTAGE NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER 020, -; 1.0 1.00000 - 0.60653 39. 347 1154.22 15.023 So L075 74.158 i On—2) 1.5 0.60653 - 0.32465 28.188 8.183 8.006 39.455 22.648 teS: ='250 0.32465 - 0.13534 Seo Sa 5.495 1.000 26.498 20176 ZiO rr) 2-9 0.13534 - 0.04394 9.140 22055 3.000 b2.793 1257802 2255 — 3.0 0.04394 - 0.01111 3.283 0.29535 0.000 4.595 Yosh 10 P= 9 0.01111 - 0.00219 0.892 0.259 1.000* 1.249 LOZ eS 1661 25 imee O29 45,52)". -55 0655 D5See LO 459501 55107; 06 259 10.5. 943903. °-S3,07)34 2007 = Ode 4:2) (5:1% 55009246 1633 261 10:3: °° 42.15. -=53.09-335 261A 10.3: 42 07, =-53 09 18 2O1B] 1085 42505, 92-55 "08221 ZO2ine LOR) ce eS > 551 Or 21 2635. 2.10.3) 2241. 28 °-535° 0856 264 9) Ste 59) 59 55 207 a: 1595 10.18 265° =) 1024 39509 =535) 07-28 26697 10.15). S58" 59" =-5307- 50 267 NOSS. 58) 57 = oS Sul 0208 268 9.5: 38 10 ==55 7°08 18 1576 10.16 269 ON Zu 05) = DSO G27 1574 9.38 ZIO0e VOo1 = “3 7eo la — 55,064 10 1573 11.57 278s SNS: 46-081, 9= 55.101 39 278A. 510.4 45 1d = -—535>02) 30 2Z78B. 40.35 44.58) 53,204 57. 279% NO. A! £44123 SS 40S 1 280, 1053 2 4:35548 = 55-035.03 281 10.3, 2425465 (-S5901e4 1 282 Ws 10S 42,139 55304 257 Z82Ac 10.4 = 414229) (SF -5351202725 283 9.5 942526: '=53\ 03° -06 1631 284— LOL 2 94 33) 7 SS 204516 1620 285) ) 1085, (40.27 537 0504'S M No. u v fo} oj P Notes u v 5 -37 9 11 69 50 -43 14 14 8 84 = 2 8 6 2 22 16 14 11 86 23 -117 11 9 0 10 118 11 11 0 -16 15 11 9 84 I -40 11 6 63 -14 35 10 8 67 10 -63 5 5 12 -48 13 8 9 37 - 66 -59 ala 13 1 32 -16 10 8 74 -37 107 7 11 0 25 80 -29 9 9 1 22 7 11 6 87 -122 166 10 14 0 3 -297 135 8 11 0 6 55 2 - 2 8 9 91 12 -34 10 10 9 69 59 8 -33 9 8 74 22 i 13 11 87 -12 -14 8 10 87 -95 63 15 5 0 3 -14 -62 8 3 16 334 -393 10 9 0 6 31 -131 8 14 0 6 -29 4 12 79 -49 30 6 9 7. -173 138 9 7 0 3 -108 123 7 8 0 3 -31 4 6 5 76 PROPER MOTIONS IN THE REGION OF NGC 2669 and IC 2391 107 TABLE 1 continued No. Mag. Reve Dec. CPD No. V M No. u Vv oF On: P Notes 286 10.3 41 17 -53 02 37 -66 =—12 5 5 10 286A 1055 40 58 -53 02 50 69 -244 3 6 0 6 287 10.4 40 57 -53 03 50 -329 164 13 9 0 6 288 10.3 39 23 -53 05 06 -144 133 7 15 0 3 289 7.0 38 34 -53 04 58 1581 a2 18 28 -22 9 i, UE B 290 10.1 38 07 -53 02 39 -13 -90 6 6 0 291 10.1 38 03 -53 02 54 23 -41 10 11 47 292 LOS S055 -53 03 15 -162 61 15 i 0 3 293 10.2 36 53 -53 00 47 -285 149 15 11 0 6 2904 10.1 36 35 -53 00 12 1559 -23 -33 9 10 68 301 9.3 47 49 -52 59 31 1687 -39 -128 9 7 0 6 302 9.9 47 31 -52 59 57 1683 116 39 10 5 0 6 303 9.9 46 39 -52 58 18 1677 -17 0 9 8 87 303A 10.4 46 06 -52 59 05 - 3 9 9 9 90 304 9.9 45 40 -52 56 53 1666 De, eS 7 5 86 304A 10.3 44 55 -53 00 47 - 36 34 12 10 35 305 10.3 44 49 -52 57 46 -175 131 4 6 0 3 306 8.9 44 48 -52 56 42 1648 9.11 47 = 42 -12 9 9 89 D 307 10.3 44 36 -52 59 29 - 6 11 7 5 89 308 10.3 44 24 =52,57 24) 159 -282 5 8 0 6 309 10.5 44 20 -52 57 31 -137 84 5 13 0 3 310 10.3 44 04 -52 59 02 87 291 4 4 0 6 311 10.3 43 13 -52 57 34 Daf. - 9 12 7 82 312 9.9 41 53 -52 57 12 1626 10.93 62 58 -48 8 5 2 313 Ory 41 45 -52 56 25 1624 9.42 61 -69 -28 8 5 5 314 10.3 41 23 -52 56 15 Bee 60 -45 -24 6 14 45 315 4.6 40 59 -52 56 02 1607 4.82 34 B,2 SSA 10.5... 4.0) 56 -52 58 18 110 -74 13 10 0 316 8.5 40 42 -52 58 46 1600 8.60 30 169 - 200 9 11 0 B 317 Dey 38 14 -52 59 27 Le S/a7, 9.95 54 -156 153 10 10 0 3 322 8.0 47 34 -52 55 00 1684 47 -170 9 8 0 323 9.7 47 21 -52 52 40 1682 126 -181 5 7 0 324 10.4 46 35 -52 53 37 -126 139 i 7 0 3 325 10.3 45 58 -52 55 36 -199 222 8 7 0 3 326 9.9 45 54 -52 52 18 1668 -10 29 8 4 78 327 10.3 45 42 -52 54 39 51 -48 8 9 5 328 10.3 45 41 -52 55 16 13 - 2 9 3 90 329 10.3 44 32 -52 54 11 14 -14 8 6 87 330 14 43 22 -52 53 45 1634 7.60 41 - 24 10 10 7 81 B 331 10.3 43 00 -52 53 10 10 -17 7 7 87 332 TRS: 41 37 -52 53 49 1622 eeO 39 -40 28 11 10 Sh B 333 10.2 41 24 -52 51 10 1616 1131 74 140 -223 9 if 0 334 10.1 AT 20 -52 53 19 11.80 75 eS -15 10 9 87 335 9.9 41 07 -52 50 55 1609 9.69 2 74 -145 10 6 0 336 5.4 40 53 -52 55 10 1605 5.52 31 D,2 337 9.6 40 46 Sy). lySy US) 1602 9.59 51 -165 154 9 6 0 D,3 338 7.6 40 21 -52 52 58 1598 7.59 27 -21 39 5 10 51 339 10.3 A Om 2 -52 53 42 12.26 63 10 - 4 6 a 90 340 10.2 40 00 -52 54 35 11.08 64 40 SI 7 10 51 341 10.3 39 50 -52 53 41 11.69 66 -662 284 9 12 0 6 342 10.3 39 31 -52 53 59 12.09 67 43 -10 # 15 62 344 10.1 39 13 -52 54 12 12.29 68 -27 -28 7 11 70 345 9.7 38 33 -52 52 21 8.88 76 -81 146 15 8 0 D,3 346 5.0 38 32 -52 52 35 1579 Srezal 16 B,2 347 9.9 Si, Si, -52 50 54 IL SES: 9.66 53 40 143 9 9 0 6 348 10.3 37 50 -52 54 50 - 6 -144 9 11 0 349 9.5 37 34 -52 50 48 1568 9.62 52 -134 130 di 8 0 3 350 6.3 37 20 -52 54 48 1565 6.47 8 43 - 9 15 14 62 D 355 9.7 47 18 -52 50 29 1681 -146 174 8 8 0 3 356 9.9 47 16 -52 46 44 1680 - 3 - 7 6 3 90 357 10.1 47 08 -52 48 51 1678 35 -223 8 i, 0 6 358 10.0 45 51 -52 49 04 1667 -18 -12 8 7 85 359 10.3 45 47 -52 48 12 -120 98 5 5 0 3 360 9.8 45 32 -52 48 09 1665 9.89 29 25 -16 7 7 80 1 361 10.1 45 14 -52 46 29 1660 dle Si 15 10 0 6 7 90 1 108 D.S. KING TABLE 1 continued No. Mag. R.A. Dec. CPD No. V M No. u v oF ox Pp Notes 361A 10.5 45 08 -52 47 26 12.70 16 -18 50 13 1 31 1 SOUB, -107:5 45 05 -52 47 O01 U5 OH A, - 1 We 6 1 89 1 S61Cee 10.5 45 04 -52 49 44 15 10 5 11 89 S61D> 1025 45 01 -52 49 16 -13 -19 12 12 85 362 10.1 44 57 -52 47 42 1653 11.58 19 10 =a 9 5 90 it 363 9.9 44 50 -52 47 16 1650 10.64 20 20 -14 8 8 84 1 364 10.2 44 43 -52 46 33 11.84 22. -83 2 10 10 0 LS 365 9.6 44 43 —5 20 500 37, 1647 8.59 il -113 123 5 4 0 1S 366 Oe 44 41 -52 50 36 1646 -142 116 8 it 0 3 367 7.4 44 16 -52 47 17 1640 7.64 2 106 -180 11 10 0 B,1 368 OZ 44 06 -52 47 19 1638 11. 88 25 -22 2 9 8 82 1 369 LOcS 44 04 -52 50 46 17 -35 1% 9 66 370 10.3 44 02 -52 50 11 - 2 9 15 6 90 371 1053 42 33 -52 50 10 -267 161 10 1 0 6 372 10.3 41 34 -52 50 25 -18 43 14 10 47 575 9.9 41 20 -52 50 11 1614 10. 39 73 -174 155 8 y 0 3 374 EL 40 44 -52 47 15 1601 7.39 29 28 - 8 aa 7 82 375 10.3 40 13 -52 48 18 8 53 4 11 78 376 935 40 04 =52,46 52 1597 9.21 26 - 367 96 9 ih 0 6 Sa: 10,..1 39 58 -52 48 18 1594 10.89 gail 62 -29 9 8 8 378 10.3 39 20 — 52, SOmsl6 -31 -12 7 AZ 76 379 VO 39 04 -52 50 10 1585 -53 - 2 11 9 34 380 5.4 58252 = 52 so Ou 1S. 1584 5.60 Al B,2 380A 10.4 Sete 24 -52 47 16 -215 189 9 4 0 381 Sl 38 17 -52 47 11 1578 9.10 14 -113 108 10 9 0 3 382 9.5 57, 30 -52 47 14 LGW 10/253 56 -144 136 9 8 0 3 382A 9.7 S56n5i7, -52 46 13 1561 -164 163 9 8 0 3 385 9.1 47 44 -52 43 45 1685 11 - 9 9 10 89 386 10.3 46 33 -52 42 30 -37 26 10 Hl 46 387 10.0 46 O01 -52 42 34 1671 0 36 6 6 74 5870.5 45 05 -52 43 48 -13 2 10 9 88 388 9.3 45 04 -52 41 38 1657 8.20 4 35 =a 6 8 78 1 389 10.1 45 03 -52 45 30 1659 11.68 13 - 4 5 6 6 90 1 390 LO. 4: 45 02 =52) 45, 12 1656 P20 11 7 ao) 8 i 90 at 391 10.3 45 02 -52 44 42 12. OF 10 -222 246 9 15 0 1 392 9.2 45 01 -52 44 23 1655 9.41 9 43 -44 9 9 14 i 393 Oss 7245.00 -52 45 14 fA? 12 3 2 13 8 90 1 394 10.3 44 57 -52 46 00 1.2.26 18 4 - 3 12 6 91 1 395 9.9 44 49 -52 43 11 1649 eS 7 25 -15 i 5 81 1 395A 10.3 44 45 -52 46 14 11.84 22 2 5 6 8 91 1 S595B. 10.5 44 38 -52 43 42 gees 6 14 ate’ 5 4 89 1 396 10.0 44 28 -52 42 49 1644 11.00 5 - 3 30 9 2 80 1 397 9.2 44 06 -52 45 05 1639 9.41 24 -29 ink 8 8 75 1 398 10.3 43 57 -52 44 13 - 3 -20 5 6 86 398A 10.4 43 34 -52 46 04 -75 10 15 5 2 398B 10.3 43 07 -52 44 36 -213 125 15 12 0 3 399 TO. 1 42 38 -52 42 22 1632 -176 193 8 8 0 3 399A 10.3 41 48 -52 45 14 -75 57 8 172 if 400 10.2 41 32 -52 45 49 1618 -10 23 8 6 83 401 10.3 40 49 -52 45 25 60 56 14 10 5 402 10.1 40 48 -52 45 14 1604 -187 187 8 7 0 3 402A 10.4 40 44 a) PN ofA 4 10 aS) 13 90 403 O57 39 44 -52 43 25 1592 9.88 24 -166 163 9 6 0 B,3 403A 10.3 39 06 -52 44 51 -12 52 12 ile 33 404 3.4 38 52 -52 44 36 1583 3.64 20 2 405 9775 36 22 -52 41 39 LSS7 -57 127 9 lt 0 412 1033 46 49 -52 37 20 -48 - 5 11 4 46 413 Gn 46 32 -52 39 53 1675 6.34 50 - 4 - 6 10 6 90 414 LO.5 46 14 -52 40 02 -25 -24 5 if US 415 10.1 46 13 -52 40 54 1673 D5 -101 6 5 0 416 10:2 45 26 -52 41 06 - 9 5 10 11 38 417 10.1 45 21 -52 39 02 1663 12 - 4 4 6 90 417A 10.4 45 00 -52 40 33 - 3 46 6 ley, 54 418 Th 44 55 =—52, 59955 1652 7h 148) 5 -25 28 10 10 65 Daal 419 925 44 20 =52 39 17 1642 10.33 2a, 29 -28 8 9 64 1 420 LOS 43 36 -52 38 13 -24 15 10 5 78 PROPER MOTIONS IN THE REGION OF NGC 2669 and IC 2391 109 TABLE 1 continued No. Mag. R.A. Dec CPD No. V M No. u v o oF 4 Notes AZo een 5, 42° 53° -52 36 56 74 -24 6 5 2 ADS a ee LOn le °42).25 * -52 39 24 1629 -29 20 4 8 69 AZAT Os 42° 08. =-52 38 21 1627 3 a8 a 8 91 A425 HOxS 2 4204 .. -52 37 53 133. . =199 11 6 0 A26,% 1050 e Al 40 -52 39-00 1623 -61 101 8 3 0 3 Wie atOei ss “41.18 -=-52 39 58 1612 113 8 als! 10 0 428 TO 4055352 = =52 139 20 67 -39 ) 5 2 429 TOe 9 S9\,22.°--52 37. 23 1587 7129 20 32 4 SE 556, 81 B 430 OES eS 48 =52° 55° 17 S71 ati 4 10° +~=«10 0 431 TOSS 57 30" . -52-36 54 196 -247 7, 7 0 ASd LO eS P4705. .-52 35 08 41 -108 LS 15 0 435 HORS oe 405 Ser a9 2: 55.24 -63 -80 10 10 0 ASG wel Ose 448. =52.32 31 -175 9 ily/ 11 0 6 Asim 10.2) 46°27 | -S52 34,14 -160 65 At S 0 3 438 LOR A Se 19) 94-52; 32.54 1662 -71 55 3 8 0 439 LOR eee S100 = 52°33. 27 1654 (A! -152 9 7 0 440 10.1 44 42 £-52 34 42 1645 441 DOS, 44.05 --=52: 55 12 94 -41 S) 5 0 442 100244. 01) - °-52-33 50 1636 -104 124 6 7 0 3 BAS a eOed 2 42.599. -52 31 36 -182 174 10 8 0 5 444 HORS mcd lS 95254 22 2 5 13 8 91 445 LOL e423 —52 35° 36 1615 - 7 -32 10 8 di 446 S42 40 40°". -52 34 35 1599 TB 28 -194 145 Ju 7 0 D3 447 10.1 59 12 =52-33 43 1586 -26 34 9 8 DS 448 Seo LL oorIsa...- 52 SL 31 1580 8.0/7 BS -91 Ue) Vs 9 0 5 449 CeO me oie =52 3525.02 1569 8.78 10 -148 108 12 9 0 Dis A500 VOR tes. 28, 52531 38 -82 105 14 10 0 5 451 Oops OAD -52 33° 57 1560 106 10 10 10 0 455 10.1 46 38 =52) 29) 50 1676 -44 87 LOS 20 0 456 Daeleqr 455.20. 4% =52 3003 1664 -12 26 6 6 79 Abas UO. Se) 44435 ---52 30 21 - 8 52 8 13 36 458 TOR2) ee aoeye6" = 52 27 25 11 -15 11 8 87 AS Due LOLS. 450405 >,.=52. 26-43 - 6 10 12 6 89 TOO MmebOn On) ute. 204 = 52.350 11 -195 188 L 9 0 3 461 LOWS 4a O07 - =52:)-28..45 50 ~35 ii! 9 16 AG Zips LOs tu 640° .04), 5° =-52.26) 16 1596 55 -27 i 9 59 MOSSE LOs2y 94S =52 26 15 8 19 9 10 88 464 se dOnae (59058. -—52 26 51 1590 899 318 8 7 0 6 465 HORS 58-90 -52'27 18 -214 160 6 14 0 3 466 992.850) 46, --*-52° 26: 19 1582 tS -15 8 8 87 467 TOA 580252 52 (28. 55 -34 18 iat 6 63 468 Saal SJe Si. =92 25°15 1566 SST) 9 230 8 8=-138 10 12 0 6 469 TOTO 4 57 721 =52°26 05 1564 56 -37 13 10 8 470 Owarornct ls —52 27 04 1563 -24 6 S 9 82 471 10.1 ov 025. -=52 25. 09 1562 81 -36 ins) 9 0 Ao Oe s ~45 55° =52 26 06 1669 0 -50 6 6 43 474 9.570 45 (04.-- -52 22°45 1658 21 5 6 6 88 475 Oe 444.51 -52 22 55 -48 19 12 16 32 476 OO B44 1G = -52° 24: 38 1641 -19 -15 3 if 84 WW aetOs 22>. A526. -52 24-31 -102 69 10 10 0 3 478 NOnSe0" 42:30. --52 724 553 1 - 5 5 8 90 479 Opel ad? 2 = 52°25 39 1630 -43 -35 9 7 37 ASO BOO. 42°97. -52.23. 41 1628 -503 145 7, 10 0 6 481 Oo WATSON 52:25, 19 1625 -172 141 10 38610 0 3 482 POR a 42400 2 -52° 21°06 14 -40 it 8 59 Se5em 60.2 ' 4119 -52 22 07 20 = 7 9 7 87 484 Ome 4d AS = 2-52-22 59 1613 48 -62 11 9 i 485 SIE 5) 39556: = =o2 25. 12 1593 53 -56 9 10 9 Aso. (00.0. 39°44 =-52 21 01 1591 10 13 10 #10 89 487 Sader 59 752. 9-522 20°57 1588 10.63 Di, 92 -28 LS) 0 GL 0 488 Oy ST) 54)" --52.-24 08 1572 1 -23 7 0 85 Om: webO. lon 57, 47, © -52° 23 59 16 8 1 i? 89 495 O25." 46 04: -==52 18 27 1672 -15 25 9 8 78 110 No. Mag. 496 iO; 497 10. 498 Or 499 Shs 500 10. 501 Of Sydney Observatory, oOoouvunwnro RAs 44 44 42 41 41 41 5S 05 44 27 10 07 Observatory Park, N.S.W. SYDNEY. 2000 a) = 52 = 5:2 = 2 oe Sey? Dec. 20 19 16 19 7 20 D.S. KING TABLE 1 continued V M No. 9.64 36 (Manuscript received 26-9-79) Notes Journal and Proceedings. Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 112. pp. 111-113, 1979 Effect of Formaldehyde on the Abiogenesis of Nucleic Acid Bases in the Irradiated Mixtures of Jeewanu, the Protocells K. BAHADUR AND S. KUMAR#* ABSTRACT. The effect of formaldehyde has been studied on the abiogenesis of nucleic acid bases in a sterilised aqueous mixture consisting of ammonium molybdate, diammonium hydrogen phosphate and biological minerals. It was observed that the formation of nucleic acid bases increases with increasing concentration of formaldehyde up to 60 ml formaldehyde/200 ml mixture and thereafter decreases. Jeewanu, the protocells were formed by exposing sterilised aqueous mixture containing ammonium molybdate, diammonium hydrogen phosphate, biological minerals and formaldehyde to sun- light (Bahadur and Ranganayakee, 1970). The presence of nucleic acid bases (Ranganayaki, Raina and Bahadur, 1972), amino acids ( Bahadur, Verma and Singh, 1974), sugars (Raina, 1973) and lipids (Singh 1974) have been detected in the particles as well as in the environmental medium of these mixtures. Formaldehyde has been used as a source of carbon in the above mixture. The main reason for choosing formaldehyde as a source of carbon is that formaldehyde can be very easily synthesised by exposing an aqueous solution of carbon dioxide to ultraviolet light (Garrison, Morrison, Hamilton, Bensen and Calvin, 1957). Moreover formaldehyde has been detected in large quantity in interstellar space ( (Synder et. al. 1969). EXPERIMENTAL A set of six mixtures was prepared each having the following constituents: Ammonium molybdate 8 g Diammonium hydrogen phosphate 18 g Sodium chloride 3g Calcium acetate 0.5 'g Magnesium sulphate 0.5 2g Potassium sulphate Oo All these constituents were taken in six sepa- rate conical flasks of 250 ml capacity. 30 ml of distilled water was added to each flask. Each mix- ture was boiled and concentrated hydrochloric acid was added dropwise to each flask till a clear solu- tion was obtained. The flasks were cooled and the total mixture of each flask was made up to 100 ml with distilled water. These flasks were closed with a cotton plug and then sterilised in an auto- clave at 15 lb pressure for half an hour. After sterilisation, the flasks were cooled and 36% formaldehyde solution was added aseptically to each flask as follows: - formaldehyde + sterilised distilled water Flask A 0 ml 100 ml Flask B 20 ml 80 ml Flask C 40 ml 60 ml Flask D 60 ml 40 ml Flask E 80 ml 20 ml Flask F 100 ml 0 ml These flasks were shaken gently and exposed to sunlight for six hours each day. The nucleic acid * communicated by D.H. Napper bases were detected both in the particles and the environmental medium after 4 days and 8 days of exposure. The nucleic acid bases were identified after hydrolysing the particles and the environmental medium with 72% perchloric acid. For hydrolysis of the particles, 100 mg of the dried particles were taken in a hard glass ampule of 5 ml capacity. To this 0.5 ml of 72% perchloric acid was added. The tube was sealed and heated in a water bath for 2 hours. After cooling, the contents of the tube were taken out on a watch glass and evaporated to dryness-to remove: excess of perchloric acid. “the residue was taken up in 0.5 ml of distilled water. For hydrolysis of the environmental medium 2 ml of the environmental medium were taken and the hydrolysis was carried out in a similar manner as described above. The nucleic acid bases were identified by one dimensional and two dimensional paper chromato- graphy and finally by simultaneous running with standard compound. The developing solvents used were: - (1) isopropanol: HCl: water’: 65:16.6:18.4 (v/v) (2) ethanol : methanol: HCl: water:25:50:6:19 (v/v) (3) methanol + formeccacad: water: 160:50:10" (v/v) The spraying reagent used was 0.25M mercuric nitrate in 0.5N nitric acid and freshly prepared ammonium sulphide solution (Voicher and Chargaff, L951) Quantitative estimation of adenine in the particles: Adenine was estimated colorimetrically using zinc dust, sodium nitrate ammonium sulphamate and Bratton-Marshall reagent (Wood House, 1950). 112 BAHADUR AND KUMAR RESULTS The nucleic acid bases identified both in the particles as well as in the environmental medium are tabulated below:- TABLE NO. 1 Nucleic acid bases identified in the particles of different mixtures containing varying concentration of formaldehyde. Volume of Nucleic acid bases identified formaldehyde After 4 days exposure After 8 days exposure taken A(O ml) no particles were formed no particles were formed B(20 ml) adenine, uracil, guanine adenine, adenosine, guanosine C (40 ml) adenine, adenosine, adenine, uracil, cytosine, guanosine guanosine D (60 ml) adenine, guanine, cytosine, adenine, adenosine, uracil, guanosine cytosine, guanine E (80 ml) adenine, uracil, cytosine adenine, adenosine and uracil F (100 ml) adenine, cytosine adenine, adenosine, uracil TABLE NO. 2 Nucleic acid bases identified in the environmental medium of different mixtures containing varying concentration of formaldehyde. Volume of Nucleic acid bases identified iat Aah After 4 days exposure After 8 days exposuré A (0 ml) no nucleic acid bases could be detected B (20 ml) adenosine, cytosine C (40 ml) adenine, adenosine, uracil D (60 ml) adenosine, adenine, guanosine, cytosine E (80 ml) adenosine, uracil F (100 ml) adenine, uracil TABLE NO. 3 No nucleic acid bases could be detected adenine, uracil adenine, adenosine adenosine, guanosine adenine, cytosine adenine, adenosine Quantitative estimation of adenine formed in 100 mg of the particles in different mixtures containing varying concentration of formaldehyde. Volume of adenine formed in mg/100 mg of the sample formaldehyde taken after 4 days after 8 days A (0 ml) no particles formed no particles formed B (20 ml) 0.58 0.61 C (40 ml) 0.92 0.96 D (60 ml) 1.07 le2 E (80 ml) 0.74 0.79 F (100 m1) 0.66 Ona ABIOGENESIS OF NUCLEIC ACID BASES 113 DISCUSSION Formaldehyde plays a vital role in the abiogenesis of nucleic acid bases. In the mixtures without formaldehyde, no nucleic acid base could be detected. In the mixture containing 20 ml of formaldehyde, adenine, uracil and guanine were detected in the particles after 4 days exposure. As the concentration of formaldehyde was increased, the formation of nucleic acid bases also increased both in the particles as well as in the environ- mental medium. Maximum formation of nucleic acid bases was observed in mixture containing 60 ml of formaldehyde/200 ml of the mixture. On further increasing the concentration of formaldehyde the formation of nucleic acid bases decreased. On increasing the period of exposure to 8 days, the formation of nucleic acid bases was increased but the increase was only about 5 to 10% more than what is observed after 4 days of exposure. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors are thankful to state C.S.1I.R. for providing financial assistance to the second author. Department of Chemistry, Allahabad University, Allahabad, INDIA. REFERENCES Bahadur, K. and Ranganayakee, S., 1970. J. Br. Interplanet. Soc., 23, (12), 813-829. Ranganayaki, S., Raina, V. and Bahadur, K. 1972. J. Br. Interplanet. Soc. 25, (5), 279. Bahadur, K., Verma, M.L. and Singh, Y.P. 1974. Ze. AIAG 3, MEK. “145 (2), e870 Raina, V., 1973. Studies in some aspects of Abiogenesis of organic compound of biochemical interest: D. Phil. Thesis, Chemistry Depart- ment, Allahabad University, Allahabad, India. Singh, Y.P.,1974. Studies in Abiogenesis of lipids and other compounds of biological interest, D. Phil. Thesis, Chemistry Department, Allahabad University, Allahabad, India. Garrison, W.M., Morrison, D.C., Hamilton, J.G., Bensen, A.A. and Calvin, M., 1957. Setenee, 114, 416. Synder et. al, 1969. 679, Phys. Rev. Lett., 22, (13), Voicher, V. and Chargaff, E., 1951. J. Btol. Chem. 192, 481. Wood House, D.L., 1950. Arch. Bitocehm., 25, 347. (Manuscript received 20.3.1979) (Manuscript received in final form 26.8.1979) Journal and Proceedings, Roval Society of New South Wales. Vol. 112. pp.1 15-120. 1979 Magnesian Calcite at Macquarie Rivulet Delta, Lake Illawarra, New South Wales F. C. LOUGHNAN. P. R. EVANS AND M. C. WALKER ABSTRACT. A thin, indurated carbonate layer comprising calcium and magnesium in varying proportions, is developed in the near subsurface of a barren, salt-encrusted zone and adjacent algal mat-covered flat at Macquarie Rivulet delta, Lake Illawarra. The presence of this layer appears anomalous since not only is the climate of the area humid with an annual rainfall in excess of 1100 mm, but furthermore, the associated sediments contain abundant decomposing organic matter and are essentially devoid of shell fragments and other detrital carbonate grains. In an attempt to understand the geochemical conditions that have given rise to precipitation of the carbonate layer, analyses have been made of the groundwaters and algal mats in addition to the associated sediments. It is concluded that although the mechanism of formation of the carbonate layer is incompletely understood, the algal mats may have exercised a controlling influence. INTRODUCTION The Macquarie Rivulet delta, which protrudes out from the southwestern shore of Lake Illawarra, a coastal lagoon located approximately 80 km south of Sydney (Fig. 1), has an areal extent of about 1 km’. The subaerial plain of the delta is mostly covered by grassland with scattered Casuarina sp. on the levees and ridges but, as the lake margin is approached, the rush Juncus krausst (J.maritimus) generally becomes abundant and not infrequently the grassland gives way rather abruptly, to an algal flat with the glasswort Saltecornita quinqueflora. Moreover, near the southeastern extent of the sub- aerial plain (Fig. 2), the grassland is separated from the algal flat by a barren, mud-cracked and salt-encrusted zone that varies in width up to 25 m. Although essentially devoid of shell fragments and other detrital carbonate grains, this zone and the adjacent algal flat contain in the near subsurface, a thin, persistent, indurated carbonate layer that comprises appreciable amounts of magnesium in addition to calcium. Since decomposing organic matter is prevalent in the deltaic sediments and the rainfall of the area exceeds 1100 mm annually, much of which penetrates the surface, it would be expected that in such an environment precipitation of carbonates would be inhibited by downward per- colating waters charged with carbon dioxide. The primary objective of this investigation therefore, has been an elucidation of the geochemical para- meters that have given rise to the development of the carbonate layer. THE MACQUARIE RIVULET DELTA The Macquarie Rivulet, which is the largest stream draining into Lake Illawarra, rises in the highlands of the southern Sydney Basin where the rainfall is 1500 mm, and flows in an easterly dir- ection. The upper reaches drain Tertiary basalt and shales of the Triassic Wianamatta Group before descending the escarpment of the Hawkesbury Sand- stone to the more easily erodable strata of the Narrabeen Group and the underlying Late Permian Illawarra Coal Measures. Because of the rapid run- off over this section, a large mass of alluvial and colluvial debris has accumulated at the base of the escarpment. In its lower course the stream traverses lavas and volcanic sandstones of the Middle Permian Gerringong Volcanics or soil and alluvium derived from these rocks. Young (1976) believed that the alluvial and colluvial accumula- LAKE ILLAWARRA BEVANS ISLAND Ri 2 DELTA SCALE f°) | 2 SS I KILOMETRES Fig. 1. Sketch map of Lake Illawarra. tions on the hillsides at the base of the escarp- ment supplied the bulk of the detritus for con- struction of the delta but, judging from the preva- lence of feldspar in the deltaic sediments, it would appear that the Gerringong Volcanics have also been a major contributor. The delta, which is of the birdsfoot type, projects about 1.5 km out from the shorelines of adjacent Koona and Hayward's Bays (Fig. 2). Most of its growth has been over the past hundred years (Young, 1976) and is undoubtedly attributable to accelerated erosion resulting from the clearing of the natural vegetation to make way for urban and agricultural development. Prior to the floods of 1974 and 1975, discharge into the lake was princi- pally through the northern distributary but the 116 F.C. LOUGHNAN AND OTHERS eastern channel, which is located on the site of an earlier crevasse, was considerably widened by these floods and now forms the main outlet. As Young (1976) noted, the delta is mostly construct- ed of the coarse fraction of the stream-borne debris whereas much of the clay and silt has been carried well beyond the mouths of the distribu- taries. Some of this fine detritus is being swept into Koona Bay, particularly during periods of high lake-water level, by waves generated by east- erly and northeasterly winds. As a result, the shoreline of Koona Bay, including the southern margin of the delta, is prograding rapidly (Jones etal. 1976): Brown (1968) has drawn attention to the influence of longshore currents on the growth of the delta. As the levees were extended out into the lake, curved spits developed on the down- currents side and these eventually grew to enclose lagoons. Ultimately the lagoons were filled with fine grained detritus leaving shallow depressions separated by low ridges over much of the subaerial delta. The small lagoon located on the southeastern flank of the delta (Fig. 2) represents an inter- mediate stage in the development of one of these depressions. At times of high lake levels this lagoon is filled with marine water but, during protracted arid spells, it may dry out completely leaving a thin residual crust of gypsum and halite. However, there does not appear to be a build up of these salts on the floor of the lagoon and appar- ently the crust is destroyed during the ensuing period of inundation. Although Lake Illawarra is virtually non- tidal, fluctuations in water level of the order of half a metre, brought about by the intermittent opening and closing of the lake entrance and vari- ations in stream discharge into the lake, are apparently of sufficient frequency to maintain a HAYWARD'S BAY LAKE ILLAWARRA SCALE 200 400 KOONA BAY METRES Fig. 2. Sketch map of the Macquarie Rivulet delta. saltmarsh environment along part of the foreshore including the southern margin of the delta. In this environment the glasswort Saltcornta quinqueflora tends to flourish and blue-green algae have built almost continuous mats (Fig. 4). The uppermost layer of these mats comprises Lyngbya sp. and Microcoleus sp. and appears relatively free of sediment and particulate matter whereas the under- lying layer, consisting of Trichodesmtum sp. and Mterocoleus sp., contains appreciable amounts of solid sediment adsorbed on the algal filaments (S. Lupton - pers. comm.). The carbonate layer is generally located within a few centimetres of the base of the algal mats. The succeeding barren, salt encrusted zone contains mud cracks and stromatolites in addition to the layer of magnesium-calcium carbonate in the sub-surface, features that have been recorded from a range of supratidal zones including those of humid areas (Shinn et al., 1965) as well as the extremely arid sabkhas (Illing et al., 1965; Kinsman, 1969). It is slightly more elevated than the algal flat and apparently encroachment by lake water does not reach this zone or is too infrequent to support algal growth. Nevertheless, the presence of stromatolites in the surface mud immediately above the carbonate layer attests to the former development of algal mats and presumably in the recent past the lake level stood somewhat higher. Wind blown spray would seem the most likely source for the accumulation of salt and apparently replenishment by this means is adequate to offset loss through solution by meteoric water and also, to inhibit the spread of grass across the zone. CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL DATA In an attempt to gain an understanding of the geochemical conditions that have given rise to pre- cipitation of the carbonate layer, a series of auger holes extending from near the lake edge to the mar- gin of the grassland, were put down (Fig. 3). Rep- resentative samples of the sediments were obtained < a 4 < = < =] ej Location of the auger holes in relation to the algal flat, salt-encrusted zone and grassland, Fig 3. MAGNESIAN CALCITE AT LAKE ILLAWARRA fay, Fig. 4. Part of algal flat. Note algal polygons and glasswort. for determination of the mineral composition and pH measurements of the groundwater in each of the holes were made in situ using a portable meter. Samples of the groundwater were also collected for determination of the calcium, magnesium, sodium and chlorine contents and similar analyses were made of the lake water for comparison. In addit- ion, samples of the carbonate layer, the algal mats and the glasswort were initially washed in CARBONATE [ed LAYER LJ cvay ° xs > 20 : E 2 aw is S _Mg/Ca x oO 10 Fig. 5, Sedimentary sections encountered in the auger holes and variations in pH, distilled water to remove adhering salt and sedi- ment and subsequently, analysed for their calcium and magnesium contents. Water analyses As shown in Table 1, the pH value of the lake water is 8.3 but the groundwaters in the auger holes tend to be more acidic due to the concen- tration of bicarbonate ions arising from the decay of organic matter. The lowest reading was for hole A where organic matter is most abundant, whereas the remaining holes yielded values about or slightly above neutrality. The curve for the vari- ation in pH values across the algal flat and salt- encrusted zone (Fig. 5) appears characteristic of coastal sections generally, including the sabkhas of the Persian Gulf (Illing et al., 1965). The chlorinity expressed in parts per thous- and, decreases from 18.5 at the lake edge to 13.2 in hole A but from there it increases gradually to a maximum of 22.3 in hole E, which is located near the outer margin of the salt-encrusted zone. Al- though the trend of the curve shown in Fig. 5 bears a resemblance to that furnished by Illing et al., (1965) for the Faishakh Sabkha, the values are appreciably lower and undoubtedly reflect the greater humidity of the Macquarie Rivulet delta. In general, the Mg/Ca ratios for the samples of groundwater obtained from the auger holes do not deviate greatly from that of the lake water. Nevertheless, there is a tendency toward a higher concentration of magnesium relative to calcium in ee oe ee ea eo © 2 ° wo a OlDs BOW 09/5W —Cl = ° > a chlorinity and Mg/Ca mole ratio across the algal flat and salt-encrusted zone. 118 F.C. LOUGHNAN AND OTHERS the holes closest to the grassland. Detrital mineral composition From petrographic and X-ray diffraction analyses of the sediments obtained from various levels above the water-table in the auger holes, it is apparent that quartz is the dominant detrital mineral, not only of the silts and sands but also of the muddy surface layer. Feldspar, which in some samples amounts to nearly 20% of the total mineral content of the sediment, is almost invari- ably associated with the quartz occurring as dis- crete grains and less frequently as a constituent of rock fragments. Disordered kaolinite is by far the most abundant of the clay minerals being frequently present to the exclusion of other mem- bers of the group. Nevertheless, minor amounts of mixed layer clay minerals and highly degraded illite were detected in some samples. The pre- dominance of kaolinite over the other clay minerals undoubtedly reflects the influence of the high rainfall on the decomposition of the source rocks. However, possibly there has been preferential con- centration of the mineral as a result of differ- ential flocculation by the marine water. Similar analyses made of washed samples of the algal mats revealed that quartz and feldspar are the only crystalline phases present. Authigenic minerals Halite and magnesian calcite were the only non-detrital minerals detected in the sediments intersected in the auger holes. Gypsum was found associated with halite on the floor of the dried out lagoon during one of the visits to the area but this mineral appears absent from the subsurface samples, a point that seems pertinent to discuss- ion of the origin of the magnesian calcite. Halite, which varies in content up to 10% of the total constituents, was encountered in about half the number of samples of sediment examined from the auger holes. Its distribution within the sedimentary succession however, appears somewhat random. Magnesian calcite is mainly confined to the persistent layer located from 2 cm to 8 cm below the surface of both the algal flat and salt-encrus- ted zone. In this layer, which has a thickness of only a few centimetres, it is fine grained to micritic and infills desiccation fractures as well as the interstices between siltsize quartz and feldspar grains. It has also been found lower in the sequence as a cement in small fragments and nodules that probably represent remnants of an earlier formed layer. As shown in Table 2, the composition of the magnesian calcite is quite variable with some sam- ples tending to approach the Mg/Ca mole ratio of dolomite, and this is borne out by the X-ray diff- raction data. The 10.4 spacing, which is the only reflection observed on the X-ray charts, is gener- ally very broad and lies between 2.90 A and 2.99 A (cf. the 10.4 spacing,for dolomite at 2.886 A and for calcite at 3.035 A - Graf, 1961). Neverthe- less, for some samples two or more maxima are evident within this range (Fig. 6) and where the TABLE 1 PARTIAL ANALYSES OF THE LAKE WATER AND THE GROUNDWATERS IN THE AUGER HOLES Hole Mg Ca Mg/Ca Cl Na pH °/oo °/oo °/o0 °/o0 Lake 1.26 0.43 4.83 18.5 GE 2h 8530 A 0.89 0.32 4.56 1322 6548) 0.65.75 B 12 16 0.40 4.78 16.9 Foie) oscil gated 0) 6 155 0.53 4.76 21.0 ep 1043S) 7.920 D 1.54 0.55 4.79 PATE 340) Sh east E 1.54 O55 4.62 22:5. T2695 F 1.41 0.44 S28 20.55: My LO033 7: 7:00 G 1128 0.36 5.86 18.7 OF 54 7.00 H 0.72 OF.22 5.45 L135 SALE) PAS * Mole ratio mineral is richer in the CaCO, molecule, the peak appears less diffuse and is located closer to the 10.4 spacing of calcite. Heating the mineral at 250 C for 90 hours failed to produce detectable change to either the form or position of the re- flectance. The differential thermal curve (Fig. 7) for a sample of the carbonate layer has a sharp endo- thermic peak at 860 C, which is approximately mid- way between the two endothermic peaks registered by dolomite. olhe broad exothermic peak between 200 C and 600°C is attributed to oxidation of organ- ic matter and that commencing a little before 900°C is probably due to reaction of the carbonate miner- al with quartz and possibly also kaolinite. ORIGIN OF THE MAGNESIAN CALCITE From the chemical, X-ray and differential ther- mal data it is apparent that the carbonate mineral encountered in the sediments of the algal flat and the salt-encrusted zone is a highly disordered, solid solution of calcite and dolomite and that the composition is within the range assigned to high magnesian calcite (Friedman, 1964). It diff- ers from dolomite not only in composition and lack of ordering but also, by the fact that it is a metastable phase and in time will invert through depletion of magnesium ions, to low magnesian cal- cite (Chave, 1952). Considering the high rain- fall of the delta this inversion should proceed rapidly and hence, the mineral is of very recent origin and is probably still forming in the algal flat sediments. The mechanism whereby Ca** and Mg’ * have been and apparently are being concentrated in the pore water to the point of precipitation however, seems far from clear and indeed, is linked to the "dolomite problem'' (Krauskopf, 1967), one of the MAGNESIAN CALCITE AT LAKE ILLAWARRA 119 TABLE 2 PARTIAL ANALYSES OF SAMPLES OF THE CARBONATE LAYER, THE ALGAL MATS AND THE GLASSWORT * Sample Mg Ca Mg/Ca Composition oe of Mg-calcite 1 4.6 14.4 0.52 Cay 65M8q 35003 MMg-calcite 2 4.1 15.1 0.44 Cay 6oM8o. 31003 Mo—caleite 3 1.3 OS 0% 22 Cay goMBo 19603 Algal mats(a) 0.98 OnS2. 5-00 - Glasswort (a) 0.97 0.51 =+34:14 f eed eee ieee ony Perret DEGREES 20 Fe Ky RADIATION (a) on a dry basis pote Tac. Fig. 6. Part of the X-ray diffraction trace of a sample of the magnesian calcite. remaining unsolved mysteries in sedimentary geo- M-C = magnesian calcite; F = feldspar; chemistry. Although dolomite and high magnesian Q = quartz and K = kaolinite. calcite have been observed forming in a range of environments including the arid sabkhas of the Persian Gulf (Illing et al., 1965; Butler,1969), the semi arid Coorong of South Australia is at least saturated and possibly supersaturated, (Alderman § Skinner, 1957; Skinner, 1963) and the with respect to CaCO, (Krauskopf, 1967), precipita- intertidal and supratidal zones of the humid tion should ensue if the concentration of Ca” were Bahamas (Shinn et al., 1965), Bermuda (Friedman, increased or, alternatively, the partial pressure 1964) and Bonaire (Deffeyes et al., 1965), they of CO, above the water table were reduced. The have not been synthesised at ambient temperatures concentration of Ca in the groundwater associated when left in contact with the precipitating solu- with the carbonate layer tends to be a little tions (Glover & Sippel, 1967). Consequently, greater than that of sea water but precipitation is there has been much speculation on the origin of inhibited by the release of CO, from the decaying these minerals. organic matter. Nevertheless, it is possible that at times of active mat growth, assimilation and In the more arid areas of dolomite and high hence, reduction in the partial pressure of carbon magnesian calcite development, gypsum is frequent- dioxide, or even the direct uptake of bicarbonate ly present and this association has led to the ions, by the algae is sufficient to promote local concept that these minerals form through evapora- precipitation of carbonates. tive processes. As evaporation of the pore waters intensifies, gypsum precipitates and the brines, correspondingly enriched in magnesium relative to calcium, permeate and react with detrital arago- nite and calcite fragments converting them to either high magnesian calcite or dolomite (Adams §& Rhodes, 1960; Illing et al., 1965; Shinn et al., 1965). But, to invoke this mechanism for the formation of the high magnesian calcite at Macquarie Rivulet delta would introduce difficul- ties since neither gypsum nor carbonate detritus including shell fragments, has been encountered within the sedimentary sequence. The aspects that seem most pertinent to dis- 900 cussion of the origin of the carbonate layer at Macquarie Rivulet delta are the association of the layer with algal mats or remnants of such mats, and the prevalence of CO, in the under- lying sediments. Perhaps to these should be added the fact that CO, constitutes the principal, if not the sole, source of carbon for the blue- green algae (Smith, 1973). Since normal sea water Fig. 7. Differential thermal curve for a sample of the magnesian calcite layer. 120 Alternatively, since the algal mats contain both Ca and Mg (Table 2), the high magnesian calcite may have been derived directly from the mats. Pertinent in this respect, Gebelein and Hoffman (quoted by Golubic, 1973) found that sheaths of blue-green algae are capable of accumu- lating Mg in concentrations up to 5 times that of sea water while Monty (1967), from a study of magnesian calcites at Andros Island in the Bahamas, concluded that the mineral is mostly pre- cipitated within blue-green algal mats. These views also accord with those expressed earlier by Chave (1952) that solid solutions of calcite and dolomite can arise only through deposition from organisms and that "inorganically precipitated calcites almost invariably show less than 2 per cent MgCO.,"". The principal difficulty with this concept in accounting for the origin of the mag- nesian calcite at Macquarie Rivulet delta, however seems to be the distance separating the carbonate layer from the algal mats for if the layer were derived from the algae, a more intimate association would be expected. Nevertheless, irrespective of the actual mechanism of formation of the high magnesian cal- cite at Macquarie Rivulet delta, it is apparent that neither an arid climate nor the presence of calcite and aragonite detritus was an essential prerequisite. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are indebted to Dr. F.I. Roberts, who assisted with both the field and laboratory work, to Mr. Steve Lupton, who identified the algae and provided much information on their ecology, to Professor K.C. Marshall and Dr. John Bauld for valu- able discussions and to Ms. I. Ruffio, who gave assistance with the chemical analyses. REFERENCES Adams, J.E. and Rhodes, M.L., 1960. Dolomitisation by seepage refluxion. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Bull., 44, 1912-1920. Alderman, A.R. and Skinner, H.C., 1957. Dolomite sedimentation in southeast South Australia. Amer. Jour. Set., 255, 561-567, Brown, B.J., 1968. Illawarra. (unpubl.). Shoreline development, Lake M.A. Thesis, Sydney Uni. Butler, G.P. 1969. Modern evaporite deposition and geochemistry of coexisting brines, the Sabkha, Trucial Coast, Arabian Gulf. J. Seditm. Petrol., 34, 70-89. Chave, K.E., 1952. A solid solution between cal- cite and dolomite. Jour. Geology, 60, 190-192. Deffeyes, K.S., Lucia, F.J. and Weyl, P.K., 1965. Dolomitisation of Recent and Plio-Pleistocene sediments by marine evaporite waters on Bonaire, Netherlands Antiles. tn Pray, R.C. and Murray, L.C. (ed.) Dolomitisation and limestone diagenesis. Soc. Econ. Palaecont. and Mineral Spec. Pub., 13, 71-88. F. C. LOUGHNAN AND OTHERS Friedman, G.M., 1964. Early diagenesis and lithifaction in carbonate sediments. J. Sedim. Petrol., 34, 777-813. Golubic, S., 1973. The relationship between blue- green algae and carbonate deposits; in Carr, N.G. and Whitton, B.A. (ed.). The btology of blue-green algae. Blackwell, London. Glover, E.D. and Sippel, R.F., 1967. Magnesium calcites. Acta., 81, 603-613. Synthesis of Geochim. et Cosmochim. Graf, D.L., 1961. Crystallographic tables for the rhombohedral carbonates. Amer. Mineral., 46, 1283-1316. Illing, L.V., Wells, A.J. and Taylor, J.Gi 1965: Penecontemporary dolomite in the Persian Gulf, tm Pray, L.C. and Murray, R.C. (ed.) Dolomitisation and limestone diagenesis. Soe. Econ. Palaeont. and Mineral. Spec. Pub., 16, 358-141. Jones, B.G., Eliot, I.G. and Depers, A.M.,° 1976. Sediments in the lake, tn Illawarra Lake, Wollongong City Council Publ., 20-50. Kinsman, D.J., 1969. Modes of formation, sediment- ary association and diagnostic features of shallow-water and supratidal evaporites. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Bull., 53, 830-840. Krauskopf, K., 1967. Introduction to geochemistry. McGraw-Hill, New York. Monty, C.L.V., 1967. Distribution and structure of Recent stromatolitic algal mats, eastern Andros Island, Bahamas. Annal. Soc. geol. Belge., 90, 55-100. Shinn, E.A., Ginsburg, R.N. and Lloyd, R.M., 1965. Recent supratidal dolomite from Andros Island, Bahamas. tm Pray, L.C. and Murray, R.C. (ed.) Dolomitisation and limestone genesis. Soc. Econ. Palaeont. and Mineral., Spec. Pub., 13, 112-123. Skinner, -H.€.4. 1963. Precipitation of calcian dolomite and magnesian calcite in the south- east South Australia. Amer. Jour. Sct., 261, 449-472. Smith, A.J., 1963. Synthesis of metabolic inter- mediates tn Carr, N.G. and Whitton, B.A. (ed.) The btology of blue-green algae. Blackwell, London. Young, R.W., 1976. Infilling of the lake in Illawarra Lake, Wollongong City Council Pub., 10-19. School of Applied Geology, University of New South Wales, Kensington, N.S.W., 2033. (Manuscript received 6.10.79) i Wit a Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 112, pp. 121-124, 1979 An Occurrence of the Camerate Crinoid Genus Eumorphocrinus in the Early Carboniferous of New South Wales I. D. LINDLEY ABSTRACT. Eumorphocrtnus elongatus n. sp. from the Early Carboniferous of the upper Hunter Valley in New South Wales marks the first record of the primitive actinocrinitid (Crinoidea: Camerata) genus in the Southern Hemisphere. Eumorphocrinus has been previously known from the early Viséan of the British Isles and from the early Osagean of Arizona. INTRODUCTION The genus Ewnorphocrinus was established by J. Wright (1955, p. 232) and includes three definitely assigned species. Eumorphocrinus, considered by Brower (1969) to have the most primitive ray and interbrachial structure known in the Actinocrinit- idae, is believed to be a direct descendant of the Periechocrinidae. Both the periechocrinids and Eumorphocrinus are characterised by the retention of many fixed-brachials in the aboral cup struc- ture as well as having strongly grouped non- protuberant rays. As Brower (1969) states, vir- tually the only difference between the two groups is the number of plates in the second range of the CD interray. Actinocrinitids with features similar to those of Eumorphocrinus have been assigned to Subfamily Eumorphocrininae by Ubaghs (1978). Along with Eumorphocrinus, the subfamily also includes Cyttdocrinus Kirk (1944), Maltgneocrinus Laudon, Parks and Spreng (1952) and Manillocrinus Campbell and Bein (1971). The genus Mantllocrinus is the only other eumorphocrininid that has been found in the Early Carboniferous of New South Wales. SYSTEMATIC PALAEONTOLOGY Subclass CAMERATA Wachsmuth & Springer, 1885 Order MONOBATHRIDA Moore § Laudon, 1943 Suborder COMPSOCRININA Ubaghs, 1978 Superfamily PERIECHOCRINACEA Bronn, 1849 Family ACTINOCRINITIDAE Austin §& Austin, 1842 Subfamily EUMORPHOCRININAE Ubaghs, 1978 Genus EUMORPHOCRINUS Wright, 1955 Type species Eumorphocrinus erectus Wright, from Coplow Knoll, Clitheroe, Lancashire. Diagnosis An actinocrinitid with rays strongly grouped but not protuberant, and 2 secundibrachs. The lst secundibrachs are incorporated in the cup struc- ture while the 2nd secundibrachs are axillary and with the lst, 2nd and 3rd tertibrachs may project at slight angles from the line of the cup. A hexagonal intersecundibrachial distinctly separ- ates the half rays; brachial openings 4 in each ray. Tegmen low to steeply conical, many plated, with central anal tube. Remarks The present specimen with two plates in the range following the primanal clearly can be assigned to the Actinocrinitidae. The fact that it has non-protuberant rays with 2 secundibrachials and an intersecundibrachial suggests the specimen is Eumorphocrinus. The genus Eumorphocrinus includes three definitely assigned species all from the Early Carboniferous of the British Isles (Wright, 1955). Brower (1969) described and illustrated an eumorphocrininid form from the early Osagean Redwall Limestone of Arizona. The Redwall speci- men differs from Ewnorphocrtnus in that the lst secundibrachial, rather than the 2nd is axillary and due to the incomplete nature of the only known specimen formal description was not attempted. The Redwall form is more advanced than Eumorphoertnus with the development of an axillary lst secundibrach. EUMORPHOCRINUS ELONGATUS n. sp. Figse de G2. Description Calyx of moderate to large size, height to distal margin of secundaxil 24 mm, width (greatest width at primaxil) 26 mm, sides rounded with aboral cup slightly constricted at top. Basal circlet clearly seen in side view with proximal portion nearly planar to slightly depressed, covered by column. Plates of aboral cup lack ornamentation. Basals, 3, equal and pentagonal, wider than high. Proximal portion of basals slightly depress- ed. Radials slightly larger than basals (Table 1). Radials bordered adorally by hexagonal primi- brachials which are wider than high. First axill- ary heptagonal, wider than high (height/width ratio 4.6/6.2). First axillaries bordered adorally by widely hexagonal secundibrachials. These plates support a small hexagonal intersecundibrach- ad plate. Secundibrachials 2 in number and rigidly in- corporated into cup structure; 2nd secundibrach axillary, pentagonal and wider than high. Secund- axil bordered adorally by tertibrachials. Terti- brachs at. least 3>per quarter ray. Free arms, probably 20, 4 per ray, free above 3rd terti- brachials. Higher arm structure unknown. 122 IoD eEINDEEY A e: On O 10 mm Fig. 1. Plate diagram for Ewnorphocrinus-elongatus n.sp. (radials black; axillaries hachured; primanal stippled) Pap a2. Eumorphocrinus elongatus n. sp. A, B, Holotype, Aus. Mus. No. F.60968, lateral view, DE interray, D and E rays. CARBONIFEROUS CAMERATE CRINOID 123 Table 1. Size and plate dimensions for Holotype of Ewnorphocrinus elongatus n. sp.. All measurements in mm; listed values are maximum height over maximum width for each plate. Usize'' refers to the height of aboral cup measured from the basals to distal tip of secundaxil. Parameter Aust. Mus. No. F .60968 "size! 24 Basals 62 2/10.0 Radials 7.6/9.0 Primibrachials 507 720 Primaxils 4.6/6.2 First Secundibrachials 2.8/4.4 Secundaxils 207 A ez First interbrachials 6.6/7.0 Second interbrachials 5.0/5.0 Third interbrachials 3.4/3.2 Primanal 6.4/7.6 Second anals 5e27 04d Third anals 4.6/5.0 First interbrachials equally sided, hexagonal and bordered adorally by 2 smaller 2nd inter- brachials, also hexagonal. Second interbrachials in turn followed by a row of 3 interbrachials. Adorally 3rd interbrachials are followed by a row of 3 smaller interbrachials. Adorally the inter- brachials become smaller in both size and number as the ray gap size decreases. CD interray incomplete; primanal hexagonal, slightly wider than high (height/width ratio 6.4/7.6). Primanal bordered adorally by 2 hexa- gonal plates. The 3rd range of the anal series probably contains 3 plates; higher plates unknown. Tegmen structure unknown. Details of column unknown. Material One aboral cup: holotype Australian Museum No. F.60968. The collecting horizon is approxima- tely 850 m above the base of the Dangarfield Formation. The upper part of the formation is con- Sidered by Roberts and Oversby (1974) to contain brachiopods of the Pustula gracilis Subzone of early Viséan age. The specimen was collected from east of Glenbawn Dam, upper Hunter Valley, grid reference 030255, Woolooma 1:63,360 map sheet. Derivation of Name The reference (Latin: elongatus, elongate) is to the elongate-conical nature of the aboral cup. Remarks To the genus Eumorphocrinus, Wright (1955) assigned three species which are closely related and distinguished on the basis of cup shape, ornamentation and tegmen structure. Eumorphocrinus elongatus differs from the three other Eumorphocrtnus species in various respects. It differs from Z@. erectus in that all aboral cup plates are smooth and the cup height to width ratio is larger; height/width ratio of 24/26 com- pared to 22/32. This also applies to the compari- son between Z, elongatus and £. excelsus. The third Ewnorphocrinus species, H. hibernicus differs from E, elongatus in having a strongly rugose basal circlet, while the higher cup plates are much rounded, also having a coarse rugose ornament. Wright does not record any cup measurements for this species. The occurrence of Eumorphocrtnus in New South Wales is biogeographically significant in that the genus was previously known from three species all of which are restricted to the British Isles. E. erectus and E, excelsug are recorded from the Coplow Bank Beds, Coplow Quarry, Clitheroe, Lanca- shire, of early Viséan age (Miller § Grayson,1971), whilst EF, hiberntcus is derived from the early Viséan of Northern Ireland. As well as these species, Ewnorphoerinus, or a form with affinities to the genus, is known from the early Osagean Redwall Limestone in Northern Arizona. The occurr- ence of the genus in New South Wales is most sig- nificant in that Eumorphocrinus, the most primitive of the Actinocrinitidae, is distributed on three continents, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The criticisms and suggestions of Dr. Alan Carter, who reviewed an earlier draft of this paper are gratefully acknowledged as is the assist- ance of Gil Small and Bruce Thompson for photo- graphy. REFERENCES Brower, J.C., 1967, The actinocrinitid genera Abacttnoertnua, Aacoertnus and Blatrocrtnus. J. Paleont., 41(3), p. 675-705, Brower, J.C., 1969, Crtnotds: in McKee, E.D., and Gutschick, R,G,, The History of the Redwall Limestone of Northern Arizona. Mem. geol. Soc. Am., 114, p. 475-543. Campbell, K.S.W., and Bein, J., 1971. Some Lower Carboniferous crinoids from New South Wales. J. Paleont., 46 (8), p. 419-436. Kirk, E,, 1944. Cyt¢tdocrtnus, a new name for Cyrtocrinus Kirk, J. Wash. Acad. Set., 34(3), Di oos Laudon, L.R., Parks, J.M,, and Spreng, A.C., 1952. Mississippian crinoid fauna from the Banff Formation, Sunwapta Pass, Alberta. J. Paleont., 26, p. 544-575, Miller, J., and Grayson, R.F., 1971. Origin and Structure of the Lower Visean ‘Reef! 124 ED. EINDEEY Limestones near Clitheroe, Lancashire. and Untv. Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas, Proc. Yorks. geol. Soc., 38 (4), p. 607-638. p. 1T408-T519. Roberts, J., and Oversby, B.S., 1974. The Lower Wright, J., 1955. A monograph of the British Carboniferous Geology of the Rouchel District, Carboniferous Crinoidea. Palaeontogr. Soc. New South Wales. Bull. Bur. Miner. Resour. [Monogr:.],. 108, Vv... 2;.pt. Wipe coe —2550 Geol. Geophys. Aust., 147. Ubaghs, G., 1978. Camerata: in Moore, R.C., and Teichert, C., eds., Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, Pt. T., Geol. Soc. America School of Applied Geology University of New South Wales Kensington, N.S.W., 2033 (Manuscript received 18.8.1979) JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES VOLUME PART 4 eZ 1979 PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY SCIENCE CENTRE, 35 CLARENCE STREET, SYDNEY VOLUME 112, PART 4 FERGUSSON, Christopher L. Pre-Cleavage Folds in the Mid-Palaeozoic Sequence near Capertee. New South Wales TAYLOR, G. H. The Response of Coal to Geological Stimulus (Clarke Memorial Lecture) BRACEWELL, R. N. Life in Outer Space (Pollock Memorial Lecture) LASSAK, E. V. The Volatile Leaf Oils of Three Species of Melaleuca Membership List Errata 125 £33 139 143 147 159 Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 112. pp. 125-132, 1979 Pre-Cleavage Folds in the Mid-Palaeozoic Sequence Near Capertee, New South Wales CHRISTOPHER L. FERGUSSON ABSTRACT . Meridional folds with well-developed axial plane cleavage are superimposed on earlier east-northeast trending folds in a Siluro-Devonian flyschoid and volcanoclastic sequence in the northeast Lachian Fold Belt. that they may be gravity glide structures. The early folds have no associated cleavage and it is suggested The meridional folds are generally upright shallowly plunging structures that are part of the regional deformation of the Siluro-Devonian Hill End Trough. INTRODUCTION According to Hobbs and Hopwood (1969) the Hill End Synclinorium (Fig. 1) is dominated by merid- ional folds with a well-developed axial surface cleavage. They suggested that to the east of the Hill End Synclinorium, concentric folding and lack of cleavage were more typical. Crook and Powell (1976) recognized folds in the Capertee Valley with similar characteristics to those developed in the Hill End Synclinorium further to the west. In these folds, rocks of appropriate ductility were observed to have an associated cleavage, similar in orientation to that in the Hill End Synclinoriun. Powell et al. (1977) suggested that these folds and their associated cleavage developed in a single phase of deformation which they termed the "regional deformation of the Hill End Trough". In some areas it can be shown that this regional deformation postdates earlier folds, such as in the Ordovician Sofala Volcanics (Powell et al., 1978). V Conglomerate Andesitic volcanoclasti LLL sandstone \ PERM. aces? hee ; Quartz Quartz lithofeldspathic sandstone fu. DEV, Se ai gchaas facies (eA eee meetone SIL, — Geological contact breccia facies & Sd Mudstone DEV tbe fault oa 7 limestone facies 7 f Geology of the Turon River - Palmers Oakey District Structural mapping (Fergusson, 1976) to the southwest of Capertee (Fig. 1) followed reconnais- sance mapping by Powell (tm Crook and Powell, 1976, Fig. 7-4), who suggested that refolding of axial surface cleavage, associated with the meridional folds, had occurred. In the more detailed structural mapping east-northeast trending folds were found with superimposed meridional folds. The presence of pre-meridional folds has resulted in: (a) macroscopic refold patterns and associated abnormal strikes; (b) mesoscopic local refolding and down- ward facing folds. STRATIGRAPHY Crook (1955) reported Silurian greywackes from the vicinity of the Turon River-Coolamigal Creek junction. He noted their compositional variance, recognizing quartz-rich and quartz-poor types. On the basis of reconnaissance mapping Packham (1968) proposed a stratigraphic scheme for the area, with the andesitic Sofala Volcanics at the base, overlain Northeast Lachlan Foldbelt Sydney Basin Bathurst 1 Sunny Corner Synclinorium 2 Capertee Anticlinorium * | SHill End Synclinorium 126 by undifferentiated Silurian and Siluro-Devonian sedimentary rocks. Packham (1969) subsequently suggested that some of these undifferentiated rocks could be equivalents of the Silurian (?) part of the Hill End Trough sequence including the Tan- warra Shale and the Chesleigh and the Cookman Formations. In more recent work four mid-Palaeozoic facies have been recognized: 1 Quartz-lithofeldspathic flyschoid facies; 2 Andesitic volcanoclastic facies; 3. Mudstone-limestone facies; 4 Mudstone-limestone breccia facies. Facies 2-4 are only briefly described here, as Bischoff and Fergusson (in prep.) shall describe these facies and conodont faunas of their contained limestones. 1. Quartz-lithofeldspathic flyschoid facies: this is a thick, highly deformed turbidite sequence which can be divided into two subfacies: (a) Quartz flysch - characterised by graded beds with quartz sandstones at the base and mud- stones at the top. All units of the Bouma sequence (Bouma notation units A to E; Selley, 1970) may occur, though massive graded sandstones (unit A) may be absent. Flutes and linear scours at the base of graded beds along with micro-cross- laminations (unit C), indicate a sediment movement pattern from the southwest to the northeast (Fig. 23 see Fergusson, 19.76,) for ‘an, appended Jisit. of this data and the structural data used to restore these palaeocurrents back to horizontal). Crook (1955) referred to these rocks compositionally as subgreywackes, with quartz as the major constituent; (i) (ii) Fig. 2. Palaeocurrents for the quartz flysch sub- facies: (i) 26 flutes and 6 crossbeds indicate current direction from the south- west; (ii) 14 scour lineations indicate current movement in a west-southwest and east-northeast direction. (b) Lithofeldspathic Flysch - consists of breccias (with mafic volcanic, mudstone and chert fragments), sandstones (with feldspar and mafic volcanic grains dominant) and mudstones (Crook, 1955 has a fuller description including a triangular compositional plot). Bedding characteristics and sedimentary structures are similar to the quartz flysch except that thicker Bouma A layers are more common, expecially in lower Coolamigal Creek. CHRISTOPHER L. FERGUSSON The lithofeldspathic flysch occurs as two prominent horizons, high in the flyschoid sequence. Due to poor exposure on ridges, both of these horizons are hard to trace (especially the upper horizon). On the basis of the suggested correlation (Packham, 1969) between these rocks and the Chesleigh and Cookman Formations a Late Silurian (?) age is favoured. 2. Andesitic volcanoclastic facies: consists of orthoconglomerates, massive sandstones and flinty mudstones of andesitic derivation (i.e. rocks rich in plagioclase and pyroxene). Limestones occur locally as clasts and blocks. This facies con- formably overlies the quartz-lithofeldspathic flyschoid facies. 3. Mudstone-limestone facies: consists of laminated mudstones, thin bedded sheet-like lime- stones, minor volcanic sandstones and minor dis- continuous breccias. One marker horizon, a thin quartz feldspar volcanic sandstone, crops out near Warrie. The mudstone-limestone facies conformably overlies the andesitic volcanoclastic facies. Conodonts indicate Late Silurian age (Bischoff and Fergusson, in prep.). 4. Mudstone-limestone breccia facies: consists of poorly sorted closed framework breccias in graded beds with clasts of mudstone and limestone (up to 100 metres across). This facies rests with apparent unconformity on the andesitic volcanoclastic facies and is in fault contact with the mudstone-limestone facies. Limestone clasts range in age from Late Silurian to Gedinnian indicating that deposition of the breccias must be younger than the Gedinnian (Bischoff and Fergusson, in prep.). Crossbedded quartz sandstones (in synclinal structures) occur in the area and are regarded as possible equivalents of the Late Devonian Lambie Group. Crook (1955) also regarded an isolated patch of quartzites between Coolamigal Creek and the Turon River as Late Devonian. Outcrops of these rocks are very poor but they are thought to be separated from the older facies by an angular unconformity. Out- liers of flat-lying Permian rocks also occur in the area. MESOSCOPIC STRUCTURES Group 1 (F,) Folds F, mesoscopic folds are restricted to the quartz- lithofeldspathic flysch where they are locally common. In total fifty seven F,; mesoscopic folds have been found. They are variably plunging sym- metrical folds that generally trend east-northeast. Their axial surfaces (S,) dip at variable angles to the north-northwest ranging from steep to recumbent (Fig. 3a, b). Interlimb angles are variable, the folds ranging from tight to open. Fold hinges are typically rounded. In interbedded sandstones and mudstones, thickening of hinge zones occurs in the mudstone beds. Axial surface cleavages or fractures have not been found associated with F, minor folds. Group 2 (F2) Folds Over two hundred F2 mesoscopic folds occur in the quartz-lithofeldspathic flysch. They have also been found in the mudstone-limestone facies (fifteen PRE-CLEAVAGE FOLDS 127 Pigs 5.9" Fold profiles: a-b F, folds c-d F, folds (d with dip isogons). folds) and the andesitic volcanoclastic facies (two folds). They are typically upright, sym- metrical, shallowly plunging structures that trend north-northeast (Fig. 3c, d). They vary from broad warps to tight folds but are commonly close to open. Fold hinges are well rounded. In the quartz-lithofeldspathic flysch a similar style of folding (class 2 fold profile - Ramsay, 1967) is indicated by alternation of class lc (in the sand- stone beds) and class 3 (in the mudstone beds) in interbedded sandstones and mudstones (Fig. 3d). An axial surface cleavage is associated with Fo folds. In the quartz-lithofeldspathic flysch a Slaty cleavage is developed in mudstones with a Group | (F,) Refolded by Group 2 ae PSS ten va 2 (F) Structures Coolamigal Creek G.R. 291892 _A®™ fy syntormal_ anticline ee F, fold Fo anticline A F, syncline \ Strike and dip Erosional Truncation of bedding in fine sandstone - such structures indicate upright beds : to the SW of the Overturned y Upright F, axial trace Xe facing determined 'fracture' cleavage developed in sandstones. Cleavage refraction occurs from the sandstones into the mudstones indicating that the slaty cleavage is continuous with the rough spaced jointing that is termed 'fracture' cleavage. In the andesitic volcanoclastic facies a slaty cleavage is sporadic- ally developed in the matrix of volcanic conglomer- ates. Slaty cleavage is well developed in the mudstone-limestone facies. In the mudstone-1lime- stone breccia facies a stretched pebble conglomerate occurs at G.R. 283891 (Bathurst, 1:250 000); the pebbles are flattened parallel to the plane of a strong slaty cleavage confined to the matrix with a strong elongation in the direction 61°/100° (within the cleavage plane). Otherwise no ''down-dip" lineation has been found in the slaty cleavage. Locally the meridional cleavage has been folded and kinked but this has not significantly affected the structure of the area. Age Relationship of Group 1 (Fi) and Group 2 (F2) Folds From an outcrop on Coolamigal Creek (Fig. 4) it can be seen that F, folds refold, and therefore postdate, a F,; fold. In the southwest corner of the outcrop upward facing F, folds are plunging to the northeast. In the northeast corner downward facing F, minor folds also plunge to the northeast (see stereogram, Fig. 4). Furthermore, a sandstone bed (stippled - Fig. 4) can be traced around from the upward facing beds in the southwest corner to a downward facing in the northeast corner. This demonstrates closure of the beds, and the points of change of facing in the outcrop define a folded Fy, axial trace. There are many other outcrops where F2 folds can be shown to postdate Fi folds (see Fergusson, 1976 for details), for example: 1. Downward facing F2 folds occur at G.R. 292897 and G.R. 292896 (Bathurst, 1:250 000). 4 ‘a axial trace ‘15/34 Poles to bedding 29 Axes Graded beds, erosional truncation : of beds indicates “> overturned facing F, axial trace 0 Metres 5 SE —E—EE EES | Figs; (4. 128 CHRISTOPHER EL, FERGUSSON [ Vv ] Andesitic Volcanoclastic Facies [4 | Litnoteldspathic Flysch [ | quartz Flysch 5 Domain y Boundary Anticline Minor folds F, FOLDS . ae as Minor folds Bedding 60” overturned 70, facing determined Z) Penman > Cleavage K \) one ~ Devonian Fig. 5. Structure map of the Turon River-Coolamigal Creek area. PRE-CLEAVAGE FOLDS 129 2. Anomalous cleavage bedding relationships - F, folds have an axial surface cleavage which is near vertical; thus on fold limbs where bedding should be upward facing, the cleavage should be steeper than bedding, assuming one phase of folding. However in the Fiddlers Creek area outcrops in which the cleavage is steeper than overturned beds are common, thereby indicating an earlier phase of folding (Fi). Cleavage associated with the F, folding is itself planar and undeformed indicating that the cleavage-producing deformation was the last major deformation. MACROSCOPIC STRUCTURES The outcrop trace of the contact between the quartz-lithofeldspathic flysch and the andesitic volcanoclastics (defined by the highest occurrence of quartz flysch overlain by andesitic volcano- clastics) reflects the interference pattern between the early F, folds and the late Fy» structures. This contact trace forms an irregular hook-like pattern which extends east-west and is anomalous in comparison to other areas of north- south folding (as in the Hill End Synclinorium). Within the hook-like pattern the poorly exposed andesitic volcanoclastics provide little structural data (Fig. 5) but in the quartz-lithofeldspathic flysch common latitudinal F, folds occur and are consistent with the hook-like pattern representing a refolded F, structure. The hook-like shape is also mirrored by the lithofeldspathic marker horizons (Fig. 5). The hook-like pattern is due to fold inter- ference between a number of F2 structures super- imposed on F, structures. This resembles a ''Type 2’ interference pattern (Ramsay, 1967; p. 527-31). In this pattern folds with shallowly dipping axial planes are refolded by folds with upright axial planes and axial traces perpendicular to the first phase of folds. Such folds have been modelled in layered clays (Ramsay, 1967; Fig. 10-9, p. 528) and these resemble the plan pattern in Fig. 5. Major F, Structures The east-west trending belt of andesitic volcanoclastics (Fig. 5) indicates the presence of a major F, anticline-syncline pair. Another such pase occurs» further to the north (Fig. 6) of this belt. The F, major structures have long, shallow northerly dipping limbs and steep, generally over- Sea Level ft 9.= V9, Eig. 6. turned limbs that face to the south (Fig. 6). The overturned limb of the F, major structure has been best preserved in the Fiddlers-Pipers Creek area (where the relict F, fold limb defines a T-axis of 10°/244° - Fig. 7,domain 6). This is best illust- rated by the stratigraphically lower lithofelds- pathic marker horizon which can be confidently followed across country from Pipers Creek to the road on the divide between Pipers Creek and Coolamigal Creek. This marker generally strikes east-northeast but has been affected in places by Eo refolding (Fig. 5). In the upper Turon River many F, folds occur in the quartz flyschoid subfacies. They are in the hinge zone of the east-northeast trending syncline containing the andesitic volcanoclastics that occurs further to the west (Fig. 5). These structures along with the common east-west strikes indicate a Taxis of 00°/249° (Figs 7, domain 7). In: the lithofeldspathic flysch horizon that overlies the quartz flysch in lower Coolamigal Creek, a steeply plunging F, fold pair occurs and is possibly due to rotation of these folds during the F, deformation (Fig. 7, domain 7). This horizon has also been locally offset by an east-northeast trending fault. The lithofeldspathic flysch horizon is difficult to trace in the vicinity of this fault. Structural complexity occurs as it is in the hinge zone of the interference pattern between generally east-north- east striking beds to the northwest and the apparently more meridionally folded material further south along Coolamigal Creek. Along the Turon River, in the northern part of Fig. 5, only a small number of F,; folds occur (Fig. 7, domain 5) and this area is part of the F, shallowly dipping limb that has been extensively refolded. F, folds also overprint the F, structures on the andesitic volcanoclastics-quartz-lithofeldspathic contact in upper Fiddlers Greek (rag. 5). The presence of major F, structures in the mudstone-limestone facies and the andesitic volcanoclastic facies is indicated by steeply dipping east-west striking beds. No sign of F, folding has been found in the limited exposure of the mudstone-limestone breccia facies. In upper Palmers Oakey Creek (Fig. 8) beds of this facies appear to truncate east-southeast striking beds of the andesitic volcanoclastic facies. Major F, Structures Along the Turon River in the northeast of the area (Fig. 5) many major Fy synclines and anticlines Cross section CD (see Fig. 5 for location). 130 CHRISTOPHER L. FERGUSSON STRUCTURAL DOMAINS OF THE TURON RIVER- PAEMERS (OAKEY (CREEK (DISTRICH SYMBOLS *S, Bedding Si MOI axis XF, Fold axis * Taxis points per 1% area, iN Mean S,76/104 3: S-ef 2: Mean S, 70/86 4. x TT-axis 08/005, Taxis 20/170 Domain 7: Andesitic Volcanoclastic Facies - S, only Domain 2:Warrie. area - Fig. 8 S, Cleavage contoured at 151015 Domains 3-7: see Fig, 5 EQUAL AREA NETS Mean S,85/120 Si/4 0 S28 1T-axis 10/200 Pet Orsi. are developed. - The structure’ is generality a west— erly dipping sequence with en echelon folds developed (as for the eastern part of the Hill End Synclinorium - Crook and Powell, 1976). The structures plunge gently to 210° and are upright (average S» 85°/120°, Fig. 7, domain 5) although further east they are steeply inclined tothe west. Fo structures can be traced southwards into the Fiddlers Creek area (Fig. 5) where major F, folds occur. Some of the Fo folds maintain a south-southwesterly trend (Fig. 7, domains 3, 6), but some swing in orientation to a southwest trend with an accompanying change in axial plane cleavage (Fig. 5). Along Coolamigal Creek F, folds trend to the north (Fig. 7, domain 4) with upright axial planes, which are inclined steeply to the west in the east, as for the area to the north. The Structure as ‘a westerly dipping lambm(Faeh 5. cross section AB) that locally is truncated by a northwest trending thrust fault between the structurally massive andesitic volcanoclastic facies and the less competent, well bedded quartz- lithofeldspathic flysch. Much of the contact area between these two facies is characterised by irregular fractures and shear planes, probably a result of the competency contract between the two units. The apparently thick lithofeldspathic flysch horizon in Coolamigal Creek appears to have been extensively folded (Fig. 5, cross section). In the andesitic volcanoclastics dips and strikes are irregular and no stratigraphic markers have been recognized, preventing the mapping out of the major F, and Fo structures (apart from along the contact with the quartz-lithofeldspathic flysch). Cleavage in these rocks (Fig. 7, domain 1) dips steeply to the east indicating that the concealed folds also have axial planes dipping in this direction. A number of very poorly exposed Late Devonian (?) rocks appear to be preserved within Fp synclines (Fig. 1, see Fergusson, 1976 for more details). PRE-CLEAVAGE FOLDS ~ | Mudstone-limestone breccia facies Mudstone—limestone we A facies with silicic volcanoclastic vo SS. marker y (53 y RB. Andesitic Be of \ NK Ma volcanoclasti facies Sea Level Fig. 8. » Geology of the "Warrie" area. Structural symbols as for Fig. 5. Near Warrie homestead the silicic volcano- clastic marker (Fig. 8) of the mudstone-limestone facies together with the contact between this facies and the andesitic volcanoclastics reflects a major F2 syncline-anticline pair that plunges shallowly to the south-southeast. Axial surfaces dip to the east and beds are locally overturned (tea: 7} domain 2). The meridional thrust fault separates the easterly dipping mudstone-limestone breccias from the mudstone-limestone facies. The cleavage fans across the area, dipping to the west in the east and to the east in the west figs: 5 and 8). Such a cleavage fan contrasts with the area between Turondale and the Mt. Dulabree Syncline where the cleavage and axial planes of folds dips consistently to the west (Powell, et al. 1977). Scheibner's (1974) definition of the Sunny former Synclinorium (Fig. 1) included the area to the east of the fault in Fig. 8. This synclin- orium, if upright, has a well developed cleavage fan (as occurs in the Hill End Synclinorium - Crook and Powell, 1976). However, the axis of the synclinorium does not coincide with the centre of the cleavage fan; rather it occurs well to the west, in the vicinity of the thrust fault separat- ing the mudstone-limestone breccia from the mud- stone-limestone facies, which are the youngest facies exposed in the area. The erratic distrib- ution of Late Devonian (?) outcrops may be explained by the irregular nature of the Lambian unconformity imposed on a previously folded area. 3] DISCUSSION The F, folding has been found in the quartz- lithofeldspathic flysch facies and the andesitic volcanoclastics. The conformity between the mudstone-limestone facies and the andesitic volcanoclastics (Fig. 8), as well as some steep dips with east-west strikes suggest that the former facies has been affected by this phase of folding. The structure of the neighbouring Mt Horrible and Mt Dulabree Synclines immediately to the west of the area is well known (Powell, et al., 1977); Powell and Edgecombe, 1978) and no F; folds have been reported, nor has any sign of these folds been found in the Late Devonian (?) outcrops in the study area. F, folds have not been found in the mudstone-limestone breccias and a possible uncon- formity has been suggested although outcrop is poor, in the critical: areas (Figs 3). This con- strains the timing of the Fi folding between the Late Silurian (age of mudstone-limestone facies) and the deposition of the quartz-rich clastics of the Late Devonian. The mudstone-limestone breccias are post-Gedinnian and the folding may be earlier. The shallow to moderate inclinations of the axial surfaces of the F; folds and the absence of cleavage suggest a possible soft-sediment slumping origin. Stauffer and Rickard (1967) suggested a similar origin for recumbent non-cleaved folds in the Queanbeyan District of N.S.W. The dip of the axial surfaces of the F,; folds would indicate a palaeoslope dipping to the south during the time of formation of these folds. Palaeocurrents from the quartz flysch indicate that palaeoslope dipped to the north-east during the deposition of these beds. Such a changing palaeoslope may be due to tectonic developments such as the formation of the Capertee High (which was obviously non-existent during the deposition of the quartz-flysch but probably influenced sedimentation during the deposition of the andesitic volcanoclastic, mud- stone-limestone and mudstone-limestone breccia facies). Alternatively the F; folds may not be slump folds but of tectonic origin (that failed to form an associated cleavage). The F2 folding, faulting and cleavage forming deformation is of latest Devonian to Carboniferous age (Powell and Edgecombe, 1978; Powell, et al., 1978), and has been termed the ''regional deformation of the Hull End Trough" (Powell, ef al. )) 1917 7a) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by bursaries from the Western Mining Corporation and the Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. The writer is grateful to Dr C. McA. Powell for suggesting and supervising this work in addition to critical comments on a draft of this paper. J. Fergusson and R.A. Glen critically reviewed a draft of this paper. Mrs Rhonda Vivian kindly typed the final copy. REFERENCES Bischoff, G.C.O0. and Fergusson, C.L. Ages of limestone occurrences in the Palmers Oakey Creek District, N.o.W. ini prepi.)). 132 CHRISTOPHER L. FERGUSSON Crook, K.A.W., 1955. Petrology of graywacke suite sediments from the Turon River-Coolamigal Creek District, N.S.W. J. Proc. R. Soe. N.S.W., 88, 97-105. Crook, K.A.W. and Powell, C. McA., 1976. The evolution of the southeastern part of the Tasman Geosyncline. Int. geol. Congress, 25, Field Guide, ‘Excursion 17A, 122 pp. Fergusson, (C.b.,°1976. The structure) and: the stratigraphy of the Capertee-Palmers Oakey district. B.A. (Hons.) Thesis, Macquarie Untv. .(Unpubly.9): Hobbs, B.E. and Hopwood, T.P., 1969. Structural features of the Central Tablelands, tn THE GEOLOGY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. G.H. Packham (Edo i den GCOls CCC mAUST 45,16. 200-216. Packham, G.H., 1968. Bathurst, Sheet S1/55-8: New South Wales, Geol. Survey, 1:250,000 Geol. Ser. Packham, G.H. (Ed.), 1969. The geology of New South Wales. J. geol. Soc. Aust., 16, 654 pp. Powell, C. McA., Edgecombe, D.R., Henry, N.M. and Jones, J.G., 1977. Timing of regional deformation of the Hill End Trough: a reassessment. J. geol. Soc. Aust., 238, 407-421. School of Earth Sciences, * Macquarie University, NORTH RYDE, N.S.W. 2113 Powell, C. McA. and Edgecombe, D.R., 1978. Mid- Devonian movements in the northeastern Lachlan Fold Belt. J. geol. Soe. Aust.ea2o,) 105-184, Powell, C. McA., Gilfillan, M.A. and Henry, N.M., 1978. Early ESE-trending folds in the Sofala Volcanics, N.S.W. od. Proe. Re Sce,sNeo.W. ; ei V2 Zoe Ramsay, J.C., 1967. FOLDING AND FRACTURING OF ROCKS. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. 568 pp. Schneibner, E., 1974. Definition and review of structural elements, tm THE MINERAL DEPOSITS OF NEW SOUTH WALES, pp. 108-113. N.L. Markham and H. Basden (Eds). Dept Mines. ANCIENT SEDIMENTARY Chapman and Hall, London. Seley, RG. al 970% ENVIRONMENTS . ZoT appl Stauffer, M.R. and Rickard, M.J., 1966. The establishment of recumbent folds in the Lower Palaeozoic near Queanbeyan, New South Wales. J. geol..Soc. Aust, 13, 419=455r *Present address: Department of Geology, University of New England, ARMIDALE, N.S3W. §2351 Journal and Proceedings. Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 112, pp. 133-138, 1979 The Response of Coal to Geological Stimulus G.. He PAYOR On this occasion each second year we honour the memory of the Reverend W.B. Clarke and I am grateful to have the opportunity to share in this recognition of a most distinguished man. It is appropriate to recall some of the many contribu- tions which he made to our knowledge of the geology of Australia. From 1839 onwards Clarke showed enormous enth- usiasm and energy; by 1853 he had, in Ann Mozley's words "geologically, cut a swathe through the entire eastern section of New South Wales* and offered explicit evidence of the varied metal and coal resources of the Colony" (Mozley, 1965, p.98) It was not until 1874 that an official geolo- gical surveyor was appointed in New South Wales. Quoting Mozley again: "In the long intervening year, howevér, it was the clergyman geologist William Branwhite Clarke who, declining the appointments of geological surveyor in Queensland, Tasmania and New Zealand, continued from his own private researches and at his own expense to ad- vance the knowledge of the Colony's stratigraphy and palaeontology. In this period Clarke, in effect, filled the place of an official geological survey, conducting a correspondence with scientists and prospectors that might well have proved daunt- ing to a government department; assembling collections of specimens from all parts of Australia- filling the cabinets of the Cambridge Woodwardian Museum, the Geological Society of London and the Australian Museum; and acting as a source of consultation and exchange for the growing regiment of geological surveyors in the other Colonies. Clarke's major work Remarks on the Sedimentary Formations of New South Wales reached its fourth edition in 1878, the year the pioneering geologist died, and two years later the accumu- lated details of his long and voluntary service to geology in the Colony formed the basis of the first geological map of New South Wales issued by the Mines Department.'' (Mozley 1965, pp 99-100) In the 1850's, 1860's and 1870's, it was gold that was most eagerly sought, but coal also re- ceived considerable attention from Clarke, as did many other minerals - from diamonds to cinnabar. He also worked and reported on such diverse sub- jects as climate, deep sea soundings, and the state of the Royal Society of New South Wales. Clarke, who lived through the latter part of the Industrial Revolution, could have had no doubt as to the importance of coal. Now, a cen- tury after his death, we have again discovered how fortunate we are in having resources of coal which are large in relation to our population. As we are forced to think more seriously of our future energy needs we are becoming more conscious of the wide variety of both brown and black coals which occur in Australia. This lecture is princi- pally concerned with some of the reasons for this * which then still included Queensland! great variation and especially with the response of coal to geological events. I have used the word 'stimulus' in the title to emphasize the sensitivity of coal to changes (including comparativély small changes in geologi- cal conditions) which produce little or no percept- ible response in other rocks. The variability in the properties of coal is of interest not only with regard to the material itself, but also in providing information as to the history of rocks with which coal is associated, either in seams or as a minor component. Indeed, the study of coal and related materials has been considerably advanced to meet the needs of petroleum exploration. The stimulus - that change in conditions which elicits a response from the coal - may be applied for times of less than a second to several geological periods. It may be local, as in minor tectonic disturbances, or regional, as when major movements of crustal plates are involved. It is also worth remembering that a number of stimuli such as tectonic disturbance, changes in heat flow, ingress of fluids, may themselves be related in time and space to a single initiating event. Geologists working with igneous and metamorphic rocks quite generally understand these to have properties which reflect their individual histories. However, there has sometimes been an apparent un- willingness to regard coal as other than a dirty, black but, fortunately saleable, substance. The probability that we shall need to produce much more coal in the next generation than in the last, the specialized requirements of new processes, and the increasing cost of energy all make it essential that the basis of variations in coal properties should be more widely understood. There are two broad categories of influences which determine the properties of coal and thus the way in which the coal can best be used, and so its market value. First there are those influences which determine the properties of the peat at the time it is laid down. Peat (and the coal which subsequently forms from it) is always heterogenous. Its composition in terms of macerals, minerals and lithotypes is determined by the physiography prior to and during deposition, the facies of deposition, climate, geological age (since different kinds of plants and plant communities existed at different times) and by other factors. I have chosen tonight not to dwell on any of these, important as they are. The other influences are those which affect the seam at any time after its initial deposition. The first of these - burial subsequent to deposi- tion - involves the question of coal rank, which is a more complex matter than is sometimes sus- pected. The other three influences refer to events which can occur at almost any time during the existence of the seam. However, the same event may affect brown coal and bituminous coal in very 134 G. H. TAYLOR different ways. In this lecture I shall draw on the work of many people, most of whom I have had the good fortune to work with - some for quite a long time. I would like to thank them and others for the stimulus they have given me over the years. BURIAL SUBSEQUENT TO DEPOSITION Before considering the consequences of burial I would like to refer at least briefly to the work of Shibaoka and Bennett (1975) on the ways in which a seam can be altered subsequent to deposition and prior to burial. They showed that there can be two main effects - one of extensive removal of organic matter from the seam and the other of oxidation of some of the peat remaining. These effects in the Bulli seam were recognized for what they are only after careful chemical and petrographic work, since at least two other kinds of variation in seam properties were present: (1) variations in peat originally deposited and (2) variations arising from oxidation of the mature coal tn situ. Probably many of you are now familiar (and perhaps over-familiar) with the rank-type diagram (Bennett and Taylor, 1970) which emphasises the importance of both type - i.e. petrographic and chemical variability at the time of deposition - and rank - i.e. the degree of coalification, maturity, diagenesis or incipient metamorphism (all these terms are used). This type of repre- sentation, although a considerable simplification, has proved useful both in assessing how different coals are related to one another and how their properties vary, and also in assessing deviations from expected properties - deviations which may be a consequence of such factors as contact meta- morphism or oxidation. We are thus concerned in this part of my talk with the response of various petrographic entities, once formed, to the changes in physical, chemical and biological environment which are a consequence of burial under younger sediments. There are four main stages of importance in the development of a coal seam: pre-deposition, deposition, maturation and post-maturation. Not all coals have experienced the latter stage - for example coals which formed during a period of subsidence which continues without prolonged inter- ruption to this day, as in the Bass Strait section of the Gippsland Basin. There are also coals which have been deposited, buried beneath younger sediments, uplifted with erosion of some of the younger rocks and later buried more deeply than before. In the latter case there may be two (or more) periods of maturation separated by one (or more) post-maturation stages. Such variants do not invalidate the simple model given, but re- quire only that the principles are intelligently applied. What is it that we are trying to express by terms such as 'rank', 'degree of coalification', ‘maturation stage', and so on? Primarily we are trying to express the concept that there is a con- tinuous, non-reversible process of change from peat through brown coal, bituminous coal and an- thracite which we may, in Nature, find interrupted at any stage. This is largely a valid concept, and to the extent that it is valid, temperature acting over geologically long periods of time is the prime agent of change. Time is of great importance since equilibrium is often, probably usually, not established; geological events over- take the sedimentary basin before the coal can fully respond to higher temperature conditions. There is, in the foregoing, an assumption which is usually unstated - that the starting materials are strictly comparable in all cases. We know, however, that there can be profound differences between macerals bearing the same name but from coals of different age or laid down in different depositional facies. Another usually unstated assumption is that the maturation process has proceeded either isochemically or at least under closely comparable conditions. However, we know this not to have been the case where we are comparing a thin parting of coal in permeable sedimentary rocks with coal within a thick seam. There is also the probability that time and temperature will not have produced exactly their expected effect when unusually high pressures and shearing forces have been involved. Unless the coal rank is very high, any deviations from the latter cause are likely to be small, even where very extensive physical dislocation of the seam has occurred. After a thickness of new sediment has been laid down over a coal seam there is a period during which its temperature increases as a response to its new position in the sedimentary colum. From observations on samples from basins subsiding at present, we conclude that the establishment of equilibrium temperature is a comparatively rapid process when matched against maturation. Shibaoka et al. (1978) compared two profiles, one in the Gippsland and one in the Cooper Basin. Downhole temperatures were found to be about the same at comparable depths in the two basins. However in the Gippsland Basin the coal is immature because it has had comparatively little time to respond, whereas in the Cooper Basin there has been sufficient time for maturation equilibrium to have been reached. In practice we therefore find a relationship in any one area between maturity, on the one hand, and depth of burial, rate of burial and duration of maximum burial, on the other. The absolute bed temperature will, of course, depend on the geothermal gradient which in turn is re- lated to the heat flow and conductivity at the particular place - and this may change in the course of time. Fig. 1 shows five simple cases which we can visualize and for which examples can be found. While more complex situations do occur, most occurrences of coal can be referred to one of the patterns shown. For example (c) is represented by the offshore Gippsland Basin and (d) by the Permian coal in the Cooper Basin. The case (e) is especially common in Australia and around the world, especially for bituminous seams where the coal is now reasonably close to the surface - e.g. much of the Sydney, Bowen and Surat Basins. Patterns of diagenesis for the Cooper, Gippsland and Sydney Basins have been considered in some detail by Shibaoka and Bennett (1977). THE RESPONSE OF COAL TO GEOLOGICAL STIMULUS 135 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) => TIME DEPOSITION PRESENT OF PEAT Fig. 1 Patterns of coal maturation with time (a) continued deposition from seam formation to present with uniform heat flow (b) continued deposition with change in heat flow (decrease shown) (c) deposition interrupted and resumed with same (or could be different) heat flow. (Unconformity in sequence above coal measure rocks (d) deposition ceased (or almost so) at intermed- iate time and no (or very little) subsequent erosion (e) deposition ceased (or almost so) at intermed- late time and erosion caused bed temperature to drop to values near those of surface. To this point I have said nothing about the actual index of maturity or rank which may be used to characterize the profound changes which occur in coal as its temperature increases over geological time. This is not the occasion to dis- cuss some of the problems in assessing rank and I shall say only that the microscopic measurement of the reflectance of vitrinite is a convenient and now widely used technique. It must be remembered that reflectance is not itself the rank of the coal but only one of many rank-dependent proper- ties. I emphasize the fact that reflectance, carbon content, volatile matter yield and so on, are properties which respond to increases in rank and are not synonymous with rank. While this may sound like quibbling it is at the heart of some misunderstandings about rank, which in "absolute" terms could only be stated in terms of an equation involving temperature, time, and constants for a defined starting material maintained under defined conditions during the whole period of rank increase. The obverse of the coal rank 'coin' is the generation of volatile materials, principally water, carbon dioxide, methane and some hydrocarbon liquids. We now look to coaly macerals, especially when dispersed through sedimentary rocks, as a major source of natural gas and,in favourable cases, of oil as well. The sequence of volatiles lost from the maturing coal is: (early) H2O0 + CO2 CO2 + H20 + CH, CH, (and minor CO2 + H20) (late) CH, (and minor H2) Methane is the gas which is generated in greatest abundance during the medium volatile bituminous stage of rank when there is the greatest danger from instantaneous gas outbursts during under- ground mining. Paradoxically, however, the gas which is liberated in many such outbursts is not methane but a carbon dioxide-methane mixture. It had been assumed that this carbon dioxide had been retained from an earlier stage of coalification, but recent isotopic evidence (Smith and Gould, 1979) makes it clear that, in some cases at least, the CO» associated with outbursting must have been introduced into the coal and to have had a separ- ate history. It was mentioned earlier that coalification is an irreversible process. This is not to say that reactions between high-rank coals and, say, water do not occur. In fact such reactions may become very important where temperatures exceed 200°C. However the products are quite character- istic and bear no resemblance to low rank coals. IGNEOUS INTRUSIONS We have been considering the response of coal to comparatively small increases of temperature over geological time and noted that under these mild conditions the rates of response varied pre- dictably with temperature. With igneous intrusions, we are dealing with much higher temperatures - i.e. much more energy to break chemical bonds - for shorter periods; the temperature history must always be highly variable at different locations under such conditions. Moreover the direct effects of temperature become overlaid by the effects of chemical reactions such as that of coal and water, referred to above. It is thus very difficult to generalize on the response of coal to igneous intrusions. This is one area in which the rank of the coal is an important factor. Probably most intrusions occur, aS perhaps might be expected, when coal is buried comparatively deeply and is of bituminous rank. Even within the range of the bituminous coal 136 stage of rank there are marked differences in response. For example coals of medium volatile bituminous rank may become highly plastic, even fluid during rapid heating, whereas coals of both lower and higher rank are less mobile. Most reactions between coal and hot igneous rocks appear to be endothermic, but this utilization of heat becomes less marked as the coal rank increases. Because of the variables mentioned and because of differences in the petrographic composition of the coal it is not surprising that the effects of intrusions on coal differ greatly. When one also considers the diverse forms and temperatures of intrusion and the range of igneous rock types it is understandable that the volume of coal influenced may vary from trivial thicknesses of coal marginal to a dyke to wholesale alteration of a seam. Hamilton (1968) has considered many Australian instances. Coal which is heated too rapidly for it to remain in equilibrium with the rising temperature exhibits a slightly different pattern of change in properties from coal heated slowly. For example, a brown or sub-bituminous coal at the margins of an intrusion does not become a typical bituminous coal. One difference in the two responses is that rapidly heated coal tends to 'short-circuit' the normal coalification path so that in the former case the residue is poorer, and the volatiles richer, in hydrogen. This is possibly related to the obser- vation that pyrolytic carbon commonly occurs outside the zone of contact alteration but at no great distance from the intrusion. The unstable, volatile chemical compounds formed migrate for some distance from the intrusion but 'crack' chemically to deposit carbon in this new form in the otherwise unaffected coal. Apart from the obviously altered zone surround- ing intrusions there may be less obvious changes in larger volumes of coal. In some cases millions of tons of coal may be locally advanced in rank, but such instances are probably not common. On the basis of recent work by Williams (1979), Collins- ville in Queensland may be such a case. Any such widespread effect on apparent rank is more likely when the coal is already of bituminous rank at the time of intrusion. Of many possible examples, I will quote only two to illustrate how a knowledge of the response or non-response of coal to the stimulus of intrusion can give us information about geological conditions. I will not attempt here to give the evidence for the conclusions drawn: 1) Coal is common in the diatremes which occur in and around Sydney (Hamilton et al., 1969). This coal has not been altered in response to a sudden thermal event, so the diatreme must have been cold at the time the coal was incorporated, and subsequently. The coal has undergone shrin- kage since it became part of the breccia, and this tells us that, while the coal was immature at the time of its incorporation, it, together with the coal in the surrounding sedimentary rocks, has become mature since. The,dating of spores in the coal, by Helby and others, tells us something about the time of the diatreme emplacement. Gay TAYWORK 2) While my first example was of a non-response to intrusion my second example is of a rather extreme response. It concerns coal dykes such as that studied in the Hunter Valley by Britten and Taylor (1979). In this case the coal was heated at depth to a temperature of perhaps 450°C by an intrusion. Being of bituminous rank the coal became highly mobile. Whey the physical conditions permitted the formation of a higher level intrusion, the fluid coal was the most mobile material available and formed an extensive sheet-like dyke in a very short period of time - probably no more than a few seconds. INGRESS OF FLUIDS AND THEIR PASSAGE THROUGH COAL To this point, I have spoken more of fluids being generated from, and leaving, coal than of fluids entering coal. However there is no shortage of evidence for the entry of fluids from the earliest time of deposition to the post-maturation stage. The infilling of uncollapsed plant cell lumens by silica, clay, carbonate and even apatite, as found by Cook (1962), is evidence of the very early activity of water. One of the most interesting cases is where a recently deposited seam or a seam with a limited cover of sedimentary rocks has been overlain by marine or brackish water. Smith and Batts (1974) have shown from the pattern of variation of sulphur isotopes how the movement of sulphate- containing water into the seam can be traced, since the sulphur fixed as a result of sulphate reduction and the sulphur laid down with the peat have quite different isotopic compositions. The effects of such movement of sulphate-rich water can be profound. Not only is sulphur added in mineral form, usually as pyrite, but sulphur is also added in organic form. Where the level of organic sulphur is comparatively high, say over 0.5%, the properties of vitrinite (such as reflectance) may be significantly affected, and can lead to problems in assessment of rank. I have already mentioned igneous intrusions but add here that the effect of fluids accompanying intrusions may be quite marked. Much of the wide- spread carbonate deposition and carbonation of dyke rocks themselves which is observed must have involved juvenile, in addition to formation, waters. The fluids entering coal may do so at a later stage than for the examples given above. At Lake Phillipson in South Australia there is a large deposit of coal which (like most South Australian coals) has unusual properties. The reflectance of the vitrinite is very low (0.28%) and comparable with the figure for Latrobe Valley brown coal. However the moisture content (12-18%) is much lower than for a Victorian brown coal. Sulphur is variable in all forms and sometimes high. Sodium and chlorine contents of the coal are high. All these figures are a consequence of the fact that the seam is an aquifer for a brine which brought in sulphate. The sulphate has been reduced in the seam to sulphide and bisul- phide ions which have in part added to the organic matter. Sodium and chloride have done the same. The brine has also extracted water from the coal so that the latter is dehydrated but not advanced in rank. Because the coal shrinks as it loses moisture, it is not surprising that it may be a preferred site for an aquifer (just as a coal seam is a preferred THE RESPONSE OF COAL TO GEOLOGICAL STIMULUS site for sill formation). While the alteration at Lake Phillipson occurred at quite shallow depths, there is increasing evid- ence of carbon-containing materials being affected by fluids at depths of hundreds, even thousands of metres below the surface. Such evidence comes from research on the occurrence of petroleum of variable composition; it is now clear that some hydrocarbons have been oxidatively degraded by bacteria. We do not fully understand how oxygen is transferred from its ultimate source, the atmosphere, to an oil reservoir, but we can see the effects both in the degraded hydrocarbons and in the residues which include carbonate minerals of characteristic isotopic composition (Gould and Smith, 1978). Coal itself is not immune from this process and there is evidence that some seams have been mildly oxidized at depth with an effect on properties such as the degree of fluidity developed by the coal on heating. The process could be expected to be of most signif- icance when the coal measure rocks are highly perm- eable, such as the sandstones in the Ipswich coal measures in southern Queensland. The effects of such mild oxidation may be detected by using the rank/type diagram described earlier, or by the use of the C-H-O triangular diagram which Stephens (1979) has been using effectively in a variety of applications. TECTONICS It is still maintained by some that tectonic disturbance is an important factor in advancing rank, for example in the Dawson Tectonic Zone. There seems to be no basis for this view: the heat generated by tectonics alone is probably inadequate, in general, and unlikely to be sufficiently susta- ined. Nor is rank increase closely correlated with degree of tectonic disturbance. In the Bowen Basin, for example, the increase of rank is progressive and not localized where tectonic effects are most evident. We also have many situations where there is evidence of tectonic disturbance without increase of coal rank. For example: 1) In the Bowen Seam, where extensive mylonitization has occurred locally, there is no change in rank 2) The Crows Nest coal in Alberta has been very severely disturbed by the Rocky Mountains overthrust but without apparent effect on rank 3) In the Saar District of Germany, rank remains unchanged despite extensive faulting (Damberger Cin Gla4, £964) 4) In the Bochum district of Germany the isorank lines more or less follow the fold pattern of the seam, so that even in intensely folded coal, the original rank has been preserved (TeichmUller, 1975) From these and many other examples there is little doubt in my mind that tectonic disturbance has had little direct effect on the rank of coal, at least until very high rank and intense shearing are involved. In the latter case there may be some degree of graphitization; however the very great majority of coals in Australia do not show this effect. There is one possible, indirect way in which tectonics may influence rank. Vitrinite has a La structure which is anisotropic and becomes more so with increase of rank. By analogy with graphite and graphite-like structures we would expect much higher heat conductivity in the plane of the bedding of vitrinitic coal of high rank, than across it. Hence folding or rotational faulting may lead to a consid- erably enhanced heat flow through coal measure rocks. Where tectonic disturbance has an undoubtedly important effect is on the strength, cohesion and permeability of coal. Certain coals, like the Greta, tend to be blocky and massive partly because in some areas they have undergone little tectonic disturbance, but partly because they have a finely heterogenous petrographic structure without many bands of pure Vaitrinite. affected by mild tectonism. Recent work by Shepherd and Fisher (1978) and others has shown how important particular joint sets are to mine roof stability. Coordinated work in CSIRO, ACIRL and BHP is also tackling the important and pressing problems of gas outbursts in New South Wales and Queensland mines. This area of enquiry brings together all four topics of this talk - the consequences of burial, the effect of igneous intru- sions, the movement of fluids in coal, and tectonics. CONCLUSION I would like to conclude by again emphasizing the role which many others, some named and some unnamed, have had in the work described. I have tried to avoid too much detail which would be tedious for the non-specialist, but in so doing may have seemed to make some rather dogmatic statements. One of my objectives has been to show, through examples, the variety of geological information which is available from coal petrological studies. This information comes only when one attempts to under- stand the physical and chemical constitution of the materials involved in the context of the geological processes. I am glad to see more people in Australia carrying out such work since I believe it usefully complements the geological studies in this State which were begun with such distinction by W.B. Clarke and have been continued so ably by many others. REFERENCES Bennett, A.J.R. and Taylor, G.H., 1970. A petro- graphic basis for classifying Australian coals. Australas. Inst. Mintng Met. Proc., 288, 1-5. Britten, R.A. and Taylor, G.H., 1979. The nature and occurrence of coal dykes within the Singleton coal measures of New South Wales. Coal Geology, 1, 29-38. Cook, A.C., 1962. Fluorapatite petrifactions in a Queensland coal. Aust. J. Set., 25, 94. Damberger, H., Kneuper, G., Teichmiiller, M. and Teichmiiller, R., 1964. Das Inkohlungsbtld des Saarkarbons. Gluckauf, 100, 209-217. Gould, K.W. and Smith, J.W., 1978. Isotopic evidence for microbiologic role in genesis of crude oil from Barrow Island, Western Australia. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., 62, 455-462. Such coals tend to be comparatively little 138 Gib TAY LOR Hamilton, L.H., 1968. Interaction of coal and magma. M.Sc. thesis, Univ. N.S.W. (Unpubl.) Hamilton, L.H., Helby., .R.:-and* Tay lor ,G.H,, 1969). The occurrence and significance of Triassic coal in the volcanic rocks near Sydney. Ji PROC.) HOY (IOC alls eWay gO, . LOO = jn Mozley, A., The foundations of the Geological Survey of New South Wales. ¢. Proc. Roy. Soc. We S Wit, e0 9.09 LOO. Shepherd, J. and Fisher, N.I., 1978. Faults and their effect on coal mine roof failure and mining rate : a case study in a New South Wales colliery. Mintng Engineering, 30, 1325-1334. Shibaoka, M. and Bennett, A.J.R., 1975. Geological interpretation of ply structure of the Bulli Seam, Sydney Basin, N.S.W. Jd. Geol. Soe. AUSE 2, Co50,021-545.. Shibaoka, M. and Bennett, A.J.R., 1977. Patterns of diagenesis in some Australian sedimentary basins.. Aust. Petrol. Explor. Assn. J., 17, 58-63. Shibaoka), M....Saxby J.D. and! Taylors G.HiG) 1978: Hydrocarbon generation in Gippsland Basin, Australia - comparison with Cooper Basin, Australia. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., 6a, 1151-1158. Smith, J.W. and Gould, K.W., 1979. Unpublished work. Smith, J.W. and Batts, B.D., 1974. The distribut- ion and isotopic composition of sulfur in coal. Geochtm. et Cosmochim. Acta, 38, 121-133: Stephens, J.F.,. 1979... Coal as a C-H-O ternary system. Fuel, 58, 489-494. Teichmlller, M., 1975. Application of coal petrological methods in geology including oil and natural gas prospecting, tm STACH'S TEXTBOOK OF COAL PETROLOGY, pp. 316-331. Gebruder Borntraeger, Berlin. Williams, R., 1979. Unpublished work. Fuel Geoscience Unit Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization NORTH RYDE NSW ZA 0S The Clarke Memortal Lecture, delivered before the Royal Soctety of New South Wales, 12th July, 1979. (Manuscript received 26.10.1979) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 112, pp. 139-142, 1979 Life in Outer Space R. N. BRACEWELL INTRODUCTION Whether there is life in space elsewhere than on the earth is one of the most appealing questions for the mind to dwell on and in former centuries, aS now, there was much explicit specu- lation. Many quotations can be given. Empty space ts ltke a kingdom, and heaven and earth no more than a single tndividual person in that kingdom. Upon one tree are many fruits, and tn one kingdom many people. How wmreasonable tt would be to suppose that, bestdes the heavens and earth whtch we can see, there are no other heavens and no other earths? Teng Mu, 13th century philoscpher And so what mainly makes me belteve that the planets have tntelligent betngs is that the supertority of our earth over those others would be too great if the beings had untque features so far beyond all other living beings, not to mention the plant kingdom. Christian Huyghens, I7th century physicist Observe how system tnto system runs; What other planets ctrcle other suns; What varted being people every star. Alexander Pope, 8th century poet Homo sapiens has recently flattered and frightened himself by concetvtng that, though perhaps he ts not the sole intellt- gence tn the cosmos, he ts at least untque, and that worlds sutted to intelligent itfe of any kind must be extremely rare. This view proves ludicrously false. W. Olaf Stapledon, 20th century writer "You s'pose there are Mars worms? Juptter worms? Venus worms? Porfirio?" "Panchtto! It'd be gross concett to tmagine that in all those awesome endless galaxtes we are the only worms!" Gus Arriola, 20th century cartoonist The current surge of discussion, which began around 1960, differs in an important way from the discussion of earlier times: the philosopher of * The J.S. Pollock Memorial Lecture, delivered before the Royal Soctety of New South Wales, 15th May, 1978. today is expected not to violate known laws of physics and to keep his scenarios compatible with the great many facts of astronomy and astrophysics that are now known. Although these restrictions make it difficult to say anything at all about life in space, nevertheless a substantial body of lite- rature has arisen. A principal topic deals with action that humans might take to find out whether there is life elsewhere. In this category we should include the planning and execution of the Mars landings, but to reach beyond the solar sys- tem is far more difficult. A well known proposal is to listen by means of a sensitive radio receiver connected to a large radio telescope pointed in the direction of nearby stars. Project Ozma and the Cyclops design study will be recalled as exer- cises in this direction and some listening activity is being pursued at the present time, for example by Kraus and Dixon at Ohio State University. There is a remote chance of success so I am in favour of this enterprise put very Little Cotal effort wil be exerted because most people with suitable equip- ment will judge that their time will be more pro- ductively spent on other endeavours. The situation would change if a very large antenna systen, much larger than anything now available, could be constructed--the Cyclops study group contemplated 10,000 large radio telescopes massed together. As it has come to be realized that direct lis- tening is not likely to yield quick success and is likely to be very expensive, action-oriented think- ing has turned to other directions. A new thought is to look for nonsolar planets rather than for life directly. If planets were discovered it would mean a big step forward for direct listening both as regards the enthusiasm for listening that would be generated and as regards the actual chance of successful detection of life. Not only intelligent life is in point. Although reception of radio communication signals from a planet would convinc- ingly evidence the presence of technological life it is conceivable that lower forms of life could reveal their presence over interstellar distances in some other way. We must remember that the con- spicuous blue of our planet as seen from the moon is due to our oxygen, which is a by-product of organic life. To a sophisticated outside observer, if there is one who can see our planets, the blue of Earth, contrasted with the white of Venus and the red of Mars would speak volumes. We have become so accustomed through fiction to the plurality of planets belonging to other stars and even to stars of other galaxies that it is a shock to some to learn that even today there is no generally accepted evidence for the existence of any planets in the Universe other than the nine in our own solar system. There is certainly evidence for dark companions but they are objects much more massive than Earth or even than Jupiter. If a coordinated search were to be made for non- solar planets it would be a step forward in the search for life in outer space but would also be certain to provide other sorts of astrophysical 140 R.N. BRACEWELL knowledge. This is important, for the general assent of the scientific community is necessary for the general assent of the scientific commun- ity is necessary for the initiation of large pro- jects and the broader the prospective returns the wider the assent is likely to be. There- fore I am confident that there will be a surge in activity aimed at detection of nonsolar planets in coming years. Furthermore, I have a technique to propose. First let us consider two orthodox proposals as a background for two new ideas that Space-age technology permits us to contemplate. ASTROMETRY One of the great traditions of astronomy is the preparation of star catalogues, an activity that was pursued by the Babylonians and the Chinese, by Hipparchus (second century B.C.) and Claudius Ptolemaeus (second century A.D.). The earliest substantial work that is extant records the positions of 1028 stars as determined by Ptolemy, whose system of classifying stars into first and second magnitude and so on is the one still in use today. A by-product of this activ- ity was the discovery that the stars are not fix- ed on the celestial sphere but appear to move slowly, some faster than others. Sirius, the brightest star, has always appeared in the cata- logues as they grew in length and over the years became more refined, so that by 1844 Friedrich W. Bessel (1784-1846) was able to announce a very peculiar thing about Sirius. Over the, course or 50 years Sirius not only moves south by 66 sec- onds of arc, a very noticeable distance, but does so in a sinuous path, weaving to each side by 8 seconds of arc. Bessel announced that Sirius must possess a dark companion which if visible, would be seen on a wavy path interwoven with that of Sirius as they each revolved about their comm- on center of mass. Thus did the first white dwarf make its presence known. Years later in 1862 it was seen and ultimately, many years later, it was photographed. It has about the same mass as our Sun, is only twice the size of the Earth and has a density of 150,000 relative to water. This fragment of history exemplifies all the technical background needed to follow the method of astrometry as a technique for discovering non- solar planets. A planetary companion must pro- duce the same sinuous motion of its parent star but less in excursion according to its mass. Let us imagine a star S like our Sun possessing a planet J like*Jupiter but situated 335 light years away. This distance is chosen because it is a standard distance in astronomy (the distance on which the system of absolute magnitudes is based). there rare about S007;stars, in a ‘sphere. of 53 Jircht years radius. We now ask, what will the lateral excursion of S be, as we observe it year by year from Earth, under the influence of its revolving planet J. The answer is 0.5 milliseconds of arc or 16,000 times less than for Sirius under the influence of its dark companion. The technical feat that would be required to detect such a small displacement in the sky is clearly lf the great- est difficulty and may seem impossible. Bear in mind that Jupiter takes 12 years to orbit the Sun so the detection of planet J if it has a similar period would require sustained attention for many years and a means of assuring that small displacements, if detected, were the result of planetary motion and not of some instrumental change over the years. In addition remember that a star image dances about by 100 milliseconds of arc or more due to irregular refraction or twink- ling of the starlight as it passes through the earth's atmosphere. In view of the difficulties imposed by the atmosphere and year-to-year changes in astrometric telescopes it 1s ‘surprising to learn that the precision attainable in current astrometry, when a year's observations are com- bined, is 3 milliseconds of arc. RADIAL VELOCITY As star S rotates about the mass center not only does it weave from side to side as seen from Earth, but it also approaches and recedes. Such radial, or line-of-sight motion is not apparent as a displacement of the star on the celestial sphere, but it changes the stellar spectrum, which is subjected to Doppler shift. Under the influence of planet J, star S acquires a radial velocity of 12 metres per second on top of its mean velocity of approach or recession (which is likely to be in the range of tens of kilometres per second). Rad- ial velocity measurement is a vigorous discipline that is practised both on stars and external galaxies but because the velocities to be measured are relatively high, great precision has not been in demand. At present precisions of about one kilometre per second are standard and 250 metres per second has been attained on the Palomar 5 metre telescope. So there is a substantial gap between current practice and what would be necess- ary to detect the radial velocity variation due to an orbiting planet. An encouraging aspect is that current work is done on faint stars chosen because of some characteristic such as stellar type where- as the first candidates for planetary search would be the nearby stars which are much brighter. For this reason, and taking account of foreseeable instrumental developments it is thought that a pre- cision of 10 metres per second is technically fea- sible, though great effort will be required. In the radial velocity approach, as with astrometry, observations sustained over many years will be required so that the changing effect due to the planet's orbital motion can exhibit itself. Radial velocity has the interesting feature of being independent of distance whereas the astro- metric displacement falls off as distance increases. The two established procedures are thus in a sense complementary, astrometry being more favorable for the closer stars and radial velocity taking over at some as yet undetermined distance. APODIZATION Why cannot a nonsolar planet be photographed through a large telescope with a time exposure sufficient long to develop a planetary image? The difficulty is attested to by the fact that the dark companion of Sirius, known as Sirius B, re- sisted photography until quite recently. This was partly because Sirius gives 10,000 times more light than Sirius B. But that is not the full story because Sirius B is, even so, equivalent to a twelfth magnitude star which can be photographed readily with an exposure time of minutes. The other important factor is the proximity of Sirius. LIFE IN OUTER SPACE 14] As is quite noticeable on photographs of star fields, brighter stars produce larger images than fainter stars. This means that as the exposure time is increased the photographic image of a star grows in diameter and tends to obliterate any faint object in the neighbourhood. Thus the image of Sirius easily reaches a radius of 8 seconds of arc in the time necessary to bring up a detectable image of Sirius B which is then lost in the glare. The explanation of this phenomenon lies partly with light scattered through small angles of just seconds of arc by atmospheric particles, partly with imperfections of the telescope and partly with diffraction of the starlight. While Sirius is 104 times stronger than Sirius B, we calculate that star S is 109 times stronger than planet J. Furthermore, while Sirius B is 8 seconds away from Sirius, planet J is only half a second away from its star, as viewed from 33 light years. Thus direct photography seems unattractive. But, action is needed, so we should take an optimistic attitude and ask what would be needed to change the situation to a favourable one. There is an answer. First, the earth's atmosphere must be eliminated, a step which the space age has rendered feasible. Indeed, sizable telescopes of several kinds have already been launched success- fully into earth orbit. That deals with atmos- pheric scattering. Secondly, much better parabolic surfaces must be made than were manufactured for today's great working telescopes, some of the best of which date back decades. That is a matter of technology and seems to present no insuperable obstacle in principle but will present a signifi- cant engineering challenge. Finally, there is the diffraction of light which is inherent in wave propagation and describes the ability of light to go round corners as studied long ago by Francis M. Grimaldi (1619-1663) , who coined ''diffraction", and by Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Because of this proclivity of light rays to bend, starlight fall- ing on a parabolic mirror is not all directed to the geometrical focal point, which is where the photographic plate is placed, but a certain amount arrives in the neighbourhood. One can calculate strictly how the light intensity falls off. As we know, it is still very strong half a second of arc away in the location of the planetary image (if such there be). Apodization is a method of reduc- ing the strength of the diffracted light by elimi- Significant technical unknowns which might block or delay progress. There is therefore scope for new ideas going beyond the improvement of already known methods. Let us ask first whether visible light is the best or only way to go. Planets not only re- £lect the light of their. sun but “also emit ‘electro= magnetic radiation in their own right because of the heat they contain. In the case of Jupiter, whose temperature is -145 C, heat radiation would not seem to be of great importance because the planet is so cold. Its radiation is faint and peaks up at an infrared wavelength of about 40 micrometres. Perhaps surprisingly, the stellar radiation at this wavelength is also not very Strong, im fact 1t 1s only 10,000 times stronger than that of planet J. Merely by jumping to another wavelength we therefore immensely improve the problems caused by glare at visible wave- lengths where the star outshines the planet by a factor 109. With this encouraging beginning we are stimu- lated to seek a new principle to discriminate between star and planet. The answer is interfero- metry. A special infrared telescope can be imagined which collects infrared radiation from the star through two apertures about one metre in diameter and 10 metres apart. The two beams can be brought together and caused to interfere des- tructively if crests of one wavetrain superimpose upon troughs of the other. Radiation from the planet, on the other hand, not coming from precis- ely the same direction, can give rise to construct- ive interference and a maximum of intensity. This will happen 1£ one Of the apertures as onehaldt wavelength closer to the planet than the other aperture, a condition that will arise automatic- ally if the spacing is 10 metres as proposed. A Star 1S almost a point source but not quite.) | Ihe angular diameter of star S at 33 light years is one millisecond of arc. The consequence is that only a diameter of the star can be nulled out and points to each side, while they will be heavily discriminated against, are in fact not entirely suppressed. When allowance is made for the im- perfect suppression, it is found that the planetary emission exceeds that of the star by 20 times. If the beam on which the collecting apertures are mounted is allowed to spin around an axis pass- ing to the star, the planetary signal will rise and fall at a precisely known frequency and sensitive techniques of synchronous detection may be used to detect the presence of the planet against the un- changing stellar background signal. This very simple set of concepts offers a fourth approach and warrants careful study. nating the sharp boundary of the cylindrical beam of starlight that falls on the parabolic mirror. If the light intensity can be made to fall off from center to edge continuously instead of cutting off abruptly, there is a dramatic reduction in the amount of light that is bent away from the focus and further improvement is attainable the more smoothly the light intensity tapers off. As with the in- direct methods of detection already described the indications are that in principle apodization can succeed but effort and inventive ability will be required. A major difference is this. Direct photography will not require 12 years of sustained attention. If planet J is there it will be de- tected promptly. Already many features have been examined. For example, the infrared instrument must operate out- Side the earth's atmosphere which is a stronger source of heat than the planet. All heat radiation that can be screened off, particularly solar and terrestrial heat, must be blocked by shades and thermal insulation. Heat radiation from the optical parts, mostly mirrors, and the walls of the satell- ite containing the detector must be stringently reduced by operating at extremely low temperatures, such as the boiling point of helium, Techniques of this sort are already established for space SPINNING INFRARED INTERFEROMETER While there are three avenues open, any of which could lead to successful detectin of non- solar planets, as far as we know now, there are 142 vehicles of other kinds but a cryostat of the necessary size is not a trifle. Elaborate laser servos are needed to keep the infrared optics in adjustment and a star tracker to keep the inter- ferometer spin axis aimed at the star. Although these elements are already well understood also, successful operation will demand the highest traditions of instrument design. As with direct detection by apodization, the spinning infrared interferometer does not re- quire 12 years of observation but the time re- quired may well be many months. The reason for this would not be easily foreseen. In the vic- inity of the Earth, and more or less in the plane of its orbit, there are solid particles about one micrometre in diameter and about one kilometre apart, on the average, that give rise to the zodiacal light, scattered sunlight that can be seen stretching out along the zodiac when the sun is just below the horizon. Because of smog, very few people are familiar with the zodiacal light these days. The best time to look is on a clear autumn evening when there is no moon. In spite of the sparsity and fineness of the particles, Stanford University, Stanford, California. (Manuscript US. As R. N. BRACEWELL they are at about Earth temperature and it is thought that there are enough in the field of view of the infrared instrument to limit the sensiti- vity. The quality of the infrared detectors them- selves is not likely to be limiting unless in future years infrared interferometers are launched out of the ecliptic plane or on voyages well be- yond Mars where the particles have proved to be undetectable. Many fascinating problems are presented by this novel concept. As yet, 11s stoomeamly ato estimate the relative costs and relative chances of success of the four approaches that have been described. If history is any guide, however, we may be sure that all of these projects, which re- present substantial advances on current instru- ments, are likely to produce discoveries of pheno- mena more conspicuous than the minute planetary effects that are sought but too faint to have been noticed hitherto. received 15.3.79) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 112, pp. 143-145, 1979 The Volatile Leaf Oils of Three Species of Melaleuca ERICH V. LASSAK ABSTRACT. The compositions of the steam-volatile leaf oils of Melaleuca adnata, M. nodosa and M. thymifolia were determined by the use of gas-liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. The oils of M. adnata and M. nodosa were characterised by high proportions of 1,8-cineole. M. thymifolta has been shown to exist in an a-pinene rich form. INTRODUCTION In continuation of our research into the native Australian essential oil bearing flora we have examined the volatile leaf oils of Melaleuca adnata Turcz., M. nodosa Sm. and M. thymifolta Sm. The leaf oils of the two latter species have been briefly examined by earlier workers who reported 1,8-cineole (53% of oil) in M. thymifolia (Baker and Smith, 1906) and 1,8-cineole (33% of oil) and d-a-pinene in M. nodosa (Baker and Smith, 1907). Penfold and Morrison -(1929) reinvestigated mM. nodosa (erroneously referred to in their paper as M. nodosa var. tenutfolia DC; D. Blaxell, pers. comm.) and identified, in addition to 1,8-cineole 40-55% of oils) and a-pinene, small amounts of dipentene and a-terpineol. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In the present investigation freshly obtained oils were analysed by a combination of gas-liquid chromatography (g.1.c.) and mass spectrometry. The results, presented in Table 1, show that all three species yielded chemically unexceptional, albeit much more complex oils than reported earlier. They do present, though, some features of chemotaxonomic interest. Both M@. nodosa and M. thyrtfolta appear to exhibit considerable quantitative variation in some of their oil constituents. The 1,8-cineole content of M. nodosa oil ranges from 33% (Baker and Smith, 1907) to about 41% and 55% in our samples and 40-55% in those of Penfold and Morrison (1929). a-Pinene varies between even wider limits: from 6% and about 30% in our samples to approximately 60% (Baker and Smith, 1907). In both cases the variation appears to be continuous and consequently separation into chemical forms is not warranted. The chemical variation in M. thymtfolta is more pronounced. The 1,8-cineole and a-pinene contents of our sample were 1% and 84% respectively, whereas Baker and Smith (1906) reported 53% 1,8-cineole but no a-pinene at all. Even if a small amount of a-pinene had been present, but escaped detection owing to insufficiently sensitive analytical methods, the magnitude of the variation is such that the existence of chemical forms is probable. Intra- specific chemical variation of this type is common not only in the genus Melaleuca, but in the family Myrtaceae in general (Hegnauer, 1969). Finally, the suggested presence of tsoborneol in the oils of all three species should be comment- ed upon. Jsoborneol has not, to the writer's knowledge, been reported from Melaleuca before. Since Baker and Smith (1906) noted a trace of an alcohol with a borneol-like odour in the oil of Mm. thymifolta and since borneol occurs, though rarely, in myrtaceous oils (Jone and Lahey, 1938) a careful search was made for it. None of the peaks present in our gas chromatograms corresponded to borneol. However, a small peak common to all oils coinjected with tsoborneol. Its mass spectrum supported this identification. Unfortun- ately, the very small amounts of oil available did not allow a physical separation of the compound and thus its identity with ~soborneol is tentative only. EXPERIMENTAL Collection of Plant Material and Isolation of Volatile Oils. Fresh foliage and terminal branchlets (400g) were steam distilled with cohobation in an all- glass apparatus (Hughes, 1970) to yield pale yellow oils (Table 2). Identification of 0il Components. Analytical g.1l.c. was conducted on a Perkin Elmer 900 gas chromatograph using 15m by 0.5m i.d. stainless steel FFAP, SE-30 and DC 550 S.C.O.T. columns with He as carrier gas. Individual components were identified by their retention times and by co-injection with authentic compounds. A Hewlett Packard 3370A integrator was used to determine % “A 6 compositions. Mass spectra were determined using a Pye 104 gas chromatograph equipped with 100m by 0.77mm i.d. OV-17 W.C.O.T. columns interfaced to a AEI MS 30 instrument via a 0.1mm thick silicone rubber membrane separator. The mass spectrometer was operated at 70 eV with the ion source at 200°. The spectra were handled by a AEI DS 30 data handling system which produced standard bar graphs for direct comparison with published spectra. 144 ERICH V. LASSAK TABLE 1. % Compositiont Peak* Compound M. adnata M. thymifolta M. nodosa Yarramundi Doyalson 1 tsovaleric aldehyde - 0.9 tr. 0.2 2 a-thujene ZO ERE Ox3 1.9 3 a-pinene 6.7 84.2 633 29.6 4 Sabinene - - 0.6 0.4 3) 8- pinene ay 6) - KO 1.4 6 myrcene eZ - 1.4 0.9 7 a-phellandrene - - 0.2 O23 8 a-terpinene - - Led 8 9 ] imonene ih a 1.4 4.6 4.0 10 1,8-cineole 66.0 1.0 54.7 40.5 ill y-terpinene ONS 0.8 4.0 4.6 12 p-cymene On 0.6 OR 0.6 13 terpinolene ch On! 0.6 OR 14 unknown - th. One) - 15 linalool 053 aa Ons 0.4 16 unknown - - Ona tr 17 terpinen-4-ol LZ 0.4 4.8 736 18 B-caryophyllene OR 0.2 OZ Er. 19 unknown tie. 16 - - 20 unknown - 0.3 - ~ el tsoborneol Ons 0.3 Ons 053 (KO a-terpineol 6.4 ts) 5.9 4.4 23 terpenyl acetate - - 0.1 0.2 24 unknown 0.6 - - - 25 unknown - 0.9 - - 26 aromadendrene - 28 iD rellt cn 27 sesquiterpene - - OnZ ae 28 unknown OZ ~ Weal eis 29 globulol - 0.8 Os tre 30 unknown - ORS OFS ioe Sil viridiflorol 0.6 0.8 0.3 tr; 32 unknown - Oa - - *Peaks 1-3 refer to a DC550 coated S.C.0.T. column; peaks 14-32 refer to a FFAP coated SFC OF column tale peer . (1944: JP 1) *CHAFFER, Edric Keith, 66 Victoria Ave., Chatswood, N.S.W., 2067. (1954: Pl; Presa 1975) *CHALMERS, Robert Oliver, c/- Australian Museun, College Street, Sydney, N.S.W., 2000. (1933: P1) CHANDLER, Garry Anthony, 49 Drumalbyn Road, Bellevue Hill, N.S.W., 2023. (1975) MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY 149 CHIVAS, Allan Ross, PhD Syd, Research School of Earth Sciences, Institute of Advanced Studies, Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, GanberraoN.C.T., 2600. (1972) CHOWDHURY, Nazmul Karim, BSc, 15/30-34 Cobar St., Dulwich Hill, N.S.W., 2203. (1974) *CHURCHWARD, John Gordon, BSc Agr, PhD, 12 Glen Shian Lane, Mount Fliza, Vic. 3930. (1935) CLANCY, Brian Edward, MSc, PhD, Australian Atomic Energy Commission, Lucas Heights, N.S.W., 20322 +-(1957) CLAYTON, Norman Arthur, FGAA, 87 Albert Drive, Kaan. N.S.W. 2071... (1972) CLINGAN, Philip Rodney, 25 Walmer St., Ramsgate, NeGeWe, 22175 (1979) CLOUSTON, John Gannon, MSc, PhD, FAIP, 24 Bunyala Stesmcarss, Park, iN.S.W., 2221... (1974) COALSTAD, Stanton Ernest, BSc, 16 Station St., Marrickville, N.S.W., 2204. (1961) *COHEN, Samuel Bernard, MSc, 46 Wolseley Rd., Point Piper, N.'S.W.2, 2027. (1940) COLE, Edward Ritchie, MSc Syd, PhD NSW, FRACI, FAIFST, 7 Wolsten Ave., Turramurra, N.S.W., 2074... ,(1940: P2) COLE, Joyce Marie, BSc, 7 Wolsten Ave., Turramurra, Neste 2074. . 1940: P1) COLE, Trevor William, BE Elect WA, PhD Cantab, Gest leRsO.,, Division of Radiophysics, P.O. BOxXy7O,,epping, N:S.W., 2121. (1978) COLLETT, Gordon, BSc, 16 Day Rd., Cheltenham, N.S.W., 2119. (1940) COLLIER, Margaret, 135 Highfield Rd., Lindfield, N.S:W.,.2070. (1973) COLLINS, Angus Robert, PhD, 1 Alvona Ave., St. Ives, N.S.W., 2075. (1969) COLLINS, Helen, 71 Florida Road, Palm Beach, N.S.W. 2108. (1978) CONOLLY, John Robert, BSc Syd, PhD NWSW, 31 Noroton Avec. Darien, Conn. 06820, U-sS.A. . (1963: P4) COOK, Alan Cecil, MA, PhD Cantab, FGS, AM Aus IMM, Professor of Geology, University of Wollongong, Wollong, N.S.W., 2500. (1968: P2) COPPELL, William George, BA, MA, PhD, 22 Woolcott Sitw_e Waverton, N.S.W., 2060. — (1975) *CORTIS-JONES, Beverly, MSc, 65 Peacock Street, Seaforth, N.S.W., 2092. (1940) COX, Charles Dixon, BSc, 51 Darley St., Forest- Walle; Nos.W., 2087. (1964) CRAWFORD, Edwin John, BE, 7a Battle Boulevarde, Seaforth, N.S.W., 2092. (1955) CREELMAN, Robert Auchterlinie, BA, MSc, 108 Midson Rd. Epping, Nvoel. 5 212° * 01975) *CRESSWICK, John Authur (1921: P1) CROOK, Keith Alan Waterhouse, MSc Syd, PhD WE, BA, Dept. of Geology, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T., 2600. (1954: P9) CUDDY, Robert Graham, BSc, MSc, P.O. Box 2185, Schefferville, P.Q., GOG 2T0, Canada. (1975) D'ARCY, William Francis, BSc NSW, Dept. of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney, N.S.W., 2006.> -(1975) DAVIES, George Frederick, 57 Eastern Ave., Kingsford, Neo.W.,. 20352. 8(1952) DAY, Alan Arthur, PhD Cantab, FRAS, Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney, N.S.We 2006. (1952: Pl; Pres. 1965) DEAN-JONES, Gregory Lloyd, BA, 124 Midson Rd., Epping, NoooWi5 212109 (1973) DE LAUNAY, Paul Beaumont, 50 Moonbie St., Summer Hild, N-S.W., 2130. (1979) DOHERTY, Gregory, BSc, PhD, Dept. of Mathematics, University of Wollongong, N.S.W., 2500. (1963) DOLANSKI, Joseph, BSc, c/- Mining Museum, 36 George St., Sydney, N.S.W., 2000. (1975) *DONEGAN, Henry Arthur James, MSc, FRACI, FRIC, 18 Hidiview St. ; Sans. souci,, NeS.W..5° 2219. (19285 P1; Pres. 1960) DOUGLAS, Ian, BLitt, MA Oxon, PhD ANU, MIWES, Professor of Geography, University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W., 2351. (1972) DOWNES, Peter, MASc, 38 Walana Cres. Kooringal Wagga Wagga, N.S.W., 2650. (1975) DRAKE, Lawrence Arthur, BA BSc Melb, MA PhD Melb, Director, Riverview College Observatory, Riverview, N.S.W., 2066. (1962: P3) DRUMMOND, David Gordon, MSc, PhD, FInstP, 45 Albert Drive, West Killara, N.S.W., 2071. (1975) *DULHUNTY, John Allan, DSc, Dept. of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney, N.S.W., 2006. (1937: P26; Pres. 1947) EAGLE, Ann Hansi, Unit lla, 23 Thornton St., Darling Point,-N.«S.W., 2027. (19:79) EDWARDS, Robert John, BSc, Grad Dip Appl Geophysics 5 Wonga Rd., Yowie Bay, N.S.W., 2228. (1974) ELLISON, Dorothy Jean, MSc, 45 Victoria St., Roseville, N.S.W., 2069. (1949) EMERY, Hilary May Myvanwy, 53 Byron St., Bulimba, Olds. 4171. (1965) EMMERTON, Henry James, BSc, 37 Wangoola St., East Gordon, N.S.W., 2072. (1940) 150 ENGEL, Brian Adolph, MSc WE, PhD, Associate Professor of Geology, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, N.S.W., 2308. (1961: P1) ESPLIN, Trevor Thomas, 5 Waverton Ave., Waverton, NES Weis OG Owes (GL 97/51) EVANS, Philip Richard , BA Oxon, PhD Brtst, FGS, School of Applied Geology, University of Nis..W. ,«Kensangton’, N.S.W..,. 2055. (1968) FACER, Richard Andrew, BSc, PhD Syd, AMusIMM, MGSAm, MAGU, Dept. of Geology, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, N.S.W., 2500. (1965: P2i) FAYLE, Rex:Dennes Harris, 30 Garibaldi St., Armidale, N.o.We, 2550. (C1962) FELTON, Elizabeth Anne, BSc AWU, FGAA, 24 Pidcock St., Camperdown, N.S.W., 2050. (1977) FINLAY, Cecily June, BSc Syd, Mineral Research Laboratories, C.S.I.R.0O., P.O. Box 136, North Ryde, N.S.W., 2113. (1975) FISHER, John, FRAIA, ARIBA, 8 Glen St., Milson's Point, N.S.W., 2061. (1975) FLEISCHMANN, Arnold Walter, 5 Erang St., Carss Park, NesaWag 2221. (956: 2? 1) *FLETCHER, Harold Oswald, MSc, 131 Milson Rd., Cremorne, N.S.W., 2090. (1933) FLETCHER, Neville Horner, MA, PhD Harv, DSc Syd, FAA, FInstP, FAIP, MAAS, Professor of Physics, University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W., 2550., “(961) FOLDVARY, Gabor Zoltan, BSc, MSc NWSW, 267 Beau- champ Rd: > Matravalle; Nis.W., 2036. (1965) FORD, George William Kinvig, MA Cantab, 133 Wattle Rdis Jannala; N-S.Wa, 2226... (i974) FRANKLIN, Brenda Jean, BSc Syd, MSc PhD WSW, FGS, Dept. of ‘Applied Geology, NoS.W. Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 123, Broadway, N.S.W., ZOOM. an CUOT.Gn) FRAZER, Geoffrey Leon, 4 Bradley Drive, Carlingford, N.S.W., 2118.-> (1976) FRENCH, Oswald Raymond, 6 Herberton Ave., Hunters Hill, N.S.W., 2110. (1951) FROST, Janet; Patricia, BA, Dip Ed, S Gregory, Ave. ; Baulkham: Hills, N.S.W.4 2153. (1977) GALLOWAY, Malcolm Charles, BSc, PhD, 46 Duntroon Ave., Roseville, N.S.W., 2069. (1960) *GARRETTY, Michael Duhan, DSc, P.O. Box 217, foorak; (Vic... 5842. (L935 3P2) *GASCOIGNE, Robert Mortimer, PhD, 5 Wahroonga Ave., Wahroonga, N.S.W., 2076. (1939: P4) GIBBONS, George Studley, MSc Syd, PhD NWSW, AMAusIMM, 8 Marsh Place Lane Cove, N.S.W., 2066. (1966: P1) MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY GIBSON, Neville Allan, MSc, PhD, ARIC, Associate Professor of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Sydney, N.S.W. ,/ 2006...) (IS427532Gi) GILLESPIE, Peter James, BSc, BE Mech-Elect, 8 Alexander Ave., Mosman, N.S.W., 2088. (1977) GLASSON, Kenneth Roderick, BSc, PhD, 70 Beecroft Rd., Beecroft, N.S. Wa; Zan Sion GSA eo) *GOLDING, Henry George, MSc, PhD, 361 Burns Bay Rd., Lane Cove,.N.S.W., 206602) GhOS325 con GOULD, Rodney Edward, BSc, PhD Qld, Dept. of Geology, University of New England, Armidale, NOS. We 5) 25510 “GUS 7 Sema GOW, Neil Neville, BSc, 305.1140 Pendrell St., Vancouver, V6E 1L4, Canada. (1966) GRANT, John Guerrato, Dip Eng, 37° Chalayer St. Rose Bay, N.S.W:, -2029))° (1961) GRAY, Noel Mackintosh, BSc, 1 Centenary Ave., Hunters Hill, N.S.W?,,) ZitOs-9Giss2)) GREEN, James Henry, MSc Qld, PhD ScD Cantab, Professor of Chemistry, Macquarie University, North Ryde, N.S:We,. 21130 3 (8973) *GRIFFITH, James Langford, BA, MSc, 9 Kanoona St., Caringbah, N.S.W. > 2229: 1958) (19522 Pi724 Pres. GUTMANN, Felix, PhD Vzenna, FInstP, FAIPS, FAIP, 70A Victoria Rd., West Pennant Hills, N.S.W., 21202 (C1946) Pls) GUY, Brian Bertram, BSc PhD Syd, 8 Tivoli St.) Rose Bay, -N.S.W.; 2029.36) (U9GSrR2)) HACKETT, Ian Harry, BSe Chem Eng, Lio Hugh street, Epping, N.S-W.., 221 mGrses) *HALL, Norman Frederick Blake, MSc, 67 Wookarra Ave. , Elanora Heights; NUS: WasjecuOleme lOoas) HALL, Peter Brian, BA, BArch, FRAIA, 52 Alfred St., Milsons Point, (N.S:W.,. 206m... “@lS//Sicgeis) HAMILTON, Lloyd Hinton, BE, MSc, PhD, DIC, 18 Hampshire Ave., West Pymble, N.S.W., 2073. (1978) HAMPTON, Alan Stacey, 39 Jindabyne St., French's Forest, N.S.W., 2086.2 ¢1974y) HANCOCK, Harry Sheffield, MSc Syd, 16 Koora Ave., Wahroonga, N/S.W., 2076. |) (955) *HANLON, Frederick Noel, BSc, 21/43 Musgrave St., Mosman, N.S.W., 2088. (1940: P14; Pres. 1957) HARDIE, John Robert, BSc, FGS, 26/351 Edgecliff Rd., Edgecliff, N.S.W., 20272, (1973) HARDWICK, Ronald Leslie, BSc, Director of Audio Visual Services, University of Queensiand, St. lucia, Old. 4067 2, 963) HARDY, Clarence James, BSc, PhD, DSc, C Chen, FRIC, MAusIMM, 12 Brassie St., North Bondi, NeS Weise 2026. CLS 76) MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY HARPER, Arthur Frederick Alan, OA, MSc, Hon FAIP, FInstP, Executive Member, Metric Convertion Board. ib. 0. Box 587, Crows Nest, N.S.W., 2065. (1936: Pl; Pres. 1959) HAWKINS, David, 50 Beaumont Rd., Killara, N.S.W., 2071. (1975) HAYDON, Sydney Charles, MA Oxon, PhD Wales, FInstP, FAIP, Professor of Physics, University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W., 2351. _*HAYES, Daphne, BSc, 108 Elizabeth Bay Rd., Elizabeth Bay, N.S.W., 2011. (1943) HELBY, Robin James, MSc, PhD, 356 Burns Bay kd., Lane Cove, N.S.W., 2066. (1966: P3) HELLMANN, Ernst Richard, 12 Austral Ave., Beecroft, NESeWi gt 2a 195 (1978) HENRY, Hugh Moore, BA Syd, BA Macq, Dip Ed Syd, 11 Fifth Ave., Cremorne, N.S.W., 2090. (1976: P1) HERRIOTT, Bruce Arthur, MB, BS, MHP, FACMA, 97 Muston St., Mosman, N.S.W., 2088. (1979) HILL, Helen Campbell, 11 Cocos Ave., Eastwood, Nios cl22... (1951) HOCKLEY, John James, BSc Hons, PhD, Dip Ed, 2/127A Barker St., Kingsford, N.S.W., 2032. (1974: Pa) HODGINS, Reginald William, ASTC, BSc, 108 Savoy St., Port Macquarie, N.S.W., 2444. (1967) HORNE, Allan Richard, 149A Hawkesbury Rd., North opringwood, N.S.W., 2777. ) (1960) HUGHES, Donald Keith, BSc NWSW, Dip Ed Syd, c/- Grafton High School, P.O. Box 458, Grafton, NeoeWs, 2460. (1973) HUMPHRIES, John William, BSc, MInstP, 27 Eustace Parade, ‘Killara; N.S:W., 2071. (1959: PI; Pres. 1964) ISAACS, Geoffrey, MSc NSW, Tertiary Education Institute, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Qld, 4067. (1971) JENKINS, Christopher John, BSc Hons, c/- 407 Bronte Rd., Waverley, N.S.W., 2024. (1974) JENKINS, Thomas Benjamin Huw, PhD, Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney, Neowwi. 5 2006. (1956) JEZ, Joseph, ARAIA, 57 Young St., Sylvania Herehes, N.cS.W.-, 2224.’ (1974) JOHNSON Brian David, BA Hons, 139 Adderton Rd. , Carlingford, N.S.W., 2118. (1974: P1) *JOPLIN, Germaine Anne, PhD, DSc, 96 Queens Pde. East. Newport, Beach, N.S.W., 2106. (1935: P10) JORDAN, Vilhelm Lassen, PhD, Gevninge 4000, Roskilde, Denmark. (1973: P1) (1965) 15] KALOKERINOS, Archivides, MB, BS, FACMT, 35 Chaleyer St., Rose Bay, N.S.W., 2029. (1970) KASTALSKY., Vietor, BSc, PhD NSW, Si Kilbride. Sti, Hurlstone Park, Neo. Wes 2195.0 (1979) KELLY, John Charles, BSc Syd, PhD Readtng, DSc NSW, Associate Professor of Physics, University of NiS.W., Kensington, N.S.W., 2033; p.r. 69 Yeramba St., Turramurra, N.S.W., 2074. (1975) KEMENY, Leslie George, BE, MIEAust, 21 Westmeath Ave., Killarney Heights, N.S.W., 2087. (1975) KING, David Stephen, BSc Hons, 142 Cressy Rd., Nowth Ryde, "Nos.W.y 20s. (19772 P5) KING, Haddon Forrester, BAppSc (Min Eng), P.O. Box a7 Kallasta, Vic. , 3/91. (1975) KING, Harold Marflet, 20 Beaumont Rd., Killara, NaSe We 207d (2974) KITAMURA, Torrence Edward, BA, BSc Agr, 18 Pulbrook Parade, Hornsby, N.S.W., 2077. (1964) KOCH, Leo E., DPhil -Habzl, 21 Treatts Rd., Lindfield, N.S.W., 2070. (1948) KORBER, Peter Henry Wilibald, BSc, 9 Harcourt St., East Killara, N.S:W:., 2071. (1968) KORSCH, Russell John, BSc, Dip Ed WE, Dept. of Geology, University of New England, Armidale, NES Wetec ool ee Cl 97a oP oy) KRAMER, Harold, MB, ChB UCT, DPhil Oxon, FRCPA, FRCPath, FACMA, FAACB, University of N.S.W., Committee in Postgraduate Medical Education, P.O. Box 4, Kinsington, NesoW., 203352 ~ (19/5) KRYSKO v. TRYST, Maren, BSc, Grad Dip WSW, AMAusIMM, School of Applied Geology, University OG N.S.W., Kensington, N.S.W., 920335. (1959) LABUTIS, Vidmantas Romualdas, BSc Hons AWU, Dept. of Geology, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, 77004, USA. (1973) LANDER, John, MB, BS, BSc Med, PhD, 19 Dalton Rd., St. «lives, Necallin, 2075.) 901977) LARKIN, Peter Joseph, BSc, Dip Ed, 16 Noyana Ave., Grays Poant , Ne SoW.,. 22525) 5 (1977) LASSAK, Erich Vincent, MSc NSW, BSc Hons, ASTC, 167 Berowra Waters Rd., Berowra, N.S.W., 2081. (1964: P2) LAU, Henry Po Kun, MB, BS, FRCPA, 7/24-26 IitawarrasSt., Allawah,. NeS:W. 5 22178... ~(4979) LAWRENCE, Laurence James, DSc, PhD, Associate Professor, School of Applied Geology, University of N.S.W., Kensington, N.S.W., 2033. (1951) LEAVER, Gaynor Eiluned, BSc Wales, FGS Lond, 30 Ingalara Ave. , Wahroonga, N.S.W., 2076. (1961) LEGGETT, Wayne Graham Campbell, 11 Burrawong Rd., Avalon, WNe SeWe 5 2107. 101979) 152 LEVY, Bernard Henry John, LEB, 66 Victoria Rd. , Bellevue Hill, N.S.W., 2023. (1979) LIDDELOW, Aubrey Goswin, MB BS MelbFRCPA, FRCPath, Unit 3, "Cheddington", Llewellyn St., Lindfield, N.S.W., 2070. (1979) LIONS, Jean Elizabeth, BSc, 93A Mona Vale Rd., Pymble, N.S.W., 2073. (1940) LOCKWOOD, WIlliam Hutton, BSc, 129 High St., North Sydney, N.S.W., 2060. (1940: P1) LOW, Angus Henry, MSc, Dip Ed Syd, PhD WSW, Associate Professor, School of Mathematics, University of N.S.W., Kensington, N.S.W., DO Soe oC19502) 5P4- Pres. 1967) LOWE, Stephen Paul, BSc Hons, 12 Blackbutt Ave., Bradbury, N.S.W., 2560. (1974) LOWENTHAL, Gerhard C., MSc, PhD, 17 Gnarbo Ave., Carss HRark. NUSPWe 222128 SG 959) LOXTON, John Harold, MSc Melb, PhD Cantab, School of Mathematics, University of N.S.W., Kensington, N.S.W., 2033. (1974) LUCAS, James Patrick, 80 Shellcove Rd., Neutral Bay... Ne SaW. 4, 2089. = (1971) LYLE, Valda Emma Louise, AIPSA, 26 White St., Balgowlah, N.S.W., 2093. (1973) LYONS, Lawrence Ernest, BA MSc Syd, PhD DSc Lond, FRACI, FAA, Professor of Physical Chemistry, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Qld., AQGTi (19485. P 5) LYONS, Michael Thomas, Dip Tech (Sc) NSWIT, M. Chem NSW, 24 Woorak Cres. Miranda, N.S.W., 2228. “C1974. PL) McAULEY, William John Watson, 24 St. Ninian's Rd., Brighton, Vic. “5186. 9 (1975) McEEROY:. (Clifford: turner, 2ehD, MSc; S Kara.Cres., 5 Bayview, N.S.W., 2104. (1949: P2) McGHEE, Moira Elizabeth, 28 Nielson Ave., Garlitong NeSe W221 Oh eel O75) MacKELLAR, Michael John Randal, BSc Agr Syd, BA Hons Oxon, Lewis St., Balgowlah Heights, N.S.W., 2093. (1968) *McKERN, Howard Hamlet Gordon, MSc, ASTC Chem, FRACI, 10 Beaconsfield Rarade, Lindfield, NaSoW., 2070. (1943: (P125"Pres: 1965) McLEAN, Ross Alistair, BSc, PhD, c/- Amoco Canada Petroleum Co. Ltd., Amoco Canada Building, 444 Seventh Ave. S.W., Calgary, Alberta... T2P.0V2, Ganada. (19732 P2) McNAMARA, Barbara Joyce, MB, BS, 7/58 Ocean St., Woollahra, N.S.W.;, 2025. (1943) MAGEE, Charles Joseph, DSc Agr, 57 Florida Rd., Palm’ Beach, oN.S.We,..2808e ye (1 94:7:eeP2; =Pres. 1952) MAJSTRENKO, Petro, MSc Copenhagen, 3 Park Rd., Bellevue, Armidale, N.S.W., 2351. (1966) MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY MALCOLM, Harvey Donald Robert, MSc Syd, PhD Macq, 61 Union St., North Sydney, N.S.W:, 2060. (1974: P1) MARTIN, Helene A., PhD, School of Botany, University of N.S.W., Kensington, (N.S iWeg 2055-5 (1.976: P2) MARTIN, Peter, MSc Agr, PhD, Dip Ed, Executive Member, N.S.W. Higher Education Board, A.D.C. Building, 189 Kent St., Sydney, N.S.W., 2000] (1968) MATTOCKS, Kyrle Maitland, MB BS DCP Syd, FRCPA, FRCPath, FAACB, 13 Balyata Ave., Caringbah, N.o.W., 22295" [C197 8) MAWSON, Ruth, BA, School of Earth Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, N.S.W., 2113 G97 Sra Pay) *MELLOR, David Paver, Emeritius of Inorganic Chemistry, DSc, FRACI, 1/567 Pacific Highway, Killar, N.S.W., 2071. (1929: P25; Pres. 1941) MIKULSKI, John, BSc Hons, 56 Kyooma St., Tamworth, NoS.W. , 2340... «(976 MICHELSON, Irving, BSc, PhD, Professor of Mechanics Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, ILE, 60616, U.S JAc« Se GS Seman) *MILLERSHIP, William, MSc, 18 Courallie Ave., Pymble, N.S.W.:; 2073. siG@l940) MINTY, Edward James, MSc, BSc, Dip Ed, 11 Betola St., Ryde, N.S.W., 201200) (GloSiiaae2) MITCHELL, Robert Mervyn, MB ChM, FRCS, FRACS, Professor of Surgery, St. George Hospital, Kogarah, N.S.W., 2217. (1979) MOELLE, Konrad Heinrich Richard, Absolutorium Innsbruck, PhD Innsbruck, Dept. of Geology, University of Newcastle, N.S.W., 2308. (1967) MOLLOY, Peter David, BA Macq, 16 Merriwa St., Gordon, N.S.W., 2072. (1974) MOORE, Laurence Frederick, BA WH, 2 Chapman Cres., Avoca Beach, N.S.W., 2260. (1967) MORGAN, Noel Charles, 21 Page St., Canterbury, N.SiWa,, 2195% Blo 73)) MORGAN, Thomas Leslie, BSc Hons, 25 Banks Rd., Earlwood, N.S.W., 2206. (@iS75s5 Pa) MORRIS, Sidney Allen, PhD, Dept. of Mathematics, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Vic., 3083. (1973: P3) MORRISSEY, Matthew John, MB, BS, 152 Marsden St., Parramatta, N.S.W., 2150. (1941) *MORT, Francis George Arnot, 29 Preston Ave., Fivedock, N.S.W., 2046. (1934) MOSER, William E., BA, BEcon, BComm, 19 Hurlstone Ave., Hurlstone Park, N.S.W., 2193. (1973) MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY [53 MOSHER, Kenneth George, BSc, OBE, 9 Yirgella Ave., Kiidarnace N.S.W., 2071. (1948) MOSKOS, Michael, BE Mech NWSW, 21 Baringa Rd., Northbridge, N.S.W., 2063. (1975) MURRAY, Bede Edward, BA, 15 Spring St., Mount Keira, N.S.W., 2500. (1969) MURRAY, Charles John, 41 Cambewarra Cres., Berowra, N.S.W., 2082. (1973) MURRAY, Richard Charles, 40 Morrison St., Cobar, NeSeWe >. Zoom. ~ (1975) NAPPER, Donald Harold, MSc Syd, PhD Cantab, ARACI, Associate Professor of Physical Chemistry, University of Sydney, N.S.W., 2006. (1973: Pres. 1979) NASHAR, Beryl, OBE, BSc Syd, PhD Tasm, Dip Ed Syd, MAusIMM, Professor of Geology, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, N.S.W., 2308. (1946: P3) NAZAR, Roderick Eric, PhD, Canberra Grammar School,’ Monaro Cres., Red Hill, A.C;T., 2603. (1975) *NAYLOR, George Francis King, PhD, 34 Jilda St., Indooroopilly; Qld, 4068. - (1930: P7) *NEUHAUS , John William George, MSc NWSW, ASTC, 32 BOltconyot., Guirdford, N.S.W.; 2161. (1943: P1; Pres. 1969) *NEWMAN, Ivor Vickery, PhD, 1 Stuart St., Wahroonga, N.S.W., 2076. (1932) NINHAM, Barry William, PhD, MSc, Professor of Mathematics, Research School of Physical Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T.,; 2600. (1970) NOAKES, Lyndon Charles, OBE, BA, 15 Beagle St., Red Hill, A.C.T., 2603. (1945: P1) NOBLE, Roderick Gerard, 70 Victoria Rd., Pennant Hadidis, NoS-W.5° 2120. © (1978) *NOBLE, Robert Jackson, PhD, CBE, 50A Ada Ave., Wahroonga, N.S.W., 2076. (1920: P4; Pres. 1934) OVSHEA, Timothy, BVSc, MSc, PhD, Dept. of Physiology, University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W., 2350. (1973) OXENFORD, Reginald Augustus, BSc, c/- P.O. Box 115, South Grafton, N.S.W., 2461. (1950) PACKHAM, Gordon Howard, PhD Syd, Associate Professor, Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney, N.S.W., 2006. (1951: P4) PARTRIDGE, Alan Douglas, BSc, MSc, c/- Esso Aust. Ltd., G.P.O. Box 4047, Sydney, N.S.W., 2001. (1977) PATON, Pauline Joy, MB BS Syd, 2/9 Abbotsford St., Kensington, N.S.W., 2033. (1979) PAWLOFF, Theodora, MD, DOM, MRANZCP, 680 Victoria Rds, Ryde, NvsowW.., 92112. ° (1979) PEARCE, Marcelle Gordon Ivy, MSc Melb, CSIRO Division of Applied Physics, p.r. 108 Burns Rd., Wahroonga, N.S.W., 2076. (1967) PEARSON, Robert John Butler, 25 Burling Ave., Fairy Meadow, N.S.W., 2519. (1969) *PENFOLD, Arthur Ramon (1920: P82; Pres. 1935) PERRY, Hubert Roy, BSc, 74 Woodbine St., Bowral, N.S.W., 2576. (1948) PETERSON, George Arthur, BSc, BE, 55 Roseville Ave., Roseville, N.S.W., 2069. (1966) PHADKE, Kiran Prabhakar, MB, ChB, 2/62 Marine Pde., Maroubra, N.S.W., 2035. (1979) PHILIP, Graeme Maxwell, MSc Melb, PhD Cantab, FGS, MAusIMM, Professor of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney, N.S.W., 2006. (1964: P2) PHILIPP, Donald Henry, BSc, ASTC, 90 Spencer Rd., Kitthkarma, NecaWs, 207k. ~~ (L979) PHIPPS, Charles Verling Gayer, PhD Tor, BSc Syd, Associate Professor of Geology, Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney, N.S.W., 2006. (1960) PICKETT, John William, MSc WE, Dr Phil Nat Frank- furt/M, N.S.W. Geological Survey, Mining Museum, 36 George St., Sydney, 2000. (1965: P3; Pres. 1974) POGGENDORFF, Walter Hans George, BSc Agr, 85 Beaconsfield Rd., Chatswood, N.S.W., 2067. (1947) POGSON, Ross Edward, Dip Tech Sci WMSWIT, B App Sci Hons NSWIT, 178 Marco Ave., Panania, N.S.W., DING. O72) POLLARD, John Percival, MSc PhD NWSW, Dip App Chem Swinburne, Australian Atomic Energy Commission, p-x. 9° Bunarba Rd., Gymea, N.S.W., 2227. (1963: P1; Pres. 1973) PORRITT, Raymond Ernest John, 23 Rothwell Rd., Turramurra; NeS.W., 2074. - (1973) PROKHOVNIK, Simon Jacques, BA, MSc Melb, Associate Professor of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, School of Mathematics, University of N.S.W., Kensington, N.S.W. 792053. VGl9Se: P4) *PROUD, Sir John Seymour, Kt, BE, Finlay Rd., Turramurra, N.S.W., 2074. (1945) PROWSE, David Benjamin, PhD, 2 Spencer Rd., Killara, N.S.W., 2071. (1978) PUTTOCK, Alan Maurice, FCA, Erskine House, 39-41 York St., Sydney, N.S.W., 2000. (1969) PUTTOCK, Maurice James, BSc £ng, MInstP, CSIRO National Mesurement Laboratory, P.O. Box 218 Lindfield, N.ssW.,, 2070. (1960: Pl; Pres. 1971) 154 MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY *QUODLING, Florrie Mabel, BSc PhD Syd, 218 Whale Beach Rd., Whale Beach, N.S.W., 2107. (1935: PS) RADE... Janis,oMSc,. Rlat’ 28h" 601"St.. Kilidaurkds : Melbourne, Vic., 3004. (1953: P6) RAMM, Eric John, Australian Atomic Energy Commission, Lucas Heights, N.S.W., 2232. (1959) RATTIGAN, John Herbert, PhD, 46 Blarney Ave. , Killarney Heights, N.S.W., 2087. (1966: P2) *RAYNER, Jack Maxwell, OBE, BSc, 5 Tennyson Cres., Forrest. AC Te, 2605... (19302 2P 1) REID, Donald Anthony, Richmond St., Woodenbong, NetOriWier 247.0%

27, 145 abel 28 56 -56 45 43 158 7 34 29 -56 39 08 160 12.6 SGP Oe) -56 40 33 161 L264 Saou -56 42 07 162 tel SLY -56 41 19 163 NO: 7, 535. 07 =56 39 18 -56 6347 164 Mage Dyas (AP -56 40 30 165 LO? 3210 -56 41 21 -56 6339 166 V2, 32 08 -56 38 02 167 12.4 S108 =96 58 25 168 Oia S105 =56 38 37 -56 6318 169 12.4 30 45 -56 41 17 170 2a 30 42 =90) 42 “7 DAVID S. KING M No. — ra ray ra OB DUOUODNONFPONUAWO COON ay — OWN OFRFNDONW UW bh ay — ao WHOOP UOrRADA ALA Notes No. 171 172 173 177 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 236 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 256 257 259 262 281 282 283 284 285 287 288 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 303 304 305 306 307 308 320 521 322 324 325 326 327 PAUP RPRPNNNNINRPRPNINUNPUOUNNNHPFPNINNDFSP UN OHPRPHARPNODNINFPOPNINFPAPNIP RPP HPNYINNYN BPRPNYIDWADAHN ~ 06 04 55 57 21 54 oi 40 25 03 40 £1 Al oY 02 07 12 03 Sil 16 05 05 57 57 40 38 55 15 12 09 ot 47 40 16 50 55 59 a2 Li? 10 37 34 22 11 06 03 Se) 55) 51 50 43 12 56 07 03 45 34 58 48 55 ZZ 04 30 26 25 16 PROPER MOTIONS IN THE REGION OF NGC 5662 -56 -56 =56 -56 -56 =56 -56 -56 -~56 -56 -56 -56 -56 -56 -56 =56 =56 -56 =50 =56 -56 -56 =20 =56 =56 = )6) -56 0 = 0 -56 -56 =56 =50 -56 = 19) =30 55) =-56 6349 6342 6336 G555 6324 6321 6320 6315 6313 6312 6361 6351 6348 6344 6340 6337 0555 O5o7 6330 6328 6308 6306 6298 6087 6353 Table 1 continued M No. Qa H He eS me _ hb RPDDODWOFWWOONWADHFHPNANIFAP HP WOWOWrFRUNODPRWOANIN OO FT a ee H ODRNN WO FF ND = ary WEPNUNDFNIWOPNUONWOAW OC 12 10 be “N e NO ONF DW COO —E e RR} PwWODAN FON CO 10 Notes 10 No. 328 329 331 332 555 334 336 S57, 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 552 $89 S50 S57 358 559 360 377A Sd S79 381 382 383 384 385 387 388 389 Sot 392 393 394 396 597 398 399 411 412 413 414 417 419 420 421 424 426 427 449 450 455 456 457 458 483 485 486 487 489 SBPHEYYNYNONNYN AP UM BWMP RP PHP YP YIP WMP RPANININEPNUWPNIRPRPNINNRPPRPNINRPRPNNFANHRN OR PNP BNNNNOND NI -56 -56 -56 =30 -56 =30 -56 50 -56 -56 -56 oO =090, = =56 -56 -56 = 50 -56 -56 -56 =96 -56 =56 350 -56 -56 -56 -56 -56 -56 -56 =50 -56 -56 -56 -56 -56 -56 =50 -56 -56 -56 =50 -96 -56 -56 -56 -56 -56 -56 -56 =56 =56 -56 -56 -56 =56 -56 -56 -56 =50 -56 -56 =00 -56 DAVID S. KING CPD No. -509 -56 S55) 35 -55 =55 -56 -56 = 510 =55 =-55 -56 -55 -55 -55 -55 =D =59 -55 -55 -55 -55 -55 =55 -55 -55 =55 6073 6346 6072 6071 6067 6066 6341 6334 6325 6061 6039 6300 6092 6084 6078 6075 6068 6064 6063 6057 6042 6089 6062 6058 6040 6085 6060 Table 1 continued 1.01 11.05 129 10.56 akg Beeye) 8.82 fal? 10.78 1185 10.67 9.88 7.06 10% 72 9.19 Oi Pio6 M No. u v 15 - 1 0 16 - 6 - 2 17 -149 -30 14 38 41 18 80 i 11 - 3 - 6 12 - 9 -16 13 - 7 -10 -16 -21 19 -14 31 3 -81 -49 7 5 -29 8 4 14 21 - 2 - 2 - 4 -15 43 50 33 37 1 32 - 9 -11 -22 53 -63 2, -90 -30 56 29 4 28 -231 -40 118 186 34 10 -55 20 -30 -28 8 25 - 5 25 - 3 -62 -41 -45 10 - 4 = 12 9 4 -10 20 - 1 -13 35 30 2 68 10 -10 -35 -20 -128 -254 -31 44 Se 7/ 20 0 58 -28 28 -33 24 64 52 -359 - 367 -10 -18 10 -22 17 - 2 22 18 -16 - 9 - 9 -16 14 14 -41 4 16 -40 -26 -85 -26 62 7 -40 22 - 8 -23 - 7 69 47 22 36 25 -i11 Q e e NODANNWODAWOO FTF — = RPaAnNPOFPOUNAU — a — para Ne) UNDAF AWNAM He Pe RR NWONOWNIOWA AN ©C Notes PROPER MOTIONS IN THE REGION OF NGC 5662 No. Mag. R.A. Dec. 491 HOR 50,20. =55 59°35 494 9.1 29 44 -55 59 46 Sydney Observatory, Observatory Park, SYDNEY. N.S.W. 2000 Table 1 continued CPD No. V M No. u -55 6050 -11 -55 6046 9 (Manuscript received 25.2.80) V) O fo) P u U 45 13 12 7 -24 7 1 70 I] Journal and Proceedings. Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 113. pp. 13-17, 1980 Some Spacecraft I Have Known* K. G. MCCRACKEN INTRODUCTION Spacecraft have personalities of their own. Some are attractive to look at; others look like an unsuccessful piece of cubist sculpture. Some are very demanding on the experimenter, while others are very easy to get on with. The great majority of them, I am pleased to say, work exceedingly well, and for a long time. It is a commonly observed phenomenon that equipment is much more reliable in space than in the laborato- ry. People seem to have a bad effect on space equipment. Space research is carried out from satell- ites, rockets and from earth. In the following, I briefly touch on my experiences with each method. I also touch on that important problem "what do you do when your scientific interest seems to have dried up?''. The short answer is "be thankful, a change is good for you". THE CRUSADES OF SIR LAUNCH-A-LOT My first direct involvement with satellites commenced in 1962, when NASA announced a series of spacecraft to be flown during the forthcoming International Quiet Sun Year (IQSY). The primary goals of the missions were the measurement of the "baseline" properties of the interplanetary medium while the sun was very inactive. There was to be open competition for the space avail- able on the spacecraft. By today's standards, the spacecraft were minute. A grand total of 7 kilograms was avail- able for all experiments; 5 watts of power; and typical data transmission rates of ]6 bits per second (i.e. about 4 decimal digits per second). The spacecraft was to be ''magnetically clean" and an absolute minimum of ferromagnetic materials was to be used in its construction. The fact that transistors, photomultipliers and many electronic devices use large quantities of a magnetic alloy was mercifully unknown to us at the time. We soon learned; the hard way. My group proposed an experiment to measure the anisotropic characteristics of the "galactic" cosmic radiation that enters the solar system from elsewhere in the galaxy. The measurement was designed to yield the average properties of the interplanetary magnetic field in the solar system, and was therefore complementary to the direct measurements of the magnetic field and solar plasma (the "solar wind") that were to be made at the spacecraft. To our unending surprise, we were one of the six experiments chosen for the flights. * Paper tnvited by Counctl. We realized that we had serious problems soon after we commenced the detailed design of the experiment. We had been given a weight allowance of 2.05 kilograms, while the smallest cosmic-ray detector we could build would weigh 1.60 kilograms leaving only 450 grams for electronics, power supplies, etc. It seemed quite impossible. And then, aS. happens=so»orten in Scrence ga little luck came our way. Three kilometres away from my laboratory was the then relatively small company, Texas Instruments. I recruited one of their employees as my electronic engineer. And he said "why not use integrated circuits?". The first commercial production of ICs was still six months in the future, and none of my group had ever heard of such things. However, we obtained samples from the pilot production run (through the old boy network) and found they would do every- thing we wanted, with weight to spare! Finding you can do it is one thing; being allowed to do it on a spacecraft is an entirely different matter. Reliability is of paramount importance, and proof of reliability is expensive. After an immense amount of paper work, argument and some vitriol, we were authorized to become the first experimenters to use [Gs in an anter— planetary spacecraft. Pioneer VI was launched in December 1965. Within days our detector was telling us, in no uncertain terms, that the sun was far from quiet (Fig. 1). For more than 70% of the time, the galactic cosmic radiation was totally obscured by solar cosmic rays. Luck was with us again; the solar cosmic rays proved to be by far the more interesting of the two. We published eight papers on the solar cosmic-ray phenomena, versus a single rather lightweight one concerning the galactic radiation. It is interesting to ponder, however, that we would have been very unlikely to have been selected for the flight if we had proposed a solar cosmic-ray experiment. Over the subsequent three years we built and flew experiments on six more spacecraft. While Pioneer VI was limited to measuring protons in the range 7.5-90 MeV, later experiments extended the proton range to include 1-8 MeV, and also measured relativistic electrons (i.e. E > 500 keV). In the later spacecraft the fluxes were measured from eight different directions, as against four direc- tions in Pioneer VI. Each improvement was a res- ponse to the desire to look at the physics of the interplanetary region at different scales. For example, measurements of the 100,10 and 1 MeV pro- ton fluxes indicated the degree of "roughness" of the interplanetary magnetic field over distances «_— 75-45 Mev. ENERGETIC STORM PARTICLE EVENT we PER 7.5 MINUTES Vv >7.5 Mev + “GALACTIC COUNTS a BIDIRECTIONAL ANISOTROPY ANISOTROPY (%) | II l| na! | Mahal Th | I 29 DEC 1965 31 DEC 1965 2 JAN 1966 UNIVERSAL TIME Fig. 1. The upper graph shows the arrival of low- energy cosmic rays from a solar flare that occurred early on 30 December 1965. The flux of non-solar cosmic rays remained essentially constant until 2 January 1966, when the magnetohydrodynamic shock wave generated by the flare reached the space- craft -1 (FromiMcCracken: ec al. ;. 1967) Om the onder of 1.9 x 10 *; 6.x 107vand76.4 x 10 © astronomical unit (AU; the distance from the sun to the earth). Five years, seven spacecraft and over a hun- dred solar flares gave us an entirely new under- standing of the manner in which cosmic rays flow under the influence of the interplanetary mag- netic field. This understanding is illustrated by Figure 2. The first cosmic rays reach the satellite by travelling along the lines of force of the solar system field (Fig. 3). This is understandable through simple orbit theory applied to a charged particle in a well-behaved magnetic field. By the end of the first day, however, the maximum flux of cosmic rays is no longer parallel tovthe anterplanetary magnetic#vector:, [tis parallel to the direction of flow of the solar wind. The solar cosmic rays have been scattered by small kinks in the interplanetary field and move, en masse, as if attached to the moving solar wind. They are "'surf-riding" out of the solar system with the radially expanding solar wind. After several more days, the maximum flux of solar radiation is from a direction at right angles to the interplanetary magnetic field, By now, most of the cosmic rays generated in the original solar flare have ridden the wind to K. G. McCRACKEN Ge) = Ale uly 30 MARCH — 9 APRIL, 1969 PIONEER 8 TO SUN 30 MARCH FIELD ALIGNED ANISOTROPY 3) Aes mk | EQUILIBRIUM ANISOTROPY RADIAL (CONVECTIVE ) DIRECTION /5 8 tae EQUILIBRIUM ANISOTROPY (FROM EAST) 9 APRIL FLUX FROM 45° EAST 25% ANISOTROPY SCALE Fig. 2. Summarizing the behaviour of the cosmic- ray flow vector as a function of time, subsequent to a solar flare on 30 March 1969. (From McCracken et al., 1971) SOLAR WIND BLOWING IN RADIAL DIRECTION INTERPLANETARY MAGNETIC FIELDS Fig. 3. Summarizing the nature of the mtexr— planetary magnetic field, and the manner in which a low-energy cosmic ray travels from the sun to the spacecraft by spirall- ing along the surface of a magnetic tube of force. (From McCracken, 1969) SOME SPACECRAFT I HAVE KNOWN 15 Points well outside the orbit of earth. Some of these particles are scattered into orbits that cause them to spiral back along the interplanetary lines of force towards the sun. It can be shown that this implies that the flux will be a maximum at right angles to the magnetic induction vector. It all seems simple and quite straightforward now, but the sun had to give us many hints before we, and our theoretical colleagues, could tell us how obvious it all is. NEW FIELDS While we were preparing Pioneer VI for the Quiet Sun Year, a new field of astronomy was being born. My former boss at the Massachusetts Insti- tute of Technology, Bruno Rossi, confounded the theoreticians when he and his colleagues observed X-rays coming from near the centre of the galaxy. A repeat performance of the radio astronomy story seemed an exciting possibility. Rossi's pioneering discovery was made by det- ecting 2-8 keV X-rays. These are rapidly absorbed in the atmosphere, and must therefore be measured either from a rocket or a satellite. However, the absorption length of X-rays rapidly increases with energy, and simple calculations showed that 30 keV X-rays might be observable using an instrument carried to about 40 000 metres on a high-altitude balloon. Ae the time (1963), we were preparing to fly a balloon version of our Pioneer experiment from Hyderabad, India, as a contribution to the Inter- mational Quiet Sun Year. We therefore decided, on very short notice, to include an X-ray astronomy Shitchhiker" in our balloon experiment. Despite its extreme simplicity, it detected a strong X-ray source in the constellation Cygnus. Ae showed that X-ray spectra extended to high ener- gies, making the mechanism of origin seem even more remarkable. At this time I was preparing to return to Australia in 1966, and was actively seeking a research activity that could be carried out at home. The Woomera rocket range; the balloon- launching base at Mildura; the galactic centre being in the southern sky; and the success in India made X-ray astronomy the obvious choice. The first problem was to gain access to rocket flights from Woomera. While over 200 "Skylark" rockets had been flown as part of the 50-50 British-Australian joint project, no Australian experiment had ever been accepted for flight. Therefore, together with Geoff Fenton of the University of Tasmania, I approached the British authority responsible for the scientific programme at Woomera. At that time Australians still had "British" passports and in jest we pointed this out, saying we wanted to apply to fly as British, not Australians. The British thought it was a huge joke, and we were accepted. And so it was that the first Australian experiment flew out of Woomera on the 244th Skylark launched as part of the joint programme. Lady luck was particularly kind to us this time. Predictably, we discovered several new X-ray sources (Fig. 4) because we could see the 40% of UMIVERSITIES OF ADELAIDE AND TASMANIA 40 (U.A.T.) SKYLARK SL426 WOOMERA, APRIL 4, 1967 60 40 SCAN I9 40 | 2 SCAN 26 plies SCAN 26 t | ee Yar s Py nfind | meri fe tes alti MP, fu! L a SCO XR-! to Counts per 0-1 sec AW) 10 SKYLARK SL425 WOOMERA, APRIL 20 1967 Time (sec) Fig. 4. Portion of the data obtained by our first X-ray astronomy flight. The Sagittarius and Scorpio sources had been observed from the northern hemisphere. The Crux source was at a Declination of .60°, and could only be seen from the southern hemi- Spnere.. (From Harries cs.ai.,, Loow) the cefestial sphere that 1S invisible from the northern hemisphere. Our two flights also pro- vided a much more important result, however, The intensity of one of the new sources in the southern sky decreased substantially in the period between the flights. Six weeks later it was invisible. We had positive proof that X-ray stars Vary in intensity. This set distinct limits on the nature of X-ray stars. It paved the way for the postulation of such exotic source mechanisms as gravitational accretion of mass onto white dwarfs and, later, black holes. DOWN TO EARTH By thevend of the 1960s>) the; prospects: tor conducting significant space research in Australia were very dim indeed. The Skylark programme was being discontinued from Woomera. In the USA, space research was increasingly "experiment by committee". I decided it was time to change my research inter- ests again. I therefore sought an area of research that was Closely aligned to the industrial and political aspirations of Australia. The history of astronomy in the 18th century; chemistry in 19th-century Germany; and space research in the USSR and USA indicated the wisdom of such an alignment. 16 K. G. McCRACKEN At the time, the nickel boom was suffering its terminal series of convulsions. It had become clear that the exploration technology dev- eloped for recently glaciated countries (e.g. Canada and Sweden) had failed miserably in regions orvold;, thick, saline soils. Development. ofea technology tailored to the Australian environment was clearly necessary. The Commonwealth Scientif- ic and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) decided to enter this area of research, and I was lucky to be offered a job with them. This requ- ired supreme courage on their part; I knew abso- lutely nothing about minerals exploration. The subsequent decade has emphasized the virtue of a scientist changing his research interests several times during his professional life. Being unencumbered by the dead hand of con- vention, and possessing several very unconven- tional skills, my colleagues have made a number of significant advances in response to the chall- enge presented by the Australian environment. In particular, the technology and mental atti- tudes of space research have proven to be import- ant tools in meeting this challenge. The only real problem has been the very human one of communication; without a common background, serious misunderstanding can occur between the practitioner and the researcher. But that is another story! To illustrate the application of a "space research" mentality to minerals exploration, I cite a single example of recent work that is now of major practical importance in Australia, and which is providing Australia with a significant international reputation. In the late 1960s, NASA, in collaboration with the US Geological Survey, began building a sacellite to provider photographs" of the earth which could aid the management of resources. These satellites became known as the Landsat series. A group of Australian scientists Pprop- osed a series of experiments involving Landsat, which were accepted by NASA. The subsequent history of Landsat in Australia is extremely illuminating. It demon- strates, yet again, the danger inherent in uncritical transfer of technology from one country to another. The Landsat images available in 1972-73 were found to offer very little that Australia didn't know already. The imported technology had been tried, and had been found wanting. Industry, and the research community, rapidly lost interest in the product. Then Andy Green in my laboratory made an extremely important discovery. He showed that much of the detail being transmitted by the spacecraft was never reaching the Australian user. The processing and copying procedures that were right for many parts of the world were wrong for Australia. From space, Australia is a very bright continent, and inadequate allowance was being made for this. The resulting images of Australia were noisy and of low contrast. Green therefore went back to the digital data that were originally transmitted by the space- craft. He and his co-workers developed computer techniques that yielded a greatly improved Landsat product. But was the improved product of any practical use? In the first place, it was, clearéthat Landsat's role would be to augment existing data sources, and that the satellite data would prob- ably assist in some applications, but not in others. It was also clear that some of Landsat's advantages would be in areas involving commercial secrecy, such as crop prediction and mineral exploration. Preliminary investigations made it clear that it would be virtually impossible to gain access to the data of most interest to us in this regard. Further, our resources were inadequate for investigating enough separate applications to reach a statisti- cally significant result. We solved this problem of assessing the pro- duct by involving Australian industry in the research. Through the Australian Mineral Indus- tries Research Association, we set up eight "characteristic regions'' in which to conduct our joint investigations. The nine companies involved contributed their own large-scale geological maps, etc., and provided assistance during data collec- tion on the ground. In addition, however, we knew the companies would then use the technology they were gaining in the project on exploration prospects that were too sensitive for discussion with us. We knew that their success in these preliminary investigations would determine whether their Boards would endorse routine use of the technology in the future. These would be the real tests of practical usefulness of the new techniques. Our joint experiment with industrv has now been running for three years. We have all the conventional results of such scientific work: numerous papers; demand to speak overseas; many international visitors. These tell us nothing about the original question, "how useful is Landsat?''. No one is about to tell us if Landsat helped them find a new orebody; or how much time and money it saved. But we can observe certain phenomena. Thus quite a few mining companies are now setting up equipment similar to ours, which will give them greater accessibility to the Landsat data as well as improved confidentiality. Each installation costs no less than $100,000. Sales of our computer-enhanced imagery have increased fourfold each year since 1977, and are now estimated to run in excess of $300,000 p.a. Many companies now have "Landsat specialists", and job advertisements specify ''experience with Landsat". We conclude with confidence that the mining industry finds Landsat to be very useful indeed. CONCLUSION It has been a marvellous experience to part- icipate in the ''space research" era from the very beginning. A whole host of new discoveries have been made, and it has been immensely stimulating to contribute to the radical changes in scientific knowledge that have ensued. Luck, hard work, a little guile, a willingness to gamble and an open SOME SPACECRAFT I HAVE KNOWN 17 mind seem to be the main ingredients that have Hed to success. I suspect it is so in all fields Or SCLENCE . After ten heady years, it has been an invig- orating experience to apply myself to the problems concerned with the Australian part of spaceship earth. I have found ''space' skills to be highly relevant. I venture to say that two of our most successful projects would not have succeeded without our knowledge of space skills. The sales that have resulted from these projects amount to in excess of $750,000 p.a. already; the total benefit to the Australian economy exceeds this by a factor. of 10. It is well to recall that many Australians regard space research as a''waste of the American taxpayers' money''. They are probably totally unaware of the role space research has played in - providing Australia with an excellent inter- national telephone service, more accurate weather predictions, and improved exploration for minerals (to name three). I see space research as a further example of the symbiotic relationship between the pursuit of knowledge and the deriva- CSIRO Division of Mineral Physics RO” BOX 56 North Ryde, NSW 2113 tion of practical benefits. To pursue one of these and ignore the other will be to the long- term disadvantage of all mankind, since it will kil both the intellectual, and the practical outworkings of science. REFERENCES Harries, Jak. 5 McCracken, KeG., Francey, Rid. and Fenton, A.G., 1967. A strong X-ray source in the vicinity of the constellation Crux. WNature, 215 (5096), 38-40. McCracken, K.G., 1969. High-energy particle events associated with solar flares. Solar Flares and Space Research, North-Holland,Amsterdam, 13 pp: MeGracken, K.G.4 ‘Rao, UR. and Bukata, R-P.., L967. Cosmic-ray propagation processes: 1. A study of the cosmic-ray flare effect. J. Geophys. Res., 72 (17) , 4293-4324. MeGrackeng. kG. Rao, UW sRe Bukatd.. Rep. sand Keath, Ears, 9/1. Mine: decay phase lof-solar flare eventse Sol. Pays ., £6, 100-152. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 113, pp. 19-21, 1980 Study of the Effect of Chloramphenicol on Photochemical Formation of Self-Sustaining Coacervates in Presence of Low Concentration of Biological Minerals K. BAHADUR, S. RANGANAYAKI. S. KUMAR AND A. KRISHNA ABSTRACT. The number of self-sustaining particles formed in sterilised aqueous mixture, con- taining ammonium molybdate, diammonium hydrogen phosphate and formaldehyde in presence of small concentration of biological minerals, increase on exposure to sunlight, if a small concentration of chloramphenicol is added in the mixture. On prolonged exposure, the number of particles does not increase in the mixture which has high concentration of chloramphenicol and the inhibition in the formation of particles is proportional to the concentration of chloramphenicol in the irradiated mixture. Thorough investigations of the origin of life have been undertaken during the last two decades based upon the theories of chemical evolution suggested by Oparin (1) and Haldane (2). The underlying idea is that the first molecule which formed the earliest living systems came about by a process of molecular evolution to form the earliest living system. A lot of data has been collected during this period to suggest the natural processes under which the biochemicals forming the earliest living cells are synthesised. Reviews on abiogenesis have appeared (3,4). Another important step in the investigation of the processes of "life synthesis'' is the organ- isation of specific molecular associations, which show the properties of biological order. In this field the work on microspheres by Fox (5) and co- acervates by Oparin (6), concerns the structures which could be synthesised under natural specific conditions. The work on 'Jeewanu' reported in 1963 by Bahadur et. al. (7,8,9,10) describes the formation of microstructures from sterilised aqueous mix- tures of formaldehyde, ammoniacal nitrogen and biological minerals, on exposure to light. The presence of various biochemicals in these mix- tures have been reported (3,11). These part- icles have a boundary wall and distinct internal structures. The particles consist of a number of amino acids in free and combined form, nucleic acid bases such as adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil and thymine, sugars such as ribose, deo- xyribose glucose, fructose, a number of organic acids and material with enzyme-like activity. The work has been confirmed in a number of laborator- mes (11,12). In 1970 Bahadur and Ranganayaki synthesised self-sustaining coacervates by exposing sterilized aqueous mixtures containing ammonium molybdate, diammonium hydrogen phosphate, biological minerals consisting of sodium chloride, potassium sulphate, Magnesium sulphate, calcium acetate and potassium dihydrogen phosphate and formaldehyde to sunlight or artificial light (13). These particles have a boundary wall and internal structures and a number of biochemicals as amino acid in free and combined State, sugars, nucleic acid bases and enzyme-like materials. They "grow'' from within, multiply by budding and have metabolic activities. The bound- ary wall is composed of phospholipids (14). The particles have been fixed with biological fix- atives and stained with a number of biological dyes (15). As these particles appeared to show a number of life-like properties, it was of interest to ob- serve the effect of an antibiotic, viz. chloram- phenicol when mixed before exposure to radiation, on the formation of these microstructures. It has already been shown that these particles are anti- biotic sensitive (16). Tetracycline inhibits the formation ot these particles (17). Although a high concentration of antibiotic in the irradiated mixture inhibits the formation of particles, smaller concentrations act as activators. EXPERIMENTAL Aqueous solutions of ammonium molybdate 4% (W/V) and diammonium hydrogen phosphate 3% (W/V) were prepared. The mineral solution was made up by dissolving 20 mg each of sodium chloride, pot- assium sulphate, magnesium sulphate, calcium ace- tate and potassium dihydrogen phosphate in 100 ml distilled water. 2 ml of 36% formaldehyde solution was used in each mixture. Chloramphen- icol solution was prepared by dissolving 50 mg of chloramphenicol in 5 ml distilled water. Into each of six test tubes, 2 ml of ammonium molybdate solution, 4 ml of diammonium hydrogen phosphate solution and 2 ml mineral solution were added. The tubes were cotton wool plugged and sterilised in an autoclave at 15 1b pressure for 30 minutes. The test tubes were cooled to room temperature and then’ 022 ml> 0.4 mi, 0.6 mig0rs ml and 1.0 ml of chloramphenicol solution were added to five of the test tubes. The sixth one was left as a control. The total volume of each mixture was made up to 9.0 ml by adding sterilized distilled water aseptically followed by 2 ml of formaldehyde solution. The test tubes were shaken gently and the mixtures were then exposed to sunlight. The mixtures became blue when exposed to sun- light and turbidity developed shortly thereafter. The turbidity increased with time and a large num- ber of microstructures formed in the mixture. 20 28 24 pe) oO No. of particles ro) 4 hours 8 hours 12 hours TIME OF EXPOSURE Figure 1, Effect of different concentration of Chloramphenicol on the formation of self- sustaining coacervates. COUNTING OF PARTICLES After exposure for four hours to sunlight all the mixtures were stored and the particles were examined microscopically. The particles were counted with a haemocytometer. Four slides of each mixture were prepared by taking one drop of the mixture aseptically from the test tube by glass rod. The counting of the particles are done under oil immersion microscope at 1,000 magnif- ication. The number of particles in 10 different views at different places on the slide were counted within a specific area as marked in the eye piece. Thus, 40 counts in four slides for each mixture were taken. The counting of the particles formed in each mixture was performed after each four hours of sunlight exposure of each day. OBSERVATIONS. The results are shown in Table 1. RESULTS There was an increase in the number of part- icles after 4 hours exposure in the mixtures which had 2, 4 and 6-mg of chloramphenicol. “In “the mix- ture which had 2 mg of chloramphenicol, this in- crease continued and became comparable with the number of particles in the control mixture, but the number of particles did not increase on further exposure in the mixture which contained 4 mg of chloramphenicol. The number of particles in the mixture which had 6 mg of chloramphenicol was maximal at 4 hours exposure, but subsequently K. BAHADUR AND OTHERS 40 O-4 Hours A-— 8 Hours (J—1!2 Hours 30 20 No. of particles Z 4 6 8 1O mg of chloramphenicol added Eugures27: Number of particles as observed after 4, 8 and 12 hours of exposure. the number of particles decreased rapidly (Figures 1 and 2). In the mixture containing high con- centrations of chloramphenicol, i.e., 8 mg or 10 mg, the number of particles is the same as in the control during the first 4 hours of exposure. After this there was no significant increase in the number of particles with further exposure. DISCUSSION Thus, it has been observed that low concen- tration (i.e. up to 6 mg) of chloramphenicol in the mixtures which form self-sustaining coacer- vates on irradiation to sunlight increases the formation of these particles while larger con- centrations (8 mg - 10 mg) do not affect the formation of particles during the first 4 hours of exposure. On further exposure, the number of particles became equal to the control in the mix- ture which had just traces (2 mg) of chloram- phenicol. In the mixture having higher concen- trations of antibiotic, the number of particles did not increase and was much less than the con- trol. ANTIBIOTIC EFFECT ON SELF-SUSTAINING COACERVATES 21 TABLE 1 EFFECTS OF CHLORAMPHENICOL CONCENTRATION AND TIME OF EXPOSURE ON NUMBER OF PARTICLES Reaction mixtures: 2 ml 4% ammonium molybdate solution + 4 ml 3% diammonium hydrogen phosphate solution + 2 ml mineral salts solution + 0.2 - 1.0 ml 1% chloramphenicol solution + distilled water to 9 ml total volume + 2 ml 36% formaldehyde solution. Weight for chlor- Number of Particles at amphenical in different exposure times reaction mixture (mgs) 4 hours 8 hours REFERENCES Bahadur, K. et al., 1963. Vtgnana Partshad Anusandhan, Patrtka, 6, 63-117. Oparin, A.I., 1924. Protskhozhdente Zhiznt Izd, PrileeS UME leds Memnce fuses a7 ieonaee Moskovsktt, Rabochit, Moscow. The Origin of Life, The MacMillan Co., New York, 1938. Muller, P. and Rudin, D-O-, 1970. Current Haldane, J.B.S., 1929. Rattonalists Annual, Topites tn Bioenergetics, 3, 157 pp. 148 pp. Bahadur, K. and Ranganayaki, S., 1970. J. Br. Bahadur, K., 1967. Zbl. Bakt. 121 (2), Interplanet. Soe., 28 (12), 813-829. 291-319. Singhs uP... 975. (SEvaves 1 wAbtogenestse ois Phospholipids, D.Phil. Thesis, Chemistry Department, Allahabad University, India. Bahadur, Kx and Gupta, J.In5 1973. “2Zb0y Bakces 1275 G2) 52645) pps Lemmon, R.M., 1970. Chemtcal Revtew, 70, 95 pp. Fox, S.W., Harda, K. and Vegotsky, A., 1959. Experimentta, 15, 81 pp. Oparin, A.I., 1959. The Origin of Life on Earth. Permagon Press, New York. Bahadur, K., Ranganayaki, S., Singh, Y.P. and Kumar S., 1975. Revtsta do Inst. Anttbtotteos Banadur, K., 1964. Zb2. Bakt., 118 (2) 671 pp. Reetfe; 15N (1/2), dez,- 35-56. Bahadur, K. and Ranganayaki, S., 1964. Zbl. Bahadur, sk... Kumars, S.sand Gusam, ©. Ss09 1977. BAKL walls. (2) 5 567-574. LUC Baki.ee 1ltADGe, (Bde oem, 0000728 Bamadur, K., et al., 1964. Zbl. Bakt. 117, (2), 575-602. Department of Chemistry, University of Allahabad, ALLAHABAD . INDIA (Manuscript first received 19.12.77) (Manuscript received in. final form 6.10.79) Lae Ve ‘ . Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 113, pp. 23-29, 1980 Polymers, Plastics and Fibres: The Old and The New* DONALD H. NAPPER ABSTRACT. This is the age of polymers: already the production of polymers for plastics, fibres, rubbers and surface coatings exceeds that of copper or aluminium and it is projected that even the production of steel will be outstripped in this decade. The unique properties that differen- tiate polymers ('giant molecules') from conventional small molecules are discussed. Case his- tories of the invention of some of the more important plastics (e.g., polythene) and fibres (e.g., nylon and terylene) are presented. INTRODUCTION Historal eras have often been characterized by the materials that were extensively fashioned into implements and objects during those times: e.g., the Iron Age and the Bronze Age. Using this ericerion, the current era might be termed the Eelastics Age’ or, more correctly, the ‘Polymer Age'. Already a greater volume of polymeric materials is being produced than either copper or aluminium; furthermore, it is projected that in this decade, even the production of steel will be outstripped and that, by the turn of the century, the total production of all metals will be sur- passed (Challis, 1978). Fig. 1 displays the production of the more important plastics in the major Western nations (Allen, 1978). To obtain the total polymer pro- duction, however, it is necessary to add to these figures the tonnages of polymer produced for synthetic rubber (8 million tonnes in 1976), fibres, paints and adhesives. This, incidentally, ignores completely the exploitation of natural polymers (e.g., cellulose, still the most impor- tant of all fibres, and natural rubber). The scale of the polymer industry can per- haps be grasped when it is appreciated that some- thing like half of the chemists in the U.S. are concerned with macromolecules (Johnson and Richards, 1976). This is consistent with the fact that in the U.K., polymers account for about half of the total organic chemicals industry (Allen, 1978). Virtually no aspect of our everyday (and not so everyday) lives is immune from polymers: from the humble nylon hair comb to the use of teflon prostheses and teflon by-pass tubing in heart sur- eery; from the synthetic fibres (e.g., polyesters) that give 'easy-care' fabrics to the new polyester Bottle that is the first plastic container in Australia for carbonated beverages. * Presidential address delivered to the Royal Soetety of New South Wales at Setence House; Clarence Street, Sydney on April 2, 1980. Ties 16 Fig. 1. Annual production of major polymers (in million tonnes) in Western world. Key: LDPE = low density polyethylene; PVC = poly(vinyl chloride); TR = thermosetting resin; PS = polystyrene; HDPE = high density polyethylene; PP = polypropylene; PV = polyurethane foam. POLYMERS The bases of all plastics, fibres, rubbers and paints are polymers. The word 'polymer' was coined by Berzelius (1833) from two Greek words: ‘'poly' meaning 'many' and 'mer(os)' implying 'parts'. Polymers are defined as high molecular weight com- pounds whose structure consists of regularly repeating units, or chemically similar units, bound by primary covalent bonds. A simple analogy would be a string of beads. Some of the commercially more important polymers are shown in Fig. 2. The regularly repeating molecules that combine to form polymers are termed 'monomers!' (M): nM Beces 24 DONALD H. NAPPER. pe Ca POLY THENE CHS CHa POLY(VINYL CHLORIDE) cll CHS CHIE PONS I RENE “CHS CHa POLYPROPYLENE CH, ra para Ele SCE CE cs EFLON TNSCH 76 N-CEC Hot CF, NYLON 66 H H 0 @ SOC =-Ch-O0-<> C2 — TERYLE Nt Se ge POLYURE THANE €0§CH -0-C-N~S)- € H577 OC iat CH 9 Nate Fig. 2. Some important polymers The molecular weights of commercially useful polymers lie in the range 10° - 10’. This range is significantly larger than the molecular weights of the usual molecules of chemistry, which rarely exceed a few hundred. The high molecular weights of polymer molecules implies that their size is very large ('giant molecules'); so large, indeed, that Staudinger (1923) coined the term 'macro- molecule' for them. Some insight into their Massive size can be gained by representing the diameter of a typical atom (ca. 0.3 nm) by 1 cm of length: on this scale, most of the usual mole- cules of chemistry would be no larger than a soccer ball; polymer molecules of even modest molecular weight, however, would reach, say, 1 km if fully extended. One crucial feature that distinguishes macro- molecules from minimolecules is their molecular size. This, coupled with the articulation of the segments that results in the flexibility of the polymer backbone, imparts to macromolecules those special physical properties (e.g., elasticity, plasticity) that have allowed them to be exploited so widely. Although the concept of high molecular weight species is accepted nowadays without ques- tion, this has not always been the case. Indeed, the acceptance of the concept of macromolecules isequice recent. In the early decades “of this century, it was widely held that there was an upper limit of several thousands to molecular weights. Higher molecular weight species were believed to be generated by the physical associa- tion of these low molecular weight compounds (the "‘micelle' theory). Hermann Staudinger, univer- sally acclaimed as the father of polymer science, proposed in 1920 that polymers were true high molecular weight compounds. Yet as late as 1928, Wieland, a noted organic chemist who was a colleague of Staudinger's at the University of Freiberg, wrote to him: 'Drop this business of big molecules; there are no organic molecules with a molecular weight of more than 5 000''. The reluc- tance with which chemists accepted the concept of macromolecules is reflected in the fact that Staudinger was not awarded his Nobel Prize for the concept of polymers until 1953, when he was aged 72 and some 30 years had elapsed from when he made his original proposal. TYPES OF POLYMERS Polymer molecules display great diversity and so they can be classified in a large number of ways. Some of these are related to how the polymer is pre- pared, others to the molecular architecture and the properties that it bestows. Natural polymers are those found in Nature (e.g., cellulose in cotton) whereas synthetic polymers are man-made (e.g., terylene, polyure- thanes). Derived polymers are those natural poly- mers that have been chemically modified (e.g., cellulose acetate). Some of the possible variations in molecular architecture are shown in Fig. 3. The backbone of a polymer molecule can be linear or branched. If branched, the pendant chains may be long or short (as in low density polyethylene). A polymer molecule with a large number of long chain branches is termed a 'comb' polymer. Branching is important because it may profoundly influence the properties of the polymer (e.g., its degradative stability). Even more exotic structures, such as those of the ladder, step- and spiro-ladder polymers have been prepared. Catenane ladder polymers are also known. The stereochemical properties of a polymer can also profoundly influence its behaviour. This is illustrated in Fig. 4 by polypropylene: two ordered structures, isotactic and syndiotactic, are LPT STI SHORT CHAIN oe BRANCHING LONG CHAIN Ge BRANCHING cae es Re ee ee EE Ewen ese LADDER a ae CATENANE Fig. 3. Polymer architecture POLYMERS, PLASTICS AND FIBRES ya easily recognized but in addition the random atac- Ele polymer.can also be prepared. Only isotactic polypropylene is exploited commercially (e.g., the dashboards of cars), the atactic polymer having no useful properties to-date. LO TAC ac CH CH H pe: H ik He P 7H Pp 3 C Cc iG @ i M, * * M, + M > M. ge aaa . M+ M > M n n+l Typically, one thousand monomers would be added per second. Ultimately, the propagating species is usually terminated by some annihilation step, e.g. radical recombination reactions. However, in anionic polymerizations performed under rigorously pure conditions, the carbanions, which cannot re- combine due to Coulombic repulsion, may be stable indefinitely, even after all the monomer has been consumed. Addition of further monomer will result in additional growth of the polymer chains, which will again become inactive once the monomer is con- sumed. Such polymeric anions are referred to some- what picturesquely as 'living polymers', for they will grow almost indefinitely if supplied with monomer . SOME CASE HISTORIES OF THE DISCOVERY AND INVENTION OF POLYMERS Celluloid The first synthetic plastic to be exploited commercially was celluloid, the derived polymer cellulose nitrate. This is prepared from cellulose (e.g., cotton linters) by nitration in the presence of sulphuric acid until there are, on average, 2.4 nitrate ester groups per pyranose ring. 26 DONALD H. NAPPER In the 1860's there was a shortage of ivory biliaard balls im the U.S 7A. due to the «decimation of the elephant herds of Africa. A prize of $10 000 for the development of a substitute for ivory in billiard balls, led a journeyman printer, John Wesley Hyatt, regarded as the founder of the plastics industry, to attempt to devise a suitable substitute. Legend has it that during this work, he cut his finger and went to the medicine cabinet for some collodion (cellulose nitrate dissolved in ethanol and ether). The bottle had tipped over, spilling its contents which had hardened to a rubbery mass. Hyatt recognized the material to be what is now termed thermoplastic for when he rubbed it between his fingers it softened. Hyatt soon showed that camphor plasticized cellulose nitrate (i.e., it lowers Tg) and that celluloid could replace hard rubber in dental plates. co theyfirst plastic was born. »The* term 'plastic' was not, however, coined until 1914. Celluloid was used for a variety of applica- tions of which the backing of films in photography is .one: that springs, readily to mind.) It is; however, a close relative to nitrocellulose (the basis of dynamite), which is the fully nitrated cellulose. Not surprisingly, celluloid is highly inflammable and this, coupled with its inability to;be,injection moulded, has led to its eclipse as a plastic, although it still finds some specialty uses aS in, e.g., ping-pong balls. It might be noted in passing that one way around the extreme flammability of the nitrate ester groups in celluloid is to circumvent the nitrate ester group by esterifying with acetic acid. This gives rise to cellulose acetate, which is useful both as a moulding material (e.g., toothbrush handles) and as a fibre (these contain on average 2.4 and 3 ester groups respectively per pyranose ring). Polythene Polythene is currently the largest selling plastic sin the world. It/is-pexhaps theaplastic most familiar to the non-technologist. Its dis- covery is interesting in that it illustrates the importance of serendipity in scientific research. In 1933, two chemists, Gibson and Fawcett, at the Alkali Division of ICI were conducting fundamental research into the effects of very high pressures on a number of liquid/gas reactions. One of those studied was that of benzaldehyde with ethylene at 1300 atm and 170 °C. This resulted in a ‘white waxy solid' that on analysis was found to contain no oxygen from the benzaldehyde and so it was recognized to be the polymer of ethylene. To con- firm this, the experiment was repeated with ethylene alone whereupon a violent explosion occurred, smashing the guages. The work was then abandoned. It was, however, taken up again in 1935 by Perrin and Williams with stronger and safer equip- ment. Polymerization was found to proceed smoothly at high pressures (e.g., 2000 atm). Again, however, there was an element of chance. The apparatus was leaky and sufficient oxygen had been introduced inadvertently into the ethylene to act as.a free radical initiator, without which the polymerization would not have proceeded. Polyethylene is a versatile polymer being used for a wide range of applications, e.g., as squeeze bottles, sheeting and in insulation. The polythene produced by the foregoing pro- cedure is termed high pressure, low density poly- thene (LDPE). In 1953, Professor Karl=Zieciiers at the Max Planck Institute, Mulheim, showed that ethylene could in fact be polymerized at ambient pressure provided that the catalyst was carefully chosen. The product obtained is, however, quite different from that generated at high pressures. Whereas LDPE has a low crystallinity (ca. 50%) and low density (< 0.94 g cm™~), the low pressure poly- mer has a high crystallinity (> 90%) and high density. These differences arise from differences in molecular structure: polythene prepared by the Ziegler procedure contains linear polyethylene molecules whereas the LDPE material contains chains that exhibit short chain branching. The branches are primarily butyl side chains, and they occur with a frequency of 1 per 50 -CH5- residues, as a result of a 'back-biting' process. Polypropylene The year after Ziegler's discovery, Professor Natta of Milan Polytechnic Institute showed how propylene could be polymerized to isotactic poly- propylene by using catalysts similar to those of Ziegler. Such catalysts, which are a complex mix- ture of the halides of transition metals and organometallic compounds, have come to be known as Ziegler-Natta catalysts. Ziegler and Natta shared the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1963 for their discovery of these catalysts, which are capable of the stereospecific polymerization of many monomers. They are, incidentally, the only really successful catalysts for polymerizing propylene. Its polymer is the lightest of the major commercial plastics (density = 0.905 g cm73), This, coupled with its excellent mechanical properties (e.g., tensile strength, rigidity) and the fact that it can be spun into a fibre, will ensure an expansion in the uses of polypropylene. Its flammability as a fibre, however, should not be overlooked. Teflon Teflon is polytetrafluoroethylene. It has occasionally been stated in the local media that non-stick frypans are a spin-off from space exp- loration. Whilst it is true that polymers that withstand temperatures in excess of several thousand degrees have been developed as heat shields on space vehicles, teflon was discovered, again somewhat accidentally, in 1938 by Plunkett, working for Kinetic Chemicals (later taken over by Du Pont). Plunkett had a cylinder of tetrafluoroethylene in which the pressure dropped. He recognized that one possible explanation for this reduction in pressure could have been the polymerization of the gas, akin to the high pressure polymerization of ethylene. On cutting the cylinder open, Plunkett found a white powder composed of polytetrafluoro- ethylene. Again, sufficient impurity oxygen was POLYMERS, PLASTICS AND FIBRES of present to initiate polymerization. Teflon has one of the lowest coefficients of friction of any solid known (ca. 0.02) so it is useful in bearings where lubrication is undesir- able. This, coupled with its excellent tempera- ture stability (up to’ 300 C), renders it useful as a non-stick coating in kitchenware. Nylons Unlike several of the discoveries mentioned above, the nylons, which were the first synthetic fibres, were the product of inspired chemical thinking by W.H. Carothers. He had joined Du Pont in 1928 to work on the synthesis of high molecular weight compounds, the accepted world record at that time being a little over 4000. Carothers recognized that one of the limitations on the formation of higher molecular weight compounds by condensation reactions of difunctional compounds was cyclic ring formation. Carothers therefore explored the condensation of molecules of the type xAx with yBy, where x and y are reactive func- tional groups and A and B are molecular spacers (Gene € CH, cyan) : n H,N(CH,),.NH, + n HOOC(CH,),COOH + 24 hexamethylene adipic acid diamine H H O O l Ii i H-€ N (CH) N-C(CH,) ,C} OH + (2n-1)H,0 24 nylon 66 Poly(hexamethylene adipamide) is also known as nylon 66, the first of the two numbers representing the number of carbon atoms in the diamine whilst the second represents the number in the diacid. Nylon 66 came onto the market in 1938 as toothbrush bristles. In the following year, the first nylon stockings became available and, within twelve months, 64 million pairs were sold. Other nylons that are commercially impor- tant (although to a lesser extent) are nylon 6 10, nylon 6 and nylon 11. For the last two nylons, the polyamide is formed by the self-condensation of the appropriate amino acid (e.g., €-amino- caproic acid), highlighting the fact that nylons are the synthetic analogue of proteins. Common uses of nylons are in tyre cord, wearing apparel and carpets. Polyester Carothers in his studies that led to the development of polyamides had also investigated high molecular weight aliphatic polyesters: n HOCH,CH.OH + mn HOOC(CH gt5 GOOH = 24 ethyiene glycol adipic acid O fl i! H+ 0-CH,CH.-O0-C-(CH,) ,-C 3, OH = (@2n=1)H50 These polyesters were microcrystalline and capable of being extruded into fibres. ‘'Time' magazine heralded their discovery as follows: 'The fibre is as lustrous as silk, stronger than and more elastic than rayon and as strong and as elastic as) realsilk' What the report failed to mention was that their melting point was too low, their hydrolytic stability poor and their solubility too great in organic solvents. The melting point Ty, for a polymer is given by the usual thermodynamic expression AH,/AS,, where AH, and AS, are the corresponding enthalpy and entropy changes. A stiff polymer, e.g., one con- taining the inflexible benzene ring, will have a smaller entropy change on melting (due to a smaller disorder in the liquid state) than a flexible one, such as one made from aliphatic polyesters. Its melting point will therefore be greater than that of the aliphatic polyester. In addition, crystal- linity will increase AHm and thus the melting point. Carothers had looked briefly at aromatic polyesters, using the unsymmetrical phthalic acid, without success. Two British chemists, Whinfield and Dickson, of the Calico Printers: Association, in 1941. recog= nized that the key to crystald@inity and fibre structure lay in molecular symmetry. They there- fore condensed the symmetrical terephthalic acid with ethylene glycol to produce terylene, poly- (ethylene terephthalate): n HOCH,CH, OH + n HOOC~Q COOH > 0 0 r i H- 0 CH,CH,0-C->-C} OH + © (2n-1)H,0 The aromatic polyester has a melting point of ca. 270°C compared with the corresponding value of 50" C for the alaphaticvadiupates.. Fibres of polyester have good wrinkle resist- ance and so are exploited in easy-care fabrics. In some uses, however, terylene is blended with a more hydrophilic fibre (e.g., wool or cotton) because in dry. climates ‘the pure polyester retains too iiegtie moisture and a garment made from it becomes too nughiy charged ellectrically. Polyurethanes A second class of polymers that was developed as an extension of Carothers' polyamides is the polyurethanes. Bayer in Germany in 1939 discovered that diisocyanates and diols were capable of under- going polyaddition reactions: N=C=0 n HO(CH,),0H + n (acer a ee tetramethylene toluene-2:4 glycol diisocyanate Ne OH N- tou a | nN Het O-€CH,) ,0-C-N H. polyurethane 28 DONALD H. NAPPER Polyurethanes are used in coating and elasto- meric applications but are perhaps best known as foams. The foams are easily generated by the reaction of the diisocyanate with water to produce carbon dioxide: N=C =0 iA R + HO = eco NH VA hie , R + cO., N nec =O The structure of the foams produced may be of an open.or closed=cell type: anvopen cell foam ais, e.g., able to soak up a considerable volume of water into its cells and so is useful as a sponge whereas closed cell foams are useful as cushions in upholstery. The C- N bond in polyurethanes, however, is something of a problem in the event of a fire because at high temperatures it results in the production of the lethal gas HCN (used by some states in the USA for gas chambers). The use of polyurethane foam cushions in aeroplanes may, therefore, be outlawed in some countries. Polyaramides Linear macromolecules lose their desirable characteristics as soon as degradation (chain scission) becomes extensive. Early in the history of thermally stable polymers, the prediction was made that double stranded, ladder polymers (see Fig. 3) would display greater thermal stability than single stranded polymers. Any rupture in a Single strand chain is effective in reducing the polymer molecular weight; in contrast, cleavage of two bonds in the same connecting ring is necessary to cause such a decrease in a ladder polymer. The predictions of good thermal stability of ladder polymers has been amply verified experi- mentally. It is easier, however, to prepare step- ladder than ladder polymers and some of these, e.g. aromatic polyamides, have proved to be commercially useful. Note that nylons, aliphatic polyamides, are not step-ladder polymers. Kevlar fibres (Du Pont) are usually considered to be poly(p-benzamide) : H O i} although IR evidence suggests that they might be poly(p-phenyleneterephthalamide). These fibres are self-extinguishing and their use in US Air Force flying suits is mandatory. Their excellent mechanical properties (e.g., an exceptionally high modulus that is greater than that of glass fibres) mean that they are eminently suitable for use in reinforced plastics. The sails carried by the successful defenders in the recent America's Cup series have been made from Kevlar; Australian challengers will not be able to use these sails in this race until the fibre is manufactured in this country. Some Other Polymers The histories of several of the high volume polymers is rather more prosaic than those set forth above, being histories of neglect and oversight. Polystyrene, e.g., was actually discovered in 1839, only eleven years after Wohler laid the foundations of synthetic organic chemistry by preparing urea in the laboratory. The monomer was first prepared by Simon, a German apothecary, from a resin derived from a tree (Ltgutdambar ortentalts) found in Asia Minor. He showed that styrene on heating solidified, which he attributed to an oxidation reaction. This was disproved in 1845 by two English chemists, Blyth and Hoffman, who showed that the solid had the same composition as the starting material. It was left to Staudinger some eighty years later to appreciate the true nature of the polymerization, product. =1t should be appreciated that organic chemists in the nineteenth and early twentieth century regarded any substance that could not be crystallized or which did not have a sharply defined melting point as a waste product and the experiment that produced it as a failure. Many polymers fell into these categories. The production of polystyrene was not commer- cially viable until 1930, being dependent upon the development of a method for manufacturing the monomer cheaply. The same limitation applied to the exploitation of poly(methyl methacrylate) as an ‘organic glass'. Glass-like polymers of acrylic esters were first reported by Fittig im 1877 but it was not until 1933 that ICI produced the first cast acrylic sheet from monomer manufactured from cheap, readily available chemicals. Vinyl chloride is another monomer that lan- guished on the laboratory shelf for almost a century. The monomer was discovered by Regnault in 1835 and its polymerization was reported by Baumann in 1872. Commercial exploitation of PVC did not commence Until athe 1930s:. SOME FUTURE PERSPECTIVES A very large number of monomers and their corresponding polymers have now been examined by polymer chemists. This type of research has cur- rently lost some of its impetus so that while new polymers for specialty uses seem likely to be developed (e.g., for the optoelectronics industry, biomedical applications), it is unlikely that new bulk polymers will be manufactured in the near future. The trend away from the study of the chemistry of monomers and polymers has been paralleled by an upturn of research into the physical and mechanical properties of polymers and into polymer engineering. Already aromatic and heterocyclic monomers can produce fibres with the strength and rigidity of steel but with only 15% of the weight. Some small suspension bridges already use cables made from strong, polymeric filaments. If a lightweight, carbon-fibre reinforced thermosetting resin was used for the body of the bridge, instead of steel, much wider spans would be possible. It also seems likely that future developments in the exploitation of polymers will be associated with an improved understanding of the properties of composites and of phase-separated block and graft polymers. POLYMERS, PLASTICS AND FIBRES I, The importance of polymer engineering cannot be overemphasised. When plastic materials are found to warp or crack in service, the blame is usually attributed to the plastic. Most of these failures, however, can be traced to inadequacies of design and processing rather than the material performing less well than idealised test pieces. Plastics are difficult, unforgiving materials to design in. They are fairly weak and have a relatively low modulus compared with metals. Against this, they are easy to fabricate and plastic articles have a low total energy embodied in them (e.g., the energy required to produce a plastic bottle is only about one-third of that of a glass bottle). Consequently, plastics are com- petitive materials and are likely to remain so, even if there is a shortage of oil in the future. Polymer production utilizes only a few percent of the total oil production to-day. The use of high- strength, lightweight plastics is already resulting in improved automible fuel economy. Conversion to a coal-based feedstock would be a relatively simple operation; the German chemical industry was coal- based in the past. An alcohol based feedstock would also be possible if a renewable source were required. Department of Physical Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney N.S.W. 2006 To conelude, we recall the prophetic words of Leo Baekeland, the inventor of Bakelite, on the occasion of the award to him in 1938 of the Messel Medal of the Society of Chemical Industry: "The whole fabric of modern civilization becomes every day more interwoven with the endless ramifications of applied chemistry". Polymers are clearly one of the more important examples of the fruits of applied chemistry. REFERENCES Allen, G., 1978: National Investment in Polymer Rand D. Chemistry tn Brittain, 14, 429-431. Challis, A.A.L., 1978: Polymer Engineering. Chemistry in Brittain, 14, 446-454. Johnson, A.G. and Richards, D.H., 1976: Polymers - An Expanding Science. Chemistry in Britain, io, 584-587. JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES PART 2 VOLUME 113 No. 316 1980 PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIE SCIENCE CENTRE, 35 CLARENCE STREET, SYDNEY VOLUME 113, PART 2 ALBANI, Alberto A Vessel Positioning Method for Surveys in Coastal Waters RUSSELL, T. G. A Clast Fabric Paleocurrent Study of the Late Devonian Keepit Conglomerate, Northeastern New South Wales PEMBERTON, John W. The Geology of an Area near Cudgegong, New South Wales LAU, Henry, and STEELE, Ken Pitfalls in Hand Spectroscopy 31 35 49 63 Journal and Proceedings. Royal Society of New South Wales. Vol. 113. pp. 31-33. 1980 A Vessel Positioning Method for Surveys in Coastal Waters ALBERTO ALBANI ABSTRACT. A simple and precise system for positioning a vessel engaged in surveys of coastal waters is presented. The vessel position can be obtained either graphically or numerically using coordinates; both resection and intersection methods can be applied. The method is based on the use of a 35mm camera. INTRODUCTION One of the basic difficulties found in sur- veys of coastal waters is the precise positioning of the survey vessel at any given time. This problem is particularly felt during bathymetric and seismic investigations with the vessel being underway during position fixing. The availability of electronic devices has solved the problem, however there are times when simple and inexpensive methods are desirable; sextant fixing (horizontal angles) (Green, 1967) is the most commonly used, followed by theodolite positioning from shore based stations; the latter method, although very precise, requires at least three operators and radio communication. The position fixing here presented is simple, shipborne and, at the same time, it requires only one operator. Its precision is superior to that of the sextant method with the approximation in angles determination of the order of +4',which corresponds to a linear accuracy of 2-3 metres at a distance of 2 km (0.57mm at a scale of 1:4000; 0.23mm at a scale of 1:10,000). METHOD The method described is based on well known photogrammetric techniques (Albani, 1973; Ameri- can Soc. Photogrammetry, 1966); a 35mm camera with good optical system forms the basic require- ment. In Figure 1 the main principle of the method is illustrated: the points A, B, C repre- sent details visible from the survey vessel and also identified on the base map, as in the case of the sextant method; their images are formed on jhe camera film at a, b, c with F being the focal point of the optical system and oFO the optical axis. The angles « and 8 are related, on the film, to the distance between the images of the various points; the camera being always focussed at infinity. As measurements on the 35mm slide, or nega- tive, are not practical using simple equipment, best results have been obtained using a slide projector equipped with a good quality projection lens. The slide is projected on a transparent rigid screen (Fig. 2) placed at right angles to the optical axis. The use of a transparent screen allows measurements to be taken at the back of the screen itself without interfering with the projection of the slide. The angles « and 8 are proportional to the angles «t and B', and these in turn are related to the distances A'B' and B'C' (Fig. 2). The angles <' and 8', and consequently « and 8, can be Fig. ae Sie ae Geometric relationship between the terrain and its photographic image. slide projector Relationship between the photographic image and its projection on the screen. 32 A. ALBANI expressed in function of the angles y , Vom ¥ that the points A', B' and C' make with ? the optical axis: 3 Bee EV Oak Vo Se eel, ar / (1) The angles Ve ie and 1 can be obtained from: PROUT. be, Ola iene tan REA el OUR te? tan NG OUR tee yous (2) tan ie = 6p Although the exact position of o (and 0') is not known, it is assumed, for all practical pur- poses, to be located in the centre of the slide identified by half the distance between the print- ed margins m (Fig. 3). hs a si = =) ees a 120 1530 WO 2:10 240 270 300 350 360 Ae A ee cl Baal a al cca OM FU Osen Sig Image of the terrain as projected against the graduated screen. An error in the position of o of even Im, (3%) within the 35mm slide, produces an angular difference less than 1 minute between points loca- ted at the two extremes of the photograph. In the several camera-lens systems tested by the author the asymmetry in the position of the optical axis has been found to be less than 0.5%. Such error is compensated in the determination of the con- Stang: K’: In order to minimize the optical distortions, the photograph, generally taken from a vessel and therefore only from a few metres above water level, should be horizontally halved by the shore line, thus making the optical axis very close to be horizontal. Even in choppy conditions this is very easily obtained, certainly much more easily than measuring angles with a sextant. To solve the formulae (2) the value O'F' is necessary and it is determined within the calcu- lation of the constant K. The value O'F' is re- lated to the focal length of the camera lens, the focal length of the projector lens and to the en- largement, that is, the distance between the screen and the projector. Once the constant K is determined, using a small programmable calculator and entering the values for A', B', C', read on the screen, the angles « and 8 are directly obtained using the formulae (4) and (5). To simplify the determination of ~ and 8, the author has graduated the screen; the slide, mounted between glass, must show, when projected, the printed margins m as these are used to center it with respect to the screen itself (Fig. 3). The reference marks M, on the screen, represent the position of the margins m,of the slide, for the selected enlargement. The vertical plane contain- ing the optical axis will be then locatedomm ‘the centre of the graduation (180, Fig. 3). DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTANT K The success and precision of the method rests primarily in the accuracy in determining the value of the constant K for the selected camera-projector system. Several variable parameters are present in such constant and their total effects are included in its value. The most important of these paramet- ers are: the value of 0O'F', the proportion factor between «~, 8B and —',8' and finally the asymmetry of the optical axis of both camera and projector. The most accurate procedure is to select a land based station which offers a view containing a large number of easily identifiable details. From the selected land station a series of photo- graphs are taken making sure that the camera is held with optical axis perfectly horizontal; this can be achieved by using a tripod with a level. From this station a series of angles is then measured using a theodolite and sighting to as many details as possible. If the photographs taken are printed prior to the angle measurements, the detail which in the photograph is located in the vertical plane containing the optical axis can be identified and used as origin for the various angles. The photographs are then projected against the graduated screen and the value of K is obtained from: K OA! OUB! Ore! Cs rar aoa b = —____ = t tau v€ at y any, an Ne an ¥ using y vit 1 (etc) determined by the ee ie sitenecinre and “O'A" ¥20 "Bis. 0 Gs ere) measured from the screen itself. It is desirable to take a series of photo- graphs with lenses of various focal length as to increase the flexibility of the field operation; each combination: camera lens-projector lens- enlargement, has a different value for the constant. STATION POSITION FIXING The angles « and 8 can be obtained therefore from the distances 0'A', O'B' and O'C' read from the graduated screen and using: A VESSEL POSITIONING METHOD . O'A! : - O'B! : tan a ar cee tan MS ae _ orc (4) tan “iy a ae = td = - 5 o NG + X53 8 NG Yo (5) Once « and 8 are obtained the station position may be determined either graphically, as in the sextant method, or numerically by using the resection method from the coordinates of the points A, B and C. The base map used may not always indicate the details selected on the photographs for the position fixing; however they can be accurately plotted on the map itself either through aerial photographs (Albani, 1964) or by using the method here presented with photographs taken from at least two shore stations, identifiable on the map, and by simple intersection. The use of polaroid cameras and an approp- riate transparent graduate screen to superimpose School of Applied Geology, University of New South Wales, Kensington, 2033. US) oe) on the photograph may allow a more speditive use of this method; however the precision of the position fixing is greatly reduced. During the many surveys in which this method has been employed the maximum plotting error was found to be well within the drafting accuracy of the base map used. REFERENCES Albani, A.D., 1964. Some applications of aerial photographs to the solution of topographic and CaEtographic problems. 1973. “Fotogrammetria practica: Noi Geometri, Milan, 6, 8-15. American Society of Photogrammetry, 1966. Manual of Photogrammetry. Third Edition. Washington, D.C. Green, P.H., 1967. The elements of practical coastal navtgatton. Hadley Publ., Hawthorn, Wises (Manuscript received 14.4.78) (Manuscript received in final form 10.4.80) Journal and Proceedings. Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 113, pp. 35-47. 1980 A Clast Fabric Paleocurrent Study of the Late Devonian Keepit Conglomerate, Northeastern New South Wales T. G. RUSSELL ABSTRACT. Due to a scarcity of directional sedimentary structures in outcrops of the Late Devonian Keepit Conglomerate fabric studies were undertaken upon both the fluvial and the resedimented marine conglomerates of this formation with the primary aim of providing paleocurrent data. AB plane orientation was found to be a more useful indicator of paleocurrent direction than A-axes, the latter typically being more variable in their orientation. Both the fluvial and resedimented conglomerates possessed in almost all instances a moderate to pronounced imbrication of the AB plane. direction is not always one of agreement. The relationship of the vector mean to the inferred paleocurrent Interpretation of the vector mean in terms of paleocurrent direction should always be done with reference to the fabric diagram. Paleocurrent data obtained by fabric studies of the Keepit Conglomerate indicate individual flow directions ranging from east of north to south-southeast. northwesterly directed paleocurrents. Two anomalous samples indicate The fabric paleocurrent directions agree with other data in suggesting for the depositional basin during Keepit Conglomerate times a source area to the west, with sediment dispersal down an east-sloping paleoslope. INTRODUCTION The Keepit Conglomerate is a Late Devonian coarse conglomerate unit occurring within the Devonian-Carboniferous marine sequence of the Tamworth Belt, northeastern New South Wales ea. 1). For most of 1ts-present day outcrop, the Keepit Conglomerate consists of massive, normal and inverse graded pebble to boulder grade clast and matrix supported conglomerates, normal graded pebble conglomerates and pebbly sandstones and graded sandstones, (proximal and thin bedded turbidites), together with mudstones and thin sandstones. Abraded crinoid, brachiopod and gastropod fragments occur in some of the conglomerate matrices and sandstones. ihe sedimentary structures and facies relationships of the conglomerates and sandstones indicate deposition by a variety of sediment gravity flows in submarine fan environments, while the mudstones and thin sandstones represent the background hemi- pelagic and bottom current sedimentation within the depositional basin (Russell, 1977, 1979b, in prep.). On the western limb of the Werrie Syncline (Fig. 1), nearest the basin margin, the Keepit Conglomerate consists mainly of massive to horizontally stratified pebble to boulder grade conglomerates, and sandstones. The conglomerates are predominantly clast supported and possess imbricate clasts and pebble clusters. The sand- stones, frequently lensoidal beds, are typically massive and/or parallel laminated, and less commonly cross stratified and rippled. Lensing and scour and fill relationships, with basal lag gravels in scours, are common. Mudstone is present typically as thin irregular layers in Sandstones, and draping ripples and gravel surfaces. On the basis of the sedimentary structures, the absence of marine fossils, the basin margin location and the disconformable contact with the underlying marine mudstones (Russell, 19794), the Keepit Conglomerate ine this area is interpreted as the deposits of prograding alluvial fans constructed largely by braiding streams (Russell, 1977, 1979b, in prep.).. Directional sedimentary structures are not common in the Keepit Conglomerate. Fabric studies were therefore undertaken with the primary aim of providing paleocurrent data. The fabrics measured from the Keepit Conglomerate are original primary sedimentary fabrics, no evidence existing for later tectonic modification of these fabrics. CONGLOMERATE FABRIC STUDIES Introduction The existence within gravels and conglomerates of an anisotropic fabric, and the relationship. of this tabrie to current direction, has long been recognised (Jamieson, 1860, p. 349; Becker, 18955" p54 5, Richter, 1932.5 19535). Fabric studies of rudaceous deposits may therefore provide paleocurrent data for conglomerates frequently devoid of other directional structures (e.¢.,, Laming, 1966; Nilsen, 19693 Nilsen ‘and Simoni, 1973; Ryder and Scholten, 1973; Schlager and Schlager, 19733; Mclean, 1977). Gravel fabrics may be readily measured due to the size of the” Gabric ‘elements or clasts. Two aspects of the ‘clasts, are usually recorded; the dip andgdip direction of the AB plane and the dip and azimuth of the A-axis. Techniques for the study of gravel fabrics, mostly relating to unconsolidated deposits, are reviewed in Potter and Pettijohn (1963; p. 28-3])- (see also Rust, 1975). Fabric studies upon indurated deposits are more difficult and often measurement of only the apparent longest axis, A’, (e.g., White, 1952; Schlee, 1957; 36 TG] RUSSERE TAMWORTH ® ENGLAND e@ARMIDALE FOLD NANDE WAR V V RANGE Vv Vv TERTIARY PERMIAN CARBONIFEROUS DEVONIAN KEEPIT CONGLOMERATE ( ll a 4 \ ~ ed az aD Vole e@ Woolomin A CLAST FABRIC PALEOCURRENT STUDY Bettijonn, 1962; Lindsey, 1966; Nilsen, 1969; Nilsen and Simoni, 1973; Schlager and Schlager, 1973; Davies and Walker, 1974; Walker, 1975b; McLean, 1977) or, less commonly, the apparent maximum projection plane A'B' (e.g., Nilsen and Simoni, 1973; Rocheleau and Lajoie, 1974; Hendry, 1976; Walker, 1977a) is possible. Fluvial gravel Fabrics Fluvial gravel fabrics are widely documented, free, Krumbein, 1939, 1940, 1942; Schlee, 1957; Unrug, 1957; Johansson, 1963, 1965; Sedimentary Petrology Seminar, 1965; Sengupta, 1966; Kelling and Williams, 1967; Katzung, 1971; Rust, 1972, 1975; Liboriussen, 1975; additional references are eited by Potter and Pettijohn, 1963, p. 35). The most obvious feature of fluvial fabrics is a strong upstream imbrication of the AB plane, reflecting the unidirectional flow. When plotted on a Schmidt net a prominent maximum exhibiting monoclinic symmetry results (e.g., Schlee, 1957; Potter and Pettijohn, 1963, Plate 1b; Sedimentary Petrology Seminar, 1965; Katzung, 1971). Instances of downstream imbrication are rare, and mostly result from clasts deposited upon foreset beds (Johansson, 1963, p. 110; Sengupta, 1966; Bandyopadhyay, 1971; Liboriussen, 1975). Measurement of the attitude of the AB plane is therefore considered to give a reliable indication of current flow direction. Rust (1975) has shown a close relationship between current directions indicated by clast imbrication and the mean orientation of surface channels and braid bar long axes for braided streams. A-axis orientation in fluvial deposits is more variable and has thus been considered less reliable as a paleocurrent indicator (Schlee, 1957, p. 166; Johansson, 1965, p. 38-39; Sedimentary Petrology Seminar, 1965, p. 281; Liboriussen, 1975, iD, 256). Rust (1972), however, considers the A-axis to be a reliable current indicator, especially when larger elongate clasts isolated upon sandy beds can be measured. The A-axis in fluvial gravel fabrics may parallel the flow direction and plunge upstream, may be transverse to flow, or may be both parallel and transverse to the flow direction. In this last instance, and especially if the maxima are less well developed, the A-axes plot on a stereographic projection as a girdle striking perpendicular to flow direction and dipping in an upcurrent direction (e.g., Schlee, 1957; Sedimentary Petrology Seminar, 1965; Katzung, 1971; Liboriussen, 1975). Interpretation of the relationship of the A-axis to the current direction depends in part upon the number and strength of the maxima, and the ability to distinguish the A parallel to flow from the A transverse to flow maxima. An upcurrent plunge of A when parallel to current direction may assist in this respect. The variable orientation of the A-axis has been attributed to a number of factors including the clast size and shape, the density of clasts in the deposit, the sandy or gravelly nature of the substrate, the angle of slope of the sedimentation surface, the method of clast movement, and the depth and velocity of the flow. Figure 1. Resedimented Conglomerate Fabrics Quantitative studies on the fabric of resedimented conglomerates are few. These were reviewed and summarised by Walker (1975a, Table 1) who concluded "when all the available data are studied, six out of seven examples show the long axis dipping upstream and parallel to flow'' (Walker, 1975a, p. 742). Resedimented conglomerates not cited by Walker and exhibiting A- axes parallel to flow direction were described by Wieser (1954) and Ksiazkiewicz (1958, p. 130). However, both Piper (1970) and Rupke (1975, 1977) have described resedimented conglomerates in which A-axes are oriented transverse to flow direction. Mudflow fabrics have been studied by Lindsay (1964, 1966, 1968) and Lindsay et al (1970). Lindsay (1968, p. 1249) states "The most distinctive feature of the mudflow A-axis fabrics is the (upcurrent) dipping girdle". An A-axis parallel to flow direction fabric has also been described from avalanche boulder tongue deposits by Rapp (1959), and from Triassic alluvial fan mudflow deposits by Bluck (1965). Where measured, the AB planes of clasts in resedimented conglomerates are imbricate upcurrent (e.g., Moors and Schleiger, 1971; Nilsen and Simoni, 1973; Rocheleau and Lajoie, 1974; Walker, 197S5a, p. 741, 1977a; Hendry, 1976; Winn and Dott, 1979). This preferred orientation of the AB plane in resedimented conglomerates may be utilised in paleocurrent studies. Caution, however, should be exercised when inferring paleo- current directions from A-axis orientations. A CLAST FABRIC PALEOCURRENT STUDY OF THE KEEPIT CONGLOMERATE Methods A total of 14 localities from 12 measured sections were the subject of fabric studies (Figgas J Append x). Each locality was selected on the basis that fifty clasts could be extracted intact from one conglomerate bed; very indurated and very weathered outcrops were unsuitable. The measured clasts ranged in size from 3.4 to 2692 Cm. Large pebbles ranged from 3% to 54% of individual samples, small cobbles from 44% to 86% and large cobbles from 0% to 16%. Elongate and discoidal clasts are often preferentially used in fabric studies of the A-axis and AB plane, respectively, (e.g., Schlee, 1957; Sengupta, 1966; Rust, 1972, 1975) as more spherical clasts are assumed to be more variable in their orientation. The use of all clast shapes is considered to increase variability and may even obscure the current direction (Potter and Pettijohn, 1963, Dee 2S) ie Clasts from the Keepit Conglomerate possess high sphericity values and plot towards the compact apex of the Sneed and Folk (1958) form triangle (Russell, 1977). This, together with the common difficulty of obtaining fifty clasts of all shapes from any one locality, prevented a restriction on clast shape being applied in this study. The clasts were extracted from the Distribution of the Keepit Conglomerate in the northern part of the Tamworth Belt, N.S.W., showing fabric sample localities F1-3 to F14-39. 38 Te Ge RUSS PI outcrop with the aid of a hammer and cold chisel. The position of the A-axis and the AB plane were marked upon the extracted clast,which was then repositioned in the outcrop face and the attitude of the A-axis and the AB plane measured with a Brunton compass. A small rigid plastic board was aligned coplanar with the AB plane to enable easier and more accurate measurement of the attitude: The time required for one operator to measure and record one sample of fifty clasts was usually in the order of four hours. The data were plotted upon the lower hemi- sphere of an equal area (Schmidt) net. Correction for tectonic tilt was made by rotating the beds about. the Sstrrkée-to the horizontal, Poles to the AB plane were contoured using the squared grid method of Stauffer (1966), while a Schmidegg contourer was used for contouring the A-axis diagrams (see Turner and Weiss, 1963, p. 60). The contoured diagrams are presented in Figure 2. For each sample was calculated the direction (9) and degree (L) of preferred orientation and the probability (p) that this preferred orientation was not due solely to chance, after the methods described by Curray (1956). This dataeis presented in’ Table 1. The clast fabric paleocurrent directions given in Table 2 and used in Figure 3 were derived by relating the directions indicated by the maxima on; the stereographic: projections to the closest of the compass points N, NNE, NE, ENE, etc. Thus, a maximum indicating a bearing of, for example, 030° would be referred to NNE, while one of 035° would-be: referred to: NE. Results The fluvial conglomerate fabrics Samples F10-28, F11-29, F12-29 and F13-31 (Fig. 1) are from conglomerate beds interpreted as the deposits of braiding streams (Russell, 977 61 979b)). Each sample exhibits a very well developed concentration of poles to the AB plane (Eig. 2)),. indi.catiang, the presencesof aswell developed clast imbrication in these conglomerates This fabric is typical of the AB plane imbrication exhibited by recent fluvial gravels, as discussed above, and can be considered to provide a reliable paleocurrent direction: for the conglomerate beds from which these fabrics were recorded. Paleocurrents towards an eastnorth- €ast direction are indicated for three: of=the samples, with a secondary maximum indicating for F12-29 northnortheast flow as well, and towards a northerly dprection for-F13-31". The vector means are in close agreement with these paleocurrent directions inferred from the stereographic projections. ‘(Table 2), the orrentations being Sfatustically very. sienificant (lable a): The stereographic projections of the A-axes show variable distributions. F10-28 and F11-29 illustrate, respectively, a plunging unimodal fabric and a dipping girdle with the major maximum lying in the direction of dip of the girdle. Comparison with fluvial clast fabrics discussed above suggests these can be interpreted respectively as A-axes parallel to flow direction and plunging upcurrent, and an upstream dipping girdle with the dominant maximum parallel to flow direction. In both instances a reasonable agreement exists between the paleocurrent directions inferred from the A-axis plots and those from the AB plane plots. F13-31 exhibits a major maximum and two lesser oblique maxima. While a paleocurrent direction is not readily determined from this type of distribmtzon, comparison with the AB plot shows the major maximum to be in close agreement with the flow direction indicated by the clast imbrication. F12-29 does not show a readily evident paleocurrent direction, and appears to consist of a southwest dipping girdle together with a unimodal concentration situated in a southerly position. Examination of the AB plane diagram shows two maxima, and it is possible that this sample has included two populations; one with A-axes forming a southwest dipping girdle with a major maximum parallel to flow direction and including the larger maximum of the AB plane plot, and the other with a unimodal A-axis distribution and related to the smaller AB maximum, indicating flow in a more northerly direction. The best correlation of vector mean and apparent flow direction for the A-axis distributions is for sample F11-29. The vector mean for F13-31 is close in bearing to that for the AB planes, but those for F10-28 and F12-29 bear little relationship to the distribution, or ste the AB plane vector means. In conclusion, paleocurrents from the fabrics of the fluvial conglomerates are readily determined from the AB plane orientations. The A-axis fabrics of the fluvial conglomerates are more variable in the nature of their orientations, and paleocurrent directions from these distributions alone are in some instances less obvious, in others unobtainable. For all samples a close agreement exists between the A-axis orientations and the paleocurrent directions indicated by imbrication of the AB plane. The marine resedimented conglomerate fabrics The marine resedimented conglomerate fabric samples are from massive (F2-4, F4-8, F6-9, F8-14, F14-39) and graded (F3-5, F5-8, F9-21) clast supported conglomerates and from matrix supported conglomerates (F1-3, F7-12). The degree of imbrication exhibited by these conglomerates is variable. Imbrication is best developed in F4-8, F6-9, F9-21 and F14-39, each of which possesses a prominent maximum of poles to the AB plane (Fig. 2). Paleocurrent directions may confidently be determined from these conglomerates. The vector means for these samples are in close accord with the paleocurrent directions inferred from the fabric diagrams (Table 2), the orientations being statistically Significant (Table 1). The remaining samples are characterised by more dispersed distributions of poles to the AB plane and lower concentration maxima. Fabric samples F1l-3, F3-5, F8-14 possess weaker maxima, indicating the presence of less well developed imbrication within these conglomerates, which nevertheless may still be used to indicate paleocurrent directions. By A CLAST FABRIC PALEOCURRENT STUDY nizo29 F11-29 F10-28 40 KK GARUSS Eile A CLAST FABRIC PALEOCURRENT STUDY The relationship of the vector mean to the inferred paleocurrent directions is more variable, in response to the more dispersed nature of the distributions. Samples F2-4 and F7-12 are quite dispersed distributions, each with two relatively low strength maxima. An easterly paleocurrent direction is suggested for F7-12. However, due to the dispersed nature of the distributions and the presence of more than one low strength maximum, flow directions inferred from such fabric diagrams can only be considered tentative. The A-axis fabrics for the marine resedimented conglomerates range from unimodal (e.g., F3-5, F6-9) to bimodal (e.g., F9-21, F14-39) distributions. The determination of paleocurrent directions from these distributions relies upon differentiation of maxima parallel and transverse to flow direction. A prominent maximum indicating plunging A-axes may reasonably be considered to represent clast A-axes aligned parallel to flow and plunging in an upcurrent direction (e.g., Walker, 1975a). Such a fabric is best illustrated by F9-21 and F14-39, indicating paleocurrents directed to the southeast and northeast, respectively. These distributions are both bimodal, possessing as well as an upstream plunging maximum a second maximum indicating subhorizontal A-axes oriented transverse to the inferred flow direction. Comparison with the AB plane fabric diagrams indicates a close agreement in inferred paleo- 4] Figure 2. Contoured Stereographic projections of poles to the AB plane (AB) and A-axis orientation (A). Fabric samples FLO=-28 Fll=29, Fil2—29, F13-31 are from fluvial conglomerates, the remainder are from marine resedimented conglomerates. Contour intervals are 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10%. Tick marks indicate North and arrows represent the vector means (Table 1). current direction for these two samples. The remaining A-axis distributions do not readily provide paleocurrent data. Comparison with the appropriate AB plane fabrics shows the unimodal A-axis distributions to be either transverse (esg:,. FlS5, F5=5) or parallel (e.g.; F6-9; F8-14) to the inferred paleocurrent directions. The A-axis orientation for F5-8 is very dispersed, and neither readily indicates a paleocurrent direction nor relates to the AB plane distribution. The correlation of the A-axis vector mean with the probable paleocurrent directions is frequently poor, presumably due to the variable distribution of the A-axes. Those distributions which do show a close correlation of vector mean and the dominant maximum are primarily unimodal distributions (e.g., Fl-3, F3-5, F4-8, F8-14). The relationship of vector mean to paleocurrent direction in these instances is dependent upon whether the unimodal distribution is parallel or transverse to flow direction. This in turn relies upon the presence of a prominent upstream plunging maximum, or reference to the AB plane fabric diagram. To summarise, for marine resedimented conglomerates AB plane imbrication is the best paleocurrent indicator, although some conglomerates are not at all well imbricate, while A-axes being more variable in their orientation are less reliable as indicators of paleocurrent directions. 42 iG] RUSSEEE TABLE 1 TWO-DIMENSIONAL ORIENTATION DATA FOR FABRIC STUDY OF AB PLANES AND A-AXES AB Plane A-axis Vector Vector Vector Vector Sample Mean Magnitude pes Mean Magnitude pat (os (L%) (9°) (L%) Fluvial Conglomerates F10-28 063.88 78.52 OF4x109 == 168.80 20.23 Cais F11-29 056.92 84.71 0226x1082 041.83 24.58 0.049 F12-29 059.57 Si 7, 0.49x10 14 003.97 35". 16 0.0041 FrS-31 018.51 (ATAPES 0.96x10 !! 006.46 297.93 OFOTI Marine Resedimented Conglomerates FS 014.56 255-82 0.058 015.60 Pane a Onsal F2-4 013.09 20.66 O.12 7235 S226 0.95 F3-5 078.36 14.02 0.37 1708 41.53 0.00018 F4-8 297.47 $2.67 0.005 028.58 BY) AZ 0.002 F5-8 Ola s4 18.79 0.17 160.20 13.153 0.18 F6-9 144.30 40.01 0.00034 024.09 38.05 0.00073 F7-12 065.26 a 0.0078 041.34 29.84 0.012 F8-14 108.08 39.56 0.0004 T47-- 13 18.76 OL 17 FO-21 Lissa 56.77 0.1x10 © 019.06 22.40 0.081 F14-39 056.84 50.51 0.29x10 ° 007.94 S| eZ 0.16 K* O represents the current direction, derived from the orientation and not the dip direction of the AB plane (0+180°). of the AB plane, probability that this degree of preferred orientation resulted fron random distribution. Relationship of vector mean to paleocurrent direction The vector mean is considered a measure of the central tendency of a distribution and as such to indicate the preferred orientation direction (Curnay, 1956). Paleocurrent directions may be inferred from the maximum (maxima) exhibited by a stereographic projection of clast fabric data. Ideally, if a distribution about a maximum representing, e.g., imbrication is symmetrical, the vector mean will represent the flow direction. If, however, as is often the case, there are also points dispersed irregularly about the maximum then the vector mean will deviate from a close association with the maximun in response to these more dispersed points. The amount of deviation from the maximum will depend in part upon the relative strength of the principal maximum and on the spread and degree of irregularity of the dispersed portion of the distribution. The vector mean in these instances, although still a measure of the central tendency of the distribution, will no longer possess a close relationship to the flow direction as indicated by the dominant maximum. The paleocurrent directions given in Table 2 and used in Fig. 3 are therefore based on the maxima exhibited by the stereographic projections of poles to the AB plane, rather than the vector means. These maxima reflect a preferred clast orientation, and as such are considered to provide a realistic indication of paleocurrent directions. Vector means calculated for clast fabric distributions must therefore be interpreted or used as paleocurrent indicators with care, as in many instances this statistical direction of preferred orientation need have no close correlation with the probable flow direction as inferred from the maxima on a stereographic projection. In determining paleocurrent directions from clast fabrics consideration must be made of the distribution pattern exhibited by the stereographic projection. Relationship of clast fabric paleocurrents to other paleocurrent directions Clast fabric paleocurrent directions compare favourably with paleocurrents derived from other sources. Walker (1977a) showed a very close correlation in paleocurrent direction between resedimented conglomerate clast fabrics and sole markings on turbidites interbedded with the conglomerates. Winn and Dott (1979) demonstrated a close agreement in paleocurrent directions between conglomerate fabrics and, where possible, flute casts on the same conzlomerate beds. Rust (1975) has shown a close agreement between paleo- current directions from gravel fabrics and the MELAST-FABRIC PATEOCURKENTHs FUDY 43 TABLE 2 PALEOCURRENT DIRECTIONS INFERRED FROM STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS OF STHE POLES: TO#tHESABe PLANE Sample Fluvial Conglomerates Inferred Flow Direction Vector Mean F10-28 ENE 63.88° F11-29 ENE 56.925 F12-29 ENE 59.57° NNE* F13-31 N ESS le Marine Resedimented Conglomerates Fl-3 SE Fan 508 F2-4 n.e. 13.09° F3-5 iE 78.50 F4-8 NW 297-470 F5-8 NNW lode F6-9 SSE asm F7-12 ENE Se Ag) E* F8-14 SE 108.08° ENE F9-21 BSE Ages ell F14-39 NE 56.48° n.é. flow direction not readily evident bi secondary mode mean trend of channels and bars in braiding stream environments. Keepit Conglomerate clast fabrics, with the exception of F4-8 and F5-8, indicate paleocurrent directions varying from southeast to east of moxth (Table 2, Fig. 3). Directional sedimentary structures are not commonly observed in the Keepit Conglomerate, and in only six of the measured sections from which clast fabrics were recorded could paleocurrents be obtained from sources other than the conglomerate fabrics. In these sections the sedimentary structures present were scarce and usually not in close association with the conglomerate from which the fabric was recorded. A comparison between the clast fabric paleocurrents and those derived from other sedimentary structures is given in Table 3. The paleocurrent directions indicated by these structures in general agree with the directions inferred from the conglomerate fabrics, although differences up to 85° may be noted. The sole mark and cross stratification paleocurrent directions from the section in which F14-39 occurs are from Manser (1967). In this study it proved impossible to confirm these paleocurrent directions as the structures measured by Manser could not be located. The data has, however, been incorporated in this work. In thes case jot F8-14, where the paleocurrent directions are derived from observations made only two metres apart, this divergence reflects the differing flow directions of a channelised conglomerate and over- bank rippled sands typical of the submarine fan environment in which these sediments were deposited (Russell, 1977, 1979b). Paleocurrent variation of this magnitude between channel and interchannel deposits in submarine fan environments and sequences is to be expected (Nelson and Nilsen, 1974, pe 833) Walker ,) 1977b;, pe 929). Samples F4-8 and F5-8 display a southeasterly imbrication, opposite to all other samples. The reason for this is not clear. One possible explanation is the failure to recognise cross stratification in the conglomerate at the sample location, which would result in the plot of the poles to the AB plane indicating a current diUTeEctvon Opposites to the actual direction. (e.9.; Liboriussen, 1975). However, Sengupta (1966) shows the A-axes on foresets to be parallel to the current direction, while the stereographic projections of Johansson (1963, Figs. 19, 20) and Liboriussen (1975, Fig. 4) show girdles dipping in a downcurrent direction, with strong maxima parallel to flow. The A-axis fabric for F4-8 is perpendicular to inferred flow direction, in 44 le Gans SEE TABLE 3 COMPARISON OF CONGLOMERATE CLAST FABRIC PALEOCURRENT DIRECTIONS WITH PALEOCURRENT DIRECTIONS DERIVED FROM OTHER SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES WITHIN THE SAME SECTION Fabric paleocurrent direction Sample AB Plane Direction F1-3 SE O55 F3-5 E Si 310°-130° F8-14 SE , ENE 057% F10-28 ENE AO) F13-31 N 067° F14-39 NE 130° 150 al Conglomerate fabric Directional structure Non-directional structure BINGARA Fagure= 3). Paleocurrent directions for the Keepit Conglomerate (diagram based on Fig. 1). Directional structures - flute casts, cross strati- fication, ripples, scours; non-directional structures - tool casts, apparent A-axis Orientations. Other paleocurrent directions Source Number of readings Flute clasts 6) Flute clases M2 Tool casts 3 Ripples one exposure Ripples one exposure Ripples one exposure Sole marks ) ) from Cross stratification ) Manser (1967) contrast to the A-axis orientation of clasts deposited on foreset beds. Subsequent field checking failed to establish the presence of cross stratification. The clast fabric paleocurrent data for the Keepit Conglomerate indicate current flow in an essentially easterly direction. A depositional basin with a source area to the west and an easterly sloping paleoslope is supported by this paleocurrent pattern. On a basin scale, this pattern is consistent with paleocurrent data obtained for the Keepit Conglomerate from other directional sedimentary structures (this study, Fig. 3) and the limited paleocurrent data for the Keepit Conglomerate available from other sources. White (1966) infers easterly flowing paleocurrents from three conglomerate fabrics from the north of the Tamworth Belt, while Manser (1967) reports southeasterly flowing paleocurrents from limited sole marks and cross stratification in the southernmost outcrops of the Keepit Conglomerate. This paleocurrent pattern for the Keepit Conglomerate is also consistent with the existing limited paleocurrent data for the Lower Devonian to Carboniferous Tamworth Belt sequence (Crook, 1964; McKelvey, 1966; White, 1966; Manser, 1967; McKelvey and White, 1968; Moore and Roberts, O76); A westerly source terrain with sediment dispersal in an easterly direction is also indicated by the thickness, clast size and lithology trends for the Keepit Conglomerate, and the distribution of terrestrial and marine domains of sedimentation (Russell, 1977, 1979b). CONCLUSIONS Clast fabric data from terrestrial and marine conglomerates of the Late Devonian Keepit Conglomerate provide useful and valuable paleo- current information in a unit lacking in directional sedimentary structures. Conglomerate clast imbrication as indicated by stereographic projections of poles to the AB plane, provides in most instances a reliable indication of paleocurrent direction for both the fluvial and the marine resedimented conglomerates of the Keepit A CLAST FABRIC PALEOCURRENT STUDY 45 Conglomerate. A-axis fabrics are more variable in the nature of their distribution and are therefore of more limited use in paleocurrent studies. Clast A-axis fabrics may indicate a paleocurrent direction if a prominent upcurrent plunging A parallel to flow maximum can be identified. Paleocurrents derived from such A-axis distribution agree well with paleocurrent directions derived from imbrication of the AB plane. AB plane fabrics are thus considered more useful in their ease of interpretation and reliability in clast fabric paleocurrent studies of conglomerates. Chast fabric studies of the Keepit Conglomerate yield paleocurrent directions which in general agree with those obtained from other sedimentary structures in the Keepit Conglomerate and by previous workers on the Devonian- Carboniferous Tamworth Belt sequence. Paleo- current data, together with lateral variation in marine and terrestrial lithologies, thickness and grain size variation all suggest for the Keepit Conglomerate a source located to the west with current flow down an easterly sloping paleoslope. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study forms part of my Ph.D. research on the Late Devonian Keepit Conglomerate, carried out during the tenure of a Teaching Fellowship at the University of New England. I am grateful for the facilities and funding provided by the University. Special thanks are due to my supervisor, Dr. B.C. McKelvey, for his able assistance and encouragement during the course of this study. REFERENCES Bandyopadhyay, S., 1971. 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(Unpubl.). Russell, 1.G., -1979a:. A reappraisal of the Late Devonian Bective Unconformity. J Proc? Rs Soc. N.S.W., 112, GS=695) VErrataryelela 10) pesos he Russell, T.G., 1979b. The nature, origin, and paleogeographical and tectonic setting of the Keepit Conglomerate (submitted to Geol. Soc. AUISiGe) Pebble orientation in fluvial J. Sedim. Petrois,) 42554-8; Ru'sity, (BeRiees lO sediments. Rusit,. Be Re, OS: Fabric and structure in glaciofluvial gravels, in GLACIOFLUVIAL AND GLACIOLACUSTRINE SEDIMENTATION, pp. 238-48. Jopling A.V. and B.C. McDonald (eds.). Ryder, R.T. and :R. Scholten, i973; Syntectonic conglomerates in southwestern Montana: Their nature, origin and tectonic significance. Bull. Geol. Soc: Am., 845° 773-96. SCHLCe yw ian.e LoD ue. Fluvial gravel fabric. ale Sedim. Petrol., 27, 162-76. Schlager, W. and M. Schlager, 1973. Clastic sediments associated with radiolarites (Tauglboden-Schichten, Upper Jurassic, Eastern Alps). Sedimentology, 20, 65-89. Sedimentary Petrology Seminar, 1965. Gravel fabric in Wolf Run. Sedimentology, 4, 273-83. Sengupta, S., 1966: Studies on orientation and imbrication of pebbles with respect to cross stratification. J. Sedim. Petrol. 36,5 362-9. Sneed, E.D. and R.L. Folk, 1958. Pebbles in the lower Colorado River, Texas, a study in particle morphogenesis. J. Geolnwy 266% 114-50. Stauffer, M.R., 1966. An empirical-statistical study of three-dimensional fabric diagrams as used in structural analysis. Gan... Jenkarth SClts. 5. 475-988 Turner, F.J. and L.E. Weiss, 1968. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF METAMORPHIC TECTONITES. McGraw- Hill, New York. 545 pp. A CLAST FABRIC PALEOCURRENT STUDY Uneug, R., 1957. Recent transport and sedimentation of gravels in the Dunajee Valley. Acta, Geolxa Pol .y475 121/57. Walker, R.G., 1975a. Generalised facies models for resedimented conglomerates of turbidite association. Bull Geol. Soc. Am., 86, 737-48. Walker, eR Ge, 19 75b. Upper Cretaceous resedimented conglomerates at Wheeler Gorge, California: Description and field guide. Jenocaim, ; Petrol, , 45, 105-12, Walker, R.G., J977a. Deposition of upper Mesozoic resedimented conglomerates and associated turbidites in south-western Oregon. Buli:, Geol. Soc. Am., 88, 273-85. Walker; R.G., 1977b. conglomerates at Wheeler Gorge, California: Description and field guide - reply. a Sedim. Wetrol., 47, 928-30. Upper Cretaceous resedimented White, AH, 1966: An Analysis of Upper Devonian and Carboniferous Sedimentation in part of the Western Foreland of the New England Eugeosyncline. New England. (Unpubl.). White, W.aS., 1952. in Keweenawan conglomerate bed. Petrol., 22, 189-94. Imbrication and initial dip J. Sedim. Wieser, T., 1954. zlepiencow fliszu karpackiego. Pol., 4, 341-60. Acta Geol. Winns Rebs, Urcand Dott, Rania, Jry 1979. Deep- water fan-channel conglomerates of Late Gretaceous age, southern Chile. Sedimentology, 26, 203-28. Section Locality GR34352935 Inverell 1:250,000 APPENDIX Fabric Horizon (metres above Sample base of section) F1-3 LSem F2-4 4 m F3-5 13 m F4-8 9m F5-8 68 m F6-9 8 m F7-12 35 m F8-14 18 m F9-21 18 m F10-28 251 m F11-29 150 m F12-29 91 m F13-31 2 an F14-39 8 m T.G. Russell* Department of Geology University of New England ARMIDALE NSW 255% GR34002895 Inverell 1:250,000 GR33572795 Manilla ~ 1:250,000 GR33452743 Manilla 1:250,000 GR33452743 Manilla 1:250,000 GR33652740 Manilla 1:250,000 GR34172414 Manilla 1:250,000 GR35862255 Manilla 1:250,000 GR36611727 Manilla 1:250,000 GR34661783 Manilla 1:250,000 GR34751764 Manilla 1:250,000 GR34751764 Manilla 1:250,000 GR35311597 Tamworth 1:250,000 GR41030742 Tamworth 1:250,000 *Present address: Geological Survey of New South Wales Department of Mineral Resources GPO Box 5288 SYDNEY NSW 2001 (Manuscript received 30.1.80) (Manuscript received in final form 22.4.80) Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. 47 Spostrzezenia nad sedymentacja Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 113, pp. 49-62, 1980 The Geology of an Area Near Cudgegong, New South Wales JOHN W. PEMBERTON#* ABSTRACT. In the area immediately southeast of Cudgegong, the Cudgegong Fault separates probable Ordovician and Silurian rocks in the west from an Early Devonian sequence in the east. The Aarons Pass Granite, of possible Kanimblan (Late Carboniferous) age, outcrops in the south- westipartiof the area. The oldest rocks are the ?Sofala Volcanics, a sequence of metamorphosed pyroxene andesites with lenticular chert and calc-silicate lenses of possible Ordovician age. They are overlain by the Silurian Willow Glen Formation (new name), a sequence of shallow water litharenites, limestones and rhyodacitic tuffs. The Toolamanang Volcanics (new name) consist of rhyodacitic lavas and breccias, volcarenites and lutites, and conformably overlie the Willow Glen Formation. The above sequence bears a strong lithological resemblance to that established by Packham (1968) in the Sofala area. Suggested correlations are the ?Sofala Volcanics with the Sofala Volcanics; the Willow Glen Formation with the Tanwarra Shale; and the Toolamanang Volcanics with the Bells Creek Volcanics. The intrusion of the Aarons Pass Granite has thermally metamorphosed the southern outcrops of the ?0rdovician and Silurian rocks. Adjacent to the granite, this meta- morphism is represented by rocks of both hornblende-hornfels and albite-epidote-hornfels facies. In the south, Permian conglomerates unconformably overlie the older rocks. The Early Devonian rocks are a shallow water sequence deposited on the Capertee Geanticline. The lowest unit, the Roxburgh Formation (new name), consists of a sequence of quartzarenites, lutites, conglomerates and sublitharenites. canics. Carwell Creek Beds. The unit is overlain by the dacitic Riversdale Vol- This is in turn disconformably overlain by the limestones and litharenites of the The Early Devonian strata are folded in a broad south-plunging anticline and syncline with tight, small-scale folding in the cores, and faulting on the limbs. INTRODUCTION The village of Cudgegong lies within the central-western slopes district of New South Wales (Fig. 1). It is located approximately 260 km by road NW of Sydney at a longitude of 149°50'E and matitude of 032° 49'S. It lies 35 km to the SE of Mudgee, at the junction of the Cudgegong River with a tributary, Cudgegong Creek and it is 46 km by road NW of Capertee. One of the dominant geomorphic features of the Mudgee - Cudgegong - Kandos region is the sub- Permian peneplain of altitude about 800 m above sea level. In the area this is largely eroded although, on the southern boundary, a thin (up to 5 m)veneer of Permian sediments nonconformably overlies the Aarons Pass Granite and unconformably overlies both the ?0rdovician-Silurian and Devonian sequences. The terrain slopes gently down to the north as a series of undulating hills and valleys. PREVIOUS GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS Sussmilch (1934) studied the Devonian strata immediately west of Kandos (20 km east of Cudgegong). He recognised a sequence of several thousands of metres of Late Devonian quartzites with thin claystone and limestone horizons, folded into a series of anticlines and synclines with common small scale faulting. Game (1934) mapped a wide tract of Silurian and Devonian strata south of Mudgee. At Cudgegong, his Silurian sequence was dominantly volcanic with basal altered tuffs and lavas overlain by a thick limestone horizon and subsequently by a thick belt of "felspathic tuffs''. He gave a Late Devonian age to the sequence of quartzites (with thin * communicated by A.J. Wright ———a a -Mudgee Sydney ‘Canberra Rylstone ‘Kandos Turon R. Capertee = zs ma yegeenll he Locality map of the Mudgee - Cudgegong region. horizons of limestone, claystone, tuffs and grits) which were considered to form the core of a south- plunging anticline, the western limb of which out- crops a few kilometres east of Cudgegong. Hill (1969) mapped the area immediately southeast of Cudgegong. The structure and strati- graphy recognised in this paper differ markedly from that of Hill, so detailed discussion is not 50 J. W. PEMBERTON appropriate. Stratigraphic terminology is modi- fied where necessary. Packham (1969, p. 108-109) has interpreted "thinly bedded sandstones and shales" in the Cudgegong sequence as equivalent to the Chesleigh Formation. Powis (1975) mapped an area near Millsville, 24 km NW of Cudgegong. His basal unit was a series of Silurian "rhyodacitic flows and breccias with discontinuous conglomerate and rare limestone horizons''. Powis regarded these volcanics as a northerly extension of the sequence outcropping near Cudgegong township. GEOLOGICAL SETTING In the Mudgee - Cudgegong district, a belt of Ordovician and Silurian volcanics and sediments separates two narrow fault-bounded belts of Devon- ian fossiliferous sediments (Wright, 1966). These include representatives of both the Hill End Trough and Capertee Geanticline sequences. In the Sofala - Hill End region there are strata ranging in age from Middle Ordovician to possibly Middle Devonian (Packham, 1968). The Ordovician Sofala Volcanics consist of 2000 m of clastic and pyroclastic detritus with a small per- centage of lavas. The Silurian Tanwarra Shale (80 m of shale, conglomerate and limestone) rests with a slight break on the Sofala Volcanics. The rhyolitic lavas and tuffs of the Bells Creek Vol- canics overlie the Tanwarra Shale. To this point the Cudgegong and Sofala sequences are similar,and indicate Hill End Trough and possibly older depos- Se The Sofala rocks are conformably overlain by further Silurian sediments and Devonian volcanics and sediments completing the marine deposition in the Hill End Trough. The equivalent part of the Cudgegong sequence was deposited on the Capertee Geanticline. STRATIGRAPHY The effect of the Cudgegong Fault makes it possible to consider the sequence of basement rocks in two categories - Devonian and older (Fig. 2). Early Palaeozoic Stratigraphy The sequence of ?0rdovician to Silurian age can be subdivided into three units, two of which are given new names herein. The basal unit, the ?Sofala Volcanics, consists of metamorphosed andes- ites with chert and calc-silicate hornfels lenses. This unit is overlain by the litharenites, lime- stones and rhyodacitic tuffs of the Silurian Willow Glen Formation. It is, in turn, conformably over- lain by the Toolamanang Volcanics, a sequence of rhyodacitic lavas and breccias, volcarenites and HUcistes,. ?Sofala Volcanics A sequence of metamorphosed andesitic volcan- ics with interbedded lenses of chert and calc- silicate hornfels outcrops in the southern portion of the area. This sequence is tentatively corre- Shoalhaven Group Permian unconformity Carboniferous Aarons Pass Granite Carwell Creek Beds disconformity Early Riversdale Devonian Volcanics Roxburgh Formation Toolamanang Silurian Volcanics Willow Glen Formation ?fault ?Sofala ?Ordovician Volcanics Fig. 2. Stratigraphy of the Cudgegong district. lated with the Sofala Volcanics (see Discussion). The present mineral assemblages are altered from the original andesitic composition. These assem- blages have been produced by two periods of meta- morphism, the first of which was a low grade re- gional metamorphism. Superimposed on this is a contact metamorphism associated with the emplace- ment of the Aarons Pass Granite producing a narrow aureole of hornblende-hornfels facies. The unit outcrops in a narrow north-south trending belt approximately 2 km east of Aarons Pass (Fig. 3). Boundaries with the surrounding rock types are obscured by poor outcrop, but the eastern boundary seems to be faulted, whereas the western boundary with the overlying Silurian Willow Glen Formation is uncertain. The Volcanics are unconformably overlain by Permian conglomerates in the south and are intruded by the Aarons Pass Granite in the southwest. A representative section across the ?Sofala Volcanics is taken from GR 765550 636200 to GR 763950 6362200. The section exposes fine- to coarse-grained andesites with no discernible se- quence. Dips are absent and mappable horizons are discontinuous along strike. The andesites are GEOLOGY OF AN AREA NEAR CUDGEGONG S| well-jointed with apparently random orientations. Disseminated sulphides are present within many of the rocks. Relatively massive deposits have been found at the Cheshire Copper Mine (GR 765200 6362700) and the Milfor prospect (GR 765000 6360950). The defunct mine is located within altered andesites with the assemblage trem- olite-epidote-albite-chlorite. The major sul- phides are pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena and arsenopyrite; minor sulphides are tetrahedrite, pyrrhotite, bornite, chalcocite, covellite and cubanite; native copper also has been recorded (all after Hill, 1969). Mineralogy The ?Sofala Volcanics have undergone regional metamorphism to greenschist facies. The meta- morphism has produced the assemblage: tremolite/ actinolite + albite - epidote - carbonate - biotite - chlorite in most rocks. In the vicinity of the Aarons Pass Granite the volcanics have been thermally metamorphosed to hornblende-hornfels facies. The resultant assemblages are dominated by diopside, tremolite/actinolite and andesine (Anzco_4g)- Generally the assemblages are silica- deficient, especially so close to the granite con- tact where green spinel and olivine form part of the assemblage (rock specimen R6567). In this aureole, calc-silicate hornfelses are also present as small lenses within the volcanics. The pres- ence of the calcium silicates tremolite/actinolite, epidote and diopside, as well as calcite, and grossular/andradite garnet emphasises the calcium- rich nature of all the rock types. Free quartz is mostly lacking although chert fragments are pres- ent within many of the rocks. Textural features The ?Sofala Volcanics can be divided into four rock groups based on their texture and mineralogy. Rocks with a porphyritic texture are most common, with non-porphyritic rocks outcropping in thin layers with a north-south trend. The calc-silicate hornfelses outcrop irregularly as small lenticular patches, and a massive chert horizon trends approximately north-south. In hand-specimen the porphyritic rocks are dark green, massive, holocrystalline, mesocratic and medium- to coarse-grained. Phenocrysts are subhedral to euhedral with plagioclase and pseudo- morphs after pyroxene common. The groundmass is fine-grained with a dark green colour. In thin-section these rocks are blastopor- phyritic with relict phenocrysts and amygdules set in a fine intergranular groundmass. The pheno- crysts, up to 4 mm in length, now consist of prin- Cipally tremolite/actinolite (a = 8 = colourless to pale green, y = light to dark green) and colour- less epidote. Contact metamorphism of the tremolite/actinolite pseudomorphs gives rise to diopside at higher grades. The amygdules, up to 2 mm in maximum dimension, are filled by poorly twinned albite anhedra together with fine tremolite/actinolite needles up to 0.5 mm in length; these are associated with calcite and brown biotite anhedra. The groundmass consists of decussate aggregates of albite (Ang), tremolite/actinolite and epidote. In rocks less affected by contact metamorphism the groundmass phases display inter- granular Textures’ The nonporphyritic rocks differ from their coarser equivalents in being even-grained, dark green in colour with a homogeneous appearance. Re- lict phenocrysts and amygdules, up to 2 mm in maximum dimension, are present. The amygdules contain the same phases as the coarser equivalents whereas the phenocrysts are now mainly tremolite/ actinolite and albite-oligoclase (Anjg with Carlsbad and albite twinning). The groundmass of these rocks is similar to that of the coarser equivalents, however the amount of albite (Ang_ 19) is greater relative to the other phases, epidote and tremolite/actinolite. Original intergranular textures are locally preserved, yet are replaced by horntelsic ones close to the granite, Calc-silicate hornfels and rocks outcropping near the granite contact exhibit a medium to coarse (up to 3 mm in maximum dimension), even-grained texture. The andesites in the aureole are minera- logically similar to these outside (yet diopside commonly replaces some of the tremolite/actinolite anhedra) whereas the calc-silicate hornfels contains tremolite/actinolite, diopside, calcite, and colour- less grossular/andradite garnet. A black chert horizon forms a discontinuous bed within the volcanic sequence. All samples are fine-grained and highly fractured with fine quartz veins infilling these fractures. Hill (1969) re- corded Radiolaria from the chert but none has been observed by the author. Metamorphism With the exception of calc-silicate and chert horizons, the rocks outside the granite aureole exhibit moderately altered volcanic textures where- as within the aureole these textures are replaced by a hornfelsic one. Mineral assemblages of rocks outside the aureole are dominated by tremolite/ actinolite and albite whereas those close to the granite contain diopside-tremolite/actinolite- andesine (-epidote). Pyroxene andesite, consisting of calcic plagio- clase (Anyop_69) and lime-bearing clinopyroxene, could alter to compositions similar to those above through the breakdown, at low grades, of calcic plagioclase to albite and epidote and of clinopyro- xene to tremolite/actinolite and calcite. At high- er temperatures the latter reaction 1S reversed, thus explaining the presence of diopside (replacing tremolite/actinolite) and andesine in rocks closer to the granite. The isochemical character of the thermal meta- morphism is indicated by the overall similarity in bulk mineral composition of both regionally and contact metamorphosed volcanics. However, it seems that prior to contact metamorphism, alteration of the volcanics took place during regional metamor- phism and this alteration involved the transfer of chemical components under low temperature hydrous conditions, as suggested by (Vallance, 1967). J. W. PEMBERTON 52 vey Sty 410 2 sz 1 ANOLSTAY be / | QSNO93S9GND YVIN V3YV NV JO ADNO1O3D BSHL € 2enBbiy 4aeI19 410 ~ + ™~ ~ 5S << ~ > x © ~N A* TRS SS Ny oo00rgeg / mx y /\ | / /\ 2 oS ~/5\ ae) ¢ Qa ['s) oO ‘OQ fo} 3 } ) (@) x oO oO x \ 00099¢9 \ ae / 5 + Snooasano (_~ as. ) ooos9Ee9 The geology of an area near Cudgegong Rates Se ays: GEOLOGY OF AN AREA NEAR CUDGEGONG 000892 peos Asepuooas peos solew Aaaenb 40 autw ayewixoidde uolisod—-jjney ayeunooe uoljisod- jjney ayewtxoidde uonisod-sixe pyjoy yeutjIuAs sixe poy jeuroiiue dip pue ayxt41s Bulppaq ayewixoidde uolisod-Aiepunog je2160;0a6 ayeinoose uoiisod—Aiepunog je2!6ojoab 000992 sasjaw :ayeos ei ° ee ee See I ° (oor 008 009 00y 007 0 se ° ayisapue pasayje SOIUeDSIOA e;eyose NVIDIAOGHO as ae Bus auo\sau| uoljewijoy U3|d MONA $gNd DIVIDepOAYs [A = _— N a1loepodys II31jynNsayds Ren amin, fH oS _— soiuedjoq Bueuewesooy ajUaIeDION [A ] ‘e199014q pue eve; dIy19epoAus & NVIYNTIS a0 fe) (eo) ’ ' @) 5 K = \ rx A A se A /N > ajiuase ZyseNb snosayiissoy JON3Y394354 00029. a.gny |_-_- a.e109W0/6u09 uonewsoy yYBsngxoy aIUaIeEYIIGNs ‘ayiuase ZyseNb a a asq An auoysauity) Foo 29g ayiuaseyry ea speg 29019 |JaMseD NVINOAJQ 265 ariljjpawmepe ‘ayiuesib [+] allueig SSey sudieYy SNOYAIINOSYVI Sd a.e13W0;6u09 = dnoig uaneyjeoyus NvIWH3d oo00geg Oo o SSVd SNOYVY + oooz9e9 *¢ *8ty BuoZe8pnp Ieeu vere ue Fo ABoToes ayy, ‘Shoalhaven Group Ps Aarons Pass Granite Coe Carwell Creek Beds Dee Alversdale Volcanics Dry PERMIAN \ > cunseaons, } L ONE / / Vv Va) \ WA re) = ( Vv XX { ae SAV, Vv © REFERENCE ~ 4} conglomerate CARBONIFEROUS = + _J granite, adamellite DEVONIAN LJ jitharenite limestone Toolamanang Voleanics F—— Sto rhyodacitic lava and breccia, MV | votcarenite [¥ V] spherutitic rhyodacite —s} rhyodacitic tuft Willow Glen == Formation imeston: gmat limestone litharenite ORDOVICIAN 7 3] 7Sotala Voleanics lo 2} altered andesite 5 scale: metros Figure 3 THE GEOLOGY OF AN AREA NEAR CUDGEGONG Geological boundary-position accurate === = geological boundary-position approximate cel bedding strike and dip q$- —-MMiclinal fold axis qt *7nclinat fold axis-position approximate =F fault-position accurate Fe =F fault-position approximate mine or quarry —— major road secondary road AVLSTONE| cs NOLUAINAd ML SNODFADGNO UVAN VAUV NV 4O ADO10FD €¢ 54 Willow Glen Formation (new name) The formation derives its name from the Will- ow Glen property. The Willow Glen Formation out- crops in a westerly dipping belt up to 700 m wide and over a length of about 6.5 km. The belt splits (near GR 764950 6364050) into two narrow belts outcropping to the east and west of the ?Sofala Volcanics against which they are possibly faulted; this bifurcation might alternatively indicate an underlying anticlinal structure. Both belts thin rapidly to the south where they are unconformably overlain by Permian conglomerates. The western belt is intruded in the southwest by the Aarons Pass Granite. The resulting contact metamorphism has altered the strata to a low grade hornfels. The Willow Glen Formation is conform- ably overlain to the west by the Toolamanang Volcanics. Limestones of the former unit grade through limestone breccias to the shales of the latter unit in the north whereas in the south the boundary is sharp. The limestone outcrops are lenticular and their lateral equivalents, rhyo- dacitic tuffs, grade upwards into well-bedded shales of the Toolamanang Volcanics. The eastern boundary is the Cudgegong Fault (Game, 1934) which brings the Willow Glen Formation into contact with the Devonian rocks. A stratigraphic section for the Willow Glen Formation (Fig. 4) combines the maximum thickness- es of individual members, giving an overall thick- ness of 900 m; the thickness in any single sec- tion is of the order of 600 m. The lowest exposure in the Willow Glen Form- ation is a coarse, dark grey, massive litharenite best exposed near GR 765800 6363000. In thin- section, small well-sorted sub-angular quartz grains (up to 50% of the rock), oligoclase (Anjg to Anoop) grains, green biotite and cherty rock fragments, up to 1 mm across, are set in a coarse Silica cement, which may constitute up to 50% of the rock. The litharenite is overlain by the lower limestone bed. In the north this unit is a pale, grey, white to dark-grey biomicrite. Most samples are highly fractured and_ strongly cleaved in dir- ections from 350° to 010°. Silty interbeds towards the: top’ of the bed dip at 30° toward 250°. The limestone is sparsely fossiliferous with a fauna of poorly preserved corals and brachiopods. Small rounded chert pebbles and mica flakes are dispersed throughout this member. Along strike to the south the limestone thickens to a very coarse-grained, massive, dark grey, unfossiliferous marble with the equivalent of the northern outcrop limited to agthin berazon, to m-thick, at the topof*the bed: A rhyodacitic tuff horizon overlies the lower limestone bed with a sharp contact (GR 765000 6364400). The rock is massive, very fine-grained, grey-black with a highly fractured and jointed appearance. and brown biotite grains, up to 0.1 mm long, ina fine siliceous groundmass. Near the top of the member fine shaley interbed dip at 40 to 50° to- wards 260°. It is overlain by the upper limestone bed. It consists of angular quartz, albite, J. W. PEMBERTON This member outcrops as a series of lenticular pods with lateral changes to the well-bedded rhyodacitic tuff. The basal and upper parts of the limestone are well-bedded and poorly fossili- ferous with common small chert pebbles. Towards the middle, the size and number of the pebbles in- creases rapidly together with an increase in the amount of silty interbeds. Brachiopod tests, mainly disarticulated Kirktdiwn, become more abun- dant. Geopetal structures produced by these tests indicate the sequence is right way up (i.e. the Willow Glen Formation underlies the Toolamanang Volcanics). Gradational Contact Interbedded marl and adie well-bedded rhyodacitic tuff Upper Limestone Bed Silty fossiliferous limestone with chert pebbles Rhyodacitic Highly jointed and fractured Tuff massive fine dark rhyodacitic tuff L Coarse pure limestone ower Limestone Bed Silty unfossiliferous limestone Massive coarse chert-cemented litharenite Litharenite om Faulted Contact Fig. 4. Stratigraphic Section across the Willow Glen Formation. GEOLOGY OF AN AREA NEAR CUDGEGONG =!) Along strike to the south, the two uppermost members lie within the contact aureole of the Aarons Pass Granite. The resultant hornfelses con- sist of marbles, fine dark hornfelses and spotted hornfelses. The marbles are massive, white to pink in colour, very coarse-grained and somewhat soft and friable. Outlines of recrystallised brachiopod tests are prominent. The fine dark hornfels is grey to black in colour and massive. Microscopically the assemb- lage quartz - plagioclase (albite to oligoclase) - brown biotite-muscovite-pyrite forms an even- grained hornfelsic texture with an average grain- size of 0.5 m. The spotted hornfels is fine-grained, dark grey and well-bedded with rounded black porphyro- blasts to 4 mm diameter. The porphyroblasts are accumulations of fine muscovite flakes with thin rims of brown biotite. They pseudomorph an earlier-formed mineral, perhaps cordierite. The matrix contains quartz-plagioclase (albite) -brown biotite anhedra with a hornfelsic texture. Fauna and age The lower limestone bed is poorly fossili- ferouS with fauna restricted to crinoid ossicles and favositid and heliolitid corals. The upper limestone bed is richly fossiliferous yet diver- sity of species is low. The faunal list from the upper limestone bed was compiled by Wright (pers. comm.) of fossils from GR 764700 6364000. Kirkidtum sp. indet., favositid and heliolitid corals, crinoid stems and stromatoporoids. The presence of the brachiopod kirkidtum in- dicates a Silurian age for the Willow Glen Forma- tion. No conodonts have been found within either of the two limestone beds. Toolamanang Volcanics (new name) The name is derived from the Parish of Toolamanang. In the area studied, rhyodacite flows and breccias, lutites and volcarenites out- crop over a width of 2.3 km. Aerial photograph interpretation and Offenberg et al. (1971) sugg- est that this unit is continuous over some dis- tance to the west of Cudgegong Creek and thus the true thickness of this unit is not known but must exceed 3 km, while the known extent along strike is at least 20 km. A representative section across the Toolaman- ang Volcanics is taken from GR 764500 6363700 to GR 762400 6364700. It gives a thickness of about 1200 m for the Toolamanang Volcanics in the area to the east of Cudgegong Creek. The rhyodacites, rhyodacitic breccias and volcarenites are massive and highly jointed. They conformably overlie well-bedded westerly-dipping strata of the Willow Glen Formation. Westerly- dipping shaley horizons in the Volcanics confirm that this dip continues through the area to the west of the Willow Glen Formation. The two basal units of the sequence, the lower spherulitic rhyodacite and the overlying lutite horizon, can be recognised over most of the strike length of the Toolamanang Volcanics in the area mapped. They are overlain by rhyodacite flows and breccias, and volcarenites. None of these latter rock types outcrop continuously over any distance. The spherulitic rhyodacite outcrops as a prom- inent ridge up to 500 m wide yet its width decreases abruptly in the north and south. The contacts with both underlying and overlying strata are sharp. The rocks vary from black to white in colour; are massive, have a vitreous lustre and are highly fractured. In thin-section angular phenocrysts (up to 1 mm across) of quartz and oligoclase occur with spherulites to 0.5 mm diameter and biotite (a = light brown, 8 = y = dark green) anhedra to 0.2 mm across in a very fine siliceous groundmass. In the south, lutites (up to 50 m thick) over- lie the spherulitic rhyodacite with a sharp contact, whereas in the north the spherulitic rhyodacite lenses out and a thicker lutite sequence (up to 200 m) rests directly on the Willow Glen Formation. The lutites outcrop as well-bedded, fissile, un- fossiliferous strata varying in colours of brown, grey and purple. obedding is consistently dipping at about 30 to 40 towards 270°. The fine-grained rhyodacite is dark grey to black, massive, glassy and well jointed. In thin- section small angular quartz and oligoclase grains, up to 0.1 mm across, are set in a very fine ground- mass of quartz, albite and brown biotite. The volcarenites are grey to black, massive and coarse grained. In thin-section poorly sorted, angular to rounded, broken plagioclase (andesine Angg to oligioclase An; 7) grains, up to 2 mm across, angular quartz grains and cherty rock fragments, to 1 mm across, are set in a matrix of fine albite (AnjQ) laths with quartz and green biotite anhedra. The rhyodacitic breccias consist of large angular elongate clasts, up to 2 cm long, of fine- grained rhyodacite in a matrix of the typical volcarenite. The clasts are poorly-sorted, random- ly oriented and may constitute from 5% to 50% of the rock. Metamorphism The presence of fine biotite and chlorite flakes, and the albitisation and sericitisation of feldspars within most rocks indicates that they have suffered the imprint of low grade regional metamorphism. The southern extension of the Toolamanang Volcanics has been affected by low grade thermal metamorphism associated with the granite emplacement. Within the volcarenites the plagioclase grains are albitised (Anjo) and actinolitic amphiboule (a = 8 = pale green, y = dark green) is commonly present in the matrix. Metamorphism of lutite members produces assemblages typified by quartz - albite (Ang) - green biotite - muscovite. These hornfelses are mineralogically similar to those developed within pelitic sediments of the Willow Glen Formation but differ texturally in that they lack a spotted appearance. 56 Devonian Stratigraphy Within the area three Devonian units can be recognised. The basal unit, the Roxburgh Forma- tion, consists of quartzarenites, conglomerates, lutites, and sublitharenites of Early Devonian age. It is disconformably overlain by the dacitic Riversdale Volcanics which is, in turn, sharply overlain by the Carwell Creek Beds - a sequence of limestones and litharenites. Faunal data and lithological similarities are insufficient to correlate these formations with any described elsewhere in New South Wales (Packham, 1969). Roxburgh Formation (new name) The formation derives its name from the County of Roxburgh. The sediments of the Roxburgh Formation outcrop in a south-plunging syncline and anticline; the former is bounded in the north- west by the Cudgegong Fault. The unit is over- lain by the Riversdale Volcanics in both the east and west, and unconformably by Permian conglome- rates in the south. The base of this Formation WS Mot -exposed.in this .area. A stratigraphic section for the Roxburgh Formation 1S given in Figure 5. The section is taken along Oakey Creek between GR 766700 6364000 and GR 765900 6364150. The constituent units are continuous along strike varying in width yet with little lithological variation. The overall thick- ness Of the representative section is about 550m. Lowermost in the exposed section, a thick sequence of immature quartzarenites is interbedded with thin horizons of micaceous, arenaceous lutite. The arenites are grey-white to red in colour and are massively bedded with units up to a few metres thick. Cross-bedding and ripple marks are devel- oped within the finer horizons. The fine inter- beds may be up to tens of centimetres thick but are usually thinly-bedded. Well-preserved brachiopods and crinoid debris are found within some interbeds. The arenites grade upwards into an excellent marker horizon of coarse quartzare- nite with abundant angular, poorly fossiliferous limestone clasts up to 3 cm in length and moder- ately well-preserved brachiopod shells. Abundant brachiopod shells are commonly tightly packed Within softer arenaceous interbeds in the arenites. This horizon grades up into a thick series of well-bedded coarse to fine quartzarenites. The beds are poorly fossiliferous with cross-bedding in the fine and coarse interbeds common, The arenite sequence contains a thin, con- formable acid volcanic body along Oakey Creek near GR 766050 6364050. It appears most likely to be a sill up to 70 m long, probably associated with small-scale faulting which is common in the north- erm portion of the unit. An excellent marker sequence, up to 200 m thick, of lutite - conglomerate - coarse quart- zarenite with limestone clasts - sublitharenite overlies’ the: sill.” The, lutite is a fines “massive, unfossiliferous cream to white unit up to 50 m thick. It has a sharp contact with the overlying conglomerate horizon which contains well rounded and’ sorted acid volcanic pebbles, up’ to 2 cm diameter, with thin hematite rims in a quartzare- J. W. PEMBERTON nite matrix which may constitute up to 20% of the rock. The pebbles consist of angular quartz and poorly-twinned, sericitised plagioclase phenocrysts, up to 2 mm long, in a fine quartz, sericite and carbonate groundmass. The thickness of the cong- lomerate varies between 2 mand 5m. The over- lying quartzarenites are coarse-grained, massively bedded with sparse angular limestone clasts. They grade upward into a unit of fine, well bedded red to grey sub-litharenites which vary markedly in thickness, reaching 50 m and thinning rapidly along strike. These are overlain by coarser are- nites which are thickly bedded with thin, silty interbeds common. These massively bedded arenites contain abundant angular limestone clasts and rounded chert pebbles up to 5 cm in diameter. limestone is poorly fossiliferous, with crinoid debris and poorly preserved corals present. The The top of the Roxburgh Formation is marked by a fine massive quartzarenite. lt -hasia sharp contact with the overlying, more ruggedly out- cropping dacites of the Riversdale Volcanics. Fauna and age A number of fossil localities have been found within the interbedded quartzarenites of the Roxburgh Formation. The most important of these are discussed below. The following faunal lists have been compiled by Wright (pers. comm.). Localaty.” i (GR 766300 6363900); The fauna at this locality includes: Iridistrophia sp. indet. Delthyris sp. indet., cf. Ptertnopecten, favositid and auloporid corals. Locality 2 (GR 765600 6365300); Fauna includes: JIsorthis sp. indet., Howellella sp. indet., cf. Ptertnopecten, dalmanellid gen. indet., stropheodontid gen. indet. Locality 3 (GR 766050 6365900); cf. Atrypa sp. indet., Gyptdula sp. indet., favositid corals: crinoid stems, Iridistrophta sp. indet., rhynchonellids. The presence of the brachiopod Iridistrophta together with Delthyris and Howellella suggests an Early Devonian age for the Roxburgh Formation. Riversdale Volcanics (Offenberg et al., 1971) This name was first proposed by Wright (1966) for outcrops to the east and north of this area and to date this unit has not been formalised. The Riversdale Volcanics outcrop on the limbs of a south-plunging anticline. As a result, the dacites of this unit form two narrow strips which outcrop continuously for 3.5 km along strike. The western strip varies markedly in thickness reaching a maximum of 200 m in the north, whereas to the south it. is only 30 m thick. The top of the easter strip has not been mapped but the strip is con- siderably thicker than 200 m. The unit overlies the Roxburgh Formation and is unconformably over- lain by Permian conglomerates in the south. In the west, the dacite is abruptly overlain by the basal limestone member of the Carwell Creek Beds. In the north, this western strip abuts against the GEOLOGY OF AN AREA NEAR CUDGEGONG Si 600 Riversdale Dacite Volcanics Fossiliferous 500 quartzarenite Sublitharenite Roxburgh 400 Formation Conglomerate Lutite Acid dyke 300 Immature quartzarenite 200 Micaceous arenaceous lutite EEG =o Stratigraphic section across the Roxburgh Formation. Cudgegong Fault. Along its strike this strip is cut by a number of east-west trending, small-scale faults. Although there is little lithological vari- ation along strike, a distinct sequence has been noted across the unit. At its base, the forma- tion is fine-grained, white to green in colour, massive and highly fractured. Small angular quartz phenocrysts are set in a fine white ground- mass. This grades into a purple massive very hard rock of slightly coarser grain size. Towards the top of the unit the purple volcanics are highly weathered and fractured. Large angular quartz and feldspar anhedra, up to 5 mm long, form in a grey white to pink flow banded groundmass. In thin-section, the typical dacite is com- posed of angular quartz and sericitised, poorly- twinned sodic plagioclase phenocrysts up to 2 mm long in a fine, flow banded, silica-rich ground- mass. Carwell Creek Beds (Offenberg et al., 1971) This unit outcrops as a north-south trending wedge of limestone and litharenite with a strike length of 3.5 km. Immediately above the sharp contact (which has a relief of several metres), clasts of the Riversdale Volcanics up to 50 cm in diameter are locally present. The basal limestone bed, up to 100 m thick, is a grey white, finely bedded intrasparite with rounded to elongate lime- stone clasts up to 5 cm in diameter. The limestone is poorly fossiliferous with rare stromatoporoids, corals and crinoid ossicles present. It grades upwards to a pink-white, massive, coarse-grained and highly fractured sparite. It is overlain by, and passes laterally into, a repetitive sequence of fine to coarse litharenites which are traceable along the outcrop of the Beds. Each fine to coarse sequence is about 150 m thick and up to 3 such se- quences can be mapped across the unit. The se- quences are dominated by massive, poorly sorted and poorly fossiliferous arenite which consist of approximately equal amounts (up to 70% of the rock) of angular quartz grains and cherty rock fragments, up to 2 mm across, in a fine silica and sericite cement constituting up to 30% of the rock. The litharenites are unconformably overlain by Permian conglomerates in the south and disconform- ably overlie the Riversdale Volcanics in the east. They are bounded to the west by the Cudgegong Fault. Permian Stratigraphy The Permian strata at Cudgegong were deposi- ted near the western margin of the Sydney Basin. The strata are part of the Permian Shoalhaven Group and were known locally as the Capertee Group con- sisting of "massive, fine to coarse conglomerates with subordinate breccias, grits, sandstones, silt- stones, and slates" (McElroy, 1962). Only the basal member of the Shoalhaven Group, the Megalong Conglomerate, is present at Cudgegong as a relatively thin (less than 15 m thick) veneer of "massive cobble conglomerate! (McElroy, 1962). Shoalhaven Group (Megalong Conglomerate) These Permian conglomerates are well exposed at the rim of an elevated plateau to the south of the Cudgegong River near Cudgegong. The conglome- rates, up to 5 m thick, outcrop poorly and provide a flat-lying area used as pasture lands. The nonconformable contact with the Aaron's Pass Granite is best seen at GR 762500 6360500 and GR 763300 6361100, where weathered granite is sharply overlain by the conglomerate. Here, angu- lar to subrounded quartz and K-feldspar grains (up to 4 cm across), and smaller rhyodacitic clasts (up to 3 cm in maximum dimension) are set in a grey-brown, coarse arenite matrix. Where over- lying the ?Sofala Volcanics, there is apparently 58 J. W. PEMBERTON no material derived from the Volcanics within the overlying conglomerates. These contain rounded quartz pebbles and rhyodacitic clasts of smaller size (up to 2 cm across) than those in conglome- rates overlying the granite. They are sparsely distributed in a yellow, white or red arenaceous matrix. Similarly the contact with the Devonian strata is obscured by poor outcrop. White to yellow coarse arenaceous matrix contains poorly sorted, large, angular cobbles of Devonian quartz- arenites up to 1m across. The size of the cobbles varies markedly within outcrops. AARONS PASS GRANITE The Aarons Pass Granite is a massive equi- dimensional stock, approximately 10 km in diameter. This body is discordant with the country rocks and was emplaced by the Late Carboniferous Kanimblan Orogeny (Powell et al., 1976). The northeastern portion of the Aarons Pass Granite intrudes ?Ordovician and Silurian strata in the southwest of the area. It is nonconform- ably overlain by Permian strata to the south. The percentage of K-feldspar to total feldspar varies from 52% to 76%. This indicates that the Aarons Pass Granite belongs in the adamellite to granite range (Williams et al., 1955). The felsic nature of the rocks is shown by the high modal percentage of quartz (39% to 56%) and total feldspar (40% to 57%) and low content of biotite (0.4% to 2.9%). Both aplite and pegmatite occur as minor phases. The rocks are pink to grey-white, massive, holocrystalline, leucocratic and coarse-grained. In thin-section, the rock is even-grained with a hypidiomorphic-granular texture. It consists of quartz anhedra (to 2 mm across), K-feldspar sub- hedra (to 2 mm long) displaying both film and bleb microperthite, plagioclase (oligoclase, An 5) subhedra (to 2 mm long), and biotite subhedea (to 1.5 mm long) with a pleochroic scheme a = light green brown to 8 = y = dark brown. Coarse myrmekitic intergrowths are present and small zircon inclusions are common in the biotite grains. The contact with the Toolamanang Volcanics in the north is marked by a steep scarp where the granite abuts the resistant spherulitic rhyodacite member of the Volcanics. The rhyodacite is highly fractured there with thin aplite veins present along the fracture planes. The contact with the Milfor Volcanics is marked by the presence of large (up to 1 m across), altered andesitic xeno- liths in the granite near GR 764000 6361400. The hornfelsic equivalents of the Willow Glen Lime- stone sequence outcrop poorly and, as a conse- quence, the contact with the granite is obscured. Aplite forms as thin, yet persistent veins and dykes within the hornfelses. Sparse, randomly oriented, subvertical aplite dykes intrude the xenoliths and the volcanic and granite masses. Dykes vary consistently between 1 and 1.5 m thick, although a few dykes on the eastern granite mar- gin may reach 5 m thick, and may outcrop continu- ously over hundreds of metres. A pegmatitic phase outcrops as small irregular patches throughout the granite. Within the patches, large, up to 5 cm long, euhedral quartz and K-feldspar crystals develop in a granite ''groundmass". STRUCTURE The Cudgegong Fault (Game, 1934) separates Ordovician and Silurian units in the west from an Early Devonian sequence in the east. It appears to be a strike fault over most of its length, yet to both the north and south of the area it cuts across the strike of most units. The fault is emphasised by a band of ironstone several metres wide discontinuously outcropping along its length. ?Sofala Volcanics One interpretation of the outcrop pattern of this unit is that it represents a north-plunging anticlinal structure. However a lack of macro- scopic bedding and the random nature of the joint orientations fail to support this interpretation. Another possibility is that the outcrop represents a faulted wedge of andesite although, as noted earlier, outcrop is poor on the western margin and hence the nature of this contact is speculative. The unit is bounded.on the eastern margin by a fault along which several discontinuous aplitic dykes have been emplaced. The fault is also em- phasised by the abrupt termination of a darker- coloured acidic dyke (composed of quartz, oligo- clase and biotite) which is traceable across most of the formation. There is also a probable fault breccia developed in an adjacent Silurian lime- stone. Willow Glen Formation Bedding recorded from the area generally dips at about 30 to 40° towards about 250 to 260 . Toolamanang Volcanics The outcrop pattern of the spherulitic rhyodacite and the westerly dips of the overlying lutite unit suggest a synclinal structure for the Formation. As bedding cannot be seen in the rhyodacite, the only support for this suggestion lies in the joint pattern; joints in the northern outcrops trend along 010 whereas these=closer te the granite trend along 330 . Devonian Strata The three Devonian units outcrop in a syncline -anticline structure. The western limb of the former is cut off by the Cudgegong Fault. The syncline plunges at 10° toward 160°. The anti- cline crops out to the east, plunges at 10° to- ward 175°; and is approximately symmetrical. DISCUSSION Regional Correlation ?Sofala Volcanics and Sofala Volcanics Packham (1968) described the stratigraphic sequence for the Sofala area, 40 km to the south of Cudgegong. The basal unit, the Sofala Volcan- ics, consists of "approximately 7000 feet of..... clastic and pyroclastic detritus with a small percentage of lavas" (Packham, 1968, p. 112). Pickett (1978) suggested an age of mid-Gisbornian to Early Eastonian for conodonts, corals and algae from an agglomerate, and graptolites from meta- GEOLOGY OF AN AREA NEAR CUDGEGONG 59 sediments, in the Sofala Volcanics. A comparison between the ?Sofala Volcanics and Sofala Volcanics (Table 1) shows an obvious similarity between the lavas of the two sequences, especially between the andesites at Cudgegong and the upper portion of the Sofala Volcanics. It may be that the exposed portion of the ?Sofala Volcanics correlates with the upper portion of Sofala Volcanics. This is consistent with the greater thickness of the Sofala Volcanics. TABLE COMPARISON OF THE SOFALA VOLCANICS (AFTER PACKHAM, 1968 AND BARRON, limestone, grading into shales and rhyodacitic bands of the Toolamanang Volcanics. The type section of the Tanwarra Shale is 40 km to the south of Cudgegong, and lithological differences of the observed magnitude caused by lateral facies changes could be expected over such a distance. Toolamanang Volcanics, Bells Creek Volcanics and Mullions Range Volcanics Rhyolitic lavas and tuffs of the Bells Creek 1975) AND THE ?SOFALA VOLCANICS (NEW DATA) ?Sofala Volcanics Dominant rock type altered, probably originally, Sofala Volcanics pyroxene andesite pyroxene andesite. Other rock types chert, Primary igneous phases Other phases Metamorphic grade Volcanic textures preserved mass Willow Glen Formation and Tanwarra Shale Packham (1968, p. 115) considered that the Silurian Tanwarra Shale rests "with a slight break" on the Sofala Volcanics. At Sofala, in the type section, the Tanwarra Shale is up to 80 m thick with a basal conglomerate member up to 14 m thick. It is composed of material derived from pyroxene andesites of the Sofala Volcanics. The conglomerate is overlain by a fossiliferous, im- pure limestone and, in turn, by shales. The pres- ence of acid tuff layers indicates a conformable boundary with the overlying Bells Creek Volcanics. A tentative correlation between the Tanwarra Shale and Willow Glen Formation is proposed. Both sequences overlie (originally) pyroxene an- desites, have faunas indicative of a Silurian age, and are overlain by acid volcanic rocks. However, a number of differences have been noted between the sequences. Firstly, the Willow Glen Forma- tion sequence is up to 900 m thick compared with the 80 m thickness of the Tanwarra Shale. Sec- ondly the lithological differences are marked. The Tanwarra Shale exhibits a type sequence of basal conglomerate - limestone - shale. The Willow Glen Formation, at Cudgegong, consists, of basal litharenite - limestone - pyroclastic - calc-silicate lenses diopside tremolite/actinolite, epidote, albite, carbonate, biotite, chlorite, quartz greenschist facies phenocrysts and amygdules in an intergranular ground- medium to fine andesitic sandstones, chert, limestone lenses augite, hornblende quartz, chlorite, carbonate, albite, epidote, tremolite, Gace. greenschist facies Phenocrysts and less common amygdules in an intergranular to trachytic groundmass. Volcanics conformably overlie the Tanwarra Shale at Sofala (Packham, 1968). The volcanics, associ- ated with slates, cherts and shales, vary markedly in thickness along strike but are traceable over large distances confined to the western side of the Wiagdon Thrust. According to Packham (1968, p. 155), "The Bells Creek Volcanics may then be correlated approximately with the Mullions Range volcanics; both are probably Middle Silurian". The Mullions Range Volcanics outcrop in the Euchareena district as a series of dacitic and rhyolitic lavas, and as part of the Molong Geanti- cline sequence: Comparison of the above mentioned volcanic units is represented by Table 2. It would appear that the units have many similar features. How- ever, glass shards are present within the southern formations. Spherulites are present within the basal rhyodacite of the Toolamanang Volcanics. They may form by the devitrification of glassy material. Summary of the Regional Correlation Lithological correlations have been made be- tween the ?Sofala Volcanics and Sofala Volcanics and between the Toolamanang Volcanics and Bells 60 J. W. PEMBERTON TABLE 2 COMPARISON OF THE BELLS CREEK VOLCANICS (PACKHAM, VOLCANICS (PACKHAM, 1968) AND TOOLAMANANG VOLCANICS (NEW DATA). 1968) , MULLIONS RANGE TOOLAMANANG VOLCANICS Dominant Rock rhyodacitic lavas and Types breccias, volcarenites BELLS CREEK VOLCANICS rhyolitic lavas and tuffs MULLIONS RANGE VOLCANICS dacitic and rhyolitic lavas and breccias Lava Phenocrysts quartz, plagioclase (albite to oligoclase) quartz,orthoclase albite orthoclase albite,quartz Glassy Material spherulites Breccias rhyodacitic fragments Lava Groundmass quartz, albite Clastic Fragments only in volcarenites Associated Rock shales Types Creek Volcanics. The correlation between the Will- ow Glen Formation and Tanwarra Shale is considered tenuous. The two sequences are represented by Figure 6. Each stratigraphic column is drawn show- ing the relative thickness of the individual units. ?Ordovician-Silurian sequence at Cudgegong Toolamanang Rhyodacitic lava and Volcanics breccia, volcarenite Spherulitic rhyodacite, lutite Willow Glen Eonmation Limestone, litharenite, rhyodacitic tuff ?Sofala Volcanics Altered andesite glass shards in tuff rhyolitic fragments quartz, feldspar, biotite, epidote none slates, cherty glass shards in tuff dacitic frag- ments quartz, feldspar biotite, epidote no data Sandstones, tuffs shales The Sofala sequence (Sofala Volcanics - Tanwarra Shale - Bells Creek Volcanics) ranges from Middle Ordovician to Middle Silurian. The contact between the lower two units is largely obscured by overthrust faulting while the upper Ordovician-Silurian sequence at Sofala Bells Creek Dacitic lava and breccia, Volcanics rhyolite, shale Tanwarra Shale, limestone, Shale conglomerate Sofala Altered andesite Volcanics Comparison of the Ordovician - Silurian sequences at Cudgegong and Sofala. GEOLOGY OF AN AREA NEAR CUDGEGONG 61 contact is considered conformable by Packham (1968) . At Cudgegong, the sequence ?Sofala Volcanics - Willow Glen Formation - Toolamanang Volcanics has been established. The contact between the lower two units is obscured by poor outcrop whereas the upper contact is considered conformable. The fauna of the Willow Glen Formation suggests a Silurian age. The sequence is given an age of ?O0rdovician - Silurian based on its correlation with the Sofala sequence. The Cudgegong Sequence related to the Development of the Hill End Trough The Molong Geanticline was characterised by andesitic island arc volcanism during the Ordo- vician. The Late Ordovician Benambran Orogeny caused extensive metamorphism and uplift to the geanticline particularly on its eastern margin (Matson, 1975). Gilfillan (1976) considered the Sofala Volcanics was part of the eastern margin of the Molong Geanticline prior to its "splitting" due to the Middle Silurian Quidongan Orogeny. The Sofala Volcanics were relocated toward the east- ern margin of the newly formed Hill End Trough (Scheibner, 1973). The depositional environment of the Tanwarra Shale and Bells Creek Volcanics remains a problem. However, recognition of the Sofala sequence (Sofala Volcanics - Tanwarra Shale - Bells Creek Volcanics) equivalents at Cudgegong strongly sugg- ests that if the Hill End Trough formed by the rifting of the eastern part of the Molong Geanti- cline, then this occurred either before the de- position of the Tanwarra Shale or after (or during) the accumulation of the Bells Creek - Toolamanang (-Mullions Range) acid volcanic suite. Conside- ration of the unconformable contact between Sofala Volcanics and Tanwarra Shale and the conformable contact between the Tanwarra Shale and Bells Creek Volcanics strengthens the former suggestion. Al- ternatively, the widespread nature of the above threefold sequence might be taken to negate any concept of such rifting. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Dr. A.J. Wright for his encouragement during the supervision of the research and criti- cal review of this paper, which is based on a thesis submitted to the University of Wollongong as partial requirement of a B.Sc.(Hons) degree. Professor A.C. Cook is thanked for providing the research facilities and I wish to express my grati- tude to other members of the staff of the Depart- ment of Geology, notably Associate Professor E.R. Phillips and Dr. B.E. Chenhall, for their contri- bution to this paper. The Water Resources Comm- ission are thanked for access to their holdings and Mrs. H. Bunyan kindly typed the manuscript. REFERENCES Barron, B.J., 1976. Recognition of the original volcanic suite in altered mafic volcanic rocks at Sofala, New South Wales. Am. J. Scet., 276, 604-635. Game, P. M., 1934. The geology of the Cudgegong district Je, NOC. fs SOC. NaSiW. 5 166, 199) - Zoo's Gilfillan, M:A., 1976.° Stratigraphy and structure of the Sofala Volcanics. Bull. Aust. Soc. Haplor. Geophys., 7, 28-29. Hill, H., 1969. Geology of an area around Cudgegong, N.S.W. B.Sc. (Hons) Thests, Untv. Sydney (Unpubl.). Matson, C.R., 1975. Part 1. Mine data sheets to accompany metallogenic map, Dubbo 1: 250,000 sheet. Part 2. A metallogenic study of Dubbo 1:250,000 sheet. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 268-277. McElroy, C.T. 1962. Stratigraphy of Marine Permian, Western Margin, Sydney Basin. Preprint Symp. No. 2, Sydney Bastn, Section C, A.N.Z.A.A.S. Conference, Sydney. Offenberg, A.C., Rose, D.M. and Packham, G.H., 1971. Dubbo 1:250,000 Geological Sheet. Geol. Surv. N.S.W. Packham, G.H., 1968. The lower and middle Palaeozoic stratigraphy and sedimentary tectonics of the Sofala-Hill End - Euchareena region, N.S.W.. Proc. Linn, Soc.« N.5.W. 98, 111-163: Packham, G.H., 1969. (Ed). The Geology of New South Wales. J. geol. Soc. Aust., 16, 1-654. Pickett, idi., 1978i, the Sofala Volcanics. N.S.W. 31, 1-4. Further evidence for the age of @. Notes, Geol. Surv. Powell, C.McA., Horden, M.J. and Willis, I.L., 1976. Multiple deformation associated with the Wiagdon Fault Zone along the Turon River, near Sofala. Bull. Aust. Soc. Explor. Geophys., 7; 20-28. Powis, G.D.. 1975. The geology of an area near Millsville, Mudgee district, New South Wales. B.Sc. (Hons) Thests, Untv. Wollongong (Unpub1.). Scheibner, E., 1973. A plate tectonic model of the palaeozoic tectonic history of New South Wales. J. geol. Soc. Aust., 20, 405-426. Sussmilch, C.A., 1934. The Devonian strata of the Kandos district, New South Wales. JJ. Proc. AR. 00C, Noo. We, 67, 20652235, Vallance, T.G., 1967. Mafic rock alteration and the isochemical development of some cordierite-anthophyllite rocks. J. Petrology, 8, 84-96, Williams, H., Turner, F.J. and Gilbert, C.M. 1955. Petrography. An Introduction to the Study of Rocks in thin Section. Freeman, San Francisco. 406 pp. Wright, A.J., 1966. Studies in the Devonian of the Mudgee district, N.S.W. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Sydney (Unpubl.). 62 Department of Geology, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, N.S.W. 2500 J. W. PEMBERTON (Manuscript received 26.6.79) (Manuscript received in final form 18.2.80) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 113. p. 63, 1980 Pitfalls in Hand Spectroscopy* HENRY LAU AND KEN STEELE ABSTRACT. laboratory. lenses were analysed. It was brought to our attention that during the performance of a Schumm's test (Varley 1967) using a Hartridge Reversion Spectroscope a member of our staff recognised an alpha and beta band of a haemoglobin pigment which he thought may have been an albumin haemochromogen. However other laboratory staff disagreed with his findings as no one else was able to see the bands described by that member of our staff. The specimen was scanned on a Unicam S.P. 800 and no absorptive bands were detected. After sometime we concluded that the bands seen by that person were real, when his spectacles were placed in the specimen position in the spectroscope. We then noted the alpha and beta bands also. Subsequently scanning his lenses with the recording spectrophotometer we found that his lenses had general absorptive properties in the visible spectrum with two peaks at 572 nm and 586 nm. A set of commonly used tinged ophthalmic lenses were obtained and the properties of their absorptivity was noted. Crookes A,, Crookes A, Crockes B, and Crookes B all had absorption peaks at 572 nm and 586 nm. Though Crookes B, showed less transmittance than the-preceding three lenses. Calobar B, Calobar C and Calobar D showed general absorption mainly around 600 nm to 700 nm and wavelengths less than 500 nm. Calobar D showed less transmittance. Softlite 1 and Softlite 2 showed general absorptivity with no particular peaks and the transmittance were greater than 80%. Cruxite AX showed similar properties as softlite. DISCUSSION Workers have noted that effects of tinted ophthalmic media can cause problems. (Clark 1968; Carlyle and Percy 1972). We would recommend that laboratory workers who wear absorptive tenses check their characteristics especially workers with Crookes A,, A. and Crookes B_, B aie? ee types of lenses. * Communtcatton to Edttor Laboratory staff wearing absorptive lenses using a hand spectroscope can wrongly recognise the presence of a haemoglobin pigment. We are reporting one such case from our Subsequently the absorptive properties of a group of commonly used absorptive ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank our library staff for providing reference materials, and Miss D. Ivers for typing the manuscript. REFERENCES Gary lend se ae PLC kennel 2 pee Laci ads phenomenon", The Lancet, 1, 902. Clark, B.A.J., 1968 "Effects of Tinted Ophthalmic Media in the detection and recognition of Red Sirona l diighes Aerospace Medicine, 39, 1198 - 1205. Varlicy 2 Ha, 967. 4th Edition, Practical Clinical Bilochemiusiry,, Heinemann, New York, 584. Department of Biochemistry, Repatriation General Hospital, Hospital Road, Concordss N.S. Wig 21590 (Received 2.2.80) A “Style Guide to Authors” is available from the onorary Secretary, Royal Society of New South Vales, 35 Clarence Street, Sydney, N.S.W. 2000, and itending authors must read the guide before preparing \eir manuscript for review. The more important ‘quirements are summarized below. ENERAL Manuscripts should be addressed to the Honorary scretary (address given above). Manuscripts submitted by a non-member must be ymmunicated by a member of the Society. Each manuscript will be scrutinised by the Publica- ons Committee before being sent to an independent ‘feree who will advise the Council of the Society on 1e acceptability of the paper. In the event of rejection, anuscripts may be sent to two other referees. 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Study of the Effect of Chloramphenicol on Photochemical Formation of Self-Sustaining Coacervates in Presence of Low Concentration of Biological Minerals ae e 2. me oe ae aa NAPPER, Donald H. Polymers, Plastics and Fibres: The Old and the New (Presidential Address) ... as a peas he. VOLUME 113, PART 2 ALBANI, Alberto A Vessel Positioning Method for Surveys in Coastal Waters ea woe RUSSEEL, “EeG:; A Clast Fabric Paleocurrent Study of the Late Devonian oe Conglomerate, Northeastern New South Wales ee i ae PEMBERTON, John W. The Geology of an Area near Cudgegong, New South Wales . 49 LAU, Henry, and STEELE, Ken : : Pitfalls in Hand Spectroscopy |. ne see wee 28 Bs 0. Publicity Press Ltd., 29-31 Meagher Street, Chippendale. Sydney ‘Gone eT Droc cedings ol the Ry a Society, New SothWe es VOLUME 113 1980 _ PARTS 3 and 4. (Nos. 317 and 318) Published by the Society Science Centre, 35 Clarence Street, Sydney issued 13th April, .1981 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Patrons — His Exceilency the Governor-General of Australia, The Honourable Sir Zel Cowen, A.K.,°G-C.M.G: KstJ.; OG, . ae His Excellency the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Roden Cutler” WC; KCGM.G;. KCV 0; CBE sk sei President — Dr. G. S. Gibbons, M.Sc., Ph.D. Vice-Presidents — Mr. E. K. Chaffer, Professor D. H. Napper, Mr. M. J. Puttock, Professor W. E. Smith Hon. Secretaries — Dr, L. A. Drake (General) Mrs. M. Krysko v. Tryst (Editor) Hon. Treasurer — Dr. A. A. Day Hon. Librarian — Mr. W. H. G. Poggendorff Councillors — Miss H. Basden, Dr. D. G. Blaxland, Dr. E. V. Lassak, Dr. D. B. Prowse, Mr. W. H. Robertson, Dr. T. G. Russell, Mr. L. Sherwin, Mr. F. L. Sutherland, Professor B. A. Warren New England Representative — Professor S. C. Haydon Address:— Royal Society of New South Wales, 35. Clarence’ ‘Street, Sydney, N.S.W., 2000, Australia. THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES The Society originated in the year 1821 as the Philosophical Society of Australasia, Its main function is the promotion of Science through the following activities: Publication of results of scientific investigation through its Journal and Proceedings; the Library; awards of Prizes and Medals; liaison with other Scientific Societies; Monthly Meetings; and Summer Schools for Senior Secondary School Students. Special Meetings are held for the Pollock Memorial Lecture in Physics and Mathematics, the Liversidge Research Lecture in Chemistry, and the Clarke Memorial Lecture in Geology. Membership is open to any interested person whose application is acceptable to the Society. The application must be supported by two members of the Society, to one of whom the applicant must be personally known. Membership categories are: Ordinary Members, Absentee Members and Associate Members. Annual Membership fees may be ascertained from the Society’s Office. Subscriptions to the Journal are welcomed. The current subscription rate may be ascertained from the Society’s Office. : The Society welcomes manuscripts of research (and occasional review articles) in all branches of science, art, literature and philosophy, for publication in the Journal and Proceedings. Manuscripts will be accepted from both members and non-members, though those from the latter should be communicated through a member. A copy of the Guide to Authors is obtainable on request and manuscripts may be addressed to the Honorary Secretary (Editorial) at the above address. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 113, pp. 65-68, 1980 fi ' SMITHS lA NV Ww 1004 Ae wed ella ite 196 | LIBRARIES Proper Motions in the Region of the Galactic Cluster NGC 4755 DAVID S. KING ABSTRACT. Relative proper motions in the region of the galactic cluster NGC 4755 are determined with the aim of identifying stars which are non-members. The relative proper motions have an average standard error of 0''06/century and reveal 89 likely members and 75 likely non-members. INTRODUCTION The open cluster NGC 4755 (R.A. = io aeonae Dec. = -60 04'; 1950) has been studied photo- metrically by Arp (1958). The present investi- gation seeks to identify from their proper motions, those stars that are not members of the cluster. aE PLATES The plates were taken with the 33cm standard astrograph (scale 1' = 1 mm) as follows: Plate No. Date Taken- Exposure Plate Pair i 43s 1892 May 21 10 m 1 2 43s 1892 Mays \21 5 m 2 3 1412s 1894 Apr. 16 4 m 5 4 2893s 1896 Apr. 14 30 m 4 5) 554RH 1909 May 18 4 m 5 6 7985Sa 19800 Mar. -17 20 m 1 7 7986Sa 1980 Mar.-=17 12 m 2 8 7992Sa 1980 Mar. 18 20 m 4 9 7993Sa 1980 Mar. 18 12 m 5 10 7998Sa 1980 Mar. 20 12 m 5 Plate pairs 1 and 2 were centred at R.A. 124s Dec. -60°00". Plate pair 3 was centred at R.A. mm 34 Dec. -59 00'.- Plate pairs 4 and 5 were Bemrred at R.A, 12°42" Dec. -59°00' (All 1900). MEASUREMENT The plates were each measured in a Grubb- Parsons photoelectric measuring machine in both direct and reverse positions. The reverse positions were converted into direct measures using plate constants and the average was recorded. All stars measured were selected from the published coordin- ates in the Astrographic Catalogue (Sydney Observatory 1954, plate 43s). REDUCTIONS AND PROBABILITIES The method of reduction and calculation of membership probabilities is described in a previous paper (King 1979). The distribution parameters in arc sec./century after eliminating 16 stars to ob- tain the best fit were: B= 0087 Ne = 59 X £ fe 0.124 N= 89 c c a Ul -0.109 2 x 0.023 2 y i] 0.420 02318 (e) 8 is the rotation angle of the observed proper motions (+y to +v) into a new coordinate system defined by the principal axes of the apparent ellip- soidal distribution of field star motions. All the other parameters are defined in this new coordinate system. oc is the dispersion of the cluster star motions; _N,, Ne are the number of field and cluster Stars. Xf, Yf the centre of the field star proper motion distribution; motion dispersions. Ix, Ly the field star proper The standard errors for individual stars have been grouped by their magnitudes, and the mean of the standard errors o,, oy determined for different ranges are as follows: Magnitude oF om No, Of ‘Stars " (Unit 0.01/cent) bio = 9 Sqdul 4,48 71 £0 5= als 7.48 7.62 52 10.0 - 10.9 Te Ul 6.39 18 9.0 - 9.9 Seu 8.58 12 De Sao T (220°=0.35 s.-1109-5xT)), pulse sequence. The good agreement between the experimental and simulated spectra confirms a heptad sensitivity to chemical shift for the fully substituted aromatic carbon of polystyrene although 14 of the 36 possible lines are coincident in shift within the experimental resolution. Of course the complete assignment of the tacticity broadened lines in the 13¢ nmr spectrum of polymers will require the analysis of a number of samples prepared under different conditions with different monomer sequences, but the method should 76 STANLEY R. JOHNS prove an excellent technique for the analysis of such spectra. Biological Polymers The Ie nmr technique is equally suited to the study of biological polymers. Our own particular interest is in the use of 15C nmr as a means of probing the structure and function of biological membranes. A membrane is considered to be made up of a mosaic of globular proteins within a lipid bilayer (Singer, 1972) sometimes described as muceberes in awlapid sea”. ‘The properties of the membrane depend particularly upon the fluidity of the lipid bilayer and the measurement of 13C longitudinal relaxation times provides an excellent method for the study of motion within these lipid bilayers. The particular membrane on which we have focussed our attention is the inner chloroplast membrane of green plants. This is where the light trapping, energy transfer and energy storage of photosynthesis takes place. The chloroplast membrane system, unlike most biological membranes, consists principally of neutral glycolipids rather than the charged phospholipids of other organelle and cellular membranes. The photosynthetic membranes are composed of approximately 50% protein and 50% lipid, the lipid composition comprising the four types; MGG (40%) (12), DGG (40%) (13), SL (10%) (14);; and PG (10%).\(15). The tatty acrid com position of the lipids shows a remarkably high concentration of (9Z,12Z,15Z)-octadeca-9,12,15- trienoic acid (a-linolenic acid) which may comprise over 90% of the acylating acids in DGG and MGG, 50% im SL’ and up to -30%51n) PG. We have isolated and purified these lipids and measurement of their 13C nmr spectrum in d,- methanol, ¢€.¢. that of DGG (Fig. 17): allows the assignment of all carbons in the molecules. We have measured the !5c longitudinal relaxation times HO, CH,OH H2 HO HO. H O—CH,—CHOR— CH20R H (12) (13) O—CH, —CHOR—CH,0R HO---_ CHSO3H é | HOCH,—CH —CH,—0—P —O—CH,—CH—CH,OR 6 N OH H OR (14) O—CH,—CH—CH,0R (15) R= acyl OR R =acyl in different solvent systems, calculated the correlation times (t;<) (Table 1) and interpreted these in terms of different secondary structures in the different solvents (Johns, 1977a). In methanol, correlation times of 2.8 + 0.4 x 10°10 s. for all the glyceryl and galactosyl carbon atoms of DGG indicate that this portion of the lipid molecule undergoes rotation as a unit. The correlation times of the acyl chain carbon atoms however, decrease along the chain from C2 (8.0x10-11 5s.) to the terminal methyl carbon (1.7x10-12 5.). This increase in motion arises from segmental motion in the acyl chain induced by 8-coupled trans-gauche rotations about the C-C bonds. The total motion within the chain is derived from a combination of both molecular tumbling and segmental motion. The longitudinal relaxation times and correlation times of the individual carbon atoms of 4 HO ol 4!"\ CH)OH ws 0 5 HO | 502" os glee: le 1 2 3 4,5,6 7 6 6 69 40 " HO ; R = 0C - CH, - CH, —(CH,) 3- CH, CH CH ac CH, 7 HO | 6” CH go Re (@ 7 fe. 4544-2 al 5 CH,-CH,— CH=CH — CH,— CH HO a 2” 3! 2! 1! 3 2 Ho 0-CH,- CH CH ‘ OR OR 4 12,13 \’ 8 *\ V0 2"! d,-Me0OH 5” gitt Mell 4”, ” 35 3 H 16 1 qi 4! Wo h 17 6 15 a 6 8 ‘ Meenas RAT ao oe raise oh | El | | 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 ppm : 13 : Figure 17. C nmr of DGG in d,-methanol. NMR IN POLYMER STUDIES 77 Table 1 13 Brackets of DGG in Various Solvents. C Longitudinal Relaxation Times (sec) and Correlation Times ealon's sec) in Carbon CD 0D cbcl . D,0 a-Linolenic acid chain 2 0.30 (7-38) 0.09 (26) 0225 (9.5) 3 0.53, (4.4) 0.26, (S20) E 4 On 72 (3:22) 0.47 (550) 0.26 GO.50)) 5 Onze (3-2) 0.470 (5.0) 0.260 (9.0) 6 0272 (Se) Oma (550) 0.26 (9.0) i, 0.91 (236) Oe sZ (S22) 8 Le. (iG) 0.84 (22.8) 9 Zee Glee) 12 (139) 10 2.1) (Tod) 1.3 (138) b 11 2.9 (0.80) Deal Gi) 0.88 (a7) 12 529 (O60) 226 (0.90) 0.85 (S26) iS 3.9) (0.60) 26 (0.90) 0.83, (S69) 14 2.9 (0.80) Si) (0.78) 0.88 (2a) 15 Tesi) (0: 31) Teh CO22535) 25 7) =10))) 16 Tea (0% 32) 6.9 (0.34) CaS 2.0) 17 He ese (0727) ORS (0.25) 5.0 (O28) 18 8.9 COG 17) fees: (0220) 536 (0.43) Glycerol chain i OO (24) 0.03% (100) 0.084 (30) 2 0.16 (30) 3 0.10 (24) Galactoside groups ley 0.16 (30) 0055 (800) Ds 0.16 (30) ot O15 ¢32)) 0.0355 (800) Ay Oral2 (40) 5! Oeds (2) 0),.035 (800) 6! OF 07 (32) 0.06 (100) a! 0.19 (25) 0.033 (800) 2 On 17 (28) 0.04, (200) Sy 0.14 (34) 0.044 (200) 4" 0.18 (26) 0.04, (200) 5M OLY, (28) 0.04 (200) d ol OnL9 (12) 0.03% (100) 0.08 (30) a,b,c,d the galactosyl and glyceryl moieties of DGG in chloroform are an order of magnitude different from the values in methanol. In chloroform, the motion of the carbon atoms in the polar regions of ime molecules are severely restricted which indicates that the hydrophilic groups are associated and that the most likely secondary Seructure of the lipid molecule is one of an inverted micelle. The molecular tumbling of such a polymeric inverted micelle would be extremely slow which is consistent with the short relaxation times. By contrast, the motion of the acyl chain carbon atoms, which increase from C2 to the terminal methyl group carbons, are only slightly less than those of the monomeric form. Segmental motion along the acyl chain can again account for the observed values. The correlation times of the glyceryl and galactosyl carbons of DGG in water correspond to a packing of the sugar moieties but in a structure in which the motion of the atoms is greater than Averaged values obtained from unresolved signals. in ‘the-inverted micellar structure. This us reflected in the broadened spectra of DGG in water (Figure 18). The relaxation times of the acyl chain carbons reveal a more restricted motion than observed in the inverted micelles but once again segmental motion increases from the carbon atoms adjacent to the polar groups in the terminal methyl group carbons. The dynamic properties of the individual carbon atoms of DGG in water are there- fore consistent with a bilayer structure with associated head groups at the water interface and a hydrophobic inner region comprised of acyl chains. Unlike the galactosyl lipids, SL is characterised by the presence of almost equimolar amounts of palmitic and a-linolenic acids. Comparison of the longitudinal relaxation times of the carbon atoms in the two chains (Table 2) (Johns, 1978) shows that at all equivalent positions that can be resolved (Figure 19) the motion of the a-linolenic acid chain is greater than that in the palmitic acid chain, but less than that of the same acid in DGG which contains two a-linolenic acid molecules. 78 3! 2! 1! GAL — GAL~0—CH,—CH—CH, iat OR OR \ Z-uS 4567 8 9 10 STANLEY R. JOHNS 12 13 14 1§ 16 17 18 R=CO- CH, CH (CH, )4 CH, CH=CH-CH,~CH=CH—CH,~CH=CH—CH, CH, 12,13] 15 16 , Wegner a: x | | | Ile 4,5,6,7 SUGAR SUGAR | ili 2 eee 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 ppm : 13 : Figure 18: C nmr of DGG in D0 7'-12' | re Hos CH, S03H La 0 HO : eu 3" 2" it 45,6,4 3! ? 3 + a tee wo V7 O- CH, CH CH, A\ a 9 R, Ry lined, 3 S565 27 Bio 9 oO ff R,=OC CH, CHy (CH,),CH, CHp CH=CH’ CH, CH=CH CH, CH=CH CH, CH 2% 13) aisigis 7/92! 9 43h 14" 45h R= OC CH, CH, (CH, )3 (CH2)g° CH, CH, CH, CH, 12/13 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 3 16 mw 34 120 100 Figure 19. The presence of the saturated acyl chain in SL obviously restricts motion in the unsaturated acyl chain to a greater extent than does a second un- saturated chain. This result indicates that the eo nmr technique can distinguish different motions in carbon atoms which are at the same distance from the polar head group in the different acyl chains of a lipid molecule, unlike the ESR spin label technique which only measures the motion of a ee nmr of SL in d,.-methanol 4 reporter molecule. We are using vesicles prepared from DGG in water and vesicles prepared from the total chloro- plast membrane lipids in water to study the effect of added components such as antibiotics, anaesthetics, proteins and peptides to the lipid bilayers. The polyene antibiotic, amphotericin B, has been shown to inhibit a number of membrane- associated reactions in higher plant chloroplasts. That the inhibitions result from effects on NMR IN POLYMER STUDIES 79 Table 2 2 Longitudinal Relaxation Times (sec) and Correlation Times to sec) in Brackets of SL in Various Solvents. Carbon cbcl, cD 0D D,0 cpcl, CD 0D D,0 a-Linolenic acid chain Palmitic acid chain 2 0.14° (16.7) One, (8.0) 022° @t.6) 0.14" (16.7) 0205 (8.0) 02" iaiina 3 O50. (7-8) 0.44° (5.3) 0.30 CS 0.44, (5:3) 4 O55 (4.4) Oey. = (329) ES (7.8) 0.555 (4.4) 0.675 (655) OS Wee) 5 @:55.° (4.4) TLS 0.3 (7.8) Dose = (5a) Oils 1505) Ong. petes) 6 0.53, (4.4) Oey G5) 0.3" (728) 0.63 Gap Ties (6.5) OSs eS) 7 0.77 (3.0) 0.86 2.7) Oe7ys- "a(Su0) 0586. (2.7) 0.3. (723) 8 0.87 Or7) 1,0 (253) O23 728) Onis (3.0) 0.86" (OD) 03. (7.8) 9 122 (325) iQ 2 9G. 5) Oei7 Se) One. (2.7) 0.3 (7.8) 10 12 (3:5) He 215) - Ooi (3.0) 0.860 (2:7) One (728) 11 eS) (1.2) 2.6 (0.90) 0.8 (2.9) Ona (3.0) On86se OT) On (7.8) 12 Dan (Cee) 2.8 (1.5) 0.6 (7.0) 0.77, (3.0) 0.865 Can eG 8) 13 2.4, (7) 2 ee ols) 0.62 720) 0.63 (57) Orval 2 Gens) GaSe Barve) 14 1.9 G12) 2.6 (0.90) 0.8 (2.9) DaA (0297 )ee 2S (0.93) 0.6 (3.9) 15 3.6 (ino) 4.6 (0.91) 10 (4.2) a0 (0.78) 3.0 (0.78) 0.8 (2.9) 16 3.6 G2) 4.6 (0.91) 1.0 (4.2) 3.6 (0.43) 6.58 (0.24) 2.08 (0.78) 7 6.0 (0.39) 9.7 (0.24) Dsl Gia) 18 5.7 (027) 6.5% (0:24) 2.08 (0.78) Glycerol chain’ Sulphoquinovosyl group" i 0.03 (2500y— -0.07 - - (34) 0.06 (2500) 0.14. (34) 0.05 (130) 2 0.06 (2500). 0.13- G37) CeOses so) 0.05 (2000) 0.14 (34) 0.05 (130) 3 0.03 (2500) 0.07 (34) 0.05 (2000) 0.13 (37) 0.04 (200) 4 0.04 (1400) 0.13 (37) O:05. isos 5 0.04 (11400) 0113 «1G7) 6 0.03 (2500) 220-086. (oi 0.03 (600) a-g Averaged values obtained from unresolved signals. : Correlation times in CDCl 3 are approximate. membrane fluidity is clearly indicated by the relaxation time changes on addition of the anti- Biotic. (Table 3) (Bishop, 1978). The results indicate that the presence of the antibiotic causes a Significant restriction in motion of the acyl chain carbons which is consistent with the occurrence of intercalation of the antibiotic- between the acyl chains. Conversely, the addition of chloroform to the vesicles results in an increase in motion in the acyl chains. Table 3 Effect of Amphotericin B on the Motion of Acyl Chains of Aqueous Multibilayers of DGG Carbon Longitudinal relaxatiom time (sec) Atom DGG DGG plus Amphotericin B (10%) 4/5/6 0.26 O27 11/14 0.88 0.91 12/13 0.83 0.91 TS Bh ey 16 DES) 1.4 7 3.0 225 18 Sa6 Deel ee ok Continuing experimentation on peptides and proteins, specifically membrane associated proteins such as the photosynthetic protein of the chloro- plast, should lead to conclusive results on the interaction of proteins and lipids. These will be of importance in a variety of fields ranging from the mechanism of aging to the fundamental processes of colour vision and photosynthesis. Future ie nmr and other magnetic resonance techniques promise an exciting future for study in the syn- thetic and the biological polymer fields. The examples given have been restricted to 13¢ solution spectroscopy, however, current technological development of instrumentation is such that deuterium and phosphorous nmr now offer great potential in the biological/medical fields and the use of solid state nmr techniques offers unlimited opportunities. I trust that this short overview of our own work in the nmr of polymers might inspire you to use the technique in your own studies and apply the techniques in new areas of research. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would finally like to thank my collaborators in the work. described viz, Drs. D.G. Bishop, J.M. Coddington, D.G. Hawthorne, D.H. Solomon and M.A. Yabsley and Messrs. R.I. Willing and D.R. Leslie. 80 STANLEY R. JOHNS REFERENCES Bishop, D.G., Nolan, W.G., Johns, S.R. and Willing, R.1.. 1978. ‘Evolution of the Lipid Components of Chloroplast Membranes. The Role of Lipid Fluidity in Membrane-Associated Reactions, tn LIGHT TRANSDUCING MEMBRANES, pp. 269-288. Deamer, D.W. (Ed>); “Academie Press Inc: ; New York. Block; F.:, Hansen; W.W. and Packard, M., 1966. Nuclear Induction. »Phys.. fev.5 69, U2. Hawthorne, D.G..,. Johns, S.R., Solomon, D.H. and Willing, R.I., 1975. Cyanoisopropyl Radical Induced Cyclization and Cyclopolymerization of N-Methyl-N-allyl-N-(2-alkylallyl) amines and N-Methyl-N,N-bis(2-alkylallyl)amines. A 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Study. J.C.S. Chem. Commun., 982-3. Hawthorne, D.G., Johns, S.R. and Willing, R.I., 1976a. 13C NMR Spectra of Pyrrolidines and Piperidines. Structure of the Perhydroiso- indol-5-ones and 3-Azabicyclo[3,3,1]nonan-6- imines Formed by the Cyanoisopropyl Radical Induced Cyclization of N-Methyl-N,N-bis-(2- alkylallyl)amines. Aust. J. Chem., 29, 315-26. Hawthorne; D.G.; Johns,,S.R.,) Solomon; (D-H: and Willing, R.I., 1976b. The Cyclopolymerization of N-Allyl-N-methyl (2-substituted allyl) amines. The Structure of the Polymers and Low Molecular Weight Products. Aust. d. Chem., 29, 1955-74. Hawthorne, DvG.) Johns, S.R., solomon, D-H. and Walline. Rol 1979.) Sinitiativonsand Termination Group Identification in Polymers by 13C NMR Spectroscopy. Aust. J. Chem., 32, 1155-7. Division of Applied Organic Chemistry, CSIRO, Box 4531 5..GaPs0-, Melbourne, Vic. 3001 Johns, S.R., Willing, R.1., Middletongirse samc Ong A.L., 1976. Cyclopolymeri zation as ihe 13¢ NMR Spectra of Cyclopolymers Obtained from N,N-Diallylamines. J. Macromol. Scet.-Chem., A10(5), 875-9. Johns, S.R., Leslie, D.R.4 Willing aR ewan Bishop, D.G., 1977.° Studies ong@hlomopillast Membranes. II. 15cC Chemical Shifts and Longitudinal Relaxation Times of 1,2-Di[(9Z, 12Z,15Z) -octadeca-9,12,15-trienoy] |-3- galactosyl-sn-glycerol and 1,2-Di/[)/(9Z,12Z,152Z)= octadeca-9 ,12,15-trienoyl]-3-digalactosyl-sn- glycerol. Aust: .J:\ Chem 230, S25254- Rice Johns, S.R., Leslie, 2D.R. 3) Wasdenier Reveal Bishop, D.G., 1978. _ Studies on Chloroplast Membranes. III. 5¢ Chemical Shifts and Longitudinal Relaxation Times of 1,2-Diacyl-3- (6-sulpho-a-quinovosyl)-sn-glycerol. Aust. J. Chei.« $1. 652726 ar Johns, S.R., Leslie, D.R., Wallamepeeee amd Yabsley, M.A., 1980. A Two Pulse Sequence for the Analysis of Unresolved Multiline Resonances in 13C Fourier Transform NMR Spectra. J. Magn. Reson., (In press). Purcell, E.M., Torrey, H-G= ‘and. Pond: Reve. 19460 Resonance Absorption by Nuclear Magnetic Moments in a Solid. Phys. Rev., 69, 37-38. Randall, J.C., 1977. POLYMER SEQUENCE DETERMINATION CARBON-13 NMR METHOD. Academic Press, New York; loo pp. Singer, S.J. and NicolsonsuGalee 1972) The Fluid Mosaic Model of the Structure of Cell Membranes. Sctenece, 175, 720-31. Vold, R.L., Waugh, J.S., Klein, M.P. and Phelps, D.E., 1968. Measurement of Spin Relaxation in Complex Systems. J. Chem. Phys., 48, 3831-2. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 113, pp. 81-87, 1980 Stratigraphic Palynology From Shallow Bores in the Namoi River and Gwydir River Valleys, North-Central New South Wales HELENE A. MARTIN ABSTRACT. The palynology of over fifty bores drilled into the Cainozoic sediments covering the Coonamble Embayment, Broomi Trough and Lightning Ridge Shelf of the Surat Basin are reported here. The Early Cretaceous bedrock is either the Dictyotosporittes spectosus Zone or less frequently, the Crybelosporttes stylosus Zone, and is encountered everywhere. (1) the mid-late Miocene Trtporopollenites bellus Zone which has a patchy distribution It is restricted to the deeper, consistently grey clays, and in some bores, ments are: throughout the area. The Cainozoic alluvial sedi- directly overlies the Early Cretaceous bedrock: (2) Pliocene-Pleistocene assemblages found only near Narrabri and (3) Pleistocene assemblages near Moree. Tertiary deposition on the Early Cretaceous landscape started in the mid-late Miocene. The vege- tation must have been a floristically rich closed forest, and the rainfall at least 150cm per annum. There was a subsequent decrease in rainfall. verse, but there were still substantial areas of closed forest. The Pliocene-Pleistocene floras are less di- The Pleistocene floras represent open woodland with a well developed herbaceous ground cover. INTRODUCTION The Water Resources Commission of New South Wales has sunk many bores in the Namoi and Gwydir River Valleys in its program of exploration for underground water. This paper presents the palyno- logical results for the area from Narrabri to Bur- ren Junction of the Namoi River Valley, and to the north, the Moree district of the Gwydir River Val- ley. Over fifty bores have yielded workable assem- blages. The study area is located on the eastern edge of the Great Australian Basin. The Early Cretace- ous, regarded as bedrock in water exploration, is covered by Cainozoic sediments. As most bores pen- etrate both the Cainozoic and Early Cretaceous, the palynology of both is included here. The bores just east of Narrabri mark the eastern-most occur- rence of the Early Cretaceous bedrock along the Namoi River. Further upstream, the bedrock is Permian. GEOLOGY Most of the area of this study is situated on the eastern edge of the Coonamble Embayment, one of the structural units of the Great Australian Basin, although the Moree district is in the Surat Basin proper. The uppermost member encountered here is probably equivalent to the Early Cretaceous Bungil Formation, although the overlying Wallumbilla Forma- tion, may be included as well (Hawke et al. 1975). The entire area is overlain by Cainozoic and alluv- ial sediments. The locations of bores are shown in Fig. 1. The upper part of the bore logs show red, brown, yellow and orange coloured sediments, often with a greyish tint or with thin bands of pale grey. Oc- casionally the sediments are mottled (e.g. Bore 36017 of the Gwydir Valley). The lower part of the logs show consistently grey sediments. Bedrock is either shale or sandstone. The sediments are predominantly clays to the west, especially in the Burren Junction area and Merah North. They are mainly sands and gravels to the east, e.g. around Narrabri. Selected bore logs are shown in Fig. 2. The boundary between the Cainozoic and Early Cretaceous sediments is difficult to detect on lithologic evidence alone. Only the consistently grey sediments are use- ful for palynology. However, bands of only one or two metres thicknesses of grey clay may be found within the predominantly red-brown-yellow Sediments, and these bands have yielded pollen. Sands and gravels are usually not suitable for palynology, but they may contain thin bands of clay also. In this study, the upper part of the sediments which are predomonantly red-brown-yellow in colour have rarely yielded pollen, and most of the assemblages reported here came from the lower, consistently grey’ sediments. PALYNOSTRAT IGRAPHY Three ages are relevant here, viz the Early Cretaceous, mid-late Miocene and Pliocene-Pleisto- cCene,. (1) Early Cretaceous. Dettmann and Playford (1969) have described a series of Cretaceous palynological zones. Only the two oldest are relevant here, viz the Crybelosporttes stylosus Zone (earlier part of the Neocomian) and the Dtiectyotosporites spectosus Zone (Neocomian to almost the end of the Aptian). These two zones are distinguished by a small group of diagnostic species, but the general quanti- tative characteristics of the two are very similar. Should the diagnostic species be absent, then it is not possible to distinguish the two zones apart. All of the assemblages recorded here would fit these two zones on the general characteristics, but the diagnostic species are not present in many of them. In some cases their absence may result from poor preservation but in others it appears to be simply a chance absence. Where it is not possible to place an assemblage in one of the zones, it is re- corded as Early Cretaceous. (2) Mid-late Miocene. The Tertiary assemblages all fit the Trtporopollenttes bellus Zone described by Stover and Partridge (1973). Haloragacidttes haloragotdes has not been found and this indicates the earlier part of the zone rather than the later 82 LEGEND, FIG. 1 RAILWAY 25254 BORE t EARLY CRETACEOUS MID-LATE MIOCENE PLIOCENE - PLEISTOCENE GWYDIR MEHI 036360 36328 36361 o 36287 36347 036357 363276 936255 363406 336364 Old Burren 36280 Bugilbone Merah North Section BURREN JUNCTION ’ o 36140 36067 Pale sve part. If there is insufficient evidence to place an assemblage in the 7. bellZus Zone, then it is re- corded as mid-Tertiary. However, there is no evi- dence to indicate that such assemblages are not equivalent to the 7. bellus Zone. (3) Pliocene-Pleistocene. Two types of assemb- lages are recognised here: one with a very high Compositae and Gramineae content which is clearly Pleistocene and the other, with a lower content of these two taxa and more diversity. The latter is considered to be about the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary. The distinction of the Pliocene and HELENE A. MARTIN 036158 360170 MEHI 1 eon 604 P, 148370 260A FT ealiamallawag 303900 RIVER mA asst SOMME COMBADELLO 1 025055 < 025054 2 025053 & 025052 3 g = @Wee Waa No.1 The locations of bores and the distribution Kilometres of the palynological ages. Pleistocene is based on the abundance of Compositae, Gramineae, and other herbaceous taxa, and is dis- cussed in Martin, 1979. The occurrences of these palynological zones and ages is listed in Tables 1 and 2. Fig. 1 shows their distribution and the species composition of selected assemblages is given in the Appendix. DISCUSSION The Early Cretaceous basement is encountered everywhere. In the Namoi Valley, it is usually STRATIGRAPHIC PALYNOLOGY 83 36280 CG GWYDIR Mehi 1 Cc »0|© sg ASHLEY pep 36017 (™) Sg sl MID TERTIARY 40 PLEISTOCENE EARLY CRETACEOUS EARLY 80 Ce CRETACEOUS MAINLY BROWN, ORANGE, RED, YELLOW. HTT AINLY PALE GREY. MID-DARK GREY, 100 | S sanp 120 | € cay CARBONACEOUS. G GRAVEL based BASEMENT ROCK. fee PALYNOLOGICAL 140 SAMPLE. G MAJOR g MINOR } CONSTITUENTS Pre. 2 found below 90 m, but there are a few occurrences above this level, the shallowest being 59 m. The shallow bedrock is found near the edge of the Cain- ozoic valley. In the Gwydir Valley, basement is not so deep, at 34 m to 80m. Most of the assemb- lages which can be assigned to a palynological zone can be placed in the Dictyotosporites spectosus Zone and only a few are assigned to the older Cry- belosporttes stylosus Zone. As the older assemblage is found in the deeper parts of the Cainozoic Val- ley, it probably represents the Mooga Sandstone which underlies the Bungil Formation. Cretaceous formations have been reported from several bores further north of Moree. The evidence presented here suggests that the upper part of the Jurassic Orallo Formation recorded in the petroleum well Wee Waa No. 1 (Hawke et al. 1975 and Bourke and Hawke, 1977) should be referred to the Cretaceous. The Cretaceous occurs also in other bores outside of the area reported here. The Tertiary assemblages are all mid-late Miocene in age and have a patchy distribution. There is only one record from the Gwydir Valley and relatively few from the Namoi Valley. These assemblages are all found in the deeper parts of the bores, in the consistently grey clays. In some bores, the mid-late Miocene sediments directly overly the Early Cretaceous basement. There are only two records of Pliocene-Plei- stocene assemblages near Narrabri and three of Pleistocene age in the Gwydir Valley. All of the assemblages are found in the narrow grey clay bands located above the predominantly grey sedi- ments. MERAH NORTH 36128 NARRABRI 30441 NARRABRI 30545 S sl CULGOORA 21263 g 20 PLIOCENE— PLEISTOCENE 40 S 60 sl 80 MID TERTIARY oe MIXED TERTIARY SANDSTONE EARLY AND CRETACEOUS tte) CRETACEOUS SHALE EARLY CRETACEOUS 120 140 Selected bores showing the logs and palynological zones. Taylor (1978, Fig. 2) shows Eocene deposition in his cross section through Walgett and Narrabri. His evidence is based on an unpublished report (Martin, 1973) in which one poor assemblage, the only Tertiary assemblage known from the whole of this area at the time, was tentatively thought to be within the range of Eocene to Miocene. This assessment was made before the precise zonation of Stover and Partridge (1973) was available. Re- assessment of this assemblage shows very clearly that it is mid-late Miocene in age, and not Eocene. No Eocene assemblages have been encountered any- where in this region. Tertiary deposition started in mid-late Mio- cene time, on the Early Cretaceous landscape. In favourable topographic locations, swamps, small lakes, abandoned river courses etc., provided the permanently wet environments necessary for pollen preservation. This mid-late Miocene landscape was clothed in closed forests which were quite rich, floristically. As Nothofagus is an abundant pollen producer, the percentages here indicate that it was only a minor component of the forests, possibly re- stricted to certain localities, e.g. the highlands (Martin, 1978). The percentages of Myrtaceae indi- cate that this family was probably well represented. However, the best indication of the richness of the flora is seen in the unidentified pollen types with up to 20 types of unknown botanical affinities ac- counting for up to 40% of the pollen count. Closed forest is only found today east of the Divide and about ten taxa in these mid-late Miocene floras are still found in the coastal regions of southern Queensland and northern New South Wales. Judging from the requirements of closed forests today, the 84 HELENE A. MARTIN rainfall must have been at least 150 cm per annum, TABLE 2 (Cont.) with a relatively high humidity maintained through- out the year (Baur, 1957). Bore Depth (m) Palynological Zone or Age Conditions were unsuitable for pollen preserva 50287 ieee T. bellus Zone tion during the Pliocene. The landscape lacked the 50255 eZ 9-12 S87. Early Cretaceous permanently wet swamps etc. No doubt there was a $6560) 12150 D. speetosus Zone decrease in rainfall, but a strongly seasonal cli- 36347 115.8 D. spectosus Zone mate with a marked drought period would also con- 5O5o 7 EZ9RS D. spectosus Zone tribute to these unfavourable conditions for pollen preservation. At the very end of the Pliocene and MERAH NORTH SECTION into the Pleistocene, there were a few permanently 36128 102.1-103.6 Mid Tertiary wet environments. At this time the floras were 114.3-115.8 D. spectosus Zone less diverse than those of the mid-late Miocene, 118.9-120.4 D. spectosus Zone but there was still substantial areas of closed 36045 118.9-121.9 D. spectosus Zone forests. Araucariaceae (most Likely Araucaria) was 36140 71.6-73.4 D. spectosus Zone probably conspicuous in these forests. The diver- 36067 63-67 Early Cretaceous sity of the Plerstocene floras was very restricted. At this time, there was an open woodland or trees WEE WAA SECTION were restricted to small areas, with a well develo- 25055 9. 95%.4 C. stylosus Zone ped herbaceous ground cover in which Compositae was 25054 93-93.3 Early Cretaceous a conspicuous element. 25053 95-9515 Early Cretaceous 25052 64.9-68.6 D. spectosus Zone TABLE 1 50190) 106ni1 C. stylosus Zone GWYDIR RIVER VALLEY 30188 110.3 Early Cretaceous THE OCCURRENCE OF THE PALYNOLOGICAL ZONES 50166" =S1=4 C. stylosus Zone 36002 89.9-91.4 Early Cretaceous Bores arranged E > W then N> 5S Bore Depth (m) Palynological Zone or Age GURLEIGH SECTION 30295 105.1-109.1 Early Cretaceous SOSTTTA1 56.7 Early Cretaceous 36158 AQ .5-535 Early Cretaceous SOL70s 10726-1079 Early Cretaceous $6011 5.011 10 Plerstocene 295950, 1036-105 1 Early Cretaceous Combadello 1 TS *Possible Pleistocene CULGOORA SECTION 36017 38. 1=39:..6 Pleistocene 30091 59.4-62 Early Cretaceous 78.2-80 Early Cretaceous 78.9-79.2 Early Cretaceous 14837 56.1-61 Dietyotosporites specto- AVI Z=112..8 Early Cretaceous sus Zone 21263 92-98.4 Mid Tertiary 36049 35.0) i D. spectosus Zone 103'=107..3 Mixed Tertiary and Cretaceous Mehi 1 $5.38 Mid Tertiary 114-123.7 Early Cretaceous 39.1 Early Cretaceous 21412) S055 Early Cretaceous 30389 48 D. spectosus Zone 56019 108.2 Early Cretaceous 30390 54.5 Early Cretaceous 30450 97-98 T. bellus Zone 2S Early Cretaceous * A very poor assemblage 114.0 Early Cretaceous 30445 117.3-118.9 Early Cretaceous 124.7-125 Early Cretaceous TABLE 2 21435 118.9-135.9 Early Cretaceous NAMOT RIVER VALLEY 30481 88.4-90 Mid Tertiary THE OCCURRENCE OF THE PALYNOLOGICAL ZONES 21436 8 95.7-108.5 Early Cretaceous 36020 91.4-93 Early Cretaceous Bores arranged E > W then N>S 2147 1s 105.56 Early Cretaceous Bore Depth (m) Palynological Zone or Age NARRABRI AREA 30310 92.9-93.6 T. bellus Zone BUR AIENT UINCUIOITE SEES 116.7-117 Early Cretaceous 36365 86-88 Ty UIs aoe SOWIBK 952555585 Plio-Pleistocene pals: ae palius Zone : 41.1-42.7 Plio-Pleistocene 118.4-125 ent ead SPeero- 30545 30.2-32.9 Plio-Pleistocene sus Zone : : 36280 87.6-88.9 Mid Tertiary one een cane I EOS - arly Cretaceous 16.2 T. bellus Zone 30399 115.8-116 Paciyee 118-127 Early Cretaceous : arly Reta 36340 87-87.5 T. bellus Zone 36364 123. 5-114". 5 T. bellus Zone 119-125 T. betllus Zone REFERENCES 36328 103.6-105.1 D. spectosus Zone 108.5 D. spectosus Zone Baur, G.N. 1957. Nature and distribution of rain- 36327 100.6 m Early Cretaceous forests in South Wales. Aust. J. Bot. 5, 190- 36361 121.9-123.4 Early Cretaceous DRE 126.5 D. spectosus Zone STRATIGRAPHIC PALYNOLOGY REFERENCES (Cont.) Bourke, D.J. §& Hawke, J.M. 1977. Correlation of sequences in the eastern side of the Coonamble Embayment and the Gunnedah Basin. Geol. Survey. N.S.W., Quart. Notes 29, 7-18. Dettmann, M.E. & Playford, G. 1969. Palynology of the Australian Cretaceous: A review. Jn K.S.W. Campbell, ed., stratigraphy and palaeontology. Essays in honour of Dorothy Hill. A.N.U. Press, Canberra. Hawke, J.M., Bourke, D.J., Cramsie, J.N. & MacNevin A.A. 1975. The Great Australian Basin. In N.L. Markham & H. Basden, eds. The mineral deposits of New South Wales. Govt. Printer, Sydney. Martin, H.A. 1973. Progress report on palynologi- cal investigations for the year ending June 1973. Rept. for Water Resources Comm. N.S.W. Unpubl. School of Botany University of New South Wales Kensington, N.S.W. 2033 APPENDIX A PLEISTOCENE ASSEMBLAGE Bore 36017, 38.1-39.6 m, Gwydir Valley Spores % Cingulattsporittes bifurcatus (Couper) Martin 1973 2 Deltotdospora tnconsptcua Martin 1973 1 cf. Matonisporites ornamentalts (Cookson) Partridge 1973 1 Rettculattsporittes cowrensts Martin 1973 1 R. echtnatus Martin 1973 i Gymnosperm pollen Araucartacttes australts Cookson 1947 4 Cupressaceae 1 Podoecarpus elltpttca (Cookson) Martin 1973 1 Angiosperm Pollen Casuarina (Haloragactdites harristi (Couper) Harris 1971 plus Casuarintdites catnozotcus Cookson §& Pike 1954) 8 Cyperaceae 3 Graminidites medta Cookson 1947 (Gramineae) 5 Haloragts haloragotdes (Cookson §& Pike) Martin HOS 4 Myrtaceae, sp. indet. 6 Myrtacetdttes eucalyptotdes Cookson §& Pike 1954 8 Polyporina chenopodiaceotdes Martin 1973 4 Tubultfloridttes spp. (Compositae) 44 Four unknown pollen types 6 85 Mantz Hoa 1978.) Evolution of the Australian flora and vegetation through the Tertiary: evi- dence from pollen. Alcheringa 2, 181-202. Martin, H.A. 1979. Stratigraphic palynology of the Mooki Valley, New South Wales. J. & Proc. Roy. HOG. NeouW.) Liz, /1=/3s.. slover, U2E..G Partridge, ALU: 19735. Tertiary and Late Cretaceous spores and pollen from the Gipps- land Basin south eastern Australia. Proc. Roy. woes, Viet. Go, 23/=286. Taylor, G. 1978. -A brief Cainozoic history of the Upper Darling Basin. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 90, 53-59. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to the Water Resources Commission of New South Wales who supplied financial assistance dnd the raw material for this study. Mr. J. Ross of the W.R.C. of N.S.W. provided valuable comment on the paper. (Manuscript received 29.3.80) A PLIOCENE-PLEISTOCENE ASSEMBLAGE Bore 30545, 30.2-32.9 m, Namoi Valley Spores % Ctngulattsporites bifureatus (Couper) Martin BE MES) ONS. Cyathea paleospora Martin 1973 Bias Deltotdospora tneconsptcua Martin 1973 ees) Laevtgatosporites ovatus Wilson §& Webster 1946 O25 cf. Rousetsporites sp. + Gymnosperm pollen Araucartacttes australts Cookson 1947 2208 Cupressaceae Sens) Podoearpus elltptica (Cookson) Martin 1973 225 Angiosperm pollen Acacta myrtosporttes Cookson 1954 ZieS Canthtumtdites sp. + Casuartna (Haloragacidttes harrtsstt (Couper) Harris 1971 plus Casuarintdttes catnozotcus Cookson § Pike 1954) LSa7. Cupantetdttes orthotetchus Cookson § Pike 1954 0. 8 Cyperaceae 3.3 Gramintdttes medta Cookson 1947 (Gramineae) 1ne4 Myrtaceae, sp. indet bis. Myrtacetdttes eucalyptotdes Cookson § Pike 1954 M. mesonesus Cookson § Pike 1954 M. parvus Cookson §& Pike 1954 Polyportna granulata Martin 1973 cf. Proteactdttes callosus Cookson 1950 cf. Tricolpttes gerantotdes Couper 1960 Trtporopollenttis bellus Partridge 1973 Tubultflortdttes spp. (Compositae) 6 unknown pollen types WNOCCO OFF OW NO BOD ADA AoW ray 86 HELENE A. MARTIN MID-LATE MIOCENE ASSEMBLAGES Bores 36364 and 30450, Namoi Valley Bore and Depth (mn) 36364 30450 113.5-114.5|119-125|97-98 m iy} % of total count Spores Baculattsporttes dtsconformts Stover 1973 0.8 Zak Cingulattsporttes bifureatus (Couper) Martin 1973 0.8 + cf. C. ornatus Martin 1973 0.7 Cyathea paleospora Martin 1973 4.0 4.7 Zia ll Cyathtdttes subtilis Partridge 1973 116 3.8 2.8 Deltotdospora granulomargo Martin 1973 (7: D. tneconsptcua Martin 1973 0.9 P58 Gletehenia ctretnitdites Cookson 1953 2.4 Or, Kluktsporttes lachlanensts Martin 1973 0.8 + Laevigatosporttes ovatus Wilson § Webster 1946 5.2 548 a Matontsporites ornamentalis (Cookson) Partridge 1973 0.8 OS Oi7 Osmundaceae sp. 2 in Martin 1973 es) Peromonoletes sp. O17 Polypoditdites sp. + DA Rugulattsporttes mallatus Stover 1973 + Verrucostsporites kopukuensts (Couper) Stover 1973 0.8 Gymnosperm pollen Araucartacttes australts Cookson 1974 MKS Lo Zed Dacrydiun floritnit (Cookson § Pike) Cookson 1956 4.0 28 1.4 Phyllocladidttes palaeogentcus Cookson § Pike 1954 1.0 0.9 ONY Podoecarpus australtensts (Cookson § Pike) Martin 1973 1.9 Oy P. elltpttca (Cookson) Martin 1973 4.0 1.9 4.2 Angiosperm pollen Amy Lotheca ¥. Orel Casuarina (Haloragactdites harrtstt (Couper) Harris 1971 plus Casuarintdites catnozoteus Cookson §& Pike 1954) Bel De ie MONE Cupantetdttes orthotetchus Cookson § Pike 1954 0.8 Drimys tetradites Martin 1973 1.4 Erictpttes scabratus Harris 1965 0.7 Gramintdttes media Cookson 1947 (Gramineae) 0.9 + Loranthaceae (ae) Malvactpollis subttlts Stover 1973 2.8 Milfordia hypolaenotdes Erdtman 1960 Dig heres Myrtophyllum ORF Myrtaceae indet SS: ° 6.4 Myrtacetdites eucalyptotdes Cookson & Pike 1954 PAP 4.7 Dei M. mesonesus Cookson § Pike 1954 1.6 4.7 0.7 M. parvus Cookson § Pike 1954 10,5 BYE EROS) M. rhodamotides Martin 1973 Gey Nothofagus aspera Cookson 1959 4.0 Tas Sia N. brachysptnulosa Cookson 1959 OF, N. emarcida Cookson 1959 Tied 1750 OE9 N. falcata Cookson 1959 1.9 Proteactdites tnvahoensts Martin 1973 0.8 0.9 O27 P. psuedomotdes Stover 1973 0.9 P. subscabratus Couper 1960 0.8 eS) 2.8 P. symphonemotdes Cookson 1950 OE Quintinta pstlattspora Martin 1973 0.8 09 Tricolvites pstlatus Martin 1973 0.7 Tricolporites leuros Partridge 1973 0.7 T. microrettculatus Harris 1965 0.7 T. sphaertea Cookson 1947 23 Trtporopollenites endobalteus McIntyre 1965 L055 4.7 4.2 T. substrtatus Martin 1973 Ono Triorites miniseculus McIntyre 1965 0.8 Trtporopollenites bellus Partridge 1973 0.8 0.7 Tubulifloridttes sp. (Compositae) Ore Number of unknown pollen types 3 2 14 Percentage of unknown pollen types ESS eine OO STRATIGRAPHIC PALYNOLOGY LOWER CRETACEOUS ASSEMBLAGES Gymnosperm pollen Altsporttes grandis (Cookson) Dettmann 1963 A. stmtlts (Balme) Dettmann 1963 Araucartacttes australts Cookson 1947 Ginkgocycadophytus nitidus (Balme) de Jersey 1962 Microcachrytdites antaretitcus Cookson 1947 Podocarptdttes spp. Tsugaepollenttes dampieri (Balme) Dettmann 1963 T. trtlobatus (Balme) Dettmann 1963 Spores Baculattsporites comaumensts (Cookson) Potonié 1956 Ceratosporttes equalts Cookson § Dettmann 1958 Crybelosporttes stylosus Dettmann 1963 Cyathidttes australts Couper 1953 C. mtnor Couper 1953 Ditetyophylltdites crenatus Dettman 1963 Dtetyotosporttes spectosus Cookson §& Dettmann 1958 Foramintsports datlyt (Cookson §& Dettmann) Dettmann 1963 Fuvoetriletes parviretus (Balme) Dettmann 1963 Gletchenitidites cf G. ctretntdttes (Cookson) Dettmann 1963 Ischyosporttes punctatus Cookson §& Dettmann 1958 Kluktsporttes scaberts (Cookson §& Dettmann) Dettmann 1963 Krauselitsporttes ltnearts (Cookson §& Dettmann) Dettmann 1963 Kkuyltsporttes lunarts Cookson § Dettmann 1958 Lycopodiumsportites austroclavattdites (Cookson) Potonié 1956 L. eminulus Dettmann 1963 L. facetus Dettmann 1963 L. nodosus Dettmann 1963 Murospora flortda (Balme) Pocock 1961 Neoratstrtckia truncatus (Cookson) Potonié 1956 Osmundactdttes wellmantt Couper 1953 Ptlostsporttes notensts Cookson §& Dettmann 1963 Sphertpollenttes pstlatus Couper 1958 Steretsporites antiquasporttes (Wilson §& Webster) Bore aid Depth (m) 36328 103.6-108.5 + + + + ++ + + + + 4 + 87 30166 30441 91.4 109-111 + + + oe + ++ ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 113, pp. 89-93, 1980 Triassic Rocks of the Grants Head District and the Post-Permian Deformation of the Southeastern New England Fold Belt. EvAN C. LEITCH AND MALCOLM A. BOCKING ABSTRACT. Folding and faulting of the Early Triassic Camden Haven Group show that significant deformation occurred in the eastern part of the New England Fold Belt subsequent to the Late Permian orogenic climax. Continuing activity from the Late Permian into the Triassic is indic- ated by near parallelism of basement faults, axes of rapid stratal thickening in the Early Triassic sequence, and faults and the axial traces of folds affecting these rocks. This relationship also suggests that deformation of the Camden Haven Group resulted mainly from move- ment on basement faults, although serpentinite diapirism may have been a contributory factor. The Jolly Nose Conglomerate is a new formation in the Camden Haven Group, introduced for rocks lying between the Palaeozoic basement and the Laurieton Conglomerate in the Grants Head district. INTRODUCTION A variety of structural, stratigraphic and radiometric studies have shown that terminal orogenesis affected the New England Fold Belt in the Late Permian about 255 m.y.b.p. (Crook, 1963; Binns, 1966; Leitch, 1969; Leitch and McDougall, 1979) However fault displacement of post- tectonic granite plutons (Shaw, 1969) and the fault-controlled emplacement of granite masses at east as young as 226 m.y. (Leitch, 1976) indicate that important tectonic movements continued for at Heast 50 m.y. after this orogenic climax. The Early Triassic Camden Haven Group of the Lorne Basin, mid-North Coast region, New South Wales (Fig. 1) provides a unique datum for assessing the nature and timing of movements late in the history Oi the southeastern part of the Fold Belt. Although Voisey (1939) noted faults cutting these rocks and recorded dip directions indicating a structure more complex than a simple basin-shaped depression, no previous systematic description of the structure of the Camden Haven Group has been published. The present account details the nature and Structure of the group in the Grants Head district fea. 1). The absence of major intrusive bodies which have elsewhere disturbed the Triassic strata, and the presence of inliers of Palaeozoic basement rock, make the district a favourable one for determining structural relations between the basement and its Early Triassic cover. Localities not specifically shown on Fig. 1 are specified by 6-digit grid references read from 1:25,000 sheet Grants Head (1st edition, 9435-II-S) published by the New South Wales Department of Lands. STRATIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK Basement Rocks The basement rocks of the Grants Head district comprise Palaeozoic low-grade regional metamorphic rocks of the Port Macquarie Block, Intille detormed Late Palacozolc Strata iol, the Hastings Block, and serpentinite bodies emplaced close to the faulted contact between the blocks. These rocks are exposed both north of the Sapling Creek Fault where they outcrop extensively, and in a smaller inlier just north of Queens Lake GEag ce eye Camden Haven Group Voisey (1930) introduced the term Camden Haven Series for conglomerate, sandstone and shale Of, Early Triassic age (Helby, 1973; Holmes and Ash, 979), preserved im a Structural: depression he termed the Lorne Basin, situated between Taree and Wauchope in the mid-North Coast region of New South Wales. Both Voisey, and Packham (1969) who changed the name to Camden Haven Group, recognised a general stratigraphic sequence in these rocks but it was not until the work of Pratt and Herbert (1973) that, constituent formations were defined: The latter workers suggested a three-fold division: Camden Head Claystone comprising shale, sandstone and minor conglomerate, succeeded by and inter- fingering with the Laurieton Conglomerate, a prominently outcropping quartz conglomerate, in turn succeeded by the Grants Head Formation of interbedded sandstone and shale. We have experienced some difficulty in apply- ing this scheme in the Grants Head district. Although we have been able to map both the Grants Head Formation and the Laurieton Conglomerate as distinct Jathostratisraphnie unies, therlatter 1s underlain not by Camden Head Claystone, but by a distinctive recessive sequence of sandstone and conglomerate characterised by the presence of very abundant quartz sandstone clasts. In contrast to the Laurieton Conglomerate, this unit contains only modest amounts of detrital chert, jasper and vein quartz. For these rocks, formally defined in the Appendix, we propose the name Jolly Nose Conglomerate. The Camden Head Claystone forms a readily recognised unit within the Laurieton Conglomerate at Grants Head itself but we have not been able to map it further west. Rocks of Similar character occur intercalated with Grants 90 EVAN C. LEITCH AND MALCOLM A. BOCKING ° 0 5? cose wat] HASTINGS — Comarra Wauchope 077 Eorly Triassic Rocks of the “Lorne Basin” —— Inferred fault y Concealed inferred fault QUEENS fe See 02 { KILOMETRES CAINOZOIC ROCKS Ee Alluvium, swamp and dune complexes LATE PALAEOZOIC ROCKS MDEN HAVEN GROUP (Early Triassic) Serpentinite | Grants Head Formation — sandstone, shale : oe 4 Laurieton Conglomerate — quartz conglomerate AQ Stratified rocks of the Hastings Block G05 2s © | Jolly Nose Conglomerate — lithic conglomerate a AS Seas aneee rocks of the Fig. 1: Geological, map-of the Grants. Head District; The symbols labelled A, B, C and D refer to: the: lines. of section shown: inp Fis. 2. Head Formation rocks (797033) and the stratigraphic STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY Significance of the claystone will need to be re-assessed after investigations in other parts of Structure of the Camden Haven Group the Lorne Basin. At this time we consider the rocks at Grants Head to be best treated as a The Camden Haven Group has been both folded member within the Laurieton Conglomerate, that and faulted. East of Jolly Nose Hill two well together with comparable rocks elsewhere in the defined folds, the Bonny Hills syncline and the Grants Head district constitute a distinctive Waterloo Creek anticline are separated by a broad sedimentary facies which may occur at several anticline-syncline pair (Fig. 2). These stratigraphic levels in the Camden Haven Group. structures all have axial traces trending about northeast, the broader folds plunge gently south- west but the Bonny Hills and Waterloo Creek folds, which are broken by faults, show minor plunge reversals along their traces and a culmination in the latter structure exposes an inlier of basement GRANTS HEAD TRIASSIC ot Fag, 2. rocks. Wesitrom the Waterloo Creek: anticline the presence of a broad synclinal structure is indic- ated by the reappearance of the Laurieton Conglomerate west of Pacific Highway (around Goss Fig, 1), but outcrop in the intervening area is too poor to allow the position of the pxial trace of this structure to be determined. The disposition of the rocks suggests this fold plunges gently southwest. Several prominent faults disrupt the Camden Haven Group. The northwest striking Sapling Creek fault is a vertical structure across which mnere has been uplift of the northeastern side of about 200 m subsequent to deposition of the Early Triassic rocks. two smaller fractures of: similar orientation are mapped from abrupt changes in the position of the base of the Laurieton Conglomerate along the ridge north of Jolly Nose Hill. Two northnortheast striking faults appear to be dominantly sinistral strike-slip features. One, which cuts obliquely across the Bonny Hills syn- cline, displaces the Laurieton Conglomerate on the eastern limb by perhaps as much as 1.3 km, although Quaternary alluvium prevents precise delineation of the amount of strike-separation. AS the old axial trace is also displaced horizontally by at least this amount, strike-slip movement is indicated. The second fault juxtaposes Grants Head Formation rocks against older strata out- cropping in the core of the Waterloo Creek anti- cline just west of Waterloo Creek. Exposure here is not sufficient to determine whether the anti- clinal trace has been displaced, but 4 km north the presence of an isolated ridge of Laurieton Conglomerate indicates horizontal strike displace- ment of about 2 km. [f-this 1s not a strike-slip fault then scissors movement must have taken place, downthrowing to the west in the south but upthrowing on this side in the north. Laurieton Conglomerate is faulted against Grants Head Formation at the south end of Rainbow Beach. The fracture which terminates against the northnortheast fracture just to the west of Bonny (6) 1 2km ————— 4 Horizontal & Vertical Scale (H:V= 11) Interpretative cross sections Hills, has produced considerable disruption and near vertical dips in rocks exposed along the Coast. It appears to be a vertical structure showing a minimum of 150 m upthrow to the north. SYN-DEPOSITIONAL FAULTING Regional variations in the thickness of the Laurieton Conglomerate were discussed by Pratt and Herbert (1973), who suggested a general thickening of this unit westward, towards the source area they favoured. In the Grants Head district rapid variations in the thickness of the Conglomerate take place which appear to reflect more local controls on its accumulation. At Grants Head we estimate a minimum thickness for the Laurieton Conglomerate of 100 m, substantially more than the 45 m suggested by Pratt and Herbert, but as our value includes the thickness of the Camden Head Claystone and underlying conglomerate, the discrep- ancy is not as great as it first appears. On the western limb of the Bonny Hills syncline some 85 m of conglomerate is present immediately west of Bonny Hills, but further west, around Limeburners Creek, only about 45 m occurs, and on the south- eastern limb of the Waterloo Creek anticline some 60 m. At Jolly Nose Hill on the northwestern limb of this structure 160 m of Laurieton Conglom- erate is exposed, and west of the Pacific Highway 60 m. Although we cannot demonstrate that the upper and lower contacts of the Laurieton Conglom- erate are time planes, the abrupt lower contact of the unit and significant provenance changes accompanying both the start and end of deposi- tion, suggest the unit may be approximately i1sochronous. If this is the case, then the thickness variations probably reflect variations in the subsidence of the depositional realm, and indicate that these occurred on a local scale. The change across the Waterloo Creek anticline is particularly marked, and overall the pattern suggests differential fault-controlled subsidence was responsible for much of the observed variation. 92 EVAN C. LEITCH AND MALCOLM A. BOCKING BASEMENT STRUCTURE AND BASEMENT-COVER RELATIONSHIPS North of the Sapling Creek Fault the Palaeozoic basement is sliced by northnortheast trending faults along which strike-slip movement took place in Late Permian times (Leitch, tn press). One of these fractures, the Cowarra. Fault; separ— ates the Hastings Block from the Port Macquarie Block and is truncated by a serpentinite mass associated with the Sapling Creek Fault in the northwest corner of Fig. 1. South of the latter fault the position of the boundary between these blocks is probably marked by the serpentinite masses exposed in the core of the Waterloo Creek anticline, implying sinistral transcurrent move- ment of 4:°km on the Sapling Creek Fault prior to deposition of the Camden Haven Group. The similarity in trend of basement faults north of the Sapling Creek fault, the axial trace of folds in the Camden Haven Group, the strike of several faults transecting these rocks, and the axes across which there are rapid changes in the thickness of the Laurieton Conglomerate, suggest that late movements on basement faults controlled both subsidence of the Early Triassic depositional realm and subsequent deformation of its fill. Additional evidence for involvement of the basement during deformation of the Camden Haven Group comes from the Waterloo Creek anticline. Several observations indicate that the serpentinite mass forming the major part of the basement here, together with immediately associated Hastings Block rocks, moved upwards during formation of the antreline® Thus on the northwest side of the inlier "Serpentinite 1S in contact wath Laurieton Conglomerate, and no Jolly Nose Conglomerate is exposed. The serpentinite, close to this ‘contact ls) frequent liy silicified, a feature also found) an serpentinite cut by the Sapling Creek Fault. Immediately east of the serpentinite body Jolly Nose Conglomerate dips at angles up to 75° away from the Palaeozoic rocks, consistent with it having been shouldered aside by the rising core of the fold: Maximum dips on the western limb of the anticline occur south of Jolly Nose Hill adjacent to the Palaeozoic rocks. Our interpre- tation of the structure of this region is shown on the cross section C-D (Fig. 2). The absence of a recognizable fault along the crest of the fold north of the inlier suggests that the rise of basement rocks may have been confined very much to the area presently exposed. The fold possibly resulted from serpentinite diapirism driven by alteration of ultramafic rocks at depth not com- pletely serpentinised during initial emplacement. CONCLUSIONS The early Triassic Camden Haven Group in the Grants Head district has been both folded and faulted, with deformation controlled largely by fractures in underlying Palaeozoic basement rocks. Rapid thickness changes in at least one Early Triassic unit suggests that faulting also occurred during deposition of the Camden Haven Group, and the deformation of the rocks is a manifestation of the last stages of orogenesis that reached its peak in the Late Permian. The main deformation and metamorphism that mark the orogenic climax occurred in a relatively short time, perhaps less than 10 m.y. (Leitch, 1978), butvatwleasteine thas part of the New England Fold Belt crustal instability lasting a much longer period is indic- ated both in the sedimentary record, as we have here shown, and in the record of granite emplace- ment that continued well into Triassic times (Leitch, 1976; Leitch and McDougall, 1979). It is unclear whether these movements occurred throughout the New England Fold Belt or were restricted.to its easter pare: ine rensis accumulating evidence that post-tectonic granite bodies become younger from west to east and fault movements may also become younger in this dixection: In a temporal sense the Camden Haven Group constitutes molasse, material deposited after the climax of orogenesis and derived from the rising orogenic welt. However, rather than being pre- served in a basin marginal to the orogen it has accumulated in a downfaulted region within the eregen LESeLE. Development of a wrench regime in the later stages of Late Permian orogenesis is indicated by structural relationships in the region north of the Lorne Basin (Leitch, 1978). This regime apparently lasted well into the Triassic, and the 'Lorne Basin' possibly comprises a complex of lensoid grabens or pull apart struc- tures that evolved during strike-slip faulting (Kingma, 1958; Crowell, 1974). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Mr. Len Hay for drafting the figures and Miss Sheila Binns for preparing both the initial manuscript and the master typescript. REFERENCES Binns, R. A., 1966. Granitic intrusions and regional metamorphic rocks of Permian age from the Wongwibinda district, north-eastern New South Wales. J. PYOG. Bee SOG. Wee ames 5-36. Crook; Ke" An We SIGS part of the Tamworth Trough. No oWe 5 O75 097 409% Structural history of Proe. Linn. Soe. Crowell Wi. (Gao As Sedimentation along the San Andreas Fault, California. 292-303 in Dott, R. H. and Shaver, R. H. (eds) Modern and Anetent Geosyneclinal Sedtmentatton, (Soe. Econ. Paleont. Mineral. Spec. Publ. 19). Heliby3 Revoir. Review of Late Permian and. Triassic palynology of New South Wales. Geol. Soe. Aust. Spec. Publ:, 4, V41-"55. Holmes, \W. B; Ks and’ Ash. Se Rego 7or An Early Triassic megafossilflora from the Lorne Basin, New South Wales. Proce. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 103, 47-70. Kimema:, tJ in gk oiG.. Possible origin of pierce- ment structures, local unconformities, and secondary basins in the Eastern Geosyncline, New Zealand. WN.Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 1, 269-274. GRANTS HEAD TRIASSIC 93 menrtehn, &. €.;, 1969. Igneous activity and diastrophism in the Permian of New South Wales. Geowmsoes Aust. Spec. Publ., 2, 21-37. Bette, F.C .., 1976. Emplacement of an epizonal pluton by vertical block elevation. Geobawlag., 118, 553-560. mertch, E.-C., 1978. Structural succession in a Late Palaeozoic slate belt and its tectonic significance. Tectonophystes, 47, 311-323. match ab. .C.,, 27 press . Rock units, structure and metamorphism in the Port Macquarie Block, eastern New England fold belt. Proe. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. meicch, 6. ¢. and McDougall, I., 1979. The age of orogenesis in the Nambucca Slate Belt: a K-Ar study of low-grade regional metamorphic rocks. ceo. woes. Aust., 26, 111-119. Packham, G. H., 1969. Triassic System. Pemcecol., woe. Aust., 16,°270-271. matt. G. W. and Herbert, C., 1973. A reappraisal of the Lorne Basin. Rec. Geol. Surv... Nios Wes 15 205-212. Shaw, so. E., 1969. Granitic rocks from the northern portion of the New England batholith. etGeol. 0e. AUSt..,, 16; 285-290. The Lorne Triassic basin Proce. Linn. Soc. Morisey, A. H., 1939. and associated rocks. NoS production of the Journal. Authors will be supplied a set of special format paper. An IBM Selectric ’ Ball) typewriter with ADJUTANT 12 typeface be used. 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Stratigraphic Palynology from Shallow Bores in the Namoi River and Gwydir River Valleys, North-Central New South Wales Bsc du Oe VOLUME 113, PART 4 LEITCH, Evan C., and BOCKING, Malcolm A. Triassic Rocks of the Grants Head District and the Post-Permian Deformation of the Southeastern New England Fold Belt _.... Loe ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL .... os ae! se ee 5) Publicity Press Ltd., 29-31 Meagher Street, Chippendale, Sydney. Journal and Droccedings of the oya ae Ne, wy SouthWa es VOLUME 114 1981 PARTS 1 and 2 (Nos. 319 and 320) ei Published by the Society Science Centre, 35 Clarence Street, Sydney issued September, £981 EISSN 0635 - 9173 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Patrons — His excellency the Governor-General of Australia, The Right Honourable Sir Zelman Cowen, A.K., G.C.M.G., G-€.V.O.:, K.St. J Qc. His Excellency the Governor of New-South Wales, Air Marshall Sir James Rowland, K: BE DEC. AEC: President — Professor B. A. Warren Vice- Presidents — Mr E. K. 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A copy of the Guide to Authors is obtainable on request and manuscripts may be addressed to the Honorary Secretary (Editorial) at the above address. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 114, pp. 1-5, 1981 ISSN 0035-9173 Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney Observatory During 1980 N. R. LOMB ABSTRACT. Positions of 2 Pallas, 3 Juno, 6 Hebe, 7 Iris, 18 Melpomene, 40 Harmonia, 51 Nemausa and 532 Herculina obtained with the 23 cm camera are given. The programme of precise okservations of selected minor planets which was begun in 1955 is being continued and the results for 1980 are given here. The methods of observation were described in the first paper (Robertson 1958). were taken with the 23 cm camera (scale 116" to the millimetre). Four exposures were taken on each plate, except on some plates of 18 Melpomene, 40 Harmonia, 51 Nemausa and 532 Herculina. The number of exposures on each plate is indicated in Table 1. In Table 1 are given the means of the posi- tions for all the exposures uSing all six reference Stars at the mean of the exposure times. for the first pair of images was compared with that for the last two by adding the motion computed from the ephemeris for the plates with four exposures, The r.m.s. differences were 0.010 Sec 6 in right ascension and 0.22 in declination. No correction has been applied for aberration, light time or parallax, but the factors give the parallax correction when divided by the distance. The column headed "0-C" gives the differences be- tween the measured positions (corrected for paral- lax) and the position computed from the ephemerides Supplied by the Institute for Theoretical Astronomy in Leningrad. The ephemeris for 51 Nemausa was ob- tained from L.K. Kristensen (University of Aarhus, Denmark) . In accordance with the recommendation of Commission 20 of the International Astronomical Union, Table 2 gives for each observation the positions of the reference stars and the six star dependences. The reference star positions were converted to standard coordinates for the calcu- lation of six star dependences. The columns headed "R.A." and "Dec." give the seconds of time and arc with the proper motion correction applied to bring the catalogue position to the epoch of the plate. The column headed "Star" gives the number of the star in the SAO catalogue or the zone and number of the star in the AGK3 catalogue. The column headed "Vol." gives the volume of the SAO or AGK3 in which the star is listed. The first column gives a serial number which cross- references Table 1 and Table 2 and also the catalogue from which the reference stars were taken. All the plates The result All plates were reduced by both the method of dependences and by first order plate constants using the same six reference stars. Equal results were obtained in each case, as could be expected due to the formal identity of the two methods. The r.m.s. residuals of the reference stars were obtained by taking for each star the mean residual from the plate constants fitted to the first and last pairs of images, summing the squares of these residuals in right ascension and declination for all stars on all plates with four exposures and dividing the result by the appropriate number of degrees of freedom. For AGK3 stars the r.m.s. residual was 0'37 (9 plates) while for SAO stars Ttewas. OL79 2). plates): Using six star dependences instead of two sets of three star dependences, as had been employed in reducing observations from years previous to 1978, has the disadvantage that a direct measure of the uncertainties in the measured positions is no longer available and the uncertainties have to be found by indirect means. The method used was des-— cribed in a previous paper (Lomb 1980). The standard errors calculated in this way are listed in Table 3. The plates were measured by Mrs J. Close, Miss D. Teale, Miss J. Manson and Miss R. Skeers. The observers at the telescope were D.S. King (K), N.R. Lomb (L), W.H. Robertson (R) and K.P. Sims (S). REFERENCES Robertson, W.H., 1958. Precise observations of minor planets at Sydney Observatory during 1955 and 1956. Js Roy. Soc. NoSW. 92, 16-25 Sydney Observatory Papers No. 33. Lomb, N.R., 1980. . Precise observations of minor planets at Sydney Observatory during NOPSES o <. OY.. SOC n Naot, vido, 1-6; Sydney Observatory Papers No. 88. No. 1714 LS 1716 ALT ARE) 1718 1719 1720 1721 M722 723 1724 125 1726 L727 1728 u729 1730 1731 1732 1733 1734 1735 1736 137 1738 1739 1748 1741 1742 1743 1744 1745 1746 1747 1748 2 Pallas 1980 U.T. 12.79088 18.779045 G9G71955 15.79938 15.62331 28.57226 19.51908 G8.44726 Aug . Aug. Sep. Sep. OcE. Oct. Nov. Dec. 3 Juno 1989 U.T. Feb. Feb. Mar. 11.49123 19. 469808 17. 41383 6 HEBE 1980 U.T. G9.75581 15.76190 G8 .69552 15.70191 2963978 19.59985 27.54868 9.49897 Sep. Sep. Oct. Oct. Oct. Nov. Nov. Dec. 7 IRIS 1988 U.T. Oct. Nov. Nov. 28 .45927 G6.43572 11.42080 18 MELPOMENE 1989 U.T. Mar. 17.67743 Apr. 22.57164 May '12.58371 June 95.42549 40 HARMONIA 1989 U.T. July July Aug. Aug. Aug. Sep. Oct. Oct. Nov. 19.79617 JTS T/S S/T) 05.73687 di /2962 18.79216 88.64623 13.54299 28.47794 11.44916 R.A. (1958.9) hem es 03.553 53.800 1.463 21.190 95.219 09.339 49.687 09.488 35.516 27.983 43.165 18.719 DIso75 52.479 23.086 17.254 49.073 20.968 2: 15.766 11.748 31.441 20.380 18.937 G3.648 i. 673 52.438 522923 29.263 49.740 1.193 49.331 12.822 17.368 49.942 N. R. LOMB POSITIONS OF MINOR PLANETS ° +06 +07 +11 a 17) -01 -04 -5 -07 -98 -08 -07 +95 +95 +94 ol 14) +04 +05 +05 -G2 =O2 -01 -2 -82 -64 -07 -07 —07 TABLE 1 Dec. (1956.9) 12.94 19.97 38.89 12.07 55.64 48.62 19.44 89.95 12.75 49.13 39'. il! 15.96 31.80 26.39 50.51 12.13 50.84 28.12 55.96 9.49 13 s27 34.52 G2.04 90.77 20.38 49.57 26.20 29.82 98.85 24.62 52.86 09.96 41.65 98.09 27.22 Parallax Factors Ss " —0.903 -4.58 —0@.924 -4.44 -@.013 -3.73 +0.006 -3.50 +0.918 -2.20 -0.910 -1.71 —-0.946 -1.39 +%9.004 -1.21 +9.823 -5.66 +9.927 -5.81 +9.060 -6.23 -0.951 -4.86 +9.803 -4.75 —-8.028 -4.26 +9.952 -4.10 -2.009 -3.83 -Q@.811 -3.58 +9.908 -3.70 —-0.026 -3.86 —-$.0@04 -5.4l +0.923 -5.53 +9.014 -5.51 +9.904 -4.80 +0.943 -5.38 +9.835 -5.55 +0.012 -5.53 —-0.906 -4.50 +8.039 -4.64 -9.005 -4.55 +%8.920 -4.63 —-0.906 -4.58 +9.916 —-4.34 +9.958 -3.90 +0.082 -3.85 +%.037 —9 907 +9.937 +9.923 —9.929 -9.995 —9.943 —9.934 —0.933 —8.834 -8.965 —-0.901 —-9.941 —6.853 NNN & PPP PHPHLHAHA HAH SD PP PHL HP HH HHH SPE PKR PB BON DY PDA DNWDAnNAMrMN WA UW DDBAnNrNAe Dunr wy DAAMNWNDWADEHM No. 1749 1758 1751 1752 L753 1754 1g /S)5) No. 1714 SAO FAS SAO 1716 SAO JURY SAO 1718 SAO 1719 SAO 1720 SAO PRECISE OBSERVATIONS OF MINOR PLANETS 51 NEMAUSA 1986 Oct. Nov. Nov. Dec. U.T. 8.73880 12.62971 271 .563593 9.54420 532 HERCULINA 1988 Oct. Nov. Dec. Vol. WWWWWWWWWWW WW WWW WWW WW WW WWW WW WWW WWW WW WW WW Ww UT; 15.66585 19.54546 99.45154 Star 29 OTT 29927), 129958 129977 129988 1129993 129970 129973 1129993 1306005 130944 130051 130034 1306043 130054 138886 130195 138115 138859 148562 138886 148578 148589 148592 148410 148413 148458 167884 167911 148515 167691 167761 157786 167735 167787 157790 TO7S07. 157585 167615 157649 167644 167675 R.A. (1950.9) hm s 84 58 BA 47 84.34 B4 22 82 56 @2 29 G2 10 26.591 51.692 Hl. 255 14.938 51.249 19.865 12.213 ° +10 +97 +95 +85 =O -98 -07 TABLE 1 (Cont.) POSITIONS OF MINOR PLANETS Dec. (1950.9) 9B.41 56.92 26.30 34.82 12 33.94 93.71 31 50.11 TABLE 2 +0 +9 -9 REFERENCE STAR POSITIONS AND DEPENDENCES Depend. @.21).912 0.156349 9.192436 @.124965 8.173885 8.131361 A.213969 9.243586 0.170836 8.194363 0.986891 8.891915 G.13955 1 9.113689 8.198218 9.130208 8.249663 6.177786 8.226672 8.166118 @.219882 8.199973 G.1152608 8.162895 8.220294 8.219646 8.155588 9.168703 8.130911 8.182858 G.145849 8.153855 8.150878 @.171765 §.187726 8.190733 B.152088 8.159601 9.169755 8.163827 8.172768 9.172768 R.A. 05.584 92.512 35.876 2am Zi 35-191 oy BS 4016) 37.202 46.909 51.283 35.152 30.573 06.269 29.288 30.511 35.714 32.846 94.364 02.947 48.277 04.746 32.846 1758 12.507 93.804 31.691 47.449 47.856 45.815 95.207 55.572 55.863 08.145 Ba is7, 35 57.845 05.305 D095 30.528 42.949 50.846 16.778 21.250 Dec. No. 72k SAO LLP? AGK3 1723 AGK3 1724 AGK3 V/25 AGK3 1726 AGK3 27 SAO Parallax © —¢ Factors -203 -6.18 +.9795 -.55 0922 -5.76 -A.910 +0.07 -008 -5.61 -%.019 -9.16 -004 -5.54 -9.923 -8.96 -193 -3.95 40.909 +0.21 -901 -3.75 -9.936 +9.50 -997 -3.89 408.919 +9.92 Vol. Star Depend. 3 167375 9.154258 3 157385 6.176291 3 167386 6.131029 3 157447 = 153185 3 157482 9.198649 3 167496 = 8.186587 7 +6 855 6.171831 7 + 5° 935 6.187813 7 +7 915 0.15044) 7 + 7° 929 6.145299 7 + 5° 949 9.182825 7 + 6° 875 6.152681 7 + 8° 885 0.125933 7 + 7° 907 9.168586 7 + 7° 914 6.228838 7 + 8° 991 0.995289 7 + 8° 912 6.156439 7 + 7° 929 6.225875 6 +12° 862 8.159173 7 411° 814 9.191425 7 +10° 993 6.187738 6 +412° 871 9.144919 7 +411° 829 6.163109 7 +12° 879 6.143625 8 —- 8° 407 8.178732 8 8° 498 9.172368 8 -— 1° 366 6.159581 8 + 8° 337 9.173397 8 + 8° 341 6.162751 8 -- 8° 415 6.153252 8 0° 413 0.155840 8 —- 1° 367 9.157896 8 -- 1° 375 9.159252 8 —- 8° 420 6.174868 8 — #° 427 6.174653 8 —- 1° 382 9.168297 3 130955 = @.189745 3 130978 6.190780 3 130983 @.149258 3 131024 6.143497 3 131025 9.173347 3 131060 0.153374 No. of Exp. MM NHN NM R.A. 32.453 98.800 13.339 Seg 1G 25.813 S296 56.152 07.0308 44.889 34.9108 46.879 27.538 58.154 19.762 AG.367 12.962 98.925 34.919 44.981 336/93 eS Si 20.355 32.196 19.559 34.429 NGS OU 18.228 30.258 34.019 11.101 498.885 25.624 SO S/S) 14.429 22.128 47.967 09.985 298/98 27.551 46.367 51.749 45.422 DunWDD DDN No. 1728 SAO VI29 SAO 1739 SAO WG/sylk SAO 782 SAO 1733 AGK3 1734 AGK3 W835 AGK3 1736 AGK3 DEES AGK3 1738 AGK3 Vol. NYY WAND YNWAWDDAADOWDAWDAAWAAWDAWAAOAANIAYNA YMA ONO O YY YNYWY OY NY WWW WW WW WWW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW Ww Ww Prete eee eet teeeeettest t++ttteetteeeitti Star 130937 130947 130979 131907 131929 131952 130861 130868 130875 130927 130941 130971 130771 130772 130808 149261 139827 130856 130591 130612 130619 130651 130666 130681 130497 130504 130521 130540 130585 139590 5 3362 6° 3182 A> 31138 6° 3189 S880 6° 3190 5° 3367 6° 3187 3° 3003 4°3144 5° 3384 4° 3146 4° 3149 5° 3375 4° 3144 5° 3386 5° 3389 4°3151 9° 1882 0° 1884 1°1892 0° 1698 8° 1709 9° 1899 4°1707 4°1709 3° 177 Aelia 3°1725 4°1721 5° 1809 4°1689 6° 1602 4°1696 6° 1689 5°1820 Depend. 8.140587 Doli V37 3 8.189529 %.140599 8.162137 8.195674 @.135035 8.159849 8.198315 9.211422 9.165711 2.209568 $.182285 G.199862 8.149259 9.177776 9.148799 @.150017 %. 215304 9.187117 8.182998 8.153040 9.148219 @.121322 9.230071 9.221694 $.185325 9.161474 2.186063 9.895374 9.168561 9.140141 9.188638 8.151873 @.193363 9.165427 9.173130 9.212179 @.129681 9.136625 9.192787 9.155599 9.212969 B.232854 8.174473 8.159357 8.125978 9.993377 8.131160 $.135752 8.155958 9.151444 9.193849 J .212636 G.158666 4.184847 @.136313 0.200937 8.139159 %.180078 8.183721 8.183338 9.171547 8.159988 8.151645 0.158661 R.A. 47.574 23.389 89.485 25.061 94.150 23.9308 49.385 43.197 44.728 26.829 07.444 44.758 35.449 38.247 58.180 36 . 382 39.895 58.193 Slee OF, 93.839 35.991 91.934 Di «298 32.078 29.039 15.747 30.146 37.634 2. 53i1 43.163 56.004 45.969 50.666 27-312 G2.936 34.199 30.436 48.405 57.685 47.969 59.888 49.466 38.864 48.971 47.969 55.658 31.951 37.840 99.719 48 .931 25.318 32.423 41.907 20.885 12.754 29.453 48.137 9O.477 17.4708 19.109 26.568 53.942 53.166 222128 20.414 55399 N. R. LOMB TABLE 2 (Cont.) REFERENCE STAR POSITIONS AND DEPENDENCES No. 1739 AGK3 1749 SAO 1741 SAO 1742 SAO 1743 SAO 1744 SAO 1745 SAO 1746 SAO 1747 SAO 1748 SAO 1749 AGK3 Vol. NSNNYNYNYIYWWWW WW WW WWW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WWW WWW WWW WWWWWWwwwwnwnwnwwwnwwwwwr7a on oD~~) Star 5° 18081 6° 1588 4° 1678 6° 1597 4° 1685 5° 1809 128773 128774 128800 128819 128834 128845 128894 128819 128834 128871 128883 128889 128930 128908 128958 128953 128981 128985 128930 128931 128964 128965 128982 128985 128930 128948 128953 128968 128979 128999 128822 128859 128879 128883 128922 128927 128568 128594 128608 128645 128646 128656 146999 147014 147922 147049 128549 128579 146955 146956 146991 147022 128551 128554 +1B8° 522 +11° 465 +11° 470 +18° 533 419° 541 411° 479 ++ 4444+ Depend. 9.170215 0.157688 %.159778 8.153114 0.156071 8.153214 @.273956 9.244771 @.181195 0.152991 8.980545 9.067423 8.150180 G.189919 9.149552 @.197426 9.145634 9.177188 J .158880 @.165457 9.153694 8.170296 9.167643 9.154930 8.144720 8.133721 B.185872 @.154195 9.197590 8.183891 0.138163 9.150474 8.148074 @.181707 @.178777 0.210806 G.143084 0.122649 8.245336 B.1988475 9.147187 9.241278 9.228655 G.239561 9.141913 9.893880 @.176206 8.128786 0.204060 8.202077 8.164116 8.173158 @.134949 0.121638 G.140759 G.168818 8.185798 8.145162 9.196750 $.162722 8.171363 8.173293 9.179935 9.162934 8.159361 8.162205 R.A. 326/81 99.095 88.358 SoeuZs Se LTT 26.568 21.678 54.963 15.626 33.457 89.190 59.955 58.474 33.457 09.190 45.616 31.888 58.984 26.550 34.344 4G.448 19.291 14.298 31.439 26.4550 30.920 36.542 45.621 We Sag 31.439 26.5508 57.803 19.291 44.49] 04.117 28.985 S855 23.607 08.097 31.888 16.984 46.781 22.938 86.709 12.858 46.366 48.876 08.919 12.941 41.113 33.164 43.575 05.262 96.027 28.932 32.949 29.452 33.164 14.040 37.873 15.428 36.765 1.384 53.611 84.131 22.343 No. 1756 AGK3 1751 AGK3 752 AGK3 Vol. YOYIYNONAYNNYNYNONYNYNNYYYYNY AGK3 AGK3 SAO SAO PRECISE OBSERVATIONS OF MINOR PLANETS Star Depend. + 7° 514 9.213504 + 6° 496 9.182029 + 8° 505 9.206288 + 6° 502 @.134747 + 6° 505 9.115738 + 7° 534 9.147703 + 5° 474 9.111996 + 6° 470 8.170023 + 4° 466 9.121279 HeG> 477 . 0.213578 + 5° 491 9.161296 + 6° 499 9.221834 + 5° 454 9.167572 + 4° 448 9.152134 + 5° 459 9.189683 + 5° 467 9.178964 + 4° 454 9.150672 + 5° 469 @.169975 TABLE 3 STANDARD ERRORS image image image image Sydney Observatory, Sydney, N.S.W., 2000. QB 2 4) B R.A. 21d g 912 922 > 923 TABLE 2 (Cont.) REFERENCE STAR POSITIONS AND DEPENDENCES ann m R.A. Dec. No. Vol. 18.559 29.98 1753 3 31.5590 89.20 SAO 3 Palais iS) Oi. 78 3 04.748 28.16 3 29.749 51.94 3 28.017 G7 .34 3 15.869 56.82 754 3 50.858 17.85 SAO 3 95.435 26.98 2 04.307 42.89 3 26.539 3822 3 08.417 5S ale 3 53. 61/3 US ow: 1755 3 23.988 53.38 SAO 5 38.337 a5 .74 3 28.522 32.43 3 56.025 08.49 3 02.736 15.91 3 Dec. AX19 O22 G35 O36 (Manuscript received 24-6-81) Star 1391308 130142 1390143 130198 136200 130224 T2993) 129935 ZOO By. WZ9972 1299883 1299908 129708 WASTES) 129743 129763 U297 75 129791 Depend. G.214899 §.225507 4.14594 9.116247 6.172073 §.125376 8.184435 8.151352 8.194015 G.138693 8.150055 @.181451 9.174638 8.144899 8.112279 G.211522 8.154525 3.200235 R.A. 46.380 S125 45.936 59.401 07.980 03.454 6 O13 82.317 18.825 42.684 35.598 45.708 23.860 54.312 IIE e25} 23.813 25.104 39.705 Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 114, pp. 7-16, 1981 ISSN 0035-9173 A Preliminary Study of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Sydney Atmosphere M. D. GERSTEL AND K. S. BASDEN ABSTRACT. Samples of suspended particulate matter collected over ten periods each of 24 hours during October, 1979, were segregated into five size fractions by a cascade impactor attached to the hi-vol sampler. These fractions have been analysed quantitatively for benzo[a]pyrene and qualitatively for 19 other polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. The results are compared with other published data for Melbourne and several cities in North America. Certain trends in the results are reported; namely the benzo[a]pyrene, as concentration in the atmosphere, is associated with the finest size fractions as is to be expected from other reports in the literature. However, when the results are expressed as concentration per unit mass of particulate matter, the highest concentration is in a larger size fraction, i.e. the 2.5 to 1.5 um or 4.0 to 1.5 um, (aerodynamic diameter) size. The concentration of benzo[a]- pyrene in the atmosphere increases as the concentration of suspended particulate matter decreases, and the number of other polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons tend to increase as suspended particulate matter decreases. Another observation is that the benzo[a]pyrene concentration in the Sydney air-shed is the highest of that of the other cities reported, and is approached only by Hamilton, Ontario, which is an industrial city containing metallurgical industries. This result also appears to be supported by earlier-published data for Sydney. The analytical method, which involves thin layer chromatography (TLC) also is discussed. INTRODUCTION It is well known that many polynuclear aro- matic hydrocarbons (PAH) possess varying degrees of mutagenicity or carcinogenicity (Flessel et al., 1980). These compounds, which usually are formed by combustion processes (Badger, 1962) or by the degradation of automobile tyres (Cleary, 1968), are associated with the suspended particulate matter in the atmosphere. It has been shown that their concentrations in the gas phase are insignificant for practical purposes (Commins, 1962; Miguel and Friedlander, 1978) despite the comparatively high equilibrium vapour concentra- tion (Pupp et al., 1974) possessed by some of them. Only with exceptionally long sampling periods - of the order of several weeks - are vapour losses of PAHs likely to be significant (Konig et al., 1980), although this view is not held by others (Katz and Chan, 1980; Lindgren et al., 1980). Very little work has been undertaken on the concentrations of PAHs in the Sydney air basin apart from that of Cleary (1968) and Tseng (1975) in the early 1960's and mid 1970's respectively, and no work at all, as far as the authors are aware, on the concentration dependency on Particle size. The most comprehensive report of work undertaken elsewhere (at the time of commence- ment of this investigation) is by Miguel and Friedlander (1978), who used a low pressure cascade impactor (Hering et al., 1978; Hering et al., 1979) to size segregate ambient Pasadena aerosols into 8 stages, ranging from 4.0 to 0.05 um aerodynamic effective cut-off diameters (ECD), on each of which benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and coronene (COR) were determined. Miguel and Friedlander (1978) ascertained that about 75% of the BaP and 85% of the COR are associated with particles of aerodynamic diameter less than 0.26 um, and that almost half of the total mass of both PAHs is associated with aerosols in the narrow range of 0.075 to 0.12 um. In reviewing earlier work on PAH concentrations in size-segregated aerosols, Miguel and Friedlander refer to six reports only, from which it may be concluded that a large percentage of the mass of the appropriate PAHs is associated with particles smaller than the small- est ECD of the collecting device used. (These reports describe samples from two sites in the USA, two in Canada, one in Budapest and one of a laboratory-produced smoke). The present work was undertaken with two objectives in view. The first was to ascertain whether the PAHs in the Kensington locality of the Sydney air basin exhibit a preference for certain size fractions of the suspended particulate matter (SPM). The second was to evaluate the reliability of a rapid method of analysis, so that the large number of samples from multi-stage cascade impactors could be analysed conveniently by the minimum number of personnel in a laboratory equipped with average facilities. EXPERIMENTAL Aerosol Collection The atmospheric suspended particulate matter (SPM) was collected by a high-volume sampler, situated approximately 50 m above ground on the roof of the Applied Science building at the Uni- versity of New South Wales, Kensington. A four- stage cascade impactor with a 203 x 254 mm back-up filter was fitted to the filter holder of the high- volume sampler. The flow rate of the sampler was determined by a previously calibrated orifice plate attached to the complete cascade impactor assembly, and was found to be 0.91 m*min’? when the ambient temper- ature was 24 C. The small monitoring rotameter at the fan outlet was calibrated accordingly, and the flow was found to be steady over the whole sampling campaign. This flow rate was used without further correction, as the prescribed adjusting formula for variations in ambient temperature and barometric pressure (Katz... 1977 (4) ass L a IDA & Qos Qi ae where Qy = corrected flow rate at temperature T» and pressure P2 Qi = flow rate at calibration, when temper- ature and presssure were T, and P respectively. Application of this equation to the extremes of temperature listed in Table 2, and even allowing for a variation in atmospheric pressure of + 3.37 kPa will lead to maximum variations of + 0.03 of the mean flow rate value, which is negligible in the present context. The 50% effective cut-off diameter (ECD) of the stages of the cascade ampactor are 9:25, 4.0, 2.5 and 1.5 um aerodynamic diameter, as provided by manufacturer's calibration. The glass fibre filter substrates and the back-up filter are weigh- ed both before and after the taking of the samples. The filters are not conditioned at a constant relative humidity before the weighings (as recommended in the APHA Intersociety Committee procedure (Katz, 1977(i)), as a characteristic of the binderless glass fibre filters used is the absence of an adsorbed moisture correction over a wide range of ambient laboratory relative humid- ities. This has been verified by laboratory tests. Analysis of PAHs Survey of existing methods Numerous methods (Katz, 1977(a)-(f); Katz, 1980) have appeared on this subject in recent years. Herod and James (1978) provide a detailed review of methods. The vast majority of the methods available fall into three stages, viz: (a) extraction of the PAHs from the filter sample, (b) separation of the individual species, (c) identification and quantitative assess- ment of the separated compounds. Concerning the first stage (a), most authors, including the many reviewed by Herod and James, use Soxhlet extraction of the filter with a variety of hydrocarbon solvents, of which benzene or cyclo- hexane predominate. This takes usually 4 to 8 hours; 24 hours is prescribed in Katz (1977(f)), but Mainwaring and McGuirk (1977) have shown that 97% of both benzene soluble matter and benzo[a] - pyrene (BaP) are extracted in the first four hours of a 22 hour period of Soxhlet extraction using M. D. GERSTEL AND K. S. BASDEN benzene. Chatot et al. (1971), and more recently Bjorseth et al. (1980) and Flessel et al. (1980) have used ultrasonic extraction, and found this to be complete in 20 or 30 minutes. The second stage (b) of the procedure invari- ably uses some form of chromatography, of which column chromatography (CC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography (GC) and thin layer chromatography (TLC) are the principal examples. Gel permeation chromatography and mass spectrometry without prior separation by GC, also have received mention in references given. Of the chromatographic methods, CC invariably occupies 1 to 2 days, whereas the HPLC and TLC involve times in the general order of about 1 hour, and GC slightly less. The third stage, (c), falls into two parts, namely identification of the compound on one hand and its quantitative assessment on the other hand. The identification usually is made by measurement of partition coefficient in TLC (frequently using a spot of pure BaP as a standard of reference), or by time of efflux-in CC vandacee The position of the compound with reference to the solvent front in TLC is established by fluorescence under U.V. light of wavelength 366 nm, where in some circumstances the colour of the fluorescence on a wet or dry plate may give a secondary identification, as indicated in Table 1. A similar technique is used to identify the compounds on the HPLC column. In GC, the areas under the elution peaks (which are proportional to the amount of substance) are found either by the in-built integrators in the instrument or by manual integration of the read- out curves by planimeter. Types of detector reported as being used for PAH analysis are flame ionisation (FID), electron capture (ECD), mass spectrometry (MS), and ultra-violet (UV) (Katz, 1977(g),(h); Herod and James, 1979). For CC, the concentration of PAHs in the various chromato- graphic fractions is found by the base-line technique of Commins and Cooper (Katz, 1977(e)) from absorbance measurements at a specified wave- length in the ultra violet regime of the spectrum (UV). The evaluation of the amount of compound in the PAH zones on the TLC plates is undertaken either by UV absorption or UV fluorescence. This normally involves scraping off the coating (from the underlying glass plate) containing the zone of interest, dissolving the constituent in a suitable solvent, and after removing the dispersed phase of TLC coating material by filtration or centrifuga- tion, the absorption of the remaining solution at appropriate wavelengths is measured in a UV spec- trophotometer. A similar technqiue may be used for UV fluorescence, where the excitation and emission wavelengths are selected for each individual compound. However, the fluorescence of the spots directly on the TLC plates may be deter- mined by a spectrofluorometer with attached TLC plate scanner (Miguel and Friedlander, 1978). The fluorescence method is more sensitive than the direct absorption method by a factor of about 100 (Miguel and Friedlander, 1978) but care must be exercised as it is known that quenching of the fluorescence by unknown impurities may occur. PAHS IN SYDNEY ATMOSPHERE 9 The method adopted for this study The initial extraction of the PAHs is accom- plished by refluxing for 20 minutes the glass fibre substrate (or a known proportion of the back-up filter) with 15 mL of benzene in a 100 mL conical flask fitted with a ''cold finger" reflux condenser. The flask is heated by being partially immersed in a beaker of water maintained at about 90°C, This is analogous to a method developed by Tseng (1975) who agitated the filter in gently boiling benzene for several minutes and thereby achieved an extraction in excess of 90% of the PAHs recoverable by a 6 hour Soxhlet extraction. After refluxing, the contents of the 100 mL flask are filtered into a 25 mL conical flask, and the original flask and filter are washed several times with a total of about 3 mL of benzene. The 25 mL flask, now containing approximately 20 mL of benzene is gently evaporated almost to dryness at 40°C and reduced pressure of 5.3 kPa abs. The walls of the flask are washed with benzene from a micro-pipette, giving a final volume in the flask of about 100 uL. This is transferred as com- pletely as possible by micro-pipette to the prepared chromatographic plate. The 200 x 200 mm glass chromatographic plates are coated with a 250 um layer of a slurry of 20 g of aluminium oxide G (type E) and 20 g of silica gel GF 254 (type 60) mixed with 66 mL of distilled water and applied with a suitable applicator. After drying, the plates are activated directly before use by being heated at 100°C for 10 min- utes and then by cooling for a further 10 minutes in the laboratory atmosphere. The development tank (with insertion grooves to hold seven plates simultaneously) is prepared for use by introducing into it 200 mL of pentane:ether, 19:1 v/v, and allowing it to equilibrate for at least two hours. The plates are spotted with a disposable micro-pipette 15 mm from the base. Each spot is accompanied in an adjacent position by another spot containing 0.22 ug of pure BaP to act as an ident- ification standard. In addition to the five spots - with their accompanying standards - which result from each sample (i.e. 4 cascade impactor Stages and the back-up filter), a sixth spot resulting from a calibration standard of a glass fibre substrate spiked with a known amount of pure BaP (0.1 to about 0.5 ug) is added as well. The spotted plates are placed in the prepared TLC tank and are allowed to develop until the solvent front has reached a height of about 15 cm, which takes from 45 to 60 minutes. After develop- ment, the plates are examined under UV light of wavelength 366 nm and the fluorescent areas of the pure 0.22 ug BaP standard and the corresponding area of sample are marked with a sharp stylus. The position and colour of other fluorescent zones resulting from different members of the PAH family (see Table 1, from Sawicki et al., 1964) are also marked for subsequent identification. The marked areas of the plates containing the fluorescent zones of both the sample BaP and the 0.22 ug Standard are scraped off the plate and transferred to centrifuge tubes for subsequent elution and analysis. The BaP is eluted from the scrapings by adding 2 mL of dichloromethane to each centrifuge tube, then agitating for about five minutes and then centrifuging down the solid phase for a further two minutes. The superincumbent liquid is decanted into a 1 cm path length x 4 mL capacity spectrophotometer cell. The washing and centri- fuging is repeated with smaller amounts of dichloro- methane and the final volume in the spectrophoto- meter cell is accurately adjusted to 3.5 mL with dichloromethane. The absorbances are measured at the wavelengths of three experimentally determined prominent peaks for BaP, namely 389, 368 and 350 nm. These wavelengths disagree with others quoted in the literature. For example Commins (1958) and Stanley et al. (1967) nominate 390, 382 and 375 nm for BaP in pentane, and Katz (1977(b)) quotes the same wavelengths for BaP in ether. However, an illustration in Katz (1977(b)) depict- ing absorbance vs wavelength for BaP in pentane shows peaks at 383, 376 and 360 nm, with a some- what smaller peak at 345 nm, but no peak at all in the vicinity of 390 nm. Tseng (1975) found that the absorbance peaks for BaP in dichloromethane occurred at 390, 380 and 370 nm. During the course of the analysis, exposure to light is kept to a minimum to prevent photo- dissociation of the PAHs. All operations which cannot be conducted in complete darkness (such as the development of the TLC plates) are carried out in subdued artificial light and exposure of the developed chromatograms to ultraviolet light in order to identify the spots, also is kept to a minimum, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The meteorological and atmospheric pollution conditions which prevailed in Sydney (about 5 km north west of the sampling site in Kensington), as obtained from the State Pollution Control Commission and the Bureau of Meteorology, are shown in Table 2. The results of the BaP determinations from the samples obtained over the 24 hour periods (approximately 9.00 am to 9.00 am) on the corres- ponding days are shown in Table 3. Although these results are insufficient to allow any lasting conclusions to be obtained, nevertheless certain trends are apparent. The first trend appears to be that when the SPM concen- tration in the atmosphere is high, the BaP concen- tration is low, and vice versa. Another is that in common with the results of other workers, the major proportion of the BaP is associated with the finest size fraction when recorded as ng/m? or as a percentage of the total BaP. However; it 2s apparent that the actual concentration of BaP in the particulate matter itself is highest in the 1.5 - 2.5 um size fraction, and/or the next larger fractaon,.tse. .2.9 =- 4.0 um. In sample No. 8 in Table 3 for October 24 - 25 1979, the Bap content of the particulate matter rises to a high value of 1730 ug/g (0.173%) in the 1.5 - 2.5 um size fraction. This, of course, may be an anomalous result arising from a variety of possible but very unlikely causes, and it is a disadvantage of the 10 M. D. GERSTEL AND K. S. BASDEN procedure that insufficient particulate matter is available (except on the back-up filter) to allow duplicate analyses. However, further work should establish the validity or otherwise of such results. Nevertheless the trend to high concen- trations in this size fraction is evident in all of the results obtained in this preliminary study. Table 4 lists BaP determinations for the atmospheres of Sydney and other cities, as obtained from the literature sources provided. From this limited amount of information, it may be observed that the BaP content of the Sydney atmos- phere is high when compared with that of the other Cities reported in) this short list.” Im fact, at would appear that for the periods in question, Sydney is analogous to Hamilton, Ontario, which is an industrial city containing a large concentration of iron and steel manufacturing facilities. It is interesting to note that in the results presented by Katz and Chan (1980) (from which the Hamilton, Ontario, data for Table 4 has been abstrated) the most plentiful of the eight PAHs that these authors quantitatively determine is benzo[ghi] - perylene (BghiP), where figures from a low of 1.62 to a high of 19.32 ng/m® appear in their tables of results, and with annual averages of 15.19 and 10.55 ug/m? being quoted. In the same work (Katz and Chan, 1980) the next most plentiful compound is BaP, and this is followed by BeP (benzo[e] - pyrene. In this present work, BaP was present in measurable quantity in all but four of the 50 chromatograms, but nevertheless was visible as a fluorescent spot on the remaining four. This compound was readily identifiable by its blue or purple fluorescence even without the adjacent presence of the 0.22 ug standard, and appeared in all instances to be the most plentiful constituent. However, BghiP, which appears as No. 13 in Table 5, certainly is not a major constituent of the Sydney PAHs as it is in Hamilton, Ontario. Table 5, to which reference was made above, is self explanatory, and lists other compounds from the PAH group which have been identified qualita- tively by their RF values and fluorescence colour. Another trend which may be observed from Table 5 is that as the particle size fraction decreases, so the number of PAHs increases. The largest number of PAHs are associated with stages 4 and 5 of the samples, although there are numerous unidentified fluorescent spots on all stages. (These have not been included in Table 5.) A | A -ertessante prominent fluorescent green-blue spot appeared on many of the chromatograms at an RF value of 0.25, but this has not been identified. CONCLUSIONS Although this work has been introductory and exploratory in nature, and the analytical method is to be subjected to several modifications when the study is resumed, sufficient results have emerged to show that an interesting situation with regard to PAHs occurs in the Sydney air-shed. If during the current decade, as appears likely, residents of the Sydney basin follow the example of many North American communities of returning to wood-burning open fires or slow- combustion stoves for domestic space heating, this will introduce another rich source of PAHs into the atmosphere. (See, for example, Cooper, 1980; Hall and DeAngelis, 1980; Budiansky, 1980). Consequently, it is intended to continue this work as time and circumstances permit, to accumulate data on PAH compounds and their prevalence, and endeavour to correlate these with meteorological, natural (e.g. bush fires) and anthropogenic activities. For this purpose, other cascade impactors, probably ''commercial" but certainly "home made" (Hering et al., 1978; Hering et al., 1979; Marple and Willeke, 1976) with ECD's down into the sub-micrometre size range, will be employed. The modifications which are being introduced into the analytical procedure (while retaining TLC as the basic method) is to adopt ultrasonic extraction.of the original sample, the N,N-dimethylformamide-toluene extraction of the PAHs from the filtrate of the ultrasonic extraction operation described by Flessel et al. (1980), and to improve the reliability of the re-solution of the dry PAHs into 100 uL or so of a suitable solvent prior to spotting the TLC plates. Two dimensional or double development of the TLC plates as described by Mainwaring and McGuirk (1977) and Katz and Chan (1980) may be used to obtain better segregation of compounds. It is hoped that the suitability of a spectro- fluorometer with a TLC plate scanner can be assessed for the final quantitative measurements. PAHS IN SYDNEY ATMOSPHERE TABLE 1 THIN-LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHIC SEPARATION OF PAH ON ALUMINIUM OXIDE USING PENTANE-ETHER (19:1, v/v) AS THE SOLVENT (Sawicki et al., 1964) fal RF Fluorescent Colour Ref. No. Compound Vatuet s,s Wet Dry Table 5 Pyrene eas) Blue Blue 1 Anthracene 1.14 Blue Blue 2 Phenanthrene 1S Light blue Light blue 5 Chrysene 1 LO Blue Pink 4 Fluoranthene 1209 Blue Light blue 5) 11H-Benzo (b) fluorene 1.08 Light blue Light blue 6 Triphenylene WOT Light blue Light blue fl Benzo (e) pyrene 1.04 Green/blue Green/blue 8 Benzo(a) anthracene L303 Blue Pink 9 Benzo(a)pyrene 1.00 Blue Pink 10 Benzo(k) fluoranthene 0.98 Blue Blue 11 Perylene 0.91 Blue Light yellow 12 Benzo (ghi) perylene 0.89 Blue Yellow/green 1) Dibenzo(a,e) pyrene 0.78 Blue Light yellow 14 Dibenz(a,h) anthracene 0.74 Blue Blue 15 Anthanthrene Oey Blue Light blue 16 Benzo (rst) pentaphene 0.68 Blue Pink Ly Coronene 0.46 Green Green 18 Dibenzo(h,rst) pentaphene 0.12 Green/blue Light yellow ue) Benzo (a) coronene 0.10 Green/blue Light yellow 20 *RF Value is the distance travelled by the unknown PAH divided by the distance travelled by BaP. TABLE 2 METEOROLOGICAL AND POLLUTION DATA FROM THE STATE POLLUTION CONTROL COMMISSION AND BUREAU OF METEOROLOGY Run _— Date Temp. (4) Wind Cloud sp) spr (°) OC km/hr 1 10-11 SLE 40 few 76 62 2 11-12 Sioa 20 few 28 26 3 15-16 20.3 calm scattered 45 36 4 17-18 15.0 calm few 17 30 5 18-19 19.6 calm hazy 50 55 6 22-23 Doral 10 hazy 33 31 2 23-24 24.7 calm overcast 42 49 8 24-25 20.5 20 clear 14 35 9 29-30 19.1 20 clear 17 28 10 30-31 19.8 20 scattered 9 44 (a) maximum recorded temperature (b) SPM: suspended particulate matter, ug/m*. Reading taken near Broadway, Sydney, between 8 a.m. and 4 p.m. Sydney pollution index, is given by the following formula: * 2 SPI = 10 /(COH)2 + es ah pphny Co) SPT: where COH = coefficient of haze per 1,000 linear feet There are three arbitrary categories of SPI derived from statistical data: light < 30 medium 30 - 45 high > 45 M. D. GERSTEL AND K. S. BASDEN TABLE 3 SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER IN SIZE SEGREGATED CATEGORIES, WITH CORRESPONDING BaP CONCENTRATIONS SPM BaP Aerodynamic diameter um ug/m? % ng/m° % ug/g No. 1, October 10-11, 1979 2 AS A eop Digs) - - - AVON e955 2209 SZ OF ELS 1h36 39 Zuo = 4.0 2:61 4.6 0.274 27.8 105 Wes 9 72:20 2.45 4.3 - - - < 1.5 47.36 S Seek O59 60.6 13 Total bieO2 100.0 0.988 100.0 Average I Nowe, October Ii-12, 1979 > 95 Sok 9.6 3.463 Sie 888 4.0 - 9.5 2.84 eS) 0.497 Sz 176 253 = 47.0, O92 Zit 0.453 Lee 493 LS 42.9 0.54 LS 0.401 6.6 750 ES 52507 80.0 1.241 20155 38 Total 41.08 100.0 6.055 100.0 Average 148 Ne. 3,. October 15-16, 1979 22955 6.74 E256 0.741 oUR: 110 4.0 =.9.5 Gals Tles4 0.726 10.8 119 2.5 i=), 40 3.68 6.9 O67 7 10.0 184 15. = 25 1.76 S05 0.457 6.8 259) pha beats) 55555 6528 4.139 61.4 Ly Total 53.64 100.0 6.740 100.0 Average 126 No. 4, October 17-18, 1979 Ps IS Teil L250 OFZ SES 16 A 0 1598S 10 135.50 0.407 TES 57 Zo = At Sas oa 0.150 4.7 30 ins A elie Geer Sau 0.444 14.1 143

9',5 See 2.57 = 4.0 92 Wee = 2D 0.84 stile 5 17255 Total 30.58 Average No. 10, October 30-31, 1979 PS eS) 9.04 4.0 - 9.5 6.67 Za, = 4.0 2.84 fo = 2.9 iS Seay) 135 37 Total 33257 Average TABLE 3 (Cont'd) SPM N COP NWN e TABLE 4 BaP CONCENTRATION OF BENZO(a)PYRENE IN SYDNEY COMPARED WITH RESULTS FROM OTHER CITIES Location and period Sydney 1962 (1) July 1964 July 1975 Oce. 1949 Melbourne Dec. 1974 Pasadena Dec. 1976 Toronto Feb. 1974 Los Angeles Jan. 1966 June 1972 (1) (2) (this work) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) 1974-75 (8) Average 178 60 48. ES PS) 2 a) 50,0 = 73.0 56.0-101.6 Ave i PeRNA rage . 06 sie ug/g 92 55 41 1730 288 244 182 BaP ng/m? Range 0.08- 0.65 (Cont 'd) iS 14 M. D. GERSTEL AND K. S. BASDEN TABLE 4 (Cont'd) Hamilton, Ontario June 77 - May 78 (8) (4x3 mth. Site (a) 88.3 averages) Site (b) 103.1 Jan. - May 78 (8) Site Site Site Site (a) Cascade Impactor - (a) Hi-Vol. = (b) Cascade Impactor - (b) Hi-Vol. - Hamilton, Ontario 1975 ¥—- 76). Sitealayaics) - New York City 197, 550(8) - References: (1) Hoffman (1968); (2) Tseng (1975); (4) Miguel and Friedlander (1978); et al. ((1968):;" (7) 2Gordonvand Bryans GLoas: No. 4 No. 7 TENTATIVE IDENTIFICATION FOR EACH Aerodynamic diameter um October 10-11, 1979 > October 11-12, 1979 October 17-18, 1979 > < 9.5 Octobersls-1ORe 1979 October 22-23, 1979 > SS Ll NOE nee) nanan October 23-24, 1979 ? eS) TABLE 5 OF OTHER PAHs ON THE TLC PLATES STAGE OF EACH RUN 10 10 NWt FH 10 58.6-121.0 93.6-120.0 WAN DN 2.5 - 4.7 Peto eol s 30 (3) Mainwaring and McGuirk (1977); (5) Pierce and Katz (1975); (6) Stanley (8) Katz and Chan (1980). PAHs identified (Numbers identify the compounds in Table 1) NZ V7 12 18 iS 16 14 20 18 16 18 ke) 19 14 20 16 18 16 20 20 19 ES) 18 20 18 20 WS 20 (Cont'd) PAHS IN SYDNEY ATMOSPHERE es) TABLE 5 (Cont'd) Aerodynamic diameter um i) ical 1 rPnNxFw NI BNN FPHHHALHL No. 9 October 29-30, 1979 oso ASO =: 9.5 - 4.0 Se 25'5 <. deformations. INTRODUCTION The Coffs Harbour Block in northern New South Wales consists of a monotonous sequence of Late Palaeozoic greywacke, siltstone, laminated mud- stone and massive argillite, the petrography of which has been described by Korsch (1978a). Two regional metamorphic events were recognised by Korsch (1978b), the first being a progressive low- grade event with metamorphic recrystallisation increasing southwards, and the second being a Static thermal event. The present aim is to out- line the geologic structures present and to provide a deformational history for the block. Within the Coffs Harbour Block three "gener- ations" of folds have been identified, two being expressed on the mesoscopic scale and the third being obvious only on the macroscopic scale. The two mesoscopic generations, D, and D2, are recog- nised by means of overprinting relationships and by different orientations of their structural elements. Throughout most of the block a single mesoscopic deformation phase, Di, has produced folds varying from open to almost isoclinal. An axial-surface cleavage is common, particularly in the pelitic rocks, and at some localities it has been folded during a second deformation. The second deformation phase, D2, whilst widespread, appears to have been less intense than the first and the structures are less obvious. For the purposes of this paper the Coffs Harbour Block is subdivided into the Redbank River Beds (Korsch, 1971) and the Coffs Harbour "sequence" which consists of the Moombil Beds, Brooklana Beds and Coramba Beds (Korsch, 1978c). The Redbank River Beds are predominantly cherts and crop out only in the vicinity of Red Rock (Fig. 1). They are lithologically distinct from the remainder of the rocks in the Coffs Harbour Block and Korsch (1973) has shown that they are also structurally distinct. Two styles of folds related to two separate deformations have been recognised, but neither can be correlated with the two episodes of mesoscopic deformation described below from the Coffs Harbour sequence. TABLE 1 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS FOUND IN THE COFFS HARBOUR BLOCK Planar Elements Primary layering (bedding), So Axial-surface cleavage, S, Axial surfaces of folds associated with S, Axial surfaces of D> kink bands and gentle warps, S» Linear Elements Fold axes of D, mesoscopic folds, Bel Intersection of So and Si, L(So x Si) Intersection of Sy and Sy, L(Sg x So) Intersection of S; and S2, L(S; x So) Fold axes of Dp mesoscopic folds Be2, Be2 0 1 MESOSCOPIC STRUCTURES Planar and linear elements recognised in the Coffs: Harbour Block are listed in Table 1. Mesoscopic folds produced by Di are abundant throughout the Coffs Harbour Block but the best exposures are the coastal headlands between Broomes Head and Bonville Headland. These folds in So change in shape and attitude in a systematic manner from north to south, with interlimb angles becoming smaller and plunges of the fold axes becoming steeper. The observed styles of D2 folds both in Sg and S; vary from slight flexures through kinks to tight chevron folds. MACROSCOPIC GEOMETRY In a typical structural analysis it is cus- tomary to divide a region into homogeneous domains after having determined the orientation of the structural elements throughout the region. This method has been described in detail by Turner and Weiss (1963). In the Coffs Harbour region the 18 R. J. KORSCH Quaternary alluvium “| Tertiary basalt N Te ie) 25 - Late Palaeozoic granitoids mn v 18s S, Strike line ; dip SO a: So strike line ; dip & Ne AMG ae ( A > ‘ SN Re oy pb - cas Sos CLARENCE — MORETON BAS/N a ees Redbank 14 ~/ River Beds VR eee S Ps © “ ey - = N Sa l )-/ 85 & ~ Sete lf Sao cS SS ‘ /19_ pig Arrawarra € \ oo Net == =4 Mullaway == a Reels -— "2 } 67 Vee is = \—» woolgoolga LLG (A AE as Ror -~-/1 E x Sze 4 BESSA He Say a oh —y) It ASS= % / Seq S/gnal aes “ 8: TSN ~ > op 8b— Hill SSNS oan 35 = CxS az —S [a =e OS 89} a Sp PS eee = 5S EZ y S Oe ae / Eh eee is iS a 23 NN SES “~L sai aE AC eye 1a Bel Sicotts SSS ae arbour nL / x as ts SS / af ZX YY, .. S74 Soambee Head Vine, oe Borille TE. Shoe S 17 Headland Fig. 1. Structural map of the Coffs Harbour Block showing the trends of So and S;. The Coffs Harbour sequence occupies the unpatterned area to the east of the Demon Fault, north of the Bellinger Fault and south and east of the Moreton Basin. Mapped faults are shown in solid lines and the positions of inferred faults are suggested by the broken lines. usual methods of structural analysis cannot be applied rigorously because of the size of the region (over 4000 km’), lack of access, poor exposure and considerable weathering. Hence this paper attempts to outline some of the features of the structural history of the whole region. The presence of macroscopic structures in the Coffs Harbour Block has been inferred largely from changes in the orientation of mesoscopic structures, and the distribution of lithologic units and meta- morphic zones. ORIENTATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF Di STRUCTURES The most commonly observed mesoscopic structures in the Coffs Harbour Block are Sg and Si. For the inland exposures most of the data (except for S;) have been collected in the north- ern part where So is readily observable. So is not observed as frequently as S; in the south. To simplify the discussion of the regional structure, the region has been divided into two subdivisions separated by the Redbank River Beds. To conserve space, the distribution of domains within the subdivisions and stereographic projections for the structural elements from each domain are not presented here but copies of the figures can be obtained from the author. Korsch (1973, Fig. la- 1f) presented 1-diagrams for some structural elements from the thin coastal strip around Woolgoolga. Subdivision 1 This subdivision occupies the region from Red Rock south to the Bellinger Fault and west to the Demon Fault. Within it S; varies in strike from 137° in the northwest to 078° on the coast at Arrawarra, and indicates a general progressive change from west to east across the block. Dips of S; are very steep either to the north or to the south and can be in both directions within one outcrop. So exhibits orientations slightly different from that of S1. Strikes range from 124° in the DEFORMATIONAL HISTORY OF THE COFFS HARBOUR BLOCK 19 northwest to 070° just inland from the coast near Arrawarra, and dips are very steep to both the morth and south. This change in strike can also be observed in the coastal headlands from south to north. Except where localised mesoscopic folds occur, the bedding faces to the north. South- dipping beds from inland areas young to the north and are overturned. During D,, So was folded about horizontally to steeply-plunging axes trending approximately to the east or west. The fold axes are not entirely parallel but this might be due to the later effects of the D2 deformation. Subdivision 2 Most data from this subdivision, which occurs to the north of Red Rock and east of the Moreton Basin, have been collected from the well-exposed rocks of the coastal headlands. Average strikes of Si: range from 000° to 049° and dips are always steep, usually greater than 70°, with dip direct- ions to both the east and west. Along the coastal strip between Red Rock and Rocky Point the average dip of bedding is steeply to the west (about 70° - 75°) whereas from north of Rocky Point to Broomes Head the average dip is steeply to the east (about 60° - 65°). All facing evidence indicates that the sequence faces to the west, and that beds which dip to the east are overturned. Sg was folded about horizontal to steeply-plunging fold axes (B21) trending: e1ther to the north or to the south. The fold axes are not entirely parallel as indicated by the variation in plunges of fold axes noted at various headlands. This may be due to the D2 deformation. Progressive change in intensity of Dj, In Subdivision 1 there is a progressive change from north to south in the plunge of the fold axes from subhorizontal to steeply-plunging and, associated with this, the interlimb angles of mesoscopic folds change from open to tight. In the north, parallel folds occur, but in the south the folds are flattened by a strain, Gex/Ar)2 of between 0.5 to 0.6 (determined using the technique of Ramsay, 1967, Fig. 7-79). The above features indicate a progressive increase in the intensity of the Di deformation towards the south. The comments below refer more particularly to the well exposed coastal headlands, because of the paucity of significant data from the less well exposed inland outcrops. Subdiviston 1: The change in plunge of fold axes with increasing deformation might be explained by a model where an originally horiz- ontal bed is being deformed and a near vertical axial surface is developing. Korsch (1979) has shown that it is possible to have a simple geo- metric relationship where the plunges of the fold axes change progressively while the dip of the axial surface remains constant. However, the limiting condition is that the strike of the marker horizon and the strike of the axial surface must not be the same. In Subdivision 1 the strikes of bedding and cleavage within domains are never the same, but differ by a few degrees (usually 6° - 24°) between average planes of So and S;. In general, in this subdivision a small imterlamb angie ‘correlates with a steep dip in bedding and a steep plunge in the fold axis. Di folds from Subdivision 1 are considered to have formed as the result of an axial load which was horizontal and directed from the south. Mechanisms such as the Coffs Harbour Block being buttressed by rocks from the Nambucca Slate Belt or the Coffs Harbour Block being forced against a stable Nambucca Slate Belt are considered possibilities. Subdivision 2: A simple progressive change in one direction similar to that observed for fold axes and interlimb angles in Subdivision 1 does not occur. The relationship between interlimb angles and dips of bedding indicates that there is a much steeper dip for the bedding in this subdivision than that observed for similar interlimb angles in Subdivision 1. If there has been any rotation of this northern subdivision then the plunges and dips could have been less originally than their present amount. Hence the only variable which would not be affected by the rotation would be in the interlimb angle. Interlimb angles from this subdivision are similar to those from Arrawarra and Mullaway possibly suggesting that this subdivision was located to the east of Arrawarra prior to the proposed rotation. It has not been possible to delineate any macroscopic structures in the Coffs Harbour Block produced by Di apart from the steepening in the orientation of the bedding. This is partly because of poor exposure but if any macroscopic fold developed it would have been refolded or displaced by subsequent folding and faulting during D2 or D3 deformations. ORIENTATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF D2 STRUCTURES Mesoscopic structures produced by D2 are gentle flexures, kink bands and chevron folds in So and S;, and occur throughout the Coffs Harbour sequence. In general, D2 folds from Subdivision 1 have axial surfaces which are approximately north- south in strike. This contrasts with those from Subdivision 2 which have an east-west to northwest- southeast strike. D2 structures are not as common as Di structures and it was not possible to define any macroscopic structure associated with this deformation. WARPING OF BEDDING AND CLEAVAGE Any explanation for the gentle warping of the bedding and cleavage throughout the block which produced slight changes in the orientation of the s-surfaces (Fig. 1) must also explain how the steeply-dipping beds often became overturned. The bedding has been deformed from an originally sub- parallel surface into one which dips steeply to the north or to the south, but youngs in one direction only, namely to the north. Hence while the possibility of isoclinal folding can be negated several other possibilities can be considered. One possibility is that the monotonous sequence might have been deformed due to drag along the postulated faults shown on Fig. 1. Movement might result in slight twisting and drag of the sediments between two faults, particularly 20 if there movement has been any rotational component of (d) along the faults.. The beds, coulid be deformed from an originally parallel sequence into one with dips which are steep in both directions but faces in one direction only. Alternatively, the warping might be the result of a series of thrust faults with only small displacements. These thrusts would parallel the strike of the beds and hence they would be extremely difficult to locate. Only one such fault has been found, at Signal Hill (GR 6308 2616, Coffs Harbour 1:250 000) where a thick, massive greywacke unit has been thrust over a well-bedded sequence which has been slightly deformed by drag along the thrust. The patterns produced by this mechanism would explain slight changes in strike as well as changes in dip with- Ge) out a change in the facing direction, and may help explain the apparent enormous thickness of sediment in the Coffs Harbour sequence. (e) Another possibility is minor warping caused by gentle buckling during either D2 or D3 deformations. A further alternative is that regional-scale overturning of So prior to Dj; could have occurred. This type of situation has been described around Rockvale to the west of the Coffs Harbour Block by Korsch (1975) and would result in both upright and inverted surfaces which were later modified by D. R. J. KORSCH Differences in the orientation of the B>l fold axes occur. In Subdivision 1 the fold axes vary from subhorizontal to steeply-plunging and trend either to the east or the west. This contrasts with Subdivision 2 where the fold axes are usually moderately plunging and trend either to the north or to the south. In Subdivision 2 the beds have suffered a rotation which steepened the beds relative to the equivalent rocks in Subdivision 1. The similarity of D; interlimb angles between Subdivision 2 and the headlands of Arrawarra and Mullaway suggest these districts were located possibly along strike from each other during the time of the first deformation. The orientations of the D2 folds differ between subdivisions. The differences in the orientation could be due to either a sub- sequent folding after the D2 deformation or to differences in attitude of the initial foliation prior to the deformation. The orientations of Do kinks for the two sub- divisions suggest that rotation of the beds possibly occurred after the development of the D2 mesoscopic structures, although this is not definitive evidence. The above points suggest that orientations in Subdivision 1 are significantly different from those in Subdivision 2 and indicate the presence of Several of the above alternatives could have contributed to the warping and localised over- turning, but the solution will not be resolved until detailed study of the structure of inland exposures has been completed. a large macroscopic syncline. dissecting the block and associated with the macroscopic syncline are postulated (Fig. 1). fault surfaces are very rarely exposed and hence the dips are indeterminable. A series of faults The Criteria used to infer the faults include: D3 MACROSCOPIC STRUCTURE (a) The overall distribution of lithologic units suggest that the Coffs Harbour Block could be a large complex syncline. The older units (Moombil Beds and Brooklana Beds) are exposed on the western and southern periphery of the block and the younger Coramba Beds generally crop out closer to the Moreton Basin which may fill the hinge zone of the syncline. The development of the syncline is considered to be a late-stage event post-dating the mesoscopic features formed during D; and D2. Evidence for the syncline is as follows: (a) The headland of Red Rock is the critical area in the synclinal structure. Here, the well- bedded jaspers and cherts of the Redbank (b) River Beds crop out. These rocks were not observed elsewhere in the Coffs Harbour Block and they separate what are considered the two limbs of the syncline occurring to the north and to the south. The two subdivisions out- lined previously correlate with these two limbs. (b) The strike of the bedding ranges from 124° to 070° and younging is to the north in sediments south of Red Rock, in contrast with strikes of 355° to 037° ands younging to: theawest,, in the north. (c) (c) The strike of the cleavage ranges from 137° to 078° south of Red Rock in contrast to strikes of 000° to 049° in the north. Termination of lithologic units along their strike direction. This may be due to iso- clinal folding, but no supporting evidence has been found. The three-fold subdivision of the Coffs Harbour sequence (Korsch, 1978c) and the four-fold petrographic subdivision of the Coramba beds (Korsch, 1978a) indicate, by their areal distribution, that no major repetition of lithologies by thrusting or isoclinal folding has occurred. Facing evidence indicates that the beds young con- sistently in one direction and the termination and displacement of particularly the units within the Coramba beds suggests a pattern of faulting. Differences in orientation of structures occur between adjacent areas separated by the faults. Within the area bounded by two faults the strikes of bedding and cleavage are consistent, but there is a difference usually of more than 5° from one fault bounded area to the next. Each fault bounded area constitutes a separate structural domain which was defined on the basis of orientation patterns of mesoscopic structures. In particular, fold axes are diagnostic, plunging towards the west in one block and plunging to the east in adjacent blocks. Discordances in metamorphic grade occur, as the metamorphic zones appear to have been displaced across the faults (Korsch, 1978b). The zones, which do not coincide with DEFORMATIONAL HISTORY OF THE COFFS HARBOUR BLOCK Zi stratigraphic units, are displaced so that in some places rocks from a lower grade are adjacent to those from a much higher grade. (d) The presence of sheared and, less commonly, brecciated rocks suggest faulting of some form. For example a native mercury deposit located 5 km northwest of Woolgoolga (GR 6286 2710, Coffs Harbour 1:250 000) was found to lie in a shear zone striking almost due north, and is coincident with the pos- monotone of the faults. inferred here. (e) The position of most of the inferred faults are coincident with linear features on aerial photographs. The main component of movement on the faults was Strike-slip. In some cases a horizontal component of 6 km is required to realign the lithologic boundaries. A slight vertical com- ponent may be present because thicknesses of the units differ across adjacent faults. It has not been possible to determine the amount of strike separations, but in most cases the movement was might lateral. CONCLUSIONS AND TECTONIC SPECULATIONS Insufficient data are available to allow precise dating of the various episodes of deform- ation. Korsch (1973) concluded that the two mesoscopic deformational events observed in the Woolgoolga district were both phases of one major period of tectonism which occurred at the time of the Hunter-Bowen Orogeny. However, Harrington and Korsch (in press) showed that in the past two different and separate deformations have been confused, and combined under the term Hunter-Bowen Orogeny. Therefore up until now, in most parts of the New England orogen, almost all deformations have been correlated with the Hunter-Bowen Orogeny. The concordant relationship of the Hillgrove- type Dundurrabin Granodiorite and its internal foliation with the regional orientation of the Di cleavage suggests that Di occurred at approximately the same time as the intrusion of the Hillgrove Plutonic Suite between 295 and 273 m.y. ago. This led Harrington and Korsch (in press) to suggest that the first deformation occurred in Permian Fauna III time, and that the second and third deformations might have occurred in Permian Fauna iy time or later. There is a clear relationship between low- grade regional metamorphism and D; deformation in the Coffs Harbour Block. The cleavage in the Coffs Harbour Block exhibits an axial-surface relationship with Di mesoscopic folds. In places the cleavage is defined by the preferred orient- ation of metamorphic phases, particularly white mica and consequently there is a very close temporal relationship between low-grade regional metamorphism and the Di deformation. The meta- morphism in the Coffs Harbour Block is part of a low-pressure belt which in turn is part of a pair of metamorphic belts in eastern New England (Korsch, 1978b). The medium-pressure belt lies south and west of the low-pressure belt. The metamorphic belts developed simultaneously with deformation which produced a clear and gradual deformational gradient from open, horizontal folds in the north to tight, steeply-plunging folds in the southern part of the Coffs Harbour Block. Hence D; deformation is considered to have occurred during a phase of convergent tectonism in the early Permian. The D2 deformation possibly resulted from movement on a plate boundary, located to the east of the present coastline, which produced the northerly trending mesoscopic folds and is inter- preted by Harrington and Korsch (in press) as resulting from a major west-dipping subduction zone located near the present coastline. The subduction zone was also the cause of a major arc of granitoids and volcanics of which the New England Batholith sensu Stricto 1S a part.. The Do déformation in the Coffs Harbour Block is therefore correlated with the traditional Hunter-Bowen Orogeny. The macroscopic D3 syncline formed prior to the deposition of the Moreton Basin (McElroy, 1962), the earliest sediments of which are middle-Middle Triassic in age. No evidence has been found for the continuation of the associated inferred faults into the Mesozoic sediments and hence D3 movement ceased prior to Middle Triassic time. The position of the D3 macroscopic syncline defined the limits to the deposition of sediments in the southern part of the Moreton Basin as no extensive outliers of Moreton Basin sediments occur covering the Coffs Harbour sequence away from the basin proper. The rocks of Subdivision 2 and the northern part of Subdivision 1 probably acted as a barrier which confined the deposition of the Mesozoic sediments mainly to their present observable area. The D3 folding was probably completed prior to the emplacement of several granitoids, some of which have New England Batholith affinities and others have Stanthorpe Suite affinities. Hence it is considered likely that the D3 deformation occurred during the late Permian at a slightly later time than the D2 deformation. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank Dr H.J. Harrington for his encouragement during this work and for his advice and many helpful discussions on the geology of the Coffs Harbour Block. Discussions with E.C. Leitch, K.C. Cross and C.L. Fergusson also were valuable. The diagram was draughted by M.R. Bone. Mrs Rhonda Vivian kindly typed the final copy. REFERENCES Hareimetons Had. and KogSch. Red. sin presis. Tectonics of the New England Orogen and parts of the Yarrol Orogen. J. Geol. Soc. Aust. Korsch, R.J., 1971. Palaeozoic sedimentology and igneous geology of the Woolgoolga District, North Coast, New South Wales. Jd. Proc. R. SOC Wet 1045 O5=75x Korsch, R.d., 197352, “Structural analysis of the Palaeozoic sediments in the Woolgoolga district, North Coast, New South Wales. Jd. Proc hw Soe. NiuowW., L065 98-103. Korsch, R.J., 1975. Structural analysis and geological evolution of the Rockvale - Coffs 22 Harbour region, northern New South Wales. Ph.D. Thesis, Untv. New England. (Unpubl.) Korsch, R.J., 1978a. Petrographic variations within thick turbidite sequences: an example from the Late Palaeozoic of eastern Australia. Sedimentology, 25, 247-265. Korsch, R.J., 1978b. Regional-scale thermal meta- morphism overprinting low-grade regional metamorphism, Coffs Harbour Block, Northern New South Wales. <¢. Proc. R. Soc. N.S.W., 111, 89-96. Korsch, R.J., 1978c. Stratigraphic. and igneous units in the Rockvale-Coffs Harbour region, northern New South Wales. Jd. Proc. R. Soc. NeSaWels Lid. Voy Department of Geology, University of New England, ARMIDALE. N.S.W. 2351. R. J. KORSCH Korsch, R.J., 1979. An explanation for a system- atic change in the plunge of fold axes within an axial surface of constant orientation. Jd. Proc.” Hie SOC. NUS AW 4. lice eae McElroy, C.T., 1962. The geology of the Clarence- Moreton Basin. W.S.W. Geol. Surv. Mem., 9. Ramsay, J.G., 1967. FOLDING AND FRACTURING OF ROCKS. McGraw-Hill, New York. 568 pp. Turner, F.J. and Weiss, L.E., 1963. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF METAMORPHIC TECTONITES. McGraw- Hill, New York.) "S45 eegr Present Address: Armidale College of Advanced Education, ARMIDALE. “N.S We)" 92350 (Manuscript received 20.5.80) (Manuscript received in final form 23.2.81) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 114, pp. 23-27, 1981 ISSN 0035-9173 Formation of “Beach Bubbles” on Quartz Sand Beaches of the Illawarra Coast, New South Wales R. A. FACER ABSTRACT. Gentle mounds or "beach bubbles" have been observed on several quartz sand beaches of the Illawarra district of New South Wales. These mounds or sand domes are generally 50mm to 150mm across and occur as intact (non-breached) crusts up to 20mm thick over a domed cavity as much as 10mm high. The sand of the "beach bubbles" is indistinguishable on the basis of sieve analysis data from the other surface sand of the beach. "Beach bubbles" develop near the top of the swash line on gently sloping beaches, but under a variety of tidal and wave conditions. Development apparently occurs by uplift of a crust of sand by air not being able to escape through the wet sand during and immediately following backwash. Preservation of these tran- sient features — they generally collapse and re-establish in a different site after successive waves — would require very special conditions. INTRODUCTION The Illawarra coast of New South Wales has many cuspate to zeta beaches which consist primar- ily of quartz sand. (Minor examples of boulder beaches are present.) This quartz sand is mainly derived from sandstones of the Permian-Triassic sequence of the southern Sydney Basin (Fig. 1) (cf. Langford-Smith and Thom, 1969). Processes influencing the present sediment supply are minor fluvial inflow (although coastal streams. are generally quite small), supply from the continen- tal shelf, and direct coastal erosion of the rocks. Movement of sand on the beaches is predomin- antly wave action, resulting in on-offshore sedi- ment transporte. Minor longshore movement occurs with seasonal shifts in wave direction. If modal wave height is taken to be 1.5m, then waves below Corrimal Fairy Meadow 1.5m height would lead to beach accretion and MOD, : OLLONGONG above 1.5m to beach erosion (Short, 1979). Wind ee at Dto® action is also important, and in places there are aay QUATERNARY - alluvium extensive coastal dunes. In some beach sands local SOUS eet of shell pugonen’. occur, ars oe : Windstar TERTIARY - igneous rocks there is no present development of "beach rock". ee oT} Warilla TRIASSIC - sandstone, shale Surface and near-surface structures on the sand beaches are generally typical of wind and eas PERMIAN - coal measures wave action, plus invertebrate burrowing and rain eee a A A a Eaan ane Bombo PERMIAN - sandstones, prints. The beach profile typically consists of a as Aube ©.@ ee SR Shallow (3° to 5° slope) seaward-sloping swash zone (with occasional wave-cut scarps and berms) backed by a gentle slope of dry sand, and local- ized dune development on some beaches. However, minor features have been observed which are here termed "beach bubbles", although they are similar to "sand domes" of Emery (1945) and have some FIG. 1 Map showing locations of nine sites Similarity to "mounds" described by Trefethen and along Illawarra coast beaches from which Dow (1960). "beach bubble" samples were collected. 1 to 5 were 50m, 150m, 170m, 300m and FIELD DESCRIPTION OF "BEACH BUBBLES" 400m from the N end of South Wollongong Beach, 6 was 100m N and 7 was 100m S of On a number of occasions (over 10 months), the entrance to Lake Illawarra (the and on a number of beaches (including those shown coastal lagoon shown), and 8 and 9 were on Figure 1), transient features have been obser- 40m and 100m from the N end of Bombo ved at or just seaward of the swash line. These beach. The geology is simplified from features appear as small circular to sub-circular that of Brunker and Rose (1969). R. A. FACER swellings. The diameter of these "beach bubbles" was observed to be within the range 50mm to 150mm, and their height was as much as 10mm to 20mm above the otherwise flat sand surface (Fig. 2). In general, the cavity is a few millimetres to 10mm high, beneath a crust of slightly greater thick- ness — the crust and cavity dimensions being roughly proportional to the diameter of the "beach bubble". There is a domed top to the cavity and the floor is flat and parallel to bedding in the beach sediments. The "beach bubbles" were apparently restric- ted to the sand at the top of the swash zone, often in a line just seaward of the topmost froth line (Fig. 2A), although solitary bubbles also occurred. When first studied they were observed to be concentrated between cusp horns on a low sloping (approximately 3° towards the ocean) beach below a minor wave cut scarp. Subsequently it was established that they occurred under various beach conditions: all tide stages; small to large waves on varying swells; gentle to strong (including gale force) onshore and offshore winds; with and without cusps, berm(s) or scarps; and even ona slight back berm slope. The "beach bubbles" invariably occurred above the static water table (this is discussed further, below). There remai- ned a tendency for the "beach bubbles" to occur near or just below the swash line of the highest 5 per cent to 20 per cent of all waves. Although infiltration of the returning wave water occurred, the extent was variable. In an extreme case infiltration was 100% on the back-berm slope of Bombo beach. Some "beach bubbles" were penetrated by worm burrows or holes, and some occurred in a small pebbly patch. Neither of these variations from the common state appeared to influence their development. "Beach bubbles" have also been observed on One Mile beach, Forster (approximately 300km north of Sydney). It is not suggested here that these features are restricted. Photographs illustrating "beach bubbles" on South Wollongong beach. The scale is 10cm long in each view. A) Swash froth line showing typical distribution of "beach bubbles". B) Dissec- ted "beach bubble" showing internal cavity. The inner surfaces are apparently smooth, although dissection disturbs the sand to yield a layer of loosened sand. THE SAND OF THE "BEACH BUBBLES" The sand of the crusts of several "beach bubbles" was sampled, together with a bulk sample of the surface sand at the same site. This bulk sample was made up of three to five small, equal samples taken from surface sand from just below the swash line up the beach at 10m intervals across the whole beach. All samples were dried, split, and subjected to a routine sieve analysis (sieve interval 0.59). The results were plotted (Fig-e 3) and various statistical parameters deter- mined (cf. Folk, 1974, pp. 41-48). Results of the graphic (Fig- 3) and statis- tical analyses (Table 1) indicate that there are few significant differences within the overall sample population. There are five pairs of "beach bubble" and bulk samples (1, 3, 5, 8 and 9). Comparison of these five pairs shows: (i) in three pairs the sand of the "beach bubble" is slightly coarser than the bulk sample; (ii) in three pairs the standard deviation is lower in the "beach bubble"; (iii) in three pairs the skewness is the same, with one "beach bubble" less symmetric- al and one more symmetrical; and (iv) the kurtosis relativities are variable. As these differences tend to be slight there is no apparent graphical or statistical distinc- tion of the "beach bubbles" from the remainder of the beach sands. FORMATION OF "BEACH BUBBLES" It has been possible to study the development of "beach bubbles" on Fairy Meadow beach during waves (breakers 25cm high on average, wavelength 8 to 10 metres) with very even swash run-up, just after low tide on a beach of 4° to 6° (variable) “BEACH BUBBLES” OF THE ILLAWARRA COAST 1. S. WOLLONGONG NR N. END 29 JUNE 80 095 084 075 @50 “Beach bubble” Bulk Sample across beach FIG. 3 An example of a cumulative plot of sieved sand samples from site 1 where both "beach bubble" sand and the corres- ponding bulk sand sample from across the beach were collected. In the latter case only the top 2cm of sand were collected for closer comparison with the "beach bubble". slope. The "beach bubbles" were relatively few. They developed at and within 60cm of the swash (froth) line. Immediately after the backwash, and as soon as infiltration allowed, the "beach bub- bles" appeared. The “beach bubbles" must there- fore form during backwash. This observation has been confirmed by B.G. Jones (pers. comm., 1980). The "beach bubbles" may protrude above the water surface at the final stage. If minor air escape occurred (to potentially develop a structure like a sand volcano) the "beach bubbles" tended to disintegrate to very minor watery depressions during backwash. It is possible that the "beach bubbles" develop by air entrapped in the sand ahead of subsurface water rising up the beach below (and presumably just seaward of) the advan- cing swash (cf. Emery, 1945 — although the Illa- warra beaches were apparently wetter than those studied by Emery). On one occasion on Corrimal beach large "beach bubbles" (to 150mm diameter) which had formed on a very shallow (1° to 3°) Swash slope could be collapsed by foot, with consequent noticeable effects around the structure — the sand out to a radius of approximately 100mm was seen to be slightly uplifted by the air expel- led from the "beach bubble". On Fairy Meadow beach (and on other beaches) the "beach bubbles" JES were destroyed by the next wave, presumably by collapse of the domed cavity by the added weight of water and especially by reduced shear strength of the wetted sand, especially in the crust (thus presumably allowing air to escape). The next group of "beach bubbles" then developed in the same sand but in different sites at or near the swash line. The sand of the "beach bubbles" is suffic- iently well-sorted and packed to maintain a cavity even during draining of water — i.e. earliest stages of drying. It is suggested that the gas (air) is trapped in the wet sand, and hence causes doming, because there is still a sufficient hydrostatic head above the sand to prevent gas escape. The gas entrapment and uplift phase generally lasted only about 10 seconds — 5 sec- onds of swash and 5 seconds of backwash. Such a time span would presumably allow the water to percolate by as much as 30mm into the sand, al- though this penetration would depend on sand size, sorting and packing (and presumably permeability) as well as on the time between wettings. DISCUSSION The "beach bubbles" appear to be transient and are not likely to be preserved. This trans- ience is due to the nature (and place) of their development and destruction/replacement. Appar- ently they form by gas (presumably air) attempting to escape from the sand wetted by the swash — but apparently only during backwash and during infil- tration. Preservation could be possible — for example in the situation observed on Bombo beach, where the high tide swash (storm waves) reached almost across the entire beach because the shore- ward two-thirds consisted of a slightly landward- sloping back-berm. Should such a beach config- uration be maintained (which is possible for several weeks) then beach rock development could preserve “beach bubbles" (which would presumably take longer than several weeks). Inflow of fluv- ial/coastal lagoon clayey sediments would presum- ably wet and collapse the "beach bubbles" and thus preclude preservation. (Clayey sediments had been deposited on Bombo beach, although it is not implied that any of the preservation possibilities was active on Bombo.) However, on Corrimal beach "beach bubbles" have been observed temporarily preserved in sand dried after a drop in tide, the crust being slightly cemented by dried ?salts. Owing to their transience (for example the crust and cavity would generally collapse quickly during burial loading) it is not surprising that "beach bubbles" are not illustrated as such by, for example, Pettijohn and Potter (1964), Cony- beare and Crook (1968) or Reineck and Singh (1975). "Beach bubbles" are unlike sand or mud volcanoes, having no craters. It is possible that this is the case for "beach bubbles" because the volume of gas attempting to escape tends to be insufficient to cause rupture. Thus the "mounds" described by Kindle (1916) and similar features described by later authors formed differently from the Illawarra "beach bubbles". The features illustrated by Smith (1971) were grossly similar in morphology to the "beach bubbles" but were much larger and formed in a very different fashion. 26 R. A. FACER TABLE 1 STATISTICAL DATA (AFTER FOLK, 1974) RELATING TO SAND OF "BEACH BUBBLES" ON THE ILLAWARRA COAST Sample Graphic Mean M Inclusive Graphic No. (Grainsize) Standard Deviation Oy ) > 1 1.48 0.439 well-sorted 1m 1.40 0.326 vewell-sorted 2 1.35 0.280 v.well-sorted 3 1.41 0.492 well-sorted 3m 1.47 0.347 vewell-sorted 4 1.48 0.426 well-sorted 5 1.28 0.363 well-sorted 5m 1.30 0.342 v.well-sorted 6 1.70 0.346 v.ewell-sorted 7 1.73 0.352 well-sorted 8 1.57 0.336 vewell-sorted 8m 1.53 0.362 well-sorted 9 1.37 0.389 well-sorted om 1.34 0.434 well-sorted NOTES: Inclusive Graphic Skewness Sk, Graphic Kurtosis K. -0.054 near symmetrical 1.05 mesokurtic +0.087 near symmetrical 1.08 mesokurtic -0.042 near symmetrical 1.06 mesokurtic -0.279 coarse-skewed 1.13 leptokurtic -0.076 near symmetrical 1.09 mesokurtic -0.048 near symmetrical 1.07 mesokurtic -0.012 near symmetrical 1.06 mesokurtic -0.033 near symmetrical 1.17 leptokurtic +0.003 near symmetrical 0.89 platykurtic -0.037 near symmetrical 0.91 mesokurtic -0.160 coarse-skewed 1.08 mesokurtic -0.172 coarse-skewed 1.09 mesokurtic -0.182 coarse-skewed 1.07 mesokurtic -0.330 strongly coarse- 0.903 mesokurtic skewed The suffix "m" signifies a bulk (or multiple) sample (see text for description and Fig. 1 for locations of sample sites). Emery (1945) described, inter alia, "sand domes" which were apparently very similar to the "beach bubbles" of this study. The term "beach bubble" is preferred here because of the implied process of formation. Similarities between the observations of Emery (1945) and those reported here include their morphology and size, and the beach slopee However, as noted above the sand of Illawarra "beach bubbles" and of the overall beach are not readily distinguishable — whereas Emery (1945, p.- 40) observed "Almost invariably the sand domes are restricted to beaches having thin layers of coarser sand alternating with layers of finer sand.". In some Illawarra "beach bubbles" the crust appeared coarser, but this could have been caused by aeration above the air cavity. In this study the "beach bubbles" formed at various tide stages, but Emery (1945, p.47) observed the domes "on the highest part of a beach reached by high tide." The "mounds" illustrated and described by Trefethen and Dow (1960, fig- 15, pp- 598 and 602) are Similar to the "beach bubbles" described here. However, figure 15 of Trefethen and Dow (1960) showed the "mounds" to have slightly steeper edges or slopes (cf. Fige 2) and perhaps for this reason some "mounds" in their figure were smaller than the "beach bubbles". Another (possible) difference is that Trefethen and Dow (1960) made no reference to internal features. Trefethen and Dow (1960, pe 602) reported that the "mounds were observed to form in front of the advancing tide" although their figure 15 showed several mounds spread over an area associated with mineral strea- king or lineation (which could have developed during backwash). If the "mounds" form in the way suggested by Trefethen and Dow (1960) then the "beach bubbles" of the Illawarra beaches form differently — just below the swash line during and immediately after backwash. Hoyt and Henry (1964) described sponge-like bubble development in sand beaches — a texture rather like light, porous bread. That development created a distinctly different texture from that of the "beach bubbles", and also involved disrup- tion of layering. The fluid-escape structures described by, for example, Lowe (1975, pp. 166- 175) and Johnson (1977) are also distinctly different in that disruption of sands occurred. In the Illawarra "beach bubbles" no significant disruption of any layer that may be present was observed. CONCLUSION Hollow transient swellings, with a crust of sand, are developed as "beach bubbles" on quartz sand beaches of the Illawarra district of New South Wales. These "beach bubbles" are between 50mm and 150mm in diameter. They develop near the “BEACH BUBBLES” OF THE ILLAWARRA COAST top of the swash during or immediately after the backwash has returned, and probably before signi- ficant infiltration has occurred. Development is apparently in response to doming by air entrapped in the damp sand ahead of advancing water assoc- iated with the swash — provided the within-sand air pressure exceeds the ambient external pressure and the damp sand has sufficient shear strength. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Beach studies have been assisted by my family. BeG.e Jones and E. A. Bryant have aided this study by discussion, exchange of ideas and reading the manuscript. An anonymous referee drew the writer's attention to the results of Short (1979). This assistance is gratefully acknow- ledged. REFERENCES Brunker, R.-Le- and Rose, Ge (Compilers), 1969. Sydney Basin 1:500,000 geological sheet (special). Geol. Surv. N.S.W. Conybeare, C.E.B.e. and Crook K.A.W., 1968. Manual of Sedimentary Structures. Bur. Min. Res- our., Geol. Geoph. Bull. 102, 327pp. Emery K.O., 1945. Entrapment of air in beach sand. J. Sedim. Petrol., 15, 39-49. Folk, R.Le, 1974. Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks. Hemphill, Austin (Texas). 182pp. Hoyt, J.-H. and Henry, V.J.-, 1964. Development and geologic significance of soft beach sand. Sedimentology, 3, 44-51. Johnson, H.D.e, 1977. Sedimentation and water escape structures in some late Precambrian shallow marine sandstones from Finnmark, North Norway. Sedimentology, 24, 389-411. R.A. Facer, Department of Geology, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, 2500. a Kindle, E.M., 1916. Small pit and mound struc- tures developed during sedimentation. Geol. Mage, 53, 542-547. Langford-Smith, T. and Thom, BeG.e, 1969. New South Wales coastal morphology, ppe- 572-580, In Packham, GH. (Ed.), Geology of New South Wales. Je geol. Soc. Aust., 16, 1-654. Lowe, D.R-, 1975. coarse-grained sediments. 22, 157-204. Water escape structures in Sedimentology, Pettijohn, F.J. and Potter, P.E., 1964. Atlas and Glossary of Primary Sedimentary Struc- tures. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 370pp. Reineck, H.-E. and Singh, I.B.e, 1975. Deposi- tional Sedimentary Environments with Ref- erence to Terrigenous Clastics. Springer- Verlag, Berlin. 439pp. Short, A.D.-, 1979. Wave power and beach stages: a global model. Proc. 16th Intl. Conf. of Coastal Engr.-, Hamburg, 1145-1162. Smith, J.Le, 1971. Cover photograph (p.1) and caption (p.3)- Geotimes, 16, No. 6. Trefethen, J.M. and Dow, R.Le, 1960. Some fea- tures of modern beach sediments. J. Sedim. Petrol., 30, 589-602. Note added in proof A.M. Clarke (pers. comm., 1981) has "loaded" beach bubbles with pebbles. The maximum weight supported by a beach bubble was 117 gm. (Manuscript received 29.4. 81) (Manuscript received in final form 12.6.81) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 114, pp. 29-31, 1981 ISSN 0035-9173 An Early Cretaceous Age for Subsurface Pilliga Sandstone in the Spring Ridge District, Mooki Valley HELENE A. MARTIN ABSTRACT. The palynology of the supposedly Jurassic Pilliga Sandstone at Spring Ridge, one of the most easterly outcrops of this unit, shows that it is Early Cretaceous, and not Jurassic. Lithologically and hydrologically, the sandstone at Spring Ridge is very like the Pilliga Sandstone. Two likely explanations for this discrepancy are discussed. Some Tertiary assemblages, most likely Late Oligocene have been found beneath the basalts of the Liverpool Range Beds. INTRODUCTION The Spring Ridge district is just south west of the area in the Mooki River Valley reported in Martin 1979, but the stratigraphic palynology is entirely different. A sandstone outcrop at Spring Ridge is mapped as ? Jurassic Pilliga Sandstone with smal- ler areas of the underlying Jurassic Purlawaugh Beds. There are a number of outcrops of the Tertiary Liverpool Range Beds which include basalts. The valleys are filled with Quaternary alluvium (1:250,000 Geological Series, Tamworth Sheet SH 56-13). Samples from bores in this region were received from the Water Resources Com- mission of New South Wales with a request for con- firmation of the Jurassic age, but a palynological examination shows that the sandstone is Early Cretaceous and not Jurassic. Some Tertiary assem- blages, trapped beneath the basalts, were also found. This paper reports the stratigraphic paly- nology of the Spring Ridge bores. GEOLOGY The bore logs show an overlying clay and gravel layer (see Figs. 1,2). Sandstone is en- countered at 28m in Bore 30315 which is on the flanks of the ridge, but elsewhere it is much deeper. Shale and siltstone overlie the sandstone in Bore 36334. Basalts are encountered in the other bores. The sandstone is white to grey, mainly coarse grained and porous. Thin layers of shale, siltstone and coal are encountered throughout. Lithologically and hydrologically, it has all the characteristics of the Pilliga Sandstone which is the major aquifer of the Great Australian Basin. There is no doubt that the Pilliga Sandstone is Jurassic in age, but the nearest palynological dating is some 90-100km to the north west of Spring Ridge. Other aquifers occur in the "Upper Blythesdale Group" (Jurassic and Early Cretaceous) and the ''Rolling Downs Group" (Cretaceous, Hind and Helby, 1969). However, the nearest occur- rence of the Cretaceous is some 120km to the NNW (1:250,000 Geological Series, Narrabri Sheet SH 55-12). The basalts from the East Liverpool Volcano have been potassium — argon dated by Wellman and McDougall (1974) and they are Eocene and Oligocene. However, there were a number of flows and the samples for dating were taken from the surface, some 60km to the south east, so it is impossible to trace the relationship, if any, from the dated basalts to the subsurface basalts in these bores. SAMPLING All of the bores yielding Early Cret aceous assemblages were cored. Samples for treatment were taken from the centre of the core. The minor shale and coal bands in the sandstone, often no more than lcm thick, were selected. The Tertiary assemblages come from cuttings. SPRING ? JURASSIC PILLIGA SANDSTONE YZ, TERTIARY LIVERPOOL , RANGE BEDS CAINOZOIC ALLUVIUM \ 36404% a BORE SITE A A- = —f! LINE OF CROSS SECTION km O 4 Fig. 1 Spring Ridge locality map. Outcrops from Leone Geological Series, Tamworth Sheet SH 56-13. 30 HELENE A. MARTIN A certh 30315 36384 (™ 0 36334 EARLY CRETACEOUS EARLY CRETACEOUS} 7.1 EARLY “21... CRETACEOUS .” .” «| Dictyotosporites ."-"-| speciosus ZONE | TERTIARY *..] EARLY 2? OLIGOCENE ."." 4EARLY .°.".] CRETACEOUS piety CRETACEOUS 4%.°.°. Seite Dictyotosporites ,. speciosu: ONE Fig. 2 Correlation of bores: 1. Predominantly red, yellow, brown alluvium. 2. Sandstone. 3. Grey siltstone and shale. 4. Predominantly basalts, often with frequent clay bands. 5. Clay. 6. Gravel. 7. Palynological sample. PALYNOSTRAT IGRAPHY Two ages are involved here, Early Cretaceous and Tertiary. The Early Cretaceous assemblages contain the diagnostic species Dictyotosporites spectosus, Aequttrtradites sptnulosus, Conttgnisporites multimuratus, Foramintsporttes wonthaggtensis and Schtzosports rettculatus which collectively in- dicate the Dictyotosporites spectosus Zone of Neocomian — Aptian age (Dettmann, 1963; Dettmann and Playford, 1969). Other species which are commonly accepted as exclusively Cretaceous forms are also present, viz: Ctcatricostsporites aus- traltensts, Fovetriletes parviretus and Murospora flortda. Forms which range from Late Jurassic into the Early Cretaceous, e.g., Contitgnisporttes cooksonitt are also present, but no unequivocal Jurassic species have been found. The species identified in selected samples are shown in Table L The diagnostic species are not common and they are lacking from a number of the samples examined. The quantitative aspects, however, indicate that all of the samples are the same age. Baculatt- sporttes comaunensts, Lycopodtumsporites, spp. and Cyathidites australts are the most common forms. Of the gymnosperms, Microcachrytdttes antarctticus and Podocarptdites spp. are the most common but Araucartacttes australis and Tsugaepollenites spp. are also frequently encountered. No dinoflagella- tes are present, indicating fresh water deposition. Early Cretaceous assemblages have been identi- fied in twelve samples selected from a core from 58m to 158m through the sandstone and its over- lying shale and siltstone. Assemblages of the same age have been found at depths of over 100m in two of the other bores. The Tertiary assemblages contain abundant Nothofagus spp. and only three species of Proteactdites, P. tvanhoensts being the most com- mon. Phyllocladtdites mawsontt was not identified, and the content of Myrtacetdttes spp. is low. These features collectively indicate the middle part of the Proteactdttes tuberculatus Zone (Stover and Partridge 1973). The most likely age is late Oligocene, although assemblages such as these range into the Early Miocene. Only two Tertiary assemblages have been encountered, one very poorly preserved with insufficient evidence to place it in a zone. For the purposes of this paper, both assemblages are assumed to be the same age. The two Tertiary assemblages occur at depths of over 130m where the basal sandstone is reached at approximately 140m. DISCUSSION There is no doubt that the Spring Ridge sand- stone closely resembles the Pilliga Sandstone on lithologic and hydrologic grounds, but it is not Jurassic, the accepted age of the Pilliga Sand- stone. There are two possible explanations for this discrepancy: 1) The Pilliga Sandstone is time transgressive. Given the large area covered by this unit, this explanations is entirely feasible. 2) This is not the Pilliga Sandstone but one of the overlying units which has become more sandy towards the margin of the basin. The Early Cretac- eous sediments to the north in the Surat Basin are marine whereas these are fresh water. It will require further evidence to resolve this problem. In the Tertiary, most likely the Late Oligocene, Spring Ridge must have been a sandstone ridge ex- tending some 100m above the valley to the south west. In the valley, local swamps, bogs, etc., provided the natural pollen traps necessary for pollen preservation. Successive lava flows from the East Liverpool Volcano filled up the valley, preserving the sediments containing the Tertiary pollen. Judging from the outcrops of basalts, the lava flows probably covered all of the sandstone ridge as well. Subsequent erosion has exhumed the sandstone ridge and carved out the present valley. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was funded by the Water Resources Commission of New South Wales who also provided the samples. I am indebted to Dr. J.N. Cramsie for discus- sions on the problems herein. Mr. G. Gates of the Water Resources Commission of New South Wales read the manuscript. Mr. P. Gadek prepared the diagrams. REFERENCES Dettmann, M.E. 1963. Upper Mesozoic microfloras from south eastern Australia. Proc. Roy. Soc. VECt.) Asa = VAS Dettmann, M.E. & Playford, G. 1969. Palynology of the Australian Cretaceous. A Review. In K.S.W. Campbell. Ed. Stratigraphy and Palaeontology, Essays in Honour of Dorothy Hill. ANU Press, Canberra. PILLIGA SANDSTONE AT SPRING RIDGE Sil REFERENCES (Cont.) Stover, L.E. & Partridge, A.D. 1973. Tertiary and Late Cretaceous spores and pollen from the Gipps- Hind, M.C. & Helby, R.J. 1969. The Great Artesian land Basin, south eastern Australia. Proc. Roy. Basin in New South Wales. J. Geol. Soc. Aust. Soe. Viet. 85: 237-286. 16: 481-497. Wellman, P. §& McDougall, I. 1974. Potassium — Martin, H.A. 1979. Stratigraphic palynology of the argon ages on the Cainozoic volcanic rocks of Mooki Valley, New South Wales. ¢. & Proc. Roy. New South Wales. J. Geol. Soc. Aust. 21: eOce WeS.We 112: 71-78. 247-272. TABLE 1 SPRING RIDGE BORES + Present ++ Abundant Bore 36334 36333 36315 & Depth 57.9 § 110.6 § 143.2 & Gy Soed° 11a? 158.5 Piao a) 2 Gymnosperm pollen Altsporites grandts (Cookson) Dettmann 1963 + + + A. stmtlis (Balme) Dettmann 1963 + + Araucartacttes australts Cookson 1947 =P + + + Classopollis cf C. classotdes Pflug emend Pocock §& Jansonius 1961 Ginkgocycadophytus nttidus (Balme) de Jersey 1962 Microcachrytdttes antarettcus Cookson 1947 Podocarpidttes spp. Tsugaepollenites damptert (Balme) Dettmann 1963 T. trilobatus (Balme) Dettmann 1963 + + ++ + + + + + + +++ + + + Spores Aequitrtradttes sptnulosus (Cookson §& Dettmann) Cookson § Dettmann 1961 1 Baculattsporites comaumensts (Cookson) Potonié 1956 or + ++ + a Ceratosporttes equalts Cookson § Dettmann 1958 ¥ f Citeatrtcostsporites australtensts (Cookson) Potonié 1956 + Conttgnisporites cooksontt (Balme) Dettmann 1963 C. multimuratus Dettmann 1963 Cyathidttes australts Couper 1953 oe ae C. minor Couper 1953 + Ditetyophylltdites crenatus Dettmann 1963 Dietyotosporites spectosus Cookson §& Dettmann 1958 By Foramintsports datlyt (Cookson §& Dettmann) Dettman 1963 ° + F., wonthaggtensts (Cookson & Dettmann) Dettman 1963 + Fovetriletes parviretus (Balme) Dettmann 1963 + tt Gletehenttdites cf G. ctretnidites (Cookson) Dettmann 1963 + Kluktisporttes scaberis (Cookson §& Dettmann) Dettmann 1963 ni + 3 Leptoleptdites verrucatus Couper 1953 it + Lycopodtactdttes asperatus Dettmann 1963 Lycopodtumsporttes austroclavatidites (Cookson) Potonié 1956 aa + + op ++ L. reticulumsporttes (Rouse) Dettmann 1963 a + ct + Murospora florida (Balme) Pocock 1961 1 + Neoratstrickta truneatus (Cookson) Potonié 1956 Osmundactdttes wellmanit Couper 1953 + Reticulatisporites pudens Balme 1957 Sehizosporis reticulatus Cookson & Dettmann 1959 + Steretsporites anttquasporites (Wilson § Webster) + Dettmann 1963 t+ +e ttet + + + + +++ 4+ School of Botany University of New South Wales Kensington, N.S.W., 2033 (Manuscript received 1-11-80) (Manuscript received in final form 20.3. 81) ul Se ead FP Tha Say, Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 114, pp. 33-36, 1981 ISSN 0035-9173 Address By His Excellency The Right Honourable Sir Zelman Cowen, A.K., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., K.St.J., Q.C., Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia, on the Occasion of the Annual Dinner of The Royal Society of New South Wales at the Hilton Hotel, Sydney, Friday, 6 March 1981 CowEN, His EXCELLENCY SIR ZELMAN, A.K., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., K.St.J., Q.C. It is a great pleasure to attend the Annual Dinner of this distinguished and long established scientific Society. Your President in writing to invite me said that the Society was established in 1821, with the Governor, Sir Thomas Brisbane, as a member. I have read a little of the history of the Society. A 1961 essay by a former President tells that the 1821 Society had the grand title of "The Philosophical Society of Australasia", no less, and was formed ''with a view to inquiring into the various branches of physical science of this vast continent and its adjacent regions". That, if I may say so, gave a restricted inter- pretation to the broad word, "philosophical", and while later descriptions of the Society's activi- ties and objects have held open a wider prospect, your 1961 historian records that "art, literature and philosophy have had but scant attention in the proceedings of the Society which has concerned itself principally with various aspects of pure and applied science". In 1974 at the dinner of the Society, Sir Roden Cutler spoke of the association of Governors with this Society. Sir Thomas Brisbane, already mentioned, had scientific interests, notably in astronomy, and he took an active interest in the earliest Society's affairs. Later, in the mid- nineteenth century, Sir William Denison, who, Sir Roden tells, was an engineer of some merit, gave the first paper to the remodelled Philosophical Society of New South Wales in 1855. Sir Roden says that Denison continued to write articles for the Philosophical Society, and regarded this work as compensating for what he described as the "work (of government) being taken out of my hands" by the formation of a Legislative Council. Your contemporary activities continue in the areas of basic and applied science. Your Presi- dent in writing to me says that my previous experience was in many ways akin to the aims of the Society in relating science and scholarship to the general community. Certainly, as a Vice- Chancellor of Australian universities, I had many involvements in scientific matters, and in this Office I have had many opportunities to speak on themes associated with science and technology. When I undertook the daunting task of delivering the Jubilee Oration to the Australian Academy of Science, on the occasion of its twenty-fifth anniversary, I said that it was reported that Francis Bacon had talked science like a Lord Chancellor. If it was true, he certainly claimed a knowledge and understanding of contemporary science and spoke with confidence. I claim no such knowledge, and while, like him, I ama lawyer, I am no Lord Chancellor (a Vice-Chancellor is something different), and my qualification and capacities to ''talk science'' are very poor. Since I have started in this way, I can, perhaps irrelevantly, tell you that the title "Vice-Chancellor'', as well as applying to univer- sity functionaries, has had and has a place in the English judicial system. Long ago, two Vice- Chancellors were sitting in adjacent courts. One was Vice-Chancellor Malins, and a discontented litigant threw an egg at him which, I think, missed. Sentencing this character for contempt of court, Malins remarked that he supposed that it was really intended for his fellow Vice-Chancellor, Bacon, who was sitting in the adjacent court. Perhaps I can pursue briefly with you some of the themes related to science and technology with which I have been concerned. There are great difficulties in understanding and mastery; the late Lord Snow wrote long ago now of the two cultures, the science-based and the non-science based, and while his views have provoked argument, we can all understand what Robert Oppenheimer meant when he spoke of a thinning of common know- ledge. Francis Bacon wrote copiously on many subjects, including science. It was a time when confidence in the capacity of a man to compass the whole of human knowledge was high, and this per- sisted long after. A man could feel comfortable in the description of a polymath. He could have some confidence in his claim to grasp the greater part of what was known to man. It is not so in our time. The growth of scientific knowledge, and the development and applications of technology proceed at great speed. The social and human applications of this are very significant. When I spoke to the World Computer Congress late last year, I pointed out that the computer had made an immense impact, world-wide, within a short space of time. The first commercial computer was brought into service in 1951, thirty years ago. In 1964 it was ina museum. Within a generation (a human generation) the nature of computers has undergone revolution- ary change. From bulky, expensive, unreliable, slow limited-use- "playthings of scientists", they have become small, cheap, fast and reliable, and they find unlimited applications in enterprises large and small. It was thought at one time that perhaps each major advanced nation might have a limited number of computing machines. Now they are within the comparatively easy reach of in- dividuals. The Myers' Committee on Technological Change in Australia spoke of renewed concern about the impact of new technology on the structure of work and society, arising out of the rapid and recent development of microelectronic devices and their incorporation in products which have spread extensively. The Committee saw no signs of a slow-down in the development and application of this technology; each stage of development made 34 SIR ZELMAN COWEN microelectronic circuits more complex, more re- liable, less expensive. Microelectronic technol- ogy has the potential to permeate to some degree very many fields of human endeavour. The Myers' Report quoted a statement that ''this development points to the advent of the most remarkable tech- nology mankind has ever devised". Again, when I spoke to the Academy of Science almost two years ago, I discussed, within the poor limits of my understanding, current issues associated with research on recombinant D.N.A. That was at a time when there was an international debate on risks and dangers associated with such work. The arguments had given rise to deep con- cern on the part of scientists that freedom of enquiry might be threatened. Lord Todd, as Presi- dent of the Royal Society, said that "ominous voices have been raised claiming that limits be sec to scientific jenquixy.' 9 He protested, inathe context of the research of which I have been speak- ing, that there had been confusion and a "raising of the spectre of the production of Frankenstein- like monsters". Theres an anterestang ard, 1 think, an important debate on issues of constraints, and within the limits of my understanding I sought to raise these issues in my address to the Acad- emy of Science. It is interesting to read an account of recent developments in these areas. I quote from a recent paper on “Future Prospects) for, Basic Science in Medicine" by a distinguished American medical scientist: "It seems only yesterday that cell biology was the purest and most basic of all fields in biomedical research in constant need of defence before skeptical congressional sub-committees, hard to justify for tax- payers' funds except on grounds of rather vague prospects of usefulness years off. Now, almost overnight, it looks like a way to make lots of money. The big pharmaceutical houses are already doing cell biology in great vats while tiny new corporations are sprouting everywhere at the edges of university towns for the de- velopment of innovate and patentable tech- nologuesz<; Cells are not just,usefull.> they are about to’ yaeld profits. mm. -Wall Street-analysts keep tabs on the monoclonal antibodies made by hybridomas and on the new plasmids for recombinant D.N.A. research for making things like insulin and interferons as closely as on the transistor circuits of a generation ago ... the techniques for putting novel working parts inside cells, or for exchang- ing the nuclei and other bits of machinery between cells, have become almost as sophisticated and precise as solid-state physics and there is no end to the list of possible applications. "So it sounds as if basic research has suddently turned into applied science before our eyes and from here on we might expect: quick profits: allyover the place...) Computer and biological science and technol- ogy open up a great range of issues and concerns. For society and for the lawyer, there are many and complex problems. Julius Stone wrote recently that one part of the explanation of the sharp and ubiquitous confrontations of our own age, and for the tendency for justice to split into competing versions, certainly lies in the headlong rate of social change, powered above all by accelerated technological change. This was underlined in an address by Mr Justice Michael Kirby, the Chairman of the Australian Law Reform Commission, on "Reforming The Law''. He made the point that in our time pressures for change, including legal change, are very great. Science and technology, in particular, present many challenges to laws developed in earlier times, and the changes they bring to society frequently require the radical reconsideration of established legal rules. He illustrated this by reference to specific matters, with which the Law Reform Commission is and has been concerned. One is human tissue transplants, often depending on the transfer of non-regenerative organs and tissues. It raises a complex of problems in transplants from a ''dead" to a living person. This involves a need to de- fine ''death''. There are problems as between living persons involving issues, among others, re- lating to consent. Questions of consent in this area and in the broader areas of human experimen- tation are difficult and complex. Advances in biomedical science and technology may depend sig- nificantly on tests applied to living human sub- jects; man becomes the ultimate "animal of necessity''. Out of wartime experiments and work done by Nazi doctors on captive human subjects, there came an awareness of the needs for rules and controls, certainly for co-operation between physicians, lawyers and others to protect the human subject and to formulate as carefully as possible the conditions under which human experi- mentation might take place. It has been attempted at international and national levels. What lies at the heart is the notion of an "informed consent", and this is not easy to identify with precision. What underlies it is the principle which seems to me plainly right, that the human being must never be treated as a depersonalised thing; for this reason we seek an autonomous and informed consent. Again, we have problems associated with the test- tube baby issue; legal problems, and as one ex- plores the possibilities, it may be problems of a broader character. I recall the comment of a writer reviewing the major events of 1978: "The most important birth of the year (leaving aside the little Mozarts who have not yet made themselves known) was of Louise Brown, conceived in a laboratory dish. That fertilization was less important as an achievement than as an omen; in biology, as in politics, power is expanding faster than our ethical understanding." Mr Justice Kirby also referred to questions associated with computers and their development: they have revolutionised the assembly, supply, manipulation and distribution of information. This includes highly personal material, so that import- ant questions relating to the privacy of the individual, an important value in a free society, are raised. He points out that computers can ADDRESS AT THE ANNUAL DINNER OF THE SOCIETY, 1981 33 store vastly increased amounts of information, and retrieve it much more quickly, and at much lower cost than manual filing systems. They can inte- grate data supplied for differing purposes; they are susceptible to centralised control, and often produce their material in a form unintelligible except to the trained expert. Such developments and the proliferation of computers throughout society and the economy present many problems for the legal system. These include issues of privacy, and problems in the criminal law through manipu- lation and theft. Indeed, technology generates problems for the protection of privacy in a variety of ways. The first significant and comprehensive examination of legal issues relating to privacy was published in the United States in the 1890's. That in turn arose from publication of matter of a personal and private character in the popular press: the problem assumed significant dimensions because of the development of a new technology which produced mass circulation newspapers at a very cheap price. There are also issues relating to surveillance. The original eavesdropper, no doubt, listened furtively under the eaves; then the telephone and telegraph gave him new opportunities to tap, and opportunities beyond imagining became avail- able with the proliferation of modern ''wire-less" listening and surveillance devices. I spoke of such matters as these when I gave the Boyer Lectures on ''The Private Man" in 1969, and I said then that ''the private man may find himself naked and uncertain in a psychological prison fashioned by a complex technology, not knowing when and by whom he is being watched or over- heard". There are many other illustrations of the way in which new technology can outdate the law. A well established technology exposes the de- ficiencies of a copyright law designed to protect the interests of publishers and writers of books. When I was a student, I might copy out by hand extracts from books and printed journals; nowa- days, copying machines are freely available and very extensively used. A recent Commonwealth committee has examined and reported on the prob- lems this raises. Our copyright law was certainly devised without any such technology in prospect. These are a few illustrations of the prob- lems posed for society and the law by the develop- ment of technology. In various contexts, there are calls for a moratorium, a halt. Lord Ashby, writing in the mid-seventies, noted significant changes in the intellectual and cultural climate of our time. For generations, he says, it has been taken for granted that all that can be done in science and technology must be done; the new ethic emerging is that somehow man must agree not to do all that he is capable of doing. I have seen applications of this in contem- porary discussions of the ethics, the wisdom and the propriety of certain scientific and technolo- gical work. I sought to explore some of these issues in the address to the Academy of Science on 'What Are the Constraints"? Scientists with the support of a noble and convincing history strongly resist the imposition of any curbs on scientific research and investigations. They draw a distinction between scientific investigation and experimentation, and its technological appli- cations. Yet it is said that in our day the distinction and separation are hard to maintain because application follows so closely on the heels of thought that the long established immunities granted to freedom of thought cannot so readily be agreed to in the context of action. There are hard questions to be carefully debated and sensibly resolved in a free society. It is the case that a society which is profoundly affected by a rapid and continuously developing technology requires a mechanism which will allow for appropriate legal change and adjust- ment. Mr Justice Kirby argues, I think persuasiv- ely, that there have to be appropriate mechanisms for law reform to adapt the law to changing cir- cumstances and conditions which are themselves the product of a fast developing technology. "If nothing is done to adjust the legal system to (these) scientific developments, things will not just remain the same. Inconveniences and sometimes perceived injustices (and I may add serious tensions) will occur because old rules of law have become irrelevant or positively obstructive, or because situations have arisen affecting members of society upon which current laws are perfectly sitent.” I raise such questions as these with the hope that they may attract the interest of the members of a Society long committed to the consideration and discussion of questions of a scientific and technological character. There is, of course, so much more to be said, but not by me, on this agreeable occasion. I thank you for your hospital- BiGyis ; Carre, prea: Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 114, pp. 37-42, 1981 ISSN 0035-9173 History in Walls G. S. GIBBONS ABSTRACT. from Colonial and Victorian times. architects, historians, and archaeologists. Chronologies can be established for a wide variety of inorganic building materials The work requires co-operation between materials scientists, Some of the changes followed on developments over- seas, some from the particular range of materials available within the Colony, and some from the social environment of the times. Using physical, chemical, and mineral analysis of such materials as bricks, plasters and paints, materials studies link up with architectural document- ation and research on historical archives, to provide a clearer understanding of both the social and architectural development of Australia. INTRODUCTION This paper outlines the contribution that the study of wall materials can make to the historical interpretation of buildings. Some of the studies referred to were largely done with financial assistance of the NSW Heritage Council in a pro- ject assisted by Mrs. C.M. Bertles. Assistance has also come from many other sources, particularly from officers of the Historic Buildings Section of NSW Department of Public Works, and of the Heritage and Conservation Branch, NSW Department of Environment and Planning. I will take it as self-evident that history is important: that in crudest terms a civilized community needs to plan ahead, and that you cannot know where you are going if you don't know where you've been! How can study of old buildings help us to understand history? I think in three main ways: 1. Buildings tell us about technological development: what materials have been available and how they were used. The materials change as new sources are discovered or as trade patterns change. New applications may be imported, or they may show evidence of home-grown initiative, inventiveness, or plain necessity. 2. Buildings tell us about social develop- ment. The various rooms and fixtures show how people lived, what comforts and services they had, how they related physically to servants or tradesmen. The variation of design and workmanship at any one period shows the range of skills of tradesmen and the differences among various regions and social strata. x Prestdenttal Address delivered to the Royal Soctety of New South Wales at Setence Centre, Clarence St., Sydney, on Aprtl 1, 1981. 3. Buildings tell us about individual people, great or small: what their pre- tensions were, what they admired, whether they looked to the past or the future for inspiration. If they are famous people we may gain new insights into their personality. One family perhaps preferred the security of a solid home of modest appearance; another family might have build a most elegant facade with a cramped, jerry-built back section. In some cases the study of materials contributes directly to these areas of understanding; in others the contribution is indirect. To explain how materials studies assist, it is useful to consider three separate aspects of the matter: - a) The relationship between materials, building structure, and style. b) Technological developments and their arrival in New South Wales. c) Methods of analysing nineteenth century building materials. In the following discussion, each of these three aspects will be exemplified by a single material - respectively bricks, paints, and mortars. BRICKS: PARTS AND THE WHOLE In examining an old building, it is possible to some degree to separate three features: the actual parts or materials used, the way they are assembled, and the form or appearance of the whole. I will refer to these aspects as the material, the construction, and the style. To some degree, these aspects are related. There is little doubt that the processes of machine- made bricks (introduced from 1852 to 1884 in the Sydney area) led to more compact, stronger bricks of very uniform size. This in turn made possible the development of cavity walls, which are first known in Sydney at Sussex Street Public School in 1875, and became quite general by about 1895. 38 G. S. GIBBONS The newer style and construction can be con- trasted with earlier building practices. “Ihe-use of stone coigns at the corners of early brick buildings (including the first one built for Governor Phillip) was partly intended to compensate for the irregularity of the brickwork. Brick nog construction, in which bricks are used to fill the cells outlined by a timber framing, seems also to be partly a response to irregular brick dimensions: it seems to have been especially favoured where second-hand bricks, of variable sizes, were being used. The brick nog construction was used, mainly in internal walls, at least from the 1820's to the later nineteenth century. The connection of materials and detailing is even more clear. The use of tuck-pointing in joints was essential for a clean attractive appear- ance with the irregular edges of hand-made bricks, but was only a refinement once sharp-edged machine bricks were readily available. It is likely that the gradually improving quality of bricks in the second half of the nineteenth cent- ury also allowed the progressive change from Old English bond to Colonial bond to American Common bond, which represents a gradual decrease in intrinsic strength of the bonding (Fig. 1). (a) Old English Bond (b) Flemish Bond (c) Colonial (or English (ad) Common Bond Garden Wall) Bond (Same as Colonial but 5 stretcher courses) (e) Stretcher (or Running) Bond Fig. 1 Bond types as they appear on the face of a wall. Types (a) and (b) were used from the first years of the Colony of N.S.W.; (c) and (d) became popular in house walls about 1850 and 1870 respectively; and (e) is characteristic of the cavity wall, common from about 1890 onwards. Bonding of bricks can involve far more human matters than the development of brick technology, for the weak but attractive Flemish bond was used by some architects right through into the 20th Century. Francis Greenway was a Flemish bond man, whereas the famous Horbury Hunt fifty years later used Old English bond almost exclusively, and some country towns reflect the preferences of the local builder in the bonds used in their buildings. We have all seen houses around Sydney with face-bricks facing the street and commons on the other three sides, but it is interesting that as early as 1793, John MacArthur's Elizabeth Farm House was built with the attractive Flemish bond in the front facade, but with the simpler and easier (and also stronger) Old English bond elsewhere. Again, it is interesting to consider the wide variety of bricks found when the old Lawson home- stead near Prospect, "Veteran Hall", was demolished some years ago. It seems almost certain that at least part of this house was constructed of second- hand bricks from several sources; though I have no idea whether any historical significance can be drawn from this. The connection between brick quality and architectural style is more difficult to pinpoint, but Professor Max Freeland considers that the Queen Anne style became dominant in the Federation period partly, at least, because top-quality moulded bricks were readily produced by the new methods. PAINT: TIME AND PROGRESS In some areas, technological development on the other side of the world was occurring quite independently of events in Australia. If the materials involved were portable and not locally available, European developments could appear in New South Wales as fast as a ship could carry them. An example is in oil-paints, pigments for which were almost entirely imported throughout the nine- teenth century. Indeed, there were Berger colours aboard the First Fleet, and early immigrants were frequently advised to include some house-paint products in their luggage. Even waterpaints were largely imported, because no local gypsum was commercially available for gypsum until at least 1880. No white lead was made here until 1920, so the local primary pigments were restricted to lime and pipeclays. Indigenous ochres were also doubtless used, though their commercial exploitation appears to have been sporadic and desultory. Thus the only local products used extensively, except for whitewashing, were the oils. Local "fish-oils'" were in use by 1804. Linseed 011 was imported at first, but local manufacture probably occurred well before 1850. Ready-mixed paints were made here from 1850 onwards, but both the basic pigments and colours were still imported. White lead was the main base pigment, but I have found both zinc oxide and barium sulphate in paint layers between 1850 and 1900. Fig. 2 shows the development of white bases overseas; reliable application to the local scene awaits further research. HISTORY IN WALLS 39 Qa E Pa sp. Alw = Ueki ‘2 =| O]H Ha rAd [ee Zou HJ = ax E@ HoH 1) isa) Ha 7p) a 1900 5 = aA s) A, a 4 4 Zz Oy ra (=) a Yn < Zz a z a a = Carter 5 es a n |e = ro) x Proces 4 4 A Of U.K = 2 a 1880 aa ba 4 a Hw fee ou + Patent yn =) TUS. Ac yn iS) Pd ea N 1860 SIG a Ks 1840 WHITE LEAD ZINC OXIDE Cc an > *Introduction of ready-mixed paints led to greater use of extenders (Barium sulphate &c.) 1820 1800 1780 France Fig. 2 Development of white base pigments up to 1910. Width of columns gives a broad indication of qualitative importance. A great deal of useful research is waiting to be done, both in Europe and Australia, on the availability of different paints. However, it is already possible to define a large number of new developments useful in providing dates on Australian buildings, as the following brief list indicates: enlso7="-Artificial indigo 1872 Gas black replacing carbon black 1870's Lithopone (BaSO, + ZnS) and basic lead sulphate introduced 1859 Viridian green (Cr,0, .2H.,0) redis- covered 1852 First use of ZnS (white) 1847 Antimony vermilion (Sb 7S3) 1831 Artificial ultramarine (Germany) c.1830 Chrome vellow (PbCrO, ) 1814 Paris green (Cu arseniate/acetate) In cases such as these, the value of materials analysis is solely to piece together the history of a building by limiting the relative ages of its parts. However, the potential value of paints does not end there. There are undoubtedly variations in the binders of oil-paints early on, which could be detected by analysing organic extracts from old paint film. Certainly ''fish-0il" (probably from the elephant seal) was still being used in 1824, whereas by about 1840 linseed 011 was general. The locally-made whitewashes and distempers used as external paints were mostly made from local materials. They certainly changed, from pipe-clay base to shell-lime wash to rock-lime wash to kalsomines with gypsum plaster admixture. These changes require more study and will be complicated by imports; but because the succession of paints to a building is often preserved entirely in the multi-layer film, the successive changes may enable "anachronistic'' imports to be recognized within the general succession. MORTARS: ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS The earliest solid Sydney houses used loam or clay for mortar. The more important ones had an admixture of lime, made by burning shells gathered around the harbour foreshores. Rock-lime was not available until after settle- ments were established in Port Stephens area and west of the Blue Mountains. Some rock lime from Mittagong was burnt in Sydney area (at Camden) in 1821, but shell lime was general until at least 1830, and was used in most situations until after 1850, Uhege are reports Of ay shell-—limeskiin operating at Lavender Bay (near Alderson St.) until the 1870's. In Parramatta, the earliest sections of Government House (1790) and Elizabeth Farm House (1793) are bedded in loam, with no lime whatever. A few years later, however, extensions to both buildings were being constructed with weak lime mortars. Meanwhile in Norfolk Island, no such shortages existed, as coral sand and sand-rock were readily available. Even the earliest -Fuildings were provided with a rich lime mortar (1791). About 1830, Sydney bricklayers started using clean sand in place of the former clay-rich river sand. This change was possibly related to the production of less porous bricks as pug-miils were introduced. In any case the change seems to be a fairly good time indicator, At about the same time, external rendering underwent a change, also. Stucco finish, with Roman cement, replaced simple lime render. For stone walls, shell-lime and river-sand seems to have remained standard until about 1840, often with an admixture of coarsely broken, unburnt shell fragments. It is not clear when Portland cement became available, though it first appears in Government 40 lof, St G. S. GIBBONS 1920 PORTAND CEMENT 1880 DONE sI0 - J E Lime 1840 Sao / Qa A rav ” Py $ 2 1820 avy oS ; Kd a v 1800 fe) (a) 3 1790 Developments in mortars and plasters. (a) PORTLAND CENEST STUCCO NG (b) Lime and cement; (b) Plasters and te hy fa ELIZABETH FARM ELIZABETH FARM BUILDINGS PRE-1830 LYNDHURST, 1838 LYNDHURST, 1838 ee ULTIMO HOUSE LIVERPOOL HOSPITAL Fig. 4 Size distributions of mortar sands from six Sydney buildings. Note (a) the wide variety of loams and pit sands in the earlier (pre-1830) buildings; (b) the similarities in sands from different parts of Elizabeth Farm and Lyndhurst; and (c) the distinctive pattern found in the better-quality sands of the late nineteenth Century, exemplified by the last two diagrams. PHILLIP ST. TERRACE, 1870 QUEEN VICTORIA BLG, 1890's SCALES 2 <5 See Vai Grain diam. (mm.) HISTORY IN WALLS 4] l. Lime render 20 W 29 -__Roman cement render 3. Roman cement render - Portland cement mortar ‘ ‘ , 30° Lime Plaster ac Cc c Qa c Q ‘ Q 40° 30° 6 20° 0 25 7. Lime/Gypsum Plaster Gc SG G Gc G rr 30° 20° 10° 39 8. Gypsum Plaster G Go SG G G6 G G G as . fl c f 4 40 30’ 20° wo 1. Bowman House, c.1820 @: Quartz 2. Elizabeth Bay House, Grotto, ?1836 ¢C : Calcite 3. Lyndhurst, Glebe, c.1832 (Reference) PC: Porland cement 4. Queen Victoria Building, Sydney, late RC: Roman cement 19th Century G : Gypsum S16 Reference Portland cement mortar (1980) 6. Internal render, Bowman House, Richmond c.1820 7. Cornice, Lyndhurst, Glebe, late 19th Century 8. Ceiling plaster, Lyndhurst, Glebe, 20th Century Fig. 5 X-ray diffraction charts, showing variation for different mortars and plasters. Each mineral component is characterized by a group of peaks, as marked; and the relative heights of the peaks indicate constituent proportion. - Portland cement render (Approx. Median Diameter) OMS Ommieetny et ay marty Ate Oh gies RLM AUR eA eae Bor 28a co) N ‘di wn & [31A] 35 : | om] 0.20mm a (38C] S ‘a i 38B------: 37B===37C HW FS “A 26A==36A (1) al a a © 36A(2) ® | 0.10mm (0) en 38A——24 20 19 - 04mm LOG, | ec ee 50t generally increasing (% Caco lime content by weight) Fig. 6 A diagrammatic representation of relation- ship among plaster samples from Elizabeth Farm House, Parramatta. Linkage lines show degree of similarity of sands in terms of overall grainsize distributions. Circles are plasters with a setting-coat of lime-gypsum type; rectangles are plasters with setting-coat of lime-sand type. Four major groups are indicated, with more questionable correlations also shown. The diagram is essentially factual, but requires interpretation from on-site studies and documentary information on the building. specifications in 1864. It was not made locally until 1890, and was used only in renders, not mortars, in the nineteenth century. A summary of the general development of mortars and plasters is illustrated in Fig. 3. The analysis of lime mortars is fundamentally simple, but flexibility is often necessary. The usual method is to treat a representative sample with hydrochloric acid, which dissolves away the lime. This enables calculation of the original proportions of lime to sand, and also releases the sand particles so that size-distribution can be found by sieving. Some typical size distributions are shown in Fig. 4. The unburnt shell fragments in many of the early mortars create a problem; corrections must be made for this fraction in calculating results.. For renders and platers, and for twentieth-century mortars, there may be other admixtures - Roman or Portland cement, or plaster of paris. These are most conveniently estimated by x-ray diffraction @E T9725) i: 42 G. S. GIBBONS In the case of Norfolk Island the entire mix- ture is acid-soluble, but the problem is rather different. Since all the nineteenth century rock is of similar composition it cannot be dated; but a later dating problem arises because of undocumented renovations in the last few decades. In this case, bagged lime from New South Wales was used. It happens that the indigenous lime contains appreci- able magnesium not present in the later imports. As a result, the new work can be identified by the difference in degree of staining with a dye that affects only magnesian lime. An example of analysis of materials is given in Fig. 5, in which a number of samples from Elizabeth Farm House are arranged according to median sand size and lime-sand proportions of the mix. The groupings have been found to be a useful addition to the other information available to archaeologists and architects. CONCLUSION Materials studies do not provide magical keys, and their interpretation requires a broad under- standing of the changes that have occurred in building technology. In sensible combination with other physical and documentary information, materials studies can contribute significantly to a total picture and can help avoid errors of interpretation: Inithe longer\view, such studies elucidate our national history, and therefore help us to understand ourselves. Department of Applied Geology New South Wales Institute of Technology Broadway. NSW 2007 REFERENCES Crossing, D., 1979. Paints and varnishes. Traditional Building Technology, University of NSW, Sydney, ISBN 0-908502-11-7, pp L015 = 10524 Edwards, T., 1979. Bricks and brickwork 2: Bricks after 1860. Traditional Building Technology. University of NSW, Sydney, ISBN 0-908502-11-7, PP i5:..8 = son9 Freeland, J.M., 1968. a history. Architecture in Australia: Cheshire, Melbourne, 328 pp. Gibbons, G.S., 1979. Bricks and brickwork 1: Bricks before 1860. Traditional Building Technology. University of NSW, Sydney, ISBN 0-908502-11-7, pp 4.1 - 4.12 Gibbons, G.S. and Bertles, C.M., 1980. Materials studies for building restoration. Quarterly Reports to NSW Heritage Council (Unpubl.) Gibbons, G.S., 1981: colonial Sydney. Archaeology. (NSW) p. 60-61 Sources of lime mortar for Industrial and Historical The National Trust of Australia Herman, M., 1954. The early Australian architects and their work. Angus §& Robertson, Sydney 248 pp. Pavlou, O., 1976. The history of bricks and brickmaking in NSW from 1788-1914. B.Arch. thesis, Graduate School of Built Environ- ment, University of NSW (Unpubl.) REPORT OF COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDED 3lIst MARCH, 1981 43 Presented at the 114th Annual General Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales held on Ist April, 1981. ‘INTRODUCTION The Society has continued its activities at a satisfactory level, despite continued financial stringencies which have been somewhat worsened by changes in rules for the Commonwealth book bounty which now does not apply to the Society's Journal. The retiring Council has set in train a review of all Society activities. This review will examine the changing needs of our membership, and the needs of potential members who may not be adequately attracted to the Society as it current- ly operates. It is the strong view of Council that the central aims of the Society remain relevant in the Community, and it is anticipated that the incoming Council will continue to develop the Society in ways most appropriate to achieve these aims. Sirmrkoden Cutler retired from the office of Patron of the Society upon relinguishing his appointment as State Governor. Council is most prateful for Sir Roden's interest in the Society curing his term of office. We are gratified that the office of Patron has been accepted by the incoming Governor of New South Wales, Air-Marshal Sir James Rowland, K.B.E., D.F.C., A.F.C. MEETINGS Council held 11 meetings during the year and dealt with all the business matters of the Society. Attendance of members of Council ranged from 8 to 16. Nine general monthly meetings were held during the year together with the Liversidge Research Lecture. Abstracts of the lectures have been published in the Society's Newsletter. The average attendance at the general monthly meetings was 36 (range 25 to 44), which was somewhat higher than in 1979. ANNUAL DINNER The Annual Dinner was held at the Sydney Hilton Hotel on 6th March, 1981, and was attended by 109 members and guests. We were honoured by the presence of His Excellency the Right Honourable Sir Zelman Cowen, AK, GCMG, GCVO, K.St.J, QC, Governor-General of Australia, and Lady Cowen. AWARDS The following awards for 1980 were made: James Cook Medal Professor Robert J. Walsh, AvOkes OnBake Edgeworth David Medal Dr. Michael Anthony Etheridge Clarke Medal Not Awarded The Society Medal Mrs. Maren Krysko v. Tryst Walter Burfitt Medal Professor Hans A. Buchdahl, and = Parze F.A.A. Liversidge Memorial Dr. S.R. Johns becturneship Archibald D. Olle Prize Not Awarded SUMMER SCHOOL The second Summer School on Earth Sciences was held over five days in January 1981. Fourteen students of various High Schools of the greater Sydney area took part. The School of Applied Geology, University of New South Wales, was principal host of the Summer School. About 20 lecturers from Universities, Industrial and governmental organizations contrib- uted to the success of the School. There were two excursions. One took place in the grounds of the University of Sydney and the Glebe area, study- ing applications of geology to the building industry. A second, full-day excursion went to the Southern Coalfields where both surface and under- ground installations were examined. MEMBERSHIP The membership of the Society at 31st March, 1981 was: Honorary Members 13 Life Members 36 Company Member i Ordinary Members 324 Associate Members 39 PUBLICATIONS Volume 113 Parts 1 and 2 of the Journal and Proceedings was published during the year. Parts 3/4 were delayed because of a fire at the printery but should be posted during April. There were 10 issues of the Society's Newsletter. Council is most grateful to the authors of the short articles which are much appreciated by most of our members. 44 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL LIBRARY There were a total of 184 requests for copy- ing from the library, of which 4 percent were from members and 96 percent from other institutions, mainly Universities and Colleges (39%), private companies (24%) and Government Departments (21%). Some 2166 items were received and processed from 380 institutions, mainly through Journal exchange. Mrs.(G. ‘Proctor has retired from her? position as an employee of the Society. Council has very gratefully accepted her offer to continue her work, s Honorary Assistant Librarian. The Council expresses great regret at )the recent death of Mr. Walter Poggendorff, for many years our Honorary Librarian until ill-health forced him to resign late last year. FINANCE The Society's annual accounts for 1980 show a deficit on the year's operations of $2900. In the coming year we will suffer from the effective withdrawal of the Commonwealth Book Bounty, but will gain from Mrs. Proctor's very generous decision to work with us in an honorary capacity. Council is grateful to the New South Wales Government for its grants through the Division of Cultural Activities of the Premier's Department. SCIENCE CENTRE The activities of the Science Centre continue to improve, but the financial situation remains grave. Establishment of the ''Science Centre Foundation" is now very close indeed, but arrangements for fund-raising have been unsuccess- ful to date. New initiatives in this direction are now under way. On a more positive note, the Centre is now fully let, and some rents will be raised in the near future to increase income. Utilization of the Auditorium and other rooms continues to increase. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Mrs. Judith Day and Mrs. Grace Proctor have again given excellent service to the Society throughout the year. The special arrangements necessary for the Governor-General's attendance at the Dinner were especially time-consuming for Mrs. Day. Council also records its appreciation of all those people who contributed to the success of our various activities, especially to Professor G.S. Govett, Mr. K.G. Mosher and others who assisted with the Summer School. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE NEW ENGLAND BRANCH OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES OFFICERS Chairman: S.C. Haydon Secretary/Treasurer: T. O'Shea Committee: R.L. Stanton, N.H. Fletcher R.D.H. Fayle Representative on Council: S.C. Haydon MEETINGS The following meetings were held: "Polymers, Plastics and Fibres. The Old and the New." Assoc. Professor Din. Napper, Dept. of Physical Chemistry, University of Sydney. "Ts the standard of Science in India Comparable to that in the West?" Professor Sakuntala, Benares Hindu University. 30 April, 1980 10 September FINANCIAL STATEMENT Balance as at 27 December, 1979 $349.61 Credit - Interest to 30 June, 1980 6.85 Interest to 31 December, 1980 7.54 Cheque from Council 100.00 $464.00 Debit - Accommodation (Professor Napper) 24.30 439.70 Balance at December 31st, 1980 $439.70 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 45 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS 1980 - 81 The Annual General Meeting and eight General Monthly Meetings were held in the Science Centre. Abstracts of the proceedings of these meetings are given below. In addition the Liversidge Research Lecture was delivered by Dr. S. Johns on 19th June 1980 at Macquarie University. APRIL 2nd 113rd Annual General Meeting. Location: the Auditorium Ist Floor, Science Centre... The President, Associate Professor D.H. Napper, was in the Chair and 33 members and visitors were present. The Annual Report of Council and the Annual Statement of Accounts were adopted. 3 new members mere elected. 4 papers were read by title only. The Clarke Medal was awarded to Dr. L.A.S. Johnson; the Edgeworth David Medal to Associate Professor G.C. Goodwin; the Society's Medal to ire AJA Day; .and ‘the Archibald D. Olle Prize to Dr. R.J. Korsch. Messrs. Wylie and Puttock, Chartered Account- ants, were elected Auditors. The Presidential Address ''Polymers, Plastics and Fibres: The Old and the New'' was delivered by Associate Professor D.H. Napper. The incoming President, Dr. G.S. Gibbons, was installed and introduced to members. MAY 7th 923rd General Monthly Meeting. Location: Auditorium, lst Floor, Science Centre. The President, Dr. G.S. Gibbons, was in the Chair and 25 members and guests were present. 8 new members were elected. 2 papers were read by by title only. An address "Good Nutrition - Whose Responsiblity? was given by Miss J.R. Rogers, Chief Dietitian, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital. JUNE 4th 924th General Monthly Meeting. Location: Auditorium, lst Floor, Science Centre. The President, Dr. G.:S. Gibbons, was in the Chair and 38 members and guests were present. 1 new member was elected. An address "Centrepoint - Evolution of an Engineered Structure' was delivered by Mr. A. Wargon, Director, Wargon, Chapman and Associates, Consulting Engineers. JULY 2nd 925th General Monthly Meeting. Location: Auditorium, lst Floor, Science Centre. The Beesadent, Dr. G:S. Gibbons, was in the Chair and 37 members and guests were present. 1 paper was read by title only. An address "Dynamics and Variability of Australian Beaches" was given by Associate Protessor LL.D. Wright, of the Coastal Studies Unit; Department of Geography, Sydney University. AUGUST 6th 926th General Monthly Meeting. Location: Auditorium, lst Floor, Science Centre. The President, Dr. G.S. Gibbons, was in the Chair and 32 members and visitors were present. An address entitled "Porphyria - a Royal Malady" was delivered by Dr. V.K. Whittaker, Department of Biochemistry, University of Sydney. SEPTEMBER 3rd 927th General Monthly Meeting. Location: Auditorium, Ist Floor, Science Centre. The President, Dr. G.S. Gibbons, was in the Chair and 32 members and visitors were present. 1 new member was elected. 35.papers were read by title. only. An address "Historical Archaeology in Australia Past and Present" was given by Dr. J.M. Birmingham of the Department of Archaeology, University of Sydney. OCTOBER lst 928th General Monthly Meeting. Location: Auditorium, Ist Floor, Science Centre. The President, Dr. G.S. Gibbons, was in the Chair and 44 members and visitors were present. An address entitled "The Historical Land- scapes of the New South Wales Country Town" was given by Dr. D.N. Jeans, Department of Geography, University of Sydney. NOVEMBER 5th 929th General Monthly Meeting. Location: Auditorium, lst Floor, Science Centre. The President, Dr. G.S. Gibbons, was in the Chair and 44 members and visitors were present. One new member was elected. A symposium was held with the theme "'Alternat- ive Sources of Energy". The panel of speakers comprised Mr. G.A. Lloyd, Deputy General Manager, South Pacific Petroleum NL; Dr. D.J. McCann, Director, APACE Research Centre, Millthorpe, N.S.W.; and Dr. R. Gammon, Director, Energy Centres, Energy Authority of N.S.W. DECEMBER 3rd 930th General Monthly Meeting. Location: Auditorium, lst Floor, Science Centre. The President, Dr. G.S. Gibbons, was in the Chair and 40 members and visitors were present. 1 new member was elected. An address entitled "The Terminal Role of Lake Eyre and Australian Inland Waters" was given by Dr. John Dulhunty of the Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney. 46 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL CITATIONS EDGEWORTH DAVID MEDAL Dr. Michael Anthony Etheridge is awarded the Edgeworth David Medal for 1980 for his work in structur- al geology. He has made major contributions to our understanding of the development of cleavages in deformed rocks, of mechanisms of recrystallization and of the relationship between grain size and stress during crystallization. After graduating with first class honours in geology from the University of Sydney in 1967, Dr. Etheridge obtained his Ph.D. from the Australian National University in 1971. He was a Lecturer in geology at the University of Adelaide from 1971 to 1974, and is now Senior Lecturer in the Department of Earth Sciences at Monash University. A significant proportion of his research time at Monash University has been devoted to the establishment of an experimental deformation laboratory and a transmission electron microscope facility. Dr. Etheridge is well known for his work and is widely respected throughout the world. In the past four years he has been invited to give papers at conferences in Leiden, Barcelona, Gottingen, Palm Springs and New York. His reputation has attracted quite a large degree of support from research grant organizations including the U.S. Geological Survey, the Australian Research Grants Committee, the Broken Hill Mining Managers' Association and Mobil Exploration. Michael Etheridge is an outstanding research worker whose distinguished contributions towards the advancement of Australian geological science have been widely acknowledged internationally and within Australia. THE JAMES COOK MEDAL The James Cook Medal for outstanding contributions to Science and Human Welfare in and for the Southern Hemisphere is awarded this year to Professor Robert J. Walsh AO, OBE, FAA. Professor Walsh was for twenty years in the immediate post World War II period the Director of the New South Wales Red Cross Blood Transfusion Service. One of the major contributions to the health of this State at that time was the setting up of a sophisticated and safe blood transfusion service. The genetics of blood groups were always close to the interests of this investigative haematologist and accordingly in 1962 he was appointed Professor of Human Genetics at the University of New South Wales. In 1973 he became the Medical Faculty's second Dean, a post which he continues to hold at present. His service to the community has taken many forms; for example he has been an active member of numerous committees concerned with the quality of our environment. Two particular aspects of this work have been his Chairmanships of the Australian Ionizing Radiation Advisory Committee and of the Joint Commonwealth-Queensland Crown of Thorns Starfish Enquiry in 1970. For his contributions to the practice and theory of blood transfusions and his work for the improve- ment of the environment, Professor Walsh is indeed a worthy recipient of the James Cook Medal. THE SOCIETY'S MEDAL Maren Krysko v. Tryst came to Australia in 1949 as a refugee from Europe. She has worked as a nurse, and later was employed by the South Australian Department of Mines, and then by the C.S.I.R.O. Radio Physics Laboratory in Sydney as a photographer. Mrs. Krysko studied at the Faculty of Mining and Metallurgy of the Technisher Universitat, Berlin - these studies, interrupted by the 1939-45 War, were later completed in Australia at the University of N.S.W., where she became the first woman post-graduate in the School of Mining Engineering. Currently, Mrs. Krysko is employed by the School of Applied Geology, University of New South Wales, as a Senior Tutor and has lectured to mining engineers. Additionally, she has run part-time courses in minerals and related topics for the Department of Adult Education, Sydney University. For over 8 years Maren has been active in affairs concerning underprivileged children from Western Sydney Region and has thus continued earlier interests gained when she worked in Europe with the United Nations. Maren Krysko became a member of the Royal Society of N.S.W. in 1959, and served for a number of years as Secretary to the Society's Section of Geology. She has been a member of Council for the last 15 years, being on the executive as Honorary Editorial Secretary since 1968, also she was largely ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 47 CITATIONS responsible for editing the Society's Centenary Volume, "A Century of Scientific Progress". Maren has been involved with the organising and running of four Summer Schools, two being in Medicine and two being in Geology. Always being a willing helper Maren has had the interests of the Royal Society of N.S.W. uppermost in her considerations, and on occasions has been (in a voluntary capacity) virtually responsible for the day to day running of the Society's affairs, particularly when Miss Ogle was forced through illness to leave her position as assistant secretary. Maren Krysko v. Tryst is indeed a worthy recipient of the Society's Medal. THE WALTER BURFITT PRIZE AND MEDAL The Walter Burfitt Prize, consisting of a Medal and prize money, is awarded at intervals of three years to the worker in pure or applied science, resident in Australia or New Zealand, whose papers and other contributions published during the past six years are deemed of the highest scientific merit, account being taken only of investigations described for the first time, and carried out by the author mainly in these countries. The Prize for 1980 has been awarded to Professor Hans Adolph Buchdahl, B.Sc., A.R.C.S., D.Sc. (London), F.A.A. Professor Buchdahl has held the Chair of Theoretical Physics at Australian National University since 1962. He previously held senior positions at Princeton and Rochester Universities in the U.S.A. and at the University of Tasmania. He has published on a wide variety of subjects ranging from field theory to geometrical optics to statistical thermodynamics, and has successfully attacked many purely mathematical problems in the process. The precision of his mathematics is interesting to compare with his approach in a book of his lectures, where he proceeds in a way which he says ''may seem idiosyncratic at first sight, even heretical, ee the extent that I have allowed physical intuition to take precedence over mathematical niceties ..... mn I think that this demonstrates very clearly that Professor Buchdahl is a man who knows very precisely what he is doing: precisely the relationship between his mathematical equations and the real world. 48 OBITUARIES WALTER HANS GEORGE POGGENDORFF Walter Hans George Poggendorff, a member of the Royal Society of New South Wales since 1949, a member of its Council since 1957 and Honorary Librarian from 1968 to 1980, died on 7th February 1981, at the age of 77 after about 6 months' illness. Mr. Poggendorff, remembered for his notable contribution to Australian plant breeding, became interested in agriculture from a very early age. After attending Hurlstone Agricultural High School and Hawkesbury Agricultural College, he was granted in 1924 a cadetship with the N.S.W. Department of Agriculture. He spent the next four years at the University of Sydney studying under Professor R.D. Watt and Dr. W. Waterhouse. After graduating in 1928, Mr. Poggendorff joined the N.S.W. Department of Agriculture and was posted to the Yanco Experiment Farm with the specific task of breeding new rice strains. A notable result was the development of "'caloro 11", a new strain which produced for many years world record yields. In his capacity of adviser on rice production to the N.S.W. Rice Marketing Board he visited the UlS.A. and Mexico’ in 1935. Mr. Poggendorff was also involved in a wide variety of other breeding projects. These included grapes, a notable achievement being the breeding of the table grape "nyora'', rockmelons and various stone fruit, particularly peaches and apricots. In 1941, owing to the outbreak of World War II, he was transferred to Head Offoce of the N.S.W. Department of Agriculture to take up the post of Special Agronomist - miscellaneous crops. In this capacity he was responsible for the crop development and production control of drugs, fibres, essential oils etc. At the same time he continued with plant breeding, especially rice, at Yanco. Finally, in 1947, Mr. Poggendorff became Chief of the Division of Plant Industry of the N.S.W. Department of Agriculture, a position he held until his retirement in 1968. Mr. Poggendorff was seconded to the Commonwealth and also to a private development company for work in northern Australia, Papua-New Guinea and the Solomon Islands in 1952, 1955 and 1965. He also represented Australia in 1953 at the International Rice Conference organized by FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) and in 1966 participated at a meeting of the International Rice Commission of FAO in New Delhi. He has also been active in the New South Wales Branch of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science and served as president of the Branch in 1957. His pioneering efforts and significant successes in the area of plant breeding, which eventually resulted in the development of a vigorous Australian rice industry were recognized by the Royal Society of New South Wales by the award of the Society's Medal in 1972. Mr. Poggendorff lived alone in Chatswood. Apart from his participation in the Society's affairs he devoted his leisure time to various hobbies which included cabinet making and music. E.V. Lassak 49 FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 6L°6L961 99 “E9EOE LL?" b6daty GOT 00° 00004 oo"OS8SSgz O0*OT 06 “GOP7ET oS "SSS HoOUNsPods ASCSOUOH AUG 2G 2G) PUSPTSoJ.4 SNDAAID "S "9 SLASSY LAN UDF IO PUaGUND-uoVN — SUDFZPATIISQGNS suaquay a4ytq SATLIVIAVIT LNANNND-NON 155284 Poundasupn - sueo7 g sa dueApY FEO) Ze - sauveys (FY 8{OU) SNOTLYNOAYOD QALYIDO5SyY + PPpYy afedyuow uo sueoq 4205 Peqt42suyT Y spuog ypPTPaenuowwog SLNAWLSSAANT + PPY 00°0840 00°O00O0Cr 00°O84607 9E“VEIS. 9" Z06C. uotzyeEtIoudag 00° one SS8T }S02 YE - saunITY UOFJENTEY PEST ~ AYEYGTT OO "OOPS: uoFIEFIVUdaG 9S "EbEEL SSO9T 3509 ye -"da}Aa eerie @ItfZ4¢O fBunzpruuny SLASSY GAxXTa +PPV Sa wm HLIOS Mare SAD ALAGTOUOS "“saTnNy as0yy FO uoTSFAOIUd ayy ugaqg anaey AYaFIOG ayy AQ Suazysthay ayy, pue cé "Obed T6"LBbE OO"TET 927089 9E°~TO8 OB/ET/TL GSTLIVIAVID LNAayMMOND LAN aIuenpy ut pre,j Teuunor OF suotrzydtuaqns aDueapy ut prey suotzdtyuodsqns drycuaquey UOTFJYO, ZUBIN - SUOTZAUTYISGNS Ssuaquay ast] STensIIy Y SuOPFpeug Aupuns SSATLIVIAYIT] LNaeyAD +5597 yUeW PE yse yisodag Hburyeasyq ypseuazUT SypuomsPdsuy | SYOgag 4wayyo =3499Q TNF }qGnoqg 4O4 UOTSTAOG,) Sssaq suot zdFuIsqns yuo} SuozpGeq ysaudwuy yseqQ AYeEY SLASSY JNANNND :Aq pajpuaseauday SQNN4 8 SAANASAY WiLOL SGNNA QALY INeNIDY (y 9}0U) SONNA LSNAL CCFFFXE 830U) QNNA ANVNATY C(CFPDE BPOU) DAVaSaY uotydunsay (C(T)EZ DYPOU) BAuasay Aueuqty S3AN3S34 ye Sse JAFHS JQNYV WA "papuauwe se Gbh4T SPUEPUNOIIY DITQGN 4 ayy yapun AIOLLNd (OF "Tcdy. 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Authors will be supplied with a sof special format paper. An IBM Selectric (Golf Ball) j;writer with ADJUTANT 12 typeface must be used. | ogical and reference material are shown in Light Italic. bol 12 has most type required for mathematical iressions and formulae. Detailed instructions for the |st are included in the Style Guide. }ZSENTATION OF INITIAL MANUSCRIPT 2 REVIEW | ypescripts should be submitted on heavy bond A4 paper. |:cond copy of both text and illustrations is required for >e use. 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All stratigraphic names must conform with the Australian Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature (revised fourth edition) ‘ and must first be cleared with the Central Register of Australian Stratigraphic Names, Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Canberra. The letter of approval should be submitted with the manuscript. Abstract. A brief but fully informative abstract must be provided. Tables should be adjusted for size to fit the format paper of the final publication. Units of measurement should always be indicated in the headings of the columns or rows to which they apply. Tables should be numbered (serially) with Arabic numerals and must have a caption. Illustrations. When submitting a paper for review all illustrations should be in the form and size intended for insertion in the master manuscript. If this is not readily possible then an indication of the required reduction (such as reduce to '4 size) must be clearly stated. Note: There is a reduction of 30% from the master manuscript to the printed page in the journal. Maps, diagrams and graphs should generally not be larger than a single page. However, larger figures can be printed across two opposite pages. Drawings should be made in black Indian ink on white drawing paper, tracing cloth or light-blue lined graph paper. All lines and hatching or stripping should be even and sufficiently thick to allow appropriate reduction without loss of detail. the scale of maps or diagrams must be given in bar form. Half-tone illustrations (photographs) should be included only when essential and should be presented on glossy paper (no negative is required). Diagrams, graphs, maps and photographs must be numbered consecutively with Arabic numerals in a single sequence and each must have a caption. References are to be cited in the text by giving the author’s name and year of publication. References in the reference list should follow the preferred method of quoting references to books, periodicals, reports and theses, etc., and be listed alphabetically by author and then chronologically by author and then chronologically by date. Abbreviations of titles of periodicals shall be in accordance with the International Standard Organization 1S04 “International Code for the Abbreviation of Titles of Periodicals” and International Standard Organization 1S0833 “International List of Periodical Title Word Abbreviations” and as amended. Appendices should be placed at the end of the paper, be numbered in Arabic numerals, have a caption and be referred to in the text. Reprints. An author who is a member of the Society will receive a number of reprints of his paper free. An author who is not a member of the Society may purchase reprints. Contents VOLUME 114, PART 1 LOMB, N. R. Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney Observatory during 1980 1 GERSTEL, M. D., and BASDEN, K. S. A Preliminary Study of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Sydney Atmosphere 1 KORSCH, R. J. Deformational History of the Coffs Harbour Block an: FACER, Richard A. Formation of “Beach Bubbles” on Quartz Sand Beaches of the Illawarra Coast, New South Wales 23 MARTIN, Helene A. An Early Cretaceous Age for Subsurface Pilliga Sandstone in the Spring Ridge District, Mooki Valley, New South Wales : 29 VOLUME 114, PART 2 COWEN, His Excellency Sir Zelman Address at the Annual Dinner of the Society, 1981 33 GIBBONS, G. S. History in Walls (Presidential Address) 37 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL 43 Publicity Press (NSW), 66 O'Riordan St, Alexandria, Sydney. | \eataneasc> = Le mi Proceedings OF the Royal ps New South Wales YOLUME 114 1981 PARTS 3. and 4 (Nos. 321 and 322) Published by the Society Science Centre, 35 Clarence-Street, Sydney Issued December, 1981 ISSN 0035 - 9173 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Patrons — His Excellency The Right Honourable Sir Zelman Cowen, A.K., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., K.St.J., Q.C.,Governor-General of Australia. His Excellency Air Marshal Sir James Rowland, K.B.E., D.F.C., A.F.C., Governor of New South Wales. President — Professor B. A. Warren Vice-Presidents— Mr E. K. Chaffer, Associate Professor D. H. Napper, Mr M. J. Puttock, Associate Professor W. E. Smith Hon. Secretaries — Dr L. A. Drake (General) Mrs M. Krysko v. Tryst (Editor) Hon. Treasurer — Dr A. A. Day Hon. Librarian — Mr J. L. Griffith Councillors — Professor T. W. Cole, Dr E. V. Lassak, Dr H. D. R. Malcolm, Dr D. B. Prowse, Dr T. G. Russell, Mr K. P. Sims, Mr F. L. Sutherland, Dr R. S. Vagg New England Representative — Professor S. C. Haydon Address:— Royal Society of New South Wales, 35 Clarence Street, Sydney, NSW, 2000, Australia. Tel: Sydney 29 1496 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES The Society originated in the year 1821 as the Philosophical Society of Australasia. Its main function is the promotion of Science through the following activities: Publication of results of scientific investigation through its Journal and Proceedings; the Library; awards of Prizes and Medals; liaison with other Scientific Societies; Monthly Meetings; and Summer Schools for Senior Secondary School Students. Special Meetings are held for the Pollock Memorial Lecture in Physics and Mathematics, the Liversidge Research Lecture in Chemistry, and the Clarke Memorial Lecture in Geology. Membership is open to any interested person whose application is acceptable to the Society. The application must be supported by two members of the Society, to one of whom the applicant must be personnally known. Membership categories are: Ordinary Members, Absentee Members and Associate Members. Annual Membership fee may be ascertained from the Society’s Office. Subscriptions to the Journal are welcomed. The current subscription rate may be ascertained from the Society’s Office. The Society welcomes manuscripts of research (and occasional review articles) in all branches of science, art, literature and philosophy, for publication in the Journal and Proceedings. Manuscripts will be accepted from both members and non-members, though those from the latter should be communicated through a member. A copy of the Guide to Authors is obtainable on request and manuscripts may be addressed to the Honorary Secretary (Editorial) at the above address. SE JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES PARTS 3 and 4 VOLUME 114 (Nos. 321 and 322) 1981 ISSN 0035-9173 PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY SCIENCE CENTRE, 35 CLARENCE STREET, SYDNEY Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 114, pp. 53-58, 1981 ISSN 0035-9173 Galaxies, Clusters and Invisible Mass* EDWIN E. SALPETER INTRODUCTION I am happy to be associated with the James Pollock Memorial Lectures, especially since they provide a tie with my formative years at Sydney University: My last year as a student here, 1945, was about when these lectureships were started. The topic of my talk also provides a link - theo- retical physics and radioscience made the strong- est impression on me as a Sydney student and these two topics are interwoven in the subject of my talk. Since a memorial lecture should appeal to a fairly broad audience, I usually like starting off qualitatively and getting mathematical only to- wards the end. However, in the present case, I have to start off with an equation, Kepler's Law, een before I state the topic: For a circular orbit at a distance r from the centre of a mass M(r) the rotation velocity is given by (1) A recurring theme of my talk is the use of ebserved velocities V of "test particles" to infer the total (gravitational) mass M of a system, whether "invisible" or not. The first topic (Rot- ation Curves of Spiral Galaxies) will be the rot- ation curve of a spiral galaxy, where orbits are fairly accurately circular and the gravitational Mass inside radius r is given almost directly by equation (1). However, I will touch on various other topics which, at first sight, sound like a different phenomenon and yet the governing equa- tion is essentially (to within a factor of two) the same: For an equilibrated gravitationally bound system of N particles, the Virial Theorem can be used, which is essentially the ''statistical aver- age" equivalent of equation (1). At least for the core of a rich cluster of galaxies the Virial Theorem works quite well; for the outer layers of a galaxy cluster I will describe (Dynamical Masses for Galaxy Clusters) more intricate dynamical cal- culations, but they are merely a quantitative re- finement to the Virial Theorem. For the formation of a galaxy cluster out of a local density enhance- ment in an expanding cosmological model an import- ant question is whether the proto-cluster is grav- itationally bound or not. This question can be rephrased by asking whether the initial expansion velocity was less than Vesc or not, where * The J.S. Pollock Memorial Lecture, delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 30th July, 1981. V (226 (2) is the escape velocity at a distance r from mass M (which differs from equation (1) by merely a factor of 2). Finally, for cosmological models an import- ant question is whether the universe is open or closed. This is usually expressed by asking wheth- er the mean density of the universe is smaller or larger than the cosmological "critical density". P crit = (3/8nG)Hj ~10~*%gm cm? (3) where H, is the Hubble constant. However, this cri- tical density is essentially that required to make the "mass of the universe" such that Vace in equa- tion (2) equals the speed of light c. Instead of giving masses or mass densities in absolute terms, it will be more convenient to give mass-to-light ratios (expressed in units of M)/L, where My is solar mass and L, is solar luminosity). For many considerations, the numerical value of Ho is unimportant, but I will use a value of 70 kms ! Mpc7} (as a compromise between two "fashionable" values of 50 and 1100). The dimensionless cosmol- ogical density parameter 2 can be re-expressed as Sze Perit 1500 (4) where

is the mean density of the universe (av- eraged over volumes large compared with our Local Supercluster of galaxies). To give a preview of Sections II and III: Ordinary stars give an aver- age mass-to-light ratio of M/L ~%5 or 10, whereas rotation curves for galaxies and velocity disper- Sions in galaxy clusters give larger value - hence the inference of "invisible mass" somewhere. ROTATION CURVES OF SPIRAL GALAXIES Optical measurements of shifts in spectral lines from stellar distributions in nearby spiral galaxies can give, at least in principle, the vel- ocity (component along the line of sight) as a fun- ction of distance r from the galaxy centre. FEqua- tion (1) then gives M(r), the total mass contained inside a sphere of radius r, if the mass distribu- tion is spherical; if the mass is distributed ina disk the numerical factor in the equation only cha- nges by 1/2 with even smaller changes for other distributions. Such mass determinations were al- ready carried out more than 50 years ago (Opik, 1922) and much optical data exists on rotation curves Vyo+(r) for the inner galactic disks of spi- ral galaxies (Burbidge and Burbidge, 1975). Since the mass density is finite at the centre, M(r) «p3 54 at small radii r and V first. Since the mass the linear increase in V rot behaviour at large r is of greatest interest. The optical surface brightness Seas =) decreases ex- (r) increases linearly at density decreases outwards (r) stops soon, but the ponentially with r (Freeman, 1970) and so would the mass surface density mes) IF most mass were contributed by ordinary stars, so that the mass to light ratio M/L were constant everywhere. In that case, M(r) would approach the total mass Mot rap- idly and the rotation curve would approach the Kepler Law, vee «ry *, in the outer regions. Because of the exponential decrease of optical surface brightness it is difficult to extend opt- ical rotation curves to the outer regions, but fortunately the neutral hydrogen in the galactic disk extends about 2 or 3 times further out than most of the starlight. The direct contribution to M of the hydrogen gas is very small, but modern radiotelescopes are very sensitive and can detect neutral hydrogen and measure its velocity (or, rather, its component along the line of sight) through the \21cm hyperfine structure line. By a peculiar quirk of history, one of the earliest gal- axies for which accurate 21cm data were taken, M81, showed the expected turnover in the rotation curve and the approach to the Kepler Law and seemed to corroborate the assumption of a constant mass to light ratio. Troubles with this assumption soon surfaced, in particular our nearest large galaxy, M31 (Andromeda), seemed to show a flat rotation curve. A trigonometric conversion factor has to be applied to the measured line-of-sight velocity component to derive Ves) and there could be un- certainties if the outer disk of the galaxy is warped. Fortunately, these uncertainties are quite unimportant when the galaxy is viewed almost edge- on. The most recent 21cm radiotelescopes are sen- sitive enough to be able to observe a large number of galaxies and one can select those which are close to edge-on. The Westerbork array (Sancisi, 1976) has particularly good angular resolution and the Arecibo dish (Krumm and Salpeter, 1979) has particularly good sensitivity and a lot of reliable data is now available (including also newer optical data). The situation has been reviewed by Bosma and van der Kruit (1979) and by Rubin (1979) and it is now clear that most spiral galaxies (with a qua- rter or less of the galaxies, including M81, form- ing an exception) have flat rotation curves and M(r) must increase linearly with r - at least as far as the observations can be carried out. The 21cm observations peter out at two or three times the optical radius of a typical galaxy, because the hydrogen signal becomes too weak, and the rotation curves are usually still flat there. The last values for M(r) provide lower limits for Meot and are two or three times larger than the old optical estimates, giving a lower limit to the over- all mass to light ratio of about 20Mg/Lo. This is not spectacular in itself, but the local mass to light ratios are: The mass surface density decr- eases only as r 1 whereas the optical surface brightness decreases exponentially, so that (2) /o, (1) increases very drastically, as shown in Figure 1, up to about 500M9/Lo. We therefore E. E. SALPETER have the tantalizing situation of knowing about the existence of "almost invisible" matter but not knowing how much further out it extends and how much larger M Ot is than our lower jamie tom t= We also do not know in what physical form the matter in such an "invisible galaxy halo" is. Some form of stars seems the most conservative hypothesis, but "ordinary stars" in the mass range 0.2M) to 2M) have too small values for M/L (shown in Figure 2). M/L increases as stellar mass de- creases and stars of about 0.1M) are sufficiently faint for present-day data, although they might be detectable with improved optical sensitivity; ob- jects less massive than about 0.08M,) cannot burn hydrogen at all, cool off rapidly and these "over- grown Jupiters' are essentially invisible. By ana- logy with the well-studied "stellar population II halo", it is usually assumed that a "stellar pop- ulation III'' was formed before stellar populations I and II, more than 10!° years ago. If that is true, a population of very massive stars - initial- ly - is also a possibility (24Mg, say), since they will have ended their main sequence life a long time ago and their compact remnants (white dwarfs, neutron stars or black holes) are very faint optic- ally (Salpeter, 1977). Before we can say if it is reasonable that the masses of the earliest stars to form were either very small or very large, we should look at the situation of "ordinary" stars. For this purpose one should look not at the present-day observed luminosity function, but the extrapolation back to the birthrate or "initial mass function IMF" (I am again happy to talk on this topic in this continent. since my first work in ''real'' astronomy was done in Australia on this subject). This IMF, when express- ed in the appropriate logarithmic form as shown schematically in Figure 2, is still slightly uncer- tain (Salpeter, 1955; Lequeux, 1979; Miller and Scalo, 1979), but the interesting thing is that it is rather flat. A similar empirical fact holds in a more sociological realm - roughly as many people live in cities between 1 and 2 million population as in towns between 10,000 and 20,000 population, etc. The causes are not really understood in either realm, but it is known that the demographic law sometimes fails such as in the megalopolis on the Eastern U.S. seabord or in highly rural popula- tions. We should perhaps not be too surprised if a similar thing happened to tilt the earliest IMF to- wards very small or very large masses. DYNAMICAL MASSES FOR GALAXY CLUSTERS We saw that we can only get a lower limit to the total gravitational mass of an individual gal- axy and that there might be more "invisible" mass further out, either bound to the galaxy or else- where. Fortunately, an appreciable fraction of all galaxies lives in large clusters and we can invest- igate the total gravitational mass of such a clust- er by studying the dynamics of the galaxies in it. There are different types of clusters, from loose ones containing few galaxies to very "rich'' ones, containing thousands of galaxies with very high central number density. The very richest clusters show signs of relaxation subsequent to their form- ation due to dissipative galaxy - galaxy interact- ion. Fortunately, we are situated relatively close GALAXIES, CLUSTERS AND INVISIBLE MASS a) to a medium-rich cluster, the Virgo cluster, which is large enough to give good statistics but has not suffered much relaxation, so that we can now treat individual galaxies as point particles. As I mentioned in the Introduction, the Vir- ial Theorem is the statistical equivalent of Kep- ler's Law, relating the mean-squared velocity of particles in a cluster (the systemic velocity of each galaxy relative to the cluster centre) to total gravitational mass of the cluster (divided by its radius. De Vaucouleurs (1960) already ap- plied the Virial Theorem to velocity data for the Virgo cluster and found a surprisingly large clus- ter mass, corresponding to a mass-to-light ratio of about 500. Some objections have been raised to the use of the Virial Theorem, which strictly speaking applies only to an isolated system at equilibrium, to a galaxy cluster which is not ful- ly isolated and still has galaxies falling in on it from the outside. It is important to settle this point, since it has a bearing on two inter- esting questions: ite How much invisible mass is there in the Virgo cluster core? Dis What is the value of the cosmological density parameter 2? Equation (4) relates & to the mean mass-to- light ratio and one might think that quest- ions 1. and 2. above are identical. Until a few years ago this view was prevalent and there was optimism that a reliable value for & would be found soon. Developments since have illustrated an unfortunate (but fascinating) aspect of observ- ational cosmology: As more observational data becomes available on some topic, the claimed ac- curacy for determining some interesting number often gets. worse for a while - not better - be- cause some systematic cause for error has been found but not yet eliminated. We have seen that some invisible matter is associated with individ- ual galaxies, but it is becoming more and more likely that M/L is even larger for the core of a cluster like Virgo than for an individual galaxy. We therefore have to expect the possibility that M/L either increases or decreases radically with distance from the centre of a large cluster, so that the two questions above become decoupled. We shall see that question 1. can be answered quite accurately, but question 2. is wide open. Since the pioneering work on the Virgo clus- ter and its surrounding by de Vaucouleurs (much of it carried out in Australia) there have been advances both on the observational and theoretic- al side. Observationally there has been a verit- able information explosion, both from optical Spectroscopy and 21icm-line work, and accurate systemic velocities are now available for more than a thousand galaxies in the general Virgo cluster vicinity. Instead of merely getting one velocity dispersion for the whole cluster, one can get observational values for velocity disper- Sion as a function of angular distance 6 from the Virgo cluster centre. Part of this data is shown in Figure 3 for the cluster core (nominally def- ined as the sphere inside 6 16°, where the number density of galaxies has a steep gradient) and some distance outside. The cluster is by no means isothermal, but the velocity dispersion de- creases with increasing 6 (it becomes almost con- stant again at slightly larger 6). On the theoret- ical side the main advance has been the possibility to carry out a large series of dynamical model cal- culations (Peebles, 1970; Gott, 1975; Gunn, 1977; Silk and Wilson, 1979; Hoffman, Olson and Salpeter, 1980), which can eliminate the controversy surroun- ding the (much simpler) use of the Virial Theorem. Although the supercluster surrounding the Virgo cluster is flattened, the cluster itself is not, so that spherically symmetric dynamical models are sufficiently accurate. Figure 4 is a schematic illustration of such a model for an open universe which already contained one spherically symmetric density enhancement at early times. Because of the enhanced gravitational force, the total energy per particle is negative for all spherical shells in- side "marginally bound surface' containing mass m*. At early times all:shells take part in the general cosmological expansion but at some epoch (labelled as time t = 1) shells far inside of m* come to rest, start collapsing and hit the origin at approximate- ly t = 2. Shells further out (but still inside m*) reach zero velocity at later times and, whatever the present epoch ane is, there exists some zero velocity surface. At any finite time the cluster is never fully isolated from its surrounding, but at times later than about t v 3, there is a sub- stantial cluster core which does not change its in- ternal density much although the matter outside m* keeps expanding and decreasing its density. There are at least two dimensionless paramet- ers characterizing a particular model - the present epoch ce (relative to the first turnaround of the proto-cluster), and the present value of the cos- mological density parameter 2. A scaling factor can be adjusted to make the overall mean velocity dispersion of the model agree with the observed mean, but there is still the question whether the shape of the curve for velocity dispersion as a function of distance 6 from the cluster centre fits the observed curve (the histogram) in Figure 3. A number of curves for different models are also sho- wn in Figure 3 and they do in fact fit the observed shape quite well. That is gratifying from one point of view - the basic assumptions (growth of an original approximately spherical density enhance- ment, neglect of dissipation, etc.) cannot be badly off - but disappointing from another: these curves (taken from Hoffman, Olson and Salpeter, 1980) cov- er a range of 2 from 0.03 to 0.7 (and we now have models covering an even wider range) and since they all fit equally well, one of the questions I asked above has a negative answer - if the mass-to-kight ratio is allowed to vary with distance from the centre (or with density) but if we do not know the Sign of the variation then we can say nothing at the moment about the cosmological density parameter Q! The other question, however, has a very pos- itive answer: all the models which fit the obser- ved velocity dispersion curve give almost the same mass and mass-to-light ratio for a sphere of radius which subtends an angle of 6°. We get M/L ~500M /L / o/b 56 E. E. SALPETER and M., = (3.8 + 0.4) x 101 2M if we assume Hy = 70kms ‘Mpc7! (in fact the larg- est uncertainty in Me, at the moment is due to the uncertainty in the Hubble constant Hg) - Since 2 varies from model to model, M/L for much larger volumes than the 6°-sphere is uncertain (and the Same is true to a lesser extent for much smaller volumes) but for the volume picked by optical as- tronomers as "the Virgo cluster proper" the Virial Theorem is vindicated pretty well. The most im- portant result, though, is the fact that M/L is at least 20 times larger still than we obtained for individual galaxies (out to where the neutral hy- drogen begins to peter out) so that we have strik- ing evidence for even more invisible mass - poss- ible of a different form and probably distributed differently: if the invisible mass is mainly low- mass stars from large proto-haloes they are likely to have been "'rubbed off'' in the dense cluster core more than further out and M/L decreases with in- creasing distance from the cluster centre; if the invisible mass is due mainly to massive neutrinos forming the background cluster (Sato and Takara, 1980), the neutrinos will have suffered even less dissipation than proto-galaxies, have a larger cluster radius and M/L increases. SUPERCLUSTERS AND FUTURE WORK I almost ended by saying that we know the mass of a cluster core, such as the inner 6° of the Vir- go cluster, quite well but know nothing about the mean mass-density (or the dimensionless parameter Q): the masses of the cluster cores alone would give only 2 10.02, a constant mass-to-light ratio M/L everywhere would give 2 10.3, but an increased M/L outside of cluster cores could easily give a closed universe, 221. There is some hope to get more information in the future from the study of "superclusters", which come either in the form of tenuous surroundings of a single cluster core of about 10 or 20 times its radius (which is the case for the Local Supercluster which surrounds the Vir- go cluster), or as a collection of 4 or 5 clusters (de Vaucouleurs, 1956; Jéeveer, Einasto and Tago, 1978). The attempts made at the moment for getting some measure of the mass of the Local Supercluster mainly centre around measuring the 'Virgocentric deviation velocity AV from pure Hubble flow". By this is meant the additional recession velocity (above the observed one) we would have relative to the Virgo cluster if we had not been decelerat- ed by the gravitational pull of the Virgo cluster. This requires precision measurements of the relat- ive distances from us to galaxies in different directions, which is a difficult task at the mon- ent. Consequently, present estimates for AV cover a rather wide range from about 125 to 500 km/sec, but hopefully the accuracy will improve. Unfort- unately it is not clear whether even an accurate observed value for AV will be able to pin down &. The reason is that AV does not depend so much on the total mass contained in the Local Supercluster (or in a sphere centred on the Virgo Cluster and passing through our location), but on the excess mass contained over what the mean cosmological den- sity would give. We thus can have the paradoxical Situation that of two models (with M/L varying dif- ferently), both giving the velocity dispersion of the cluster core correctly, the one with the larger Q may predict a smaller AV. Some attempts have also started to measure velocities equivalent to AV in a supercluster con- taining several clusters (Ford, et al., 1981). I am equally sceptical that these measurements can give 2 directly, but I am confident that we will learn much about the formation, structure and ev- olution of superclusters from such studies. From such understanding will eventually also come a value for the elusive parameter 2 and I hope there will be a more definitive Pollock Memorial Lecture on this subject before the end of the milleniun. REFERENCES Bosma, A. and van der Kruit, P.C., 1979. Astron. and Astroph. 79, 281. Burbidge, E.M. and Burbidge, G.R., 1975. GALAXIES AND THE UNIVERSE. U. Chicago Press. Sandage §& Kristian (Ed.). De Vaucouleurs, G., 1956. Vistas Astron. 2, 1584. De Vaucouleurs, G., 1960. Astrophys. J. 131, S859 Ford, H., Harms, R., Ciardullo, R. and Bartko, F., 1981. Astrophys. J: 24575b53 Freeman, K.C., 1970. Astrophys. J. 160, 811. Gott, J.R., 1975, Astrophys. J.) 20l,mcoo Gunn, J.E., 1977. Astrophys. "3.) (2ua,nso72 Hoffman, L., Olson, D. and Salpeter, E., 1980. Astrophys. J. “242.66. J6éeveer, M., Einasto, J. and Tago, E., 1978. MINER -AlsSi US5irs Soe Krumm, N. and Salpeter, E.E., 19797 Astron wy. 84, 1138. Lequeux, J., 1979. Astron. and Astroph. 80, 35. Miller, G.E. and Scalo, J.M., 1979. Suppl. — 41,0 oor Astrophys. J. Opik, E., 1922. Astrophys. J. 55, 406. Peebles, P.J.E., 1970, Astron. J. 75, 13. Rubin, V.C,, 1979. Comments on Astrophys. 8, 79. Salpeter, E.E. 1955. Astrophys. J. 121, 161- Salpeter, E.E., 1977. Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci. 302, 681. Sancisi, R., 1976. Astron. and Astroph. 53, 159. Sato, H. and Takahara, F.,1980, Kyoto Univ. Report. Silk,_J. and Wilson, M.-L.) 19792 233, 769. Astrophys. J. CONTRIBUTION TO TOTAL MASS GALAXIES, CLUSTERS AND INVISIBLE MASS a7 From Bosma & van der Kruit (4979) 10 H- BURNING LIMIT @02.~=—«OO.. 20 30 r( kpc) Fig. 1 NOW LIVING Fag =2. Beene 0.03 (18.7) eae 0.43(10.0) ~--— 0.19( 60) 0.30( 30) Ze =e sORGO lata Tox Nn Ty 4 E a0 oO Oo ~ ra SS > are © ~ ine) O ” i / / / GQ, (deg) gates 6) SPHERICAL MODELS: (PEEBLES, GUNN & GOTT, SILK, OLSON , LYLE HOFFMAN) m* Vrig Se de: init P Peay m* m(r) m (r) m* = Marginally Bound Mass t= 41: First Turnaround t= 2: First Collapse So ae oe eee 7 mM m* Z.V. Surface OS 4 2 \ t thow Fig. 4 58 Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: E. E. SALPETER The ratio of local surface mass density Oy to optical surface brightness o, as a function of radial distance r from the centre of an individual galaxy. A schematic picture of the "initial mass function" IMF in logarithmic units as a function of stellar mass M. Typical mass-to-light ratios are also shown. The velocity dispersion of systemic gal- axy velocities as a function of angular distance 9 from the centre of the Virgo cluster. The histogram is the observa- tional data, the curves are for various models (labelled by 2 and by t in now brackets). A schematic picture for the time deve- lopment of a density enhancement into at icluster. Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 114, pp. 59-61, 1981 ISSN 0035-9173 Papillatabairdia, A New Ostracod Genus from Brisbane Water, New South Wales CHRISTOPHER BENTLEY ABSTRACT. INTRODUCTION The marine Ostracoda of the area around Sydney were first described by Brady (1880). They were collected in Port Jackson and at Station 1l64a (Fig. 1) by the Challenger expedition in 1874. Until now nothing further has been published. There have been papers published on Ostracoda from else- where on the Australian coast, notably by McKenzie (1967) and Hartmann (1978, 1979, 1980). The present paper deals with a new genus and species from Brisbane Water, to the north of Sydney off Broken Bay (Fig. 1). Further papers will deal with the remainder of the fauna. The specimens, consisting entirely of carapaces and dissociated valves, were collected between March 1977 and January 1978. The drawing (Fig. 2) was made with the aid of a Leitz camera lucida. The JEOL JSM-35 scanning electron micro- scope at the University of New England was used for figures 3-7. Holotype and paratypes are deposited in the Australian Museum, Sydney (catalogue numbers P30661-68). Paratypes are also deposited in the collection of the Department of Geology of the University of New England (number F16363, locality number L1821). SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION Class OSTRACODA Latreille, 1806 Order PODOCOPIDA Mtiller, 1894 Suborder PODOCOPA Sars, 1866 Superfamily BAIRDIACAE Sars, 1866 Family BAIRDIIDAE Sars, 1888 Genus PAPILIATABATRDIA, gen. nov. Type Species PAPILLATABAIRDIA DENTATA, sp.nov. Derivation of name: paptlla (Latin) = nipple, and the generic name Batrdia, from the appearance of the ornament of the valve. Diagnosis: Carapace small to medium; ovately subtrapezoidal in lateral view. Surface ornament papillate. Inner lamella broad anteriorly, Marrower posteriorly. Marginal pore canals Numerous, simple, straight. Two shallow vestibula [present . Description: As for the type species. is at present monospecific. The genus Remarks: Paptllatabairdta, gen. nov., can be A new podocopid ostracod genus, Paptllatabatrdta (Bairdiacea, Bairdiidae), is described from Brisbane Water, N.S.W., with a new species, Paptllatabatrdta dentata. distinguished from other members of the family Bairdiidae by its more reniform shape, its rectang- ular posterior and its papillate ornamentation. Paptllatabatrdia dentata sp. nov. (fig. 2-7) 1978 Bythocyprts sp. HARTMANN: 73-74; Table II fig. 14-16 Derivation of name: dentatwn (Latin) - toothed, from the appearance of the anteroventral margin of the valve in lateral view. Holotype: P30664, a female left valve (fig. 4). Type locality: Channel to the east of St Huberts Island, Brisbane Water. Type stratum: Recent muddy sand. Material: 45 specimens. Diagnosis: 0, 2 Vv Vo. Vv Vv u>0O and v is any real number, has been successful- ly used in the study of theory of heat conduction by Nicholson (1922). The precise conditions of validity of the inversion formula for (1) are due to Titchmarsh (1923) and are given in Theorem 1 below. Griffith extended the Weber transformation and applied the extension to the solution of certain heat conduction problems (Griffith, 1956; Griffith, 957) . With the emergence of the theory of generalized functions many aspects of the theory of integral transforms have acquired a new, more general treat- ment. The methods of the theory of generalized functions have permitted a generalization of the classical results. This paper consists of a com- prehensive and incisive description of a generaliz- ation of the Weber transform. The aim of the present paper is to extend classical Weber trans- formation to distributions and apply the theory thus developed to solve certain differential oper- ator equations and Dirichlet's problem in cylindri- cal coordinates for a plate. Our notations and terminology foilow those of Zemanian (1968). We shall need the following for- mulae: Y, (xu) he (xu) cot v 7 - cosec vd, (xu) (2) SG) = ae pate 2 2 2 2 Peale l)s2) snes) -V i] (3) 2 J,(2) = (4) Leos(z -4vm-%m) + O(1/Iz1)1 L for large z, (4) ¥,(z) = (4) Csin(z-4vm-%m) + O(1/121)) s for large z. (5) - Communicated by W.E. Smith. AS u > ©, {sin u(t-a) C. (tu, au) = - muvat + sin u(t-a) x 0(1/u) + cos uct-a) xociu)} and C. (xu, au) Jz (au) +¥2(au) © = va/Xx {sin u(x-a) + sin u(x=a) x 0(1/u) + cos u(x-a) x oc ; (6) As u> 0, 1 2.\0)| J2 (au) + Y2 (au) = O(u ) and C (xu, au) = Z {erey’ - a/a”} + O(u) . (7) Theorem 1 L If x > a > 0 and t*f(t) is summable in the in- finite interval (a,~) and f(t) is of bounded vari- ation in a neighbourhood of t = x, then C. (xu, au) * | J2(au) + Y2(au) © du C\ (tu, au)t£(t)dt = 4; {ecer0) + £¢x-0)} (8) the order v being a real number. THE TESTING FUNCTION SPACE W(TI) Let I denote the open interval (a,~). An in- finitely differentiable function 9$(x) defined over I is said to belong to W(I) if ¥,() = sup |e (x) a (9 (2) /x) | a a-0 for all x > a and E(x) = OU) Lares and the operator AL is defined by peta yeh we. ed id Se ee ae ee The topology on W(I) is defined by means of the separating collection of seminorms {y ee (Zeman- ian, 1968). A sequence {9. } ss im) Widjetos therdamit af ~ >= Via o form leach k= 0,1 525°... is said to be a Cauchy sequence in W(I) if Yk(¢. -% ) goes to zero as v and yu both go to in- finite ihdependently of each other, It ‘canebe ¥,(¢,, - $) > 0 as Ka Sequence {¢ } co readily seen that W(I) is a locally convex, sequen- tially complete Hausdorff topological vector space. The dual of the space W(I) will be represented by Wi Clae It may be remarked that the weight function E(x) in the definition of the space W(I) is needed to ensure the differentiability of the distri- butional Weber transform, see Theorem 2. Lemma 1 If a > 0 and v is any real number, then for a fixed y > 0, tC. (ty,ay) as a function of t belongs ) to W(I). Proof Now k ke2k Jectyae(C (ty,ay)) | = [(-1)"ye(t)c (ty, ay) |, therefore for fixed y > 0 k sup |&(t)A,C (ty,ay)| < © . a O we define distributional Weber transformation of f by the relation FO) 2 (i fy 24 F(t), te (ty,ay)). 2 ) where v is a real number, a > 0, and C (ty, ay) is the same as defined by (1). From Lemma 1 we know that for fixed y # 0, tC, (ty, ay) © W(I), the re- lation (9) is therefore meaningful. Theorem 2 For real y > 0, let F(y) be defined by (9). Then F(y) is differentiable and that r) q = ae Fi @)) = Ca(eyet By C (ty ,ay)) (10) for all real values of v. Proof We have is said to converge v vel F(y+A - F P) Eyrty = FO) (f(t),t by Cy (tysay)? C (tlyt+Ay],aly+Ay J) - C. (ty, ay) Ay ) -t ay Cylty,ay)? . = Gre (Ce) ace Now we have to show that C(tly+4y],alytAy])- C. (ty, ay) Ay 3 ay, eee A Se =t -t in W(I) as Ay > 0. Now E(e)are, (t) = e(t) (19k 2 jee “c. (tly+ayl,aly+dyl) - C(ty,ay)y"* x Ay : ay Oc, tey,ay))| dy - — y+Ay - cont | oe tx*Ke (tx, ax) } dx MA 7 wy Or *c tey,ay)} | yt+Ay s coco’ 2 = tx°Ko (tx,ax) } dx K sy ) 2k a ee Ee e (tx,ax)) m5 iT] y x koa 92 2k E(t) (-1) x | dx | ane [a c, (tn,an) dn. ¥ yi; Therefore k JE(t) 4,0, (t) | < |Ay| sup a [nc cen,an)| \4 Hence k JE(t)A,e,(t) | < |dy| sup a y ae sup n2k-3 Pits /2 ¥ Bia | ie ey) Rea 5 Gane: Czy) Cy) °3 (hy) emOecas Ay > 0. This completes the proof of Theorem 2. Theorem 3 For real y > 0, let F(y) be defined as in (9), then me _L F(y) = Oly ee assy > 0 and or-1 F(y) = Oly ) asyre where r is some non-negative integer. Proof Assume at first that v > 0. In view of the result (Zemanian, 1968), there exists a constant C > 0 and a non-negative integer r such that |F(y)| = < C max reece (ty,ay)) O. a, y > O and the function (ty) ?Y,(ty) is bounded for allt a, y > 0 except when (ty) = Ox "Asset > a. (cy) = 0 aumplicssy 50 2 In ths casevay — O(ty) and) |Ya(ty) Jy (ay) = OC), Also, as (ty) 320; Jo(ty)Y) (ay) - Yo(ty)J, (ay) = Jy (ty) J, (ay) log (a/t) = (1) Thus, for v 2 0, as y + 0 A [FG's C max sup &(¢t) O 0+. Also, as y+ o F(y) s C max sup &(t) O a, then for £ixed x > 0, n C (tu,au) t | eu) eatysetaay Yas 0 0 in W(I) as n > O+. Proof Assume at first that v > 0. Then p (6 (tu, au) E(t) ar C. (xu, au) TEaa) + Vay u du 0 n = E(t) A, | [3 Gury, Cau) = ¥, Gx) J, (au) | 0 : 5 u du = [a cour cow) -¥(0005,¢000] Sera PeTaa 66 R. S. PATHAK AND R. K. PANDEY - E(t) ay [ [5 Gxup a, (eu) ¥? (au) 0 - J (xu)Y (au)Y (tu) J, (au) - Y (xu) J (au) J (tu)Y, (au) + ¥, (xu) ¥, (0) 2 (au) u_du Considering the first term within the bracket k | u du E(t)a, | [5 Guy, Cow ¥2 Cau) J? (au) + Y2 (au) wr iA] E(t) | (-1)*u?*5, xu) ¥? (au) (tu) 0 L u du [cew) J, (eu J? (au) + Y2 (au), n * 2 BCE 2k ee. SCO aa 1 : J2(au) + Y2(au) au CA xe v v Boke (64 ake >0 as n > O+ because as u> 0, Yé (au) EF + YZ (au) | saat and E(t) is bounded for all t > a. t? Similarly it can be shown that the other terms in (12) also tend to zero as n > O+. The case when v is negative can similarly be disposed off. Lemma 3 Let f © W'(I) and C\(tu,au) be the same as de- fined by (1), then for fixed x,N >°0; N C. (xu, au) | (£(t),tC (tu, au) ? J2(au) +Y2(au) “ du 0 Vv Vv N C. (xu, au) = WG FEl(te)) Ane | C\ (tu, au) J2(au) 2 ¥2(au) Uduy. 43) v Ws 0 Proof In view of Theorems 2 and 3, the integral in the left hand side of (13) exists (meaningful). It can be shown that for fixed x > 0, the integral appearing in the right hand side of the expression in (13) belongs to W(I). So the right hand side expression in (13) is meaningful. To justify the equality (13) we first show by using the technique of Riemann sums (Pandey and Zemanian, 1968), that for n > 0, C. (xu, au) 72 (au) VGA ee Jé(au) + Y2 (au) N | (f(t) ,tC (tu,au)) n SSC N C, (xu, au) | tC, (tu, au) JZ (au) + Y2(au) Uda) (14) n Now using Lemma 2 and letting n> 0+ in (14) the re- sult (13) follows. INVERSION OF THE DISTRIBUTIONAL WEBER TRANSFORM Let us write N C. (xu, au)C, (tu, au) Wy (tx) = | J2(au) + ¥Z(au)_ u du. For y > 0 define ¥ (toy) = xWy (t,x) dx yi ou Z wre C. (tu, au) = JZ (au) + Y2(au) u du | xC, (xu, au) dx. a Let vs * | C. (xu, au) x dx = C (y,a,u); a then N - C\(tu,au)C (y,a,u) Y(t sy) = | J2(au) +Y2(au) u du. (15) v Vv 0 Lemma 4 For fixed y > 0 and -x >a 207 1 (aS x° sy) Then, f(&) satisfies conditions of Theorem 1, and hence from (8) we have y C. (xu, au) y lim | a a | tC. (tu,au)dt Now J<(au) + YS (au) } v = 1 (a c) be two positive numbers. Then d i t Sac) lim | xWy (t,x) dx = Noo 0 tie, di Proof Setting 1 en ent ACE) = { 0 tre d in Theorem 1, we get N C \ (xu, au) : ne | 5 Zaay +2 (Gua) u du | C (tu,au)t dt Cc d = lim | Weatto0) t -

0, the function (x - t)Wy(t, x) is bounded uniformly for all x,t,N > 0, v being any real number, and ENS: x) is pounded for the x and t satisfying it- x| = > 0. Proof Let us consider first the case 0 0, we conclude that + (AW I, Ou), J (au) J, (xu) are all bounded when ty u_ ey 0. Therefore cs | (x-t) Wy, (tx) | < B, | (x-t) | e u du 2S |J2(au) + J2(au) - 2J (au)J (au) cos vil ~ Ge =v v av) N B,| (x-t) | f u 0 2|v|+2 B,|x-t| Miele De Be 2\vi4t IA du lA B,|x-t| where B, is constant independent of x, t and N. Next consider the case N > 1. | (x-t) Wy (t,x) | C yOu, au)C (tu, au) ea Gu ao lA [x-t | C. (xu, au)C, (tu, au) ~ J2tau) + ¥2(auy du xetllie ‘ | Since the first integral is bounded, we consider the second : C (Gaby, au)C,) (tu,au) ee) _ ACTER CACT Bee 1 N = ¥(a/x) aa [sin u(t-a) + sin u(t-a)0(1/u) 1 + cos u(t-a)O(1/u) ]xfsin u(x-a) + sin u(x-a)O(1/u) + cos u(x-a)0(1/u) Jdu mn) be | ct N | Leos u(t-x) - cos u(t+x-2a)+2(cos u(t-x) 1 cos u(t+x-2a) + sin u(x+t-2a)}0(1/u) + 2(cos u(t-x) + sin u(t+x-2a) )O(1/u2 du. Since each of the above integrals is bounded, there- fore G (xu, au)C., (tu, au) ie oi] Fan) + ¥2tany YY] «By, B, being independent of x, t and N. The proof of the second part is obvious. Corollary For 00O, d | | (x-t) Wy (t,x) [dx < o, iS Lemma 7 For c + 6 0 c 68 R. S. PATHAK AND R. K. PANDEY as°N > > uniformly for c+ 6 —t 0: Proof We have t-6 | Wy (tx) X dx c ee C (xu,au)C, (tu,au) = | mea du|)x dx v v Cc 0 i} os Dre , (xu, au)C,, (tu,au) 7 xax | Tau) + YZ (au) Bags 0 C (xu, au)C (tu, au) GR (| 3 )- ey aay + YZ (au) ee 0 N ‘i C_ (tu,au) | C. (xu, au)x dx 0 C. (xu, au) x dx. fe C._(tu,au) yr u du | J<(au) + Y“(au) NEY ) Since by Lemma 5 the first integral on the right- hand side is equal to zero, therefore t-6 | Wy Ct x) x dx © -6 1 i] Z—> 8 C (tu, au) : aay 2 | Jé (au) + Yé (au) J Now we shall show that the integral on the right- hand side >0 as N> ~ uniformly for all t€ (c+é,b). Now _ t-é G_ (tuzau) econ com fay feet N c 5 C (tu, au) te ‘i | Tau) *YZ(au) © wa | VG vere N c -Y (xu) J, (au) Ix dx e C., (tu, au) aie | TZtauy + Yay Y du |Y (au) | xJ, (xu) dx N — c t-6 - J, (au) | OQ, then d | Wy (t,x) x Axe ean) t+d as N>o for all t © (a,d-6). Proof The proof is based on the conclusion of Lemma 5 and the technique is similar to that used in the proof of Lemma 7. Lemma 9 Let $(x) © D(I) and its support be contained in [e,d] where 0 © uniformly for all t © [c+6,d]. Proof The proof can be given by following the tech- nique of Hobson (1950). By the second part of Lemma 6 there exists a positive constant K such that |xWy(t,x)| < K uniformly for all x € [c,d], fe] lc+o,d)]-and N > 0. In view of the uniform continuity of $(x) in ec = x < d for a given arbitrary c« > 0, we can find a continuous function x(x) such that t-6 d-6 | |o(x) - x(x) |dx < | | (x) - x(x) |dx < = Cc Cc The interval (c,t-6) may be divided into sub- intervals (c,x,), (X4 Xo) Sad OX. 2 »t-6), so chosen that the fluctuation of y(x) in each of these in- tervals is less than e/K(d-é-c). Let w(x) bea function which, in the interior of each part (x Xp )> where r = 1,2,3, .,n has the constant value Qe = (x, PI )/2. At the extremities of the parts, we take btx) to have the value zero. Thus w(x) has the finite set of values Qi> Qo, Q3, +» Q, 0. Since lx(x) - vOx) | < e/K(d-5-c) every- where except at the end points of n subintervals of (c,t-6), we have t-6 I(x) - vOQ|éx < ZF, Cc and therefore t-6é | Jo(x) - w(x)|dx < =, c Now $ (x) XW, (t,x) dx £6 (x) - w(x) Fay (t,x) dx E60 Cc t-d c IA n *r a) IQ. | xW (t,x) dx r=1 eel IA t-s | [o(x) - vo] [Wy (t,x) | dx Cc Theat a Q | xW,_ (t,x) dx cant Yr N *r-1 x n ag < 2e + | xW,, (t,x) dx — IQ. J . x Since t lies outside the interval (x »X,,) for each r = 1,2,3, ., in view of Lemma che x is | xWy (tx) dx > 0 me r-1 independently of t © [c+6,d] as N+. A positive number Ne (independent of x) can be so chosen that n r-l 23 12. . and for all values of t€[c+é6,d]. x r € | xWy (t,x) dx < ——- x t-6 | o Cx) xWy (t,x) dx G provided N = N. for all values of t © [c+é,dJ- < 35e Lemma 10 Let $(x) © D(I) and its support be contained inv Le,dii where 0)< ¢ 26 > 0 then d | Wy (#90 6 OD x dix 0) t+d as N+ uniformly for all t © (a,d-6). Proof Assume at first that (x) is an infinitely differentiable real valued function defined on [t+é6,d], a < t < d-6. Then ¢$(x) is a function of bounded variation on [t+6,d] (Rudin, 1964). Conse- quently, there exist monotonically increasing functions p(x) and q(x) on [t+é,d] with p(t+6é) = q(t+é6) = 0 such that (Rudin, 1964) o(x) = o(t+5) + p(x) - q(x) (it6 Sx = dy Hence d | Wy (tx) 600) x dx t+6 a = (t+) f Wry (tx) 6 (x) x dx t+6 d - | P(X) W(t x) oO)x dx t+6 d : | q(x) Wy (t,x) o(x)x dx . t+6 The result now can be proved by using mean value theorem of integral calculus followed by variation of techniques used in the proof of Lemma 7 and 8. The proof for infinitely differentiable 70 R. S. PATHAK AND R. K. PANDEY complex valued function $(x) can be given by separ- ating it into its real and imaginary parts. Lemma 11 Let (x) © D(1) and its support be contained iwc, dig where 0i<1e-<) di. “Then d t | Wy Ct» x) o COX dxXm= 225 Gti Ge) Cc in W(I) as N>@, Proof Tt can be easily seen that A Wy (t,x) = AW. (t,x) Way Ct 2x) 6 OD X dx = [A W(t, x) J6(x)x dx Ce ct he @Q Salon @) Saas Wy (tx) EA ¢ Cx) Ix dx by integrating by parts. Operating by A, success- ively, it can be seen in view of Lemma 5 that d Lam:&)(t) ok caret | Wy (t,x) 6 (x) xdx - to(t)| N+ 4 - d =) eam. cet.) | Wy Ctx) FO, OC) - 9) (t) Ix dx N7>o Cc where 6,0 = a8 600 Therefore our problem is reduced to proving the following result d lim &(t) | Wy Ct CYC) - ¥(t) Ix dx -.= 0 Nae Cc uniformly for all t, where w(x) © D(I). Assuming that 6 is a positive number less than 4 min(l,c,a), for t > a we write d T=" E(t) | Wy Ct xJ Ev Od - v(t) Ix. dx c t-6 t+6 d = cct)| | + | + [ Jwyces206000 - W(t) Ix dx c t-6 t+6 = I, + I, + I, (say). Now we notice that I, = 0 for t = d+é and also for t < c-6, hence we consider the case c-6 0, choose 6 Suen that 6M < ¢€/8. Therefore £ for all té (a,~) . (16) bal ae Next consider t-6é Le = E(t) | Wy Ct xd Ly Cx) -o (t) Ix dx @ SS te ES) where t-6 Ti 4 = eet) | Wy lt vx) x dx Cc and £25 I, 2 3 (t)}w(t) | Wy (tx) x dx”. c Clearly I, ie 0 if t @ (cid) a) Foretsettesa) ‘4 t-6 > 0O- IT, 91 < ay.) | | Wy (t,x) x dx c as N + ~ uniformly for all t © (c,d) in view of Lemma 7, so that tin 1,320 (17) Noo uniformly for all t > a. Now denoting the bound of |v(x) | by M, we have t-6 IT, J < 6(t) | Cc | w(x) | | xW, (t,x) | dx lA d g(t) | |vOd | [xWy (t 29 [ax Cc Ms C_ (xu,au)C_ (tu,au) Y ¥ u du| dx * J2 (au) + Y2(au) lA KK wm co ct — oe DISTRIBUTIONAL WEBER TRANSFORMATION ql C (xu, au)C,, (tu,au) RCTER TACT IA u du d ME (t) | x a || Cc C. (xu,.au)G’ (tuyau) x y u du 2 2 J<(au) + Y<(au) IA L + C(au,au)C (tu,au) (tu)? 2 | J2(au) + Y2(au) urdu Vv v | By the same arguments as used in the proof of Theorem 3, it can be shown that for 0 0 d ME(t)t 2 fx | c 0 + M 1, ic Oru, au)C,, (tu, au) \s Ie aay + Zany 1 or (tu) > 0. Therefore we have aD : C. (xu, au) Let) [T, {| 0 and L > d+é such that Pree = QE(Ct)t <2 (18) unatormly £or Vt.> 1. Now consider scr = ts he I, , tends to zero uniformly for all t © [c+6,L] by Lema 9. Since sup E(t) is bounded, we conclude CFostsi from (18) that Thi +0 as N+ (19) uniformly for all t-2 cto... But I, (ie Oo tox t < c+é. Therefore in view of (1) dnd (19) lim Th 4 = 3) (20) N+ uniformly for all t-> a. that Similarly we can show lim I, = 0 (22) N72 uniformly Vt > a. we have Combining (16), (21) and (22) ims «|i jeare (23) N7© uniformly Wt >a. Since « is arbitrary it follows that Time se (24) N+ uniformly Yt > a. Theorem 4 (Inversion) Let F(y) be the distributional Weber trans- formation of -£ SW! (1) detined- by (9). Then tor each (x) © D(I), lim ¢ N+ N C \ (xy ay) | Tay) + Y2tayy yF(y) dy, (x)? (25) = eX) 5 adie EZ, R. S. PATHAK AND R. K. PANDEY Proof Assume that the support of ¢(x) is contained IMuGe da, d = Cy > ja. = Then C. (xy, ay) Tay) + Veta) POY, ,6 (x)? C. (xy, ay) o(x)dx | y TZ (ay) + Vetayy © 4 (26) o(x)dx | (£(t),C (ty, ay)t? i QA ——: 2-2) Se OS oR ZA Of C y OXY ay) —) ayy + ¥etayy ¢ 7) aaeeea (ty ,ay) 0 (f(t) »tWy (t,x)? $ (x) dx (29) Qa—a o-—A0 =eCEe(t)i,t xW. (t,x) $09 ax) (30) QO 105 SWE Ct t $Y) SCE (31) The equality of expressions (26) and (27)is justi- fied by Theorems 2 and 3. That (27) and (28) are equal follows from Lemma 3. The equality of (29) and (30) can be established by the Riemann sums technique (Zemanian, 1968). Lastly, the expression (30) goes into (31) as N > ~ in view of Lemma 11. This completes the proof of the theorem. Remark The above inversion theorem has been estab- lished by interpreting convergence in the weak topology of D'(I) and cannot be proved in the weak topology of W'(I). -For if we define an infinitely differentiable function $¢(x) © W(I) such that 0 de eal Y x a Ie > 2 d(x) = one can readily show that foe) C. (xy, ay) | $ (x) dx | Tay + ¥etayy YP DAY a 0 does not exist. Indeed = %p o(X)C. (xy, ay)dx = | x °C, (xy, ay) dx a k which is divergent. Theorem 5 (Uniqueness) Let f and g © W'(I) and let F(t), G(t) be Weber transforms of f and g respectively. If F(t) = G(t) for all t > 0, then f = g in the sense of equality in D'(1). The proof is trivial. ILLUSTRATION OF THE INVERSION THEOREM BY MEANS OF A NUMERICAL EXAMPLE Consider the delta functional 6(t-k), concen- trated at a point k, a < k < ~. Since 6(t-k) © E'(I), I = (a,~), and E'(1) is a subspace of W'(1). The Weber transform of 6(t-k) is given by (W8(t-k)) (y) (6(t-k),tC (ty,ay)) KC. (ky, ay). Now, by inversion theorem, for any ¢(x) © D(1), N C (xy, ay) TZ (ayy + V2(ayy YRC, (ky -ay) dy, b(x)? 0 co N C. (xy, ay)C, (ky, ay) a | j= Tay Wtayy YoY #008 a 0 N - C. (ky,ay) = v xo (x) k | TZ (ay) + Y2Cay) y dy | C. (xy, ay) = dx. 0 Since ¢(x) is of compact support the change in order of integration is justified. Now letting N +> © and using Theorem 1, we see that the last ex- pression tends to Ao) o(k) = 6k) tia Thus the inversion theorem is illustrated. AN OPERATIONAL CALCULUS In this section, we shall apply the preceding theory in solving certain differential operator equations. Define the operator A, WG) > Ww CL) by the relation (are(t),o(t)) 4 ¢£(t),t d, ot) for all f © W'(1) and ¢(@t) © W@)-; It can be readily seen that (cax)Ke(t),o(t) > = (£(t),t at it) ) for each k = 1,2,3, In case f is a regular distribution generated by an element of D(I), then * £ = Ar f A. £; It can be proved that ( (as) Set), tC, (ty,ay) ) C (ty,ay) t (£(t),t(apt (-1)* 7%) (£(t) tc (ty,ay) ). Therefore DISTRIBUTIONAL WEBER TRANSFORMATION iz WC (os) f(t) J = (-1) yw cect) 1, (32) where W [f(t)] denotes the generalized W,, trans- form of f(t). Now we consider the operator equation P(A) = g (33) where g © W'(I) and P is any polynomial having no zeros on -~ < x < 0. We wish to find out a gen- eralized function u © W'(I) satisfying the operator equation (33). Taking the generalized W, trans- form of both sides of (33) and using (32), we get PL-y*JU(y) = where U and G are generalized WS transforms of u(x) and g(x) respectively. So that if P[-y2] # 0, we can apply the inversion for the distributional W, transform and for each ¢ € D(I), we get * Gy) C Gry,ay) (u,$) = | PL-y2] “Tay Ve) ydy,o(x)? , (34) 0 By Theorem 3 we know that Ics y°7* as y>o for some non-negative integer r depending upon g. Now let Q(x) be a polynomial of degree r+l1 having no zeros on the negative real axis. Then, the convergence of the right-hand side of (34) can be established as below: , G(y) C (xy, ay) | jen PL-y27 * TalayyZtayy dy ,@(x) ? 0 G(y) C, (xy, ay) =(Q0) | pepracyet ayyTetayy Y 409? 0 G(y) C (XY ay) PL-y21Q0-y71 Tay ¥etay) dy QA) ¢ (x) 0 (by integration by parts). Let us suppose that the support of $(x) is contained in [A,B]. Then, we can find a constant L such that for N,,N. > L we have 2 N : G(y) C. (xy, ay) l= |] ayers aetanyarztayy ¥ o-000) N 1 C. (xy ay) J? (ay) +¥? (ay) [leon lax. N 2 Oe B -* pee ec Qhy7] ley | Ny A Since for x © [A,B], C,, (xy, ay) | zane | as y > », we can find a positive constant M such that iy 2r ig] < om | Prey aieya MT as N,N, +o, Therefore y Gy) C(xy,ay) lim < | ProyZT * TlayyeVetay) dy (x)? No exists and by completeness of D'(I) there exists f € D'(I) such that N a G(y) C. (xy, ay) eos [ary tea) * TayyeVeay) ee! (35) = ak (iv) T(v,z) converges to zero pointwise on OR ze< Las 12> 2, Applying the conventional Weber transform to (36) we get I oO - 2 tes -u2T(u,z) + =r T(u,z) = (37) f) Therefore where A and B are constants. As z-> 0, by con- dition (i) we can write T=A+ B= (£(r),rC, (ru, au)? 5 (38) As z->L by condition (ii) we can write Te he ee (g(r) ,rC,(ru,au)) ; (39) Solving equations (38) and (39) we obtain (f(r) ,rC, (ru, au)? = eM g(r) ,rC, (ru,au)) Nae Gee ee and L (f(r) ,rC, (ru,au)) Sigtees (g(r) ,rC, (ru, au)? Spe ag as a SE Se Beta a ee qe ean Therefore the solution of equation (37) is given by Tez) -uL : (£(r),rC, (ru, au)? -e (g(r) ,rC, (ru,au)) ae 5 220U Ge ) (f(r) ,rC, (ru, au)) = eM g(r) ,rC, (ru,au)) ie ee Ss ae FOL a Se ae (40) ee) Applying the inverse Weber transform wot to (40) we get , N ae uC, (ru, au)T(u, z) Geez) =saliam: | aT aU (41) oe } J<(au) + Y< (au) in D'(I), where T(u,z) is given by the right-hand side of (40). Now, we have to show that T(r,z) given by (41) satisfies the given boundary conditions and differ- ential equation (36). By Theorem 3 1 2) | £(x),rC, (ru,au)) | = OES \52) 2 0 if Neer Oe Fear and | g(r) ,xC,(ru,au)) | = Meee) uso = -L = O(u ny it ae NES Therefore ae acu?) 1 oe, 1 ou), -uL uL l+e lt+e u > o (42) u> 0. (43) To verify the boundary conditions (i) and (ii) as- sume that Q(x) is a polynomial of degree r+2 with no zero on the negative real axis. Then, for each ¢ © D(I) with support contained in [a,b] we have (T(r,z),¢(r) N uC (ru,au)T(uz)du Q(A,) | [J2 (au) +Y< (au) JQ(-u ) oy I — bh. | oO : uT (u, z) du a | (-w2)TJ2(au) +¥2(au) J b x | C. (ru,aujQ(4,)o(r) dr (44) € (by integration by parts). From (40) it can easily be shown that, when z > 0 Tez) = (£(r),rC, (ru, au)? (45) and when z > L TGS) (g(r) ,rC)(ru,au)? . (46) Now in view of the orders of T(u,z), the right-hand side of (44) converges uniformly with respect to 0o, Therefore, letting z > 0+ and interchanging the limiting operations with respect to N and z in the right-hand side of (44), we get lam © « Te, 2). 0) z>0+ ¥ uC (ru,au)T(u,z) tn QtaJe(@dr xara oY N-L, lim (T(r,z),¢(r) = ‘4g, Z>L by using Theorem 4 and (46). Thus the boundary conditions (i) and (ii) are verified. In view of the definition (1) of C (ru,au) and the properties of T(u,z) given by (40) the verifi- cation of the boundary condition (iii) is trivial. The boundary condition (iv) can be verified by using an analogue of the Riemann Lebesgue Lemma DISTRIBUTIONAL WEBER TRANSFORMATION i) (Watson, 1966) and the asymptotic orders (42) and (43) of T(u,z). Lastly, in view of the asymptotic erders of T(u,z) and the fact that 0 < z < L it can be readily justified that a2 E38 92 me ae 7 azz) 7) N = lim | “ * 2 IG SY O(a) ic } Jé (au) +¥¢ (au) jee 92 a poleres er ox ¢ 577) o, Uw Taz) N Oe Bidisce =) 1( £(t)5tC, (tu,au)) - No 0 Y 2 eM g(t) tC, (tu,au)) J + Y2 (au) 92 1?) 92) -uz ee ap ete tu audu N ne + lim N->+©o -1 ) [¢£(t), tC, (tu, au)) a JZ (au) oe - oN g(t), tC, (tu,au)) J aces Y2 (au) is 118) eae Z apa ror” ee e C. (ru, au) du A Therefore T(r,z) as defined by (41) satisfies the Department of Mathematics, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India. differential equation (36). REFERENCES Gruffath, J.Lo, 1956. On Weber transforms. J. and Proe. Roy. Soe. 89(4), 232-248. Griffith, J.L. 1957. Addendum to my paper, on Weber's transforms. J. and Proc. Roy. Soe. NoowWe, 91(4) 5 189. Hobson, E.W., 1950. THE THEORY OF FUNCTIONS OF A REAL VARIABLE AND THE THEORY OF FOURIER SERIES. Harren Press, Washington, D.C. Nicholson, J.W., 1922. A problem in the theory of heat conduction. Proc. Roy. Soe. Lond., 100, 226-240. Pandey, J.N. and Zemanian, A.H., 1968. Complex in- version for the generalized convolution trans- formation. Pace. J. Math. , 25, 147-157. Rudin, W., 1964. PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICAL ANALY - SIS. 2nd edn. McGraw-Hill, New York. Titchmarsh, E.C., 1923. Weber's Integral Transform. Proe. London Math. Soes (2), 22, 15=28. Watson, G.N., 1966. A TREATISE ON THE THEORY OF BESSEL FUNCTIONS. Cambridge Univ. Press, London. Zemanian, A.H., 1968. GENERALIZED INTEGRAL TRANS- FORMATION. Interscience, New York. (Manuscript first received 28.10.80) (Manuscript received in final form 25.6.1981) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 114, pp. 77-84, 1981 ISSN 0035-9173 Stratigraphic Palynology of the Castlereagh River Valley, New South Wales HELENE A. MARTIN ABSTRACT. The palynology of some thirty-five shallow water bores in the Castlereagh River Valley is presented here. The palynology shows that the age of the basement to the groundwater system is Early Cretaceous around Gilgandra and downstream. Upstream of Gilgandra the basement age is mainly Triassic with one occurrence of the Jurassic and two late Permian assemblages. The oldest assemblage in the overlying Cainozoic alluvium is mid-late Miocene. Younger Pliocene and Pleistocene assemblages were also found although most of the alluvium was barren. INTRODUCTION The Water Resources Commission of New South Wales has sunk many bores in the Castlreagh Valley in its programme of exploration for ground water. Some thirty-five bores have yielded workable paly- nological assemblages and they are reported here. For purposes of water exploration, the interest is centred on the Tertiary alluvial valley fills. However, the older basement is unconsolidated or weathered so that lithologically it is little different to the alluvium and difficult to dis- tinguish while drilling is in progress. Consequently, both the palynology of the Cainozoic and the older basement is included here. The area under study here is situated on the south eastern edge of the Coonamble Embayment, one of the structural units of the Great Australian Basin. It appears that the edges of the Great Australian Basin are the least understood and are probably more complex than the basin centre. The area also straddles the probable subsurface limits of both the Triassic and Permian sediments (Hawke et al., 1975). This study shows a basement of Early Cretaceous, mid-late Jurassic, mid Triassic and Late Permian. The oldest Tertiary deposition is middle-late Miocene. (See Fig. 1), and in this respect, the Castlreagh River Valley is very like that of the Namoi and Gwydir River Valleys (Martin, 1980). GEOLOGY The uppermost member of the Great Australian Basin represented here is probably equivalent to the Bungil Formation which is much thicker in New South Wales than in the type section in Queensland. However, the overlying Wallumbilla Formation may be involved as well. Of the mid-late Jurassic units, it is likely that, on lithological evidence, the equivalent of the Purlawaugh Formation is re- presented here (Hawke et al., 1975). The mid-late Triassic is probably equivalent to the Wainamatta Group,of the Sydney Bowen Basin and the Late Permian equivalent to the "Upper Coal Measures". (Menzies, 1975; Branagan, 1969). The bore logs show that the Cainozoic alluvium consists of gravel, sands and clays. The upper part is consistently brown, yellow, orange or reddish. There may be grey streaks or thin grey lenses, but these are very minor. At deeper levels, consistently grey clays are encountered. Most bores show one brown layer of sediment over- lying one grey layer (see Fig. 2), but a few show two grey layers separated by an intervening brown layer. Only the consistently grey clays have yielded palynological assemblages. It appears that sediments which are predominantly brown or vari- coloured with only minor grey streaks are still too oxidised to yield pollen. PALYNOSTRATIGRAPHY (1) Late Permian. Two samples of this age are recorded here. One of them has a particularly rich flora in which spores predominate. Letotriletes directus is particularly abundant together with a form which looks like this species but has some contents within the spore. Dulhuntyspora parvitholus and Didecttriletes ericanus which range from Upper Stage 5 through the Protohaploxyptnus rettcalatus Assemblage are both present. No species which first appear in the P. retitculatus Assemblage have been found. Altsporttes australis, although present, is not prominent (see Appendix). These features indicate Upper Stage 5 rather than the P. rettculatus Assemblage. (Helby 1973; Kemp Cb Gi.g LOT A) (2) Triassic. Altsporites australis and Aratisporites spp. clearly mark these assemblages as Triassic. Preservation is generally poor, but a few samples showing better preservation allow some specific identifications. The larger species of Aratisporites are present, viz., A. parvispinosus, A. flexibilis and A. bankstit which indicate the mid Triassic Arattsporites parvtsptnosus Assemblage (Helby 1973). Nevestsporites limulatus, Polypoditsporites mutabilis, Neoraistrickta taylori and Uvaesporites verrucosus are also present (see Appendix). An occasional specimen of Protohaploxypinus is seen, but species of Lunatisporites have not been found. It is assumed that the poorly preserved assemblages are of the same age. (3) Jurassic. Only one poorly preserved assemblage has been found. Tsugaepollenites spp. 78 HELENE A. MARTIN 3619539 s« 36199 ® Pleistocene %& Pliocene ye Mid-Late Miocene ¥& Early Cretaceous %& Jurassic %& Mid Triassic yy Late Permian ye 3624 yw 36299 As, 3% 36375 * 36338 ww 36184 ee 6178 36285 sx 36137 nee 9238033 36135 % soa ilgandra 30496. 308825) “ss fe30187__------ 7 30191 Pag cd is the most common, with Araucartacttes australis and Lycopodiwnsporttes spp. prominent also. Bisaccates, e.g., Altsporttes sp., and the spores Baculattsporites comaumensts, Neoratstrticktia sp., Cingulatisporites suaevus and cf Rettculattsporites pudens are present also (see Appendix). These characteristics indicate the mid-late Jurassic Tsugaepollenites dampteret Assemblage (Balme 1964; 1957). (4) Early Cretaceous. In these assemblages, Baculattsporttes comaumensits, Podocarptdites sp. and Lycopodtumsporites spp. are common. Many other species are present, and those found in three representative samples are listed in the Appendix. The diagnostic species Murospora florida, Dictyotosporites spectosus, D. filosus and Aquttrtradites hisptdus indicate either the Crybelosporites stylosus or Dictyotosporites spectosus Zones, both of Neocomian-Aptian age (Dettmann and Palyford, 1969). Most of the early Cretaceous assemblages are well preserved when compared with those of the Triassic and Jurassic. (5) Cainozoic a. Mid-late Miocene. The diagnostic species Polypodtaceotsporttes tumulatus, Rugulatisporttes mieraulaxts, Symplocotpollenttes austellus and Trtporopollenites bellus clearly indicate the T. bellus Zone of mid-late Miocene age (Stover and Partridge, 1973). Only two species of the Nothofagus group, are present and together they account for some 10-20% of the total count. The brasstt pollen type N. emarcitda is well represented. The content of the Myrtaceae group may be quite high, up to 40%, but is is very variable and one assemblage has only 2%. See Appendix. Binnaway 30251 8% 30250 % 30340 3% 30290 I ‘ieir 30220 C yee 30221 Mendooran @ ~~ - 730364 Locality map showing-bore sites and the ages of the palynological assemblages encountered in them. b. Pliocene. These assemblages lack the brasstt pollen type of Wothofagus (the 0.8% of N. emarcida is significant and could result from reworking, contamination, etc. (See Appendix). This feature, together with the relatively low frequencies of Tubulifloridites spp. and Gramtntdttes media are typical of the Pliocene (Martin 1973; 1979). Two of the assemblages in the Appendix fit the Myrtaceae phase. The third (Bore 36338, at 87-88m) has a relatively small amount of Nothofagus aspera and a higher content of gymnosperms which are characteristics of the Nothofagus phase. The Myrtaceae phase occurs both above and below the Nothofagus phase. The latter is always very restricted in thickness and is thus a good marker horizon. c. Pleistocene. The one assemblage of this age has a high content of compositae (= Tultflortdites spp. in the Appendix) and this feature distinguishes it from the Pliocene (Martin 1979). Usually, Gramineae (= Gramintdites media) is also abundant in Pleistocene assemblages, but it is unusually low here. The restricted diversity of this assemblage is typical of that of the Pleistocene. (6) No dinoflagellates are present except for a few of the psilate, freshwater forms in one of the mid-late Miocene assemblages. Their absence indicates fresh water deposition. DISCUSSION The oldest Tertiary deposition in the Castlereagh Valley is mid-late Miocene. In this respect, it resembles the Namoi and Gwydir River STRATIGRAPHIC PALYNOLOGY CASTLEREAGH 79 Depth A 0, 36338 36285 30498 30496 20 Ss c G 40: Ss 60 ? PLIOCENE PLIOCENE CRETACEOUS: 0 RTACEAE} INOTHOFAGUS. PLIOCENE ace ORT S| “Te ERTIARY 100 SPECIOsUS MMIOCENE Mid -Late MIOCENE E 120 pte St CRETACEOUS 140 1 Fig. 2 Cross section A-A (see Fig. 1). CG, clay; S; sand; G, gravel. 2owonr = Capital letters indicate a major constituent of the sediments, lower case, a minor constituent. 1, Palynological assemblage. 3, Consistently grey coloured sediments. of the rock particles present. Valleys where mid-late Miocene deposition directly overlies the basement, indicating conclusively that Tertiary deposition started at that time. (Martin, 1980). | While Tertiary and basement assemblages have not been encountered in the same bore in the Castlereagh Valley, it is likely that Tertiary deposition started in the mid-late Miocene here also. The mid-late Miocene assemblages show a patchy distribution around Gilgandra and further downstream (see Fig. 1). The Pliocene has a similar dis- tribution except for one assemblage near Mendooran which has a mixture of Pliocene and Triassic. The Pliocene is encountered in the upper grey clay layer in those bores showing two of these layers. There is one Pleistocene assemblage at Binnaway. The basement is Early Cretaceous around Gilgandra and downstream. Upstream of Gilgandra, the basement is mostly mid Triassic with one occurrence of the mid-late Jurassic, and east of Mendooran, two occurrences of the Late Permian. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to the Water Resources Commission of New South Wales for financial support and the raw materials for this work. REFERENCES Balme, B.E. 1957. Spores and pollen grains from the Mesozoic of Western Australia. CSIRO Fuel Res, T.C. 25: 1-48. Balme, B.E. 1964. The palynological record of Australian pre-Tertiary floras. In Ancient Pacific Floras, L.M. Cranwell, Ed. University of Hawaii Press. 2, Predominently brown, yellow, orange or red sediments. 4, Sand and gravel, the only colour being that Branagan, D.F. 1969. North western Coalfield (of the Sydney Basin) In G.H. Packham, Ed. The Geology of New South Wales. Jl. Geol. Soe. Aust. 16: 444-455. Dettmann, M.E. & Playford, G. 1969. Palynology of the Australian Cretaceous: A review. Jn K.S.W. Campbell, Ed. Stratigraphy and palaeontology. Essays in Honour of Dorothy Hill. A.N.U. Press, Canberra. Hawke, J.M. Bourke, D.J., Cramsie, J.N. §& MacNevin, A.A. 1975. The Great Australian Basin. In N.L. Markham and N. Basden, Eds. The Mineral Deposits of New South Wales. Govt. Printer, Sydney. Helby, R. 1973. Review of Late Permian and Triassic Palynology in New South Wales. Spec. Publ. Geol. Soe. Aust. 4: 141-155. Kemps. E.M.., Balme, BE, Helby, Rod., Kyle; R.A. Playford, G. & Price, P.L. 1977. Carboniferous and Permian palynostratigraphy in Australia am Antarctica: A review. BMR JZ Aust. Geol. and Geoph. 2: 177-208. Martin, H.A. 1973. Upper Tertiary palynology in New South Wales. Geol. Soc. Aust. Spec. Publ. 4: 35-54. Martin, H.A. 1979. Stratigraphic palynology of the Mooki Valley, New South Wales. Soc. NSW 112: 71-88. J. @ Proc. Roy. Martin, H.A. 1980. Stratigraphic palynology from shallow bores in the Namoi River and Gwydir River Valleys, north central New South Wales. J. & Proc. Soc. NSW. 113: 81-87 80 REFERENCES (Cont. ) Menzies, T.A. 1975. HELENE A. MARTIN Sydney Bowen Basin. In N.L. Markham and H. Basden, Eds. The Mineral Deposits of New South Wales. Govt. Printer, Sydney. School of Botany, University of New South Wales, Box i, P.O. KENSINGTON, N.S.W., Where the evidence is Bore Depth (m) 36199 - 109-110 111-112 118-119 S60195 -—) 86. 7-88 36245 - 104-104.1 36299 - 94-98 102-104 106-109 112-114 Curban - Kamber area 36375 - 60-62 36338 - 83-84 87-88 36184 - 132-133 36178 114.3-115.8 36194 - 88.7-91 91-93 36285 94-96 36137 - 116-118 140-143 36310 - 56-60 LEMS 116-118 Gilgandra district 36135 - 48-55 36072 - 96-100 30498 - 117.6-117.9 2033 Stover, LsE. G Partridge A.D. 1973. feremany and Late Cretaceous spores and pollen from the Gippsland Basin, south eastern Australia Proc. Roy. Soe. Viet. 85: 237-286. TABLE 1 THE OCCURRENCE OF THE PALYNOLOGICAL ZONES not entirely conclusive, the age rather than the palynological zone is given. Palynological Zone or Age Crybelosporttes stylosus Zone, Early Cretaceous Early Cretaceous Early Cretaceous T. bellus Zone, mid-late Mio- cene Dictyotosporites spectosus Zone Early Cretaceous Pliocene, Myrtaceae phase Pliocene, Myrtaceae phase Pliocene, weak Nothofagus phase Very little pollen, probably Early Cretaceous Early Cretaceous Very tittle-pollen,. mixed Tertiary and Cretaceous Dictyotosporites spectosus Zone, Early Cretaceous Very little pollen, Early Cretaceous Early Cretaceous A Neocomian indicator species present here Dictyotosporttes spectosus Zone, Early Cretaceous T. bellus Zone - Mid-late Miocene Early Cretaceous Bore Depth (m) Palynological Zone or Age Gilgandra district (Cont.) 36309 - 57-58 Very little pollen, probably Pliocene 91.5-92 101 T. bellus Zone 104.5-105 30496 - 93-94 3 94-96 Very little pollen, a few Tertiary forms 30499 - 80.2-83 119 Early Cretaceous 119-120 120-121.1 ? Early Cretaceous 36033 - 48.5 Early Cretaceous 30352 - 54.2-56.4 Pliocene Breelong 30149 - 34.1 Mid-late Jurassic 30156 - 86.5-89 Mid-late Triassic 30189 - 50 Triassic, most likely Arattsporites parvispinosus Zone, mid Triassic 30191 - 44-47 SS Pollen very poorly preserved, Poapned Triassic 71-73 Mendooran 30492 - 82-84 Arattsporttes parvispinosus Zone, mid Triassic 30491 - 71-72 Mixed Pliocene and mid-late Triassic ee Poor preservation, Triassic 30493 - 54 Mid-late Triassic 30494 - 38 Mid Triassic 30221 - cee Very little pollen, Triassic 30220 - 71.5-73 Very little pollen, Triassic STRATIGRAPHIC PALYNOLOGY CASTLEREAGH 81 TABLE 1 (Cont.) Bore Depth (m) Palynological Zone or Age Bore Depth (m) Palynological Zone or Age Mendooran (Cont.) 30364 - 84-85 Upper Stage 5 of the Late Permian 30290 - 71.5-99.5 Permian, probably Stage 5 Binnaway 30251 - 20.5-21.4 Pleistocene 30250 - 36.7-38.4 Triassic 30340 - 25-26.2 33.5-36 Mid Triassic APPENDIX A PERMIAN ASSEMBLAGE Bore 30364, 84-85m. Altsporttes australis Bacantsporttes undosus Balme & Hennelly 1956 Baculattsporttes comaumensts (Cookson) Potonié 1956 Barakarttes rotatus (Balme & Hennelly) Bharadwaj §& Tiwari 1964 Ctreultsporttes parvus de Jersey 1962 Cycadopites folltcularts Wilson §& Webster 1946 Cyathtdites australts Couper 1953 Didecttrtletes ericanus (Balme §& Hennelly) Venkatachala §& Kar 1965 * Granulatisporites trtsinus Balme § Hennelly 1956 ** Letotrtletes directus Balme & Hennelly 1956 * Lunbladtspora tphilegna Foster 1979 Maculattsporites gondwanensts Tiwari 1965 Microbacultspora tentula Tiwari 1965 Peltacystta venosus Balme & Segroves 1966 Protohaploxypinus limptdus (Balme §& Hennelly) Balme & Playford 1967 P. mtcrocorpus (Schaarschmidt) Clarke 1965 Retrusotrtletes nigritellus (Luber) Foster 1979 Strtatoabtettes multtstrtatus (Balme § Hennelly) Hart 1964 Vitretsporites stgnatus Leschik 1955 A TRIASSIC ASSEMBLAGE Bore 30187, 50m. Acanthotriletes bradtensts Playford 1965 Altsporttes australts de Jersey 1962 Anapteulattsporites cf. A. cooksoneae Playford 1965 Aratisporites flextbtlts Playford & Dettman 1965 A. parvisptnosus Leschik emend Plaford 1965 Baculattsporites comaumensts (Cookson) Potonié 1956 Birettsporttes sp. Calamospora mesozotca Couper 1958 Cyadopttes folltcularis Wilson & Webster 1946 Dtetyophyllidittes mortonit (de Jersey) Playford §& Dettman 1965 Neoratstrickta taylori Playford §& Dettmann 1965 Osmundactdites cf. 0. wellmantt Couper 1953 Polypoditsporttes mutabilts Balme 1970 Vitretsporttes stgnatus Leschik 1955 be Common mak The most common EARLY CRETACEOUS ASSEMBLAGES Altsporttes grandis (Cookson) Dettmann Alisporttes grandis (Cookson) Dettmann 1963 A. stmilis (Balme) Dettmann 1963 Baculatisporites comawmensts (Cookson) Potonié 1956 Ceratosporites equalts Cookson §& Dettmann 1958 Classopollis cf. C. classoides Pflug emend Dettman 1963 + Contigntsporites glebulentus Dettmann 1963 Bore 36310 36310 36285 Depth (m) 72-73 116-118 94-96 + + + Nib ++ + + + Crybelosporites cf. C. striatus (Cookson § Dettmann) Dettmann 1963 + Cyathtdites australis Couper 1953 C. mtnor Couver 1953 Dictyophyllidttes crenatus Dettmann 1963 Dtetyotosporites filosus Dettmann 1963 D. spectosus Cookson & Dettmann 1958 Foramintsports datlyt (Cookson §& Dettmann) Dettmann 1963 + + Foveosporttes canalis Balme 1957 Ginkgocycadophytus nititdus (Balme) de Jersey 1962 Kluktsporttes scaberis (Cookson §& Dettmann) Dettmann 1963 Leptolepidites major Couper 1958 Lycopodtactdites asperatus Dettmann 1963 Lycopodtumsporites austroclavatidttes (Cookson) Potonié 1956 L. emtnulus Dettmann 1963 ++ + + + 82 HELENE A. MARTIN EARLY CRETACEOUS ASSEMBLAGES (Cont. ) Bore Depth (m) L. nodosus Dettmann 1963 Microcachrytdttes antarcttcus Cookson 1947 Murospora florida (Balme) Pocock 1961 Neoraistrickta truncatus (Cookson) Potonié 1956 Osmundactdttes wellmantt Couper 1953 Podocarptdites sp. Rettculattsporites pudens Balme 1957 Steretsporites antitquasporites (Wilson & Webster) Dettmann 1963 Tsuggaepollenites spp. MID-LATE MIOCENE ASSEMBLAGES Bore Depth (m) SPORES Baculattsporites disconformts Stover 1973 Cyathea paleospora Martin 1973 Cyathtdites subtilis Partridge 1973 Deltotdospora incosptcua Martin 1973 Gletchenta etretntdttes Cookson 1953 Laevtgatosporttes ovatus Wilson §& Webster 1946 Matonitsporttes ornamentalts (Cookson) Partridge 1973 Polypodtaceotsporttes twnulatus Partridge 1973 Rettculotdosporites mintsports Martin 1973 Rugulattsporites mallatus Stover 1973 R. mtcraulaxts Partridge 1973 Sphagnum sp. GYMNOSPERM POLLEN Araucartacttes australis Cookson 1947 Cupressaceae sp. indet Podocarpus (=Dacrycarpites) asutraltensts (Cookson § Pike) Martin 1973 Podoearpus ellipttea (Cookson) Martin 1973 Trtsaccttes mtcropterus Cookson §& Pike 1954 ANGIOSPERM POLLEN Acacta myrtosporites Cookson 1954 Casuarina (Haloragactdites harritsit (Couper) Harris 1971 + Casuarinidites cainozotcus Cookson §& Pike 1954) Cupaneidttes orthotetchus Cookson § Pike 1954 Drimys tetradttes Martin 1973 Micrantheum sptnyspora Martin 1973 Milfordia hypolaenotdes Erdtman 1960 Myrtaceae sp. indet Myrtacetdttes eucalyptotdes Cookson §& Pike 1954 M. mesonesus Cookson §& Pike 1954 M. parvus Cookson § Pike 1954 Nothofagus aspera Cookson 1959 NW. emarctda Cookson 1959 Proteactdites tvanhoensts Martin 1973 P. subscabratus Couper 1960 Quintinta pstlattspora Martin 1973 Symplocotpollenttes austellus Partridge 1973 Trtcolpites pstlatus Martin 1973 Tritcolporttes mtcrorettculatus Harris 1965 Tricolporopollenites cooksonti Martin 1973 T. endobalteus McIntyre 1965 T. tvanhoensts Martin 1973 Triporopollenttes bellus Partridge 1973 Unknown types 36245 104-104.1 % nF WW 0.9 ONO Ff ODWOWN he ODNPODF (o) No) 14.0 36309 101 ty) i) Nf Nf uw uw om nO PWN ON Fe PWN OOF A716 36309 104-104.5 % Of OrRANMNN OC ONL WANDNAARNW Sis WO W© oO ONN oO & 4.6 STRATIGRAPHIC PALYNOLOGY CASTLEREAGH 83 PLIOCENE ASSEMBLAGES Bore 36338 36338 30352 Depth (m) 83-84 87-88 54.2-56.4 SPORES Baculatisporites dtisconformis Stover 1973 0.9 Cyathea paleospora Martin 1973 DERE 4.0 8.6 Cyatheactdites annulatus Cookson 1947 0.8 Cyathidites subtilis Partridge 1973 2.5 136 Deltotdospora granulomargo Martin 1973 2.5 0.8 D. tneonsptcua Martin 1973 1.6 1.6 0.8 Dicksonta sp. 1.9 Gletchenta ctretntdites Cookson 1953 Baz Kluktsporttes lachlanensts Martin 1973 Sia, Laevigatosporites ovatus Wilson §& Webster 1946 8.0 Polypodtaceotsporites twnulatus Partridge 1973 0.9 Polypoditdtites sp. + GYMNOSPERM POLLEN Araucartacttes australts Cookson 1947 4.1 4.8 13.3 Cupressaceae Sp. indet 126 Dacrydium flortntt (Cookson § Pike) Cookson 1956 0.9 0.8 Phyllocladidttes palaeogenicus Cookson §& Pike 1954 Le Podoearpus (=Dacrycarpttes) australtensts (Cookson §& Pike) Martin 1973 1.6 0.8 Podoecarpus elltpttca (Cookson) Martin 1973 io) eal 279 228 ANGIOSPERM POLLEN Acacta myrtosporttes Cookson 1954 16 Banksteaetdites elongatus Cookson 1950 0.9 Casuartna (Haloragactdites harrtstt (Couper) Harris 1971 + 5.8 6.4 22.8 Casuarinidttes catnozoteus Cookson §& Pike 1954) Cyperaceae sp. indet 2.4 Dodonaea sphaertca Martin 1973 0.8 Drimys tetradttes Martin 1973 6 E26 0.8 Gramtntdites medta Cookson 1947 1.6 28 Haloragactdites haloragotdes Cookson §& Pike 1954 16 208 Loranthaceae sp. indet 0.8 Malvaceae sp. indet 0.8 Micrantheum spinyspora Martin 1973 Ons Milfordia hypolaenotdes Erdtman 1960 One) Myrtaceae sp. indet 1429 4.8 Sas Myrtacetdites eucalyptotdes Cookson §& Pike 1954 4.1 1.6 7.6 M. mesonesus Cookson § Pike 1954 4.8 M. parvus Cookson § Pike 1954 7.4 2.4 Siglo) Nothofagus aspera Cookson 1959 0.8 6.4 WN. emarcitda Cookson 1959 0.8 Polygonum sp. 0.8 Proteacidites sp. indet 09 0.8 Proteactdttes tvanhoensis Martin 1973 0.9 P. subsecabratus Couper 1960 P16 P. symphyonemotdes Cookson 1950 0.9 Quintinta pstlattspora Martin 1973 0.9 Symplocotpollenites austellus Partridge 1973 254 Stephanocolpttes oblatus Martin 1973 0.8 Tubulifloridites spp. 0.8 258 Unknown pollen types 1Oo7 US ee, oe 84 HELENE A. MARTIN A PLEISTOCENE ASSEMBLAGE Bore 30251 20.5-21.4m % SPORES Cingulattsporites bifurecatus (Couper) Martin 1973 9 Cyathea paleospora Martin 1973 14.1 Deltotdospora inconsptcua Martin 1973 £9 Gletchenta circtnidttes Cookson 1953 0.9 Laevigatosporites ovatus Wilson §& Webster 1946 1.9 Osmundaceae sp. 2 in Martin 1973 0.9 Rettculattsporites cowrensts Martin 1973 0.9 R. echinatus Martin 1973 0.9 GYMNOSPERM POLLEN Araucartacttes australts Cookson 1947 Podocaarpus ellipttca (Cookson) Martin 1973 Ne Peite) ANGIOSPERM POLLEN Acacta myrtosporttes Cookson 1954 0. Casuartna (Haloragacitdttes harristit (Couper) Harris 1971 + Casuarintdites 6 catnozotcus Cookson §& Pike 1954 Gramtntdites medta Cookson 1947 Z Haloragactdttes haloragotdes Cookson §& Pike 1954 3 Myrtaceae SP- indet 29. Myrtacetdttes mesonesus Cookson §& Pike 1954 Ol. 2 0 9 - wo Polyportna chenopodtaceotdes Martin 1973 Proteacidites sp. indet Tubultfloridites spp. 19. CO 1 CO OHO N SI CO Unknown pollen types 5.6 (Manuscript first received 9.6.81) (Manuscript received in final form 10.9.81) Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 114, pp. 85-93, 1981 ISSN 0035-9173 Conversion of Map Grid-References from the Yard to Metre Systems ALAN A. DAY ABSTRACT. A simple procedure is set out for the conversion of map grid-references of locations in eastern New South Wales from the superseded Australian Survey Grid expressed in yards, used on the discontinued series of one inch to one mile "military" maps, to the Australian Map Grid expressed in metres. The procedure is intended for scientific use, with internal standard error of *50 metres and is not intended for surveying purposes. INTRODUCTION For many years virtually the sole source of contoured topographical maps of Australia was the Royal Australian Survey Corps of the Australian Army. In the early 1930s the Survey Corps adopted the transverse mercator projection for plotting their maps and overlaid on each a rectangular grid with lines spaced one thousand yards apart. The majority of the maps so produced were at a scale of one inch equals one mile, equivalent to a scale ratio of 1:63,360, and became generally referred to as "army", "military" or ''one-inch-to-the-mile" maps. They covered half a degree of longitude and a quarter of a degree of latitude. These maps were invaluable and were widely used for recording and analysis of field research data in geomorphology, geology, botany, forestry and archaeology. In New South Wales about 110, or one-sixth of the possible total number of maps, were produced. The majority covered the coastal belt and others the larger inland towns and their surroundings. Production of the maps ceased in the late 1950s and a totally new scheme of cartography was adopted by the Australian National Mapping Council. Initially, the publication scales were altered to multiples of 1:25,000, the old yard grid continu- ing to be shown. In the mid 1960s, when the geodetic survey of the Australian continent had at last been completed and analysed, a new shape of the earth, or spheroid, was introduced for mapping. Also, the reference-grid overlay was changed to the Universal Transverse Mercator system scaled in thousands of metres and organised differently from the old yard grid. The version employed on Australian maps is called the Austral- ian Map Grid. The complete change of cartographic systems had the result that the large number of published locations employing the former yard grid system is meaningless in relation to present-day maps. The purpose of this paper is to provide a simple method for converting scientific grid-references in the old yard system directly into the current metre system with sufficient precision to recover the location intended by its recorder. (To achieve conversion to the level of precision required by surveyors is a more difficult problem and would possibly be treated by an adaptation of the method of Lauf (1961).) The alternative procedure - first locating the site on a one-inch map and scaling its position to a modern map using common surrounding features - assumes the availabil- ity of the necessary one-inch map. This would now depend on access to a library collection and could in general only be executed in the office. PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE YARD AND METRE GRID SYSTEMS IN N.S.W. The Australian Survey Grid (ASG) lines on the military maps were spaced at one-thousand yard intervals and had a common origin 400,000 yards west and 800,000 yards south of the intersection of the 34th parallel of latitude with a meridian which was central to a north-south ''zone" five degrees of longitude wide. Most of the published one-inch maps for New South Wales covered areas within the zone numbered 8, a much smaller number fell within zone 7 west of longitude 148.5 deg. E. (roughly, a line through Dubbo and Mount Kosciusko). The grid systems in the two zones were totally separate and identically graduated. The Australian Map Grid (AMG) employs zones six degrees wide, each with an origin of co-ordin- ates 500 000 metres west and 10 000 000 metres south of the intersection of the central meridian with the equator. The central and eastern portions of New South Wales are included in zones 55 and 56 separated by longitude 150 E. (Boggabri to Bega). The effect of the change of spheroid on which positions are calculated was to shift the meridians slightly east and the parallels slightly south compared to their former positions. The amount of shift was variable, being greater in the south- eastern part of the State than in the north-eastern pant. Two cautionary remarks are in order at this point: 1. Another metric grid will be found indicat- ed marginally on some New South Wales maps. This is the Integrated Survey Grid, and is intended for land-tenure registration. Under no circumstances should it be used for scientific purposes. The appearance of its grid values is closely but decept- ively similar to those of the normal metric grid. 86 ALAN A. DAY 2. Commonwealth maps show a two-letter system for identifying the 100-km square within which a point lies. These letters are not arrang- ed in an easily memorable system and are not shown on State maps. It is strongly urged they not be used, rather the name and number of the map should be stated when giving a grid reference. THE METHOD OF CONVERSION The differences between the yard and metre grid systems include: different units of measurement; different central meridians of zones; different zone-widths, the resultant distortions of scale being unrelated in any given area; different origins for counting co-ordinates; different grid orientations, the angular divergence changing significantly in both north-south and east-west directions; different reference spheroids and therefore meridians and parallels shifted by an amount that varies from place to place. A variety of conversion procedures was investigated in relation to the two principal criteria of simplicity of use and retention of the original precision of the published reference. The method described below emerged as best satisfying those criteria. The theoretical basis of the method is set out in the final section of this paper. Since a single procedure applicable to the whole of New South Wales was unattainable the unit working area was fixed as the 1:250,000-scale standard mapping quadrangle, 1 degree north-south by 1% degrees east-west. Within that area the variables listed above are just sufficiently controlled to retain the desired precision. The steps involved in the procedure are:- Step 1. Identify the 1:250,000 quadrangle, and the one-inch map if not already stated by the author. Step 2. Using the information in the Table, restore to the yard grid eastings and northings the prefixes omitted as normal procedure. Step 3. Subtract from the site co-ordinates the co-ordinates of the working origin supplied in the Table. Step 4. dNy. respectively, into the conversion formulas Insert the residues, designated dEY and supplied, obtaining metre-grid increments Ey and qNy (to the nearest whole number - no significance should be attached to decimals). Step 5. Add to the last-named the metre-grid working origin suppled in the Table. Step 6. Delete any prefixed digits to leave three- digit eastings and northings. The working units throughout are one hundred yards and one hundred metres, being the best precision of grid interpretation attainable on normal one-inch maps. Extensive testing suggests that the conversion itself will have a standard error averaging +50 metres. Taking into account the standard error of the original grid reference, rarely better than about +100 yards (depending on the accuracy of the map and the care of its interpreter) this suggests that the standard error of the converted result may be conservatively taken as +200 metres. To achieve better would almost certainly require a field visit to identify local features; more precise arithmetrical procedures would of themselves yield little improvement. In the Table are set out for each 1:250,000 Map area the necessary conversion data together with the ranges of the yard grids on all the one- inch maps known to have been published falling within that area. The area covered by the Table represents the eastern half of New South Wales. This is the area in which most field scientific investigations were carried out in the past where the degree of detail demanded the use of grid- references. The principles elaborated can be equally well applied to the western half of the State and the author is willing to provide conversion details should there be any need. EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION OF THE PROCEDURE A. Stevens (1951, this Journal, Vol. 84,747) gives a grid reference 801472 on either the Cowra or Canowindra one-inch maps. The steps outlined previously then follow: NG Using the Table or general knowledge identify the BATHURST 1:250,000 quadrangle. Zi By inspection of the grid ranges listed for Cowra and Canowindra maps identify the reference as pertaining to the Canowindra map. Grid reference Eve Ny: 801 472 Y Full references ( prefixes from Table): 1801 8472 Y Sr Subtract the yard working origin: 1400 7900 Y Residues dEY, dN\ = 401 SHAE 4. From the formulae listed for BATHURST, increments dE.» dN = 400 516 M 5. Add metre working origin 6300 62300 M Results 6700 62816 M 6. Delete prefixes to obtain standard short form grid-references Ew? Nu 700 816 M CONVERSION OF MAP GRID-REFERENCES B. Retallack et al. (1977, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 101, p.79) give a grid reference 808877 on the Nymboida 1:63,360 map. Steps: dis GRAFTON 1:250,000 quadrangle. IL. Grid reference EY Nv 808 SIE NE Full grid reference 5808 LZ Siew Dis Subtract yard working origin 4500 12800 Y Residues dey, dN, ‘s 1308 77Y 4. From the formulae listed for GRAFTON, increments dE dN = 1221 48 M Se Add metre working origin 3500 66800 M Results 4721 66848 M 6. Standard format of grid reference E,,, N 724 848 M M’? M C. Locality stated to be on BEGA 1:250,000 map, grid reference 242.9; 531.9. Steps: ih. Because the reference was obtained from a 1:250,000 scale map, in the absence of 1:63,630 maps, the units are thousands of yards. 2. Grid reference in thousands of yards 242.9 5 51)..9 Grid reference including prefixes and converted to hundreds of yards 2429 SESE Nt Si Subtract the yard working origin 1500 4300 Y = Y dE,» dN 929 1019 4. From the formulae listed for BEGA dE» dN = 859 913 M 5s Add metre working origin 6300 59000 M Results 7159 59913 M 6. Approximate reference to use on BEGA 1:250,000 metric edition (units: thousands of metres) 716 991 or Cooma 1:100,000 map (units: hundreds of metres) 15(9) 91(3)M Brackets are used in the lower result of step 6 to indicate that the digits they enclose have a standard error of about +300 metres due to the inherent imprecision of scaling from a 1:250,000 map. The Table setting out the data and conversion formulae for thirty four 1:250,000 quadrangles commences overleaf. 87 THEORETICAL BASIS OF THE METHOD In order to provide an arithmetically straight- forward basis for converting grid co-ordinates from A.S.G. to A.M.G. it appeared essential to be. able to employ the elementary rules of the transformat- ion of plane co-ordinates. It was reported above that the largest area over which this was practic- able with acceptable standard errors was found to be the standard 1:250,000 map quadrange one degree of latitude by one and a half degrees of longitude ime xeene. Because the two co-ordinate grids did not have common central meridians the differing amounts of enlargement, dependent on distance from respective central meridians, had first to be allowed for using the appropriate scale factors before the co- ordinate grids could be imagined superimposed. All yard measurements were converted to metres for the purpose. The tendency of the central meridians to increase in distance apart as one proceeds north means that the two co-ordinate grids thus adjusted are not parallel, but diverge by an angle which is the algebraic sum of their respective convergences. The divergence is not constant but changes slowly with increasing distance from the origins. It is this aspect that imposes the principal limitation on the area over which a simple rule may be applied. Lastly, the origins (whether taken to be the primary, false or purely local origins) are not coincident. On the basis, then, that the conditions have been established under which the two grid systems may be treated as locally co-planar we may employ the expressions for the transformation of the co-ordinates (x,y) of a point to (x',y') ina second system: x= (xX = a) cos 6+ (y= B)sin 6 y' = -(x - a)sin 6 + (y = B)cos 6, where (a,8) are the co-ordinates of the origin of the primed system in the unprimed system and 8 = counterclockwise angle of rotation of the primed axes. The above expressions make it intuitively evident that the grid conversion rules will have the form to the first order: dE. = kdE\cosD + kdNysinD - (AcosD + BsinD) qNyy = kdNcosD - kdE,sinD + (AsinD - BcosD) where: dE and dN are relatively small increments in yard or metre co-ordinates relative to local, convenient origins; A and B are equivalent to a and 8 above; D is the angular divergénce of the metre grid from the yard grid, measured positive counterclockwise; k is a coefficient embodying the conversion from yards to metres, and the yard grid and metre grid scale-factors at the centre of the quadrangle: k = 0.9144 X (AMG scale factor) ASG scale factor It is necessary to recall that the Australian Map Grid applies a central scale factor m_ = 0.9996 to the entire projection. 2 For the preparation of the numerical data set out in the Table local working yard and metre origins were chosen for each 1:250 000 quadrangle located as close as possible to but outside its 88 ALAN A. DAY TABLE OF DATA FOR CONVERSION OF GRID REFERENCES FROM A.S.G. TO A.M.G. 1:250 000 MAP QUADRANGLE Units: GRID CONVERSION SCHEME Hundreds of Yards and Metres Name Co-ordinate ranges Yard grid (ASG) Conversion formulae for increments Metre grid (AMG) in thousands of yards Working origin Working origin ee eee RS Ee ee Ce see BATHURST Ez 140) to, -300 1400 7900 dE,, = 0.9135dE,, + 0.0352dN,, + 140 6300 62300 N: 790 to 920 dN,, = 0.9135dN\, - 0.0352dE,, + 7 16 Published one-inch maps and their yard grid ranges: Bathurst E: 2 470 to 2 990; N 8 590 to 8 910 Blayney E: 1-960 to72 480) N 8 280 tors 600 Canowindra E: 1 450 toxk 970; Ns 8° 270 3ton eees90 Cowra E: 1 460 to 1 9803;-N: 7.960 tO ee290 Oberon E: 2 480 to 2 990; N: 8 280 to 8 600 Orange Es 2-900) tor2 4802 N 8 580 to 8 900 BEGA E77 150 ito 715350 1500 4300 dE = 0.9134dE,, =P 0.0380dN,, - 28.3 6300 59000 N: 430 to 560 dqNy = 0.9134dN,, - 0.0380dE,, pe i CANBERRA Es. (2S0"¢07 5310 1500 5500 dE. = 0.9135dE,, + 0.0371dN,, cae 6300 60100 N: 550 to 680 qNy = 0.9135dN,, - 0.0371dE,, to S70: Published one-inch maps and their yard grid ranges: Bimberi East E: 1 760 to 2 030; N: 5 850 to 6 160 Braidwood E: 2°*500 to 3 010; N: 6 LO0ltoNGRas¢ BrindabellaEastE: 1 760. to 2 020; N: .6 150° te 6) 470 Canberra E: 1 990 to 2 520; N: 6 160 to 6 480 Lake Bathurst E: 2 500 to 3 010; "N: 6 4708076) 790 Lake George E? 2 000 to 2°S10; Ni 60460" tox6n 730 Michelago West E: 2 010 to 2 270; N: 5 850 to 6 170 COFFS HARBOUR E: 600 to 650 6000 11600 dE = 0.9134dE,, - 0.0162dN,, - 82.5 5000 65700 N= 1160), to1290 dN = 0.9134dN,, + 0.0162dE,, - 15.2 Published one-inch maps and their yard grid ranges: Coffs Harbour E: 6 100 to 6 370; N: 12.220) £0,122530 Nambucca E: 6 090 to 6 360; Nz 11 910: to 125250 Trial Bay E: 6-070 to 6 360; N: 11 620 “topiie9s0 Wool goolga E: 6 100 to 6 380; N: 12 520| to-12 840 COOTAMUNDRA E: 490 to 660 5000 6700 dE = 0.9138dE,, - 0.0090dN,, +o05 5000 61200 N: 670 to 800 dN = 0.9138dN, + 0.0090dE,, = SO) Published one-inch maps and their yard grid ranges: Cootamundra Junee Young E36 O00ct0 165203 Ne E2)5'7490 to Ge 0d0-eN: E: 6 000 to 6 520; N: 7 050 to 6 760 to 7 360' to 7.360 7 080 7 680 CONVERSION OF MAP GRID-REFERENCES CONVERSION TABLE (CONTINUED) DORRIGO Ese 2450 to: 7620 4500 11600 dE. = 0.91338dE, - 0.0162dN,, +eA6n 7 3500 65600 N: 1160 to 1290 dN = 0.9138dN, *F 0.0162dE,, + 160s Published one-inch maps and their yard grid ranges: Bellbrook E: 5 560 to 6 100; N: 11 610 to 11 940 Bowra E:75 2970) to 6 1002 Ny 11 920 to, 12,240 Dorrigo Eon 310 -tosG 110s N: a2) 220"to 42.540 Glenreagh Eo) 37 0 towon lO Ne: 12520) to 2 340 DUBBO Eo» 140° ‘to ' 300 1400 9100 dE. = 0.9136dE,, a 0.0343dN,, - 43.7 6400 63400 N: 910 to 1050 dN, = 0.9136dN,, - 0.0343dE,, ae ote U Published one-inch maps and their yard grid ranges: Brocklehurst E: 1 410 to 1 940; N: 10 090 to 10 410 Dubbo E: 1 420 to 1 950; N: 9 770 to 10 110 FORBES Eee S00 £0. 660 5000 7900 dev = 0.9137dE,, - 0. 0088dN,, = 1025 5000 62300 N: 790 to 930 dN = 0.9137dN,, + 0.0088dE,, =p GILGANDRA E: 140 to 300 1400 10300 dev = 0.9136dE,, = 0.0333dN,, = 2a 6400 64500 N: 1030 to 1170 dN, = 0.9136dN., - 0.0333dE,, - 1.4 GOONDIWINDI E: 290 to 460 2900 14000 dE. = 0.9144dE, - 0.0152dN, +5455 2000 67800 N: 1400 to 1530 qNyy = 0.9144dN,, 2 0.0152dE,, re AS) Is) GOULBURN E; 140 to 300 1400 + 6700 dE. = 0.9135dE, + 0.0362dNy, = 2955 6300 61200 Ns 620) to 800 dN = 0.9135dN,, - 0.0362dE,, noe day? Published one-inch map and its yard grid range: Goulburn E: 2 490 to 3010; N: 6 760 to 7 090 GRAFTON E:} 450 to 620 4500 12800 dE = 0.9138dE,, - 0.0157dN), 20a 3500 66800 N: 1280 to 1410 dN = 0.9138dN) + 0.0157dE,, - 42.7 Published one-inch maps and their yard grid ranges: Alice E: 5 590 to 6 140; N: 13 740 to 14 060 Clive Be 4 3506 to 5 0705 Nie 1355750 to, 14 070 Coaldale Een 57090 tOn6 <1 50- Ne 15440) to 113, 750 Grafton Es oD O0mGOr OF (S0RSNi5 155 0'50.to- 15 450 Nymboida E: 9 980" to-6"120; Ns 12 830 to 13 150 Tenterfield Es 5 060) to, 5600; N: 13 750 to 14 060 89 ALAN A. DAY CONVERSION TABLE (CONTINUED) HASTINGS E: 450 to 610 4500 10400 dE. = 0.9138dE,, - 0.0167dN,, + 66.8 3500 64500 N: 1040 to 1170 dN, = 0.9138dN,, + 0.0167dE,, + 165605 Published one-inch maps and their yard grid ranges: Camden Haven E: 5 550 to 6 080; N: 10 710 to 11 030 Comboyne E: 5 030 to 5 5605; N;. 10-710 “to mieoso Cowarral E: 5 030 to”S 5703. N:> LL 020)to 11350 Cundle E: 5550 to S 85032N: 10) 410 tord0F 720 Kempsey E: 5.560 to 6 090; N: 11° SiOetomiiGso Korogoro Point E: -6 080 to. 6 350;—N:- 11. 510k toSEIeG20 Mooraback E: 5 040 to 5 570; N: 11 320 to 11 640 Port Macquarie-E: 5 550 to 6 090; °N: 11.010 to piseysso Wingham E: 5 030 to 5 560; N: 10° 410 to Pitan INVERELL Es 6Z290> tos 460 2900 12800 dey = 0.9144dE,, - 0.0157dN,, + 64.2 2000 66700 N: 1280 to 1410 qNyy = 0.9144dN,, + 0.0157dE,, TSW), JERILDERIE Es 350) to. 500 3500 5500 dE = 0.9140dE,, - 0.0093dN,, + 40.7 3600 60100 N: 550 to 680 dN = 0.9140dN,, + 0.0093dEY - 15.7 Published one-inch maps and their yard grid ranges: Buraja E: 4 000 to 4 500;. N:- 5) 570 (to WSs 680 Howlong E: 4 490 to 4.990; N: © 5: 560 tow 53880 Tocumwal E: 3 500 to 4 000; N: 5 570 to-—5 880 MACLEAN E: 610 to 670 6100 12800 dE. = 0.9134dE,, - 0.0157dN,, - 10.6 5000 66800 N: 1280 to 1410 dN = 0.9134dN,, cf 0.0157dE,, - 17.4 Published one-inch maps and their yard grid ranges: Bare Point E: 6 110 to 6 650; N: 12 820 to 13 140 Brushgrove E; 6 110 to 6 660/57 N: 15°20 "toss 420 Maclean E: 6 120 to 6 660; N: 13 430 to 13 750 Woodburn E: 6 120 to 6 670; N: 13 730 to 14 050 MALLACOOTA ES Si SOi to. S10, 1500 3100 dE. = 0.9134dE,, + 0.0388dN,, - 74.9 6300 57900 N: 310 to 440 dN = 0.9134dN\, - 0.0388dE,, te ya) V2 MANILLA Es) 22 90stoms460 2900 11600 dE = 0.9144dE,, - 0.0162dN,, = 1635 2100 65600 N: 1160 to 1290 dN = 0.9144dN,, + 0.0162dE,, + 54/50 Published one-inch map and its yard grid range: Attunga E> 3.470 to 4°000;°N: 11 6350 to £P%950 MOREE Ets el3S00 to = 500 1300 12800 dE = 0.9137dE,, + 0.0314dN, - 11.6 6400 66800 N: 1280 to 1410 dN,, = M 0.9137dN,, - 0.0314dE,, - 15.6 NARRABRI NARRANDERA NARROMINE NEWCASTLE ST. GEORGE SINGLETON SYDNEY E: N: 340 670 500 910 450 910 130 1400 290 920 290 790 CONVERSION OF MAP GRID-REFERENCES to to to to to to to to to to to to to to 300 1290 510 800 660 1050 610 1050 300 1530 460 1050 480 930 CONVERSION TABLE (CONTINUED) 1300 11600 3400 6700 5000 9100 4500 9100 dE Published one-inch maps Bulahdelah Dungog Gloucester Krambach Morna Point Newcastle Paterson Port Stephens Seal Rocks Tuncurry 1300 14000 2900 9200 Published one-inch maps and their Camberwell Cessnock Doyles Creek Mount Yengo Muswellbrook Scone Singleton Woolooma 2900 7900 mMmmmmmmMmm mm leoieeigohioetigel leeiigsii(gs| nNuownphunsf fw dey PPWWNWWE 020 a0 510 030 020 510 510 020 540 540 000 000 480 480 480 480 000 000 0.9137dE,, Be 0.9137dN,, 0.9140dE,, 0.9140dN,, 0.9137dE,, 0.9137dN 0. 91S8dE be x. 0.9138dNY + 0 0 0 -0324dN,, .0324dE,, 0090dN,, - 0090dE,, - 0086dN,, . 0086dE,, -O171dN,, -0171dE,, and their grid ranges: to 5 550; to 5 040; to 5 040; OI Se.5a08 to 5 290; to 5 030; to 5 030; to;5 540; to 5 800; to 5 810; Zoe Ze A OL AL ao — (on (ols (ols (os Lo oe Oa ok Ke) 800 810 110 110 200 200 510 500 800 100 0.9137dE,, + 0.0305dN,, 0.9137dN,, - 0.0305dE,, 0.9144dE,, - 0.0172dN,, to to to to to to to to to to + DUi 88. 61. 1ue)e 20 1; 89. 24. 26. 19; 24. 5 8 4 0.9144dN,, 3 0.0172dE,, + 38.5.6 tOr4s 520: to 4 520; to 4 000; to 4 000; to 4 000; to 4 000; to 4 520; to 4 520; 0.914 3dE,, yard grid ranges: ZAZA AAANASAN” aay (oe (oo Cole (ols (ol oie) — 800 210 510 210 800 120 510 120 to to to to to to to to 10 130 520 820 520 130 430 820 430 - 0.0176dN,, + 47.3 0.914 3dN\, + 0.0176dE ¥ = 50)5 Published one-inch maps and their yard grid ranges: E: 4 000 to 4 500; N: E: 2 980 to 3 490; N: E: 4 000 to 4 600; N: Broken Bay Glen Alice Gosford and Norahville 8 300 to 8 900 to 8 600 to 8 S) 8 610 220 910 6400 65600 3600 61200 5000 63400 3500 63400 6400 67900 2100 63400 2100 62300 91 92 SYDNEY (Continued) TALLANGATTA TAMWORTH TWEED HEADS ULLADULLA WAGGA WAGGA E: N: Ee N: 490 to 430 to 290 to 1040 to 610 to : 1400 to 300 to 550 to 490 to 550 to 650 560 460 1170 730 1530 450 680 650 -680 ALAN A. DAY CONVERSION TABLE (CONTINUED) Jenolan E: 2 980 to 3 500; N: 7 990 to 8 310 Katoomba E3?2°980 to-3* 5005 N: 8 290 to -smelG Lake Macquarie E: 4 500 to 4 750; N: 8 900 to 9 220 Liverpool E: 3 490 to 4 000; N: 7 990 to 6300 Mellong E: 3 480 to 4 000; N: 8 900 to 9 220 Morisset E: 4 000 to 4 510; N: 8 900 to 9 220 St. Albans E: 3 490 to 4 000; N: 8 600 to 8 910 Sydney E: 4 000 to’ 4 510; N:. 7-990). ton VSmste Wallerawang E: 2 980 to 3 500; N: ~8 600 tom geusio Windsor E: 3 490 to 4 000; N: 8 300 to 8 600 4900 4300 dE. = 0.9138dE,, - 0.0095 dN,, - 68.3 dN = 0.9138dN,, + 0.0095dE., be QUT. Published one-inch map and its yard grid range: Kosciusko E: 5 960 to 6 460; N: ‘4 930) to) s58250 2900 10400 dE = 0.9144dE, - 0.0167dN,, to oer dN = 0.9144dN,, ar 0.0167dE, +) 56:55 Published one-inch map and its yard grid range: Tamworth E: 3 470 to 4 000; N: 11 330 to 11 640 6100 14000 dE. = 0.9133dE, - 0.0152dN,, =-29).6 dN, = 0.9133dN,, + 0.0152dE, + 7809 Published one-inch maps and their yard grid ranges: Ballina E: 6 660 to 6 940; N: 14 020 to Byron Bay E: 6670 to’ 65950: N=) 14) -330et0 Lismore E: 6 130 to 6 680; N: 14 020 to Murwillumbah E: 6 140 to 6 690; N: 14 640 to Nimbin E: 6 130 to 6 680; N: 14 330 to Norries Head E: 6 670 to 6 950; N: 14 630 to Springbrook E: 6 140 to 6 690; N: 14 940 to Tweed Heads E: 6 680 to 6 960; N: 14 930 to 3000 5500 dey = 0.9143dE,, - 0.0185dN,, + dN = 0.9143dNy, + 0.0185dE,, - 14 82. 43. 340 650 350 960 660 950 260 250 8 6 Published one-inch maps and their yard grid ranges: Jervis Bay E: 3500) to: 4 0005 N=. 56. 480 {coe Moruya E:) 3 010 to 3°2605°N: 5 S605 to Tianjara E:73 000 to.3510;9N; . 6) 460 to 4900 5500 dE = 0.9138dE, - 0.0093dN,, - dN = 0.9138dN,, + 0.0093dE,, - Published one-inch map and its yard grid range: Wagga Wagga E:* 4. 990 toi5 .500;"N: 26 470. to 6 5 6 Use Be 6 790 880 790 7 6 790 5000 59000 2100 64500 5000 67800 2200 60100 5000 60100 CONVERSION OF MAP GRID-REFERENCES 93 CONVERSION TABLE (CONTINUED) WANGARATTA Es 2550. to’ 500 3500 4300 N: 430 to 560 dE = 0.9140dE,, = 0.0095dN\, + O21 3600 59000 = 0.9140dN,, a 0.009SdE,, =e iy/, Published one-inch map and its yard grid range: Albury WARWICK Be 4500 CO 620 4500 14000 N: 1400 to 1530, Ez 4 490°to 4 990: Ne 5 260 to «5 5380 0.9138dE,, = 0.0152dN), + 8.4 3500 67800 0.9138dN,, + 0.0152dE,, + 54.2 Published one-inch maps and their yard grid ranges: Bonalbo Drake Mount Lindesay E: Tabulam Wallangarra WOLLONGONG Es. 290-to 450 2900 6700 N: 670 to 800 Ee E: EE BUuMNMNMN dE 600 to 6 150; 060 to 5 610; 600 to 6 150; 590 to 6 140; 530 to 5 070; 14 340 to 14 660 14 050 to 14 370 14 650 to 14 970 14 040 to 14 360 14 050 to 14 370 222224 0.9143dE,, - 0.0181dN,, - 30.9 2200 61200 0.9143dN, + 0.0181dE,, - 48.0 Published one-inch maps and their yard grid ranges: Camden Kiama Mittagong Moss Vale Nowra Port Hacking Wollongong Yalwal south-western corner. Whole-number values were taken to simplify the user's arithmetic. Numerical evaluation of the constants for the formulae was based on tables of the two projections. This procedure would have been relatively straightforward but for the need to adjust for the varying shift of meridians and parallels imposed by the change of reference spheroid from the Clarke 1858 spheroid employed by the Army yard grid to the Australian National Spheroid employed by the Australian Map Grid. Department of Geology and Geophysics, The University of Sydney, N.S.W., 2006. E: pol deel igo (eeldeol geil gs! WWF WNNWY 490 to 4 000; N: 7 690 to 8 000 490 to 4 000; N: 7 080 to 7 400 990° to 3°S500;-N: 7° 380 to —7. 700 990 to 3 500; N: 7 080 to 7 400 490 to 4 000; N: 6 780 to 7 090 000 to 4 510; N: 7 690 to 8 000 490 to 4 000; N: 7 390 to 7 700 000 to 3 510; N 6 780 to 7 090 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank the Chief Draughtsman and several anonymous officers of the N.S.W. Central Mapping Authority for a variety of information, including the effects of the change of spheroid, my colleagues Dr. Kingsley Mills and Mr. Len Hay for access to a set of the one-inch maps and information on the yard grid, respectively, and the late Associate Professor Ron Mather for stimulating discussion. REFERENCE Lauf, G.B., 1961. Conformal Transformations from one Map Projection to Another using divided Difference Interpolation. Bull. Géod., No.61, pp. 191 - 207. (Manuscript received 17. 1.1981) JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES PARTS 1-4 (Nos. 319, 320, VOLUME ee 321 and 322) 1981 ISSN 0035-9173 PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY SCIENCE CENTRE, 35 CLARENCE STREET, SYDNEY Royal Society of New South Wales OFFICERS FOR 1980-1981 Patrons His EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HONOURABLE SIR ZELMAN COWEN A.K., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., K.St.J., Q.C., GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF AUSTRALIA His EXCELLENCY AIR MARSHALL SIR JAMES ROWLAND, K.B.E., D.F.C., A.F.C. GOVERNOR OF NEW SOUTH WALES. President B. A. WARREN, M.B., B.S., D.Phil. (Oxon.), F.R.C.P.A. Vice-Presidents E. K. CHAFFER M. J. PUTTOCK, B.Sc. (Eng.), M.INST.P. D. H. NAPPER, MSc. (Syd.), Ph.D. (Cantab), W. E. SMITH, M‘Sc., Ph.D., M.INST.P. F.R.A.C.I. Honorary Secretaries L. A. DRAKE, Ph.D. (Genera!) M. KRYSKO v. TRYST, B.Sc, Grad. Dip., A.M.AUS.I.M.M. (Editor) Honorary Treasurer A. A. DAY, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.A.S., M.AUS.I.M.M. Honorary Librarian J. L. GRIFFITH, B.A., M.Sc. Members of Council T. W. COLE, B.E., Ph.D. (Cantab), F.R.A.S. T. G. RUSSELL, B.Sc. (Vic.), Ph.D. (N.E.) H. D. R. MALCOLM, M.Sc., Ph.D. K. P. SIMS, B.Sc. E. V. LASSAK, M.Sc., Ph.D., A.S.T.C., F. L. SUTHERLAND, M.Sc. D. B. PROWSE, B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D. R. S. VAGG, M‘Sc., Ph.D., A.R.A.C.I. New England Representative: S. C. HAYDON, M.A. (Oxon.), Ph.D. (Wales), F.Inst.P., F.A.LP. CONTENTS Part 1 ASTRONOMY Precise Observations of Minor Planets at Sydney Observatory during 1980. N. R. Lomb ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION A Preliminary Study of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Sydney Atmosphere. M. D. Gerstel and K. S. Basden GEOLOGY Deformational History of the Coffs Harbour Block. R. J. Korsch Formation of “Beach Bubbles” on Quartz Sand Beaches of the Illawarra Coast, New South Wales. Richard A. Facer PALYNOLOGY An Early Cretaceous Age for Subsurface Pilliga Sandstone in the Spring Ridge District, Mooki Valley, New South Wales. Helene A. Martin Part 2 ANNUAL DINNER ADDRESS, 1981 Address at the Annual Dinner of the Society, 1981. His Excellency Sir Zelman Cowen PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1981 History in Walls. G. S. Gibbons ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL 23 29 33 5) 43 Part 3 POLLOCK MEMORIAL LECTURE, 1981 — ASTRONOMY Galaxies, Clusters and Invisible Mass. Edwin E. Salpeter MARINE BIOLOGY Papillatabairdia, a New Ostracod Genus from Brisbane Water, New South Wales, Christopher Bentley MATHEMATICS Distributional Weber Transformation. R. S. Pathak and R. K. Pandey Part 4 PALYNOLOGY Stratigraphic Palynology of the Castlereagh River Valley, New South Wales. Helene A. Martin CARTOGRAPHY Conversion of Map Grid-References from the Yard to Metre Systems. Alan A. Day 53 Ti 85 A “Style Guide to Authors” is available from the [onorary Secretary, Royal Society of New South Wales, 35 ‘Jarence Street, Sydney, NSW 2000, and intending authors aust read the guide before preparing their manuscript for sview. The more important requirements are summarized elow. sENERAL Manuscripts should be addressed to the Honorary vecretary (address given above). Manuscripts submitted by a non-member must be com- nunicated by a member of the Society. Each manuscript will be scrutinised by the Publications Xommittee before being sent to an independent referee who vill advise the Council of the Society on the acceptability of he paper. In the event of rejection, manuscripts may be sent o two other referees. 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All lines and hatching or stripping should be even and sufficiently thick to allow appropriate reduction without loss of detail. the scale of maps or diagrams must be given in bar form. Half-tone illustrations (photographs) should be included only when essential and should be presented on glossy paper (no negative is required). Diagrams, graphs, maps and photographs must be numbered consecutively with Arabic numerals in a single sequence and each must have a caption. References are to be cited in the text by giving the author’s name and year of publication. References in the reference list should follow the preferred method of quoting references to books, periodicals, reports and theses, etc., and be listed alphabetically by author and then chronologically by author and then chronologically by date. Abbreviations of titles of periodicals shall be in accordance with the International Standard Organization 1S04 “International Code for the Abbreviation of Titles of Periodicals” and International Standard Organization 1S0833 “International List of Periodical Title Word Abbreviations” and as amended. Appendices should be placed at the end of the paper, be numbered in Arabic numerals, have a caption and be referred to in the text. Reprints. An author who is a member of the Society will receive a number of reprints of his paper free. An author who is not a member of the Society may purchase reprints. Contents VOLUME 114, PART 3 POLLOCK MEMORIAL LECTURE, 1981 — ASTRONOMY Galaxies, Clusters and Invisible Mass. Edwin E. Salpeter 53 MARINE BIOLOGY Papillatabairdia, a New Ostracod Genus from Brisbane Water, New South Wales. Christopher Bentley 59 MATHEMATICS Distributional Weber Transformation. R. S. Pathak and R. K. Pandey 63 VOLUME 114, PART 4 PALYNOLOGY Stratigraphic Palynology of the Castlereagh River Valley, New South Wales. Helene A. Martin ls CARTOGRAPHY Conversion of Map Grid-References from the Yard to Metre Systems. Alan A. Day 85 Publicity Press (NSW), 66 O'Riordan St, Alexandria, Sydney. Il | 3 9088 01308 4850 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES | Pree Pat Sea ee ete LTT RY My PAE 4 5 Fetes tp i ale at be ae eet et ae ees Dee eae teres eV SpA AUER ey SAR